Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

University of Seoul

2009-10-28T10:31:25Z

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{{distinguish2| [[Seoul National University]]}}
{{Infobox University
| name = University of Seoul
| native_name = {{lang|ko|서울시립대학교}}
| image_name = UOS emblem.png
| image_size = 180px
| motto = Truthness, Creativity, Service ''{{lang|ko|진리·창조·봉사}}''
| established = [[May 1]] [[1918]] as Keijo Public Agricultural College [[March 1]] [[1956]], Re-established as a university
| type = [[public university|Public]]
| endowment = N/A
| president = [[Lee Sang Bum]]
| city = [[Dongdaemun-gu|Dongdaemun]]
| state = [[Seoul]]
| country = [[South Korea]] {{flagicon|South Korea}}
| faculty = 372 (2008)
| staff = 229 (2008)
| students = 15,058 (2008)
| undergrad = 12,193 (2008)
| postgrad = 2,865 (2008)
| campus = [[Urban area|Urban]] 270,600 [[square metre|m²]]/66.87 [[acre]]
| colors = Blue
| nickname =
| mascot = Hawk
| fightsong =
| affiliations =
| footnotes =
| address =
| telephone =
| website = [http://uos.ac.kr/ www.uos.ac.kr]
| logo =
| publictransit = [[Hoegi Station]], [[Seoul Subway Line 1]]
|}}
{{Infobox Korean name|
hangul=서울시립대학교|
hanja=서울市立大學校|
rr=Seoul Sirip Daehakgyo|
mr=Sŏul Shirip Taehakkyo|
}}

The '''University of Seoul''' ([[Korean language|Korean]]: {{lang|ko|서울시립대학교}}, {{lang|ko|서울市立大學校}}; the direct Korean translation is ''Seoul City University'') is a [[public university]] operated by the municipal government of [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]. The campus stands in [[Jeonnong-dong]], [[Dongdaemun-gu]]. It traces its origins to 1918, became a four-year [[college]] in 1956, and a [[university]] in 1981.

==Overview==
The University of Seoul has been providing higher education opportunities since its foundation in 1918. As a public institution, the University of Seoul is committed to addressing the social, regional, technological, and creative issues of the urbanized world. It has thus dedicated itself to cultivating leaders who will shape the urban future of Korea and the world. The University of Seoul insists on quality and breadth, committed to both theory and practice, and endorses an openness towards students, unique among Korea's elite institutions. With more than 10,000 students enrolled, the University of Seoul consists of seven undergraduate colleges and almost 90 fields of study in the Graduate School. It offers courses of study in eight schools and twenty seven departments.

==History==
* 1918 Founded as Kyung Sung Public Agricultural College
* 1956 Promoted to four-year college and renamed Seoul Agricultural College
* 1975 Oversight committee transferred from the Seoul Board of Education to Seoul Metropolitan Government
* 1981 Renamed Seoul City University
* 1987 Promoted to university status with 4 colleges and 22 departments
* 1993 Founded the Institute of Seoul Studies under the auspices of the Seoul Metropolitan Government
* 1996 Founded the College of Urban Sciences
* 1997 Renamed the University of Seoul
* 1997 Established the university's unique identity as a Mecca for the Urban Sciences Designated as the Distinguished University in the Urban Sciences by the Ministry of Education &Human Resources Development
* 1998 Founded the Institute of Urban Sciences
* 2003 Strategic Plan 2003-2007, Upgrade University of Seoul
* 2003 & 2004 Re-designated as the Distinguished University centered on the Urban Sciences by the Ministry of Education &Human Resources Development
* 2005 Founded the Institute for International Cooperation and Education
* 2008 Founded the Law School

==Academics==
===Colleges===

{| style="width: 100%;"
|valign="top" width="50%"|

====College of Law and Public Administration====
* [http://puadmi.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Public Administration]
* [http://lawscu.uos.ac.kr/ School of Law]
* [http://doir.uos.ac.kr/ Department of International Relations]

====College of Economics and Business Administration====
* [http://biz.uos.ac.kr/ School of Business Administration]
* [http://economy.uos.ac.kr/ School of Economics]

====College of Engineering====
* [http://ecehp.uos.ac.kr/ School of Electrical and Computer Engineering]
* [http://uosce.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Chemical Engineering]
* [http://mie.uos.ac.kr/ Deparment of Mechanical and Information Engineering]
* [http://mat.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Materials Science and Engineering]
* [http://civil.uos.ac.kr/ Deparment of Civil Engineering]
* [http://cs.uos.ac.kr/ School of Computer Science]

====College of Humanities====
* [http://english1.uos.ac.kr/ Department of English Language and Literature]
* [http://www.uoskorean.net/ Department of Korea Language and Literature]
* [http://koreanhistory.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Korean History]
* [http://phil.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Philosophy]
* [http://chinese.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Chinese Language and Culture]

====College of Natural Science====
* [http://envhorti.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Environmental Horticulture]
* [http://stat.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Statistics]
* [http://openmath.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Mathematics]
* [http://physics1.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Physics]
* [http://lifescience.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Life Science]

|valign="top" width="50%"|

====College of Urban Science====
* [http://uosurban.org/ Department of Urban Administration]
* [http://socialwelfare.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Social Welfare]
* [http://usocio.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Urban Sociology]
* [http://taxation.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Science in Taxation]
* [http://geoinfo.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Geo-Informatics]
* [http://archi.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Architecture]
* [http://ae.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Architectural Engineering]
* [http://nymph.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Urban Engineering]
* [http://transport.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Transportation Engineering]
* [http://lauos.or.kr/ Department of Landscape Architecture]
* [http://env.uos.ac.kr/ School of Environmental Engineering]

====College of Arts and Physical Education====
* [http://music.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Music]
* [http://design.ac.kr/ Department of Industral and Visual Design]
* [http://sculpture.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Environmental Sculpture]
* [http://sports.uos.ac.kr/ Department of Sports Informatics]

====School of Open Major====
Students who take this course can choose a major freely when becoming sophomore.

====Division of Liberal Arts and Teacher’s Education====
This division offers liberal arts courses, which contains writing, debating, mathematics, natural science, physical education and so on. It also offers courses needed to be a teacher.

|}

===Graduate School===
The [http://graduate.uos.ac.kr/ Graduate School] consists of 33 master's degree programs and 25 Ph.D. programs. In addition to these programs, there's specialized graduate schools as follows.

* [http://gtax.uos.ac.kr/ Graduate School of Science in Taxation]
* [http://design.ac.kr/master/ Graduate School of Design]
* [http://gurbans.uos.ac.kr/ Graduate School of Urban Science]
* [http://mba.uos.ac.kr/ Graduate School of Business Administration]
* [http://gengineer.uos.ac.kr/ Graduate School of Engineering]
* [http://gedu.uos.ac.kr/ Graduate School of Education]
* [http://lawschool.uos.ac.kr/ Law School]

==See also==
*[[List of colleges and universities in South Korea]]
*[[Education in South Korea]]

== External links ==
* [http://english.uos.ac.kr/ Official English Website]

[[Category:Universities and colleges in Seoul|Seoul]]
[[Category:Public universities and colleges in South Korea|Seoul]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 1918|Seoul]]

{{coord|37.583324|N|127.058387|E|region:KR_type:edu|display=title}}
{{ROK-university-stub}}

[[de:Städtische Universität Seoul]]
[[ko:서울시립대학교]]
[[ja:ソウル市立大学校]]
[[zh:首爾市立大學]]

Template:South Korean political parties

2009-08-04T01:01:24Z

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{{Navbox
|name = South Korean political parties
|state = expanded
|title = {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[List of political parties in South Korea|Political parties in]] [[South Korea]]
|liststyle = padding:0.25em 0; line-height:1.4em; 

|abovestyle = padding:0.3em 0; line-height:1.2em;
|above = {{nowrap|Numbers in brackets indicate numbers of seats in the current [[National Assembly of South Korea|National Assembly]]}}

|group1 = Right-wing
|list1 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Grand National Party|Grand National]] (170){{·w}} [[Liberty Forward Party|Liberty Forward]] (18){{·w}} [[Pro-Park Coalition|Pro-Park]] (5) {{nowrap end}}

|group2 = Centrist
|list2 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Democratic Party (Republic of Korea)|Democratic]] (84){{·w}} [[Creative Korea Party|Creative Korea]] (3) {{nowrap end}}

|group3 = Left-wing
|list3 = {{nowrap begin}} [[Democratic Labor Party (South Korea)|Democratic Labor]] (5){{·w}} [[New Progressive Party (South Korea)|New Progressive]] (1){{·w}} [[Korea Socialist Party|Socialist]] (no seats) {{nowrap end}}

|below = [[Politics of South Korea]]{{·}} [[List of political parties by country]]{{·}} [[Portal:Politics|Politics portal]]
}}<noinclude>

===References===
*[http://www.intergraphy.com/nec_english/political/political_meaning01.asp The present state of registered political parties], National Election Commission of South Korea.

[[Category:South Korea politics and government templates|Parties]]
[[Category:Korea political party templates| South]]
[[ko:틀:대한민국의 정당]]

</noinclude>

Leopold I

2009-07-20T13:55:23Z

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'''Leopold I''' may refer to:

*[[Leopold I, Margrave of Austria]] (d. 994), first Margrave of Austria
*[[Leopold I, Duke of Austria]] (1290-1326), co-Duke of Austria and Styria with Frederick I
*[[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor]] (1640-1705), Holy Roman Emperor, King of Germany, Hungary and Bohemia
*[[Leopold I, Prince of Anhalt-Dessau]] (1676-1747), Prince of Anhalt-Dessau
*[[Leopold I, Prince of Lippe]] (1767-1802), ruler of the Principality of Lippe
*[[Leopold I of Belgium]] (1790-1865), first King of the Belgians

{{hndis}}

[[bg:Леополд I]]
[[cs:Leopold I. (rozcestník)]]
[[et:Leopold I]]
[[es:Leopoldo I]]
[[fr:Léopold Ier]]
[[ko:레오폴트 1세]]
[[hr:Leopold I.]]
[[it:Leopoldo I]]
[[hu:I. Lipót (egyértelműsítő lap)]]
[[nl:Leopold I]]
[[ja:レオポルト1世]]
[[pl:Leopold I]]
[[sl:Leopold I.]]
[[sh:Leopold I. (razvrstavanje)]]
[[fi:Leopold I]]
[[sv:Leopold I]]
[[tr:I. Leopold]]
[[zh:利奥波德一世]]

Hungarian People's Republic

2009-07-04T10:14:21Z

..TTT..: ko. article is no longer exist

{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = ''Magyar Népköztársaság''
|conventional_long_name = People's Republic of Hungary
|common_name = Hungary
|continent = Europe
|region = Hungary
|country = Hungary
|era = Cold War
|event_start = Foundation
|year_start = 1949
|date_start = [[August 18]], [[1949]]
|event1 = Hungarian Revolution of 1956
|date_event1 = [[October 23]], [[1956]]
|event2 = New Economic Mechanism
|date_event2 = [[January 1]], [[1968]]
|event_end =
|year_end = 1989
|date_end = [[October 23]], [[1989]]
|p1 = Second Hungarian Republic
|flag_p1 = Flag of Hungary (1946-1949, 1956-1957).svg
|s1 = Hungary
|flag_s1 = Flag of Hungary.svg
|flag = Flag of Hungary
|flag_type =
|image_flag = Civil Ensign of Hungary.svg
|image_coat = Hungary Communist seal 2nd 1957.png
|symbol_type =
|image_map = Hungary topographic map.jpg
|image_map_caption = Map of Hungary after 1947.
|capital = Budapest
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = "''[[Himnusz]]''" {{smallsup|a}}
|common_languages = [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
|religion = ''none official''
|government_type = [[Socialist Republic]], [[Single-party]] [[communist state]]
|title_leader = [[List of heads of state of Hungary|Chairman of the Presidential Council]]
|leader1 = [[Árpád Szakasits]]
|year_leader1 = 1949-1950
|leader2 = [[Brunó Ferenc Straub]]
|year_leader2 = 1988-1989
|title_deputy = [[List of Prime Ministers of Hungary|Chairman of the Council of Ministers]]
|deputy1 = [[István Dobi]]
|year_deputy1 = 1949-1952
|deputy2 = [[Miklós Németh]]
|year_deputy2 = 1988-1989
|stat_area1 = 93030
|stat_pop1 = 10397959
|stat_year1 = 1989
|currency = Hungarian forint
| footnotes = a "[[Himnusz]]" was used before and after the Communist era as Hungary's national anthem. Due to the word "God" being used in the lyrics, the Communists attempted but failed to create an alternative anthem and decided to keep "Himnusz", but only used the background music while the lyrics were left unused.
|}}

The '''People's Republic of Hungary''' or '''Hungarian People's Republic''' (Magyar Népköztársaság) was the official state name of [[Hungary]] from 1949 to 1989 during its [[Communism|Communist]] period under the guidance of the [[Soviet Union]]. It was in this communist regime that the first major opposition movement to the [[Eastern Bloc]] communism was formed during the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]] in which [[Hungarians]] demanded freedom, democracy, and an end to political oppression, but they were forced into submission when the Soviet [[Red Army]] invaded Hungary and forcibly crushed the revolution and killed the revolution's leadership. The state remained in existence until 1989 when opposition forces consolidated in forcing the regime to abandon communism. The communist state considered itself the heir of the [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]], which was formed in 1919 and was the second communist state formed after [[Russian SFSR|Soviet Russia]].

==Formation==
Following its [[Soviet occupation of Hungary|occupation of Hungary in 1944]], the [[Soviet Union]] imposed harsh conditions allowing it to seize important material assets and control internal affairs.<ref name="wettig51">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=51}}</ref> After the [[Red Army]] set up police organs to persecute class enemies, the Soviets assumed that the impoverished Hungarian populace would support communists in coming elections.<ref name="wettig85">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=85}}</ref> The communists were trounced, receiving only 17% of the vote, resulting in a [[Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party|coalition government]] under Prime Minister [[Zoltán Tildy]].<ref>Norton, Donald H. (2002). ''Essentials of European History: 1935 to the Present'', p. 47. REA: Piscataway, New Jersey. ISBN 0-87891-711-X.</ref> Soviet intervention, however, resulted in a government that disregarded Tildy, placed communists in important ministries, and imposed restrictive and repressive measures, including banning the victorious [[Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party]].<ref name="wettig85"/> In 1945, Soviet [[Marshal of the Soviet Union|Marshal]] [[Kliment Voroshilov]] forced the freely elected Hungarian government to yield the Interior Ministry to a nominee of the [[Hungarian Communist Party]]. Communist Interior Minister [[László Rajk]] established the [[State Protection Authority|ÁVH secret police]], which suppressed political opposition through intimidation, false accusations, imprisonment and torture.<ref>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{PDF|[http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf Chapter II.N, para 89(xi) (p. 31)]|1.47 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}}</ref> In early 1947, the Soviet Union pressed Hungarian leader [[Mátyás Rákosi]], famous for his use of ''[[salami tactics]]'', to take a "line of more pronounced class struggle."<ref name="wettig110">{{Harvnb|Wettig|2008|p=110}}</ref>

The People's Republic of Hungary was formed thereafter. What emerged is what Hungarian communist [[László Rajk]] (who was later executed) called "a [[dictatorship of the proletariat]] without the Soviet form" called a "people's democracy."<ref name="crampton241">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=241}}</ref>

==History==
===Stalinist era (1949-1956)===
[[Mátyás Rákosi]], the new leader of Hungary demanded complete obedience from fellow members of the [[Hungarian Working People's Party]]. Rákosi's main rival for power was [[László Rajk]], who was then Hungary's Foreign Secretary. Rajk was arrested and Stalin's NKVD emissary coordinated with Hungarian General Secretary Rákosi and his [[ÁVH|ÁVH secret police]] to lead the way for the [[show trial]] of Rajk.<ref name="crampton263">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=263}}</ref> At that September 1949 trial, Rajk made a forced confession to be an agent of [[Miklós Horthy]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Josip Broz Tito]] and Western imperialism. He also admitted that he had taken part in a murder plot against Mátyás Rákosi and Ernő Gerő. Rajk was found guilty and executed.<ref name="crampton263"/> Despite their help to Rákosi to liquidate Rajk, future Hungarian leader [[János Kádár]] and other dissidents were also purged from the party during this period. During Kádár's interrogation, the ÁVH beat him, smeared him with mercury to prevent his skin pores from breathing, and had his questioner urinate into his pried open mouth.<ref name="crampton264">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=264}}</ref>

Rákosi thereafter imposed authoritarian rule on Hungary. At the height of his rule, Rákosi developed a strong [[cult of personality]].<ref name="sugar375"/> Dubbed the “bald murderer,” Rákosi imitated [[Stalinist]] political and economic programs, resulting in Hungary experiencing one of the harshest dictatorships in Europe.<ref name="granville"/><ref>Gati, Charles, ''Failed Illusions: Moscow, Washington, Budapest, and the 1956 Hungarian Revolt'', Stanford University Press, 2006 ISBN 0804756066, page 9-12</ref> He described himself as "Stalin's best Hungarian disciple"<ref name="sugar375">Sugar, Peter F., Peter Hanak and Tibor Frank, ''A History of Hungary'', Indiana University Press, 1994, ISBN 025320867X, page 375-77</ref> and "Stalin's best pupil."<ref name="matthews93">Matthews, John P. C. , ''Explosion: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956'', Hippocrene Books, 2007, ISBN 0781811740, page 93-4</ref> Repression was harsher in Hungary than in the other [[satellite states|satellite countries]] in the 1940s and 1950s due to a more vehement Hungarian resistance.<ref name="granville">Granville, Johanna, ''The First Domino: International Decision Making during the Hungarian Crisis of 1956'', Texas A&M University Press, 2004. ISBN 1-58544-298-4</ref> Approximately 350,000 Hungarian officials and intellectual party members were [[purge]]d from the [[Hungarian Communist Party]] from 1948 to 1956.<ref name="granville"/> Any member with a western connection was immediately vulnerable, which included large numbers of people who had spent years in exile in the West during the Nazi-occupation of Hungary.<ref name="crampton263"/> Approximately 150,000 were also imprisoned, with 2,000 summarily executed.<ref name="bideleux476">{{Harvnb|Bideleux|Jeffries|2007|p=477}}</ref> Additionally, during "social purges" of non-party members, in Budapest at 2:00 a.m. on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, vans transported purge targets, who by 1953, numbered approximately 700,000.<ref name="crampton267">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=267}}</ref> Of those, 98,000 were branded as spies and saboteurs, 5,000 of which were executed.<ref name="crampton267"/> These social purges used enormous amounts of resources, including almost one million Hungarian adults employed to record, control, calculate, indoctrinate, spy on and sometimes kill targets of the purge.<ref name="crampton272">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=272}}</ref>

[[Image:Flag of Hungary 1949-1956.svg|thumb|left|The [[flag of Hungary]] from 1949-1956]]
Rákosi rapidly expanded the education system in Hungary. This was an attempt to replace the educated class of the past by what Rákosi called a new "working intelligentsia". In addition to effects such as better education for the poor, more opportunities for working class children and increased literacy in general, this measure also included the dissemination of communist ideology in schools and universities. Also, as part of an effort to [[separation of church and state|separate the Church from the State]], religious instruction was denounced as propaganda and was gradually eliminated from schools. The government used coercion and brutality to collectivize agriculture, and it squeezed profits from the country's farms to finance rapid expansion of heavy industry, which attracted more than 90% of total industrial investment. At first Hungary concentrated on producing primarily the same assortment of goods it had produced before the war, including locomotives and railroad cars. Despite its poor resource base and its favorable opportunities to specialize in other forms of production, Hungary developed new heavy industry in order to bolster further domestic growth and produce exports to pay for raw-material import.

Cardinal [[József Mindszenty]], who had opposed the German Nazis and the Hungarian Fascists during the Second World War, was arrested in December 1948 and accused of treason. After five weeks under arrest (which may have included torture), he confessed to the charges made against him and he was condemned to life imprisonment. The [[protestant]] churches were also purged and their leaders were replaced by those willing to remain loyal to Rákosi's government.

The new Hungarian military hastily staged public, pre-arranged trials to purge "Nazi remnants and imperialist saboteurs". Several officers were sentenced to death and executed in 1951, including [[Lajos Toth]], a 28 victory-scoring [[fighter ace]] of the World War II [[Royal Hungarian Air Force]], who had voluntarily returned from US captivity to help revive Hungarian aviation. The victims were cleared posthumously following the fall of [[communism]].

Rákosi had difficulty managing the economy and the people of Hungary saw living standards fall. His government became increasingly unpopular, and when Joseph Stalin died in 1953, Mátyás Rákosi was replaced as prime minister by [[Imre Nagy]]. However, he retained his position as general secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party and over the next three years the two men became involved in a bitter struggle for power.
{{History of Hungary}}
As Hungary's new leader, Imre Nagy removed state control of the mass media and encouraged public discussion on political and economic reform. This included a promise to increase the production and distribution of consumer goods. Nagy also released anti-communists from prison and talked about holding free elections and withdrawing Hungary from the Warsaw Pact.

Mátyás Rákosi led the attacks on Nagy. On [[9 March]] [[1955]], the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party condemned Nagy for "rightist deviation". Hungarian newspapers joined the attacks and Nagy was accused of being responsible for the country's economic problems and on [[18 April]] he was dismissed from his post by a unanimous vote of the National Assembly. Rákosi once again became the leader of Hungary.

Rákosi's power was undermined by a speech made by [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in February 1956. He denounced the policies of Joseph Stalin and his followers in Eastern Europe. He also claimed that the trial of László Rajk had been a "miscarriage of justice". On [[18 July]] [[1956]], Rákosi was forced from power as a result of orders from the Soviet Union. However, he did manage to secure the appointment of his close friend, Ernő Gerő, as his successor.

On 3 October 1956, the Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party announced that it had decided that László Rajk, György Pálffy, Tibor Szőnyi and András Szalai had wrongly been convicted of treason in 1949. At the same time it was announced that Imre Nagy had been reinstated as a member of the party.

===1956 Revolution===
{{main|Hungarian Revolution of 1956}}

[[Image:Flag of the Hungarian Revolution (1956).svg|thumb|230px|right|The Hungarian flag with the Communist coat of arms cut out of it. This became the symbol of Hungarians' fight for "freedom" from Communist rule.]]
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 began on [[October 23]] as a peaceful demonstration of students in [[Budapest]]. The students protested for the implementation of [[Demands of Hungarian Revolutionaries of 1956|several demands]] including an end to Soviet occupation. The [[State Protection Authority|police]] made some arrests and tried to disperse the crowd with tear gas. When the protesters attempted to free those who had been arrested, the police opened fire on the crowd, provoking rioting throughout the capital.

Early the following morning, Soviet military units entered Budapest and seized key positions. Citizens and soldiers joined the protesters chanting "Russians go home" and defacing communist party symbols. The Central Committee of the Hungarian Working People's Party responded to the pressure by appointing the reformer [[Imre Nagy]] as the new Prime Minister.

On [[October 25]], a mass of protesters gathered in front of the Parliament Building. ÁVH units began shooting into the crowd from the rooftops of neighboring buildings.<ref>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{PDF|[http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf Chapter X.I, para 482 (p. 153)]|1.47 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}}</ref> Some Soviet soldiers returned fire on the ÁVH, mistakenly believing that they were the targets of the shooting.<ref name="Heller">UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{PDF|[http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf Chapter II.F, para 64 (p. 22)]|1.47 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}}</ref> Supplied by arms taken from the ÁVH or given by Hungarian soldiers who joined the uprising, some in the crowd started shooting back.<ref name="Heller"/><ref>UN General Assembly ''Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary'' (1957) {{PDF|[http://mek.oszk.hu/01200/01274/01274.pdf Chapter X.I, para 482 (p. 153)]|1.47 [[Mebibyte|MiB]]}}</ref>

Imre Nagy now went on Radio Kossuth and announced he had taken over the leadership of the Government as Chairman of the Council of Ministers. He also promised "the far-reaching democratization of Hungarian public life, the realisation of a Hungarian road to socialism in accord with our own national characteristics, and the realisation of our lofty national aim: the radical improvement of the workers' living conditions."

On [[October 28]], Nagy and a group of his supporters, including János Kádár, Géza Losonczy, Antal Apró, Károly Kiss, Ferenc Münnich and Zoltán Szabó, managed to take control of the Hungarian Working People's Party. At the same time revolutionary workers' councils and local national committees were formed all over Hungary.

The change of leadership in the party was reflected in the articles of the government newspaper, ''Szabad Nép'' (i.e. Free People). On 29 October the newspaper welcomed the new government and openly criticised Soviet attempts to influence the political situation in Hungary. This view was supported by Radio Miskolc that called for the immediate withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country.

On [[October 30]], Imre Nagy announced that he was freeing Cardinal [[József Mindszenty]] and other political prisoners. He also informed the people that his government intended to abolish the one-party state. This was followed by statements of Zoltán Tildy, Anna Kéthly and [[Kisbarnaki Ferenc Farkas|Ferenc Farkas]] concerning the restitution of the Smallholders Party, the Social Democratic Party and the Petőfi (former Peasants) Party.

Nagy's most controversial decision took place on [[1 November]] when he announced that Hungary intended to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact and proclaim Hungarian neutrality. He asked the [[United Nations]] to become involved in the country's dispute with the Soviet Union.

On 3 November, Nagy announced the details of his coalition government. It included communists (János Kádár, [[Georg Lukács]], Géza Losonczy), three members of the Smallholders Party (Zoltán Tildy, Béla Kovács and István Szabó), three Social Democrats (Anna Kéthly, Gyula Keleman, Joseph Fischer), and two Petőfi Peasants (István Bibó and Ferenc Farkas). [[Pál Maléter]] was appointed minister of defence.

[[Nikita Khrushchev]], the leader of the Soviet Union, became increasingly concerned about these developments and on [[November 4]] [[1956]] he sent the [[Red Army]] into Hungary. Soviet tanks immediately captured Hungary's airfields, highway junctions and bridges. Fighting took place all over the country but the Hungarian forces were quickly defeated.

During the Hungarian Uprising an estimated 20,000 people were killed, nearly all during the Soviet intervention. Imre Nagy was arrested and replaced by the Soviet loyalist, [[János Kádár]], as head of the newly formed [[Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party]] (Magyar Szocialista Munkáspárt). Nagy was imprisoned until being executed in 1958. Other government ministers or supporters who were either executed or died in captivity included Pál Maléter, Géza Losonczy, Attila Szigethy and Miklós Gimes.

=== Changes under Kádár ===
[[Image:Hung.rev.leaders.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Béla Kun]] Monument in [[Budapest]] created in 1974 [http://books.google.com/books?id=smaxkHf8fKUC&pg=PA347&lpg=PA347&dq=bela+kun+monument&source=web&ots=l2Y3eJIkZh&sig=cb2x8KFfAgJtZT5qTQjEVu7aEnU], dedicated to the leaders of the short-lived [[Hungarian Soviet Republic]] of 1919. [[Tibor Szamuely]], Béla Kun, [[Jenő Landler]].]]
First Kádár led retributions against the revolutionaries. 21,600 dissidents were imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 400 killed. But in the early 1960s, Kádár announced a new policy under the motto "He who is not against us is with us", a variation of Rákosi's quote: "He who is not with us is against us". He declared a general amnesty, gradually curbed some of the excesses of the secret police, and introduced a relatively liberal cultural and economic course aimed at overcoming the post-1956 hostility toward him and his regime. In 1966, the Central Committee approved the "[[New Economic Mechanism]]", through which it sought to overhaul the economy, increase productivity, make Hungary more competitive in world markets, and create prosperity to promote political stability. Over the next two decades of relative domestic quiet, Kádár's government responded alternately to pressures for minor political and economic reforms as well as to counter-pressures from reform opponents. By the early 1980s, it had achieved some lasting economic reforms and limited political liberalization and pursued a foreign policy which encouraged more trade with the West. Nevertheless, the New Economic Mechanism led to mounting foreign debt, incurred to subsidise unprofitable industries.

==Economy==
{{see|Eastern Bloc economies}}
As a member of the [[Eastern Bloc]], initially, [[Joseph Stalin]] directed systems in Hungary that rejected Western institutional characteristics of [[market economy|market economies]], democratic governance (dubbed "[[bourgeois democracy]]" in Soviet parlance) and the rule of law subduing discretional intervention by the state.<ref name="hardt12">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=12}}</ref> The Soviets modeled economies in the rest of [[Eastern Bloc]], such as Hungary, along Soviet [[command economy]] lines.<ref name="turnock23">{{Harvnb|Turnock|1997|p=23}}</ref> Economic activity was governed by ''[[Five Year Plans]]'', divided into monthly segments, with government planners frequently attempting to meet plan targets regardless of whether a market existed for the goods being produced.<ref name="crampton250">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=250}}</ref> Producer goods were favored over consumer goods, causing consumer goods to be lacking in quantity and quality in the [[shortage economy|shortage economies]] that resulted. <ref name="dale85">{{Harvnb|Dale|2005|p=85}}</ref> Overall, the inefficiency of systems without competition or market-clearing prices became costly and unsustainable, especially with the increasing complexity of world economics.<ref name="hardt1">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=1}}</ref> Meanwhile, other Western European nations experienced increased economic growth in the [[Wirtschaftswunder]] ("economic miracle") [[Trente Glorieuses]] ("thirty glorious years") and the [[Long boom]].

While most western European economies essentially began to approach the [[per capita]] [[Gross Domestic Product]] levels of the [[United States]], Hungary's did not,<ref name="hardt16">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=16}}</ref> with its per capita GDPs falling significantly below their comparable western European counterparts:<ref name="hardt17">{{Harvnb|Hardt|Kaufman|1995|p=17}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
!style="text-align: left;background:#B0C4DE"|Per Capita GDP (1990 [[dollar|$]])
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1938
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1990
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Austria]]||$1,800 ||$19,200
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]]||$1,800||$3,100
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Finland]]||$1,800 ||$26,100
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Italy]]||$1,300 ||$16,800
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|People's Republic of Hungary||$1,100||$2,800
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[People's Republic of Poland]]||$1,000||$1,700
|- style="text-align:center;"
| align="left"|[[Spain]]||$900 ||$10,900
|- style="text-align:center;"
|-
|}

The per capita GDP figures are similar when calculated on PPP basis:<ref name="madison185">{{Harvnb|Madison|2006|p=185}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
!style="text-align: left;background:#B0C4DE"|Per Capita GDP (1990 [[dollar|$]])
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1950
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1973
!style="background:#B0C4DE"|1990
|- style="text-align:left;"
|align=left|[[Austria]]|| $3,706 || $11,235|| $16,881
|-
|align=left|[[Italy]]|| $3,502 || $10,643|| $16,320
|-
|align=left|[[Czechoslova Socialist Republic]]|| $3,501 || $7,041|| $8,895(Czech)/ $7,762(Slovakia)
|-
|align=left|[[Soviet Union]]|| $2,834 || $6,058|| $6,871
|-
|align=left|People's Republic of Hungary|| $2,480 || $5,596|| $6,471
|-
|align=left|[[Spain]]|| $2,397 || $8,739|| $12,210
|-
|}

Housing shortages also emerged.<ref name="sillince11">{{Harvnb|Sillince|1990|p=11-12}}</ref> The near-total emphasis on large low quality [[prefabricated]] apartment blocks, such as Hungarian [[Panelház]], was a common feature of Eastern Bloc cities in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="turnock54">{{Harvnb|Turnock|1997|p=54}}</ref> Even by the late 1980s, [[sanitary conditions]] were generally far from adequate.<ref name="sillince18">{{Harvnb|Sillince|1990|p=18}}</ref> Only 60% of Hungarian housing had adequate sanitation by 1984, with only 36.1% of housing having piped water.<ref name="sillince19">{{Harvnb|Sillince|1990|p=19-20}}</ref>

===Transition to democracy===

Hungary's transition to a Western-style democracy was one of the smoothest among the former Soviet bloc. By late 1988, activists within the party and bureaucracy and Budapest-based intellectuals were increasing pressure for change. Some of these became reform socialists, while others began movements which were to develop into parties. Young liberals formed the Federation of Young Democrats (Fidesz); a core from the so-called Democratic Opposition formed the Association of Free Democrats (SZDSZ), and the national opposition established the [[Hungarian Democratic Forum]] (MDF). Civic activism intensified to a level not seen since the 1956 revolution.

In 1988, Kádár was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party, and reform communist leader [[Imre Pozsgay]] was admitted to the Politburo. In 1989, the Parliament adopted a "democracy package", which included [[trade union]] pluralism; freedom of association, assembly, and the press; a new electoral law; and in October 1989 a radical revision of the constitution, among others. A Central Committee plenum in February 1989 endorsed in principle the multiparty political system and the characterization of the October 1956 revolution as a "popular uprising", in the words of Pozsgay, whose reform movement had been gathering strength as Communist Party membership declined dramatically. Kádár's major political rivals then cooperated to move the country gradually to democracy. The Soviet Union reduced its involvement by signing an agreement in April 1989 to withdraw Soviet forces by June 1991.

National unity culminated in June 1989 as the country reburied Imre Nagy, his associates, and, symbolically, all other victims of the 1956 revolution. A national round table, comprising representatives of the new parties and some recreated old parties—such as the Smallholders and Social Democrats—the Communist Party, and different social groups, met in the late summer of 1989 to discuss major changes to the Hungarian constitution in preparation for free elections and the transition to a fully free and democratic political system.

In October 1989, the communist party convened its last congress and re-established itself as the Hungarian Socialist Party (MSZP). In a historic session on [[October 16]] - [[October 20]], [[1989]], the Parliament adopted legislation providing for multiparty parliamentary elections and a direct presidential election. The legislation transformed Hungary from a People's Republic into the Republic of Hungary, guaranteed human and civil rights, and created an institutional structure that ensures separation of powers among the judicial, executive, and legislative branches of government. On the day of the 1956 Revolution, [[October 23]], the Hungarian Republic was officially declared (by the provisional President of the Republic [[Mátyás Szűrös]]), replacing the Hungarian People's Republic. The revised constitution also championed the "values of bourgeois democracy and democratic socialism" and gave equal status to public and private property.

Hungary extensively reformed its economy and strengthened its ties with western Europe; in May 2004 Hungary became a member of the [[European Union]].

==See also==
*[[History of Hungary]]
*[[Heads of state of Hungary#General Secretaries of the Hungarian Communist.2FSocialist Workers.27 Party .281945-1989.29|List of Worker's Party General Secretaries]]

{{Communist Eastern Europe}}
{{Eastern Bloc}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{Harvard reference|last1=Bideleux|first1=Robert|last2=Jeffries|first2=Ian|title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=0415366267}}
*{{Harvard reference|last=Crampton|first=R. J.|title=Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0415164222}}
*{{Harvard reference|last=Dale|first=Gareth|title=Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945-1989: Judgements on the Street|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=071465408}}
*{{Harvard reference|last1=Hardt|first1=John Pearce|last2=Kaufman|first2=Richard F.|title=East-Central European Economies in Transition|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|year=1995|isbn=1563246120}}
*{{Harvard reference|last=Sillince|first=John|title=Housing policies in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union|publisher=Routledge|year=1990|isbn=0415021340}}
*{{Harvard reference|last=Turnock|first=David|title=The East European economy in context: communism and transition|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn= 0415086264}}
*{{Harvard reference|last=Wettig|first=Gerhard|title=Stalin and the Cold War in Europe|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|year=2008|isbn=0742555429}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:People's Republic Of Hungary}}
[[Category:Eastern bloc]]
[[Category:Soviet satellite states|Hungary]]
[[Category:Former polities 1945-1991]]
[[Category:People's Republic of Hungary| ]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1949]]

[[cs:Maďarská lidová republika]]
[[es:República Popular de Hungría]]
[[it:Repubblica Popolare d'Ungheria]]
[[he:היסטוריה של הונגריה: הונגריה הקומוניסטית]]
[[hu:Magyar Népköztársaság]]
[[nl:Volksrepubliek Hongarije]]
[[pl:Węgierska Republika Ludowa]]
[[ro:Republica Populară Ungară]]
[[ru:Венгерская Народная Республика]]
[[fi:Unkarin kansantasavalta]]
[[tr:Macaristan Halk Cumhuriyeti]]
[[zh:匈牙利人民共和国]]

Tunak Tunak Tun

2009-01-10T13:56:30Z

..TTT..: /* External links */ Is this song related with DCinside? I don't think so.

{{refimprove|date=June 2008}}
{{self-published|date=June 2008}}
{{advert|date=June 2008}}
{{Infobox Song 
| Name = Tunak Tunak Tun
| Cover =
| Border =
| Caption =
| Type =
| Artist = [[Daler Mehndi]]
| alt Artist =
| Album =
| Published = 1998
| Released = 1998
| track_no =
| Recorded =
| Genre = [[Bhangra]]
| Length =
| Writer =
| Composer =
| Label =
| Producer =
| Tracks =
| prev =
| prev_no =
| next =
| next_no =
| Misc =
| Audio sample? =
}}
'''"Tunak Tunak Tun"''', often referred to solely as "'''Tunak'''", is a [[bhangra]]/[[pop music|pop]] love song created by [[India]]n artist [[Daler Mehndi]] and released in 1998. It has become an [[internet meme]] because of its catchy tune and the amusing dance in its [[music video]], inspiring numerous [[spin-off]]s and [[parodies]]. The music video was the first made in India to use [[bluescreen]] technology,<ref name="bio-insight">{{cite web | author=| year=2006| title= Biography - Insight| format= | work=dalermehndi.com | url=http://www.dalermehndi.com/html/bio-insight.shtml | accessdate=2006-07-06}}</ref> which allowed the singer to superimpose his image over various [[Computer-generated imagery|computer-generated]] backgrounds, one featuring [[St. Basil's Cathedral]] in [[Moscow]].

The "strange" dancing and presence of only the singer in this video was a response to criticism from the world of Bhangra pop. Many critics at the time complained that his music was popular due to his videos which featured beautiful women dancing; his response was to create a video that featured only himself. As he predicted, the song was still a huge success, but the phenomenon of foreign language and unusual dancing made the video a cult hit in other countries as well.

== References ==

<references/>

== External links ==
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bAN7Ts0xBo Tunak Tunak Tun Music Video]
*[http://www.dalermehndi.com Daler Mehndi Official Website]
*[http://lirama.net/song/26240/25771+25769+25770 Lyrical Translation]

[[Category:Internet memes]]

{{India-music-stub}}

[[fr:Tunak Tunak Tun]]
[[pl:Tunak Tunak Tun]]

Tunak Tunak Tun

2009-01-10T13:54:22Z

..TTT..: wrong interwiki

{{refimprove|date=June 2008}}
{{self-published|date=June 2008}}
{{advert|date=June 2008}}
{{Infobox Song 
| Name = Tunak Tunak Tun
| Cover =
| Border =
| Caption =
| Type =
| Artist = [[Daler Mehndi]]
| alt Artist =
| Album =
| Published = 1998
| Released = 1998
| track_no =
| Recorded =
| Genre = [[Bhangra]]
| Length =
| Writer =
| Composer =
| Label =
| Producer =
| Tracks =
| prev =
| prev_no =
| next =
| next_no =
| Misc =
| Audio sample? =
}}
'''"Tunak Tunak Tun"''', often referred to solely as "'''Tunak'''", is a [[bhangra]]/[[pop music|pop]] love song created by [[India]]n artist [[Daler Mehndi]] and released in 1998. It has become an [[internet meme]] because of its catchy tune and the amusing dance in its [[music video]], inspiring numerous [[spin-off]]s and [[parodies]]. The music video was the first made in India to use [[bluescreen]] technology,<ref name="bio-insight">{{cite web | author=| year=2006| title= Biography - Insight| format= | work=dalermehndi.com | url=http://www.dalermehndi.com/html/bio-insight.shtml | accessdate=2006-07-06}}</ref> which allowed the singer to superimpose his image over various [[Computer-generated imagery|computer-generated]] backgrounds, one featuring [[St. Basil's Cathedral]] in [[Moscow]].

The "strange" dancing and presence of only the singer in this video was a response to criticism from the world of Bhangra pop. Many critics at the time complained that his music was popular due to his videos which featured beautiful women dancing; his response was to create a video that featured only himself. As he predicted, the song was still a huge success, but the phenomenon of foreign language and unusual dancing made the video a cult hit in other countries as well.

== References ==

<references/>

== External links ==
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-bAN7Ts0xBo Tunak Tunak Tun Music Video]
*[http://www.dalermehndi.com Daler Mehndi Official Website]
*[http://lirama.net/song/26240/25771+25769+25770 Lyrical Translation]
*[http://www.dcinside.com DCinside Official Homepage (Korean)]
*[http://dcinside.com/webdc/lecture/study_list.php?id=587&code1=50&code2=60&s_mode=&s_que= DCinside : about Daler Mehndi (Korean)]

[[Category:Internet memes]]

{{India-music-stub}}

[[fr:Tunak Tunak Tun]]
[[pl:Tunak Tunak Tun]]

William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham

2008-11-02T07:16:03Z

..TTT..:

{{Infobox Prime Minister | name=The Earl of Chatham
|image=Elderpitt.jpg
|order=[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of Great Britain]]
|term_start =30 July 1766
|term_end =14 October 1768
|monarch =[[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]
|predecessor =[[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|The Marquess of Rockingham]]
|successor =[[Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton|The Duke of Grafton]]
|birth_date ={{birth date|1708|11|15|df=y}}

|death_date ={{death date and age|1778|5|11|1708|11|15|df=y}}
|death_place =[[Hayes, Bromley|Hayes]], [[Kent]]
|alma_mater =[[Trinity College, Oxford]]
|party=[[British Whig Party|Whig]]
}}
'''William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham''' [[Privy Council of Great Britain|PC]] (15 November 1708 – 11 May 1778) was a [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[British Whig Party|Whig]] [[statesman]] who achieved his greatest fame as [[Secretary of State]] during the [[Seven Years' War]], as known in Great Britain and Asia (known as the [[French and Indian War]] in the U.S.A.) and who was later [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister of Great Britain]]. He is often known as '''William Pitt, the Elder''' to distinguish him from his son, [[William Pitt, the Younger]]. He was also known as '''The Great Commoner'''. In addition to the major [[United States|American]] city of [[Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]] being named after him, [[Pittsylvania County, Virginia]], and [[Chatham County, North Carolina]], and the communities of [[Pittston, Pennsylvania]], [[Pittsburg, New Hampshire]], [[Pittsfield, New Hampshire]], and [[Chatham, New Jersey]], as well as [[Chatham University]] in [[Pennsylvania]] are all named in his honour.
[[Pitt Town, New South Wales]], [[Australia]] was named after Pitt by [[Governor Macquarie]] in 1810.

==Early life==
Pitt was born at [[Westminster]], the grandson of the governor of [[Madras]], who was known as "Diamond" Pitt because he sold a [[Regent Diamond|diamond]] of extraordinary size to the [[Philip II, Duke of Orléans|Regent Orléans]] for around £135,000. It was mainly by this fortunate transaction that the governor was enabled to raise his family, which was one of old standing, to a position of wealth and political influence. The latter he acquired by purchasing the [[burgage]] tenures of [[Old Sarum]].

William Pitt was educated at [[Eton College]], and, in January 1727, was entered as a [[gentleman commoner]] at [[Trinity College, Oxford]]. There is evidence that he was an extensively read, if not a minutely accurate [[classics|classical]] scholar; and it is noteworthy that [[Demosthenes]] was his favourite author, and that he diligently cultivated the faculty of expression by the practice of translation and re-translation.

A hereditary [[gout]], from which he had suffered even during his school-days, compelled him to leave the university without taking his degree, in order to travel abroad. He spent some time in [[France]] and [[Italy]], but the disease proved intractable, and he continued subject to attacks of growing intensity at frequent intervals until the close of his life. In 1727, his father had died, and, on his return home, it was necessary for him, as the younger son, to choose a profession. Having chosen the [[army]], he obtained, through the interest of his friends, a [[Cornet (military rank)|cornet]]'s commission in the [[dragoons]]. [[George II of Great Britain|George II]] never forgot the jibes of 'the terrible cornet of horse'.

But his military career was destined to be short. His elder brother Thomas having been returned at the [[British general election, 1734|general election of 1734]] both for [[Okehampton]] and for Old Sarum, and having preferred to sit for the former, the family [[borough]] fell to the younger brother by the sort of natural right usually recognized in such cases. Accordingly, in February 1735, William Pitt entered [[Parliament of Great Britain|parliament]] as member for the [[rotten borough]] of Old Sarum. Attaching himself at once to the formidable band of discontented [[British Whig Party|Whigs]], known as the Patriots, whom [[Robert Walpole|Walpole]]'s love of exclusive power had forced into opposition under [[William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath|Pulteney]], Pitt became in a very short time one of its most prominent members.

==Politics in the Commons==
His maiden speech was delivered in April 1736, in the debate on the congratulatory address to George II on the marriage of [[Frederick, Prince of Wales]]. The occasion was one of compliment, and there is nothing striking in the speech as reported; but it served to gain for him the attention of the house when he presented himself, as he soon afterwards did, in debates of a party character. So obnoxious did he become as a critic of the government, that Walpole thought fit to punish him by procuring his dismissal from the army.

Some years later, he had occasion to vigorously denounce the system of cashiering officers for political differences, but with characteristic loftiness of spirit he disdained to make any reference to his own case. The loss of his commission was soon made up to him. The heir to the throne, as was usually the case in the [[House of Hanover]], if not in reigning families generally, was the patron of the [[parliamentary opposition|opposition]], and the ex-cornet became [[groom of the bed-chamber]] to Prince Frederick.

In this new position, his hostility to the government did not, as may be supposed, in any degree relax. He had all the natural gifts an orator could desire—a commanding presence, a graceful though somewhat theatrical bearing, an eye of piercing brightness, and a voice of the utmost flexibility. His style, if occasionally somewhat turgid, was elevated and passionate, and it always bore the impress of that intensity of conviction which is the most powerful instrument a speaker can have to sway the convictions of an audience. It was natural, therefore, that in the series of stormy debates, protracted through several years, that ended in the downfall of Walpole, his eloquence should have been one of the strongest of the forces that combined to bring about the final result.

Specially effective, according to contemporary testimony, were his speeches against the Hanoverian subsidies, against the [[Treaty of El Pardo (1739)|Spanish Convention in 1739]], and in favour of the motion in 1742 for an investigation into the last ten years of Walpole's administration. It must be borne in mind that the reports of these speeches which have come down to us were made from hearsay, or at best from recollection, and are necessarily therefore most imperfect. In the speech against the Convention in the House of Commons on 8 March 1739 Pitt said:

<blockquote>When trade is at stake, it is your last intrenchment; you must defend it or perish...Sir, Spain knows the consequence of a war in America. Whoever gains, it must prove fatal to her. She knows it, and must therefore avoid it; but she knows that England does not dare to make it...Is this any longer an English Parliament, if, with more ships in your harbours than in all the navies of Europe; with above two millions of people in your American colonies, you will bear to hear of the expediency of receiving from Spain an insecure, unsatisfactory, dishonorable Convention? [http://www.classicpersuasion.org/cbo/chatham/chat02.htm]</blockquote>

The best-known specimen of Pitt's eloquence, his reply to the sneers of [[Horatio Walpole, 1st Baron Walpole of Wolterton|Horatio Walpole]] at his youth and declamatory manner, which has found a place in so many handbooks of elocution, is evidently, in form at least, the work, not of Pitt, but of [[Samuel Johnson|Dr Johnson]], who furnished the report to the ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]''. Probably Pitt did say something of the kind attributed to him, though even this is by no means certain in view of Johnson's repentant admission that he had often invented not merely the form, but the substance of entire debates.

In 1742, Walpole was at last forced to succumb to the long-continued attacks of opposition, and was succeeded as [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] by [[Spencer Compton, 1st Earl of Wilmington|Lord Wilmington]], though the real power in the new government was divided between [[John Carteret, 2nd Earl Granville|Lord Carteret]] and the Pelham brothers ([[Henry Pelham|Henry]] and [[Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|Thomas, Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]). Pitt's conduct on the change of administration was open to grave censure. The relentless vindictiveness with which he insisted on the prosecution of Walpole, and supported the [[bill of indemnity]] to witnesses against the fallen minister, was in itself not magnanimous; but it appears positively unworthy when it is known that a short time before Pitt had offered, on certain conditions, to use all his influence in the other direction. Possibly, he was embittered at the time by the fact that, owing to the strong personal dislike of the king, caused chiefly by the contemptuous tone in which he had spoken of Hanover, he did not by obtaining a place in the new [[the Ministry|ministry]] reap the fruits of the victory to which he had so largely contributed.

The so-called "broad-bottom" administration formed by the Pelhams in 1744, after the dismissal of Carteret, though it included several of those with whom he had been accustomed to act, did not at first include Pitt himself even in a subordinate office. Before the obstacle to his admission was overcome, he had received a remarkable accession to his private fortune.

[[Image:Pitt.jpg|thumb|upright|Pitt the Elder]]

When the [[Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough|Dowager Duchess of Marlborough]] died in 1744, at the age of eighty four, she left him a legacy of £10,000 as an "acknowledgment of the noble defence he had made for the support of the laws of England and to prevent the ruin of his country". As her hatred was known to be at least as strong as her love, the legacy was probably as much a mark of her detestation of Walpole as of her admiration of Pitt. It may be mentioned here, though it does not come in chronological order, that Pitt was a second time the object of a form of acknowledgment of public virtue which few statesmen have had the fortune to receive even once. About twenty years after the Marlborough legacy, Sir [[William Pynsent]], a [[Somerset]] [[baronet]] to whom he was personally quite unknown, left him his entire estate, worth about three thousand a year, in testimony of approval of his political career.

==Rise into government==
It was with no very good grace that the king at length consented to give Pitt a place in the government, although the latter did all he could to ingratiate himself at court, by changing his tone on the questions on which he had made himself offensive. To force the matter, the Pelhams had to resign expressly on the question whether he should be admitted or not, and it was only after all other arrangements had proved impracticable, that they were reinstated with the obnoxious politician as [[Vice Treasurer of Ireland|vice-treasurer of Ireland]]. This was in February 1746.

In May of the same year, he was promoted to the more important and lucrative office of [[Paymaster of the Forces|paymaster-general]], which gave him a place in the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|privy council]], though not in the [[cabinet]]. Here he had an opportunity of displaying his public spirit and integrity in a way that deeply impressed both the king and the country. It had been the usual practise of previous paymasters to appropriate to themselves the interest of all money lying in their hands by way of advance, and also to accept a commission of 1/2% on all foreign subsidies. Although there was no strong public sentiment against the practise, Pitt altogether refused to profit by it. All advances were lodged by him in the [[Bank of England]] until required, and all subsidies were paid over without deduction, even though it was pressed upon him, so that he did not draw a shilling from his office beyond the salary legally attaching to it. Conduct like this, though obviously disinterested, did not go without immediate and ample reward, in the public confidence which it created, and which formed the mainspring of Pitt's power as a statesman.

The administration formed in 1746 lasted without material change until 1754. It would appear from his published correspondence that Pitt had a greater influence in shaping its policy than his comparatively subordinate position would in itself have entitled him to. His conduct in supporting measures, such as the Spanish treaty and the continental subsidies, which he had violently denounced when in opposition, had been much criticized; but within certain limits, not indeed very well defined, inconsistency has never been counted a vice in an English statesman. The times change, and he is not blamed for changing with the times.

Pitt in office, looking back on the commencement of his public life, might have used the plea "A good deal has happened since then", at least as justly as some others have done. Allowance must always be made for the restraints and responsibilities of office. In Pitt's case, too, it is to be borne in mind that the opposition with which he had acted gradually dwindled away, and that it ceased to have any organized existence after the death of the prince of Wales in 1751. Then in regard to the important question with [[Spain]] as to the right of search, Pitt has disarmed criticism by acknowledging that the course he followed during Walpole's administration was indefensible.

All due weight being given to these various considerations, it must be admitted, nevertheless, that Pitt did overstep the limits within which inconsistency is usually regarded as venial. His one great object was first to gain office, and then to make his tenure of office secure by conciliating the favour of the king. The entire revolution which much of his policy underwent in order to effect this object bears too close a resemblance to the sudden and inexplicable changes of front habitual to placemen of the Tadpole stamp to be altogether pleasant to contemplate in a politician of pure aims and lofty ambition. Humiliating is not too strong a term to apply to a letter in which he expresses his desire to "efface the past by every action of his life", in order that he may stand well with the king.

In 1754, Henry Pelham died, and was succeeded at the head of affairs by his brother, the Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne. To Pitt, the change brought no advancement, and he had thus an opportunity of testing the truth of the description of his chief given by Sir Robert Walpole, "His name is treason." But there was for a time no open breach. Pitt continued at his post; and at the general election which took place during the year he even accepted a nomination for the duke's [[pocket borough]] of [[Aldborough, North Yorkshire|Aldborough]]. He had sat for [[Seaford]] since 1747.

When parliament met, however, he was not long in showing the state of his feelings. Ignoring Sir [[Thomas Robinson, 1st Baron Grantham|Thomas Robinson]], the political nobody to whom Newcastle had entrusted the management of the [[British House of Commons|Commons]], he made frequent and vehement attacks on Newcastle himself, though still continuing to serve under him. In this strange state matters continued for about a year. At length, just after the meeting of parliament in November 1751, Pitt was dismissed from office, having on the debate on the address spoken at great length against a new system of continental subsidies, proposed by the government of which he was a member. [[Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland|Henry Fox]], who had just before been appointed [[Secretary of State]], retained his place, and though the two men continued to be of the same party, and afterwards served again in the same government, there was henceforward a rivalry between them, which makes the celebrated opposition of their illustrious sons seem like an inherited quarrel.

Another year had scarcely passed when Pitt was again in power. The inherent weakness of the government, the vigour and eloquence of his opposition, and a series of military disasters abroad combined to rouse a public feeling of indignation which could not be withstood, and in December 1756, Pitt, who now sat for [[Okehampton]], became [[Secretary of State for the Southern Department]], and [[Leader of the House of Commons]] under the premiership of the [[William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire|Duke of Devonshire]]. Upon entering this coalition, Pitt said to Devonshire: "My Lord, I am sure I can save this country, and no one else can".<ref>[[Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford|Horace Walpole]], ''Memoirs of the Reign of King George II: Volume III'', (Yale University Press, 1985), p. 1.</ref>

He had made it a condition of his joining any administration that Newcastle should be excluded from it, thus showing a resentment which, though natural enough, proved fatal to the lengthened existence of his government. With the king unfriendly, and Newcastle, whose corrupt influence was still dominant in the Commons, estranged, it was impossible to carry on a government by the aid of public opinion alone, however emphatically that might have declared itself on his side. The historian [[Basil Williams]] has claimed that this is the first time in British history when a "man was called to supreme power by the voice of the people" rather than by the king's appointment or as the choice of Parliament.<ref>Basil Williams, ''The Whig Supremacy, 1714-60'', (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 375.</ref>

In April 1757, accordingly, he found himself again dismissed from office on account of his opposition to the king's favourite continental policy. But the power that was insufficient to keep him in office was strong enough to make any arrangement that excluded him impracticable. The public voice spoke in a way that was not to be mistaken. Probably no English minister ever received in so short a time so many proofs of the confidence and admiration of the public, the capital and all the chief towns voting him addresses and the freedom of their corporations (e.g., London presented him with the first ever ''honorary'' [[Freedom of the City#Freedom_of_the_City_of_London|Freedom]] of the [[City of London|City]] awarded in history). [[Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford|Horace Walpole]] recorded the freedoms of various cities awarded to Pitt:

<blockquote>For some weeks it rained gold boxes: Chester, Worcester, Norwich, Bedford, Salisbury, Yarmouth, Tewkesbury, Newcastle-on-Tyne, Stirling, and other populous and chief towns following the example. Exeter, with singular affection, sent boxes of oak.<ref>Walpole, ''Memoirs: Volume II'', p. 251.</ref></blockquote>

From the political deadlock that ensued relief could only be had by an arrangement between Newcastle and Pitt (called "[[Broad Bottom Government]]").

After some weeks' negotiation, in the course of which the firmness and moderation of "'''The Great Commoner'''", as he had come to be called, contrasted favourably with the characteristic tortuosities of the crafty [[peerage|peer]], matters were settled on such a basis that, while Newcastle was the nominal, Pitt was the virtual head of the government. On his acceptance of office, he was chosen member for [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]].

==The Newcastle and Pitt ministry==
A coalition with Newcastle was formed in June 1757, and continued in power until 1761. During the four years of its existence, it has been usual to say that the biography of Pitt is the [[history of England]], so thoroughly was he identified with the events which make this period, insofar as the external relations of the country are concerned, one of the most successful from the imperial point of view. A detailed account of these events belongs to history; all that is needed in a biography is to point out the extent to which Pitt's personal influence may really be traced in them.

It is scarcely too much to say that, in the general opinion of his contemporaries, the whole glory of these years was due to his single genius; his alone was the mind that planned, and his the spirit that animated the brilliant achievements of the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] arms in all the four quarters of the globe. The ''London Magazine'' of 1766 offered 'Pitt, Pompadour, Prussia, Providence' as the reasons for Britain's success in the [[Seven Years' War]]. Posterity, indeed, has been able to recognize more fully the independent genius of those who carried out his purposes. The heroism of [[James Wolfe]] would have been irrepressible, [[Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive|Clive]] would have proved himself "a heaven-born general", and [[Frederick the Great]] would have written his name in history as one of the most skillful strategists the world has known, whoever had held the seals of office in England.

But Pitt's relation to all three was such as to entitle him to a large share in the credit of their deeds. He inspired trust in his chosen commanders by his indifference to rules of seniority — several of 'Pitt's boys', like [[Augustus Keppel, 1st Viscount Keppel|Keppel]], captor of [[Gorée]], were in their thirties — and by his clear orders. It was his discernment that selected Wolfe to lead the attack on [[Quebec]], and gave him the opportunity of dying a victor on the [[Plains of Abraham|heights of Abraham]]. He had personally less to do with the successes in India than with the other great enterprises that shed an undying lustre on his administration; but his generous praise in parliament stimulated the genius of Clive, and the forces that acted at the close of the struggle were animated by his indomitable spirit.

Pitt's particular genius was to finance an army on the continent to drain French men and resources so that Britain might concentrate on what he held to be the vital spheres: [[Canada]] and the [[West Indies]]; whilst Clive successfully defeated [[Siraj Ud Daulah]], (the last independent [[Nawab of Bengal]]) at [[Plassey]] (1757), securing [[India]]. The Continental campaign was carried on by [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland|Cumberland]], defeated at [[Klosterzeven]] (1757) and thereafter by [[Ferdinand of Brunswick]], later victor at [[Battle of Minden|Minden]]; Britain's Continental campaign had two major strands firstly subsidising allies, particularly [[Frederick the Great]] and second financing an army to divert French resources from the colonial war and to also defend [[Hanover]] (which was the territory of the Kings of England at this time)

Pitt, the first real [[imperialism|Imperialist]] in modern English history, was the directing mind in the expansion of his country, and with him the beginning of empire is rightly associated. The [[Seven Years' War]] might well, moreover, have been another [[Thirty Years' War]] if Pitt had not furnished Frederick with an annual subsidy of £700,000, and in addition relieved him of the task of defending western [[Germany]] against France: this was the policy that allowed Pitt to boast of having 'won Canada on the banks of the Rhine'.

Contemporary opinion was, of course, incompetent to estimate the permanent results gained for the country by the brilliant [[foreign policy]] of Pitt. It has long been generally agreed that by several of his most costly expeditions nothing was really won but glory: the policy of diversionary attacks on places like [[Rochefort, Charente-Maritime|Rochefort]] was memorably described as 'breaking windows with gold guineas'. It has even been said that the only permanent acquisition that England owed directly to him was her Canadian dominion; and, strictly speaking, this is true, it being admitted that the campaign by which the Indian empire was virtually won was not planned by him, though brought to a successful issue during his ministry.

But material ''aggrandisement'', though the only tangible, is not the only real or lasting effect of a war policy. More may be gained by crushing a formidable rival than by conquering a province. The loss of her Canadian possessions was only one of a series of disasters suffered by France, which included the victories at sea of [[Edward Boscawen|Boscawen]] at [[Battle of Lagos|Lagos]] and [[Edward Hawke|Hawke]] at [[Battle of Quiberon Bay|Quiberon Bay]]. Such defeats radically affected the future of Europe and the world. Deprived of her most valuable colonies both in the [[Asia|East]] and in the [[North America|West]], and thoroughly defeated on the continent, France's humiliation was the beginning of a new epoch in history.

The victorious policy of Pitt destroyed the military prestige which repeated experience has shown to be in France as in no other country the very life of monarchy, and thus was not the least of the influences that slowly brought about the [[French Revolution]]. It effectually deprived France of the lead in the councils of Europe which she had hitherto arrogated to herself, and so affected the whole course of continental politics. It is such far-reaching results as these, and not the mere acquisition of a single colony, however valuable, that constitute Pitt's claim to be considered as the most powerful minister that ever guided the foreign policy of England.

==The dissolution of the ministry==
The first and most important of a series of changes which ultimately led to the dissolution of the ministry was the death of George II on 25 October 1760, and the accession of his grandson, [[George III of the United Kingdom|George III]]. The new king was inclined to view politics in personal terms and taught to believe that 'Pitt had the blackest of hearts'. As was natural, the new king had counsellors of his own, the chief of whom, [[John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute|Lord Bute]], was at once admitted to the cabinet as a secretary of state. Between Bute and Pitt there speedily arose an occasion of serious difference.

The existence of the so-called family compact by which the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]] of France and Spain bound themselves in an offensive alliance against England was suspected, and Pitt urged that it should be met by a pre-emptive strike against Spain's navy and her colonies. To this course Bute would not consent, and as his refusal was endorsed by all his colleagues save [[Richard Grenville-Temple, 2nd Earl Temple|Temple]], Pitt had no choice but to leave a cabinet in which his advice on a vital question had been rejected: "Being responsible, I will direct, and will be responsible for nothing that I do not direct."

On his resignation, which took place in October 1761, the King urged him to accept some signal mark of royal favour in the form most agreeable to himself. Accordingly he obtained a pension of £3000 a year for three lives, and his wife, [[Hester Pitt, Countess of Chatham|Lady Hester Grenville]], whom he had married in 1754, was created [[Earl of Chatham|Baroness Chatham]] in her own right. Pitt's domestic life was happy.

Pitt's spirit was too lofty to admit of his entering on any merely factious opposition to the government he had quit. On the contrary, his conduct after his retirement was distinguished by a moderation and disinterestedness which, as [[Edmund Burke|Burke]] has remarked, "set a seal upon his character." The war with Spain, in which he had urged the cabinet to take the initiative, proved inevitable; but he scorned to use the occasion for "altercation and recrimination", and spoke in support of the government measures for carrying on the war.

To the preliminaries of the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|peace]] concluded in February 1763 he offered an indignant resistance, considering the terms quite inadequate to the successes that had been gained by the country. When the treaty was discussed in parliament in December of the preceding year, though suffering from a severe attack of gout, he was carried down to the House, and in a speech of three hours' duration, interrupted more than once by [[paroxysm]]s of pain, he strongly protested against its various conditions. These conditions included the return of the sugar islands (but Britain retained [[Dominica]]); trading stations in West Africa (won by Boscawen); [[Pondicherry]], (France's Indian colony); and fishing rights in [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]. Pitt's opposition arose through two heads: France had been given the means to become once more formidable at sea, whilst [[Frederick the Great|Frederick]] had been betrayed.

However, there were strong reasons for concluding the peace: the National Debt had increased from £74.5m. in 1755 to £133.25m. in 1763, the year of the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|peace]]. The requirement to pay down this debt, and the lack of French threat in Canada, were major movers in the subsequent [[American War of Independence]].

The physical cause which rendered this effort so painful probably accounts for the infrequency of his appearances in parliament, as well as for much that is otherwise inexplicable in his subsequent conduct. In 1763 he spoke against the obnoxious [[tax]] on [[cider]], imposed by his brother-in-law, [[George Grenville]], and his opposition, though unsuccessful in the House, helped to keep alive his popularity with the country, which cordially hated the [[excise]] and all connected with it. When next year the question of [[general warrant]]s was raised in connexion with the case of [[John Wilkes|Wilkes]], Pitt vigorously maintained their illegality, thus defending at once the privileges of Parliament and the [[freedom of the press]].

During 1765 he seems to have been totally [[incapacitation|incapacitated]] for public business. In the following year he supported with great power the proposal of the [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Rockingham]] administration for the repeal of the [[Thirteen Colonies|American]] [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]], arguing that it was unconstitutional to impose taxes upon the colonies. He thus endorsed the contention of the colonists on the ground of principle, while the majority of those who acted with him contented themselves with resisting the disastrous taxation scheme on the ground of expediency.

The [[Repeal Act]], indeed, was only passed ''pari passu'' with [[Declaratory Act|another]] censuring the American [[Deliberative assembly|assemblies]], and declaring the authority of the British parliament over the colonies "in all cases whatsoever"; so that the House of Commons repudiated in the most formal manner the principle Pitt laid down. His language in approval of the resistance of the colonists was unusually bold, and perhaps no one but himself could have employed it with impunity at a time when the freedom of debate was only imperfectly conceded.

Pitt had not been long out of office when he was solicited to return to it, and the solicitations were more than once renewed. Unsuccessful overtures were made to him in 1763, and twice in 1765, in May and June - the negotiator in May being the king's uncle, the [[Prince William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland|Duke of Cumberland]], who went down in person to [[Hayes, Bromley|Hayes]], Pitt's seat in [[Kent]]. It is known that he had the opportunity of joining the Marquis of Rockingham's short-lived administration at any time on his own terms, and his conduct in declining an arrangement with that minister has been more generally condemned than any other step in his public life.

==The second Pitt ministry==
In July 1766 Rockingham was dismissed, and Pitt was entrusted by the King with the task of forming a government entirely on his own conditions. The result was a cabinet, strong much beyond the average in its individual members, but weak to powerlessness in the diversity of its composition. Burke, in a memorable passage of a memorable speech, has described this "chequered and speckled" administration with great humour, speaking of it as "patriots and courtiers, King's friends and republicans; Whigs and Tories... indeed a very curious show, but utterly unsafe to touch and unsure to stand on." Pitt chose for himself the office of [[Lord Privy Seal]], which necessitated his removal to the [[House of Lords]]; and in August he became [[Earl of Chatham]] and Viscount Pitt.

His principle, 'measures not men', appealed to the King whom he proposed to serve by 'destroying all party distinctions'. The problems which faced the government he seemed specially fitted to tackle: the observance of the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] by [[France]] and [[Spain]], tension between American colonists and the mother country, the status of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]]. Choosing for himself freedom from the routines of office, as [[Lord Privy Seal]] he made appointments without regard for connections but perceived merit. [[Charles Townshend]] to the [[Exchequer]], [[William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne|Shelburne]] as [[Secretary of State]], to order American affairs. He set about his duties with tempestuous energy. Yet in October 1768 he resigned after a catastrophic ministry, leaving such leadership as he could give to [[Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton|Grafton]], his [[First Lord of the Treasury]]. What had gone wrong?

By the acceptance of a [[peerage]], the great commoner lost at least as much and as suddenly in popularity as he gained in dignity. One significant indication of this may be mentioned. In view of his probable accession to power, preparations were made in the [[City of London]] for a banquet and a general illumination to celebrate the event. But the celebration was at once countermanded when it was known that he had become Earl of Chatham. The instantaneous revulsion of public feeling was somewhat unreasonable, for Pitt's health seems now to have been beyond doubt so shattered by his hereditary malady, that he was already in old age though only fifty-eight. It was natural, therefore, that he should choose a [[sinecure]] office, and the ease of the Lords. But a popular idol nearly always suffers by removal from immediate contact with the popular sympathy, be the motives for removal what they may.

One of the earliest acts of the new ministry was to lay an [[embargo]] upon [[cereal|corn]], which was thought necessary in order to prevent a dearth resulting from the unprecedentedly bad harvest of 1766. The measure was strongly opposed, and Lord Chatham delivered his first speech in the House of Lords in support of it. It proved to be almost the only measure introduced by his government in which he personally interested himself.

In 1767, [[Charles Townshend|Townshend]] produced the duties on [[tea]], glass and [[paper]], so offensive to the American colonists whom Chatham thought he understood.

His attention had been directed to the growing importance of the affairs of India, and there is evidence in his correspondence that he was meditating a comprehensive scheme for transferring much of the power of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] to the crown, when he was withdrawn from public business in a manner that has always been regarded as somewhat mysterious. It may be questioned, indeed, whether even had his powers been unimpaired he could have carried out any decided policy on any question with a cabinet representing interests so various and conflicting; but, as it happened, he was incapacitated physically and mentally during nearly the whole period of his tenure of office.

He scarcely ever saw any of his colleagues though they repeatedly and urgently pressed for interviews with him, and even an offer from the king to visit him in person was declined, though in the language of profound and almost abject respect which always marked his communications with the court. It has been insinuated both by contemporary and by later critics that being disappointed at his loss of popularity, and convinced of the impossibility of co-operating with his colleagues, he exaggerated his malady as a pretext for the inaction that was forced upon him by circumstances.

But there is no sufficient reason to doubt that he was really, as his friends represented, in a state that utterly unfitted him for business. He seems to have been freed for a time from the pangs of gout only to be afflicted with a species of [[mental illness|mental alienation]] bordering on [[insanity]]. This is the most satisfactory, as it is the most obvious, explanation of his utter indifference in presence of one of the most momentous problems that ever pressed for solution on an English statesman.

Those who are able to read the history in the light of what occurred later may perhaps be convinced that no policy whatever initiated, after 1766 could have prevented or even materially delayed the [[United States Declaration of Independence]]; but to the politicians of that time the coming event had not yet cast so dark a shadow before as to paralyse all action, and if any man could have allayed the growing discontent of the colonists and prevented the ultimate dismemberment of the empire, it would have been Lord Chatham.

The fact that he not only did nothing to remove existing difficulties, but remained passive while his colleagues took the fatal step which led directly to separation, is in itself clear proof of his entire incapacity. The imposition of the import duty on tea and other commodities was the project of [[Charles Townshend]], and was carried into effect in 1767 without consultation with Lord Chatham, if not in opposition to his wishes. It is probably the most singular thing in connexion with this singular administration, that its most pregnant measure should thus have been one directly opposed to the well-known principles of its head.

For many months, things remained in the curious position that he who was understood to be the head of the cabinet had as little share in the government of the country as an [[suffrage|unenfranchised]] [[peasant]]. As the chief could not or would not lead, the subordinates naturally chose their own paths and not his. The lines of Chatham's policy were abandoned in other cases besides the imposition of the import duty; his opponents were taken into confidence; and friends, such as [[Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst|Amherst]] and [[William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne|Shelburne]], were dismissed from their posts. When at length in October 1768 he tendered his resignation on the ground of shattered health, he did not fail to mention the dismissal of Amherst and Shelburne as a personal grievance.

==Later life==
[[Image:Pittcoatofarms.png|thumb|Arms of the Pitt family. Note that his family's coat of arms forms the template for [[Seal of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania|that of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].]]
Soon after his resignation a renewed attack of gout freed Chatham from the mental disease under which he had so long suffered. He had been nearly two years and a half in seclusion when, in July 1769, he again appeared in public at a royal levee. It was not, however, until 1770 that he resumed his seat in the House of Lords.

As he realised the gravity of the American situation, Chatham re-entered the fray, declaring that 'he would be in earnest for the public' and 'a scarecrow of violence to the gentler warblers of the grove'. They, moderate Whigs, found a prophet in [[Edmund Burke]], who wrote of Chatham that he wanted 'to keep hovering in the air, above all parties, and to swoop down where the prey may prove best'. Such was [[Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton|Grafton]], victim of Chatham's swift swoop on behalf of '[[John Wilkes|Wilkes]] and Liberty'. Pitt had not lost his nose for the big issue, the smell of injustice, a threat to the liberty of subjects. But Grafton was followed by North, and Chatham went off to farm, his cows typically housed in palatial stalls.

Chatham's warnings on America went unregarded until the eve of war. Then brave efforts to present his case, passionate, deeply pondered, for the concession of fundamental liberties - no taxation without consent, independent judges, trial by jury, along with the recognition of the American [[Continental Congress]] - foundered on the ignorance and complacency of [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]]. In his last years he found again words to express the concern for the rights of British subjects which had been constant among the inconsistencies of his political dealings. In January 1775. The [[House of Lords]] rejected his Bill for reconciliation. After war had broken out, he warned that [[United States|America]] could not be conquered.

[[Image:CollapseOfChatham.jpg|thumb|left|The Collapse of the Earl of Chatham in the House of Lords, 7 July 1778. Painting by [[John Singleton Copley]], 1779-80.]]
He had now almost no personal following, mainly owing to the grave mistake he had made in not forming an alliance with the Rockingham party. But his eloquence was as powerful as ever, and all its power was directed against the government policy in the contest with America, which had become the question of all-absorbing interest. His last appearance in the House of Lords was on 7 April 1778, on the occasion of the [[Charles Lennox, 3rd Duke of Richmond|Duke of Richmond]]'s motion for an address praying the king to conclude peace with America on any terms.

In view of the hostile demonstrations of France the various parties had come generally to see the necessity of such a measure. But Chatham could not brook the thought of a step which implied submission to the "natural enemy" whom it had been the main object of his life to humble, and he declaimed for a considerable time, though with diminished vigour, against the motion. After the Duke of Richmond had replied, he rose again excitedly as if to speak, pressed his hand upon his breast, and fell down in a fit. His last words before he collapsed were: 'My Lords, any state is better than despair; if we must fall, let us fall like men.' [[James Harris]] MP, however, recorded that [[Robert Nugent, 1st Earl Nugent|Lord Nugent]] had told him that Chatham's last words in the Lords were: 'If the Americans defend independence, they shall find me in their way' and that his very last words (spoken to [[John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham|his son]]) were: 'Leave your dying father, and go to the defence of your country'.<ref>[[Jeremy Black (historian)|Jeremy Black]], ''Pitt the Elder'' (Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 299.</ref>

He was removed to his seat at Hayes, where his son [[William Pitt the Younger|William]] read [[Homer]] to him: the passage about the death of [[Hector]]. Chatham died on 11 May 1778. Although he was initially buried at Hayes, with graceful unanimity all parties combined to show their sense of the national loss and the Commons presented an address to the king praying that the deceased statesman might be buried with the honours of a public funeral. A sum was voted for a public [[monument]] which was erected over a new grave in [[Westminster Abbey]]. In the [[Guildhall, London|Guildhall]] [[Edmund Burke|Burke]]'s inscription summed up what he had meant to the City: he was 'the minister by whom commerce was united with and made to flourish by war'. Soon after the funeral a bill was passed bestowing a pension of £4,000 a year on his successors in the [[earldom]]. He had a family of three sons and two daughters, of whom the second son, [[William Pitt the Younger|William]], was destined to add fresh lustre to a name which is one of the greatest in the history of England.

Dr. Johnson is reported to have said that "Walpole was a minister given by the king to the people, but Pitt was a minister given by the people to the king", and the remark correctly indicates Chatham's distinctive place among English statesmen. He was the first minister whose main strength lay in the support of the nation at large as distinct from its representatives in the Commons, where his personal following was always small. He was the first to discern that public opinion, though generally slow to form and slow to act, is in the end the paramount power in the state; and he was the first to use it not in an emergency merely, but throughout a whole political career.

He marks the commencement of that vast change in the movement of [[Politics of England|English politics]] by which it has come about that the sentiment of the great mass of the people now tells effectively on the action of the government from day to day–almost from hour to hour. He was well fitted to secure the sympathy and admiration of his countrymen, for his virtues and his failings were alike English. He was often inconsistent, he was generally intractable and overbearing, and he was always pompous and affected to a degree which, [[Thomas Macaulay|Macaulay]] has remarked, seems scarcely compatible with true greatness.

Of the last quality evidence is furnished in the stilted style of his letters, and in the fact recorded by Seward that he never permitted his under-secretaries to sit in his presence. Burke speaks of "some significant, pompous, creeping, explanatory, ambiguous matter, in the true Chathamic style." But these defects were known only to the inner circle of his associates.

To the outside public he was endeared as a statesman who could do or suffer "nothing base", and who had the rare power of transfusing his own indomitable energy and courage into all who served under him. "A spirited foreign policy" has always been popular in England, and Pitt was the most popular of English ministers, because he was the most successful exponent of such a policy. In domestic affairs his influence was small and almost entirely indirect. He himself confessed his unfitness for dealing with questions of finance. The commercial prosperity that was produced by his war policy was in a great part delusive, as prosperity so produced must always be, though it had permanent effects of the highest moment in the rise of such centres of industry as [[Glasgow]]. This, however, was a remote result which he could have neither intended nor foreseen.

==Legacy==
Historians have described Pitt as "the greatest British statesman of the eighteenth century."<ref>Caleb Carr, “William Pitt the Elder and the Avoidance of the American Revolution,“ ''What Ifs? of American History: Eminent Historians Imagine What Might Have Been'', ed. Robert Cowley (New York: Berkley Books, 2004), 17.</ref>

==Family and personal life==
Pitt married [[Hester Pitt, Countess of Chatham|Lady Hester Grenville]] (bef. 1727-3 April 1803), daughter of the [[Hester Temple, 1st Countess Temple|1st Countess Temple]], on 16 October 1754. They had five children; Hester, Harriet, John, William and James:
*[[Hester Stanhope, Viscountess Mahon|Lady Hester Pitt]] (19 October 1755-20 July 1780), who married [[Charles Stanhope, 3rd Earl Stanhope|Viscount Mahon]], later the 3rd [[Earl Stanhope]], on 19 December 1774; three children, including the traveler and Arabist [[Lady Hester Stanhope]].
*[[John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham]] (1756–1835), who married [[Mary Pitt, Countess of Chatham|The Hon. Mary Townshend]]; no issue.
*[[William Pitt the Younger]] (1759–1806), who also served as Prime Minister; he never married.
*Lady Harriet Pitt (bef. 1770–1786), who married [[Edward James Eliot|The Hon. Edward James Eliot]], oldest son of the [[Edward Craggs-Eliot, 1st Baron Eliot|1st Baron Eliot]], in 1785; one child.

==Titles from birth to death==
*Mr. William Pitt (1708–1735)
*Mr. William Pitt, MP (1735–1746)
*The Rt. Hon. William Pitt, MP (1746–1766)
*The Rt. Hon. The Earl of Chatham, PC (1766–1778)

==See also==
*[[Grenvillite]]

==References==
After British General John Forbes occupied Fort Duquesne during the French and Indian War, he ordered the site's reconstruction and named it after then-Secretary of State Pitt. He also named the settlement between the rivers "Pittsborough", which would eventually become known as Pittsburgh.

The correspondence of Lord Chatham, in four volumes, was published in 1838–1840; and a volume of his letters to [[Thomas Pitt, 1st Baron Camelford|Lord Camelford]] in 1804. The Rev. [[Francis Thackeray]]'s ''History of the Rt. Hon. William Pitt, Earl of Chatham'' (2 vols., 1827), is a ponderous and shapeless work. [[Frederic Harrison]]'s ''Chatham'', in the "''Twelve English Statesmen''" series (1905), though skillfully executed, takes a rather academic and modern [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] view. A German work, ''William Pitt, Graf von Chatham'', by [[Albert von Ruville]] (3 vols., 1905; [[English language|English]] trans. 1907), is the best and most thorough account of Chatham, his period, and his policy, which has appeared. See also the separate article on William Pitt, and the authorities referred to, especially the Rev. [[William Hunt]]'s [[appendix]] i. to his vol. x. of ''The Political History of England'' (1905).

[[Barney Gumble]] and [[Wade Boggs]] discuss England's greatest Prime Ministers in a third season episode of "[[The Simpsons]]" entitled ''[[Homer at the Bat]]''. In their heated discussion, Wade Boggs promotes Pitt the Elder, and Barney Gumble promotes [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]]. The scene ends with Barney punching out both Wade Boggs and [[Moe Szyslak]], who he mistakenly believes also promotes Pitt the Elder.

==Notes==
<references/>
*{{1911}}
* Robertson, Sir Charles Grant ''Chatham and the British Empire'' [Teach Yourself History Series], (London: The English Universities Press, Ltd., 1946, 1959).

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|s=Author:William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham}}
*[http://www.classicpersuasion.org/cbo/chatham/ Speeches of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham]
*[http://pm.gov.uk/output/Page167.asp More about The Earl of Chatham, William Pitt 'The Elder'] on the Downing Street website.
{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Thomas Winnington]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Paymaster of the Forces]]|years=1746 – 1755}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Henry Vane, 1st Earl of Darlington|The Earl of Darlington]] [[Thomas Hay, 9th Earl of Kinnoull|Viscount Dupplin]]}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Henry Fox, 1st Baron Holland|Henry Fox]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Secretary of State for the Southern Department]]|years=1756 – 1757}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Robert Darcy, 4th Earl of Holdernesse|The Earl of Holdernesse]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Leader of the House of Commons]]|years=1756 – 1761}}
{{s-aft|after=[[George Grenville]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Robert Darcy, 4th Earl of Holdernesse|The Earl of Holdernesse]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Secretary of State for the Southern Department]]|years=1757 – 1761}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Charles Wyndham, 2nd Earl of Egremont|The Earl of Egremont]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|The Marquess of Rockingham]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Great Britain]]|years=30 July 1766 – 14 October 1768}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Augustus FitzRoy, 3rd Duke of Grafton|The Duke of Grafton]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne|The Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Lord Privy Seal]]|years=1766 – 1768}}
{{s-aft|after=[[George William Hervey, 2nd Earl of Bristol|The Earl of Bristol]]}}
{{s-par|gb}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Thomas Pitt of Boconnoc|Thomas Pitt]] [[Robert Nedham]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Member of Parliament]] for [[Old Sarum (UK Parliament constituency)|Old Sarum]] with [[Robert Nedham]] 1735 – 1741 [[George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton|Sir George Lyttelton, Bt]] 1741 - 1742 [[James Grenville]] 1742 - May 1747 [[Edward Willes]] May 1747 - July 1747|years=1735 – 1747}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Thomas Pitt of Boconnoc|Thomas Pitt]] [[William Irby, 1st Baron Boston|Sir William Irby, Bt]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[William Hay (MP)|William Hay]] [[William Gage, 2nd Viscount Gage|The Hon. William Gage]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Member of Parliament]] for [[Seaford (UK Parliament constituency)|Seaford]] with [[William Hay (MP)|William Hay]]|years=1747 – 1754}}
{{s-aft|after=[[William Hay (MP)|William Hay]] [[William Gage, 2nd Viscount Gage|The Hon. William Gage]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Andrew Wilkinson]] [[Nathaniel Newnham]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Member of Parliament]] for [[Aldborough (UK Parliament constituency)|Aldborough]] with [[Andrew Wilkinson]]|years=1754 – 1756}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Andrew Wilkinson]] [[Nathaniel Cholmley]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton|Sir George Lyttelton, Bt]] [[Robert Vyner (1717-1799)|Robert Vyner]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Member of Parliament]] for [[Okehampton (UK Parliament constituency)|Okehampton]] with [[Robert Vyner (1717-1799)|Robert Vyner]]|years=1756 – 1757}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Robert Vyner (1717-1799)|Robert Vyner]] [[Thomas Potter (MP)|Thomas Potter]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Robert Henley, 1st Earl of Northington|Robert Henley]] [[John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier|John Louis Ligonier]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Member of Parliament]] for [[Bath (UK Parliament constituency)|Bath]] with [[John Ligonier, 1st Earl Ligonier|The Viscount Ligonier]] 1757–1763 [[Sir John Sebright, 6th Baronet|Sir John Sebright, Bt]] 1763–1766|years=1757 – 1766}}
{{s-aft|after=[[John Sebright|Sir John Sebright, Bt]] [[John Smith (1727-1775)|John Smith]]}}
{{s-reg|gb}}
{{s-new|creation}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Earl of Chatham]]|years=1766 – 1778}}
{{s-aft|after=[[John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham|John Pitt]]}}
{{end}}

{{UKPrimeMinisters}}

{{BD|1708|1778|Chatham, William Pitt, 1st Earl of}}

[[Category:Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Secretaries of State for the Southern Department]]
[[Category:Paymasters of the Forces]]
[[Category:Lords Privy Seal]]
[[Category:Whig MPs (UK)]]
[[Category:Members of the Parliament of Great Britain for English constituencies|Pitt, William]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain]]
[[Category:British people of the French and Indian War]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Old Etonians|Pitt, William]]
[[Category:Earls in the Peerage of Great Britain]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey]]
[[Category:People from Westminster]]

[[bg:Уилям Пит-старши]]
[[de:William Pitt, 1. Earl of Chatham]]
[[eo:William Pitt (pli maljuna)]]
[[es:William Pitt (el Viejo)]]
[[fr:William Pitt l'Ancien]]
[[gd:William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham]]
[[he:ויליאם פיט האב]]
[[it:William Pitt il Vecchio]]
[[ja:チャタム伯ウィリアム・ピット]]
[[la:Gulielmus Pitt Senior]]
[[mr:विल्यम पिट, थोरला]]
[[nl:William Pitt de Oudere]]
[[pl:William Pitt, 1. hrabia Chatham]]
[[pt:William Pitt, 1.º Conde de Chatham]]
[[ru:Питт, Уильям, 1-й граф Четэм]]
[[simple:William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham]]
[[sv:William Pitt d.ä.]]
[[zh:威廉·皮特，第一代查塔姆伯爵]]

List of Neapolitan monarchs

2008-10-18T17:19:24Z

..TTT..:

The following is a list of '''monarchs of the [[Kingdom of Naples]]'''.

==Monarchs of Naples==
===Angevin Dynasty, 1282–1382===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
| '''[[Charles I of Naples|Charles I]]''' 1282–1285 || [[Image:Palazzo Reale di Napoli - Carlo I d'Angiò.jpg|100px|Charles I]] || [[21 March]] [[1226]] son of [[Louis VIII of France]] and [[Blanche of Castile]] || [[Beatrice of Provence]] [[31 January]], [[1246]] 7 children [[Margaret of Burgundy, Queen of Sicily|Margaret of Burgundy]] [[18 November]] [[1268]] 1 child || [[7 January]], [[1285]] [[Foggia]] aged 58
|-
| '''[[Charles II of Naples|Charles II]]''' 1285–1309 || [[Image:Carlo_II_d'Angiò.jpg|100px|Charles II]] || 1248 son of [[Charles I of Naples]] and [[Beatrice of Provence]] || [[Maria of Hungary (1257-1323)|Maria of Hungary]] 1270 14 children || August 1309 aged 61
|-
| '''[[Robert of Naples|Robert]]''' 1309–1343 || [[Image:Roberto_d'Angio_4.jpg|100px|Robert]] || 1277 son of [[Charles II of Naples]] and [[Maria Arpad of Hungary|Maria of Hungary]] ||Yolanda of Aragon 2 children [[Sancha of Majorca]] July 1304 No children || [[20 January]], [[1343]] aged 65
|-
| '''[[Joan I of Naples|Joan I]]''' 1343–1382|| [[Image:Jeanne Ière de Naples, dite la Reine Jeanne, comtesse de Provence.jpg|100px|Joan]] || 1328 [[Naples]] daughter of [[Charles, Duke of Calabria]] and [[Marie of Valois]]||[[Andrew, Duke of Calabria]] 1334 1 child [[Louis of Taranto]] [[20 August]] [[1346]] 2 children [[James IV of Majorca]] [[26 September]] [[1363]] No children [[Otto, Duke of Brunswick-Grubenhagen]] [[25 September]] [[1376]] No children || [[12 May]] [[1382]] [[San Fele]] aged 54
|-
|}
Joan was deposed and later killed by her cousin, Charles, Duke of Durazzo

===House of Durazzo, 1381–1435===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
| '''[[Charles III of Naples|Charles III]]''' 1381–1386 || [[Image:Charles III of Naples.jpg|100px|Charles III]] || 1345 son of [[Louis of Durazzo]] and Margherita of Sanseverino || [[Margherita of Durazzo]] February 1369 3 children || [[24 February]] [[1386]] [[Visegrad]] aged 41
|-
| '''[[Ladislaus of Naples|Ladislaus]] ''' 1386–1414 || [[Image:Ladislao d'Angiò re di Napoli.jpg|100px|Charles II]] || [[14 July]] [[1376]] [[Naples]] son of [[Charles III of Naples]] and [[Margherita of Durazzo]]|| Costanza de Clermont 1390 No children [[Marie of Lusignan]] [[12 February]] [[1403]] No children [[Mary of Enghien]] 1406 No children ||[[6 August]] [[1414]] [[Naples]] aged 38
|-
| '''[[Joan II of Naples|Joan II]]''' 1414–1435 || [[Image:Joan II of Naples.jpg|100px|Joan II]] ||[[23 June]] [[1373]] [[Zadar]] daughter of [[Charles III of Naples]] and [[Margherita of Durazzo]] ||[[William, Duke of Austria]] No children [[James II, Count of La Marche]] 1415 No children|| [[2 February]] [[1435]] [[Naples]] aged 52
|-
|}
The rule of the House of Durazzo was contested by the Dukes of Anjou of the House of Valois, who led several military expeditions into the kingdom. In the end Queen Joan II, being heirless, recognized Duke Louis III in 1426 as [[Duke of Calabria]] and heir. Louis predeceased her, but his brother René inherited his claim. Joan recognised René as her heir before her death.

===House of Valois-Anjou, 1382–1426 and 1435–1442===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
| '''[[Louis I of Naples|Louis I]]''' 1382–1384 || [[Image:Louis III of Naples.PNG|100px]] || [[23 July]] [[1339]] [[Château de Vincennes]] son of [[John II of France]] and [[Bonne of Luxembourg]] || Marie of Blois 1360 3 children || [[20 September]] [[1384]] [[Bari]] aged 45
|-
| '''[[Louis II of Naples|Louis II]] ''' 1384–1417 || [[Image:Luigi II d'Angiò.jpg|100px|Louis II]] || 1377 son of [[Louis I of Naples]] and Marie de Blois|| [[Yolande of Aragon]] 1400 5 children ||[[29 April]] [[1417]] [[Angers]] aged 40
|-
| '''[[Louis III of Naples|Louis III]]''' 1417–1426 || [[Image:Blason duche fr Anjou (moderne).png|100px]] ||1403 son of [[Louis II of Naples]] and [[Yolande of Aragon]] || [[Margaret of Savoy]] 1432 No children || [[12 November]] [[1434]] [[Cosenza]] aged 31
|-
| '''[[René I of Naples|René]]''' 1435–1442 || [[Image:04.Le roi Rene.jpg|100px|René]] || [[16 January]] [[1409]] [[Château d'Angers]] son of [[Louis II of Naples]] and [[Yolande of Aragon]]|| [[Isabelle, Duchess of Lorraine|Isabelle de Lorraine]] 1420 10 children Jeanne de Laval [[10 September]] [[1454]] No children || [[10 July]] [[1480]] [[Aix-en-Provence]] aged 71
|-
|}
Louis I, [[Duke of Anjou]], was the adopted heir of Joan I. He succeeded her, ''de jure'', on her death in 1382. His descendants fought the House of Durazzo, mostly in vain, but not without any successes, for the throne until an agreement was reached between Louis III and Joan II whereby she recognised him and his house as her heirs. René, Louis's brother, succeeded Joan in 1435.

René had a contestant in King Alfonso V of Aragon who had been previously considered as a successor by Joan II but had been later discarded in favour of René's brother. Alfonso conquered the kingdom ''manu militari'' and René was forced to flee. René's claim was inherited by either his nephew ([[Charles IV of Anjou]], who died in 1481, leaving his claims to French king [[Louis XI]]) or his grandson ([[René II of Lorraine]]). The latter's descendants continued to claim the throne of Naples, as did the French kings, down to 1529, and intermittently until 1559.

===Aragonese Kings of Naples, 1442–1501===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
| '''[[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso I]]''' 1442–1458 || [[Image:Alfonso-V-el-Magnanimo.jpg|100px|Alfonso I]] || 1396 [[Medina del Campo]] son of [[Ferdinand I of Aragon]] and [[Eleanor of Alburquerque]]||[[Maria of Castile]] 1415 No children|| [[27 June]] [[1458]] [[Naples]] aged 52
|-
| '''[[Ferdinand I of Naples|Ferdinand I]] ''' 1458–1494 || [[Image:Ferrante I of Naples.jpg|100px|Ferdinand I]] ||[[2 June]] [[1423]] illegitimate son of [[Alfonso V of Aragon|Alfonso I]]||[[Isabella of Taranto]] 1444 6 children [[Joanna of Aragon]] [[14 September]] [[1476]] 2 children|| [[25 January]] [[1494]] aged 71
|-
| '''[[Alfonso II of Naples|Alfonso II]] ''' 1494–1495|| [[Image:Alfonso II di Napoli.jpg|100px|Alfonso II]] ||[[4 November]] [[1448]] [[Naples]] son of [[Ferdinand I of Naples]] and [[Isabella of Taranto]]||Ippolita Maria Sforza [[10 October]] [[1465]] 3 children Trogia Gazzela 2 children||[[18 December]] [[1495]] [[Messina]] aged 47
|-
| '''[[Ferdinand II of Naples|Ferdinand II]] ''' 1495–1496 || [[Image:Ferrandino Naples.jpg|100px|Ferdinand II]] ||[[26 August]] [[1469]] [[Naples]] son of [[Alfonso II of Naples]] and Ippolita Maria Sforza||[[Giovanna of Naples]] 1496 No children||[[7 September]] [[1496]] [[Naples]] aged 27
|-
| '''[[Frederick IV of Naples|Frederick IV]]''' 1496–1501 || [[Image:Frederick IV of Naples.jpg|100px|Ferdinand II]] ||[[19 April]], [[1452]] [[Naples]] son of [[Ferdinand I of Naples]] and [[Isabella of Taranto]]||Anna of Savoy [[11 September]] [[1478]] 1 child [[Isabella del Balzo]] [[28 November]] [[1486]] 5 children||[[9 November]] [[1504]] [[Tours]] aged 51
|-
|}
The French conquered the kingdom in 1501 and King Frederick was taken as a prisoner to France, where he died.

===French direct rule, 1500–1504===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
| '''[[Louis XII of France|Louis (IV)]]''' 1501–1504 || [[Image:Ludvig XII av Frankrike på målning från 1500-talet.jpg|100px|Louis IV]] || [[27 June]] [[1462]] [[Château de Blois]] son of [[Charles, Duke of Orléans]] and [[Marie of Cleves]]||[[Joan of France, Duchess of Berry|Joan of France]] [[8 September]] [[1476]] No children [[Anne of Brittany]] [[8 January]] [[1499]] 4 children [[Mary Tudor, Queen of France|Mary of England]] [[9 October]] [[1514]] No children || [[1 January]] [[1515]] [[Paris]] aged 52
|-
|}
The kingdom was conquered by the Spanish in 1504, after the [[Battle of Garigliano (1503)|Battle of the Garigliano]]

===Spanish direct rule, 1504–1707===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
| '''[[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand III]]''' 1504–1516|| [[Image:Michel Sittow 004.jpg|100px|Ferdinand III]] || [[10 March]] [[1452]] son of [[John II of Aragon]] and [[Juana Enriquez]]|| [[Isabella of Castile]] [[19 October]] [[1469]] 5 children [[Germaine of Foix]] 1505 No children ||[[23 January]] [[1516]] [[Madrigalejo]] aged 54
|-
| '''[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]]''' 1516–1554 || [[Image:Emperor charles v.png|100px|Charles IV]] || [[24 February]] [[1500]] [[Ghent]] son of [[Philip I of Castile]] and [[Juana of Castile]]||[[Isabella of Portugal (1503-1539)|Isabella of Portugal]] [[10 March]] [[1526]] 3 children ||[[21 September]] [[1558]] [[Yuste]] aged 58
|-
| '''[[Philip II of Spain|Philip I]]''' 1554–1598 || [[Image:King PhilipII of Spain.jpg|100px|Philip I]] || [[21 May]] [[1527]] [[Valladolid]] son of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles IV]] and [[Isabella of Portugal (1503-1539)|Isabella of Portugal]]||[[Maria of Portugal (1527-1545)|Maria of Portugal]] 1543 1 child [[Mary I of England]] 1554 No children [[Elisabeth of Valois]] 1559 2 children [[Anna of Austria (1549-1580)|Anna of Austria]] [[4 May]] [[1570]] 5 children||[[13 September]] [[1598]] [[Madrid]] aged 71
|-
| '''[[Philip III of Spain|Philip II]]''' 1598–1621|| [[Image:PhilipIIISpain.jpg|100px|Philip II]] || [[14 April]] [[1578]] [[Madrid]] son of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip I]] and [[Anna of Austria (1549-1580)|Anna of Austria]]||[[Margaret of Austria (1584-1611)|Margaret of Austria]] [[18 April]] [[1599]] 5 children||[[31 March]] [[1621]] [[Madrid]] aged 42
|-
| '''[[Philip IV of Spain|Philip III]]''' 1621–1665|| [[Image:Philip IV of Spain.jpg|100px|Philip III]] || [[8 April]] [[1605]] [[Valladolid]] son of [[Philip III of Spain|Philip II]] and [[Margaret of Austria (1584-1611)|Margaret of Austria]]||[[Elisabeth of Bourbon]] 1615 7 children [[Mariana of Austria]] 1649 5 children ||[[17 September]] [[1665]] [[Madrid]] aged 60
|-
| '''[[Charles II of Spain|Charles V]]''' 1665–1700|| [[Image:Juan de Miranda Carreno 002.jpg|100px|Charles V]] || [[6 November]] [[1661]] [[Madrid]] son of [[Philip IV of Spain|Philip III]] and [[Mariana of Austria]]||[[Maria Luisa of Orléans]] [[19 November]] [[1679]] No children [[Maria Anna of Neuburg]] [[14 May]] [[1690]] No children ||[[1 November]] [[1700]] [[Madrid]] aged 38
|-
| '''[[Philip V of Spain|Philip IV]]''' 1700–1713|| [[Image:Felipe V; Rey de España.jpg|100px|Charles V]] || [[19 December]] [[1683]] [[Versailles]] son of [[Louis, Dauphin of France (1661-1711)|Louis, Dauphin of France]] and [[Maria Anna of Bavaria (1660-1690)|Maria Anna of Bavaria]]||[[Maria Luisa of Savoy]] [[2 November]] [[1701]] 4 children [[Elisabeth of Parma]] [[24 December]] [[1714]] 7 children ||[[9 July]] [[1746]] [[Madrid]] aged 62
|-
|}
The Spanish lost the kingdom to the Austrians during the [[War of the Spanish Succession]]

===Austrian direct rule, 1714–1734===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
| '''[[Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles VI]]''' 1714–1734 || [[Image:Carles-III-de-Catalunya.jpg|100px|Charles VI]] || [[1 October]] [[1685]] [[Vienna]] son of [[Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor]] and [[Eleonore-Magdalena of Pfalz-Neuburg]]||[[Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel|Elisabeth Christine]] [[1 August]] [[1708]] 4 children|| [[20 October]] [[1740]] [[Vienna]] aged 55
|-
|}
The kingdom was conquered by a Spanish army in 1734, during the [[War of the Polish Succession]]. Together with Sicily Naples was recognized independent under a cadet branch of the Spanish Bourbons by the [[Treaty of Vienna]] in 1738.

===House of Bourbon-Naples 1735–1806===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
| '''[[Charles III of Spain|Charles VII]]''' 1734–1759 || [[Image:Charles III of Spain.jpg|100px|Charles VI]] || [[20 January]] [[1716]] [[Madrid]] son of [[Philip V of Spain|Philip IV]] and [[Elizabeth of Parma]]||[[Maria Amalia of Saxony]] 1738 13 children||[[14 December]] [[1788]] [[Madrid]] aged 72
|-
| '''[[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV]]''' 1759–1798 interrupted by [[Parthenopaean Republic|Republic]] 1799–1806 || [[Image:Ferdinand i twosicilies.jpg|100px|Ferdinand IV]] || [[12 January]] [[1751]] [[Naples]] son of [[Charles III of Spain|Charles VII]] and [[Maria Amalia of Saxony]]||[[Marie Caroline of Austria]] [[12 May]] [[1768]] 17 children [[Lucia Migliaccio of Floridia]] [[27 November]] [[1814]] No children||[[4 January]] [[1825]] [[Naples]] aged 73
|-
|}

===Bonapartist Kings of Naples, 1806–1815===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
|-
| '''[[Joseph Bonaparte|Joseph I]]''' 1806–1808 || [[Image:Joseph-Bonaparte.jpg|100px|Joseph I]] || [[7 January]] [[1768]] [[Corte]] son of [[Carlo Buonaparte]] and [[Letizia Ramolino]]||[[Julie Clary]] [[1 August]] [[1794]] 3 children||[[28 July]] [[1844]] [[Florence]] aged 76
|-
| '''[[Joachim Murat|Joachim I]]'''<ref>First King of Two Sicilies by the Edict of Bayonne, [http://books.google.it/books?id=7IM2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA51&lpg=PA51&dq=Statute+of+Bayonne&source=web&ots=0o3kA00Pk0&sig=_MIS1MeFkigVSxtNErhQGoMSsIA&hl=it#PPA71,M1 Colletta P., History of the Kingdom of Naples: 1734-1825, p.71]</ref> 1808–1815 || [[Image:Murat2.jpg|100px|Joachim I]] || [[25 March]] [[1767]] La Bastide-Fortunière son of Pierre Murat-Jordy and Jeanne Loubières||[[Caroline Bonaparte]] [[1 August]] [[1794]] 3 children|| [[13 October]] [[1815]] [[Pizzo, Calabria|Pizzo]] aged 48
|-
|}

===House of Bourbon-Naples 1815–1816===
{{Monarchs - table header}}
|-
| '''[[Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies|Ferdinand IV]]''' restored 1815–1816 || [[Image:Ferdinand i twosicilies.jpg|100px|Ferdinand IV]] || [[12 January]] [[1751]] [[Naples]] son of [[Charles III of Spain|Charles VII]] and [[Maria Amalia of Saxony]]||[[Marie Caroline of Austria]] [[12 May]] [[1768]] 17 children [[Lucia Migliaccio of Floridia]] [[27 November]] [[1814]] No children||[[4 January]] [[1825]] [[Naples]] aged 73
|-
|}

In 1816 King Ferdinand IV merged the two Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily into the new [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]] and took the new title of Ferdinand I, King of the Two Sicilies.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of viceroys of Naples]]
*[[List of Counts of Apulia and Calabria]]
{{Former monarchies Italian peninsula}}
[[Category:Lists of monarchs|Naples]]
[[Category:History of Sicily|*]]
[[Category:Kings of Sicily|*]]
[[Category:History of Naples|*]]
[[Category:Kings of Naples|*]]
[[Category:Monarchs of Naples|*]]

[[ca:Llista de reis de Sicília i Nàpols]]
[[cs:Seznam neapolských králů]]
[[de:Liste der Herrscher von Neapel]]
[[fr:Liste des rois de Sicile]]
[[ko:나폴리의 군주]]
[[hr:Popis vladara Sicilije i Napuljskog kraljevstva]]
[[it:Elenco dei monarchi di Napoli e Sicilia]]
[[lb:Lëscht vun de Kinneke vu Sizilien]]
[[hu:Nápoly és Szicília uralkodói]]
[[nl:Lijst van monarchen van Napels en Sicilië]]
[[ja:ナポリとシチリアの君主一覧]]
[[pl:Królestwo Sycylii]]
[[pt:Lista de reis da Sicília e Nápoles]]
[[ru:Список правителей Неаполитанского королевства]]
[[scn:Munarchi di Sicilia]]
[[sk:Zoznam vládcov Sicílie a Neapolska]]
[[sr:Владари Сицилије и Напуља]]
[[zh:西西里和那不勒斯君主列表]]

Bourdon

2008-10-16T09:17:32Z

..TTT..: Sébastien Bourdon was missing

'''Bourdon''' can mean:

*A [[Bourdon (bell)|bourdon]] is a type of bell
*A [[Bourdon (organ pipe)|bourdon]] is a type of organ pipe, though may also refer to other meanings of the term [[Flue pipe#Diapason|diapason]]
*[[Bourdon, Somme]], a town in France
*A '''Bourdon gauge''' or '''Bourdon tube''' is used in pressure measurement, invented by Eugene Bourdon. See [[Pressure measurement#Bourdon]]

'''Bourdon''' is also a surname and may refer to:

*[[Amé Bourdon]], 17th century French physician
*[[Eugene Bourdon]], French watchmaker and engineer
*[[François Louis Bourdon]], 18th century French politician
*[[Luc Bourdon]] an NHL defenseman with the [[Vancouver Canucks]]
*[[Rob Bourdon]], the drummer of [[Linkin Park]]
*[[Sébastien Bourdon]], 17th century French painter
*[[William Bourdon]] the secretary-general of the [[International Federation of Human Rights Leagues]]

{{disambig|Bourdon}}

[[ca:Abellot]]
[[de:Bourdon]]
[[fr:Bourdon]]
[[it:Bourdon]]
[[nl:Bourdon]]
[[zh:大黃蜂]]

Ecosystem model

2008-10-15T06:37:14Z

..TTT..: delete wrong interwiki

'''Ecosystem models''', or '''ecological models''', are [[mathematics|mathematical]] representations of [[ecosystem]]s. Typically they simplify complex [[food web|foodwebs]] down to their major components or [[trophic level]]s, and quantify these as either numbers of [[organism]]s, [[biomass]] or the [[inventory]]/[[concentration]] of some pertinent [[chemical element]] (for instance, [[carbon]] or a [[nutrient]] [[chemical species|species]] such as [[nitrogen]] or [[phosphorus]]).

==Overview==
===Complexity===
Ecosystem models are a development of [[theoretical ecology]] that aim to characterise the major [[dynamical system|dynamics]] of ecosystems, both to synthesise the understanding of such systems and to allow [[prediction]]s of their behaviour (in general terms, or in response to particular changes).

Because of the [[complexity]] of ecosystems (in terms of numbers of species/ecological interactions), ecosystem models typically simplify the systems they are studying to a limited number of [[pragmatism|pragmatic]] components. These may be particular species of interest, or may be broad [[Ecology Functional Groups|functional types]] such as [[autotroph]]s, [[heterotroph]]s or [[saprotroph]]s. In [[biogeochemistry]], ecosystem models usually include representations of non-living "resources" such as nutrients, which are consumed by (and may be depleted by) living components of the model.

This simplification is driven by a number of factors:
* '''Ignorance''': while understood in broad outline, the details of a particular foodweb may not be known; this applies both to identifying relevant species, and to the [[functional response]]s linking them (which are often extremely difficult to quantify)
* '''Computation''': practical constraints on [[Computer simulation|simulating]] large numbers of ecological elements; this is particularly true when ecosystem models are embedded within other models (such as [[Model (physical)|physical models]] of [[terrain]] or [[ocean]] bodies, or [[idealization|idealised]] models such as [[cellular automata]] or [[Continuous automaton|coupled map lattice]]s)
* '''Understanding''': depending upon the nature of the study, complexity can confound the analysis of an ecosystem model; the more interacting components a model has, the less straightforward it is to extract and separate causes and consequences; this is compounded when [[uncertainty]] about components obscures the accuracy of a simulation

===Structure===
The process of simplification described above typically reduces an ecosystem to a small number of [[state variable]]s. Depending upon the system under study, these may represent ecological components in terms of numbers of [[Discrete mathematics|discrete]] individuals or quantify the component more [[Continuum mechanics|continuously]] as a measure of the total biomass of all organisms of that type, often using a common model currency (e.g. mass of carbon per unit area/volume).

The components are then linked together by [[Function (mathematics)|mathematical functions]] that describe the nature of the relationships between them. For instance, in models which include predator-prey relationships, the two components are usually linked by some function that relates total prey captured to the populations of both predators and prey. Deriving these relationships is often extremely difficult given [[habitat (ecology)|habitat]] [[Heterogeneous|heterogeneity]], the details of component [[behavioral ecology]] (including issues such as [[perception]], [[foraging]] behaviour), and the difficulties involved in unobtrusively studying these relationships under field conditions.

Typically relationships are derived [[statistics|statistically]] or [[Heuristic|heuristically]]. For example, some standard functional forms describing these relationships are [[linear function|linear]], [[quadratic function|quadratic]], [[hyperbolic function|hyperbolic]] or [[sigmoid function|sigmoid]] functions. The latter two are known in ecology as type II and type III responses, named by [[C. S. Holling]] in early, groundbreaking work on predation in [[mammal]]s<ref>Holling, C. S. (1959). The components of predation as revealed by a study of small mammal predation of the European Pine Sawfly. ''Canadian Entomologist'' '''91''', 293-320</ref>. Both describe relationships in which a linkage between components saturates at some maximum rate (e.g. above a certain concentration of prey organisms, predators cannot catch any more per unit time). Some ecological interactions are derived explicitly from the [[biochemistry|biochemical]] processes that underlie them; for instance, nutrient processing by an organism may [[saturation (chemistry)|saturate]] because of either a limited number of [[binding site]]s on the organism's exterior surface or the rate of [[diffusion]] of nutrient across the [[boundary layer]] surrounding the organism (see also [[Michaelis-Menten kinetics]]).

After establishing the components to be modelled and the relationships between them, another important factor in ecosystem model structure is the representation of [[space]] used. Historically, models have often ignored the confounding issue of space, utilising [[zero-dimensional space|zero-dimensional]] approaches, such as [[ordinary differential equation]]s. With [[Moore's Law|increases in computational power]], models which incorporate space are increasingly used (e.g. [[partial differential equation]]s, cellular automata). This inclusion of space permits [[dynamical system|dynamics]] not present in non-spatial frameworks, and illuminates processes that lead to [[pattern formation]] in ecological systems.

==Examples==
One of the earliest<ref>Earlier work on [[smallpox]] by [[Daniel Bernoulli]] and human [[overpopulation]] by [[Thomas Malthus]] predates that of Lotka and Volterra, but is not strictly ecological in nature</ref>, and most well-known, ecological models is the [[predation|predator-prey]] model of [[Alfred J. Lotka]] (1925)<ref>Lotka, A. J. (1925). ''The Elements of Physical Biology'', Williams & Williams Co., Baltimore, USA</ref> and [[Vito Volterra]] (1926)<ref>Volterra, V. (1926). Fluctuations in the abundance of a species considered mathematically. ''Nature'' '''118''', 558-560</ref>. This model takes the form of a pair of [[ordinary differential equation]]s, one representing a prey [[species]], the other its predator.

: <math>\frac{dX}{dt} = \alpha . X - \beta . X . Y</math>
: <math>\frac{dY}{dt} = \gamma . \beta . X . Y - \delta . Y</math>

where,
<center>
{| style="background-color: transparent; width: {{{width|90%}}}"
| width="50%" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* <math>X</math> is the number/concentration of the prey species;
* <math>Y</math> is the number/concentration of the predator species;
* <math>\alpha</math> is the prey species' growth rate;
| width="50%" align="{{{align|left}}}" valign="{{{valign|top}}}" |
* <math>\beta</math> is the predation rate of <math>Y</math> upon <math>X</math>;
* <math>\gamma</math> is the [[Assimilation (biology)|assimilation]] efficiency of <math>Y</math>;
* <math>\delta</math> is the mortality rate of the predator species
|} </center>

Volterra originally devised the model to explain fluctuations in [[fish]] and [[shark]] populations observed in the [[Adriatic Sea]] after the [[First World War]] (when [[fishery|fishing]] was curtailed). However, the equations have subsequently been applied more generally<ref>Begon, M., Harper, J. L. and Townsend, C. R. (1988). ''[[Ecology: Individuals, Populations and Communities]]'', Blackwell Scientific Publications Inc., Oxford, UK</ref>. Although simple, they illustrate some of the salient features of ecological models: modelled biological [[population]]s experience [[Malthusian growth model|growth]], interact with other populations (as either predators, prey or [[Competitive Lotka-Volterra equations|competitors]]) and suffer [[mortality rate|mortality]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
* [[Compartmental models in epidemiology]]
* [[Gordon Arthur Riley]]
* [[KEYCOP]]
* [[Land Surface Model (LSM version 1.0)]]
* [[Liebig's law of the minimum]]
* [[Mathematical biology]]
* [[Population dynamics]]
* [[Population ecology]]
* [[Rapoport's rule]]
* [[Scientific modelling]]
* [[System dynamics]]

==External links==
* [http://www.metoffice.com/research/hadleycentre/models/carbon_cycle/models_terrest.html TRIFFID], an ecosystem model of [[terrestrial ecoregion|terrestrial]] [[vegetation]] (used by the UK [[Met Office]])
* [http://www.metoffice.com/research/hadleycentre/models/carbon_cycle/models_ocean.html HadOCC], an ecosystem model of the [[oceanic]] [[plankton]] (used by the UK [[Met Office]])
* [http://fishbox.iugo-cafe.org/view.php?id=693 LAMBDA] is a MatLab toolkit for estimating multivariate autoregressive models for a multi-species community from time-series data.
[[Category:Biological systems]]
[[Category:Ecology]]
[[Category:Mathematical biology]]
[[Category:Scientific modeling]]
[[Category:Systems ecology]]

User talk:..TTT..

2008-08-10T14:49:36Z

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2008-08-10T14:44:58Z

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Bayan of the Merkid

2008-08-10T03:54:11Z

..TTT..: interwiki

{{confuse|Bayan of the Baarin}}
'''Bayan of the Merkid''' (d. 1340) was a [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] general and official in the [[Yuan Dynasty]]. At the turn of the 13th/14th centuries he, together with the [[Turkish people|Turk]] [[El Temür]], was a member of the group around [[Qaishan]]. Qaishan was a nephew of [[Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong of Yuan|Temür Khan]] and appointed to defend [[Mongolia]] against the [[Chagatai Khanate|Chagataiite]] [[Qaidu]]. After Temür's death, Qaishan was the one who emerged as the new Yuan emperor, and Bayan was among those who received official positionas as reward. Later, Bayan was governour of [[Henan]].

In the conflicts about the succession of [[Tugh Temür Khan]] after 1332, Bayan broke with El Temür and supported [[Toghon Temür]], who ascended the throne in 1333 (the same who would lose China in 1368). Until 1335 Bayan succeeded in annihilating El Temür's sons and family. Bayan began concentrating official positions in his person that had not been so concentrated before. He implemented rather conservative politics, re-abolishing the [[Chinese examination system|examination system]], and aiming at containing the number of Han Chinese in the upper echelons of the Yuan bureaucracy. In 1339 he became great chancellor ({{zh-tp|t=大丞相|p=dà chéngxiàng}}). At this time he had probably gone too far, in any case he was toppled in 1340 by his nephew [[Toghto]].<ref>Rolf Trauzettel, Die Yüan-Dynastie, in: Micheal Weiers (editor), ''Die Mongolen: Beiträge zu ihrer Geschichte und Kultur'', Darmstadt 1986, pp. 235f, 245-248</ref>
{{reflist}}

{{Mongolia-bio-stub}}
[[zh:伯顏 (元末)]]

Antoine Lavoisier

2008-08-04T02:02:14Z

..TTT..: now ko is FA

{{redirect|Lavoisier}}
{{Infobox Person
|name = Antoine Lavoisier
|image = Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg
|caption = "Father of modern chemistry"
|birth_date = {{birth date|1743|8|26|mf=y}}
|birth_place = [[Paris]], France
|death_date = {{death date and age|1794|5|8|1743|8|26}}
|death_place = [[Paris]], France
|occupation = [[chemistry|Chemist]], [[economics|economist]], [[nobility|nobleman]]
|networth =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier''' ([[August 26]], [[1743]] – [[May 8]], [[1794]]; [[Help:IPA|pronounced]] {{IPA|[ɑ̃ˈtwan lɔˈʁɑ̃ də la.vwaˈzje]}}), the ''[[Fathers_of_scientific_fields#Chemistry|father of modern chemistry]]'',<ref>"Lavoisier, Antoine." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 July 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9369846>. </ref> was a [[French people|French]] nobleman prominent in the histories of [[chemistry]], [[finance]], [[biology]], and [[economics]]. He stated the first version of the [[law of conservation of mass]],<ref name="Schwinger">
{{cite book
| last = Schwinger
| first = Julian
| authorlink = Julian Schwinger
| title = Einstein's Legacy
| year = 1986
| publisher = Scientific American Library
| location = New York
| id = ISBN 0-7167-5011-2
| pages = p. 93
}}</ref> recognized and named [[oxygen]] (1778) and [[hydrogen]] (1783), disproved the [[phlogiston theory]], introduced the [[metric system]], wrote the first extensive [[history of the periodic table#Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier|list of elements]], and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He was also an investor and administrator of the "[[Ferme Générale]]" a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank (later the [[Banque de France]]); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. However, because of his prominence in the pre-revolutionary government in [[France]], he was [[Decapitation|beheaded]] at the height of the [[French Revolution]].

== Early life ==
[[Image:David - Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and His Wife.jpg|thumb|left|''Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife'', by [[Jacques-Louis David]]]]
Born to a wealthy family in [[Paris]], Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune at the age of five with the passing of his mother.<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier}}</ref> He attended the [[Collège des Quatre-Nations|College Mazarin]] from 1754 to 1761, studying [[chemistry]], [[botany]], [[astronomy]], and [[mathematics]]. His education was filled with the ideals of the French [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] of the time, and he felt fascination for Maquois's dictionary. From 1761 to 1763, he studied some law at the [[University of Paris]] where he received his Bachelor of Law in 1763. At the same time, he continued attending lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by [[Étienne Condillac]], a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. In collaboration with [[Jean-Étienne Guettard]], Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] in 1767. At the age of 25, he was elected a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]], France's most elite scientific society, for an essay on [[street lighting]] and in recognition for his earlier research. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of [[France]].

In 1771, Lavoisier married the 13-year-old [[Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze]], the daughter of a co-owner of the [[Ferme générale|Ferme]]. Over time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including [[Richard Kirwan]]'s ''Essay on Phlogiston'' and [[Joseph Priestley]]'s research. She created many [[drawing|sketches]] and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She also edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Eagle | first = Cassandra T. | coauthors = Jennifer Sloan | title = Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry | journal = The Chemical Educator | year = 1998 | volume = 3 | issue = 5 | pages = 1 – 18 | url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/x14v35m5n8822v42/fulltext.pdf | format = [[PDF]] | accessdate = 2007-12-14 | doi = 10.1007/s00897980249a }}</ref>

== Contributions to chemistry ==

===Research on gases, water, and combustion===
[[Image:Hidrogenexp2.gif|thumb|170px|right|Antoine Lavoisier's famous phlogiston experiment. Engraving by [[Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze|Mme Lavoisier]] in the 1780s taken from ''Traité élémentaire de chimie'' (Elementary treatise on chemistry).]]
[[Image:SeimiKaisouChemistry.jpg|thumb|170px|The work of Lavoisier was translated in Japan in the 1840s, through the process of [[Rangaku]]. Page from [[Udagawa Yōan]]'s 1840 ''Seimi Kaisō''.]]
Some of Lavoisier's most important experiments were in [[thermodynamics]] and the nature of [[combustion]], or burning. Through these experiments, he demonstrated that burning is a process that involves the combination of a substance with oxygen. (He gave this gas its name, which means "acid former," incorrectly believing that all acids had to contain it). Lavoisier also demonstrated the role of oxygen in the rusting of metal, as well as oxygen's role in animal and plant respiration. Working with [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], Lavoisier conducted experiments that showed that respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion disproved the [[phlogiston]] theory, which postulated that materials released a substance called phlogiston when they burned.

Lavoisier also discovered that [[Henry Cavendish|Henry Cavendish's]] 'inflammable air', which Lavoisier had termed ''[[hydrogen]]'' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]] for "water-former"), combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as [[Joseph Priestley]] had reported, which appeared to be water. Lavoisier's work was partly based on the research of Priestley. However, he tried to take credit for Priestley's discoveries. This tendency to use the results of others without acknowledgment, then draw conclusions of his own, is said to be characteristic of Lavoisier. In "Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general," 1777) and "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids," 1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. In 1779, he named this part of the air "oxygen" (Greek for "becoming sharp" because he claimed that the sharp taste of acids came from oxygen), and the other "[[nitrogen|azote]]" (Greek for "no life"). In "Réflexions sur la Phlogistique" ("Reflections on Phlogiston," 1783), Lavoisier showed the [[phlogiston theory]] to be inconsistent.

===Pioneer of stoichiometry===

[[Image:Instruments lavoisier.jpg|thumb|left|[[Laboratory equipment|Laboratory instruments]] used by Lavoisier circa 1780s]]

Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly [[stoichiometry|quantitative chemical experiments]]. He carefully weighed the reactants and products in a chemical reaction, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. These experiments supported the law of [[conservation of mass]], which Lavoisier was the first to state,<ref name="Schwinger"/> although [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (1711-1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments. Others who anticipated the work of Lavoisier include [[Joseph Black]] (1728-1799), [[Henry Cavendish]] (1731-1810), and [[Jean Rey]] (1583-1645).

===Analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature===
[[Image:Lavoisiers lab.jpg|thumb|right|Chemist's laboratory, from [[Diderot]]'s ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', with [[alchemy|alchemical table]] of elements]]
Lavoisier investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He determined that the components of water were [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]], and that air was a mixture of gases, primarily [[nitrogen]] and oxygen. With the French chemists [[Claude-Louis Berthollet]], [[Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy|Antoine Fourcroy]] and [[Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau|Guyton de Morveau]], Lavoisier devised a systematic chemical nomenclature. He described it in ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' (''Method of Chemical Nomenclature'', 1787). This system facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names such as ''sulfuric acid'', ''sulfates'', and ''sulfites''.

Lavoisier's ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie'' (''Treatise of Elementary Chemistry'', 1789, translated into English by [[Scotland|Scotsman]] [[Robert Kerr (writer)|Robert Kerr]]) is considered to be the first modern chemistry [[textbook]]. It presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the law of [[conservation of mass]], and denied the existence of [[phlogiston]]. This text clarified the concept of an element as a substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and presented Lavoisier's theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements.

His ''Traité Élémentaire'' contained a list of elements that included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, [[phosphorus]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[zinc]], and [[sulfur]]. His list, however, also included [[light]] and [[Caloric theory|caloric]], which he incorrectly believed to be material substances.

While many leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, the ''Traité Élémentaire'' was sufficiently sound to convince the next generation.
[[Image:Lentilles ardentes.jpg|thumb|right|Combustion generated by focusing sunlight over [[flammable]] materials using lenses, an experiment conducted by Lavoisier in the 1770s]]
[[Image:Zoom lunette ardente.jpg|thumb|right|Detail of picture of a combustion experiment]]

===Legacy===
[[Image:Calorimeter.gif|thumb|100px|left|Constant [[pressure]] [[calorimeter]] , engraving made by madame Lavoisier for [[thermochemistry]] experiments.]]
Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the [[chemical balance]], used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous). Lavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with [[Laplace]]. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.

Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory, believing that [[Radical (chemistry)|radicals]], which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of [[allotropy|allotropy in chemical elements]] when he discovered that [[diamond]] is a crystalline form of carbon.

However, much to his professional detriment, Lavoisier actually discovered no new substances, devised no really novel apparatus, and worked out no improved methods of preparation. He was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in the capacity of taking over experimental work that others had carried out--without always, unfortunately, adequately recognizing their claims--and by a rigorous logical procedure, reinforced by his own quantitative experiments, of expounding the true explanation of the results. He completed the work of Black, Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a correct explanation of their experiments.

Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level reached in physics and mathematics during 18th century.<ref>Charles C. Gillespie, Foreword to ''Lavoisier'' by Jean-Pierre Poirier, University of Pennsylvania Press, English Edition, 1996. </ref>
[[Image:Lavoisier humanexp.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Lavoisier conducting an experiment on respiration in the 1770s.]]

== Contributions to biology ==
Lavoisier used a [[calorimeter]] to measure heat production as a result of respiration in a [[guinea pig]]. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted to maintain a constant temperature of {{nowrap|0 °C}} around an inner shell filled with ice. The guinea pig in the center of the chamber produced heat which melted the ice. The water that flowed out of the calorimeter was collected and weighed. Lavoisier found that {{nowrap|1 kg}} of melted ice corresponded to 80 kcal of heat production by the guinea pig. Lavoisier concluded, "la respiration est donc une combustion", that is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning.<ref>[http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/5/899S Is a Calorie a Calorie?] ''American Journal of Clinical Nutrition'', Vol. 79, No. 5, 899S–906S, May 2004</ref>

== Law and politics ==
Lavoisier received a [[law degree]] and was admitted to the [[bar association|bar]], but never practiced as a [[lawyer]]. He did become interested in French [[politics]], and at the age of 26 he obtained a position as a [[tax]] collector in the ''[[Ferme Générale]]'', a [[tax farming (France)|tax farming]] company, where he attempted to introduce reforms in the French [[monetary system|monetary]] and [[tax]]ation system to help the peasants. While in government work, he helped develop the [[SI|metric system]] to secure uniformity of [[weights and measures]] throughout France.

==Final days, execution, and aftermath==
[[Image:Lavoisier-statue.jpg|thumb|Statue of Lavoisier, at Hôtel de Ville, Paris.]]

As one of twenty-eight French tax collectors and a powerful figure in the unpopular Ferme Générale, Lavoisier was branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by [[French Revolution]]ists in 1794. Lavoisier had also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-born scientists including mathematician [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]], granting them exception to a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Lagrange.html
| title = Lagrange Biography
| accessdate = 2006-04-20
| last = O'Connor
| first = J. J.
| coauthors = Robertson, E. F.
| date = 2006-09-26
| language = English
| quote = In September 1793 a law was passed ordering the arrest of all foreigners born in enemy countries and all their property to be confiscated. Lavoisier intervened on behalf of Lagrange, who certainly fell under the terms of the law, and he was granted an exception. On 8 May 1794, after a trial that lasted less than a day, a revolutionary tribunal condemned Lavoisier, who had saved Lagrange from arrest, and 27 others to death. Lagrange said on the death of Lavoisier, who was guillotined on the afternoon of the day of his trial}}</ref> Lavoisier was tried, convicted, and guillotined on [[May 8]] in Paris, at the age of 50.

Lavoisier was actually one of the few liberals in his position. One of his actions that may have sealed his fate was a clash a few years earlier with the young [[Jean-Paul Marat]] whom he dismissed curtly after being presented with a preposterous 'scientific invention'. Marat subsequently became a leading revolutionary and one of the French Revolution's more extreme "professional common men."

An appeal to spare his life so that he could continue his experiments was cut short by the judge: ''"The Republic needs neither scientists nor chemists; the course of justice can not be delayed."''<ref>
Commenting on this quotation, Denis Duveen, an English expert on Lavoiser and a collector of his works, wrote that "it is pretty certain that it was never uttered." For Duveen's evidence, see the following: {{cite journal | author = Duveen, Denis I. | title = Antoine Laurent Lavoisier and the French Revolution | journal = Journal of Chemical Education | volume = 31 | month = February | year = 1954 | pages = 60 – 65 }}.</ref>

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: ''"Cela leur a pris seulement un instant pour lui couper la tête, mais la France pourrait ne pas en produire un autre pareil en un siècle."'' ("It took them only an instant to cut off his head, but France may not produce another like him in a century.")<ref>{{Citation | last = Delambre | first = Jean-Baptiste | contribution = Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le Comte J.-L. Lagrange | editor-last = Serret | editor-first = J. A. | title = Oeuvres de Lagrande | volume = 1 | pages = xl | publisher = | place = | year = 1867 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Guerlac | first = Henry | title = Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier - Chemist and Revolutionary | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | date = 1973 | location = New York | pages = 130 }}</ref>

One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. When his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted."

About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations being made. The statue was melted down during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and has not since been replaced. However, one of the main "[[lycée]]s" (highschools) in Paris and a street in the [[VIIIe arrondissement|8th arrondissement]] are named after Lavoisier, and statues of him are found on the Hôtel de Ville (''photograph, right'') and on the façade of the ''Cour Napoléon'' of the [[Palais du Louvre|Louvre]].

== Selected writings ==
* {{cite book | author = Lavoisier, Antoine | title = Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes | year = 1789 | location = Paris | publisher = Chez Cuchet }}- Reprinted 1965, Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations

: {{cite book | author = Lavoisier, Antoine | title = Elements of Chemistry | year = 1965 | publisher = Dover | location = New York}}- Reprint of Robert Kerr's English translation of 1790

==See also==
*[[List of independent discoveries#18th century|List of independent discoveries]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

[[Image:Lavoisier cour Napoleon Louvre.jpg|thumb|125px|right|''Lavoisier'', by [[Jacques-Léonard Maillet]], ca 1853, among culture heroes in the [[Palais du Louvre|Louvre's]] ''Cour Napoléon]]

* {{cite book | author = Berthelot, M. | title = La révolution chimique: Lavoisier | location = Paris | publisher = Alcan | year = 1890}}

* {{cite book | author = Daumas, M. | title = Lavoisier, théoricien et expérimentateur | location = Paris | publisher = Presses Universitaires de France | year = 1955}}

* {{cite book | author = Donovan, Arthur | title = Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and Revolution | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, England | year = 1993}}

* {{cite book | author = Grey, Vivian | title = The Chemist Who Lost His Head: The Story of Antoine Lavoisier | location = | publisher = Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, Inc. | year = 1982}}

* {{cite book | author = Guerlac, Henry | title = Lavoisier - The Crucial Year | publisher = Cornell University Press | location = Ithaca, New York | year = 1961 }}

* {{cite book | author = Holmes, Frederic Lawrence | title = Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | location = Madison, Wisconsin | year = 1985 }}

* {{cite book | author = Holmes, Frederic Lawrence | title = Antoine Lavoisier - The Next Crucial Year, or the Sources of his Quantitative Method in Chemistry | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = | year = 1998 }}

* {{cite book | author = Jackson, Joe | title = A World on Fire: A Heretic, An Aristocrat And The Race to Discover Oxygen | publisher = Viking | year = 2005}}

* {{cite journal | author = Johnson, Horton A. | title = Revolutionary Instruments, Lavoisier's Tools as Objets d'Art | journal = Chemical Heritage | year = 2008 | volume = 26 | number = 1 | pages = 30 – 35 }}

* {{cite book | author = Kelly, Jack | title = Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics'' | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-465-03718-6}}

* {{cite book | author = McKie, Douglas | title = Antoine Lavoisier: The Father of Modern Chemistry | publisher = J. P. Lippincott Company| location = Philadelphia | year = 1935 }}

* {{cite book | author = McKie, Douglas | title = Antoine Lavoisier: Scientist, Economist, Social Reformer | publisher = Henry Schuman | location = New York | year = 1952 }}

* {{cite book | author = Poirier, Jean-Pierre | title = Lavoisier | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | year = 1996, English edition}}

* {{cite book | author = Scerri, Eric| title = The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2007}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier|Antoine Lavoisier}}
* [http://www.philiplarson.com/e1.shtml Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]
* [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lavoisier/ A virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier]
* [http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/forerunners/lavoisier.html Antoine Lavoisier] - Chemical Achievers profile.
* [http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/matter/faq/who-defined-compounds.shtml Who was the first to classify materials as "compounds"?] - Fred Senese
* {{fr icon}} [http://www.lavoisier.cnrs.fr The Complete Works of Lavoisier] edited by Pietro Corsi and Patrice Bret and realised by CNRS
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20071115.shtml Radio 4 program on the discovery of oxygen] by the [[BBC]]

{{Enlightenment}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Lavoisier, Antoine
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= de Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[chemistry|chemist]], [[economics|economist]] and [[nobility|nobleman]].
|DATE OF BIRTH= {{birth date|1743|8|26}}
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Paris]], [[France]]
|DATE OF DEATH= {{death date|1794|5|8}}
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Paris]], [[France]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lavoisier, Antoine}}
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements]]
[[Category:French chemists]]
[[Category:French biologists]]
[[Category:People from Paris]]
[[Category:People executed by guillotine during the French Revolution]]
[[Category:French Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:1743 births]]
[[Category:1794 deaths]]
[[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Gentleman scientists]]
[[Category:Executed French people]]

{{Link FA|he}}
{{Link FA|ko}}

[[ar:أنطوان لافوازييه]]
[[ast:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[bs:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[bg:Антоан Лавоазие]]
[[ca:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]]
[[cs:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[da:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]]
[[de:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]]
[[et:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[el:Αντουάν Λωράν Λαβουαζιέ]]
[[es:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[eo:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[eu:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[fa:آنتوان لاووازیه]]
[[fr:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[ga:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[gd:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[ko:앙투안 라부아지에]]
[[hy:Անտուան Լորան Լավուազիե]]
[[hr:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]]
[[io:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[id:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[it:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[he:אנטואן לבואזיה]]
[[ka:ანტუან ლავუაზიე]]
[[la:Antonius Laurentius Lavoisier]]
[[lt:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[hu:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[ml:ആന്റണ്‍ ലാവോസിയെ]]
[[ms:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[nl:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[ja:アントワーヌ・ラヴォアジエ]]
[[no:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[nov:Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier]]
[[oc:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[pl:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[pt:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[ro:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[ru:Лавуазье, Антуан Лоран]]
[[sq:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]]
[[sk:Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]]
[[sl:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[sr:Антоан Лавоазје]]
[[sh:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[fi:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[sv:Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier]]
[[th:อองตวน ลาวัวซิเยร์]]
[[vi:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[tl:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[tr:Antoine Lavoisier]]
[[uk:Лавуазьє Антуан Лоран]]
[[zh:拉瓦锡]]

User:..TTT..

2008-07-13T16:01:44Z

..TTT..:

{{Babel|ko|en-2|ja-1|ko-han-1|Wikisource}}
I'm an University student who is very interested in chemisty, but I'm not major in chemistry right now.
 But I have some knowledge about chemistry because I have studied general chemistry since I was a high school student.

If you want some more detailed information about me, please go to [http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EC%9A%A9%EC%9E%90:..TTT.. my user page in Korean Wikipedia](written in Korean).

==Personal Information==
Name : ..TTT.. (alias)
 Birth : 1990 in Busan, Korea
 Location : Somewhere in Seoul, Korea or Busan, Korea
 Occupation : Student of P**-******* Program, College of N****** *******, S**** ******* University

[[ko:사용자:..TTT..]]
[[ja:利用者:..TTT..]]

User talk:..TTT..

2008-07-11T18:05:45Z

..TTT..:

'''Note : If you want to get my response immediately, please leave a message in [[:ko:사용자토론:..TTT..|ko.wikipedia]].'''

== Candle zombie ==

I have removed the {{tl|prod}} tag from [[Candle zombie]], which you proposed for deletion. I'm leaving this message here to notify you about it. If you still think the article should be deleted, please don't add the {{tl|prod}} template back to the article. Instead, feel free to list it at [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion]]. Thanks!  Kind regards, [[User:Ryttaren|Ryttaren]] ([[User talk:Ryttaren|talk]]) 19:51, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

User:..TTT..

2008-07-08T11:39:00Z

..TTT..:

{{Babel|ko|en-2|ja-1|ko-han-1}}
I'm an University student who is very interested in chemisty, but I'm not major in chemistry right now.
 But I have some knowledge about chemistry because I have studied general chemistry since I was a high school student.

If you want some more detailed information about me, please go to [http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EC%9A%A9%EC%9E%90:..TTT.. my user page in Korean Wikipedia](written in Korean).

==Personal Information==
Name : ..TTT.. (alias)
 Birth : 1990 in Busan, Korea
 Location : Somewhere in Seoul, Korea or Busan, Korea
 Occupation : Student of P**-******* Program, College of N****** *******, S**** ******* University

[[ko:사용자:..TTT..]]
[[ja:利用者:..TTT..]]

User:..TTT..

2008-07-07T16:17:26Z

..TTT..:

{{Babel|ko|en-2|ja-1}}
I'm an University student who is very interested in chemisty, but I'm not major in chemistry right now.
 But I have some knowledge about chemistry because I have studied general chemistry since I was a high school student.

If you want some more detailed information about me, please go to [http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EC%9A%A9%EC%9E%90:..TTT.. my user page in Korean Wikipedia](written in Korean).

==Personal Information==
Name : ..TTT.. (alias)
 Birth : 1990 in Busan, Korea
 Location : Somewhere in Seoul, Korea or Busan, Korea
 Occupation : Student of P**-******* Program, College of N****** *******, S**** ******* University

[[ko:사용자:..TTT..]]
[[ja:利用者:..TTT..]]

Julius Klaproth

2008-07-07T15:04:46Z

..TTT..: type'o

'''Julius Heinrich Klaproth''' (1783-1835), German Orientalist and traveller.

Klaproth was born in [[Berlin]] in October of 1783, the son of the chemist [[Martin Heinrich Klaproth]]. He devoted his energies in quite early life to the study of [[Asia]]tic languages, and published in 1802 his ''Asiatisches Magazin'' (Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called to [[St. Petersburg]] and given an appointment in the academy there. In 1805 he was a member of [[Count Golovkin]]'s embassy to [[China]]. On his return he was despatched by the academy to the [[Caucasus]] on an ethnographical and linguistic exploration (1807-1808), and was afterwards employed for several years in connection with the academy's Oriental publications. In 1812 he moved to Berlin; but in 1815 he settled in [[Paris]], and in 1816 Humboldt procured him from the king of [[Prussia]] the title and salary of professor of Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain in Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works. He died in that city on the 28th of August 1835.

The principal feature of Klaproth's erudition was the vastness of the field which it embraced. His great work ''Asia polyglotta'' (Paris, 1823 and 1831, with Sprachallas) not only served as a resumé of all that was known on the subject, but formed a new departure for the classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the [[Russia]]n Empire. To a great extent, however, his work is now superseded. The ''Itinerary of a Chinese Traveller'' (1821), a series of documents in the military archives of St. Petersburg purporting to be the travels of George Ludwig von, and a similar series obtained from him in the London foreign office, are all regarded as spurious.

Klaproth's other works include:
* ''Reise in den Kaukasus und Georgien in den Jahren 1807 und 1808'' (Halle, 1812-1814; French translation, Paris, 1823)
* ''Geographisch-historische Beschreibung des ostlichen Kaukasus'' (Weimar, 1814)
* ''Tableaux historiques de l'Asie'' (Paris, 1826)
* ''Memoires relatifs a l'Asie'' (Paris, 1824-1828)
* ''Tableau historique, geographique, ethnographique et politique de Caucase'' (Paris, 1827)
* ''Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue georgienne'' (Paris, 1827)

===Japanology===
Klaproth was the first to publish a translation of ''[[Taika (era)|Taika]]'' era Japanese poetry in the West. [[Donald Keene]] explained in a preface to the Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkōkai edition of the ''[[Man'yōshū]]:''
: "One 'envoy' (''[[hanka]]'') to a long poem was translated as early as 1834 by the celebrated German orientalist Heinrich Julius Klaproth (1783-1835). Klaproth, having journeyed to Siberia in pursuit of strange languages, encountered some Japanese cataways, fisherman, hardly ideal mentors for the study of 8th century poetry. Not surprisingly, his translation was anything but accurate."

One of the Klaproth-edited books which have now been scanned and uploaded to the Internet for online study is the posthumously published French translation by [[Isaac Titsingh]] of one of the many chronicles of Japanese history:
* Siyun-sai Rin-siyo/[[Hayashi Gahō]]. (1652). ''[[Nipon o daï itsi ran]]; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon, tr. par M. Isaac Titsingh avec l'aide de plusieurs interprètes attachés au comptoir hollandais de Nangasaki; ouvrage re., complété et cor. sur l'original japonais-chinois, accompagné de notes et précédé d'un Aperçu d'histoire mythologique du Japon, par M.J. Klaproth.'' Paris: [[Royal Asiatic Society|Oriental Translation Fund]], 1834.[http://books.google.com/books?id=18oNAAAAIAAJ&dq=nipon+o+dai+itsi+ran --''Two digitized examples of this rare book have now been made available online: (1) from the library of the University of Michigan, digitized January 30, 2007; and (2) from the library of Stanford University, digitized June 23, 2006.'' Click here to read the original text in French.]

==References==
* Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkōkai [Japanese Classics Translation Committee], tr. ''The Manyōshū: One Thousand Poems.'' New York.
* Screech, Timon. ''Secret Memoirs of the Shoguns: Isacc Titsingh and Japan, 1779-1822.'' London.
*{{1911}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Klaproth, Julius
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Klaproth, Jules de;Klaproth, Heinrich Julius;Lauterbach, Wilhelm (Pseudonym); Or, Louis de l' (Pseudonym); Klaproth, Julius Heinrich von
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=German orientalist
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[October 11]] [[1783]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Berlin]]
|DATE OF DEATH=[[August 20]] [[1835]]
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Paris]]
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Klaproth, Julius}}
[[Category:1783 births]]
[[Category:1835 deaths]]
[[Category:German scholars]]
[[Category:German Orientalists]]

[[de:Julius Klaproth]]
[[fr:Julius Klaproth]]
[[sv:Julius Klaproth]]

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie

2008-07-06T09:52:35Z

..TTT..: /* Candle zombie */

===[[Candle zombie]]===
{{REMOVE THIS TEMPLATE WHEN CLOSING THIS AfD|S}}

:{{la|Candle zombie}} ([{{fullurl:Candle zombie|wpReason={{urlencode:AfD discussion: [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie]]}}&action=delete}} delete]) – <includeonly>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie|View AfD]])</includeonly><noinclude>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2008 July 6#{{anchorencode:Candle zombie}}|View log]])</noinclude>
This word was made by some people who are opposed to demonstrations which were held by people who are against the Korean government's decision about importation of U. S. beef. It was made to abuse people who participated in demonstrations to oppose the decision. It is just a Korean slang used by few people. (see [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Myungbaksanseong]].) [[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 04:58, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' In ko.wikipedia, the article([[:ko:촛불좀비]]) was deleted at least two times by speedy deletion, and now blocked to create.--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:06, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' Also, it has a NPOV issue. This word describes people who participated the demonstration as thinkless ones. I think it has to be deleted like Myungbaksanseong.--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:15, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*
*'''Note''': This debate has been included in the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Deletion sorting/Korea|list of Korea-related deletion discussions]]. —[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:32, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' There is no reliable source about this term. (see [[Wikipedia:Avoid neologisms]])--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 09:52, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

User talk:..TTT..

2008-07-06T05:39:53Z

..TTT..:

'''Note : If you want my response immediately, please leave a message in [[:ko:사용자토론:..TTT..|ko.wikipedia]].'''

== Candle zombie ==

I have removed the {{tl|prod}} tag from [[Candle zombie]], which you proposed for deletion. I'm leaving this message here to notify you about it. If you still think the article should be deleted, please don't add the {{tl|prod}} template back to the article. Instead, feel free to list it at [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion]]. Thanks!  Kind regards, [[User:Ryttaren|Ryttaren]] ([[User talk:Ryttaren|talk]]) 19:51, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

User talk:..TTT..

2008-07-06T05:39:13Z

..TTT..:

'''If you want my response immediately, please leave a message in [[:ko:사용자토론:..TTT..|ko.wikipedia]].'''

== Candle zombie ==

I have removed the {{tl|prod}} tag from [[Candle zombie]], which you proposed for deletion. I'm leaving this message here to notify you about it. If you still think the article should be deleted, please don't add the {{tl|prod}} template back to the article. Instead, feel free to list it at [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion]]. Thanks!  Kind regards, [[User:Ryttaren|Ryttaren]] ([[User talk:Ryttaren|talk]]) 19:51, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

User talk:..TTT..

2008-07-06T05:38:58Z

..TTT..:

'''If you want my response immediately, please leave a message in [[:ko:사용자토론:..TTT..|ko.wikipedia]].'''
[[ko:사용자토론:..TTT..]]

== Candle zombie ==

I have removed the {{tl|prod}} tag from [[Candle zombie]], which you proposed for deletion. I'm leaving this message here to notify you about it. If you still think the article should be deleted, please don't add the {{tl|prod}} template back to the article. Instead, feel free to list it at [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion]]. Thanks!  Kind regards, [[User:Ryttaren|Ryttaren]] ([[User talk:Ryttaren|talk]]) 19:51, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie

2008-07-06T05:32:53Z

..TTT..: /* Candle zombie */

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie

2008-07-06T05:32:06Z

..TTT..: /* Candle zombie */

===[[Candle zombie]]===
{{REMOVE THIS TEMPLATE WHEN CLOSING THIS AfD|S}}

:{{la|Candle zombie}} ([{{fullurl:Candle zombie|wpReason={{urlencode:AfD discussion: [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie]]}}&action=delete}} delete]) – <includeonly>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie|View AfD]])</includeonly><noinclude>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2008 July 6#{{anchorencode:Candle zombie}}|View log]])</noinclude>
This word was made by some people who are opposed to demonstrations which were held by people who are against the Korean government's decision about importation of U. S. beef. It was made to abuse people who participated in demonstrations to oppose the decision. It is just a Korean slang used by few people. (see [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Myungbaksanseong]].) [[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 04:58, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*In ko.wikipedia, the article([[:ko:촛불좀비]]) was deleted at least two times by speedy deletion, and now blocked to create.--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:06, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*Also, it has a NPOV issue. This word describes people who participated the demonstration as thinkless ones. I think it has to be deleted like Myungbaksanseong.--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:15, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*
*'''Note''': This debate has been included in the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Deletion sorting/Korea|list of Korea-related deletion discussions]]. —[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:32, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

Wikipedia:WikiProject Deletion sorting/Korea

2008-07-06T05:31:43Z

..TTT..: /* Korea */

<noinclude>
{{topic|Korea}}
{{deletionlist-country|Korea|Asia}}
*''See also:'' [[Wikipedia:Korea-related topics notice board]]
</noinclude>

==Korea==

{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Mbnomics}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/The Sly Serpent}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/A Tale of My Girlfriend}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Chungnang District Information Library}}
===Proposed deletions===

User:..TTT..

2008-07-06T05:28:49Z

..TTT..: ←Created page with '{{Babel|ko|en-2|ja-1}} I'm an University student who is very interested in chemisty, but I'm not major in chemistry right now. But I have some knowledge abou...'

User talk:Ryttaren

2008-07-06T05:25:23Z

..TTT..: /* About Candle Zombie */

'''This user is not a patroller.'''

{{#if:1|==[[:Future violations]]==}}
A tag has been placed on [[:Future violations]], requesting that it be [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion|speedily deleted]] from Wikipedia. This has been done because the page appears to have no meaningful content or history, and the text is unsalvageably incoherent.

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion. To do this, add <code>{{tl|hangon}}</code> on the top of the page (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag) and leave a note on the page's talk page explaining your position. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself.

If the page you created was a test, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] for any other experiments you would like to do. Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions about this. [[User:Andyjsmith|andy]] ([[User talk:Andyjsmith|talk]]) 14:14, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

:I'll add that creating an article to make a point isn't really acceptable, either. The relevant policy here is [[WP:POINT]]. Please refrain from disrupting the project to make a point. Thank you. [[User:Ultraexactzz|UltraExactZZ]] [[User_talk:Ultraexactzz|Claims]] ~ [[Special:Contributions/Ultraexactzz|Evidence]] 14:22, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

::I refer to the specific criteria under [[WP:CSD|Criteria for Speedy Deletion]], which includes the language ''"This includes blatant and obvious misinformation..."'' under G3 (Vandalism). The misinformation referred to the fact that "Critics argue..." about the concept, and that "critics demand that the article ''[[Wikipedia]]'' be immediately deleted...", when clearly no critics have said any such thing in the context of this term. Further, the article was created to make a [[WP:POINT|point]] in an Articles for Deletion Debate, which you reference [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Aegis_%28online_game%29&diff=next&oldid=221641729 here], and which constitutes disruptive editing in violation of policy. The fact that you ascribe certain viewpoints to another editor, and the manner in which you do so, could have been interpreted as an attack page, which would fall under Speedy Deletion Criteria G10 - the fact that I [[WP:AGF|chose not to do so]] notwithstanding. I doubt it was your intent to be disruptive, but posting that article in that way to the articlespace was itself disruptive. If you wish to write an essay, you may do so in your userspace - so long as you remain [[WP:CIVIL|civil]] toward other editors. Best, [[User:Ultraexactzz|UltraExactZZ]] [[User_talk:Ultraexactzz|Claims]] ~ [[Special:Contributions/Ultraexactzz|Evidence]] 20:08, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

== Proposed deletion ==

When you remove proposed deletion templates from articles, could you please make an effort to fix the issues mentioned in the template? If you claim that the articles are notable, please make an effort to find a reference that proves that notability and add it in the article. For example, you removed the prod template from [[Gecad research center]] with the comment "Strong deprod, very notable." How did you arrive at your conclusion? Where are the sources that prove that it is notable enough for an article? ''[[User_talk:Bradv|BradV]]'' 20:34, 5 July 2008 (UTC)
Another example is [[Five point scale]], where you removed the prod template saying that the reasoning wasn't very good. However, the point was that the article fails the [[WP:V|verifiability]] policy. When you removed the prod it would have been helpful if you added a source that supports the claims in the article. ''[[User_talk:Bradv|BradV]]'' 20:39, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

:*Dear Brad, the {{tl|prod}} tag is only valid as long as a deletion is not contested at all. As [[wp:prod#Contesting a proposed deletion]] and common sense dictates, there should be no lengthy arguments in this process, since this would constitute some kind of controverse, indicating that an [[wp:afd|AfD]] nomination may be called for. Kind regards, [[User:Ryttaren|Ryttaren]] ([[User talk:Ryttaren#top|talk]]) 21:25, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

::It's not about an argument, it's about improving the encyclopedia. Saying something is notable and doing nothing to improve the article is not helpful. ''[[User_talk:Bradv|BradV]]'' 21:31, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

:::*I agree Brad, improving Wikipedia should always be the main concern. I humbly hope to do so by preventing articles I think may be of value to some information seekers from being deleted ''without discussion''. Kind regards, [[User:Ryttaren|Ryttaren]] ([[User talk:Ryttaren#top|talk]]) 21:49, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

== About [[Candle zombie]] ==

The article was deleted at least twice at ko.wikipedia([[ko:촛불좀비]]) by speedy deletion, and now blocked to create the page. The term is not coined by a dictatorship. It is just made by few people who are oppose to the demonstration which held to oppose Korean government's decision about importation of U. S. beef. So, It is not widely used in South Korea. I put <nowiki>{{prod}}</nowiki> because the term is not qualified to be a article of Wikipedia, not for hide informations. I nominated the article for deletion, to follow your advice. Thank you--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:24, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

User talk:Ryttaren

2008-07-06T05:24:23Z

..TTT..: /* About Candle Zombie */ new section

'''This user is not a patroller.'''

{{#if:1|==[[:Future violations]]==}}
A tag has been placed on [[:Future violations]], requesting that it be [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion|speedily deleted]] from Wikipedia. This has been done because the page appears to have no meaningful content or history, and the text is unsalvageably incoherent.

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion. To do this, add <code>{{tl|hangon}}</code> on the top of the page (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag) and leave a note on the page's talk page explaining your position. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself.

If the page you created was a test, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] for any other experiments you would like to do. Feel free to leave a message on my talk page if you have any questions about this. [[User:Andyjsmith|andy]] ([[User talk:Andyjsmith|talk]]) 14:14, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

:I'll add that creating an article to make a point isn't really acceptable, either. The relevant policy here is [[WP:POINT]]. Please refrain from disrupting the project to make a point. Thank you. [[User:Ultraexactzz|UltraExactZZ]] [[User_talk:Ultraexactzz|Claims]] ~ [[Special:Contributions/Ultraexactzz|Evidence]] 14:22, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

::I refer to the specific criteria under [[WP:CSD|Criteria for Speedy Deletion]], which includes the language ''"This includes blatant and obvious misinformation..."'' under G3 (Vandalism). The misinformation referred to the fact that "Critics argue..." about the concept, and that "critics demand that the article ''[[Wikipedia]]'' be immediately deleted...", when clearly no critics have said any such thing in the context of this term. Further, the article was created to make a [[WP:POINT|point]] in an Articles for Deletion Debate, which you reference [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:Articles_for_deletion/Aegis_%28online_game%29&diff=next&oldid=221641729 here], and which constitutes disruptive editing in violation of policy. The fact that you ascribe certain viewpoints to another editor, and the manner in which you do so, could have been interpreted as an attack page, which would fall under Speedy Deletion Criteria G10 - the fact that I [[WP:AGF|chose not to do so]] notwithstanding. I doubt it was your intent to be disruptive, but posting that article in that way to the articlespace was itself disruptive. If you wish to write an essay, you may do so in your userspace - so long as you remain [[WP:CIVIL|civil]] toward other editors. Best, [[User:Ultraexactzz|UltraExactZZ]] [[User_talk:Ultraexactzz|Claims]] ~ [[Special:Contributions/Ultraexactzz|Evidence]] 20:08, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

== Proposed deletion ==

When you remove proposed deletion templates from articles, could you please make an effort to fix the issues mentioned in the template? If you claim that the articles are notable, please make an effort to find a reference that proves that notability and add it in the article. For example, you removed the prod template from [[Gecad research center]] with the comment "Strong deprod, very notable." How did you arrive at your conclusion? Where are the sources that prove that it is notable enough for an article? ''[[User_talk:Bradv|BradV]]'' 20:34, 5 July 2008 (UTC)
Another example is [[Five point scale]], where you removed the prod template saying that the reasoning wasn't very good. However, the point was that the article fails the [[WP:V|verifiability]] policy. When you removed the prod it would have been helpful if you added a source that supports the claims in the article. ''[[User_talk:Bradv|BradV]]'' 20:39, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

:*Dear Brad, the {{tl|prod}} tag is only valid as long as a deletion is not contested at all. As [[wp:prod#Contesting a proposed deletion]] and common sense dictates, there should be no lengthy arguments in this process, since this would constitute some kind of controverse, indicating that an [[wp:afd|AfD]] nomination may be called for. Kind regards, [[User:Ryttaren|Ryttaren]] ([[User talk:Ryttaren#top|talk]]) 21:25, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

::It's not about an argument, it's about improving the encyclopedia. Saying something is notable and doing nothing to improve the article is not helpful. ''[[User_talk:Bradv|BradV]]'' 21:31, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

:::*I agree Brad, improving Wikipedia should always be the main concern. I humbly hope to do so by preventing articles I think may be of value to some information seekers from being deleted ''without discussion''. Kind regards, [[User:Ryttaren|Ryttaren]] ([[User talk:Ryttaren#top|talk]]) 21:49, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

== About [[Candle Zombie]] ==

The article was deleted at least twice at ko.wikipedia([[ko:촛불좀비]]) by speedy deletion, and now blocked to create the page. The term is not coined by a dictatorship. It is just made by few people who are oppose to the demonstration which held to oppose Korean government's decision about importation of U. S. beef. So, It is not widely used in South Korea. I put <nowiki>{{prod}}</nowiki> because the term is not qualified to be a article of Wikipedia, not for hide informations. I nominated the article for deletion, to follow your advice. Thank you--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:24, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie

2008-07-06T05:15:38Z

..TTT..: /* Candle zombie */

===[[Candle zombie]]===
{{REMOVE THIS TEMPLATE WHEN CLOSING THIS AfD|S}}

:{{la|Candle zombie}} ([{{fullurl:Candle zombie|wpReason={{urlencode:AfD discussion: [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie]]}}&action=delete}} delete]) – <includeonly>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie|View AfD]])</includeonly><noinclude>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2008 July 6#{{anchorencode:Candle zombie}}|View log]])</noinclude>
This word was made by some people who are opposed to demonstrations which were held by people who are against the Korean government's decision about importation of U. S. beef. It was made to abuse people who participated in demonstrations to oppose the decision. It is just a Korean slang used by few people. (see [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Myungbaksanseong]].) [[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 04:58, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*In ko.wikipedia, the article([[:ko:촛불좀비]]) was deleted at least two times by speedy deletion, and now blocked to create.--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:06, 6 July 2008 (UTC)
*Also, it has a NPOV issue. This word describes people who participated the demonstration as thinkless ones. I think it has to be deleted like Myungbaksanseong.--[[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:15, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie

2008-07-06T05:06:39Z

..TTT..: /* Candle zombie */

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie

2008-07-06T05:06:01Z

..TTT..: /* Candle zombie */

User talk:Trustle

2008-07-06T05:04:18Z

..TTT..: /* Candle zombie */

==Speedy deletion of [[:Qindex.info]]==
[[Image:Nuvola apps important.svg|48px|left]] A tag has been placed on [[:Qindex.info]] requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under [[WP:CSD#A7|section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion]], because the article appears to be about web content, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is notable: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the [[WP:CSD#Articles|criteria for speedy deletion]], articles that do not indicate the subject's importance or significance may be deleted at any time. Please [[Wikipedia:Notability|see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable]], as well as our subject-specific [[Wikipedia:Notability (web)|notability guideline for web content]].

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding <code>{{tl|hangon}}</code> to '''the top of [[:Qindex.info|the page that has been nominated for deletion]]''' (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on '''[[ Talk:Qindex.info|the talk page]]''' explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for ''speedy'' deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. Lastly, please note that if the article does get deleted, you can contact [[:Category:Wikipedia administrators who will provide copies of deleted articles|one of these admins]] to request that a copy be emailed to you. - [[User:Realkyhick|Realkyhick]] ([[User talk:Realkyhick|Talk to me]]) 05:05, 20 April 2008 (UTC) 

==[[:Bok Hyukguseh]]==
[[Image:Copyright-problem.svg|left|40px]]
This is an automated message from [[User:CorenSearchBot|CorenSearchBot]]. I have performed a web search with the contents of [[:Bok Hyukguseh]], and it appears to include a substantial copy of http://www.qindex.info/Q_plgn/Q_js_navigator/mythsOfSilla.html. For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or printed material; such additions will be deleted. You may use external websites as a source of information, but not as a source of sentences.

This message was placed automatically, and it is possible that the bot is confused and found similarity where none actually exists. If that is the case, you can remove the tag from the article and it would be appreciated if you could drop a note on [[User talk:Coren|the maintainer's talk page]]. [[User:CorenSearchBot|CorenSearchBot]] ([[User talk:CorenSearchBot|talk]]) 23:55, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

==Speedy deletion of [[:Bok Hyukguseh]]==
[[Image:Nuvola apps important.svg|48px|left]] A tag has been placed on [[:Bok Hyukguseh]] requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under [[WP:CSD#G12|section G12 of the criteria for speedy deletion]], because the article appears to be a blatant [[Wikipedia:Copyrights|copyright]] infringement. For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or printed material, and as a consequence, your addition will most likely be deleted. You may use external websites as a source of ''information'', but not as a source of ''sentences''. This part is crucial: ''say it in your own words''.

If the external website belongs to you, and you want to allow Wikipedia to use the text — which means allowing other people to modify it — then you must include ''on the external site'' the statement "I, (name), am the author of this article, (article name), and I release its content under the terms of the [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GNU Free Documentation License], Version 1.2 and later." You might want to look at [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines|Wikipedia's policies and guidelines]] for more details, or ask a question [[Wikipedia:Village pump (assistance)|here]].

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding <code>{{tl|hangon}}</code> to '''the top of [[:Bok Hyukguseh|the page that has been nominated for deletion]]''' (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on '''[[ Talk:Bok Hyukguseh|the talk page]]''' explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for ''speedy'' deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines.   - [[User:Realkyhick|Realkyhick]] ([[User talk:Realkyhick|Talk to me]]) 06:21, 26 April 2008 (UTC)

==Copyright violation in [[:Suk Talhaih]]==
[[Image:Information_icon.svg|left]]Hello, this is a message from [[User:CSDWarnBot|an automated bot]]. A tag has been placed on [[:Suk Talhaih]], by {{#ifeq:{{{nom}}}|1|[[User:{{{nominator}}}|{{{nominator}}}]] ([[User talk:{{{nominator}}}|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/{{{nominator}}}|contribs]]),}} another Wikipedia user, requesting that it be [[Wikipedia:Speedy deletions|speedily deleted]] from Wikipedia. The tag claims that it should be speedily deleted because [[:Suk Talhaih]] is unquestionably copyright infringement, and no assertion of permission has been made. To contest the tagging and request that administrators wait before possibly deleting [[:Suk Talhaih]], please affix the template <nowiki>{{hangon}}</nowiki> to the page, and put a note on its talk page. If the article has already been deleted, see the advice and instructions at [[WP:WMD]]. Feel free to contact the [[User:CSDWarnBot|bot operator]] if you have any questions about this or any problems with this bot, bearing in mind that '''this bot is only informing you of the nomination for speedy deletion; it does not perform any nominations or deletions itself. To see the user who deleted the page, click [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&page={{urlencode:Suk Talhaih}} here]''' [[User:CSDWarnBot|CSDWarnBot]] ([[User talk:CSDWarnBot|talk]]) 01:01, 27 April 2008 (UTC)
==License tagging for Image:Candle-zombie.jpg==
Thanks for uploading [[:Image:Candle-zombie.jpg]]. You don't seem to have indicated the license status of the image. Wikipedia uses a set of [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags|image copyright tags]] to indicate this information; to add a tag to the image, select the appropriate tag from [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags/All|this list]], click on [[:Image:Candle-zombie.jpg|this link]], then click "Edit this page" and add the tag to the image's description. If there doesn't seem to be a suitable tag, the image is probably not appropriate for use on Wikipedia.

For help in choosing the correct tag, or for any other questions, leave a message on [[Wikipedia:Media copyright questions]]. Thank you for your cooperation. --[[User:ImageTaggingBot|ImageTaggingBot]] ([[User talk:ImageTaggingBot|talk]]) 23:16, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

==Proposed deletion of [[Candle zombie]]==
[[Image:Ambox warning yellow.svg|left|48px|]]
A [[Wikipedia:Proposed deletion|proposed deletion]] template has been added to the article [[Candle zombie]], suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but this article may not satisfy Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Criteria for inclusion|criteria for inclusion]], and the deletion notice should explain why (see also "[[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not|What Wikipedia is not]]" and [[Wikipedia:Deletion policy|Wikipedia's deletion policy]]). You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the <code>{{tl|dated prod}}</code> notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on [[Talk:Candle zombie|its talk page]].

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised because even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the [[WP:PROD|proposed deletion process]], the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion|speedy deletion criteria]] or it can be sent to [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion|Articles for Deletion]], where it may be deleted if [[Wikipedia:Consensus|consensus]] to delete is reached. Do you want to [[Template:Bots#Message notification opt out|opt out]] of receiving this notice? --[[User:Aervanath|Aervanath]] [[User talk:Aervanath|lives]] [[special:contributions/aervanath|in]] [[WP:O|the Orphanage]] 21:24, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

==Image source problem with Image:Candle_zombie.jpg==
[[Image:Nuvola apps important blue.svg|64px|left|Image Copyright problem]]
Thanks for uploading '''[[:Image:Candle_zombie.jpg]]'''. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the [[copyright]] status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, then a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a restatement of that website's terms of use of its content, is usually sufficient information. However, if the copyright holder is different from the website's publisher, their copyright should also be acknowledged.

As well as adding the source, please add a proper copyright licensing tag if the file doesn't have one already. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then the {{Tl|GFDL-self}} tag can be used to release it under the [[GFDL]]. If you believe the media meets the criteria at [[Wikipedia:Non-free content]], use a tag such as {{tlp|non-free fair use in|article name}} or one of the other tags listed at [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags#Fair use]]. See [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags]] for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other files, consider checking that you have specified their source and tagged them, too. You can find a list of files you have uploaded by following [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=upload&user=Trustle this link]. '''Unsourced and untagged images may be deleted one week after they have been tagged''', as described on [[wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion#Images.2FMedia|criteria for speedy deletion]]. If the image is copyrighted under a [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags/Fair use|non-free license]] (per [[Wikipedia:Fair use]]) then '''the image will be deleted [[WP:CSD#I7|48 hours]] after 14:11, 5 July 2008 (UTC)'''. If you have any questions please ask them at the [[Wikipedia:Media copyright questions|Media copyright questions page]]. Thank you. [[User:Rettetast|Rettetast]] ([[User talk:Rettetast|talk]]) 14:11, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

==AfD nomination of Candle zombie==
[[Image:Ambox warning pn.svg|48px|left]]An article that you have been involved in editing, [[Candle zombie]], has been listed for [[Wikipedia:Deletion policy|deletion]]. If you are interested in the deletion discussion, please participate by adding your comments at [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie]]. Thank you. Do you want to [[Template:Bots#Message notification opt out|opt out]] of receiving this notice? [[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:04, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

User talk:Trustle

2008-07-06T05:04:06Z

..TTT..: /* Candle zombie */ new section

==Speedy deletion of [[:Qindex.info]]==
[[Image:Nuvola apps important.svg|48px|left]] A tag has been placed on [[:Qindex.info]] requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under [[WP:CSD#A7|section A7 of the criteria for speedy deletion]], because the article appears to be about web content, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is notable: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the [[WP:CSD#Articles|criteria for speedy deletion]], articles that do not indicate the subject's importance or significance may be deleted at any time. Please [[Wikipedia:Notability|see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable]], as well as our subject-specific [[Wikipedia:Notability (web)|notability guideline for web content]].

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding <code>{{tl|hangon}}</code> to '''the top of [[:Qindex.info|the page that has been nominated for deletion]]''' (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on '''[[ Talk:Qindex.info|the talk page]]''' explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for ''speedy'' deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines. Lastly, please note that if the article does get deleted, you can contact [[:Category:Wikipedia administrators who will provide copies of deleted articles|one of these admins]] to request that a copy be emailed to you. - [[User:Realkyhick|Realkyhick]] ([[User talk:Realkyhick|Talk to me]]) 05:05, 20 April 2008 (UTC) 

==[[:Bok Hyukguseh]]==
[[Image:Copyright-problem.svg|left|40px]]
This is an automated message from [[User:CorenSearchBot|CorenSearchBot]]. I have performed a web search with the contents of [[:Bok Hyukguseh]], and it appears to include a substantial copy of http://www.qindex.info/Q_plgn/Q_js_navigator/mythsOfSilla.html. For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or printed material; such additions will be deleted. You may use external websites as a source of information, but not as a source of sentences.

This message was placed automatically, and it is possible that the bot is confused and found similarity where none actually exists. If that is the case, you can remove the tag from the article and it would be appreciated if you could drop a note on [[User talk:Coren|the maintainer's talk page]]. [[User:CorenSearchBot|CorenSearchBot]] ([[User talk:CorenSearchBot|talk]]) 23:55, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

==Speedy deletion of [[:Bok Hyukguseh]]==
[[Image:Nuvola apps important.svg|48px|left]] A tag has been placed on [[:Bok Hyukguseh]] requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under [[WP:CSD#G12|section G12 of the criteria for speedy deletion]], because the article appears to be a blatant [[Wikipedia:Copyrights|copyright]] infringement. For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or printed material, and as a consequence, your addition will most likely be deleted. You may use external websites as a source of ''information'', but not as a source of ''sentences''. This part is crucial: ''say it in your own words''.

If the external website belongs to you, and you want to allow Wikipedia to use the text — which means allowing other people to modify it — then you must include ''on the external site'' the statement "I, (name), am the author of this article, (article name), and I release its content under the terms of the [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GNU Free Documentation License], Version 1.2 and later." You might want to look at [[Wikipedia:Policies and guidelines|Wikipedia's policies and guidelines]] for more details, or ask a question [[Wikipedia:Village pump (assistance)|here]].

If you think that this notice was placed here in error, you may contest the deletion by adding <code>{{tl|hangon}}</code> to '''the top of [[:Bok Hyukguseh|the page that has been nominated for deletion]]''' (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on '''[[ Talk:Bok Hyukguseh|the talk page]]''' explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for ''speedy'' deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would would render it more in conformance with Wikipedia's policies and guidelines.   - [[User:Realkyhick|Realkyhick]] ([[User talk:Realkyhick|Talk to me]]) 06:21, 26 April 2008 (UTC)

==Copyright violation in [[:Suk Talhaih]]==
[[Image:Information_icon.svg|left]]Hello, this is a message from [[User:CSDWarnBot|an automated bot]]. A tag has been placed on [[:Suk Talhaih]], by {{#ifeq:{{{nom}}}|1|[[User:{{{nominator}}}|{{{nominator}}}]] ([[User talk:{{{nominator}}}|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/{{{nominator}}}|contribs]]),}} another Wikipedia user, requesting that it be [[Wikipedia:Speedy deletions|speedily deleted]] from Wikipedia. The tag claims that it should be speedily deleted because [[:Suk Talhaih]] is unquestionably copyright infringement, and no assertion of permission has been made. To contest the tagging and request that administrators wait before possibly deleting [[:Suk Talhaih]], please affix the template <nowiki>{{hangon}}</nowiki> to the page, and put a note on its talk page. If the article has already been deleted, see the advice and instructions at [[WP:WMD]]. Feel free to contact the [[User:CSDWarnBot|bot operator]] if you have any questions about this or any problems with this bot, bearing in mind that '''this bot is only informing you of the nomination for speedy deletion; it does not perform any nominations or deletions itself. To see the user who deleted the page, click [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&page={{urlencode:Suk Talhaih}} here]''' [[User:CSDWarnBot|CSDWarnBot]] ([[User talk:CSDWarnBot|talk]]) 01:01, 27 April 2008 (UTC)
==License tagging for Image:Candle-zombie.jpg==
Thanks for uploading [[:Image:Candle-zombie.jpg]]. You don't seem to have indicated the license status of the image. Wikipedia uses a set of [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags|image copyright tags]] to indicate this information; to add a tag to the image, select the appropriate tag from [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags/All|this list]], click on [[:Image:Candle-zombie.jpg|this link]], then click "Edit this page" and add the tag to the image's description. If there doesn't seem to be a suitable tag, the image is probably not appropriate for use on Wikipedia.

For help in choosing the correct tag, or for any other questions, leave a message on [[Wikipedia:Media copyright questions]]. Thank you for your cooperation. --[[User:ImageTaggingBot|ImageTaggingBot]] ([[User talk:ImageTaggingBot|talk]]) 23:16, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

==Proposed deletion of [[Candle zombie]]==
[[Image:Ambox warning yellow.svg|left|48px|]]
A [[Wikipedia:Proposed deletion|proposed deletion]] template has been added to the article [[Candle zombie]], suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but this article may not satisfy Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Criteria for inclusion|criteria for inclusion]], and the deletion notice should explain why (see also "[[Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not|What Wikipedia is not]]" and [[Wikipedia:Deletion policy|Wikipedia's deletion policy]]). You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the <code>{{tl|dated prod}}</code> notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on [[Talk:Candle zombie|its talk page]].

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised because even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the [[WP:PROD|proposed deletion process]], the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion|speedy deletion criteria]] or it can be sent to [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion|Articles for Deletion]], where it may be deleted if [[Wikipedia:Consensus|consensus]] to delete is reached. Do you want to [[Template:Bots#Message notification opt out|opt out]] of receiving this notice? --[[User:Aervanath|Aervanath]] [[User talk:Aervanath|lives]] [[special:contributions/aervanath|in]] [[WP:O|the Orphanage]] 21:24, 26 June 2008 (UTC)

==Image source problem with Image:Candle_zombie.jpg==
[[Image:Nuvola apps important blue.svg|64px|left|Image Copyright problem]]
Thanks for uploading '''[[:Image:Candle_zombie.jpg]]'''. I noticed that the file's description page currently doesn't specify who created the content, so the [[copyright]] status is unclear. If you did not create this file yourself, you will need to specify the owner of the copyright. If you obtained it from a website, then a link to the website from which it was taken, together with a restatement of that website's terms of use of its content, is usually sufficient information. However, if the copyright holder is different from the website's publisher, their copyright should also be acknowledged.

As well as adding the source, please add a proper copyright licensing tag if the file doesn't have one already. If you created/took the picture, audio, or video then the {{Tl|GFDL-self}} tag can be used to release it under the [[GFDL]]. If you believe the media meets the criteria at [[Wikipedia:Non-free content]], use a tag such as {{tlp|non-free fair use in|article name}} or one of the other tags listed at [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags#Fair use]]. See [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags]] for the full list of copyright tags that you can use.

If you have uploaded other files, consider checking that you have specified their source and tagged them, too. You can find a list of files you have uploaded by following [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=upload&user=Trustle this link]. '''Unsourced and untagged images may be deleted one week after they have been tagged''', as described on [[wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion#Images.2FMedia|criteria for speedy deletion]]. If the image is copyrighted under a [[Wikipedia:Image copyright tags/Fair use|non-free license]] (per [[Wikipedia:Fair use]]) then '''the image will be deleted [[WP:CSD#I7|48 hours]] after 14:11, 5 July 2008 (UTC)'''. If you have any questions please ask them at the [[Wikipedia:Media copyright questions|Media copyright questions page]]. Thank you. [[User:Rettetast|Rettetast]] ([[User talk:Rettetast|talk]]) 14:11, 5 July 2008 (UTC)

== [[Candle zombie]] ==

==AfD nomination of Candle zombie==
[[Image:Ambox warning pn.svg|48px|left]]An article that you have been involved in editing, [[Candle zombie]], has been listed for [[Wikipedia:Deletion policy|deletion]]. If you are interested in the deletion discussion, please participate by adding your comments at [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie]]. Thank you. Do you want to [[Template:Bots#Message notification opt out|opt out]] of receiving this notice? [[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 05:04, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2008 July 6

2008-07-06T05:02:18Z

..TTT..:

<div class="boilerplate metadata vfd" style="background-color: #F3F9FF; margin: 0 auto; padding: 0 1px 0 0; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA; font-size:10px">
{| width = "100%"
|-
! width="50%" align="left" | < [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2008 July 5|July 5]]
! width="50%" align="right" | [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2008 July 7|July 7]] >
|}
</div>
<div align = "center">'''[[Wikipedia:Guide to deletion|Guide to deletion]]'''</div>
{{Cent}}
{{purge|Purge server cache}}
__TOC__

{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/The Last Hope}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Paul Diamond (lawyer)}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Lord belmont}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/John Mark McMillan}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Selden Middle School}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Braydn Michael}}
{{Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Diane Herrmann}}
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2008-07-06T05:01:39Z

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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie

2008-07-06T04:58:34Z

..TTT..: ←Created page with '{{subst:afd2|pg={{subst:SUBPAGENAME}}|cat=U|text=This word was made by some people who are opposed to demonstrations which were held by people who are against th...'

===[[Candle zombie]]===
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:{{la|Candle zombie}} ([{{fullurl:Candle zombie|wpReason={{urlencode:AfD discussion: [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie]]}}&action=delete}} delete]) – <includeonly>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Candle zombie|View AfD]])</includeonly><noinclude>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2008 July 6#{{anchorencode:Candle zombie}}|View log]])</noinclude>
This word was made by some people who are opposed to demonstrations which were held by people who are against the Korean government's decision about importation of U. S. beef. It was made to abuse people who participated in demonstrations to oppose the decision. (see [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Myungbaksanseong]].) [[User:..TTT..|..TTT..]] ([[User talk:..TTT..|talk]]) 04:58, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

Honcheonsigye

2008-06-25T11:33:17Z

..TTT..: although Honcheonsigye is located in Korea university musium, there is no need to put Infobox of Korea university in this article.

{{Infobox Korean name
|hangul=혼천시계
|hanja={{linktext|渾|天|時|計}}
|rr=Honcheonsigye
|mr=Honch'ŏnsigye
|}}

The '''Honcheonsigye''' is an astronomical clock created by [[Song I-yeong]] in [[1669]]. It is designated as [[National treasures of South Korea|South Korean national treasure]] number 230.

The clock has an [[armillary sphere]] with a diameter of 40 cm. The sphere is activated by a working clock mechanism, showing the position of the universe at any given time.

The clock is owned by [[Korea University]]. It is the only remaining astronomical clock from the [[Joseon Dynasty]].

An image of the clock's sphere is shown on the reverse of the 2007 issued 10,000 [[South Korean won|won]] banknotes:<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.bok.or.kr/contents_admin/info_admin/eng/home/press/pressre/info/Unveiled_design_of_10000.pdf |title = 10,000-won Notes Design Unveiled to the Public |accessdate = 2006-12-12 |author = Bank of Korea |date = 2006-05-18 |format = PDF |quote=Only the celestial globe part of the Armillary sphere invented by Song E-Young (Collection of Korea University Museum, National Treasure No.230) is used...}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[History of astronomy]]
*[[National treasures of South Korea]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==References==
*[http://www.cha.go.kr/english/search_plaza/ECulresult_Db_View.jsp?VdkVgwKey=11,02300000,11 Cultural Heritage Administration: Astronomical instrument and clock]

[[Category:History of astronomy]]
[[Category:Historical scientific instruments]]
[[Category:National Treasures of South Korea]]
[[Category:Korean astronomy]]
[[Category:1669 works]]
[[Category:Joseon Dynasty]]
[[Category:Clocks]]

{{astronomy-stub}}
{{korea-stub}}

Antoine Lavoisier

2008-06-24T09:35:23Z

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{{redirect|Lavoisier}}
{{Infobox Person
|name = Antoine Lavoisier
|image = Antoine_lavoisier_color.jpg
|caption = [[People known as the father or mother of something|"Father of modern chemistry"]]
|birth_date = {{birth date|1743|8|26|mf=y}}
|birth_place = [[Paris]], [[France]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1794|5|8|1743|8|26}}
|death_place = [[Paris]], [[France]]
|occupation = [[chemistry|Chemist]], [[economics|economist]], [[nobility|nobleman]]
|networth =
|footnotes =
}}
'''Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier''' ([[August 26]], [[1743]] – [[May 8]], [[1794]]; [[Help:IPA|pronounced]] {{IPA|[ɑ̃ˈtwan lɔˈʁɑ̃ də la.vwaˈzje]}}), the ''[[People known as the father or mother of something|father of modern chemistry]]'',<ref>"Lavoisier, Antoine." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 July 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9369846>. </ref> was a [[France|French]] [[nobility|nobleman]] prominent in the histories of [[chemistry]], [[finance]], [[biology]], and [[economics]]. He stated the first version of the [[law of conservation of mass]],<ref name="Schwinger">
{{cite book
| last = Schwinger
| first = Julian
| authorlink = Julian Schwinger
| title = Einstein's Legacy
| year = 1986
| publisher = Scientific American Library
| location = New York
| id = ISBN 0-7167-5011-2
| pages = p. 93
}}</ref> recognized and named [[oxygen]] (1778) and [[hydrogen]] (1783), disproved the [[phlogiston theory]], introduced the ''[[metric system]]'', wrote the first extensive [[history of the periodic table#Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier|list of elements]], and helped to reform chemical nomenclature. He was also an investor and administrator of the "[[Ferme Générale]]" a private tax collection company; chairman of the board of the Discount Bank (later the [[Banque de France]]); and a powerful member of a number of other aristocratic administrative councils. All of these political and economic activities enabled him to fund his scientific research. However, because of his prominence in the pre-revolutionary government in [[France]], he was [[Decapitation|beheaded]] at the height of the [[French Revolution]].

Born to a wealthy family in [[Paris]], Antoine Laurent Lavoisier inherited a large fortune at the age of five with the passing of his mother.{CathEncy|wstitle=Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier}}He attended the [[Collège des Quatre-Nations|College Mazarin]] from 1754 to 1761, studying [[chemistry]], [[botany]], [[astronomy]], and [[mathematics]]. His education was filled with the ideals of the French [[The Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] of the time, and he felt fascination for Maquois's dictionary. From 1761 to 1763, he studied some law at the [[University of Paris]] where he received his Bachelor of Law in 1763. At the same time, he continued attending lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for chemistry was largely influenced by [[Étienne Condillac]], a prominent French scholar of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. In collaboration with [[Jean-Étienne Guettard]], Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of [[Alsace-Lorraine]] in 1767. At the age of 25, he was elected a member of the [[French Academy of Sciences]], France's most elite scientific society, for an essay on [[street lighting]] and in recognition for his earlier research. In 1769, he worked on the first geological map of [[France]].

In 1771, Lavoisier married the 13-year-old [[Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze]], the daughter of a co-owner of the [[Ferme générale|Ferme]]. Over time, she proved to be a scientific colleague to her husband. She translated documents from English for him, including [[Richard Kirwan]]'s ''Essay on Phlogiston'' and [[Joseph Priestley]]'s research. She created many [[drawing|sketches]] and carved engravings of the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues. She also edited and published Lavoisier’s memoirs (whether any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to chemistry.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Eagle | first = Cassandra T. | coauthors = Jennifer Sloan | title = Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of Modern Chemistry</ref>

== Contributions to chemistry ==

===Research on gases, water, and combustion===
[[Image:Hidrogenexp2.gif|thumb|170px|right|Antoine Lavoisier's famous phlogiston experiment. Engraving by [[Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze|Mme Lavoisier]] in the 1780s taken from ''Traité élémentaire de chimie'' (Elementary treatise on chemistry).]]
[[Image:SeimiKaisouChemistry.jpg|thumb|170px|The work of Lavoisier was translated in Japan in the 1840s, through the process of [[Rangaku]]. Page from [[Udagawa Yōan]]'s 1840 ''Seimi Kaisō''.]]
Some of Lavoisier's most important experiments were in [[thermodynamics]] and the nature of [[combustion]], or burning. Through these experiments, he demonstrated that burning is a process that involves the combination of a substance with oxygen. (He gave this gas its name, which means "acid former," incorrectly believing that all acids had to contain it). Lavoisier also demonstrated the role of oxygen in the rusting of metal, as well as oxygen's role in animal and plant respiration. Working with [[Pierre-Simon Laplace]], Lavoisier conducted experiments that showed that respiration was essentially a slow combustion of organic material using inhaled oxygen. Lavoisier's explanation of combustion disproved the [[phlogiston]] theory, which postulated that materials released a substance called phlogiston when they burned.

Lavoisier also discovered that [[Henry Cavendish|Henry Cavendish's]] 'inflammable air', which Lavoisier had termed ''[[hydrogen]]'' ([[Ancient Greek|Greek]] for "water-former"), combined with oxygen to produce a dew, as [[Joseph Priestley]] had reported, which appeared to be water. Lavoisier's work was partly based on the research of Priestley. However, he tried to take credit for Priestley's discoveries. This tendency to use the results of others without acknowledgment, then draw conclusions of his own, is said to be characteristic of Lavoisier. In "Sur la combustion en général" ("On Combustion in general," 1777) and "Considérations Générales sur la Nature des Acides" ("General Considerations on the Nature of Acids," 1778), he demonstrated that the "air" responsible for combustion was also the source of acidity. In 1779, he named this part of the air "oxygen" (Greek for "becoming sharp" because he claimed that the sharp taste of acids came from oxygen), and the other "[[nitrogen|azote]]" (Greek for "no life"). In "Réflexions sur la Phlogistique" ("Reflections on Phlogiston," 1783), Lavoisier showed the [[phlogiston theory]] to be inconsistent.

===Pioneer of stoichiometry===

[[Image:Instruments lavoisier.jpg|thumb|left|[[Laboratory equipment|Laboratory instruments]] used by Lavoisier circa 1780s]]

Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly [[stoichiometry|quantitative chemical experiments]]. He carefully weighed the reactants and products in a chemical reaction, which was a crucial step in the advancement of chemistry. He showed that, although matter can change its state in a chemical reaction, the quantity of matter is the same at the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. These experiments supported the law of [[conservation of mass]], which Lavoisier was the first to state,<ref name="Schwinger"/> although [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] (1711-1765) had previously expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments. Others who anticipated the work of Lavoisier include [[Joseph Black]] (1728-1799), [[Henry Cavendish]] (1731-1810), and [[Jean Rey]] (1583-1645).

===Analytical chemistry and chemical nomenclature===
[[Image:Lavoisiers lab.jpg|thumb|right|Chemist's laboratory, from [[Diderot]]'s ''[[Encyclopédie]]'', with [[alchemy|alchemical table]] of elements]]
Lavoisier investigated the composition of water and air, which at the time were considered elements. He determined that the components of water were [[oxygen]] and [[hydrogen]], and that air was a mixture of gases, primarily [[nitrogen]] and oxygen. With the French chemists [[Claude-Louis Berthollet]], [[Antoine François, comte de Fourcroy|Antoine Fourcroy]] and [[Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau|Guyton de Morveau]], Lavoisier devised a systematic chemical nomenclature. He described it in ''Méthode de nomenclature chimique'' (''Method of Chemical Nomenclature'', 1787). This system facilitated communication of discoveries between chemists of different backgrounds and is still largely in use today, including names such as ''sulfuric acid'', ''sulfates'', and ''sulfites''.

Lavoisier's ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie'' (''Treatise of Elementary Chemistry'', 1789, translated into English by [[Scotland|Scotsman]] [[Robert Kerr (writer)|Robert Kerr]]) is considered to be the first modern chemistry [[textbook]]. It presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement of the law of [[conservation of mass]], and denied the existence of [[phlogiston]]. This text clarified the concept of an element as a substance that could not be broken down by any known method of chemical analysis, and presented Lavoisier's theory of the formation of chemical compounds from elements.

His ''Traité Élémentaire'' contained a list of elements that included oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, [[phosphorus]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[zinc]], and [[sulfur]]. His list, however, also included [[light]] and [[Caloric theory|caloric]], which he incorrectly believed to be material substances.

While many leading chemists of the time refused to accept Lavoisier's new ideas, the ''Traité Élémentaire'' was sufficiently sound to convince the next generation.
[[Image:Lentilles ardentes.jpg|thumb|right|Combustion generated by focusing sunlight over [[flammable]] materials using lenses, an experiment conducted by Lavoisier cin the 1770s]]
[[Image:Zoom lunette ardente.jpg|thumb|right|Detail of picture of a combustion experiment]]

===Legacy===
[[Image:Calorimeter.gif|thumb|100px|left|Constant [[pressure]] [[calorimeter]] , engraving made by madame Lavoisier for [[thermochemistry]] experiments.]]
Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established the consistent use of the [[chemical balance]], used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous). Lavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint experiments with [[Laplace]]. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.

Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by stating the radical theory, believing that [[Radical (chemistry)|radicals]], which function as a single group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced the possibility of [[allotropy|allotropy in chemical elements]] when he discovered that [[diamond]] is a crystalline form of carbon.

However, much to his professional detriment, Lavoisier actually discovered no new substances, devised no really novel apparatus, and worked out no improved methods of preparation. He was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in the capacity of taking over experimental work that others had carried out--without always, unfortunately, adequately recognizing their claims--and by a rigorous logical procedure, reinforced by his own quantitative experiments, of expounding the true explanation of the results. He completed the work of Black, Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a correct explanation of their experiments.

Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry to the level reached in physics and mathematics during 18th century.<ref>Charles C. Gillespie, Foreword to ''Lavoisier'' by Jean-Pierre Poirier, University of Pennsylvania Press, English Edition, 1996. </ref>
[[Image:Lavoisier humanexp.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Lavoisier conducting an experiment on respiration in the 1770s.]]

== Contributions to biology ==
Lavoisier used a [[calorimeter]] to measure heat production as a result of respiration in a [[guinea pig]]. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted to maintain a constant temperature of {{nowrap|0 °C}} around an inner shell filled with ice. The guinea pig in the center of the chamber produced heat which melted the ice. The water that flowed out of the calorimeter was collected and weighed. Lavoisier found that {{nowrap|1 kg}} of melted ice corresponded to 80 kcal of heat production by the guinea pig. Lavoisier concluded, "la respiration est donc une combustion", that is, respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, like that of a candle burning.<ref>[http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/5/899S Is a Calorie a Calorie?] ''American Journal of Clinical Nutrition'', Vol. 79, No. 5, 899S–906S, May 2004</ref>

== Law and politics ==
Lavoisier received a [[law degree]] and was admitted to the [[bar association|bar]], but never practiced as a [[lawyer]]. He did become interested in French [[politics]], and at the age of 26 he obtained a position as a [[tax]] collector in the ''[[Ferme Générale]]'', a [[tax farming (France)|tax farming]] company, where he attempted to introduce reforms in the French [[monetary system|monetary]] and [[tax]]ation system to help the peasants. While in government work, he helped develop the [[SI|metric system]] to secure uniformity of [[weights and measures]] throughout France.

==Final days, execution, and aftermath==
[[Image:Lavoisier-statue.jpg|thumb|Statue of Lavoisier, at Hôtel de Ville, Paris.]]

As one of twenty-eight French tax collectors and a powerful figure in the unpopular Ferme Générale, Lavoisier was branded a traitor during the Reign of Terror by [[French Revolution]]ists in 1794. Lavoisier had also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-born scientists including mathematician [[Joseph Louis Lagrange]], granting them exception to a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Lagrange.html
| title = Lagrange Biography
| accessdate = 2006-04-20
| last = O'Connor
| first = J. J.
| coauthors = Robertson, E. F.
| date = 2006-09-26
| language = English
| quote = In September 1793 a law was passed ordering the arrest of all foreigners born in enemy countries and all their property to be confiscated. Lavoisier intervened on behalf of Lagrange, who certainly fell under the terms of the law, and he was granted an exception. On 8 May 1794, after a trial that lasted less than a day, a revolutionary tribunal condemned Lavoisier, who had saved Lagrange from arrest, and 27 others to death. Lagrange said on the death of Lavoisier, who was guillotined on the afternoon of the day of his trial}}</ref> Lavoisier was tried, convicted, and guillotined on [[May 8]] in Paris, at the age of 50.

Lavoisier was actually one of the few liberals in his position. One of his actions that may have sealed his fate was a clash a few years earlier with the young [[Jean-Paul Marat]] whom he dismissed curtly after being presented with a preposterous 'scientific invention'. Marat subsequently became a leading revolutionary and one of the French Revolution's more extreme "professional common men."

An appeal to spare his life so that he could continue his experiments was cut short by the judge: ''"The Republic needs neither scientists nor chemists; the course of justice can not be delayed."''<ref>
Commenting on this quotation, Denis Duveen, an English expert on Lavoiser and a collector of his works, wrote that "it is pretty certain that it was never uttered." For Duveen's evidence, see the following: {{cite journal | author = Duveen, Denis I. | title = Antoine Laurent Lavoisier and the French Revolution | journal = Journal of Chemical Education | volume = 31 | month = February | year = 1954 | pages = 60 – 65 }}.</ref>

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the beheading by saying: ''"Cela leur a pris seulement un instant pour lui couper la tête, mais la France pourrait ne pas en produire un autre pareil en un siècle."'' ("It took them only an instant to cut off his head, but France may not produce another like him in a century.")<ref>{{Citation | last = Delambre | first = Jean-Baptiste | contribution = Notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. le Comte J.-L. Lagrange | editor-last = Serret | editor-first = J. A. | title = Oeuvres de Lagrande | volume = 1 | pages = xl | publisher = | place = | year = 1867 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Guerlac | first = Henry | title = Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier - Chemist and Revolutionary | publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons | date = 1973 | location = New York | pages = 130 }}</ref>

One and a half years following his death, Lavoisier was exonerated by the French government. When his private belongings were delivered to his widow, a brief note was included reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was falsely convicted."

About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the statue, but used a spare head of the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], the Secretary of the Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years. Lack of money prevented alterations being made. The statue was melted down during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and has not since been replaced. However, one of the main "[[lycée]]s" (highschools) in Paris and a street in the [[VIIIe arrondissement|8th arrondissement]] are named after Lavoisier, and statues of him are found on the Hôtel de Ville (''photograph, right'') and on the façade of the ''Cour Napoléon'' of the [[Palais du Louvre|Louvre]].

== Selected writings ==
* {{cite book | author = Lavoisier, Antoine | title = Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les découvertes modernes | year = 1789 | location = Paris | publisher = Chez Cuchet }}- Reprinted 1965, Bruxelles: Cultures et Civilisations

: {{cite book | author = Lavoisier, Antoine | title = Elements of Chemistry | year = 1965 | publisher = Dover | location = New York}}- Reprint of Robert Kerr's English translation of 1790

==See also==
*[[List of independent discoveries#18th century|List of independent discoveries]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

[[Image:Lavoisier cour Napoleon Louvre.jpg|thumb|125px|right|''Lavoisier'', by [[Jacques-Léonard Maillet]], ca 1853, among culture heroes in the [[Palais du Louvre|Louvre's]] ''Cour Napoléon]]

* {{cite book | author = Berthelot, M. | title = La révolution chimique: Lavoisier | location = Paris | publisher = Alcan | year = 1890}}

* {{cite book | author = Daumas, M. | title = Lavoisier, théoricien et expérimentateur | location = Paris | publisher = Presses Universitaires de France | year = 1955}}

* {{cite book | author = Donovan, Arthur | title = Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and Revolution | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge, England | year = 1993}}

* {{cite book | author = Grey, Vivian | title = The Chemist Who Lost His Head: The Story of Antoine Lavoisier | location = | publisher = Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, Inc. | year = 1982}}

* {{cite book | author = Guerlac, Henry | title = Lavoisier - The Crucial Year | publisher = Cornell University Press | location = Ithaca, New York | year = 1961 }}

* {{cite book | author = Holmes, Frederic Lawrence | title = Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | location = Madison, Wisconsin | year = 1985 }}

* {{cite book | author = Holmes, Frederic Lawrence | title = Antoine Lavoisier - The Next Crucial Year, or the Sources of his Quantitative Method in Chemistry | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = | year = 1998 }}

* {{cite book | author = Jackson, Joe | title = A World on Fire: A Heretic, An Aristocrat And The Race to Discover Oxygen | publisher = Viking | year = 2005}}

* {{cite journal | author = Johnson, Horton A. | title = Revolutionary Instruments, Lavoisier's Tools as Objets d'Art | journal = Chemical Heritage | year = 2008 | volume = 26 | number = 1 | pages = 30 – 35 }}

* {{cite book | author = Kelly, Jack | title = Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics'' | publisher = Basic Books | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-465-03718-6}}

* {{cite book | author = McKie, Douglas | title = Antoine Lavoisier: The Father of Modern Chemistry | publisher = J. P. Lippincott Company| location = Philadelphia | year = 1935 }}

* {{cite book | author = McKie, Douglas | title = Antoine Lavoisier: Scientist, Economist, Social Reformer | publisher = Henry Schuman | location = New York | year = 1952 }}

* {{cite book | author = Poirier, Jean-Pierre | title = Lavoisier | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press | year = 1996, English edition}}

* {{cite book | author = Scerri, Eric| title = The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2007}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier|Antoine Lavoisier}}
* [http://www.philiplarson.com/e1.shtml Antoine Laurent Lavoisier]
* [http://moro.imss.fi.it/lavoisier/ A virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier]
* [http://www.chemheritage.org/classroom/chemach/forerunners/lavoisier.html Antoine Lavoisier] - Chemical Achievers profile.
* [http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/matter/faq/who-defined-compounds.shtml Who was the first to classify materials as "compounds"?] - Fred Senese
* {{fr icon}} [http://histsciences.univ-paris1.fr/i-corpus/lavoisier/index.php The Complete Works of Lavoisier]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20071115.shtml Radio 4 program on the discovery of oxygen] by the [[BBC]]

{{Enlightenment}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Lavoisier, Antoine
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES= de Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[chemistry|chemist]], [[economics|economist]] and [[nobility|nobleman]].
|DATE OF BIRTH= {{birth date|1743|8|26}}
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Paris]], [[France]]
|DATE OF DEATH= {{death date|1794|5|8}}
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Paris]], [[France]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Lavoisier, Antoine}}
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements]]
[[Category:French chemists]]
[[Category:French biologists]]
[[Category:People from Paris]]
[[Category:People executed by guillotine during the French Revolution]]
[[Category:French Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:1743 births]]
[[Category:1794 deaths]]
[[Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Gentleman scientists]]

{{Link FA|he}}

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[[zh:拉瓦锡]]

Joseph Ames (author)

2008-06-17T11:03:49Z

..TTT..:

'''Joseph Ames''' ([[January 23]], [[1689]] – [[October 7]], [[1759]]), [[England|English]] [[author]], was born at [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth]]. He wrote an account of [[printing]] in [[England]] from [[1471]] to [[1600]], entitled ''Typographical Antiquities'' (1749).

Ames sent out circular letters with a list of two hundred and fifteen English printers with whose works he intended to deal, asking for any available information. He earned the gratitude of subsequent [[bibliographer]]s by disregarding printed lists and consulting the [[title page]]s of the books themselves. An interleaved copy of the work with many notes in the [[author]]'s hand is now in the [[British Museum]]. Editions of his works were published with added information by William Herbert (3 vols., 1785-1790), and [[Thomas Frognall Dibdin|TF Dibdin]] (4 vols., 1810-1819). Ames's occupation is variously given. It is uncertain whether he was a ship chandler, a pattern-maker, a plane iron maker or an ironmonger; but he led a prosperous life at [[Wapping]], and amassed valuable collections of antiquities.

His other works are catalogues of English printers, of the collection of coins which belonged to the earl of Pembroke, of some two thousand ''English portraits, and Parentalia'' (1750), a memoir of the Wrens, undertaken in conjunction with [[Sir Christopher Wren]]'s grandson, [[Stephen Wren]]. Part of his correspondence in bibliography is included in [[John Nichols (printer)|Nichols]]'s ''Literary Anecdotes and Illustrations''.

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ames, Joseph}}
[[Category:1689 births]]
[[Category:1759 deaths]]
[[Category:British bibliographers]]
[[Category:English book editors]]

Joseph Ames (author)

2008-06-17T11:03:34Z

..TTT..: 1680->1689 according to 1911 britannica

'''Joseph Ames''' ([[January 23]], [[1689]] – [[October 7]], [[1759]]), [[England|English]] [[author]], was born at [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth]]. He wrote an account of [[printing]] in [[England]] from [[1471]] to [[1600]], entitled ''Typographical Antiquities'' (1749).

Ames sent out circular letters with a list of two hundred and fifteen English printers with whose works he intended to deal, asking for any available information. He earned the gratitude of subsequent [[bibliographer]]s by disregarding printed lists and consulting the [[title page]]s of the books themselves. An interleaved copy of the work with many notes in the [[author]]'s hand is now in the [[British Museum]]. Editions of his works were published with added information by William Herbert (3 vols., 1785-1790), and [[Thomas Frognall Dibdin|TF Dibdin]] (4 vols., 1810-1819). Ames's occupation is variously given. It is uncertain whether he was a ship chandler, a pattern-maker, a plane iron maker or an ironmonger; but he led a prosperous life at [[Wapping]], and amassed valuable collections of antiquities.

His other works are catalogues of English printers, of the collection of coins which belonged to the earl of Pembroke, of some two thousand ''English portraits, and Parentalia'' (1750), a memoir of the Wrens, undertaken in conjunction with [[Sir Christopher Wren]]'s grandson, [[Stephen Wren]]. Part of his correspondence in bibliography is included in [[John Nichols (printer)|Nichols]]'s ''Literary Anecdotes and Illustrations''.

==References==
*{{1911}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ames, Joseph}}
[[Category:1680 births]]
[[Category:1759 deaths]]
[[Category:British bibliographers]]
[[Category:English book editors]]