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2025 English Football League play-offs

2025-05-17T13:29:11Z

Denvercoder9: /* League Two */

{{refimprove|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox football league season
| image = File:Wembley Stadium - geograph.org.uk - 3890067.jpg
| caption = [[Wembley Stadium]] was the venue for each {{nowrap|play-off final}}
| competition = [[English Football League play-offs]]
| season = [[2024–25 in English football|2024–25]]
| prevseason = [[2024 English Football League play-offs|2024]]
| nextseason = ''[[2026 English Football League play-offs|2026]]''
}}
The '''[[English Football League play-offs]]''' for the [[2024–25 in English football|2024–25 season]] (referred to as the '''[[Sky Betting and Gaming|Sky Bet]] Play-Offs''' for sponsorship reasons) will be held in May 2025 with all finals being staged at [[Wembley Stadium]] in [[London]].

The play-offs begin in each league with two semi-finals which were played over two legs. The teams who finished in 3rd to 6th place in the [[2024–25 EFL Championship|Championship]] and [[2024–25 EFL League One|League One]] and the 4th to 7th-placed teams in [[2024–25 EFL League Two|League Two]] competed. The winners of the semi-finals advanced to the finals, with the winners gaining promotion for the following season.<ref>{{cite web |title=EFL play-offs: Fixtures, dates and schedule for Championship, League One and League Two |url=https://www.efl.com/news/2025/may/03/sky-bet-efl-play-offs--schedule-confirmed-/ |website=efl.com |access-date=3 May 2025}}</ref>

==Background==
The [[English Football League]] play-offs have been held every year since 1987. They take place for each division following the conclusion of the regular season and are contested by the four clubs finishing below the automatic promotion places. The fixtures are determined by final league position – in the Championship and League One this is 3rd v 6th and 4th v 5th, while in League Two it is 4th v 7th and 5th v 6th.

==Championship==
{{Main|2024–25 EFL Championship}}
===Championship semi-finals===
The final table was confirmed after the final matchday on 3 May 2025. Going into the final day, [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]] and [[Sunderland F.C.|Sunderland]] had already confirmed both their place and finish in the play-offs at 3rd and 4th, respectively. [[Bristol City F.C.|Bristol City]], [[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]], [[Millwall F.C.|Milwall]], [[Blackburn Rovers F.C. |Blackburn Rovers]], and [[Middlesbrough F.C|Middlesbrough]] were all in the hunt for the last two spots. Coventry City leapfrogged Bristol City to 5th after beating [[Middlesbrough F.C.|Middlesbrough]] which eliminated them from reaching the play-offs. Despite their draw with relegation-threatened [[Preston North End F.C.|Preston North End]], [[Bristol City F.C.|Bristol City]] finished 6th after [[Blackburn Rovers F.C.|Blackburn Rovers]] drew against [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]] and [[Millwall F.C.|Millwall]] lost to title challengers [[Burnley F.C.|Burnley]].

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="10" |<big>Final league position - Championship</big>
|-
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pos|Position}}
! width="175" |Team
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pld|Played}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|W|Won}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|D|Drawn}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|L|Lost}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GF|Goals for}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GA|Goals against}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GD|Goal difference}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pts|Points}}
|-
| 3
| align="left" |{{nowrap|[[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]}}
| 46
| 28
| 8
| 10
| 63
| 36
| +27
| '''90'''
|-
| 4
| align="left" |[[Sunderland F.C.|Sunderland]]
| 46
| 21
| 13
| 12
| 58
| 44
| +14
| '''76'''
|-
| 5
| align="left" |[[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]]
| 46
| 20
| 9
| 17
| 64
| 59
| +5
| '''69'''
|-
| 6
| align="left" |[[Bristol City F.C.|Bristol City]]
| 46
| 17
| 17
| 12
| 59
| 55
| +4
| '''68'''
|}
<section begin="Championship semi-finals" />
; First leg
{{Football box
| date = 8 May 2025
| team1 = [[Bristol City F.C.|Bristol City]]
| team2 = [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]
| time = 20:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| score = 0–3
| goals1 =
| goals2 = * [[Harrison Burrows|Burrows]] {{goal|45+3|pen.}}
* [[Andre Brooks|Brooks]] {{goal|73}}
* [[Callum O'Hare|O'Hare]] {{goal|79}}
| stadium = [[Ashton Gate (stadium)|Ashton Gate]]
| location = [[Bristol]]
| attendance = 25,652
| referee = [[Oliver Langford]]
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554218?
}}
{{Football box
| date = 9 May 2025
| team1 = [[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]]
| team2 = [[Sunderland F.C.|Sunderland]]
| time = 20:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| score = 1–2
| goals1 =
*[[Jack Rudoni|Rudoni]] {{goal|70}}
| goals2 =
*[[Wilson Isidor|Isidor]] {{goal|68}}
*[[Eliezer Mayenda|Mayenda]] {{goal|88}}
| stadium = [[Coventry Building Society Arena]]
| location = [[Coventry]]
| attendance = 31,293
| referee = John Busby
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554219?
}}

; Second leg
{{Football box
| date = 12 May 2025
| team1 = [[Sheffield United F.C.|Sheffield United]]
| team2 = [[Bristol City F.C.|Bristol City]]
| time = 20:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| score = 3–0
| goals1 =
*[[Kieffer Moore|Moore]] {{goal|41}}
*[[Gustavo Hamer|Hamer]] {{goal|52}}
*[[Callum O'Hare|O'Hare]] {{goal|83}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Bramall Lane]]
| location = [[Sheffield]]
| attendance = 26,543
| referee = [[Peter Bankes]]
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554220?
}}
''Sheffield United won 6–0 on aggregate.''
{{footballbox
| date = 13 May 2025
| time = 20:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Sunderland F.C.|Sunderland]]
| team2 = [[Coventry City F.C.|Coventry City]]
| score = 1–1
| aet = y
| goals1 =
*[[Daniel Ballard|Ballard]] {{goal|120+2}}
| goals2 =
*[[Ephron Mason-Clark|Mason-Clark]] {{goal|76}}
| stadium = [[Stadium of Light]]
| location = [[Sunderland]]
| attendance = 46,530
| referee = [[Andrew Madley]]
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554221?
}}
''Sunderland won 3–2 on aggregate.''<section end="Championship semi-finals" />

===Championship final===
{{Main|2025 EFL Championship play-off final}}
{{:2025 EFL Championship play-off final}}

==League One==
{{Main|2024–25 EFL League One}}

===League One semi-finals===
The final table was confirmed after the final matchday on 3 May 2025. Going into the final day, [[Stockport County F.C.|Stockport County]], [[Wycombe Wanderers F.C.|Wycombe Wanderers]] and [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]] had already qualified for the play-offs. Charlton leapfrogged Wycombe on the final day after the Addicks beat Burton Albion, while the Chairboys lost to Stockport. The final day also saw a two-way battle between [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]] and [[Reading F.C.|Reading]] for the final spot, with [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]] ahead on goal difference. [[Reading F.C.|Reading]] lost to [[Barnsley F.C.|Barnsley]] while [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]] beat [[Huddersfield Town A.F.C.|Huddersfield Town]] to put the O's in the last play-off spot.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="10" |<big>Final league position - League One</big>
|-
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pos|Position}}
! width="175" |Team
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pld|Played}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|W|Won}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|D|Drawn}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|L|Lost}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GF|Goals for}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GA|Goals against}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GD|Goal difference}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pts|Points}}
|-
| 3
| align="left" |[[Stockport County F.C.|Stockport County]]
| 46
| 25
| 12
| 9
| 72
| 42
| +30
| '''87'''
|-
| 4
| align="left" |[[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]]
| 46
| 25
| 10
| 11
| 67
| 43
| +24
| '''85'''
|-
| 5
| align="left" |{{nowrap|[[Wycombe Wanderers F.C.|Wycombe Wanderers]]}}
| 46
| 24
| 12
| 10
| 70
| 45
| +25
| '''84'''
|-
| 6
| align="left" |[[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]]
| 46
| 21
| 13
| 12
| 82
| 64
| +18
|'''78'''
|}
<section begin="League One semi-finals" />
; First leg
{{football box
| date = 10 May 2025
| time = 12:30 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]]
| score = 2–2
| team2 = [[Stockport County F.C.|Stockport County]]
| goals1 =
*[[Charlie Kelman|Kelman]] {{goal|30||88|pen.}}
| goals2 =
*[[Oliver Norwood|Norwood]] {{goal|60|pen.}}
*[[Fraser Horsfall|Horsfall]] {{goal|65}}
| stadium = [[Brisbane Road]]
| location = [[London]]
| referee = Ben Speedie
| attendance = 8,571
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554222?
}}
{{footballbox
| date = 11 May 2025
| time = 18:30 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Wycombe Wanderers F.C.|Wycombe Wanderers]]
| score = 0–0
| team2 = [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Adams Park]]
| location = [[High Wycombe]]
| referee = Farai Hallam
| attendance = 6,585
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554223?
}}

; Second leg
{{footballbox
| date = 14 May 2025
| time = 20:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Stockport County F.C.|Stockport County]]
| score = 1–1
| aet = y
| team2 = [[Leyton Orient F.C.|Leyton Orient]]
| goals1 =
*[[Isaac Olaofe|Olaofe]] {{goal|74}}
| goals2 =
*[[Ollie O'Neill|O'Neill]] {{goal|3}}
|penaltyscore = 1–4
|penalties1 =
* [[Oliver Norwood|Norwood]] {{pengoal}}
* [[Jack Diamond (footballer, born 2000)|Diamond]] {{penmiss}}
* [[Ryan Rydel|Rydel]] {{penmiss}}
|penalties2 =
* {{pengoal}} [[Tom James (Welsh footballer)|James]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Sean Clare|Clare]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Azeem Abdulai|Abdulai]]
* {{pengoal}} [[Ethan Galbraith|Galbraith]]
| stadium = [[Edgeley Park]]
| location = [[Stockport]]
| referee = James Bell
| attendance = 10,592
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554224?
}}
''3–3 on aggregate, Leyton Orient won 4–1 on penalties.''

{{footballbox
| date = 15 May 2025
| time = 20:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Charlton Athletic F.C.|Charlton Athletic]]
| score = 1–0
| team2 = [[Wycombe Wanderers F.C.|Wycombe Wanderers]]
| goals1 = [[Matt Godden|Godden]] {{goal|81}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[The Valley (stadium)|The Valley]]
| location = [[London]]
| referee = Dean Whitestone
| attendance = 25,722
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554225?
}}
''Charlton won 1–0 on aggregate.''<section end="League One semi-finals" />
<section end="League One semi-finals" />
===League One final===
{{Main|2025 EFL League One play-off final}}
{{:2025 EFL League One play-off final}}

==League Two==
{{Main|2024–25 EFL League Two}}

===League Two semi-finals===
The final table was confirmed after the final matchday on 3 May 2025. Going into the final day, [[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]], [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]], and [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]] had already secured a play-off place but they could still gain automatic promotion. [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]] eliminated themselves from automatic contention after losing to champions [[Doncaster Rovers F.C.|Doncaster Rovers]]. [[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]] then clinched the lone remaining automatic promotion spot with their 96th minute winner against [[Fleetwood Town F.C.|Fleetwood Town]], condemning [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]] - who were beating [[Crewe Alexandra F.C.|Crewe Alexandra]] - to the playoffs. The remaining two places were under contention between [[AFC Wimbledon]], [[Salford City F.C.|Salford City]], [[Grimsby Town F.C.|Grimsby Town]], [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]] and [[Colchester United F.C.|Colchester United]]. [[AFC Wimbledon]] clinched their spot with a win against [[Grimsby Town F.C.|Grimsby Town]], eliminating the Mariners and leapfrogging [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]] in the process. [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]] beat [[Accrington Stanley F.C.|Accrington Stanley]] to clinch the final playoff spot after [[Salford City F.C.|Salford City]] and [[Colchester United F.C.|Colchester United]] could only draw against relegated [[Carlisle United F.C.|Carlisle United]] and [[Barrow F.C.|Barrow]] respectively.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan="10" |<big>Final league position - League Two</big>
|-
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pos|Position}}
! width="175" |Team
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pld|Played}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|W|Won}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|D|Drawn}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|L|Lost}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GF|Goals for}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GA|Goals against}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|GD|Goal difference}}
! width="30" |{{Tooltip|Pts|Points}}
|-
| 4
| align="left" |[[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]]
| 46
| 21
| 14
| 11
| 75
| 54
| +21
| '''77'''
|-
| 5
| align="left" |{{nowrap|[[AFC Wimbledon]]}}
| 46
| 20
| 13
| 13
| 56
| 35
| +21
| '''73'''
|-
| 6
| align="left" |[[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]]
| 46
| 20
| 12
| 14
| 68
| 49
| +19
| '''72'''
|-
| 7
| align="left" |[[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]]
| 46
| 19
| 13
| 14
| 73
| 54
| +19
| '''70'''
|}
<section begin="League Two semi-finals" />
; First leg
{{footballbox
| date = 10 May 2025
| time = 20:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]]
| score = 0–1
| team2 = [[AFC Wimbledon]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
*[[Riley Harbottle|Harbottle]] {{goal|59}}
| stadium = [[Meadow Lane]]
| location = [[Nottingham]]
| referee = Thomas Kirk
| attendance = 12,385
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554226?
}}
{{footballbox
| date = 11 May 2025
| time = 15:30 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]]
| score = 0–2
| team2 = [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 = * [[Taylor Allen|Allen]] {{goal|28|pen.}}
* [[Alfie Chang|Chang]]
| stadium = [[SMH Group Stadium]]
| location = [[Chesterfield, Derbyshire|Chesterfield]]
| referee = Martin Coy
| attendance = 10,001
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554227?
}}

; Second leg
{{footballbox
| date = 16 May 2025
| time = 20:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]]
| score = 2–1
| team2 = [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]]
| goals1 = * [[Charlie Lakin|Lakin]] {{goal|81}}
* [[Levi Amantchi|Amantchi]] {{goal|90+5}}
| goals2 = * [[Armando Dobra|Dobra]] {{goal|90+4}}
| stadium = [[Bescot Stadium]]
| location = [[Walsall]]
| referee = Ben Toner
| attendance = 9,585
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554229?
}}
''Walsall won 4–1 on aggregate.''
{{Football box
| date = 17 May 2025
| team1 = [[AFC Wimbledon]]
| team2 = [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]]
| time = 12:30 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| score = 1-0
| goals1 = * [[Josh Neufville|Neufville]] {{goal|8}}
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Plough Lane]]
| location = [[Wimbledon, London|Wimbledon]]
| attendance = 8,501
| referee = Lewis Smith
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554228?
}}
<section end="League Two semi-finals" />
''AFC Wimbledon won 2-0 on aggregate.''

===League Two final===
{{Main|2025 EFL League Two play-off final}}
{{:2025 EFL League Two play-off final}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{English Football League play-offs|states=uncollapsed}}
{{2024–25 in English men's football}}

[[Category:2025 English Football League play-offs| ]]
[[Category:2024–25 English Football League|Play-offs]]
[[Category:English Football League play-offs]]
[[Category:May 2025 sports events in the United Kingdom|EFL]]
[[Category:Current sports events|English Football League play-offs]]

2025 EFL League Two play-off final

2025-05-17T13:26:51Z

Denvercoder9:

{{short description|Association football match}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=May 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}}
{{Infobox football match
| title = 2025 EFL League Two play-off Final
| image = File:Wembley-STadion 2013.JPG
| caption = [[Wembley Stadium]] in [[London]] will host the final.
| team1 = [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]]
| team1score =
| team2 = [[AFC Wimbledon]]
| team2score =
| details =
| man_of_the_match1a =
| referee =
| stadium = [[Wembley Stadium]], [[London]]
| date = {{Start date|2025|05|26|df=y}}
| attendance =
| previous = [[2024 EFL League Two play-off final|2024]]
| next = ''[[2026 EFL League Two play-off final|2026]]''
}}
The '''2025 EFL League Two play-off final''' is an [[association football]] match which will be played on 26 May 2025 at [[Wembley Stadium]], [[London]], to determine the fourth and final team to gain [[Promotion and relegation|promotion]] from [[EFL League Two]], the fourth tier of [[English football league system|English football]], to [[EFL League One]]. The top three teams of [[2024–25 EFL League Two]], [[Doncaster Rovers F.C.|Doncaster Rovers]], [[Port Vale F.C.|Port Vale]] and [[Bradford City F.C.|Bradford City]], gained automatic promotion to League One, while the clubs placed from fourth to seventh in the table – [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]], [[AFC Wimbledon|Wimbledon]], [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]] and [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]] – will take part in the [[2025 English Football League play-offs]]. The winners of the play-off semi-finals, Walsall and AFC Wimbledon, will compete for the final place for the [[2025–26 EFL League One|2025–26 season]] in League One.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sky Bet EFL Play-Offs: Schedule confirmed |author=EFL |work=efl.com |date= |access-date=7 May 2025 |url= https://www.efl.com/news/2025/may/03/sky-bet-efl-play-offs--schedule-confirmed-/}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=League Two Table and Standings - Football - BBC Sport |author= |work=BBC Sport |date= |access-date=7 May 2025 |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/league-two/table}}</ref>

==Route to the final==
{{main|2024–25 EFL League Two|2025 English Football League play-offs#League Two}}
{{#invoke:sports table|main|style=WDL
|res_col_header=Q
|float=right
|teamwidth=auto
|title=EFL League Two final table, leading positions
|source=[https://www.efl.com/-more/governance/efl-rules--regulations/efl-regulations/section-3-the-league/ EFL Official Website]

| name_WIM = [[AFC Wimbledon]]
| name_BRA = [[Bradford City A.F.C.|Bradford City]]
| name_CHE = [[Chesterfield F.C.|Chesterfield]]
| name_DON = [[Doncaster Rovers F.C.|Doncaster Rovers]]
| name_NCO = [[Notts County F.C.|Notts County]]
| name_POV = [[Port Vale F.C.|Port Vale]]
| name_WAL = [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]]

|team_order=DON, POV, BRA, WAL, WIM, NCO, CHE

|win_WIM=20|draw_WIM=13|loss_WIM=13|gf_WIM=56|ga_WIM=35
|win_BRA=22|draw_BRA=12|loss_BRA=12|gf_BRA=64|ga_BRA=45
|win_CHE=19|draw_CHE=13|loss_CHE=14|gf_CHE=73|ga_CHE=54
|win_DON=24|draw_DON=12|loss_DON=10|gf_DON=73|ga_DON=50
|win_NCO=20|draw_NCO=12|loss_NCO=14|gf_NCO=68|ga_NCO=49
|win_POV=22|draw_POV=14|loss_POV=10|gf_POV=65|ga_POV=46
|win_WAL=21|draw_WAL=14|loss_WAL=11|gf_WAL=75|ga_WAL=54


|status_DON=CP
|status_POV=P
|status_BRA=P

|col_P=green1 |text_P=Promotion to [[2025–26 EFL League One]]
|result1=P |result2=P |result3=P
|result4=PP |result5=PP |result6=E |result7=E
|col_PP=green2 |text_PP=Qualified
|col_E=red1 |text_E=Eliminated
|update=complete
|-
}}
==Match==
===Details===
<onlyinclude>
{{Football box
| date = 26 May 2025
| time = 15:00 [[British Summer Time|BST]]
| team1 = [[Walsall F.C.|Walsall]]
| score =
| report = https://www.efl.com/match-centre/g2554865
| team2 = [[AFC Wimbledon]]
| goals1 =
| goals2 =
| stadium = [[Wembley Stadium]], [[London]]
| attendance =
| referee =
}}</onlyinclude>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{EFL League Two play-offs}}
{{Walsall F.C.}}
{{AFC Wimbledon}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:EFL League Two play-off final 2025}}
[[Category:EFL League Two play-off finals|2025]]
[[Category:2025 English Football League play-offs]]
[[Category:May 2025 sports events in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:2025 in sport in London]]
[[Category:Walsall F.C. matches]]
[[Category:AFC Wimbledon matches]]

{{Footy-competition-stub}}

British logistics in the Falklands War

2024-09-22T14:00:40Z

Denvercoder9: /* Aftermath */ SI unit notation

{{short description|1982 combat service support operations}}
{{featured article}}
{{use British English|date=November 2017}}
{{use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}

[[File:Wessex 1982.JPG|thumb|upright=1.35|A [[Westland Wessex]] helicopter delivering supplies at [[Ascension Island]] in May 1982|alt=A helicopter flies over the water with a load slung below. In the background is an island with a series of pyramid-shaped peaks.]]
The 1982 [[Falklands War|British military campaign to recapture]] the [[Falkland Islands]]
depended on complex [[Military logistics|logistical]] arrangements. The logistical difficulties of operating {{convert|7000|nmi|mi km}} from home were formidable. The Argentine [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands|invasion of the Falkland Islands]] came at a time when the [[Royal Navy]] was experiencing a reduction in its amphibious capability, but it still possessed the [[aircraft carrier]]s {{HMS|Hermes|R12|6}} and {{HMS|Invincible|R05|2}}, the [[landing platform dock]] (LPD) ships {{HMS|Fearless|L10|6}} and {{HMS|Intrepid|L11|2}}, and six [[landing ship logistics]] (LSL) ships. To provide the necessary logistic support, the Royal Navy's ships were augmented by ships taken up from trade ([[STUFT]]).

The [[British Army]] and Royal Navy developed a base at [[Ascension Island]], a British territory in the [[Atlantic Ocean|mid-Atlantic]] {{convert|3700|nmi|mi km}} from the UK and {{convert|3300|nmi|mi km}} from the Falkland Islands. Although it had an airfield with an excellent [[runway]], there was only a small [[hardstand]] area for parking aircraft and no parallel [[taxiway]]s. There was an [[anchorage (maritime)|anchorage]], but no port facilities—just a lone [[jetty]]. Ascension was used as a convenient place for the amphibious ships to re-stow their equipment, and as a base for [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|Hercules]] transport aircraft, which were modified by the addition of auxiliary fuel tanks and [[aerial refuelling]] probes. With the support of [[Handley Page Victor|Victor]] tankers, these modifications allowed the transports to deliver priority supplies to the South Atlantic.

The [[3rd Commando Brigade]] [[Operation Sutton|landed]] at [[Ajax Bay]], [[Port San Carlos]] and [[San Carlos, Falkland Islands|San Carlos]] on [[East Falkland]], but struggled to build up its supplies as the [[Argentine air forces in the Falklands War|Argentine air forces]] made [[Battle of San Carlos (1982)|repeated attacks on ships]] in [[Falkland Sound]]. {{SS|Atlantic Conveyor||6}} was struck by two [[Exocet AM39]] missiles, and sank with three [[Boeing CH-47 Chinook|Chinook]] and six [[Westland Wessex|Wessex]] helicopters still on board, along with their tools and spare parts, and other vital stores including tent accommodation. The loss of the helicopters on ''Atlantic Conveyor'' was a serious blow; it forced the 3rd Commando Brigade to make a [[loaded march]] across East Falkland. The Brigade Maintenance Area (BMA) was struck by an Argentine air attack on 27 May that destroyed hundreds of rounds of mortar and artillery ammunition. Forward Brigade Maintenance Areas (FBMAs) were established at [[Teal Inlet]] for the 3rd Commando Brigade and [[Fitzroy, Falkland Islands|Fitzroy]] for the [[5th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Brigade]]. Some 500 rounds per gun were delivered to gun positions by helicopters to enable the [[artillery]] to support the attacks on the mountains ringing [[Port Stanley]]. The successful conclusion of these battles resulted in the surrender of the Argentine forces in the Falklands on 14 June.

==Background==
[[File:Falklands, Campaign, (Distances to bases) 1982.jpg|thumb|Key locations and the route taken by British forces during the Falklands War|alt=A map of the north and South Atlantic Ocians. Ascension Island is in the mid-Atlantic; the Falkland Islands are in the South Atlantic, near Argentina.]]
Tensions between Britain and Argentina over the disputed [[Falkland Islands]] (Malvinas) rose swiftly after Argentine scrap metal merchants and [[Argentina Marines]] raised the Argentine flag over [[South Georgia Island]] on 19 March 1982,{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=50–52}} and on 2 April, Argentine forces [[1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands|occupied the Falkland Islands]].{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=4–11}} The British government had already taken some action on 29 March, ordering the submarines {{HMS|Spartan|S105|6}} and {{HMS|Splendid|S106|6}} to sail for the South Atlantic.{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=53}} ''Spartan'' left [[Gibraltar]] on 1 April, and ''Splendid'' sailed from [[Faslane]] the same day. A third submarine, {{HMS|Conqueror|S48|6}}, followed on 4 April.{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=67–68}}

The [[Royal Fleet Auxiliary]] (RFA) [[stores ship]] {{RFAux|Fort Austin|A386|6}} was despatched from the Western Mediterranean to replenish the only British warship in the South Atlantic, the patrol vessel {{HMS|Endurance|1967|6}}, which was down to its last three weeks' supplies. The [[replenishment oiler|tanker]] {{RFAux|Appleleaf|A79|6}}, which had left [[Curaçao]] bound for the United Kingdom with a full load of fuel, received orders on 27 March to divert to Gibraltar, embark stores there, and join ''Endurance'' and ''Fort Austin'' in the South Atlantic.{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=53}}

When intelligence was received in London on 31 March that the Falklands would be invaded on 2 April, the [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]], [[Margaret Thatcher]], and the [[Secretary of State for Defence]], [[John Nott]], instructed the [[First Sea Lord]], [[Admiral (Royal Navy)|Admiral]] Sir [[Henry Leach]], to ready a force to recapture the islands.{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=53}} The [[Commander-in-Chief Fleet]], [[Admiral (Royal Navy)|Admiral]] Sir [[John Fieldhouse]], who was based at [[Northwood Headquarters]], was placed in command of Task Force 317, with overall responsibility for this operation, codenamed Operation Corporate.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=29–30}} [[Air Marshal]] Sir [[John Curtiss (Royal Air Force officer)|John Curtiss]] was appointed air component commander,{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=64}} and Major General [[Jeremy Moore]], land component commander.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=207}}

[[Rear Admiral (Royal Navy)|Rear Admiral]] [[Sandy Woodward]], [[Flag Officer First Flotilla]], commanded the [[aircraft carrier]] battle group (TG 317.8); [[Commodore (Royal Navy)|Commodore]] [[Michael Clapp]], the [[Commodore, Amphibious Warfare]], commanded the amphibious force (TG 317.0); and [[Brigadier (United Kingdom)|Brigadier]] [[Julian Thompson (Royal Marines officer)|Julian Thompson]], the landing force (TG 317.1).{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=29–30}} Thompson's force was built around his [[3rd Commando Brigade]], which had three battalions of the [[Royal Marines]] ([[40 Commando]], [[42 Commando]] and [[45 Commando]]),{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=32–35}} and supporting units including its own logistic support unit, the [[Commando Logistic Regiment]]. About 80 per cent of the Commando Logistic Regiment's men were Royal Marines; the rest came from the [[British Army]] and [[Royal Navy]].{{sfn|Hellberg|2005|p=111}}

==Shipping==
===Amphibious===
On 2 April, orders went out to make the Royal Navy's two aircraft carriers, {{HMS|Hermes|R12|6}} and {{HMS|Invincible|R05|2}}, ready to sail.{{sfn|Woodward|1992|p=73}} Both had been involved in exercises in February and March, and were at [[HMNB Portsmouth]] for six weeks' maintenance. Many of ''Hermes''{{'}}s major systems had been dismantled for the maintenance work. ''Invincible'' was in a better state of readiness, but her crew were on leave. The Royal Navy's two [[landing platform dock]] (LPD) ships, {{HMS|Fearless|L10|6}} and {{HMS|Intrepid|L11|6}}, were also at Portsmouth, where the former was acting as an officer training ship and the latter was being mothballed, having been earmarked to be [[paid off]] under the terms of the [[1981 Defence White Paper]] though that decision had been reversed only weeks prior to the outbreak of hostilities in the South Atlantic.<ref>{{cite Hansard |title=HMS "Fearless" and "Intrepid" |house=HC |date=8 March 1982 |volume=19 |column=327 |speaker= |url=https://api.parliament.uk/historic-hansard/written-answers/1982/mar/08/hms-fearless-and-intrepid#S6CV0019P0_19820308_CWA_302 |access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> She was hastily recommissioned, and her crew reassembled from their new postings.{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=65–68}} Each LPD carried four [[Landing Craft Utility]] (LCU) in its dock, and four of the smaller [[LCVP (United Kingdom)|Landing Craft Vehicle Personnel]] (LCVP) on [[davit]]s.{{sfn|Clapp|Southby-Tailyour|1997|p=21}}

The rest of the Royal Navy's amphibious capability consisted of six [[Round Table class landing ship logistics ship|Round Table-class]] [[landing ship logistics]] (LSL) ships. Four were immediately available: {{RFAux|Sir Galahad|1966|6}} and {{RFAux|Sir Geraint|L3027|2}} were at [[HMNB Devonport]], while {{RFAux|Sir Lancelot|L3029|6}} and {{RFAux|Sir Percivale|L3036|2}} were at the [[Marchwood Military Port]]. The other two were further away: {{RFAux|Sir Tristram|L3505|6}} was in Belize, and could meet up with the fleet on its way south; but {{RFAux|Sir Bedivere|L3004|6}} was in [[Vancouver]], [[British Columbia]], Canada, and would not be immediately available. It was therefore decided to use the stores ship {{RFAux|Stromness|A344|6}}, which was also in reserve at Portsmouth, as an LPD in the initial stages, after which she would revert to her normal role.{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=65–68}} ''Stromness'' departed on 7 April with 358 Royal Marines and 7,500 rations on board.{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=72}}

[[File:Galahad82.jpg|thumb|left|{{RFAux|Sir Galahad|1966|6}} heading south in May 1982|alt=A grey ship with a helipad aft. It has "L3005" painted on the side in large letters.]]
As vital as they were, these ships were insufficient for the logistics needs of a task force operating {{convert|8000|mi}} from home. Civilian ships could be obtained by charter or by requisition; but there was no time to allow ships to complete the deliveries of their cargo or meet their existing passenger booking obligations. The British government therefore resorted to requisitioning, a practice last exercised during the [[Suez Crisis]] in 1956.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=9}}{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=54}} An [[Order in Council]] was issued on 4 April allowing any British ship to be requisitioned, along with anything on board.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=8}} Civilian ships acquired became known as ships taken up from trade ([[STUFT]]).<ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110075428/http://www.nickmessinger.co.uk/STUFT.pdf |url=http://www.nickmessinger.co.uk/STUFT.pdf |title=Ships Taken Up From Trade – STUFT |first=Nick |last=Messenger |date=January 1983 |publisher=Ministry of Defence |archive-date=10 November 2016 |access-date=19 November 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Half were requisitioned; the rest were chartered.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=29}} Some companies, such as [[P&O (company)|P&O]], insisted on requisitioning, as it allowed them to break existing contracts.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=53}}

Government policy was that only British-flagged vessels could be requisitioned, and only British nationals could serve as crewmen. British crewmen were retained, and a 150 per cent bonus was paid to those who entered the South Atlantic,{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=28}} considerably more than the extra £1 per day paid to members of the armed services.{{sfn|Clapp|Southby-Tailyour|1997|p=60}} Among the RFA crews were some 400 Hong Kong Chinese, who were [[British Overseas Territories citizen]]s. Some protested that their contracts said nothing about service in a war zone, but the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] refuted this.<ref name="Chinese">{{cite news |newspaper=South China Morning Post |first=Peter |last=Simpson |title=The War Within |date=10 June 2007 |url=https://www.scmp.com/article/596179/war-within |access-date=9 June 2018 |archive-date=9 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180709010614/https://www.scmp.com/article/596179/war-within |url-status=live }}</ref> A declaration of active service brought everyone under the [[Naval Discipline Act 1957]].{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=15–16}} A senior naval officer was assigned to each ship,{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=54}} with authority to direct the ship's actions and movements, even if, in the opinion of the master, it might put the ship at risk.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=15–16}}

Many modern ships are designed for maximum economy in performing a specific task, which limits their flexibility. The ferries that plied the English Channel, for example, did not have the capacity to store enough fresh water for a voyage to the South Atlantic. STUFT had to have a combination of range, endurance and [[sea-keeping]] qualities.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=12–13}} The need for range meant that ships could not take on sea water as [[ballast]], making them less stable in the rough seas anticipated in the South Atlantic.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=28}} Only one vessel was taken up for every four inspected.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=29}} Over the next few months, 54 ships were requisitioned from 33 owners.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=26}} During the Falklands War they carried {{convert|100000|LT}} of freight, 95 aircraft, 9,000 personnel, and {{convert|400000|LT}} of fuel.{{sfn|Webb|2007|p=298}}

On 3 April it was decided to add the [[3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment]] (3 Para) to Thompson's 3rd Commando Brigade. This ended plans for the amphibious force to carry the entire landing force. Even if troops were accommodated on the aircraft carriers, they could not carry what was now a 4,350-man force. Calculations indicated that capacity was short by 1,700 men, {{convert|150|LT}} of stores and 60 vehicles.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=51–53}} For a troop transport, an [[ocean liner]] was the best alternative, but there were few of these left. P&O's {{convert|44807|grt|adj=on|lk=on}} {{SS|Canberra}} was chosen.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=12–15}} She was on a cruise in the Mediterranean with a full complement of passengers and crew, but due to return to [[Southampton]] on 6 April.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=28}} Some 400 of her crew were Asian nationals, and therefore had to be disembarked,{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=54}} but her master, Captain D. J. Scott-Masson, was a [[Royal Naval Reserve]] officer.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=14}}

[[File:A port bow view of the British large fleet tanker HMS TIDEPOOL (A 76) underway.jpg|thumb|{{RFAux|Tidepool|A76|6}} in 1982|alt=A grey ship. It has three large refuelling booms midship, with black hoses.]]
The [[Chiefs of Staff Committee]] subsequently recommended further reinforcing the 3rd Commando Brigade with another battalion, the [[2nd Battalion, Parachute Regiment]] (2 Para). This was approved by the [[War Cabinet]] on 15 April. To carry it, the {{convert|12988|grt|adj=on}} ferry {{MV|Norland||6}} was requisitioned on 17 April. She was far from ideal, as her ramp could not be lowered to the height of the [[mexeflote]] landing rafts carried by the LSLs, but the choices of available ships were limited.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=195}}{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=171}} For transporting vehicles, a [[roll-on/roll-off]] vessel was preferred, as unloading facilities were unavailable in the Falkland Islands. The {{convert|5463|grt|adj=on}} P&O ferry MS ''Elk'' was therefore requisitioned. It took on 100 vehicles, 2,000 tons of ammunition, and several hundred tons of stores.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=53}} It was followed by the {{convert|4190|grt|adj=on}} {{MS|Europic Ferry||6}}, which was taken up on 19 April.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=15, 172–173}} Cunard's {{convert|14946|grt|adj=on}} [[container ship]], {{SS|Atlantic Conveyor||6}} was requisitioned on 14 April and converted into an aircraft transport.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=30}}{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=15, 178–179}}

Soon after his appointment as land component commander on 9 April, Moore began to press for British Army's [[5th Infantry Brigade (United Kingdom)|5th Infantry Brigade]] to be sent to the South Atlantic as well. Fieldhouse formally requested this on 27 April. The brigade had a strength of 3,961 men, and for 35 days' operations it required {{convert|1067|LT}} of ammunition, {{convert|1129|LT}} of stores, 205 vehicles and 19 helicopters. If the ships carrying the 3rd Commando Brigade were to be reused, even if the troops were flown to [[Ascension Island]] and embarked from there, they could not reach the Falkland Islands before the middle of June. It was therefore decided that the brigade would have to be carried in other ships. The War Cabinet only approved the despatch of the 5th Infantry Brigade on 2 May.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=207–211}} The [[Cunard Line]]'s {{convert|67140|grt|adj=on}} {{SS|Queen Elizabeth 2}} was taken up just 19 hours before she was due to depart for the Mediterranean with cruise passengers.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=30}}{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=15}}

To carry the 5th Infantry Brigade's vehicles and stores, two more roll-on/roll-off vessels were requisitioned, the {{convert|6455|grt|adj=on}} {{MS|Baltic Ferry||6}} and {{MS|Nordic Ferry||2}}.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=15, 172–173}} ''Atlantic Conveyor''{{'}}s [[sister ship]], {{SS|Atlantic Causeway||6}}, was requisitioned for the same conversion to an aircraft transport on 4 May.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=30}}{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=15, 178–179}} They were joined by the helicopter support ship {{RFAux|Engadine|K08|6}}. ''Atlantic Causeway'' was loaded with vehicles and stores, requiring another vessel to carry the aircraft. It had also been decided to send another six RAF [[Hawker Siddeley Harrier|Harrier]]s to augment the six already sent on ''Atlantic Conveyor''.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=211–212}} [[RFA Argus (A135)|MV ''Contender Bezant'']] was requisitioned for conversion to an aircraft transport on 10 May, followed by [[RFA Reliant (A131)|''Astronomer'']] on 29 May.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=30}}

===Logistical===
Fuel was a critical requirement of the task force, and for political reasons could not be obtained from South America or [[South Africa]]. Countries in South America, even if sympathetic, felt unable to offer overt support in a conflict involving a neighbouring state, while South Africa was an [[Disinvestment from South Africa|international pariah]] at the time due to its system of [[apartheid]], and collaboration with its regime risked alienating other countries at a time when Britain needed all the support it could muster for its international diplomatic efforts. The nearest source of supply was [[Freetown]] in Sierra Leone, {{convert|4100|mi}} from the Falkland Islands. To carry the [[diesel fuel]] required by the [[gas turbine]]s of the warships and the [[fuel oil]] required by ''Hermes'' and some of the older RFA and STUFT, the fourteen RFA tankers were supplemented by fifteen requisitioned tankers.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=12}}

{{RFAux|Tidespring|A75|6}} and ''Appleleaf'' accompanied Woodward's force of ships that sailed from Gibraltar, while {{RFAux|Pearleaf|A77|6}} and {{RFAux|Olmeda|A124|2}} were detailed to accompany the force departing from the UK. {{RFAux|Blue Rover|A270|6}} was returning from Gibraltar to the UK; she was ordered to take on [[aviation fuel]] and [[petrol]] at Portsmouth. {{RFAux|Brambleleaf|A81|6}} was in the Indian Ocean, and was ordered to proceed to the South Atlantic via the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. {{RFAux|Tidepool|A76|6}} had been sold to Chile and was off the coast of Peru on its way there, but its government allowed it to be temporarily repossessed on 3 April.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=54}} The first two tankers to be chartered were [[British Petroleum]]'s {{DWT|25905|adj=on}} ''British Esk'' at [[Hamburg]] and {{DWT|25000|adj=on}} ''British Tay'' at [[Swansea]] on 5 April, followed by the {{DWT|25498|adj=on}} ''British Tamar'' on 7 April, and {{DWT|25651|adj=on}} ''British Dart'' on 9 April.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=52, 174–176}}

[[File:RFA Stromness DN-SC-87-05079.jpeg|thumb|left|{{RFAux|Stromness|A344|6}} in 1982|alt=A grey ship with a helipad aft]]
Although the Royal Navy ships in the task force were fitted with [[reverse osmosis]] systems for producing [[potable water]], many civilian ships were not, and some ships needed more water than usual owing to their carrying additional passengers. The {{convert|31400|grt|adj=on}} SS ''Fort Toronto'' was chartered from [[CP Ships|Canadian Pacific]] for service as a water tanker. The supply of water while under way was simpler than fuel, as the hoses are lighter and the quantities involved are not as great.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=53}} The {{convert|6061|grt|adj=on}} North Sea oil rig support ship SS ''Stena Seaspread'' was taken up to act as a repair ship.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=15}} The [[Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service]] had one ocean-going [[tugboat]], {{RMAS|Typhoon|A95|6}}, but it was evident that more would be required, and three were requisitioned from the United Towing company: SS ''Salvageman'', ''Irishman'' and ''Yorkshireman''.{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=70–71}}{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=47}}

The Royal Navy had no hospital ships. {{ship|HMY|Britannia}} had been built to allow its conversion into a hospital ship, but she required special fuel oil, and had only a 200-bed capacity. Instead, the {{convert|16907|grt|adj=on}} P&O liner {{SS|Uganda|1952|6}}, which was in the Mediterranean on an educational cruise with a thousand schoolchildren on board, was requisitioned, and modified to become a hospital ship. A team of 135 medical personnel was assigned, which included members of [[Queen Alexandra's Royal Naval Nursing Service]] (QARNNS).{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=75}} This was the first time that QARNNS personnel had been deployed afloat since the [[Korean War]]. They brought a packaged 250-bed portable hospital and 90 tons of medical supplies with them.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=134}} Beds were provided for 20 intensive-care patients and 94 medium-dependency patients. Up to 940 low-dependency patients could be accommodated in dormitories.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=131–132}} Three {{Sclass|Hecla|survey vessel|1}}s, {{HMS|Hecla|A133|6}}, {{HMS|Herald|H138|2}} and {{HMS|Hydra|A144|2}}, became ambulance ships.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=54}}

Hospital ships were exempt from attack under the [[Geneva Conventions]], but they also require that patients not be returned directly to the battlefield after treatment. Due to the distances involved, this meant that treatment on ''Uganda'' would involve a prolonged absence, even those with relatively minor injuries that were anticipated such as [[trench foot]]. Additional medical facilities were therefore established elsewhere in the task force.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=128}} Surgical teams were also embarked on ''Hermes'', ''Fearless'' and ''Canberra''.{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=76}} In addition to the British Army medical staff embarked, there were 425 Royal Navy medical staff with the task force, including 103 doctors. Some 40 Royal Naval Reserve doctors were called up for service in the UK to replace those headed for the South Atlantic.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=127}} The departure of so many trained personnel led to the suspension of nursing training at the [[Royal Hospital Haslar|Royal Naval Hospital, Haslar]], and [[Royal Naval Hospital, Stonehouse]].{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=76}} The Army Blood Supply Depot issued 800 units to the task force, and more units were obtained from a blood donation drive on ''Canberra''.{{sfn|Tustin|1984b|p=400}}

==Dockyards==
It was initially hoped that ships could be loaded and converted at commercial shipyards, but these were soon overwhelmed by the requirements for skilled labour and specialised facilities, and the burden fell on the [[Royal Navy Dockyard]]s at Portsmouth, Devonport, [[Chatham Dockyard|Chatham]], [[Portland Harbour|Portland]], [[Rosyth Dockyard|Rosyth]] and [[Gibdock|Gibraltar]]. These had been subject to cutbacks; redundancy notices had been issued at Portsmouth on 2 April,{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=29}} and Chatham and Gibraltar had been slated for closure.{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=67, 73}} Along with Marchwood, the home of the Army's [[17 Port and Maritime Regiment RLC|17 Port Regiment]] and the home base of the six LSLs, they were not bound by legal limits on the handling of explosives. Marchwood had only a single jetty, capable of accepting two ships, and could not accept deep draft vessels.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=31}} Most major ship conversions were carried out at Devonport. Portsmouth carried out seven major conversions, including ''Norland'', and fourteen minor ones, of which ten were tankers. These were the simplest conversions, as all they involved was installing communications equipment and [[replenishment at sea]] (RAS) systems to allow the tankers to supply fuel over the stern using a long, buoyant hose. Under normal circumstances they could pump {{convert|450|LT}} per hour, whereas an RFA tanker could refuel warships running alongside, with transfer rates of {{convert|600|LT}} per hour.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=31, 52–53}}

Other ships required major alterations. The conversion of ''Atlantic Conveyor'' at Devonport required the removal of 500 tie-down points for containers from her deck, adding a landing pad for helicopters and [[Hawker Siddeley Harrier]]s, installing UHF radio equipment and satellite communications, providing accommodation for 122 men, installing a [[liquid oxygen]] tank, cutting additional hatches, and modifying the stern doors.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=31}} Similar conversions were undertaken on ''Atlantic Causeway'', ''Contender Bezant'' and ''Astronomer''.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=30}}{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=15, 178–179}} The experience with ''Atlantic Conveyor'' allowed these to be converted far more quickly.{{sfn|Bowie|1985|p=11}} The conversion of ''Uganda'' to a hospital ship was carried out at Gibraltar in 65 hours. Minesweepers were converted at Rosyth.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=33}} Some 17 ships were fitted with helicopter landing pads; on ''Canberra'' and ''Queen Elizabeth 2'', the area around the swimming pool was used, as it had been designed to hold the weight of {{convert|70|to|100|LT}} of water. On {{RMS|St Helena|1963|6}} and the cable ship ''Iris'' there was insufficient room for the flight deck and it had to be cantilevered over the stern. All ships fitted to operate helicopters also had to have communications, lighting and glide path indicators.{{sfn|Villar|1984|pp=20–22}}

[[File:BAC Rapier fielded.png|thumb|left|A [[Rapier (missile)|Rapier missile]] system|alt=A two-wheeled trailer with four missiles on it. It has a radar dome, and a jerry can is attached to the trailer.]]
The [[Royal Marines]] normally kept war reserves both afloat and ashore, but the floating reserve was on ''Sir Geraint'', and had just been unloaded for a routine transfer to another LSL. These were soon reloaded. A request to the Army for assistance for the Commando Logistic Regiment in moving stores from the depots was met by 150 trucks on the first day; 1,500 trucks would ultimately be used. The depots despatched one million operational rations and twelve million ordinary meals. They also supplied {{convert|10000|LT}} of ammunition, {{convert|1260|LT}} of fuel, and {{convert|3880|LT}} of stores. Eventually, {{convert|38000|LT}} would be moved through to the ports.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=34–35}} Good weather at Devonport and Portsmouth permitted loading to be carried out in the open without the danger of perishable stores being damaged by rain.{{sfn|Villar|1984|p=29}}

Ships were not [[combat loading|combat loaded]]—loaded in such a way that the weapons, ammunition, equipment and stores that the embarked troops would require on landing were immediately accessible. Most units sent critical equipment to the ports first, and this then became the first equipment loaded, and the last that could be unloaded. ''Baltic Ferry'' had munitions stored deep in her holds that could only be retrieved by removing all the other cargo.{{sfn|Valovcin|1992|pp=8–9}} Most of the 3rd Commando Brigade's ammunition, about {{convert|2000|LT}} of it, was loaded on ''Elk'', making that vessel a particularly vulnerable target.{{sfn|Badsey|2014|p=109}}

Wheeled vehicles were not expected to be able to traverse the islands, so most were left behind. The 3rd Commando Brigade did take 54 of the Commando Logistic Regiment's 82 4-ton prime movers, ten of its fifteen fuel trucks, and nine of its forklifts.{{sfn|Hellberg|2005|pp=111–112}} To make up for the wheeled vehicles, the 3rd Commando Brigade took 75 [[Bv202]] tracked vehicles. These were fetched from Scotland by [[British Rail]], the only use of rail during the initial deployment,{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=37–38}} because British Rail required seven days notice to reposition its rolling stock.{{sfn|Tustin|1984a|p=296}} Some 44 special trains were hired in the second week.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=53}} All vehicles were loaded fully fuelled with two full {{convert|20|L|Impgal|adj=on}} [[jerry can]]s, a practice normally prohibited as a fire hazard.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=37–38}} As it turned out, four-wheel drive vehicles were able to operate on the islands. The Commando Logistic Regiment was missing 383 Commando Petroleum Troop, as this was made up of reservists, who were not called up.{{sfn|Badsey|2014|pp=111–112}}{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=119, 149}} Leaving personnel behind reduced the strength of the Commando Logistic Regiment from its normal peacetime strength of over 600 to just 346. The only supplement it received was three Surgical Support Teams.{{sfn|Hellberg|2005|p=111}} The 3rd Commando Brigade's air defences were bolstered by the addition of [[T Battery (Shah Sujah's Troop) Royal Artillery]], armed with twelve [[Rapier (missile)|Rapier missile]] launchers. The logistical implications of deploying and maintaining the battery in the field were not fully appreciated.{{sfn|Thompson|1985|p=12}}{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=39}}

==Ascension==
The task force headed for [[Ascension Island]], a British territory in the mid-Atlantic {{convert|3700|nmi}} from the UK and {{convert|3300|nmi}} from the Falkland Islands.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=60–63}}{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=62–63}} Parts of the island were leased by the US under a 1956 treaty which expired on 20 July 1975, but continued on an annual basis until either government announced its intention to terminate. Neither had done so by 1982. A 1962 exchange of notes obliged the US to provide "logistic, administrative or operating facilities at the airfield" for use by UK military aircraft.{{sfn|McQueen|2008|pp=6–7}} Ascension had about a thousand inhabitants, all contractors or employees, or the family members of contractors or employees, of British or American companies that included [[Cable & Wireless plc|Cable & Wireless]], the [[BBC]], [[Pan American World Airways]] (Pan Am) and the US [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA).{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=60–63}}{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=62–63}} There were about 200 schoolchildren on the island, who were obliged to leave at age 18.{{sfn|Hore|2005|p=217}} Although considered a United States Air Force (USAF) base, the US military garrison consisted of just one man, the base commander,{{sfn|McQueen|2008|pp=6–7}} Lieutenant Colonel William D. Bryden.{{sfn|McQueen|2008|pp=73–74}}

[[Wideawake Airfield]] was built on the island by the US during the [[Second World War]]. The runway was extended to {{convert|10000|ft}} in 1966 by the USAF to meet the demands of the [[Eastern Test Range]], and the airfield operated on behalf of the US government by Pan Am.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=60–63}}{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=62–63}} Although it had an excellent runway, there was only a small [[hardstand]] area for parking aircraft, and no parallel taxiways.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=60–63}}{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=62–63}} In the year prior to April 1982, it handled an average of 24.4 aircraft arrivals per month.{{sfn|McQueen|2008|pp=73–74}} Ascension had an [[anchorage (maritime)|anchorage]], but no port facilities—just a lone [[jetty]].{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=60–63}}{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=62–63}} The island was resupplied on a regular basis by a charter flight, which brought fresh produce, and a freighter, {{RMS|St Helena|1963|6}}. When the Falklands War broke out, ''St Helena'' was due and the charter flight had just departed. The island was therefore fortuitously well-stocked.{{sfn|McQueen|2008|pp=6–7}} There were two shops on the island, run by [[NAAFI]] under contract. As such they looked like NAAFI stores, but charged much higher prices. At first these were open to service personnel, but as stocks quickly became low they were placed off limits to them. The [[Expeditionary Forces Institute]] (EFI) then established a third shop, exclusively for service personnel. After some delay, space was made available for a weekly supply run for the civilians. Their morale plummeted when it was announced that the Ministry of Defence had chartered ''St Helena'', their only means of shipping baggage, receiving sea mail, and returning to [[St Helena]], which had no airport. [[RFA Diligence (A132)|MV ''Stena Inspector'']] and {{HMS|Dumbarton Castle|P265|6}} had to be diverted from operational tasks to perform these duties.{{sfn|Hore|2005|p=223}}

[[File:HMS Bristol storing at Ascension Island 1982.JPG|thumb|Supplies being delivered to {{HMS|Bristol|D23|6}} by a [[Boeing Chinook (UK variants)|Chinook]] helicopter during a stopover at Ascension Island on the ship's voyage to the South Atlantic|alt=A twin-rotor helicopter with a load slung below hovers over a warship]]
A dozen RAF [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules]] transports flew to Ascension via Gibraltar and Dakar on 3 April, bringing stores and RAF and Royal Navy personnel to establish a base on Ascension.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=21}} Royal Navy [[Captain (Royal Navy)|Captain]] Robert McQueen was appointed to command the British Forces Support Unit (BFSU) on Ascension,{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=60–63}} and arrived on 8 April.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=64}} The BFSU ballooned to over 800 personnel in the first three weeks. It began operating [[Westland Sea King]] and [[Westland Wessex|Wessex]] helicopters.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=62–63}}
Aviation fuel storage facilities on Ascension were controlled by the United States. On 13 April, the US agreed that the British forces could use {{convert|950000|USgal|L}} of the {{convert|12.5|e6USgal|L}} stored on the island. Some {{convert|250000|USgal|L}} of this allocation was consumed on 19 April, and just {{convert|12000|USgal|L}} remained on 25 April when a supply tanker with {{convert|2.4|e6USgal|L}} commenced replenishment. At this point, the US released its reserve stocks for British use.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=62–63}} Fuel was discharged from tankers through a floating pipeline to an American fuel farm. It then needed to be transported {{convert|3.5|mi}} to Wideawake Airfield. Tanker trucks found the island's steep and rough road heavy going.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=72}} The compacted volcanic rock used to surface the roads was abrasive, and tyres soon wore out. New sets had to be flown in.{{sfn|White|2012|p=166}} Sappers of 1 Troop, 51 Field Squadron, [[Royal Engineers]], built a pipeline to connect the fuel farm with the storage tanks at the airfield. Meanwhile, 12 Petroleum Operations Section, [[Royal Army Ordnance Corps]], had taken over management of the fuel farm. Fuel storage at Wideawake Airfield was increased by {{convert|180000|USgal|L}} by the addition of {{convert|30000|USgal|L|adj=on}} [[fuel bladder]]s.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=72}}

The RAF presence sharply increased after it was decided to use Ascension as a base for operations. Two [[Hawker Siddeley Nimrod]] [[maritime patrol aircraft]] arrived on 5 April. These were followed by seventeen [[Handley Page Victor]] [[aerial refuelling tanker]]s and three [[Avro Vulcan]] bombers,{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=62–63}}{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=91}} which conducted raids on the Falkland Islands as part of [[Operation Black Buck]].{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=277–283}} The first five Victor tankers deployed to Ascension on 18 April, followed by four more the next day. Six more deployed by the end of the month, bringing the Victor tanker force to fourteen, since one had returned to their base at [[RAF Marham]] on 26 April. Each was refuelled by another Victor before leaving UK airspace. The station commander at Marham, [[Group Captain]] J. S. B. Price, became the senior RAF officer at Ascension. [[Wing commander (rank)|Wing Commander]] D. W. Maurice-Jones assumed command of the Victor detachment until 22 April, when he was relieved by Wing Commander A. W. Bowman, the commander of [[No. 57 Squadron RAF]].{{sfn|Burden|Draper|Rough|Smith|1986|pp=393–394}}

The number of personnel on the island increased to about one thousand, of whom around 120 were Navy, 60 were British Army, and 800 were RAF.{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=89}} This exceeded the capacity of the island's water supply, and McQueen instituted draconian measures to limit the number of personnel on Ascension Island, in some cases sending people back on the planes they arrived on.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=70}} In early May, the USAF flew in fourteen planeloads of portable accommodation in the form of 31 twelve-man living units. Each was self-contained, with its own air-conditioning, bunks, showers and toilets. They were erected in five days by British and American personnel. The Army's [[30 Signal Regiment]] established direct telephone circuits to the UK, and its 2 Postal Regiment provided mail and courier services. By June, some 20,000 mailbags had passed through Ascension. A detachment of 9 Ordnance Battalion established laundry facilities in a disused laundry. Service cooks from all three services prepared a thousand meals per day through three field kitchens.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=72–73}} Intelligence sources warned of a possible Argentine attack on Ascension, perhaps using special forces and a long-range civilian airliner like a [[Boeing 707]]. Concerns about the vulnerability of the base led to three RAF Harriers being assigned for air defence on 10 May. These were replaced by [[McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II]]s on 24 May.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=65–67}}

''Hermes'' reached Ascension on 16 April, and ''Fearless'', ''Stromness'' and the five LSLs the following day. ''Canberra'' and ''Elk'' arrived on 20 April, having refuelled at Freetown.{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=89}}{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=73}} By this time, cargo planes were arriving at Wideawake Airfield at a rate of eight per day, and {{convert|1500|LT}} of supplies had arrived, a third of which were earmarked for the 3rd Commando Brigade. Stores were difficult to identify, as many were poorly labelled, making it difficult to distinguish real ammunition from training ammunition. When cargo was not properly logged on arrival, it became difficult to know whether or not an item had been delivered. There was no security at the airfield, so goods were subject to [[Theft|pilferage]].{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=74–76}} D Squadron, [[Special Air Service|22 Special Air Service Regiment]], helped themselves to special ammunition and weapons belonging to the 3rd Commando Brigade, which they thought were just lying around.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|p=263}}

[[File:Vulcan bomber 18 May 1982.JPG|thumb|left|An [[Avro Vulcan]] bomber over Ascension Island on 18 May 1982|alt=A delta-winged aircraft silhouetted against the sky. It has its landing wheels down.]]
The amphibious force took the opportunity to re-stow its equipment. This took eleven days. Having not yet refuelled, ''Fearless'' rode too high in the water, and was unable to launch its LCUs, so the burden of the effort initially had to be carried by helicopters. Two Wessexes, three Sea Kings and a [[Boeing CH-47 Chinook]] supported the effort. Shortages of lifting gear and [[cargo net]]s hampered the effort, as did the haphazard original stowage of stores. In some cases, cargo had shifted during the voyage to Ascension. Some 138 Wessex, 40 Chinook and 40 Sea King sorties were flown on a single day. The LSLs ''Sir Galahad'' and ''Sir Percivale'' were stocked with two days' supply of ammunition, fuel and rations. Four more days' supply was stowed on ''Stromness'', and sixteen on ''Elk''. Units were issued with supplies and equipment they would require for an amphibious assault.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=76–77}} Meanwhile, ''Intrepid'', ''Atlantic Conveyor'', ''Norland'' and ''Europic Ferry'' departed the UK on 25 and 26 April, and ''Sir Bedivere'', which reached Marchwood on 25 April, sailed for Ascension on 27 April.{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=92}} The five LSLs, carrying most of the Commando Logistic Regiment, weighed anchor and set out for the Falkland Islands on 1 May, along with ''Pearleaf'' and escorted by the [[frigate]] {{HMS|Antelope|F170|6}}. ''Norland'' arrived at Ascension on the morning of 7 May, and departed for the Falklands that evening. ''Canberra'', ''Tidepool'' and ''Elk'' had left the previous day, and the last ship, the LPD ''Intrepid'', departed Ascension on 8 May.{{sfn|Clapp|Southby-Tailyour|1997|pp=121–123}}

To allow ships to be resupplied by air when operating in the South Atlantic, modifications were made to the Hercules aircraft, which normally had a range of about {{convert|2000|mi}}. At [[RAF Lyneham]], Hercules transports were fitted with pairs of {{convert|825|Impgal|L|adj=on}} auxiliary fuel tanks, thereby extending their range by three or four hours. Adding four tanks increased the range further still, but reduced the cargo carrying capacity by 75 per cent. These modified Hercules aircraft became known as LR2 and LR4 variants, depending on how many auxiliary tanks had been installed. They were also modified to allow for [[aerial refuelling]] by the addition of refuelling probes taken from Vulcan bombers.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=66–69}} In the search for refuelling probes, they were taken from Vulcans at the [[Royal Air Force Museum London]], [[Imperial War Museum Duxford]], [[Castle Air Museum]] in [[California]], and the [[Strategic Air Command & Aerospace Museum]] in [[Nebraska]].{{sfn|White|2012|pp=136–137}} The Hercules transports were the first propeller-driven aircraft to be refuelled by Victor tankers. The difference in the speeds required skilful flying. A Victor would approach a Hercules from above and aft at {{convert|23000|ft}}. The Hercules would then descend at {{convert|500|ft}} per minute. At full throttle, this allowed the Hercules to reach {{convert|230|to|240|kn|kph}}, the minimum speed of the Victor. Refuelling took about 15 minutes, by which time they would have descended to {{convert|8000|ft}}, but occasionally it took longer and they descended as low as {{convert|2000|ft}}.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=66–69}}

Part of 47 Air Despatch Squadron, [[Royal Corps of Transport]], went to Ascension on ''Fearless''. They prepared their first packages for [[airdrop]]ping on 19 April, of high priority supplies for {{HMS|Alacrity|F174|6}} and ''Invincible''. The first LR2 Hercules arrived at Wideawake Airfield on 12 May, and four days later a 24-hour, {{convert|6300|nmi|km|adj=on}} flight delivered {{convert|1000|lb}} of supplies to ''Antelope''. A flight to the Falkland Islands would take 28 hours, so two crews were needed, and required five Victor tankers for aerial refuelling. McQueen tried to enforce a policy that airdrop loads be rigged in the UK to save space at Ascension, but was overruled by Fieldhouse. By 1 June, 47 Air Despatch Squadron had prepared 47 loads totalling {{convert|163|LT}}, with high priority items delivered within 40 hours of the initial request.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=66–69}} Airdrop missions mounted from Ascension were given girls' names, in ascending alphabetical order. After "Zara" was flown on 9 June, the sequence started again with "Alison" the following day. While most airdrops were at sea, some were made to units in the Falkland Islands.{{sfn|Burden|Draper|Rough|Smith|1986|pp=407–408}} Those at sea were made with the stores in waterproof containers which were retrieved by the ships' boats.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=101–102, 236}} Occasionally personnel were also dropped. In the "Ursula" mission on 1 June, Lieutenant Colonel David Chaundler, a replacement commander for 2 Para, parachuted into the sea and was plucked from the water by a boat from the frigate {{HMS|Penelope|F127|6}}.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=172–173}}

==Over the beach==
[[File:Land.ops.2.en.svg|thumb|upright=2.2|Key locations and the routes taken by British land forces during the Falklands War. IR = Infantry Regiment; Cdo = Commando; SAS = [[Special Air Service]]; SBS = [[Special Boat Service|Special Boat Squadron]]; M&AW = [[Mountain and Arctic Warfare Cadre]] |alt=A map showing part of East Falkland. Stanley is on the east side and the landing areas around Port San Carlos and Ajax Bay on the West side. ]]

===Landing===
The plan for an amphibious landing in the Falkland Islands, codenamed [[Operation Sutton]],{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=194}} called for units to land from the ships in which they had sailed,{{sfn|Clapp|Southby-Tailyour|1997|p=151}} which meant that 40 Commando, 42 Commando and 3 Para would land from ''Canberra'';{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=461}} but Fieldhouse became concerned about risking 2,000 men on one ship.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=427–428}} On 18 May, Clapp received orders for different battalions to be carried on separate ships.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=461}} Unusually calm seas on 19 May allowed this cross-decking to be carried out by LCUs and LCVPs from ''Fearless'' and ''Intrepid'', with 40 Commando transferred to the former, and 3 Para to the latter. Both LPDs were seriously overloaded, and, unlike ''Canberra'', did not have enough life rafts for everyone. After sunset an [[846 Naval Air Squadron]] Sea King from ''Hermes'' transferring troops of D Squadron, 22 Special Air Service Regiment, to ''Intrepid'' crashed into the ocean. ''Intrepid''{{'}}s LCVPs rescued eight men, but 22 others were lost.{{sfn|Clapp|Southby-Tailyour|1997|pp=152–154}}{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=171–172}}

Another change was that the Commando Logistic Regiment wanted the LSLs beached so they could be quickly unloaded. Clapp demurred. If done improperly, this could damage the ship. For this reason, peacetime financial restraints had prevented the LSL captains from practising this manoeuvre. Clapp ruled that the LSLs would discharge onto mexeflotes and landing craft through the stern doors. The LSLs had been loaded with the most urgently required stores in the bow, where they could be accessed first, but now the order needed to be changed. The double-handling required meant that unloading would be slower than planned.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=97–98}}

The logistics plan called for the support elements of the combat units, known as the B Echelons, to remain afloat, along with the entire Commando Logistic Regiment. After the beachhead was secured, the B Echelons would join their units. Lieutenant Colonel Ivar Hellberg, the commander of the Commando Logistic Regiment, and Major Gerry Wells-Cole, the 3rd Commando Brigade's Deputy Assistant Adjutant and Quartermaster General (DAA & QMG), would select a Brigade Maintenance Area (BMA) site near Ajax Bay to be run by the Commando Logistic Regiment. Engineers would establish a refuelling point for Harriers and helicopters, and establish water points.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=95–97}}

Hellberg and Wells-Cole planned to use a "pull" system whereby unit quartermasters would request supplies that they needed. There would be no equipment repair facilities ashore; the Commando Logistic Regiment's Workshop Squadron would remain afloat, with detachments going ashore temporarily to retrieve or repair equipment as necessary.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=95–97}} Medical support was supplied by No. 1 Medical Troop on ''Sir Galahad'', the Parachute Clearing Troop of the [[16th (Parachute) Field Ambulance]] on ''Norland'', and No. 3 Medical Troop, No. 2 Surgical Support Team and the Commando Logistic Regiment's Medical Squadron on ''Canberra''. After the beachhead was secure, No. 1 Medical Troop and the Parachute Clearing Troop would establish a field dressing station in the BMA. Casualties could be flown to ''Uganda'', and then taken to Montevideo by {{HMS|Hecate|A137|6}}, ''Hydra'' and ''Hecla'', from whence they would be flown back to the UK via Ascension. The dead would be buried in the BMA or at sea.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=95–97}}

The amphibious force entered [[Falkland Sound]] shortly after midnight local time on 21 May, delayed by mists and navigational difficulties. One of ''Fearless''{{'}}s ballast pumps broke down, slowing the start of dock operations. Four LCUs from ''Intrepid'' collected 2 Para from ''Norland'', while 40 Commando boarded four LCVPs and four LCUs; the LCVPs were needed because two of its LCUs were carrying a [[FV101 Scorpion]] and a [[FV107 Scimitar]]. 2 Para was slow boarding the LCUs, as this had not been practised, and one man suffered a crushed pelvis when he fell between the ship and an LCU. The various mishaps caused [[H-hour]] to be postponed by an hour. Guided by Major [[Ewen Southby-Tailyour]], they landed at [[San Carlos Water]], (Blue Beach) at 03:30. They then secured the high ground of the [[Sussex Mountains]], establishing a [[reverse slope defence]]. Meanwhile, the landing craft returned to take 45 Commando from ''Intrepid'' and ''Stromness'' to [[Ajax Bay]] (Red Beach), and 3 Para from ''Intrepid'' to [[Port San Carlos]] (Green Beach). 42 Commando remained on ''Canberra'' as a reserve. Delays in landing the first wave meant that the second was about two hours late, with 3 Para landing at 07:30.{{sfn|Thompson|1985|pp=55–60}}{{sfn|Gardiner|2012|p=69}}

===Build-up===
Daylight allowed helicopter operations to begin. On 21 May, helicopters carried 288 loads, moving 520 personnel and {{convert|220|LT}} of stores from 11 ships to 21 sites. STUFT were unloaded at a rate of {{convert|20|LT}} per hour, and the LSLs could be unloaded at {{convert|90|LT}} per hour, the lesson being that STUFT were a poor substitute for purpose-built amphibious vessels.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=120}} Priority was given to moving the six [[L118 light gun]]s of 79 Commando Battery, [[29th Commando Regiment Royal Artillery]], ashore. Moving a battery with 500 rounds per gun required 85 Sea King sorties. The next priority was to position the Rapiers of T battery, but owing to the delays in the landing, the Rapier sites were not secured until around midday. Generally located on hilltops where there were no roads or tracks, the Rapiers had to be sited by helicopter. If they had to be moved, whether yards or miles, another helicopter sortie was called for. No one knew for certain what the effect of seven weeks' sea voyage would be on the equipment, but the need for air defence was obvious, as the Argentine air forces made [[Battle of San Carlos (1982)|repeated attacks on ships]] in Falkland Sound.{{sfn|Thompson|1985|pp=61–68}} Two Gazelle helicopters were lost.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=108}}

[[File:HMS Fearless, San Carlos, 1982.JPG|thumb|left|{{HMS|Fearless|L10|6}} at San Carlos in 1982|alt=A warship at anchor. In the background is a flat, treeless landscape.]]
Of the seven escorts, five, {{HMS|Antrim|D18|6}}, {{HMS|Ardent|F184|2}}, {{HMS|Argonaut|F56|2}}, {{HMS|Brilliant|F90|2}} and {{HMS|Broadsword|F88|2}}, were hit; only {{HMS|Plymouth|F126|6}} and {{HMS|Yarmouth|F101|2}} were unscathed. Of those hit, only ''Broadsword'' was fully capable of continuing the fight, while ''Ardent'' was ablaze and sinking.{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=196–198}} Clapp decided that the sound was too dangerous for STUFT, and ordered that ''Canberra'', ''Norland'' and ''Europic Ferry'' leave Falkland Sound by midnight.{{sfn|Clapp|Southby-Tailyour|1997|p=185}} The LSLs remained, but on 23 May Argentine bombs found ''Sir Bedivere'', ''Sir Galahad'' and ''Sir Lancelot''. None of those that struck the LSLs exploded. Damage to ''Sir Bedivere'' was minor, but ''Sir Galahad'' was set on fire and beached, and was put out of action for a week. Fires started on ''Sir Lancelot'', which put it out of action until 7 June—although in the meantime she acted as an accommodation ship and helicopter refuelling station.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=111–114}}{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=216}} Clapp decided that the remaining stores had to be landed as quickly as possible. Inevitably, some stores that were neither requested nor required were landed.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=114–115}}

This disrupted the logistics plan. 42 Commando came ashore at Green Beach by LCU, but the B Echelons remained on ''Canberra'', and the assault troops had left rucksacks, parkas, sleeping and cooking gear, and spare clothing behind. ''Canberra'' and ''Norland'' also took 90,000 rations with them.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=109–111}} The BMA was far from ideal. There was a landing ramp where forklifts could unload landing craft, but unusable rocky ground limited the area available to about a third of what was really required to properly disperse the stores, and the only cover was a disused refrigeration plant on the shore of Ajax Bay, which had been taken over by the hospital.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=111–114}}

Commander [[Rick Jolly]] brought No. 2 Surgical Support Team and the Headquarters of the Commando Logistic Regiment's Medical Squadron ashore from ''Canberra''. No. 1 Medical Troop disembarked from ''Sir Galahad'', and the Parachute Clearing Troop had already come ashore from ''Norland''. With these units he set up a field hospital in the refrigeration plant. They decided not to paint a Red Cross on the building, as it was close to the ordnance stores.{{sfn|Jolly|1983|pp=48–53}} A sign painted over the entrance proclaimed it to be "The Red and Green Life Machine", alluding to the colour of the paratroopers' and commandos' berets.{{sfn|Jolly|1983|p=97}} A "Water Heater, Field Kitchen, Portable" was the sole source of hot water for the surgical team at Ajax Bay. It was loaned from an American unit for a crate of beer; the British kit they were supposed to use never made it ashore.{{sfn|Jolly|1983|pp=93–94}} Of 1,205 men treated, including 310 who required major surgery, 3 died.{{sfn|Tustin|1984b|p=409}}

[[File:SS Canberra & HMS Andromeda Falklands 1982.jpg|thumb|right|Troop transport {{SS|Canberra||6}} and frigate {{HMS|Andromeda|F57|6}} in the Falklands in June 1982|alt=A grey warship passes by a white cruise ship with prominent red funnels]]
''Atlantic Conveyor'' was struck by an [[Exocet]] [[anti-ship missile]] on the afternoon of 25 May and set ablaze. Although she remained afloat for several days, nothing could be salvaged. She was the most serious loss of the campaign. Twelve of those on board died, but 150 were rescued.{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=228–230}} Of the aircraft she had brought to the South Atlantic, the Harriers of [[No. 1 Squadron RAF]] had already been transferred to ''Hermes'',{{sfn|Pook|2007|p=35}} a Wessex of [[848 Naval Air Squadron]] had already flown ashore, and a Chinook of [[No. 18 Squadron RAF]] was in the air at the time. The rest, three Chinook and six Wessex helicopters, were lost.{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=228–230}}

The [[Bravo November|lone surviving Chinook]] landed on ''Hermes''. It spent the night there, arrived at San Carlos the next day, and was made available for missions on 29 May. The Chinook arrived with two aircrews, and a maintenance detachment, but they had no tools, spare parts or documentation, all of which were lost with ''Atlantic Conveyor''. Somehow, it went on to fly 109 hours without servicing, carrying 1,500 troops, 95 casualties, 650 Argentine [[prisoners of war]] (POWs) and {{convert|550|t|LT|order=flip}} of cargo. At one point it carried 81 paratroops in a single load, and then returned to fetch another 75, and it survived being accidentally flown into the sea one night during a snowstorm.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.raf.mod.uk/news/royalairforcech47chinookbravonovember.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170321040100/https://www.raf.mod.uk/news/royalairforcech47chinookbravonovember.cfm |archive-date=21 March 2017 |url-status=dead |title=Royal Air Force CH47 Chinook 'Bravo November' |publisher=Royal Air Force |access-date=18 November 2017 }}</ref>{{sfn|Thompson|1991|p=278}}

In addition to the helicopters, ''Atlantic Conveyor'' took with her four tent camps, complete with field kitchens and sanitary facilities, which would have accommodated 4,500 personnel. Another serious loss was a portable fuelling system and six {{convert|10|LT|adj=on}} fuel tanks. Material for building an airstrip at Port San Carlos also went down,{{sfn|Brown|1987|pp=228–230}} but [[59 Independent Commando Squadron Royal Engineers]] managed to build it anyway, using matting earmarked for repairing [[Port Stanley Airport]].{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=164}}{{sfn|Thompson|1991|p=279}} All ships were unloaded by 27 May, leaving only the two damaged LSLs at San Carlos.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=486}}

==Over the mountains==
===3rd Commando Brigade===
North east of the Total Exclusion Zone (TEZ) that the British government had declared around the Falkland Islands, the Royal Navy designated a Tug, Repair and Logistics Area (TRALA) where ships could receive and transfer supplies, and conduct repairs of battle damage under the protection of the carrier battle group. Hercules airdrops were made to ships there.{{sfn|Privratsky|1986|pp=11–12}}{{sfn|Brown|1987|p=216}} Ships were now held in the TRALA, from whence it took about 20 hours to reach San Carlos. Their captains preferred to navigate Falkland Sound by night, allowing them to be unloaded by day, which suited the Commando Logistic Regiment. Working around the clock was inadvisable, for there were no relief crews for the landing craft or helicopters.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=114–115}}

Only four Sea Kings had night vision equipment, allowing them to operate at night. These were reserved for night operations; to allow the crews to rest, and necessary aircraft maintenance to be performed, they were not employed during the day. One Sea King was permanently assigned to support of the Rapier battery. This left six Sea King, five Wessex and the Chinook helicopter available for logistical and tactical missions.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|p=274}}

Requested supplies took at least two days to fetch from the TRALA.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=114–115}} Hellberg visited Clapp on ''Fearless'' each night and presented a list of required ships. Clapp would then signal Woodward and ask for them; but for operational reasons a requested ship might not arrive, or a substitute might be sent containing none of the required stores.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=272–273}} The Ordnance Squadron of the Commando Logistic Regiment had compiled lists of what was on board each ship, but lacked the manpower to maintain teams on all the supply ships. Goods became damaged from improper storage or handling, or were pilfered, and the contents of the ships slowly became less certain. {{RFAux|Resource|A480|6}} carried stores for both the Royal Navy and the 3rd Commando Brigade, and with no-one to assess conflicting priorities, she remained with the fleet.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=114–115}}

[[File:Ajaxbayview.jpg|thumb|left|The former refrigeration plant in Ajax Bay, site of the 1982 field hospital. (By 2008, it had fallen into the disrepair seen here.)|alt=A cluster of ruined industrial buildings sits on the shore of a green, treeless landscape.]] The provision of fuel posed a special challenge. The Rapier batteries required fuel to keep their generators running, and their isolated sites required the full-time service of a Sea King to keep them going. The Bv202s consumed fuel at a high rate because the operators kept them running constantly to keep warm and keep the radio batteries charged. The problem was not one of availability—there was ample fuel available on ships—but of distribution. The 3rd Commando Brigade's {{convert|10000|L|Impgal|adj=on}} collapsible [[pillow tank]] was holed by cannon shells from an Argentine fighter as it was being brought ashore on a mexeflote. The tanker trucks could be used to bring the fuel ashore on mexeflotes or landing craft, but it still needed to be decanted into [[Jerrycan|jerry cans]]. There was no special equipment for this, so hand pumps had to be used. Daily consumption was 698 jerry cans, of which 160 were for the Rapiers, 378 for the Bv202s, 106 for [[Land Rover 101 Forward Control|Land Rovers]] and 54 for cooking. The 3rd Commando Brigade brought 1,880 jerry cans with it, of which 1,000 were empty, 600 were full, and 280 filled and carried on vehicles. The procedure was for an empty jerry can to be handed over for a full one, but it was impractical to deny a unit fuel for not producing a jerry can. The 5th Infantry Brigade arrived with another 1,000 empty jerry cans, having been prohibited from loading full ones on its ships.{{sfn|Tustin|1984b|p=401}}{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=274–275}}{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=117–119}}

''Stromness'' brought the Emergency Fuel Handling Equipment (EFHE) on 23 May. This had been loaded on multiple ships, and not all the components could be located; but the 59 Independent Commando Squadron was still able to rig it. A [[Dracone Barge]] was moored offshore, and piping attached that allowed aviation fuel to be pumped into collapsible tanks ashore. This allowed helicopters to refuel ashore, eliminating the need to land on the LPDs, which had two helipads, or the LSLs, which had one each, for refuelling, for which they competed with the 15 light helicopters of [[3 Commando Brigade Air Squadron]].{{sfn|Tustin|1984b|p=401}}{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=274–275}}{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=117–119}}

On 24 May, 11 Field Squadron commenced work on an airstrip to allow Harriers to refuel as well. The plant and equipment earmarked for this was lost on ''Atlantic Conveyor'', but ''Stromness'' had {{convert|10|by|2|ft|adj=on}} aluminium panels for airfield surfacing, which were landed at Green Beach by helicopter and landing craft, and taken to the site with civilian vehicles. The airstrip was completed, with a ski jump for Harriers, assembled by hand, on 2 June.{{sfn|Van der Bijl|Aldea|2003|pp=86–87}} The absence of 383 Commando Petroleum Troop, though, meant that there was no one to operate the fuel points until the 5th Infantry Brigade arrived.{{sfn|Tustin|1984b|p=401}}{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=274–275}}{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=117–119}} Its attached 91 Ordnance Company had a petroleum platoon, the only regular army one based in the UK. These specialists took over the EFHE at Port San Carlos as soon as they arrived on 3 June,{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=149–151, 161–164}} allowing Harriers to be refuelled there from 5 June.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=197}} It was damaged by a Harrier that crash landed on 8 June, but was repaired.{{sfn|Pook|2007|pp=144–145}}{{sfn|Van der Bijl|Aldea|2003|pp=129–130}} Over 150 operational sorties were flown from the airstrip between 5 and 14 June.{{sfn|Van der Bijl|Aldea|2003|pp=86–87}}

[[File:Stone-run.JPG|thumb|right|[[Stone run]] near [[Mount Kent]]. These can go on for miles.|alt=A field of blue-grey and reddish boulders.]]
Argentine air attacks were initially directed at the ships, but on 27 May four [[Douglas A-4 Skyhawk]]s attacked the BMA, dropping twelve bombs, only four of which exploded.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=133–135}} Six men were killed and thirty wounded.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=557}} The field hospital was struck by two {{convert|400|kg|adj=on}} bombs, neither of which exploded. They would remain in place, sandbagged and defuzed, for the rest of the campaign.{{sfn|Jolly|1983|pp=69–70}} Bombs that struck the ordnance area set off stockpiles of 105 mm artillery shells, [[MILAN]] missiles and [[L16 81mm mortar|81 mm mortar]] bombs. The Commando Logistic Regiment had no fire fighting equipment, so the fire was left to burn itself out, and explosions continued through the night.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=133–135}} All of 45 Commando's MILAN missiles were lost, along with two hundred {{nowrap|81 mm}} mortar bombs and three hundred {{nowrap|105 mm}} artillery rounds.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|p=279}}

The [[Battle of Goose Green]] on 28 and 29 May confirmed what logisticians had suspected and feared; the expenditure of ammunition was not only five times greater than that expected in a limited war, it exceeded that forecast for an all-out war against the [[Warsaw Pact]]. Another 30 days' supply had been ordered on 17 April, and was on its way south,{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=280–281}} but by the evening of 28 May, the BMA held just eighty-three {{nowrap|105 mm}} artillery rounds, thirty MILAN missiles, two days' supply of ten-man ration packs and three days' of medical stores, and no one-man ration packs, cooking fuel or spare clothing. The ration situation was exacerbated when 2 Para captured nearly a thousand Argentine prisoners at [[Goose Green]], all of whom had to be fed. Since the tents were lost on ''Atlantic Conveyor'', they had to be kept in the disused refrigeration plant during the night. The Argentine wounded put more pressure on the medical supplies, and the Argentine dead had to be disposed of, although the task force had no graves unit. The Commando Logistic Regiment buried them in a mass grave near [[Darwin, Falkland Islands|Darwin]].{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=143–144}}

After the war, Thompson reflected that:{{blockquote|The majority of senior officers and their staffs were handicapped by a dearth of understanding of the logistic realities of fighting a conventional war. Brush fire wars and [[The Troubles|Northern Ireland]] had provided few logistic problems, and most peacetime exercises, with their emphasis on tactical movement, teach false logistic lessons. Commanders on these exercises are seldom faced with the choice between moving men, and moving bullets, beans and fuel. In war, if helicopters are in short supply, and for some reason other means of movement are not available, or cannot be used, the men will walk carrying some of the beans and bullets, and helicopters will be almost exclusively employed carrying the rest.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|p=287}} }}

[[File:East-Falkland.jpg|thumb|left|[[Teal Inlet]] settlement|alt=A large, white, two-storey, wooden farm house surrounded by five smaller, rectangular structures and a wooden gazebo. There is a red brick house in the foreground, and another couple of buildings in the background. Beyond is a bay. ]]
At first light on 27 May, 45 Commando embarked in LCUs that took it from Ajax Bay to Port San Carlos. It then conducted a [[loaded march]] (which the commandos called a "[[yomp]]" and the paras called a "tab") to [[Douglas, Falkland Islands|Douglas]]. Every man carried about {{convert|120|lb}}; some carried far more. Douglas was reached at 13:00 on 28 May. 3 Para set out from Port San Carlos at 11:00 on 27 May, and reached the Arroy Pedro River, {{convert|9|km}} from [[Teal Inlet]], at 11:00 on 28 May. The paras waited until night-fall before advancing on Teal Inlet, which was secured by 23:00. They were joined on the morning of 29 May by the Scorpion and Scimitar light tanks of No. 4 Troop, [[Blues and Royals]], whose departure from Port San Carlos had been delayed by a temporary fuel shortage which had occurred when ''Sir Lancelot'' jettisoned all its motor transport fuel on discovering an unexploded bomb on board. Once fuel was secured, they were able to make the journey to Teal Inlet, arriving on the morning of 29 May. 3 Para and 45 Commando were then ordered to advance to Estancia.{{sfn|Thompson|1985|pp=101–104}}

Helicopters resupplied 3 Para, and brought its mortars and support weapons. Estancia House was taken on 31 May, with 3 Para utilising local farm tractors to move its stores and heavy equipment.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=586–587}} An attempt to fly 42 Commando and three {{nowrap|105 mm}} guns to [[Mount Kent]] on 29/30 May ran into a blizzard and was forced to return to Port San Carlos. A second attempt the following night succeeded.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=583–584}} With the high ground overlooking Teal Inlet in British hands, a Forward Brigade Maintenance Area (FBMA) was established there, with a Distribution Point (DP) at Estancia. Supplies were delivered to the FBMA by LSL, and then moved to the DP by Bv202, requisitioned local farm tractor or helicopter. A Forward Arming and Refuelling Point (FARP) at Teal Inlet saved the helicopters from having to make a {{convert|90|to|100|mi|adj=on}} round trip for replenishment.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|p=281}}

=== 5th Infantry Brigade ===
Brigadier [[Tony Wilson (British Army officer)|Tony Wilson]]'s 5th Infantry Brigade reached [[Cumberland Bay]] off South Georgia Island on ''Queen Elizabeth 2'' on 27 May. The politicians were nervous about the political repercussions if the ship were lost, so it was decided to unload it here, and move the brigade to the Falkland Islands in other ships. The ''Queen Elizabeth 2'' was met by a veritable fleet of ships that proceeded to unload her passengers and cargo. The trawler cum minesweepers {{HMS|Cordella||6}}, {{HMS|Farnella||2}}, {{HMS|Junella||2}}, {{HMS|Northella||2}} and {{HMS|Pict||2}} ferried the infantry and the 16th (Parachute) Field Ambulance across to ''Canberra'' and ''Norland'', which departed for San Carlos at 21:00 on 28 May. Cargo was unloaded onto ''Stromness'', ''Resource'', ''Saxonia'', ''Lycaon'', {{HMS|Leeds Castle|P258|2}}, ''British Esk,'' and ''British Tay''.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=149–151, 161–164}}

A false warning of an attack by Argentine forces caused ''Queen Elizabeth 2'' to weigh anchor and set sail for the UK on 29 May. So difficult was it to unload the ship that around 70 per cent of the brigade's {{nowrap|81 mm}} mortar and {{nowrap|105 mm}} artillery rounds remained on board. ''Stromness'' headed for San Carlos with most of the logistics units. Inclement weather made what would normally be a two-day voyage into a four-day one.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=149–151, 161–164}} Moore established his headquarters on ''Fearless'' on 29 May, and assumed control of land battle the following day.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=580}} ''Atlantic Causeway'', with twenty Wessex and eight Sea King helicopters, arrived at San Carlos on 1 June, and ''Canberra'' and ''Norland'' followed the next day.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=172}}

The logistics units that arrived with the 5th Infantry Brigade included 81 Ordnance Company, which supplied most services, and 91 Ordnance Company, a third line unit that included a laundry section, bath unit, and field bakery, and most importantly, the petroleum platoon.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=149–151, 161–164}} 10 Field Workshop provided maintenance support, but most of its equipment was on ''Baltic Ferry'' and ''Nordic Ferry'', which departed without unloading due to another air raid alert. The unit, therefore, spent much of its time guarding POWs. 407 Transport Troop brought 20 [[Snow Trac]]s, predecessors of the Bv202s, but only six were landed in the first few days. There was also [[160 Provost Company]], [[Royal Military Police]] and 6 Field Cash Office, [[Royal Army Pay Corps]]. These logistic units constituted an augmentation of the Commando Logistic Regiment, rather than the logistic support required by a brigade engaged in combat operations.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=149–151, 161–164}}

As a result, the 5th Infantry Brigade's arrival in the Falklands meant that the Commando Logistic Regiment became responsible for supporting two large brigades with a total strength of around 9,000 personnel. This placed stress on the regiment, as it was structured to support only the 3rd Commando Brigade's 3,000 personnel, and it had deployed to the Falklands with less than its usual allocations of manpower and transport.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|p=284}}

The {{convert|230|grt|adj=on}} coastal vessel MV ''Monsunen'' was used by the Argentinians until forced aground near Goose Green by ''Yarmouth'' on 23 May. It was salvaged by a [[prize crew]] from ''Fearless'', and used to supplement the 5th Infantry Brigade's transport.{{sfn|Van der Bijl|Aldea|2003|p=124}}

While the 3rd Commando Brigade advanced on [[Port Stanley]] on a northerly axis, the 5th Infantry Brigade advanced on a southerly one. The plan was to establish a second FBMA at [[Fitzroy, Falkland Islands|Fitzroy]], with a DP at [[Bluff Cove]].{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=284–285}} It was nowhere near as good as Teal Inlet. The route from Port San Carlos went all the way around [[Lafonia]], a distance that landing craft and mexeflotes could not cover on their own. While the LPDs were fast enough to get there and back in darkness, the LSLs could not.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=176–179}} Moreover, unlike at Teal Inlet, the Argentinians held the high ground overlooking it. [[File:War damaged RFA Sir Tristram 1983.jpg|thumb|right|{{RFAux|Sir Tristram|L3505|6}} showing damage inflicted in the [[Bluff Cove Air Attacks]]. The green vessel alongside her is the ''Monsunen''. |alt=A warhead with the superstructure collapsing and largely gutted by fire. A much smaller green-hulled vessel is moored alongside. ]]

As a result, ''Sir Galahad'' and ''Sir Tristram'' were caught unloading in daylight on 8 June and [[Bluff Cove Air Attacks|attacked by Argentine aircraft]],{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=284–285}} and both were set ablaze. The fires on ''Sir Tristram'' soon burned themselves out, and some of the cargo was saved; ultimately, the ship was salvaged. But ''Sir Galahad'' was a total loss. The disaster cost 49 men their lives; another 115 were wounded. Among the dead were four Chinese crewmen. The field hospital was flooded with casualties, and arrangements were made for landing craft to send two dozen each to ''Fearless'', ''Intrepid'' and ''Atlantic Causeway;'' others were flown to ''Uganda''.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=607}} That same day, one of the LCUs from ''Fearless'' was caught in open water in daylight, and attacked and sunk by Argentine aircraft, killing six men. On board were six [[Land Rover]]s carrying the 5th Brigade's communications equipment.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=185–187}}

For the final battles around Port Stanley, the gun positions were stocked with 500 rounds per gun,{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=284–285}} plus another 500 in reserve. Each combat unit would have two days' supply, plus two more days at the FBMAs at Fitzroy or Teal Inlet. The remaining LSLs made runs to Fitzroy and Teal Inlet on alternating days, moving over {{convert|1000|LT}} to each. The arrival of four more Wessex helicopters on ''Engadine'' brought the number of helicopters available to forty; these were used to move ammunition to the gun positions. FARPs at each FBMA saved the helicopters from having to return to San Carlos.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=196–198}} The field hospital was broken up on 10 June, with teams deploying to Fitzroy and Teal Inlet.{{sfn|Jolly|1983|pp=119–120}}

The final four-day battle around Port Stanley involved some of the hardest fighting of the campaign. One battery almost ran out of ammunition, requiring an emergency helicopter resupply mission in a snowstorm at night. The lone bridge over the [[Murrell River]] collapsed when an armoured recovery vehicle loaded with ammunition attempted to cross it, cutting the 3rd Commando Brigade's overland supply line for their Bv202s, but the engineers built an air-portable bridge at Fitzroy which the Chinook delivered.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=285–286}}

On 14 June, the Argentine commander, Brigadier General [[Mario Menéndez]] surrendered Argentine forces in the Falkland Islands to Moore.{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=652–653}}

==Aftermath==
{{main|Aftermath of the Falklands War}}
Lieutenant Colonel Leslie Kennedy arrived at San Carlos soon after the Argentine surrender as Commander Royal Engineers (CRE) Works, Falkland Islands. His task was to rehabilitate [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Port Stanley]]. It took the sappers of 9 Parachute Squadron and 61 Field Squadron four days to restore the water supply to Port Stanley. By this time, the reservoirs were down to two days' supply. In the meantime it was supplied by ''Fort Toronto'' through a dracone moored offshore. A military water supply point at [[Moody Brook]] was constructed and operated by 3 Field Squadron. The town's consumption was about {{convert|12000|impgal|L}} per day. The electric grid had also been damaged by shellfire, and took a week longer to repair. Its capacity was still limited, so it was supplemented by two 250 kW Army generators. A separate military power station was subsequently established. Fuel was supplied using a dracone.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=225–226}}{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|pp=46–47}}

[[File:16 June 1982 Port Stanley.jpg|thumb|left|Port Stanley on 16 June 1982|alt=A wharf with warehouses on the left; on the right are two-storey brick houses. Similar two-storey houses line the streets beyond.]]
The major task was restoration of the port and airfield. In the interim, the Hercules transports continued to fly from Ascension, dropping high priority items.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=227–228}} The postal unit moved from Ajax Bay into the Post Office at Port Stanley. At first, mail bags were airdropped but some fell into Argentine minefields. A method was then devised to allow the Hercules to deliver bags without having to land by trailing a grappling hook attached to the bags which snagged a wire strung between two poles.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|pp=125–126}}

Built in the 1970s, the airfield had a {{convert|4100|by|150|ft|adj=on}} runway. It was unusable because it had been cratered by the RAF. Its rehabilitation was undertaken by 11 Field Squadron and 59 Independent Commando Squadron.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|p=48}} The Argentinians had already repaired three craters. The others were filled in and topped with Argentine aluminium matting. A huge crater caused by a {{convert|1000|lb|adj=on}} bomb required over {{convert|1000|m2}} of matting. "Scabs", or scrapes in the runway surface, of which there were several hundred, were repaired with [[Bostik]] 276, a magnesium phosphate cement and aggregate mixture. There were 47 Hercules and several hundred Harrier landings before the airfield was closed for repairs on 15 August.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|pp=53–56}}

The runway was too short for use by the RAF's Phantoms, so 50 Field Squadron (which had been detailed for the task in May) began extending it to {{convert|6100|ft}}. Some {{convert|9000|LT}} of airfield construction stores, plant and equipment were landed for this purpose. {{convert|25000|LT|t}} of quartz granite rock fill was used, which was obtained by 3 and 60 Field Squadrons from a local quarry. Aluminium matting was laid along the whole length of the runway. The first Hercules landed on the new runway on 28 August.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|pp=53–56}} Subsequently, [[RAF Mount Pleasant]] was built as a permanent airbase, and opened by [[Prince Andrew]] on 12 May 1985.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|p=172}}

Sites for the breakdown and storage of bulk supplies were limited, and the warehouses were initially used for the Argentine prisoners.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=225–226}} While Port Stanley provided anchorages for deep draft vessels, its berths were only {{convert|6|to|10|m|adj=off|abbr=}} deep, suitable only for shallow draft vessels. The Royal Engineers built two [[slipway]]s for mexeflotes and LCUs.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=227–228}} As late as April 1983, the Ministry of Defence had 25 ships on charter to supply the Falkland Islands. About 1,000 personnel were being ferried to and from the islands each month, requiring the services of ''Uganda'' and ''[[Cunard Countess]]''. To provide a regular service, a ferry, the {{MV|St Edmund||6}} was taken up and commissioned as a troopship, HMS ''Keren'', although it was decommissioned becoming ''MV Keren'' a few weeks later.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|p=155}} The port was replaced by a £23 million floating wharf and warehouse complex that opened on 26 April 1984. This consisted of six {{convert|800|ft|adj=on}} North Sea oil rig support barges that were linked together. Atop them were warehouses, refrigerated storages, and accommodation and mess facilities for 200 people. It could berth vessels up to {{convert|1000|ft}} long, and was connected to the shore by a {{convert|623|ft|adj=on}} two-lane causeway. An access road was constructed by 37 Engineer Regiment.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|pp=155–156}}

[[File:Argentine prisoners of war - Port Stanley.JPG|thumb|right|Argentine prisoners of war in Port Stanley|alt=About forty soldiers wearing olive-green jackets and pants march down a wet urban street. They are guarded by three commandos with green berets and camouflage pattern jackets. In the background are paratroopers in similar camouflage jackets and maroon berets.]]
With the end of hostilities in the Falklands (although [[Operation Keyhole]], the reoccupation of [[Thule Island]] in the [[South Sandwich Islands]], remained, and was concluded on 20 June),{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=656–660}} the British forces became responsible for feeding the civilian population and 11,848 Argentine prisoners. Due to the British blockade of the island, they had only three days' rations. The prisoners were initially issued with Argentine rations, but the British withheld the officer rations as they contained alcohol. Prisoners rioted on 16 June, setting fire to their clothing store. Those taken at Goose Green had already been repatriated to Argentina via [[Montevideo]] in neutral Uruguay on ''Norland''. Some 5,000 Argentine prisoners were embarked on ''Canberra'' and 1,000 on ''Norland'' on 17 June. By 20 June 10,250 prisoners had been repatriated. Only 593 remained, including Menéndez. These were held for intelligence gathering, and to encourage Argentina to end hostilities. One British prisoner, [[Flight Lieutenant]] [[Jeffrey Glover]], was held in Argentina; he was released on 16 July. The last Argentine prisoners were repatriated by 14 July.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=222–223}}{{sfn|Freedman|2005|pp=656–660}}

The Bakery Section of 91 Ordnance Company baked its first loaf in the Falkland Islands on 30 June. It baked up to 6,000 loaves per day before settling down to just 4,000 by August.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|p=44}} Although rations could soon be supplemented with fresh fruit and vegetables, it was not until August that the troops could be fed fresh rations.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=225–226}}

A wing of the small [[King Edward VII Memorial Hospital]] at Port Stanley was occupied by 16 Field Ambulance. Its first task was sorting through captured Argentine medical supplies. The military hospital wing opened on 29 June. ''Uganda'' dropped anchor at [[Port William, Falkland Islands|Port William]] to supply backup care, and donated fifty hospital beds and bedding to King Edward VII Memorial Hospital.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|pp=225–226}} Having sailed from the UK on the [[TEV Rangatira (1971)|TEV ''Rangatira'']] on 19 June, 2 Field Hospital reached the Falkland Islands on 11 July. Its staff included fourteen officers and other ranks of [[Queen Alexandra's Royal Army Nursing Corps]]. Its tent accommodation had been lost on ''Atlantic Conveyor'', so it moved into the King Edward VII Memorial Hospital.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|pp=156–157}}

[[File:Discarded weapons, Stanley 1982.JPG|thumb|left|Discarded Argentine weapons in Port Stanley 1982|alt=A large pile of military hardware, including rifles, machine guns, small arms ammunition. It is roped off with red plastic tape. Three civilians look on.]]About {{convert|3000|LT}} of British ammunition was recovered from 47 battlefield sites by 81 Ordnance Company, along with over 4.5 million rounds of Argentine ammunition. Some {{convert|1000|LT}} was found to be serviceable, and was shipped to the UK.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|p=79}} Most Argentine equipment was dumped at sea, but some items, including Chinook and [[AgustaWestland AW109|Agusta 109]] helicopters, were taken back to the UK.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|p=81}}<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=The Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/5849377/RAF-helicopter-built-using-half-of-chinook-captured-in-Falklands.html |access-date=24 November 2017 |title=RAF helicopter built using half of Chinook captured in Falklands |date=17 July 2009 |archive-date=3 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203141514/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/5849377/RAF-helicopter-built-using-half-of-chinook-captured-in-Falklands.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The first units to return from the Falkland Islands were 2 and 3 Para, which left on ''Norland'' and ''Europic Ferry'' in June. The 3rd Commando Brigade followed, departing on ''Canberra'' on 26 June, with the Commando Logistic Regiment embarking on ''Sir Percivale'' two days later. This left the 5th Infantry Brigade, whose logistic support was consolidated into the Falkland Islands Logistic Battalion on 28 June. Major General [[David Thorne (British Army officer)|David Thorne]] became Commander, [[British Forces Falkland Islands]] in July. He brought the 1st Battalion [[Queen's Own Highlanders (Seaforth and Camerons)]] and a company of the [[Queen's Lancashire Regiment]] with him, enabling the relief of the 5th Infantry Brigade's combat units to commence. The last of these, the 2nd Battalion, [[Scots Guards]], departed the Falkland Islands in July.{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=230}}

Thorne gave a high priority to providing proper accommodation for his men before the next winter. [[Portable building]]s were erected with running water, electric power and sewerage. Additional accommodation was provided by the "coastels", floating multi-storeyed accommodation vessels for 900 people with their own kitchens, fresh water, laundry and recreational facilities. ''Safe Dominia'' and ''Safe Esperia'' were chartered from the Swedish Consafe. The latter's facilities included a gymnasium, four squash courts, two swimming pools and a canteen, which was operated by [[NAAFI]]. They were joined by the British-built ''Pursuivant'', which left for the Falkland Islands in July 1983.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|pp=155–156}} Thorne was succeeded by Major General [[Peter de la Billière]] in 1984.{{sfn|Fursdon|1988|pp=146–147}}

A Grave Registration unit of the [[Royal Pioneer Corps]] arrived on the SS ''Strathewe'', along with coffins and embalming materials. It had the task of disinterring the bodies of those killed. For the first time in British history, families were given the option of having their loved ones' remains returned to the UK, and 64 chose to exercise this option. The remaining 14 bodies (including that of Lieutenant Colonel [[H. Jones]], who was posthumously awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] (VC) for his part in the Battle of Goose Green) were re-interred in the [[Blue Beach Military Cemetery at San Carlos]].{{sfn|Privratsky|2014|p=229}} An [[Argentine Military Cemetery]] was established near Goose Green in 1983,{{sfn|Freedman|2005|p=660}} which was rebuilt between 2002 and 2004. The Argentine government did not wish to "repatriate" its dead, as it considered that they were already in Argentina. Many were not identified, and were buried with the inscription "Argentine soldier known unto God."{{sfn|Rubenstein|2011|p=153}}

==Lessons==
In the logistics section of its report to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] on the lessons of the war, the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] highlighted the prodigious expenditure of ammunition and missiles; the high level of logistic support required for operations outside western Europe; the importance of civil resources in the defence effort; and the utility of aerial refuelling.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=295–296}}{{sfn|Secretary of State for Defence|1982|pp=25–27}} The value of the Royal Navy's amphibious forces was reassessed. A replacement for the lost ''Sir Galahad'' was ordered, and two roll-on roll-off ferries, {{RFAux|Sir Caradoc|L3522|6}} and {{RFAux|Sir Lamorak|L3532|2}}, were chartered while the new {{RFAux|Sir Galahad|1987|6}} was built and ''Sir Tristram'' was repaired. However, the government still dithered over the replacement of the ''Fearless''-class LPDs;{{sfn|Grove|1987|pp=383–387}} and replacements, the {{Sclass|Albion|landing platform dock|4}}, were not ordered until 1996.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=10 December 2017|publisher=Naval Technology|title=LPD (R) Albion Class Landing Platform Dock, United Kingdom|url=http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/lpd/|archive-date=5 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605065559/http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/lpd/|url-status=live}}</ref> The oil rig support ship MV ''Stena Inspector'' was purchased in 1983, and became {{RFAux|Diligence|A132|6}}, while ''Astronomer'' and ''Contender Bezant'' were retained as RFA ''Reliant'' and ''Argus'' respectively. The value of STUFT was recognised, and over the next few years STUFT would see active service in the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.{{sfn|Grove|1987|pp=383–387}}

The Falkland War was also studied in other countries, notably in China, where it was the subject of organised teaching and research at the PLA Naval Command College in [[Nanjing]].{{sfn|Goldstein|2008|pp=65–67}} The Americans were impressed by the speed with which the British were able to mobilise their forces and get them moving to the theatre of operations in response to a crisis that had erupted with very little warning.{{sfn|Valovcin|1992|pp=19–22}} A programme was already under way to improve American sealift capability, and between 1982 and 1986, the [[United States Congress]] appropriated and spent US$7 billion on the purchase or lease of new logistics ships. They would be tested in the 1991 [[Gulf War]].{{sfn|Menarchik|1993|pp=10–11}} Thompson felt that the overriding importance of logistics as the driving factor of operations was overlooked. He was particularly disappointed that the 5th Infantry Brigade had not used the time it had before embarkation to remedy more of its logistical shortcomings.{{sfn|Thompson|1991|pp=297–298}}

Logistics lessons drawn from the conflict were not new, but had not been learned either. These included the failure to integrate operational and tactical planning; improper tactical loading of ships; outdated planning data for consumables, particularly fuel and ammunition; lack of heavy-lift helicopters and poor discipline in the employment of helicopters; shortages of land transport; the employment of new and highly complex equipment on the battlefield; faulty casualty evacuation plans; and the need for post-conflict planning.{{sfn|Valovcin|1992|pp=19–22}} British and American commentators observed that much of this could be traced to logistically unrealistic peacetime training and exercises, and called for more exercises where there were "no permanent quarters to house the troops, no Federal Express to deliver critical supply parts, no power production and no in-place hookups for communications or intelligence information."{{sfn|Valovcin|1992|p=21}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|22em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|22em}}
* {{cite conference |last=Badsey |first=Stephen |contribution=The Logistics of the British Recovery of the Falkland Islands, 1982 |conference=NIDS International Forum on War History |title=Defense of the Wider Realm: the Diplomacy and Strategy of the Protection of Islands in War |publisher=National Institute for Defense Studies |location=Tokyo |date=March 2014 |pages=107–114 |url=http://www.nids.mod.go.jp/english/event/forum/pdf/2013/08.pdf |access-date=10 November 2017 |archive-date=3 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003002621/http://www.nids.mod.go.jp/english/event/forum/pdf/2013/08.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |last=Bowie |first=Christopher J. |title=Coping with the Unexpected: Great Britain and the War in the South Atlantic |journal=Rand Paper Series |date=April 1985 |publisher=Rand Corporation |location=Santa Monica, California |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7083.pdf |access-date=12 November 2017 |archive-date=12 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812143605/https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2008/P7083.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=David |title=The Royal Navy and the Falklands War |publisher=Leo Cooper |location=London |date=1987 |isbn=978-0-09-957390-6 |oclc=780526247 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Burden |first1=Rodney A. |last2=Draper |first2=Michael I. |last3=Rough |first3=Douglas A. |last4=Smith |first4=Colin R. |last5=Wilton |first5=David L. |title=Falklands: The Air War |location=London |publisher=Arms and Armour Press |year=1986 |isbn=0-85368-842-7 |oclc=159813718 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Clapp |first1=Michael |author-link=Michael Clapp |last2=Southby-Tailyour |first2=Ewen |author-link2=Ewen Southby-Tailyour |title=Amphibious Assault Falklands: The Battle of San Carlos Water |location=London |publisher=Orion Books |year=1997 |isbn=0-75281-109-6 |oclc=833138058 }}
* {{cite book |last=Freedman |first=Lawrence |author-link=Lawrence Freedman |title=The Official History of the Falklands Campaign: Volume II – War and Diplomacy |location=Abingdon, Oxfordshire |year=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-7146-5207-5 |oclc=249889816 }}
* {{cite book |last=Fursdon |first=Edward |title=Falklands Aftermath: Picking up the Pieces |location=London |publisher=Leo Cooper |year=1988 |isbn=0-85052-205-6 |oclc=464011312 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Ian |title=The Yompers: With 45 Commando in the Falklands War |location=Barnsley, South Yorkshire |publisher=Pen and Sword |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-84884-441-4 |oclc=757931967 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Goldstein |first=Lyle |title=China's Falklands Lessons |journal=Survival |issn=0039-6338 |date=June–July 2008 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=65–82 |doi=10.1080/00396330802173214 |s2cid=153364825 }}
* {{cite book |last= Grove |first=Eric J. |author-link=Eric Grove |title=Vanguard to Trident: British Naval Policy since World War II |year=1987 |location=Annapolis, Maryland |publisher=Naval Institute Press |isbn=0-87021-552-3 |oclc=871764626 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hellberg |first=J. J. |contribution=An Experience with the Commando Logistic Regiment Royal Marines |pages=109–130 |editor-last=Badsey |editor-first=Stephen |editor-first2=Rob |editor-last2=Havers |editor-first3=Mark |editor-last3=Grove |title=The Falklands Conflict: Twenty Years On |publisher=Frank Cass |location=London; New York |date=2005 |isbn=0-415-35030-1 |oclc=55037580 }}
* {{cite book |last=Hore |first=Peter |contribution=The 'Logistics Miracle' of Ascension Island |pages=213–225 |editor-last=Badsey |editor-first=Stephen |editor-first2=Rob |editor-last2=Havers |editor-first3=Mark |editor-last3=Grove |title=The Falklands Conflict: Twenty Years On |publisher=Frank Cass |location=London ; New York |date=2005 |isbn=0-415-35030-1 |oclc=55037580 }}
* {{cite book |last=Jolly |first=Rick |author-link=Rick Jolly |title=The Red and Green Life Machine: A Diary of the Falklands Field Hospital |location=London |publisher=Century Publishing |year=1983 |isbn=0-7126-0158-9 |oclc=925235790 }}
* {{cite book |last=McQueen |first=Robert |title=Island Base: Ascension in the Falklands War |year=2008 |publisher=Whittles Publishing |location=Caithness, Scotland |isbn=978-1904445-18-0 |oclc=852122537}}
* {{cite book |last=Menarchik |first=Douglas |title=Powerlift – Getting to Desert Storm: Strategic Transportation and Strategy in the New World Order |year=1993 |publisher=Praeger |location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=0-275-94642-8 |oclc=27430669 }}
* {{cite book |last=Pook |first=Jerry |title=RAF Harrier Ground Attack – Falklands |location=Barnsley, South Yorkshire |publisher=Pen and Sword |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84415-551-4 |oclc=81453470 }}
* {{cite report |last=Privratsky |first=Kenneth L. |title=British Combat Service Support During the Falkland Islands War: Considerations for Providing Operational Sustainment to Remote Areas |publisher=[[School of Advanced Military Studies]], [[United States Army Command and General Staff College]] |location=Fort Leavenworth, Kansas |date=1 April 1986 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA174403.pdf |access-date=21 April 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last=Privratsky |first=Kenneth L. |title=Logistics in the Falklands War |location=Barnsley, South Yorkshire |publisher=Pen and Sword Books |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-47382-312-9 |oclc=890938195}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rubenstein |first=Jérémy |title='Argentine Soldier Known unto God:' The Darwin Cemetery and Conflicts in the Retelling of the Falklands/Malvinas War |journal=Le Mouvement Social |issn=0027-2671 |pages=153–169 |issue=237 |year=2011 |url=http://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_LMS_237_0153--argentine-soldier-known-unto-god.htm |doi=10.3917/lms.237.0153 |s2cid=142993551 |access-date=9 December 2017 |archive-date=9 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209204109/http://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_LMS_237_0153--argentine-soldier-known-unto-god.htm |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |author=Secretary of State for Defence |author-link=Secretary of State for Defence |title=The Falklands Campaign: The Lessons |date=December 1982 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |isbn=978-0-10-187580-6 |oclc=255102778 }}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Julian |author-link=Julian Thompson (Royal Marines officer) |title=No Picnic: 3 Commando Brigade in the Falklands |year=1985 |location=London |publisher=Leo Cooper |isbn=0-436-52052-4 |oclc=924649440 }}
* {{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Julian |author-link=Julian Thompson (Royal Marines officer) |title=Lifeblood of War: Logistics in Armed Conflict |location=London |publisher=Brassey's |year=1991 |isbn=0-08-040977-6 |oclc=260185060 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Tustin |first=W. J. |title=The Logistics of the Falklands War – Part I |journal=The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal |issn=0004-2552 |date=July 1984 |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=295–301 |ref=CITEREFTustin1984a }}
* {{cite journal |last=Tustin |first=W. J. |title=The Logistics of the Falklands War – Part II |journal=The Army Quarterly and Defence Journal |issn=0004-2552 |date=October 1984 |volume=114 |issue=4 |pages=398–411 |ref=CITEREFTustin1984b }}
* {{cite report |last=Valovcin |first=Paul |title=Logistics Lessons for the Operational Commander – The Falklands War |publisher=Naval War College |location=Newport, Rhode Island |date=February 1992 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA249896.pdf |access-date=21 April 2023 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Van der Bijl |first1=Nicholas |last2=Aldea |first2=David |title=5th Infantry Brigade in the Falklands |location=Barnsley, South Yorkshire |publisher=Leo Cooper |year=2003 |isbn=0-85052-948-4 |oclc=911261490 }}
* {{cite book |last=Villar |first=Roger |title=Merchant Ships at War: The Falklands Experience |location=London |publisher=Conway Maritime Press |year=1984 |isbn=9780851772981 |oclc=926867109 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Webb |first=Kieran |year=2007 |title=The Continued Importance of Geographic Distance and Boulding's Loss of Strength Gradient |journal=Comparative Strategy |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=295–310 |doi=10.1080/01495930701598607 |s2cid=153451707 }}
* {{cite book |last=White |first=Rowland |author-link=Rowland White (British writer) |year=2012 |title=Vulcan 607 |location=London |publisher=Bantam Press |isbn=978-0-593-07126-7 |oclc=941503520 }}
* {{cite book |last=Woodward |first=Sandy |author-link=Sandy Woodward |year=1992 |title=One Hundred Days: The Memoirs of the Falklands Battle Group Commander |location=London |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-00-637841-2 |oclc=851714389 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{cite speech |date=16 March 2016|author-last=Privratsky|author-first=Kenneth|title=Falklands 1982: Challenges in Expeditionary Warfare|publisher=United States Army Heritage and Education Center|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gt0PZHHhyHg | archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211114/gt0PZHHhyHg| archive-date=2021-11-14 | url-status=live|ref=none}}{{cbignore}}

{{Falklands War|style=wide}}
{{Portal bar|United Kingdom|Aviation}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:British Logistics in the Falklands War}}
[[Category:Military logistics of the Falklands War]]
[[Category:Military logistics of the United Kingdom]]

Thunderbolt (interface)

2024-08-18T14:07:59Z

Denvercoder9: remove advertising

{{short description|Computer hardware interface}}
{{Distinguish|Lightning (connector)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox connector
| name = Thunderbolt
| type =
| logo = [[File:Thunderbolt.svg|250px]]
| caption =
| designer = {{ubl|[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]|[[Intel]]}}
| manufacturer = Various
| production_date = Since {{start date and age|df=yes|2011|2|24}}<ref name="2011mbp">{{cite press release|title=Apple Updates MacBook Pro with Next Generation Processors, Graphics & Thunderbolt I/O Technology|url=https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/02/24Apple-Updates-MacBook-Pro-with-Next-Generation-Processors-Graphics-Thunderbolt-I-O-Technology.html|publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]|date=24 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110710012629/https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/02/24Apple-Updates-MacBook-Pro-with-Next-Generation-Processors-Graphics-Thunderbolt-I-O-Technology.html|access-date=17 August 2011|archive-date=10 July 2011 }}</ref>
| superseded = {{plainlist|
*[[IEEE 1394]] (FireWire)
*[[ExpressCard]]}}
| superseded_by =
| superseded_by_date =
| weight =
| length = {{indented plainlist|
*Up to {{convert|3|m|ft|sigfig=1}} ([[copper]])
*Up to {{convert|60|m|ft|sigfig=1}} ([[Optical fiber|optical]])<ref name="intelbrief2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/architecture-and-technology/thunderbolt/thunderbolt-technology-brief.html|title=Thunderbolt – Technology Brief|publisher=[[Intel]]|access-date=1 October 2012}}</ref>}}
| diameter =
| width = 7.4 mm plug (8.3 mm receptacle)
| height = 4.5 mm plug (5.4 mm receptacle)
| hotplug = Yes
| daisy_chain = {{ubli|Up to 6 devices<ref name="intelbrief2012"/>|Thunderbolt 4: Hub support<ref name="TB 4 hub"/><ref name="TB4 Press deck"/>}}
| external = Yes
| earth =
| maximum_voltage = 18 [[Volt|V]] (bus power)
| maximum_current = 550 [[Ampere|mA]] (9.9 [[Watt|W]] max.)
| audio_signal = Via [[DisplayPort]] protocol or USB-based external audio cards. Supports audio through [[HDMI]] converters.
| video_signal = Via DisplayPort protocol
| data_signal = Yes
| data_bit_width =
| data_bandwidth = {{ubli|Thunderbolt 1: 2 channels, 10 [[Gigabit|Gbit]]/s each (20 Gbit/s in total)<ref name="programmingguide">{{cite web|publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]|title=Thunderbolt Device Driver Programming Guide|url=https://developer.apple.com/library/mac/#documentation/HardwareDrivers/Conceptual/ThunderboltDevGuide/Introduction/Introduction.html#//apple_ref/doc/uid/TP40011138-CH1-SW1|access-date=21 December 2011}}</ref>|Thunderbolt 2: 20 Gbit/s in total|Thunderbolt 3 and 4: 40 Gbit/s bidirectional|Thunderbolt 5: 80 Gbit/s bidirectional}}
| data_devices =
| data_style = {{ubli|Thunderbolt 1: [[PCI Express#PCI Express 2.0|x4 PCI Express 2.0]],<ref name="programmingguide"/> [[DisplayPort#1.0 to 1.1|DisplayPort 1.1a]]<ref name="intelbrief2012"/>|Thunderbolt 2: x4 PCI Express 2.0, [[DisplayPort#1.2|DisplayPort 1.2]]|Thunderbolt 3: [[PCI Express#PCI Express 3.0|x4 PCI Express 3.0]], DisplayPort 1.2,<ref name=faq/> [[USB 3.1|USB 3.1 Gen 2]]|Thunderbolt 4: [[PCI Express#PCI Express 3.0|x4 PCI Express 3.0]], DisplayPort 2.0, [[USB4]]|Thunderbolt 5: [[PCI Express#PCI Express 4.0|x4 PCI Express 4.0]], DisplayPort 2.1, [[USB4]]}}
| cable =
| physical_connector = {{ubli|Thunderbolt 1 and 2: [[Mini DisplayPort]]|Thunderbolt 3, 4, and 5: [[USB-C]]}}
| num_pins = {{ubl|Thunderbolt 1 and 2: 20|Thunderbolt 3, 4 and 5: 24}}
| pin1 = Ground
| pin1_name = GND
| pin2 = Hot plug detect
| pin2_name = HPD
| pin3 = HighSpeed transmit 0 (positive)
| pin3_name = HS0TX(P)
| pin4 = HighSpeed receive 0 (positive)
| pin4_name = HS0RX(P)
| pin5 = HighSpeed transmit 0 (negative)
| pin5_name = HS0TX(N)
| pin6 = HighSpeed receive 0 (negative)
| pin6_name = HS0RX(N)
| pin7 = Ground
| pin7_name = GND
| pin8 = Ground
| pin8_name = GND
| pin9 = LowSpeed transmit
| pin9_name = LSR2P TX
| pin10 = Ground (reserved)
| pin10_name = GND
| pin11 = LowSpeed receive
| pin11_name = LSP2R RX
| pin12 = Ground (reserved)
| pin12_name = GND
| pin13 = Ground
| pin13_name = GND
| pin14 = Ground
| pin14_name = GND
| pin15 = HighSpeed transmit 1 (positive)
| pin15_name = HS1TX(P)
| pin16 = HighSpeed receive 1 (positive)
| pin16_name = HS1RX(P)
| pin17 = HighSpeed transmit 1 (negative)
| pin17_name = HS1TX(N)
| pin18 = HighSpeed receive 1 (negative)
| pin18_name = HS1RX(N)
| pin19 = Ground
| pin19_name = GND
| pin20 = Power
| pin20_name = DPPWR
| pinout_notes = This is the pinout for both sides of the connector, source side and sink side. The cable is actually a crossover cable. It swaps all receive and transmit lanes; e.g. HS1TX(P) of the source is connected to HS1RX(P) of the sink.
| pinout_col1_name =
| pinout_col2_name =
| pinout_image =
| pinout_caption =
}}
'''Thunderbolt''' is the brand name of a [[Interface (computing)#Hardware interfaces|hardware interface]] for the connection of external [[peripheral]]s to a [[computer]]. It was developed by [[Intel]] in collaboration with [[Apple Inc.|Apple]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shamah|first=David|title=Thunderbolt 3: How USB cooperation could lead to 100 million connected computers soon|url=https://www.zdnet.com/home-and-office/networking/thunderbolt-3-how-usb-cooperation-could-lead-to-100-million-connected-computers-soon/|access-date=2021-08-26|website=ZDNet|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Shah|first=Agam|date=2013-06-06|title=Intel shows 'world's fastest thumb drive'|url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2711416/intel-shows--world-s-fastest-thumb-drive-.html|access-date=2021-08-26|magazine=Computerworld|language=en}}</ref> It was initially marketed under the name '''Light Peak''', and first sold as part of an [[end-user]] product on 24 February 2011.<ref name="2011mbp" />

Thunderbolt combines [[PCI Express]] (PCIe) and [[DisplayPort]] (DP) into two [[Serial communication|serial]] signals,<ref>{{cite magazine|first=Dan|last=Frakes|url=https://www.macworld.com/article/1158145/thunderbolt_what_you_need_to_know.html|title=What you need to know about Thunderbolt|magazine=MacWorld|access-date=17 April 2019|date=24 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="cunningham2015">
{{cite news|first=Andrew|last=Cunningham|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/01/usb-3-1-and-type-c-the-only-stuff-at-ces-that-everyone-is-going-to-use|title=USB 3.1 and Type-C: The only stuff at CES that everyone is going to use|website=Ars Technica}}</ref> and additionally provides [[Direct current|DC power]] via a single cable. Up to six peripherals may be supported by one connector through various [[Network topology|topologies]]. Thunderbolt 1 and 2 use the same [[electrical connector|connector]] as [[Mini DisplayPort]] (MDP), whereas Thunderbolt 3, 4, and 5 use the [[USB-C]] connector, and support USB devices.

==Description==
[[File:Thunderbolt Symbol.svg|thumb|upright=0.45|Symbol used on Thunderbolt ports]]
[[File:Thunderbolt-Connector.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Thunderbolt 1 or 2, connector]]
[[File:Apple MacBook Pro, model A1278-8118.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Thunderbolt 1 or 2, port]]
[[File:Thunderbolt Technology model 1 E.png|thumb|upright=1.1|right|'''Thunderbolt link connections''' Intel provides two types of Thunderbolt controllers, a two-port and a one-port type. Both peripherals and computers require a controller.]]
[[File:Thunderbolt-interface-MacBook.png|thumb|upright=1.1|right|Thunderbolt 2 port on MacBook Pro with Retina display]]
Thunderbolt controllers [[multiplexing|multiplex]] one or more individual data lanes from connected PCIe and DisplayPort devices for transmission via two duplex Thunderbolt lanes, then de-multiplex them for use by PCIe and DisplayPort devices on the other end.<ref name="intelbrief2012" /> A single Thunderbolt port supports up to six Thunderbolt devices via hubs or [[Daisy chain (network topology)#Daisy chain|daisy chains]]; as many of these as the host has DP sources may be Thunderbolt [[Computer monitor|monitors]].<ref name="foresman2011">{{cite news|first=Chris|last=Foresman|url=https://arstechnica.com/apple/news/2011/02/thunderbolt-smokes-usb-firewire-with-10Gbps-throughput.ars|title=Thunderbolt smokes USB, FireWire with 10 Gb/s throughput|website=[[Ars Technica]]|publisher=Condé Nast Digital|date=24 February 2011|access-date=24 February 2011}}</ref>

A single Mini DisplayPort monitor or other device of any kind may be connected directly or at the very end of the chain. Thunderbolt is interoperable with DP-1.1a compatible devices. When connected to a DP-compatible device, the Thunderbolt port can provide a native DisplayPort signal with four lanes of output data at no more than 5.4 Gbit/s per Thunderbolt lane. When connected to a Thunderbolt device, the per-lane data rate becomes 10 Gbit/s and the four Thunderbolt lanes are configured as two duplex lanes, each 10 Gbit/s comprising one lane of input and one lane of output.<ref name="intelbrief2012"/>

Thunderbolt can be implemented on PCIe [[graphics card]]s, which have access to DisplayPort data and PCIe connectivity, or on the [[motherboard]] of computers with [[Integrated graphics solution|onboard video]], such as the [[MacBook Air]].<ref name="foresman2011"/><ref name="dilger2011"/><ref>{{cite web|first=LG|last=Nilsson|title=Intel announces Thunderbolt|url=http://vr-zone.com/articles/intel-announces-thunderbolt/11333.html|website=[[VR-Zone]]|publisher=VR Media|date=25 February 2011|access-date=27 February 2011|archive-date=26 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226040913/http://vr-zone.com/articles/intel-announces-thunderbolt/11333.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The interface was originally intended to run exclusively on an optical physical layer using components and flexible [[optical fiber]] cabling developed by Intel partners and at Intel's Silicon Photonics lab. It was initially marketed under the name Light Peak,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://techresearch.intel.com/spaw2/uploads/files/Intel%20Light%20Peak%20White%20Paper_0910.pdf|title=Light Peak: Overview|publisher=[[Intel]]|access-date=29 June 2011}}</ref> and after 2011 as Silicon Photonics Link.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Intel]]|title=White Paper: The 50G Silicon Photonics Link|url=http://download.intel.com/pressroom/pdf/photonics/Intel_SiliconPhotonics50gLink_WhitePaper.pdf?iid=pr_smrelease_vPro_materials2|access-date=29 June 2011}}</ref> However, it was discovered that conventional [[copper]] wiring could furnish the desired 10 Gbit/s per channel at lower cost.

This copper-based version of the Light Peak concept was co-developed by [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] and [[Intel]]. Apple registered ''Thunderbolt'' as a [[trademark]], but later transferred the mark to Intel, which held overriding intellectual-property rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/05/20/thunderbolt_trademark_rights_will_be_transferred_from_apple_to_intel.html|title=Thunderbolt trademark rights will be transferred from Apple to Intel|publisher=[[AppleInsider]]|date=20 May 2011|access-date=16 June 2013}}</ref> Thunderbolt was commercially introduced on Apple's 2011 [[MacBook Pro#Second generation (Unibody)|MacBook Pro]], using the same Apple-developed connector as [[Mini DisplayPort]]. Certain MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, Mac mini and iMac models downgrade Thunderbolt 4 protocol to Thunderbolt 3 due to not supporting dual 4K displays over Thunderbolt.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

[[Sumitomo Electric Industries]] started selling up to {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} optical Thunderbolt cables in Japan in January 2013,<ref name="Sumitomo optical TB 1">{{cite web|url=http://global-sei.com/news/press/13/prs004_s.html|title=Sumitomo Electric Starts Selling Optical Thunderbolt Cable at Amazon Online|publisher=Global Sei}}</ref> and [[Corning Inc.|Corning, Inc.]], began selling up to {{convert|60|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} [[Optical fiber cable|optical cables]] in the US in late September 2013.<ref name="corning optical cables 1"/>

==History==
===Introduction===
[[Intel]] introduced Light Peak at the 2009 [[Intel Developer Forum]] (IDF), using a prototype [[Mac Pro]] logic board to run two [[1080p]] video streams plus [[Local area network|LAN]] and storage devices over a single 30-meter optical cable with modified [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] ends.<ref name="engadget Tbolt lightpeak 1">{{cite web|first=Nilay|last=Patel|url=https://www.engadget.com/2009/09/24/video-intels-light-peak-running-an-hd-display-while-transferri|title=Video: Intel's Light Peak running an HD display while transferring files... on a hackintosh|website=[[Engadget]]|publisher=[[AOL]]|date=24 September 2009|access-date=25 February 2011}}</ref> The system was driven by a prototype [[PCI Express]] card, with two optical buses powering four ports.<ref>{{cite video|first=Jason|last=Ziller|date=26 January 2010|title=Intel Light Peak Interconnect Technology Update|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfGevFIVKw4| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110323095802/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nfGevFIVKw4| archive-date=2011-03-23 | url-status=dead|medium=YouTube|publisher=[[Intel]]|time=1:20|access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref> Jason Ziller, head of Intel's Optical I/O Program Office showed the internal components of the technology under a microscope and the sending of data through an oscilloscope.<ref>{{youTube|izNoF1SWtSg|Light Peak to Connect Consumer Devices at Record Speed}}</ref> The technology was described as having an initial speed of 10 Gbit/s over plastic optical cables, and promising a final speed of 100 Gbit/s.<ref name="register Tbolt speeds 1">{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2010/04/15/light_peak_to_succeed_usb_3_0|title=Light Peak to succeed USB 3.0|publisher=[[The Register]]|date=15 April 2010|place=[[United Kingdom|UK]]}}</ref> At the show, Intel said Light Peak-equipped systems would begin to appear in 2010, and posted a [[YouTube]] video showing Light Peak-connected HD cameras, laptops, docking stations, and HD monitors.<ref name="shiels">{{cite news|last=Shiels|first=Maggie|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8272003.stm|publisher=[[BBC News]]|title=Future is TV-shaped, says Intel|date=25 September 2009|access-date=27 September 2009}}</ref>

On 4 May 2010, in [[Brussels]], Intel demonstrated a laptop with a Light Peak connector, indicating that the technology had shrunk enough to fit inside such a device, and had the laptop send two simultaneous HD video streams down the connection, indicating that at least some fraction of the software/firmware stacks and protocols were functional. At the same demonstration, Intel officials said they expected hardware manufacturing to begin around the end of 2010.<ref name="collins">{{cite news|url=http://www.pcpro.co.uk/news/357688/intel-shows-off-first-light-peak-laptop|website=PC Pro|publisher=[[Dennis Publishing]] |last=Collins|first=Barry|title=Intel shows off first Light Peak laptop|date=4 May 2010|access-date=5 May 2010}}</ref>

In September 2010, some early commercial prototypes from manufacturers were demonstrated at [[Intel Developer Forum]] 2010.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hollister|first=Sean|url=https://www.engadget.com/2010/09/14/intels-light-peak-optical-interconnect-shrinks-slightly-while|title=Intel's Light Peak optical interconnect shrinks slightly, LaCie, WD, Compal and Avid begin prototyping|website=[[Engadget]]|publisher=[[AOL]] |date=14 September 2010|access-date=28 November 2010}}</ref>

====Copper vs. optical====
{{see also|Thunderbolt (interface)#Cables|label 1=Cables}}
Though Thunderbolt was originally conceived as an [[optics|optical]] technology, Intel switched to electrical connections to reduce costs and to supply up to 10 watts of power to connected devices.<ref>{{cite news|last=Hachman|first=Mark|date=24 February 2011|title=Intel Thunderbolt Rollout Won't Be Lightning Fast|url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2380890,00.asp|website=[[PC Mag]]|publisher=[[Ziff Davis]]|access-date=26 February 2011}}</ref>

In 2009, Intel officials said the company was "working on bundling the optical fiber with copper wire so Light Peak can be used to power devices plugged into the PC."<ref>{{cite news|last= Shankland |first= Stephen |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-30685_3-10360047-264.html|title=Intel's Light Peak: One PC cable to rule them all|website=CNet News|publisher=[[CBS Interactive]]|date=23 September 2009|access-date=28 November 2010}}</ref> In 2010, Intel said the original intent was "to have one single connector technology" that would let "electrical [[USB 3.0]] ... and piggyback on USB 3.0 or 4.0 DC power."<ref name= "Brooke 2009">{{cite news|first=Brooke|last=Crothers|title=Sources: 'Light Peak' technology not Apple idea|date=29 September 2009|publisher=[[CNet]]|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-13924_3-10363956-64.html |website=CNet News|access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref> Light Peak aimed to make great strides in consumer-ready optical technology, by then having achieved "[connectors rated] for 7,000 insertions, which matches or exceeds other PC connections ... cables [that were tied] in multiple knots to make sure it didn't break and the loss is acceptable," and, "You can almost get two people pulling on it at once and it won't break the fibre." They predicted that "Light Peak cables will be no more expensive than HDMI."<ref>{{cite web|last=Branscombe|first=Mary|date=5 August 2010 |title= Intel Light Peak: a tech guide|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/intel-light-peak-a-tech-guide/|website=[[ZDNet]]|publisher=[[Ziff Davis]]|access-date=22 October 2012}}</ref>

In January 2011, Intel's David Perlmutter told ''[[Computerworld]]'' that initial Thunderbolt implementations would be based on copper wires.<ref name="Brooke 2009"/> "The copper came out very good, surprisingly better than what we thought," he said.<ref>{{cite news|last=Shah|first=Agam|title=Intel says Light Peak interconnect technology is ready|date=8 January 2011|url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9204158/Intel_says_Light_Peak_interconnect_technology_is_ready|magazine=[[Computerworld]]|publisher=International Data|access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref> A major advantage of copper is the ability to carry power. The final Thunderbolt standard specifies 10 W DC on every port. ''See comparison section below.''

Intel and industry partners are still developing optical Thunderbolt hardware and cables.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.design-reuse.com/news/21682/light-peak-intel-iptronics.html|title=IPtronics Develops Components for Light Peak Technology|publisher=IPtronics|date=1 October 2009|access-date=5 April 2011}}</ref> The [[optical fiber cable]]s would run "tens of meters" but would not supply power, at least not initially.<ref name="dilger2011"/><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.eetimes.com/news/latest/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=220300670|title=IPtronics, Avago chip in to Intel's optical interconnect|last=Clarke|first=Peter|website=[[EE Times]]|date=1 October 2009|access-date=1 October 2009}}</ref><ref name="metz2011">{{cite news|first=Cade|last=Metz|date=24 February 2011|title=Intel: 'PC makers took the light out of Light Peak'|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2011/02/24/intel_thunderbolt_copper_embrace_explained|website=[[The Register]]|publisher=Situation Publishing|access-date=25 February 2011}}</ref> The version from Corning contains four 80/125 μm VSDN (Very Short Distance Network) fibers to transport an infrared signal up to {{convert|190|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="125 microns">{{cite video|first=Jason|last=Ziller|date=23 January 2010|title=Light Peak to Connect Consumer Devices at Record Speed|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=izNoF1SWtSg|medium=YouTube|publisher=[[Intel]]|time=1:13|access-date=23 February 2011}}</ref> The conversion of electrical signal to optical is embedded into the cable itself, so the current MDP connector is forward compatible. Eventually, Intel hopes for a purely optical transceiver assembly embedded in the PC.<ref name="metz2011"/>

The first such optical Thunderbolt cable was introduced by [[Sumitomo Electric Industries]] in January 2013.<ref name="sumitomi optical TB cable 1">{{cite press release|url=https://global-sei.com/news/press/13/prs004_s.html|year=2013|title=Sumitomo Electric Starts Selling Optical Thunderbolt Cable at Amazon Online|publisher=Global SEI|access-date=16 June 2013}}</ref> It is available in lengths of {{convert|10|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, {{convert|20|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}. However, those cables are retailed almost exclusively in Japan, and the price is 20 to 30 times that of copper Thunderbolt cables.

German company DeLock also released optical Thunderbolt cables in lengths of {{convert|10|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, {{convert|20|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} in 2013, priced similarly to the Sumitomo ones, and retailed only in Germany.<ref name="delock optical TB cable 1">{{cite web|url=https://www.delock.com/produkte/G_83259/merkmale.html?setLanguage=en|title=Delock Cable Thunderbolt optical male/male 30 m black|publisher=[[DeLock]]|access-date=15 October 2013}}</ref>

In September 2013, glass company [[Corning Inc.]] released the first range of optical Thunderbolt cables available in the Western marketplace, along with optical USB 3.0 cables, both under the brand name "Optical Cables".<ref name="corning optical cables 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.corning.com/news_center/news_releases/2013/2013091101.aspx|title=Optical Cables by Corning launched as the first Thunderbolt all-optical fiber cables|publisher=[[Corning Inc.|Corning]]|date=11 September 2013|access-date=22 September 2013}}</ref> Half the diameter and a fifth the mass of comparable copper Thunderbolt cables, they work with the 10 Gbit/s Thunderbolt protocol and the 20 Gbit/s Thunderbolt 2 protocol, and thus are able to work with all self-powered Thunderbolt devices (unlike copper cables, optical cables cannot provide power).<ref name="corning optical cables 1" /> The cables extend the current {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} maximum length offered by copper to a maximum of {{convert|60|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.

Before 2020, there were no optical Thunderbolt 3 cables on the market. However, optical Thunderbolt 1 and 2 cables could be used at the time with [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s Thunderbolt 3 (USB-C) to Thunderbolt 2 adapters on each end of the cable. This achieves connections up to the {{convert|60|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} maximum offered by previous versions of the standard.<ref name="MR PSA 1">{{cite web |url= https://forums.macrumors.com/threads/psa-for-thunderbolt-3-over-distance-use-optical-thunderbolt-1-2-cables.2112230|title=PSA: For Thunderbolt 3 over distance; use *OPTICAL Thunderbolt 1/2 cables!* |publisher= [[Macrumors]]|date=28 March 2018|access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref>

In April 2019, Corning showed an optical Thunderbolt 3 cable at the 2019 [[NAB Show]] in [[Las Vegas]].<ref name="TB3 optical 1">{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/macvfx/status/1115746090177818624|title=Optical thunderbolt 3 cables from Corning. Up to 60m. #NAB2019 #NABShow|publisher=Mat X|work=[[Twitter]]|date=9 April 2019|access-date=11 June 2019}}</ref> Just over a year later, in September 2020, Corning released their optical Thunderbolt 3 cables in lengths of {{convert|5|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, {{convert|10|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, {{convert|15|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, {{convert|25|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|50|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}.<ref name="MR Optical TB3 info 2">{{cite web|date=30 September 2020|title=Corning's Optical Thunderbolt 3 Cables Now Available in Lengths From 5 to 50 Meters|url=https://forums.macrumors.com/threads/cornings-optical-thunderbolt-3-cables-now-available-in-lengths-from-5-to-50-meters.2257908|access-date=8 October 2020|publisher=[[Macrumors]]}}</ref> In the meantime, Taiwanese company Areca released optical Thunderbolt 3 cables in April 2020 in lengths of {{convert|10|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, {{convert|20|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="MR Optical TB3 info 1">{{cite web|url=https://forums.macrumors.com/threads/optical-thunderbolt-3-cables-begin-rolling-out-in-lengths-up-to-50-meters.2228158|title=Optical Thunderbolt 3 Cables Begin Rolling Out in Lengths Up to 50 Meters|publisher=[[Macrumors]]|date=26 March 2020|access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>

Copper versions of Thunderbolt 4 cables offer full 40 Gbit/s speed and support backward compatibility with all versions of USB (up to USB4), DisplayPort Alternate Mode (DP 1.4 HBR3), and Thunderbolt 3. Released in early 2021, they were also to be available in three specified lengths: {{convert|0.2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, {{convert|0.8|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} – with many companies initially offering {{convert|0.8|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} ones.

Copper Thunderbolt 4 cables up to {{convert|1.0|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} are passive cables, while longer cables must integrate active signal conditioning circuitry. {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} maximum is the length of [[active cable]]s available from most brands, including [[CalDigit]],<ref name="CalDigit Thunderbolt 4 Cable">{{cite web|url=http://shop.caldigit.com/us/index.php?route=product/product&product_id=207|title=Thunderbolt 4 / USB 4 Cable (2m) Active 40Gb/s, 100W, 20V, 5A|publisher=CalDigit}}</ref> Cable Matters,<ref name="Cable Matters Active Thunderbolt 4 Cable">{{cite web|url=https://www.cablematters.com/pc-1283-132-40gbps-thunderbolt-4-usb-c-cable-with-100w-charging.aspx#DescriptionTitle|title=Cable Matters Active Thunderbolt 4 Cable|publisher=Cable Matters}}</ref> et al., while Apple are currently the only company that offers a {{convert|3|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} active copper cable.

Optical Thunderbolt 4 cables were targeting lengths from ~{{convert|5|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} to {{convert|50|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}},<ref name="Intel TB4 info 1">{{cite web|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/sites/default/files/intel-thunderbolt4-announcement-press-deck.pdf|title=Intel Thunderbolt 4 announcement press deck|publisher=Intel Thunderbolt|date=8 July 2020|access-date=23 April 2021}}</ref> although this may not happen, instead jumping to Thunderbolt 5 optical cables, sometime after the arrival of that standard in late 2024.

===Compatibility===
Details on compatibilty are available from the Thunderbolt Technology Community Web site.<ref name=faq>{{cite web | title=Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) | website=Thunderbolt Technology Community | url=https://www.thunderbolttechnology.net/tech/faq | access-date=14 January 2024}}</ref>

A single Thunderbolt 3 or later port provides data transfer, support for two 4K 60 Hz displays, and quick notebook charging up to 100W with a single cable. Any Thunderbolt or USB dock can connect to a Thunderbolt 3 computer. USB devices can be connected to a Thunderbolt 3 or later port. DisplayPort and Mini DisplayPort devices are supported.

Some functionality may be available if a Thunderbolt device is connected to a USB-C port; this is implementation-dependent, and not guaranteed.

Thunderbolt 4 supports Thunderbolt 3 devices, but not earlier versions. Thunderbolt 1 and 2 devices can be used with most, but not all, Thunderbolt 3 PCs with the use of an adapter.

===Thunderbolt 1===
[[CNET]]'s Brooke Crothers said it was rumored that the early-2011, MacBook Pro update would include some sort of new data port, and he speculated it would be Light Peak (Thunderbolt).<ref>{{cite news|first=Brooke|last=Crothers|title=New high-speed connection tech due from Apple|url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-13924_3-20033940-64.html|date=19 February 2011|website=[[CNet News]]|publisher=[[CBS Interactive]]|access-date=25 February 2011}}</ref> At the time, there were no details on the physical implementation, and mock-ups appeared showing a system similar to the earlier Intel demos using a combined USB/Light Peak port.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kim|first=Arnold|title=Apple to Introduce Light Peak (High Speed Connection Technology) Soon?|date=19 February 2011|url=http://www.macrumors.com/2011/02/19/apple-to-introduce-light-peak-high-speed-connection-technology-soon|website=[[MacRumors]]|access-date=25 February 2011}}</ref> Shortly before the release of the new machines, the [[USB Implementers Forum]] (USB-IF) announced they would not allow such a combination port, and that USB was not open to modification in that way.

Other implementations of the technology began in 2012, with desktop boards offering the interconnection now available.<ref>{{cite web|last=Smith|first=Mat|date=2012-05-21|title=ASUS and MSI launch Thunderbolt motherboards, tie for first place|website=Engadget|url=https://www.engadget.com/2012/05/21/asus-and-msi-launch-thunderbolt-motherboards}}</ref>

Apple stated in February 2011 that the port was based on [[Mini DisplayPort]], not USB. As the system was described, Intel's solution to the display connection problem became clear: Thunderbolt controllers multiplex data from existing DP systems with data from the PCIe port into a single cable. Older displays that using DP 1.1a or earlier must be located at the end of a Thunderbolt device chain, but native displays can be anywhere along the line.<ref name="dilger2011">{{cite web|first=Daniel Eran|last=Dilger|title=Intel details Thunderbolt, says Apple has a full year's head start|date=24 February 2011|website=[[AppleInsider]]|url=http://www.appleinsider.com/articles/11/02/24/intel_details_thunderbolt_as_exclusive_to_apple_until_2012.html|access-date=25 February 2011}}</ref> Thunderbolt devices can go anywhere on the chain. In that respect, Thunderbolt shares a relationship with the older [[ACCESS.bus]] system, which used the display connector to support a low-speed bus.

Apple states that up to six daisy-chained peripherals are supported per Thunderbolt port,<ref name="Apple2011">{{cite web|title=Thunderbolt: Next-Generation high-speed I/O technology|date=24 February 2011|publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]|url=https://www.apple.com/thunderbolt|access-date=25 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226054716/http://www.apple.com/thunderbolt|archive-date=26 February 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> and that the display should come at the end of the chain, if it does not support daisy chaining.

In February 2011, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] introduced [[MacBook Pro]] [[MacBook Pro (Intel-based)|(13-inch, Early 2011)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (13-inch, Early 2011) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP619?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> [[MacBook Pro|Macbook Pro]] [[MacBook Pro (Intel-based)|(15-inch, Early 2011)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (15-inch, Early 2011) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP620?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[MacBook Pro|Macbook Pro]] ([[MacBook Pro (Intel-based)|17-inch, Early 2011]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (17-inch, Early 2011) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP621?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring one Thunderbolt port. In May 2011, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] introduced [[iMac]] [[IMac (Intel-based)|(21.5-inch, Mid 2011)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=iMac (21.5-inch, Mid 2011) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP623?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring one Thunderbolt port, and [[iMac]] [[IMac (Intel-based)|(27-inch, Mid 2011)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=iMac (27-inch, Mid 2011) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP689?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring two Thunderbolt ports. In July 2011, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] introduced [[Mac Mini|Mac mini (Mid 2011)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mac mini (Mid 2011) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP632?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> [[MacBook Air]] [[MacBook Air (Intel-based)|(11-inch, Mid 2011)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Air (11-inch, Mid 2011) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP631?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> [[MacBook Air]] [[MacBook Air (Intel-based)|(13-inch, Mid 2011)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Air (13-inch, Mid 2011) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP683?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[Apple Thunderbolt Display]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Apple Thunderbolt Display – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP642?locale=en_US |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring one Thunderbolt port for daisy-chaining, or other devices.

In May 2011, Apple announced a new line of [[iMac]]s that include the Thunderbolt interface.<ref>{{cite web|title=Apple Announces New iMac With Next Generation Quad-Core Processors, Graphics & Thunderbolt I/O Technology|url=https://www.apple.com/pr/library/2011/05/03imac.html|publisher=Apple|access-date=10 May 2011}}</ref>

The Thunderbolt port on the new Macs is in the same location relative to other ports and maintains the same physical dimensions and pinout as the prior MDP connector. The main visible difference on Thunderbolt-equipped [[Macintosh|Macs]] is a Thunderbolt symbol next to the port.<ref name="foresman2011" />

The DisplayPort standard is partially compatible with Thunderbolt, as the two share Apple's physically compatible MDP connector. The Target Display mode on iMacs requires a Thunderbolt cable to accept a video-in signal from another Thunderbolt-capable computer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT204592|title=iMac (Mid 2011): Target Display Mode does not accept video over a Mini DisplayPort cable|date=14 July 2011|publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]|access-date=17 July 2011}}</ref> A DP monitor must be the last (or only) device in a chain of Thunderbolt devices.

Intel announced they would release a [[Software development kit|developer kit]] in the second quarter of 2011,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/224995/article.html|title=Intel to Open up Thunderbolt Development This Quarter|last=Shah|first=Agam|date=12 April 2011|newspaper=[[PC World]]|access-date=13 April 2011|publisher=PCWorld Communications}}</ref> while manufacturers of hardware-development equipment have indicated they will add support for the testing and development of Thunderbolt devices.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.embedded.com/electronics-products/electronic-product-reviews/debug-and-optimization/4215081/LeCroy-lines-up-armada-for-Thunderbolt-testing|title=LeCroy lines up armada for Thunderbolt testing|last=Holland|first=Colin|date=12 April 2011|access-date=18 April 2011}}</ref> The developer kit is being provided only on request.<ref name="TB tech 1">{{cite web|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/developer-application|title=Registration required for developer information|publisher=[[Intel]]|access-date=22 August 2012}}</ref>

In July 2011, [[Sony]] released its [[Sony VAIO Z series|Vaio Z21]] line of notebook computers that had a "Power Media Dock" that uses optical Thunderbolt (Light Peak) to connect to an external graphics card using a combination port that behaves like USB electrically, but that also includes the optical interconnect required for Thunderbolt.

===Thunderbolt 2===
In June 2013, [[Intel]] announced that the next version of Thunderbolt, based on the controller code-named "Falcon Ridge" (running at 20 Gbit/s), is officially named "Thunderbolt 2" and entered production in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.intel.com/technology/2013/06/video-creation-bolts-ahead-%E2%80%93-intel%E2%80%99s-thunderbolt%E2%84%A2-2-doubles-bandwidth-enabling-4k-video-transfer-display-2|title=Video Creation Bolts Ahead – Intel's Thunderbolt 2 Doubles Bandwidth, Enabling 4K Video Transfer & Display|publisher=Intel|date=2013-06-04}}</ref> The data-rate of 20 Gbit/s is made possible by joining the two existing 10 Gbit/s-channels, which does not change the maximum bandwidth, but makes using it more flexible.

In June 2013, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[Mac Pro|Mac Pro (Late 2013)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mac Pro (Late 2013) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP697?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring six Thunderbolt 2 ports. In October 2013, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[MacBook Pro]] [[MacBook Pro (Intel-based)|(Retina, 13-inch, Late 2013)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (Retina, 13-inch, Late 2013) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP691?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[MacBook Pro]] [[MacBook Pro (Intel-based)|(Retina, 15-inch, Late 2013)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (Retina, 15-inch, Late 2013) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP690?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring two Thunderbolt 2 ports. In October 2014, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[Mac Mini|Mac mini (Late 2014)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mac mini (Late 2014) - Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP710?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[iMac]] [[IMac (Intel-based)|(Retina 5K, 27-inch, Late 2014)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=iMac (Retina 5K, 27-inch, Late 2014) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP707?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring two Thunderbolt 2 ports. In March 2015, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[MacBook Air]] [[MacBook Air (Intel-based)|(11-inch, Early 2015)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Air (11-inch, Early 2015) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP713?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[MacBook Air]] [[MacBook Air (Intel-based)|(13-inch, Early 2015)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Air (13-inch, Early 2015) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP714?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring one Thunderbolt 2 port.

At the physical level, the bandwidth of Thunderbolt 1 and Thunderbolt 2 are identical, and Thunderbolt 1 cabling is thus compatible with Thunderbolt 2 interfaces. At the logical level, Thunderbolt 2 enables channel aggregation, whereby the two previously separate 10 Gbit/s channels can be combined into a single logical 20 Gbit/s channel.<ref>Apple (2013) [https://www.apple.com/thunderbolt/ "Thunderbolt"]. ''Apple''. Retrieved 4 February 2014.</ref>

Intel says Thunderbolt 2 will be able to transfer a [[4K resolution|4K video]] while simultaneously displaying it on a discrete monitor.<ref name="TBT4K">{{cite web|title=Video Creation Bolts Ahead – Intel's Thunderbolt 2 Doubles Bandwidth, Enabling 4K Video Transfer & Display|url=https://blogs.intel.com/technology/2013/06/video-creation-bolts-ahead-%E2%80%93-intel%E2%80%99s-thunderbolt%E2%84%A2-2-doubles-bandwidth-enabling-4k-video-transfer-display-2|website=intel.com|access-date=1 January 2016}}</ref>

Thunderbolt 2 incorporates [[DisplayPort#1.2|DisplayPort 1.2]] support, which allows for video streaming to a single 4K video monitor or dual QHD monitors. Thunderbolt 2 is backwards compatible, which means that all Thunderbolt cables and connectors are compatible with Thunderbolt 1.

The first Thunderbolt 2 product for the consumer market was [[Asus]]'s Z87-Deluxe/Quad motherboard, announced on 19 August 2013,<ref>Walton, Jarred (19 August 2013). [https://www.anandtech.com/show/7230/asus-introduces-z87deluxequad-worlds-first-thunderbolt-2-certified-motherboard "ASUS Introduces Z87-Deluxe/Quad: World's First Thunderbolt 2 Certified Motherboard"]. ''AnandTech''. Retrieved 28 December 2013.</ref> and the first system released with Thunderbolt 2 was Apple's late 2013 Retina MacBook Pro, on 22 October 2013.<ref>Torres, Edwin (28 January 2013) [http://buyersguide.macrumors.com/#Retina_MacBook_Pro]. ''MacRumors''. Retrieved 28 January 2014.</ref>

===Thunderbolt 3===
[[File:Thunderbolt 3 interface USB-C ports.jpg|thumb|Thunderbolt 3, 4, or 5 ports]]
[[File:USB Type-C Plug 03.jpg|thumb|USB-C Thunderbolt 3, 4, or 5 connector]]
Thunderbolt 3 is a hardware interface developed by Intel.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/IntelIsrael/photos/a.172984516091615.45124.131422793581121/911323402257719/?type=1&theater |title= Intel |website= Facebook}}</ref> It shares [[USB-C]] connectors with USB, supports [[USB 3.1 Gen 2]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/thunderbolt-3-and-usb-type-c-join-forces-for-one-port-to-rule-them-all|title= One port to rule them all: Thunderbolt 3 and USB Type-C join forces|first=Seamus|last=Byrne|date=2 June 2015|publisher=CNET|access-date=12 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.engadget.com/2015/06/02/thunderbolt-3-usb-c |title=Thunderbolt 3 is twice as fast and uses reversible USB Type-C|website= Engadget|date=2 June 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/06/thunderbolt-3-embraces-usb-type-c-connector-doubles-bandwidth-to-40gbps|title=Thunderbolt 3 embraces USB Type-C connector, doubles bandwidth to 40Gbps|website=arstechnica.co.uk|date=2 June 2015}}</ref> and can require special [[#Cables|"active" cables]] for maximum performance for cable lengths over 0.5 meters (1.5 feet). Compared to Thunderbolt 2, it doubles the bandwidth to 40 Gbit/s (5 GB/s). It allows up to 4 lanes of PCI Express 3.0 (32.4 Gbit/s) for general-purpose data transfer, and 4 lanes of DisplayPort 1.4 HBR3 (32.40 Gbit/s before 8/10 encoding removal, and 25.92 Gbit/s after) for video,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thunderbolttechnology.net/sites/default/files/18-241_Thunder7000Controller_Brief_FIN_HI.pdf|title=Intel® 7000 Series Thunderbolt™ 3 Controllers|publisher=Intel}}</ref> but the maximum combined data rate cannot exceed 40{{nbsp}}Gbit/s; video data will be using all needed speed, limiting PCIe data. DP 1.2 support is mandatory, while DP 1.4 is optional. Other overheads are possible on PCIe data (1.5% of 128b/130b is also removed) and Thunderbolt 3 protocol (you either optimise for speed or for latency), the last one gives only 21.6 Gbit/s to 25 Gbit/s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/sites/default/files/Thunderbolt3_TechBrief_FINAL.pdf|title=Thunderbolt 3 Technology Brief|publisher=Intel}}</ref> Thunderbolt 3 uses 64b/66b encoding after that, which means the real rate is bigger than 40 Gbit/s, 2 times 20.625 Gbit/s.

Intel's Thunderbolt 3 controller (codenamed ''Alpine Ridge,'' or the new ''Titan Ridge'') halves power consumption, and simultaneously drives two external [[4K resolution|4K displays]] at 60 Hz (or a single external 4K display at 120 Hz, or a 5K display at 60 Hz when using Apple's implementation for the late-2016 MacBook Pros) instead of just the single display previous controllers can drive. The new controller supports [[PCIe]] 3.0 and other protocols, including DisplayPort [[DisplayPort#1.2|1.2]] (allowing for [[computer display standard|4K]] resolutions at 60 Hz).<ref>{{Cite web |title= Thunderbolt 3 – The USB-C That Does It All | publisher = Thunderbolt Technology Community|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/blog/thunderbolt-3-usb-c-does-it-all |access-date= 2015-11-24}}</ref> Thunderbolt 3 has up to 15 watts of power delivery on copper cables and no power delivery capability on optical cables. Using USB-C on copper cables, it can incorporate [[USB hardware#USB Power Delivery|USB power delivery]], allowing the ports to source or sink up to 100 watts of power. This eliminates the need for a separate power supply from some devices. Thunderbolt 3 allows backwards compatibility with the first two versions by the use of adapters or transitional cables.<ref name="MR TB3 info 1">{{cite web|url=https://www.macrumors.com/2014/04/21/thunderbolt-third-generation-details|title=Leaked Info on Third-Generation Thunderbolt Points to 40Gbps Transfer Speeds|date=21 April 2014|publisher=[[MacRumors]]|access-date=19 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="ET TB3 info 1">{{cite web |url= https://www.extremetech.com/computing/181099-next-gen-thunderbolt-details-40gbps-pcie-3-0-hdmi-2-0-and-100w-power-delivery-for-single-cable-pcs |title=Next-gen Thunderbolt details: 40Gbps, PCIe 3.0, HDMI 2.0, and 100W power delivery for single-cable PCs|date=22 April 2014|publisher=Extreme Tech|access-date=19 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="AT TB3 info 1">{{cite web|url= https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2014/04/next-gen-thunderbolt-doubles-speeds-but-changes-the-connector |title=Next-gen Thunderbolt doubles speeds but changes the connector|date=22 April 2014| work =[[Ars Technica]]|access-date=19 November 2014}}</ref>

Intel offers three varieties for each of the controllers:<ref>{{Citation | work = Thunderbolt technology | title = Day 1 of Thunderbolt peripheral training Q4 15 final v1.0 | url = https://thunderbolttechnology.net/sites/default/files/Day%201%20of%202_Thunderbolt%E2%84%A2%203%20Peripheral%20Device%20Training_Q4_15_Final_v1_0.pdf}}</ref>
* Double Port (DP) uses a PCIe 3.0 ×4 link to provide two Thunderbolt 3 ports (DSL6540, JHL6540, JHL7540)
* Single Port (SP) uses a PCIe 3.0 ×4 link to provide one Thunderbolt 3 port (DSL6340, JHL6340, JHL7340)
* Low Power (LP) uses a PCIe 3.0 ×2 link to provide one Thunderbolt 3 port (JHL6240).

This follows previous practice, where higher-end devices such as the second-generation Mac Pro, iMac, Retina MacBook Pro, and [[Mac Mini]] use two-port controllers; while lower-end, lower-power devices such as the MacBook Air use the one-port version.

Support was added to Intel's [[Skylake (microarchitecture)|Skylake]] architecture chipsets, shipping during late 2015 into early 2016.<ref name="MR TB3 info 1"/><ref name="ET TB3 info 1"/><ref name="AT TB3 info 1"/>

Devices with Thunderbolt 3 ports began shipping at the beginning of December 2015, including notebooks running [[Microsoft Windows]] (from [[Acer Inc.|Acer]], [[Asus]], [[Clevo]], [[HP Inc.|HP]], [[Dell]], [[Alienware|Dell Alienware]], [[Lenovo]], [[Micro-Star International|MSI]], [[Razer Inc.|Razer]], and [[Sony]]), as well as motherboards (from [[Gigabyte Technology]]), and a 0.5 m Thunderbolt 3 passive USB-C cable (from Lintes Technology).<ref name="TT Tbolt 3 first">{{cite web|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/products?tid=All&field_company_nid=All&field_prod_os_value_many_to_one=All&field_prod_tb_version_value_many_to_one=tbv3|title=Thunderbolt 3 devices|website=Thunderbolt Technology|date=January 2016|access-date=9 January 2016}}</ref>

In October 2016, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[MacBook Pro]] [[MacBook Pro (Intel-based)|(13-inch, 2016, 2 Thunderbolt 3 Ports)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (13-inch, 2016, Two Thunderbolt 3 ports) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP747?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> which, as the name indicates, features two Thunderbolt 3 ports, [[MacBook Pro]] [[MacBook Pro (Intel-based)|(13-inch, 2016, 4 Thunderbolt 3 Ports)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (13-inch, 2016, Four Thunderbolt 3 ports) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP748?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[MacBook Pro]] [[MacBook Pro (Intel-based)|(15-inch, 2016)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (15-inch, 2016) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP749?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> which features four Thunderbolt 3 ports. In June 2017, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[iMac]] [[IMac (Intel-based)|(21.5-inch, 2017)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=iMac (21.5-inch, 2017) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP758?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> [[iMac]] [[IMac (Intel-based)|(Retina 4K, 21.5-inch, 2017)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=iMac (Retina 4K, 21.5-inch, 2017) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP759?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> [[iMac]] [[IMac (Intel-based)|(Retina 5K, 27-inch, 2017)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=iMac (Retina 5K, 27-inch, 2017) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP760?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> which feature two Thunderbolt 3 ports, as well as the [[iMac Pro]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=iMac Pro (2017) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP771?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> which featured four Thunderbolt 3 ports and was released in December 2017. In October 2018, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[MacBook Air]] [[MacBook Air (Intel-based)|(Retina, 13-inch, 2018)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Air (Retina, 13-inch, 2018) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP783?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring 2 Thunderbolt 3 ports and [[Mac Mini|Mac mini (2018)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mac mini (2018) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP782?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring four Thunderbolt 3 ports. In June 2019, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] unveils [[Mac Pro|Mac Pro (2019)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mac Pro (2019) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP797?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[Mac Pro|Mac Pro (Rack, 2019)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mac Pro (Rack, 2019) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP810?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring up to twelve Thunderbolt 3 ports, and [[Pro Display XDR]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pro Display XDR – Technical Specifications |url=https://www.apple.com/pro-display-xdr/specs/ |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=Apple |language=en-US}}</ref> with features one Thunderbolt 3 port, both released in December 2019. In April 2021, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[iPad Pro]] [[IPad Pro (5th generation)|11-inch (3rd generation)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=iPad Pro, 11-inch (3rd generation) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP843?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[iPad Pro]] [[IPad Pro (5th generation)|12.9-inch (5th generation)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=iPad Pro, 12.9-inch (5th generation) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP844?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring one Thunderbolt 3 port. In March 2022, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] released [[Apple Studio Display|Studio Display]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Studio Display – Technical Specifications |url=https://www.apple.com/studio-display/specs/ |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=Apple |language=en-US}}</ref> featuring one Thunderbolt 3 port.

On 8 January 2018, Intel announced a product refresh (codenamed Titan Ridge) with "enhanced robustness" and support for DisplayPort 1.4. Intel offers a single port (JHL7340) and double port (JHL7540) version of this host controller and a peripheral controller supporting two Thunderbolt 3 ports (JHL7440). The new peripheral controller can now act as a USB sink (compatible with regular USB-C ports).<ref>{{cite web |url= https://thunderbolttechnology.net/blog/new-intel®-thunderbolt-3-controllers-offer-displayport-14-and-basic-peripheral-compatibility-u|title=New Intel Thunderbolt 3 controllers offer DisplayPort 1.4, and basic peripheral compatibility with USB-C computer ports|last1=Ziller|first1=Jason|website=Thunderbolt Technology|publisher=Intel|access-date=15 January 2018}}</ref>

The Apple Pro Display XDR, which macOS allows to connect using two HBR3 connections to a Mac, doesn't support [[Display Stream Compression]] (DSC). That would be 51.84 Gbit/s, impossible for Thunderbolt 3, but it works because the two 3008×3384 10bpc 60 Hz 648.91 MHz signals of the XDR display only require 38.9 Gbit/s total and Thunderbolt does not transmit the DisplayPort stuffing symbols used to fill the HBR3 bandwidth.

====USB4====
{{main|USB4}}

The [[USB4]] specification was released on 29 August 2019 by [[USB Implementers Forum]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/USB4%20Specification.zip|title=USB Promoter Group USB4 Specification |date=2019-08-29|website= USB implementers forum}}</ref> based on the Thunderbolt 3 protocol specification.<ref name= "Bright">{{Cite web |url= https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2019/03/thunderbolt-3-becomes-usb4-as-intels-interconnect-goes-royalty-free |title=Thunderbolt 3 becomes USB4, as Intel's interconnect goes royalty-free|last=Bright|first=Peter|date=2019-03-04|website=Ars Technica |language= en-us |access-date= 2019-03-04}}</ref>

It supports 40 Gbit/s (5 GB/s) throughput, is [[USB4#Thunderbolt 3 compatibility|''optionally'']] compatible with Thunderbolt 3, and is backwards compatible with USB 3.2 and USB 2.0.<ref>{{Cite web |url= https://www.cnet.com/news/usb4-marries-thunderbolt-3-for-faster-speeds-and-smarter-transfers|title=USB4 marries Thunderbolt 3 for faster speeds and smarter transfers|last=Grunin|first=Lori|website=CNET|date=2019-03-04 |access-date= 2019-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/366931/thunderbolt-3-merges-with-usb-to-become-usb4|title=Thunderbolt 3 Merges With USB to Become USB4|last=Brant|first=Tom|date=2019-03-04|website= PC Magazine |access-date= 2019-03-04}}</ref> The architecture defines a method to share a single high-speed link with multiple end device types dynamically that best serves the transfer of data by type and application.

USB4 supports DisplayPort [[DisplayPort#2.0|2.0]] over its alternative mode.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-29|title=VESA Releases Updated DisplayPort Alt Mode Spec to Bring DisplayPort 2.0 Performance to USB4 and New USB Type-C® Devices|url=https://vesa.org/featured-articles/vesa-releases-updated-displayport-alt-mode-spec-to-bring-displayport-2-0-performance-to-usb4-and-new-usb-type-c-devices/|access-date=2021-11-22|website=VESA - Interface Standards for The Display Industry|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Thunderbolt 4 Explained {{!}} Tripp Lite|url=https://www.tripplite.com/products/thunderbolt-4|access-date=2021-12-20|website=Tripp Lite Website|language=en}}</ref>

In November 2020, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced [[MacBook Air]] [[MacBook Air (Apple silicon)|(M1, 2020)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Air (M1, 2020) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP825?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> [[MacBook Pro]] [[MacBook Pro (Apple silicon)|(13-inch, M1, 2020)]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (13-inch, M1, 2020) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP824?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and [[Mac Mini|Mac mini (M1, 2020)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mac mini (M1, 2020) – Technical specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP823?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring [[USB4]]. In April 2021, Apple announced [[iMac]] [[iMac (Apple silicon)|(24-inch, M1, 2021)]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=iMac (24-inch, M1, 2021) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP839?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> featuring two [[USB4]] ports.

=====USB4 PCIe Mode=====

USB4 makes the PCIe aspects of Thunderbolt "open source" – PCIe USB devices can be released without Thunderbolt certification. But notably, those devices will not be allowed to use Thunderbolt branding. However, Thunderbolt 4 devices use PCIe Mode with added certification labeling, and promoting backwards compatibility. This means multiple rival devices may use different brandings to accomplish the same task. USB4 PCIe devices can be backwards compatible with Thunderbolt 1–3 but this is not required. USB4 PCIe Mode is not an Alternate Mode like DisplayPort Alternate Mode, and Microsoft requires devices with USB4 to include PCIe support currently, in order to be WHQL/Windows certified PCs.<ref>{{Citation | url = https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/D1T1-2%20-%20USB%20Type-C%20System%20Overview.pdf | title = USB type C system overview | publisher = USB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | publisher = Microsoft |url= https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/test/hlk/testref/7d627bf0-25f3-4564-b554-b2a3450e2bcf|title = USB4 Systems PCIe Tunneling Support}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web | publisher = Black box |url=https://www.blackbox.com/en-it/blog/technology/detail/technology/2020/10/29/usb4-is-coming!-here-is-what-you-need-to-know |title = USB4 is Coming! Here is What You Need to Know}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/15752/displayport-alt-mode-20-spec-released | work = Anand tech |title = DisplayPort Alt Mode 2.0 Spec Released: Defining Alt Mode for USB4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://linuxhint.com/usb4-vs-usb-c/ | work = Linux hint |title=USB4 vs. USB C}}</ref>

===Thunderbolt 4===
Thunderbolt 4 was announced at CES 2020<ref name="AI TB4 info 1">{{cite web|url=https://appleinsider.com/articles/20/01/07/intel-confirms-thunderbolt-4-on-way-with-four-times-usb-3-speed|title=Intel confirms Thunderbolt 4 on way with four-times USB 3 speed|first=Malcolm|last=Owen|date=2020-01-07|website=Apple Insider |access-date=2020-01-07}}</ref> and the final specification was released in July 2020.<ref name=TB4_Intel_newsroom>{{Citation | url = https://newsroom.intel.com/news/introducing-thunderbolt-4-universal-cable-connectivity-everyone/ | publisher = Intel | title = Introducing Thunderbolt 4 universal cable connectivity for everyone}}</ref> The key differences between Thunderbolt 4 and Thunderbolt 3 are a minimum bandwidth requirement of 32 Gbit/s for PCIe link, support for dual 4K displays (DisplayPort 1.4),<ref>[https://newsroom.intel.com/news/introducing-thunderbolt-4-universal-cable-connectivity-everyone Introducing Thunderbolt 4: Universal Cable Connectivity for Everyone]. Intel. July 8, 2020</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=What is Thunderbolt 4? |url= https://www.cablematters.com/blog/Thunderbolt/what-is-thunderbolt-4 |website= Cable Matters}}</ref> and [[Intel VT-d]]-based [[direct memory access]] protection to prevent physical [[DMA attack]]s.

Another major improvement is that Thunderbolt 4 supports Thunderbolt Alternate Mode [[USB hub]]s ("Multi-port Accessory Architecture"), and not just [[Daisy chain (electrical engineering)|daisy chaining]].<ref name="TB 4 hub">{{cite web|url=https://eshop.macsales.com/shop/owc-thunderbolt-hub|title=OWC Thunderbolt Hub |access-date=2020-11-19}}</ref><ref name="TB4 Press deck">{{cite web | work = Thunderbolt technology |url= https://thunderbolttechnology.net/sites/default/files/intel-thunderbolt4-announcement-press-deck.pdf |title= Thunderbolt 4 Press deck |access-date= 2020-11-19}}</ref> Those hubs are backwards compatible with Thunderbolt 3 devices and can be backwards compatible with Thunderbolt 3 hosts (Titan Ridge only; with Alpine Ridge the additional downstream ports get downgraded to USB 3).<ref name= "TB 4 hub razer">{{cite web |url= https://www.razer.com/gaming-pc-accessories/razer-thunderbolt-4-dock-chroma/RC21-01690100-R3U1 |title= Razer Thunderbolt 4 Dock |access-date= 2021-02-05}}</ref><ref name= "TB 4 hub sonnet">{{cite web |url=https://www.sonnettech.com/support/downloads/manuals/Thunderbolt_4_Dock_Compatiblity.pdf |title= Sonnet Thunderbolt 4 Dock Compatibility |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210219085402/https://www.sonnettech.com/support/downloads/manuals/Thunderbolt_4_Dock_Compatiblity.pdf |access-date= 2021-02-19|archive-date= 19 February 2021 }}</ref>

The maximum bandwidth remains at 40 Gbit/s, the same as Thunderbolt 3 and four times as fast as USB 3.2 Gen 2x1.<ref>{{cite web|last1=S|first1=Ganesh T. |title= Intel Teases Thunderbolt 4, Light on Details |url= https://www.anandtech.com/show/15345/intel-teases-thunderbolt-4-light-on-details |website= Anandtech |access-date= 16 May 2020}}</ref><ref name= TB4_Intel_newsroom /> Supporting products began arriving in late 2020 and included Tiger Lake mobile processors for [[Intel Evo]] notebooks and 8000-series standalone Thunderbolt controllers (codenamed Goshen Ridge for devices and Maple Ridge for hosts).

USB4 supports DisplayPort 2.0 over its alternative mode. DisplayPort 2.0 can support higher than [[8K resolution]] at 60 Hz losslessly due to new UHBR 10, 13.5, and 20 signaling standards (DSC 1.2 used in DisplayPort 1.4 for that resolution is not lossless) in 8 bit and 8K 60 Hz with 10 bit color and use up to 80 Gbit/s (effective bandwidth 77.37 Gbit/s), which is double the amount available to USB data, because (just as previously in DisplayPort 1.4) it sends almost all the data in one direction (to the monitor) and can thus use all four data lanes at once.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Smith|first=Ryan|title=DisplayPort Alt Mode 2.0 Spec Released: Defining Alt Mode for USB4|url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/15752/displayport-alt-mode-20-spec-released|access-date=2021-11-22|website=www.anandtech.com}}</ref> Resolutions up to [[16K resolution|16K]] (15360×8640) 60 Hz display with 10 bit Y'CbCr 4:4:4 or RGB are possible.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-04-29|title=VESA Releases Updated DisplayPort Alt Mode Spec to Bring DisplayPort 2.0 Performance to USB4 and New USB Type-C® Devices|url=https://vesa.org/featured-articles/vesa-releases-updated-displayport-alt-mode-spec-to-bring-displayport-2-0-performance-to-usb4-and-new-usb-type-c-devices/|access-date=2021-11-22|website=VESA – Interface Standards for The Display Industry|language=en-US}}</ref>

November 17, 2020, Apple introduced the M1 Mac Mini with 2 Thunderbolt 4 ports. (The M2 update in 2023 included 4 ports) In October 2021, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced a [[MacBook Pro (Apple silicon)|14-inch]] [[MacBook Pro]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (14-inch, 2021) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP854?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> and a [[MacBook Pro (Apple silicon)|16-inch]] [[MacBook Pro]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=MacBook Pro (16-inch, 2021) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP858 |access-date=2024-05-22 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> which each featured three Thunderbolt 4 ports. In March 2022, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] announced the [[Mac Studio]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mac Studio (2022) – Technical Specifications |url=https://support.apple.com/kb/SP865?viewlocale=en_US&locale=pt_PT |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=support.apple.com}}</ref> with up to six Thunderbolt 4 ports.

=== Thunderbolt 5 ===
On September 12, 2023 Intel previewed Thunderbolt 5 (codenamed Barlow Ridge), aligned to the [[USB Implementers Forum]]'s (USB-IF) USB4 2.0 specification. It provides symmetric bandwidth of 80 Gbit/s, e.g. for mass-storage devices, double that of Thunderbolt 4, and unidirectional bandwidth of 120 Gbit/s for displays (three times that of Thunderbolt 3 and 4), supporting dual 8K displays at 60 Hz.

The full specifications cover:
* Supporting the latest version of USB4 2.0 80 Gbit/s specification
* Two times the total bandwidth of Thunderbolt 4 to 80 Gbit/s, while providing up to three times the bandwidth to 120 Gbit/s for video-intensive uses
* Support for [[DisplayPort]] 2.1
* Two times (64{{&nbsp}}G[[bit]]/s) the PCI Express data-throughput using [[PCI Express#PCI Express 4.0|PCI Express Gen. 4 x4]], for faster storage and external graphics
* Up to 240W of charging power downstream
* Works with existing passive cables up to {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} via PAM-3
* Compatible with previous versions of Thunderbolt, USB, and DisplayPort
* Supported by Intel's enabling and certification programs

Intel announced that computers and accessories compatible with Thunderbolt 5 will come out starting in 2024.<ref name="Intel TB5 1">{{cite web|date=October 19, 2022|title=Intel Introduces Thunderbolt 5 Connectivity Standard|url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/newsroom/news/intel-introduces-thunderbolt-5-standard.html|access-date=September 12, 2023|publisher=[[Intel]]}}</ref>

===Royalty situation===
On 24 May 2017, Intel announced that Thunderbolt 3 would become a [[royalty-free]] standard to OEMs and chip manufacturers in 2018, as part of an effort to boost the adoption of the protocol.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/intel-has-a-grand-plan-to-bring-thunderbolt-3-ports-to-every-laptop|title=Intel has a grand plan to bring Thunderbolt 3 ports to every laptop|website=Techradar|date=24 May 2017|access-date=24 May 2017}}</ref> The Thunderbolt 3 specification was later released to the USB-IF on 4 March 2019, making it royalty-free, to be used to form [[USB4]].<ref name="Bright"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://usb.org/sites/default/files/2019-03/USB_PG_USB4_DevUpdate_Announcement_FINAL_20190226.pdf|title=USB Promoter Group Announces USB4 Specification|website= USB |access-date=2019-07-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usb.org/sites/default/files/USB4%20Specification.zip |title=USB4 Specification|website= USB |access-date=3 September 2019}}</ref> Intel says it will retain control over certification of all Thunderbolt 3 devices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/3347403/the-new-usb4-spec-promises-a-lot-thunderbolt-3-support-40gbps-bandwidth-and-less-confusion.html|title=The new USB4 spec promises a lot: Thunderbolt 3 support, 40Gbps bandwidth, and less confusion|date=2019-03-05|website= PCWorld |access-date=2019-07-07}}</ref> Intel also states it employs "mandatory certification for all Thunderbolt products".<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://newsroom.intel.com/news/introducing-thunderbolt-4-universal-cable-connectivity-everyone|title=Introducing Thunderbolt 4: Universal Cable Connectivity for Everyone|date=2020-07-08|website=PCWorld |access-date=2020-07-11}}</ref>

Before March 2019, there were no [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]] chipsets or computers with Thunderbolt support released or announced due to the certification requirements (Intel did not certify non-Intel platforms). However, the [[YouTuber]] Wendell Wilson from Level1Techs was able to get Thunderbolt 3 support on an AMD computer with a [[Threadripper]] CPU and Titan Ridge add-in card working by modifying the firmware, indicating that the lack of Thunderbolt support on non-Intel systems is not due to any hardware limitations.<ref>{{Citation| work =Level1Techs|title=Where is Thunderbolt on Threadripper?! Here it is, but… |date=2018-07-29|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uOlQbP63lDQ| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211103/uOlQbP63lDQ| archive-date=2021-11-03 | url-status=live|access-date=2019-02-20 | via = You tube}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.pcgamer.com/complex-threadripper-hack-gets-intels-thunderbolt-3-working-on-amd-hardware|title=Complex Threadripper hack gets Intel's Thunderbolt 3 working on AMD hardware|last=Lilly|first=Paul|date=2018-07-30|website=PC Gamer|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-20}}</ref> As of May 2019, it is possible to have Thunderbolt 3 support on AMD using add-in cards without any problems,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://egpu.io/forums/builds/thunderbolt-3-on-amd-x399-threadripper-rtx-208032gbps-tb3-razer-core-x-win10-1803-theitsage|title=Thunderbolt 3 AMD Threadripper 1950X + RTX 2080@32Gbps-TB3 |website=eGPU.io|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-26}}</ref> and motherboards like ASRock [[List of AMD chipsets#AM4 chipsets|X570]] Creator already have Thunderbolt 3 ports.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.asrock.com/mb/AMD/X570%20Creator/index.asp|title=ASRock X570 Creator|website= Asrock |access-date= 2019-11-09}}</ref>

In January 2020 Intel certified<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thunderbolttechnology.net/product/x570-phantom-gaming%E2%80%93itxtb3|title=X570 Phantom Gaming–ITX/TB3 | work = Thunderbolt Technology Community |access-date= 2020-03-04}}</ref> ASRock X570 Phantom Gaming ITX/TB3 and now vendors are freely allowed to produce Thunderbolt controller silicon (even though those ASRock motherboards used Intel Titan Ridge).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tomshardware.com/news/amd-motherboard-asrock-first-thunderbolt-certification-intel|title=Intel Finally Certified an AMD Thunderbolt Motherboard: Here's Why That Matters (Updated)|first=Niels | last = Broekhuijsen |website=Tom's Hardware|date=6 February 2020 |access-date=2020-03-03}}</ref>

Asus currently supports Thunderbolt 3 on AMD with the add-in card Thunderboltex 3-TR, being compatible with AMD motherboards and Ryzen 3, 5 (56xx): ROG Strix B550-E Gaming, ROG Strix B550-F Gaming, Prime B550-PLUS, TUF Gaming B550-Plus.<ref>{{Cite web |title=THUNDERBOLTEX 3-TR｜Motherboards｜ASUS Global |url=https://www.asus.com/Motherboards-Components/Motherboards/Accessories/THUNDERBOLTEX-3-TR/HelpDesk_Manual/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=www.asus.com}}</ref> The ASUS ProArt B550-Creator has 2 Thunderbolt 4 ports.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ProArt B550-CREATOR｜Motherboards｜ASUS Global |url=https://www.asus.com/Motherboards-Components/Motherboards/ProArt/ProArt-B550-CREATOR/ |access-date=2022-07-21 |website=ASUS Global}}</ref>

[[Gigabyte Technology|GIGABYTE]] also has pair of certified motherboards, B550 VISION D-P and B550 VISION D,<ref>[https://www.thunderbolttechnology.net/product/b550-vision-d B550 VISION D]</ref><ref>[https://www.thunderbolttechnology.net/product/b550-vision-d-p B550 VISION D-P]</ref> with an Intel Thunderbolt 3 controller.

===Peripheral devices===
[[File:Promise-Tech-Pegasus2-R6-DAS.jpg|thumb|A multiple hard disk storage device that attaches to a computer through a Thunderbolt connection]]
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2017}}

The first Thunderbolt peripheral devices appeared in retail stores only in late 2011, following Apple's release of its first Thunderbolt-equipped computer in early 2011 with [[MacBook Pro]], with the relatively expensive ''Pegasus R4'' (4-drive) and ''Pegasus R6'' (6-drive) [[RAID]] enclosures by Promise Technology aimed at the [[wikt:prosumer#Etymology 2|prosumer]] and professional market, initially offering up to 12 TB of storage, later increased to 18 TB. Sales of these units were hurt by the [[2011 Thailand floods|2011 floods in Thailand]] (who manufacture much of the world's supply of hard-drives) resulting in a cut to worldwide hard-drive production and a subsequent driving-up of storage costs, hence the retail price of these Promise units increased in response, contributing to a slower take-up of the devices.

It also took some time for other storage manufacturers to release products: most were smaller devices aimed at the professional market, and focused on speed rather than high capacity. Many storage devices were under 1 [[terabyte|TB]] in size, with some featuring SSDs for faster external-data access rather than standard hard-drives.

Other companies have offered interface products that can route multiple older, usually slower, connections through a single Thunderbolt port. In July 2011, Apple released its [[Apple Thunderbolt Display]], whose [[gigabit Ethernet]] and other older connector types made it the first hub of its type. Later, companies such as [[Belkin]], [http://www.caldigit.com/us/ CalDigit], [[Other World Computing]], [[Matrox]], [[StarTech.com|StarTech]], and [[Elgato]] have all released Thunderbolt docks.

As of late 2012, few other storage devices offering double-digit [[terabyte|TB]] capacity had appeared. Exceptions included Sonnet Technologies' highly priced professional units, and [[Drobo]]'s 4- and 5-drive enclosures, the latter featuring their own [[Drobo#BeyondRAID|BeyondRAID]] proprietary data-handling system.

Backwards compatibility with non-Thunderbolt-equipped computers was a problem, as most storage devices featured only two Thunderbolt ports, for daisy-chaining up to six devices from each one. In mid-2012, [[LaCie]], Drobo, and other device makers started to swap out one of the two Thunderbolt ports for a [[USB 3.0]] connection on some of their low-to-mid end products. Later models had the USB 3.0 added ''in addition'' to the two Thunderbolt ports, including those from LaCie on their ''2big'' range.

===Apple devices===
Apple released its first Thunderbolt-equipped computer in early 2011 with [[MacBook Pro]], and have continued to immediately update their devices with newer generations of Thunderbolt as soon as available.

List of Apple devices featuring Thunderbolt ports include:<ref name="Apple TB ports 1">{{Cite web |title=Identify the ports on your Mac |url=https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201736 |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=Apple Support |language=en}}</ref>

* MacBook Pro (Retina, 13-inch, Late 2012 to Early 2013)
* MacBook Pro (Retina, 15-inch, Mid 2012 to Early 2013)
* MacBook Pro (17-inch, Early 2011 to Late 2011)
* MacBook Pro (15-inch, Early 2011 to Mid 2012)
* MacBook Pro (13-inch, Early 2011 to Mid 2012)
* MacBook Air (13-inch, Mid 2011 to Early 2014)
* MacBook Air (11-inch, Mid 2011 to Early 2014)
* Mac Mini (Mid 2011 to Late 2012)
* iMac (27-inch, Mid 2011 to Late 2013)
* iMac (21.5-inch, Mid 2011 to Mid 2014)

The late 2013 Retina MacBook Pro was the first product to have Thunderbolt 2 ports, following which manufacturers started to update their model offerings to those featuring the newer, faster, 20 Gbit/s connection throughout 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Butler |first=Stacey |date=2023-11-07 |title=What Exactly Is Thunderbolt and How Is It Different From USB-C? • macReports |url=https://macreports.com/what-exactly-is-thunderbolt-and-how-is-it-different-from-usb-c/ |access-date=2023-11-08 |website=macReports |language=en-US}}</ref> Again, among the first was Promise Technology, who released updated ''Pegasus 2'' versions of their R4 and R6 models along with an even larger R8 (8-drive) [[RAID]] unit, offering up to 32 TBs of storage. Later, other brands similarly introduced high capacity models with the newer connection type, including [[SanDisk Professional]] (with their ''G-RAID Studio'' models offering up to 24 TB) and LaCie (with their ''5big'', and [[19-inch rack|rack mounted]] ''8big'' models, offering up to 48 TB). LaCie also offering updated designed versions of their ''2big'' mainstream consumer models, up to 12 TB, using new 6 TB hard-drives.

List of Apple devices featuring Thunderbolt 2 ports include:<ref name="Apple TB ports 1" />

* MacBook Pro (Retina, 15-inch, Late 2013 to Mid 2015)
* MacBook Pro (Retina, 13-inch, Late 2013 to Early 2015)
* MacBook Air (13-inch, Early 2015 to 2017)
* MacBook Air (11-inch, Early 2015)
* Mac Mini (Late 2014)
* iMac (Retina 4K, 21.5-inch, Late 2015)
* iMac (21.5-inch, Late 2015)
* iMac (Retina 5K, 27-inch, Late 2014 to Late 2015)
* Mac Pro (Late 2013)

Thunderbolt 3 was introduced in late 2015, with several motherboard manufacturers and [[OEM]] laptop manufacturers including Thunderbolt 3 with their products. [[Gigabyte Technology|Gigabyte]] and [[Micro-Star International|MSI]], large computer component manufacturers, entered the market for the first time with Thunderbolt 3 compatible components.<ref name="TPU TB3 info 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.techpowerup.com/215773/gigabyte-unveils-the-z170x-ud5-th-thunderbolt-3-certified-motherboard.html|title=Gigabyte Unveils the Z170X-UD5 TH Thunderbolt 3 Certified Motherboard|access-date=30 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="PCW TB3 info 1">{{cite web|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2978318/laptop-computers/msi-embraces-skylake-and-thunderbolt-3-0-for-new-gaming-laptops.html|title=MSI embraces Skylake and Thunderbolt 3.0 for new gaming laptops|access-date=30 September 2015}}</ref>

[[Dell]] was the first to include Thunderbolt 3 ports in laptops with their [[Dell XPS|XPS Series]] and their [[Dell Alienware]] range.<ref name="PCW TB3 info 2">{{cite web|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/2976593/laptop-computers/new-alienware-laptops-pack-thunderbolt-3-and-better-screens-but-oddly-lack-skylake.html|title=New Alienware laptops pack Thunderbolt 3 and prettier screens, but oddly lack Skylake|access-date=30 September 2015}}</ref>

Apple first included Thunderbolt 3 on Mac in 2016.

Although Thunderbolt initially had poor hardware support outside of Apple devices, and had been relegated to a niche gadget port, adoption of Thunderbolt 3, which uses the USB-C connector standard, meant wider market acceptance, especially as it later became part of the USB4 standard.

List of Apple devices featuring Thunderbolt 3 ports include:<ref name="Apple TB ports 1" />

* Macbook Pro (14-inch, M3, 2023)
* MacBook Pro (13-inch, M1, 2020 to M2, 2022)
* MacBook Pro (16-inch, 2019)
* MacBook Pro (15-inch, 2016 to 2019)
* MacBook Pro (13-inch, Four Thunderbolt 3 ports, 2016 to 2020)
* MacBook Pro (13-inch, Two Thunderbolt 3 ports, 2016 to 2020)
* MacBook Air (M1, 2020 to M2, 2022)
* MacBook Air (Retina, 13-inch, 2018 to 2020)
* Mac Mini (2018 to M1, 2020)
* iMac (24-inch, M1, 2021)
* iMac (Retina 5K, 27-inch, 2017 to 2020)
* iMac (Retina 4K, 21.5-inch, 2017 to 2019)
* iMac (21.5-inch, 2017)
* iMac Pro
* Mac Pro (2019 + Rack, 2019)
* iPad Pro 12.9-inch (5th generation)
* iPad Pro 11-inch (3rd generation)

Apple started to include Thunderbolt 4 on some of their devices, starting in 2021 with MacBook Pro.

List of Apple devices featuring Thunderbolt 4 ports include:<ref name="Apple TB ports 1" />

* MacBook Pro (14-inch, M1 Pro/Max, 2021 to M3 Pro/Max, 2023)
* MacBook Pro (16-inch, M1 Pro/Max, 2021 to M3 Pro/Max, 2023)
* Mac Studio (2022 to 2023)
* Mac Mini (2023)
* Mac Pro (2023 + Rack, 2023)

==Security vulnerabilities==

===Vulnerability to DMA attacks===

Thunderbolt 3 – like many high-speed expansion buses, including [[PCI Express]], [[PC Card]], [[ExpressCard]], [[IEEE 1394|FireWire]], [[Conventional PCI|PCI]], and [[PCI-X]] — is potentially vulnerable to a [[direct memory access]] (DMA) [[DMA attack|attack]]. If users extend the PCI Express bus (the most common high-speed expansion bus in systems {{as of|2018|lc=on}}) with Thunderbolt, it allows very low-level access to the computer. An attacker could physically attach a malicious device, which, through its direct and unimpeded access to system memory and other devices, would be able to bypass almost all security measures of the operating system, allowing the attacker to read and write system memory, potentially exposing encryption keys or installing [[malware]].<ref name="erratasec"/> Such attacks have been demonstrated, modifying inexpensive commodity Thunderbolt hardware.<ref name="funderbolt"/><ref name="thunderspy"/> The [[Input–output memory management unit|IOMMU]] virtualization, if present, and configured by the BIOS and the operating system, can close a computer's vulnerability to DMA attacks,<ref name="funderbolt"/> but only if the IOMMU can block the DMA access of malicious device. As of 2019, the major OS vendors had not taken into account the variety of ways in which a malicious device could take advantage of complex interactions between multiple emulated peripherals, exposing subtle bugs and vulnerabilities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ndss-symposium.org/ndss-paper/thunderclap-exploring-vulnerabilities-in-operating-system-iommu-protection-via-dma-from-untrustworthy-peripherals|title=Thunderclap: Exploring Vulnerabilities in Operating System IOMMU Protection via DMA from Untrustworthy Peripherals – NDSS Symposium|language=en-US|access-date=2020-01-21}}</ref> Some motherboard and UEFI implementations offer Kernel DMA Protection. Intel VT-d-based direct memory access (DMA) protection is a mandatory requirement for Thunderbolt 4 Host Certification.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.intel.com/content/www/us/en/architecture-and-technology/thunderbolt/thunderbolt-3-vs-4.html|title=Thunderbolt 3 vs. Thunderbolt 4 Technology: What's the Difference?|language=en-US|access-date=2023-02-23}}</ref>

This vulnerability is not present when Thunderbolt is used as a system interconnection ({{abbr|IPoTB|Internet Protocol over Thunderbolt Bridge}} supported on [[OS X Mavericks]]), because the [[Internet Protocol|IP]] implementation runs on the underlying Thunderbolt low-latency packet-switching fabric, and the PCI Express protocol is not present on the cable. That means that if IPoTB networking is used between a group of computers, there is no threat of such DMA attack between them.<ref name="erratasec">{{cite web|url=https://blog.erratasec.com/2011/02/thunderbolt-introducing-new-way-to-hack.html|title=Thunderbolt: Introducing a new way to hack Macs|last=Graham|first=Robert|date=24 February 2011|website=Errata Security|access-date=5 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="funderbolt">{{cite conference|url=https://media.blackhat.com/us-13/US-13-Sevinsky-Funderbolt-Adventures-in-Thunderbolt-DMA-Attacks-Slides.pdf|title=Funderbolt: Adventures in Thunderbolt DMA Attacks|first=Russ|last=Sevinsky|conference=Black Hat Briefings|conference-url=https://www.blackhat.com|location=Las Vegas|date=1 August 2013 }}</ref><ref name="TBHW">{{cite web|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/tech/how-it-works|title=Thunderbolt how it works|publisher=Intel|date=2014|access-date=1 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029185956/https://thunderbolttechnology.net/tech/how-it-works|archive-date=2014-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q0HthE3qDMw| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211103/q0HthE3qDMw| archive-date=2021-11-03 | url-status=live|title=Black Hat USA 2013 – Funderbolt: Adventures in Thunderbolt DMA Attacks|first=Russ|last=Sevinsky|date=1 October 2013|access-date=16 July 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

===Vulnerability to Option ROM attacks===
When a system with Thunderbolt boots, it loads and executes [[Option ROM]]s from attached devices. A malicious Option ROM can allow malware to execute before an operating system is started. It can then invade the kernel, log keystrokes, or steal encryption keys.<ref name=heasman>{{cite web|url=https://www.blackhat.com/presentations/bh-usa-07/Heasman/Presentation/bh-usa-07-heasman.pdf|title=Hacking the Extensible Firmware Interface|publisher=Black Hat|first=John|last=Heasman|date=2007}}</ref> The ease of connecting Thunderbolt devices to portable computers makes them ideal for [[Evil Maid attack|evil-maid attacks]].<ref name=snare>{{cite web|url=http://ho.ax/downloads/De_Mysteriis_Dom_Jobsivs_Black_Hat_Slides.pdf|title=Mac EFI rootkits|publisher=Black Hat|author=Snare|date=2012}}</ref>

Some systems load Option ROMs during firmware updates, allowing the malware in a Thunderbolt device's Option ROM to potentially overwrite the SPI flash ROM containing the system's boot firmware.<ref name=thunderstrike>{{cite web|url=https://trmm.net/Thunderstrike|title=Thunderstrike: EFI firmware rootkits for MacBooks|first=Trammell|last=Hudson|publisher=[[Chaos Communication Congress]]|date=27 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.nvd.nist.gov/view/vuln/detail?vulnId=CVE-2014-4498|title=CVE-2014-4498: The Thunderstrike issue|author=US-CERT/NIST|date=30 January 2015}}</ref> In February 2015, Apple issued a Security Update to Mac OS X to eliminate the vulnerability of loading Option ROMs during firmware updates, although the system is still vulnerable to Option ROM attacks during normal boots.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT204244|title=About the security content of OS X Yosemite v10.10.2 and Security Update 2015-001|publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]|date=2015-02-04}}</ref>

Firmware-enforced boot security measures, such as [[Unified Extensible Firmware Interface#Secure Boot|UEFI Secure Boot]] (which specifies the enforcement of signatures or hash allowlists of Option ROMs) are designed to mitigate this kind of attack.

===Vulnerability to data exposure attacks (Thunderspy)===
In May 2020, seven major security flaws were discovered in the Thunderbolt protocol, collectively named [[Thunderspy]]. They allow a malicious party to access all data stored in a computer, even if the device is locked, password-protected, and has an encrypted hard drive. These vulnerabilities affect all Thunderbolt 1, 2 and 3 ports.<ref name="thunderspy">{{Cite web|title=Thunderbolt flaw allows access to a PC's data in minutes|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/11/21254290/thunderbolt-security-vulnerability-thunderspy-encryption-access-intel-laptops|last=Porter|first=Jon|date=2020-05-11|website=The Verge|language=en|access-date=2020-05-11}}</ref> The attack requries the computer to be in sleep mode and have a Thunderbolt controller with a writable fireware chip. A well-trained attacker with physical access to the computer ("[[evil maid]]") can perform the required steps in 5 minutes. With a malicious firmware, the attacker can covertly disable Thunderbolt security, clone device identities, and proceed to use DMA to extract data.<ref name="TSY-2020">{{cite news |last=Ruytenberg |first=Björn |title=Thunderspy: When Lightning Strikes Thrice: Breaking Thunderbolt 3 Security |url=https://thunderspy.io/ |date=2020 |work=Thunderspy.io |accessdate=11 May 2020 }}</ref> Thunderspy vulnerabilities can largely be mitigated using Kernel DMA Protection, along with traditional anti-intrusion hardware features.<ref>{{cite web|last=Ruytenberg|first=Björn|title=Thunderspy 2: Kernel DMA Protection for Unpatched Thunderbolt Systems|url=https://thunderspy.io/ts2.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kernel DMA Protection (Windows 10) – Microsoft 365 Security|url=https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/security/information-protection/kernel-dma-protection-for-thunderbolt|website=docs.microsoft.com|language=en-us}}</ref>

==Cables==
{{see also|Thunderbolt (interface)#Copper vs. optical|label 1=Copper vs. optical}}
[[File:Thunderbolt-Ethernet-Adapter by Apple-7286.jpg|thumb|Thunderbolt Ethernet adapter]]
In June 2011, Apple introduced the first Thunderbolt cable, a {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, {{val|10|ul=Gbit/s}}, [[Duplex (telecommunications)#Full duplex|full-duplex]], [[active cable]] costing US$49.<ref name="Apple tbolt 2m cable">{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2011/06/why-apples-2m-thunderbolt-cable-costs-a-whopping-50|title=The technology inside Apple's $50 Thunderbolt cable|last=Foresman|first=Chris|date=30 June 2011|access-date=2 July 2011}}</ref>

In June 2012, Apple began selling a Thunderbolt-to-[[gigabit Ethernet]] adapter for {{US$|29}}.<ref name="Apple Tbolt adaptor">{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2012/06/hands-on-apples-thunderbolt-gigabit-ethernet-adapter|title=Hands-on: Apple's Thunderbolt Gigabit Ethernet adapter|last=van Beijnum|first=Iljitsch|date=20 June 2012|website=[[Ars Technica]]}}</ref> In the third quarter of 2012, other manufacturers started shipping Thunderbolt cables, including cables reaching the {{convert|3|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=off}} length limit, while some storage-enclosure builders began bundling Thunderbolt cables with their devices, rather than making customers buy them separately, as had been standard practice.

In January 2013, Apple reduced the price of their {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} length cable to {{US$|39}} and added a half-meter cable for {{US$|29}}.<ref name="Apple shorter cable">{{cite web|url=https://9to5mac.com/2013/01/09/apple-slashes-price-on-thunderbolt-cable-releases-additional-shorter-model|title=Apple slashes price on Thunderbolt cable, releases additional shorter model|last=Gurman|first=Mark|date=10 January 2013|website=[[9to5Mac]]}}</ref>

In Thunderbolt 3’s introduction, Intel announced passive USB-C cables would connect Thunderbolt devices at speeds greater than USB 3.1 (though less than active Thunderbolt cables), thereby eliminating the adoption barrier of Thunderbolt active cable costs.<ref name="USB 3 introduction">{{cite web|url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2015/06/thunderbolt-3-embraces-usb-type-c-connector-doubles-bandwidth-to-40gbps|title=Thunderbolt 3 embraces USB Type-C connector, doubles bandwidth to 40Gbps|last=Anthony|first=Sebastian|date=2 June 2015|website=[[Ars Technica]] UK}}</ref>

In mid-2016, copper Thunderbolt 3 cables became available at lengths up to {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}. However, {{val|40|ul=Gbit/s}} on copper required either ''active'' cables, or short (initially {{convert|0.5|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, later {{convert|0.8|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}) ''passive'' cables. Passive copper cables exceeding {{convert|0.8|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} are limited to {{val|20|ul=Gbit/s}}. Despite that limit, passive cables provide USB 3 ({{val|20|ul=Gbit/s}}) backward compatibility, while active cables support only USB 2.0 ({{val|480|ul=Mbit/s}}). In April 2020, optical Thunderbolt 3 cables debuted (see [[#Copper vs. optical|''Copper vs. optical'']]).

Copper versions of Thunderbolt 4 cables offer full {{val|40|ul=Gbit/s}} speed and backward compatibility with all versions of USB (up to USB4), DisplayPort Alternate Mode (DP 1.4 HBR3), and Thunderbolt 3. Released in early 2021, they are also all to be available in three ''specified'' lengths: {{convert|0.2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, {{convert|0.8|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, and {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} – with many companies initially offering {{convert|0.8|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} lengths. Copper Thunderbolt 4 cables up to {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} are passive cables, while longer cables must integrate active signal conditioning circuitry. Interestingly, Apple are currently the only company that offers a {{convert|3|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} copper cable, whilst other companies maximum length of copper cables are {{convert|2|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}. Optical Thunderbolt 4 cables were targeting lengths from ~{{convert|5|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} to {{convert|50|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}},<ref name="Intel TB4 info 1"/> although this may not happen, instead jumping to Thunderbolt 5 optical cables, sometime after the arrival of that standard in late 2024.

==Controllers==
{{mw-datatable}}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-datatable"
|+ Intel Thunderbolt controllers
|-
! <abbr title="Thunderbolt Version">Ver.</abbr>
! Model
! Aimed
! <abbr title="No. of Channels">Ch.</abbr>
! Size (mm)
! Power (W)
! Family
! Release date
! Features
|-
| rowspan="10" | 1<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/series/67021/thunderbolt-controllers.html|title=Thunderbolt Controllers|website=intel.com}}</ref> || 82523EF || {{dunno}} || rowspan="2" | {{0}}4 || rowspan="3" | 15 × 15 || 3.8 || rowspan="2" | Light Ridge || rowspan="2" | 2010 Q4 ||
|-
| 82523EFL|| {{dunno}} || 3.2 ||
|-
| DSL2510 || {{dunno}} || rowspan="2" | {{0}}2 || {{dunno}} || rowspan="2" | Eagle Ridge || rowspan="2" | 2011 Q1 ||
|-
| DSL2310 || {{dunno}} ||{{0}}8 × 9{{0}} || 1.85 || SFF
|-
| DSL2210|| {{dunno}} || {{0}}1 || {{0}}5 × 6{{0}} || 0.7 || Port Ridge || 2011 Q4 || Device only
|-
| {{n/a|DSL3510H}}|| {{dunno}} || rowspan="2" | {{0}}4 || rowspan="4" | 12 × 12 || 3.4 || rowspan="3" | Cactus Ridge || {{n/a}} || ''Cancelled''
|-
| DSL3510L|| {{dunno}} || 2.8 || rowspan="2" | 2012 Q2 ||
|-
| DSL3310 || {{dunno}} || {{0}}2 || 2.1 || Host only
|-
| DSL4510 || {{dunno}} || {{0}}4 || {{dunno}} || rowspan="2" | Redwood Ridge || rowspan="2" | 2013 ||
|-
| DSL4410 || {{dunno}} || {{0}}2 || 10 × 10 || {{dunno}} || Host only
|-
| rowspan="2" | 2<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/series/79640/thunderbolt-2-controllers.html|title=Thunderbolt 2 Controllers|website=intel.com}}</ref> || DSL5520 || {{dunno}} || {{0}}4 || {{dunno}} || {{dunno}} || rowspan="2" | Falcon Ridge || rowspan="2" | 2013 Q3 || rowspan="2" | 20 Gbit/s speed, [[DisplayPort#1.2|DP 1.2]]
|-
| DSL5320 || {{dunno}} || rowspan="2" | {{0}}2 || {{dunno}} || {{dunno}}
|-
| rowspan="8" | 3<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/series/87742/thunderbolt-3-controllers.html|title=Thunderbolt 3 Controllers|website=intel.com}}</ref> || DSL6540 || {{dunno}} || rowspan="11" | 10.7 × 10.7 || 2.2 || rowspan="5" | Alpine Ridge<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techpowerup.com/200064/next-gen-intel-alpine-ridge-thunderbolt-controller-detailed|title=Next-Gen Intel "Alpine Ridge" Thunderbolt Controller Detailed|website=techpowerup.com}}</ref>|| 2015 Q4 || 40 Gbit/s speed, DP 1.2, [[PCIe 3.0]], [[HDMI 2.0]] LSPCon (DP Protocol Converter), [[USB 3.1]], 100 W power delivery (compatible with [[USB Power Delivery]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/sites/default/files/18-241_ThunderboltController_Brief_HI.pdf|title=Intel 6000 Series Thunderbolt 3 Controllers}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://chinese.vrzone.com/109297/bandwidth-upto-40gbs-new-gen-thunderbolt-alpine-ridge-spec-shown-19042014|title=Alpine Ridge 頻寬可達 40Gb/s，新一代 Thunderbolt 晶片將具更多功能 – VR-Zone 中文版|date=19 April 2014|website=vr-zone.com}}</ref>
|-
| DSL6340 || {{dunno}} || rowspan="3" | {{0}}1 || 1.7 || 2015 Q1 || 40 Gbit/s speed, DP 1.2.
|-
| JHL6240 || Computers/Peripheral || 1.2 || rowspan="3" | 2016 Q2 || rowspan="3" | 40 Gbit/s speed, DP 1.2, lead-free.
|-
| JHL6340 || Computers/Peripheral || 1.7
|-
| JHL6540 || Computers/Peripheral || {{0}}2 || 2.2
|-
| JHL7340 || Computers || {{0}}1 || 1.9 || rowspan="3" | Titan Ridge || rowspan="2" | 2018 Q1 || rowspan="2" | 40 Gbit/s speed, [[DisplayPort#1.4|DP 1.4]]
|-
| JHL7540 || Computers || rowspan="2" | {{0}}2 || 2.4
|-
| JHL7440 || Peripheral || 2.4 || 2018 Q1 || 40 Gbit/s speed, DP 1.4, optional [[USB-C]] port compatibility, backwards compatibility when a Thunderbolt 3 docking station is connected to a non-Thunderbolt 3 computer
|-
| rowspan="3" | 4<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/series/197981/thunderbolt-4-controllers.html|title=Thunderbolt 4 Controllers|website=intel.com}}</ref> || JHL8340 || Computers || {{0}}1 || {{dunno}} || rowspan="2" | Maple Ridge || 2020 Q4 || rowspan="2" | 40 Gbit/s speed, [[USB4]] compliant
|-
| JHL8540 || Computers || {{0}}2 || {{dunno}} || 2020 Q4
|-
|JHL8440 || Peripheral || {{0}}4 || {{dunno}} || Goshen Ridge || 2020 Q3 || 40 Gbit/s speed, USB4 compliant (peripheral only), with 4x Thunderbolt 4 ports for branching hub topology. Tunnelling of DP1.4, USB 3 (10 Gbit/s), PCIe (32 Gbit/s). Has PCIe 3.0 x1 and USB 3 (10 Gbit/s) native interfaces.
|-
| 5 || JHL9580 || {{dunno}} || {{0}}2 || 13 × 13 || 3.25 - 4 || Barlow Ridge || 2024 Q? || 80 Gbit/s speed (also 120 ⇄ 40 Gbit/s: asymmetric), USB4 v2 compliant, [[DisplayPort#2.1|DP 2.1]], [[PCIe 4.0]], 240 W power delivery.
|-
| colspan="9" style="text-align: center;" | '''Sources:'''<ref>* {{cite web|first=LG|last=Nilsson|title=Intel cans 3.4W TDP Cactus Ridge Thunderbolt chip|url=http://vr-zone.com/articles/intel-cans-3.4w-tdp-cactus-ridge-thunderbolt-chip/15297.html|publisher=[[VR-Zone]]|access-date=30 March 2012|archive-date=25 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325021733/http://vr-zone.com/articles/intel-cans-3.4w-tdp-cactus-ridge-thunderbolt-chip/15297.html|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://vr-zone.com/articles/thunderbolt-roadmap-unveiled-new-features-coming-to-apple-et-al/15554.html|title=Thunderbolt roadmap unveiled, new features coming to Apple et al|publisher=[[VR-Zone]]|first=LG|last=Nilsson|access-date=24 July 2012|archive-date=7 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120507043306/http://vr-zone.com/articles/thunderbolt-roadmap-unveiled-new-features-coming-to-apple-et-al/15554.html|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.digitimes.com/news/a20120720PD210.html|title=Intel to release new Thunderbolt chip in 2Q13|publisher=[[Digitimes]]|first=Monica|last=Chen|access-date=24 July 2012}}
* {{cite web|url=http://vr-zone.com/articles/intel-finally-shipping-2nd-gen-Thunderbolt-controllers-just-in-time-for-new-macs/15539.html|title=Intel finally shipping 2nd gen Thunderbolt controllers, just in time for new Macs|publisher=VR-Zone|first=LG|last=Nilsson|access-date=14 August 2012|archive-date=20 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020001549/http://vr-zone.com/articles/intel-finally-shipping-2nd-gen-thunderbolt-controllers-just-in-time-for-new-macs/15539.html|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.anandtech.com/show/6885/new-thunderbolt-controllers-dsl45104410-and-future-20Gbps-falcon-ridge-tb-controller-announced|title=New Thunderbolt Controllers (DSL4510/4410) and Future 20 Gbps Falcon Ridge TB Controller Announced|website=[[AnandTech]]|first=Anand|last=Shimpi|access-date=8 April 2013}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.pcper.com/news/General-Tech/IDF-2013-Products-20Gbps-Thunderbolt-2-Appear-IDF-2013|title=IDF 2013: Products With 20Gbps Thunderbolt 2 Appear At IDF 2013|website=[[PC Perspective]]|first=Tim|last=Verry|date=15 September 2013|access-date=14 October 2013}}
* {{Citation|chapter-url=http://ark.intel.com/products/codename/60141/Falcon-Ridge|title=Formerly Falcon Ridge|chapter=Products|publisher=[[Intel]]|access-date=14 October 2013}}
* {{cite web|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/blog/new-intel%C2%AE-thunderbolt%E2%84%A2-3-controllers-offer-displayport-14-and-basic-peripheral-compatibility-u|title=New Intel Thunderbolt 3 controllers offer DisplayPort 1.4, and basic peripheral compatibility with USB-C computer ports}}</ref>
|}

==See also==
{{colbegin|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Apple Thunderbolt Display]]
* [[Bus (computing)|Computer bus]]
* [[DisplayPort]] / [[Mini DisplayPort]]
* [[IEEE 1394]] (FireWire)
* [[Interconnect bottleneck]]
* [[Lightning (connector)|Lightning]]
* [[DockPort]]
* [[List of interface bit rates]]
* [[List of interface bit rates#Peripheral|List of computer peripheral bus bit rates]]
* [[MacBook Pro]]
* [[Optical communication]]
* [[Fiber-optic cable]]
* [[Parallel optical interface]]
* [[PCI Express#External GPUs|eGPU]]
* [[USB 3.0]]
* [[USB4]]
* [[USB-C]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* {{Cite web|last=Ziller|first=Jason|date=2 June 2015|title=Thunderbolt 3 – The USB-C That Does It All|url=https://thunderbolttechnology.net/blog/thunderbolt-3-usb-c-does-it-all|website=thunderbolttechnology.net|publisher=[[Intel]]}}
* {{Cite web|date=11 August 2021|title=Adapters for the Thunderbolt 3 or USB-C port on your Mac|url=https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT207443|website=apple.com|publisher=[[Apple Inc.|Apple]]}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|https://thunderbolttechnology.net|Thunderbolt}} – official site
* [https://larryjordan.com/articles/thunderbolt-may-not-be-as-fast-as-you-think/ Thunderbolt May Not Be As Fast As You Think] – Larry Jordan

{{Intel technology}}
{{Computer-bus}}
{{AVconn}}
{{Solid-state drive}}

[[Category:Computer-related introductions in 2009]]
[[Category:Computer buses]]
[[Category:Fiber optics]]
[[Category:Fiber-optic communications]]
[[Category:Intel products]]
[[Category:Optical communications]]
[[Category:Optoelectronics]]
[[Category:Peripheral Component Interconnect]]

Meter-Bus

2024-07-09T18:56:32Z

Denvercoder9: P1 is something entirely different

{{Short description|European standard for remote reading of gas or electricity meters}}
{{hatnote|For similarly named bus technologies, see [[MBus (disambiguation)]].}}
{{more footnotes|date=April 2018}}
{{anchor|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8}}
'''M-Bus''' or '''Meter-Bus''' is a [[European Committee for Standardization|European standard]] (EN 13757-2 physical and link layer, EN 13757-3 application layer) for the remote reading of [[water meter|water]], [[gas meter|gas]] or [[electricity meter]]s. M-Bus is also usable for other types of consumption meters, such as heating systems or [[water metering|water meters]]. The M-Bus interface is made for communication on two wires, making it cost-effective. A radio variant of M-Bus '''Wireless M-Bus''' is also specified in EN 13757–4.

The M-Bus was developed to fill the need for a system for the networking and remote reading of utility meters, for example to measure the consumption of gas or water in the home. This bus fulfills the special requirements of remotely powered or battery-driven systems, including consumer utility meters. When interrogated, the meters deliver the data they have collected to a common master, such as a hand-held computer, connected at periodic intervals to read all utility meters of a building. An alternative method of collecting data centrally is to transmit meter readings via a [[modem]].

Other applications for the M-Bus such as alarm systems, flexible illumination installations, heating control, etc. are suitable.

== Relation to the OSI model ==
Since no bus system was available for the requirements of meter reading, the M-Bus was developed by [[Horst Ziegler]] of the [[University of Paderborn]] in cooperation with [[Texas Instruments Deutschland GmbH]] and {{ill|Techem GmbH|de|Techem}}. The concept was based on the [[ISO-OSI Reference Model]], in order to realize an open system which could use almost any desired protocol.

Since the M-Bus is not a network, and therefore does not - among other things - need a transport or session layer, the levels four to six of the OSI model are empty. Therefore, only the physical, the data link, the network and the application layer are provided with functions.

{|class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" | OSI Model
|-
!
!Data unit
!Layer
!style="width:9em;"|Standard
|-
!rowspan="4"|Host layers
|rowspan="3"|Data
|7. [[Application layer|Application]]
|EN1434-3
|-
|6. [[Presentation layer|Presentation]]
|Empty
|-
|5. [[Session layer|Session]]
|Empty
|-
|Segment/Datagram
|4. [[Transport layer|Transport]]
|Empty
|-
!rowspan="3"|Media layers
|Packet
|3. [[Network layer|Network]]
|Optional
|-
|Frame
|2. [[Data link layer|Data link]]
|[[IEC 60870]]
|-
|Bit
|1. [[Physical layer|Physical]]
|M-Bus
|}

== Physical wire and connectors ==
M-Bus connection is called M-Bus or HAN (Home Area Network) consumer connection. M-Bus uses two-wire telephone cable (JYStY 1x''2x''0.8 mm or similar, 73 ohm/km, 120 nF/km) maximum length of 350 meters when using nominal transfer speeds 300 and 9600 baud. Lowering the speed up to 1000 meter cable can be used. There is no standardized connector, but RJ11 and RJ12 [[Modular connector]]s are used by meter manufacturers.<ref name="m-bus-pyhiscal">[https://m-bus.com/documentation-wired/04-physical-layer m-bus.com - Physical layer]</ref>

The master communication uses voltage signaling, where 1 (idle state, mark) is the bus nominal 36 volts, 0 (space) drops the voltage to 24 volts. As bus voltage can vary with length and load, the signal is specified as 1 for bus voltage drop less than 5.5V, 0 for drop higher than 8.2 volts.

Slaves communicate by [[current loop|current consumption]], where 1 (idle state, mark) is less than 1.5 milliamperes, 0 (space) raises current to 11-20 mA. The signal is specified as the at least 11 mA current increase.

The slaves are connected via [[diode bridge]] and can use either polarity of the wires. To protect the bus against shortcircuited slaves, a 430 ohm is connected in series at each slave (or, two 215 ohm resistors, one for each wire).

A M-bus load unit is 1.5 mA. Most slaves use at most this, some can need two units (3 mA). Masters can provide type-dependent number of load units, and usually visually indicate overload.

== Data link protocol ==
The data link protocol is described by IEC 870-5, or its updated version, [[IEC 60870-5]].

The data are sent in serial form, at speed between 300 and 9600 bit/s (some variants may operate up to 19200 or 38400 bit/s), using one start bit, one stop bit, and [[parity bit|even parity]] (8e1). The [[least significant bit]] is sent first. When sending packets ("telegrams"), there is no pause between stop and subsequent start bit.

Suggested speeds are 300, 2400, 9600, and with newer hardware 38400 bit/s, while 2400 bit/s is most common. Devices with different [[baudrate]]s can coexist on the same bus. Some devices use [[autobauding]]{{clarify|what is autobauding?|date=May 2024}}.

There are four kinds of packets:
* single character - 0xE5 - acknowledgement
* short frame, 5 bytes - 0x10, C-field, A-field, checksum, 0x16 - sending simple commands
* control frame, 9 bytes - 0x68, 0x03, 0x03, 0x68, C-field, A-field, CI-field, checksum, 0x16
** The control frame is a long frame with no payload.

* long frame, 9+ bytes - 0x68, length, length, 0x68, C-field, A-field, CI-field, [0..252 payload bytes], checksum, 0x16

C-field is the control/function field. The sequence, from bit 7, is:
* bit 7: 0
* bit 6: 1 for master-to-slave, 0 for slave reply
* bit 5:
** from master: FCB, frame count bit - indicates request to repeat message when reply was not received
** from slave: ACD, access demand - 1 when slave wishes to transmit class-1 data, priority data (class-2 data is ordinary non-priority) - the master then should request the class-1 data transfer
* bit 4:
** from master: FCV, frame count valid - when 0, slave should ignore FCB
** from slave: DFC, data flow control - when 1, slave can not accept further data
* bit 3,2,1,0: F3,F2,F1,F0, function code - eg. for short frame, 0 is for initialization of slave, xA is for class-1 (priority) data read, xB is for class-2 (normal) read. For long/control frame, x3 is sending data to slave, x8 is data reply from slave.

A-field is the address field. It is a 8-bit number:
* 0x00 - unset address, assigned at manufacture time, some meters fixed at this
* 0x01..0xFA - slave addresses
* 0xFB, 0xFC - reserved
* 0xFD - "broadcast" for secondary addressing, addressing done on network layer instead of on data link layer
* 0xFE - test broadcast, all slaves reply (collisions will happen, use for testing with a single slave; slave replies with its own address in A-field), also possible to use when there is only one slave on the bus
* 0xFF - broadcast, no reply from slaves

CI-field is the control information field. Defined at application layer.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://m-bus.com/documentation-wired/06-application-layer | title=6 – Application Layer – M-Bus }}</ref>

Length field in control/long frame is sent twice. Both bytes have to be equal. Minimum value is 0x03, as C-field, A-filed and CI-field are mandatory parts of the payload.

Slaves respond only to correctly formed packets that match their address. Any fault is indicated by lack of response. Absence of response is defined as no response for 330 bit periods (35 ms for 9600 bit/s, 1.1 s for 300 bit/s) plus 50 ms.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://m-bus.com/documentation-wired/05-data-link-layer | title=5 – Data Link Layer – M-Bus }}</ref>

Numerical values are usually sent in [[Binary-coded decimal|BCD]] format.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://m-bus.com/documentation-wired/06-application-layer | title=6 – Application Layer – M-Bus }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Energy}}
* [[Automatic meter reading]]
* [[Feed-in tariff]]
* [[Net metering]]
* [[OLE for process control]]
* [[OpenHAN]]
* [[Smart meter]]
* [[Utility submeter]]
* [[Virtual power plant]]
* [[Wattmeter]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* [http://www.rscada.se/libmbus/ rSCADA libmbus] An Open Source M-bus library written in C.
* [https://www.openmuc.org/m-bus/ jMBus] M-Bus master Java library at openmuc.org.
* [https://github.com/sympthom/Valley.Net.Protocols.MeterBus/ Valley.Net.Protocols.MeterBus] An Open Source M-Bus library written in C#.

== External links ==
* [http://m-bus.com m-bus.com]
* [https://sourceforge.net/projects/free-scada/] the free scada project
{{List of EN standards|state=autocollapse}}
{{Automation protocols}}

[[Category:Computer buses]]
[[Category:EN standards]]

OTV-7

2024-04-28T13:23:00Z

Denvercoder9:

{{Short description|USA Classified X-37B spaceplane mission 7}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox spaceflight
| name = USSF-52
| image = OTV-7 Launch.jpg
| image_caption = Launch of OTV-7
| mission_type = Classified
| operator = [[United States Space Force|U.S. Space Force]]
| COSPAR_ID =
| SATCAT =
| website =
| mission_duration = {{time interval|December 28, 2023}} (in progress)
| spacecraft_type = [[Boeing X-37|Boeing X-37B]]
| manufacturer = [[Boeing]]
| launch_mass = {{convert|6350|kg|lb|abbr=on}}<ref name="GSP">{{cite web |url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/x-37.htm |title=X-37B OTV 1, 2, 3 |work=Gunter's Space Page |first=Gunter D. |last=Krebs |accessdate=10 July 2013}}</ref>
| power = Deployable solar array, batteries<ref name="GSP" />
| launch_date = {{start-date|December 28, 2023|tz=y}}, 01:07 UTC<ref>{{cite web |last=Davenport |first=Justin |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2023/12/otv-7/ |title=Falcon Heavy launches USSF-52 spaceplane |date=29 December 2023 |access-date=29 December 2023 |work=NASASpaceFlight}}</ref>
| launch_rocket = [[Falcon Heavy]] ([[List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters#B1064|B1064.5 (sides)]] [[List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters#B1084|B1084 (core)]], [[List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters#B1065|B1065.5 (sides)]])
| launch_site = [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]]
| launch_contractor = [[SpaceX]]
| landing_date = 2027 (planned) {{cn}}
| orbit_reference = [[Highly elliptical orbit| Highly elliptical]] [[high Earth Orbit]]
| orbit_regime =
| orbit_periapsis = {{cvt|323|km}}
| orbit_apoapsis = {{cvt|38838|km}}
| orbit_inclination = 59.1°
| apsis = gee
| instruments =
| insignia =
| insignia_caption =
| insignia_size =
| programme = '''OTV program'''
| previous_mission = [[USA-299|OTV-6]]
| next_mission = OTV-8
}}
'''Orbital Test Vehicle 7''' ('''OTV-7'''), also referred to as '''[[United States Space Force]]-52''' ('''USSF-52''') or '''[[List of USA satellites|USA-349]]''',<ref name="auto">{{cite news|last1=Erwin|first1=Sandra|url=https://spacenews.com/u-s-air-force-x-37b-spaceplane-to-launch-on-a-spacex-falcon-heavy-rocket/|title=U.S. Air Force X-37B spaceplane to launch on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket|publisher=SpaceNews|date=8 November 2023|access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite web |last1=Clark |first1=Stephen |title=In a surprise move, the military's spaceplane will launch on Falcon Heavy |url=https://arstechnica.com/space/2023/11/in-a-surprise-move-the-militarys-spaceplane-will-launch-on-falcon-heavy/ |publisher=Ars Technica |access-date=11 November 2023 |date=8 November 2023}}</ref> is the fourth flight of the second [[Boeing]] [[Boeing X-37|X-37B]], an American unmanned [[VTHL|vertical-takeoff, horizontal-landing]] [[spaceplane]]. It was launched to [[Highly elliptical orbit|highly elliptical]] [[high Earth orbit]] aboard a [[Falcon Heavy]] rocket (for the first time) from [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]] on 28 December 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.satnews.com/2023/12/10/update-spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-on-hold-for-ussf-52-mission/ |title=UPDATE: SpaceX Falcon Heavy launch on hold for USSF-52 mission |date=December 10, 2023 | website=satnews.com |author=| access-date=December 10, 2023}}</ref>

The spaceplane is operated by the [[Department of the Air Force Rapid Capabilities Office]] and [[United States Space Force]], which considers the mission [[Classified information|classified]] and as such has not revealed the objectives. The spaceplane will be sent to orbit with a wide range of test and experimentation objectives. These tests include operating in new orbital regimes, experimenting with space domain awareness technologies and investigating the radiation effects to materials provided by NASA.<ref name="auto1">{{cite news|url=https://spacenews.com/u-s-air-force-x-37b-spaceplane-to-launch-on-a-spacex-falcon-heavy-rocket/|title=U.S. Air Force X-37B spaceplane to launch on a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket|date=8 November 2023|access-date=8 November 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-29 |title=United States Space Force Prepares X-37B for Launch |url=https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/3599989/united-states-space-force-prepares-x-37b-for-launch/http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceforce.mil%2FNews%2FArticle-Display%2FArticle%2F3599989%2Funited-states-space-force-prepares-x-37b-for-launch%2F |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=United States Space Force |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-08 |title=Department of the Air Force scheduled to launch seventh X-37B mission |url=https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/3583347/department-of-the-air-force-scheduled-to-launch-seventh-x-37b-mission/http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spaceforce.mil%2FNews%2FArticle-Display%2FArticle%2F3583347%2Fdepartment-of-the-air-force-scheduled-to-launch-seventh-x-37b-mission%2F |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=United States Space Force |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Background and mission==
OTV-7 is the fourth mission for the second X-37B built, and the seventh X-37B mission overall. It was flown on a [[Falcon Heavy]] in the expendable center core-recoverable side cores configuration, and launched from [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A]]. It is the second classified flight of Falcon Heavy, awarded in June 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.space.com/space-force-x-37b-spacex-falcon-heavy-1st-launch-dec-2023|title=SpaceX will launch the Space Force's mysterious X-37B space plane on a Falcon Heavy rocket Dec. 7|author1=Brett Tingley|date=9 November 2023|website=Space.com}}</ref><ref name="nextsfussf520905">{{Cite web |title=Falcon Heavy {{!}} USSF-52 |url=https://nextspaceflight.com/launches/details/110 |access-date=7 September 2022 |website=nextspaceflight.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.afspc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1559450/air-force-awards-afspc-52-launch-services-contract-to-spacex/ |title=Air Force Awards AFSPC-52 Launch Services Contract to SpaceX|publisher=Air Force Space Command|date=June 21, 2018|access-date=September 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628050728/https://www.afspc.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/1559450/air-force-awards-afspc-52-launch-services-contract-to-spacex/|archive-date=June 28, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-20 |title=Contracts For Aug. 20, 2021 |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/Contracts/Contract/Article/2741226/ |access-date=2022-07-20 |website=defense.gov |quote=Space Exploration Technologies Corp., Hawthorne, California, has been awarded a $19,226,072 bilateral modification (P00009) to previously awarded Space Force 52 contract FA8811-18-C-0003... ...the total cumulative face value of the contract is $149,226,072. |archive-date=20 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220720205557/https://www.defense.gov/News/Contracts/Contract/Article/2741226/ |url-status=live }}</ref> It is valued at US$130 million,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-wins-130-million-military-launch-contract-for-falcon-heavy/|title=SpaceX wins $130 million military launch contract for Falcon Heavy|publisher=SpaceNews|first=Sandra|last=Erwin|date=21 June 2018|access-date=12 September 2018}}</ref> increased to $149.2 million in August 2021, due to "a change in the contract requirements" and expected to be completed by 14 April 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Contracts/Contract/Article/2741226/|title=Contracts For Aug. 20, 2021|date=20 August 2021|publisher=U.S. Department of Defense|access-date=21 August 2021}}</ref> Draft solicitation said the launch was {{cvt|6350|kg}} to GTO.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/06/26/u-s-air-force-certifies-falcon-heavy-rocket-awards-launch-contract/|title=U.S. Air Force certifies Falcon Heavy rocket, awards launch contract |publisher=SpaceNews|first=Stephen|last=Clark|date=26 June 2018|access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref> A month before launch, the Air Force announced that the mission will fly an [[Boeing X-37|X-37B]] spaceplane.<ref name="auto1"/>

OTV-7 was deployed into a [[Highly elliptical orbit|Highly elliptical]] [[High Earth orbit|HEO]] orbit of {{cvt|323|km}} x {{cvt|38838|km}} x 59.1° orbit.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{Cite web |last=McDowell |first=Jonathan |title=Congrats to Tomi Simola for locating the secret X-37B spaceplane. OTV 7 is in a 323 x 38838 km x 59.1 deg orbit. Could be testing out a new HEO IR sensor for future early warning satellites - just a wild speculation on my part here. |url=https://x.com/planet4589/status/1755974823119872007?s=20 |website=X (Formerly Twitter)}}</ref>

==Payloads and experiments==
Onboard experiments include NASA's ''Seeds-2'' experiment investigating the effects of space-based radiation on plant seeds during a long-duration spaceflight.<ref name="auto1"/>

==See also==
* [[OTV-1]]
* [[OTV-2]]
* [[OTV-6]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{X-37B flights}}
{{Orbital launches in 2023}}

[[Category:Boeing X-37]]
[[Category:December 2023 events in the United States]]
[[Category:Spacecraft launched in 2023]]
[[Category:USA satellites]]
[[Category:United States Space Force]]

User talk:DenverCoder19

2023-10-27T21:08:13Z

Denvercoder9: /* Signature */ Reply

== May 2023 ==
[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I'm [[User:TylerBurden|TylerBurden]]. An edit that you recently made to [[:Norse colonization of North America]] seemed to be a test and has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. If you want to practice editing, please use [[User:DenverCoder19/sandbox|your sandbox]]. If you think a mistake was made, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on [[User talk:TylerBurden|my talk page]]. Thanks! [[User:TylerBurden|TylerBurden]] ([[User talk:TylerBurden|talk]]) 00:24, 5 May 2023 (UTC)

== July 2023 ==

[[File:Ambox warning pn.svg|30px|link=]] You currently appear to be engaged in an [[WP:Edit warring|edit war]] according to the reverts you have made on [[:Far-right politics]]. This means that you are repeatedly changing content back to how you think it should be although other editors disagree. Users are expected to [[Wikipedia:Consensus#In talk pages|collaborate]] with others, to avoid editing [[WP:Disruptive editing|disruptively]], and to [[WP:Consensus|try to reach a consensus]], rather than repeatedly undoing other users' edits once it is known that there is a disagreement.

Points to note:
# '''Edit warring is disruptive regardless of how many reverts you have made;'''
# '''Do not edit war even if you believe you are right.'''
If you find yourself in an editing dispute, use the article's [[Help:Talk pages|talk page]] to discuss controversial changes and work towards a version that represents consensus among editors. You can post a request for help at an [[WP:Noticeboards|appropriate noticeboard]] or seek [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution|dispute resolution]]. In some cases, it may be appropriate to [[WP:Requests for page protection|request temporary page protection]]. If you engage in an edit war, you '''may be [[WP:Blocking policy|blocked]] from editing.''' ''Re [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Far-right_politics&diff=1166836365&oldid=1166835385]. There absolutely was a reason given for the revert. Use talk.'' [[User:VQuakr|VQuakr]] ([[User talk:VQuakr|talk]]) 03:28, 24 July 2023 (UTC)

:If an edit is reverted without any reasoning, is it not a mistake? Happy to keep it as is. [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 03:38, 24 July 2023 (UTC)
::The edit you reverted, [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Far-right_politics&diff=prev&oldid=1166835385] quite clearly had an edit summary. Your claiming the edit summary doesn't exist doesn't make that fiction a reality. [[User:VQuakr|VQuakr]] ([[User talk:VQuakr|talk]]) 05:42, 27 July 2023 (UTC)
:::The edit summary was "they [sic] are aspects [sic] and nuances that differe [sic] between them". Spelling aside, it did not state what the differences were. This is equivalent to writing "it should be this way because of differences" in an edit summary. That's not a reason. [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 15:11, 27 July 2023 (UTC)
::::Well no, that's (yet again) not true. The edit summary was ''Please get a consensus for this. Articles about similar topics do not necessarily need to be written or formatted in exactly the same way, as they are aspects and nuances that differe between them.'' This is trivially verifiable stuff; it's bizarre for you to be making such easily falsifiable claims. Your edit warring, inability to read/recognize feedback, and the many many other issues noted in your talk page history has me concerned about your ability to edit here collaboratively. [[User:VQuakr|VQuakr]] ([[User talk:VQuakr|talk]]) 17:51, 27 July 2023 (UTC)
:::::That's my mistake. "they [sic] are aspects [sic] and nuances that differe [sic] between them" was the substance of the edit summary. It was "the complaint" in the edit summary in my mind because the rest was general statements. I was searching hard trying to understand what *specific* problem you had. That was the closest I could get.
:::::I certainly am not part of a conspiracy to rewrite history about what is in an edit summary.
:::::You reverted without giving a reason; your 'reason' was "there are differences", but you did not say what in your mind these differences were. Crucially, in my mind, you gave no falsifiable statement to discuss. Had you said "this or that is different", we could have a discussion.
:::::"You didn't give a reason" is not my attempt to rewrite edit history. I'm making a substantive point about your criticism (or lack thereof). 21:56, 31 July 2023 (UTC) [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 21:56, 31 July 2023 (UTC)
*Looking at DenverCoders contributions, I'm seeing a pattern of editing that suggest they may be [[WP:NOTHERE]]. Perhaps this should be brought to the attention of admins if the disruptive editing persists? Certainly wasting other editors time on a pretty regular basis, and they've been pulled up for it enough times now. [[User:Tambor de Tocino|Tambor de Tocino]] ([[User talk:Tambor de Tocino|talk]]) 21:37, 31 July 2023 (UTC)
*:Wow, take a look at their edit history! There is clearly a problem with their editing around political issues, seems to be pushing an ideological line in a disruptive manner, I think a [[Wikipedia:TOPICBAN|topic ban]] may be the answer. [[User:Tambor de Tocino|Tambor de Tocino]] ([[User talk:Tambor de Tocino|talk]]) 21:42, 31 July 2023 (UTC)
*::Thank you for your input. My biggest contribution to date is the creation of the page [[Narluga]]. 21:43, 31 July 2023 (UTC) [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 21:43, 31 July 2023 (UTC)
*:::Yes, so your edit history is public, other editors can see every contribution you've made. The history of this talk page is also public, and it's clear the issue has been raised with you numerous times by numerous editors. You've clearly been editing political articles in a disruptive manner. Editors are being patient and asking you to stop disruptive editing on political articles. However, if you keep it up one of us will eventually take it to admin, and I'd be suggesting or supporting an indefinite topic ban. [[User:Tambor de Tocino|Tambor de Tocino]] ([[User talk:Tambor de Tocino|talk]]) 21:56, 31 July 2023 (UTC)
*::::Yes, histories are public. I will point out that a substantial fraction of the people who say positive things on my page and thank me (but not all) tend to be collaborative editors and a substantial fraction who have pointed out constructive feedback (but not all) tend to be adversarial editors.
*::::Above all, I will point out that I have attempted to continue to contribute even when I felt discouraged and even when Wikipedia can foster a tone that can be less welcoming to people from non-traditional backgrounds.
*::::I will not engage in ad-hominem with you or discuss your pattern of edits. [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 22:16, 31 July 2023 (UTC)

== Alerts ==

[[File:Commons-emblem-notice.svg|link=|25px|alt=Information icon]] You have recently made edits related to post-1992 politics of the United States and closely related people. This is a standard message to inform you that post-1992 politics of the United States and closely related people is a designated contentious topic. This message does not imply that there are any issues with your editing. For more information about the contentious topics system, please see [[Wikipedia:Contentious topics]]. 
 
[[File:Commons-emblem-notice.svg|link=|25px|alt=Information icon]] You have recently made edits related to articles about [[WP:Biographies of living persons|living or recently deceased people]], and edits relating to the subject (living or recently deceased) of such biographical articles. This is a standard message to inform you that articles about [[WP:Biographies of living persons|living or recently deceased people]], and edits relating to the subject (living or recently deceased) of such biographical articles is a designated contentious topic. This message does not imply that there are any issues with your editing. For more information about the contentious topics system, please see [[Wikipedia:Contentious topics]]. 
 [[User:SPECIFICO | SPECIFICO]][[User_talk:SPECIFICO | ''talk'']] 19:16, 26 August 2023 (UTC)

== [[New York Times]] ==

[[File:Nuvola apps important.svg|25px|alt=|link=]] Please stop your [[Wikipedia:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]].
* If you are engaged in an article [[Wikipedia:Editing policy|content dispute]] with another editor, discuss the matter with the editor at their talk page, or the [[:Help:Talk pages|article's talk page]], and seek [[Wikipedia:Consensus|consensus]] with them. Alternatively you can read Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution|dispute resolution]] page, and ask for independent help at one of the [[Wikipedia:Dispute resolution#Ask for help at a relevant noticeboard|relevant noticeboards]].
* If you are engaged in any other form of dispute that is not covered on the dispute resolution page, seek assistance at Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Administrators' noticeboard/Incidents|Administrators' noticeboard/Incidents]].
If you continue to disrupt Wikipedia, you may be [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|blocked from editing]]. 
[[User:SPECIFICO | SPECIFICO]][[User_talk:SPECIFICO | ''talk'']] 19:18, 26 August 2023 (UTC)

:The user who posted this is topic-banned and is disgruntled when I voiced support for two newer editors who were trying to make edits to a page about a newspaper.
:I encourage any editor who comes across this notice to review my change [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:The_New_York_Times&diff=prev&oldid=1172383556]
:SPECIFICO, please do not use non-bona-fide talk page posts in an attempt to intimidate.[[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 19:24, 26 August 2023 (UTC)
:Yes, I looked at his talk page and '''the user who posted this warning has a reputation for posting spurious warnings''': "Don't hand out edit war warnings, where no edit war has occured", [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:SPECIFICO&oldid=1172165497#Don't_hand_out_edit_war_warnings,_where_no_edit_war_has_occured]
:This comes with editing topics about recent events. 19:47, 26 August 2023 (UTC)

== Please stop ==

Nothing good is going to come from your discussion [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:SPECIFICO&curid=36917283&diff=1172412617&oldid=1172412260 here], and if you're going to remove something that you believe crossed the line, it's best to do it without a snarky edit summary. I see you've already reached out to another admin for some advice, so I suggest you keep your focus there. Personalizing a dispute on another editor's talk page where there will clearly be no agreement isn't the path to take. [[User:ScottishFinnishRadish|ScottishFinnishRadish]] ([[User talk:ScottishFinnishRadish|talk]]) 23:02, 26 August 2023 (UTC)

:That's funny: I never edited or commented on a page related to you. I was talking to SPECIFICO. When SPECIFICO got involved in a dispute with Jeremy, you were the one who banned him and forced him off the site.
:Moreover, it's odd that you're putting a message on my page rather than in the discussion. And that you're discouraging me from commenting on a user's behavior on their talk page by commenting on my behavior on my talk page. If I didn't know better, I would say that you were trying to intimidate me. [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 18:27, 27 August 2023 (UTC)
::Or I'm trying to reduce overall drama. A talk page pissing match isn't likely to have any positive result. My reason for coming here was to avoid adding any more fuel to that particular fire. [[User:ScottishFinnishRadish|ScottishFinnishRadish]] ([[User talk:ScottishFinnishRadish|talk]]) 22:26, 27 August 2023 (UTC)
:::This editor keeps popping up in my watchlist for all the wrong reasons, I think it's getting to the point of being ridiculous and admin intervention is overdue. It's looking like a clear case of [[Wikipedia:NOTHERE]] to me. [[User:Tambor de Tocino|Tambor de Tocino]] ([[User talk:Tambor de Tocino|talk]]) 08:48, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
::::This discussion began when I raised concerns about [[WP:BRD misuse]] for an editor who as been banned in the past.
::::I encourage anyone reading this review the discussion that prompted this [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:SPECIFICO&oldid=1172412617#Excessive_reversion_and_accusations_of_edit_warring]
::::I encourage you to consider whether my 6-hour analysis of another user's editing history into a careful consideration of [[WP:BRD misuse]] qualifies as a "talk page pissing match", or whether this is high-effort and helpful.[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Starship.paint&oldid=1172413609#Help_with_Wikipedia_policies?]
::::I will point out again that comments like these are left by editors who blank their talk page after kerfuffles about editing,[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Tambor_de_Tocino&diff=prev&oldid=1171474289] and seem to use accusations of "edit warring" and "this requires sanctions" as an implicit or explicit threat.
::::I will also point out that I have refrained from making accusations except when I have spent several hours reviewing edit history. [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 15:55, 29 August 2023 (UTC)

== Test Efn ==

This is a test {{efn|does this note work}}

{{efn|name = ROC territory|There are four contemporary geopolitical definitions of the extent of "Taiwan": }} [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 16:00, 12 September 2023 (UTC)
== "[[:Dies piter]]" listed at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|Redirects for discussion]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|30px]]
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dies_piter&redirect=no Dies piter] has been listed at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|redirects for discussion]] to determine whether its use and function meets the [[Wikipedia:Redirect|redirect guidelines]]. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at '''{{slink|Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion/Log/2023 October 1#Dies piter}}''' until a consensus is reached.  [[User:Edward-Woodrow|Edward-Woodrow]] • [[User talk:Edward-Woodrow|talk]] 18:10, 1 October 2023 (UTC)

== [[Draft:Brian Thompson (businessman)|Brian Thompson (businessman)]] moved to draftspace ==

Thanks for your contributions to [[Draft:Brian Thompson (businessman)|Brian Thompson (businessman)]]. Unfortunately, I do not think it is ready for publishing at this time because '''it needs more sources to establish notability'''.
I have converted your article to a draft which you can improve, undisturbed for a while.

Please see more information at [[Help:Unreviewed new page]].
When the article is ready for publication, please click on the "Submit your draft for review!" button at the top of the page OR move the page back. [[User:Vanderwaalforces|Vanderwaalforces]] ([[User talk:Vanderwaalforces|talk]]) 22:38, 10 October 2023 (UTC)

:Sure thing. Isn't being the CEO of the largest healthcare company in the world notable enough? The CEO's revenues exceed the GDP of most countries. [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 00:38, 11 October 2023 (UTC)
::He can be the wealthiest in the universe and have significant coverage on independed reliable sources, unfortunately notability can not be established in that manner. See [[WP:BLP]] the guide for biographies of living person, see [[WP:INDEPENDENT]], [[WP:GNG]], [[WP:NPEOPLE]], [[WP:NBUSINESSPEOPLE]]. [[User:Vanderwaalforces|Vanderwaalforces]] ([[User talk:Vanderwaalforces|talk]]) 23:08, 11 October 2023 (UTC)
:::I'll work on the article. [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 23:13, 11 October 2023 (UTC)

== Your submission at [[Wikipedia:Articles for creation|Articles for creation]]: [[Draft:Administrative State|Administrative State]] (October 18) ==
<div style="border: solid 1px #FCC; background-color: #F8EEBC; padding: 0.5em 1em; color: #000; margin: 1.5em; width: 90%;"> [[File:AFC-Logo_Decline.svg|50px|left]]Your recent article submission to [[Wikipedia:Articles for creation|Articles for Creation]] has been reviewed. Unfortunately, it has not been accepted at this time.<nowiki> </nowiki>The reason left by Johannes Maximilian was:

{{divbox|gray|3=This submission is not adequately supported by [[WP:RS|reliable sources]]. ''Reliable'' sources are required so that information can be [[WP:Verifiability|verified]]. If you need help with referencing, please see [[Help:Referencing for beginners|Referencing for beginners]] and [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|Citing sources]].|}} The comment the reviewer left was:

{{divbox|blue|3=See [[WP:CITEHOW]], and then format your footnotes accordingly. Best, --[[User:Johannes Maximilian|Johannes]] ([[User_Talk:Johannes Maximilian|Talk]]) ([[Special:Contribs/Johannes Maximilian|Contribs]]) ([[User:Johannes Maximilian/Articles2|Articles]]) 15:01, 18 October 2023 (UTC)}} Please check the submission for any additional comments left by the reviewer. You are encouraged to edit the submission to address the issues raised and resubmit ''after they have been resolved''.
{{clear}}
* If you would like to continue working on the submission, go to [[Draft:Administrative State]] and click on the "Edit" tab at the top of the window.
* If you do not edit your draft in the next 6 months, it will be considered abandoned and [[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion#G13. Abandoned Drafts and Articles for creation submissions|may be deleted]].
* If you need any assistance, or have experienced any [[Wikipedia:Articles for creation/Scam warning|untoward behavior]] associated with this submission, you can ask for help at the [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia:WikiProject_Articles_for_creation/Help_desk/New_question&withJS=MediaWiki:AFCHD-wizard.js&page=Draft:Administrative_State '''Articles for creation help desk'''], on the [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Johannes_Maximilian&action=edit&section=new&nosummary=1&preload=Template:AfC_decline/HD_preload&preloadparams%5B%5D=Draft:Administrative_State '''reviewer's talk page'''] or use [[Wikipedia:IRC help disclaimer|Wikipedia's real-time chat help from experienced editors]].

[[User:Johannes Maximilian|Johannes]] ([[User_Talk:Johannes Maximilian|Talk]]) ([[Special:Contribs/Johannes Maximilian|Contribs]]) ([[User:Johannes Maximilian/Articles2|Articles]]) 15:01, 18 October 2023 (UTC)</div>
:Reformatted citations. [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 15:53, 19 October 2023 (UTC)

== Signature ==

Hi, please fix your signature to include your correct username (DenverCoder'''1'''9), instead of mine. [[User:Denvercoder9|Denvercoder9]] ([[User talk:Denvercoder9|talk]]) 15:27, 23 October 2023 (UTC)

:That's odd you're quite right. My mistake. How do you change it? [[User:DenverCoder19|DenverCoder9]] ([[User talk:DenverCoder19#top|talk]]) 15:54, 23 October 2023 (UTC)
::No worries. You should be able to change it in [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-personal-signature|Special:Preferences]], see the [[Wikipedia:Signatures#Customizing your signature|documentation]]. [[User:Denvercoder9|Denvercoder9]] ([[User talk:Denvercoder9|talk]]) 21:08, 27 October 2023 (UTC)

User talk:DenverCoder19

2023-10-23T15:27:23Z

Denvercoder9: /* Signature */ new section

Virginia-class submarine

2023-10-15T15:14:46Z

Denvercoder9: /* High-energy laser weapon */

{{short description|US Navy fast attack submarine class}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{use American English|date=March 2022}}
{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
| Ship image = SSN774.svg
| Ship caption = ''Virginia''-class SSN profile
}}
|-
{{Infobox ship image
| Ship image = US Navy 040730-N-1234E-002 PCU Virginia (SSN 774) returns to the General Dynamics Electric Boat shipyard.jpg
| Ship caption = USS ''Virginia'' underway in July 2004
}}
{{Infobox ship class overview
| Name =
| Builders = * [[General Dynamics Electric Boat]]
* [[Huntington Ingalls Industries]]
** [[Newport News Shipbuilding]]
| Operators = *{{navy|United States}}
*{{navy|Australia}} (planned)
| Class before = {{sclass|Seawolf|submarine|4}}
| Class after = {{sclass2|SSN(X)|submarine|4}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.19fortyfive.com/2021/12/why-the-us-navys-new-ssnx-submarine-could-change-everything/|title=Why the US Navy's New SSN(X) Submarine Could Change Everything|first=Caleb|last=Larson|date=14 December 2021|access-date=11 January 2022|archive-date=11 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220111091934/https://www.19fortyfive.com/2021/12/why-the-us-navys-new-ssnx-submarine-could-change-everything/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| Subclasses =
| Cost = $2.8 billion per unit (2019);<ref name="CRS2019">{{cite report|last1=O'Rourke|first1=Ronald|title=Navy Virginia (SSN-774) Class Attack Submarine Procurement: Background and Issues for Congres|date=April 16, 2019|series=CRS Report for Congress, RL32418|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]]|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL32418/170|access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref> $4.3 billion per unit w/VPM (2023)<ref name="CRS2023">{{cite report|last1=O'Rourke|first1=Ronald|title=Navy Virginia (SSN-774) Class Attack Submarine Procurement: Background and Issues for Congres|date=July 6, 2023|series=CRS Report for Congress, RL32418|publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]]|url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL32418/247|access-date=7 July 2023}}</ref>
| In service range =
| Built range = 2000–present
| In commission range = 2004–present
| Total ships planned = 66<ref name="CRS2023" />
| Total ships on order = 2
| Total ships building = 6
| Total ships completed = 22
| Total ships canceled = 0
| Total ships active = 21
| Total ships laid up =
| Total ships lost =
| Total ships retired =
| Total ships preserved =
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
| Hide header =
| Header caption =
| Ship type = [[Nuclear attack submarine]]
| Ship displacement = *'''Submerged:'''
:*'''Block I–IV''': {{convert|7900|MT|ST|sp=us|abbr=on}}
:*'''Block V''': {{convert|10200|MT|ST|sp=us|abbr=on}}<ref name="blockVa" />
| Ship length = *{{convert|377|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}
*{{convert|460|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} for ''Block V''<ref name="blockVa" />
| Ship beam = {{convert|34|ft|m|0|abbr=on}}
| Ship height =
| Ship draft =
| Ship depth =
| Ship decks =
| Ship deck clearance =
| Ship power =
| Ship propulsion = *1 × [[S9G reactor|S9G]] nuclear reactor<ref name="Propulsion">{{Cite book |last=Ragheb|first=Magdi|title=Nuclear Naval Propulsion|date=2011-09-09|editor-last=Tsvetkov|editor-first=Pavel|language=en|isbn=978-953-307-474-0}}</ref> {{convert|210|MW|hp|abbr=on|lk=in|order=flip|disp=b}}
*2 × steam turbines {{convert|40000|shp|MW|abbr=on|disp=b}}
*1 × single shaft [[pump-jet]] propulsor<ref name="Propulsion" />
*1 × secondary propulsion motor<ref name="Propulsion" />
| Ship speed = {{convert|25|kn|km/h mph}} or over<ref name="NavyFactFile" />
| Ship range = Unlimited
| Ship endurance = Only limited by food and maintenance requirements.
| Ship test depth = Over {{convert|800|ft|m|abbr=on}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://navalpost.com/how-deep-can-a-submarine-dive/|title=How deep can a submarine dive?|publisher=navalpost.com|date=26 April 2021|access-date=15 June 2022}}</ref>
| Ship complement = 135 (15 officers; 120 enlisted)
| Ship sensors =
| Ship EW =
| Ship armament = * '''Block I–IV''':
:* 12 × [[Vertical launching system|VLS]] tubes (for [[Tomahawk cruise missile]]s)
:* 4 × 21" [[torpedo tube]]s (for [[Mark 48 torpedo|Mk-48 torpedo]]s or [[Harpoon (missile)|UGM-84 Harpoon missiles]])
:* 25 × torpedoes & missiles (torpedo room) + 12 × missiles (in the VLS tubes)<ref name="cbo">{{cite web |url=http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/07-25-12-NavyShipbuilding_0.pdf |title=An Analysis of the Navy's Fiscal Year 2013 Shipbuilding Plan |publisher=[[Congressional Budget Office]] |number=Pub. No. 4456 |date=July 2012 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923232023/http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/07-25-12-NavyShipbuilding_0.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* '''Block V''':
:* VPM module (28 × Tomahawk BGM-109)
:* 12 × VLS tubes (1 × Tomahawk BGM-109 each)
:* 4 × 21" torpedo tubes for Mk-48 torpedoes or UGM-84 Harpoon missiles
:* 65 × torpedoes & missiles total<ref>{{cite web |last1=O'Rouke |first1=Ronald |title=Navy Virginia (SSN-774) Class Attack Submarine Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32418.pdf|via=Federation of American Scientists |publisher=Congressional Research Service |access-date=6 July 2017 |date=17 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170515130157/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32418.pdf|archive-date=15 May 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
| Ship notes =
}}
|}

The '''''Virginia'' class''', or the '''SSN-774 class''', is the latest [[Ship classification|class]] of [[Nuclear marine propulsion|nuclear-powered]] [[Cruise missile submarine|cruise missile]] fast-[[attack submarine]]s in service with the [[United States Navy]]. Designed by [[General Dynamics Electric Boat]] (EB) and [[Huntington Ingalls Industries]], the ''Virginia'' class incorporates the latest in stealth, intelligence gathering, and weapons systems.<ref name="History of Ships Named for the State of North Carolina - Battleships NC">{{cite web |url=http://www.battleshipnc.com/about-the-ship/history/all-ships/ |title=History of Ships Named for the State of North Carolina - Battleships NC |access-date=8 January 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107060902/http://www.battleshipnc.com/about-the-ship/history/all-ships/ |archive-date=7 January 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.foxnews.com/tech/submarine-surge-why-the-navy-plans-32-new-attack-subs-by-2034 |title=Submarine surge: Why the Navy plans 32 new attack subs by 2034 |date=28 March 2019 |website=Warrior Maven |access-date=28 March 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190328194116/https://www.foxnews.com/tech/submarine-surge-why-the-navy-plans-32-new-attack-subs-by-2034|archive-date=28 March 2019}}</ref>

''Virginia''-class submarines are designed for a broad spectrum of [[Blue-water navy|open-ocean]] and [[littoral]] missions, including anti-submarine warfare and intelligence gathering operations. They are scheduled to replace older {{sclass|Los Angeles|submarine|1}}s, many of which have already been decommissioned. ''Virginia''-class submarines will be acquired through 2043, and are expected to remain in service until at least 2060, with later submarines expected to operate into the 2070s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://defensetech.org/2014/02/12/navy-considers-future-after-virginia-class-subs/ |title=Navy Considers Future After ''Virginia''-class Subs |publisher=Defensetech.org |last=Osborn |first=Kris |date=12 February 2014 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150110032915/http://defensetech.org/2014/02/12/navy-considers-future-after-virginia-class-subs/ |archive-date=10 January 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="forbes1">{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2014/05/06/five-reasons-virginia-class-subs-are-the-face-of-future-warfare/ |title=Five Reasons Virginia-Class Subs Are the Face of Future Warfare |last=Thompson |first=Loren |website=Forbes |date=6 May 2014 |access-date=26 April 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150324161230/http://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2014/05/06/five-reasons-virginia-class-subs-are-the-face-of-future-warfare/ |archive-date=24 March 2015}}</ref>

On 14 March 2023, the trilateral Australian-British-American security pact known as [[AUKUS]] announced that the [[Royal Australian Navy]] would purchase three ''Virginia''-class submarines as a stopgap measure between the retirement of their conventionally powered {{sclass|Collins|submarine}}s and the acquisition of the future [[SSN-AUKUS]] class submarines. If the SSN-AUKUS fell behind schedule, Australia would have the option of purchasing two additional ''Virginia''-class submarines.<ref name="AUKUSMar23">{{cite press release |author1=Prime Minister of Australia Anthony Albanese |author2=Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Rishi Sunak |author3=President of the United States of America Joseph R. Biden |title=Joint Leaders Statement on AUKUS |url=https://www.pm.gov.au/media/joint-leaders-statement-aukus |website=Prime Minister of Australia |date=14 March 2023 |access-date=14 March 2023}}[[File:CC-BY_icon.svg|50x50px]] This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under a [[creativecommons:by/4.0/|Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence]].</ref><ref name="Aust14March23">{{cite news |last1=Stewart |first1=Cameron |title=Big gamble, but even bigger benefits in AUKUS subs |url=https://www.theaustralian.com.au/nation/defence/aukus-alliance-submarines-are-a-big-gamble-but-even-bigger-benefits/news-story/88b8f4ceb16a16d94c866f019a0d8138 |access-date=17 March 2023 |work=[[The Australian]] |date=14 March 2023|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Virginia class submarine.jpg|thumb|Rendering of a ''Virginia''-class attack submarine]]

The class was developed under the codename Centurion, later renamed New SSN (NSSN).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gdeb.com/about/history/|title=General Dynamics Electric Boat - History|website=gdeb.com|access-date=21 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019070946/http://www.gdeb.com/about/history/|archive-date=19 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="SSN-774 Virginia class">{{cite web|url=http://www.harpoondatabases.com/encyclopedia/Entry1383.aspx |title=SSN-774 Virginia class |access-date=23 November 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130910002816/http://www.harpoondatabases.com/encyclopedia/entry1383.aspx |archive-date=10 September 2013}}</ref> The "Centurion Study" was initiated in February 1991.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/man//dod-101/sys/ship/docs/920721-cr.htm |title=Navy Report on New Attack Submarine (Senate - July 21, 1992) |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509232338/http://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/docs/920721-cr.htm |archive-date=9 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The ''Virginia''-class submarine was the first US Navy warship with its development coordinated using such [[3D modeling|3D visualization]] technology as [[CATIA]], which comprises [[computer-aided engineering]] (CAE), [[computer-aided design]] (CAD), [[computer-aided manufacturing]] (CAM), and [[product lifecycle|product lifecycle management]] (PLM). Design problems for Electric Boat—and maintenance problems for the Navy—ensued nonetheless.<ref name="RandCorp">{{cite journal|title=RAND Corporation-Virginia Case Study |journal=Learning from Experience |pages=61–92 |date=2011|jstor=10.7249/j.ctt3fh0zm.13 |last1=Schank |first1=John F. |last2=Ip |first2=Cesse |last3=Lacroix |first3=Frank W. |last4=Murphy |first4=Robert E. |last5=Arena |first5=Mark V. |last6=Kamarck |first6=Kristy N. |last7=Lee |first7=Gordon T. |isbn=9780833058966}}</ref><ref name="USW W99" /><ref name="submarinesuppliers1">{{cite web|url=http://www.submarinesuppliers.org/programs/index.php |title=Submarine Industrial Base Council |publisher=Submarinesuppliers.org |date=22 December 2008 |access-date=6 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119163338/http://www.submarinesuppliers.org/programs/index.php |archive-date=19 January 2012}}</ref>

By 2007 approximately 35 million labor hours had been spent to design the ''Virginia'' class.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a478587.pdf |title=Sustaining U.S. Nuclear Submarine Design Capabilities |first1=John F. |last1=Schank |first2=Mark V. |last2=Arena |first3=Paul |last3=DeLuca |first4=Jessie |last4=Riposo |first5=Kimberly |last5=Curry |first6=Todd |last6=Weeks |first7=James |last7=Chiesa |publisher=National Defense Research Institute |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-8330-4160-9 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208221924/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a478587.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Constructing a single ''Virginia''-class submarine has required around nine million labor hours,<ref name="submarinesuppliers1" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.navalsubleague.com/NSL/default.aspx|title=Naval Submarine League |publisher=Navalsubleague.com| date=27 September 2012 |access-date=26 April 2015|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625012742/http://www.navalsubleague.com/NSL/default.aspx |archive-date=25 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="navalsubleague1">{{cite web
|url=http://www.navalsubleague.com/NSL/documents/Submarine%20Road%20Show%20NSL%2017%20Aug%202011%20NSL.ppsx
|title=Submarine Road Show
|publisher=navalsubleague.com
|date=17 August 2011
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131113065646/http://www.navalsubleague.com/NSL/documents/Submarine%20Road%20Show%20NSL%2017%20Aug%202011%20NSL.ppsx
|archive-date=13 November 2013
|access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref> and over 4,000 suppliers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Roberts |first=Jim |date=Winter 2011 |url=http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_43/double_vision.html |title=Double Vision: Planning to Increase Virginia-Class Production |issue=43 |publisher=US Navy |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923060516/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_43/double_vision.html |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Each submarine is projected to make 14–15 deployments during its 33-year service life.<ref name=Butler>{{cite web |last=Butler |first=John D.|url=http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2011-06/sweet-smell-acquisition-success |title=The Sweet Smell of Acquisition Success |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |volume=137 |issue=6/1,300 |date=June 2011 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150718071331/http://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2011-06/sweet-smell-acquisition-success |archive-date=18 July 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The ''Virginia'' class was intended in part as a less expensive alternative to the {{sclass|Seawolf|submarine|1}} ($1.8 billion vs $2.8 billion), whose production run was canceled after just three boats had been completed. To reduce costs, the ''Virginia''-class submarines use many "[[commercial off-the-shelf]]" (COTS) components, especially in their computers and data networks. Improvements in shipbuilding technology have trimmed production costs below the $1.8 billion projected fiscal year 2009 dollars.<ref name="baker1005" />

In hearings before both [[U.S. House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and [[U.S. Senate|Senate]] committees, the [[Congressional Research Service]] (CRS) and expert witnesses testified that the annual procurement rate of only one ''Virginia''-class boat—rising to two in 2012—would result in excessive unit production costs, yet an insufficient complement of attack submarines.<ref name="fas1">{{cite web |date=27 June 2000 |title=Statement of The Honorable Duncan Hunter, Chairman, Subcommittee on Military Procurement, Submarine Force Structure and Modernization |url=https://fas.org/man/congress/2000/00-06-27hunter.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612192741/http://fas.org/man/congress/2000/00-06-27hunter.htm |archive-date=12 June 2015 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] Military Analysis Network}}</ref> In a 10 March 2005 statement to the House Armed Services Committee, Ronald O'Rourke of the CRS testified that, assuming that the production rate remains as planned, "production economies of scale for submarines would continue to remain limited or poor."<ref name="orourke1">{{cite web |url=http://www.house.gov/hasc/testimony/109thcongress/Projection%20Forces/3-10-05O'RourkeCRS.pdf |title=Statement of Ronald O'Rourke Specialist in National Defense Congressional Research Service before the House Armed Services Committee Subcommittee on Projection Forces Hearing on Navy Force Architecture and Ship Construction |date=10 March 2005 |access-date=1 March 2008 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060604000350/http%3A//www%2Ehouse%2Egov/hasc/testimony/109thcongress/Projection%2520Forces/3%2D10%2D05O%27RourkeCRS%2Epdf |archive-date= 4 June 2006}}</ref>

In 2001, [[Newport News Shipbuilding]] and the [[General Dynamics Electric Boat]] Company built a quarter-scale version of a ''Virginia''-class submarine dubbed Large Scale Vehicle II (LSV II) ''Cutthroat''. The vehicle was designed as an affordable test platform for new technologies.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://auvac.org/configurations/view/197 |title=AUV System Spec Sheet Cutthroat LSV-2 configuration |publisher=Antonymous Undersea Vehicle Applications Center |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150505000859/http://auvac.org/configurations/view/197 |archive-date=5 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_11/submarine_stealth.html |title=Small Subs Provide Big Payoffs for Submarine Stealth|publisher=public.navy.mil |last=Fox |first=David M. |date=Spring 2001 |volume=3 |number=3 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605233334/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_11/submarine_stealth.html |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The ''Virginia'' class is built through an industrial arrangement designed to maintain both GD Electric Boat and Newport News Shipbuilding, the only two U.S. shipyards capable of building nuclear-powered submarines.<ref name="fas3">{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/programs/ssp/man/uswpns/navy/submarines/ssn774_virginia.html |title=SSN-774 Virginia-class NSSN New Attack Submarine |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |date=19 January 2009 |access-date=6 August 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707133458/http://www.fas.org/programs/ssp/man/uswpns/navy/submarines/ssn774_virginia.html |archive-date=7 July 2011}}</ref> Under the present arrangement, the Newport News facility builds the stern, habitability, machinery spaces, torpedo room, sail, and bow, while Electric Boat builds the engine room and control room. The facilities alternate work on the reactor plant as well as the final assembly, test, outfit, and delivery.

O'Rourke wrote in 2004 that, "Compared to a one-yard strategy, approaches involving two yards may be more expensive but offer potential offsetting benefits."<ref name=RL32418>{{cite report |last=O'Rourke |first=Ronald |title=Navy Virginia (SSN-774) Class Attack Submarine Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32418.pdf |date=26 March 2015 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |page=6 |access-date=4 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150628192435/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32418.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Among the claims of "offsetting benefits" that O'Rourke attributes to supporters of a two-facility construction arrangement is that it "would permit the United States to continue building submarines at one yard even if the other yard is rendered incapable of building submarines permanently or for a sustained period of time by a catastrophic event of some kind", including an enemy attack.

In order to get the submarine's price down to $2 billion per submarine in FY-05 dollars, the Navy instituted a cost-reduction program to shave off approximately $400 million of each submarine's price tag. The project was dubbed "2 for 4 in 12," referring to the Navy's desire to buy two boats for $4 billion in FY-12. Under pressure from Congress, the Navy opted to start buying two boats per year in FY-11, meaning that officials would not be able to get the $2 billion price tag before the service started buying two submarines per year. However, program manager Dave Johnson said at a conference on 19 March 2008 that the program was only $30 million away from achieving the $2 billion price goal, and would reach that target on schedule.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://insidedefense.com/secure/defense_docnum.asp?f=defense_2002.ask&docnum=NAVY-21-12-4|title=Cost reduction|access-date=25 March 2008}}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

The ''Virginia''-class Program Office received the David Packard Excellence in Acquisition Award in 1996, 1998, 2008, "for excelling in four specific award criteria: reducing life-cycle costs; making the acquisition system more efficient, responsive, and timely; integrating defense with the commercial base and practices; and promoting continuous improvement of the acquisition process".<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=40781 |title=Navy's Virginia Class Program Recognized for Acquisition Excellence |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Team Submarines Public Affairs |date=8 November 2008 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605232956/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=40781 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

In December 2008, the Navy signed a $14 billion contract with General Dynamics and Northrop Grumman to supply eight submarines. The contract required the delivery of one submarine in each of fiscal 2009 and 2010, and two submarines on each of fiscal 2011, 2012, and 2013.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2008/12/22/business/business-us-navy-submarines.html|title=General Dynamics And Northrop Awarded Submarine Deal|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=22 December 2008}}{{dead link|date=September 2010}}</ref> This contract was designed to bring the Navy's ''Virginia''-class fleet to 18 submarines. In December 2010, the [[United States Congress]] passed a defense authorization bill that expanded production to two subs per year.<ref>{{cite news |last=McDermott |first=Jennifer |date=23 December 2010 |title=House, Senate ok defense bill for 2011; sub plan stays on track |work=[[The Day (New London)|The Day]] |location=New London, Connecticut |url=http://www.theday.com/article/20101223/NWS09/312239514/-1/nws |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923090031/http://www.theday.com/article/20101223/NWS09/312239514/-1/nws |archive-date=23 September 2015}}</ref> Two submarine-per-year production resumed on 2 September 2011 with commencement of {{USS|Washington|SSN-787|3}} construction.<ref name="ssn787">{{cite press release |url=http://www.navsea.navy.mil/Newswire2011/08SEP11-01.aspx |location=Washington, DC |publisher=NAVSEA – Naval Sea Systems Command |title=Construction Begins on SSN 787; Navy Transitions to Building Two Virginia Class Submarines Per Year |date=8 September 2011 |access-date=11 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402175120/http://www.navsea.navy.mil/Newswire2011/08SEP11-01.aspx |archive-date=2 April 2012}}</ref>

On 21 June 2008, the Navy christened {{USS|New Hampshire|SSN-778|6}}, the first Block II submarine. This boat was delivered eight months ahead of schedule and $54 million under budget. Block II boats are built in four sections, compared to the ten sections of the Block I boats. This enables a cost saving of about $300 million per boat, reducing the overall cost to $2 billion per boat and the construction of two new boats per year. Beginning in 2010, new submarines of this class were to have included a software system that can monitor and reduce their [[Electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] signatures when needed.<ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/ssn-774-spiral-1.htm |title=SSN-774 Virginia-class NSSN New Attack Submarine |website=Global Security |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605021257/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/ssn-774-spiral-1.htm |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The first full-duration six-month deployment was successfully carried out from 15 October 2009 to 13 April 2010.<ref>{{cite web|last=Communication |first=Mass |url=http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/csg2/Pages/VARFD.aspx |title=VARFD.aspx |publisher=Public.navy.mil |access-date=26 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222101140/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/csg2/Pages/VARFD.aspx |archive-date=22 February 2014}}</ref> Authorization of full-rate production and the declaration of full operational capability was achieved five months later.<ref>{{cite press release |author= |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=55866 |title=Virginia Class Program Reaches Major Milestone |publisher=United States Navy |location=Washington, DC |date=10 October 2010 |access-date=26 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222101140/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=55866 |archive-date=22 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In September 2010, it was found that [[Polyurethane|urethane]] tiles, applied to the hull to damp internal sound and absorb rather than reflect sonar pulses, were falling off while the subs were at sea.<ref>{{cite web |first=Craig |last=Hooper |url=http://nextnavy.com/virginia-class-when-does-hull-coating-separation-endanger-the-boat/ |title=Virginia Class: When does hull coating separation endanger the boat? |website=Next Navy |date=6 September 2010 |access-date=30 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120705034205/http://nextnavy.com/virginia-class-when-does-hull-coating-separation-endanger-the-boat/ |archive-date=5 July 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Admiral Kevin McCoy announced that the problems with the Mold-in-Place [[Special Hull Treatment]] for the early subs had been fixed in 2011, then ''Minnesota'' was built and found to have the same problem.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nextnavy.com/the-virginia-peel-why-are-2-billion-dollar-subs-losing-their-skin/ |title=The Virginia Peel: Why are $2 Billion Dollar Subs Losing Their Skin? |last1=Hooper |first1=Craig |date=7 November 2013 |website=Next Navy |access-date=7 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112025500/http://nextnavy.com/the-virginia-peel-why-are-2-billion-dollar-subs-losing-their-skin/ |archive-date=12 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2013, just as two-per-year sub construction was supposed to commence, Congress failed to resolve the [[United States fiscal cliff]], forcing the Navy to attempt to "de-obligate" construction funds.<ref>{{cite web |author=Christopher Cavas |url=http://archive.defensenews.com/article/20130303/DEFREG02/303030004/U-S-Navy-Sets-Budget-Cutting-Plans-Motion |title=U.S. Navy Sets Budget-cutting Plans in Motion |publisher=Blogs.defensenews.com |date=2 March 2013 |access-date=22 July 2015}}{{dead link|date=August 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

In April 2019, the CRS reported that the Navy estimated the cost of a boat was $2.8 billion.<ref name="CRS2019" /> In July 2023, the CRS reported that the Navy estimates at the present production rate of two boats per year that the cost per boat when equipped with the additional Virginia Payload Module (VPM) mid-body section was $4.3 billion.<ref name="CRS2023" />

On 14 September 2023, at a [[United_States_congressional_hearing#Confirmation_hearings|Senate confirmation hearing]], Admiral [[Lisa Franchetti]] said that the [[US Navy]] would have to work with builders to raise the rate of production from 1.2/year to 2.2/year to meet the AUKUS target.<ref name="2023-09-15_DN">[https://www.defensenews.com/congress/2023/09/14/aukus-agreement-requires-submarine-production-boost-franchetti-says/ AUKUS agreement requires submarine production boost, Franchetti says], Bryant Harris, [[Defense News]], 2023-09-15</ref>

== Innovations ==
[[File:USS North Carolina (SSN-777) commissioning 2.jpg|thumb|{{USS|North Carolina|SSN-777|6}}, the last Block I boat, at her commissioning ceremony. Her advanced masts are visible in this image.]]
The ''Virginia'' class incorporates several innovations not found in previous US submarine classes.<ref name="baker1005">{{cite book |title=Combat Fleets of the World, 1998–1999 |last= Baker|first=A. D. III|publisher=Naval Institute Press |year=1998 |location=USA|isbn= 978-1-55750-111-0|page=1005}}</ref>

=== Technology barriers ===
Because of the low rate of ''Virginia'' production, the Navy entered into a program with [[DARPA]] to overcome technology barriers to lower the cost of attack submarines so that more could be built, to maintain the size of the fleet.<ref>{{cite report|last= O'Rourke |first= Ronald|url= https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32914.pdf|title=Navy Ship Acquisition: Options for Lower-Cost Ship Designs — Issues for Congress |series=RL32914|publisher=Congressional Research Service|date=23 June 2005|access-date=23 November 2012|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121025051947/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32914.pdf|archive-date=25 October 2012|url-status= live}}</ref>

These include:<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.darpa.mil/Our_Work/STO/Programs/Tango_Bravo.aspx|title=Tango Bravo|work=Strategic Technology Office|publisher=[[DARPA]]|access-date=17 October 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121014043812/http://www.darpa.mil/Our_Work/STO/Programs/Tango_Bravo.aspx|archive-date=14 October 2012}}</ref>
* Propulsion concepts not constrained by a centerline shaft.
* Externally stowed and launched weapons (especially torpedoes).
* Conformal alternatives to the existing spherical sonar array.
* Technologies that eliminate or substantially simplify existing submarine hull, mechanical, and electrical systems.
* Automation to reduce crew workload for standard tasks

=== Unified Modular Masts ===
''Virginia''-class subs are the first class where all [[Radio masts and towers|masts]] share common design – the Universal Modular Mast (UMM) – designed by [[L3 Technologies|L3]] KEO<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www2.l-3com.com/keo/products/submarine.htm#o |title=Submarine Imaging |publisher= L-3com |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150420040436/http://www2.l-3com.com/keo/products/submarine.htm#o |archive-date=20 April 2015 |url-status= dead}}</ref> (previously Kollmorgen).<ref>{{cite press release |url= http://www.l-3com.com/media-center/press-releases.html?pr_id=1658097 |title=L-3 Completes Acquisition of Kollmorgen Electro-Optical |number= 212–697–1111 |publisher=L-3com |date=7 February 2012 |access-date= 26 April 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150402111442/http://www.l-3com.com/media-center/press-releases.html?pr_id=1658097 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=SPIE Europe |url=http://optics.org/news/3/2/7 |title=L-3 completes $210M Kollmorgen acquisition |work=Optics.org |date=8 February 2012 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150904031441/http://optics.org/news/3/2/7 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Shared components have been maximized and some design choices are also shared between different masts. The first UMM was installed on {{USS |Memphis|SSN-691|6}}, a ''Los Angeles''-class submarine.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www2.l-3com.com/keo/pdfs/AD-16%20PMP%20datasht.pdf |title= Photonics Mast Program |publisher=L-3 KEO |date=20 March 2008 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121223014422/http://www2.l-3com.com/keo/pdfs/AD-16%20PMP%20datasht.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The UMM is an integrated system for housing, erecting, and supporting submarine mast-mounted antennas and sensors.<ref>{{cite web |date=30 July 1998 |title=U.S. Navy: Vision… Presence… Power |url= http://www.navy.mil/navydata/policy/vision/vis98/vis-p10.html |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150420230121/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/policy/vision/vis98/vis-p10.html |archive-date=20 April 2015 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher=US Navy}}</ref> The UMMs are the following:
* Snorkel mast<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Virginia class Attack Submarine – SSN |url= https://www.seaforces.org/usnships/ssn/Virginia-class.htm |access-date=9 November 2011 |website= Sea forces}}</ref>
* Two photonic masts<ref name=":0" />
* Two communication masts<ref name=":0" />
* One or two high-data-rate satellite communication (SATCOM) masts,<ref>{{cite speech |url= http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/congress/fages062000.html |title=RADM Fages' 2000 Testimony |publisher=Chief of Naval Operations, Submarine Warfare Division |date=27 June 2000 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091222091814/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/congress/fages062000.html |archive-date=22 December 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> built by Raytheon,<ref name= "raytheon1">{{cite press release |url= http://investor.raytheon.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=84193&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=597551 |title=Raytheon to Produce SATCOM System for New Virginia Class Submarine; Contract Valued at $29.4 Million |publisher=Raytheon |date=28 July 2000 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016051956/http://investor.raytheon.com/phoenix.zhtml?c=84193&p=irol-newsArticle&ID=597551 |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> enabling communication at Super High Frequency (for downlink) and Extremely High Frequency (for uplink) range<ref name=":0" /><ref name="raytheon1" /><ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.afspc.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=7758 |title=Factsheets : Advanced Extremely High Frequency System |publisher=Air Force Space Command |date=25 March 2015 |access-date= 26 April 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150919125701/http://www.afspc.af.mil/library/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=7758 |archive-date=19 September 2015}}</ref>
* Radar mast (carrying AN/BPS-16 surface search and navigation radar)<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |date=6 December 2013 |title = AN/BPS-15/16 Radar |url= http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=2100&tid=309&ct=2 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150327044420/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_display.asp?cid=2100&tid=309&ct=2 |archive-date=27 March 2015 |access-date=26 April 2015 |website=Fact File |publisher=US Navy}}</ref>
* Electronic warfare mast (AN/BLQ-10 Electronic Support Measures) used to detect, analyze, and identify both radar and communication signals from ships, aircraft, submarines, and land-based transmitters<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_11/ship_sensors_weapons.html |title=Ships, Sensors, and Weapons |publisher=US Navy |date=Spring 2001 |volume=3 |issue=3 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150605233336/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_11/ship_sensors_weapons.html |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |url = https://www.myaoc.org/eweb/images/aoc_library/Events/2002/102802_CONV/02CONV_Proceedings/Day3/Track4/Phelps.pdf |title=AN/BLQ-10(V): Submarine Electronic Warfare Support for the 21st Century |last = Phelps |first=William |conference=39th Annual AOC International Symposium and Convention |location=Nashville, [[Tennessee | TN]] |publisher= Association of Old Crows |date=29 October 2002 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402181142/https://www.myaoc.org/eweb/images/aoc_library/Events/2002/102802_CONV/02CONV_Proceedings/Day3/Track4/Phelps.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.dote.osd.mil/pub/reports/FY2013/pdf/navy/2013anblq10.pdf |title=AN/BLQ-10 Submarine Electronic Warfare Support System |publisher= OSD |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402115407/http://www.dote.osd.mil/pub/reports/FY2013/pdf/navy/2013anblq10.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Photonics masts===
[[File:Manette de Xbox360, USS Colorado.jpg|thumb|A sailor using an [[Xbox 360 controller]] to control the photonic masts of the [[USS Colorado (SSN-788)]] in 2018. It is the first submarine to use this Xbox controller.]]

The ''Virginia'' class is the first to utilize photonic sensors instead of a traditional [[periscope]]. The class is equipped with high-[[image resolution|resolution]] cameras, along with light-intensification and [[thermographic camera|infrared sensors]], an infrared [[laser rangefinder]], and an integrated [[Electronic Support Measures]] (ESM) array. Two redundant sets of these sensors are mounted on two [[AN/BVS-1]] [[photonics mast]]s<ref name= "baker1005" /> located outside the [[pressure hull]]. Signals from the masts' sensors are transmitted through [[optical fiber]] data lines through [[signal processor]]s to the control center.<ref>{{cite web |first=Claudio |last=Paschoa |url = http://www.marinetechnologynews.com/blogs/umm-photonics-mast-for-virginia-class-attack-submarines-700510 |title=UMM Photonics Mast for ''Virginia''-class Attack | work =Marine technology news |date= 11 September 2014 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402162107/http://www.marinetechnologynews.com/blogs/umm-photonics-mast-for-virginia-class-attack-submarines-700510 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> Visual feeds from the masts are displayed on [[liquid-crystal display]] interfaces in the command center.<ref name= "USW W99">{{cite web |last1=Graves |first1=Barbara |last2= Whitman |first2=Edward |date=Winter 1999 |title=''Virginia''-class: America's Next Submarine |url= http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_02/virginia_class.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150831001014/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_02/virginia_class.htm |archive-date=31 August 2015 |access-date= 26 April 2015 |publisher=US Navy |volume=1 |number=2}}</ref>

The design of earlier optical periscopes required them to penetrate the pressure hull, reducing the structural integrity of the pressure hull as well as increasing the risk of flooding, and also required the submarine's control room to be located directly below the sail/fin.<ref>{{cite web |last=Holian |first=Thomas |date=Fall 2004 |title=Eyes from the Deep: A History of U.S. Navy Submarine Periscopes |url= http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_24/eyes.htm |publisher=US Navy |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150904031441/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_24/eyes.htm |archive-date=4 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Implementation of photonics masts (which do not penetrate the pressure hull) enabled the submarine control room to be relocated to a position inside the pressure hull which is not necessarily directly below the sail.<ref name=":0" />

The current photonics masts have a visual appearance so different from ordinary periscopes that when the submarine is detected, it can be distinctly identified as a ''Virginia''-class vessel. As a result, current photonic masts will be replaced with Low-Profile Photonics Masts (LPPM) which resemble traditional submarine periscopes more closely.<ref name=":0" />

In the future, a non-rotational Affordable Modular Panoramic Photonics Mast may be fitted, enabling the submarine to obtain a simultaneous 360° view of the sea surface.<ref>{{cite web |date= October 2012 |title=Affordable Modular Panoramic Photonics Mast |url= http://www.onr.navy.mil/~/media/Files/Fact-Sheets/31/Affordable-Modular-Panoramic-Photonics.ashx |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150402125034/http://www.onr.navy.mil/~/media/Files/Fact-Sheets/31/Affordable-Modular-Panoramic-Photonics.ashx |archive-date=2 April 2015 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher=Office of Naval Research}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Affordable Modular Panoramic Photonics |url= http://www.onr.navy.mil/en/Media-Center/Fact-Sheets/Affordable-Modular-Panoramic-Photonics-Mast.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402144708/http://www.onr.navy.mil/en/Media-Center/Fact-Sheets/Affordable-Modular-Panoramic-Photonics-Mast.aspx |archive-date=2 April 2015 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher=Office of Naval Research}}</ref>

=== Propulsor ===
In contrast to a traditional bladed propeller, the ''Virginia'' class uses pump-jet [[propulsor]]s by [[BAE Systems]],<ref>{{cite press release |url= http://www.baesystems.com/article/BAES_049643/bae-systems-delivers-first-us-navy-submarine-propulsor-from-louisville-facility-receives-additional-243-million-contract |title=BAE Systems Delivers First U.S. Navy Submarine Propulsor from Louisville Facility, Receives Additional $24.3 Million Contract |publisher=BAE Systems |date=1 June 2012 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150605233253/http://www.baesystems.com/article/BAES_049643/bae-systems-delivers-first-us-navy-submarine-propulsor-from-louisville-facility-receives-additional-243-million-contract |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> originally developed for the [[Royal Navy]]'s {{sclass|Swiftsure|submarine|1}}s.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Hool |first1=Jack |last2= Nutter |first2=Keith |title=Damned Un-English Machines, a history of Barrow-built submarines |publisher=Tempus |year=2003 |isbn= 978-0-7524-2781-2 |page=180}}</ref> The propulsor significantly reduces the risks of [[cavitation]], and allows quieter operation.

=== Improved sonar systems ===
[[Sonar]] arrays aboard ''Virginia''-class submarines have an "[[Open system (computing)|Open System Architecture]]" (OSA) which enables rapid insertion of new hardware and software as they become available. [[Hardware upgrade]]s (dubbed Technology Insertions) are usually carried out every four years, while [[software update]]s (dubbed Advanced Processor Builds) are carried out every two years. ''Virginia''-class submarines feature several types of sonar arrays.<ref name="npg13">{{cite web |date=2013 |title=US Navy Program Guide 2013 |url= http://www.navy.mil/navydata/policy/seapower/npg13/top-npg13.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160821160828/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/policy/seapower/npg13/top-npg13.pdf |archive-date=21 August 2016 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher=US Navy}}</ref>
* BQQ-10 bow-mounted spherical [[active sonar|active]]/[[passive sonar]] array<ref name="npg13" /><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.soltron.co.kr/data/file/tech1_13/990609174_a5GOlHdf_Sonar_Type_Descriptions.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160629031446/http://www.soltron.co.kr/data/file/tech1_13/990609174_a5GOlHdf_Sonar_Type_Descriptions.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 June 2016 |title=APPENDIX C Exercise and Sonar Type Descriptions |date=December 2008 |access-date= 26 April 2015}}</ref> (Large Aperture Bow (LAB) sonar array from SSN-784 onward)
* A wide aperture lightweight fiber optic sonar array, consisting of three flat panels mounted low along either side of the hull<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.northropgrumman.com/Capabilities/SubmarineHullArrays/Pages/ |title=Submarine Hull Arrays |publisher= Northrop Grumman |access-date=26 April 2015 }}{{dead link|date=August 2023|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* Two high frequency active sonars mounted in the sail and bow. The chin-mounted (below the bow) and sail-mounted high frequency sonars supplement the (spherical/LAB) main sonar array, enabling safer operations in coastal waters, enhancing under-ice navigation, and improving [[anti-submarine warfare]] performance.<ref>{{cite web
|url= http://www.ultra-os.com/special.php |title=Special Purpose Sonar |publisher= Ultra Electronics Ocean Systems |access-date= 26 April 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150314050256/http://www.ultra-os.com/special.php |archive-date=14 March 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/issue_3/uss_asheville.htm |title = USS ''Asheville'' Leads the Way in High Frequency Sonar
|publisher = Navy|volume = 1 |issue = 3|year = 1999|first1 = Leonard|last1 = Moreavek |first2 = T.J|last2 = Brudner
|access-date = 26 April 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121002042424/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/issue_3/uss_asheville.htm |archive-date = 2 October 2012|url-status = dead}}</ref>
* Low-Cost [[wikt:conformal|Conformal]] Array (LCCA) [[high frequency]] sonar, mounted on both sides of the submarine's sail. Provides coverage above and behind the submarine.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keller |first=John |url= http://www.militaryaerospace.com/articles/2012/03/lockheed-martin-to-provide-navy-submarines-with-360-degree-situational-awareness-sail-mounted-sonar.html |title=Lockheed Martin to provide Navy submarines with 360-degree situational-awareness sail-mounted sonar |publisher=Military & Aerospace Electronics |date=25 March 2012 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150215230732/http://www.militaryaerospace.com/articles/2012/03/lockheed-martin-to-provide-navy-submarines-with-360-degree-situational-awareness-sail-mounted-sonar.html |archive-date=15 February 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

''Virginia''-class submarines are also equipped with a low frequency [[towed array sonar|towed sonar array]] and a high frequency towed sonar array.<ref name="military.com">{{cite web |url= http://www.military.com/equipment/virginia-class-attack-submarine-ssn |title=Virginia Class Attack Submarine - SSN | work =Military |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150507084934/http://www.military.com/equipment/virginia-class-attack-submarine-ssn |archive-date=7 May 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* TB-16 or TB-34 fat line tactical towed sonar array<ref name= "autogenerated3">{{cite web |url= http://www.dote.osd.mil/pub/reports/FY2013/pdf/navy/2013arci.pdf |title=Acoustic Rapid Commercial Off‑the‑Shelf (COTS) Insertion (A-RCI) and AN/BYG‑1 Combat Control System |publisher= OSD |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150923220213/http://www.dote.osd.mil/pub/reports/FY2013/pdf/navy/2013arci.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name= "globalsecurity1">{{cite web |url= http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/budget/fy2009/dot-e/navy/2009arci.pdf |title=Acoustic Rapid Commercial Off-the-Shelf (COTS) Insertion for Sonar AN/BQQ-10 (V) (A-RCI) |publisher=Global Security |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924065357/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/budget/fy2009/dot-e/navy/2009arci.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* TB-29 or TB-33 thin line long-range search towed sonar array<ref name="autogenerated3" /><ref name="globalsecurity1" />

=== Rescue equipment ===
* [[Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment]] MK11 suit(s) that enable ascent from a sunken submarine (maximum ascent depth {{convert|600|ft|m}})<ref name="npg13" /><ref>{{cite web |author=Crafty Devil |url= http://www.survitecgroup.com/products/seie-mk11 |title=Products » RFD Beaufort – SEIE MK11 |publisher=Survitec Group |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150427111710/http://survitecgroup.com/products/seie-mk11 |archive-date=27 April 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Lithium hydroxide]] canisters that remove [[carbon dioxide]] from the submarine's atmosphere<ref name="npg13" />
* Submarine Emergency Position Indicating Radio Beacon ([[SEPIRB]])<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ultra-os.com/underwater.php |title=Ultra Electronics Ocean Systems - Underwater Communications |publisher=Ultra Electronics |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150506081603/http://www.ultra-os.com/underwater.php |archive-date=6 May 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=SSN 774 Class Guard Book – Disabled Submarine Survival Guide – Aft Escape Trunk (Logistics Escape Truck) |url= http://www.public.navy.mil/fltfor/insurv3/Getting_Inspected/Documents/Submarine/References/Survivability%20and%20Escape/774_Guard_Book/774CL%20Aft%20Guard%20Book%20S9594-AP-SAR-H10%20Rev00%20with%20ACN%201-1%20ACN%201-2%20ACN%201-3.pdf |at=Card 6I |publisher=US Navy |date=29 March 2012 |access-date=4 June 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140602213254/http://www.public.navy.mil/fltfor/insurv3/Getting_Inspected/Documents/Submarine/References/Survivability%20and%20Escape/774_Guard_Book/774CL%20Aft%20Guard%20Book%20S9594-AP-SAR-H10%20Rev00%20with%20ACN%201-1%20ACN%201-2%20ACN%201-3.pdf |archive-date=2 June 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Virginia Payload Module ===
[[File:150801-N-EO381-162.JPG|thumb|right|{{USS|John Warner|SSN-785|6}} at her commissioning ceremony on 1 August 2015, with forward Virginia Payload Tube hatch open]]
The Block III submarines have two multipurpose Virginia Payload Tubes (VPT) replacing the dozen single purpose cruise missile launch tubes.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://breakingdefense.com/2014/04/navy-sub-program-stumbles-ssn-north-dakota-delayed-by-launch-tube-troubles/ |title=Navy Sub Program Stumbles: SSN North Dakota Delayed By Launch Tube Troubles |last1=Freedberg Jr. |first1=Sydney J. |date=16 April 2014 |work = Breaking Defense |publisher=Breaking Media |access-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140417083219/http://breakingdefense.com/2014/04/navy-sub-program-stumbles-ssn-north-dakota-delayed-by-launch-tube-troubles/ |archive-date=17 April 2014 |url-status= live}}</ref>

The Block V submarines built from 2019 onward will have an additional Virginia Payload Module (VPM) mid-body section, increasing their overall length. The VPM will add four more VPTs of the same diameter and greater height, located on the centerline, carrying up to seven Tomahawk missiles apiece, that would replace some of the capabilities lost when the SSGN conversion {{sclass|Ohio|submarine|1}}s are retired from the fleet.<ref name=RL32418 /><ref name="VPM">{{cite web |url= http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/issues/archives/issue_47/virginia.html |title=The Virginia Payload Module: A Revolutionary Concept for Attack Submarines |last1=Hasslinger |first1=Karl |last2=Pavlos |first2=John |date=Winter 2012 |issue=47 |publisher=US Navy |access-date=16 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140903104754/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/issues/archives/issue_47/virginia.html |archive-date=3 September 2014 |url-status= dead}}</ref> Initially eight payload tubes/silos were planned<ref name="VPM" /> but this was later rejected in favor of four tubes installed in a {{convert|70|ft|adj=on}} long module between the operations compartment and the propulsion spaces.<ref name="VPM" /><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.usni.org/2013/11/04/navy-selects-virginia-payload-module-design-concept |title=Navy Selects Virginia Payload Module Design Concept |work=USNI News |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |date=4 November 2013 |access-date=17 November 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131111113057/http://news.usni.org/2013/11/04/navy-selects-virginia-payload-module-design-concept |archive-date=11 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.usni.org/2013/10/24/document-peo-subs-overview-u-s-navy-undersea-programs#more-5177 |title=Document: PEO Subs Overview of U.S. Navy Undersea Programs |work=USNI News |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |date=24 October 2013 |access-date=17 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111113609/http://news.usni.org/2013/10/24/document-peo-subs-overview-u-s-navy-undersea-programs#more-5177 |archive-date=11 November 2013 |url-status= live}}</ref>

The VPM could potentially carry (non-nuclear) medium-range ballistic missiles. Adding the VPM would increase the cost of each submarine by $500 million (2012 prices).<ref>{{cite news |last=Grossman |first=Elaine M. |url=http://www.nti.org/gsn/article/us-senate-panel-limits-navy-effort-add-missiles-attack-submarines/ |title=U.S. Senate Panel Curbs Navy Effort to Add Missiles to Attack Submarines |agency=Global Security Newswire |publisher=Nuclear Threat Initiative |date=1 August 2012 |access-date=6 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203025801/http://www.nti.org/gsn/article/us-senate-panel-limits-navy-effort-add-missiles-attack-submarines/ |archive-date=3 February 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> This additional cost would be offset by reducing the total submarine force by four boats.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cavas |first=Christopher P. |url=http://archive.navytimes.com/article/20130204/NEWS/302040306/Navy-cuts-fleet-goal-to-306-ships |title=Navy cuts fleet goal to 306 ships |work=Navy Times |date=4 February 2013 |access-date=6 February 2013}}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> More recent reports state that as a cost reduction measure the VPM would carry only Tomahawk SLCM and possibly unmanned undersea vehicles (UUV) with the new price tag now estimated at $360–380 million per boat (in 2010 prices). The VPM launch tubes/silos will reportedly be similar in design to the ones planned for the ''Ohio'' class replacement.<ref>{{cite web |last=Ross |first=Robert T. |url=http://www.ct.gov/oma/cwp/view.asp?a=3422&q=525006 |title=Lower Ohio-Class Replacement Cost Tied To VA-Class Multiyear Deal: Could Achieve 8 To 15 Percent Savings |website=State of Connecticut, Office of Military Affairs |date=17 May 2013 |access-date=26 July 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130925093729/http://www.ct.gov/oma/cwp/view.asp?a=3422&q=525006 |archive-date=25 September 2013 |url-status= live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Kris |last= Osborn |url= http://defensetech.org/2014/01/28/navy-electric-boat-test-tube-launched-underwater-vehicle/ |title=Navy, Electric Boat Test Tube-Launched Underwater Vehicle |publisher=Defense Tech |location= Groton, [[Connecticut | CT]] |date=28 January 2014 |access-date=9 February 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140204222103/http://defensetech.org/2014/01/28/navy-electric-boat-test-tube-launched-underwater-vehicle/ |archive-date=4 February 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In July 2016 General Dynamics was awarded $19 million for VPM development.<ref>{{cite web |date=19 July 2016 |title=General Dynamics Awarded $19 Million by U.S. Navy for Virginia Payload Module Development |url= http://www.generaldynamics.com/news/press-releases/2016/07/general-dynamics-awarded-19-million-us-navy-virginia-payload-module |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170302114956/http://www.generaldynamics.com/news/press-releases/2016/07/general-dynamics-awarded-19-million-us-navy-virginia-payload-module |archive-date=2 March 2017 |access-date=1 March 2017}}</ref> In February 2017 General Dynamics was awarded $126 million for long lead time construction of Block V submarines equipped with VPM.<ref>{{cite web |date=16 February 2017 |title=General Dynamics Awarded $126 Million by U.S. Navy for Virginia-Class Block V Long Lead Time Material |url= http://www.generaldynamics.com/news/press-releases/2017/02/general-dynamics-awarded-126-million-us-navy-virginia-class-block-v-long |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170302114946/http://www.generaldynamics.com/news/press-releases/2017/02/general-dynamics-awarded-126-million-us-navy-virginia-class-block-v-long |archive-date=2 March 2017 |access-date=1 March 2017}}</ref>

The VPM was designed by General Dynamics Electric Boat;<ref>{{cite web |title=BWX Technologies to Develop Payload Tubes for Virginia-class Submarines |url= http://www.defenseworld.net/news/18058/BWX_Technologies_To_Develop_Payload_Tubes_For_Virginia_class_Submarines |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180630161702/http://www.defenseworld.net/news/18058/BWX_Technologies_To_Develop_Payload_Tubes_For_Virginia_class_Submarines |archive-date=30 June 2018 |access-date= 30 June 2018}}</ref> however, manufacturing is undertaken by BWX Technologies and BAE Systems.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.baesystems.com/en/article/bae-systems-ramps-up-for-virginia-class-payload-module-launch-tube-production |title=BAE Systems ramps up for Virginia-class submarine payload module launch tube production |access-date=30 June 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180630161908/https://www.baesystems.com/en/article/bae-systems-ramps-up-for-virginia-class-payload-module-launch-tube-production |archive-date=30 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

===High-energy laser weapon===
According to open-source budget documents, ''Virginia''-class submarines are planned to be equipped with a high-energy [[laser weapon]] likely to be incorporated into the photonics mast and have a power output of 300–500 kilowatts, based on the submarine's 30 megawatts reactor capacity.<ref name="pop_mech_laser_weapon">{{cite magazine |url= https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/navy-ships/a30647372/laser-nuclear-subs/ |title=The Navy Is Arming Nuclear Subs With Lasers. No One Knows Why |magazine=[[Popular Mechanics]] |date=4 February 2020 |access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref><ref name= "Sutton_forbes_laser_weapon">{{cite magazine |url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/hisutton/2020/02/09/the-navy-will-arm-attack-submarines-with-high-energy-lasers/ |title=The Navy Is Arming Attack Submarines With High Energy Lasers |magazine= [[Forbes]] |date=9 February 2020 |access-date=9 February 2020}}</ref>

=== Other improved equipment ===
[[File:US Navy 040822-N-2653P-344 One of PCU Virginia's (SSN 774) new components is it's diesel generator, a Caterpillar 3512B V-12 Twin-turbo charged engine.jpg|thumb|''Virginia'' class diesel generator control panel]]
* [[Optical fiber]] [[fly-by-wire]] ''Ship Control System'' replaces electro-hydraulic systems for control surface actuation.
* [[Command and control]] system module (CCSM) built by Lockheed Martin.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/nssn/ |title=NSSN Virginia Class Attack Submarine |publisher=naval-technology |date=15 June 2011 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150420153602/http://www.naval-technology.com/projects/nssn/ |archive-date=20 April 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Kearney |first=Tom|url=http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_11/pcu_virginia.html |title=Status Report: PCU Virginia (SSN-774) |publisher=US Navy |date=Spring 2001 |volume=3 |number=3 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150606034138/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_11/pcu_virginia.html |archive-date=6 June 2015 |url-status =dead}}</ref>
* The auxiliary generator is powered by a Caterpillar model 3512B V-12 marine diesel engine. This replaced the [[Fairbanks-Morse]] diesel engine, which would not fit in ''Virginia''{{'}}s auxiliary machinery room.
* Modernized version of the AN/BSY-1 integrated combat system<ref name="SSN-774 Virginia class" /> designated AN/BYG-1 (previously designated CCS Mk2) and built by [[General Dynamics]] AIS (previously [[Raytheon]]).<ref>{{cite web |url= http://raytheon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=360 |title= Raytheon Delivers Submarine Combat System to Royal Australian Navy |publisher=Raytheon |date=30 January 2006 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150215231030/http://raytheon.mediaroom.com/index.php?s=43&item=360 |archive-date=15 February 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/General-Dynamics-To-Upgrade-Submarine-Weapons-Control-Systems-05631/ |title=General Dynamics To Upgrade Submarine Weapons Control Systems |date=21 July 2009 |work = Defense Industry Daily |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150511021719/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/General-Dynamics-To-Upgrade-Submarine-Weapons-Control-Systems-05631/ |archive-date=11 May 2015 |url-status= live}}</ref> AN/BYG-1 integrates the submarine Tactical Control System (TCS) and Weapon Control System (WCS).<ref>{{cite web |title=AN/BYG-1 Submarine Tactical Control System (TCS) |url= http://www.gd-ais.com/Domains/ANBYG-1-Submarine-Tactical-Control-System-(TCS) |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192350/http://www.gd-ais.com/Domains/ANBYG-1-Submarine-Tactical-Control-System-(TCS) |archive-date=4 March 2016 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher = General Dynamics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.militaryaerospace.com/articles/2013/06/gd-cots-submarine.html |title=General Dynamics continues project to upgrade submarine electronics with COTS computers |publisher=Military & Aerospace Electronics |date=27 June 2013 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150215220456/http://www.militaryaerospace.com/articles/2013/06/gd-cots-submarine.html |archive-date=15 February 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* USS ''California'' was the first ''Virginia''-class submarine with the advanced electromagnetic signature reduction system built into it, but this system is being retrofitted into the other submarines of the class.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d09326sp.pdf |title= GAO-09-326SP
|publisher=[[Government Accounting Office]] |date=March 2009 |access-date=26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141206115911/http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d09326sp.pdf |archive-date=6 December 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Integral 9-man [[Diving chamber|lock-out diving chamber]].<ref name= "aticourses">{{cite web |title=USS Virginia SSN-774-A New Steel Shark at Sea |url = http://www.aticourses.com/blog/index.php/2011/07/19/uss-virginia-ssn-774a-new-steel-shark-at-sea/ |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150509163728/http://www.aticourses.com/blog/index.php/2011/07/19/uss-virginia-ssn-774a-new-steel-shark-at-sea |archive-date=9 May 2015 |access-date=26 April 2015 |publisher=Applied Technology Institute}}</ref>

== Specifications ==
[[File:774 Virginia construction.jpg|thumb|Lead boat ''Virginia'' under construction]]
* Builders: [[General Dynamics Electric Boat]] and [[Huntington Ingalls Industries|HII Newport News Shipbuilding]]
* Length: {{convert|377|ft|m|2|abbr=on}} [Block V: 460 ft (140.2 m)]
* Beam: {{convert|34|ft|m|2|abbr=on}}
* Displacement: {{convert|7800|LT|t|sp=us}} [Block V: {{convert|10200|LT|t|sp=us}}
* Payload: 40 weapons, [[special operations force]]s, [[unmanned undersea vehicle]]s, Advanced [[United States Navy SEALs|SEAL]] Delivery System ([[Advanced SEAL Delivery System|ASDS]]) [Block V: 40 [[Tomahawk cruise missiles]]]
* Propulsion: [[S9G reactor|S9G nuclear reactor]] delivering {{convert|40,000|shp|MW}}.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Ragheb |first=M. |title=Nuclear Marine Propulsion |url=http://www.ewp.rpi.edu/hartford/~ernesto/F2010/EP2/Materials4Students/Misiaszek/NuclearMarinePropulsion.pdf |publisher=Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute |date=11 November 2010 |access-date=4 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150226055625/http://www.ewp.rpi.edu/hartford/~ernesto/F2010/EP2/Materials4Students/Misiaszek/NuclearMarinePropulsion.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Nuclear core life estimated at 33 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alternatewars.com/BBOW/Nuclear/US_Naval_Reactors.htm|title=U.S. Naval Reactors|access-date=4 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231134230/http://www.alternatewars.com/BBOW/Nuclear/US_Naval_Reactors.htm|archive-date=31 December 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> Nuclear fuel manufactured by BWX Technologies.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20180226005115/en/BWXT-Announces-492-Million-Naval-Nuclear-Reactor |title=BWXT Announces $492 Million in Naval Nuclear Reactor Contract Option Awards |date=26 February 2018 |access-date=30 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630161657/https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20180226005115/en/BWXT-Announces-492-Million-Naval-Nuclear-Reactor |archive-date=30 June 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nuclearfuelservices.com/
|title=Protecting the Future of Freedom across the globe
|publisher=nuclearfuelservices.com
|date=11 May 2018
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630161721/http://www.nuclearfuelservices.com/ |archive-date=30 June 2018
|access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
* Test depth: greater than {{convert|800|ft|m|abbr=on}}, allegedly around {{convert|1600|ft}}.<ref name="aticourses" />
* Speed: Greater than {{convert|25|kn}},<ref name="NavyFactFile">{{Cite web |title=Attack Submarines - SSN |url=https://www.navy.mil/Resources/Fact-Files/Display-FactFiles/article/2169558/attack-submarines-ssn/ |access-date=2023-03-12 |website=www.navy.mil |language=en-US}}</ref> allegedly up to {{convert|35|kn}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://zbigniewmazurak.wordpress.com/2015/02/17/how-american-russian-and-chinese-nuclear-powered-submarines-compare|title=HOW AMERICAN, RUSSIAN, AND CHINESE NUCLEAR-POWERED SUBMARINES COMPARE|year=2015|access-date=17 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160824153417/https://zbigniewmazurak.wordpress.com/2015/02/17/how-american-russian-and-chinese-nuclear-powered-submarines-compare/|archive-date=24 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scout.com/military/warrior/story/1713246-virginia-class-vs-russian-yasen-class-sub-war|title= US Virginia Class vs Russian Yasen Class Submarine Warfare - Who Wins?|year= 2017|access-date = 17 June 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170623043613/http://www.scout.com/military/warrior/story/1713246-virginia-class-vs-russian-yasen-class-sub-war|archive-date = 23 June 2017|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RESP9IOmczoC&q=virginia+class+35+knots&pg=PA160|title=Modern Warships|year=2007|isbn=9781616732608|last1=Kit Bonner|first1=Carolyn Bonner|publisher=Zenith Imprint }}</ref>
* Planned cost: about US$1.65 billion each (based on FY95 dollars, 30-boat class and two boat/year build-rate)
* Actual cost: US$1.5 billion (in 1994 prices), US$2.6 billion (in 2012 prices)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.gao.gov/assets/230/220367.pdf|title=Lessons of Prior Programs May Reduce New Attack Submarine Cost Increases and Delays|author1=Ted Kennedy|author2-link=John Conyers|author2=John Conyers|date=20 October 1994|work=[[Government Accountability Office]]|access-date=12 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113071414/http://www.gao.gov/assets/230/220367.pdf|archive-date=13 November 2013|url-status=dead|author1-link=Ted Kennedy}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Virginia-Class-Sub-Program-Wins-Acquisition-Award-05167/ |title=Virginia Class Sub Program Wins Acquisition Award |publisher=Defenseindustrydaily.com |date=20 November 2008 |access-date=23 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501104350/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Virginia-Class-Sub-Program-Wins-Acquisition-Award-05167/ |archive-date=1 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* Annual operating cost: $50 million per unit (in 2012 prices)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=14311|title=Facts favour nuclear-powered submarines|first=Simon|last=Cowan|date=5 November 2012|access-date=9 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115023855/http://onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=14311|archive-date=2012-11-15|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Crew: 120 enlisted and 14 officers
* Armament: 12 [[Vertical Launching System|VLS]] & four [[torpedo]] tubes, capable of launching [[Mark 48 torpedo]]es, [[Tactical Tomahawk|UGM-109 Tactical Tomahawks]], [[Harpoon missile]]s<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://news.usni.org/2016/02/18/west-u-s-navy-anti-ship-tomahawk-set-for-surface-ships-subs-starting-in-2021
|title=WEST: U.S. Navy Anti-Ship Tomahawk Set for Surface Ships, Subs Starting in 2021
|date=18 February 2016
|access-date=18 February 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611002318/https://news.usni.org/2016/02/18/west-u-s-navy-anti-ship-tomahawk-set-for-surface-ships-subs-starting-in-2021
|archive-date=11 June 2017
|url-status=live}}</ref> and the new advanced mobile [[naval mine|mine]] when it becomes available.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NavSource Online: Submarine Photo Index: Wahoo (SSN-806) |url=https://navsource.org/archives/08/08806.htm |access-date=9 November 2022 |website=navsource.org}}</ref> Block V boats will have the additional VPM module which contains four large diameter tubes which can accommodate seven Tomahawk cruise missiles each. This would increase the total number of torpedo-sized weapons (such as Tomahawks) carried by the ''Virginia''-class design from about 37 to about 65—an increase of about 76%.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32418.pdf |title= Navy Virginia (SSN774) Class Attack Submarine Procurement: Background and Issues for Congress (updated)
|publisher=fas.org
|date=31 March 2022
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126101711/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32418.pdf
|archive-date=26 November 2015
|access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref>
* Decoys: Acoustic Device Countermeasure Mk 3/4<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.ultra-os.com/acoustic.php
|title=Acoustic Countermeasures
|publisher=Ultra Electronics Ocean Systems
|access-date=15 December 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120815031301/http://www.ultra-os.com/acoustic.php
|archive-date=15 August 2012
|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Blocks ==
=== Block I ===
[[File:USS Texas (SSN-775) christening ceremony.jpg|thumb|{{USS|Texas|SSN-775|6}} the second Block I boat at her christening ceremony.]]
Block I includes 4 boats and modular construction techniques were incorporated during construction.<ref>{{cite web |last=Patani |first=Arif |url=http://navylive.dodlive.mil/2012/09/24/next-generation-ohio-class/ |title=Next Generation Ohio-Class |website=Navy Live |publisher=US Navy |date=24 September 2012 |access-date=21 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130428124226/http://navylive.dodlive.mil/2012/09/24/next-generation-ohio-class/ |archive-date=28 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Earlier submarines (e.g., ''Los Angeles''-class SSNs) were built by assembling the pressure hull and then installing the equipment via cavities in the pressure hull. This required extensive construction activities within the narrow confines of the pressure hull which was time-consuming and dangerous. Modular construction was implemented in an effort to overcome these problems and make the construction process more efficient. Modular construction techniques incorporated during construction include constructing large segments of equipment outside the hull. These segments (dubbed rafts) are then inserted into a hull section (a large segment of the pressure hull). The integrated raft and hull section form a module which, when joined with other modules, forms a ''Virginia''-class submarine.<ref name=Holmander>{{cite news |first1=John D. |last1=Holmander |first2=Thomas |last2=Plante |title=The Four-Module Build Plan: The Second Decade of Virginia-class Construction Gets Better |journal=Undersea Warfare |url=http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_43/build_plan.html |publisher=US Navy |date=Winter 2011 |issue=43 |access-date=4 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924120328/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_43/build_plan.html |archive-date=24 September 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Block I boats were built in 10 modules with each submarine requiring roughly 7 years (84 months) to build.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Johnson |first1=David C. |first2=George M. |last2=Drakeley |first3=George M. |last3=Smith |title=Engineering the Solution: Virginia-Class Submarine Cost Reduction |conference=Engineering the Total Ship (ETS) 2008 |url=https://www.navalengineers.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/2008%20Proceedings%20Documents/ETS%202008/VA%20Class%20ASNE%20Paper%20FINAL.pdf |location=Falls Church, Virginia |publisher=American Society of Naval Engineers |date=23 September 2008 |access-date=21 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203084604/https://www.navalengineers.org/SiteCollectionDocuments/2008%20Proceedings%20Documents/ETS%202008/VA%20Class%20ASNE%20Paper%20FINAL.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2014}}</ref>
{{clear}}

=== Block II ===
[[File:US Navy 080621-N-8467N-001 Pre-commissioning Unit New Hampshire (SSN 778) sits moored to the pier at General Dynamics Electric Boat shipyard moments before her christening ceremony commenced.jpg|thumb|{{USS|New Hampshire|SSN-778|6}}, the first of the Block II boats]]
Block II comprised 6 boats; they were built in four sections rather than ten, saving about $300 million per boat. Block II boats (except the ''New Hampshire'') were also built under a multi-year procurement agreement as opposed to a block-buy contract in Block I, enabling savings in the range of $400 million ($80 million per boat).<ref name=RL32418 /><ref name=Butler /> As a result of improvements in the construction process, ''New Hampshire'' (SSN-778) was US$500 million cheaper, required 3.7 million fewer labor hours to build (25% less), thus shortening the construction period by 15 months (20% less) compared to ''Virginia''.<ref name=Holmander />
{{clear}}

=== Block III ===
[[File:USS North Dakota (SSN-784) at sea in August 2014.JPG|thumb|{{USS|North Dakota|SSN-784|6}}, the first of the VPT-equipped Block III ''Virginia''-class submarines.]]
Construction of Block III, {{USS|North Dakota|SSN-784|1}} through [[SSN-791]] (8 boats), began in 2009. Block III subs feature a revised bow with a Large Aperture Bow (LAB) sonar array, as well as technology from ''Ohio''-class [[SSGN]]s (2 VLS tubes each containing 6 missiles).<ref name="RevisedBow">{{cite news |date=21 December 2008 |title=Virginia Block III: The Revised Bow |work=Defense Industry Daily |url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/virginia-block-iii-the-revised-bow-04159/ |access-date=20 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621073152/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/virginia-block-iii-the-revised-bow-04159/ |archive-date=21 June 2008 |url-status=live}}</ref> The horseshoe-shaped LAB sonar array replaces the spherical main sonar array which has been used on all U.S. Navy SSNs since 1960.<ref name=Butler/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/subhistory3.html |title=Submarine Technology Through the Years |website=Chief of Naval Operations, Submarine Warfare Division, Submarine History |publisher=US Navy |date=19 July 1997 |access-date=23 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212063112/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/history/subhistory3.html |archive-date=12 February 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Paul |last=Lambert |url=http://www.usstullibee.com/tullibeehistory.html |title=Official USS Tullibee (SSN 597) Web Site - USS Tullibee History |access-date=23 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517121715/http://www.usstullibee.com/tullibeehistory.html |archive-date=17 May 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The LAB sonar array is water-backed—as opposed to earlier sonar arrays which were air-backed—and consists of a passive array and a medium-frequency active array.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08784.htm |title=North Dakota (SSN-784) |website=NavSource Online: Submarine Photo Archive |access-date=22 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517122541/http://www.navsource.org/archives/08/08784.htm |archive-date=17 May 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> Compared to earlier ''Virginia''-class submarines about 40% of the bow has been redesigned.{{clarify|date=January 2015}}<ref>{{cite news |last=LaGrone |first=Sam |url=http://news.usni.org/2014/04/17/navy-delays-commissioning-latest-nuclear-attack-submarine |title=Navy Delays Commissioning of Latest Nuclear Attack Submarine |work=USNI News |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |date=17 April 2014 |access-date=22 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429121624/http://news.usni.org/2014/04/17/navy-delays-commissioning-latest-nuclear-attack-submarine |archive-date=29 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

''South Dakota'' (SSN-790) will be equipped with a new propulsor,<ref name="seapowermagazine.org">{{cite web
|url=http://seapowermagazine.org/stories/20160812-sdak.html
|title=Posted:New Acoustic Quieting to be Tested on Submarine South Dakota1
|publisher=seapowermagazine.org
|date=12 August 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161022223715/http://seapowermagazine.org/stories/20160812-sdak.html
|archive-date=22 October 2016
|access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref> possibly the Hybrid Multi-Material Rotor (HMMR),<ref name="darpa.mil">{{cite web
|url=http://www.darpa.mil/attachments/TTOProposersDay2016PresentationFINAL.PDF |title=Welcome to Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Tactical Technology Office (TTO) Proposers Day
|publisher=darpa.mil
|date=21 April 2016
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161023050834/http://www.darpa.mil/attachments/TTOProposersDay2016PresentationFINAL.PDF |archive-date=23 October 2016
|access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref><ref name="summit-group.com">{{cite web
|url=http://www.summit-group.com/Projects/Maritime.html
|title=SEG projects in the Maritime domain
|publisher=summit-group.com
|date=2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331235250/http://summit-group.com/Projects/Maritime.html
|archive-date=31 March 2015
|access-date=27 April 2022}}</ref> developed by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ([[DARPA]]).<ref name="seapowermagazine.org" /> The Hybrid Multi-Material Rotor program is an attempt to improve the design and manufacturing process of submarine propellers with an aim of reducing the cost and weight of the propeller/rotor as well as improving overall acoustic performance.<ref name="seapowermagazine.org" /><ref name="darpa.mil"/><ref name="summit-group.com" />
{{clear}}
=== Block IV ===
[[File:USS Vermont (SSN-792) underway on the Thames River at Groton, Connecticut (USA), on 15 October 2020 (201015-N-AY957-202).JPG|alt=USS Vermont is the first Block IV Virginia class submarine|thumb|{{USS|Vermont|SSN-792|6}} is the first Block IV ''Virginia''-class submarine.]]
Block IV consists of 10 submarines.<ref>{{cite web |title=U.S. Navy Fact Sheet Attack Submarines - SSN |url=http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_print.asp?cid=4100&tid=100&ct=4&page=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122021103/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/fact_print.asp?cid=4100&tid=100&ct=4&page=1 |archive-date=22 November 2008 |access-date=7 September 2016 |publisher=Naval Sea Systems Command}}</ref> The [[2013 United States budget sequestration|2013 budget sequestration]] put this 10-submarine in doubt by budget sequestration that same year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://breakingdefense.com/2013/09/navy-to-hasc-were-about-to-sign-sub-deals-we-cant-pay-for/ |title=Navy To HASC: We're About To Sign Sub Deals We Can't Pay For |first=Sydney |last=Freedburg |date=12 September 2013 |work=Breaking Defense |access-date=12 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113065601/http://breakingdefense.com/2013/09/navy-to-hasc-were-about-to-sign-sub-deals-we-cant-pay-for/ |archive-date=13 November 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The most costly shipbuilding contract in history, worth $17.6 billion, was awarded on 28 April 2014 to General Dynamics Electric Boat. The main improvement over the Block III is the reduction of major maintenance periods from four to three, increasing each boat's total lifetime deployments by one.<ref>{{cite news |last=LaGrone |first=Sam |title=U.S. Navy Awards 'Largest Shipbuilding Contract' in Service History |url=http://news.usni.org/2014/04/28/u-s-navy-awards-largest-shipbuilding-contract-service-history |date=28 April 2014 |work=USNI News |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |access-date=28 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140429051159/http://news.usni.org/2014/04/28/u-s-navy-awards-largest-shipbuilding-contract-service-history |archive-date=29 April 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The long-lead-time materials contract for SSN-792 was awarded on 17 April 2012, with SSN-793 and SSN-794 following on 28 December 2012.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.defense.gov/contracts/contract.aspx?contractid=4771 |title=Contracts |date=17 April 2012 |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |access-date=26 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522171706/http://www.defense.gov/contracts/contract.aspx?contractid=4771 |archive-date=22 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.defense.gov/contracts/contract.aspx?contractid=4946 |title=Contracts |date=28 December 2012 |publisher=U.S. Department of Defense |access-date=26 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921085438/http://www.defense.gov/contracts/contract.aspx?contractid=4946 |archive-date=21 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> The U.S. Navy has awarded General Dynamics Electric Boat a $208.6 million contract modification for the second [[fiscal year]] (FY) 14 ''Virginia''-class submarine, SSN-793, and two FY 15 submarines, SSN-794 and SSN-795. With this modification, the overall contract is worth $595 million.<ref>{{cite press release |title=General Dynamics Awarded $209 Million for Future Virginia-class Submarines |url=http://www.generaldynamics.com/news/press-releases/detail.cfm?customel_dataPageID_1811=18534 |publisher=General Dynamics - Electric Boat |location=Groton, Connecticut |date=1 July 2013 |access-date=26 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130808103005/http://generaldynamics.com/news/press-releases/detail.cfm?customel_dataPageID_1811=18534 |archive-date=8 August 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>
{{clear}}
===Block V===
Block V has 10 boats and may incorporate the Virginia Payload Module (VPM), which would give guided-missile capability when the [[Cruise missile submarine#U.S. Navy|SSGN]]s are retired from service.<ref>{{cite web |title=Virginia Payload Module (VPM) |website=General Dynamics - Electric Boat |url=http://www.gdeb.com/news/advertising/ |access-date=4 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524095723/http://www.gdeb.com/news/advertising/ |archive-date=24 May 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Virginia Payload Module will be included on Block V submarines starting with the second boat, SSN-803.<ref name="nff1">{{cite web|url=https://www.navy.mil/Resources/Fact-Files/Display-FactFiles/Article/2169558/attack-submarines-ssn/|title=Attack Submarines - SSN |date=8 October 2021|access-date=14 August 2022}}</ref> The Block V boats with VPM are expected to triple the capacity of shore targets for each boat.<ref name="forbes1" /> Construction on the first two boats of this block was expected to begin in 2019 but was pushed back to 2020, with contracts for long lead time material for [[USS Oklahoma (SSN-802)|SSN-802]] and [[USS Arizona (SSN-803)|SSN-803]] being awarded to General Dynamics Electric Boat.<ref name="GenDyn">{{cite web|url=https://www.gd.com/news/press-releases/2017/02/general-dynamics-awarded-126-million-us-navy-virginia-class-block-v-long|title=General Dynamics Awarded $126 Million by US Navy for Virginia-class Block V Long Lead Time Material|publisher=gd.com|date=16 February 2017|access-date=25 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226130302/https://www.gd.com/news/press-releases/2017/02/general-dynamics-awarded-126-million-us-navy-virginia-class-block-v-long|archive-date=26 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=GDEBarchives>{{cite web|url=http://www.gdeb.com/news/news_archives/2017archives.html#02-16-17|title=General Dynamics Electric Boat archives: 26 February 2017 Block V press release|publisher=gdeb.com|access-date=7 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108062513/http://www.gdeb.com/news/news_archives/2017archives.html#02-16-17|archive-date=8 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> HII Newport News Shipbuilding was awarded a long-lead materials contract for two Block V boats in 2017, the first Block Vs for the company.<ref name="HIINN">{{cite web|url=http://newsroom.huntingtoningalls.com/releases/huntington-ingalls-industries-reports-first-quarter-2017-results|title=Huntington Ingalls Industries reports first quarter 2017 results|date=4 May 2017|access-date=7 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180108063636/http://newsroom.huntingtoningalls.com/releases/huntington-ingalls-industries-reports-first-quarter-2017-results|archive-date=8 January 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 2 December 2019, the Navy announced an order for nine new ''Virginia''-class submarines—eight Block Vs and one Block IV—for a total contract price of $22 billion with an option for a tenth boat.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/navy-ships/a30109198/block-v-virginia-submarine/| title = ''Popular Mechanics''| date = 3 December 2019}}</ref> The Block V subs were confirmed to have an increased length, from 377 ft (115 m) to 460 ft (140 m), and displacement, from 7,800 tons to 10,200 tons. This would make the Block V the second-longest US submarine, behind only the ''Ohio'' class (at 560 ft; 170 m).<ref name="blockVa">{{cite web|url=https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/u-s-navy-orders-new-block-of-attack-submarines|title=U.S. Navy Orders New Block of Attack Submarines|publisher=maritime-executive.com|date=3 December 2019|access-date=18 August 2021}}</ref>

On 22 March 2021, the U.S. Navy added the 10th boat of the Block V series of the ''Virginia''-class attack submarine, issuing a $2.4 billion adjustment on the December 2019 contract. This brings the total cost of the contract with prime contractor General Dynamics Electric Boat to $24.1 billion. The net increase for the contract is $1.89 billion, according to a General Dynamics release. Huntington Ingalls Industries' Newport News Shipbuilding is the partner yard in the program.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.defensenews.com/naval/2021/03/19/the-us-navy-inks-a-deal-for-a-tenth-block-v-virginia-class-submarine/ |title = US Navy inks deal for a tenth Virginia-class submarine |author = David Larter |publisher = Defense News |date = 2021-03-22}}</ref>

== Boats in class ==
{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! Name
! Hull number
! Block
! Builder
! Ordered
! Laid down
! Launched
! Commissioned
! Status
|-
|{{USS|Virginia|SSN-774|2}}
|SSN-774
| I
|[[General Dynamics Electric Boat]], [[Groton, Connecticut|Groton, CT]]
|rowspan=4|30 September 1998
|2 September 1999
|16 August 2003
|23 October 2004
|In service<ref>{{cite press release |first=Mark O. |last=Piggott |title=Commissioning of USS Virginia Ushers in New Era of Undersea Warfare |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=15662 |location=Norfolk, Virginia |publisher=Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet Public Affairs |date=24 October 2004 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605232944/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=15662 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Texas|SSN-775|2}}
|SSN-775
| I
|[[Newport News Shipbuilding]], [[Newport News, Virginia|Newport News, VA]]
|12 July 2002
|9 April 2005
|9 September 2006
|In service<ref>{{cite press release |first=Scott |last=Shoffner |title=Texas Arrives in Galveston |location=Galveston, Texas |publisher=Commander, Naval Submarine Force, Atlantic Fleet Public Affairs |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=25410 |date=5 September 2006 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605233334/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=25410 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Hawaii|SSN-776|2}}
|SSN-776
| I
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|27 August 2004
|17 June 2006
|5 May 2007
|In service<ref>{{cite press release |first=Ira J. |last=Elinson |title=Navy Commissions USS Hawaii |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=29224 |location=Groton, Connecticut |publisher=Naval Submarine Base New London Public Affairs |date=5 May 2007 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605232749/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=29224 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|North Carolina|SSN-777|2}}
|SSN-777
| I
|Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News, VA
|22 May 2004
|5 May 2007
|3 May 2008
|In service<ref>{{cite press release |first=Jennifer|last=Zeldis |title=USS North Carolina Joins the Fleet |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=36836 |location=Wilmington, North Carolina |publisher=Fleet Public Affairs Center Atlantic |date=4 May 2008 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605233110/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=36836 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|New Hampshire|SSN-778|2}}
|SSN-778
| II
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|rowspan=6|14 August 2003
|30 April 2007
|21 February 2008
|25 October 2008<ref>{{cite press release |first=Jennifer |last=Zeldis |title=USS New Hampshire Joins Fleet |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=40532 |location=Kittery, Maine |publisher=Fleet Public Affairs Center Atlantic |date=26 October 2008 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605232812/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=40532 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|New Mexico|SSN-779|2}}
|SSN-779
| II
|Newport News Shipbuilding, Newport News, VA
|12 April 2008
|18 January 2009
|27 March 2010<ref>{{cite press release |first=Kleynia |last=McKnight |title=Submarine New Mexico Joins the Fleet |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=52227 |location=Norfolk, Virginia |publisher=Navy Public Affairs Support Element - East |date=27 March 2010 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605232801/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=52227 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|Missouri|SSN-780|2}}
|SSN-780
| II
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|27 September 2008
|20 November 2009
|31 July 2010<ref>{{cite press release |first=T.H. |last=Merritt |title=USS Missouri Joins Commissioned Fleet |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=55038 |location=Groton, Connecticut |publisher=Submarine Group 2 Public Affairs |date=1 August 2010 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605232825/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=55038 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="NVR Missouri">{{cite web
|url=http://www.nvr.navy.mil/SHIPDETAILS/SHIPSDETAIL_SSN_780_5541.HTML
|title=USS Missouri
|publisher=United States Navy
|date=28 January 2016
|access-date=21 October 2017
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021163707/http://www.nvr.navy.mil/SHIPDETAILS/SHIPSDETAIL_SSN_780_5541.HTML
|archive-date=21 October 2017
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|California|SSN-781|2}}
|SSN-781
| II
|[[Huntington Ingalls Industries]], Newport News, VA
|1 May 2009
|14 November 2010
|29 October 2011<ref>{{cite press release |first=Eric|last=Durie |title=Navy's Newest Submarine, California Namesake Joins Fleet in Norfolk |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=63550 |location=Norfolk, Virginia |publisher=Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet Public Affairs |date=29 October 2011 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605232849/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=63550 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|Mississippi|SSN-782|2}}
|SSN-782
| II
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|9 June 2010
|10 December 2011
|2 June 2012<ref>{{cite press release |first=Hayley|last=Sims |title=USS Mississippi Commissioned in Namesake State |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=67569 |location=Pascagoula, Mississippi |publisher=Commander, Submarine Force, U.S. Atlantic Fleet Public Affairs |date=4 June 2012 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605233255/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=67569 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|Minnesota|SSN-783|2}}
|SSN-783
|II
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|20 May 2011
|10 November 2012
|7 September 2013<ref>{{cite press release |title=Navy to Christen Submarine Minnesota |url=http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=70343 |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Department of Defense Public Affairs |date=25 October 2012 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605232932/http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=70343 |archive-date=5 June 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Pioneer Press">{{cite news |last=Lindberg |first=Joseph |title=Submarine USS Minnesota to be commissioned Saturday |url=http://www.twincities.com/localnews/ci_21844456/uss-minnesota-be-christened-saturday |work=[[St. Paul Pioneer Press]] |date=24 October 2012 |access-date=27 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121027030441/http://www.twincities.com/localnews/ci_21844456/uss-minnesota-be-christened-saturday |archive-date=27 October 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|North Dakota|SSN-784|2}}
|SSN-784
| III
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|14 August 2003
|11 May 2012<ref name="NVR North Dakota">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN784}}|title=USS NORTH DAKOTA (SSN 784) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|15 September 2013<ref name="NVR North Dakota" />
|25 October 2014<ref name="NVR North Dakota" />
|In service<ref name="NVR North Dakota" />
|-
|{{USS|John Warner|SSN-785|2}}
|SSN-785
| III
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|rowspan=7|22 December 2008
|16 March 2013<ref name="NVR John Warner">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN785}}|title=USS JOHN WARNER (SSN 785) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|10 September 2014<ref name="NVR John Warner" />
|1 August 2015<ref name="NVR John Warner" />
|In service<ref name="NVR John Warner" />
|-
|{{USS|Illinois|SSN-786|2}}
|SSN-786
| III
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|2 June 2014<ref name="NVR Illinois">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN786}}|title=ILLINOIS (SSN 786) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|8 August 2015<ref name="NVR Illinois" />
|29 October 2016<ref name="USNI Illinois Delivered">{{cite news |url=https://news.usni.org/2016/08/29/attack-boat-illinois-delivers-early-navy |title=Attack Boat Illinois Delivers Early to Navy |publisher=USNI News |last=LaGrone |first=Sam |date=29 August 2016 |access-date=29 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830022333/https://news.usni.org/2016/08/29/attack-boat-illinois-delivers-early-navy |archive-date=30 August 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service<ref name="USNI Illinois Delivered" />
|-
|{{USS|Washington|SSN-787|2}}
|SSN-787
| III
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|22 November 2014<ref name="NVR Washington">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN787}}|title=WASHINGTON (SSN 787) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|25 March 2016<ref name="NVR Washington" />
|7 October 2017<ref name="Kitsap Sun">{{cite news |url=http://www.kitsapsun.com/story/news/local/2017/10/05/new-uss-washington-commissioned-saturday/710106001/ |title=New USS Washington to be commissioned Saturday |newspaper=Kitsap Sun |last=Stanford |first=Julianne |date=7 October 2017 |access-date=7 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214061033/http://www.kitsapsun.com/story/news/local/2017/10/05/new-uss-washington-commissioned-saturday/710106001/ |archive-date=14 December 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|Colorado|SSN-788|2}}
|SSN-788
| III
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|7 March 2015<ref name="NVR Colorado">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN788}}|title=COLORADO (SSN 788) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|29 December 2016
|17 March 2018<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.navycommissionings.org/index.php|title=Upcoming US Navy Ship Commissionings|website=navycommissionings.org|access-date=1 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164513/http://www.navycommissionings.org/index.php|archive-date=1 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|Indiana|SSN-789|2}}
|SSN-789
| III
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|16 May 2015<ref name="NVR Indiana">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN789}}|title=INDIANA (SSN 789) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|9 June 2017
|29 September 2018<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ussindiana.org/events/commissioning.html|title=Commissioning - USS Indiana (SSN 789) Commissioning Committee|website=ussindiana.org|access-date=11 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141144/http://ussindiana.org/events/commissioning.html|archive-date=12 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|South Dakota|SSN-790|2}}
|SSN-790
| III
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|4 April 2016<ref name="NVR South Dakota">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN790}}|title=SOUTH DAKOTA (SSN 790) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|14 October 2017
|2 February 2019<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://ssn790.org/events/|title=Events {{!}} USS SOUTH DAKOTA SSN 790|work=USS SOUTH DAKOTA (SSN 790)|access-date=8 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808073409/https://ssn790.org/events/|archive-date=8 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|Delaware|SSN-791|2}}
|SSN-791
| III
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|30 April 2016<ref name="NVR Delaware">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN791}}|title=DELAWARE (SSN 791) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|17 December 2018
|4 April 2020<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/news/defence-news/2020/april-2020/8244-us-navy-has-commissioned-uss-delaware-ssn-791-virginia-class-nuclear-attack-submarine.html|title=US Navy has commissioned USS Delaware SSN 791 Virginia-class nuclear attack submarine|date=4 April 2020|work=navyrecognition.com|access-date=4 April 2020}}</ref>
|In service
|-
|{{USS|Vermont|SSN-792|2}}
|SSN-792
| IV
| rowspan="2" |General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|rowspan=10|28 April 2014
|c. February 2017
|29 March 2019
|18 April 2020<ref>{{Cite web |title=Navy Celebrates Commissioning of USS Vermont (SSN 792) |url=https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/2756140/navy-celebrates-commissioning-of-uss-vermont-ssn-792/https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/2756140/navy-celebrates-commissioning-of-uss-vermont-ssn-792/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=United States Navy |language=en-US }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|In service<ref name="NVR Vermont">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN792}}|title=VERMONT (SSN 792) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Navy Secretary: Submarine to be named USS Vermont |url=http://www.wptz.com/news/vermont-new-york/burlington/submarine-to-be-named-for-state/28121904 |agency=Associated Press |location=Burlington, Vermont |work=WPTZ Burlington |date=18 September 2014 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016051956/http://www.wptz.com/news/vermont-new-york/burlington/submarine-to-be-named-for-state/28121904 |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=SECNAV Names Virginia-class Submarine, USS Vermont |location=Burlington, Vermont |publisher=Secretary of the Navy Ray Mabus |date=18 September 2014}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Oregon|SSN-793|2}}
|SSN-793
| IV
|8 July 2017<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/rhode-island/articles/2017-07-08/the-latest-keel-laying-marks-attack-submarine-construction|title=The latest keel laying marks attack submarine construction|publisher=usnews.com|access-date=25 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226021234/https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/rhode-island/articles/2017-07-08/the-latest-keel-laying-marks-attack-submarine-construction|archive-date=26 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
|25 June 2020
|28 May 2022<ref>{{Cite web |title=Navy commissions USS Oregon (SSN 793) |url=https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/3046855/navy-commissions-uss-oregon-ssn-793/https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/3046855/navy-commissions-uss-oregon-ssn-793/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=United States Navy |language=en-US }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|In service<ref name="NVR Vermont"/>
|-
|{{USS|Montana|SSN-794|2}}
|SSN-794
| IV
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|16 May 2018<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsroom.huntingtoningalls.com/releases/submarine-montana-ssn794-keel-authentication|title=Photo Release--Huntington Ingalls Industries Authenticates Keel of Submarine Montana (SSN 794)|last=Industries|first=Huntington Ingalls|website=Huntington Ingalls Newsroom|access-date=17 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517130630/http://newsroom.huntingtoningalls.com/releases/submarine-montana-ssn794-keel-authentication|archive-date=17 May 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
|8 February 2021
|25 June 2022<ref>{{Cite web |title=Navy Commissions USS Montana (SSN 794) |url=https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/3074846/navy-commissions-uss-montana-ssn-794/https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/3074846/navy-commissions-uss-montana-ssn-794/ |access-date=2022-07-31 |website=United States Navy |language=en-US }}{{Dead link|date=October 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|In service<ref name="NVR Montana">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN794}}|title=MONTANA (SSN 794) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Hyman G. Rickover|SSN-795|2}}
|SSN-795
| IV
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|11 May 2018
|26 August 2021
|Scheduled for 14 October 2023<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ussrickover.org/ |website=USS Hyman G. Rickover (SSN 795) Commissioning Committee|title=The Commissioning Ceremony for the USS Hyman G. Rickover (SSN 795) is scheduled for October 14, 2023 in Groton, Connecticut |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref>
|Launched<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|title=Navy Christens future USS Hyman G. Rickover|url=https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/News-Stories/Article/2715174/navy-christens-future-uss-hyman-g-rickover/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=United States Navy|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="NVR Hyman G. Rickover">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN795}}|title=HYMAN G. RICKOVER (SSN 795) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|New Jersey|SSN-796|2}}
|SSN-796
| IV
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|25 March 2019
|14 April 2022
|
|Launched<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://newsroom.huntingtoningalls.com/releases/new-jersey-ssn-796-christened-2021|title=Virginia-Class Attack Submarine New Jersey (SSN 796) Christened at Newport News Shipbuilding|publisher=Huntington Ingalls Industries|date=13 November 2021|accessdate=13 November 2021}}</ref><ref name="NVR New Jersey">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN796}}|title=NEW JERSEY (SSN 796) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=29 August 2016}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Iowa|SSN-797|2}}
|SSN-797
| IV
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|20 August 2019
|18 June 2023<ref name="USS Iowa Christening">{{cite web |last1=Ozberk |first1=Tayfun |title=U.S. Navy Christens 6th Block IV Virginia-Class Submarine USS Iowa (SSN-797) |url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2023/06/u-s-navy-christens-6th-block-iv-virginia-class-submarine-uss-iowa-ssn-797/ |website=Naval News |access-date=10 July 2023 |date=19 June 2023}}</ref>
|
|Launched<ref name="USS Iowa Christening"></ref>
|-
|{{USS|Massachusetts|SSN-798|2}}
|SSN-798
| IV
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|11 Dec 2020<ref>{{cite web|last=Industries|first=Huntington Ingalls|title=Photo Release — Huntington Ingalls Industries Authenticates Keel of Virginia-Class Attack Submarine Massachusetts (SSN 798)|url=https://newsroom.huntingtoningalls.com/releases/massachusetts-ssn-798-keel-laying|access-date=2020-12-12|website=Huntington Ingalls Newsroom|language=en}}</ref>
|6 May 2023<ref>{{cite web |title=HII CHRISTENS VIRGINIA-CLASS ATTACK SUBMARINE MASSACHUSETTS (SSN 798) |url=https://hii.com/news/hii-christens-virginia-class-attack-submarine-massachusetts-ssn-798/ |website=Huntington Ingalls Industries |access-date=19 May 2023}}</ref>
|
|Under construction<ref name="NVR Massachusetts">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN798}}|title=MASSACHUSETTS (SSN 798) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Idaho|SSN-799|2}}
|SSN-799
| IV
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|24 August 2020
|
|
|Under construction<ref name="NVR Idaho">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN799}}|title=IDAHO (SSN 799) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Arkansas|SSN-800|2}}
|SSN-800
| IV
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|19 November 2022
|
|
|Under construction<ref name="NVR Arkansas">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN800}}|title=ARKANSAS (SSN 800) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Utah|SSN-801|2}}
|SSN-801
| IV
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|1 September 2021
|
|
|Under construction<ref name="NVR Utah">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN801}}|title=UTAH (SSN 801) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=22 October 2016}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Oklahoma|SSN-802|2}}
|SSN-802
| V
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
| rowspan="2" |2 December 2017
|2 August 2023
|
|
|Under construction<ref name="NVR Oklahoma">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN802}}|title=OKLAHOMA (SSN 802) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Arizona|SSN-803|2}}
|SSN-803
| V
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|7 December 2022
|
|
|Under construction<ref name="NVR Arizona">{{cite web|url={{Naval Vessel Register URL|id=SSN803}}|title=ARIZONA (SSN 803) |publisher=[[Naval Vessel Register]]|access-date=18 April 2020}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Barb|SSN-804|2}}
|SSN-804
| V
|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
| rowspan="4" | 2 December 2019
|
|
|
|Under construction<ref>{{cite web |date=2 September 2020 |title=Under construction |url=https://www.nvr.navy.mil/SHIPDETAILS/SHIPSDETAIL_SSN_804.HTML}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Tang|SSN-805|2}}
|SSN-805
| V
|General Dynamics Electric Boat, Groton, CT
|17 August 2023
|
|
|Under construction<ref name="navy.mil">{{cite web |date=1 December 2021 |title=Under construction |url=https://www.nvr.navy.mil/SHIPDETAILS/SHIPSDETAIL_SSN_806.HTML |publisher=Navy.mil |accessdate=2021-11-20}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Wahoo|SSN-806|2}}
|SSN-806
| V
|rowspan="2"|Huntington Ingalls Industries, Newport News, VA
|
|
|
|Under construction<ref name="navy.mil" />
|-
|{{USS|Silversides|SSN-807|2}}
|SSN-807
| V
|
|
|
|Under Construction<ref>{{cite web|title=Secretary of the Navy Kenneth J. Braithwaite - Growing the Fleet|website = [[YouTube]]|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r51WpCbUYVk |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/r51WpCbUYVk| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|John H. Dalton|SSN-808|2}}
|SSN-808
| V
|
|
|
|
|
|Authorized<ref>{{cite web |date=1 March 2023 |title=Authorized for US Navy construction |url=https://www.nvr.navy.mil/SHIPDETAILS/SHIPSDETAIL_SSN_808.HTML |publisher=Navy.mil |accessdate=2019-12-02}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|Long Island|SSN-809|2}}
|SSN-809
| V
|
|
|
|
|
|Announced<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/newyork/news/uss-long-island-new-navy-submarine/|title=New submarine to be named USS Long Island, Navy Secretary Carlos Del Toro says|website=cbsnews.com|date=25 May 2023|access-date=30 August 2023}}</ref>
|-
|{{USS|San Francisco|SSN-810|2}}
|SSN-810
| V
|
|
|
|
|
|Announced<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.navy.mil/Press-Office/Press-Releases/display-pressreleases/Article/3547101/secnav-del-toro-names-future-nuclear-powered-attack-submarine-uss-san-francisco/|title=SECNAV Del Toro Names Future Nuclear-Powered Attack Submarine USS San Francisco (SSN 810)|publisher=United States Navy|date=3 October 2023|access-date=4 October 2023}}</ref>
|-
|Unnamed
|SSN-811
| V
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! Name
! Hull number
! Block
! Builder
! Ordered
! Laid down
! Launched
! Commissioned
! Status
|-
|}

=== Future acquisitions ===
The Navy plans to acquire at least 34 ''Virginia''-class submarines,<ref name="jeffhead1">{{cite web |url=http://www.jeffhead.com/usn21/nssn.htm |title=US Navy 21st Century - SSN Virginia Class |publisher=Jeffhead.com |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411004055/http://www.jeffhead.com/usn21/nssn.htm |archive-date=11 April 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="submarinesuppliers2">{{cite web |url=http://www.submarinesuppliers.org/programs/index.php |title=Submarine Industrial Base Council |publisher=Submarinesuppliers.org |date=22 December 2008 |access-date=25 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119163338/http://www.submarinesuppliers.org/programs/index.php |archive-date=19 January 2012}}</ref> however, more recent data provided by the Naval Submarine League (in 2011) and the Congressional Budget Office (in 2012) seems to imply that more than 30 submarines may eventually be built. The Naval Submarine League believes that up to 10 Block V boats will be built.<ref name="navalsubleague1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.navalsubleague.com/NSL/default.aspx |title=Naval Submarine League |publisher=Navalsubleague.com |access-date=25 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130125120330/http://www.navalsubleague.com/NSL/default.aspx/ |archive-date=25 January 2013}}</ref> The same source also states that 10 additional submarines could be built after Block V submarines, with 5 in the so-called Block VI and 5 in Block VII, largely due to the delays experienced with the "Improved ''Virginia''". These 20 submarines (10 Block V, 5 Block VI, 5 Block VII) would carry VPM bringing the total number of ''Virginia''-class submarines to 48 (including the 28 submarines in Blocks I, II, III and IV). The CBO in its 2012 report states that 33 ''Virginia''-class submarines will be procured in the 2013–2032 timeframe,<ref name="cbo" /> resulting in 49 submarines in total since 16 were already procured by the end of 2012.<ref name="FAS Weapons">{{cite web |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/Article.aspx?id=/article-xml/awx_04_10_2013_p0-567382.xml |title=Funding For U.S. Navy Subs Runs Deep |work=Aviation Week |date=10 April 2013 |access-date=26 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520220537/http://www.aviationweek.com/Article.aspx?id=%2Farticle-xml%2Fawx_04_10_2013_p0-567382.xml |archive-date=20 May 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> Such a long production run seems unlikely but another naval program, the {{sclass|Arleigh Burke|destroyer|1}}, is still ongoing even though the first vessel was procured in 1985.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32109.pdf |title=Navy DDG-51 and DDG-1000 Destroyer Programs: Background and Issues for Congress |first=Ronald |last=O'Rourke |date=22 October 2013 |work=[[Congressional Research Service]] |access-date=12 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328211730/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32109.pdf |archive-date=28 March 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=McCullough III |first=Bernard |url=http://www.usni.org/print/25780 |title=Now Hear This - The Right Destroyer at the Right Time |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |date=January 2013 |volume=139 |issue=1/1,319 |access-date=17 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016051956/http://www.usni.org/print/25780 |archive-date=16 October 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, other sources believe that production will end with Block V.<ref>{{cite web |first=John |last=Pike |url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/ssn-774.htm |title=SSN-774 Virginia-class NSSN New Attack Submarine |publisher=Globalsecurity.org |access-date=25 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122000352/http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/ssn-774.htm |archive-date=22 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> In addition, data provided in CBO reports tends to vary considerably compared to earlier editions.<ref name="cbo" />

Block VI submarines include an organic ability to employ [[seabed warfare]] equipment.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Eckstein |first1=Megan |title=Navy New Virginia Block VI Virginia Attack Boat Will Inform SSN(X) |url=https://news.usni.org/2020/11/20/navy-new-virginia-block-vi-virginia-attack-boat-will-inform-ssnx |website=news.usni.org |date=20 November 2020 |publisher=USNI |access-date=4 March 2021}}</ref>

==SSN(X)/Improved ''Virginia''==
{{Main|SSN(X)-class submarine}}
Initially dubbed Future Attack Submarine<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/fas.htm|title=Future Attack Submarine|publisher=Federation of American Scientists|access-date=25 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126100134/https://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/fas.htm|archive-date=26 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> and Improved ''Virginia'' class in early Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reports,<ref name="cbo" /> the SSN(X) will instead be a largely new design that initially supplements and eventually replaces the ''Virginia'' class submarines.

In late 2014, the US Navy began early preparation work on the SSN(X). It was planned that the first submarine would be procured in 2025. However, their introduction (i.e., procurement of the first submarine) has been pushed back to 2033/2034.<ref name="cbo" /><ref>{{cite report |title=An Analysis of the Navy's Fiscal Year 2011 Shipbuilding Plan |url=http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/05-25-navyshipbuilding.pdf |publisher=Congressional Budget Office |number=Pub. No. 4116 |date=May 2010 |access-date=4 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141208153155/http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/05-25-navyshipbuilding.pdf |archive-date=8 December 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> The long-range shipbuilding plan is for the new SSN to be authorized in 2034, and become operational by 2044 after the last Block VII ''Virginia'' is built. Roughly a decade would be spent identifying, designing, and demonstrating new technologies before an analysis of alternatives is issued in 2024. An initial small team has been formed to consult with industry and identify the threat environment and technologies the submarine will need to operate against in the 2050-plus timeframe.

In 2019, the Congressional Budget Office estimated that the SSN(X) boats could cost up to $5.5 billion per hull. The current ''Virginia''-class boats cost about $2.8 billion per hull, while the Block V boats with the 80-foot Virginia Payload Module will cost about $3.2 billion. "The Navy indicates that the next-generation attack submarine should be faster, stealthier, and able to carry more torpedoes than the ''Virginia'' class, similar to the ''Seawolf''-class submarine. CBO therefore assumed that the SSN(X) would be a ''Seawolf''-sized SSN, which displaces about 9,100 tons when submerged, and would have an all-new design in keeping with the Navy's description of it as a fast, lethal next-generation attack submarine", the CBO wrote.<ref>{{cite news |first=Sam |last=LaGore |title=Next Generation SSN(X) Attack Sub 'Is Going to Carry a Lot of Torpedoes,' Says Admiral |url=https://news.usni.org/2021/11/22/next-generation-ssnx-attack-sub-is-going-to-carry-a-lot-of-torpedoes-says-admiral |work=USNI News |publisher=U.S. Naval Institute |date=22 November 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021 }}</ref>

== Potential exports ==
On 16 September 2021, Australian Prime Minister [[Scott Morrison]] announced that Australia had canceled its contract with French shipbuilder [[Naval Group]] for 12 {{sclass|Attack|submarine|0}} diesel-electric submarines based on the French {{sclass2|Barracuda|submarine|0||France}} nuclear submarine that were to replace Australia's diesel-electric {{sclass|Collins|submarine|2}}s.<ref name="Pursuenuclear">{{cite press release |author1=Prime Minister |author2=Minister for Defence |author3=Minister for Foreign Affairs |author4=Minister for Women |title=Australia to pursue Nuclear-powered Submarines through new Trilateral Enhanced Security Partnership |url=https://www.pm.gov.au/media/australia-pursue-nuclear-powered-submarines-through-new-trilateral-enhanced-security |website=Prime Minister of Australia |access-date=25 September 2021 |date=16 September 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927191633/https://www.pm.gov.au/media/australia-pursue-nuclear-powered-submarines-through-new-trilateral-enhanced-security |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[AUKUS]] trilateral [[Defense pact|security pact]] between Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, was announced the same day.<ref name="Announce">{{cite press release |author1=Prime Minister of Australia Scott Morrison |author2=Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Boris Johnson |author3=President of the United States of America Joseph R. Biden |title=Joint Leaders Statement on AUKUS |url=https://www.pm.gov.au/media/joint-leaders-statement-aukus |website=Prime Minister of Australia |access-date=25 September 2021 |date=16 September 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927191438/https://www.pm.gov.au/media/joint-leaders-statement-aukus |url-status=dead }}</ref> Under the pact, the US will share nuclear propulsion technology with Australia the same as it has with the UK since [[1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement#Special nuclear materials barter|1958]] as will the UK.<ref>{{cite interview |last=Morrison |first=Prime Minister Scott |subject-link=Scott Morrison |interviewer=Jane Marwick |title=Interview with Jane Marwick, 6PR |work=[[6PR]] |date=16 September 2021 |location=Perth, Perth, Western Australia |url=https://www.pm.gov.au/media/interview-jane-marwick-6pr |access-date=27 September 2021 |archive-date=27 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927120740/https://www.pm.gov.au/media/interview-jane-marwick-6pr |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Ritchie |first1=Dr Nick |title=The UK Naval Nuclear Propulsion Programme and Highly Enriched Uranium |url=https://uploads.fas.org/2015/03/2015-FAS-UK-NNPP-HEU-final2.pdf |location=University of York, UK |date=February 2015 |access-date=27 September 2021}}</ref> The [[Royal Australian Navy]] (RAN) would acquire at least eight nuclear-powered submarines armed with conventional weapons with basic design and key technologies decided by an 18-month research project.<ref name="Pursuenuclear" /> On 22 November 2021, Australia, UK and the US signed the ''Exchange of Naval Nuclear Propulsion Information Agreement'' (ENNPIA) [[treaty]] to share classified information about nuclear propulsion.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2021-11-23 |title=Australia, UK and USA Formally Sign Agreement On Nuclear Submarine |url=https://www.globaldefensecorp.com/2021/11/23/australia-uk-and-usa-formally-sign-agreement-on-nuclear-submarine/ |access-date=2021-11-23 |website=Global Defense Corp |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="ENNPIA">{{cite book |author1=Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office |title=Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Government of Australia, and the Government of the United States of America for the Exchange of Naval Nuclear Propulsion Information |date=2021 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |isbn=9781528630351 |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1036009/MS_8.2021_Agreement_UK_USA_Australia_Naval_Nuclear_Propulsion.pdf |access-date=13 January 2022 |series=Miscellaneous Series No.8 (2021)}}</ref>

In March 2023, AUKUS announced that "in the early 2030s, pending Congressional approval, the United States intends to sell Australia three ''Virginia''-class submarines, with the potential to sell up to two more if needed".<ref name="AUKUSMar23"/> These submarines will ensure there is no capability gap between when the ''Collins''-class is retired and the introduction of a new class of nuclear-powered submarines [[SSN-AUKUS]].<ref>{{OGL-attribution|version=3.0|{{cite web |author1=[[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] |author2=[[Defence Nuclear Organisation]] |title=The AUKUS Nuclear Powered-Submarine Pathway: A Partnership for the Future |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1142588/The_AUKUS_nuclear_powered_submarine_pathway_a_partnership_for_the_future.pdf |access-date=17 March 2023 |date=14 March 2023 |ref={{harvid|Ministry of Defence|2023}} |pages=7}}}}</ref><ref name="FTMar23">{{cite web|title=Australia to buy US submarines to bridge gap before UK-design boats|date=10 March 2023|first1= Demetri|last1= Sevastopulo|first2 =Sylvia|last2 =Pfeifer|first3 =John Paul|last3=Rathbone|website= Financial Times|url=https://www.ft.com/content/d5035343-8816-4390-a4dc-04579665849c|access-date=11 March 2023}}</ref> AUKUS also announced on the same day, the UK's SSNR submarine design will be renamed SSN-AUKUS and be trilaterally developed and built in the UK and in Australia.<ref name="FTMar23"/>{{sfn|Ministry of Defence|2023|p=7}}<ref>{{cite web |title=Design work begins on successor to Astute-class submarines in £170m deal |url=https://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/news-and-latest-activity/news/2021/september/17/20210917-astute-successor |website=Royal Navy |access-date=19 March 2023 |date=17 September 2021}}</ref> The SSN-AUKUS class "will have a high degree of commonality" with the ''Virginia''-class, including "sharing elements of the propulsion plant, combat system and weapons".{{sfn|Ministry of Defence|2023|p=29}}

The first ''Virginia''-class boat is planned to be delivered to the RAN in 2033 and will be a boat that has been in service with the United States Navy.{{sfn|Ministry of Defence|2023|p=8}}<ref>{{cite web |author1=Defence Minister Richard Marles |title=Interview with Andrew Clennell, Sky News |url=https://www.minister.defence.gov.au/transcripts/2023-03-14/interview-andrew-clennell-sky-news |website=Department of Defence Ministers |access-date=17 March 2023 |date=14 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="Aust14March23" /> The second boat will be delivered in 2036 and the third boat in 2039.<ref name="Aust14March23" /> The first boat of the SSN-AUKUS class for the RAN is to be delivered in the early 2040s.{{sfn|Ministry of Defence|2023|p=7}} Five boats are planned to be built with a boat built every three years.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Briggs |first1=Peter |title=How many nuclear-powered submarines for Australia? |url=https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/how-many-nuclear-powered-submarines-for-australia/ |website=The Strategist — [[Australian Strategic Policy Institute]] |access-date=15 October 2023 |date=12 October 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Minister for Defence Richard Marles |title=AUKUS nuclear-powered submarine pathway, House of Representatives, Parliament House, Canberra ACT |url=https://www.minister.defence.gov.au/statements/2023-03-22/aukus-nuclear-powered-submarine-pathway-house-representatives-parliament-house-canberra-act |website=Department of Defence Ministers |access-date=15 October 2023 |date=22 March 2023}}</ref> If the SSN-AUKUS build schedule falls behind, the RAN has the option of purchasing up to two additional ''Virginia''-class boats.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Defence Minister Richard Marles |author2=Minister for Defence Industry Pat Conroy |title=Press conference - Parliament House, Canberra |url=https://www.minister.defence.gov.au/transcripts/2023-03-14/press-conference-parliament-house-canberra |website=Department of Defence Ministers |access-date=16 March 2023 |date=14 March 2023}}</ref><ref name="Aust14March23" />

==See also==
{{Portal|United States}}
* [[List of submarine classes of the United States Navy]]
* [[List of submarines of the United States Navy]]
* [[List of submarine classes in service]]
* [[Submarines in the United States Navy]]
* [[Cruise missile submarine]]
* [[List of current United States Navy ships]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Clancy |first=Tom |date=2002 |title=Submarine: A Guided Tour Inside A Nuclear Warship |location=New York |publisher=Berkley Books |isbn=978-0-425-18300-7 |oclc=48749330 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/submarineguidedt00clan}}
* {{cite book |last=Christley |first=J. L. |date=2000 |title=United States Naval Submarine Force Information Book |location=Marblehead, Massachusetts |publisher=Graphic Enterprises of Marblehead |oclc=53364278}}
* {{cite book |last=Christley |first=Jim |title=US Nuclear Submarines: The Fast Attack |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|date=2007 |isbn=978-1-84603-168-7 |oclc=141383046}}
* {{cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Wilbur |first2=George W. |last2=Feise |title=Encyclopedia of American Submarines |location=New York |publisher=Facts on File |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-8160-4460-3 |oclc=48131805 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofam0000cros}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gresham |first1=John |last2=Westwell |first2=Ian |title=Seapower |location=Edison, New Jersey |publisher=Chartwell Books |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-7858-1792-5 |oclc=56578494}}
* {{cite journal |last=Holian |first=Thomas |url=http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_33/virginia.html |title=Voices from ''Virginia'': Early Impressions from a First-in-Class |journal=Undersea Warfare |date=Winter 2007 |volume=9 |issue=2 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131031335/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_33/virginia.html |archive-date=31 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Dave|last2=Muniz |first2=Dustin |url=http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_33/more.html |title=More for Less: The Navy's Plan to Reduce Costs on ''Virginia''-class Submarines While Increasing Production |journal=Undersea Warfare |date=Winter 2007 |volume=9 |issue=2 |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131041351/http://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/underseawarfaremagazine/Issues/Archives/issue_33/more.html |archive-date=31 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite journal |last=Little |first=Molly |url=http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/usw_summer_08/elements.html |title=The Elements of ''Virginia'' |journal=Undersea Warfare Magazine |date=Summer 2008 |issue=38|access-date=15 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401050951/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/usw_summer_08/elements.html |archive-date=1 April 2009 |url-status=dead}} Updates on the boats of the ''Virginia''-class
* {{cite journal |last=Little |first=Molly |url=http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/usw_summer_08/q&a.html |title=A Snapshot of the ''Virginia''-class With Rear Adm. (sel.) Dave Johnson |journal=Undersea Warfare |date=Summer 2008 |issue=38 |access-date=15 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401050519/http://www.navy.mil/navydata/cno/n87/usw/usw_summer_08/q%26a.html |archive-date=1 April 2009 |url-status=dead}} Q&A on the ''Virginia''-class program since the Winter 2007 article
* {{cite book |last=Parker |first=John |title=The World Encyclopedia of Submarines |location=London |publisher=Lorenz |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-7548-1707-9 |oclc=75713655}}
* {{cite book |last=Polmar |first=Norman |title=The Naval Institute Guide to the Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet |location=Annapolis, Maryland |publisher=Naval Institute Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-1-55750-656-6 |oclc=47105698}}
* {{cite report |title=The Virginia Class Submarine Program |location=Fort Belvoir, Virginia |publisher=Defense Standardization Program Office |date=2007 |oclc=427536804}}

{{Library resources box}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Virginia class submarines}}
* [http://www.history.navy.mil/ Naval History & Heritage Command]
* [http://www.military.com/equipment/virginia-class-attack-submarine-ssn VIRGINIA CLASS ATTACK SUBMARINE - SSN]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140420055222/https://www.public.navy.mil/subfor/hq/Pages/VirginiaClass.aspx Stealth, Endurance, and Agility Under the Sea]
* [http://xpda.com/virginiasubs/ Virginia Class Submarines] Some U.S. Navy Photos of ''Virginia''-class submarines
* [http://www.submarinesuppliers.org/ Submarine Industrial Base Resources] Information about the Submarine Industrial Base

{{Virginia class submarine}}
{{Current SSN}}
{{US submarine classes after 1945}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Virginia Class Submarine}}
[[Category:Submarine classes]]
[[Category:Cruise missile submarines]]
[[Category:Naval ships of the United States]]
[[Category:Virginia-class submarines| ]]
[[Category:Submarines of the United States Navy]]
[[Category:Submarines of the United States]]

Energy in Palestine

2023-10-07T19:32:36Z

Denvercoder9:

{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2019}}
Palestine produces no oil or natural gas and is predominantly dependent on the [[Israel Electric Corporation]] (IEC) for electricity.<ref name = "hen">Henderson, Simon. "Natural Gas in alealestinian Authority: The Potential of the Gaza Marine Offshore Field." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 53.3 (2012): 296. Mar. 2014. Web.</ref><ref name=good /> According to [[UNCTAD]], the Occupied Palestinian Territory "lies above sizeable reservoirs of oil and natural gas wealth" but "occupation continues to prevent Palestinians from developing their energy fields so as to exploit and benefit from such assets."<ref>{{Cite report| title = The Economic Costs of the Israeli Occupation for the Palestinian People: The Unrealized Oil and Natural Gas Potential | publisher = [[UNCTAD]] | url = https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/gdsapp2019d1_en.pdf | date =2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bylinetimes.com/2021/05/20/biden-government-and-chevron-colluding-in-israels-pillage-of-gazas-gas-resources/|title=Biden Government and Chevron Colluding in Israel's 'Pillage' of Gaza's Gas Resources|first=Byline|last=Times <[email protected]> (https://bylinetimes.com/)|date=20 May 2021|website=Byline Times}}</ref> In 2012, [[Electricity generation|electricity]] available in [[West Bank]] and [[Gaza Strip|Gaza]] was 5,370 [[Kilowatt hour|GW-hour]] (3,700 in the West Bank and 1,670 in Gaza), while the annual per capita consumption of electricity (after deducting transmission loss) was 950 kWh.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Electricity Sector: Current Status and The Need for Reform|journal=MAS|date=21 May 2014 |url=http://www.mas.ps/files/server/20141911184358-1.pdf|access-date=2 June 2017}}</ref> National sources only produce 445 GWh of electricity, supplying less than 10% of demand.<ref name = "Pal">"Palestinian Territories- Country Analysis Note." http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=pt. U.S. Energy Information Administration, Mar. 2014. Web.</ref> The only domestic source of energy is the disputed [[Gaza Marine]] gas field, which has not yet been developed.<ref name = "good">"West Bank and Gaza Energy Sector Review" Sustainable Development Department, United Nations. May, 2007.</ref> Palestinian energy demand increased rapidly, increasing by 6.4% annually between 1999 and 2005.<ref name=good /> Future consumption of electricity is expected to reach 8,400 GWh by 2020 on the expectation that consumption will increase by 6% annually.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Marei| first1=Ibrahim |title=Developments in law and policy: The promotion of green energy in the electricity sector of Palestine |journal=Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law|date=2016|volume=35|issue=1 |pages=47–67 | doi=10.1080/02646811.2016.1216698 | s2cid=157246634 |url=http://eprints.qut.edu.au/98747/ |access-date=2 June 2017}}</ref>

The Palestinian Electricity Transmission Company (PETL), formed in 2013, is currently the sole buyer of electricity in the areas under PA control. It buys electricity from the Palestine Power Generation Company (PPGC), IEC, and other neighboring countries, which is then distributed to the six Palestinian district electricity distribution companies.

Structurally, Palestine does not have sufficient distribution companies or systems - a problem which leads to constraints on electricity efficiency.<ref name=good /> The West Bank and the Gaza Strip receive and consume energy in different ways.

==Petroleum ==
Almost all of liquid fuel used in the Palestinian territories is supplied by or via Israel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cogat.idf.il/Sip_Storage/FILES/1/2181.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-08-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131111233151/http://www.cogat.idf.il/Sip_Storage/FILES/1/2181.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-11}}</ref> The supply of petroleum is centrally located at two different terminals in the West Bank and one terminal on the [[Israel-Gaza border]], at the [[Kerem Shalom crossing]]. These terminals do not have storage capacity for petroleum, which must therefore be used daily.

In the case of Gaza, imported fuel is required to power the Gaza power plant, as well as for transportation and generators. The diesel fuel has been exempted from the [[blockade of the Gaza Strip]], with some limitations, which has been in place since 2007.

In 2011, Hamas began buying cheaper fuel from Egypt, bringing it via a network of tunnels, and refused to buy it from Israel.<ref name="bloomberg.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-02-18/hamas-rejects-egypt-plan-to-bring-gaza-fuel-via-israeli-crossing.html|title=Hamas Rejects Egypt Plan to Bring Gaza Fuel Via Israeli Crossing|author=Saud Abu Ramadan|date=18 February 2012|work=Bloomberg.com}}</ref>

In early 2012, disagreement between the PA and Hamas led to Egypt reducing supplies of fuel being smuggled through the tunnels, while Hamas continued to refuse to accept fuel from or via Israel. Egypt attempted to stop the use of tunnels for delivery of Egyptian fuel purchased by Palestinian authorities, and severely reduced supply through the tunnel network. As the crisis deepened, Hamas wanted fuel to be import from Egypt with the Rafah terminal between Egypt and Gaza being equipped for fuel transfer, and refused to accept fuel delivered via Kerem Shalom. This proposal was inconsistent with Egypt’s agreement with Israel and the PA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=463087|title=Gaza electricity crisis|work=Maan News Agency|access-date=2012-07-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602152026/http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=463087|archive-date=2013-06-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In mid-February, the crisis escalated and Hamas rejected an Egyptian proposal to bring in fuel via Kerem Shalom. Ahmed Abu Al-Amreen of the Hamas-run Energy Authority refused it on the grounds that Kerem Shalom is operated by Israel. Egypt could not ship [[diesel fuel]] to Gaza through the [[Rafah crossing]], which is limited to the movement of individuals.<ref name="bloomberg.com"/>

In early March, the head of Gaza's Energy Authority again insisted that Egypt transfer fuel through Rafah, although this crossing was not equipped to handle the 500,000 litres needed each day.<ref>{{cite web|author=محمد عنان |url=http://paltimes.net/details/news/11794.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140806015309/http://paltimes.net/details/news/11794.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2014-08-06 |title=فلسطين الآن : مصر ستزود غزة بالوقود لشهر والطاقة تبحث البدائل |publisher=Paltimes.net |date=2012-03-04 |access-date=2014-08-14}}</ref> In late March, Egypt agreed to provide 600,000 litres of fuel to Gaza daily, but it had no way of delivering it to which Hamas would agree.<ref>{{cite web|author=(1) undefined السبت, 18 فبراير, 2012 |url=http://paltimes.net/details/news/11090.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140806015311/http://paltimes.net/details/news/11090.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2014-08-06 |title=فلسطين الآن : نجيدة لـ"فلسطين الآن": مصر ستزود غزة بـ600 ألف لتر وقود يوميا |publisher=Paltimes.net |date=2012-02-18 |access-date=2014-08-14}}</ref>

Israel permitted the entry of the normal diesel for hospitals, and also shipped 150,000 litres of diesel through Kerem Shalom, which was paid for by the [[Red Cross]].<ref name="translate.google.com">{{cite web|url=https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&ie=CP1256&langpair=auto%7Cen&rurl=translate.google.com&tbb=1&twu=1&u=http://www.palpress.co.uk/arabic/%3Faction%3Ddetail%26id%3D43625|title=Google Translate|work=google.com}}</ref> In April 2012, the PA and Hamas reached a deal, with the involvement of the Red Cross, for the transfer of fuel via Kerem Shalom, with the fuel being accepted by the PA, which was then transferred to Hamas after Hamas made payment to the PA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=473827 |title=Fuel tankers arrive in Gaza|work=Maan News Agency|access-date=2012-07-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602152753/http://www.maannews.net/eng/ViewDetails.aspx?ID=473827|archive-date=2013-06-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Electricity generation==
In 1999, Palestine Electric Company (PEC) was formed in the Palestinian territories as a subsidiary of Palestine Power Company LLC<ref name=pec/> to establish electricity generating plants in territories under PA control.

In 2010, PADICO Holdings, PEC and other Palestinian companies formed the Palestine Power Generation Company (PPGC)<ref name=padico/> to build power plants in areas under PA control, and to reduce Palestinian dependence on imported energy.

===Gaza power plant===
The Gaza power plant is the only power plant in the Gaza Strip. It is owned by Gaza Power Generating Company (GPGC), a subsidiary of the Palestine Electric Company (PEC). It is located on [[Salaheddin Road]] and relies on diesel fuel imported via Israel.

Following the [[Battle of Gaza (2007)|Hamas takeover of Gaza in 2007]], the [[Blockade of the Gaza Strip|Gaza Strip has been subject to a blockade]], though fuel for the Gaza power plant has been exempted in normal circumstances, as had electricity supplies. Development of the energy sector in Gaza ceased, while Gaza faced increasing demand from a growing population. During past military offensives, Israeli targets included energy infrastructure in the Gaza Strip.<ref name="PoweralHaq"/> In late October 2007, in response to persistent rocket fire on southern Israel, Israel cut diesel exports to Gaza by 15% and gasoline exports by 10%, and created targeted electrical outages of 15 minutes after a rocket attack.

Until June 2013, diesel fuel required as fuel for the power plant was smuggled from Egypt, where fuel at the time was highly subsidized. Egypt took measures against the [[Gaza Strip smuggling tunnels]], halting these cheap imports. With a halt to such smuggling and with restricted amounts of fuel supplied via Israel the power plant began operating at partial capacity.<ref name="OHCA201403">[https://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ocha_opt_electricity_factsheet_march_2014_english.pdf The humanitarian impact of Gaza’s electricity and fuel crisis] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170322142754/https://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ocha_opt_electricity_factsheet_march_2014_english.pdf |date=2017-03-22}}, UN OCHA, March 2014</ref>

The Gaza power plant's main fuel tanks were hit by an Israeli tank shell in the [[2014 Gaza War]], setting about 3 million cubic liters of fuel on fire. Originally reported as destroyed and facing a year of repairs, the plant returned to operation in six weeks.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-07-29/gaza-only-power-plant-attacked-as-israel-steps-up-offensive/5633718|title=Israel knocks out Gaza's only power plant|date=29 July 2014|website=ABC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20141027140556-cp35b|title=Gaza power plant resumes operations, director says|date=27 October 2014|website=Reuters}}</ref>

In 2016, [[Qatar]] provided fuel for the Gaza power plant. PA President Abbas objected to the arrangement because the PA would be unable to collect taxes on the fuel.<ref>[https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/23968-yaalon-abbas-objected-to-qatari-fuel-entering-gaza-through-ashdod ''Ya’alon: Abbas objected to Qatari fuel entering Gaza through Ashdod''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307124216/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/news/middle-east/23968-yaalon-abbas-objected-to-qatari-fuel-entering-gaza-through-ashdod |date=7 March 2016 }}. MEMO, 17 February 2016</ref>

In August 2019, following three rockets being fired from the Gaza Strip, Israel cut by half the amount of fuel it supplied to Gaza’s power plant. Before the cut, residents had six hours of electricity followed by 12 hours of blackout, and it was said that the cut would result in a decrease of power time to four-hour periods.<ref>{{cite web |title=Israel reduces Gaza fuel supply after rocket attack |website=[[Reuters]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221127064823/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-palestinians-idUSKCN1VG0RJ |archive-date=27 November 2022 |url-status=live |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-palestinians-idUSKCN1VG0RJ}}</ref>

In August 2020, following the [[Palestinian airborne arson attacks|launching of incendiary balloons from the Gaza Strip]] that caused brush fires in southern Israel, Israel suspended fuel shipments to the Gaza Strip, resulting in the shutting down of the Gaza power plant within a week.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/18/gazas-lone-power-plant-shuts-down-amid-tensions-with-israel |title=Gaza's lone power plant shuts down amid tensions with Israel|website=www.aljazeera.com}}</ref> In September 2020, [[Qatar]] brokered a ceasefire between Israel and Hamas that is reported to include "plans to build a power station operated by Qatar."<ref>{{cite news |title=Israel and Qatar have an unlikely partnership for dealing with Gaza|url=https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/israel-and-qatar-have-an-unlikely-partnership-for-dealing-with-gaza-641878|publisher=The Jerusalem Post|date=September 10, 2020|access-date=November 2, 2020}}</ref> For the 2021 year, and perhaps in earlier years, Qatar has been paying for fuel for Gaza’s power plant.<ref>[https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2021/02/gaza-aid-assistance-electricity-qatar-palestinians-israel.html Qatar announces new aid grant to Palestinians in Gaza]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/un-agrees-to-take-over-distribution-of-qatari-funds-in-gaza-report/|title = UN agrees to take over distribution of Qatari funds in Gaza — report|website = [[The Times of Israel]]}}</ref> Transfers of fuel for the power plant were stopped by Israel during the [[2021 Israel–Palestine crisis|Gaza War in May 2021]] and resumed by the end of June.<ref>[https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/israel-receives-request-for-fuel-tanks-from-gaza-strip-672209 Israel allows fuel tankers into Gaza for first time since clashes]</ref>

===Jenin power plant===
The PA approved PPGC's proposal for the construction of the Jenin power plant in the north of the West Bank. PPGC has acquired around 148,300 m2 of land for the project in [[Jalamah]], [[Jenin Governorate]]. The Jenin power plant is planned as a gas fired power plant with a generation capacity of approximately 450 megawatts, supplied by natural gas from the [[Gaza Marine]] gas field. Power generation from the plant is expected to commence at the end of 2023.<ref name=Massader >[https://www.massader.ps/en/project/1518343235 Massader ]</ref> The power plant is expected to provide around 40% of Palestine's annual electricity needs in both the West Bank and Gaza Strip, with a total annual production capacity of around 3,700 GWh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.ppgc.ps/articles/view/1|title=Palestine Power Generation Co. - Overview|first=Entities|last=Technologies|website=Palestine Power Generation Co. - Overview}}</ref> The PA has granted Palestinian Electricity Company an exclusive right to generate electricity in the Gaza Strip and sell it to PA owned or managed institutions for 20 years, which may be extended for a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms.<ref name="padico">{{Cite web|url=https://www.padico.com/en|title=PADICO HOLDING|website=PADICO HOLDING}}</ref> The electricity produced in the Jenin Power Plant will be sold to PETL.<ref name=Massader/>

===Gaza electricity crisis ===
{{main|Gaza electricity crisis}}
As of 2017, Gaza's normal energy needs were estimated to be approximately 400-600 [[megawatts]] (MW) for full 24-hour supply to all residents. Gaza's electricity is normally supplied by its sole diesel power plant, which has a nominal rating of 60-140 MW (figures vary due to degree of operation and damage to the plant) and which is reliant on crude diesel fuel,<ref>[http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/183470 Gaza's Only Power Plant Knocked Out], Arutz7, July 2014</ref><ref>[http://www.globes.co.il/en/article-israel-turkey-eager-to-rebuild-gaza-1001136597 Israel, Turkey eager to rebuild Gaza], Globes English, June 2016</ref> which is imported via Israel. An additional 125 MW is supplied by Israel via 10 power lines, and 27 MW is supplied by Egypt.<ref name="reuters.com">[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-palestinians-gaza-electricity-idUSKBN17T151 Palestinian Authority halts payments for Israeli electricity to Gaza: Israel], Reuters, 27 April 2017</ref><ref>[http://www.jpost.com/Arab-Israeli-Conflict/Hamas-blames-PA-for-power-plant-shutdown-488201 HAMAS BLAMES ABBAS FOR GAZA POWER PLANT SHUTDOWN], JPost, 18 April 2017</ref> Even in normal conditions, the current rated supply of Gaza is inadequate to meet Gaza's growing needs.<ref name="OHCA201403" /><ref>[http://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/palestinians/.premium-1.763586 With Only Three Hours of Electricity a Day, Gaza Is 'On Verge of Explosion'], Ha'aretz, January 2017</ref>

The [[Gaza electricity crisis]] is a result of the tensions between [[Hamas]], which rules the Gaza Strip, and the [[Fatah]]-controlled Palestinian Authority, which rules in the West Bank, over custom tax revenue, funding of the Gaza Strip, and political authority. Residents of the Gaza Strip receive electricity for a few hours a day on a [[rolling blackout]] basis. As a result of the crises the Gaza power plant has reduced and then ceased operations due to a lack of fuel, and the amount of imported electricity from Israel and Egypt has also been reduced.<ref>[http://www.btselem.org/gaza_strip/20170117_electricity_crisis Israel cannot shirk its responsibility for Gaza’s electricity crisis], [[B'Tselem]], 16 Jan 2017</ref><ref name="reuters.com"/><ref name="al-monitor.com">[http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/en/originals/2016/03/gaza-solar-energy-electricity-crisis.html Gaza’s electricity crisis sheds light on gap between social classes], al-Monitor, March 2016</ref><ref name="OHCA201403"/>

Because of the unpredictability of the power supply, some Gazans and government institutions use private [[electric generator]]s, [[solar panel]]s and [[uninterruptible power supply]] units to produce power when regular power is not available.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ocha_opt_gaza_electricity_crisis_2010_05_17.pdf |title=Gaza's Electricity Crisis: The Impact of Electricity Cuts on the Humanitarian Situation |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140815144531/http://www.ochaopt.org/documents/ocha_opt_gaza_electricity_crisis_2010_05_17.pdf |archivedate=2014-08-15 |publisher=[[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]] |date=May 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Gaza-infrastructure-nearing-collapse-479394 ‘Gaza Infrastructure Nearing Collapse’], JPost, January 2017</ref><ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-palestinians-gaza-solar-idUSKCN0WB1OC Seeing no end to power crisis, Gazans turn to the sun], Reuters, March 2016</ref><ref name="al-monitor.com"/> These alternative power sources depend on the availability of fuel.

==Electricity imports==
The [[Israel Electric Corporation]] (IEC) supplies most of the electricity in the Palestinian territories. PETL is the sole buyer of imported electricity for distribution in West Bank Areas A and B and in the Gaza Strip, which in turn supplies the electricity to the six Palestinian distribution companies. In West Bank Area C, including the settlements, IEC supplies the electricity directly.

In normal circumstances, IEC supplied 125 MW of electricity to the Gaza Strip via ten high voltage power lines,<ref name="reuters.com"/> which has been exempt from the [[blockade of the Gaza Strip]], with some limitations. PETL also buys 27 MW of electricity from [[Egypt]] for distribution in the Gaza Strip,<ref name=good /> though the supply from Egypt is considered unreliable.<ref name="reuters.com"/> In May 2021, during the [[2021 Israel–Palestine crisis]], errant rockets fired by Hamas from the Gaza Strip at Israel damaged five of the ten power lines that supply electricity from Israel to the Gaza Strip, severely reducing the electricity supply.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2021-05-16|title=Israel says high voltage power lines supplying Gaza Strip with electricity damaged|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2021/05/16/Israel-says-high-voltage-power-lines-supplying-Gaza-Strip-with-electricity-damaged|access-date=2021-05-20|website=Al Arabiya English|language=en}}</ref> At the time, IEC stated that it could not repair the lines,<ref name=":0" /> and after the fighting ceased the IEC workers union released a statement refusing to repair the facilities until Israeli prisoners of [[Hamas]] (including [[Avera Mengistu]] and the bodies of [[Hadar Goldin]] and [[Death and ransoming of Oron Shaul|Oron Shaul]]) were returned.<ref>{{Cite web|last=staff|first=T. O. I.|title=Electric company union: No repair to Gaza power lines until captives returned|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/electric-company-union-no-repair-to-gaza-power-lines-until-captives-returned/|access-date=2021-05-20|website=www.timesofisrael.com|language=en-US}}</ref>

In the West Bank, PETL buys around 5% of electricity from Jordan Electric Power Company (JEPCO) to distribute only in the [[Jericho Governorate]].<ref name="PoweralHaq"/>

==Electricity transmission==
The Palestinian Electricity Transmission Company (PETL) was formed in 2013,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linkedin.com/company/petl-ps|title=PETL.PS About us}}</ref> and is currently the sole buyer of electricity in the Palestinian territories, though it effectively operates only in West Bank Areas A and B, where it buys electricity from IEC and some from Jordan. IEC distributes electricity in West Bank Area C.<ref name=haaretz_power_license/>

A power substation located outside [[Jenin]] has been operating since July 2017 by PEC capable of providing up to 135 MW, which is purchased by the IEC to supply the northern West Bank.<ref>{{cite web|title=In deal with Israel, PA takes 'historic' step toward energy independence |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-deal-with-israel-pa-takes-historic-step-toward-energy-independence/|website=Times of Israel|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> In October 2020, Israel transferred control over another three power substations in the West Bank to the PA. The three substations were built by IEC and financed by the European Investment Bank. Two of the substations are managed by PETL, while the third is managed by JDECO.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/with-coordination-still-suspended-israel-hands-three-power-stations-to-pa/|title=With coordination still suspended, Israel hands three power stations to PA|first=Aaron|last=Boxerman|website=www.timesofisrael.com}}</ref>

PETL distributes electricity to the five Palestinian district electricity distribution companies operating in West Bank Areas A and B, that in turn distribute to customers in their respective licence areas.<ref name="haaretz_power_license">[http://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/business/israel-renews-palestinian-power-supplier-s-license-despite-debt.premium-1.492469 ''Israel Renews Palestinian Power Supplier's License, Despite Debt'']. Itai Trilnick, Haaretz, 7 January 2013 (premium)</ref>

==Electricity distribution ==
There are six electricity distribution companies that have been licensed by the Palestinian Authority to distribute electricity to customers within their respective exclusive concession areas. Five are in West Bank Areas A and B: [[Jerusalem District Electricity Company]] (JDECO);<ref name=powercut/> North Electricity Distribution Company (NEDCO), which covers Nablus and the Jenin area,<ref name=haaretz/> and Toubas Electricity Distribution Company (TEDCO), which serve the northern parts of the West Bank; and Hebron Electric Power Company (HEPCO) and Southern Electric Company (SELCO), which serve the southern parts of the West Bank. Gaza Electricity Distribution Company (GEDCO) is the sole electricity distributor in the Gaza Strip.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ochaopt.org/page/gaza-strip-electricity-supply|title=United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - occupied Palestinian territory | Electricity in the Gaza Strip|website=United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - occupied Palestinian territory}}</ref> IEC distributes electricity in West Bank Area C.

JDECO is the largest and the oldest electricity distributor in the West Bank, existing from the period of the [[Jordanian annexation of the West Bank|Jordanian rule of the West Bank]]. JDECO's licence area covers the East Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Ramallah and Jericho areas. JDECO also buys about 5% of its electricity from Jordan's JEPCO, which is only used in the Jericho district.<ref name=monitor>{{Cite web|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2018/03/palestine-jerusalem-electricity-company-pressure-israel-pa.html|title=Jerusalem electricity company crippled by Israel, Palestinian Authority|website=Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East}}</ref> JDECO supplies electricity to 30% of households in the West Bank and East Jerusalem. JDECO's activities in East Jerusalem are regulated by the [[Electricity Authority (Israel)|Israel Electricity Authority]], and in the [[West Bank]] by the [[Palestinian Authority]] (PA) or, in some cases, by the [[Israeli Civil Administration]].<ref name=pua_description>[http://pua.gov.il/English/Documents/Appendix%20B%20-Jerusalem%20District%20Electricity.pdf ''Appendix B, Jerusalem District Electricity Co. Ltd ("JDECO") - Description of Corporate Business'']. State of Israel, Public Utilities Authority Electricity. Accessed March 2016. [http://pua.gov.il/English/Pages/default.aspx Here available]</ref>

==History ==
After the [[Israeli-occupied territories|1967 occupation of the West Bank]], agreements to distribute electricity to the West Bank from Jordan were terminated by the [[Israeli Military Governorate]]. Order 389 of 1970 vested the governance of the natural resources sector in an authority to be appointed by the military commander.<ref name="PoweralHaq">{{cite web |last1=Power |first1=Susan|title=Annexing Power: Exploiting and Preventing the Development Of Oil and Gas in the Occupied Palestinian Territory |url=http://www.alhaq.org/publications/Annexing.Energy.pdf |publisher=Al Haq|access-date=1 June 2017}}</ref> The [[Israeli Civil Administration]] had the authority to supply electricity to the Israeli settlements, such as [[Kiryat Arba]]. The IEC was authorized to supply and sell electricity to the [[Hebron]] municipality.<ref name="Kretzmer">{{cite book|last1=Kretzmer|first1=David|title=The Occupation of Justice: The Supreme Court of Israel and the Occupied Territories|date=April 2002|publisher=SUNY press|isbn=0-7914-5337-5|page=64}}</ref> By 1980, the IEC held a concession for all of the power supply in the West Bank.<ref name="Kretzmer" />

In 1994, with the signing of the [[Oslo Accords]], the Palestinian Authority became responsible for civil matters in West Bank Areas A and B, but not Area C, and the Gaza Strip.

In 1999, Palestine Electric Company (PEC) was formed in the Palestinian territories as a subsidiary of Palestine Power Company LLC.<ref name=pec>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pec.ps/index.php?lang=en&page=headline&id=T1dWbVlUZzNaVEUyTkRrNU5XRTNOelF6WldOaE9XRmtOak13TWpsbVlUUk5WR016NDAzMDQxZWQzZTFjZTlhNzcyNTAyNzQ5Mzg0MjM1ZjI|title=Palestine Electric Company}}</ref> PEC shares were listed in the [[Palestine Exchange]] in 2004, where 33% of its shares are owned by public shareholders and 67% owned by founding companies.<ref name=pec/> The main objectives of PEC are to establish electricity generating plants in the territories of the Palestinian Authority (PA) and to carry out all the operations necessary for the production and generation of electricity. In 2010, PADICO Holdings, PEC and other Palestinian companies formed the Palestine Power Generation Company (PPGC)<ref name="padico"/> to build power plants in areas under PA control, and to reduce Palestinian dependence on imported energy.

In 1999, [[BG Group]] was granted an exploration licence by the PA, and in 2000 the company discovered natural gas about 36 kilometres (22 mi) offshore in the Mediterranean Sea in the [[Gaza Marine]] gas field. As of 2021, exploitation of the gas field is still subject to negotiations.

==Debt to IEC==
[[Israel Electric Corporation]] (IEC) sells electricity to [[Jerusalem District Electricity Company]] (JDECO) and to the Palestinian Authority, which on-sells them to the other four Palestinian district electricity distribution companies in the West Bank and to Gaza Electricity Distribution Company (GEDCO) in the Gaza Strip. The distributors provide electricity to customers in their respective licence areas of West Bank Areas A and B and the Gaza Strip.<ref name="haaretz_power_license"/> The distributors depend on their customers paying their bills to enable the distributors to pay IEC or the PA for the electricity supplied. The director of Northern Electric, for example, has been urging its customers to pay their bills. The majority of the debt to IEC is owed by the PA and JDECO.<ref name=powercut>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/israel-electric-corporation-cuts-off-power-in-palestinian-cities-for-second-time-392163|title=Power cut again in Palestinian cities despite 'collective punishment' accusations|website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com}}</ref> IEC said that it was losing ILS 85 million per month on power being supplied to [[Nablus]] and Jenin that was not being paid for, causing the majority of its quarterly loss.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-israel-electric-to-resume-west-bank-power-disruptions-1001013466|title=Israel Electric to resume West Bank power disruptions - Globes|date=25 February 2015|website=en.globes.co.il}}</ref> JDECO, for example, in 2012, owed IEC [[Israeli new shekel|ILS]] 458 million.<ref name=haaretz_power_license/>

In February 2015, the PA and the Palestinian electricity distributors owed IEC a total of ILS 1.9 billion (about US$500 million). On 23 February, after numerous notices, IEC cut power to several West Bank cities for about 45 minutes.<ref name=haaretz>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/.premium-israeli-gov-t-not-behind-west-bank-power-cuts-1.5310995|title=Israeli government says not behind electric corp. decision to cut West Bank power|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref> Two days later it again cut power, saying it was a warning to the PA to begin paying down the debt.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-cuts-power-to-west-bank-cities-for-second-time/|title=Israel cuts power to West Bank cities for second time|first=Tamar|last=Pileggi|website=www.timesofisrael.com}}</ref> The Palestinians accused Israel and IEC of collective punishment,<ref name=powercut/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2015/Feb-23/288447-israeli-electric-company-begins-west-bank-power-cuts-over-debt.ashx|title=Israeli electric company begins West Bank power cuts over debt|date=23 February 2015}}</ref> while IEC said it must operate independently of government and was treating the Palestinian electricity distributors as it would any customer who did not pay its bills.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/palestinian-blackout-it-isn-t-just-business-1.5311537|title=Cutting Palestinians' electricity: It isn't just business, it's personal|newspaper=Haaretz}}</ref>

In March 2016, the debts stood at ILS 1.7 billion (about US$460 million). On 31 March, IEC cut power in the Jericho area,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-iec-reduces-electricity-supply-to-jericho-1001114010|title=IEC reduces Jericho electricity supply - Globes|date=31 March 2016|website=en.globes.co.il}}</ref> on 4 April in the Bethlehem area,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-electric-corporation-to-cut-power-to-bethlehem/|title=Israel Electric Corporation to reduce power to Bethlehem|first=T. O. I.|last=staff|website=www.timesofisrael.com}}</ref> and on the following day in the Hebron area.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/hebron-becomes-latest-city-to-experience-electricity-cut-450353|title=Hebron becomes latest city to experience electricity cut|website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com}}</ref> On 6 April, IEC restored full power to the West Bank after it received a ILS 20 million payment, and an agreement to provide a full debt repayment schedule within seven days.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/arab-israeli-conflict/full-power-restored-to-west-bank-after-pa-takes-step-to-pay-down-nis-174b-debt-450419|title=Full power restored to West Bank after PA takes step to pay down NIS 1.74b. debt|website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com}}</ref>

In April 2017, the PA told IEC that it would only pay ILS 25 million of the ILS 40 million monthly bill for Gaza and instructed IEC to reduce supply in the Strip.<ref name=cnbc>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/15/israel-and-gaza-an-electricity-dispute-makes-a-tense-situation-worse.html|title=Israel and Gaza: An electricity dispute makes a tense situation worse|first=Jason|last=Gewirtz|date=15 May 2017 |website=CNBC.com |access-date=15 June 2017}}</ref> IEC reduced supplies to Gaza in May and June 2017, saying the dispute between Hamas and the PA was an internal Palestinian matter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Middle-East/Israel-reduces-Gaza-electricity-after-PA-refuses-to-pay-493927|title=Israel reduces Gaza electricity after PA refuses to pay|website=JPost.com|access-date=15 June 2017}}</ref><ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/06/12/israel-cuts-gaza-electricity-palestinian-president-says-will/ Israel cuts Gaza electricity after Palestinian president says he will no longer pay the bill for Hamas], ''Telegraph'', 12 June</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-palestinians-power-idUSKBN1931XK|title=Israel reduces power supply to Gaza, as Abbas pressures Hamas|date=12 June 2017|access-date=15 June 2017|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref>

In May 2018, PETL agreed to repay PA’s debt of almost ILS 1 billion.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://en.globes.co.il/en/article-iec-reaches-settlement-on-palestinian-electricity-debt-1001233986|title=IEC reaches settlement on Palestinian electricity debt|date=5 January 2018|newspaper=Globes}}</ref>

In June 2019, the debts stood at ILS 2.0 billion (about US$540 million), and the PA stopped all payments to IEC.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/pa-stops-paying-israel-electric-cooperation-591549|title=PA stops paying Israel Electric Cooperation|website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com}}</ref>

In August 2019, with PA agreement, ILS 300 million was deducted from [[Taxation in the State of Palestine#Withholding transfers by Israel|taxes that had been withheld by Israel]] for the PA and applied against the IEC debt.

On 8 September 2019, the debt was ILS 1.7 billion (about US$460 million) and IEC gave notice of its intention to cut power.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-cuts-power-to-palestinian-areas-of-west-bank-over-debts/|title=Israel cuts power to Palestinian areas of West Bank over debts|first=T. O. I.|last=staff|website=www.timesofisrael.com}}</ref> Two months earlier the [[Supreme Court of Israel]] ruled that IEC must give 35 days notice before it can cut off electricity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/israel-electric-company-to-begin-cutting-power-to-pa-due-to-debts-600965|title=Israel electric company to begin cutting power to PA due to debts|website=The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com}}</ref>

On 28 December 2019, IEC started sporadic, three-hour power cuts in JDECO areas, to press for payment of some $519 million owed by JDECO.<ref name=cuts/> In January 2020, power cuts stopped after JDECO paid ILS 740 million ($214.21 million).<ref name=cuts>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-palestinians-power-idUSKBN1ZL0W9|title=Israeli electric company ends power cuts to West Bank after Palestinians pay debt|author=Reuters Staff|newspaper=Reuters|date=22 January 2020|via=www.reuters.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2019/12/palestinian-banks-step-in-to-solve-jerusalem-power-crisis.html|title=How Ramallah is resolving electricity crisis|website=Al-Monitor: The Pulse of the Middle East}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Gaza Marine]]
* [[Gaza electricity crisis]]
* [[Blockade of the Gaza Strip]]
* [[Israel Electric Corporation]]
* [[Jerusalem District Electricity Company]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Middle East topic|Energy in}}
{{Middle East topic|Energy policy of}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Palestine, Energy In}}
[[Category:Energy in the State of Palestine| ]]

HMS QE

2023-09-17T00:25:38Z

Denvercoder9: create as redirect to HMS Queen Elizabeth

#REDIRECT [[HMS Queen Elizabeth]]

Climate change in Puerto Rico

2023-05-21T14:21:24Z

Denvercoder9: Drop superfluous headings

{{Short description|Climate change in the US territory of Puerto Rico}}
{{Short description|Emissions, impacts and mitigation/adaptation efforts of Puerto Rico related to climate change}}
{{over-quotation|date=May 2022}}

A wide range of effects of climate change are currently being felt in Puerto Rico. According to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|US Environmental Protection Agency]], it is more affected by climate change than any other country in the world.<ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=United States Environmental Protection Agency |date=August 2016 |title=What Climate Change Means for Puerto Rico |url=https://19january2017snapshot.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2016-09/documents/climate-change-pr.pdf}}</ref>
[[File:Puerto_Rico_(orthographic_projection).svg|alt=This picture shows Puerto Ricos location. It is situated between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean with the Dominican Republic to the west and the Virgin Islands to the east.|thumb|Geographic location of Puerto Rico]]
The island's energy consumption is mainly based on imported fossil fuels.<ref name=":12">{{cite web |title=Puerto Rico Territory Energy Profile |url=https://www.eia.gov/state/print.php?sid=RQ#:~:text=In%20fiscal%20year%202022%20(July,of%20the%20island's%20electricity%20generation. |access-date=May 1, 2023 |website=U.S. Energy Information Administration}}</ref>

Despite the relatively small size of the country, it contains several different [[ecosystem]]s that are affected in different ways by a variety of effects of climate change.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=World Bank |date=2023 |title=Climate Change Knowledge Portal |url=https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/puerto-rico/trends-variability-historical}}</ref>

The Puerto Rico Climate Change Council (PRCCC) has identified seven climate parameters that are unique to Puerto Rico, including [[Atmospheric temperature|air temperature]], [[precipitation]], [[Extreme weather|extreme weather events]], [[Tropical cyclone|tropical storms and hurricanes]], [[ocean acidification]], [[sea surface temperature]] and [[sea level rise]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Ezcurra |first=Paula |last2=Rivera-Collazo |first2=Isabel C. |date=2018-07-01 |title=An assessment of the impacts of climate change on Puerto Rico's Cultural Heritage with a case study on sea-level rise |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1296207417306441 |journal=Journal of Cultural Heritage |language=en |volume=32 |pages=198–209 |doi=10.1016/j.culher.2018.01.016 |issn=1296-2074}}</ref>

Apart from the environment, the consequences of climate change also have adverse effects on Puerto Ricos population. Such effects can be of economical nature, but also related to human health or even forcing people to migrate.

Puerto Rico's society is becoming increasingly aware of the stresses imposed by climate change.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Mendez-Tejeda |first=Rafael |last2=Santos-Corrada |last3=Mena-Candelaria |date=2021 |title=Perceptions of Climate Change in Puerto Rico before and after Hurricane Maria |journal=American Journal of Climate Change |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=153–166}}</ref> This is also reflected in the country's laws and policies concerning climate change mitigation and adaptation aiming, for example, towards a shift to renewable energy sources.<ref name=":0">Puerto Rico Climate Change Council (PRCCC). 2022. Puerto Rico’s State of the Climate 2014-2021: Assessing Puerto Rico’s Social-Ecological Vulnerabilities in a Changing Climate. Puerto Rico Coastal Zone Management Program, Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, NOAA Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management. San Juan, PR.</ref> There is also a number of local initiatives working towards mitigation and adaptation goals as well as international aid programs that support the reconstruction after extreme weather events and encourage disaster planning.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Gobierno de Puerto Rico |title=Puerto Rico Revolving Fund |url=https://recovery.pr.gov/documents/Guias%20FOR.pdf |access-date=May 2, 2023}}</ref>

== Greenhouse gas emissions ==
Listing all [[Latin America]]n and [[Caribbean]] countries according to their CO₂ emissions, Puerto Rico is on place 19 with industrial emissions, energy consumption, and transportation as the main sources of the island's net greenhouse gas emissions.<ref name=":0" /> In total there are 33 Latin American and Caribbean countries.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latin America and the Caribbean {{!}} EEAS |url=https://www.eeas.europa.eu/eeas/latin-america-and-caribbean_en |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=www.eeas.europa.eu}}</ref> The country's gross CO₂ emissions rose by 80% between the years of 1990 and 2005.<ref name=":0" /> After 2005, emissions went back by roughly 42% until 2018.<ref name=":0" /> However, this decrease in emissions is partly induced by a decrease in Puerto Rico's population.<ref name=":0" /> Between 2010 and 2020, the population dropped by almost 12% from about 3.8 to 3.3 million inhabitants due to migrational movements to the U.S. as a result of the country's vulnerability to natural disasters and economic insecurities.<ref name=":12"/>

=== Energy Consumption ===
Puerto Rico’s energy consumption is nearly 70 times higher than its energy production.<ref name=":12"/> Compared to the U.S. average, the per capita consumption is only about one-third as high.<ref name=":12"/> 58% of the country’s total energy consumption is rooted in petroleum products.<ref name=":12"/> With 28%, natural gas accounts for the second highest share while coal facilitates 12% of Puerto Rico’s energy use and only roughly 2% are coming from renewable energy sources.<ref name=":12"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Per capita CO₂ emissions of Puerto Rico in 2021 by fossil fuel compared to the U.S. (in metric tons)
|
!Puerto Rico
!United States
|-
!Total Fossil Fuels
|5.52
|14.78
|-
!Petroleum
|3.37
|6.76
|-
!Natural Gas
|1.23
|4.99
|-
!Coal
|0.92
|3.02
|-
| colspan="3" |Source: Own calculations based on data from the [[Energy Information Administration|U.S. Energy Information Administration]]<ref name=":12"/>*;
(Population of Puerto Rico (2021): 3,263,584;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Puerto Rico - Place Explorer - Data Commons |url=https://datacommons.org/place/country/PRI/?utm_medium=explore&mprop=count&popt=Person&hl=de |access-date=2023-05-12 |website=datacommons.org}}</ref> population of the U.S. (2021): 331.893.745<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vereinigte Staaten - Place Explorer - Data Commons |url=https://datacommons.org/place/country/USA?hl=de |access-date=2023-05-12 |website=datacommons.org}}</ref>
|}
* Please note that the data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration is only provided in full millions of metric tons and that the calculated per capita data is therefore not an exact but only an approximate value. The indication with two decimals in this case does not provide exact values but has been chosen to provide the closest possible representation of the reality based on the available data.

=== Fossil Fuel Production ===
There are no official accounts of Puerto Rico having reserves or own production of fossil fuels.<ref name=":12"/> The island's energy consumption is mainly based on imported fossil fuels.<ref name=":12"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|}
[[File:Puerto_Rico_Köppen.png|thumb|Köppen climate types of Puerto Rico]]

== Impacts on the environment ==
To understand climate trends in the past, present and future, [[Climate variability and change|natural variability]] must be taken into account. [[Climate variability and change|Climate variability]] refers to the annual variations in climate conditions, such as temperature and precipitation, within their normal range.<ref name=":5" /> Factors which contribute to natural variability in Puerto Rico are for example phenomena like the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation|El Niño Southern Oscillation]] or periodic events, such as [[Volcanic Eruptions|volcanic eruptions]]. These natural factors are summarized under the term "internal climate variability" and are always present in the climate system.<ref name=":5" />

In contrast to that, anthropogenic emissions of [[greenhouse gas]]es, changes in atmospheric concentrations (e.g. [[Carbon dioxide|CO₂]], [[methane]]) and land surface changes are a different influence on the climate system. In order to identify climate change signals, it is crucial to distinguis these human-induced changes from natural variability. Climate change signals can be observed as changes in the magnitude of variability as well as systematic trends over time. In summary, variability is a natural feature of the climate system and its understanding is fundamental for identifying signals of [[Climate change|anthropogenic climate change]].<ref name=":5" />

=== Changes in Climate Parameters ===
Puerto Rico has a tropical climate with moderately high temperatures and high humidity all year round.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Puerto Rico |url=https://www.drought.gov/states/puerto-rico |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=Drought.gov |language=en}}</ref> According to the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|US Environmental Protection Agency]], it is more affected by climate change than any other country in the world.<ref name=":14" /> The Puerto Rico Climate Change Council (PRCCC) has identified seven climate parameters that are unique to Puerto Rico, including [[Atmospheric temperature|air temperature]], [[precipitation]], [[Extreme weather|extreme weather events]], [[Tropical cyclone|tropical storms and hurricanes]], [[ocean acidification]], [[sea surface temperature]] and [[sea level rise]].<ref name=":6" />

==== Air temperature ====
The mean annual temperature in Puerto Rico has increased over the last 100 years, from about 23 °C in 1921 to 25 °C in 2021.<ref name=":5" /> The World Bank Climate Knowledge Portal publishes graphs which illustrate these changes in the mean temperature. Projections for future air temperature in Puerto Rico are consistent with global patterns.<ref name=":5" /> Compared to other islands in the Caribbean, the country shows a stronger trend of warming air temperature.<ref name=":6" />

The central regions of Puerto Rico, which are at higher elevations, are experiencing faster warming than other parts of the island. In addition, urban areas like [[San Juan, Puerto Rico|San Juan]], are experiencing the so-called [[Urban heat island|urban heat island effect]] (UHI).<ref name=":6" /> This means that they are warming faster than rural or vegetated regions. Studies in San Juan have shown that the UHI effect is permanent due to urban extension and leads to a temperature increase of over 4 °C compared to surrounding rural areas. This trend of greater urban warming is expected to continue, with San Juan reaching an average temperature of 27 °C by 2050, an increase of 1.5 °C relative to 1950 levels.<ref name=":6" />

==== Extreme weather events ====
The number of days with maximum temperature is increasing in the country, while days with minimum temperature are decreasing.<ref name=":6" /> During the early 20th century there were approximately 100 days per decade which reached temperatures of over 32.2 °C.<ref name=":6" /> In 2010, however, the same number of heat days were reached within one year.<ref name=":6" />

==== Precipitation ====
Being a [[Tropics|tropical]] [[island]], [[precipitation]] rates are naturally very high, especially in the north and central regions, which receive between 3000 – 4000 mm of rainfall every year.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal |last=Keellings |first=David |last2=Hernández Ayala |first2=José J. |date=2019-03-16 |title=Extreme Rainfall Associated With Hurricane Maria Over Puerto Rico and Its Connections to Climate Variability and Change |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/2019GL082077 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=2964–2973 |doi=10.1029/2019GL082077 |issn=0094-8276}}</ref> Within the country, rainfall varies from region to region due to [[topography]] and geography in relation to [[trade winds]] and oceanic circulation.<ref name=":7" /> Climate change is predicted to exacerbate these regional differences. For example, in some areas such as Old San Juan, there is a long-term trend towards a decrease in precipitation.<ref name=":6" /> This decline is expected to continue in future projections. In contrast, the southern regions of Puerto Rico, which have been drier in the past, show a positive trend in precipitation. The seasonal distribution of precipitation is also expected to become more pronounced, with wetter winters and drier summers.<ref name=":6" /> Overall, future projections indicate a further decrease in precipitation.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" />

Concerning intense rain events, heavy rainfall has increased by 20% on average in [[North America]], with the largest increase in the wettest regions. Puerto Rico has seen a 37% increase in heavy precipitation.<ref name=":6" /> There is only limited data available for future projections, which leads to conflicting forecasts for extreme precipitation in the country.<ref name=":6" /> However, the overall projections for the [[Caribbean|Caribbean region]] suggest a higher incidence of extreme precipitation events despite a decrease in total rainfall. In other words, rain will be less frequent but more intense.<ref name=":6" />

==== Water ressources ====
Potential impacts on water resources in rain-fed areas of the [[Caribbean]] include higher precipitation extremes, greater seasonal variability in water runoff, a higher likelihood of prolonged dry spells and an increased risk of droughts and floods.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Harmsen |first=Eric W. |last2=Miller |first2=Norman L. |last3=Schlegel |first3=Nicole J. |last4=Gonzalez |first4=J. E. |date=2009-07-01 |title=Seasonal climate change impacts on evapotranspiration, precipitation deficit and crop yield in Puerto Rico |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378377409000316 |journal=Agricultural Water Management |language=en |volume=96 |issue=7 |pages=1085–1095 |doi=10.1016/j.agwat.2009.02.006 |issn=0378-3774}}</ref> In this context, prolonged dry periods and increased evaporation can lead to a decline in lake levels.<ref name=":8" /> This is problematic as they are essential as a source of freshwater supply. As water demand increases, groundwater use is expected to increase.<ref name=":8" /> This is especially true in dry months when surface sources decline. Prolonged dry periods could also lead to reduced soil moisture, resulting in an increased need for irrigation in agriculture.<ref name=":8" />

==== Sea surface temperature ====
Over the last century, the surface temperatures of the [[Caribbean Sea]] have warmed by 1.5 °C.<ref name=":6" /> The warming of the sea surface is faster on the Caribbean coasts of Puerto Rico than on the Atlantic coasts.<ref name=":6" /> In addition, temperatures below the water surface are rising faster than surface temperatures.<ref name=":6" /> Researchers estimate that there will be an increase of more than 1 °C within 50 years. This would mean that temperatures would exceed the threshold for coral bleaching in about one third of the year.<ref name=":6" /> In addition, the threshold for the formation of deep convection storms will be exceeded throughout the year.<ref name=":6" />

==== Sea level rise ====
The rate of [[sea level rise]] (SLR) in Puerto Rico has been measured at 1.7 mm yr−1 based on historical records from tidal gauges since 1900, which is consistent with global trends.<ref name=":6" /> However, recent satellite data from 1992 onwards shows that this rate has almost doubled to 3.2 mm yr−1.<ref name=":6" /> Projections for the future SLR in Puerto Rico are similar to global estimates, with the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration]] (NOAA) recommending updated bounds of 0.3 m to 2.5 m for end-of-century projections.<ref name=":6" /> The Caribbean region, including Puerto Rico, is particularly vulnerable to coastal flooding due to SLR.<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Effect_of_Ocean_Acidification_on_Calcification.png|alt=Effect of Ocean Acidification on Calcification|thumb|Effect of Ocean Acidification on Calcification]]

==== Ocean acidification ====
As more [[carbon dioxide]] (CO₂) is released into the [[atmosphere]], the ocean absorbs more CO₂, leading to a decrease in pH and carbonate saturation of the ocean.<ref name=":6" /> This process is called [[ocean acidification]] and it negatively impacts marine life and geological processes through reducing calcification rates and mineral precipitation.<ref name=":6" /> Puerto Rico experiences similar trends as the rest of the world, with decreasing average pH and carbonate saturation state.<ref name=":6" /> The rate of decline for [[aragonite]] saturation states in Puerto Rico is currently at 3% per decade and is expected to continue with ongoing emissions.<ref name=":6" />
[[File:Home_in_Rincón,_Puerto_Rico_destroyed_by_Hurricane_Maria_(2017).jpg|alt=Home in Rincón, Puerto Rico destroyed by Hurricane Maria (2017)|thumb|Damages after Hurricane Maria in 2017]]

==== Tropical storms and hurricanes ====
Since 1995, the North Atlantic area has experienced an increase in [[Tropical cyclone|hurricane]] activity.<ref name=":6" /> However, this increase cannot be fully explained by human-induced climate change, but may also be influenced by natural variations.<ref name=":6" /> In general, it is difficult to predict future hurricane activity, especially on a regional scale, due to uncertainties in modelling parameters. However, many studies suggest that hurricanes worldwide will become less frequent but more intense, with higher wind speeds and heavier rainfall, resulting in greater destructive power.<ref name=":6" />

In Puerto Rico, the hurricanes [[Hurricane Irma|Irma]] and [[Hurricane Maria|Maria]] in 2017 were an example of these predicted climate change impacts that had devastating impacts in the [[Caribbean]].<ref name=":7" /> One consequence of this is damage to the coral reefs of the country's coasts which dissipate wave energy.<ref name=":6" /> The lack of protection from the reefs, leads to an increased risk of damages caused by winter swells, resulting in [[coastal erosion]] and sediment displacement.<ref name=":6" /> The southern part of the island is particularly vulnerable to [[Atlantic hurricane]]s. In the future, rising sea surface temperatures are likely to lead to more intense rainfall, winds and storm surges.<ref name=":6" />

===Ecosystems===
[[File:Puerto_Rico_ecosystems_map-en.jpg|thumb|Ecosystems in Puerto Rico]]
Despite the relatively small size of the country there are several different [[ecosystem]]s in Puerto Rico: coastal and marine ecosystems, dry forests and rainforests, the Puerto Rican [[karst]], and mountainous areas.<ref name=":5" />

Climate change is expected to have [[Synergy|synergistic]] effects on ecosystems and species in Puerto Rico.<ref name=":0" /> This means that systems that are already under stress will be exposed to additional stressors, exceeding their adaptive capacity.<ref name=":0" /> This may result in loss of [[habitat]], adverse changes in structure and function, or reduced benefits to society. While certain ecosystems and species may be able to adapt better to the changing environment, others may have more difficulty coping with the new conditions.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:El_Yunque_Puerto_Rico.jpg|thumb|El Yunque Rainforest in Puerto Rico]]

==== Dry and Rainforest ====
Today, about 40% of Puerto Rico's land area is covered by [[forest]]s, consisting mainly of young mixed forests.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web |last=Miller |first=Gary |last2=Lugo |first2=Ariel |date=June 2009 |title=Guide to the Ecological Systems of Puerto Rico |url=https://data.fs.usda.gov/research/pubs/iitf/iitf_gtr_35.pdf}}</ref> These forests provide an important habitat for numerous plant and animal species. They are also an important source of water supply for municipalities, agriculture, and industry, which is vital for nearly 4 million people.<ref name=":9" /> At the same time, they function as recreational areas. Using the changes in Puerto Rico's forests, models can be derived for understanding similar changes in other tropical islands as a result of human expansion.<ref name=":9" /> With the introduction of economically important crops and deforestation for [[pasture]] and [[charcoal]] production, the island's forests have changed dramatically over the past two centuries. One of the main factors in the disappearance of forests and old agricultural lands is economic development and increasing [[urbanization]].<ref name=":9" /> The diversity of Puerto Rican forests in terms of location and type is so great that the number of different forest types has yet to be fully documented.<ref name=":9" />

Climate change is having a strong impact on forests through higher air temperatures, changes in precipitation, more intense wind and water events, and sea level rise. All of these factors are altering species composition and forest structure due to changes in habitat.<ref name=":0" />

==== Karst Landscapes ====
[[File:Puerto_Ricos_Northern_Karst_Exhibit_(6499810275).jpg|thumb|Puerto Rico's Northern Karst Exhibit]]
The Puerto Rican [[karst]] topography is a unique terrain formed by the dissolution of soluble rocks beneath the surface or with the help of groundwater. Karst topography is often linked with carbonate rocks, including [[limestone]] and [[Dolomite (rock)|dolomite]].<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":0" /> In Puerto Rico, limestone terrain covers around 244,285 hectares or 28% of the island's area, with 218,692 hectares located in the North, 21,022 hectares in the South, and 4,571 hectares scattered throughout the remaining parts of the island, as reported by Lugo et al. in 2000.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":9" /> Karst landscapes are very vulnerable to climate change and human pressures, e.g. through tourism and agriculture.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last=Hall |first=Andrea |last2=Day |first2=Mick |date=2014-06-09 |title=Ecotourism in the State Forest Karst of Puerto Rico |url=http://caves.org/pub/journal/PDF/v76/cave-76-01-30r.pdf |journal=Journal of Cave and Karst Studies |volume=76 |issue=1 |pages=30–41 |doi=10.4311/2011SS0263}}</ref> Human-environment interactions can have a critical effect on the components of the karst landscapes such as caves and their biodiversity.<ref name=":10" /> Puerto Rico’s karst areas have been regarded as one of the world’s most endangered karst areas. At the same time, it is the least fragmented habitat in Puerto Rico.<ref name=":10" /> Nowadays, there are efforts to promote [[ecotourism]] in the region to combine the economic benefits of tourism with environmental protection.<ref name=":10" />
[[File:Laguna_Joyuda.tiff|thumb|Laguna Joyuda in Puerto Rico]]

==== Wetlands ====
Puerto Rico has a variety of freshwater and marine wetland ecosystems: From coastal [[seagrass]] and [[mangrove]] ecosystems to numerous freshwater wetlands and high elevation [[cloud forest]]s.<ref name=":9" /> These wetlands are highly productive and have a variety of rare plant and animal species. For downstream settlements and communities, they play an important role in water supply.<ref name=":9" /> Water runoff from the mountains to the coast contributes to the formation of vital ecosystems in rivers, coastal waters and [[Estuary|estuaries]] that serve as breeding and nursery habitats for a variety of fish, crustaceans and other organisms.<ref name=":9" />

In Puerto Rico, and in the Caribbean in general, [[Palustrine wetland|palustrine]] and [[Estuary|estuarine]] ecosystems are highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to the relationship between hydrology and wetland structure and function.<ref name=":0" /> Most wetlands in Puerto Rico are located along the coast, with palustrine wetlands largely adjacent to estuaries or nearshore ecosystems.<ref name=":0" /> This leads to interactions between the different systems.<ref name=":0" />

During Puerto Rico's agricultural expansion, wetland ecosystems were severely impacted and destroyed by dredging, filling, draining, [[eutrophication]], and the use of fertilizers and pesticides in agriculture.<ref name=":9" /> The size of the original area of freshwater wetlands in Puerto Rico in times of [[Christopher Columbus|Colombus]] is, however, unknown.<ref name=":9" />
[[File:Mosquito_bay,_Bioluminescent_bay,_Vieques_-_panoramio_(3).jpg|thumb|Mosquito bay - Bioluminescent bay in Vieques Puerto Rico]]

==== Bioluminescent Systems ====
In Puerto Rico, there are [[Bioluminescence|bioluminescent]] bays and lagoon ecosystems.<ref name=":0" /> In these rare ecosystems, bioluminescent algae species gather and emit light. Because of the small, narrow embayments to the sea, water lingers longer in the bays and large populations of algae develop. Factors such as water circulation patterns and wind can also contribute to maintaining high species diversity in these ecosystems.<ref name=":0" />

Climate change is stressing bioluminescent systems, particularly through heavy precipitation, storms, and hurricanes. These factors can lead to an increase in land runoff, which can then lead to higher levels of sediment and nutrients in the water.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=THE PUERTO RICO CLIMATE CHANGE COUNCIL |date=2010 |title=Puerto Rico’s State of the Climate - Assessing Puerto Rico’s Social-Ecological Vulnerabilities in a Changing Climate |url=https://pr-ccc.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/PRCCC_ExecutiveSummary.pdf}}</ref> This means that water quality can change due to changes in sedimentation, productivity, and the frequency and magnitude of salinity changes. In addition, warmer temperatures due to climate change affect [[phytoplankton]] organisms.<ref name=":11" />

==== Shorelines ====
The two main types of coasts in Puerto Rico are [[beach]]es (30%) and vegetated coasts, which are mainly covered by [[mangrove]]s (28%), although other plants also occur in the dune areas.<ref name=":0" /> Rocky coasts are composed of different types of rocks and represent 10% of the island's coasts. The transition from agriculture to industry during the 20th century greatly altered the coastline, including the construction of port facilities and [[Breakwater (structure)|breakwaters]].<ref name=":0" /> Urbanization also contributes to the hardening of the coastline, affecting sediment transport and [[erosion]]. Thus, the spread of paved shorelines poses a significant threat by reducing natural coastal protection and promoting erosion.<ref name=":0" /> These effects are likely to be exacerbated by climate change, for example, with the increasing intensity and frequency of storms and sea level rise.<ref name=":0" />

==== Marine Systems ====
[[File:Posidonia_oceanica_(L).jpg|thumb|Seagrass posidonia oceania]]
Puerto Rico's marine ecosystems consist of [[coral]] and [[seagrass]] habitats, bays, and small islands that support a range of valuable resources including fisheries and [[marine mammal]]s.<ref name=":0" />

====== Sea grass habitats ======
One effect of climate change is on the seagrass cover, which has been researched at the [[Caja de Muertos]] Island, which had a dense sea grass cover in the 1950s.<ref name=":0" /> More intense and frequent storms, as a result form climate change, are predicted to impact this habitat negatively, as it was shown that after Hurricane Maria in 2017 the seagrass cover declined significantly.<ref name=":0" /> The sea grass beds have the ability to recover from these storms and some climate change effects such as the increased nutrient supply after rainfall events and higher CO₂ concentrations actually even benefit the habitat. Nevertheless, the more frequent and intense storms are predicted to outbalance these positive effects and lead to a long term damage of the seagrass cover.<ref name=":0" />

====== Coral Habitats ======
[[File:Fish_in_corals,_Culebra_Puerto_Rico.jpg|thumb|Coral reef in Culebra Puerto Rico]]
Coral reefs help to establish and protect productive seagrass beds and mangrove forests and provide habitat, refuge, and resources for millions of species, including many that are commercially important. In addition, the reefs serve to protect the coastline and provide space for research, recreation and education.<ref name=":0" />

Climate change causes stress on coral habitats through various factors such as rising sea temperatures, sudden reductions of salinity, increased chemical toxins or solar irradiance.<ref name=":0" /> A common phenomenon that happens is [[coral bleaching]], which occurs out of a change in the habitats conditions, which brings the symbiosis between corals and populations of photosynthetic [[dinoflagellate]] ([[zooxanthellae]]) out of balance.<ref name=":0" /> Through stressors caused by climate change, the zooxanthellae loose their [[photosynthetic pigment]]s or are expelled from the coral tissues. As a result, the corals are deprived from their energy source, which leads to starvation and death.<ref name=":0" />

The Puerto Rico Coral Reef Monitoring Program (PRCRMP) is monitoring 42 coral reef stations around the country to document the status of the habitats.<ref name=":0" /> Mass coral bleeching events were reported after temperature extremes of El-niño events in 1987, 1998 and 2005.<ref name=":0" /> These mass bleaching events cause significant declines in coral reef fish abundance and biodiversity.<ref name=":0" />

== Impacts on people ==

=== Economic impacts ===
Rising temperatures may have a detrimental effect on agricultural productivity in Puerto Rico, particularly in relation to livestock farming.<ref name=":0" /> This is due to the fact that hot temperatures can be harmful to the health of cows, causing them to eat less, grow at a slower pace, and produce less milk.<ref name=":0" /> Additionally, reduced water availability during the dry season may cause stress to crops, while warmer temperatures could lead to reduced yields of certain crops, including plantain, banana, and coffee.<ref name=":0" />
[[File:Coffee_Plantation,_Puerto_Rico.jpg|thumb|Coffee Plantation in Puerto Rico]]

==== Coffee Production Impacts ====
A recent study utilized a modeling approach to assess the impact of climate change on [[coffee production in Puerto Rico]]. The study found that, under future climate scenarios, the area suitable for coffee production in Puerto Rico is expected to decrease significantly, which could result in negative impacts on both the quantity and quality of coffee produced.<ref name=":12"/> Specifically, by 2050, the area suitable for coffee production could decline by up to 50%, and by 2100, it could decline by up to 100%.<ref name=":12"/>

According to the study, warming and drying trends are projected to accelerate after 2040, which may lead to the loss of up to 84% of highly suitable growing conditions in top producing municipalities by 2070. Under the A2 scenario, Puerto Rico may only retain 24 km2 of highly suitable conditions by 2071–2099. Such projected loss of suitable growing conditions could have negative economic impacts on the coffee industry, which has long been culturally and economically significant in Puerto Rico.<ref name=":12"/> Although value-added markets present opportunities to revitalize the industry, regional climate change trends may pose a threat to the production of high-quality coffee.<ref name=":12"/>
[[File:Shoreline_of_Aguadilla,_Puerto_Rico.jpg|thumb|West Coast of Puerto Rico]]

==== Tourism Industry Impacts ====
Climate change presents a multifaceted and complex economic impact on Puerto Rico, as it not only hinders real [[Gross national income|GNP]] growth but also threatens the tourism industry, which is a crucial economic driver.<ref name=":0" /> The island's natural features, such as [[coral reef]]s, beaches, [[mangrove]]s, and rainforests, are particularly vulnerable to climate change.<ref name=":0" /> Visitors who engage with these features spend more than $1.9 billion annually in Puerto Rico.<ref name=":0" /> Climate-related risks such as [[water scarcity]], [[coastal erosion]], marine biodiversity loss, warmer summers, extreme weather events, and an increase in disease outbreaks can all have substantial impacts on tourism and the economy as a whole.<ref name=":0" />

==== Agricultural Impacts ====
Climate change also poses significant threats to agriculture in Puerto Rico. Droughts, floods, and saltwater intrusion are among the impacts that affect agricultural lands. Coastal agricultural lands are particularly vulnerable to sea level rise, which can exacerbate water access issues and impact prime agricultural lands.<ref name=":0" /> New pests and invasive species can also affect livestock, wildlife, and plants. Moreover, many farmers in Puerto Rico lack the necessary capacity, expertise, information, or equipment to adapt to climate change, leaving them vulnerable to its impacts.<ref name=":0" />

Additionally, studies provide further details on specific crops and livestock affected by climate change in Puerto Rico. Farinaceous crops, including [[cassava]] and yams, have been impacted by droughts, leading to reduced yields and quality.<ref name=":0" /> Fruits, such as mangoes and avocados, have been affected by changes in rainfall patterns, which can impact their flowering and fruiting.<ref name=":0" /> Farmers have also had to deal with increased costs associated with importing feed to compensate for the reduced availability of hay due to droughts.<ref name=":0" />

=== Health impacts ===
Since 1950, the frequency of warm nights in Puerto Rico has increased by about 50 percent, and the overnight low in San Juan is above 77 degrees Fahrenheit (25 degrees Celsius) about 10 percent of the time.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, Puerto Rico's climate is suitable for mosquito species that carry diseases like [[malaria]], [[yellow fever]], and [[dengue fever]], which are likely to increase with higher air temperatures that accelerate the mosquito life cycle and virus replication.<ref name=":0" />

==== Impact on Diseases ====
Puerto Rico's warm marine environment already supports the occurrence of certain types of water-related illnesses, such as [[vibrio]]sis and [[Ciguatera fish poisoning|ciguatera]] poisoning, which can increase with higher ocean temperatures that promote the growth of these bacteria and algae.<ref name=":0" /> Changes in temperature and rainfall patterns can also increase the risk of infectious and vector-borne diseases like [[dengue fever]], [[chikungunya]], and [[Zika virus]], which are transmitted by mosquitoes that are sensitive to environmental changes.<ref name=":0" />

==== Impact on Public Health Infrastructure ====
Extreme weather events like hurricanes and floods can have direct impacts on human health, causing injuries, displacement, and stress, as well as damaging healthcare infrastructure and disrupting access to healthcare services, which can worsen existing health disparities.<ref name=":0" /> It is crucial to improve the resilience of healthcare facilities by installing backup generators, improving building codes, and developing emergency response plans, as well as to reduce carbon footprints by implementing energy-efficient practices and using renewable energy sources.<ref name=":0" />

==== Impact on Climate Crisis ====
Climate change can also indirectly affect human health by deteriorating air and water quality.<ref name=":0" /> For example, increases in temperature can worsen air pollution and respiratory illnesses, while changes in rainfall patterns can contaminate water sources.<ref name=":0" /> Promoting alternative transportation methods such as biking or walking can help reduce emissions from vehicles and improve air quality, reducing the risk of respiratory illnesses.<ref name=":0" />

=== Housing Impacts ===
Tropical storms and hurricanes have become more intense in Puerto Rico over the past 20 years.<ref name=":0" /> Although scientists are not certain whether this intensification reflects a long-term trend, hurricane wind speeds and rainfall rates are expected to increase as the climate continues to warm.<ref name=":0" /> This poses a significant threat to Puerto Rico's housing infrastructure, as cities, roads, and ports are vulnerable to the impacts of wind and water during storms.<ref name=":0" /> Higher wind speeds and damages can make insurance for wind damage more expensive or difficult to obtain, and coastal homes and infrastructure are likely to flood more often as sea levels rise.<ref name=":0" /> Furthermore, inland flooding is likely to increase as heavy rainstorms become more frequent and intense, resulting in significant property damage and displacement for affected communities.<ref name=":0" />

=== Migration Impacts ===
The impacts of climate change on Puerto Rico are also expected to have significant implications for migration. As extreme weather events become more frequent and intense, they are likely to displace populations and create new waves of climate refugees.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |title=Climate Change, Migration, and Indigenous and Tribal Peoples (PDF). |publisher=Global Americans |year=2023}}</ref> Coastal communities, in particular, are at risk of displacement due to sea level rise and increased storm surges.<ref name=":15" /> Moreover, the impact of climate change on agriculture and food security could also lead to displacement as people are forced to migrate in search of better opportunities.<ref name=":15" />

== Society and culture ==
Puerto Rico has a long and culturally rich history, spanning more than 5,000 years of social processes.<ref name=":6" /> Climate change is considered a major threat that severely affects the physical evidence of this history.<ref name=":6" /> This is due to rising air temperatures, which are associated with an increased rate of degradation of artefacts and decay of organic material. Another reason is the change in precipitation trends, which may make some regions drier or wetter and thus change the conditions for the materials by, for example, making them more prone to fire.<ref name=":6" />

In order to preserve Puerto Rico's cultural heritage, its vulnerability must be assessed so that management plans can be created that include strategies to increase resilience and adaptability.<ref name=":6" /> Early identification of sites at risk is crucial for the creation of historical records and collections. A useful tool for the protection of cultural heritage sites is community participation, i.e. the use of citizen science to monitor areas and provide feedback on their significance.<ref name=":6" />

A study done by Mendez-Tejeda et al. (2021) has shown that the public awareness of climate change amongst citizens in Puerto Rico has increased after the devastating effects of Hurricane Maria in 2017.<ref name=":13" /> According to this study, non-profit institutions and the scientific community are more trusted by Puerto Ricans compared to state authorities.<ref name=":13" /> The study also revealed that 85% of citizens believe that public policies on global climate change should be directed by the state, including federal, state, and municipal governments.<ref name=":13" />

== Mitigation and adaptation ==
As a [[developing country]], Puerto Rico has a relatively small [[carbon footprint]] leading to a small global impact of [[mitigation]] efforts such as reducing greenhouse gas emissions or increasing [[carbon sequestration]] in Puerto Rico.<ref name=":0" />

Puerto Rico recognizes the shared responsibility to work towards the achievement of emission reduction goals and engages in the development of mitigation plans and regulations on national and multinational levels.<ref name=":0" /> The publication of the first Puerto Rico State of the Climate report in 2013 has spured engagement in elaborating climate change adaptation and mitigation strategies concerning environmental as well as social and economic issues.<ref name=":0" />

=== Mitigation and adaptation approaches ===

* The NGO Vida Marina in Puerto Rico found that dune restoration can be supported by making use of the concept of [[Biomimetics|biomimicry]].<ref name=":0" /> The dune formation is thereby accelerated by putting small pieces of wood into the sand that effectively immitate the sand collecting property of coastal vegetation.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Case Study: Vida Marina at the University of Puerto Rico Aguadilla |url=https://www.nfwf.org/case-study-vida-marina-university-puerto-rico-aguadilla |access-date=2023-05-02 |website=NFWF |language=en}}</ref>
* [[File:Elkhorn_coral.jpg|thumb|Elkhorn coral]]Different coral population enhancement techniques as well as restocking measures are being applied to stabilize populations that have been disturbed by, for example, storms.<ref name=":0" /> The plantation of [[elkhorn coral]]s can, moreover, have a buffer effect taking away wave energy and helping to build up ramparts that play an important role with respect to the sea level rise threatening Puerto rico as they have a stabilizing function for cays.<ref name=":0" />
* [[File:Bosque_seco,_Guánica_State_Forest,_Puerto_Rico_by_Geoff_Gallice.jpg|thumb|Guánica State Forest, Puerto Rico]]Sea level changes and coastal erosion as well as the presence of invasive species especially in the southern karst also favour considerations about expanding protected areas such as the Guánica Commonwealth Forest.<ref name=":0" />
* The expansion of existing and creation of new [[marine protected area]]s as well as putting in place education programs improving the management of human activities are expected to diminish coral deseases and also favour other marine species and habitats.<ref name=":0" /> Coral survival should also be supported by fostering species with high genetic variability. These efforts should also be accompanied by restricting land-based sources of pollution.<ref name=":0" />
* Vulnerability assessments that account for climate change induced habitat changes can help to determine areas that would be suitable for the relocation of especially vulnerable species.<ref name=":0" />
* The improvement of water quality by decreasing the content of nutrients through improvement of drain traps for storm water or the installation of control systems for erosion can contribute significantly to the protection of coastal and marine habitats.<ref name=":0" />

=== Policies and legislation ===
Article VI, § 19 of the constitution of Puerto Rico includes the claim of public policy to use and manage natural resources as effectively as possible and, thus, contribute to the Puerto Rican welfare.<ref name=":0" /> The validity of this mandate persists across any law or regulation.<ref name=":0" /> It has not been interpreted specifically with respect to climate change yet but initiatives and policies aimed at sustainable development including the mitigation of climate change and adaptation to its consequences are thriving.<ref name=":0" />

==== Act No. 82-2010, as amended “Public Policy on Energy Diversification by Means of Sustainable and Alternative Renewable Energy in Puerto Rico Act” ====
This law demands the Executive Branch to set the frame for future generations to benefit from a healthy environment, economic development and stable energy prices considering that the current energy policy is heavily relying on fossil fuels and imports from other countries.<ref name=":0" /> In this context, the law also sets up so called [[Renewable portfolio standard|Renewable Portfolio Standards]] and mandatory goals for the generation of renewable energy with time horizons reachichng from short to rather long-term targets.<ref name=":0" />

==== Act No. 17-2019, “Puerto Rico Energy Public Policy Act” ====
This act is an amendment to the above Act No. 82-2010 that extends the [[Renewable portfolio standard|Renewable Portfolio Standards]] by, among other aspects, setting the goal of generating energy from 100% renewable sources until 2050 (Objective No. 7) and limiting the use of coal as a source of energy to the year 2028 (Objective No. 3).<ref name=":0" />

==== Act No. 33-2019, “Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change of Puerto Rico Act” ====
This act puts in place the first public policy of Puerto Rico for climate change.<ref name=":0" /> This includes the establishment of an account for greenhouse gas emissions and it requests the acceptance of a Climate Change Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience Plan organized by a division into different sectors and defines reduction targets.<ref name=":0" /> Moreover, a Committee of Experts and Advisers on Climate Change and a Joint Commission on Mitigation, Adaptation and Resilience to Climate Change of the Legislative Assembly were set up and the presentation of first results of the above mandates was scheduled for April 2021.<ref name=":0" />

=== Local initiatives ===

* ''Casa Pueblo''
{{Excerpt|Casa Pueblo|Mission}}{{Excerpt|Casa Pueblo|Conservation policies}}

* ''Caribbean Climate Hub (CCH)''

The CCH is located in Puerto Rico and part of a network of ten regional hubs collaborating with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to provide local people in the agricultural sector with scientific knowledge and technical support to react to stresses like droughts and floods imposed by climate change in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=About – Caribbean Climate Hub |url=https://caribbeanclimatehub.org/about/ |access-date=2023-05-02 |website=caribbeanclimatehub.org}}</ref> The CCH facilitates collaboration with local and regional agencies, universities and the public in order to drive forward climate change adaptation processes.<ref name=":3" /> With these efforts, the CCH is make a significant contribution to sustaining the availability of food, water, and other vital resources in the carribean region that is strongly affected by climate change.<ref name=":3" />

* ''Luquillo Long-Term Ecological Research program (LUQ)''

The LUQ unites research groups that aim to achieve a better understanding of climate change in a tropical environment and increase the ability to protect it respectively with their investigations.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=About Us – Luquillo LTER |url=https://luquillo.lter.network/about-us/ |access-date=2023-05-02 |language=en}}</ref> Data collected by LUQ data is made accesible to the general public and collaboration with other scientists, students and volunteers is an essential part of LUQ's work.<ref name=":4" /> The resulting findings are, for example, communicated using print publications or workshops and also reach policy makers among other groups of society.<ref name=":4" /> Community involvement at LUQ is also fostered by educational programs including for example internships or interactive computer modules that allow students to get involved with the research of LUQ.<ref name=":4" /> The initiative is mainly funded by the [[National Science Foundation]], the [[University of Puerto Rico]]’s Department of Environmental Sciences, and the [[United States Department of Agriculture|USDA]] Forest Service’s International Institute of Tropical Forestry.<ref name=":4" />

=== International support ===
As a result of the damages and suffering in Puerto Rico caused by natural disasters like [[Hurricane Irma]], [[Hurricane Maria]] and [[earthquake]]s, federal aid programs have been set up to support the government of Puerto Rico with the respective recovery and reconstruction.<ref name=":2" /> These financial supports are estimated to include but not limited to:

* [[File:Seal_of_the_Federal_Emergency_Management_Agency.svg|thumb|Seal of the Federal Emergency Management Agency]]$45 billion in [[Federal Emergency Management Agency]] (“FEMA”) Public Assistance program grants,
* $3 billion in FEMA [[Hazard Mitigation Grant Program]] (“HMGP”) grants
* $19.9 billion in Department of Housing and Urban Development (“HUD”) Community Development Block Grant-Disaster Recovery (“CDBG-DR”) grants.<ref name=":2" />

The FEMA Public Assistance program has been granted by the President of the United States and provides funding for states, territories, or tribes as "recipients" as well as local governments as "subrecipients" and is mainly directed towards the reconstruction of damaged infrastructure.<ref name=":2" />

Apart from reconstruction, the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program aims to support disaster planning and prevent future disasters from harming people and their property.<ref name=":2" /> While suggesting long-term and cost-efficient mitigation plans, the main idea of this program is to make sure that the time of reconstruction after a disaster is simultaneously used to implement respective mitigative measures to reduce the degree of repetitive damage in case of future extreme events.<ref name=":2" />

== References ==
<references />
{{United States topic|prefix=Climate change in}}
{{Puerto Rico}}

[[Category:Climate change in the United States by state|+Puerto Rico]]
[[Category:Environment of Puerto Rico]]

2022 Japanese Grand Prix

2022-10-02T15:13:37Z

Denvercoder9: drop duplicate info

{{Short description|Eighteenth round of the 2022 F1 season}}
{{Infobox Grand Prix race report
| Type = F1
| Grand Prix = Japanese
| Previous_round = 2022 Singapore Grand Prix
| Next_round = 2022 United States Grand Prix
| Image = Suzuka circuit map--2005.svg
| Caption = Layout of the Suzuka International Racing Course
| Details ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.formula1.com/en/racing/2022/Japan.html|title=Japanese Grand Prix 2022 – F1 Race|website=formula1.com|access-date=17 September 2022}}</ref>
| Date = 9 October
| Year = 2022
| Official name = Formula 1 Honda [[Japanese Grand Prix]] 2022
| Race_No = 18
| Season_No = 22
| Location = [[Suzuka International Racing Course]] [[Suzuka, Mie|Suzuka]], [[Mie Prefecture]], [[Japan]]
| Course = Permanent racing facility
| Course_km = 5.807
| Course_mi = 3.608
| Scheduled_laps = 53
| Scheduled_km = 307.471
| Scheduled_mi = 191.054
| Attendance =
| Weather =
| Pole_Driver =
| Pole_Country =
| Pole_Team =
| Pole_Time =
| Fast_Driver =
| Fast_Country =
| Fast_Team =
| Fast_Time =
| Fast_Lap =
| First_Driver =
| First_Country =
| First_Team =
| Second_Driver =
| Second_Country =
| Second_Team =
| Third_Driver =
| Third_Country =
| Third_Team =
| Lapchart = 
}}

The '''2022 Japanese Grand Prix''' (officially known as the '''Formula 1 Honda Japanese Grand Prix 2022''') is a [[Formula One]] motor race scheduled to be held on 9 October 2022 at the [[Suzuka International Racing Course]] in [[Suzuka, Mie|Suzuka]], Japan.

==Background==
The event is due to be held across the weekend of the 7–9 October. It will be the eighteenth round of the [[2022 Formula One World Championship]] and the first time the event had been held since {{F1|2019}}, with the {{F1|2020}} and {{F1|2021}} races cancelled due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].


===Tyre choices===
{{further|Formula One tyres}}
Tyre supplier [[Pirelli]] will bring the C1, C2, and C3 tyre compounds (designated hard, medium, and soft, respectively) for teams to use at the event.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://press.pirelli.com/2022-tyre-compound-choices--singapore-and-japan/?_ga=2.174988523.81325137.1663100961-491570913.1663100961|title=2022 tyre compound choices – Singapore and Japan|website=pirelli.com|date=13 September 2022|access-date=17 September 2022}}</ref>

=== Penalties ===
[[Williams Grand Prix Engineering|Williams]]' [[Nicholas Latifi]] carries a five-place grid penalty for causing a collision with [[Zhou Guanyu]] at the previous round, the [[2022 Singapore Grand Prix|Singapore Grand Prix]].


==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{F1 race report|Name_of_race=[[Japanese Grand Prix]]|Year_of_race=2022|Previous_race_in_season=[[2022 Singapore Grand Prix]]|Next_race_in_season=[[2022 United States Grand Prix]]|Previous_year's_race=[[2019 Japanese Grand Prix]]|Next_year's_race=[[2023 Japanese Grand Prix]]}}
{{F1GP 2020–29}}

[[Category:2022 Formula One races|Japanese]]
[[Category:Japanese Grand Prix|2022]]
[[Category:Scheduled sports events|Japanese Grand Prix]]
[[Category:2022 in Japanese motorsport|Grand Prix]]

Genesis flood narrative

2022-07-04T20:53:49Z

Denvercoder9: /* Flood chronology */ fix duplicate word

{{Short description|Biblical flood myth}}
{{Redirect|The Deluge|other uses|Deluge (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-protect|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
[[File:Le déluge - musée de beaux arts de Nantes 20091017.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|''The Flood of Noah and Companions'' (c. 1911) by [[Léon Comerre]]. [[Musée d'Arts de Nantes]].]]
The '''Genesis flood narrative''' (chapters 6–9 of the [[Book of Genesis]]) is the Hebrew version of the [[flood myth|universal flood myth]].{{sfn|Leeming|2010|p=469}}{{efn|{{Myth FAQ}}}} It tells of God's decision to return the universe to its pre-[[Genesis creation narrative|creation state]] of watery [[Chaos (cosmogony)|chaos]] and remake it through the microcosm of Noah's ark.{{sfn|Bandstra|2008|p=61}}

The Book of Genesis was probably composed around the 5th century BCE,{{sfn|Oliver|2017|p=12}}
although some scholars believe that [[Primeval history]] (chapters 1–11), including the flood narrative, may have been composed and added as late as the 3rd century BCE.{{sfn|Sailhamer|2010|p=301}}{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=3}} It draws on two sources, called the [[Priestly source]] and the non-Priestly or [[Yahwist]],{{sfn|Worthington|2019|p=147}} and although many of its details are contradictory,{{sfn|Cline|2007|p=20}} the story forms a unified whole.{{sfn|Arnold|2009|p=97}}

A global flood as described in this myth is inconsistent with the physical findings of geology, [[paleontology]] and the [[Species distribution|global distribution of species]].{{sfn|Montgomery|2012}}{{sfn|Cohn|1999|p=}}<ref>
* {{cite news|ref=none |last1=Kuchment |first1=Anna |title=''The Rocks Don't Lie: A Geologist Investigates Noah's Flood'' |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/recommended-the-rocks-dont-lie-a-ge/ |access-date=31 December 2018 |work=[[Scientific American]] |date=August 2012}}
* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=Raff |first1=Rudolf A. |author-link=Rudolf Raff|title=Genesis meets geology. A review of ''the rocks don't lie; a geologist investigates Noah's flood'', by David R. Montgomery |journal=[[Evolution & Development]] |date=20 January 2013 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=83–84 |doi=10.1111/ede.12017 }}
* {{cite web|ref=none |title=''The Rocks Don't Lie: A Geologist Investigates Noah's Flood'' |url=https://www.publishersweekly.com/978-0-393-08239-5 |website=[[Publishers Weekly]] |access-date=31 December 2018 |date=28 May 2012}}
* {{cite journal|ref=none |last1=Bork |first1=Kennard B. |author-link=Kennard Baker Bork|title=David R. Montgomery. ''The Rocks Don't Lie: A Geologist Investigates Noah's Flood'' |journal=[[Isis (journal)|Isis]] |date=December 2013 |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=828–829 |doi=10.1086/676345 }}
* {{cite news|ref=none |last1=McConnachie |first1=James |title=''The Rocks Don't Lie'', by David R. Montgomery - review |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2013/08/the-rocks-dont-lie-by-david-r-montgomery-review/ |access-date=31 December 2018 |work=[[The Spectator]] |date=31 August 2013}}
* {{cite news|ref=none |last1=Prothero |first1=Donald R. |author-link1=Donald Prothero |title=A Gentle Journey Through the Truth in Rocks |url=https://www.skeptic.com/eskeptic/13-01-02/#feature |access-date=2 January 2019 |work=[[Skeptic (US magazine)|Skeptic]] |date=2 January 2013}}</ref> A branch of [[creationism]] known as [[flood geology]] is a [[pseudoscientific]] attempt to argue that such a global flood actually occurred.{{sfn|Isaak|2007|pp=237-238}} However some Christians have preferred to interpret the narrative as describing a [[Local flood theory|local flood]], instead of a global event.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Davidson |first=Richard |date=2004 |title=The Genesis Flood Narrative: Crucial Issues in the Current Debate |url=https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1060&context=old-testament-pubs |journal=}}</ref>

==Summary==
[[File:Deluge.png|thumb|upright|''The Deluge'' by [[Gustave Doré]] (1865)]]
The story of the flood takes up chapters 6-9 of the [[Book of Genesis]], the first book of the Bible.
Ten generations after the creation of [[Adam]] God saw that the earth was corrupt and filled with violence, and he decided to destroy what he had created. But God found one righteous man, [[Noah]], and to him he confided his intention: "I am about to bring on the Flood ... to eliminate everywhere all flesh in which there is the breath of life...". So God instructed him to build an [[Noah's ark|ark]] (in Hebrew, a chest or box), and Noah entered the Ark in his six hundredth year, and on the 17th day of the second month of that year "the fountains of the Great Deep burst apart and the floodgates of heaven broke open" and rain fell for forty days and forty nights until the highest mountains were covered to a depth of 15 [[cubit]]s, and all life perished except Noah and those with him in the Ark. After 150 days, "God remembered Noah ... and the waters subsided" until the Ark rested on the mountains of Ararat, and on the 27th day of the second month of Noah's six hundred and first year the earth was dry. Then Noah built an altar and made a sacrifice, and God made a [[Covenant (biblical)#Noahic covenant|covenant with Noah]] that man would be allowed to eat every living thing but not its blood, and that God would never again destroy all life by a flood.{{sfn|Cohn|1999|p=11-12}}

==Composition==
[[File:Tissot Building the Ark.jpg|thumb|''Building the Ark'' (watercolor c. 1896–1902 by [[James Tissot]])]]
The consensus of modern scholars is that Genesis was composed around the 5th century BCE,{{sfn|Oliver|2017|p=12}}
but as the first eleven chapters show little relationship to the rest of the book, some scholars believe that this section (the so-called [[Primeval history|Primeval History]]) may have been composed as late as the 3rd century BCE.{{sfn|Sailhamer|2010|p=301}}{{sfn|Gmirkin|2006|p=3}}

The history draws on two sources, one called the [[Priestly source]], the other non-Priestly or [[Yahwist]],{{sfn|Worthington|2019|p=147}} and their interweaving is evidenced in the doublets (i.e., repetitions) contained within the final story.{{sfn|Kaltner|McKenzie|2014|p=74}} Many of these are contradictory, such as how long the flood lasted (40 days according to {{bibleverse|Genesis|7:17|KJV}}, 150 according to {{bibleverse-nb|Genesis|7:24|KJV}}), how many animals were to be taken aboard the ark (one pair of each in {{bibleverse-nb|Genesis|6:19|KJV}}, one pair of the unclean animals and seven pairs of the clean in {{bibleverse-nb|Genesis|7:2|KJV}}), and whether [[Noah]] released a raven which "went to and fro until the waters were dried up" or a dove which on the third occasion "did not return to him again," or possibly both.{{sfn|Cline|2007|p=20}} But despite this disagreement on details the story forms a unified whole (some scholars see in it a "[[Chiastic structure|chiasm]]", a literary structure in which the first item matches the last, the second the second-last, and so on),{{efn|name="Chiasm"|The controversial existence of a chiasm is not an argument against the construction of the story from two sources. See the overview in {{harvp|Friedman|1996|p=91}} }} and many efforts have been made to explain this unity, including attempts to identify which of the two sources was earlier and therefore influenced the other.{{sfn|Arnold|2009|p=97}}

==Sources==
The following table compares the Yahwist and Priestly sources.{{sfn|Bridge|2009|p=41}} Each provides a complete story-line, with introductions and conclusions, reasons for the flood, and theologies.{{sfn|Habel|1988|p=23}}
{| class="wikitable" style="align: center;"
|-
! style="width:10%;"|Verses 
! style="width:45%;"|Yahwist (or non-Priestly) 
! style="width:45%;"|Priestly 
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|6:5-8
| style="text-align:center;"|Introduction: humanity's wickedness, God regrets creating, announces decision to destroy; Noah's righteousness.
| style="text-align:centre;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|6:9-22
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:centre;"|Introduction: Noah's righteousness, humanity's wickedness, God's decision to destroy; Ark described, Covenant described, 1 pair of all animals, Noah does as God commands.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:1-5
| style="text-align:center;"|7 pairs of clean animals, 1 pair unclean; 7 days to gather animals; Noah does as God commands.
| style="text-align:centre;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:6
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:centre;"|Noah's age: 600 years
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:7-10
| style="text-align:center;"|Noah enters Ark with animals after 7 days
| style="text-align:centre;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:11
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:centre;"|Year 600, month 2, day 17: firmament breaks, waters fall from above and rise from below.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:12
| style="text-align:center;"|Rains 40 days and 40 nights.
| style="text-align:centre;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:13-16a
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:centre;"|Noah and family and animals enter Ark on same day as flood begins.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:16b-7:17a
| style="text-align:center;"|Flood lasts 40 days and nights.
| style="text-align:centre;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:18-21
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:centre;"|Waters rise, all creatures destroyed.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:22-23
| style="text-align:center;"|All creatures destroyed.
| style="text-align:centre;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|7:24-8:5
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:centre;"|Flood lasts 150 days; God remembers Noah, fountains and floodgates closed, waters recede; Month 7 day 17, Ark grounds on mountains of Ararat.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|8:6-12
| style="text-align:center;"|After 7 days Noah opens window, sends out raven, dove, dove, 7 days between flights
| style="text-align:centre;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|8:13-19
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:centre;"|Year 601, month 1, day 1: Noah opens cover; ground begins to dry; Month 2, day 27, dry land appears, Noah and family and animals exit, animals begin to multiply
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|8:20-22
| style="text-align:center;"|Noah builds altar, sacrifices clean animals, God smells sweet aroma, promises not to destroy again.
| style="text-align:centre;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|9:1-17
| style="text-align:center;"|
| style="text-align:centre;"|Noah and family told to multiply, given animals to eat; Covenant established, rainbow as sign, God promises not to flood again.
|}

==Comparative mythology==
{{Main|Flood myth}}
Scholars believe that the flood myth originated in [[Mesopotamia]] during the [[Old Babylonian Period]] (c.1880-1595 BCE) and reached Syro-Palestine in the latter half of the 2nd millennium BCE.{{sfn|Chen|2013|p=1,11}} Extant texts show three distinct versions, the [[Sumer]]ian [[Ziusudra|Epic of Ziusudra]], (the oldest, found in very fragmentary form on a single tablet dating from about 1600 BCE, although the story itself is older), and as episodes in two [[Akkadian language]] epics, the [[Atra-Hasis|Atrahasis]] and the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]].{{sfn|Finkel|2014|p=88}} The name of the hero, according to the version concerned, was Ziusudra, Atrahasis, or [[Utnapishtim]], all of which are variations of each other, and it is just possible that an abbreviation of Utnapishtim/Utna'ishtim as "na'ish" was pronounced "Noah" in Palestine.{{sfn|Dalley|2008|p=2}}

Numerous and often detailed parallels make clear that the Genesis flood narrative is dependent on the Mesopotamian epics, and particularly on Gilgamesh, which is thought to date from c.1300-1000 BCE.{{sfn|Collins|2017|p=10-11}}

==Flood chronology==
[[File:The Bow of Promise.jpg|thumb|upright|1896 illustration of the symbol of the [[Rainbows in mythology|rainbow]], which God created as [[Covenant (biblical)#Noahic covenant|a sign of the covenant]]]]
Numbers in the Bible often have symbolic or idiomatic meaning, and the 40 days and nights for which rain fell on the Earth indicates a complete cycle.{{sfn|Burton|2019|p=1978-79}}

The flood begins on the 17th day of the second month when "the springs of the great deep burst forth, and the floodgates of the heavens were opened", and after 40 days the ark floats (Genesis 7:11-12). The waters rise and then recede, and on the 17th day of the seventh month (or the 27th day in the Greek version) the ark rests on the mountains (Genesis 8:4). The waters continue to fall, the ark is uncovered on the 1st day of the 1st month of Noah's 601st year, and is opened on the 27th day of his 601st year (Genesis 8:13-14).{{sfn|Guillaume|2010|p=74}}

The period from the beginning of the flood to the landing on the mountain is five months (the second month to the seventh, Genesis 7:11 and 8:4) and 150 days (8:3), making an impossible five months of 30 days each; the number is schematic, and is based on the Babylonian astronomical calendar of 360 days (12 months of 30 days each).{{sfn|Miano|2010|p=26}} This means that the flood lasts 36 weeks according to the flood calendar, in which an extra day is added to every third month.{{sfn|Guillaume|2010|p=73-74}} The number of weeks is symbolically significant, representing the biblical cypher for destruction (the number 6, expressed as 6x6=36), while the number 7 (the number of days in a week) represents the persistence of creation during this time of destruction.{{sfn|Guillaume|2010|p=73-74}}

The period while the ark is afloat, i.e. the period during which the Earth is entirely covered by water, represents gap in time, as is confirmed by the strange details of the ages of Noah and Shem.{{sfn|Guillaume|2010|p=74}} Noah is 600 years old when the flood comes, it ends in his 601st year, and he then lives another 350 years before dying in his 950th year (Genesis 9:28-29); the year taken up by the flood is not counted.{{sfn|Guillaume|2010|p=74}} Similarly his son Shem is 100 years old on entering the ark (Genesis 7:6) and still 100 years old on fathering Arpachshad two years after the flood.{{sfn|Guillaume|2010|p=74}}

Scholars have long puzzled over the significance of the flood lasting one year and eleven days (day 17 of year 600 to day 27 of year 601); one solution is that the basic calendar is a lunar one of 354 days, to which eleven days have been added to match a solar year of 365 days.{{sfn|VanderKam|2002|p=3}}

The 'original', Jahwist narrative of the Great Deluge was modest; a week of ostensibly non-celestial rain is followed by a forty-day flood which takes a mere week to recede in order to provide Noah his stage for God's covenant. It is the Priestly source which adds more fantastic figures of a 150-day flood, which emerged by divine hand from the heavens and earth and took ten months to finally stop. That the Jahwist source's capricious and somewhat simplistic depiction of Yahweh is clearly distinguished from the Priestly source's characteristically majestic, transcendental, and austere virtuous Yahweh.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gilbert|first=Christopher|title=A Complete Introduction to the Bible|publisher=Paulist Press|year=2009|isbn=9780809145522|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q9XUv3KAVIUC&pg=PA34}}</ref>

The Priestly flood narrative is the only Priestly text that covers dates with much detail before the [[Exodus narrative]]. This is perhaps due to a version of the flood myth that was floating around at the time. There is a text discovered from Ugarit known as RS 94.2953, consisting of fourteen lines telling a first-person account of how [[Ea]] appeared to the story's protagonist and commanded him to use tools to make a window (''aptu'') at the top of the construction he was building, and how he implemented this directive and released a bird. [[Antoine Cavigneaux]]'s translation of this text made him propose that this fragment belongs to a [[Gilgamesh flood myth|Mesopotamian flood myth]], perhaps [[Atrahasis]] or Tablet IX of [[Gilgamesh]], which has a version found in Ugarit (RS 22.421) that contains a first person account of the flood. If this suggestion is correct, then RS 94.2953 represents a unique version of the Mesopotamian flood story. Line 1 of the text says "At the start of the time of the disappearance of the moon, at the beginning of the month". This reference to the lunar date giving the specific date the protagonist released the bird is significant as it is the only variant of the flood story giving a specific date and the rest do not attribute specific dates or calendrical details to the various stages of the flood. Both RS 94.2953 and Genesis 8 are about the flood protagonist releasing a bird on a specific calendrical date in order to find land in the midst of the flood.<ref>Guy Darshan. “The Calendrical Framework of the Priestly Flood Story in Light of a New Akkadian Text from Ugarit (RS 94.2953).” [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.136.3.0507#metadata_info_tab_contents Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 136, no. 3, American Oriental Society, 2016, pp. 507–14]</ref>

==Theology: the flood and the creation narrative==
The primeval history is first and foremost about the world God made, its origins, inhabitants, purposes, challenges, and failures.{{sfn|Schule|2017|p=2}} It asks why the world which God has made is so imperfect and of the meaning of human violence and evil, and its solutions involve the notions of covenant, law, and forgiveness.{{sfn|Schule|2017|p=3}} The [[Genesis creation narrative]] (Genesis 1–2) deals with God's creation and God's repentance is the rationale behind the flood narrative, and in the Priestly source (which runs through all of Genesis and into the other four books of the Torah) these two verbs, "create" and "forgive", are reserved exclusively for divine actions.{{sfn|Schule|2017|p=3-4}}

Intertextuality is the way biblical stories refer to and reflect one another. Such echoes are seldom coincidental—for instance, the word used for ''ark'' is the same used for the basket in which Moses is saved, implying a symmetry between the stories of two divinely chosen saviours in a world threatened by water and chaos.{{sfn|Bodner|2016|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zlS1DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA95 95-96]|ps=: "There is increasing recognition that the pentateuchal narrative is seldom careless or arbitrary," write John Bergsma and Scott Hahn, "and intertextual echoes are seldom coincidental."17}} The most significant such echo is a reversal of the [[Genesis creation narrative]]; the division between the "waters above" and the "waters below" the earth is removed, the dry land is flooded, most life is destroyed, and only Noah and those with him survive to obey God's command to "be fruitful and multiply."{{sfn|Levenson|1988|p=10-11}}

The flood is a reversal and renewal of God's creation of the world.{{sfn|Baden|2012|p=184}} In [[Genesis 1]] God separates the "waters above the earth" from those below so that dry land can appear as a home for living things, but in the flood story the "windows of heaven" and "fountains of the deep" are opened so that the world is returned to the watery chaos of the time before creation.{{sfn|Keiser|2013|p=133}} Even the sequence of flood events mimics that of creation, the flood first covering the earth to the highest mountains, then destroying, in order, birds, cattle, beasts, "swarming creatures", and finally mankind.{{sfn|Keiser|2013|p=133}} (This parallels the Babylonian flood story in the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], where at the end of rain "all of mankind had returned to clay," the substance of which they had been made.){{sfn|Keiser|2013|p=133 fn.29}} The Ark itself is likewise a microcosm of [[Solomon's Temple]].

==Later traditions==
===Jewish===
In [[Jewish folklore]], the kind of water that was pouring to the earth for forty days is not common rainfall; rather, God bade each drop pass through [[Gehenna]] before it fell to earth, which 'hot rain' scalded the skin of the sinners. The punishment that overtook them was befitting their crime. As their sensual desires had made them hot, and inflamed them to immoral excesses, so they were chastised by means of heated water.<ref>Ginzberg, Louis (1909). ''[[Legends of the Jews|The Legends of the Jews]] [https://philologos.org/__eb-lotj/vol1/four.htm#5 Vol I : The Inmates of the Ark]'' (Translated by Henrietta Szold) Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society.</ref>

===Christianity===
{{See also|Biblical literalism|Biblical inerrancy|Biblical infallibility}}
The Genesis flood narrative is included in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible (see [[Books of the Bible]]). Jesus and the apostles additionally taught on the Genesis flood narrative in New Testament writing ({{bibleref2|Matthew|24:37–39|NIV}}, {{bibleref2|Luke|17:26–27|NIV}}, {{bibleref2|1 Peter|3:20|NIV}}, {{bibleref2|2 Peter|2:5|NIV}}, [[2 Peter 3:6]], {{bibleref2|Hebrews|11:7|NIV}}).<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://creationworldview.org/articles_view.asp?id=40|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070720203222/https://creationworldview.org/articles_view.asp?id=40|url-status=dead|archive-date=20 July 2007|title=Creation Worldview Ministries: The New Testament and the Genesis Flood: A Hermeneutical Investigation of the Historicity, Scope, and Theological Purpose of the Noahic Deluge|website=www.creationworldview.org|access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> Some Christian biblical scholars suggest that the flood is a picture of [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation in Christ]]—the Ark was planned by God and there is only one way of salvation through the door of the Ark, akin to one way of salvation through Christ.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |title=Wiersbe's expository outlines on the Old Testament|last=W.|first=Wiersbe, Warren |date=1993 |publisher=Victor Books|isbn=978-0896938472|location=Wheaton, Ill.|oclc=27034975}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/bakers-evangelical-dictionary/the-flood.html |title=Flood, the – Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology Online|website=Bible Study Tools |access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref> Additionally, some scholars commenting on the teaching of the apostle [[Saint Peter|Peter]] ({{bibleref2|1 Peter|3:18–22|NIV}}), connect the Ark with the resurrection of Christ; the waters burying the old world but raising Noah to a new life.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2"/> Christian scholars also highlight that [[1 Peter 3:18-22]] demonstrates the Genesis flood as a [[Typology (theology)|type]] to Christian [[baptism]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Matthew henry's concise commentary on the whole bible |series=Nelson's concise series |last=Matthew |first=Henry|date=2000|publisher=Nelson Reference & Electronic|isbn=978-0785245292|location=[Place of publication not identified]|oclc=947797222}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/schmeling.html |title=The Typological Interpretation of the Old Testament, by G.R. Schmeling|website=www.bible-researcher.com|access-date=18 July 2018}}</ref><ref name=":2"/>

===Gnosticism===
In the 3rd century [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] codex now referred to as the [[Hypostasis of the Archons]], it is the corrupt rulers ([[Archon (Gnosticism)|Archons]]) who decide to flood the world in order to dispose of most of mankind. However, Noah is spared and told to build an ark. But when his wife [[Norea]] wants to board the ark, Noah attempts to not let her, thus she uses her divine power to blow on the ark, causing it to be consumed by fire. Noah later builds the ark a second time. When the Archons try to seize Norea, she calls out to God for help, then the angel [[Eleleth]] appears and scares away the Archons, revealing to Norea that she is a divine child of the [[Monad (Gnosticism)|great spirit]]. A different view is found in the [[Apocryphon of John|Secret Book of John]]; instead of an ark, Noah hides in a bright cloud.<ref>{{cite book|author1=[[Marvin Meyer]]|author2=[[Willis Barnstone]]|title=The Gnostic Bible|publisher=[[Shambhala Publications|Shambhala]]|chapter=The Reality of the Rulers (The Hypostasis of the Archons) and The Secret Book of John|url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Gnostic_Bible/1SEFmwEACAAJ?hl=en|year=2009|isbn=9781590306314|access-date=2022-02-07}}</ref>

===Mandaeism===
[[Mandaeism]] teaches that the flood of Noah was the last of three events where the world's population was reduced to a single family. Thirty generations after Adam, most of the population was killed by pestilence and war, leaving only Ram and his wife Rud. Twenty-five generations later, most of the population was killed by fire, leaving only Shurbai and his wife Shurhabil. Fifteen generations later, most of the population was killed by flood, leaving only Noah and Shem,<ref name="ginza-alsaadi-r2-1">{{cite book |section=Book Two, 1st Glorification: Upon Each Faithful Mandaean, I Will Place My Right Hand |pages=18–19 |title=[[Ginza Rabba]] |volume=Right Volume |translator1-last=Al-Saadi |translator1-first=Qais |translator2-last=Al-Saadi |translator2-first=Hamed |edition=2nd |place=Germany |year=2019 |publisher=Drabsha}}</ref> in addition to the latter's wife [[Wives aboard Noah's Ark#Gnostic traditions|Nuraitha]].<ref name="ginza-alsaadi-r19">{{cite book |section=Book Nineteen: The Deluge |pages=203–204 |title=[[Ginza Rabba]] |volume=Right Volume |translator1-last=Al-Saadi |translator1-first=Qais |translator2-last=Al-Saadi |translator2-first=Hamed |edition=2nd |place=Germany |year=2019 |publisher=Drabsha}} [Note: this book, or a larger text containing it, is numbered book 18 in some other editions.]</ref>

==Historicity==
While some scholars have tried to offer possible explanations for the origins of the flood myth including a legendary retelling of a possible [[Black Sea deluge hypothesis|Black Sea deluge]], the general mythological exaggeration and implausibility of the story are widely recognized by relevant academic fields. The acknowledgement of this follows closely the development of understanding of the [[natural history]] and especially the geology and [[paleontology]] of the planet.{{sfn|Montgomery|2012}}<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://ncse.com/cej/1/1/fatal-flaws-flood-geology|first=Christopher Gregory|last=Weber|year=1980|title=The Fatal Flaws of Flood Geology|journal=Creation Evolution Journal|volume=1|issue=1|pages=24–37}}</ref>

===Flood geology===
{{Main|Flood geology|Scriptural geologist|Antediluvian}}
The development of scientific geology had a profound impact on attitudes towards the biblical flood narrative. By bringing into question the [[biblical chronology]], which placed the Creation and the flood in a history which stretched back no more than a few thousand years, the concept of deep geological time undermined the idea of the historicity of the Ark itself. In 1823 the English theologian and natural scientist [[William Buckland]] interpreted geological phenomena as ''Reliquiæ Diluvianæ'' (relics of the flood) "Attesting the Action of an Universal Deluge". His views were supported by others at the time, including the influential geologist [[Adam Sedgwick]], but by 1830 Sedgwick considered that the evidence suggested only local floods. [[Louis Agassiz]] subsequently explained such deposits as the results of [[glaciation]].<ref>{{Cite news |last = Herbert |first = Sandra |date = 1991 |title = Charles Darwin as a prospective geological author |periodical = British Journal for the History of Science |issue = 24 |pages = 171–174 |url = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=13 |access-date = 24 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="Buckland 1823">{{cite book | last=Buckland | first=W. | title=Reliquiæ Diluvianæ: Or Observations on the Organic Remains Contained in Caves, Fissures, and Diluvial Gravel, and on Other Geological Phenomena, Attesting the Action of an Universal Deluge | publisher=J. Murray | year=1823 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UM05AQAAMAAJ | access-date=3 January 2022 | page=}}</ref>

In 1862, William Thomson (later to become [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]]) calculated the [[age of the Earth]] at between 24 million and 400 million years, and for the remainder of the 19th century, discussion focused not on the viability of this theory of [[deep time]], but on the derivation of a more precise figure for the age of the Earth.<ref>{{harvnb|Dalrymple|1991|pp=14–17}}</ref> ''[[Lux Mundi (book)|Lux Mundi]]'', an 1889 volume of theological essays which marks a stage in the acceptance of a more critical approach to scripture, took the stance that readers should rely on the [[gospel]]s as completely historical, but should not take the earlier chapters of Genesis literally.<ref>{{cite book
|url = http://asa3.org/asa/topics/AboutScience/chronology_barr.pdf
|title = Biblical Chronology, Fact or Fiction?
|author = James Barr
|date = 4 March 1987
|work = The Ethel M. Wood Lecture 1987
|publisher = University of London
|page = 17
|access-date = 8 August 2010
|isbn = 978-0718708641
|archive-date = 28 June 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100628150918/http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/AboutScience/chronology_barr.pdf
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
By a variety of independent means, scientists have determined that the Earth is approximately [[Age of the Earth|4.54 billion years old]].

So-called "[[flood geology]]" was championed in the latter half of the twentieth and on into the twenty-first century by [[Christian fundamentalists]] who believe in [[Young Earth creationism]]. Historian [[Ronald Numbers]] argues that this ideological connection by Christians wanting to challenge aspects of the [[scientific consensus]] they believe contradict their religion was first established by the publication of the 1961 book, ''[[The Genesis Flood]]''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Numbers, Ronald L.|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/69734583|title=The creationists : from scientific creationism to intelligent design|year=2006|isbn=0-674-02339-0|edition=Expanded, First Harvard University Press paperback |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|oclc=69734583}}</ref> The [[scientific community]] maintains that flood geology is a [[pseudoscience]] because it contradicts a variety of facts in geology, stratigraphy, geophysics, physics, paleontology, biology, anthropology, and archeology.{{sfn|Isaak|2007|pp=237–238}}<ref>Senter, Phil. "The Defeat of Flood Geology by Flood Geology." ''Reports of the National Center for Science Education'' 31:3 (May–June 2011). Printed electronically by [http://www.csun.edu/~vcgeo005/Flood%20geology.pdf California State University, Northridge]. Retrieved 7 June 2014.</ref>{{sfn|Montgomery|2012}}{{sfn|Young|1995|p=79}}{{sfn|Isaak|2006|p=unpaginated}}{{sfn|Morton|2001|p=unpaginated}}{{sfn|Isaak|2007|p= 173}}{{sfn|Stewart|2010|p= 123}} For example, in contrast to the [[catastrophism]] inherent in flood geology, the science of geology relies on [[Charles Lyell]]'s established principle of [[uniformitarianism (science)|uniformitarianism]]. In relation to geological forces, uniformitarianism explains the formation of the Earth's features by means of mostly slow-acting forces seen in operation today. In contrast, there is a lack of evidence for the catastrophic mechanisms proposed by flood geologists, and scientists do not take their claims seriously.{{sfn|Isaak|1998|p=unpaginated}}

===Species distribution===
By the 17th century, believers in the Genesis account faced the issue of reconciling the exploration of the [[New World]] and increased awareness of the [[Species distribution|global distribution of species]] with the older scenario whereby all life had sprung from a single point of origin on the slopes of [[Mount Ararat]]. The obvious answer involved mankind spreading over the continents following the destruction of the [[Tower of Babel]] and taking animals along, yet some of the results seemed peculiar. In 1646 Sir [[Thomas Browne]] wondered why the natives of North America had taken [[rattlesnake]]s with them, but not horses: "How America abounded with Beasts of prey and noxious Animals, yet contained not in that necessary Creature, a Horse, is very strange".{{sfn|Cohn|1999|p=}}

Browne, among the first to question the notion of [[spontaneous generation]], was a medical doctor and amateur scientist making this observation in passing. However, biblical scholars of the time, such as [[Justus Lipsius]] (1547–1606) and [[Athanasius Kircher]] (c. 1601–80), had also begun to subject the Ark story to rigorous scrutiny as they attempted to harmonize the biblical account with the growing body of [[natural history|natural historical]] knowledge. The resulting hypotheses provided an important impetus to the study of the geographical distribution of plants and animals, and indirectly spurred the emergence of [[biogeography]] in the 18th century. Natural historians began to draw connections between climates and the animals and plants adapted to them. One influential theory held that the biblical Ararat was striped with varying climatic zones, and as climate changed, the associated animals moved as well, eventually spreading to repopulate the globe.{{sfn|Cohn|1999|p=}}

There was also the problem of an [[Species diversity|ever-expanding number of known species]]: for Kircher and earlier natural historians, there was little problem finding room for all known animal species in the Ark. Less than a century later, discoveries of new species made it increasingly difficult to justify a literal interpretation for the Ark story.{{sfn|Browne|1983|p=276}} By the middle of the 18th century only a few natural historians accepted a literal interpretation of the narrative.{{sfn|Young|1995|p=79}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Bible|Judaism|Christianity|Islam}}
* [[Biblical cosmology]]
* [[Chronology of the Bible]]
* [[Documentary hypothesis]]
* [[Mosaic authorship]]
* [[Noach (parsha)]]
* [[Panbabylonism]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

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| date = 2014
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=AGYwIoItJQIC&q=The+Ark+Before+Noah
| isbn = 9781444757071
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Friedman
| first = Richard E.
|chapter = Non-Arguments Concerning the Documentary Hypothesis
|editor1-last = Fox
|editor1-first = Michael V.
|editor2-last = Hurowitz
|editor2-first = V. A.
| title = Texts, Temples and Traditions
| publisher = Eisenbrauns
| date = 1996
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jvFrWwau-1oC&q=%22Kikawada+argues+that+the+Noah+story+has+a+chiastic+structure%22&pg=PA90
| isbn = 9781575060033
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Gmirkin
|first = Russell E.
|title = Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus
|year = 2006
|publisher = Bloomsbury
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CKuoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3
|isbn = 978-0-567-13439-4
}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/faq-noahs-ark.html|title=Problems with a Global Flood|last=Isaak|first=M|year=1998|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|access-date=29 March 2007}}
* {{cite web|url= http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/list.html#CD|title=Index to Creationist Claims, Geology|first=Mark|last=Isaak|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|date=5 November 2006|access-date =2 November 2010}}
* {{Cite book|last=Isaak|first=Mark|url=http://www.ucpress.edu/book.php?isbn=9780520249264|title=The Counter-Creationism Handbook|publisher=University of California Press|year=2007}}
* {{cite book
|last1 = Kaltner
|first1 = John
|last2 = McKenzie
|first2 = Steven
|title = The Old Testament: Its Background, Growth, and Content
|year = 2014
|publisher = Wipf and Stock
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_Ef7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA15
|isbn = 978-0-567-13439-4
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Keiser
| first = Thomas A.
| title = Genesis 1-11: Its Literary Coherence and Theological Message
| publisher = Wipf and Stock Publishers
| date = 2013
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=XdJNAwAAQBAJ&q=%22reversal+of+the+original+creation+of+Gen+1%22&pg=PA133
| isbn = 9781625640925
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Creation Myths of the World: An Encyclopedia
| last = Leeming
| first = David A.
| publisher = ABC-CLIO
| volume = 1
| date = 2010
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9I62BcuPxfYC&pg=PA469
| isbn = 9781598841749
}}
* {{cite book | last=Levenson | first=Jon Douglas | title=Creation and the persistence of evil : the Jewish drama of divine omnipotence | publisher=Harper & Row | year=1988 | oclc=568745811 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrnYAAAAMAAJ | isbn=9780062548450}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Montgomery
|first=David R.
|title=The Rocks Don't Lie: A Geologist Investigates Noah's Flood
|publisher=Norton
|year=2012
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=92tuITDWvCYC&q=geology+rocks+creationism
|isbn=9780393082395
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Miano
|first = David
|title = Shadow on the Steps
|year = 2010
|publisher = Society for Biblical Literature
|isbn = 9781589834781
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-lOZIGBa2e8C&pg=PA26
}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/geocolumn/|title=The Geologic Column and its Implications for the Flood|first=Glenn|last=Morton|publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]|access-date =2 November 2010|date=17 February 2001}}
* {{cite book
| last = Oliver
| first = Simon
| title = Creation
| publisher = Bloomsbury
| date = 2017
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FQjTDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12
| isbn = 9780567656117
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Sailhamer
|first = John H.
|title = The Meaning of the Pentateuch: Revelation, Composition and Interpretation
|year = 2010
|publisher = InterVarsity Press
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pBVWU9U85m0C&pg=PA301
|isbn = 9780830878888
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Schule
|first = Andreas
|title = Theology from the Beginning
|year = 2017
|publisher = Mohr Siebeck
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wwCQx3NPerkC&pg=PA2
}}
* {{Cite book | last1 = Stewart | first1 = Melville Y. | title = Science and religion in dialogue | year = 2010 | publisher = Wiley-Blackwell | location = Malden, MA | isbn = 978-1-4051-8921-7 | page = 123}}
* {{cite book|first=Davis A.|last=Young|title=The Biblical Flood: A Case Study of the Church's Response to Extrabiblical Evidence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hL7YAAAAMAAJ|year=1995|publisher=Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0719-9 |page=79|chapter-url=http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p82.htm|chapter=Diluvial Cosmogonies and the Beginnings of Geology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070331124027/http://www.bringyou.to/apologetics/p82.htm |archive-date=31 March 2007}}
* {{cite book|first1=Davis A.|last1=Young|first2=Ralph F.|last2=Stearley|title=The Bible, Rocks and Time: Geological Evidence for the Age of the Earth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TRKtFWlSrRsC&pg=PA45 |date=18 August 2008 |publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0-8308-2876-0|page=45}}
* {{cite book
|last = VanderKam
|first = James C.
|title = Calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls
|year = 2002
|publisher = Routledge
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=kcyEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3
}}
* {{cite book
|last = Worthington
|first = Martin
|title = Ea's Duplicity in the Gilgamesh Flood Story
|year = 2019
|publisher = Routledge
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5uG5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT417
|isbn = 9780830878888
}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book
| last = Cotter
| first = David W.
| title = Genesis
| date = 2003
| publisher = Liturgical Press
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6lCVzr4cT9QC&q=great+flood
| isbn = 978-0814650400
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Habel
| first = Norman C.
|chapter = Two Flood Myths
|editor1-last = Dundes
|editor1-first = Alan
| title = The Flood Myth
| publisher = University of California Press
| date = 1988
| isbn = 9780520063532
| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=E__dnnQwGDwC&q=%22literary+sources%22%22continued+in+the+two+flood+versions%22&pg=PA23
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Hamilton
|first=Victor P
|title=The book of Genesis: chapters 1–17
|publisher=Eerdmans
|year=1990
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WW31E9Zt5-wC&pg=PR3
|isbn=9780802825216
}}
* {{Cite book
|last1=Kessler
|first1=Martin
|last2=Deurloo
|first2=Karel Adriaan
|title=A commentary on Genesis: the book of beginnings
|publisher=Paulist Press
|year=2004
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mBWeLCTgT0QC
|isbn=9780809142057
}}
*{{cite book|chapter=[[s:A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture/VI. The Deluge|Chapter VI. The Deluge]]|title=A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture|year=1910|publisher=B. Herder|first=Friedrich Justus|last=Knecht}}
* {{cite book
|last = Levenson
|first = Jon D.
|editor1-last = Berlin
|editor1-first = Adele
|editor2-last = Brettler
|editor2-first = Marc Zvi
|title = The Jewish Study Bible
|chapter = Genesis: introduction and annotations
|date = 2004
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|isbn = 9780195297515
|chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aDuy3p5QvEYC
|url-access = registration
|url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=McKeown
|first=James
|title=Genesis
|publisher=Eerdmans
|year=2008
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-gqTTl1iPr8C
|isbn=9780802827050
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Middleton
| first = J. Richard
| title = The Liberating Image: The Imago Dei in Genesis 1
| publisher = Brazos Press
| date = 2005
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OXmKAAAAQBAJ&q=%22the+flood+story%22%22is+of+Mesopotamian+origin%22&pg=PA132
| isbn = 9781441242785
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Rogerson
|first=John William
|title=Genesis 1–11
|publisher=T&T Clark
|year=1991
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFle13pCS0wC
|isbn=9780567083388
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Sacks
|first=Robert D
|title=A Commentary on the Book of Genesis
|publisher=Edwin Mellen
|year=1990
|url=https://archive.org/details/RobertSacksACommentaryOnTheBookOfGenesis
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Towner
|first=Wayne Sibley
|title=Genesis
|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press
|year=2001
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6ONdsoa7MHUC
|isbn=9780664252564
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Wenham
|first=Gordon
|chapter=Genesis
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA34 |editor=James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson
|title=Eerdmans Bible Commentary
|publisher=Eerdmans
|year=2003
|isbn=9780802837110
}}
* {{Cite book
|last=Whybray
|first=R.N
|chapter=Genesis
|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3surkLVdw3UC&q=4.+Genesis+Whybray+Genesis+and+the+Pentateuch&pg=PA38|editor=John Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001
|isbn=9780198755005
}}
{{Refend}}

{{Noah's Ark}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Book of Genesis|Flood narrative]]
[[Category:Comparative mythology]]
[[Category:Flood myths]]
[[Category:Mesopotamian myths]]
[[Category:Noach (parashah)]]

Temple Hill Entertainment

2022-05-16T20:36:11Z

Denvercoder9: drop irrelevant postscript

{{short description|American based film and television production company}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{notability|Companies|date=May 2019}}
{{More references|date=November 2017}}
{{One source|date=February 2021}}
}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Temple Hill Entertainment
| logo =
| logo_size =
| type =
| industry = [[Film]], [[television]]
| fate =
| successor =
| founder = [[Wyck Godfrey]] Marty Bowen
| products =
| revenue =
| owner =
| num_employees =
| divisions =
| foundation = {{Start date and age|2006|02}}
| defunct =
| hq_location = [[United States]]
| key_people =
| homepage = https://www.templehillent.com/
}}
'''Temple Hill Entertainment''' or '''Temple Hill Productions''' is an American film and television production company, established in February 2006 by producers [[Wyck Godfrey]] and Marty Bowen. The first film that the company produced was ''[[The Nativity Story]]'' in 2006 by director [[Catherine Hardwicke]]. The studio produced the [[The Twilight Saga (film series)|''Twilight'' film series]]. Recently, the studio signed a TV deal with Lionsgate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Temple Hill Inks First-Look TV Deal With Lionsgate {{!}} Hollywood Reporter|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/temple-hill-inks-first-look-tv-deal-with-lionsgate|access-date=2020-10-07|website=www.hollywoodreporter.com}}</ref>

== Filmography ==
* ''[[The Nativity Story]]'' (2006)
* ''[[Alien Invasion Arizona]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Management (film)|Management]]'' (2008)
* ''[[Twilight (2008 film)|Twilight]]'' (2008)
* ''[[The Twilight Saga: New Moon]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Dear John (2010 film)|Dear John]]'' (2010)
* ''[[The Twilight Saga: Eclipse]]'' (2010)
* ''[[Everything Must Go (film)|Everything Must Go]]'' (2010)
* ''[[10 Years (2011 film)|10 Years]]'' (2011)
* ''[[The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 1]]'' (2011)
* ''[[The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn – Part 2]]'' (2012)
* ''[[A Good Day to Die Hard]]'' (2013)
* ''[[Safe Haven (film)|Safe Haven]]'' (2013)
* ''[[The Fault in Our Stars (film)|The Fault in Our Stars]]'' (2014)
* ''[[The Maze Runner (film)|The Maze Runner]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Tracers (film)|Tracers]]'' (2014)
* ''[[The Longest Ride (film)|The Longest Ride]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Paper Towns (film)|Paper Towns]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Maze Runner: The Scorch Trials]]'' (2015)
* ''[[Power Rangers (film)|Power Rangers]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Maze Runner: The Death Cure]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Love, Simon]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Uncle Drew]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Down a Dark Hall (film)|Down a Dark Hall]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Life Itself (2018 film)|Life Itself]]'' (2018)
* ''[[The Hate U Give (film)|The Hate U Give]]'' (2018)
* ''[[First Man (film)|First Man]]'' (2018)
* ''[[The Kill Team (2019 film)|The Kill Team]]'' (2019)
* ''[[All Together Now (2020 film)|All Together Now]]'' (2020)
* ''[[Happiest Season]]'' (2020)
* ''[[Fatherhood (film)|Fatherhood]]'' (2021)
* ''[[Somebody I Used to Know]]'' (TBA)
* ''[[Love Letters to the Dead#Adaptations|Love Letters to the Dead]]'' (TBA)
* Untitled [[AFC Wimbledon]] project (TBA)
* ''Amulet'' (TBA)
* ''[[The Wonderful Wizard of Oz]]'' (TBA)
* ''[[The King and I]]'' (TBA)
* ''[[Children of Blood and Bone#Film adaptation|Children of Blood and Bone]]'' (TBA)

==Television==
* ''[[Revenge (TV series)|Revenge]]'' (2011-2015)
* ''[[Rosewood (TV series)|Rosewood]]'' (2015–2017)
* ''[[Mr. Mercedes (TV series)|Mr. Mercedes]]'' (2017–2019)
* ''[[Looking for Alaska (TV series)|Looking for Alaska]]'' (2019)
* ''[[The Outsider (miniseries)|The Outsider]]'' (2020)
* ''[[Dave (TV series)|Dave]]'' (2020–present)
* ''[[Love, Victor]]'' (2020–present)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Film Studio}}

[[Category:Mass media companies established in 2006]]
[[Category:Film production companies of the United States]]
[[Category:American companies established in 2006]]

{{US-film-company-stub}}

Template talk:Convert

2022-04-28T17:11:15Z

Denvercoder9: /* Broken conversion */ Reply

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==Rectangle and cuboid conversions==
Was editing some articles to use Convert when I came upon something in which I could use some help. Measurements for rectangular and cuboid figures are usually given as 10 x 10 cm or 30 cm x 10 cm x 20 cm, for example. What's the more appropriate way to use convert to handle those measurements? [[User:Zeratul2k|Zera]]/[[User_talk:Zeratul2k|talk]] 13:28, 23 February 2022 (UTC)
:*{{convert|30x10x20|cm|abbr=on}}
:*{{convert|30|x|10|x|20|cm|abbr=on}}
:There's two options which both work. -- [[User:WOSlinker|WOSlinker]] ([[User talk:WOSlinker|talk]]) 13:44, 23 February 2022 (UTC)
::Wonderful! Thanks for the quick answer! [[User:Zeratul2k|Zera]]/[[User_talk:Zeratul2k|talk]] 13:48, 23 February 2022 (UTC)

More: In the 'loose' format, "x" (ecks) and "×" (times) render the same ("×"), but the 'tight' format currently does not parse "×":
*<code><nowiki>{{convert|30|x|10|x|20|cm|abbr=on}}</nowiki></code> → {{convert|30|x|10|x|20|cm|abbr=on}}
*<code><nowiki>{{convert|30|×|10|×|20|cm|abbr=on}}</nowiki></code> → {{convert|30|×|10|×|20|cm|abbr=on}}
*<code><nowiki>{{convert|30x10x20|cm|abbr=on}}</nowiki></code> → {{convert|30x10x20|cm|abbr=on}}
*<code><nowiki>{{convert|30×10×20|cm|abbr=on}}</nowiki></code> → {{convert|30×10×20|cm|abbr=on}} –[[User:A876|A876]] ([[User talk:A876|talk]]) 18:24, 29 March 2022 (UTC)
*:Yes. I've gone a bit off that tricky syntax and recommend that it be replaced with pipes except possibly in articles that need a lot of 30x10 conversions. Convert expects a number where 30×10×20 appears and when that doesn't work it tries a small number of range separators. That is, not all of them in order to avoid excessive overhead. At any rate, please use simple input parameters (30x10x20 using ecks) to encourage others to do the same so people don't come to expect that they are "supposed" to enter the more tricky times symbol. [[User:Johnuniq|Johnuniq]] ([[User talk:Johnuniq|talk]]) 22:15, 29 March 2022 (UTC)

== Name + unit symbol doesn't work when order is flipped ==

It seems like there's a bug where if I try to show the unit name and the symbol with the order flipped, it does not show the unit symbol. For example:

<code><nowiki>{{convert|2|kPa|psi|abbr=~}}</nowiki></code> → {{convert|2|kPa|psi|abbr=~}}

<code><nowiki>{{convert|2|kPa|psi|abbr=~|order=flip}}</nowiki></code> → {{convert|2|kPa|psi|abbr=~|order=flip}}

Could someone take a look at this or point me in the right direction? [[User:Getsnoopy|Getsnoopy]] ([[User talk:Getsnoopy|talk]]) 16:17, 30 March 2022 (UTC)
:That is a rarely used option—in April 2021 there were around 30 instances in over 3 million converts. The option is intentionally disabled when <code>option=flip</code> applies. I forget the details but studying the following would probably reveal the reasoning.
:*[[Template talk:Convert/Archive November 2012#New option "abbr=~" to insert unit symbol]]
:*[[Template talk:Convert/Archive December 2014#What happened with abbr=~ ?]]
:*[[Template talk:Convert/Archive February 2018#Template quirks]]
:*[[Template talk:Convert/Archive June 2018#Module version 23]]
:[[User:Johnuniq|Johnuniq]] ([[User talk:Johnuniq|talk]]) 02:42, 31 March 2022 (UTC)

== Auto-select time unit? ==

In [[Special:Diff/1080355341]], I did two conversions from seconds; one to minutes, the other to hours. But, I had to make that choice manually. Is there some way to say, "Convert this many seconds into minutes or hours as appropriate?" -- [[User:RoySmith|RoySmith]] [[User Talk:RoySmith|(talk)]] 19:39, 31 March 2022 (UTC)
:{{ping|RoySmith}} I put an experiment for a new unit called <code>sec</code> at [[Module:Convert/extra]]. If less than 120 minutes, it defaults to minutes, otherwise hours. Examples:
:*<code><nowiki>{{convert|5700|sec}}</nowiki></code> → {{convert|5700|sec}}
:*<code><nowiki>{{convert|7200|sec}}</nowiki></code> → {{convert|7200|sec}}
:I'm not sure how useful that is but if wanted it could be incorporated in the main set of units when the module is next updated. Assuming that happened, <code>sec</code> would be removed and replaced with <code>s</code> which would be updated to use the new default. It's ok to use <code>sec</code> in articles now, if wanted. Any problems later will be noticed and fixed. [[User:Johnuniq|Johnuniq]] ([[User talk:Johnuniq|talk]]) 23:20, 31 March 2022 (UTC)
::Interesting, thanks! I changed to using sec ([[Special:Diff/1080387020]]). It looks like the break-over from minutes to hours is 120 minutes, which I guess makes sense. -- [[User:RoySmith|RoySmith]] [[User Talk:RoySmith|(talk)]] 23:59, 31 March 2022 (UTC)

== Older archives ==

Where are the links to pre-2020 archived discussions? Judging by the text at the top of [[Template talk:Convert/Archive 1]], {{user|Johnuniq}} changed the naming system for archiving in July 2020, but I can't find where the older archives are listed even though it says {{tq|The index for 2007 to 2019 will be moved to this page.}} --[[User:Redrose64|Redrose64]] 🌹 ([[User talk:Redrose64|talk]]) 11:47, 5 April 2022 (UTC)
:You add <nowiki>{{Template talk:Convert/Archives}}</nowiki> to the top of this page to show them. -- [[User:WOSlinker|WOSlinker]] ([[User talk:WOSlinker|talk]]) 12:42, 5 April 2022 (UTC)
::{{ty}} --[[User:Redrose64|Redrose64]] 🌹 ([[User talk:Redrose64|talk]]) 15:42, 5 April 2022 (UTC)
:::I don't have the energy right now to work out why my [[Special:Diff/968707994|00:56, 21 July 2020]] edit at [[Template talk:Convert/Archive 1]] is not showing the old monthly index. I am fairly sure that the aim was to ''not'' show the long and not very useful list on [[Template talk:Convert]]. Instead, it was at [[Template talk:Convert/Archive 1]]. It's a while since I've done it, but I believe that clicking "Archive 1" at the top of this page went to archive 1 and used to show the 2007 to 2019 list. That is a better location. [[User:Johnuniq|Johnuniq]] ([[User talk:Johnuniq|talk]]) 23:13, 5 April 2022 (UTC)
::::The history at {{tl|archives}} shows a revision at [[Special:PermanentLink/968116719|09:58, 17 July 2020]] which is shortly before I placed an archives box at [[Template talk:Convert/Archive 1]] with the old 2007 to 2019 archives. Previewing an edit of that July 2020 template with target <code>Template talk:Convert/Archive 1</code> displays the archive in its full glory. In other words, some change at {{tl|archives}} means that the parameters which worked in July 2020 now hide the old list. Does anyone feel like working out what has happened and how to rectify it. I would prefer that the old archive list is at Archive_1 and not cluttering up the top of this page. [[User:Johnuniq|Johnuniq]] ([[User talk:Johnuniq|talk]]) 03:12, 6 April 2022 (UTC)

== Suggested format improvement ==

Suggestion ... add a non-breaking space –<nowiki>&nbsp</nowiki>– between the base units and their conversion to prevent confusing separation of the units, like this, at the end of a line:

: ...text... 100 kilometres
: (62 mi) ...

Instead, it should look like this:

: ...text...
: 100 kilometres (62 mi) ...

The inclusion on the non-breaking space would have no effect in the middle of a line, viz:

:... 100 kilometres (62 mi) ...

Further, this suggested change to the template would be benign; it would have no material effect on any of the many places where the template is used in existing articles, other than to eliminate the separation of base and converted units if they appear at the end of a line.

Thanks for considering such an improvement to this template. [[User:Truthanado|Truthanado]] ([[User talk:Truthanado|talk]]) 23:58, 18 April 2022 (UTC)
:There are places where that would be helpful but there are others where non-breaking spaces are a problem, particularly on a mobile device with a narrow screen. At any rate, it's a manual-of-style issue and convert follows the advice at [[MOS:UNITNAMES]]: "a normal space is used between a number and a unit ''name''". [[User:Johnuniq|Johnuniq]] ([[User talk:Johnuniq|talk]]) 00:48, 19 April 2022 (UTC)

== Broken conversion ==

Take a look at the "Length" in the infobox on [[Arleigh Burke-class destroyer]]. 505 ft gets correctly converted to 154 m, 509 ft correctly becomes 155 m, and then 510 ft becomes 160 m?? That's not correct. [[User:Denvercoder9|Denvercoder9]] ([[User talk:Denvercoder9|talk]]) 16:42, 28 April 2022 (UTC)

:You need to specify the precision of conversion, which I have now done, otherwise the template assumes that 510 has been rounded to the nearest mutiple of 10 and refers to an approximate value between 505 and 515. [[User:Dr Greg| Dr Greg ]][[User talk:Dr Greg| talk ]] 17:05, 28 April 2022 (UTC)
::Even if it assumes that 510 ft is rounded, the conversion to 160 m doesn't make sense. The range of 505 ft - 515 ft corresponds to (approximately) 154 - 157 m. 160 meters is not a sensible answer. I think it's better if by default it uses something similar to <code>|round=5</code>. [[User:Denvercoder9|Denvercoder9]] ([[User talk:Denvercoder9|talk]]) 17:11, 28 April 2022 (UTC)
:FAQ #1 at the top of this page has the answer to your question, {{u|Denvercoder9}}. '''[[User:Imzadi1979|Imzadi 1979]] [[User talk:Imzadi1979|<big>→</big>]]''' 17:06, 28 April 2022 (UTC)

Template talk:Convert

2022-04-28T16:42:49Z

Denvercoder9: /* Broken conversion */ new section

Talk:List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters

2022-04-27T13:51:01Z

Denvercoder9: /* "Record values highlighted" */

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== Flight Patches ==

We include flight patches for flights that are part of the [[Commercial Crew Program]], why not for the flights that are part of the [[Commercial Resupply Services]]? 
[[File:SpaceX CRS-1 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-2 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-3 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-4 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-5 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-6 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-7 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-8 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-9 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-10 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-11 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-12 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-13 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-14 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-15 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-16 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-17 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-18 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-19 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-20 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]
[[File:SpaceX CRS-21 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]][[File:SpaceX CRS-22 Patch.png|frameless|upright=0.1]]

[[user:mnw2000]] 11:35, 20 December 2021 (UTC)

:good question i think [[User:Ergzay|Ergzay]] knows this. from my side they must be included [[User:Chinakpradhan|Chinakpradhan]] ([[User talk:Chinakpradhan|talk]]) 15:53, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
:Using flight patches for human flights is already of questionable value (I have mixed feelings personally). Going further and adding patches for every mission (all missions have patches) would be going too far. The point was to signify the importance of human spaceflight missions, not just commercial crew program missions. Inspiration4 also had patches but they were stripped out as the only images of the patch were non-free images so couldn't be used. I assume Axiom-1 will have patches as well, if there are free images. I personally suspect as more private launches happen with non-free patches, we will eventually strip out all patches. [[User:Ergzay|Ergzay]] ([[User talk:Ergzay|talk]]) 03:18, 6 January 2022 (UTC)
:I came here to see if there was discussion of these new flight patches in the big table. I agree that these are of limited value and really just a distraction. The pages that those graphics link to are already linked ''right there''. [[Special:Contributions/107.215.62.245|107.215.62.245]] ([[User talk:107.215.62.245|talk]]) 03:42, 11 March 2022 (UTC)

== New way of booster notes ==

So {{U|Ergzay}}, {{U|C-randles}}, {{U|Mfb}} and {{U|AmigaClone}}, is it good to write vertical or horizontal on banks of port Canaveral as I see it's a new tradition after recovery of B1067.3 to put the booster on spacex facilities at port Canaveral for making it ready before taking it for refurbishment through shippment on a transporter, if it is a droneship landing. Should I use a different wording for this or is it better to write refurbishing there and there after removal from the deck of droneship. [[User:Chinakpradhan|Chinakpradhan]] ([[User talk:Chinakpradhan|talk]]) 10:29, 12 January 2022 (UTC)

:@[[User:Chinakpradhan|Chinakpradhan]] In general we don't need to keep updating with every single minor change. There's really only 3 main "active" states. Awaiting launch once assigned, returning to shore if out at ocean, and refurbishing. [[User:Ergzay|Ergzay]] ([[User talk:Ergzay|talk]]) 22:23, 13 January 2022 (UTC)

::In know that {{U|Ergzay}}. But in cases like B1069.1 it almost spent a week on the banks of port Canaveral not on jrti. So that a bit problem if in future it again happens [[User:Chinakpradhan|Chinakpradhan]] ([[User talk:Chinakpradhan|talk]]) 02:08, 14 January 2022 (UTC)

:::@[[User:Chinakpradhan|Chinakpradhan]] Once it reaches the shore it's already "refurbishing". [[User:Ergzay|Ergzay]] ([[User talk:Ergzay|talk]]) 20:25, 14 January 2022 (UTC)

Ok [[User:Chinakpradhan|Chinakpradhan]] ([[User talk:Chinakpradhan|talk]]) 03:07, 15 January 2022 (UTC)
:From my side we can merge even more states. Wikipedia is not a booster-tracking site, our focus is on the generation of long-lasting content. "Awaiting launch" before the first launch, "active" while it's in one of the states between launches, and "destroyed/retired" once it's out of service. --[[User:Mfb|mfb]] ([[User talk:Mfb|talk]]) 02:14, 12 March 2022 (UTC)
::My list of statuses would be as follows:
::1) Construction/testing - for those boosters either spotted at McGregor or mentioned as being under construction in a communication from SpaceX.
::2) Awaiting Assignment - Boosters without a known payload, no matter if they have launched before or not.
::3) Awaiting Launch - Boosters with a known payload, even if the launch date is unknown.
::4) Destroyed/ Retired - out of service. Since this status is permanent, I could also see "expended/retired" - intentionally taken out of service, "destroyed" - out of service due to an accident, "display" - booster placed in the rocket garden or donated to a museum.
::5) Unknown - flown boosters that have not been spotted or mentioned by SpaceX for more than 2 years. [[User:AmigaClone|AmigaClone]] ([[User talk:AmigaClone|talk]]) 07:35, 19 March 2022 (UTC)

== Psyche booster ==

Hello, I've been wondering whether or not to include the possible Psyche mission for B1072,73, and 74. With the announcement of B1074 being a FH core and testing, Next Spaceflight stated the boosters used would be this set however when GigaShip reviewed the citation, they found the page had been reverted back to "Unknown vehicle" so Next Spaceflight changed their mind. Should we leave the Psyche mission on here bearing in mind nextspaceflight.com said these were the boosters for about 12 hours, or remove them as there is no longer a source? Thanks :) [[User:Inertiabikes|Inertiabikes]] ([[User talk:Inertiabikes|talk]]) 09:15, 16 April 2022 (UTC)

== Content Filtering ==

Is it possible to suppress display of categories of data?

By which I mean, can we have an option to display (or suppress) only Active Boosters for example?

I don't know if this is a feature already in use on other poages? If so, I don't know how to do it.

[[User:AncientBrit|AncientBrit]] ([[User talk:AncientBrit|talk]]) 16:14, 26 April 2022 (UTC)

== "Record values highlighted" ==

[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_Falcon_9_first-stage_boosters&type=revision&diff=1084383724&oldid=1084382018 This was added] without discussion. I think it's really ugly and far too prominent. There are just two relevant records, booster reuse and shortest reuse time, both are already discussed in the article. I propose to revert this addition. --[[User:Mfb|mfb]] ([[User talk:Mfb|talk]]) 08:21, 27 April 2022 (UTC)

: Support. The highlighting is really ugly and distracting for data that isn't all that relevant (especially longest turnaround) [[User:Denvercoder9|Denvercoder9]] ([[User talk:Denvercoder9|talk]]) 13:51, 27 April 2022 (UTC)

HLS

2022-03-12T18:15:10Z

Denvercoder9: add link to starship HLS

{{Wiktionary|HLS}}
'''HLS''' may refer to:
{{TOC right}}

==Organisations==
* [[Harlington Locomotive Society]], London, England
* [[HealthSouth]], a former American hospital operator
* [[Huntingdon Life Sciences]], a British contract research organisation
* [[HLS Ost]] ({{lang-de|link=no|Horchleitstelle Ost}}; {{lang-en|link=no|Intercept Control Station East}}), German WWII cryptanalysis station

===Education===
* [[Harvard Law School]], Cambridge, Massachusetts, US
* [[Helen Lowry Higher Secondary School]], Mizoram, India
* [[Highlands Latin School]], Louisville, Kentucky, US

==Technology==
* [[HTTP Live Streaming]], a media streaming communications protocol
* [[HLS color space]], a representation of points in an RGB color model
* [[High-level synthesis]], an automated design process

==Transportation==
* [[Human Landing System]], a NASA program to choose a Moon landing system for the 2020s
** [[Starship HLS|Starship Human Landing System]], a modified version of the [[SpaceX Starship#Lunar|SpaceX Starship]]
* Heavy Logistics System, a USAF program to develop the [[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy]]
** [[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy]], the winner of the USAF HLS project
* Haiti Air Freight (ICAO airline code <code>HLS</code>); see [[List of defunct airlines of Haiti]]
* [[St Helens Airport]] (IATA airport code <code>HLS</code>), Tasmania, Australia
* [[Hilsea railway station]] (station code <code>HLS</code>), England, UK

==Other uses==
* ''[[Historical Dictionary of Switzerland]]'' (German: ''Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz'')

==See also==
{{canned search|hls}}
* Health and life sciences; see [[health sciences]] and [[life sciences]]

* [[HL (disambiguation)]]
* [[HIS (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation}}

Economy of Russia

2022-02-27T19:54:28Z

Denvercoder9: drop empty notes section

{{short description|National economy of Russia}}
{{pp-sock|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox economy
| country = Russia
| image = Business Centre of Moscow 2.jpg
| image_size = 310px
| caption = The [[Moscow International Business Center|MIBC]], in the financial capital of Russia, [[Moscow]]
| currency = [[Russian ruble]] (RUB, {{RUB}})
| year = calendar year<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>
| organs = [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[BRICS]], [[Eurasian Economic Union|EAEU]], [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], [[GECF]], [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], [[G-20 major economies|G-20]] and others
| group = {{plainlist|
*[[Developing country|Developing/Emerging]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2019/01/weodata/weoselco.aspx?g=2200&sg=All+countries+%2f+Emerging+market+and+developing+economies |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2019 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=29 September 2019}}</ref>
*Upper-middle income economy<ref>{{cite web |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups |publisher=[[World Bank]] |website=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org |access-date=29 September 2019}}</ref>}}
| population = {{steady}} 146,749,000 (2020)<ref name="gks.ru-popul">{{cite web|url=https://www.gks.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2020.xls|format=XLS|script-title=ru:Предварительная оценка численности постоянного населения на 1 января 2020 года и в среднем за 2019 год|trans-title=Preliminary estimated population as of 1 January 2020 and on the average for 2019|language=ru|work=[[Russian Federal State Statistics Service]]|access-date=2 February 2020}}</ref>
| gdp = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $1.71 trillion (nominal, 2021 est.)<ref name="IMFWEORU">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/April/weo-report?c=922,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2019&ey=2026&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1|title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2021|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|website=IMF.org|access-date=17 April 2020}}</ref>
*{{increase}} $4.32 trillion ([[Purchasing power parity|PPP]], 2021 est.)<ref name="IMFWEORU"/>}}
| gdp rank = {{plainlist|
*[[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|11th (nominal, 2021)]]
*[[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|6th (PPP, 2021)]]}}
| per capita = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $11,654 (nominal, 2021 est.)<ref name="IMFWEORU"/>
*{{increase}} $29,485 (PPP, 2021 est.)<ref name="IMFWEORU"/>}}
| per capita rank = {{plainlist|
*[[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|64th (nominal, 2021)]]
*[[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|55th (PPP, 2021)]]}}
| growth = {{plainlist|
*2.8% (2018), 2.2% (2019),<ref>{{Cite news|title=Росстат уменьшил оценку падения ВВП РФ за 2020 год — с 3,0% до 2,7%|url=https://www.interfax.ru/business/813429|website=www.interfax.ru|date=2021-12-30|accessdate=2022-01-03|lang=ru}}</ref>
*−2.7% (2020),<ref>{{cite web |title=Russia's 2020 economic contraction revised to 2.7% - stats office |url=https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/russias-2020-economic-contraction-revised-to-2.7-stats-office |website=nasdaq |access-date=17 January 2022}}</ref> 4.7% (2021e)<ref>{{cite web |title=GDP growth (annual %) — Russian Federation |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=RU |website=World Bank |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Economic Outlook, October 2021 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2021/10/12/world-economic-outlook-october-2021 |website=IMF |access-date=18 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Update, June 2020 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/06/24/WEOUpdateJune2020 |website=IMF.org |publisher=International Monetary Fund |access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref>}}
| sectors = {{plainlist|
*[[Primary sector of the economy|agriculture]]: 4.7%
*[[Secondary sector of the economy|industry]]: 32.4%
*[[Tertiary sector of the economy|services]]: 62.3%
*(2017 est.)<ref name="Central Intelligence Agency">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |title=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=5 April 2015}}</ref>}}
| inflation = 3.2% (2020 est.)<ref name="IMFWEORU"/>
| poverty = {{plainlist|
*{{decreasePositive}} 12.9% (2018)<ref>{{cite web |title=Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) - Russian Federation |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=RU |website=data.worldbank.org |publisher=World Bank |access-date=21 March 2020}}</ref>
*{{increaseNegative}} 2.2% on less than $5.50/day (2020f)<ref name="Spring2020">{{cite journal |title=Europe Central Asia Economic Update, Spring 2020 : Fighting COVID-19|url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33476 |website=openknowledge.worldbank.org |date=9 April 2020 |publisher=World Bank |access-date=9 April 2020 |pages=69, 70|last1=Bank |first1=World }}</ref>}}
| labor = {{plainlist|
*{{decrease}} 73,023,442 (2019)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locations=RU&name_desc=true |title=Labor force, total - Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>
*{{increase}} 59.8% employment rate (2018)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.NE.ZS?locations=RU&name_desc=true |title=Employment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (national estimate) |publisher=World Bank |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=26 February 2020}}</ref>}}
| gini = {{increaseNegative}} 37.5 {{color|darkorange|medium}} (2018, [[World Bank]])<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=RU |title=Gini index (World Bank estimate) - Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |website=data.worldbank.org |access-date=28 October 2020}}</ref>
| hdi = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} 0.824 {{color|darkgreen|very high}} (2019)<ref name="UNHDR">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr2020.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2020|language=en|publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]|date=15 December 2020|access-date=15 December 2020}}</ref>([[List of countries by Human Development Index|52nd]])
*{{steady}} 0.743 {{color|green|high}} [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted HDI|IHDI]] (2018)<ref>{{cite web |title=Inequality-adjusted HDI (IHDI) |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/indicators/138806 |website=hdr.undp.org |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]] |access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref>}}
| edbr = {{increase}} [[Ease of doing business index#Ranking|28th (very easy, 2020)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://russian.doingbusiness.org/ru/reports/global-reports/doing-business-2020|title = Ведение бизнеса 2020}}</ref>
| occupations = {{plainlist|
*[[Primary sector of the economy|agriculture]]: 9.4%
*[[Secondary sector of the economy|industry]]: 27.6%
*[[Tertiary sector of the economy|services]]: 63%
*(2016 est.)<ref name="Central Intelligence Agency"/>}}
| unemployment = {{plainlist|
*{{increaseNegative}} 5.6% (2020 est.)<ref name="IMFWEORU"/>
*4.5% (September 2018)<ref>{{cite web |title=Bofit |url=https://app.powerbi.com/view?r=eyJrIjoiOWQwM2VjNTUtZTdmZC00N2IyLTkyNTMtY2MwYjMxYjdhYzc0IiwidCI6ImVkODlkNDlhLTJiOTQtNGFkZi05MzY0LWMyN2ZlMWFiZWY4YyIsImMiOjh9&pageName=ReportSection0670cd3fe87e80037c8d |access-date=11 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/B04_03/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d03/13.htm|title=Занятость и безработица в Российской Федерации в декабре 2017 года|website=www.gks.ru|access-date=1 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180202012542/http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/B04_03/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d03/13.htm|archive-date=2 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}
| average gross salary = [[List of European countries by average wage|RUB 54,057 / €659 / $742]] monthly (September 2021)
| average net salary = [[List of European countries by average wage|RUB 47,577 / €573 / $645]] monthly (September 2021)
| industries = {{plainlist| [[Petroleum]]| [[natural gas]]| [[mining]]| [[coal]]| [[chemicals]]| [[metals]]| [[rolling mills]]| [[machine building]]| [[aircraft]]| [[space vehicle]]s| [[Arms industry|defense equipments]]| [[shipbuilding]]| [[tractors]]| [[construction equipment]]| [[electrical equipment]]| [[medical instrument]]| [[scientific instruments]]| [[consumer durables]]| [[textiles]]| [[foodstuffs]]| [[handicrafts]]|[[Material-handling equipment|transportation equipment]]| [[communications equipment]]| [[agricultural machinery]] }}
| exports = {{increase}} $551 billion (2019 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>
| export-goods = Petroleum and petroleum products, natural gas, metals, wood and wood products, chemicals, and a wide variety of civilian and military manufactures
| export-partners = {{ublist| {{flag|EU}} & [[United Kingdom|UK]]{{increase}} 45.8%| {{flag|China}}{{decrease}} 9.8%| {{flag|Belarus}}{{increase}} 4.9%| {{flag|Turkey}}{{increase}} 4.8%| {{flag|South Korea}}{{increase}} 3.5%| {{flag|India}}{{increase}} 2.1%| Other 29.0%<ref name=wto_stat>{{cite web|title=Russia – WTO Statistics Database|url=http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=RU|work=[[World Trade Organization]]|access-date=18 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319084622/http://stat.wto.org/CountryProfile/WSDBCountryPFView.aspx?Language=E&Country=RU|archive-date=19 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> }}
| imports = {{increase}} $366 billion (2019 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>
| import-goods = Machinery, vehicles, pharmaceutical products, plastic, semi-finished metal products, meat, fruits and nuts, optical and medical instruments, iron, steel
| import-partners = {{ublist| {{flag|EU}} & [[United Kingdom|UK]]{{increase}} 38.2%| {{flag|China}}{{decrease}} 20.9%| {{flag|United States}}{{increase}} 6.1%| {{flag|Belarus}}{{increase}} 5.2%| {{flag|Japan}}{{increase}} 3.7%| Other 26.3% <ref name=wto_stat/> }}
| FDI = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $535.2 billion (31 December 2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/|title=CENTRAL ASIA :: RUSSIA |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |website=CIA.gov |access-date=30 May 2019}}</ref>
*{{increase}} Abroad: $470.9 billion (31 December 2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>}}
| current account = {{increase}} $35.44 billion (2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>
| debt = 10.6% of GDP (2017)<ref>{{cite news|format=PDF|title=The Ministry of Finance was advised to increase the national debt|url=https://iz.ru/662229/inna-grigoreva/minfinu-posovetovali-uvelichit-gosdolg|date=1 November 2017|access-date=1 November 2017}}</ref>
| gross external debt = {{increaseNegative}} $539.6 billion (31 December 2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>
| revenue = 258.6 billion (2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>
| reserves = {{increase}} $592.4 billion (25 June 2021)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbr.ru/eng/hd_base/mrrf/mrrf_7d/|title=International Reserves of the Russian Federation (End of period)|website=Cbr.ru|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> ([[List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves|5th]])
| expenses = 281.4 billion (2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>
| balance = −1.4% (of GDP) (2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>
| credit = {{plainlist|
*[[Standard & Poor's]]:<ref>{{cite web |title=Sovereigns rating list |publisher=Standard & Poor's |url=http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/eu/?subSectorCode=39|website=Standardandpoors.com|access-date=19 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Russia on Cusp of Exiting Junk as S&P Outlook Goes Positive|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-17/russian-outlook-raised-to-positive-by-s-p-as-economy-picks-up|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=17 March 2017}}</ref>
*BB+ (Domestic)
*BBB- (Foreign)
*BB+ (T&C Assessment)
*Outlook: Positive
*[[Moody's]]:<ref>{{cite news |title=Moody's changes outlook on Russia's Ba1 government bond rating to stable from negative |work=Moody's |url=https://www.moodys.com/research/Moodys-changes-outlook-on-Russias-Ba1-government-bond-rating-to--PR_361387|date=17 February 2017}}</ref>
*Ba1
*Outlook: Stable
*[[Fitch Group|Fitch]]:<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia's Outlook Raised to Stable by Fitch on Policy Action|work=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-10-14/russia-credit-outlook-raised-to-stable-by-fitch-on-policy-action|date=14 October 2016}}</ref>
*BBB-
*Outlook: Positive
*Scope:<ref>{{cite news |title=Scope upgrades Russia's long-term credit rating to BBB+; Outlook Stable |url=https://www.scoperatings.com/#!search/research/detail/169044EN|date=29 October 2021}}</ref>
*BBB+
*Outlook: Stable}}
| aid =
| cianame = russia
| spelling = US
}}

The '''economy of [[Russia]]''' is a [[mixed economy]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/mixed-economy|title=Mixed economy|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|quote="Mixed economies also arose in many countries that formerly had centrally planned and socialist economies. The mixed economies in modern China and Russia, for example, evolved from communist systems that were too inefficient to compete in the modern global economy."|access-date=4 June 2021}}</ref> with enormous natural resources, particularly [[Russian oil industry|oil]] and [[Natural gas in Russia|natural gas]].<ref>Excerpted from {{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/russia/59.htm|title=Russia - Natural Resources|last=Glenn E. Curtis (ed.)|year=1998|publisher=Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division of the [[Library of Congress]]|quote="Russia is one of the world's richest countries in raw materials, many of which are significant inputs for an industrial economy. Russia accounts for around 20 percent of the world's production of oil and natural gas and possesses large reserves of both fuels. This abundance has made Russia virtually self-sufficient in energy and a large-scale exporter of fuels."|access-date=25 June 2021}}</ref> It is the [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)|fifth-largest economy]] in Europe, the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|eleventh-largest economy]] by nominal GDP, and the [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|sixth-largest]] by [[purchasing power parity|PPP]].

Russia's vast geography is an important determinant of its economic activity, with some sources estimating that the nation contains over 30% of the world's [[natural resources]].<ref name="ems.psu.edu">Kevin M. Korabik, [http://www.ems.psu.edu/~williams/russia.htm Russia's Natural Resources and their Economic Effects] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720062114/https://www.ems.psu.edu/~williams/russia.htm |date=20 July 2019 }}, ''[[Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences]]'', 1 December 1997</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.eepcindia.com/download/Circular-160411115935.pdf |title=India Partner Country at INNOPROM-2016 Show: Russia: (11-14 July 2016, Yekaterinburg, Russia) |publisher=[[Engineering Exports Promotion Council|EEPC India]] |date=July 2016 |access-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611000234/http://www.eepcindia.com/download/Circular-160411115935.pdf |archive-date=11 June 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oceanunite.org/round-up/pre-empting-russias-year-ecology/|title=Pre-empting Russia's Year of Ecology|work=Ocean Unite|date=February 2016}}</ref> In 2016, the oil-and-gas sector accounted for 36% of federal budget revenues.<ref name="EIA">{{cite web|url= https://www.eia.gov/international/analysis/country/RUS|title= Russia – Analysis|publisher=[[U.S. Energy Information Administration|EIA]]|date=October 31, 2017|access-date=February 17, 2021}}</ref> Russia has been widely described as an [[energy superpower]];<ref>{{cite web|url=https://harvardpress.typepad.com/hup_publicity/2017/11/future-of-russia-as-energy-superpower-thane-gustafson.html|title=The Future of Russia as an Energy Superpower|work=[[Harvard University Press]]|date=20 November 2017|access-date=22 February 2021}}</ref> as it has the world's largest [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|natural gas reserves]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/265329/countries-with-the-largest-natural-gas-reserves/|title=Natural gas - countries with the largest reserves 2009-2019|work=[[Statista]]|author=N. Sönnichsen|quote="Russia has the largest proved natural gas reserves in the world. As of 2019, it had 38 trillion cubic meters worth of the fossil fuel, four trillion cubic meters more than ten years prior."|date=15 June 2021|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> the second-largest [[coal reserves]],<ref>{{Cite web|year=2020|title=Statistical Review of World Energy 69th edition|url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2020-full-report.pdf|access-date=8 November 2020|website=bp.com|publisher=[[BP]]|page=45}}</ref> the eighth-largest [[oil reserves]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-proved-reserves/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – proved reserves|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and the largest [[oil shale reserves]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|year=2010|title=2010 Survey of Energy Resources|url=https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/ser_2010_report_1.pdf|access-date=8 November 2020|website=worldenergy.org|publisher=[[World Energy Council]]|page=102|isbn=978-0-946121-021}}</ref> It is the world's [[List of countries by natural gas exports|leading natural gas exporter]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-exports/country-comparison|title=Natural gas – exports|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> the [[List of countries by natural gas production|second-largest natural gas producer]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-production/country-comparison/|title=Natural gas – production|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and the second-largest oil [[List of countries by oil exports|exporter]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-exports/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – exports|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and [[List of countries by oil production|producer]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-production/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – production|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> Russia's foreign exchange reserves are the world's [[List of countries by foreign-exchange reserves|fifth-largest]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbr.ru/eng/hd_base/mrrf/mrrf_7d/|title=International Reserves of the Russian Federation (End of period)|publisher=[[Central Bank of Russia]]|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> It has a labour force of roughly 70 million people, which is the world's [[List of countries by labour force|sixth-largest]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/labor-force/country-comparison/|title=Labor force - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> Russia's large [[Automotive industry in Russia|automotive industry]] ranks as the world's [[List of countries by motor vehicle production|tenth-largest by production]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2020-statistics/|title=2020 PRODUCTION STATISTICS|work=[[Organisation Internationale des Constructeurs d'Automobiles|OICA]]|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> It has a large and sophisticated [[Defense industry of Russia|arms industry]], capable of designing and manufacturing high-tech military equipment, and is the world's second-largest exporter of arms.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bowen |first=Andrew S. |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R46937 |title=Russian Arms Sales and Defense Industry |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |date=14 October 2021 |access-date=20 December 2021 |quote="Russia is the world’s second-largest arms exporter, behind the United States. Russia exports arms to over 45 countries and has accounted for around 20% of global arms sales since 2016."}}</ref> Russia also has the world's [[List of countries by number of billionaires|fifth-largest number]] of billionaires.<ref>{{cite web |title=Forbes Billionaires 2021 |url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/ |website=Forbes |access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref>

Russia is the world's [[List of countries by exports|fourteenth-largest exporter]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/exports/country-comparison/|title=Exports - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=16 June 2021}}</ref> In 2019, the [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Russia)|Natural Resources and Environment Ministry]] estimated the value of natural resources to 60% of the country's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/03/14/russias-natural-resources-make-up-60-of-gdp-reports-a64800|title=Russia's Natural Resources Make Up 60% of GDP|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|date=14 March 2019|access-date=14 February 2021}}</ref> Russia has one of the [[List of countries by external debt|lowest external debts]] among major economies,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/russia/external-debt|title=Russia External Debt|work=CEIC|access-date=9 July 2021}}</ref> and ranked high among the "very easy" countries in the [[ease of doing business index|Ease of Doing Business Index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.doingbusiness.org/en/rankings|title=Ease of Doing Business rankings|work=[[World Bank Group|The World Bank]]|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> It has a [[flat tax]] rate of 13%, and has the world's second-most attractive personal tax system for single managers after the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Global personal taxation comparison survey–market rankings|publisher=Mercer (consulting firms)|url=http://www.mercer.com.au/pressrelease/details.htm?idContent=1287670|access-date=27 December 2007}}{{cbignore}}</ref> However, [[List of countries by income equality|inequality of household income and wealth]] in the country has also been noted.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://qz.com/1250100/income-inequality-russia-and-the-us-are-now-equally-unequal/|title=On incomes, Russia and the US are now equally unequal|work=[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]|first=Gwynn|last=Guilford|date=12 April 2018|access-date=3 May 2021}}</ref><ref name=pbs>{{cite web|title=Inequality and the Putin Economy: Inside the Numbers|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/foreign-affairs-defense/putins-way/inequality-and-the-putin-economy-inside-the-numbers/ |website=pbs.org |publisher=Frontline |access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref><ref name=CSRIGWR>{{cite web|title=Global Wealth Report 2014|url=https://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/?fileID=60931FDE-A2D2-F568-B041B58C5EA591A4|publisher=Credit Suisse. Research Institute|access-date=14 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214122103/https://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/?fileID=60931FDE-A2D2-F568-B041B58C5EA591A4|archive-date=14 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Economic history==
{{main|Economic history of the Russian Federation|Economic redevelopment of Russia|Economy of the Soviet Union}}
The Russian economy is volatile. Since 1989 its institutional environment was transformed from a socialist command economy to a capitalistic market system. Its industrial structure dramatically shifted away from heavy investment in manufacturing and agriculture toward market services, oil, gas, and mining. Richard Connolly argues that for the last four centuries, there are four main characteristics of the Russian economy that have shaped the system and persisted despite the political upheavals. First of all the weakness of the legal system means that impartial courts do not rule and contracts are problematic. Second is the underdevelopment of modern economic activities, with very basic peasant agriculture dominant into the 1930s. Third is technological underdevelopment, eased somewhat by borrowing from the West in the 1920s. And fourth lower living standards compared to Western Europe and North America.<ref>Richard Connolly, ''The Russian economy: a very short introduction' (2020) pp 2–11.</ref>

===Soviet economy===
====Industrialization under Stalin====
Beginning in 1928, the course of the [[Soviet Union]]'s economy was guided by a series of [[Five-year plans for the national economy of the Soviet Union|five-year plans]]. By the 1950s, the Soviet Union had rapidly evolved from a mainly [[agrarian society]] into a major industrial power.{{sfn|Davies|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mNffDWnt25wC&pg=PA1 1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=mNffDWnt25wC&pg=PA3 3]}}
By the 1970s the [[Soviet Union]] was in an [[Era of Stagnation]]. The complex demands of the modern economy and inflexible administration overwhelmed and constrained the central planners. The volume of decisions facing planners in [[Moscow]] became overwhelming. The cumbersome procedures for bureaucratic administration foreclosed the free communication and flexible response required at the enterprise level for dealing with worker alienation, innovation, customers, and suppliers.

[[File:RIAN archive 695084 Workers of Moscow Likhachev Automotive Plant.jpg|thumb|Workers of Moscow [[ZiL|Likhachev Automotive Plant]], 1963]]

From 1975 to 1985, corruption and data fiddling became common practice among [[bureaucracy]] to report satisfied targets and quotas thus entrenching the crisis. Starting in 1986, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] attempted to address economic problems by moving towards a [[Market socialism|market-oriented socialist economy]]. Gorbachev's policies of [[Perestroika]] failed to rejuvenate the Soviet economy; instead, a process of political and economic disintegration culminated in the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|breakup of the Soviet Union]] in 1991.

===Transition to market economy (1991–98)===
[[File:HDP PPP per capita Russia.jpg|thumb|right|Russia's GDP by purchasing power parity (PPP) in 1991–2019 (in [[international dollars]])]]
Following the collapse of the [[Soviet Union]], Russia underwent a radical transformation, moving from a [[Planned economy|centrally planned economy]] to a [[Globalization|globally integrated]] [[market economy]]. Corrupt and haphazard [[privatization]] processes turned over major state-owned firms to politically connected "[[Russian oligarch|oligarchs]]", which has left equity ownership highly concentrated.

[[Yeltsin]]'s program of radical, market-oriented reform came to be known as a "[[Shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]". It was based on the policies associated with the [[Washington Consensus]], recommendations of the IMF and a group of top American economists, including [[Larry Summers]].<ref>{{cite book |last1= Appel|first1=Hilary|last2= Orenstein|first2=Mitchell A.|date=2018 |title=From Triumph to Crisis: Neoliberal Economic Reform in Postcommunist Countries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PHhTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page= 3|isbn=978-1108435055}}</ref><ref name=nuff>{{cite web|title=Nuffield Poultry Study Group — Visit to Russia 6th–14th October 2006|publisher=The BEMB Research and Education Trust|url=http://www.bembtrust.org.uk/Russia%20Report%20no%20app.pdf|date=2007|access-date=27 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807214106/http://www.bembtrust.org.uk/Russia%20Report%20no%20app.pdf|archive-date=7 August 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=How Harvard lost Russia|work=[[Institutional Investor (magazine)|Institutional Investor]]|url=http://www.institutionalinvestor.com/Article/1020662/How-Harvard-lost-Russia.html#.U9GAF2PMfDc|date=27 February 2006|access-date=24 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705041205/http://www.institutionalinvestor.com/Article/1020662/How-Harvard-lost-Russia.html#.U9GAF2PMfDc|archive-date=5 July 2014|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> With deep [[corruption]] afflicting the process, the result was disastrous, with real GDP falling by more than 40% by 1999, [[hyperinflation]] which wiped out personal savings, crime and destitution spreading rapidly.<ref name="WB GDP growth">{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG/countries |title=GDP growth (annual %) |publisher=[[World Bank]] |access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Members|publisher=APEC Study Center; City University of Hong Kong|url=http://www.fb.cityu.edu.hk/research/apec/index.cfm?page=members|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810232257/http://www.fb.cityu.edu.hk/research/apec/index.cfm?page=members|archive-date=2007-08-10|access-date=27 December 2007 }}</ref> This was accompanied by a drop in the standard of living, including surging economic inequality and poverty,<ref>{{cite book |last=Scheidel |first=Walter |author-link=Walter Scheidel |title=The Great Leveler: Violence and the History of Inequality from the Stone Age to the Twenty-First Century |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-0691165028 |page=222 }}</ref> along with increased excess mortality<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7828901.stm Privatisation 'raised death rate']. ''[[BBC]],'' 15 January 2009. Retrieved 24 November 2018.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1= Rosefielde|first1=Steven|date=2001 |title=Premature Deaths: Russia's Radical Economic Transition in Soviet Perspective|journal=[[Europe-Asia Studies]]|volume=53 |issue=8 |pages=1159–1176|doi= 10.1080/09668130120093174|s2cid=145733112|author-link=Steven Rosefielde}}</ref> and a decline in life expectancy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ghodsee|first=Kristen|date=2017 |title=Red Hangover: Legacies of Twentieth-Century Communism|url=https://www.dukeupress.edu/red-hangover|publisher=[[Duke University Press]]|pages=63–64 |isbn=978-0822369493|author-link=Kristen R. Ghodsee}}</ref> Likewise, the consumption of meat decreased: in 1990, an average citizen of the RSFSR consumed 63 kg of meat a year; by 1999, it had decreased to 45 kg.<ref>http://kaig.ru/rf/postmeat.pdf</ref>

The majority of state enterprises were privatized amid great controversy and subsequently came to be owned by insiders<ref>{{cite web|last=Nicholson|first=Alex|title=Metal is the latest natural resource bonanza for Russia|work=International Herald Tribune |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/08/14/business/metal.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816225640/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/08/14/business/metal.php |archive-date=2007-08-16}}</ref> for far less than they were worth.<ref name=nuff/> For example, the director of a factory during the Soviet regime would often become the owner of the same enterprise. Under the government's cover, outrageous financial manipulations were performed that enriched a narrow group of individuals at key positions of business and government.<ref name=times>{{cite news|last=Page|first=Jeremy|title=Analysis: punished for his political ambitions|work=The Times |location=UK |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article523129.ece|access-date=27 December 2007 | date=16 May 2005}}</ref> Many of them promptly invested their newfound wealth abroad, producing an enormous capital flight.<ref>{{cite news|title=Russia: Clawing Its Way Back to Life (int'l edition)|work=BusinessWeek |date=29 November 1999 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/1999-11-28/russia-clawing-its-way-back-to-life-intl-edition|access-date=27 December 2007}}</ref>

Difficulties in collecting government revenues amid the collapsing economy and dependence on short-term borrowing to finance budget deficits led to the [[1998 Russian financial crisis]].

In the 1990s Russia was "the largest borrower" from the [[International Monetary Fund]], with loans totaling $20 billion. The IMF was criticised for lending so much, as Russia introduced little of the reforms promised for the money and a large part of these funds could have been "diverted from their intended purpose and included in the flows of capital that left the country illegally".<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/455673.stm | title=Business: The Economy Russia: The IMF's biggest failure | publisher=BBC | access-date=10 May 2015 | author=23 September 1999 | date=23 September 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.imf.org/external/np/vc/1999/091399.htm | title=Facts About IMF Lending to Russia | publisher=International Monetary Fund | date=13 September 1999 | access-date=10 May 2015}}</ref>

===Recovery and growth (1999–2008)===
[[File:Oil Prices Medium Term.png|thumb|Oil prices in the 2000s]]
Russia bounced back from the August 1998 financial crash quickly, partly because of a devaluation of the ruble, which made domestic producers more competitive nationally and internationally.

Between 2000 and 2002, significant pro-growth economic reforms included a comprehensive tax reform, which introduced a flat [[income tax]] of 13%; and a broad effort at [[deregulation]] which benefited [[small and medium-sized enterprises]].<ref name="iie">[http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/paper.cfm?ResearchID=974 An Assessment of Putin's Economic Policy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322111033/http://www.iie.com/publications/papers/paper.cfm?ResearchID=974 |date=22 March 2016 }}, by [[Anders Aslund]], [[Peterson Institute for International Economics]], July 2008</ref>

Between 2000 and 2008, Russian economy got a major boost from rising commodity prices. GDP grew on average 7% per year.<ref name="WB GDP growth"/> Disposable incomes more than doubled and in [[U.S. dollar|dollar]]-denominated terms increased eightfold.<ref name="KPMG">{{cite web|url=https://www.kpmg.com/NL/nl/IssuesAndInsights/ArticlesPublications/Documents/PDF/High-Growth-Markets/Investing-in-Russia1.pdf|title=Investing in Russia|date=April 2013|publisher=[[KPMG]]|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref> The volume of consumer credit between 2000–2006 increased 45 times, fuelling a boom in private consumption.<ref name=vtbmagazine>{{cite web|url=http://www.vtbmagazine.ru/number_detail.asp?aid=87|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619041538/http://www.vtbmagazine.ru/number_detail.asp?aid=87|archive-date=2006-06-19 |script-title=ru:РОЗНИЧНЫЙ ПОДХОД. Российские банки борются за частников |publisher=Vtbmagazine.ru |language=ru|access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref><ref name=samaratoday>{{cite web|url=http://bank.samaratoday.ru/showNews.php?idNews=741|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111021205725/http://bank.samaratoday.ru/showNews.php?idNews=741|archive-date=2011-10-21 |title=Ежегодно объем потребительского кредитования в России удваивается |publisher=Bank.samaratoday.ru |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> The number of people living below poverty line declined from 30% in 2000 to 14% in 2008.<ref name=gks>{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2006/b06_11/07-01.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060715183735/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/2006/b06_11/07-01.htm|archive-date=2006-07-15 |title=Основные Социально-Экономические Индикаторы Уровня Жизни Населения |publisher=Gks.ru |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref><ref name=CIA>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Russia |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref>

[[Inflation]] remained a problem however, as the [[Bank of Russia|central bank]] aggressively expanded [[money supply]] to combat appreciation of the ruble.<ref name="Emerging Markets">{{cite web|title=In Russia, a modern institution is quietly gaining ground|publisher=Emerging Markets|url=http://www.emergingmarkets.org/Article/3124142/In-Russia-a-modern-institution-is-quietly-gaining-ground.html|date=26 November 2012|access-date=27 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808161811/http://www.emergingmarkets.org/Article/3124142/In-Russia-a-modern-institution-is-quietly-gaining-ground.html|archive-date=8 August 2014|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Nevertheless, in 2007 the [[World Bank]] declared that the Russian economy achieved "unprecedented macroeconomic stability".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7096426.stm Russia attracts investors despite its image] [[BBC News]] Retrieved on March 2008</ref> Until October 2007, Russia maintained impressive fiscal discipline with budget surpluses every year from 2000.<ref name="iie"/>

===2009–14===
[[File:Standard & Poor’s rating dynamics Russia.png|thumb|Changes in the credit rating (foreign) of Russia, [[Standard & Poor’s]]]]
Russian banks were hit by the global [[credit crunch]] in 2008, though no long term damage was done thanks to proactive and timely response by the government and central bank, which shielded the banking system from effects of the [[global financial crisis]].<ref>{{cite web|author1=Jarko Fidrmuc|author2=Philipp Johann Süß|title=The Outbreak of the Russian Banking Crisis|publisher=University of Munich|url=https://epub.ub.uni-muenchen.de/10996/1/LMU0916-Rucrisis.pdf|date=September 2009|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2008/oct/13/creditcrunch-marketturmoil1|work=[[The Guardian]]|title=Financial crisis: action taken by central banks and governments|date=21 October 2008|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-banks-insight-idUSBRE94L07920130522 |work=Reuters| title=Insight: No more easy pickings in Russia's banking market | date=22 May 2013|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref> A sharp, but brief [[Great Recession in Russia|recession in Russia]] was followed by a strong recovery beginning in late 2009.<ref name="WB GDP growth"/>

Between 2000 and 2012 Russia's energy exports fueled a rapid growth in [[living standards]], with real [[disposable income]] rising by 160%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b13_13/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d1/06-05.htm|publisher=Rosstat|language=ru|script-title=ru:ДИНАМИКА РЕАЛЬНЫХ ДОХОДОВ НАСЕЛЕНИЯ|access-date=21 July 2014}}</ref> In [[U.S. dollar|dollar]]-denominated terms this amounted to a more than sevenfold increase in disposable incomes since 2000.<ref name="KPMG" /> In the same period, unemployment and poverty more than halved and Russians' self-assessed [[life satisfaction]] also rose significantly.<ref name="challenges_p12">{{cite book|title=Russia After the Global Economic Crisis|url=https://archive.org/details/russiaaftergloba00aslu|url-access=limited|last1=Guriev|first1=Sergei|last2=Tsyvinski|first2=Aleh|publisher=Peterson Institute for International Economics; Centre for Strategic and International Studies; New Economic School|year=2010|isbn=9780881324976|editor=Anders Åslund |editor2=Sergei Guriev |editor3=Andrew C. Kuchins|pages=[https://archive.org/details/russiaaftergloba00aslu/page/n22 12]–13|chapter=Challenges Facing the Russian Economy after the Crisis}}</ref> This growth was a combined result of the [[2000s commodities boom]], [[World oil market chronology from 2003|high oil prices]], as well as prudent economic and fiscal policies.<ref name="Putin 2007">''Putin: Russia's Choice'', (Routledge 2007), by [[Richard Sakwa]], Chapter 9</ref> However, these gains have been distributed unevenly, as the 110 wealthiest individuals were found in a report by Credit Suisse to own 35% of all [[financial assets]] held by Russian [[households]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/?fileID=BCDB1364-A105-0560-1332EC9100FF5C83|title=Global Wealth Report 2013 - Pg. 53|publisher=Credit Suisse|access-date=13 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214155424/https://publications.credit-suisse.com/tasks/render/file/?fileID=BCDB1364-A105-0560-1332EC9100FF5C83|archive-date=14 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/09/russia-wealth-inequality_n_4070455.html|title=Russia's Wealth Inequality One Of Highest In The World|date=9 October 2013|work=[[Huffington Post]]|access-date=21 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009154921/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/09/russia-wealth-inequality_n_4070455.html|archive-date=2013-10-09}}</ref> Russia also has the second-largest volume of illicit money outflows, having lost over $880 billion between 2002 and 2011 in this way.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gfintegrity.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/Illicit_Financial_Flows_from_Developing_Countries_2002-2011-HighRes.pdf|title=Illicit Financial Flows from Developing Countries: 2002-2011|date=2013|publisher=Global Financial Integrity|access-date=2014-12-05}}</ref> Since 2008 [[Forbes]] has repeatedly named [[Moscow]] the "billionaire capital of the world".<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/2008/04/30/billionaires-london-moscow-biz-billies-cz_cv_0430billiecities.html|title=Cities Of The Billionaires|last=Vorasarun|first=Chaniga|date=30 April 2008|access-date=21 August 2014|magazine=Forbes}} {{cite magazine|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ricardogeromel/2013/03/14/forbes-top-10-billionaire-cities-moscow-beats-new-york-again/|title=Forbes Top 10 Billionaire Cities - Moscow Beats New York Again|last=Geromel|first=Ricardo|date=14 March 2013|access-date=21 August 2014|magazine=Forbes}}</ref>

After eighteen years of negotiations, Russia's membership to the [[WTO]] was accepted in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |title=Russia becomes WTO member after 18 years of talks |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-16212643 |website=BBC |access-date=26 January 2021 |date=16 December 2011}}</ref> In 2013, Russia was labeled a [[high-income economy]] by the [[World Bank]].<ref name=WB2013>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702131322/http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-and-lending-groups|archive-date=2014-07-02|title=Country and Lending Groups|publisher=World Bank|access-date=1 July 2013}}</ref>

Russian leaders repeatedly spoke of the need to diversify the economy away from its dependence on oil and gas and foster a high-technology sector.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/world/europe/medvedevs-economic-reforms-likely-to-continue-under-putin.html?_r=0 |work=[[The New York Times]] |title=Economic Reforms Likely to Continue Under Putin |date=22 September 2011|access-date=27 July 2014 |first=Andrew E. |last=Kramer}}</ref> In 2012 oil, gas and petroleum products accounted for over 70% of total exports.<ref name="EIA"/> This economic model appeared to show its limits, when after years of strong performance, the Russian economy expanded by a mere 1.3% in 2013.<ref name="WB GDP growth"/> Several reasons were proposed to explain the slowdown, including a prolonged [[Great Recession in Europe|recession in the EU]], which is Russia's largest trading partner, stagnant oil prices, lack of spare industrial capacity and [[Demographic crisis of Russia#In the economic sphere|demographic problems]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cbr.ru/eng/press/PR.aspx?file=16062014_133016eng_dkp2014-06-16T13_22_21.htm|title=On Bank of Russia key rate|publisher=[[Bank of Russia]]|date=16 June 2014|access-date=26 July 2014}}</ref> Political turmoil in neighboring [[Ukraine]] added to the uncertainty and suppressed investment.

===2014–present===
[[File:Countries by Natural Gas Proven Reserves (2014).svg|thumb|Countries by [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|natural gas proven reserves]] (2014), based on data from The World Factbook. Russia has the world's largest reserves.]]
Following the [[annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation of Crimea]] in March 2014 and Russia's involvement in the ongoing [[War in Donbass]], the United States, the European Union, Canada and Japan [[International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis|imposed sanctions]] on Russia.<ref>{{cite web|title = EUROPA - EU Newsroom - EU sanctions against Russia over Ukraine crisis|url = http://europa.eu/newsroom/highlights/special-coverage/eu_sanctions/index_en.htm|website = europa.eu|access-date = 2015-06-22}}</ref> This led to the decline of the Russian ruble and sparked fears of a Russian financial crisis. Russia responded with sanctions against a number of countries, including a one-year period of total ban on food imports from the European Union and the United States.

According to the [[Ministry of Economic Development (Russia)|Russian economic ministry]] in July 2014, GDP growth in the first half of 2014 was 1%. The ministry projected growth of 0.5% for 2014.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.vedomosti.ru/finance/news/2014/07/25/vvp-rossii-v-pervom-polugodii-vyros-na-1-minekonomrazvitiya |newspaper=[[Vedomosti]]| script-title=ru:ВВП России в первом полугодии вырос на 1% — Минэкономразвития| date=27 July 2014|access-date=7 August 2014|language=ru}}</ref> The Russian economy grew by a better than expected 0.6% in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-01/russia-s-economy-unexpectedly-expanded-0-4-in-fourth-quarter|title=Russian Economy Unexpectedly Expanded 0.4% in Fourth Quarter|author=Anna Andrianova|date=2 April 2015|work=Bloomberg.com|access-date=30 April 2015}}</ref> Russia is rated one of the most unequal of the world’s major economies.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/inequality/2017/apr/25/unequal-russia-is-anger-stirring-in-the-global-capital-of-inequality?CMP=share_btn_tw|title=Unequal Russia: is anger stirring in the global capital of inequality?|newspaper=The Guardian|date=25 April 2017}}</ref>

The Russian economy risked going into recession from early 2014, mainly due to falling [[Price of oil|oil prices]], [[International sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis|sanctions]], and the subsequent [[capital flight]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-29643612|title=Falling oil prices: Who are the winners and losers?|author=Tim Bowler|date=19 January 2015|work=BBC News|access-date=30 April 2015}}</ref> While in 2014 GDP growth remained positive at 0.6%,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b04_03/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d05/75.htm|work=gks.ru|language=ru|script-title=ru:О состоянии внешней торговли в январе-феврале 2015 года|trans-title=On the state of foreign trade in January–February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427143206/http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/b04_03/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d05/75.htm|archive-date=2015-04-27|access-date=30 April 2015}}</ref> in 2015 the Russian economy shrunk by 3.7% and was expected to shrink further in 2016.<ref name="bloom1">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-28/russia-s-economy-faces-long-term-decline|title=Russia's Great Downward Shift|author=Matlack, Carol|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=28 January 2016|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|access-date=28 January 2016}}</ref> By 2016, the Russian economy rebounded with 0.3% GDP growth and officially exited recession. The growth continued in 2017, with an increase of 1.5%.<ref name="gks.ru">{{cite web|url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/B04_03/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d03/20.htm|title=О производстве и использовании валового внутреннего продукта (ВВП) за 2017 год|website=www.gks.ru|access-date=1 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612210719/http://www.gks.ru/bgd/free/B04_03/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d03/20.htm|archive-date=12 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="russianeconomy2016">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-31/russian-economy-crawls-to-0-3-growth-with-recession-in-rearview|title=Russian Economy Crawled to Growth With Recession in Rearview|date=31 March 2017|agency=Bloomberg}}</ref>

In January 2016, [[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] rated Russia's economy as the 12th most innovative in the world,<ref name="bloomberg.com">[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-19/these-are-the-world-s-most-innovative-economies These Are the World's Most Innovative Economies] Bloomberg Business.</ref> up from 14th in January 2015<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150127083847/http://www.bloomberg.com/visual-data/best-and-worst/most-innovative-countries Most Innovative: Countries] Bloomberg Business.</ref> and 18th in January 2014.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/slideshow/2014-01-22/30-most-innovative-countries.html#slide14 30 Most Innovative Countries] Bloomberg Business.</ref> Russia has the world's 15th highest patent application rate, the 8th highest concentration of high-tech public companies, such as internet and aerospace and the third highest graduation rate of scientists and engineers.<ref name="bloomberg.com" />

In 2019 Russia’s [[Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment (Russia)|Natural Resources and Environment Ministry]] estimated the value of natural resources to $844 billion or 60% of the country's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/03/14/russias-natural-resources-make-up-60-of-gdp-reports-a64800|title=Russia's Natural Resources Make Up 60% of GDP|last=Times|first=The Moscow|date=2019-03-14|website=The Moscow Times|language=en|access-date=2019-03-17}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:Countries by GDP (PPP) Per Capita in 2014.svg|[[Gross domestic product]] (PPP) per capita in 2014
File:Russiaunemployment.png|Unemployment rate of Russia since the fall of the Soviet Union
</gallery>

== Data ==
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2020 (with IMF staff estimates in 2021–2026). Inflation below 5% is in green. <ref>{{Cite web|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2021/October/weo-report|access-date=2022-02-15|website=IMF|language=en}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!Year
!GDP
(in Bil. US$PPP)
!GDP per capita
(in US$ PPP)
!GDP
(in Bil. US$nominal)
!GDP per capita
(in US$ nominal)
!GDP growth
(real)
!Inflation rate
(in Percent)
!Unemployment
(in Percent)
!Government debt
(in % of GDP)
|-
|1990
|n/a
|n/a
|n/a
|n/a
|{{Decrease}}–3.0%
|n/a
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1991
|n/a
|n/a
|n/a
|n/a
|{{Decrease}}–5.0%
|n/a
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1992
|1,602.6
|10,805.2
|71.6
|482.8
|{{Decrease}}–14.5%
|n/a
|n/a
|n/a
|-
|1993
|{{Decrease}}1,497.9
|{{Decrease}}10,091.3
|{{Increase}}196.2
|{{Increase}}1,322.0
|{{Decrease}}-8.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}874.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.9%
|n/a
|-
|1994
|{{Decrease}}1,335.6
|{{Decrease}}8,999.0
|{{Increase}}293.8
|{{Increase}}1,979.4
|{{Decrease}}-12.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}307.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.1%
|n/a
|-
|1995
|{{Decrease}}1,307.7
|{{Decrease}}8,818.3
|{{Increase}}335.8
|{{Increase}}2,264.3
|{{Decrease}}-4.1%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}197.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.3%
|n/a
|-
|1996
|{{Decrease}}1,283.6
|{{Decrease}}8,668.4
|{{Increase}}412.7
|{{Increase}}2,787.0
|{{Decrease}}-3.6%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}47.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.3%
|n/a
|-
|1997
|{{Increase}}1,323.7
|{{Increase}}8,958.2
|{{Increase}}433.7
|{{Increase}}2,935.0
|{{Increase}}1.4%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}14.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.8%
|51.5%
|-
|1998
|{{Decrease}}1,267.1
|{{Decrease}}8,588.1
|{{Decrease}}287.7
|{{Decrease}}1,949.8
|{{Decrease}}-5.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}27.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}11.9%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}135.2%
|-
|1999
|{{Increase}}1,366.5
|{{Increase}}9,303.2
|{{Decrease}}209.7
|{{Decrease}}1,427.3
|{{Increase}}6.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}85.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}13.0%
|{{DecreasePositive}}92.4%
|-
|2000
|{{Increase}}1,537.9
|{{Increase}}10,511.7
|{{Increase}}278.3
|{{Increase}}1,902.0
|{{Increase}}10.0%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}20.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}10.6%
|{{DecreasePositive}}55.9%
|-
|2001
|{{Increase}}1,652.6
|{{Increase}}11,346.4
|{{Increase}}328.5
|{{Increase}}2,255.3
|{{Increase}}5.1%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}21.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}8.9%
|{{DecreasePositive}}44.4%
|-
|2002
|{{Increase}}1,758.0
|{{Increase}}12,127.0
|{{Increase}}370.1
|{{Increase}}2,552.8
|{{Increase}}4.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}15.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}8.0%
|{{DecreasePositive}}37.6%
|-
|2003
|{{Increase}}1,924.4
|{{Increase}}13,333.1
|{{Increase}}461.5
|{{Increase}}3,197.6
|{{Increase}}7.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}13.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.2%
|{{DecreasePositive}}28.3%
|-
|2004
|{{Increase}}2,117.9
|{{Increase}}14,727.8
|{{Increase}}633.3
|{{Increase}}4,404.0
|{{Increase}}7.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.9%
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.7%
|{{DecreasePositive}}20.8%
|-
|2005
|{{Increase}}2,323.6
|{{Increase}}16,221.8
|{{Increase}}817.7
|{{Increase}}5,708.8
|{{Increase}}6.4%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}12.7%
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.2%
|{{DecreasePositive}}14.9%
|-
|2006
|{{Increase}}2,590.6
|{{Increase}}18,133.2
|{{Increase}}1,060.9
|{{Increase}}7,426.0
|{{Increase}}8.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.7%
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.1%
|{{DecreasePositive}}9.8%
|-
|2007
|{{Increase}}2,887.6
|{{Increase}}20,229.0
|{{Increase}}1,393.4
|{{Increase}}9,761.4
|{{Increase}}8.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.0%
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.0%
|{{DecreasePositive}}8.0%
|-
|2008
|{{Increase}}3,097.5
|{{Increase}}21,700.5
|{{Increase}}1,779.1
|{{Increase}}12,464.2
|{{Increase}}5.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}14.1%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.2%
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.4%
|-
|2009
|{{Decrease}}2,873.5
|{{Decrease}}20,117.9
|{{Decrease}}1,307.9
|{{Decrease}}9,157.0
|{{Decrease}}-7.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}11.6%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}9.9%
|-
|2010
|{{Increase}}3,039.0
|{{Increase}}21,271.9
|{{Increase}}1,633.1
|{{Increase}}11,431.1
|{{Increase}}4.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}7.4%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.1%
|-
|2011
|{{Increase}}3,259.3
|{{Increase}}22,783.5
|{{Increase}}2,046.6
|{{Increase}}14,306.4
|{{Increase}}4.3%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}8.4%
|{{DecreasePositive}}6.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}10.3%
|-
|2012
|{{Increase}}3,480.3
|{{Increase}}24,278.8
|{{Increase}}2,191.5
|{{Increase}}15,288.0
|{{Increase}}4.0%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.1%
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}11.2%
|-
|2013
|{{Increase}}3,741.8
|{{Increase}}26,044.8
|{{Increase}}2,288.4
|{{Increase}}15,928.7
|{{Increase}}1.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}6.8%
|{{Steady}}5.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}12.3%
|-
|2014
|{{Increase}}3,763.5
|{{Decrease}}25,730.6
|{{Decrease}}2,048.8
|{{Decrease}}14,007.5
|{{Increase}}0.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}15.1%
|-
|2015
|{{Decrease}}3,526.2
|{{Decrease}}24,062.5
|{{Decrease}}1,356.7
|{{Decrease}}9,257.9
|{{Decrease}}-2.0%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}15.5%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.6%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}15.3%
|-
|2016
|{{Increase}}3,538.6
|{{Increase}}24,104.1
|{{Decrease}}1,280.6
|{{Decrease}}8,723.5
|{{Increase}}0.2%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}7.0%
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}14.8%
|-
|2017
|{{Increase}}3,818.8
|{{Increase}}25,999.3
|{{Increase}}1,575.1
|{{Increase}}10,724.0
|{{Increase}}1.8%
|{{Increase}}3.7%
|{{DecreasePositive}}5.2%
|{{DecreasePositive}}14.3%
|-
|2018
|{{Increase}}4,019.8
|{{Increase}}27,386.2
|{{Increase}}1,653.0
|{{Increase}}11,261.7
|{{Increase}}2.8%
|{{Increase}}2.9%
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.8%
|{{DecreasePositive}}13.6%
|-
|2019
|{{Increase}}4,174.9
|{{Increase}}28,449.0
|{{Increase}}1,690.1
|{{Increase}}11,516.6
|{{Increase}}2.2%
|{{Increase}}4.5%
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.6%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}13.8%
|-
|2020
|{{Decrease}}4,100.5
|{{Decrease}}28,052.6
|{{Decrease}}1,478.6
|{{Decrease}}10,115.4
|{{Decrease}}-2.7%
|{{Increase}}3.4%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.8%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}19.3%
|-
|2021
|{{Increase}}4,447.5
|{{Increase}}30,431.2
|{{Increase}}1,647.6
|{{Increase}}11,273.2
|{{Increase}}4.7%
|{{IncreaseNegative}}5.9%
|{{DecreasePositive}}4.9%
|{{DecreasePositive}}17.9%
|}

==Public policy==

===Fiscal policy===
{{see also|Federal budget of Russia}}
Russia was expected to have a Government Budget deficit of $21 billion in 2016.<ref>{{cite news|title=Russia's Budget Deficit to Reach $21Bln in 2016 – Finance Ministry|url=http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/russias-budget-deficit-to-reach-21bln-in-2016--finance-ministry/552575.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214051747/http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/russias-budget-deficit-to-reach-21bln-in-2016--finance-ministry/552575.html|archive-date=2015-12-14|access-date=30 May 2016|agency=The Moscow Times}}</ref> The budget deficit narrowed to 0.6% of GDP in 2017 from 2.8% in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/russia/overview#3|title=Overview|work=World Bank|access-date=2018-04-22|language=en}}</ref>

====National wealth fund and debt ====
On 1 January 2004, the [[Government of Russia]] established the [[Stabilization fund of the Russian Federation]] as part of the [[Federal budget of Russia|federal budget]] to balance it if [[oil price|price of oil]] falls. On 1 February 2008 the Stabilization fund was divided into two parts. The first is a reserve fund equal to 10% of GDP (10% of GDP equals to about $200 billion now), and was to be invested in a similar way as the Stabilization Fund. The second is the National Prosperity Fund of the Russian Federation. Deputy Finance Minister [[Sergei Storchak]] estimated it would reach 600–700 billion rubles by 1 February 2008. The National Prosperity Fund is to be invested in more risky instruments, including the shares of foreign companies.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shyhkin |first=Maxim |title=Stabilization Fund to Be Converted into National Prosperity |url=http://www.kommersant.com/p791856/new_fund_to_specialize_on_portfolio_investments/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930193228/http://www.kommersant.com/p791856/new_fund_to_specialize_on_portfolio_investments/ |archive-date=2007-09-30 |access-date=2 August 2007}}</ref>{{update inline|date=January 2017}}

Russia has [[Foreign debt by country|one of the lowest foreign debts among major economies]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2079rank.html Debt – external] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190317104350/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2079rank.html |date=17 March 2019 }}, [[CIA World Factbook]]. Retrieved 22 May 2010.</ref>

===Corruption===
[[File:Countries by Corruption Perceptions Index score (2019).png|thumb|right|300px|[[Corruption Perceptions Index]] by Transparency International, 2019]]
Russia was the lowest rated European country in [[Transparency International]]'s [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] for 2020; ranking 129th out of 180 countries.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Corruptions Perceptions Index 2020|url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2020/index/rus|access-date=31 January 2021|website=Transparency.org|language=en}}</ref> Corruption is perceived as a significant problem in Russia,<ref name="CPI2015">{{cite web|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2014|url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results|access-date=4 December 2015|publisher=Transparency International}}</ref> impacting various aspects of life, including the economy,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Alferova|first=Ekaterina|date=26 October 2020|title=В России предложили создать должность омбудсмена по борьбе с коррупцией|trans-title=Russia proposed to create the post of Ombudsman for the fight against corruption|url=https://iz.ru/1078501/2020-10-26/v-rossii-predlozhili-sozdat-dolzhnost-ombudsmena-po-borbe-s-korruptciei|access-date=5 November 2020|website=Известия|publisher=[[Izvestia]]|language=ru}}</ref> business,<ref>{{Cite web|date=June 2020|title=Russia Corruption Report|url=https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/russia/|access-date=5 November 2020|website=GAN Integrity|language=en-US}}</ref> [[Government of Russia|public administration]],<ref name="Suhara">{{cite web|author=Suhara, Manabu|title=Corruption in Russia: A Historical Perspective|url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192618/https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016|access-date=4 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia lost 4 billion dollars on unfavorable state procurement contracts in the last year|url=https://meduza.io/en/news/2015/12/07/russia-lost-4-billion-dollars-on-unfavorable-state-procurement-contracts-in-the-last-year|access-date=7 December 2015|website=Meduza}}</ref> [[Law enforcement in Russia|law enforcement]],<ref>{{cite news|date=2010|title=Cops for hire|url=https://www.economist.com/node/15731344|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=4 December 2015}}</ref> [[Healthcare in Russia|healthcare]],<ref>{{cite web|author1=Klara Sabirianova Peter|author2=Tetyana Zelenska|date=2010|title=Corruption in Russian Health Care: The Determinants and Incidence of Bribery|url=http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2010/zelenska_t5300.pdf|access-date=4 December 2015}}</ref> and [[Education in Russia|education]].<ref>{{cite web|author1=Elena Denisova-Schmidt|author2=Elvira Leontyeva|author3=Yaroslav Prytula|date=2014|title=Corruption at Universities is a Common Disease for Russia and Ukraine|url=http://ethics.harvard.edu/blog/corruption-universities-common-disease-russia-and-ukraine|access-date=4 December 2015|publisher=Harvard University}}</ref> The phenomenon of corruption is strongly established in the historical model of public governance in Russia and attributed to general weakness of [[rule of law]] in Russia.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maynes|first=Charles|date=26 January 2020|title=New Reports Highlight Russia's Deep-Seated Culture of Corruption {{!}} Voice of America – English|url=https://www.voanews.com/europe/new-reports-highlight-russias-deep-seated-culture-corruption|access-date=5 November 2020|website=www.voanews.com|publisher=[[Voice of America]]|language=en}}</ref> As of 2020, the percentage of business owners who distrust law enforcement agencies rose to 70% (from 45% in 2017); 75% don't believe in impartiality of courts and 79% do not believe that legal institutions protect them from abuse of law such as racketeering or arrest on dubious grounds.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Times|first=The Moscow|date=2021-05-26|title=80% of Russian Business Owners Fear Arbitrary Arrest|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/26/80-of-russian-business-owners-fear-arbitrary-arrest-a74011|access-date=2021-05-26|website=The Moscow Times|language=en}}</ref>

==Sectors==
[[File:Russia - Exports - 2016.jpg|right|thumb|Export structure of Russia]]

===Primary===

====Energy====
{{See also|List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|List of countries by natural gas exports|List of countries by oil exports|Russia in the European energy sector}}
[[File:RF NG pipestoEU.gif|thumb|Russia is a key [[petroleum|oil]] and [[natural gas|gas]] supplier to much of Europe]]
[[File:Moscow, Sofiyskaya embankment.jpg|thumb|[[Rosneft]] headquarters on the bank of the [[Moskva River]], Moscow]]

The mineral-packed [[Ural Mountains]] and the vast [[fossil fuel]] (oil, gas, [[Coal in Russia|coal]]), and timber reserves of [[Siberia]] and the [[Russian Far East]] make Russia rich in natural resources, which dominate Russian exports. Oil and gas exports, specifically, continue to be the main source of [[hard currency]].

Russia has been widely described as an [[energy superpower]];<ref>{{cite web|url=https://harvardpress.typepad.com/hup_publicity/2017/11/future-of-russia-as-energy-superpower-thane-gustafson.html|title=The Future of Russia as an Energy Superpower|work=[[Harvard University Press]]|date=20 November 2017|access-date=22 February 2021}}</ref> as it has the world's largest [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|natural gas reserves]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/265329/countries-with-the-largest-natural-gas-reserves/|title=Natural gas - countries with the largest reserves 2009-2019|work=[[Statista]]|author=N. Sönnichsen|quote="Russia has the largest proved natural gas reserves in the world. As of 2019, it had 38 trillion cubic meters worth of the fossil fuel, four trillion cubic meters more than ten years prior."|date=15 June 2021|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> the second-largest [[coal reserves]],<ref>{{Cite web|year=2020|title=Statistical Review of World Energy 69th edition|url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2020-full-report.pdf|access-date=8 November 2020|website=bp.com|publisher=[[BP]]|page=45}}</ref> the eighth-largest [[oil reserves]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-proved-reserves/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – proved reserves|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and the largest [[oil shale reserves]] in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|year=2010|title=2010 Survey of Energy Resources|url=https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/ser_2010_report_1.pdf|access-date=8 November 2020|website=worldenergy.org|publisher=[[World Energy Council]]|page=102|isbn=978-0-946121-021}}</ref> It is the world's [[List of countries by natural gas exports|leading natural gas exporter]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-exports/country-comparison|title=Natural gas – exports|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> the [[List of countries by natural gas production|second-largest natural gas producer]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-production/country-comparison/|title=Natural gas – production|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and the second-largest oil [[List of countries by oil exports|exporter]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-exports/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – exports|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and [[List of countries by oil production|producer]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-production/country-comparison/|title=Crude oil – production|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> Fossil fuels cause most of the [[greenhouse gas emissions by Russia]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia: greenhouse gas emissions by sector|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1048675/greenhouse-gas-emissions-by-sector-russia/|access-date=3 December 2020|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref> The country is the world's fourth-largest [[electricity producer]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/electricity-production/country-comparison|title=Electricity – production|work=[[CIA World Factbook]]|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> and the ninth-largest [[renewable energy producer]] in 2019.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Whiteman|first1=Adrian|last2=Rueda|first2=Sonia|last3=Akande|first3=Dennis|last4=Elhassan|first4=Nazik|last5=Escamilla|first5=Gerardo|last6=Arkhipova|first6=Iana|date=March 2020|title=Renewable capacity statistics 2020|url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2020/Mar/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2020.pdf|access-date=8 November 2020|website=[[IRENA]]|publisher=[[International Renewable Energy Agency]]|page=3|location=Abu Dhabi|isbn=978-92-9260-239-0}}</ref> Russia was also the world's first country to develop civilian nuclear power, and to construct the world's [[Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant|first nuclear power plant]].<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/06/june-27-1954-worlds-first-nuclear-power-plant-opens/|title=June 27, 1954: World's First Nuclear Power Plant Opens|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|first=Tony|last=Long|quote="1954: The first nuclear power plant to be connected to an external grid goes operational in [[Obninsk]], outside of Moscow... The nuclear reactor, used to generate electricity, heralded Obninsk's new role as a major Soviet scientific city, a status it retains in the Russian Federation where it carries the sobriquet of First Russian Science City."|date=27 June 2012|access-date=8 June 2021}}</ref> In 2019, It was the world's fourth-largest [[Nuclear power by country|nuclear energy producer]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=October 2020|title=Nuclear Power Today |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx|access-date=8 November 2020|website=www.world-nuclear.org|publisher=[[World Nuclear Association]]}}</ref>

====Mining====
{{main|Mining industry of Russia|Metallurgy of Russia}}
Russia is also a leading producer and exporter of minerals and gold. Russia is the largest diamond-producing nation in the world, estimated to produce over 33 million [[Carat (mass)|carats]] in 2013, or 25% of global output valued at over $3.4 billion, with state-owned [[ALROSA]] accounting for approximately 95% of all Russian production.<ref name="Kitco">[http://www.kitco.com/ind/Zimnisky/2013-08-20-Ranking-Of-The-World-s-Diamond-Mines-By-Estimated-2013-Production.html "Ranking Of The World's Diamond Mines By Estimated 2013 Production"], ''[[Kitco]]'', 20 August 2013.</ref>

In 2019, the country was the 3rd world producer of [[gold]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-gold.pdf| title = USGS Gold Production Statistics}} </ref> 2nd worldwide producer of [[platinum]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-platinum.pdf| title = USGS Platinum Production Statistics}} </ref> 4th worldwide producer of [[silver]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-silver.pdf| title = USGS Silver Production Statistics}} </ref> 9th largest world producer of [[copper]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-copper.pdf| title = USGS Copper Production Statistics}} </ref> 3rd largest world producer of [[nickel]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-nickel.pdf| title = USGS Nickel Production Statistics}} </ref> 6th largest world producer of [[lead]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-lead.pdf| title = USGS Lead Production Statistics}} </ref> 9th largest world producer of [[bauxite]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-bauxite-alumina.pdf| title = USGS Bauxite Production Statistics}} </ref> 10th largest world producer of [[zinc]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-zinc.pdf| title = USGS Zinc Production Statistics}} </ref> 2nd worldwide producer of [[vanadium]];<ref>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-vanadinum.pdf USGS Vanadinum Production Statistics]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> 2nd largest world producer of [[cobalt]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-cobalt.pdf| title = USGS Cobalt Production Statistics}} </ref> 5th largest world producer of [[iron ore]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-iron-ore.pdf| title = USGS Iron Ore Production Statistics}} </ref> 7th largest world producer of [[boron]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-boron.pdf| title = USGS Boron Production Statistics}} </ref> 9th largest world producer of [[molybdenum]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-molybdenum.pdf| title = USGS Molybdenum Production Statistics}} </ref> 13th largest world producer of [[tin]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-tin.pdf| title = USGS Tin Production Statistics}} </ref> 3rd largest world producer of [[sulfur]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-sulfur.pdf| title = USGS Sulfur Production Statistics}} </ref> 4th largest world producer of [[phosphate]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-phosphate.pdf| title = USGS Phosphate Production Statistics}} </ref> 8th largest world producer of [[gypsum]];<ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-gypsum.pdf| title = USGS Gypsum Production Statistics}} </ref> in addition to being the world's 10th largest producer of [[table salt | salt]]. <ref> {{cite web| url = https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2021/mcs2021-salt.pdf| title = USGS Salt Production Statistics}} </ref> It was the world's 6th largest producer of [[uranium]] in 2018. <ref> {{cite web| url = http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf23.html| title = World Uranium Mining}} </ref>

====Agriculture====
{{Main|Agriculture in Russia|Fishing industry in Russia}}
[[File:Rostov's region combain.jpg|thumb|A [[combine harvester]] in [[Rostov Oblast]]]]
Russia's agriculture sector contributes about 5% of the country's total GDP, although the sector employs about one-eighth of the total labour force.<ref name="agriculturebritannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy|title=Russia - Economy|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|access-date=1 July 2021}}</ref> It has the world's [[Land use statistics by country|third-largest cultivated area]], at {{convert|1265267|km2}}. However, due to the harshness of its environment, about 13.1% of its land is [[agricultural land|agricultural]],<ref name="CIAWFRS"/> and only 7.4% of its land is [[arable land|arable]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS|title=Arable land (% of land area)|work=[[The World Bank]]|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> The main product of Russian farming has always been [[grain]], which occupies considerably more than half of the cropland.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/> Russia is the world's [[List of countries by wheat exports|largest exporter of wheat]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-09-22/russia-s-dominance-of-the-wheat-world-keeps-growing|title=Russia's Dominance of the Wheat World Keeps Growing|work=[[Bloomberg L.P.]]|first1=Anatoly|last1=Medetsky|first2=Megan|last2=Durisin|date=23 September 2020|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> and is the largest producer of [[barley]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbandeh|first=M.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/272760/barley-harvest-forecast/|title=Global barley producers by country 2020/21|work=[[Statista]]|quote="This statistic provides a forecast of barley production volume worldwide in 2020/2021, by country. In that year, Russia produced about 20.63 million metric tons of barley."|date=8 July 2021|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> [[buckwheat]], [[oats]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbandeh|first=M.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1073550/global-leading-oats-producers/|title=Global leading oats producers 2020|work=[[Statista]]|date=12 November 2020|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> and [[rye]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbandeh|first=M.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/190489/rye-production-in-specified-countries/|title=Top countries in rye production 2019/2020|work=[[Statista]]|date=10 February 2021|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> and the second-largest producer of [[sunflower seed]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Shahbandeh|first=M.|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/263928/production-of-sunflower-seed-since-2000-by-major-countries/|title=Sunflower seed production in major countries 2019/20|work=[[Statista]]|quote="Russia is also a major producer of sunflower seeds worldwide, with a production volume of 15.3 million metric tons in 2019/2020."|date=25 February 2021|access-date=18 July 2021}}</ref> Various analysts of [[climate change adaptation]] foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.<ref name="climatechange">{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia-climate-migration-crisis.html|title=How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis|work=[[The New York Times]]|first=Abrahm|last=Lustgarten|date=16 December 2020|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref>

More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is devoted to [[Nonfood crop|industrial crop]]s, vegetables, and fruits.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/> Owing to its large coastline along three oceans, Russia maintains one of the world's [[Fishing industry by country|largest fishing fleets]], ranking sixth in the world in tonnage of fish caught; capturing 4,773,413 tons of fish in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en.pdf|title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]|date=2018|access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref> It is also home to the world's finest caviar (the [[Beluga (sturgeon)|beluga]]), and produces about one-third of all canned fish, and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/>

===Industry===
[[File:Russia industrial growth chart YoY.PNG|thumb|Russia's [[List of countries by industrial production growth rate|industrial growth]] per year (%), 1992–2010]]

====Defense industry====
{{main|Defense industry of Russia|Science and technology in Russia}}
[[File:Putin Meeting with workers of the Kalashnikov Concern - September 2016.jpg|thumb|200px|President [[Vladimir Putin]] meeting with workers of [[Kalashnikov Concern]] (2016)]]
[[File:VDayRehearsal05052016-28.jpg|thumb|200px|A view of [[T-14 Armata]] tank]]
The [[defense industry]] of Russia is a strategically important sector and a large employer in the country. Russia has a large and sophisticated arms industry, capable of designing and manufacturing high-tech military equipment, including a [[Sukhoi PAK FA|fifth-generation fighter jet]], [[Nuclear submarine|nuclear powered submarines]], [[firearm]]s, and [[Ballistic missile|short range/long range ballistic missiles]]. It is the world's second-largest exporter of arms, behind only the United States.<ref name="CIAWFRS"/>

====Aerospace====
[[File:Sukhoi Superjet 100 prototype.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Sukhoi Superjet 100]] is one of Russia's most recent civilian aviation products. The regional passenger plane was ordered around 280 times for various airlines and leasing companies as of 2018]]
{{main|Aircraft industry of Russia|Space industry of Russia}}
Aircraft manufacturing is an important industry sector in Russia, employing around 355,300 people. The Russian aircraft industry offers a portfolio of internationally competitive military aircraft such as [[MiG-29]] and [[Su-30]], while new projects such as the [[Sukhoi Superjet 100]] are hoped to revive the fortunes of the civilian aircraft segment. In 2009, companies belonging to the [[United Aircraft Corporation]] delivered 95 new fixed-wing aircraft to its customers, including 15 civilian models. In addition, the industry produced over 141 helicopters. It is one of the most science-intensive hi-tech sectors and employs the largest number of skilled personnel. The production and value of the military aircraft branch far outstrips other defense industry sectors, and aircraft products make up more than half of the country's arms exports.<ref name="manturov">{{cite journal|url=http://dlib.eastview.com/browse/doc/20573392|title=Prospects for the Domestic Aircraft Industry|last1=Manturov|first1=Denis|journal=Military Parade|issue=4|year=2009|pages=8–9}}</ref>

The [[Space industry of Russia]] consists of over 100 companies and employs 250,000 people.<ref name="mdb">{{cite journal|last=Ionin|first=Andrey|title=Russia's Space Program in 2006: Some Progress but No Clear Direction|journal=[[Moscow Defense Brief]]|publisher=Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies|issue=2(#8)|url=http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/2-2007/item1/item3/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070827204307/http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/2-2007/item1/item3/|archive-date=2007-08-27}}</ref> The largest company of the industry is [[RKK Energia]], the main manned space flight contractor. Leading launch vehicle producers are [[Khrunichev]] and [[TsSKB Progress]]. Largest satellite developer is [[Reshetnev Information Satellite Systems]], while [[NPO Lavochkin]] is the main developer of interplanetary probes.{{Citation needed|date=July 2011}}

====Automotive industry====
{{main|Automotive industry in Russia}}
[[File:Lada Vesta Concept.JPG|thumb|[[Lada]] is a brand of [[AvtoVAZ]], the largest Russian car manufacturer in the [[Russian automotive industry]].]]
[[File:2018 inauguration of Vladimir Putin 26.jpg|thumb|[[Aurus Senat]], a recent [[armored limousine]] project by [[NAMI (automotive institute)|NAMI]]]]
Automotive production is a significant industry in Russia, directly employing around 600,000 people or 1% of the country's total workforce. Russia produced 1,767,674 vehicles in 2018, ranking 13th among car-producing nations in 2018, and accounting for 1.8% of the worldwide production.<ref>{{cite web |title=Production Statistics 2018 Statistics |url=http://www.oica.net/category/production-statistics/2018-statistics/ |access-date=21 November 2019}}</ref> The main local brands are light vehicle producers [[AvtoVAZ]] and [[GAZ]], while [[Kamaz|KamAZ]] is the leading heavy vehicle producer. Eleven foreign carmakers have production operations or are constructing their plants in Russia.

====Electronics====
Russia is experiencing a regrowth of microelectronics, with the revival of [[Mikron Group|JCS Mikron]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://eetimes.eu/187200078 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207194221/http://eetimes.eu/187200078 | url-status=dead | archive-date=7 February 2011 | title=Electronics regrowth in Russia | publisher=Eetimes.ru | access-date=8 December 2014 | df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.pravda.ru/main/18/89/357/11642_Russia.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041222182331/http://english.pravda.ru/main/18/89/357/11642_Russia.html|archive-date=2004-12-22 | title=Electronics in Russia|date=25 December 2003|publisher=English.pravda.ru|access-date=8 December 2014}}</ref>

===Services===

====Retail====
As of 2013, Russians spent 60% of their pre-tax income on shopping, the highest percentage in Europe. This is possible because many Russians pay no rent or house payments, owning their own home after privatization of state-owned Soviet housing. [[Shopping mall]]s were popular with international investors and shoppers from the emerging middle class. Eighty-two malls had been built near major cities including a few that were very large. A [[supermarket]] selling groceries is a typical anchor store in a Russian mall.<ref name=NYT010113>{{cite news|title=Malls Blossom in Russia, With a Middle Class|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/02/business/global/with-a-mall-boom-in-russia-property-investors-go-shopping.html|access-date=2 January 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=1 January 2013|author=Andrew E. Kramer|quote=I feel like I’m in Disneyland}}</ref>

'''Retail sales in Russia'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.russiaretail.com/Russian_Retail_Data.shtml|title=Basic retail data Russia - Russia Retail and FMCG market news|publisher=Russiaretail.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111104022958/http://www.russiaretail.com/Russian_Retail_Data.shtml |archive-date= 4 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.russiaretail.com/Russian_Retail_Data.shtml|title=Basic retail data Russia - Russia Retail and FMCG market news|publisher=Russiaretail.com|access-date=5 October 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005211221/http://www.russiaretail.com/Russian_Retail_Data.shtml |archive-date=5 October 2015}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! style="width:120px;"| '''Year'''
| 2002 || 2003 || 2004 || 2005 || 2006 || 2007 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010 || 2011
|-
! style="width:120px;"| '''Total retail sales (RUB trillions)'''
| 3.77 || 4.53 || 5.64 || 7.04 || 8.69 ||10.76 || missing year ||14.60 ||16.49 ||19.08
|}

====Telecommunications====
{{main|Telecommunications in Russia}}
Russia's telecommunications industry is growing in size and maturity. As of December 2007, there were an estimated 4,900,000 broadband lines in Russia.<ref>{{cite web|author=Lenta.ru |url=http://it.tut.by/news/97330.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625003353/http://it.tut.by/news/97330.html |archive-date=2009-06-25 |title=Internet usage statistic |publisher=It.tut.by |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref>

In 2006, there were more than 300 BWA operator networks, accounting for 5% of market share, with dial-up accounting for 30%, and Broadband Fixed Access accounting for the remaining 65%.<ref name="ICT in Russia">{{cite web|url=http://www.ictrussia.com/Russia_ICT_data.shtml |title=ICT in Russia |publisher=Ictrussia.com |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> In December 2006, Tom Phillips, chief government and regulatory affairs officer of the [[GSM Association]] stated:
::"Russia has already achieved more than 100% mobile penetration thanks to the huge popularity of wireless communications among Russians and the government's good work in fostering a market driven mobile sector based on strong competition."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://electronics.ihs.com/news/2006/gsma-3g-russia.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070224085551/http://electronics.ihs.com/news/2006/gsma-3g-russia.htm|archive-date=2007-02-24 |title=retrieved 2 August 2007 |publisher=Electronics.ihs.com |date=6 December 2006 |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref>

The financial crisis, which had already hit the country at the end of 2008, caused a sharp reduction of the investments by the business sectors and a notable reduction of IT budget made by government in 2008–2009. As a consequence, in 2009 the IT market in Russia declined by more than 20% in ruble terms and by one-third in euro terms. Among the particular segments, the biggest share of the Russian IT market still belongs to hardware.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ictrussia.com/Russia_ICT_data.shtml|title=ICT Russia data, 2004-2011|publisher=Ictrussia.com|date=2012|access-date=5 October 2015}}</ref>

'''Key data on the telecommunications market in Russia'''<ref name="ICT in Russia"/>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! '''Year'''
| 2004 || 2005 || 2006 || 2007 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010 || 2011 (est.)
|-
! '''Telecommunications market value (€ bn)'''
| 12.9 || 16.0 || 20.9 || 25.0 || 27.5 || 24.4 || 28.5 || 30.6
|-
! '''Telecommunications market growth rate (%)'''
| 32.0 || 23.5 || 30.6 || 20.2 || 10.0 || −11.4|| 17.1 || 7.3
|}

====Transportation====
{{main|Transport in Russia|Russian Railways}}
[[File:VL 85-022 container train.jpg|thumb|The [[Trans-Siberian Railway]], the longest railway-line in the world, as seen across the coast of [[Lake Baikal]].]]
[[File:"Russian bridge" in Vladivostok city.jpg|thumb|The [[Russky Bridge]] in [[Vladivostok]] is the longest cable-stayed bridge in the world]]
[[Rail transport in Russia|Railway transport in Russia]] is mostly under the control of the state-run [[Russian Railways]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ar2017.rzd.ru/pdf/ar/en/results-review_operational_passenger.pdf |title=Passenger transportation|publisher=[[Russian Railways]]|date=2017|access-date=2 July 2021}}</ref> The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's [[List of countries by rail transport network size|third-longest]], and exceeds {{convert|87157|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison|title=Railways - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> {{As of|2016}}, Russia has [[Roads by country|1,452.2 thousand km of roads]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://government.ru/info/22865/|title=О развитии дорожной инфраструктуры|trans-title=On the development of road infrastructure|work=[[Government of Russia]]|date=29 April 2016|access-date=14 January 2021}}</ref> and its road density is among the world's lowest.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldroadstatistics.org/europe-central-asia-continue-to-report-the-worlds-highest-road-network-density-followed-by-east-asia-and-pacific/|title=Europe continues to report the world's highest Road Network Density, followed by East Asia and Pacific.|work=International Road Federation|date=16 December 2020|access-date=19 May 2021}}</ref> Russia's inland waterways are the world's [[List of countries by waterways length|second-longest]], and total {{convert|102000|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison|title=Waterways - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> Among [[List of airports in Russia|Russia's 1,218 airports]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/airports/country-comparison|title=Airports - The World Factbook|work=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|access-date=15 June 2021}}</ref> the [[List of the busiest airports in Russia|busiest]] is [[Sheremetyevo International Airport]] in Moscow.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.svo.aero/en/about/sheremetyevo-today|title=Sheremetyevo today|work=www.svo.aero|access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref>

Russia's largest post is the [[Port of Novorossiysk]] in [[Krasnodar Krai]] along the Black Sea.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1023550/russia-cargo-throughput-by-port/|title=Cargo throughput volume in Russia in 2020, by port|work=[[Statista]]|author=D. Elagina|date=22 January 2021|quote="The Russian sea port Novorossiysk, located in the Azov-Black Sea basin, handled almost 142 million metric tons of cargo in 2020 and became the leading port in the country by the cargo throughput."|access-date=10 June 2021}}</ref> It is the world's sole country to operate [[nuclear-powered icebreaker]]s, which advance the economic exploitation of the Arctic [[continental shelf of Russia]], and the development of sea trade through the [[Northern Sea Route]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://poseidonexpeditions.com/about/articles/nuclear-icebreakers-what-s-so-special-about-them/|title=Nuclear icebreakers – what's so special about them?|work=[[Poseidon Expeditions]]|quote="Russia is the only country constructing nuclear-powered icebreakers in the world. They were purposely built for the strategic importance of the Northern Sea Route and a more evident need to guarantee the safety of the Russian trade vessels in winter and Arctic settlements’ dependency on supplies."|access-date=24 May 2021}}</ref>

====Construction====
[[File:NUTEP and KSK.jpg|thumb|The [[Port of Novorossiysk]]]]
In 2009 the Russian construction industry survived its most difficult year in more than a decade. The 0.8% reduction recorded by the industry for the first three quarters of 2010 looked remarkably healthy in comparison with the 18.4% slump recorded the previous year, and construction firms became much more optimistic about the future than in previous months. The most successful construction firms concluded contracts worth billions of dollars and planned to take on employees and purchase new building machinery. The downturn served to emphasise the importance of the government to the construction market.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.constructionrussia.com/Russian_Construction_Data.shtml|title=Russian Construction Data - construction output, homes completed, building materials production|publisher=Constructionrussia.com|access-date=8 December 2014}}</ref>

====Insurance====
According to the Central Bank of Russia 422 insurance companies operate on the Russian insurance market by the end of 2013. The concentration of insurance business is significant across all major segments except [[:ru:Обязательное страхование гражданской ответственности владельцев транспортных средств|compulsory motor third party liability market (CMTPL)]], as the top 10 companies in 2013 charged 58.1% premiums in total without compulsory health insurance (CHI).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rgs.ru/media/CSR/Insurance_market_results_2013_ENG.pdf|title=Russian Insurance Market in 2013|publisher=Rgs.ru|access-date=8 December 2014}}</ref> Russian insurance market in 2013 demonstrated quite significant rate of growth in operations. Total amount of premiums charged (without CHI) in 2013 is RUB 904.9 bln (increase on 11.8% compared to 2012), total amount of claims paid is RUB 420.8 bln (increase on 13.9% compared to 2012). Premiums to GDP ratio (total without CHI) in 2013 increased to 1.36% compared to 1.31 a year before. The share of premiums in household spending increased to 1.39%. Level of claims paid on the market total without CHI is 46.5%, an insufficient increase compared to 2012. The number of policies in 2013 increased on 0.1% compared to 2012, to 139.6 mln policies.

Although relative indicators of the Russian insurance market returned to pre-crisis levels, the progress is achieved mainly by the increase of life insurance and accident insurance, the input of these two market segments in premium growth in 2013 largely exceeds their share on the market. As before, life insurance and accident insurance are often used by banks as an appendix to a credit contract protecting creditors from the risk of credit default in case of borrower’s death or disability. The rise of these lines is connected, evidently, with the increase in consumer loans, as the total sum of credit obligations of population in 2013 increased by 28% to RUB 9.9 trillion. At the same time premium to GDP ratio net of life and accident insurance remained at the same level of 1.1% as in 2012. Thus, if "banking" lines of business are excluded, Russian insurance market is in stagnation stage for the last four years, as premiums to GDP ratio net of life and accident insurance remains at the same level of 1.1% since 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://fa.ru/chair/priklsoc/Documents/%D0%98%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%20%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%20%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%20%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0%202013%20%D0%B3._eng.pdf |access-date=6 February 2021 }}{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

====Information technology====
{{main|Information technology in Russia}}
[[File:Graduates in tertiary education-thousands.jpg|thumb|Russia has more academic graduates than any other country in Europe. (And world leader in percentage of population with associate degree or higher: 54%, compared to 31% in UK<ref>[[Huffington Post]]: [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2010/07/22/countries-with-the-most-c_n_655393.html#s117394&title=United_Kingdom_318 Countries With The MOST College Graduates] retrieved 27 September 2013</ref>)]]

The IT market is one of the most dynamic sectors of the Russian economy. Russian software exports have risen from just $120 million in 2000 to $3.3 billion in 2010.<ref name="Russoft">{{cite web |url=http://russoft.ru/files/RUSSOFT_Survey_8_en.pdf |title=The 8th Annual Survey of the Russian Software Export Industry |publisher=Russoft |date=22 November 2011 |access-date=5 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514052010/http://russoft.ru/files/RUSSOFT_Survey_8_en.pdf |archive-date=14 May 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since the year 2000 the IT market has started growth rates of 30–40% a year, growing by 54% in 2006 alone. The biggest sector in terms of revenue is system and network integration, which accounts for 28.3% of the total market revenues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.silicontaiga.org/home.asp?artId=6539|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930093355/http://www.silicontaiga.org/home.asp?artId=6539|archive-date=2007-09-30 |title=Russian IT market worth $2,4 billion |publisher=Silicon Taiga |date=26 December 2006 |access-date=12 November 2011}}</ref> Meanwhile, the fastest growing segment of the IT market is [[offshore programming]].

[[File:Beriev aircraft factory Taganrog.jpg|thumb|Interior of the Beriev Scientific and Technical Complex in [[Taganrog]]]]

Currently, Russia controls 3% of the offshore software development market and is the third leading country (after [[India]] and China) among software exporters{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}. Such growth of software outsourcing in Russia is caused by a number of factors. One of them is the supporting role of the [[Government of Russia|Russian Government]]. The government has launched a program promoting construction of IT-oriented technology parks (Technoparks)—special zones that have an established infrastructure and enjoy a favorable tax and customs regime, in seven different places around the country: Moscow, Novosibirsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Kaluga, Tumen, Republic of Tatarstan and St. Peterburg Regions. Another factor stimulating the IT sector growth in Russia is the presence of global technology corporations such as [[Intel]], [[Google]], [[Motorola]], [[Boeing]], [[Nortel]], [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[SAP AG]], and others, which have intensified their [[software development]] activities and opened their [[R&D]] centers in Russia.<ref name="Russoft"/>

Under a [[Order of the Government of Russia|government decree]] signed On June 2013, a special "roadmap" is expected to ease business suppliers’ access to the procurement programs of state-owned infrastructure monopolies, including such large ones as [[Gazprom]], [[Rosneft]], [[Russian Railways]], [[Rosatom]], and [[Transneft]]. These companies will be expected to increase the proportion of domestic technology solutions they use in their operations. The decree puts special emphasis on purchases of innovation products and technologies. According to the new decree, by 2015, government-connected companies must double their purchases of Russian technology solutions compared to the 2013 level and their purchasing levels must quadruple by 2018.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://russoft.org/docs/?doc=2460| title =Medvedev's Cabinet compels state-owned corporations to buy Russian technology| work =[[Russoft]]| access-date =23 June 2013| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20131219044720/http://www.russoft.org/docs/?doc=2460| archive-date =19 December 2013| url-status =dead}}</ref>

Russia is one of the few countries in the world with a home grown [[internet search engine]] who owns a relevant marketshare as the Russian-based search engine [[Yandex]] is used by 53.8% of internet users in the country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21555560|title=The internet business in Russia: Europe's great exception - The Economist|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=14 March 2015|date=19 May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.techrobo.org/popular-search-engines-world-top-ten-list/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506082831/http://www.techrobo.org/popular-search-engines-world-top-ten-list/|archive-date=2015-05-06|title=Most Popular Search Engines in the World – Top Ten List - Tech Robo|work=Tech Robo|access-date=14 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://topmira.com/internet/item/1-samye-populjarnye-poiskoviki-runeta|title=Самые популярные поисковые системы в России|publisher=Topmira.com|access-date=8 December 2014}}</ref>

Known Russian IT companies are [[ABBYY]] ([[FineReader]] OCR system and Lingvo dictionaries), [[Kaspersky Lab]] ([[Kaspersky Anti-Virus]], [[Kaspersky Internet Security]]), [[Mail.Ru]] (portal, search engine, mail service, Mail.ru Agent messenger, [[ICQ]], [[Odnoklassniki]] social network, online media sources).

====Tourism====
{{Main|Tourism in Russia}}
[[File:Grand Cascade in Peterhof 01.jpg|thumb|[[Peterhof Palace]] in Saint Petersburg, a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].]]
According to a [[World Tourism Organization|UNWTO]] report, Russia is the sixteenth-most visited country in the world, and the tenth-most visited country in Europe, as of 2018, with 24.6 million visits.<ref name="unwto">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/epdf/10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.6|title=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer|journal=UNWTO World Tourism Barometer English Version|publisher=[[World Tourism Organization]] (UNWTO)|year=2020|volume=18|pages=18|language=en|doi=10.18111/wtobarometereng|issn=1728-9246|issue=6}}</ref> Russia is ranked 39th in the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Uppink Calderwood|first1=Lauren|last2=Soshkin|first2=Maksim|editor-last=Fisher|editor-first=Mike|title=The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2019|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_TTCR_2019.pdf|access-date=11 November 2020|website=www3.weforum.org|publisher=[[World Economic Forum]]|location=Geneva|page=xiii|isbn=978-2-940631-01-8}}</ref> According to [[Federal Agency for Tourism (Russia)|Federal Agency for Tourism]], the number of inbound trips of foreign citizens to Russia amounted to 24.4 million in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Выборочная статистическая информация, рассчитанная в соответствии с Официальной статистической методологией оценки числа въездных и выездных туристских поездок – Ростуризм|trans-title=Selected statistical information calculated in accordance with the Official Statistical Methodology for Estimating the Number of Inbound and Outbound Tourist Trips – Rostourism|url=https://tourism.gov.ru/contents/statistika/statisticheskie-pokazateli-vzaimnykh-poezdok-grazhdan-rossiyskoy-federatsii-i-grazhdan-inostrannykh-gosudarstv/vyborochnaya-statisticheskaya-informatsiya-rasschitannaya-v-sootvetstvii-s-ofitsialnoy-statisticheskoy-metodologiey-otsenki-chisla-vezdnykh-i-vyezdnykh-turistskikh-poezdok/|access-date=11 November 2020|website=tourism.gov.ru|publisher=[[Federal Agency for Tourism (Russia)]]|language=ru}}</ref> Russia's international tourism receipts in 2018 amounted to $11.6 billion.<ref name="unwto" /> In 2020, tourism accounted for about 4% of country's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|date=26 September 2020|title=Вице-премьер считает, что вклад туризма в ВВП России может вырасти в три раза за 10 лет|trans-title=Deputy Prime Minister believes that the contribution of tourism to Russia's GDP could triple in 10 years|url=https://tass.ru/ekonomika/9558261|access-date=11 November 2020|website=ТАСС|publisher=[[TASS]]|language=ru}}</ref> Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the [[Golden Ring (Russia)|Golden Ring]] [[theme route]] of ancient cities, cruises on the big rivers like the [[Volga]], and journeys on the famous [[Trans-Siberian Railway]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112082549/http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 January 2015|title=Tourism Highlights 2014|publisher=UNWTO (World Tourism Organization)|date=2014|access-date=20 January 2015}}</ref> Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include [[Red Square]], the [[Peterhof Palace]], the [[Kazan Kremlin]], the [[Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius]] and [[Lake Baikal]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vlasov|first=Artem|date=17 December 2018|title=Названы самые популярные достопримечательности России|trans-title=The most popular sights of Russia are named|url=https://iz.ru/824446/2018-12-17/nazvany-samye-populiarnye-dostoprimechatelnosti-rossii|access-date=15 December 2020|website=[[Izvestia]]|language=ru}}</ref>

==External trade and investment==
[[File:Zapolyarnoye Field (Novy Urengoy).jpg|thumb|[[Zapolyarnoye gas field]]]]
[[File:NLMK, Lipetsk.jpg|thumb|[[Novolipetsk Steel]]-operated steel plant in [[Lipetsk]]]]
[[File:Причалы. - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Port of [[Saint Petersburg]]]]
[[File:Магнитогорский металлургический комбинат - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Magnitogorsk Iron and Steel Works]]]]

===Trade===
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2017}}Russia recorded a trade surplus of USD$15.8 billion in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ustr.gov/Russia |title=President Obama's Signature Paves Way for Permanent Normal Trade Relations with Russia and Moldova |website=ustr.gov |access-date=2017-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202025723/https://ustr.gov/Russia |archive-date=2 February 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Balance of trade in Russia is reported by the Central Bank of Russia. Historically, from 1997 until 2013, Russia balance of trade averaged 8338.23 USD million reaching an all-time high of 20647 USD million in December 2011 and a record low of −185 USD million in February 1998. Russia runs regular trade surpluses primarily due to exports of commodities.

In 2015, Russia main exports are oil and natural gas (62.8% of total exports), ores and metals (5.9%), chemical products (5.8%), machinery and transport equipment (5.4%) and food (4.7%). Others include: agricultural raw materials (2.2%) and textiles (0.2%).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/RUS/Year/2015/TradeFlow/Export/Partner/WLD/Product/sitc-rev2-groups/Show/Product%20Group;XPRT-TRD-VL;XPRT-PRDCT-SHR;/Sort/XPRT-PRDCT-SHR#|title=Russian Federation {{!}} SITC Rev2 Groups {{!}} Exports to World {{!}} 2015 {{!}} WITS {{!}} Data|website=wits.worldbank.org|language=en|access-date=2017-10-03}}</ref>

Russia imports food, ground transports, pharmaceuticals and textile and footwear. Main trading partners are: China (7% of total exports and 10% of imports), Germany (7% of exports and 8% of imports) and Italy. This page includes a chart with historical data for Russia balance of trade. Exports in Russia decreased to 39038 USD million in January 2013 from 48568 USD million in December 2012. Exports in Russia is reported by the Central Bank of Russia. Historically, from 1994 until 2013, Russia Exports averaged 18668.83 USD million reaching an all-time high of 51338 USD million in December 2011 and a record low of 4087 USD million in January 1994. Russia is the 16th largest export economy in the world (2016)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/rus/|title=OEC - Russia (RUS) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners|website=atlas.media.mit.edu|language=en|access-date=2018-03-19|archive-date=10 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180610072450/https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/rus/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and is a leading exporter of oil and natural gas. In Russia, services are the biggest sector of the economy and account for 58% of GDP. Within services the most important segments are: wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles and personal and household goods (17% of total GDP); public administration, health and education (12%); real estate (9%) and transport storage and communications (7%). Industry contributes 40% to total output. Mining (11% of GDP), manufacturing (13%) and construction (4%) are the most important industry segments. Agriculture accounts for the remaining 2%. This page includes a chart with historical data for Russia Exports. Imports in Russia decreased to 21296 USD million in January 2013 from 31436 USD million in December 2012. Imports in Russia is reported by the Central Bank of Russia. Historically, from 1994 until 2013, Russia imports averaged 11392.06 USD million reaching an all-time high of 31553 USD million in October 2012 and a record low of 2691 USD million in January 1999. Russia main imports are food (13% of total imports) and ground transports (12%). Others include: pharmaceuticals, textile and footwear, plastics and optical instruments. Main import partners are China (10% of total imports) and Germany (8%). Others include: Italy, France, Japan and United States. This page includes a chart with historical data for Russia Imports.

'''Foreign trade of Russia - Russian export and import'''<ref name="worldbank.org">{{cite web|url=http://wits.worldbank.org/countrysnapshot/en/RUS|title=Russian Federation - Trade At a glance - Most Recent Value - WITS - Data|website=wits.worldbank.org}}</ref>
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! '''Year'''
| 2005 || 2006 || 2007 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010 || 2011 || 2012 || 2013 || 2014 || 2015 || 2016 || 2017 || 2018 || 2019
|-
! '''Export (US$ Billions)'''
| 241 || 302 || 352 || 468 || 302 || 397 || 517 || 525 || 527 || 498 || 344 || 302 || 379 || 451 || 427
|-
! '''Import (US$ Billions)'''
| 99 || 138 || 200 || 267 || 171 || 229 || 306 || 316 || 315 || 287 || 183 || 207 || 260 || 240 || 247
|}

{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
! colspan="2" | Top Trading Partners for Russia for 2015 <ref name="worldbank.org"/>
|-
|
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan="5" class="unsortable" | Imports into Russia 2015
|-
! Ranking || style="text-align:center;"| Country || style="text-align:center;"|Value (USD) || style="text-align:center;"| %
|-
| || style="text-align:center;"| World|| style="text-align:center;"| $182,782MM || style="text-align:center;"| 100.0%
|-
| 1 || style="text-align:center;"| China|| style="text-align:center;"| $35,199MM || style="text-align:center;"| 19.3%
|-
| 2 || style="text-align:center;"| Germany|| style="text-align:center;"| $18,992MM || style="text-align:center;"| 10.4%
|-
| 3 || style="text-align:center;"| United States|| style="text-align:center;"| $11,490MM || style="text-align:center;"| 6.3%
|-
| 4 || style="text-align:center;"| Belarus|| style="text-align:center;"| $7,989MM || style="text-align:center;"| 4.4%
|-
| 5 || style="text-align:center;"| Italy|| style="text-align:center;"| $7,928MM || style="text-align:center;"| 4.3%
|-
| 6 || style="text-align:center;"| Japan|| style="text-align:center;"| $6,819MM || style="text-align:center;"| 3.7%
|-
| 7 || style="text-align:center;"| Ukraine|| style="text-align:center;"| $5,643MM || style="text-align:center;"| 3.1%
|-
| 8 || style="text-align:center;"| France|| style="text-align:center;"| $5,563MM || style="text-align:center;"| 3.0%
|-
| 9 || style="text-align:center;"| South Korea|| style="text-align:center;"| $4,532MM || style="text-align:center;"| 2.5%
|-
| 10 || style="text-align:center;"| Kazakhstan|| style="text-align:center;"| $4,275MM || style="text-align:center;"| 2.3%
|}
|
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! colspan="5" class="unsortable" | Exports from Russia for 2015
|-
! Ranking || style="text-align:center;"| Country || style="text-align:center;"|Value (USD) || style="text-align:center;"| %
|-
| || style="text-align:center;"| World|| style="text-align:center;"| $343,908MM || style="text-align:center;"| 100.0%
|-
| 1 || style="text-align:center;"| Netherlands|| style="text-align:center;"| $40,198MM || style="text-align:center;"| 11.7%
|-
| 2 || style="text-align:center;"| China|| style="text-align:center;"| $28,335MM || style="text-align:center;"| 8.2%
|-
| 3 || style="text-align:center;"| Italy|| style="text-align:center;"| $16,204MM || style="text-align:center;"| 4.7%
|-
| 4 || style="text-align:center;"| Germany|| style="text-align:center;"| $15,906MM || style="text-align:center;"| 4.6%
|-
| 5 || style="text-align:center;"| Japan|| style="text-align:center;"| $14,426MM || style="text-align:center;"| 4.2%
|-
| 6 || style="text-align:center;"| South Korea|| style="text-align:center;"| $13,196MM || style="text-align:center;"| 3.8%
|-
| 7 || style="text-align:center;"| Belarus|| style="text-align:center;"| $12,428MM || style="text-align:center;"| 3.6%
|-
| 8 || style="text-align:center;"| Turkey|| style="text-align:center;"| $11,703MM || style="text-align:center;"| 3.4%
|-
| 9 || style="text-align:center;"| Kazakhstan|| style="text-align:center;"| $10,302MM || style="text-align:center;"| 3.0%
|-
| 10 || style="text-align:center;"| Poland|| style="text-align:center;"| $9,513MM || style="text-align:center;"| 2.8%
|}
|}

Foreign trade rose 34% to $151.5 billion in the first half of 2005, mainly due to the increase in oil and gas prices which now form 64% of all exports by value. Trade with CIS countries is up 13.2% to $23.3 billion. Trade with the EU forms 52.9%, with the CIS 15.4%, [[Eurasian Economic Community]] 7.8% and [[Asia-Pacific Economic Community]] 15.9%.{{cn|date=November 2020}}

[[File:ВРП по субъектам РФ на душу населения 2016.svg|thumb|[[Gross Regional Product|GRP]] per capita, 2016 (US dollars):
{{legend|#008000;|50 000 and over}}
{{legend|#00BA00;|30 000 – 50 000}}
{{legend|#D3FB00;|9 750 (Russian average) – 20 000}}
{{legend|#FFFC00;|7 500 – 9 750}}
{{legend|#FFD20E;|5 000 – 7 500}}
{{legend|#FF6100;|under 3 000}}
]]

== Mergers and acquisitions ==
Between 1985 and 2018 almost 28,500 mergers or acquisitions have been announced in Russia. This cumulates to an overall value of around 984 bil. USD which translates to 5.456 bil. RUB. In terms of value, 2007 has been the most active year with 158 bil. USD, whereas the number of deals peaked in 2010 with 3,684 (964 compared to the value record year 2007). Since 2010 value and numbers have decreased constantly and another wave of M&A is expected.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://imaa-institute.org/m-and-a-statistics-countries/|title=M&A Statistics by Countries - Institute for Mergers, Acquisitions and Alliances (IMAA)|work=Institute for Mergers, Acquisitions and Alliances (IMAA)|access-date=2018-02-27|language=en-US}}</ref>

The majority of deals in, into or out of Russia have taken place in the financial sector (29%), followed by banks (8.6%), oil and gas (7.8%) and Metals and Mining (7.2%).

Here is a list of the top deals with Russian companies participating ranked by deal value in mil. USD:
{| class="wikitable"
! Date Announced
! Acquiror Name
! Acquiror Mid Industry
! Acquiror Nation
! Target Name
! Target Mid Industry
! Target Nation
! Value of Transaction ($mil)
|-
|10/22/2012
|Rosneft Oil Co
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|TNK-BP Ltd
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|27854.12
|-
|07/24/2012
|Rosneft Oil Co
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|TNK-BP Ltd
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|26061.15
|-
|04/22/2003
|Yukosneftegaz
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|Sibirskaia Neftianaia Co
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|13615.23
|-
|09/28/2005
|Gazprom
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|Sibneft
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|13101.08
|-
|04/13/2005
|Shareholders
|Other Financials
|Russian Fed
|Polyus
|Metals & Mining
|Russian Fed
|12867.39
|-
|12/16/2010
|MMC Norilsk Nickel PJSC
|Metals & Mining
|Russian Fed
|MMC Norilsk Nickel PJSC
|Metals & Mining
|Russian Fed
|12800
|-
|07/27/2007
|Shareholders
|Other Financials
|Russian Fed
|HydroOGK
|Power
|Russian Fed
|12381.83
|-
|12/10/2016
|QHG Shares Pte Ltd
|Other Financials
|Singapore
|Rosneft Oil Co
|Oil & Gas
|Russian Fed
|
|-
|06/30/2010
|KazakhGold Group Ltd
|Metals & Mining
|Kazakhstan
|Polyus Zoloto
|Metals & Mining
|Russian Fed
|10261.33
|-
|08/05/2008
|Vladimir Potanin
|Other Financials
|Russian Fed
|MMC Norilsk Nickel PJSC
|Metals & Mining
|Russian Fed
|10021.11
|}
The majority of the top 10 deals are within the Russian Oil and Gas sector, followed by Metals and Mining.

==See also==
{{portal|Russia|Business and economics}}
{{Div col|colwidth=48em}}
* [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]
* [[History of post-Soviet Russia]]
* [[List of companies of Russia]]
* [[List of Russian federal districts by GDP]]
* [[Monotown]], a town whose economy is dominated by a single industry or company. The term is sometimes used regarding some towns in Russia
* [[Politics of Russia]]
* [[Taxation in Russia]]
* [[Types of legal entities in Russia]]
* [[Unitary enterprise]], a government-owned corporation in Russia and some other post-Soviet states
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{country study|country=Soviet Union|abbr=su}}

==Further reading==
* Alexeev, Michael, and Shlomo Weber, eds. ''The Oxford handbook of the Russian economy'' (Oxford UP, 2013) [https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Handbook-Russian-Economy-Handbooks/dp/0199759928/ excerpt].

* Åslund, Anders. ''Russia’s Crony Capitalism: The Path from Market Economy to Kleptocracy'' (Yale University Press, 2019). [https://www.amazon.com/Russias-Crony-Capitalism-Economy-Kleptocracy/dp/030024309X/ excerpt]
* Connolly, Richard. ''The Russian economy: a very short introduction'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Russian-Economy-Short-Introduction-Introductions/dp/0198848900/ excerpt]
* Gustafson, Thane. ''Wheel of Fortune: The Battle for Oil and Power in Russia'' (Harvard UP, 2012). [https://www.amazon.com/Wheel-Fortune-Gustafson-Thane-Hardcover/dp/B00NPNPAZE/ excerpt]
* Meyers, William Henry, Schmitz, Andrew, eds. ''Transition to agricultural market economies: the future of Kazakhstan, Russia, and Ukraine'' (2015)
* Miller, Chris. ''Putinomics: Power and money in resurgent Russia'' (UNC Press Books, 2018). [https://www.amazon.com/Putinomics-Power-Money-Resurgent-Russia/dp/146964066X/ excerpt]

* Moser, Nat. ''Oil and the Economy of Russia: From the Late-Tsarist to the Post-Soviet Period'' (2017)

* Novokmet, Filip [[Thomas Piketty]], and [[Gabriel Zucman]] (2017). ''[http://www.piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/NPZ2017WIDworld.pdf From Soviets to Oligarchs: Inequality and Property in Russia 1905-2016]''

* Zinchenko, L. A., et al. "Main features of the Russian economy and its development." ''International Journal of Applied Business and Economic Research'' 15.23 (2017): 265-272.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091221103059/http://www.minfin.ru/en/ Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20170914130537/http://economy.gov.ru/en/home/ Ministry of Economic Development (Russia)]
*[http://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/RUS/Year/2015/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Russia]
*[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ Russia profile] at the [[CIA World Factbook]]
*[http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/russia Russia profile] at [[The World Bank]]

{{Economy of Russia}}
{{Navboxes|list1=
{{Russia topics}}
{{APEC}}
{{Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)}}
{{G8 nations}}
{{Economy of Europe}}
{{Asia in topic|Economy of}}
{{World Trade Organization}}
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Economy Of Russia}}
[[Category:Economy of Russia| ]]
[[Category:World Trade Organization member economies|Russia]]
[[Category:Economies of Europe by country|Russia]]

Royal Netherlands Air Force

2022-02-25T20:57:29Z

Denvercoder9: /* Future */ typo

{{Short description|Air warfare branch of the Netherlands' armed forces}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox military unit
| unit_name = Royal Netherlands Air Force
| native_name = {{lang|nl|Koninklijke Luchtmacht}}
| image = Embleem Koninklijke Luchtmacht.svg
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Badge of the Royal Netherlands Air Force
| start_date = {{start date and age|1953|03|27|df=yes}}{{efn|Its ancestor, the {{lang|nl|Luchtvaartafdeling}} (aviation department) of the Dutch Army was founded with four pilots on 1 July 1913.}}
| country = {{flag|Netherlands}}
| allegiance =
| branch =
| type = [[Air force]]
| role = [[Aerial warfare]]
| size = 6,540 active military personnel (2021) <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defensie.nl/onderwerpen/overdefensie/het-verhaal-van-defensie/aantallen-personeel|title= Aantallen personeel|date=1 July 2021|website=defensie.nl|language=nl|access-date=9 February 2022}}</ref>
| command_structure = [[Military of the Netherlands|Dutch Armed Forces]]
| garrison =
| garrison_label =
| nickname =
| patron =
| motto = {{ubl|{{lang-la|Parvus numero, magnus merito}}|"Small in numbers, great in deeds"}}
| colours =
| colours_label =
| march = ''Parade March of the Royal Netherlands Air Force''
| mascot =
| anniversaries =
| equipment =
| equipment_label =
| battles =
| decorations =
| battle_honours =
| battle_honours_label =
| flying_hours =
| website = {{Official URL}}

| commander1 = [[Lieutenant-general]] [[Dennis Luyt]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.defensie.nl/organisation/air-force/commander-of-the-royal-netherlands-air-force|access-date=27 May 2020|website=defensive.nl|date=30 May 2017|title=Commander of the Royal Netherlands Air Force}}</ref>
| commander1_label = [[Commander of the Royal Netherlands Air Force]]
| notable_commanders =

| identification_symbol = [[File:Roundel of the Netherlands.svg|80px]] [[File:Roundel of the Netherlands – Low Visibility – Type 2.svg|80px]]
| identification_symbol_label = [[Military aircraft insignia|Roundel]]
| identification_symbol_2 = [[File:Flag of the Royal Netherlands Air Force.svg|center|border|100px]]
| identification_symbol_2_label = Flag
| identification_symbol_3 = [[File:Logo luchtmacht.svg|center|border|100px]]
| identification_symbol_3_label = Logo

| aircraft_attack = [[MQ-9 Reaper]]
| aircraft_bomber =
| aircraft_electronic =
| aircraft_fighter = [[F-16]], [[F-35 Lightning II|F-35A]]
| aircraft_helicopter =
| aircraft_helicopter_attack = [[AH-64D]]
| aircraft_helicopter_cargo = [[CH-47 Chinook|CH-47F]], [[Eurocopter Cougar|AS-532U2]]
| aircraft_helicopter_multirole = [[NH-90]]
| aircraft_interceptor =
| aircraft_patrol = [[Dornier 228|Dornier 228-212]]
| aircraft_recon =
| aircraft_trainer = [[Pilatus PC-7|PC-7]], [[F-16]]
| aircraft_transport = [[C-130 Hercules]], [[Gulfstream IV]]
| aircraft_tanker = [[A330 MRTT]]
| aircraft_general =
}}

The '''Royal Netherlands Air Force''' ('''RNLAF'''; {{lang-nl|[[Koninklijke]] Luchtmacht (KLu)}}, "Royal Air Force") is the [[military aviation]] branch of the [[Netherlands Armed Forces]]. It was created in 1953; its ancestor, the ''Luchtvaartafdeling'' (aviation department) of the Dutch Army, was founded in 1913. The aerobatic display team of the Royal Netherlands Air Force, active from 1979 until 2019, was the [[Solo Display Team]].

==History==
===Origin in 1913===
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2012}}

The Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF) is the second youngest operational part of the Dutch Armed Forces, which consists of four parts: Navy, Army, Air Force and Marechaussee.

Dutch air power started on 1 July 1913 with the founding of the Army Aviation Group ({{lang|nl|Luchtvaartafdeling}} or LVA) at Soesterberg airfield ({{lang|nl|vliegbasis Soesterberg}}) with four pilots. When founded, the Army Aviation Group operated one aircraft, the ''Brik'', which was supplemented with three French [[Farman HF.20]] aircraft a few months later.

These aircraft were soon outdated and the Dutch government ordered several fighter/reconnaissance [[Nieuport]] and [[Caudron]] aircraft to replace them.

===World War I (1914–1918)===
The Netherlands maintained a neutral position during World War I and the Army Aviation Group did not take part in any action, instead developing the force's capabilities.

Pilot training was opened for ranks below officer, and technical, aerial photography, meteorological and navigation flights were established.

New airfields were established at Arnhem, [[Gilze-Rijen|Gilze-Rijen air base]], Venlo and Vlissingen.

Because of the war it was difficult to procure suitable aircraft.<ref name=":0" /> In 1917 this changed and 1918 personnel numbered 650.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://resources.huygens.knaw.nl/bwn1880-2000/lemmata/bwn5/sacre|title=bwn5|last=owner|first=No|date=2013-11-12|website=resources.huygens.knaw.nl|language=nl|access-date=2020-01-31}}</ref>

===Between the wars===
After the end of World War I the Dutch government cut the defence budget and the Army Aviation Group was almost dissolved. As political tensions in Europe increased during the late 1930s the government tried to rebuild the armed forces again in 1938 but there were many problems, not least the shortage of pilot instructors, navigators and pilots to fly the new multiple engine aircraft. Lack of standardisation and resulting maintenance issues added to the complexity of the rebuilding task.

===World War II and late 1940s===
[[File:Fokker g1.gif|thumb|[[Fokker G.I]] ''Jachtkruiser'']]

As war loomed, in July 1939 the Army Aviation Group was renamed the Army Aviation Brigade ({{lang|nl|Luchtvaartbrigade}}).

In August 1939, the Netherlands government mobilised its armed forces, but due to limited budgets the Army Aviation Brigade operated only 176 combat aircraft of the following types:

* 16 [[Fokker T.V]] type bombers
* 36 [[Fokker D.XXI]] single-engine fighters
* 35 [[Fokker G.I]] twin-engine fighters
* 7 [[Fokker D.XVII]] single engine fighters
* 17 [[Douglas DB-8|Douglas DB-8A-3N]] light bombers
* 20 [[Fokker C.X]] light bombers
* 33 [[Fokker C.V]] reconnaissance aircraft
* 20 [[Koolhoven FK-51]] artillery observer aircraft

[[File:Fokker D.XXI Soesterberg.jpg|thumb|right|[[Fokker D.XXI]] at the Air Force Museum in Soesterberg]]

In May 1940, [[Nazi Germany|Germany]] [[battle of the Netherlands|invaded]] the Netherlands. Within five days the Dutch Army Aviation Brigade was defeated by the [[Luftwaffe]]. All of the Brigade's bombers, along with 30 D.XXI and 17 G.I fighters were shot down; two D.XXI and eight G.I were destroyed on the ground. Two G.I were captured by German forces, one of which was later flown to England by a Fokker pilot. The Douglas bombers were used as fighters because no suitable bombs were available; these aircraft were poorly suited for this role and eight were shot down and three destroyed on the ground in the first hours of the conflict.

In spite of their numerical inferiority the Dutch Armed Forces did achieve some success against the Luftwaffe, which lost 350 aircraft in the conquest of the Netherlands, although many of these were lost to [[anti-aircraft]] fire and crashes at improvised landing fields in the Netherlands rather than due to action by Dutch fighter-aircraft. The cost was high – almost 95% of the Dutch pilots were lost. In recognition of their actions [[Wilhelmina of the Netherlands|Queen Wilhelmina]] granted the highest Dutch military decoration, the {{lang|nl|[[Militaire Willemsorde]]}} (MWO), to the Army Aviation Brigade collectively.

Some aircrews escaped to England and on 1 June 1940, [[No. 320 Squadron RAF|320 Squadron]] and [[No. 321 Squadron RAF|321 Squadron]] were established there under [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] operational command. Due to a shortage of personnel, 321 Squadron was absorbed by 320 Sqn in January 1941. Although their personnel were predominantly from the Navy Air Service, Army Aviation aircrew also served with 320 Sqn until the end of the war.

In 1941, the '''Royal Netherlands Military Flying-School''' was re-established, in the [[United States]] at [[Hawkins Field (airport)|Jackson Field]] (also known as Hawkins Field), [[Jackson, Mississippi]], operating [[lend-lease]] aircraft and training all military aircrew for the Netherlands.

The separate {{lang|nl|[[Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force|Militaire Luchtvaart van het Koninklijk Nederlands-Indisch Leger]]}} (ML-KNIL; Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Military Air Service) continued in the [[Netherlands East Indies]] (NEI), until its [[Japanese occupation of Indonesia|occupation by Japan]] in 1942.<ref>{{cite web |last = Klemen |first = L |url = http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html |title = Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |access-date = 2 June 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110417021949/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/ |archive-date = 17 April 2011 |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last = Broshot |first = James A. |url = http://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/Dutch_OOB.html |title = Dutch Air Force Order of Battle in the Dutch East Indies, 30 November 1941 |date = 1999–2000 |work = Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |access-date = 2 June 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110726052128/http://www.dutcheastindies.webs.com/Dutch_OOB.html |archive-date = 26 July 2011 |url-status = live }}</ref> Some personnel escaped to [[Australia]] and [[Ceylon]]. [[No. 321 Squadron RAF|321 Squadron]] was re-formed in Ceylon, in March 1942, from Dutch aviators.

In 1942, [[No. 18 Squadron RAAF|18 (NEI) Squadron]], a joint Dutch-Australian unit was established, in [[Canberra]], equipped with [[B-25 Mitchell]] bombers. It saw action in the [[New Guinea campaign]] and over the Dutch East Indies. In 1943, [[No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF|120 (NEI) Squadron]] was established. Equipped with [[Curtiss P-40|Kittyhawk]] fighters, it flew many missions under Australian command, including the [[Western New Guinea campaign|recapturing of Dutch New Guinea]].
[[File:Curtiss 87A Kittyhawk 2 ExCC.jpg|thumb|right|P-40D Kittyhawk]]

In June 1943, a Dutch fighter squadron was established in England. [[No. 322 Squadron RAF|322 (Dutch) Squadron]], equipped with the [[Supermarine Spitfire]], saw action as part of the RAF. 322 Sqn aircraft featured the British RAF roundels as well as the Dutch orange triangle. 322 Sqn was successfully deployed against incoming [[V-1 (flying bomb)|V-1]] flying bombs. From mid-1944, during the [[invasion of Normandy]], it executed [[close air support|ground attack]] missions over France and Belgium.

In July 1944, the Directorate of Netherlands Airpower was established in London.

In 1947, its Chief of Air Force Staff was appointed.

During the [[Indonesian War of Independence]], the air force committed ground attacks and transported material and personnel. In 1948, transportation aircraft were used in support of the first Dutch airborne raid in southern Sumatra and [[Djokjakarta]].

===1950s and 1960s===
In 1951 several non-combat functions in the Army Aviation were opened to women.

On 27 March 1953 the Royal Netherlands Air Force officially became an independent part of the Dutch armed forces, rather than part of the Army.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1953/1953%20-%200450.html/ |title=The Royal Netherlands Air Force |magazine=Flight and Aircraft Engineer |volume=LXIII |number=2307 |page=446 |date=10 April 1953 |access-date=23 December 2015}}</ref>

The Air Defense Command, ({{lang|nl|Commando Lucht Verdediging}}, abbreviated ''CLV'') consisting of a command unit, five radar stations and six fighter squadrons, had been established. Its radar equipment as well as its air defense fighters all came from obsolete [[RAF]] stocks.

* The Spitfire Mk.IX was used by [[322 Squadron RNLAF]] until 1954, but was replaced as new squadrons were established.
* The [[Gloster Meteor|Gloster Meteor F Mk.IV]] was used by 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327 and 328 Squadrons from 1948–1957. Bases included Soesterberg and Leeuwarden.
* The [[Gloster Meteor|Gloster Meteor F Mk.VIII]] was used by 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327 and 328 sqn from 1951–1958.
[[File:Republic F-84F P-255 RNAF CHIV 23.08.69 edited-3.jpg|thumb|right|F-84F Thunderstreaks of 315 Squadron RNAF fitted with extra fuel tanks at [[RAF Chivenor]] in 1969]]
After the Netherlands joined [[NATO]] another new command: Tactical Air Command ({{lang|nl|Commando Tactische Luchtstrijdkrachten}}, abbreviated ""CTL'') was established.

* CTL consisted of seven new strike squadrons (306, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315 and 316 sqn), all equipped with Republic [[F-84G Thunderjet]]'s. These aircraft were supplied by the United States under the ''Mutual Defense Aid Program'' from 1952–1956. 311 was the first flying squadron to be stood up at Volkel on 1 May 1951.<ref name=AW20120927 />
* 322, 323, 324, 325, 326 and 327 Sqn operated the [[Hawker Hunter|Hawker Hunter F Mk.4]] between 1955–1964, and 322, 324, 325 and 326 Sqn operated the [[Hawker Hunter|Hawker Hunter F Mk.6]] between 1957–1968.
* 700, 701 and 702 Sqn operated the [[North American F-86D Sabre|North American F-86K Sabre]] all-weather fighter between 1955–1964.
* 306, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315 and 316 Sqn changed aircraft configuration from 1955–1970 as the [[Republic F-84F Thunderstreak|Republic F-84F Thunderstreak and RF-84F Thunderflash]] became available.

===Western New Guinea conflict===
{{more citations needed section|date=February 2012}}
[[File:Vlootschouw van de Luchtmacht-517877.ogv|thumb|Video of RNLAF aircraft in 1961 from a Dutch newsreel]]
The Indonesian government claimed [[Western New Guinea]] following the end of the Second World War. The Dutch government considered the area Dutch territory. Negotiations over the country were conducted for years, but tensions grew until Indonesia broke diplomatic relations with the Netherlands at the end of the 1950s.

In response, in 1958, the Netherlands deployed military reinforcements to New Guinea, including an Air Force detachment for the air defense of the island ''Biak'' as there was evidence that Indonesia was infiltrating the island in advance of a military operation.

The first Air Force contribution was the installation of two MkIV early warning radars on ''Biak'' and neighbouring ''Woendi'' island.

The political situation between the Netherlands and Indonesia continued to deteriorate and in 1960 the Dutch government deployed reinforcements. The operations were known by name as 'Plan Fidelio'. For the Dutch Air Force this meant the establishment of an Air Defense Command for New Guinea ({{lang|nl|Commando Luchtverdediging Nederlands Nieuw-Guinea – CLV NNG}}) consisting of:
* one Hawker Hunter Mk.4 air defence squadron;
* a radar navigation system at ''Biak'', and;
* a reserve airstrip at ''Noemfoer''.

The Dutch government deployed a squadron consisting of 12 Hawker Hunter Mk.4 AD fighters and two Alouette II SAR helicopters. They were transported to Southeast Asia by the [[HNLMS Karel Doorman (R81)|''Karel Doorman'']]. One year later the Dutch government deployed another 12 Hawker Hunter Mk6 AD fighters; these aircraft carried more fuel and had a larger combat radius.

In August 1962 Indonesia was ready to attack New Guinea. Despite reinforcements the Dutch defences would be insufficient to withstand the coming attack. Therefore, and because of international political pressure the Dutch government was forced to agree to the peaceful surrender of New Guinea. Dutch forces were withdrawn from the territory.

The establishment of 336 transport squadron is closely connected to New Guinea. Soon after activation this unit was deployed to New Guinea to take over air transport from the Dutch Navy. 336 Sqn deployed and took over three Navy Dakotas and three US supplied aircraft. 336 Sqn operated from ''Mokmer'' airstrip and transported more than 5,400 passengers between September 1961 and September 1962.

===Cold War era, 1960s, 1970s and later===
During the [[cold war]] Dutch Air Force flying units were integrated in [[NATO]]'s [[Second Allied Tactical Air Force]] tasked with defending northern [[West Germany]] against [[Warsaw Pact]] forces. Additionally the Dutch Air Force manned five fully operational self-supporting Missile Groups in West Germany (1 and 2 MslGrp were initially equipped with [[Nike-Hercules Missile|NIKE]] batteries, while 3,4 and 5 MslGrp were equipped with [[MIM-23 HAWK|Hawk]]) and replaced by the [[MIM-104 Patriot]] Air Defence Missile System.

* 306, 311, 312, 322 and 323 Sqn changed configuration again from 1962–1984 after the dual role [[F-104 Starfighter]] was introduced.
* 313, 314, 315 and 316 Sqn switched over to the [[Canadair CF-5|NF-5 Freedom Fighter]] from 1969–1991. The NF-5 was a development of the Canadair CF-5 fighter. Northrop incorporated some NF-5 features into the F-5E/F Tiger II.
* Since 1979 all RNLAF fast-jet squadrons (originally 306, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 322 and 323) have operated the multi role [[F-16 Fighting Falcon]].

The Dutch Air Force played a key role in ending the [[1977 Dutch train hostage crisis]] when six F-104 Starfighters flew low over the train to distract the hijackers while Dutch anti-terrorist forces stormed the train.

===Former Yugoslavia===
[[File:Dutch Air Force General Dynamics (Fokker) F-16AM Fighting Falcon (401) Geerlings-1.jpg|thumb|Royal Netherlands Air Force [[F-16]] arriving for the [[Royal International Air Tattoo]], [[England]], 2014]]
In 1992 [[Ypenburg Air Base]] closed. After the USAF handed over their section of Soesterberg in September 1994, Soesterberg then became a RNLAF transport helicopter base with 298 Squadron ([[CH-47D Chinook]]) and 300 Squadron ([[Eurocopter Cougar|AS 532U2 Cougar Mk2]] and [[SA 316|SA 316 Alouette III]]) stationed at the base.

RNLAF F-16s participated in all operations over [[Yugoslavia]] from 1993: [[Operation Deny Flight|Deny Flight]], including [[Deliberate Force]] in 1995 and ending with [[Operation Allied Force]] in 1999 from two bases in Italy. Initially from Villafranca AB in the north of Italy, later moving south to Amendola AB. During the operations over FRY RNLAF F-16s flew reconnaissance (306 Sqn detachments from Volkel AB were in theatre throughout the operations), enforced the Bosnian no-fly zone, dropped bombs on Udbina AB (1994), successfully dropped an unguided bomb on a moving Serb tank during the fall of Srebrenica (1995), and took part in Deliberate Force later in the summer of 1995.

Between 1994 and 1997 Dutch GCI personnel, along with Canadian GCI controllers, provided many hundreds of hours of fighter control and surveillance as integrated members of USAF/ANG Air Control Squadrons. In May 1999 during the Kosovo crisis a RNLAF F-16AM pilot Major [[Peter Tankink]] shot down<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_380.shtml |title=Yugoslav & Serbian MiG-29s |publisher=Acig.org |access-date=15 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214094718/http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_380.shtml |archive-date=14 February 2014 }}</ref> a Yugoslavian [[Mikoyan MiG-29|MiG-29]] with an [[AMRAAM]], but the force was more recognized for its high bombing accuracy. Allied Force was also the operational debut for the upgraded F-16AM. Besides the [[Close Air Support|CAP]] missions, offensive bombing and photo reconnaissance missions were flown. KDC-10 tankers refuelled allied aircraft over the Adriatic Sea, and C-130 Hercules transports flew daily sorties from Eindhoven AB to logistically support the operation. Dutch F-16s also dropped [[Cluster bombing of Niš|cluster bombs on Niš]]. In total, RNLAF aircraft flew 1,194 sorties during operation Allied Force, which is about 7.5% of the total 37,000 sorties flown.

===Operation Enduring Freedom and NATO in Afghanistan===
On 2 October 2002 a tri-national detachment of 18 Dutch, [[Royal Danish Air Force|Danish]] and [[Royal Norwegian Air Force|Norwegian]] F-16 ground attack aircraft and one Dutch KDC-10 tanker deployed to [[Manas Air Base]] in [[Kyrgyzstan]] in support of ground forces in [[Afghanistan]] as part of [[Operation Enduring Freedom]]. On 1 October 2003 the Dutch F-16 detachment returned to the Netherlands and the KDC-10 returned even earlier (1 April 2003). The RNLAF returned to Manas AB on 8 September 2004 with five F-16 and one KDC-10 in support of the presidential elections of Afghanistan. This time the aircraft flew under the [[NATO]] [[International Security Assistance Force|ISAF]] flag. On 24 March 2005 the whole Dutch detachment transferred from Manas AB to [[Kabul International Airport]].{{sfn|Anrig|2011|p=243}} A detachment of six [[AH-64 Apache|AH-64D Apache]] helicopters{{sfn|Bernstein|2005|p=36}} were already stationed at Kabul International Airport from April 2004 until March 2005.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

In February 2006 four Dutch F-16s were joined by four [[Royal Norwegian Air Force]] F-16s in a detachment known as the 1st Netherlands-Norwegian European Participating Forces Expeditionary Air Wing (1 NLD/NOR EEAW). This was a follow up of the participation with the Belgian Air Force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mindef.nl/actueel/nieuws/2006/02/20060213_nederlandsnoorse.aspx |title=Ministerie van Defensie |publisher=Mindef.nl |date=11 November 2011 |access-date=15 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408162858/http://www.mindef.nl/actueel/nieuws/2006/02/20060213_nederlandsnoorse.aspx |archive-date=8 April 2008 }}</ref>

As part of the expanded NATO ISAF mission in southern Afghanistan in August 2006, the Royal Netherlands Air Force had three CH-47D Chinook of 298 Sq stationed at [[Kandahar Airfield]]. On 12 November 2006 eight F-16s transferred from Kabul International Airport to Kandahar Airfield, Additionally, a detachment of six (later four) AH-64D Apache helicopters had been stationed of [[Tarin Kowt]], Uruzgan province. The CH-47D Chinooks of 298 sq rotated with Cougars from 300 sq. All helicopters together with a few F-16s returned to the Netherlands in November 2010. The other four F-16s transferred from Kandahar Airfield to [[Maulana Jalaluddin Balkhi International Airport|Mazar-e-Sharif International Airport]] in November 2011. The F-16 flight, providing Close Air Support for ground forces and Recce Flights (specialised in counter-ied's), ended their mission officially on 1 July 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.defensie.nl/onderwerpen/afghanistan/inhoud/inzet-luchtmacht-boven-afghanistan |title=Inzet luchtmacht boven Afghanistan |access-date=26 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227010542/http://www.defensie.nl/onderwerpen/afghanistan/inhoud/inzet-luchtmacht-boven-afghanistan |archive-date=27 December 2014 }}</ref>

On 31 August 2006 a Royal Netherlands Air Force (Michael "Sofac" Donkervoort) pilot was killed when his plane crashed during a mission to support British ground troops in Helmand province.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/5303600.stm |title=South Asia | Dutch F-16 crash in Afghanistan |publisher=BBC News |date=31 August 2006 |access-date=15 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061107181350/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/5303600.stm |archive-date=7 November 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 7 December 2007 military use of Twente Air Base ceased. The aerodrome is now known as [[Enschede Airport Twente]]. Flying officially ended at [[Soesterberg Air Base]] on 12 November 2008. The last jet ever to take off was a Hellenic AF F-4E. The base formally closed on 31 December 2008. The 298th and 300th squadron have been moved to [[Gilze-Rijen Air Base]]. A part of the base remains in use as a glider field, however. Also, the former USAFE side will be in use by ground units Relocated from Kamp van Zeist and will be called "Camp New Amsterdam". Finally, the AF museum (Royal Netherlands Military Aviation Museum) returned to the base and will use most of the existing hangars.

===2010s===
[[File:McDonnell Douglas KDC-10-30CF der RNLAF.jpg|thumb|KDC-10 in support of NATO aircraft]]
In 2013 the Royal Netherlands Air Force provided Strategic Airlift Support with a KDC-10 in support of French operations in Mali.

The RNLAF was hit hard by the Dutch defence cuts after the 2008 financial crisis. 311 Squadron was disbanded in September 2012, leaving four squadrons of F-16s, and one DC-10 Transport Aircraft was disposed of.<ref name=AW20120927>{{cite web | url=http://www.aviationweek.com/Blogs.aspx?plckBlogId=Blog:27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7&plckPostId=Blog:27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7Post:5ca2fb21-6fed-4867-b8d8-f92a9e08ace7 | title=RNLAF Disbands F-16 Squadron | first= Nicholas | last=Fiorenza | date=27 September 2012}}</ref>

In October 2014 the Netherlands Air Force joined the US and its Allies fighting ISIL, deploying eight F-16s (of which two are in reserve) to Jordan.

On 31 October 2014 323 Tactess squadron (F-16) disbanded and its aircraft and personnel were merged into 322 Squadron. The following Wednesday (5 November) the squadron reformed in the US as the RNLAF's first [[F-35A Lightning II|Joint Strike Fighter]] unit.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.f35.nl/jsf-nieuws/vrede-veiligheid/luchtmacht-heeft-eerste-f-35-squadron/ |title=Luchtmacht heeft eerste F-35 Squadron |date=5 November 2014 |language=nl |access-date=11 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160107141622/http://www.f35.nl/jsf-nieuws/vrede-veiligheid/luchtmacht-heeft-eerste-f-35-squadron/ |archive-date=7 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[303 Squadron RNLAF|303 Squadron]] ([[Bell 412|Agusta Bell AB 412SP]]) provided search and rescue within Dutch [[Flight Information Region]]) until 1 January 2015 when the unit was disbanded.<ref name="defensie.nl">{{cite web |url=http://www.defensie.nl/english/latest/news/2015/01/08/defence-discontinues-use-of-yellow-search-and-rescue-helicopters |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309230247/https://www.defensie.nl/english/latest/news/2015/01/08/defence-discontinues-use-of-yellow-search-and-rescue-helicopters |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 March 2016 |title=Defence discontinues use of yellow search-and-rescue helicopters |work=defensie.nl |access-date=16 January 2015 }}</ref>

As per 2017 the Air Defence – Quick Reaction Force of two F-16 fighters are integrated for Belgian, Dutch and Luxembourg airspace and rotated between Dutch and Belgian ADF squadrons.

===Operation Inherent Resolve – Iraq & Syria===
From 2014 The Royal Netherlands Air Force provided eight F-16s in support of the coalition fighting IS. The aircraft were initially deployed in Iraq and later Syria. The mission was handed over to the [[Belgian Air Force]] in July 2016 after more than 2100 missions were flown, with weapons used over 1800 times. The Royal Netherlands Air Force contributed extensively to the missions flown by the coalition forces and were in high demand.

Since 2017 RNLAF KDC-10 and C-130 Hercules are deployed to an airfield in the Middle East to assist the USA led coalition in Operation Inherent Resolve.

In January 2018 the Dutch F-16s returned to the Middle East for a year-long deployment.

== Structure of the Royal Netherlands Air Force ==
{{Main|Structure of the Royal Netherlands Air Force}}

* '''[[Commander of the Royal Netherlands Air Force]]'''<ref>{{cite web |title=Organisatiestructuur luchtmacht |date=9 February 2018 |url=https://www.defensie.nl/organisatie/luchtmacht/organisatiestructuur |publisher=Koninklijke Luchtmacht |access-date=17 May 2020}}</ref>
** Air Force Command Staff
** [[Volkel Air Base]]
** [[Leeuwarden Air Base]]
** [[Eindhoven Air Base]]
** Defense Helicopter Command
** [[Air Operations Control Station Nieuw-Milligen]]
** Royal Netherlands Air Force Military School-[[Woensdrecht Air Base]]
** Woensdrecht Logistic Centre
** People and Aviation Centre
The RNAF is in the process of restructuring into four major commands:<ref>{{Cite web|last=Herk|first=Hans van|title=New command within Royal Netherlands Air Force|url=https://www.scramble.nl/military-news/new-command-within-royal-netherlands-air-force|access-date=2021-06-24|website=www.scramble.nl|language=en-GB}}</ref>

* Air Combat Command (ACC),<ref>{{Cite web|title=Start van het Air Combat Command - 02 - de Vliegende Hollander|url=https://magazines.defensie.nl/vliegendehollander/2020/08/02_air-combat-command-acc|access-date=2021-06-24|website=magazines.defensie.nl|language=nl-NL}}</ref> bringing together Leeuwarden and Volkel air bases and the Air Operations Control Station Nieuw Milligen through the restructuring of the Air Force Staff Department for Fighter Operations ({{lang|nl|Afdeling Jachtvlieg Operaties}} (''AJO''))
* Air Mobility Command (AMC) on the basis of Eindhoven air base through the restructuring of Air Force Staff Department for Air Transport Operations ({{lang|nl|Afdelingen Luchttransport Operaties}} (''ALTO'')). Eindhoven air base has been officially transformed and designated as Vliegbasis Eindhoven - Air Mobility Command.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Defensie|first=Ministerie van|date=2018-02-09|title=Vliegbasis Eindhoven - Air Mobility Command - Koninklijke Luchtmacht - Defensie.nl|url=https://www.defensie.nl/organisatie/luchtmacht/vliegbases-en-luchtmachtonderdelen/eindhoven|access-date=2021-06-24|website=www.defensie.nl|language=nl-NL}}</ref>
* Defence Helicopter Command (DHC) - the previously joint command of tactical helicopters of the Royal Netherlands Air Force and the naval helicopters of the Royal Netherlands Navy has been fully integrated into the RNAF.
* Air Support Command (ASC) - ground operational support to the flying units.

Another command related to air warfare is the [[Joint Ground-based Air Defence Command]]. The RNAF's Patriot and Stinger missile air defence batteries are part of the air force, but come operationally under the JGADC, together with the 61st Missile Air Defence Group of the German Air Force. The JGADC is subordinated to the Royal Netherlands Army.

The force structure reform is done in line with the concept called Fifth Generation Air Force ({{lang|nl|5e generatie luchtmacht}}) and in addition to the reshuffling of the RNAF in four major commands the concept plans for:<ref>{{Cite web|title=5e generatie – wat houdt het in? - 06 - de Vliegende Hollander|url=https://magazines.defensie.nl/vliegendehollander/2017/07/06_5e-generatie|access-date=2021-06-24|website=magazines.defensie.nl|language=nl-NL}}</ref>

* replacement of the F-16 by the F-35
* replacement of the KDC-10 by the A330MRTT
* replacement of the C-130H Hercules
* introduction of an unarmed UAV capability through the MQ-9 Reaper<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ga.com/ga-asi-completes-first-mq-9a-block-5-for-the-netherlands|title=GA-ASI Completes First MQ-9A Block 5 for the Netherlands|date=2021-07-06|access-date=2022-02-19|publisher=[[General Atomics Aeronautical Systems]]}}</ref>
* forming a Target Support Cell
* upgrade of the Chinook fleet to the CH-47F MYII CAAS standard
* forming an Air Command and Control capacity
* forming a Fighter Center of Excellence
* upgrading and re-tasking the Cougar fleet for Special Operations Forces support
* upgrading the AH-64D Longbow Apache to the AH-64E Guardian standard
* forming an National Air and Space Operations Center (NASOC)

=== Rank structure ===
{{main|Military ranks of the Dutch armed forces}}

====Commissioned officer ranks====
The rank insignia of [[commissioned officer]]s.
{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
{{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Armed Forces/OF/Blank}}
{{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Air Forces/OF/Netherlands}}
|}

====Other ranks====
The rank insignia of [[non-commissioned officer]]s and [[Enlisted rank|enlisted personnel]].
{| style="border:1px solid #8888aa; background-color:#f7f8ff; padding:5px; font-size:95%; margin: 0px 12px 12px 0px;"
{{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Armies/OR/Blank}}
{{Ranks and Insignia of NATO Air Forces/OR/Netherlands}}
|}

==Aircraft==
===Current inventory===
[[File:RNLAF F-35 F-001 01.jpg|thumb|An F-35A on ferry flight to [[Eglin AFB]]]]
[[File:NHI NH-90 NFH, Netherlands - Navy AN1981995.jpg|thumb|An NH90 NFH helicopter]]
[[File:Gulfstream IV RNLAF.jpg|thumb|right|A Gulfstream IV in flight]]
{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align:center; background:#acc;"|Aircraft
! style="text-align: center; background:#acc;"|Origin
! style="text-align:l center; background:#acc;"|Type
! style="text-align:left; background:#acc;"|Variant
! style="text-align:center; background:#acc;"|In service
! style="text-align: center; background:#acc;"|Notes
|-
! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="6"| [[Military aircraft#Combat aircraft|Combat Aircraft]]
|-
| [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35 Lightning II]]
| [[United States]]
|[[Multirole combat aircraft|multirole]]
| [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II#Variants|F-35A]]
|16
|22 on order<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/netherlands-declares-ioc-for-f-35|title =Netherlands declares IOC for F-35|date=2021-12-29|access-date=2022-01-13|work=Jane's|first=Gareth|last=Jennings}}</ref>
|-
| [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16 Fighting Falcon]]
| [[United States]]
|[[Multirole combat aircraft|multirole]]
| [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon variants#F-16AM/BM Block 20 MLU|F-16AM]]
| 40<ref name="World Air Forces 2022">{{cite web |last = |first = |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/flight-international/how-afghanistans-fall-reshaped-world-air-forces-inventory/146576.article|title = World Air Forces 2022|work= |publisher= Flightglobal Insight |year= 2022 |doi = |access-date= 2 December 2021|url-access=registration}}</ref>
|
|-
! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="6" | [[Aerial refueling|Tanker]]
|-
| [[Airbus A330 MRTT]]
| [[Europe]]
| | [[aerial refueling]] / [[Military transport aircraft|transport]]
|
| 5
| 4 on order<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.luchtvaartnieuws.nl/nieuws/categorie/4/militair/vijfde-airbus-a330-mrtt-geland-op-vliegbasis-eindhoven|title=Vijfde Airbus A330 MRTT Geland Op Vliegbasis Eindhoven|date=2021-08-31|access-date=2021-12-06|work=Luchtvaart Nieuws|language=nl}}</ref> used for the [[Airbus A330 MRTT#Multinational Multi-Role Tanker Transport Fleet|NATO MMR]] fleet
|-
! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="6"| [[Military transport aircraft|Transport]]
|-
| [[Gulfstream IV]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Air transports of heads of state and government|VIP transport]]
|
|1<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.defensie.nl/organisatie/luchtmacht/materieel/vliegtuigen-en-helikopters/gulfstream-iv |title=Gulfstream IV |publisher=Netherlands Ministry of Defence |access-date=17 October 2019 |language=Dutch }}</ref>
|
|-
| [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C-130 Hercules]]
| [[United States]]
| [[Airlift|tactical airlift]]
| [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules#Variants|C-130H]]
| 4<ref name="World Air Forces 2022"/>
|2 are [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules#Variants|C-130H-30]] variants<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.defensie.nl/organisatie/luchtmacht/materieel/vliegtuigen-en-helikopters/c-130-hercules-transportvliegtuig |title= C-130 Hercules-transportvliegtuig |publisher= Netherlands Ministry of Defence |access-date= 17 October 2019 |language=Dutch |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190328103801/https://www.defensie.nl/organisatie/luchtmacht/materieel/vliegtuigen-en-helikopters/c-130-hercules-transportvliegtuig |archive-date= 28 March 2019 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref>
|-
| [[Dornier Do 228]]
| [[Germany]]
| [[Search and rescue|SAR]] / patrol
| Do 228-212
|2<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.kustwacht.nl/en/node/105 |title= Coastguard Dornier 228-212 |publisher= kustwacht.nl |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref>
|flown for the [[Netherlands Coastguard]]
|-
! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="6"| [[Helicopters]]
|-
|[[Boeing CH-47 Chinook|Boeing CH-47]]
|[[United States]]
|transport / [[Military transport aircraft#Transport helicopters|heavy lift]]
|[[Boeing CH-47 Chinook|CH-47F]]
|20<ref name="ch47"/>
|
|-
|[[Boeing AH-64 Apache|AH-64 Apache]]
| [[United States]]
|attack
|[[Boeing AH-64 Apache#AH-64D|AH-64D]]
|28<ref name="World Air Forces 2022"/>
|being upgraded to AH-64E<ref name="DtoE"/>
|-
| [[Eurocopter AS532 Cougar|Eurocopter AS532]]
| [[France]]
| transport / [[Combat search and rescue|CSAR]]
|
| 12<ref name="World Air Forces 2022"/>
|
|-
|[[NHIndustries NH90]]
|[[Europe]]
| [[anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] / transport
|[[NHIndustries NH90#NFH: NATO Frigate Helicopter|T/NFH]]
|19<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.defensie.nl/organisatie/luchtmacht/materieel/vliegtuigen-en-helikopters/nh90|title=NH-90 Netherlands |publisher= defensie.nl |date=|language=Dutch|access-date=21 December 2018}}</ref>
|flown for the [[Royal Netherlands Navy]]
|-
! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="6"| [[Trainer (aircraft)|Trainer Aircraft]]
|-
| [[Pilatus PC-7]]
| [[Switzerland]]
|trainer
|
| 13<ref name="World Air Forces 2022"/>
|
|-
| [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II|F-35 Lightning II]]
| [[United States]]
|[[Trainer (aircraft)#Lead-in fighter training|conversion trainer]]
| [[Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II#Variants|F-35A]]
|8<ref name="World Air Forces 2022"/>
| conducting training at [[Luke AFB]]- 2 are used for [[Air Force Operational Test and Evaluation Center|OPTEV]]<ref name="First operational F-35A arrives in the Netherlands">{{cite web |last = |first = |url= https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/first-operational-f-35a-arrives-in-the-netherlands/135159.article|title = First operational F-35A arrives in the Netherlands |work= |publisher= Flightglobal |year= 2020 |doi = |access-date= 10 March 2020|url-access= }}</ref>
|-
| [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16 Fighting Falcon]]
| [[United States]]
| conversion trainer
| [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon variants#F-16AM/BM Block 20 MLU|F-16BM]]
| 7<ref name="World Air Forces 2022"/>
|
|-
! style="align: center; background: lavender;" colspan="6" | [[Unmanned Aerial Vehicle|UAV]]
|-
| [[General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper|MQ-9 Reaper]]
| [[United States]]
| MALE UAV
| [[General Atomics MQ-9 Reaper#MQ-9 Block 5|Block 5]]
|1
|3 on order<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.shephardmedia.com/news/uv-online/first-reaper-meets-dutch-mod-requirements/ |title= First Reaper meets Dutch MoD requirements |publisher= Shephard Media |date=2022-02-04|access-date=2022-02-07}}</ref>
|}

== Future ==
* In 2012 plans were announced and approved to replace all existing CH-47D Chinooks (11) with new-build CH-47F models as most cost-efficient instead of upgrading existing airframes, 14 new CH-47F models were ordered in 2015 via Foreign Military Sales Agreement with the US-based on current US CH-47F platform, the existing six operational CH-47Fs will be upgraded to the same standard. The Air Forces will have fleet of 20 CH-47Fs by the end of 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scramble.nl/military-news/first-two-of-fourteen-new-build-dutch-ch-47fs-have-arrived-in-belgium|title=First two of fourteen new-built Dutch CH-47F have arrived in Belgium|date=2021-01-14|access-date=2021-12-07|publisher=scramble.nl}}</ref> In December 2021 the last CH-47D was phased out from operational service and the transition to an all CH47F model based fleet completed.<ref name="ch47">{{cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/netherlands-retires-ch-47d-chinooks|work=Jane's|title=Netherlands retires CH-47D Chinooks|first=Gareth|last=Jennings|date=2021-12-23|access-date=2021-12-24}}</ref>
* The Air Force is upgrading its AH-64D Apache helicopters to the AH-64E V6 standard to remain up-to-date in 2020 - 2022, allowing future use on amphibious ships of the Royal Netherlands Navy based on the enhanced maritime capabilities.<ref name="DtoE">{{cite web|url=https://www.janes.com/defence-news/news-detail/netherlands-ships-first-apaches-to-us-for-modernisation|date=2020-11-20|access-date=2021-11-26|title=Netherlands ships first Apaches to US for modernisation|first=Gareth|last=Jennings|work=Jane's}}</ref>
* 12 remaining Cougar Helicopters out of original 17 will be upgraded and assigned to support Special Operations Forces activities. In December 2018, the Dutch government announced the purchase of additional rotary-wing aircraft to increase SOF capabilities.
* Airbus A330 - MRTT were ordered to replace two Dutch KDC-10 Tanker/Transport aircraft in 2020. The Netherlands is the lead nation in NATO initiative to replace and pool existing Tanker/Transport, including Luxembourg, Belgium (1), Germany (4), Norway (1) within EATC, in 2014 it was announced that the Airbus Military A330 MRTT has been selected and two are ordered for the Royal Netherlands Air Force with options to eight aircraft based in adjoining countries. In 2017 the German Air Force, Norwegian Air Force and Belgian Air Force confirmed orders by joining the MMF program to a total of 9 aircraft of which 5 will be based at Eindhoven Airbase and 4 at Cologne Air Base. They will carry Royal Netherlands Air Force roundels and be registered as Dutch aircraft. In November 2019 it was announced that the Dutch KDC-10 tankers were sold to [[Omega Aerial Refueling Services]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/fixed-wing/private-aerial-refueller-omega-buys-kdc-10-tankers-with-booms/135542.article|title=Private aerial refueller Omega buys KDC-10 tankers with booms|access-date=24 March 2020|date=26 November 2019|work=FlightGlobal|first=Garrett|last=Reim}}</ref> The last Dutch KDC-10 was taken out of service in october 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aerotime.aero/29098-netherlands-retires-kdc-10-tanker|first=Clement|last=Charpentreau|date=2021-10-05|access-date=2021-12-07|publisher=aerotime.aero|title=Dutch Air Force retires last McDonnell-Douglas KDC-10 tanker}}</ref>
* PC-7 Training Aircraft were overhauled and provided with an 'all digital cockpit' by Pilatus Switzerland during 2017–2018 to extend their service live until planned replacement by 2025.
* The [[MIM-104 Patriot]] Air Defence system, transferred to the [[Royal Netherlands Army]] are upgraded to the latest version, including Ballistic Missile Defence Capabilities and PAC-3 missiles, extending operational use until 2040 and German Air Defence Patriot units will be integrated.
* A MALE UAV squadron will be organised based on 4 MQ-9 Block-5 Reapers, including Maritime Surveillance kits to be based on Leeuwarden Airbase and deployable by airlift using C-130 aircraft.<ref name="ga-asi.com">{{cite web|url= http://www.ga-asi.com/ga-asi-selected-to-provide-rpas-to-royal-netherlands-defence-force |title= GA-ASI Selected to Provide RPAS to Royal Netherlands Defence Force |publisher= ga-asi.com |date=|access-date=17 July 2018}}</ref>
* In 2021 a [[Brik-II (satellite)|Brik-II]] satellite was launched to provide the Royal Netherlands Air Force with intelligence regarding navigation, communication and observation of the earth.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.defensie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2017/11/30/luchtmacht-gaat-de-ruimte-in |title= Luchtmacht gaat de ruimte in |date= 30 November 2017 |website= defensie.nl |language= nl |trans-title= Airforce goes to space |access-date= 4 December 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171203001849/https://www.defensie.nl/actueel/nieuws/2017/11/30/luchtmacht-gaat-de-ruimte-in |archive-date= 3 December 2017 |url-status= live |df= dmy-all }}</ref>
* The Gulfstream VIP aircraft will be replaced in 2021 by a [[Gulfstream 650]]
* The C-130 fleet will be replaced from 2025 onwards, likely by 5-6 new C-130J Super Hercules
* The Dornier MPA's flown for the Coast Guard will be replaced in 2022, by two on order Dash 8 MPA's.

The Netherlands was the first country to sign up for the Production Sustainment and Follow On Development (PSFD) Phase of the [[F-35 Lightning II]] aircraft.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/2006/11/dutch-sign-f35-production-mou-but-political-challenges-remain/index.php |title=Dutch Sign F-35 Production MoU, But Political Challenges Remain |publisher=Defenseindustrydaily.com |date=16 November 2006 |access-date=15 November 2011}} {{dead link|date=August 2013}}</ref>

Through the [[NATO Strategic Airlift Capability]], the RNLAF has access to three [[C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]]s.<ref>{{cite web|URL=http://www.bmvg.de/resource/resource/MzEzNTM4MmUzMzMyMmUzMTM1MzMyZTM2MzEzMDMwMzAzMDMwMzAzMDY4Njg2MTM2NmE3MDM4MzQyMDIwMjAyMDIw/20130528%20DoI%20DEU-NLD%20FINAL.pdf|title=Declaration of Intent between Germany and Netherlands|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530075515/http://www.bmvg.de/resource/resource/MzEzNTM4MmUzMzMyMmUzMTM1MzMyZTM2MzEzMDMwMzAzMDMwMzAzMDY4Njg2MTM2NmE3MDM4MzQyMDIwMjAyMDIw/20130528%20DoI%20DEU-NLD%20FINAL.pdf |archive-date=30 May 2015|date=28 May 2013}}</ref>

Plans to integrate closely with The Belgian Air Force include centralising all Transport Aircraft at Melsbroek (Brussels Airport) under Belgian supervision and all helicopters (Air Force & Navy) under Dutch supervision at Gilze-Rijen Airbase to reduce operating cost, improve availability and knowledge (2013).

===F-35===
[[File:General Dynamics F-16AM Fighting Falcon, Netherlands - Royal Air Force JP7401086.jpg|thumb|left|An F-16AM on approach]]
To replace its [[F-16]] fleet the RNLAF considered the [[Dassault Aviation|Dassault]] [[Rafale]], the [[Lockheed Martin]] F-16 Block 52/60, the [[Eurofighter Typhoon]], the [[Saab Gripen]], the [[F/A-18 Super Hornet]] and the [[Lockheed Martin]] [[F-35 Lightning II|F-35]]. In 2002 the Netherlands signed a Memorandum Of Understanding (MOU) to co-develop the F-35 as a 'Tier 2' Partner. Two test aircraft were ordered between 2009 and 2011. Two F-35A have been delivered for the testing program and for training pilots and maintenance crew. This first aircraft is stationed at a base in Florida, US.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defensie.nl/english/latest/news/2013/03/06/48203805/Second_Dutch_F_35_leaves_factory|title=Second Dutch F-35 leaves factory.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731190002/http://www.defensie.nl/english/latest/news/2013/03/06/48203805/Second_Dutch_F_35_leaves_factory |archive-date=31 July 2013|date=6 March 2013}}</ref>

On 17 September 2013 the F-35A was officially selected as the replacement for the Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16 MLU. In February 2014 Parliament approved the purchase of the first batch of eight F-35 aircraft, to be delivered from 2019.<ref>{{cite web |author=Van onze redactie |url=http://www.volkskrant.nl/binnenland/kabinet-kan-eerste-jsfs-bestellen~a3874314/ |title=Kabinet kan eerste JSF's bestellen |date=26 February 2015 |publisher=Volkskrant.nl |access-date=27 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227212811/http://www.volkskrant.nl/binnenland/kabinet-kan-eerste-jsfs-bestellen~a3874314/ |archive-date=27 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2013 the MOD announced that it will buy 35 additional F-35As between 2014–2023, bringing the total to 37, the maximum number fitting the original budget for F-16 replacement.<ref>[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-dutch-fighter-f-idUSBRE98G0Y020130917 "Dutch government says to purchase 37 F-35 fighter planes"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011204933/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/09/17/us-dutch-fighter-f-idUSBRE98G0Y020130917 |date=11 October 2015 }} 17 September 2013</ref> The acquisition of initially 37 F-35As was confirmed. The purchase of 15 additional aircraft was announced by the Dutch government in December 2018 for a third squadron to NATO, totalling 52 jets, the first batch of 9 additional aircraft was ordered in 2019 and 6 additional are planned.

==See also==
* [[Netherlands Naval Aviation Service]]
* [[Solo Display Team]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last=Anrig|first=Christian F.|title=The quest for relevant air power : continental European responses to the air power challenges of the post–Cold War era|isbn=978-1249030447|publisher=Air University Press|location=Maxwell AFB|date=2011|url=https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/AUPress/Books/B_0125_ANRIG_QUEST_RELEVANT_POWER.pdf}}
*{{cite book |last1=Bernstein |first1=J|title=AH-64 Apache Units of Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom |year=2005 |publisher= Osprey Publishing Ltd|location= UK |isbn=1-84176-848-0}}
* {{cite web |first= Klemen |last= L |date= 2000 |title= Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942 |url= https://warfare.gq/dutcheastindies/index.html }}
*{{cite journal |last1=Klaauw|first1=Bart van der|title=Unexpected Windfalls: Accidentally or Deliberately, More than 100 Aircraft 'arrived' in Dutch Territory During the Great War |journal=Air Enthusiast |date=March–April 1999 |issue=80 |pages=54–59 |issn=0143-5450}}
*{{cite magazine|last=Owers|first=Colin|title=Fokker's Fifth: The C.V Multi-role Biplane|magazine=[[Air Enthusiast]] |date=Spring 1994|issue=53 |pages=60–68 |issn=0143-5450}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Royal Netherlands Air Force}}
* [http://www.defensie.nl/luchtmacht Official website] {{in lang|nl}}
* [http://www.flagchart.net/nlmilklu.htm Military Flags]
* [http://www.nimh.nl/nl/geschiedenis/emblemen/klu/index.aspx/ Squadron roundels]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080608235351/http://www.mindef.nl/actueel/parlement/kamerbrieven/2004/4/20041013_derdehercules.aspx Parliament Chamber Notes on buying C-130 and selling F-60 aircraft] {{in lang|nl}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061003151243/http://www.shephard.co.uk/rotorhub/Default.aspx?Action=745115149&ID=2d82f57b-ca52-4154-86c5-dd5155d02f30 The Defense Security Cooperation Agency notified Congress of a possible sale to the Netherlands of CH-47F Chinook cargo helicopters] (English)

{{Dutch Military}}
{{Allied Air Command}}
{{Air forces in Europe}}
{{Air forces}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Royal Netherlands Air Force| ]]
[[Category:Netherlands Armed Forces]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1913]]
[[Category:1913 establishments in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1953]]
[[Category:1953 establishments in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Organisations based in the Netherlands with royal patronage]]
[[Category:Breda]]

Sweet Home Alabama

2021-12-30T17:24:55Z

Denvercoder9: grammar fix

{{short description|1974 song by Lynyrd Skynyrd}}
{{For|the film|Sweet Home Alabama (film)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox song
| name = Sweet Home Alabama
| cover = Skynyrd-Sweet-Home-Alabama.jpg
| alt =
| caption = 1974 Spain single release
| type = single
| artist = [[Lynyrd Skynyrd]]
| album = [[Second Helping]]
| B-side = [[Take Your Time (Lynyrd Skynyrd)|Take Your Time]]
| released = June 24, 1974
| recorded = June 1973
| studio =
| venue =
| genre = *[[Country rock]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/musicusaamericas0000brow|url-access=registration|title=Music U.S.A.: America's country & western tradition|last=Brown|first=Charles T.|date=1986|publisher=Prentice-Hall|page=[https://archive.org/details/musicusaamericas0000brow/page/150 150]|quote=A good example of the southern pride expressed in country rock was Lynyrd Skynyrd's 'Sweet Home, Alabama,'}}</ref>
*{{nowrap|[[Southern rock]]<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country-lists/southern-comforts-25-best-songs-about-the-south-140231/lynyrd-skynyrd-sweet-home-alabama-56737/|title=Southern Comforts: 25 Best Songs About the South|date=March 2, 2015|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|access-date=April 27, 2019}}</ref>}}
*[[blues rock]]<ref name="Goldsmith2019">{{cite book|first=Melissa Ursula Dawn|last=Goldsmith|title=Listen to Classic Rock! Exploring a Musical Genre|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6W-DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA251|date=22 November 2019|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-6579-4|page=251}}</ref>
| length = 4:43
| label = [[MCA Records|MCA]]
| writer = {{hlist|[[Ed King]]|[[Gary Rossington]]|[[Ronnie Van Zant]]}}
| producer = [[Al Kooper]]
| prev_title = [[Don't Ask Me No Questions]]
| prev_year = 1974
| next_title = [[Free Bird]]
| next_year = 1974
| misc = {{Audio sample
| type = single
| file = Lynyrd Skynyrd Sweet Home Alabama.ogg
| description = Sweet Home Alabama
}}
{{External music video|header=Live video|
{{YouTube|6GxWmSVv-cY|"Sweet Home Alabama"}}}}
}}

"'''Sweet Home Alabama'''" is a song by the [[Southern rock]] band [[Lynyrd Skynyrd]] that first appeared in 1974 on their second album, ''[[Second Helping]]''. The song was released as the band's second single.

The song was written in response to [[Neil Young]]'s "[[Southern Man (song)|Southern Man]]", which was released in 1970, because it took the entire South to task for the bloody history of slavery and its aftermath.<ref name=SouthernMan>{{cite web
| url =https://www.npr.org/2018/12/17/676863591/sweet-home-alabama-lynyrd-skynyrd-southern-discomfort-american-anthem
| title =Unfurling 'Sweet Home Alabama,' A Tapestry Of Southern Discomfort
| last =Contreras
| first =Felix
| date =December 17, 2018
| website =npr.com
| publisher =National Public Radio
| access-date =May 21, 2021
| quote =This story is part of American Anthem, a yearlong series on songs that rouse, unite, celebrate and call to action. }}
</ref> Young is name-checked in the lyrics to "Sweet Home Alabama".

It reached number 8 on the US chart in 1974, becoming the band's highest-charting single.<ref>[http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=1702 Sweet Home Alabama song information]. Songfacts.com</ref>

==Creation and recording==
None of the three writers of the song were from [[Alabama]]; [[Ronnie Van Zant]] and [[Gary Rossington]] were both born in [[Jacksonville, Florida]], while [[Ed King]] was from [[Glendale, California]]. In an interview with ''[[Garden & Gun]]'', Rossington explained the writing process. "I had this little riff," he said. "It’s the little picking part and I kept playing it over and over when we were waiting on everyone to arrive for rehearsal. Ronnie and I were sitting there, and he kept saying, 'play that again'. Then Ronnie wrote the lyrics and Ed and I wrote the music."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gardenandgun.com/articles/the-story-behind-sweet-home-alabama/|title=The Story Behind "Sweet Home Alabama"|last=Lotz|first=CJ|date=August 13, 2015|work=Garden & Gun|access-date=August 7, 2018}}</ref>

"Sweet Home Alabama" was a major chart hit for a band whose previous singles had "lazily sauntered out into release with no particular intent". The hit led to two TV rock show offers, which the band turned down.<ref name="Dupree">{{cite magazine |last1=Dupree |first1=Tom |title=Lynyrd Skynyrd in Sweet Home Atlanta |url=http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/alkooper/articles/story/9437632/lynyrd_skynyrd_in_sweet_home_atlanta |magazine=[[Rolling Stone]] |access-date=February 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327072347/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/alkooper/articles/story/9437632/lynyrd_skynyrd_in_sweet_home_atlanta |archive-date=March 27, 2009 |date=October 24, 1974 |url-status=dead}}</ref> In addition to the original appearance on ''Second Helping'', the song has appeared on numerous Lynyrd Skynyrd collections and live albums.

==Controversy==
"Sweet Home Alabama" was written in [[Answer song|answer]] to two songs by [[Neil Young]], "[[Southern Man (song)|Southern Man]]" and "[[Harvest (Neil Young album)|Alabama]]", because the songs "took the entire South to task for the bloody history of slavery and its aftermath".<ref name=SouthernMan/>. "We thought Neil was shooting all the ducks in order to kill one or two," said Ronnie Van Zant at the time.<ref name="Dupree"/> The following excerpt is the Neil Young name-check in the song "Sweet Home Alabama":

{{quotation|Well, I heard Mister Young sing about her Well, I heard ol' Neil put her down Well, I hope Neil Young will remember A Southern man don't need him around anyhow}}

In Young's 2012 autobiography ''[[Waging Heavy Peace]]'', he commented on his song, "My own song 'Alabama' richly deserved the shot Lynyrd Skynyrd gave me with their great record. I don't like my words when I listen to it. They are accusatory and condescending, not fully thought out, and too easy to misconstrue".<ref>{{cite book|last=Young|first=Neil|title=Waging Heavy Peace: A Hippie Dream|year=2012|publisher=Penguin Group|location=New York, New York|isbn=978-0-14-218031-0|page=417|chapter=Chapter Fifty-seven}}</ref>

Another part of "Sweet Home Alabama" was also controversial in its reference to [[George Wallace]], the then [[Governor of Alabama]] and noted supporter of [[racial segregation]]:

{{poemquote|In Birmingham, they love the governor (boo boo boo)
Now we all did what we could do
Now Watergate does not bother me
Does your conscience bother you?
Tell the truth
...
Sweet home Alabama, oh, sweet home baby
Where the skies are so blue and the governor's true}}

The choice of [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] in connection with the governor (rather than the capital [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]]) is significant. "In 1963, the city was the site of massive civil rights activism, as thousands of demonstrators led by [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] sought to desegregate downtown businesses... [and] was the scene of some of the most violent reactions to the [[Civil Rights Movement]]. Segregationist police chief [[Bull Connor]] unleashed attack dogs and high-pressure water cannons against peaceful marchers, including women and children; just weeks later, [[Ku Klux Klan]]smen bombed a black church, [[16th Street Baptist Church bombing|killing four little girls]]."<ref name="Music Guide">{{cite book|title=Sweet Home Alabama: Shmoop Music Guide|year=2010|publisher=Shmoop University|isbn=978-1-6106-2059-8}}</ref> In 1975, Van Zant said: "The lyrics about the governor of Alabama were misunderstood. The general public didn't notice the words 'Boo! Boo! Boo!' after that particular line, and the media picked up only on the reference to the people loving the governor."<ref name=BallinggerL>Ballinger, Lee. (2002 [1999]). ''Lynyrd Skynyrd: An Oral History''. Los Angeles, California: XT377 Publishing. {{ISBN|0-9720446-3-9}}</ref> "The line 'We all did what we could do' is sort of ambiguous," Al Kooper notes. {{"'}}We tried to get Wallace out of there' is how I always thought of it."<ref name=BallinggerL /> Towards the end of the song, Van Zant adds "where the governor's true" to the chorus's "where the skies are so blue," a line rendered ironic by the previous booing of the governor. Journalist Al Swenson argues that the song is more complex than it is sometimes given credit for, suggesting that it only looks like an endorsement of Wallace.<ref name=BallinggerL /> "Wallace and I have very little in common," Van Zant himself said, "I don't like what he says about colored people."<ref name=BallinggerL/>

Further complicating the racial politics of the song is the fact that [[Merry Clayton]] and [[Clydie King]], two well-known African-American studio singers, served as backing vocalists on the track. In a 2013 interview, Clayton spoke at length about her decision to take the job. In her recollection, her initial response was negative: "[Clydie King] said the song was 'Sweet Home Alabama.' There was a silence on the phone for quite a while. I said, 'Clydie, are you serious? I'm not singing nothing about nobody's sweet home Alabama. Period.{{'"}} Nonetheless, Clayton was persuaded to take the job, to "let the music be [her] protest."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://music.avclub.com/merry-clayton-on-20-feet-from-stardom-ray-charles-lyn-1798240198|title=Merry Clayton on ''20 Feet from Stardom'', Ray Charles, Lynryd Skynyrd, and 'Gimme Shelter' |last=Adams|first=Sam|website=[[The A.V. Club]] |department=Music|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref>

Music historians examining the juxtaposition of invoking [[Richard Nixon]] and Watergate after Wallace and Birmingham note that one reading of the lyrics is an "attack against the liberals who were so outraged at Nixon's conduct" while others interpret it regionally: "the band was speaking for the entire South, saying to northerners, we're not judging you as ordinary citizens for the failures of your leaders in Watergate; don't judge all of us as individuals for the racial problems of southern society".<ref name="Music Guide"/>

[[Ed King]], the song's co-writer, contradicted his former bandmates in a 2009 post on his website. He claimed the tune was originally intended as the unabashed defense of Alabama, even Gov. Wallace, that almost all of the song seems to be:

{{quotation|I can understand where the "boo boo boo" would be misunderstood. It's not US going "boo" ... it's what the Southern man hears the Northern man say every time the Southern man'd say "In Birmingham we love the gov'nor". Get it? "We all did what WE could do!" to get Wallace elected. It's not a popular opinion but Wallace stood for the average white guy in the South.

"Watergate doesn't bother me" because that stuff happens in politics...but someone's conscience ought to bother them for what happened to Wallace. [[Arthur Bremer]] may or may not have been a yankee but he sure destroyed whatever chance Wallace had to be president. And hardly anyone in America noticed. I still like the plaque that hangs here in my office that says I'm an honorary member of the Alabama State Militia...signed personally by George C. Sure, the man had his flaws. But he spoke for the common man of the South. And, whoa, I'm gonna get in trouble over this whole dang post!"<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://edking.proboards.com/thread/87/secong-helping|title=Secong Helping ||website=edking.proboards.com}}</ref>}}

==Muscle Shoals==
One verse of the song includes the line, "Now Muscle Shoals has got the Swampers/And they've been known to pick a song or two." This refers to the town of [[Muscle Shoals, Alabama]], a popular location for recording popular music because of the "sound" crafted by local recording studios and back-up musicians. "The Swampers" referred to in the lyrics are the [[Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section]]. These musicians, who crafted the "Muscle Shoals Sound", were inducted into the [[Alabama Music Hall of Fame]] in 1995<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alamhof.org/msrs.html |title=The Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section |publisher=Alabama Music Hall of Fame |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217165715/http://www.alamhof.org/msrs.html |archive-date=February 17, 2012}}</ref> for a "Lifework Award for Non-Performing Achievement" and into the Musician's Hall Of Fame in 2008 (the performers inducted into the latter were the four founding Swampers—[[Barry Beckett]], [[Roger Hawkins (drummer)|Roger Hawkins]], [[David Hood]], [[Jimmy Johnson (session guitarist)|Jimmy Johnson]]—plus Pete Carr, Clayton Ivey, Randy McCormack, Will McFarlane, and [[Spooner Oldham]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2008/10/29/kid-rock-keith-richards-help-induct-crickets-muscle-shoals-into-musicians-hall-of-fame/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909052047/http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2008/10/29/kid-rock-keith-richards-help-induct-crickets-muscle-shoals-into-musicians-hall-of-fame/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 9, 2012 |title=Which Band Will Reunite Next? Placing Odds on 14 Groups, from Led Zeppelin to N'Sync Pictures |work=Rolling Stone |date=October 29, 2008 |access-date=January 4, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sweet-home-perigord.com/|title=Mp3beetsongs.Wordpress.com|website=Mp3beetsongs.Wordpress.com|access-date=August 25, 2018}}</ref> The nickname "The Swampers" was given to the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section by producer Denny Cordell during a recording session by singer/songwriter [[Leon Russell]], in reference to their 'swampy' sound.

Part of the reference comes from the 1971–1972 demo reels that Lynyrd Skynyrd had recorded in Muscle Shoals with Johnson as a producer/recording engineer. Johnson helped refine many of the songs first heard publicly on the ''Pronounced'' album, and it was Van Zant's "tip of the hat" to Johnson for helping out the band in the early years and essentially giving the band its first break.

Lynyrd Skynyrd remains connected to Muscle Shoals, having since recorded a number of works in the city and making it a regular stop on their concert tours.

The [[PBS]] show ''[[Independent Lens]]'' aired a documentary on Muscle Shoals and its place in music history in mid-April 2014.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.pbs.org/independentlens/blog/musical-journey-muscle-shoals/ | title=Video: A Musical Journey Through Muscle Shoals | publisher=PBS | work=Independent Lens | date=April 18, 2014 | access-date=July 20, 2019 | author=Phillips, Craig }}</ref>

==Personnel==
'''Lynyrd Skynyrd'''
* [[Ronnie Van Zant]] – lead vocals
* [[Ed King]] – lead guitar, backing vocals (first "woo" at the end of the last chorus)
* [[Leon Wilkeson]] – bass guitar, backing vocals (second "woo" at the end of the last chorus)
* [[Bob Burns (drummer)|Bob Burns]] – drums
* [[Billy Powell]] – piano
* [[Allen Collins]] – rhythm guitar (left channel)
* [[Gary Rossington]] – rhythm guitar (right channel), acoustic guitar (left channel)

'''Additional personnel'''
* [[Al Kooper]] – backing vocals (left channel)
* [[Clydie King]] – background vocals<ref name="Dupree"/>
* [[Merry Clayton]] – background vocals<ref name="Dupree"/>

==Charts==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===Weekly charts===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Chart (1974–1976)
! Peak position
|-
{{singlechart|Canadatopsingles|6|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|chartid=3881a|song=Sweet Home Alabama}}
|-
{{singlechart|UKsinglesbyname|31|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|artistid=15843}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardhot100|8|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd}}
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Chart (2008)
! Peak position
|-
{{singlechart|Austria|56|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|song=Sweet Home Alabama}}
|-
{{singlechart|Germany|87|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|song=Sweet Home Alabama|songid=10103}}
|-
{{singlechart|Swiss|51|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|song=Sweet Home Alabama}}
|-
{{singlechart|UK|44|date=20080802}}
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Chart (2021)
! Peak position
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardrocksongs|13|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd}}
|}
{{col-2}}

===Year-end chart===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Chart (1974)
! Rank
|-
| US ''Cashbox'' Top 100
| style="text-align:center;"| 58
|-
| Canadian ''RPM'' Top Singles
| style="text-align:center;"| 81
|}
{{col-end}}

== Sales and certifications ==
{{Certification Table Top}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Denmark|title=Sweet Home Alabama|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|type=single|award=Platinum|relyear=1975|certyear=2020|id=9654|access-date=October 28, 2020}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Italy|title=Sweet Home Alabama|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|type=single|award=Platinum|relyear=1975|certyear=2017|certweek=45|access-date=November 13, 2017}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|title=Sweet Home Alabama|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|type=single|relyear=2004|certyear=2021|award=Platinum|number=2|id=11744-448-1|access-date=July 9, 2021}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United States|title=Sweet Home Alabama|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|type=single|award=Gold|salesref=<ref name=billboard_sales>{{cite news |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B011yK7wlnv9X2ItLTJUcS0wTVE/view |title=Nielsen Soundscan Chart |date= July 11, 2016 |publisher=Nielsen }}</ref>|relyear=1987|certyear=2004|salesamount=3,680,000 (digital)|refname=RIAA}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United States|title=Sweet Home Alabama|artist=Lynyrd Skynyrd|type=single|award=Platinum|relyear=2004|certyear=2006|digital=true|note=Mastertone|accessdate=June 17, 2021|refname=RIAA1}}
{{Certification Table Bottom|noshipments=true|streaming=true}}

=="All Summer Long"==
[[Kid Rock]]'s 2008 song "[[All Summer Long (Kid Rock song)|All Summer Long]]" interpolates "Sweet Home Alabama" on the chorus and uses the guitar solo and piano outro, as well as the "turn it up" shout before the guitar solo; Billy Powell is featured on the track. "All Summer Long" also samples [[Warren Zevon]]'s "[[Werewolves of London]]", which has similar chord progression to "Sweet Home Alabama".

The song is credited to Matthew Shafer, Waddy Wachtel, R.J. Ritchie, Leroy Marinell, Warren Zevon, Edward King, Gary Rossington and Ronnie Van Zant. Since "All Summer Long"'s release, the original song has also charted at number 44 on the [[UK Singles Chart]].

==Other uses==

* As of 2009, the [[State of Alabama]] has begun using the phrase "Sweet Home Alabama" as an official slogan on [[vehicle registration plates of Alabama|license plates]] for motor vehicles, with Governor [[Bob Riley]] noting that Lynyrd Skynyrd's anthem is the third most-played song referring to a specific destination.<ref>[http://www.governorpress.alabama.gov/pr/pr-2008-10-07-01-new_tags_photo.asp State’s New License Plates Feature Beach Scene and 'Sweet Home Alabama'] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119154727/http://www.governorpress.alabama.gov/pr/pr-2008-10-07-01-new_tags_photo.asp |date=November 19, 2008 }}</ref> (This is also the second Alabama license plate in a row to make reference to a popular song, with the state's previous plate having featured "[[Stars Fell on Alabama]]".)
*In September 2007, Alabama Governor [[Bob Riley]] announced the phrase "Sweet Home Alabama" would be used to promote Alabama state tourism in a multimillion-dollar ad campaign.<ref>{{cite news |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=September 18, 2007 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/travel/news/2007-09-18-sweet-home-alabama_N.htm?csp=Forbes |title=Lynyrd Skynyrd Song Turns Alabama Tourist Theme |work=[[USA Today]] |access-date=October 17, 2007}}</ref>
* In 2002, the song inspired the title and plot of the film ''[[Sweet Home Alabama (film)|Sweet Home Alabama]]''.
*American [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Metallica]] used the intro [[riff]] for their 1983 song "The Four Horsemen" which gained controversy as they played the riff mid way through the song without any legal permissions "Ripping Them Off".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Polcaro|first=Rafael|date=2018-03-05|title=Dave Mustaine wrote a Metallica song ripping off "Sweet Home Alabama"|url=http://rockandrollgarage.com/dave-mustaine-says-wrote-metallica-song-ripping-off-sweet-home-alabama/|access-date=2021-10-01|website=Rock And Roll Garage|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Recognition and awards==
* In May 2006, ''[[National Review]]'' ranked the song number 4 on its list of "50 greatest [[conservatism in the United States|conservative]] rock songs".<ref>Miller, John J. (May 26, 2006) [http://www.nationalreview.com/content/rockin-right Rockin' the Right], ''[[National Review]]''</ref>
* In July 2006, [[Country Music Television|CMT]] ranked it number 1 on the "20 Greatest Southern Rock songs".

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Portal|United States}}
* [http://www.thrasherswheat.org/jammin/lynyrd.htm Lynyrd Skynyrd and Neil Young: Friends or Foes?]—An analysis of "Sweet Home Alabama" and "Southern Man"
* [http://www.lynyrdskynyrdhistory.com/lyrics/70-77/sechelp/soni.html "Sweet Home Alabama" lyrics on lynyrdskynyrdhistory.com]
* [http://www.shmoop.com/sweet-home-alabama/ "Sweet Home Alabama"] song guide, lyrical analysis, historical context and allusions, teaching guide

{{Lynyrd Skynyrd}}
{{Alabama (band) 1990-2011 singles}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:1974 singles]]
[[Category:Music of Alabama]]
[[Category:Lynyrd Skynyrd songs]]
[[Category:Songs about Alabama]]
[[Category:Answer songs]]
[[Category:Song recordings produced by Al Kooper]]
[[Category:Songs written by Ed King]]
[[Category:Songs written by Gary Rossington]]
[[Category:Songs written by Ronnie Van Zant]]
[[Category:Alabama (American band) songs]]
[[Category:1974 songs]]
[[Category:MCA Records singles]]
[[Category:Neil Young]]
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[[Category:Songs composed in D major]]

User talk:Denvercoder9

2021-11-24T17:28:23Z

Denvercoder9:

'''Welcome!'''

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== August 2013 ==

[[Image:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I'm [[User:117Avenue|117Avenue]]. I noticed that you made a change to an article, [[:List of Video Game High School episodes]], but you didn't provide a [[Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources|reliable source]]. It's been removed for now, but if you'd like to [[Wikipedia:Citing sources|include a citation]] and re-add it, please do so! If you think I made a mistake, or if you have any questions, you can leave me a message on [[User_talk:117Avenue|my talk page]]. Thank you.  [[User:117Avenue|117Avenue]] ([[User talk:117Avenue|talk]]) 22:07, 25 August 2013 (UTC)
== OER inquiry ==
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== Response ==

Hi I noticed that you un-did my recent edit to the Wikipedia page for Clinton Foundation for "disrputive editing" but I was not being disruptive at all and in fact my edits were factual, please why you are un-do my edits? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/206.217.205.67|206.217.205.67]] ([[User talk:206.217.205.67#top|talk]]) 22:33, 7 July 2020 (UTC) 

: Hi, your edits made a controversial (at the least) claim not supported by any sources. Please read [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources]] and provide sources for future edits. [[User:Denvercoder9|Denvercoder9]] ([[User talk:Denvercoder9#top|talk]]) 22:38, 7 July 2020 (UTC)

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User talk:Denvercoder9

2021-11-24T17:28:08Z

Denvercoder9:

All Too Well

2021-11-13T13:05:29Z

Denvercoder9: /* The scarf */ missing quote

{{short description|2012 song by Taylor Swift}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{About|the Taylor Swift song}}
{{Infobox song
| name = All Too Well
| artist = [[Taylor Swift]]
| album = [[Red (Taylor Swift album)|Red]]
| released = October 22, 2012
| genre =
* [[Country music|Country]]
* [[country rock]]
* [[soft rock]]
| length = {{Duration|m=5|s=28}}
| label = [[Big Machine Records|Big Machine]]
| writer =
* Taylor Swift
* [[Liz Rose]]
| producer =
* [[Nathan Chapman (record producer)|Nathan Chapman]]
* Taylor Swift
}}

"'''All Too Well'''" is a song by American singer-songwriter [[Taylor Swift]]. It is the fifth track on Swift's fourth studio album, ''[[Red (Taylor Swift album)|Red]]'' (2012), which was released on October 22, 2012, through [[Big Machine Records]]. Swift wrote "All Too Well" with [[Liz Rose]] and produced it with [[Nathan Chapman (record producer)|Nathan Chapman]] as the first song written for ''Red''. It is a [[Rock music|rock]] and [[sad]] [[Power Ballad|power ballad]] with elements of [[folk music]]. Lyrically, it describes Swift's heartache ensued from a devastating break-up, narrating [[Exposition (narrative)|expository]] details from her vivid memory.

Since the release of ''Red'', "All Too Well" has received universal acclaim from music critics and media outlets, and has been consistently ranked as Swift's [[magnum opus]]—the best song of her career. Reviews laud the song's evocative lyrics that portray emotional tumult with intricate specifics and [[introspection]], Swift's emotional vocal performance, and the moody but dynamic instrumentation. "All Too Well" prominently appeared on various publications' lists of the best songs of the 2010s decade, and is a fan-favorite. It has earned a [[cult following]], with frequent references to "the [[scarf]]" mentioned in the lyrics.<ref>{{cite web|last=Skinner|first=Paige|date=February 6, 2019|title=From Irving to Nashville to a Grammy: Songwriter Liz Rose Crushes It|url=https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/liz-rose-talks-taylor-swift-all-too-well-girl-crush-and-more-11546761|access-date=February 22, 2021|website=Dallas Observer|archive-date=July 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730163049/https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/liz-rose-talks-taylor-swift-all-too-well-girl-crush-and-more-11546761|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=December 31, 2018|title=Taylor Swift tells fans they changed meaning of heartbreaking All Too Well|url=https://metro.co.uk/2018/12/31/taylor-swift-tells-fans-helped-change-meaning-heartbreaking-song-jake-gyllenhaal-8296924/|access-date=February 19, 2021|website=Metro|language=en|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194908/https://metro.co.uk/2018/12/31/taylor-swift-tells-fans-helped-change-meaning-heartbreaking-song-jake-gyllenhaal-8296924/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Commercially, "All Too Well" debuted at number 80 on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]], number 17 on the [[Billboard Hot Country Songs|''Billboard'' Hot Country Songs]] chart, and number 59 on the [[Canadian Hot 100]]. It was certified [[RIAA certification|Gold]] by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] for moving over 500,000 units in the country. Swift debuted "All Too Well" live at the [[56th Annual Grammy Awards]] on January 26, 2014, to widespread appraisal. It was performed several times on [[The Red Tour]], the [[Taylor Swift's Reputation Stadium Tour|Reputation Stadium Tour]], and at various one-off concerts.

The [[Re-recorded album|re-recorded]] version of "All Too Well", and its uncut, 10-minute version were released on November 12, 2021, as part of Swift's second re-recorded album, [[Red (Taylor's Version)|''Red (Taylor's Version)'']]; a [[All Too Well: The Short Film|short film based on and titled after the song]], starring Swift, [[Sadie Sink]] and [[Dylan O'Brien]], accompanied the album on November 12 as well.

==Background and release==
[[File:Taylor Swift (6966869079).jpg|thumbnail|170px|upright|Swift began writing the song during rehearsals for the [[Speak Now World Tour]], accompanied by her band]]
"All Too Well" was the first song Swift wrote for her album ''Red'', having penned the lyrics almost two years before the album's release.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mansfield|first=Bryan|date=October 17, 2012|title=Taylor Swift sees 'Red' all over|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/music/2012/10/17/taylor-swift-red-interview/1637307/|url-status=live|access-date=May 21, 2019|website=[[USA Today]]|language=en|archive-date=January 27, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127093604/http://www.usatoday.com/story/life/music/2012/10/17/taylor-swift-red-interview/1637307/}}</ref> While collaborating with different writers on ''Red'', Swift wrote the song along with [[Liz Rose]], with whom she had written many songs on her earlier albums. Rose has said that Swift unexpectedly asked her to help write the song as a one-off project after not having collaborated with Swift for some years.<ref name="yahoo">{{cite web|last1=Willman|first1=Chris|title=Swift Collaboration: Liz Rose Reveals Secrets Behind Taylor's Early Hits|url=https://www.yahoo.com/music/bp/swift-collaboration--liz-rose-talks-about-taylor-making-the-star-s-early-hits-220935530.html|url-status=live|access-date=March 5, 2016|website=[[Yahoo! Music]]|publisher=[[Yahoo!]]|archive-date=December 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211104830/https://www.yahoo.com/music/bp/swift-collaboration--liz-rose-talks-about-taylor-making-the-star-s-early-hits-220935530.html}}</ref> Swift started writing the song by herself unexpectedly while on her [[Speak Now World Tour]]:

{{Quote|text=The lyric I’m most proud of is from "All Too Well": "And you call me up again just to break me like a promise / So casually cruel in the name of being honest." That was something I came up with while ranting during a soundcheck. I was just playing these chords over and over onstage and my band joined in and I went on a rant. Those were some of the lines I thought of. [...] I was going through a really hard time then, and my band joined in playing, and one of the first things that I came up with, just, like, spat out, was "And you call me up again just to break me like a promise, so casually cruel in the name of being honest.|author=Swift on the beginnings of writing "All Too Well"|title=|source=''Popdust''<ref>{{cite web|author=|date=December 11, 2012|title="I Love Living a Life That I Can Write About": Talking with Taylor Swift, Artist of the Year|url=https://www.popdust.com/i-love-living-a-life-that-i-can-write-about-talking-with-taylor-swift--1889582428.html|url-status=live|access-date=May 21, 2019|website=Popdust|language=en|archive-date=August 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813113538/https://www.popdust.com/i-love-living-a-life-that-i-can-write-about-talking-with-taylor-swift--1889582428.html}}</ref>}}

In an interview with ''[[Good Morning America]]'', Swift said that the song was "the hardest to write on the album", saying: "it took me a really long time to filter through everything I wanted to put in the song without it being a 10-minute song, which you can’t put on an album. I wanted a story that could work in the form of a song and I called my co-writer Liz Rose and said, ‘Come over, we’ve gotta filter this down,’ and it took me a really long time to get it."<ref>{{cite web|date=October 22, 2012|title=Taylor Swift Reveals 'All Too Well' Hard To Write — About Jake Gyllenhaal?|url=http://hollywoodlife.com/2012/10/22/taylor-swift-red-all-too-well-jake-gyllenhaal/|url-status=live|access-date=April 28, 2013|work=[[Hollywood Life]]|archive-date=August 5, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805024958/http://hollywoodlife.com/2012/10/22/taylor-swift-red-all-too-well-jake-gyllenhaal/}}</ref> Rose also said that the song was originally "10, 12 or 15 minutes long" before cutting down to "the important pieces".<ref name="yahoo" /> In a later interview, Rose described "All Too Well" as originally being "probably a 20-minute song when [Swift] called me."<ref>{{cite web|last=Skinner|first=Paige|date=February 6, 2019|title=From Irving to Nashville to a Grammy: Songwriter Liz Rose Crushes It|url=https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/liz-rose-talks-taylor-swift-all-too-well-girl-crush-and-more-11546761|url-status=live|access-date=May 21, 2019|website=[[Dallas Observer]]|archive-date=July 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730163049/https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/liz-rose-talks-taylor-swift-all-too-well-girl-crush-and-more-11546761}}</ref> Even after cutting it down, the song is the longest track on the album, clocking in at five minutes and twenty-eight seconds (5:28). In a 2020 interview on ''[[Rolling Stone]]''<nowiki/>'s ''[[Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time|500 Greatest Albums]]'' podcast, Swift later confirmed that the original version was about 10 minutes long and also revealed that it was explicit.<ref>{{cite web|last=Aniftos|first=Rania|date=November 17, 2020|title=Yes, Taylor Swift Recorded a 10-Minute Version of 'All Too Well' (With a Swear Word)|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9485788/taylor-swift-10-minute-version-all-too-well/|url-status=live|access-date=June 29, 2021|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194912/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9485788/taylor-swift-10-minute-version-all-too-well/}}</ref> The song's studio recording was produced by [[Nathan Chapman (record producer)|Nathan Chapman]] and Swift.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|title=Red by Taylor Swift – Credits|url=https://listen.tidal.com/album/35358097/credits|url-status=live|access-date=December 15, 2019|website=|publisher=[[Tidal (service)|Tidal]]|language=en|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194909/https://listen.tidal.com/oldBrowser.html}}</ref>

{{Quote|text=When we did ‘All Too Well,’ I hadn’t heard from her in awhile. She hadn’t really been writing. [...] I was in my driveway and my phone rings, and it’s Taylor saying, ‘Man, I’ve got this thing and I really need you to help me with it. Can you write today? What are you doing today?’ So I gave those guys the keys to my storage place, told them to put all my stuff into storage and drove over to Taylor’s.

It was the first song she wrote for that record, I think. She had a story and she wanted to say something specific. She had a ''lot'' of information. I just let her go. She already had a melody and she started singing some words, and I started writing things down, saying, ‘Ok, let’s use this, let’s use that.’ She mentioned a plaid shirt, and I wrote that down in a corner, and when we got to the end, I said, ‘Let’s put the plaid shirt in there.’ That turned into one of the best lines: ‘After plaid shirt days and nights when you made me your own/Now you mail back my things and I walk home alone/But you keep my old scarf from that very first week/’Cause it reminds you of innocence and it smells like me.’ It was the most emotional, in-depth song we’ve ever written.|author=[[Liz Rose]] on her collaboration with Swift on "All Too Well"|source=''Rolling Stone''<ref>{{Cite web|last=Leahey|first=Andrew|date=October 24, 2014|title=Liz Rose Sets the Scene for Writing With Taylor Swift|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country/songwriter-spotlight-liz-rose-188704/|url-status=live|access-date=June 30, 2021|website=[[Rolling Stone]]|language=en-US|archive-date=July 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182130/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country/songwriter-spotlight-liz-rose-188704/}}</ref>}}

[[File:Jake Gyllenhaal 2012.jpg|thumb|left|200x200px|"All Too Well" is widely speculated to be about actor [[Jake Gyllenhaal]], who Swift dated from October to December 2010.]]
"All Too Well" is widely speculated to be about actor [[Jake Gyllenhaal]],<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=Bricker|first=Tierney|date=November 30, 2020|title=Revisit Jake Gyllenhaal's Stacked Dating History on the Anniversary of His Taylor Swift Maple Latte Date|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/991734/looking-back-on-jake-gyllenhaal-s-stacked-dating-history-on-the-anniversary-of-his-infamous-maple-latte-date-with-taylor-swift|url-status=live|access-date=June 30, 2021|website=[[E! Online]]|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194911/https://www.eonline.com/news/991734/looking-back-on-jake-gyllenhaal-s-stacked-dating-history-on-the-anniversary-of-his-infamous-maple-latte-date-with-taylor-swift}}</ref>who Swift dated from October to December 2010,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hammel|first=Sara|date=January 4, 2011|title=Taylor Swift, Jake Gyllenhaal Break Up|url=https://people.com/celebrity/taylor-swift-jake-gyllenhaal-break-up/|url-status=live|access-date=June 30, 2021|website=[[People (magazine)|People]]|language=en|archive-date=March 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301025941/https://people.com/celebrity/taylor-swift-jake-gyllenhaal-break-up/}}</ref> though he claimed to not have known the song was written about him in a 2015 interview with [[Howard Stern]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Zuckerman|first=Esther|date=July 23, 2015|title=Jake Gyllenhaal Claims He Doesn't Know Taylor Swift Wrote About Him|url=https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2015/07/91205/jake-gyllenhaal-taylor-swift|url-status=live|access-date=June 30, 2021|website=[[Refinery29]]|language=en|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194924/https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2015/07/91205/jake-gyllenhaal-taylor-swift}}</ref> The song's secret message in ''Red''<nowiki/>'s liner notes is "MAPLE LATTES",<ref>{{cite web|last=Dukes|first=Billy|date=October 23, 2012|title=Hidden Messages in Taylor Swift's 'Red' Liner Notes Revealed|url=https://tasteofcountry.com/taylor-swift-red-hidden-messages/|url-status=live|access-date=May 21, 2019|website=[[Taste of Country]]|language=en|archive-date=April 26, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426043348/https://tasteofcountry.com/taylor-swift-red-hidden-messages/}}</ref><ref name="tiffany">{{cite web|last=Tiffany|first=Kaitlyn|date=October 17, 2017|title=With fall comes the return of a fantastic pop culture mystery|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/10/17/16488476/taylor-swift-scarf-mystery-jake-gyllenhaal-all-too-well|url-status=live|access-date=May 21, 2019|website=[[The Verge]]|archive-date=December 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214205952/https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/10/17/16488476/taylor-swift-scarf-mystery-jake-gyllenhaal-all-too-well}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Spanos|first1=Brittany|date=August 22, 2016|title=Ex-Factor: Taylor Swift's Best Songs About Former Boyfriends|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/ex-factor-taylor-swifts-best-songs-about-former-boyfriends-19644/|url-status=live|access-date=July 21, 2020|website=[[Rolling Stone]]|language=en-US|archive-date=July 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717201507/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/ex-factor-taylor-swifts-best-songs-about-former-boyfriends-19644/}}</ref> which some sources theorized was a reference to a [[Thanksgiving]] date in which Swift and Gyllenhaal both ordered maple lattes at a [[Park Slope]], [[Brooklyn]] coffee shop.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dobbins|first=Amanda|date=October 22, 2012|title=Who Is Each Song on Taylor Swift’s New Album About?|url=https://www.vulture.com/2012/10/who-is-each-song-on-taylor-swifts-album-about.html|url-status=live|access-date=June 30, 2021|website=[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]]|language=en-us|archive-date=July 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181418/https://www.vulture.com/2012/10/who-is-each-song-on-taylor-swifts-album-about.html}}</ref>

The first of four Target-exclusive deluxe editions of Swift's 2019 album ''[[Lover (album)|Lover]]'' contained her old diary, in which some of the scrapped lyrics of "All Too Well" can be found: "There we are again / You're crying on the phone / Realized you lost the one real thing you've ever known" was the original [[Bridge (music)|bridge]] of the song, while the original opening lines were "I walked through the door with you / The air was cold / Pictures on the fireplace, you're showing me around." Additional original lyrics included "There we are again / When you blew the candle out / Took this blazing love and steered it right into the ground / Running scared, I was there," and "You'll mail back my things in a box with no note / Except for that scarf from the very first week / Yeah you keep it in your drawer 'cause it smells like me."<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Vulpo|first=Mike|date=August 23, 2019|title=Taylor Swift's Original "All Too Well" Lyrics Revealed in Lover Deluxe Edition|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/1067440/taylor-swift-s-original-all-too-well-lyrics-revealed-in-lover-deluxe-edition|url-status=live|access-date=June 30, 2021|website=[[E! Online]]|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194912/https://www.eonline.com/news/1067440/taylor-swift-s-original-all-too-well-lyrics-revealed-in-lover-deluxe-edition}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Willman|first1=Chris|date=July 23, 2019|title=Taylor Swift Turns 'Red' Again With Third Song from New Album: 'The Archer' (Listen)|url=https://variety.com/2019/music/news/taylor-swift-the-archer-instagram-chat-video-1203277338/|access-date=August 21, 2019|website=Variety|language=en|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194912/https://variety.com/2019/music/news/taylor-swift-the-archer-instagram-chat-video-1203277338/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Following a [[Taylor Swift masters controversy|dispute]] with [[Scooter Braun]] and [[Big Machine Records]] over the rights to the masters of her first six studio albums, including ''Red'', Swift announced her intention to re-record each of the albums under her new label, [[Republic Records]]. On June 18, 2021, Swift announced that ''[[Red (Taylor's Version)]]'' would be released on November 12, 2021. In the social media post announcing the album, she wrote, "This will be the first time you hear all 30 songs that were meant to go on ''Red''. And hey, one of them is even ten minutes long," driving widespread speculation that the original 10-minute version of "All Too Well" might be included on ''Red (Taylor's Version),'' which was confirmed by Swift releasing the official tracklist on August 6, 2021.<ref>{{cite web|last=Iasimone|first=Ashley|date=June 19, 2021|title=Is 'All Too Well' the 10-Minute Song on Taylor Swift's Re-Recorded 'Red'?|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9589528/taylor-swift-red-taylors-version-all-too-well-10-minute-song/|url-status=live|access-date=June 29, 2021|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|archive-date=July 2, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210702210635/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9589528/taylor-swift-red-taylors-version-all-too-well-10-minute-song/}}</ref>

== Composition and lyrics ==
"All Too Well" is a [[Country music|country]],<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|last=Billboard Staff|date=October 19, 2012|title=Taylor Swift, 'Red': Track-By-Track Review|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/review/1066798/taylor-swift-red-track-by-track-review|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2021|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|language=en|archive-date=February 3, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203121109/https://www.billboard.com/articles/review/1066798/taylor-swift-red-track-by-track-review}}</ref> [[country rock]],<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Montalbano|first=Ginny|date=November 3, 2015|title=“All Too Well”|url=https://sites.dwrl.utexas.edu/countrymusic/music/all-too-well/|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2021|website=Country Music Project|publisher=[[University of Texas at Austin]]|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194914/https://sites.dwrl.utexas.edu/countrymusic/music/all-too-well/}}</ref> [[power pop]],<ref name=":8" /> and [[soft rock]]<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|last=Farley|first=Rebecca|date=November 10, 2017|title=This Is The Best Taylor Swift Song, No Arguing About It|url=https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2017/08/170278/taylor-swift-all-too-well-best-song|url-status=live|access-date=July 2, 2021|website=[[Refinery29]]|language=en|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194913/https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2017/08/170278/taylor-swift-all-too-well-best-song}}</ref> [[Sentimental ballad|power ballad]]<ref name=":2" /> vividly narrating the difficulty of moving on from a crushing heartbreak. It runs for five minutes and twenty-eight seconds, making it the longest track on the album.<ref name=":5" /> Musically, the song is set in the key of [[C major]] with a [[tempo]] of 94 beats per minute. Swift's vocals range from [[F (musical note)|F]]3 to [[D (musical note)|D]]5.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite web|last1=Taylor|first1=Swift|last2=Liz|first2=Rose|last3=Taylor|first3=Swift|date=November 14, 2012|title=All Too Well|url=https://www.musicnotes.com/sheetmusic/mtd.asp?ppn=MN0111456|url-status=live|access-date=February 19, 2021|website=|publisher=MusicNotes|archive-date=October 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201029231635/https://www.musicnotes.com/sheetmusic/mtd.asp?ppn=MN0111456}}</ref> The song is instrumented by acoustic and electric guitars, keyboard, drums, and bass.<ref name=":1" /> The song follows the track five pattern noted by music critics, in which the fifth track on Swift's albums are the most "anguish-filled" songs, featuring "stabbing lyrics and climactic [[Bridge (music)|bridges]]."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harbron|first=Lucy|date=December 1, 2020|title=Taylor Swift's infamous 'track fives' – ranked in order of greatness|url=https://www.nme.com/blogs/taylor-swifts-track-fives-ranked-my-tears-ricochet-2829115|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2021|website=[[NME]]|language=en-GB|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194914/https://www.nme.com/blogs/taylor-swifts-track-fives-ranked-my-tears-ricochet-2829115}}</ref> The song is often categorized as ''Red''<nowiki/>'s emotional centerpiece by critics.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bernstein|first=Jonathan|date=November 18, 2020|title=500 Greatest Albums: Taylor Swift Looks Back on Her 'Only True Breakup Album' 'Red'|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/500-greatest-albums-taylor-swift-red-1059586/|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2021|website=[[Rolling Stone]]|language=en-US|archive-date=December 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204182537/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/500-greatest-albums-taylor-swift-red-1059586/}}</ref> Brad Nelson of ''[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]'' identified the song as the climax of ''Red''<nowiki/>'s overarching theme that "Nothing dies without leaving some trace of itself."<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Nelson|first=Brad|date=August 19, 2019|title=Taylor Swift: Red|url=https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/taylor-swift-red/|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2021|website=[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]|language=en|archive-date=August 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820002611/https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/taylor-swift-red/}}</ref>

The lyrics see Swift long for the memories of the relationship<ref name=":23">{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Nate|date=January 11, 2021|title=All 179 Taylor Swift Songs, Ranked|url=https://www.vulture.com/article/all-taylor-swift-songs-ranked-from-worst-to-best.html|url-status=live|access-date=February 19, 2021|website=[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]]|language=en-us|archive-date=September 13, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913234630/https://www.vulture.com/article/all-taylor-swift-songs-ranked-from-worst-to-best.html}}</ref> that have been frozen in time.<ref name=":4" /> Swift sings "I can picture it after all these days," "Time won't fly / It's like I'm paralyzed by it," and "I remember it all too well."<ref name=":93">Swift, Taylor. ― Liner notes for ''Red'', by Taylor Swift. Big Machine Records. 2012, compact disc.</ref> The verses narrate [[expository]] details.<ref name=":10" /> Rebecca Farley of ''[[Refinery29]]'' described the lyrics as blameless,<ref name=":6" /> lamenting the [[negative space]] left by a breakup and recounting the lost memories.<ref name=":7" /> Brittany Spanos of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' writes that the song describes "the pain of having to piece one's self back together again"<ref name=":82">{{cite web|last=Spanos|first=Brittany|date=August 22, 2016|title=Ex-Factor: Taylor Swift's Best Songs About Former Boyfriends|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/ex-factor-taylor-swifts-best-songs-about-former-boyfriends-19644/|access-date=February 26, 2021|website=Rolling Stone|language=en-US|archive-date=July 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180717201507/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/ex-factor-taylor-swifts-best-songs-about-former-boyfriends-19644/|url-status=live}}</ref> after a relationship ends. The song [[crescendo]]s from a slow, [[Folk music|folk]]-inspired intro to an [[arena rock]] bridge,<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> where Swift sings "And you call me up again just to break me like a promise / So casually cruel in the name of being honest / I'm a crumpled up piece of paper lying here / 'Cause I remember it all, all, all / Too well."<ref name=":93" /> The events are set mainly in [[autumn]],<ref>{{Cite web|last=Tiffany|first=Kaitlyn|date=October 17, 2017|title=With fall comes the return of a fantastic pop culture mystery|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/10/17/16488476/taylor-swift-scarf-mystery-jake-gyllenhaal-all-too-well|url-status=live|access-date=February 19, 2021|website=[[The Verge]]|language=en|archive-date=December 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214205952/https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/10/17/16488476/taylor-swift-scarf-mystery-jake-gyllenhaal-all-too-well}}</ref> with Swift singing "Autumn leaves falling down like pieces into place / And I can picture it after all these days" in the first verse.<ref name=":93" /> Ginny Montalbano of the [[University of Texas at Austin]]'s Country Music Project highlighted the song's unique structure Swift used to accommodate the song's dramatic details.<ref name=":5" />

The song opens with the lyric "I walked through the door with you / the air was cold / but something about it felt like home somehow / and I left my scarf there at your sister's house / and you've still got it in your drawer even now." The scarf is mentioned again towards the end of the song: "But you keep my old scarf from that very first week / 'Cause it reminds you of innocence and it smells like me / You can't get rid of it 'cause you remember it all too well."<ref name=":93" /> Nelson compared the scarf to a [[Chekhov's gun]], symbolizing the persisting emotional flame of their romance long after it has physically ended.<ref name=":7" />

== Critical reception ==
{{Listen
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|description=Chronicling a fallen relationship, "All Too Well" has been acclaimed as Swift's best written song for portraying vulnerability with vivid imagery.}}
"All Too Well" has received widespread acclaim from critics, who have lauded it as one of Swift's best-written songs for its heavily detailed and powerful lyrics.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":5" /> [[Rob Sheffield]] of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' wrote that Swift "[spins] a tragic tale of doomed love and scarves and autumn leaves and maple lattes."<ref name=":32"/> Brittany Spanos also of ''Rolling Stone'' wrote that the song is a "masterpiece of the break-up ballad form".<ref name=":82"/> In a track-by-track review of ''[[Red (Taylor Swift album)|Red]]'', ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' described the song as a "sumptuous country" track that sees Swift mourns the memories "of a romance that has seemingly been buried in time."<ref name=":4" /> Writing for ''[[Slant Magazine]]'', Jonathan Keefe chose "All Too Well" as "arguably the finest song in Swift's entire catalogue:" it "crescendos from coffeehouse folk to arena rock [...] until she unleashes one of her best-ever lines [...] and the song explodes into a full-on bloodletting."<ref>{{cite web|last=Keefe|first=Jonathan|date=October 22, 2012|title=Review: Taylor Swift, Red|url=https://www.slantmagazine.com/music/taylor-swift-red/|url-status=live|access-date=February 25, 2021|website=[[Slant Magazine]]|language=en-US|archive-date=October 12, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012014408/http://www.slantmagazine.com/music/review/taylor-swift-red/2900}}</ref>

In Sam Lansky's review of ''Red'' published in ''[[Idolator (website)|Idolator]]'', he stated that of all of the songs on ''Red'', "All Too Well" "hits the hardest... reaching an almost hysterical unraveling."<ref>{{cite web|last=Lansky|first=Sam|date=October 22, 2012|title=Taylor Swift's 'Red': Album Review|url=https://www.idolator.com/7210192/taylor-swift-red-album-review?view-all|url-status=live|access-date=February 26, 2021|website=[[Idolator (website)|Idolator]]|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194916/https://www.idolator.com/wp-content/plugins/wp-ajax/endpoint.php?action=id_get_sidebar_widgets&front=&date=&feed=&author=&search=&archive=&post_id=7210192}}</ref> In a ranking of her discography (127 songs at the time of publication), Nate Jones of ''[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]]'' ranked "All Too Well" as her second-best song, praising its "string of impeccably observed details" and describing the song as a "kaleidoscopic swirl of images", choosing it as one of her most memorable songs.<ref name=":23" /> J. English of ''[[NPR]]'' praised its maturity compared to her earlier work, writing that Swift "mourns the loss of her innocence" while simultaneously acknowledging her [[naïveté]] as she [[Coming of age|comes of age]].<ref>{{cite web|last=English|first=J.|date=August 28, 2017|title=Taylor Swift's 'Red,' A Canonical Coming-Of-Age Album|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/08/28/546359653/shocking-omissions-taylor-swift-s-red-a-canonical-coming-of-age-album|url-status=live|access-date=February 26, 2021|website=|publisher=[[NPR]]|language=en|archive-date=April 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412213355/https://www.npr.org/2017/08/28/546359653/shocking-omissions-taylor-swift-s-red-a-canonical-coming-of-age-album}}</ref> In a review of ''Red'', John Dolan of ''Rolling Stone'' remarked the song's imagery especially in the lyric "We're dancing 'round the kitchen in the refrigerator light",<ref>{{Cite web|last=Dolan|first=Jon|date=October 23, 2010|title=Taylor Swift "Red" Album Review|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country/red-187797/|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2021|website=[[Rolling Stone]]|language=en-US|archive-date=January 15, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180115184423/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/albumreviews/red-20121018}}</ref> while Michael Robbins of ''Spin'' described that same lyric as "gorgeous".

Ginny Montalbano of the Country Music Project, published by the [[University of Texas at Austin]] noted the song's cult status among critics and fans alike. Montalbano highlighted her vocal performance, underscoring her "progress and mastery of vocals throughout this passionate, intense ballad." The review also praised the unique specificity and vulnerability of the lyrics: "[Swift] channeled an obscene amount of pain and emotion into a piece of art, a wide audience responded, and that has cemented this song's special place in her career."<ref name=":5" /> Rebecca Farley of ''[[Refinery29]]'' similarly praised her lyricism, opining that the song's "details fall in step with a clear narrative" and applauding the song's depiction of the nostalgic and inconsistent emotions following heartbreak. Farley also pinpointed the song's "blameless" lyrics, exemplifying the song's maturity compared to her past catalogue of breakup songs.<ref name=":6" /> Similarly, [[Jon Caramanica]], writing for ''[[The New York Times]]'' hailed the petulance of her shouts, resulting in a song that "swells until it erupts."<ref>{{Cite news|last=Caramanica|first=Jon|date=October 24, 2012|title=No More Kid Stuff for Taylor Swift|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/arts/music/no-more-kid-stuff-for-taylor-swift.html|access-date=July 3, 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=November 4, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104080653/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/28/arts/music/no-more-kid-stuff-for-taylor-swift.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Publications often pick "All Too Well" as one of the best songs of Swift's career and one of the best songs of the 2010s decade. It consistently tops the rankings of Swift's discography.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":12" /> Hannah Mylrea of ''[[NME]]'' dubbed "All Too Well" Swift's [[magnum opus]], with "some of Swift's best ever [[couplet]]s" offsetting the "small, painful details" portrayed throughout the song.<ref name=":12">{{cite web|last=Mylrea|first=Hannah|date=September 8, 2020|title=Every Taylor Swift song ranked in order of greatness|url=https://www.nme.com/en_asia/features/every-taylor-swift-song-ranked-2747916|url-status=live|access-date=February 19, 2021|website=[[NME]]|language=en|archive-date=September 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917054150/https://www.nme.com/en_asia/features/every-taylor-swift-song-ranked-2747916}}</ref> In a selection of the best songs from each of her albums, Seija Rankin and Lauren Huff chose "All Too Well" as the best song on ''Red'': "The chill-inducing musical build, the sense of place it creates, and the gut wrenching line 'You call me up again just to break me like a promise / So casually cruel in the name of being honest' all make this a song for the ages."<ref name=":62">{{cite web|title=The best song from every Taylor Swift album|url=https://ew.com/music/the-best-taylor-swift-song-from-every-album/|access-date=February 19, 2021|website=EW.com|language=EN|archive-date=September 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913194914/https://ew.com/music/the-best-taylor-swift-song-from-every-album/|url-status=live}}</ref> "All Too Well" was placed at number 69 on the 2021 revision of ''[[Rolling Stone]]''{{'s}} [[500 Greatest Songs of All Time]] list.<ref name=":0" />

== Commercial performance ==

The week her album ''Red'' was released, all of the songs charted in different countries due to strong digital sale [[Music download|downloads]]. On the issue date November 10, 2012, "All Too Well" debuted at number 80 on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]], number 22 on the [[Digital Songs|Digital Song Sales]] chart,<ref>{{Cite web|title=All Too Well Chart History|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/taylor-swift/chart-history/HDS/song/762934|url-status=live|access-date=February 8, 2020|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]}}</ref> number 59 on the [[Canadian Hot 100]], and number 17 on the [[Hot Country Songs]] chart. On July 23, 2018, "All Too Well" was [[Music recording certification|certified]] Gold by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] for selling over 500,000 units in the country.

==Live performances==
[[File:Taylor Swift IMG 0529 (9926953654).jpg|thumbnail|230px|upright|Swift performing "All Too Well" on the [[The Red Tour|Red Tour]] in 2012]]
On January 26, 2014, Swift performed "All Too Well" at the [[56th Annual Grammy Awards]] in [[Los Angeles]], where ''[[Red (Taylor Swift album)|Red]]'' was nominated for [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year|Album of the Year]] and [[Grammy Award for Best Country Album|Best Country Album]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/01/26/taylor-swift-grammys-performance-2014_n_4647006.html|title=Taylor Swift Grammys Performance Of 'All To Well' Is Worth All Feelings|last=Rosen|first=Christopher|date=January 26, 2014|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|access-date=January 27, 2014|archive-date=October 11, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011140559/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/01/26/taylor-swift-grammys-performance-2014_n_4647006.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Wearing a dramatic beaded gown with sequin detailing and a long train streaming out behind her,<ref name="mtvgrammy"/> she sang while playing piano on a low lit stage, before being joined by a live band midway through the performance. Her performance was praised and received a standing ovation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/taylor-swift-reacts-early-losing-album-year-article-1.1592433|title=Grammys 2014: Taylor Swift reacts too early before losing Album of the Year award to Daft Punk|last=Marecsa|first=Rachel|newspaper=[[Daily News (New York)|New York Daily News]]|date=January 27, 2014|access-date=January 27, 2014|archive-date=January 27, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140127225932/http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/taylor-swift-reacts-early-losing-album-year-article-1.1592433|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/news/a546733/grammy-awards-2014-taylor-swift-dazzles-with-all-too-well-video.html|title=Grammy Awards 2014: Taylor Swift dazzles with 'All Too Well' - video|last=Harp|first=Justin|website=[[Digital Spy]]|date=January 27, 2014|access-date=January 27, 2014|archive-date=January 30, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140130043518/http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/news/a546733/grammy-awards-2014-taylor-swift-dazzles-with-all-too-well-video.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Swift's [[headbanging]] at the song's climax gained significant media coverage.<ref name="mtvgrammy">{{cite web|last=Wickman|first=Kase|date=January 26, 2014|title=How Taylor Swift's Grammy Performance Helped Fans Forgive Her Exes|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1721178/taylor-swift-forgive-exes-grammy-performance.jhtml|url-status=live|access-date=January 27, 2014|publisher=[[MTV]]|archive-date=January 29, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140129163841/http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1721178/taylor-swift-forgive-exes-grammy-performance.jhtml}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/grammys-2014-beyonce-and-jay-z-open-bizarre-awards-featuring-taylor-swift-headbanging-9087114.html|title=Grammys 2014: Beyonce and Jay Z open bizarre awards featuring Taylor Swift head-banging|last=Wyatt|first=Daisy|date=January 27, 2014|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|access-date=January 27, 2014|archive-date=January 27, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140127200250/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/grammys-2014-beyonce-and-jay-z-open-bizarre-awards-featuring-taylor-swift-headbanging-9087114.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://arts.nationalpost.com/2014/01/27/f-k-you-grammys-trent-reznors-tweet-taylor-swifts-hair-and-more-best-and-worst-moments-of-the-2014-grammy-awards/ |title='F–k you, Grammys': From Trent Reznor's tweet to Taylor Swift's hair, presenting the best and worst moments from the 2014 Grammy Awards |last=Tucker |first=Rebecca |newspaper=[[National Post]] |date=January 27, 2014 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20140127175951/http://arts.nationalpost.com/2014/01/27/f-k-you-grammys-trent-reznors-tweet-taylor-swifts-hair-and-more-best-and-worst-moments-of-the-2014-grammy-awards/ |archive-date=January 27, 2014 }}</ref> Sean Thomas of ''The Slanted'' called it the "performance of the night,"<ref>{{cite web|last=Thomas|first=Sean|date=January 27, 2014|title=Performance Of The Night Goes To Taylor Swift At The Grammys|url=http://theslanted.com/2014/01/13278/performance-of-the-night-goes-to-taylor-swift-at-the-grammys/|url-status=live|access-date=January 27, 2014|website=The Slanted|publisher=|archive-date=December 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214072319/https://theslanted.com/2014/01/13278/performance-of-the-night-goes-to-taylor-swift-at-the-grammys/}}</ref> and Amy Sciarretto of ''[[Popcrush|Pop Crush]]'' hailed it as "unforgettable."<ref>{{cite web|last=Sciarretto|first=Amy|date=January 26, 2014|title=Taylor Swift Wows Us From Behind the Piano While Performing 'All Too Well' at the 2014 Grammys [VIDEO]|url=http://popcrush.com/taylor-swift-all-too-well-performance-2014-grammys/|url-status=live|access-date=January 27, 2014|website=Pop Crush|publisher=|archive-date=December 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214071831/http://popcrush.com/taylor-swift-all-too-well-performance-2014-grammys/}}</ref>

Swift also performed the song live throughout her [[The Red Tour|Red Tour]], while playing the piano.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Sheffield |first=Rob |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/blogs/pop-life/taylor-swifts-red-tour-her-amps-go-up-to-22-20130328 |title=Taylor Swift's 'Red' Tour: Her Amps Go Up to 22 | Rob Sheffield |magazine=[[Rolling Stone]] |date=October 18, 2013 |access-date=January 27, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326061251/http://www.rollingstone.com/culture/blogs/pop-life/taylor-swifts-red-tour-her-amps-go-up-to-22-20130328 |archive-date=March 26, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> On August 21, 2015, Swift performed the song in [[Los Angeles]] at the [[Staples Center]], the only time on [[The 1989 World Tour]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ginn|first1=Leighton|date=August 22, 2015|title=Taylor Swift has banner performance during first of five sold-out shows in Los Angeles|url=http://www.dailynews.com/arts-and-entertainment/20150822/taylor-swift-has-banner-performance-during-first-of-five-sold-out-shows-in-los-angeles|url-status=live|access-date=September 3, 2015|website=[[Los Angeles Daily News]]|archive-date=March 29, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329135500/http://www.dailynews.com/arts-and-entertainment/20150822/taylor-swift-has-banner-performance-during-first-of-five-sold-out-shows-in-los-angeles}}</ref> On February 4, 2017, Swift performed the song as part of the Super Saturday Night show in [[Houston]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Atkinson|first=Katie|date=February 5, 2017|title=Taylor Swift Performs 'Better Man' & 'I Don't Wanna Live Forever' for First Time at Stunning Pre-Super Bowl Set|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/super-bowl/7678029/taylor-swift-super-bowl-concert-houston-better-man-i-dont-wanna-live-forever|url-status=live|access-date=|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|language=en}}</ref>

Swift performed an acoustic version of the song on the first show of her [[Reputation Stadium Tour]] in [[Glendale, Arizona]] on May 8, 2018,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Chiu|first=Melody|date=May 9, 2018|title=Taylor Swift Kicks Off Her Reputation Stadium Tour in Arizona - Find Out All the Details|url=https://people.com/music/taylor-swift-reputation-stadium-tour-kicks-off-arizona/|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2021|website=[[People (magazine)|People]]|language=en}}</ref> the fifth show in [[Pasadena, California]] on May 19, 2018,<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Iasimone |first=Ashley |date=May 26, 2018 |title=All the Surprise Songs Taylor Swift Has Performed on Her Reputation Stadium Tour B-Stage (So Far) |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8458025/taylor-swift-reputation-tour-b-stage-songs-list |magazine=Billboard |access-date=July 4, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527060413/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8458025/taylor-swift-reputation-tour-b-stage-songs-list |archive-date=May 27, 2018 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> and the last show of the U.S. leg of the tour in [[Arlington, Texas]] on October 6, 2018, the latter of which appeared in her [[Netflix]] concert film of the same name.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Warner|first=Denise|date=December 31, 2018|title=Taylor Swift Knows All Too Well How to Put on a Masterful Performance: Netflix Doc Review|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8491764/taylor-swift-reputation-tour-netflix-doc-review|url-status=live|access-date=July 3, 2021|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|language=en}}</ref> On September 10, 2019, Swift performed the song as part of the ''[[Lover (album)#City of Lover concert|City of Lover]]'' concert.<ref>{{cite web|title=Taylor Swift's The City of Lover concert: a triumphant yet intimate celebration of her fans and career|url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/live/taylor-swift-city-of-lover-concert-review|last=Mylrea|first=Hannah|date=September 10, 2019|website=[[NME]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190916000640/https://www.nme.com/reviews/live/taylor-swift-city-of-lover-concert-review|archive-date=September 16, 2019|access-date=May 20, 2020}}</ref> On October 11, 2019, she performed the song at a [[Tiny Desk Concerts|Tiny Desk Concert]] for [[NPR Music]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mamo|first=Heran|date=October 11, 2019|title=Are You '…Ready For It?' Taylor Swift's Tiny Desk Concert Is About to Drop|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8532799/taylor-swift-tiny-desk-concert-coming-soon|url-status=live|access-date=October 12, 2019|website=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|language=en|archive-date=October 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191012102227/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8532799/taylor-swift-tiny-desk-concert-coming-soon}}</ref>

==Legacy==
{{Tweet
| name = Taylor Swift
| username = taylorswift13
| date = December 29, 2018
| text = "All Too Well" was never a single, and it always blows my mind that it is consistently one of the loudest songs the crowd sings when I play it. Moments like this defined the Reputation Stadium Tour for me, and I can't wait for you to see it in full starting at 12:01 AM 12/31 PST
| ID = 1079072920759078914
| width = 400px
}}

"All Too Well" is the most critically acclaimed song in Swift's catalog, and is frequently lauded by critics and fans in retrospective reviews. In 2019 and 2021 revisions, [[Rob Sheffield]] of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' consistently ranked "All Too Well" as the best song in Swift's catalog, writing, "No other song does such a stellar job of showing off her ability to blow up a trivial little detail into a legendary heartache."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/taylor-swift-songs-ranked-rob-sheffield-201800/all-too-well-2012-2-204850/|title=All 153 of Taylor Swift's Songs, Ranked|last=Sheffield|first=Rob|date=December 12, 2019|work=[[Rolling Stone]]|access-date=December 16, 2019|archive-date=October 15, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015042803/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/taylor-swift-songs-ranked-rob-sheffield-201800/all-too-well-2012-2-204850/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Sheffield|first=Rob|date=October 26, 2021|title=All 199 of Taylor Swift's Songs, Ranked by Rob Sheffield|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/taylor-swift-songs-ranked-rob-sheffield-201800/|url-status=live|access-date=October 26, 2021|website=Rolling Stone}}</ref> Sheffield ranked the song as the best song of the 2010s decade, writing that "Every detail of 'All Too Well' is the calculating flourish of a master [...] 'All Too Well' peaks about six times, then calms... then she rips up her masterpiece and starts the song over."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/rob-sheffield-best-songs-2010s-930083/|title=Rob Sheffield's 50 Best Songs of the 2010s|last=Sheffield|first=Rob|date=December 23, 2019|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|access-date=December 24, 2019|archive-date=October 22, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201022015609/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/rob-sheffield-best-songs-2010s-930083/|url-status=live}}</ref> "All Too Well" also topped Hannah Mylrea of ''[[NME]]''<nowiki/>'s ranking of Swift's songs, regarding it as Swift's [[magnum opus]] and exemplary of her songwriting prowess. Mylrea wrote that the ballad conveys the heartache resulting from a painful breakup, visualizing "a tale of lost scarves and autumn days as she jumps between different points—both good and bad—in a relationship".<ref name=":12" />

''Uproxx'' ranked it as the 10th best song of the decade, writing that "Swift manages to be both a character and a visitor in her own memories,"<ref>{{cite web|date=October 9, 2019|title=All The Best Songs Of The 2010s, Ranked|url=https://uproxx.com/music/best-songs-of-the-2010s-ranked/|url-status=live|access-date=December 11, 2019|website=[[Uproxx]]|archive-date=October 10, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010052808/https://uproxx.com/music/best-songs-of-the-2010s-ranked/}}</ref> while ''Stereogum'' chose it as the 14th best, opining that "Swift's knack for perfectly pointed observations" make the song a "perfect distillation of love found and lost."<ref name="stereogum">{{cite web|date=November 5, 2019|title=The 200 Best Songs of the 2010s|url=https://www.stereogum.com/featured/best-songs-of-the-2010s-list/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191106132915/https://www.stereogum.com/featured/best-songs-of-the-2010s-list/|archive-date=November 6, 2019|access-date=November 20, 2019|website=[[Stereogum]]}}</ref> ''[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]'' ranked the song as the 57th best song of the 2010s, applauding "her emotional intelligence, her candor, her economy of words, [and]her ability to find beauty in vulnerability."<ref name=":722">{{cite web|date=October 7, 2019|title=The 200 Best Songs of the 2010s|url=https://pitchfork.com/features/lists-and-guides/the-200-best-songs-of-the-2010s/|url-status=live|access-date=February 2, 2019|website=[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]|archive-date=October 7, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007154504/https://pitchfork.com/features/lists-and-guides/the-200-best-songs-of-the-2010s/}}</ref> ''Rolling Stone'' placed "All Too Well" at number 29 of its list of The 100 Greatest Songs of the Century So Far (2018)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hoard|first=Christian|last2=Weingarten|first2=Christopher R.|last3=Dolan|first3=Jon|last4=Leight|first4=Elias|last5=Spanos|first5=Brittany|last6=Exposito|first6=Suzy|last7=Grow|first7=Kory|last8=Grant|first8=Sarah|last9=Vozick-Levinson, Simon; Greene, Andy; Hermes, Will|first9=|date=June 28, 2018|title=The 100 Greatest Songs of the Century - So Far|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/the-100-greatest-songs-of-the-century-so-far-666874/|url-status=live|access-date=November 20, 2019|website=[[Rolling Stone]]|archive-date=November 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191123004043/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/the-100-greatest-songs-of-the-century-so-far-666874/}}</ref> and at number 5 on its list of The 100 Best Songs of the 2010s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hermes|first=Will|last2=Spanos|first2=Brittany|last3=Hoard|first3=Christian|last4=Exposito|first4=Suzy|last5=Holmes|first5=Charles|last6=Shaffer|first6=Claire|last7=Freeman|first7=Jon|last8=Hudak|first8=Joseph|last9=Brown, David; Dolan, Jon; Sheffield, Rob; Levy, Joe; Catucci, Nick; Vozick-Levinson, Simon; Greene, Andy; Ehrlich, Brenna; Klinkenberg, Brendan; Shteamer, Hank; Marotccio, Angie|first9=|date=December 4, 2019|title=The 100 Best Songs of the 2010s|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/the-100-best-songs-of-the-2010s-917532/|url-status=live|access-date=December 6, 2019|website=[[Rolling Stone]]|archive-date=December 26, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226122838/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/the-100-best-songs-of-the-2010s-917532/}}</ref> It was included in unranked 2010s-decade-end lists by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://time.com/5725150/best-songs-2010s-decade/|title=The 10 Best Songs of the 2010s|last=Johnston|first=Maura|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=November 18, 2019|access-date=December 11, 2019|archive-date=September 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918181342/https://time.com/5725150/best-songs-2010s-decade/|url-status=live}}</ref> and ''[[Parade (magazine)|Parade]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://parade.com/970328/jessicasager/best-songs-of-the-2010s/|title=50 Best Songs of the 2010s That We'll Be Listening to For Decades to Come|last=Sager|first=Jessica|date=December 27, 2019|magazine=[[Parade (magazine)|Parade]]|access-date=December 27, 2019|archive-date=December 27, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227220236/https://parade.com/970328/jessicasager/best-songs-of-the-2010s/|url-status=live}}</ref> It also ranked at number 13 on [[NPR]]{{'}}s list of the top 25 songs of the decade, determined by audience polls.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hilton|first=Robin|last2=Boilen|first2=Bob|date=November 27, 2019|title=The 2010s: NPR Listeners Pick Their Top Songs Of The Decade|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/10/07/767905185/the-2010s-npr-listeners-pick-their-top-songs-of-the-decade|url-status=live|access-date=November 27, 2019|publisher=[[NPR]]|archive-date=November 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128061828/https://www.npr.org/2019/10/07/767905185/the-2010s-npr-listeners-pick-their-top-songs-of-the-decade}}</ref> In 2021, ''Rolling Stone'' placed the song at number 69 on its list of [[500 Greatest Songs of All Time]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|last2=|first2=|date=September 15, 2021|title=The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/best-songs-of-all-time-1224767/|url-status=live|access-date=September 15, 2021|website=[[Rolling Stone]]|language=en-US}}</ref> In an article attempting to explain the critical popularity of "All Too Well", [[Junkee]] said the song is equipped with excellent lyrics, melody, instrumental arrangements, and vocals, and is simply Swift's "finest" song.<ref name=":10">{{Cite web|last=Gilligan|first=Eilish|date=November 4, 2021|title=Unpacking 'All Too Well', Taylor Swift's Finest Song|url=https://junkee.com/all-too-well-taylor-swift-red/313918|url-status=live|access-date=November 5, 2021|website=Junkee|language=en-US}}</ref>

''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' stated "All Too Well" is the song that "proved to skeptics who might've thoughtlessly dismissed Swift as a frivolous pop star—in an era when such artists still weren't given nearly as much credit or attention by critics and older music fans as they are now—that she was in fact a truly formidable singer-songwriter." Bruce Warren, assistant general manager for programming for Philadelphia public radio station [[WXPN]], stated that "All Too Well" foreshadowed Swift's music direction for 2020. He said "In 2014 or 2015, you wouldn't have been able to say, '[Taylor Swift] is working with Justin Vernon,' right? ['All Too Well'] foreshadowed the place she's in now… 'All Too Well' showed the potential of how great a songwriter she would be, and how she would evolve as a songwriter. And [''[[Folklore]]'' and ''[[Evermore (Taylor Swift album)|Evermore]]''] took her to another level."<ref name=":11">{{Cite web|title=Taylor Swift's 'All Too Well': How the 'Red' Fan Favorite Became One of Her Biggest & Most Important Songs|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/9657795/taylor-swift-all-too-well-red-best-songs/|access-date=November 11, 2021|website=Billboard|language=en}}</ref>

Over time, "All Too Well" achieved a [[cult following]] within Swift's fanbase, critics and other artists,<ref name=":11" /> and despite not being a single, it is one of Swift's most widely recognized,<ref>{{cite web|last=Skinner|first=Paige|date=February 6, 2019|title=From Irving to Nashville to a Grammy: Songwriter Liz Rose Crushes It|url=https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/liz-rose-talks-taylor-swift-all-too-well-girl-crush-and-more-11546761|url-status=live|access-date=September 11, 2019|website=[[Dallas Observer]]|archive-date=July 30, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730163049/https://www.dallasobserver.com/music/liz-rose-talks-taylor-swift-all-too-well-girl-crush-and-more-11546761}}</ref> requested, and [[Cover version|covered]] songs.<ref name=":11" /> Swift herself remarked this unexpected popularity during her [[Taylor Swift's Reputation Stadium Tour|Reputation Stadium Tour]]:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8491742/taylor-swift-all-too-well-netflix-concert-video|title=Taylor Swift Shares 'All Too Well' Teaser From Netflix Concert Film: 'Moments Like This Defined the Tour'|website=Billboard|access-date=September 11, 2019|archive-date=January 12, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112085856/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8491742/taylor-swift-all-too-well-netflix-concert-video|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{Quote|text=It's weird because I feel like this song has two lives to it in my brain. In my brain, there's the life of this song, where this song was born out of catharsis and venting and trying to get over something and trying to understand it and process it. And then there's the life where it went out into the world and you turned this song into something completely different for me. You turned this song into a collage of memories of watching you scream the words to this song, or seeing pictures that you post to me of you haven written words to this song in your diary, or you showing me your wrist, and you have a tattoo of the lyrics to this song underneath your skin. And that is how you have changed the song "All Too Well" for me.|author=Swift|title=|source=''[[Taylor Swift: Reputation Stadium Tour]]'' on [[Netflix]]<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.netflix.com/watch/81026251?trackId=14170287&tctx=2%2C0%2Cedb4f644-a4fc-47b6-ad54-d60ade4ed501-39756072%2Cd16cacbb-672a-46f7-a153-09c4d2b82c61_60315843X3XX1625413248505%2Cd16cacbb-672a-46f7-a153-09c4d2b82c61_ROOT%2C|title=Taylor Swift: Reputation Stadium Tour|date=December 31, 2018|type=Movie|publisher=[[Netflix]]|time=1:03:32}}</ref>}}On March 29, 2019, American singer-songwriter [[Ruston Kelly]] released a cover of "All Too Well". Kelly said he wanted to be a part of "the powerful feeling" the song gave him when he first heard it. He further described: "it teleports you to old magic feelings, the little perfect moments in a relationship way ahead of its doom. It shows you how happiness with someone can feel so infinite and true. But it calls to the end of things and it shows the color of the flame. It fucks you up."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reuter|first=Annie|date=March 28, 2019|title=Ruston Kelly Delivers Haunting Cover of Taylor Swift's 'All Too Well': Exclusive|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/country/8504508/ruston-kelly-cover-taylor-swift-all-too-well/|url-status=live|access-date=September 17, 2021|website=Billboard|language=en}}</ref> Swift responded to the cover affirmatively.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Rowley|first=Glenn|date=March 29, 2019|title=Ruston Kelly Earns Taylor Swift's Stamp of Approval on 'All Too Well' Cover|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8504819/ruston-kelly-taylor-swift-all-too-well-cover-stamp-approval|url-status=live|access-date=September 17, 2021|website=Billboard|language=en}}</ref> Irish singer [[Niall Horan]] has also covered the song on his Instagram livestream.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|date=June 25, 2021|title=Is Niall Horan On Taylor Swift’s New 'Red' Album? 5 Fan Theories That Are Actually Pretty Convincing|url=https://www.capitalfm.com/news/niall-horan-taylor-swift-red-theories/|url-status=live|access-date=September 17, 2021|website=[[Capital (radio network)|Capital FM]]}}</ref>

Upon announcement of the release of the original, 10-minute version of "All Too Well" as part of Swift's second re-recorded album, ''[[Red (Taylor's Version)]]'', the extended version became the most anticipated song from the album.<ref name=":11" /> A [[short film]] based on the song, also titled ''[[All Too Well (short film)|All Too Well]]'', was released on November 12, 2021, alongside ''Red (Taylor's Version)''. The short film was written and directed by Swift, who also stars alongside American actors [[Dylan O'Brien]] and [[Sadie Sink]].<ref name=":9" />

=== The scarf ===
"All Too Well" opens with the lines "I walked through the door with you / the air was cold / but something about it felt like home somehow / and I left my scarf there at your sister's house / and you've still got it in your drawer even now."<ref name=":93"/> Brad Nelson writes in ''[[The Atlantic]]'' that the scarf is a [[Chekhov's gun]] whose reappearance in the final verse ("But you keep my old scarf from that very first week / 'cause it reminds you of innocence / and it smells like me") is thoughtful and "brutal". He explained the missing scarf quickly became a "fantastic [[Popular culture|pop culture]] mystery" that has created much online buzz.<ref name=":53">{{cite web|last=Tiffany|first=Kaitlyn|date=October 17, 2021|title=With fall comes the return of a fantastic pop culture mystery|url=https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/10/17/16488476/taylor-swift-scarf-mystery-jake-gyllenhaal-all-too-well|url-status=live|access-date=February 19, 2021|website=[[The Verge]]|language=en|archive-date=December 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214205952/https://www.theverge.com/tldr/2017/10/17/16488476/taylor-swift-scarf-mystery-jake-gyllenhaal-all-too-well}}</ref> According to the lyrics, the scarf was originally lost at the residence of American actress [[Maggie Gyllenhaal]], sister of Jake Gyllenhaal, but when enquired about this in 2017, Maggie Gyllenhaal stated she has no idea where the scarf is, and did not understand why people asked her about it until an interviewer explained the lyrics to her.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lang|first=Cady|date=September 13, 2017|title=Maggie Gyllenhaal Addresses Taylor Swift's Lost Scarf Lyric|website=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=https://time.com/4939482/maggie-gyllenhaal-taylor-swift-scarf/|access-date=2021-02-25|archive-date=November 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129232357/https://time.com/4939482/maggie-gyllenhaal-taylor-swift-scarf/|url-status=live}}</ref> According to music journalist [[Rob Sheffield]], both the song and the scarf are so significant to Swift's discography that it "should be in the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]."<ref name=":32">{{cite web|last=Sheffield|first=Rob|date=2020-11-24|title=All 129 of Taylor Swift's Songs, Ranked by Rob Sheffield|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/taylor-swift-songs-ranked-rob-sheffield-201800/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-02-19|website=[[Rolling Stone]]|language=en-US|archive-date=February 15, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215023910/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-lists/taylor-swift-songs-ranked-rob-sheffield-201800/}}</ref> The scarf has become a symbol in Swift's fandom, inspiring jokes, memes, and interview questions.<ref>{{cite news|last=Lang|first=Cady|date=September 14, 2017|title=At Last Maggie Gyllenhaal Acknowledges the Most Important Taylor Swift Scarf Rumor|website=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|url=http://time.com/4939482/maggie-gyllenhaal-taylor-swift-scarf/|access-date=May 21, 2019|archive-date=June 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625025903/https://time.com/4939482/maggie-gyllenhaal-taylor-swift-scarf/|url-status=live}}</ref> It has even inspired numerous fan fictions in other fandoms. Writer Kaitlyn Tiffany of ''[[The Verge]]'' described the scarf as "the [[The Great Gatsby|green dock light]] of our time."<ref name="tiffany"/> ''[[NME]]'' critic Rhian Daly said the scarf is "an unlikely [[Pop icon|pop culture icon]] in an inanimate object".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Daly|first=Rhian|date=November 13, 2021|title=Taylor Swift’s ‘All Too Well’ short film highlights the emotional power of her storytelling|url=https://www.nme.com/features/music-features/taylor-swifts-all-too-well-short-film-highlights-the-emotional-power-of-her-storytelling-3094407|access-date=November 13, 2021|website=NME|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Criticism and controversy==

Singer-songwriter [[Matt Nathanson]] in 2003 recorded the line: “And I’ll forget about you long enough to forget why I need to" in a song called 'I Saw,' which appears on his 2003 album 'Beneath These Fireworks.' This line is similar to Swift's line, "And I forget about you long enough to forget why I needed to.” Nathanson wrote a tweet criticizing Swift and accusing her of theft, before later deleting the Tweet.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pacella |first1=Megan |title=Taylor Swift Accused of Stealing Lyrics |url=https://tasteofcountry.com/taylor-swift-all-too-well-lyrics-stolen/ |access-date=November 12, 2021 |agency=Taste of Country}}</ref>

== Credits and personnel ==
Credits are adapted from the [[liner notes]] of ''[[Red (Taylor Swift album)|Red]]''.<ref>{{cite AV media notes|title=[[Red (Taylor Swift album)|Red]]|others=[[Taylor Swift]]|year=2012|publisher=[[Big Machine Records]] / [[Universal Music Group]]|location=Nashville|type=CD album [[liner notes]]|id=0602537173051}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Taylor Swift]] – vocals, songwriting, production
* [[Liz Rose]] – songwriting
* [[Nathan Chapman (record producer)|Nathan Chapman]] – production, acoustic guitar, electric guitar, [[bass (instrument)|bass]], [[keyboard instrument|keyboards]], drums, backing vocals, [[audio engineer|engineering]]
* LeAnn "Goddess" Bennet – production coordinator
* Drew Bollman – assistant mixer
* Jason Campbell – production coordinator
* Mike "Frog" Griffith – production coordinator
* Brian David Willis – assistant engineer
* Hank Williams – [[audio mastering|mastering]]
* Justin Niebank – [[audio mixing (recorded music)|mixing]]
{{div col end}}

== Chart performance ==
{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
!scope="col"| Chart (2012–13)
!scope="col"| Peak position
|-
{{singlechart|Canada|59|artist=Taylor Swift|rowheader=true|access-date=October 6, 2021}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardhot100|80|artist=Taylor Swift|rowheader=true|access-date=October 6, 2021}}
|-
{{singlechart|Billboardcountrysongs|17|artist=Taylor Swift|rowheader=true|access-date=October 6, 2021}}
|-
{{single chart|Billboardcountryairplay|58|artist=Taylor Swift|rowheader=true|access-date=October 6, 2021}}
|-
|}

==Certifications==
{{Certification Table Top}}
{{certification Table Entry|region=United States|artist=Taylor Swift|type=single|title=All Too Well|relyear=2012|certyear=2018|award=Gold|access-date=July 23, 2018}}
{{Certification Table Bottom|nosales=true|noshipments=true|streaming=true}}

==Re-recorded versions==
{{Infobox song
| name = All Too Well (Taylor's Version)
| cover =
| type = song
| artist = [[Taylor Swift]]
| album = [[Red (Taylor's Version)]]
| recorded =
| studio =
| genre =
* [[Country rock]]
* [[soft rock]]
* [[power pop]] (10 minute version only)
| length =
* 5:29
* 10:13 (10 minute version)
| label = [[Republic Records|Republic]]
| writer =
* [[Taylor Swift]]
* [[Liz Rose]]
| producer =
* Christopher Rowe
* [[Jack Antonoff]] (10 minute version)
* Taylor Swift
| misc =
{{External music video|{{YouTube|9OQBDdNHmXo|"All Too Well (Taylor's Version)"}} {{YouTube|sRxrwjOtIag|"All Too Well (10 minute version) (Taylor's Version)"}}|type=song|header=Lyric video}}
}}

On August 6, 2021, Swift announced that a [[re-recording (music)|re-recorded]] version of "All Too Well", titled "All Too Well (Taylor's Version)", would be included as the fifth track on her second re-recorded album ''[[Red (Taylor's Version)]]'', which was released on November 12, 2021, through [[Republic Records]]. Additionally, Swift announced that the original ten-minute long version of "All Too Well" would be released as the 30th and final track of the album.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/red-taylors-version-release-date-tracklist-why-taylor-swift-is-rerecording-her-albums/|title=''Red (Taylor's Version)'': Release date, tracklist, why Taylor Swift is rerecording her albums|work=[[CNET]]|first=Abrar|last=Al-Heeti|date=November 11, 2021|access-date=November 13, 2021}}</ref>

On November 5, 2021, Swift posted a teaser of a self-directed [[short film]] for the 10-minute version, titled ''[[All Too Well (short film)|All Too Well]]'', starring herself, and American actors [[Sadie Sink]] and [[Dylan O'Brien]]. It was released at 7pm ET on November 12.<ref name=":9">{{cite tweet|last=Swift|first=Taylor|number=1456604921898360843|user=taylorswift13|date=November 5, 2021|accessdate=November 5, 2021|title=November 12. Remember it.}}</ref> According to ''Billboard'', the 10-minute version was the most anticipated track from the album by listeners and critics.<ref name=":11" /> Swift performed "All Too Well (10 minute version)" after the screening at the film premiere.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Derschowitz|first=Jessica|last2=November 12|first2=Jason Lamphier|last3=EST|first3=2021 at 05:39 PM|title=Taylor Swift debuts 'All Too Well' short film with surprise performance|url=https://ew.com/music/taylor-swift-all-too-well-short-film-red-taylors-version/|access-date=November 13, 2021|website=EW.com|language=en}}</ref>

{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120116115255/http://taylorswift.com/releases#release-7301 Lyrics of this song] at Taylor Swift's official site
* [https://www.lyricsgoal.com/all-too-well-10-minute-version-lyrics/ 10-minute version of all too well lyrics] at LyricsGoal
* [https://thegeniuslyrics.com/all-too-well-10-minute-version-lyrics-taylor-swift/ 10-minute version of all too well lyrics] at TheGeniusLyrics

{{Taylor Swift songs|state=expanded}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:2010s ballads]]
[[Category:2012 songs]]
[[Category:American soft rock songs]]
[[Category:Taylor Swift songs]]
[[Category:Songs about heartache]]
[[Category:Songs written by Taylor Swift]]
[[Category:Songs written by Liz Rose]]
[[Category:Song recordings produced by Nathan Chapman (record producer)]]
[[Category:Songs containing the I–V-vi-IV progression]]
[[Category:Rock ballads]]
[[Category:Song recordings produced by Taylor Swift]]
[[Category:Country ballads]]
[[Category:Song recordings produced by Christopher Rowe]]

Sadie Sink

2021-11-13T13:03:47Z

Denvercoder9: italicize film name

{{Short description|American actress (born 2002)}}
{{More citations needed|date=November 2021}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Sadie Sink
| image = Sadie Sink, At the Chanel Party in 2021.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Sink in 2021
| birth_name = Sadie Elizabeth Sink
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|2002|04|16}}
| birth_place = [[Brenham, Texas]], U.S.<ref name="annie">{{cite web|title=Meet Sadie Sink|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Is0GLAcTGmI|website=YouTube|publisher=youtube.com|access-date=29 September 2017}}</ref>
| occupation = Actress
| years_active = 2009–present
| awards = 2018 Award of Excellence for Narration by Hollywood International Independent Documentary Awards
}}

'''Sadie Elizabeth Sink'''<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SPXVHm2yMU4</ref> (born April 16, 2002) is an American actress and model. She portrayed [[List of Stranger Things characters#Max Mayfield|Max Mayfield]] in the [[Netflix]] television series ''[[Stranger Things]]''<ref>{{cite news|url=https://deadline.com/2016/10/stranger-things-netflix-series-cast-season-2-1201836680/|title='Stranger Things' Netflix Series Adds Two New Regulars, Promotes Two For Season 2|last1=Petski|first1=Denise|date=October 14, 2016|access-date=October 14, 2016|website=[[Deadline Hollywood]]}}</ref> and Ziggy Berman in the Netflix [[horror film]] trilogy ''[[Fear Street trilogy|Fear Street]]''.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Petski|first1=Denise|title=VIDEO: Sneak Peek - THE AUDIENCE's Sadie Sink Stars on NBC's 'American Odyssey'|url=http://www.broadwayworld.com/videoplay/VIDEO-Sneak-Peek-THE-AUDIENCEs-Sadie-Sink-Stars-on-Sundays-American-Odyssey-on-NBC-20150618|access-date=October 14, 2016|publisher=Broadway World|date=June 18, 2015}}</ref> Sink has also worked on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], with credits including ''[[Annie (musical)|Annie]]'' and ''[[The Audience (2013 play)|The Audience]]''.<ref name ="Aud">{{cite news|last1=Champion|first1=Lindsay|title=The Audience Stars Elizabeth Teeter & Sadie Sink on Being Queens For the Day & Holding Court with Helen Mirren|url=http://www.broadway.com/buzz/180529/the-audience-stars-elizabeth-teeter-sadie-sink-on-being-queens-for-the-day-holding-court-with-helen-mirren/|access-date=October 14, 2016|publisher=Broadway Buzz|date=April 22, 2015}}</ref>

==Acting career==
Sink was born in [[Brenham, Texas]]. She has three older brothers and a younger sister.

While still starring in the play, she appeared in the [[Emmy Award|Emmy]]-winning series ''[[The Americans]]'' as Lana.

In 2015, she co-starred with [[Helen Mirren]] in ''The Audience'' on Broadway, as young [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]].

She also had a small role in ''[[Chuck (film)|Chuck]] as Kimberly.''<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.thrillist.com/entertainment/nation/stranger-things-2-cast-max-sadie-sink|title=Max on 'Stranger Things 2' Is This 15-Year-Old, Breakout Star|last=Fitz-Gerald|first=Sean|date=2017-10-29|work=Thrillist|access-date=2017-10-29}}</ref>

While filming the drama movie ''[[The Glass Castle (2017 film)|The Glass Castle]]'', she became very close with [[Woody Harrelson]], and particularly with his daughter, Makani. She was already a vegetarian, but Harrelson and his family inspired her to go vegan.<ref name=":0" />

In 2017, in the Netflix original ''Stranger Things,'' She played [[Maxine "Max" Mayfield]], a skateboarder who has an abusive stepbrother named Billy.

In 2018, she collaborated with [[Rooney Mara]], [[Sia (musician)|Sia]], [[Joaquin Phoenix]] and [[Kat von D]] to narrate Chris Delforce's animal rights documentary [[Dominion (documentary)|''Dominion'']].<ref name ="Dom">{{cite web|url=https://www.plantbasednews.org/post/exclusive-joaquin-pheonix-and-rooney-mara-join-all-star-team-behind-vegan-documentary-dominion|title=BREAKING: New Vegan Documentary 'Dominion' To Feature Joaquin Phoenix And Rooney Mara|website=Plantbasednews.org|first=Emily|last=Court|date=March 22, 2018|access-date=April 24, 2018}}</ref> For her contribution to the documentary, she was granted the 2018 Award of Excellence for Narration by Hollywood International Independent Documentary Awards.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hiida.com/july-2018-winners.html|title=Hollywood International Independent Documentary Awards}}</ref>

In October 2019, she starred in [[Netflix]]'s horror film ''[[Eli (2019 film)|Eli]] as'' Haley, a teenage girl, who is later revealed to be his older paternal sister.<ref name ="Eli">{{Cite web|title='Stranger Things' Actress Sadie Sink, Kelly Reilly Join Horror Film 'Eli' (Exclusive) {{!}} Hollywood Reporter|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/stranger-things-actress-sadie-sink-joins-horror-film-eli-1063668|access-date=2020-09-11|website=www.hollywoodreporter.com|date=December 4, 2017}}</ref>

In 2021, She played the main role of Christine 'Ziggy' Berman in ''[[The Fear Street Trilogy]]'', ''[[Fear Street Part Two: 1978]]'' and ''[[Fear Street Part Three: 1666]]''.<ref name ="fs">{{Cite news|last=N'Duka|first=Amanda|date=2019-04-01|title='Stranger Things' Star Sadie Sink Joins Fox's 'Fear Street' Trilogy|url=https://deadline.com/2019/04/stranger-things-sadie-sink-fox-fear-street-trilogy-1202585379/|work=Deadline|access-date=2020-12-28}}</ref>

Sink played the lead role of Tess DeNunzio in the upcoming drama ''[[Dear Zoe (film)|Dear Zoe]]''.<ref name = "zoe">{{Cite web|title='Stranger Things' Star Sadie Sink Nabs Lead in Coming-of-Age Drama 'Dear Zoe' (Exclusive) {{!}} Hollywood Reporter|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/stranger-things-star-sadie-sink-joins-drama-dear-zoe-1253213|access-date=2020-09-11|website=www.hollywoodreporter.com|date=November 7, 2019}}</ref> Filming took place in [[Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Dear Zoe (2021) - IMDb|url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1657865/fullcredits|access-date=2020-09-11}}</ref>

In February 2021, she joined the cast of ''[[The Whale (upcoming film)|The Whale]]''.<ref name ="whale">{{Cite web|last=Kroll|first=Justin|date=2021-02-10|title='Watchmen's Hong Chau To Co-Star With Brendan Fraser in Darren Aronofsky's Next Film For A24|url=https://deadline.com/2021/02/downsizing-hong-chau-brendan-fraser-in-darren-aronofsky-and-a24s-the-whale-1234691410/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Deadline|language=en-US}}</ref> Filming began March 8 and lasted until April 7 in [[Newburgh, New York]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-02-01|title=The Whale|url=https://productionlist.com/production/the-whale/|access-date=2021-07-25|website=Production List {{!}} Film & Television Industry Alliance|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Variety Insight: Entertainment Data • Research Tools • Industry Directory • Film in Development • TV & Streaming Pilots • Ratings & Box Office|url=https://www.varietyinsight.com/production_restart_full_view.php?track_id=186541|access-date=2021-07-25|website=www.varietyinsight.com}}</ref>

In November 2021, she played the lead in Taylor Swift's short film ''[[All Too Well: The Short Film|All Too Well]]'' with [[Dylan O'Brien|Dylan O’Brien]].<ref>{{Citation|title=Taylor Swift - All Too Well: The Short Film|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tollGa3S0o8|language=en|access-date=2021-11-13}}</ref>

== Modeling career ==
Sink took to the catwalk for the first time in 2018 at Paris Fashion Week. Although the normal age to participate is 16, Sink was 15 when she modeled. She has also modeled for many other brands such as Kate Spade, Vogue, L'Officiel Paris, Chanel and Givenchy Beauty.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.harpersbazaar.com/fashion/fashion-week/a19061275/sadie-sink-stranger-things-runway-fashion-week/ |title=Sadie Sink's Modelling Career |last=Fisher |first=Lauren |date=11 November 2021 |website=HaarpersBazaar |access-date=November 11, 2021}}</ref>

== Acting credits ==

=== Film ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Notes
! Ref
|-
|2016
|''[[Chuck (film)|Chuck]]''
|Kimberly
|
| rowspan = 2|<ref name=":0"/>
|-
|2017
|''[[The Glass Castle (2017 film)|The Glass Castle]]''
|Young Lori Walls
|
|-
|2018
|''[[Dominion (documentary)|Dominion]]''
|Narrator
|Documentary
|<ref name ="Dom"/>
|-
| 2019
| ''[[Eli (2019 film)|Eli]]''
| Haley
|
| <ref name ="Eli"/>
|-
| rowspan="4" |2021
|''[[Fear Street Part Two: 1978]]''
| rowspan="2" |Ziggy Berman
|
| rowspan = 2| <ref name ="fs"/>
|-
|''[[Fear Street Part Three: 1666]]''
|
|-
|''[[Dear Zoe (film)|Dear Zoe]]''
|Tess DeNunzio
|Post-Production
|<ref name = "zoe"/>
|-
|''[[All Too Well (short film)|All Too Well]]''
|Her
|Short film by [[Taylor Swift]]
|<ref>{{cite web |last1=Evans |first1=Greg |title=Taylor Swift Teases New ‘All Too Well’ Short Film With Dylan O’Brien & Sadie Sink |url=https://deadline.com/2021/11/taylor-swift-all-too-well-short-film-dylan-obrien-sadie-sink-1234868884/ |website=Deadline |access-date=November 9, 2021 |date=November 5, 2021}}</ref>
|-
| {{TBA}}
| ''[[The Whale (upcoming film)|The Whale]]''
| Ellie
| Post-production
| <ref name ="whale"/>
|-
|}

=== Television ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Year
! Title
! Role
! class="unsortable" | Notes
! Refs
|-
|2013
| ''[[The Americans]]''
|Lana
| Episode: "Mutually Assured Destruction"
| rowspan=3| <ref>{{cite web |last1=Kumar |first1=Hitesh |title=‘Stranger Things’ star Sadie Sink wants to play Carole King in a biopic |url=https://dailyresearchplot.com/2021/07/08/stranger-things-star-sadie-sink-wants-to-play-carole-king-in-a-biopic/ |website=Daily Research Plot |access-date=November 9, 2021 |date=July 2021}}</ref>
|-
|2014
| ''[[Blue Bloods (TV series)|Blue Bloods]]''
|Daisy Carpenter
| Episode: "Insult to Injury"
|-
|2015
| ''[[American Odyssey]]''
|Suzanne Ballard
| Main role; 11 episodes
|-
|2016
| ''[[Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt]]''
|Tween Girl
| Episode: "Kimmy Sees a Sunset!"
|<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shaw |first1=Gabbi |title=40 celebrities that have appeared on 'Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt' |url=https://www.insider.com/unbreakable-kimmy-schmidt-celebrity-cameos-2019-1 |website=Insider |access-date=November 9, 2021 |date=January 18, 2019}}</ref>
|-
|2017–present
|''[[Stranger Things]]''
|[[Maxine "Max" Mayfield]]
| Main role (season 2–present)
|<ref name=":0"/>
|}

=== Theatre ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
!Title
!Role
!Refs
|-
|2012
|''[[Annie (musical)|Annie]]''
|Annie
| rowspan =2| <ref name ="Aud"/>
|-
|2015
|''[[The Audience (2013 play)|The Audience]]''
|[[Elizabeth II|Young Queen Elizabeth II]]
|}

== Accolades ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|-
! Year
! Award
! Category
! Nominated work
! Result
!{{Abbr|Ref.|References}}
|-
| [[2018 MTV Movie & TV Awards|2018]]
| [[MTV Movie & TV Awards]]
| [[MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Duo|Best On-Screen Team]] (with [[Gaten Matarazzo]], [[Finn Wolfhard]], [[Caleb McLaughlin]] and [[Noah Schnapp]])
| [[Stranger Things]]
| {{nom}}
|<ref>{{cite web|last=Nordyke|first=Kimberly|date=May 3, 2018|title=MTV Movie & TV Awards: 'Black Panther,' 'Stranger Things' Top Nominations|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/mtv-movie-tv-awards-2018-nominations-complete-list-1108100|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503235147/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/lists/mtv-movie-tv-awards-2018-nominations-complete-list-1108100|archive-date=May 3, 2018|access-date=May 3, 2018|work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|5584750}}
*[https://www.instagram.com/sadiesink_/ Sadie Sink] at [[Instagram]]
*[https://twitter.com/sadiesink Sadie Sink] at [[Twitter]]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sink, Sadie}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American film actresses]]
[[Category:American stage actresses]]
[[Category:American television actresses]]
[[Category:American child actresses]]
[[Category:21st-century American actresses]]
[[Category:2002 births]]
[[Category:Actresses from Texas]]
[[Category:People from Brenham, Texas]]
[[Category:Veganism activists]]

High-voltage cable

2021-09-21T21:37:28Z

Denvercoder9: /* Cable insulation components */ add link for archaic american units

[[File:Hochspannungskabel 110kV 400kV.JPG|thumb|right|Figure 1: Segments of high-voltage XLPE cables|alt=]]
{{short description|Cable used for electric power transmission at high voltage}}
A '''high-voltage cable''' ('''HV cable''') is a cable used for [[electric power transmission]] at [[high voltage]]. A cable includes a conductor and [[Insulator (electricity)|insulation]]. Cables are considered to be fully insulated. This means that they have a full rated insulation system which will consist of insulation, semi-con layers, and a metallic shield. This is in contrast to an [[Overhead power line|overhead line]], which may include insulation but not fully rated for operating voltage (EG: tree wire). High-voltage cables of differing types have a variety of applications in instruments, ignition systems, and [[alternating current]] (AC) and [[direct current]] (DC) power transmission. In all applications, the insulation of the cable must not deteriorate due to the high-voltage stress, ozone produced by electric discharges in air, or tracking. The cable system must prevent contact of the high-voltage conductor with other objects or persons, and must contain and control leakage current. Cable joints and terminals must be designed to control the high-voltage stress to prevent breakdown of the insulation.

The cut lengths of high-voltage cables may vary from several feet to thousands of feet, with relatively short cables used in apparatus and longer cables run within buildings or as buried cables in an industrial plant or for power distribution. The longest cut lengths of cable will often be [[Submarine power cable|submarine cables]] under the ocean for power transmission.

[[File:Hochspannungskabel 400kV Querschnitt.JPG|thumb|right|Figure 2: A cross-section through a 400 kV cable, showing the stranded segmented copper conductor in the center, semiconducting and insulating layers, copper shield conductors, [[aluminium]] sheath and plastic outer jacket.|alt=]]

==Cable insulation technologies==
Like other [[power cable]]s, high-voltage cables have the structural elements of one or more conductors, an insulation system, and a protective jacket. High-voltage cables differ from lower-voltage cables in that they have additional internal layers in the insulation system to control the electric field around the conductor. These additional layers are required at 2,000 volts and above between conductors. Without these semi-conducting layers the cable will fail due to electrical stress within minutes. This technique was patented by Martin Hochstadter in 1916;<ref name="underground systems reference book" /> the shield is sometimes called a Hochstadter shield, and shielded cable used to be called H-Type Cable. Depending on the grounding scheme, the shields of a cable can be connected to ground at one end or both ends of the cable. Splices in the middle of the cable can be also grounded depending on the length of the circuit and if a semiconducting jacket is employed on direct buried circuits..

[[File:Z 20200717 114912.jpg|alt=|right|thumb|227x227px|Figure 3, Cross section of typical 15KV #2 copper medium voltage EPR cable. Suitable for URD installation, direct buried or in duct. All layers of the cable construction are marked and identified.]]

Since 1960 solid dielectric extruded cables have taken dominance in the distribution market. These medium voltage cables are generally insulated with EPR or XLPE polymeric insulation. EPR insulation is common on cables from 4 to 34kV. EPR is not commonly used over 35KV due to losses, however it can be found in 69kV cables. XLPE is used at all voltage levels from the 600V class and up. Sometimes EAM insulation is marketed, however, market penetration remains fairly low. Solid, extruded insulation cables such as EPR and XLPE account for the majority of distribution and transmission cables produced today. However the relative unreliability of early XLPE resulted in a slow adoption at transmission voltages. Cables of 330, 400, and 500 kV are commonly constructed using XLPE today, but this has occurred only in recent decades.

[[File:20200717105728pilc15kv.jpg|right|thumb|233x233px|Figure 4: Typical 15KV insulation class 3-conductor (3/C) paper insulated lead covered (PILC) cable. 1990s vintage.]]
An increasingly uncommon insulation type is PILC or paper insulation lead covered cable. Some utilities still install this for distribution circuits as new construction or replacement. [[Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti]] was the first to demonstrate in 1887 that carefully dried and prepared [[kraft paper]] could form satisfactory cable insulation at 11,000 volts. Previously paper-insulated cable had only been applied for low-voltage telegraph and telephone circuits. An extruded lead sheath over the paper cable was required to ensure that the paper remained moisture free. Mass-impregnated paper-insulated medium voltage cables were commercially practical by 1895. During [[World War II]] several varieties of [[synthetic rubber]] and [[polyethylene]] insulation were applied to cables.<ref name="black" /> Modern high-voltage cables use polymers, especially polyethylene, including cross-linked polyethylene (XLPE) for insulation.

The demise of PILC could be considered to be in the 1980s and 1990s as urban utilities started to install more EPR and XLPE insulated cables. The factors for the decreased use of PILC are the high level of craftsmanship needed to splice lead, longer splicing times, reduced availability of the product domestically, and pressure to stop using lead for environmental and safety reasons. It should also be noted that rubber insulated lead covered cable enjoyed a short period of popularity prior to 1960 in the low and medium voltage markets but was not widely used by most utilities. Existing PILC feeders are often considered to be near end of life by most utilities and subject to replacement programs.

[[Sulfur vulcanization|Vulcanized rubber]] was patented by [[Charles Goodyear]] in 1844, but it was not applied to cable insulation until the 1880s, when it was used for lighting circuits.<ref name="underground systems reference book" /> Rubber-insulated cable was used for 11,000 volt circuits in 1897 installed for the [[Niagara Falls|Niagara Falls Power Generation]] project.

[[File:20200717 114846mediumpressureoilfilledcable.jpg|right|thumb|Figure 5: 69KV Medium Pressure Oil Filled Cable. This cable features concentric copper conductors insulated in kraft paper. Shield on the individual phases is provided with interlaced carbon and zinc tapes. Overall shield is also provided. Tubes facilitate oil movement provided by a series of pumping plants. 150 mils of lead provide protection from moisture.]]

Oil filled, gas filled, and pipe type cables have been largely considered obsolete since the 1960s. Such cables are designed to have significant oil flow through the cable. Standard PILC cables are impregnated with oil but the oil is not designed to flow or cool the cable. Oil filled cables are typically lead insulated and can be purchased on reels. Pipe type cables differ from oil filled cables in that they are installed in a rigid pipe usually made of steel. With pipe type cables the pipes are constructed first and then at a later date the cable is pulled through. The cable may feature skid wires to prevent damage during the pulling process. The cross-sectional volume of oil in a pipe type cable is significantly higher than in an oil filled cable. These pipe type cables are oil filled at nominal low, medium, and high pressures. Higher voltages require higher oil pressures to prevent formation of voids that would allow [[partial discharge]]s within the cable insulation. Pipe type cables will typically have a cathodic protection system driven off voltage where an oil filled cable circuit would not. Pipe type cable systems are often protected from forming holidays through an asphaltic coating. There are still many of these pipe type circuits in operation today. However, they have fallen out of favor due to the high front end cost and massive O+M budget needed to maintain the fleet of pumping plants.

==Cable insulation components==
[[High voltage]] is defined as any voltage over 1000 volts.<ref>[[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], pp. 133-137</ref> Those of 2 to 33 kV are usually called ''medium voltage'' cables, those over 50 kV ''high voltage'' cables.

Modern HV cables have a simple design consisting of few parts: the conductor, the conductor shield, the insulation, the insulation shield, the metallic shield, and the jacket. Other layers can include water blocking tapes, rip cords, and armor wires. [[Copper conductor|Copper]] or aluminium wires transports the current, see (1) in figure 1. (''For a detailed discussion on copper cables, see main article: [[Copper conductor]].'') The insulation, insulation shield, and conductor shield, are generally polymer based with a few rare exceptions.

Single conductor designs under 2000 [[Circular mil|KCM]] are generally concentric. The individual strands are often deformed during the stranding process to provide a smoother overall circumference. These are known are compact and compressed conductors. Compact offers a 10% reduction in conductor outer diameter while the compressed version only offers a 3% decrease. The selection of a compressed or compact conductor will often require a different connector during splicing. 2000 [[Circular mil|KCM]] and larger transmission cables often include a sectored style design to reduce skin effect losses. Utility power cables are often designed to run at up to 75C, 90C, and 105C conductor temperature. This temperature is limited by the construction standard and jacket selection.

The conductor shield is always permanently bonded to the EPR or XLPE cable insulation in solid dielectric cable. The semi conductive insulation shield can be bonded or removable depending on the desires of the purchaser. For voltages 69KV and up the insulation shield is generally bonded. Strippable insulation shield is purchased to reduce splicing time and skill. It can be argued that strippable semicon can lead to fewer workmanship issues at medium voltage.<ref>[[#Kuffel|Kuffel 2000]] and [[#Kreuger_2|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 2]], p. 118</ref> With paper insulated cables the semiconducting layers consist of carbon bearing or metalized tapes applied over the conductor and paper insulation. The function of these layers is to prevent air-filled cavities and suppress voltage stress between the metal conductors and the dielectric so that little [[electric discharge]]s cannot arise and endanger the insulation material.<ref>[[#Kuffel|Kuffel 2000]], sec. ''Discharges''</ref>

The insulation shield is covered by a copper, aluminum, or lead "screen." The metallic shield or sheath serves as an earthed layer and will drain leakage currents. The shield's function is not to conduct faults but that functionality can be designed in if desired. Some designs that could be used are copper tape, concentric copper wires, longitudinally corrugated shield, copper flat straps, or extruded lead sheath.

The cable jacket is often polymeric. The function of the jacket is to provide mechanical protection as well as prevent moisture & chemical intrusion. Jackets can be semiconducting or non-conducting depending on soil conditions and desired grounding configuration. Semiconducting jackets can also be employed on cables to help with a jacket integrity test. Some types of jackets are: LLDPE, HDPE, polypropylene, PVC (bottom end of the market), LSZH, etc.
[[File:20200717 114808 alfacavi 3c epr cable.jpg|thumb|Figure 6: An example of 15KV class 3 conductor (3/C) solid extruded insulation (EPR) cable. This cable construction features sectored aluminum conductors rather than concentric in an effort to reduce the overall diameter of the cable.]]

==Quality==
During the development of high voltage insulation, which has taken about half a century, two characteristics proved to be paramount.
First, the introduction of the semiconducting layers. These layers must be absolutely smooth, without even protrusions as small as a few [[Micrometre|µm]]. Further the fusion between the insulation and these layers must be absolute;<ref>[[#Kreuger_2|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 2]], picture 8.1e</ref> any fission, air-pocket or other defect — again, even of a few µm — is detrimental to the cable. Second, the insulation must be free of inclusions, cavities or other defects of the same sort of size. Any defect of these types shortens the voltage life of the cable which is supposed to be in the order of 30 years or more.<ref>[[#Kreuger_2|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 2]], pp. 87-91</ref>

Cooperation between cable makers and manufacturers of materials has resulted in grades of XLPE with tight specifications. Most producers of XLPE-compound specify an "extra clean" grade where the number and size of foreign particles are guaranteed. Packing the raw material and unloading it within a [[cleanroom]] environment in the cable-making machines is required. The development of [[Extrusion|extruders]] for [[plastics extrusion]] and [[cross-link]]ing has resulted in cable-making installations for making defect-free and pure insulations. The final quality control test is an elevated voltage 50 or 60 Hz partial discharge test with very high sensitivity (in the range of 5 to 10 picocoulombs) This test is performed on every reel of cable before it is shipped.{{Citation needed|date=October 2019}}
[[File:Extruder section.jpg|thumb|right|Figure 7: An extruder machine for making insulated cable]]

==HVDC cable==
A high-voltage cable for [[high-voltage direct current]] (HVDC) transmission has the same construction as the AC cable shown in figure 1. The physics and the test requirements are different.<ref>[[#Kreuger_2|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 2]], pp. 15-19</ref> In this case the smoothness of the semiconducting layers (2) and (4) is of utmost importance. Cleanliness of the insulation remains imperative.

Many HVDC cables are used for DC [[submarine power cable|submarine connection]]s, because at distances over approximately 100 km AC can no longer be used. The longest submarine cable today is the [[NorNed]] cable between Norway and the Netherlands, which is almost 600 km long and transports 700 megawatts, a capacity equal to a large power station.
 Most of these long deep-sea cables are made in an older construction, using oil-impregnated paper as an insulator.

==Cable terminals==
[[File:Field concentration.jpg|thumb|120px|right|Figure 8, the earth shield of a cable (0%) is cut off, the equipotential lines (from 20% to 80%) concentrate at the edge of the earth electrode, causing danger of breakdown.]]
[[File:HV Terminal.jpg|thumb|Figure 9: A rubber or elastomer body '''R''' is pushed over the insulation (blue) of the cable. The equipotential lines between '''HV''' (high voltage) and '''earth''' are evenly spread out by the shape of the earth electrode. Field concentrations are prevented in this way.|alt=]]
Terminals of high-voltage cables must manage the [[electric field]]s at the ends.<ref>[[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], pp. 53,147,153</ref> Without such a construction the electric field will concentrate at the end of the earth-conductor as shown in figure 2.

Equipotential lines are shown here, which can be compared with the [[contour line]]s on a map of a mountainous region: the nearer these lines are to each other, the steeper the slope and the greater the danger, in this case the danger of an [[electrical breakdown]]. The equipotential lines can also be compared with the [[Contour line#Barometric pressure|isobars]] on a weather map: The denser the lines, the more wind and the greater the danger of damage.
In order to control the equipotential lines (that is to control the electric field) a device is used that is called a '''stress cone''', see figure 3.<ref>[[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], pp. 147-153</ref> The crux of stress relief is to flare the shield end along a logarithmic curve. Before 1960, the stress cones were handmade using tape—after the cable was installed. These were protected by [[pothead]]s, so named because a potting compound/dielectric was poured around the tape inside a metal/ porcelain body insulators. About 1960, preformed terminations were developed consisting of a [[Natural rubber|rubber]] or [[elastomer]] body that is stretched over the cable end.<ref>[[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], fig. 10.7</ref> On this rubber-like body '''R''' a shield electrode is applied that spreads the equipotential lines to guarantee a low electric field.

The crux of this device, invented by NKF in [[Delft]] in 1964,<ref>Dutch Patent 123795, Netherlands Cable Works '''NKF''', submitted 21-4-1964, granted 27-3-1968</ref> is that the [[boring (manufacturing)|bore]] of the elastic body is narrower than the diameter of the cable. In this way the (blue) interface between cable and stress-cone is brought under mechanical pressure, so that no cavities or air pockets can be formed between cable and cone. Electric breakdown in this region is prevented in this way.

This construction can further be surrounded by a [[porcelain]] or silicone insulator for outdoor use,<ref>see a similar case in [[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], p. 160</ref> or by contraptions to enter the cable into a [[Transformer|power transformer]] under oil, or [[switchgear]] under gas pressure.<ref>see a similar case in [[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], p. 157</ref>

==Cable joints==
Connecting two high-voltage cables with one another poses two main problems. First, the outer conducting layers in both cables must be terminated without causing a field concentration,<ref>[[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], p. 156</ref> as with the making of a cable terminal. Secondly, a field-free space must be created where the cut-down cable insulation and the connector of the two conductors safely can be accommodated.<ref>[[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], p. 154</ref> These problems were solved by NKF in [[Delft]] in 1965<ref>Dutch Patent 149955 of Netherlands Cable Works '''NKF''', submitted 4-11-1965, granted 17-11-1976</ref> by introducing a device called '''bi-manchet''' cuff.

Figure 10 shows a photograph of the cross-section of such a device. At one side of this photograph the contours of a high-voltage cable are drawn. Here '''red''' represents the conductor of that cable and '''blue''' the insulation of the cable. The black parts in this picture are semiconducting rubber parts. The outer one is at earth potential and spreads the electric field in a similar way as in a cable terminal. The inner one is at high-voltage and shields the connector of the conductors from the electric field.

The field itself is diverted as shown in figure 8, where the equipotential lines are smoothly directed from the inside of the cable to the outer part of the bi-manchet (and vice versa at the other side of the device).[[File:HV Joint.jpg|thumb|300px|Figure 10: Photograph of a section of a high-voltage joint, '''bi-manchet''', with a high-voltage cable mounted at the right hand side of the device.|alt=|none]]
[[File:Field in joint.jpg|thumb|Figure 11: Field distribution in a '''bi-manchet''' or HV joint.|alt=|none]]

The crux of the matter is here, like in the cable terminal, that the inner bore of this bi-manchet is chosen smaller than the diameter over the cable insulation.<ref>[[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], p. 155</ref> In this way a permanent pressure is created between the bi-manchet and the cable surface and cavities or electrical weak points are avoided.

Installing a terminal or bi-manchet cuff is skilled work. The technical steps of removing the outer semiconducting layer at the end of the cables, placing the field-controlling bodies, connecting the conductors, etc., requires skill, cleanliness and precision.

=== Hand-taped joints ===
Hand taped joints are the old school method of splicing and terminating cable. The construction of these joints involves taking several types of tape and manually building up appropriate stress relief. Some of the tapes involved could be rubber tapes, semiconducting tapes, friction tapes, varnished cambric tapes, etc. This splicing method is incredibly labor and time intensive. It requires measuring the diameter and length of the layers being built up. Often the tapes must be half-lapped and pulled tight to prevent the formation of windows or voids in the resulting splice. Water proofing hand taped splicing is very difficult.

=== Pre-molded joints ===
Pre-molded joints are injection molded bodies created in two or more stages. Due to automation, the faraday cage will have a precise geometry and placement not achievable in taped joints. Pre-molded joints come in many different body sizes that much be matched up to the cable semicon's outside diameter. A tight joint interface is required to ensure waterproofing. These joints are often pushed on and can cause soft tissue injuries among craftsmen.

=== Heat shrink joints ===
Heat shrink joints consist of many different heat shrink tubes: insulating and conducting. These kits are less labor-intensive than taping but more than pre-molded. There can be concerns about having an open flame in a manhole or building vault. There can also be workmanship concerns with using a torch as the tubes must be fully recovered without scorching and any mastics used must flow into the voids and eliminate any air. Sufficient time and heat must be given. There are also a high number of components that must be placed in the correct order and position relative to the center of the joint.

=== Cold shrink joints ===
Cold shrink is the newest family of joints. The idea is a polymer tube is formed at the correct diameter for the cable. It is then expanded over a form and placed onto a hold out tube at the factory. Then ready for installation the joint is very easily slipped over the cable end. After the connector is installed the splicer simply needs to center the joint body and then release the hold out. The tube will automatically recover to the original size. The only complication is cold shrink has a shelf life of approximately 2–3 years. After that time period the rubber will form a memory and not recover down to the intended size. This can lead to joint failure it not installed before the recommended date. From a utility perspective this makes it difficult to keep track of stock or retain emergency spares for critical customers. Cold shrink is the more rapidly growing area of distribution splices and thought to have the fewest workmanship issues with the quickest install times.

==X-ray cable==
X-ray cables<ref>[[#Kreuger_1|Kreuger 1991 Vol. 1]], pp. 65, 133</ref> are used in lengths of several meters to connect the HV source with an [[X-ray tube]] or any other HV device in scientific equipment. They transmit small currents, in the order of [[Ampere|milliamperes]] at DC voltages of 30 to 200 kV, or sometimes higher. The cables are flexible, with rubber or other [[elastomer]] insulation, stranded conductors, and an outer sheath of braided copper wire. The construction has the same elements as other HV power cables.

==Testing of high-voltage cables==
There are different causes for faulty cable insulation when considering solid dielectric or paper insulation. Hence, there are various test and measurement methods to prove fully functional cables or to detect faulty ones. While paper cables are primarily tested with DC insulation resistance tests the most common test for solid dielectric cable system is the partial discharge test.
One needs to distinguish between '''cable testing''' and '''cable diagnosis'''.

While cable testing methods result in a go/no go statement cable diagnosis methods allow judgement of the cable's current condition. With some tests it is even possible to locate the position of the defect in the insulation before failure.

In some cases, [[electrical treeing]] (water trees) can be detected by [[Dissipation factor|tan delta measurement]]. Interpretation of measurement results can in some cases yield the possibility to distinguish between new, strongly water treed cable. Unfortunately there are many other issues that can erroneously present themselves as high tangent delta and the vast majority of solid dielectric defects can not be detected with this method. Damage to the insulation and electrical treeing may be detected and located by [[Partial discharge#Discharge detection and measuring systems|partial discharge measurement]]. Data collected during the measurement procedure are compared to measurement values of the same cable gathered during the acceptance test. This allows simple and quick classification of the dielectric condition of the tested cable. Just like with tangent delta, this method has many caveats, but with good adherence to factory test standards, field results can be very reliable.

[[File:CopperTapeShieldedCable.jpg|thumb|This is a 15KV insulation class cable shielded with a 5 mil copper tape.]]

==See also==
*[[Electric power transmission]]
*[[High-voltage direct current]]
*[[Power cable]]
*[[VLF cable testing]]

==References==
===Sources===
:{{cite book|title=Industrial High Voltage|volume=Volume 1|last=Kreuger|first=Frederik H.|publisher=Delft University Press|date=1991|isbn=90-6275-561-5|ref=Kreuger_1}}
:{{cite book|title=Industrial High Voltage|volume=Volume 2|last=Kreuger|first=Frederik H.|publisher=Delft University Press|date=1991|isbn=90-6275-562-3|ref=Kreuger_2}}
:{{cite book|title=High Voltage Engineering|edition=2|last1=Kuffel|first1=E.|last2=Zaengl|first2=W.S.|last3=Kuffel|first3=J.|publisher=Butterworth‐Heinemann/Newnes|date=2000|isbn=0-7506-3634-3|ref=Kuffel}}

===Notes===
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=black>{{cite book|title=The History of Electric Wires and Cables|last=Black|first=Robert M.|date=1983|publisher=Peter Pergrinus; London Science Museum|isbn=0-86341-001-4}}</ref>
<ref name="underground systems reference book">{{cite book|title=Underground Systems Reference Book|date=1957|publisher=Edison Electric Institute|oclc=1203459}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{commons category|High-voltage cables}}
*[http://www.b2hv.com/tan-delta-measurement.html Tan delta measurement of medium- and high-voltage cables]
*[http://www.b2hv.com/partial-discharge-measurement.html Partial discharge measurement to detect and locate electrical trees]
*[http://www.himalayal.com/upfile/High_Voltage_Testing_Research_PDF/On_Site_AC_Withstand_Test_of_200kV_XLPE_Cross_linked_Cable_System.pdf On-site AC Withstand test for 200kV High Voltage Cable]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:High Voltage Cable}}
[[Category:Electric power transmission]]
[[Category:Power cables]]

User talk:Liomgirl

2021-09-12T20:41:19Z

Denvercoder9: Caution: Unconstructive editing on :Belfast.

== September 2021 ==

[[File:Information orange.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Please refrain from making unconstructive edits to Wikipedia, as you did at [[:Belfast]]. Your edits appear to constitute [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]] and have been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. If you would like to experiment, please use your [[User:Liomgirl/sandbox|sandbox]]. Repeated vandalism may result in the [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|loss of editing privileges]]. Thank you. [[User:Denvercoder9|Denvercoder9]] ([[User talk:Denvercoder9|talk]]) 20:41, 12 September 2021 (UTC)

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2021-09-12T20:40:21Z

Denvercoder9: Saving Twinkle preferences: automatic edit from :Wikipedia:Twinkle/Preferences

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Belfast

2021-09-12T20:38:00Z

Denvercoder9: Reverted 1 edit by Liomgirl (talk) to last revision by Laggan Boy

{{short description|Capital of Northern Ireland}}
{{about|the capital of Northern Ireland|other uses|Belfast (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox UK place
| official_name = Belfast
| country = Northern Ireland
| static_image_name = Wikibelfast1.jpg
| static_image_width = 275px
| static_image_caption = Skyline and buildings throughout the City of Belfast
| static_image_2_name = Belfast City Coat of Arms.svg
| static_image_2_caption = [[Coat of arms of Belfast|Coat of arms]] with motto "''Pro Tanto Quid Retribuamus''" (Latin: "What shall we give in return for so much")
| area_total_sq_mi = 51.16<ref>{{United Kingdom district population citation |area}}</ref>
| population =
| population_ref = City of Belfast: {{NI district population|POP= N09000003}} ({{United Kingdom statistics year|NIYYYY}})<ref name = "demography1">{{United Kingdom district population citation|NI}}</ref>  [[Belfast Metropolitan Area|Metropolitan area]]: 671,559 (2011)<ref name=doeni>{{cite web|url= https://www.planningni.gov.uk/downloads/volume_1_-_plan_strategy___framework-2.pdf|title= Belfast Metropolitan Area Plan|website= Planningni.gov|access-date= 11 April 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171107013522/https://www.planningni.gov.uk/downloads/volume_1_-_plan_strategy___framework-2.pdf|archive-date= 7 November 2017|url-status = live}}</ref>
| label_position = none
| post_town = BELFAST
| postcode_area = BT
| postcode_district = BT1–BT17, BT29 (part), BT36 (part), BT58
| dial_code = 028
| constituency_westminster = [[Belfast North (UK Parliament constituency)|Belfast North]] ([[Sinn Féin|SF]]) [[Belfast South (UK Parliament constituency)|Belfast South]] ([[Social Democratic and Labour Party|SDLP]]) [[Belfast East (UK Parliament constituency)|Belfast East]] ([[Democratic Unionist Party|DUP]]) [[Belfast West (UK Parliament constituency)|Belfast West]] ([[Sinn Féin|SF]])
| irish_name = Béal Feirste
| irish_grid_reference = J338740
| scots_name = Bilfawst
| unitary_northern_ireland = [[Belfast City Council|City of Belfast]]
| lieutenancy_northern_ireland = Belfast county borough
| constituency_ni_assembly = [[Belfast North (Assembly constituency)|Belfast North]] [[Belfast South (Assembly constituency)|Belfast South]] [[Belfast East (Assembly constituency)|Belfast East]] [[Belfast West (Assembly constituency)|Belfast West]]
| website = [http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/ www.belfastcity.gov.uk]
| pushpin_map = United Kingdom
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within the United Kingdom
| coordinates = {{coord|54|35|47|N|05|55|48|W|display=inline,title}}
}}

'''Belfast''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|b|ɛ|l|f|a:|s|t}} {{Respell|BEL|fahst}}, elsewhere {{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|ɛ|l|f|ae|s|t}}; from {{lang-ga|Béal Feirste}} {{IPA-ga|bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə|}}, meaning 'mouth of the sand-bank ford'<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.placenamesni.org/resultdetails.php?entry=17101|title=Place Names NI – Home|website=www.placenamesni.org|access-date=25 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305071703/http://www.placenamesni.org/resultdetails.php?entry=17101|archive-date=5 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>) is the capital and largest city of [[Northern Ireland]], standing on the banks of the [[River Lagan]] on the east coast. It is the 12th-largest city in the [[United Kingdom]]<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/where-are-largest-cities-britain-1404|title= Where are the largest cities in Britain? – CityMetric|website= Citymetric.com|access-date= 11 April 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151030144804/http://www.citymetric.com/skylines/where-are-largest-cities-britain-1404|archive-date= 30 October 2015|url-status= dead}}</ref> and the second-largest in [[Ireland]]. It had a population of 343,542 {{as of | 2019 | lc = on}}.<ref name="demography1"/> Belfast suffered greatly during [[Irish War of Independence#North-east|the violence]] that accompanied the [[partition of Ireland]], and especially during the more recent conflict known as [[the Troubles]].

By the early 19th century, Belfast was a major [[port]]. It played an important role in the [[Industrial Revolution]] in Ireland, becoming briefly the biggest [[linen]]-producer in the world, earning it the nickname "[[Linenopolis]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.connollycove.com/linenopolis-linen-quarter-belfast/|title=Linenopolis: The Linen Quarter of Belfast {{!}} Connolly Cove {{!}}|last=ConnollyCove|date=12 August 2019|website=Connolly Cove|language=en-GB|access-date=6 November 2019|archive-date=14 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214064424/https://www.connollycove.com/linenopolis-linen-quarter-belfast/|url-status=live}}</ref> By the time it was granted [[City status in the United Kingdom#Northern Ireland|city status]] in 1888, it was a major centre of Irish linen production, [[tobacco]]-processing and rope-making. Shipbuilding was also a key industry; the [[Harland and Wolff]] shipyard, which built the {{RMS|Titanic}}, was the world's largest shipyard.<ref>{{cite web|url =https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/topics/belfast_golden_age_shipbuilding|title= BBC – History – Belfast's golden age of shipbuilding|website= Bbc.co.uk|access-date= 11 April 2018|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180326091623/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/topics/belfast_golden_age_shipbuilding|archive-date= 26 March 2018|url-status = dead}}</ref> Belfast {{as of | 2019 | lc = on}} has a major aerospace and missiles industry. [[Industrialisation]], and the [[Urbanization|inward migration]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Kelly |first1= Mary |title= Historical Internal Migration in Ireland |journal= GIS Research UK |date= April 2013 |url= https://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/~gisteac/proceedingsonline/GISRUK2013/gisruk2013_submission_63.pdf |access-date= 17 August 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180817225743/https://www.geos.ed.ac.uk/~gisteac/proceedingsonline/GISRUK2013/gisruk2013_submission_63.pdf |archive-date= 17 August 2018 |url-status = live}}</ref> it brought, made Belfast Northern Ireland's biggest city. Following the partition of Ireland in 1922, Belfast became the seat of government for Northern Ireland. Belfast's status as a global industrial centre ended in the decades after the [[World War II|Second World War]].

Belfast is still a port with commercial and industrial docks, including the Harland and Wolff shipyard, dominating the [[Belfast Lough]] shoreline. It is served by two airports: [[George Best Belfast City Airport]], {{convert|3|mi|abbr=off|0}} from the city centre, and [[Belfast International Airport]] {{convert|15|mi|abbr=off|0}} west of the city. The [[Globalization and World Cities Research Network|Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC)]] listed Belfast as a Gamma + [[global city]] in 2020.<ref>{{cite web |title=The World According to GaWC 2020 |url=https://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2020t.html |website=GaWC – Research Network |publisher=Globalization and World Cities |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=24 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824031341/https://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2020t.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Name==
The name Belfast derives from the Irish {{lang|ga| Béal Feirsde}}, later spelt {{lang|ga|Béal Feirste}} ({{IPA-ga|bʲeːlˠ ˈfʲɛɾˠ(ə)ʃtʲə}})<ref name="Logainm" /> The word {{lang|ga|béal}} means "mouth" or "river-mouth" while {{lang|ga|feirsde/feirste}} is the genitive singular of {{lang|ga|fearsaid}} and refers to a [[shoal|sandbar]] or tidal [[ford (crossing)|ford]] across a river's mouth.<ref name="Logainm">{{cite web |url= http://www.logainm.ie/118005.aspx |title= Placenames Database of Ireland – Belfast: '''view the scanned records''' |publisher= Logainm.ie |access-date= 25 May 2014 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130702093937/http://www.logainm.ie/118005.aspx |archive-date= 2 July 2013 | url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="Belfast name">{{cite web |title= Placenames/Logainmneacha – Belfast |website= BBC Northern Ireland – Education |publisher= BBC |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/blas/education/beginnersblas/1belfast.shtml |access-date= 17 May 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090115045404/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/irish/blas/education/beginnersblas/1belfast.shtml |archive-date= 15 January 2009 | url-status = live}}</ref> The name therefore translates literally as "(river) mouth of the sandbar" or "(river) mouth of the ford".<ref name="Logainm" /> The sandbar formed at the confluence (at present-day Donegall Quay) of two rivers: the [[River Lagan|Lagan]], which flows into Belfast Lough, and the Lagan's tributary the [[River Farset|Farset]] ("mouth of the Farset" might be an alternative interpretation)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hogan|first=Edmund|url=http://publish.ucc.ie/doi/locus/B|title=Onomasticon Goedelicum|year=1910|location=Dublin|access-date=1 June 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717183101/http://publish.ucc.ie/doi/locus/B|archive-date=17 July 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=O'Donovan|first=John|url=https://archive.org/stream/annalarioghachta04ocle#page/1100/mode/2up|title=Annals of the Kingdom of Ireland|year=1856|location=Dublin|access-date=6 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924151447/http://www.archive.org/stream/annalarioghachta04ocle#page/1100/mode/2up|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> This area became the hub around which the original settlement developed.<ref>{{Cite news|url= https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/archive/places/a-town-is-born-four-hundred-years-ago-belfast-officially-became-a-town-and-so-began-an-unlikely-success-story-29223858.html|title= A town is born; Four hundred years ago Belfast officially became a town and so began an unlikely success story|work= BelfastTelegraph.co.uk|access-date= 6 November 2019|language= en-GB|issn= 0307-1235|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191106123008/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/archive/places/a-town-is-born-four-hundred-years-ago-belfast-officially-became-a-town-and-so-began-an-unlikely-success-story-29223858.html|archive-date= 6 November 2019|url-status= live}}</ref>

The compilers of [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster-Scots]] use various transcriptions of local pronunciations of "Belfast" (with which they sometimes are also content)<ref>{{cite web|title=North-South Ministerial Council: 2010 Annual Report in Ulster Scots|url=http://www.northsouthministerialcouncil.org/annual_report_2010_ulster_scots.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227120523/http://www.northsouthministerialcouncil.org/annual_report_2010_ulster_scots.pdf|archive-date=27 February 2013|access-date=2 August 2014}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web|title=North-South Ministerial Council: 2009 Annual Report in Ulster Scots|url=http://www.northsouthministerialcouncil.org/ulster_scots_nsmc_2009_annual_report-3.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401014648/http://www.northsouthministerialcouncil.org/ulster_scots_nsmc_2009_annual_report-3.pdf|archive-date=1 April 2014|access-date=2 August 2014}}
</ref> including ''Bilfawst'',<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.linenhall.com/pages/irish-and-reference |title= Ulster Scots Language & Dialects of Ulster |publisher= The Linen Hall Library |access-date= 3 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130225140201/https://www.linenhall.com/pages/irish-and-reference |archive-date= 25 February 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.northsouthministerialcouncil.org/web_2006_ulster_scots_report.pdf 2006 annual report in Ulster-Scots] {{webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130227120556/http://www.northsouthministerialcouncil.org/web_2006_ulster_scots_report.pdf |date= 27 February 2013 }} North/South Ministerial Council.</ref> ''Bilfaust''<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/ulsterscots/library/switherin-agen BBC Ulster-Scots Library – Switherin agen] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120724110325/http://www.bbc.co.uk/ulsterscots/library/switherin-agen |date= 24 July 2012 }} Ullans Speakers Association. Retrieved 6 October 2011.</ref> or ''Baelfawst.''<ref>{{cite web|title= Equality Impect Assessment o tha Draft Ullans Leid Policy|url= https://www.midulstercouncil.org/getmedia/b944e065-0b67-4eb7-bca7-09c694caf3f2/Final-EQIA-Equality-Impact-Assessment-in-Ulster-Scots_11.pdf?ext=.pdf|publisher= Mid Ulster District Council|access-date= 16 May 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180109091019/https://www.midulstercouncil.org/getmedia/b944e065-0b67-4eb7-bca7-09c694caf3f2/Final-EQIA-Equality-Impact-Assessment-in-Ulster-Scots_11.pdf?ext=.pdf|archive-date= 9 January 2018 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Belfast}}

The [[county borough]] of Belfast was created when it was granted city status by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1888,<ref>{{cite web | title = Belfast City Hall | website = Discover Northern Ireland | publisher = Ireland Tourist Board | url = http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/product.aspx?ProductID=2782 | access-date = 18 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070616234058/http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/product.aspx?ProductID=2782 | archive-date = 16 June 2007 | url-status = dead }}</ref> and the city continues to straddle [[County Antrim]] on the left bank of the Lagan and [[County Down]] on the right.<ref>{{cite web | title = Belfast, Newcastle and the County Down Coast | website = County Down Northern Ireland | publisher = GoIreland.com | url = http://www.countydown.com/ | access-date = 17 January 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081219115641/http://www.countydown.com/ | archive-date = 19 December 2008 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

===Origins===
The site of Belfast has been occupied since the [[Bronze Age]]. The [[Giants Ring, Belfast|Giant's Ring]], a 5,000-year-old [[henge]], is located near the city,<ref>{{cite news |title=A walk on the outskirts of Belfast: Giant's Ring Trail, Northern Ireland |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=12 May 2012 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2012/may/12/giants-ring-trail-belfast-walk |access-date=1 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131030002902/http://www.theguardian.com/travel/2012/may/12/giants-ring-trail-belfast-walk |archive-date=30 October 2013 |url-status = live}}</ref> and the remains of [[Iron Age]] [[hill fort]]s can still be seen in the surrounding hills. Belfast remained a small settlement of little importance during the [[High Middle Ages|Middle Ages]]. [[John de Courcy]] built a [[Belfast Castle#History|castle]] on what is now Castle Street but this was smaller and of less strategic importance than [[Carrickfergus Castle|his fortress]] on the [[Belfast Lough|Lough]] shore at [[Carrickfergus]] built in 1177.

As lords of [[Clandeboye]], the [[O'Neill dynasty]] were the local Irish power.<ref name="Gillespie and Royle, p. 1">Raymond Gillespie and Stephen A. Royle, ''Irish Historic Towns Atlas Number 12: Belfast – Part I, to 1840'', p. 1. [[Royal Irish Academy]], [[Dublin]], 2003.</ref> In 1616, after the [[Nine Years' War (Ireland)|Nine Years' War]], the last of the local line, Conn O'Neill (remembered in Connswater River)<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.theflightoftheearls.net/May2406.pdf |title=Celebrations mark the arrival of first Ulster Scots in Ireland |newspaper=Irish News |date=24 April 2006 |access-date=18 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927114138/http://www.theflightoftheearls.net/May2406.pdf |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> was forced to sell their remaining stronghold, the Grey Castle or Castlereagh (''An Caisleán Riabhach'' in Irish)<ref name="logainm66190">{{cite web|title=An Caisleán Riabhach/Castlereagh|url=http://www.logainm.ie/en/66190|access-date=17 July 2014|work=[[Placenames Database of Ireland]]|archive-date=25 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140725032718/http://www.logainm.ie/en/66190|url-status=live}}</ref> in hills to the east of Belfast, together with surrounding lands, to English and Scottish adventurers.

===The early town===
[[File:Bastille-day-belfast-1791.jpg|upright=0.90|thumb|right|Volunteer Corps parade down High Street, [[Bastille Day]], 1792]]
Belfast was established as a town in 1613 by [[Arthur Chichester, 1st Baron Chichester|Sir Arthur Chichester]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Beckett|first=J. C.|title=Belfast: The Making of the City|publisher=Appletree Press|year=1983|isbn=0862811007|location=Belfast|pages=15}}</ref> Chichester also had [[Belfast Castle#History|Belfast Castle]] rebuilt at this time.<ref name="Gillespie and Royle, p. 1"/> The mainly English and [[Isle of Man|Manx]] settlers took Anglican communion at Corporation Church on the quay-side end of High Street. But it was with Scottish Presbyterians that the town was to grow as an industrial port. Together with French [[Huguenots|Huguenot]] refugees, they introduced the production of [[linen]], an industry that carried Belfast trade to the Americas.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bardon|first=Jonathon Bardon|title=The Plantation of Ulster|publisher=Gill & Macmillan|year=2011|isbn=9780717147380|location=Dublin|pages=322}}</ref>

Reluctant to let valuable crop go to seed, [[flax]] growers and linen merchants benefited from a three-way exchange. Fortunes were made carrying rough linen clothing and salted provisions to the slave plantations of the West Indies; sugar and rum to Baltimore and New York; and for the return to Belfast flaxseed from [[Thirteen Colonies|the colonies]] where the relative scarcity of labour made unprofitable the processing of the flax into linen fibre.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Scotch-Irish Merchants in Colonial America: The Flaxseed Trade and Emigration from Ireland, 1718–1755 (eBook) – BooksIreland|url=http://www.booksireland.org.uk/store/all-departments/scotch-irish-merchants-in-colonial-america-ebook|access-date=2021-05-22|language=en-US|archive-date=22 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210522182339/http://www.booksireland.org.uk/store/all-departments/scotch-irish-merchants-in-colonial-america-ebook|url-status=live}}</ref> Profits from the trade financed improvements in the town's commercial infrastructure, including the [[Lagan Canal]], new docks and quays, and the construction of the White Linen Hall which together attracted to Belfast the linen trade that had formerly gone through [[Dublin]]. Public outrage, however, defeated the proposal of the greatest of the merchant houses, [[Waddell Cunningham|Cunningham and Greg]], to commission ships for the [[Middle Passage]].<ref name="Rodgers">{{cite journal|last1=Rodgers|first1=Nini|date=1997|title=Equiano in Belfast: a study of the anti-slavery ethos in a northern town|journal=Slavery and Abolition|volume=xviii|pages=82–84}}</ref>

As "Dissenters" from the [[Church of Ireland|established Church]], Presbyterians were conscious of sharing, if only in part, the [[Penal Laws|disabilities]] of Ireland's dispossessed [[Catholic Church in Ireland|Roman Catholic]] majority; and of being denied representation in the Irish Parliament. Belfast's two MPs Belfast remained nominees of the Chichesters ([[Marquess of Donegall|Marquesses of Donegall]]).<ref>{{cite book|last=Berresford Ellis|first=Peter|title=A History of the Irish Working Class|publisher=Pluto|year=1985|isbn=0-7453-0009-X|pages=63–64}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=F.X. Martin|first=T.W. Moody|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781856351089/page/232|title=The Course of Irish History|publisher=Mercier Press|year=1980|isbn=1-85635-108-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781856351089/page/232 232–233]}}</ref> With their American kinsmen, the region's Presbyterians were to share a growing disaffection from [[The British Crown|the Crown]].

When early in the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]], [[North Channel Naval Duel|Belfast Lough was raided]] by the [[privateer]], [[John Paul Jones]], the townspeople assembled their own [[Irish Volunteers (18th century)|Volunteer militia]]. Formed ostensibly for defence of [[Kingdom of Ireland|the Kingdom]], the Volunteers were soon pressing their own protest against "taxation without representation". Further emboldened by the [[French Revolution]], a more radical element in the town, the [[Society of United Irishmen|United Irishmen]], called for [[Catholic emancipation]] and an independent representative government for the country.<ref name="Connolly">{{Cite book |title=Divided Kingdom; Ireland 1630–1800 |first=Sean J. |last=Connolly |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-958387-4 |pages=434–449}}</ref> In hopes of French assistance, in 1798 the Society organised a republican insurrection. The rebel tradesmen and tenant farmers were defeated north of the town at the [[Battle of Antrim]] and to the south at the [[Battle of Ballynahinch]].

Among surviving elements of the early pre-Victorian town are the [[The Belfast Entries|Belfast Entries]], 17th-century alleyways off High Street, including, in Winecellar's Entry, White's Tavern (rebuilt 1790); the First [[Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland|Presbyterian (Non-Subscribing)]] Church (1781–83) in Rosemary Street (whose members led the abolitionist charge against Greg and Cunningham);<ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Regan|first1=Raymond|title=Hidden Belfast|date=2010|publisher=Mercier Press|isbn=9781856356831|location=Cork|pages=60–63}}</ref> St George's Church of Ireland (1816) on the High Street site of the old Corporation Church; and the oldest public building in Belfast, Clifden House (1771–74), the [[Belfast Charitable Society]] [[poorhouse]] on North Queen Street.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Patton|first=Marcus|title=Central Belfast: An Historical Gazetteer|publisher=Ulster Architectural Heritage Society|year=1993|isbn=0900457449|location=Belfast}}</ref>

===The industrial city===
[[File:High Street, Belfast (5785358121).jpg|thumb|left|High Street, c. 1906]]
Rapid industrial growth in the nineteenth century drew in landless Catholics from outlying rural and western districts, most settling to the west of the town. The plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract the English and Scottish capital to Belfast, but it was also a cause of insecurity. Protestant workers organised to secure their access to jobs and housing, gave a new lease of life in the town to the once largely rural [[Orange Order]]. Sectarian tensions were heightened by movements to [[Repeal Association|repeal the Acts of Union]] (which followed the 1798 rebellion) and to [[Irish Home Rule movement|restore a Parliament]] in [[Dublin]]. Given the progressive enlargement of the British electoral franchise, this would have had an overwhelming Catholic majority and, it was widely believed, interests inimical to the Protestant and industrial north. In 1864 and 1886 the issue had helped trigger deadly sectarian riots.

Sectarian tension was not in itself unique to Belfast: it was shared with Liverpool and Glasgow, cities that following the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine]] had also experienced large scale Irish Catholic immigration.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Irish Migrants in Modern Britain, 1750–1922 |last=MacRaild |first=Donald |publisher=Macmillan |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-312-22032-7 |location=London}}</ref> But also common to this "industrial triangle" were traditions of labour militancy. In 1919, workers in all three cities struck for a ten-hour reduction in the working week. In Belfast—notwithstanding the political friction caused by [[Sinn Féin]]'s [[1918 Irish general election|electoral triumph]] in the south—this involved some 60,000 workers, Protestant and Catholic, in a four-week walk-out.<ref>{{cite news |title=Belfast strike of 1919 paved the way for shorter working week |last=Holland |first=Mairead |url=http://www.irishnews.com/paywall/tsb/irishnews/irishnews/irishnews//news/northernirelandnews/2019/01/28/news/belfast-strike-of-1919-paved-the-way-for-shorter-working-week-1537160/content.html |work=Irish News |date=28 January 2019 |access-date=9 April 2020 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519105949/http://www.irishnews.com/paywall/tsb/irishnews/irishnews/irishnews//news/northernirelandnews/2019/01/28/news/belfast-strike-of-1919-paved-the-way-for-shorter-working-week-1537160/content.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In a demonstration of their resolve not to submit to a Dublin parliament, in 1912 [[Belfast City Hall]] unionists presented the [[Ulster Covenant]], which, with an associated Declaration for women, was to accumulate over 470,000 signatures. This was followed by the drilling and eventual arming of a 100,000 strong [[Ulster Volunteer Force]]. The crisis was abated by the onset of the [[World War I|Great War]], the sacrifices of the UVF in which continue to be commemorated in the city ([[Battle of the Somme|Somme Day]]) by unionist and loyalist organisations.

In 1921, as the greater part of Ireland seceded as the [[Irish Free State]], Belfast became the capital of the six counties remaining as [[Northern Ireland]] in the United Kingdom. In 1932 the devolved parliament for the region was housed in new buildings at [[Stormont Buildings|Stormont]] on the eastern edge of the city. In 1920–21, as the two parts of Ireland [[Partition of Ireland|drew apart]], up to 500 people were killed in disturbances in Belfast, the bloodiest period of strife in the city until [[the Troubles]] of the late 1960s onwards.<ref>Lynch, Robert. ''The Northern IRA and the Early Years of Partition'', p227</ref>

===The Blitz and post-war redevelopment===
{{mainarticle|Belfast Blitz}}
[[File:AIR RAID DAMAGE IN THE UNITED KINGDOM 1939-1945 - H 9476.jpg|thumb|right|Aftermath of the Blitz in May 1941]]
Belfast was heavily bombed during [[World War II]]. Initial raids were a surprise as the city was believed to be outside of the range of German bomber planes. In one raid, in 1941, German bombers killed around one thousand people and left tens of thousands homeless. Apart from London, this was the greatest loss of life in a night raid during the [[The Blitz|Blitz]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/1269206.stm |title=The Belfast blitz is remembered |work=BBC News |date=11 April 2001 |access-date=12 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111212052/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/1269206.stm |archive-date=11 January 2009 |url-status = live}}</ref>

In the spring of 1942, the German [[Luftwaffe]] appeared twice over Belfast. In addition to the shipyards and the [[Short and Harland|Shorts Brothers]] aircraft factory, the Belfast Blitz severely damaged or destroyed more than half the city's housing stock, devastated the old town centre around High Street, and killed over a thousand people.<ref>{{cite news|date=11 April 2001|title=The Belfast blitz is remembered|work=BBC News|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/1269206.stm|url-status=live|access-date=12 March 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111212052/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/1269206.stm|archive-date=11 January 2009}}</ref>

At the end of World War II, the Unionist Government undertook programmes of "slum clearance" (the Blitz had exposed the "uninhabitable" condition of much city's housing) which involved decanting population out of mill, and factory, constructed terraced streets into new peripheral housing estates.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Post-War Housing in Northern Ireland|url=http://www.progressivepulse.org/post-war-housing-in-northern-ireland|access-date=2021-05-25|website=Progressive Pulse|language=en-GB|archive-date=25 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525205938/http://www.progressivepulse.org/post-war-housing-in-northern-ireland|url-status=live}}</ref> Road construction schemes, including the terminus of the M1 and the [[Westlink (road)|Westlink]] severed the streets linking north and west Belfast to the city centre, for example the dockland community of [[Sailortown (Belfast)|Sailortown]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Martire|first=Agustina|date=2017|title=Walking the Streets: No More Motorways for Belfast|url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/162507950/F17_57502_Final_OA.pdf|journal=Spaces and Flows|volume=8:3|access-date=25 May 2021|archive-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610231419/https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/162507950/F17_57502_Final_OA.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The cost was borne by the [[Exchequer|British Exchequer]]. In what the [[Unionism in Ireland|Unionist]] government understood as its reward for wartime service, London had agreed that parity in taxation between Northern Ireland and Great Britain should be matched by parity in the services delivered.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Buckland|first=Patrick|title=History of Northern Ireland|publisher=Gill & Macmillan|year=1981|isbn=978-0-7171-1069-8|location=Dublin|pages=83}}</ref> In addition to the public construction, this provided for universal health care, comprehensive social security, and "revolutionised access" to secondary and further education.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wichert|first=Sabine|title=Northern Ireland Since 1945|publisher=Longman|year=1991|isbn=0-582-02392-0|location=London|pages=43–49}}</ref> The new [[welfare state]] contributed, in turn, to rising expectations; in the 1960s, a possible factor in new and growing protest over the Unionist government's record on civil and political rights.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Northern Ireland 1963–1998 {{!}} Irish history Live|url=https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/irishhistorylive/IrishHistoryResources/Articlesandlecturesbyourteachingstaff/NorthernIreland1963-1998/|access-date=2021-05-24|website=www.qub.ac.uk|archive-date=24 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210524213142/https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/irishhistorylive/IrishHistoryResources/Articlesandlecturesbyourteachingstaff/NorthernIreland1963-1998/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*

===The Troubles===
{{Main|The Troubles}}
[[File:Shankilltroubles.jpg|thumb|[[Shankill Road]] during the Troubles, 1970s]]
Belfast has been the scene of various episodes of sectarian conflict between its Catholic and Protestant populations.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Lambkin | first = Brian | date = 2007 | title = The historiography of the conflict in Northern Ireland and the reception of Andrew Boyd's Holy war in Belfast (1969) | journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy]] | publisher = [[Royal Irish Academy]] | volume = 114C | doi = 10.3318/priac.2014.114.08 | jstor = 10.3318/priac.2014.114.08| pages = 333–339 }}</ref> These opposing groups in this conflict are now often termed [[Irish republicanism|republican]] and [[Ulster loyalism|loyalist]] respectively, although they are also loosely referred to as '[[Irish nationalism|nationalist]]' and '[[Unionism (Ireland)|unionist]]'. The most recent example of this conflict was known as the Troubles – a civil conflict that raged from the late 1960s to 1998.<ref name="bbc trouble history">{{cite web |last=Kelters |first=Seamus |title=Violence in the Troubles |website=History |publisher=BBC |date=February 2013 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/topics/troubles_violence |access-date=19 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605010515/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/topics/troubles_violence |archive-date=5 June 2013 |url-status = live}}</ref>

Belfast saw some of the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, particularly in the 1970s, with rival paramilitary groups formed on both sides. Bombing, assassination and street violence formed a backdrop to life throughout the Troubles. In December 1971, 15 people, including two children, were killed when the [[Ulster Volunteer Force]] (UVF) [[McGurk's Bar bombing|bombed McGurk's Bar]], the greatest loss of life in a single incident in Belfast.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Taylor | first = Peter | author-link = Peter Taylor (Journalist) | title = Loyalists | publisher = [[Bloomsbury Publishing]] | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-7475-4519-7 | page = 88}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=McGurk's bar bombing - A dark night in the darkest time|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-12524214|work=BBC News|date=21 February 2011|access-date=8 March 2020|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308151817/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-12524214|url-status=live}}</ref> Loyalist paramilitaries including the UVF and the [[Ulster Defence Association]] (UDA) said that the killings they carried out were in retaliation for the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army campaign|IRA campaign]]. Most of their victims were Catholics with no links to the [[Provisional IRA]].<ref>{{cite book | last = Ó Dochartaigh | first = Niall | author-link = Toby Harnden | title = From Civil Rights To Armalites | publisher = [[Cork University Press]] | year = 1999 | page = 292 | isbn = 978-1-85918-108-9}}</ref> A particularly notorious group, based on the [[Shankill Road]] in the mid-1970s, became known as the [[Shankill Butchers]].<ref>{{cite web | author = BBC News | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-12858930 | title = Shankill Butchers held Belfast in grip of terror | work = [[BBC News]] | date = 28 March 2011 | access-date = 17 September 2020 | archive-date = 7 October 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201007062432/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-12858930 | url-status = live }}</ref> The Provisional IRA detonated 22 bombs within the confines of Belfast city centre on 21 July 1972, on what is known as [[Bloody Friday (1972)|Bloody Friday]], killing nine people.<ref>{{cite book | last = Coogan | first = Tim Pat | author-link = Tim Pat Coogan | title = The I.R.A. | publisher = [[Harper Collins]] | year = 2000 | pages = 381–384 | isbn = 978-0006531555}}</ref> The British Army, first deployed on the streets in August 1969, was also responsible for civilian deaths. In the deadliest event, known as the [[Ballymurphy massacre]], between 9 and 11 August 1971 members of the [[Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom)|Parachute Regiment]] killed at least nine civilians. A 2021 coroner's report found that all those killed had been innocent and that the killings were "without justification".<ref>{{cite web|date=11 May 2021|title=Ballymurphy inquest: 10 innocent people killed without justification, coroner finds|url=https://news.sky.com/story/ballymurphy-inquest-10-innocent-people-shot-without-justification-coroner-finds-12303411|website=news.sky.com|publisher=Sky News|accessdate=11 May 2021|archive-date=11 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511131050/https://news.sky.com/story/ballymurphy-inquest-10-innocent-people-shot-without-justification-coroner-finds-12303411|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the Troubles the [[Europa Hotel, Belfast|Europa Hotel]] suffered 36 bomb attacks becoming known as "the most bombed hotel in the world".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theculturetrip.com/europe/united-kingdom/northern-ireland/articles/inside-the-europa-the-most-notorious-hotel-in-europe/|title=Inside the Europa, the Most Notorious Hotel in Europe|last=McGrade|first=Niall|website=Culture Trip|access-date=16 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016203731/https://theculturetrip.com/europe/united-kingdom/northern-ireland/articles/inside-the-europa-the-most-notorious-hotel-in-europe/|archive-date=16 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In the 1970s and 1980s it was one of the world's most dangerous cities.<ref>''Mankind's Great Divides'' by George R. Mitchell, 2017. ({{ISBN|9781910745779}})</ref> In all, over 1,600 people were killed in political violence in the city between 1969 and 2001.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/search.html |title=Sutton Index of Deaths |publisher=CAIN |access-date=9 July 2013 |date=11 April 2001 |quote=Search for Belfast in "Text Search of Description (and key words)" |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927075228/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/search.html |archive-date=27 September 2011 |url-status = live}}</ref>

==Governance==
Belfast was granted [[Borough status in the United Kingdom|borough status]] by [[James VI and I]] in 1613 and official [[City status in the United Kingdom|city status]] by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1888.<ref>{{cite web | title = Belfast City Hall: History and Background | publisher = Belfast City Council | url = http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/cityhall/history.asp?menuitem=background | access-date = 24 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070504052645/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/cityhall/history.asp?menuitem=background | archive-date = 4 May 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> Since 1973 it has been a [[Local Government (Boundaries) Act (Northern Ireland) 1971|local government district]] under local administration by [[Belfast City Council]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Local Government (Boundaries) Act (Northern Ireland) 1971 | publisher = Conflict Archive on the Internet (CAIN) | year= 2007 | url = http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/hmso/lgba1971.htm | access-date = 24 May 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070707194021/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/hmso/lgba1971.htm| archive-date= 7 July 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> Belfast is represented in both the [[British House of Commons]] and in the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]]. For elections to the [[European Parliament]], Belfast was within the [[Northern Ireland (European Parliament constituency)|Northern Ireland constituency]].

===Local government===
{{Details|Belfast City Council}}

Belfast City Council is the [[Local government in Northern Ireland|local council]] with responsibility for the city. The city's elected officials are the [[Lord Mayor of Belfast]], Deputy Lord Mayor and [[High Sheriff]] who are elected from among 60 [[councillors]]. The first Lord Mayor of Belfast was [[Sir Daniel Dixon, 1st Baronet|Daniel Dixon]], who was elected in 1892.<ref name="Belfast City Council – Lord Mayor">{{cite web|title=Councillors: Lord Mayor |publisher=Belfast City Council |url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/councillors/index.asp?menuitem2=lord-mayor |access-date=24 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607193627/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/councillors/index.asp?menuitem2=lord-mayor |archive-date=7 June 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> The current [[Lord Mayor]] is [[Kate Nicholl]], while the Deputy Lord Mayor is Tom Haire of the [[Democratic Unionist Party]]. The Lord Mayor's duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage.<ref name="Belfast City Council – Lord Mayor"/>

[[File:Belfast City Hall 2.jpg|thumb|[[Belfast City Hall]]]]
In 1997, [[Unionism in Ireland|unionists]] lost overall control of Belfast City Council for the first time in its history, with the [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland]] gaining the balance of power between [[Irish nationalism|nationalists]] and unionists. This position was confirmed in four subsequent council elections, with mayors from Sinn Féin and the [[Social Democratic and Labour Party]] (SDLP), both of whom are nationalist parties, and the cross-community Alliance Party regularly elected since. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was [[Alban Maginness]] of the SDLP, in 1997.

===Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster===
[[File:Stormont Parliament Buildings during Giro d'Italia, May 2014(6).jpg|thumb|left|[[Parliament Buildings (Northern Ireland)|Stormont]] is home to the Northern Ireland Assembly.]]

{{Details|Northern Ireland Assembly|Parliament of the United Kingdom}}
{{See also|Belfast (Northern Ireland Parliament constituencies)|Belfast (UK Parliament constituency)}}

As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] at [[Parliament Buildings (Northern Ireland)|Stormont]], the site of the [[Devolution#Northern Ireland|devolved]] legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] and [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|UK parliamentary]] constituencies: [[Belfast North (UK Parliament constituency)|Belfast North]], [[Belfast West (UK Parliament constituency)|Belfast West]], [[Belfast South (UK Parliament constituency)|Belfast South]] and [[Belfast East (UK Parliament constituency)|Belfast East]]. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of [[Castlereagh (borough)|Castlereagh]], [[Lisburn City Council|Lisburn]] and [[Newtownabbey Borough Council|Newtownabbey]] districts. In the [[2017 Northern Ireland Assembly election|Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2017]], Belfast elected 20 [[Members of the Legislative Assembly]] (MLAs), 5 from each [[List of Parliamentary constituencies in Northern Ireland|constituency]]. Belfast elected 7 [[Sinn Féin]], 5 [[Democratic Unionist Party|DUP]], 2 [[Social Democratic and Labour Party|SDLP]], 3 [[Alliance Party of Northern Ireland|Alliance Party]], 1 [[Ulster Unionist Party|UUP]], 1 [[Green Party in Northern Ireland|Green]] and 1 [[People Before Profit Alliance|PBPA]] MLAs.<ref>{{cite news | title = Northern Ireland election | work = BBC News | date = 8 May 2016 | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/election/2016/northern_ireland/resultsm | access-date = 11 May 2016 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> In the 2017 UK general election, Belfast elected one [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|Member of Parliament]] (MP) from each constituency to the [[British House of Commons|House of Commons]] at Westminster, London. This comprised 3 DUP and 1 Sinn Féin. In the [[2019 United Kingdom general election|2019 UK general election]], the DUP lost two of their seats in Belfast; to Sinn Féin in North Belfast and to the SDLP in South Belfast.
{{clear}}

==Geography==
[[File:Belfast Aerial.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Belfast (2004)|alt=Aerial photo of urban sprawl, edged by green hills and sea shore, and bisected by a winding river.]]
[[File:Belfast with Lough by Sentinel-2.jpg|left|thumb|Satellite image of Belfast with Lough]]
Belfast is at the western end of Belfast Lough and at the mouth of the River Lagan giving it the ideal location for the shipbuilding industry that once made it famous. When the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'' was built in Belfast in 1911–1912, [[Harland and Wolff]] had the largest shipyard in the world.<ref name="Titanic in History">{{cite web|title=Introduction To Titanic – Titanic in History |website=Titanic. Built in Belfast |publisher=Ulster Folk and Transport Museum |url=http://www.titanicinbelfast.com/template.aspx?pid=342&area=1&parent=321 |access-date=18 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070817040144/http://www.titanicinbelfast.com/template.aspx?pid=342&area=1&parent=321 |archive-date=17 August 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref>
Belfast is situated on Northern Ireland's eastern [[coast]] at {{Coord|54|35|49|N|05|55|45|W}}. A consequence of this northern latitude is that it both endures short winter days and enjoys long summer evenings. During the [[winter solstice]], the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. This is balanced by the [[Solstice|summer solstice]] in June, when the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00.<ref>{{cite web | title = Sunrise and sunset in Belfast | website = Sun Calculator | publisher = time and date.com | url = http://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/uk/belfast | access-date = 18 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140724071927/http://www.timeanddate.com/astronomy/uk/belfast | archive-date = 24 July 2014 |url-status = live}}</ref>

In 1994, a [[Lagan Weir|weir]] was built across the river by the [[Laganside Corporation]] to raise the average water level so that it would cover the unseemly mud flats which gave Belfast its name<ref>{{cite web|title=Lagan Weir – Why it exists |publisher=Laganside |url=http://www.laganside.com/laganweir.asp |access-date=25 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070418044643/http://www.laganside.com/laganweir.asp |archive-date=18 April 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> ({{etymology|ga|Béal Feirste|The sandy ford at the river mouth}}).<ref name="Belfast name"/> The area of Belfast Local Government District is {{convert|42.31|sqmi|km2}}.<ref name=Areameasurements>{{cite web|title=Area Measurements in Northern Ireland |website=2001 census Data |publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics & Research Agency |year=2001 |url=http://www.nisranew.nisra.gov.uk/census/area_measurement.html |access-date=18 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070617083217/http://www.nisranew.nisra.gov.uk/census/area_measurement.html|archive-date=17 June 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

The [[River Farset]] is also named after this [[silt]] deposit (from the Irish ''feirste'' meaning "sand spit"). Originally a more significant river than it is today, the Farset formed a dock on High Street until the mid 19th century. Bank Street in the [[Belfast City Centre|city centre]] referred to the river bank and Bridge Street was named for the site of an early Farset bridge.<ref>{{cite web|title=Belfast City: Did you know? |website=Discover Ireland |publisher=Tourism Ireland |year=2007 |url=http://www.discoverireland.com/za/ireland-places-to-go/areas-and-cities/belfast-city/highlights/culture/ |access-date=18 May 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928125051/http://www.discoverireland.com/za/ireland-places-to-go/areas-and-cities/belfast-city/highlights/culture/ |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> Superseded by the River Lagan as the more important river in the city, the Farset now languishes in obscurity, under High Street. There are no less than twelve other minor rivers in and around Belfast, namely the Blackstaff, the Colin, the Connswater, the Cregagh, the Derriaghy, the Forth, the Knock, the Legoniel, the Loop, the Milewater, the Purdysburn and the Ravernet.<ref>Des O'Reilly, [http://www.colourpointbooks.co.uk/more_details.php?id=1016 Rivers of Belfast – A History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723042224/http://www.colourpointbooks.co.uk/more_details.php?id=1016 |date=23 July 2013 }}</ref>

[[File:Cavehill, Belfast.jpg|thumb|[[Cavehill]], a basaltic hill overlooking the city]]
The city is flanked on the north and northwest by a series of hills, including [[Divis|Divis Mountain]], [[Black Mountain (Belfast)|Black Mountain]] and [[Cavehill]], thought to be the inspiration for [[Jonathan Swift]]'s ''[[Gulliver's Travels]]''. When Swift was living at Lilliput Cottage near the bottom of Belfast's Limestone Road, he imagined that the Cavehill resembled the shape of a sleeping giant safeguarding the city.<ref name="Jonathan Swift">{{cite web | title = Belfast Hills | website = Discover Northern Ireland | publisher = Northern Ireland Tourist Board | url = http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/Belfast-Hills-Dunmurry-Belfast-P10391 | access-date = 18 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081210084401/http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/Belfast-Hills-Dunmurry-Belfast-P10391 | archive-date = 10 December 2008 |url-status = dead}}</ref> The shape of the giant's nose, known locally as ''Napoleon's Nose'', is officially called McArt's Fort probably named after Art O'Neill, a 17th-century chieftain who controlled the area at that time.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Cave Hill |publisher=The Cave Hill Conservation Campaign |year=2007 |url=http://www.cavehill.freeuk.com/home.htm |access-date=25 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206154855/http://www.cavehill.freeuk.com/home.htm |archive-date=6 February 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref> The [[Castlereagh (borough)|Castlereagh]] Hills overlook the city on the southeast.

===Climate===
As with the vast majority of the rest of Ireland, Belfast has a [[temperate]] [[oceanic climate]] (''Cfb'' in the [[Köppen climate classification]]), with a narrow range of temperatures and rainfall throughout the year. The climate of Belfast is significantly milder than most other locations in the world at a similar latitude, due to the warming influence of the [[Gulf Stream]]. There are currently five weather observing stations in the Belfast area: [[Helen's Bay]], Stormont, Newforge, Castlereagh, and Ravenhill Road. Slightly further afield is Aldergrove Airport.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate-extremes|title=Station Locations|access-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603030136/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/climate-extremes/|archive-date=3 June 2013|url-status = live}}</ref> The highest temperature recorded at any official weather station in the Belfast area was {{convert|30.8|C|F}} at [[Shaw's Bridge]] on 12 July 1983.<ref name="Met Office">{{cite web | title = Climate: Northern Ireland | publisher = Met Office | url = http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/regional-climates/ni | access-date = 25 May 2007 | archive-date = 29 May 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210529144508/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/regional-climates/index | url-status = live }}</ref>

The city gets significant precipitation (greater than 1mm) on 157 days in an average year with an average annual rainfall of {{convert|846|mm|in}},<ref name="Belfast Weather">{{cite web|title=Belfast, Northern Ireland – Average Conditions |website=BBC Weather Centre |publisher=BBC |url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/city.shtml?tt=TT003750 |access-date=8 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115035401/http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/city_guides/city.shtml?tt=TT003750 |archive-date=15 January 2009}}</ref> less than areas of northern England or most of [[Scotland]],<ref name="Met Office"/> but higher than [[Dublin]] or the south-east coast of Ireland.<ref>{{cite web | title = Rainfall in Ireland | publisher = Met Éireann | url = http://www.met.ie/climate/rainfall.asp | access-date = 25 May 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070602061707/http://www.met.ie/climate/rainfall.asp| archive-date= 2 June 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> As an urban and coastal area, Belfast typically gets snow on fewer than 10 days per year.<ref name="Met Office"/> The absolute maximum temperature at the weather station at Stormont is {{convert|29.7|C|F}}, set during July 1983.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/monitordetail.php?seasonid=13&year=1983&indexid=TXx&stationid=1821|title=1983 Maximum|website=Eca.knmi.nl|access-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106191055/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/monitordetail.php?seasonid=13&year=1983&indexid=TXx&stationid=1821|archive-date=6 November 2011|url-status = live}}</ref> In an average year the warmest day will rise to a temperature of {{convert|25.0|C|F}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1981-2010&indexid=TXx&stationid=1821|title=1981–2010 average warmest day|website=Eca.knmi.nl|access-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228232420/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1981-2010&indexid=TXx&stationid=1821|archive-date=28 December 2017|url-status = live}}</ref> with a day of {{convert|25.1|C|F}} or above occurring roughly once every two in three years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1981-2010&indexid=SU&stationid=1821|title=>25c days|website=Eca.knmi.nl|access-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171229061014/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1981-2010&indexid=SU&stationid=1821|archive-date=29 December 2017|url-status = live}}</ref> The absolute minimum temperature at Stormont is {{convert|-9.9|°C|0}}, during January 1982,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/monitordetail.php?seasonid=7&year=1982&indexid=TNn&stationid=1821|title=>Jan 1982 Minimum|website=Eca.knmi.nl|access-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106190725/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/monitordetail.php?seasonid=7&year=1982&indexid=TNn&stationid=1821|archive-date=6 November 2011|url-status = live}}</ref> although in an average year the coldest night will fall no lower than {{convert|-4.5|C|F}} with air frost being recorded on just 26 nights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=FD&stationid=1821|title=>Air frost Incidence|website=Eca.knmi.nl|access-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107015831/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=FD&stationid=1821|archive-date=7 November 2011|url-status = live}}</ref> The lowest temperature to occur in recent years was {{convert|-8.8|°C}} on 22 December 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://metofficenews.wordpress.com/2010/12/22/|title=>Dec 2010 minimum|website=Metofficenews.wordpress.com|access-date=23 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120065639/http://metofficenews.wordpress.com/2010/12/22/|archive-date=20 January 2012|url-status = live}}</ref>

The nearest weather station for which sunshine data and longer term observations are available is [[Belfast International Airport]] ([[Aldergrove, Northern Ireland|Aldergrove]]). Temperature extremes here have slightly more variability due to the more inland location. The average warmest day at Aldergrove for example will reach a temperature of {{convert|25.4|C|F}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=TXx&stationid=1640|title=Annual average warmest day|access-date=22 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107015852/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=TXx&stationid=1640|archive-date=7 November 2011|url-status = live}}</ref> ({{convert|1.0|C-change|disp=sqbr}} higher than Stormont) and 2.1 days<ref>{{cite web|url= http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=SU&stationid=1640|title= >25c days|access-date= 22 September 2011|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111106190804/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=SU&stationid=1640|archive-date= 6 November 2011|url-status = live}}</ref> should attain a temperature of {{convert|25.1|°C|1}} or above in total. Conversely the coldest night of the year averages {{convert|-6.9|C|F}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=TNn&stationid=1640|title=>Annual average coldest night|access-date=22 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107015847/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=TNn&stationid=1640|archive-date=7 November 2011|url-status = live}}</ref> (or {{convert|1.9|C-change|disp=sqbr}} lower than Stormont) and 39 nights should register an air frost.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=FD&stationid=1640|title= >Average frost incidence|access-date= 22 September 2011|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111107015840/http://eca.knmi.nl/utils/calcdetail.php?seasonid=0&periodid=1971-2000&indexid=FD&stationid=1640|archive-date= 7 November 2011|url-status = live}}</ref> Some 13 more frosty nights than Stormont. The minimum temperature at Aldergrove was {{convert|-14.9|C|F}}, during December 2010.

{{Belfast weatherbox}}

===Areas and districts===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Belfast}}{{Details|topic=City Layout|Transport in Belfast#City layout}}
[[File:RoyalAvenueBelfast.jpg|thumbnail|left|Royal Avenue]]

The [[List of townlands in Belfast|townlands of Belfast]] are its oldest surviving land divisions and most pre-date the city. Belfast expanded very rapidly from being a market town to becoming an industrial city during the course of the 19th century. Because of this, it is less an agglomeration of villages and towns which have expanded into each other, than other comparable cities, such as [[Manchester]] or [[Birmingham]]. The city expanded to the natural barrier of the hills that surround it, overwhelming other settlements. Consequently, the arterial roads along which this expansion took place (such as the [[Falls Road, Belfast|Falls Road]] or the [[Newtownards Road]]) are more significant in defining the districts of the city than nucleated settlements. [[Segregation in Northern Ireland|Parts of Belfast are segregated]] by walls, commonly known as "[[peace lines]]", erected by the [[British Army]] after August 1969, and which still divide 14 districts in the inner city.<ref name="Peacelines">{{Cite journal | author = Margrethe C. Lauber | title = Belfast's Peacelines: An Analysis of Urban Borders, Design and Social Space in a Divided City | url = http://www.mspacenyc.com/belfast.study.html | access-date = 18 May 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070208064520/http://www.mspacenyc.com/belfast.study.html |archive-date = 8 February 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref> In 2008 a process was proposed for the removal of the 'peace walls'.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.macaulayassociates.co.uk/pdfs/peace_wall.pdf |title="A Process for Removing Interface Barriers", Tony Macaulay, July 2008 |access-date=12 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006204650/http://www.macaulayassociates.co.uk/pdfs/peace_wall.pdf |archive-date=6 October 2011 |url-status = dead}}</ref> In June 2007, a [[Pound sterling|£]]16 million programme was announced which will transform and redevelop streets and public spaces in the city centre.<ref>{{cite web|title=Major makeover for Belfast city Centre |publisher=Department for Social Development (NI) |date=12 June 2007 |url=http://www.dsdni.gov.uk/index/news_items/major-makover-belfast.htm |access-date=12 June 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928104438/http://www.dsdni.gov.uk/index/news_items/major-makover-belfast.htm |archive-date=28 September 2007 }}</ref> Major arterial roads ([[quality bus corridor]]) into the city include the [[Antrim Road]], [[Shore Road, Belfast|Shore Road]], Holywood Road, Newtownards Road, Castlereagh Road, Cregagh Road, [[Ormeau Road]], [[Malone Road]], [[Lisburn Road]], Falls Road, [[Springfield Road, Belfast|Springfield Road]], [[Shankill Road]], and Crumlin Road, Four Winds.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Arterial Routes |website=Belfast Metropolitan Area Plan 2015 Draft Plan |publisher=The Planning Service |url=http://www.planningni.gov.uk/de/index/policy/dev_plans/devplans_az/bmap_2015/bmap_district_proposals/bmap_belfast/bmap_belfast_city/bmap_belfast_city_routes/bmap_arterialroutes_strategy.htm#ar01 |access-date=18 May 2014 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518205005/http://www.planningni.gov.uk/de/index/policy/dev_plans/devplans_az/bmap_2015/bmap_district_proposals/bmap_belfast/bmap_belfast_city/bmap_belfast_city_routes/bmap_arterialroutes_strategy.htm |archive-date=18 May 2014 }}</ref>

[[File:Cathedral St. Anne Belfast.jpg|thumb|St Anne's Cathedral]]
Belfast city centre is divided into two postcode districts, ''BT1'' for the area lying north of the City Hall, and ''BT2'' for the area to its south. The industrial estate and docklands ''BT3''. The rest of the Belfast [[post town]] is divided in a broadly [[clockwise]] system from ''BT3'' in the north-east round to ''BT15'', with ''BT16'' and ''BT17'' further out to the east and west respectively. Although ''BT'' derives from ''Belfast'', the [[BT postcode area]] extends across the whole of Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite web|title=The UK Postcode System |publisher=List Masters |year=2005 |url=http://www.listmasters.co.uk/postcodes.php |access-date=12 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624020159/http://www.listmasters.co.uk/postcodes.php |archive-date=24 June 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

Since 2001, boosted by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has developed a number of cultural [[Belfast quarters|quarters]]. The [[Cathedral Quarter, Belfast|Cathedral Quarter]] takes its name from [[St Anne's Cathedral, Belfast|St Anne's Cathedral]] ([[Church of Ireland]]) and has taken on the mantle of the city's key cultural locality.<ref name="Cathedral Quarter">{{cite web |title=The Cathedral Quarter, Belfast |publisher=[[Northern Ireland Tourist Board]] |year=2014 |url=http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/belfast/The-Cathedral-Quarter-Belfast-A2042 |access-date=18 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518205008/http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/belfast/The-Cathedral-Quarter-Belfast-A2042 |archive-date=18 May 2014 |url-status = dead}}</ref> It hosts a yearly [[Cathedral Quarter Arts Festival|visual and performing arts festival]].

Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment. The [[Gaeltacht Quarter, Belfast|Gaeltacht Quarter]] is an area around the Falls Road in west Belfast which promotes and encourages the use of the [[Irish language]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Gaeltacht Quarter | publisher = Department of Culture, Arts and Leisure | year= 2007 | url = http://www.dcalni.gov.uk/index/languages/gaeltacht_quarter.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927032912/http://www.dcalni.gov.uk/index/languages/gaeltacht_quarter.htm|archive-date=27 September 2007 | access-date = 15 January 2016}}</ref> The [[Queen's Quarter, Belfast|Queen's Quarter]] in south Belfast is named after [[Queen's University Belfast|Queen's University]]. The area has a large student population and hosts the annual [[Belfast Festival at Queen's|Belfast International Arts Festival]] each autumn. It is home to [[Belfast Botanic Gardens|Botanic Gardens]] and the [[Ulster Museum]], which was reopened in 2009 after major redevelopment.<ref>{{cite web | title = Contact Details | publisher = The Ulster Museum | year = 2007 | url = http://www.ulstermuseum.org.uk/contact-us/contact-details/ | access-date = 18 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070529080126/http://www.ulstermuseum.org.uk/contact-us/contact-details/ | archive-date = 29 May 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> [[Golden Mile (Belfast)|The Golden Mile]] is the name given to the mile between Belfast City Hall and Queen's University. Taking in Dublin Road, [[Great Victoria Street, Belfast|Great Victoria Street]], [[Shaftesbury Square]] and Bradbury Place, it contains some of the best bars and restaurants in the city.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Golden Mile: Pub Crawl | publisher = Virtual Belfast | url = http://www.belfastbar.co.uk/The-Golden-Mile-articles.htm | access-date = 25 May 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070624212510/http://www.belfastbar.co.uk/The-Golden-Mile-articles.htm| archive-date= 24 June 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> Since the [[Good Friday Agreement]] in 1998, the nearby Lisburn Road has developed into the city's most exclusive shopping strip.<ref>
{{cite web |title=Shopping at a Glance |website=Visit South Belfast |publisher=South Belfast Partnership |url=http://www.visitsouthbelfast.com/tourism/default.asp?cms=Tourism%5FThings+To+Do%5FShopping_Shopping+At+A+Glance&cmsid=19_49_81_227&id=227&viewtype=Category |access-date=18 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717222117/http://www.visitsouthbelfast.com/tourism/default.asp?cms=Tourism_Things+To+Do_Shopping_Shopping+At+A+Glance&cmsid=19_49_81_227&id=227&viewtype=Category |archive-date=17 July 2011 |url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Burns |first=Gemma |url=http://www.dailyireland.com/home.tvt?_scope=DailyIreland/South%20Belfast%20News/Features&id=26382&psv=13&_ticket=9NTHLXD4YGSGX4SGPNNADY7BZKLAFUUGUYRIJQOJBVXF9LLDN32STRRIVON9ANVRBNKACJ5J9QRFK11M9NTGNXT9CHUT71QFIRY4S0SEAOYFBHSJ5LE1HONDNMTEGPKACN1FURUQS10YM75OV6 |title=A passion for preserving Belfast's beauty |publisher=South Belfast News |date=28 February 2007 |access-date=12 March 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927074921/http://www.dailyireland.com/home.tvt?_scope=DailyIreland%2FSouth%20Belfast%20News%2FFeatures&id=26382&psv=13&_ticket=9NTHLXD4YGSGX4SGPNNADY7BZKLAFUUGUYRIJQOJBVXF9LLDN32STRRIVON9ANVRBNKACJ5J9QRFK11M9NTGNXT9CHUT71QFIRY4S0SEAOYFBHSJ5LE1HONDNMTEGPKACN1FURUQS10YM75OV6 |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref> Finally, the [[Titanic Quarter, Belfast|Titanic Quarter]] covers {{convert|0.75|km²|acre|0|abbr=on}} of reclaimed land adjacent to [[Port of Belfast|Belfast Harbour]], formerly known as ''Queen's Island''. Named after ''[[RMS Titanic]]'', which was built here in 1912,<ref name="Titanic in History"/> work has begun which promises to transform some former shipyard land into "one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe".<ref name="Titanic Quarter">{{cite web| title = Corporate Message: The Vision | website = About Us at Titanic Quarter | publisher = Titanic Quarter | year= 2006 | url = http://www.titanic-quarter.com/about.php?ID=3 | access-date = 18 May 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070503202406/http://www.titanic-quarter.com/about.php?ID=3| archive-date= 3 May 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> Plans include apartments, a riverside entertainment district, and a major Titanic-themed museum.<ref name="Titanic Quarter"/>

In its 2018 report on Best Places to Live in Britain, ''The Sunday Times'' named Ballyhackamore, "the brunch capital of Belfast", as the best place in Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theweek.co.uk/92384/where-is-the-best-place-to-live-in-the-uk-in-2018|title=The best place to live in the UK in 2018|website=theweek.co.uk|access-date=5 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705233841/http://www.theweek.co.uk/92384/where-is-the-best-place-to-live-in-the-uk-in-2018|archive-date=5 July 2018|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://lovebelfast.co.uk/best-place-to-live-in-northern-ireland/|title=Five Northern Ireland Locations Named Among the Sunday Times Best Places to Live 2018|date=16 March 2018|website=lovebelfast.co.uk|access-date=5 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180705235056/https://lovebelfast.co.uk/best-place-to-live-in-northern-ireland/|archive-date=5 July 2018|url-status = live}}</ref> The district of Ballyhackamore has even acquired the name "Ballysnackamore" due to the preponderance of dining establishments in the area.<ref>{{cite news |last=Edworthy |first=Sarah |date=31 March 2017 |title=A gourmand's guide to Belfast: Michelin-starred dining to artisan markets |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/indulge-in-ireland/belfast-food-tour/ |access-date=10 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410074043/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/indulge-in-ireland/belfast-food-tour/ |archive-date=10 April 2019 |url-status = live}}</ref>

==Cityscape==

{{wide image|City Quays.jpg|800px|City quays panorama}}

===Architecture===
{{Main|Architecture of Belfast|Buildings and structures in Belfast|List of tallest buildings and structures in Belfast|List of public art in Belfast}}
[[File:Obel Tower completed.jpg|thumbnail|left|upright|[[Obel Tower]] is the tallest building in Belfast and Ireland.]]

The architectural style of Belfast's public buildings range from a small set of [[Georgian architecture|Georgian]] buildings, many examples of [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]], including the main ''Lanyon Building'' at [[Queen's University Belfast]] and the [[Linenhall Library]], (both designed by [[Charles Lanyon|Sir Charles Lanyon]]). There are also many examples of [[Edwardian Baroque architecture|Edwardian]], such as the City Hall, to modern, such as the [[Waterfront Hall]].

The City Hall was finished in 1906 and was built to reflect Belfast's city status, granted by [[Queen Victoria]] in 1888. The [[Edwardian Baroque architecture|Edwardian]] architectural style of Belfast City Hall influenced the [[Victoria Memorial (India)|Victoria Memorial]] in [[Kolkata|Calcutta]], India, and [[Durban]] City Hall in South Africa.<ref>{{cite book | last = Krishna | first = Dutta | title = Calcutta: A Cultural and Literary History | page = 132 | publisher = Signal Books | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UKfoHi5412UC&pg=PA132 | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-1-902669-59-5 | access-date = 21 December 2020 | archive-date = 29 May 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210529144512/https://books.google.com/books?id=UKfoHi5412UC&pg=PA132 | url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/25/world/africa/25durban.html?_r=1&oref=slogin |title=Where the Road to Renaming Does Not Run Smooth |work=The New York Times |date=25 May 2006 |access-date=1 October 2007|author=Wines, Michael| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090416052505/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/25/world/africa/25durban.html?_r=1&oref=slogin| archive-date=16 April 2009|url-status = live}}</ref> The dome is {{convert|173|ft|m|abbr=on}} high and figures above the door state "[[Hibernia]] encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City".<ref name="Go To Historic Buildings">{{cite web| title = Historic Belfast: A guide to the City's landmark buildings | publisher = Go To Belfast | url = http://www.gotobelfast.com/index.cfm/level/page/category_key/197/Page_Key/428/Parent_Key/0/type/Page/PaGeName/Historic_Buildings_of_Belfast | access-date = 23 May 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070618164651/http://www.gotobelfast.com/index.cfm/level/page/category_key/197/Page_Key/428/Parent_Key/0/type/Page/PaGeName/Historic_Buildings_of_Belfast |archive-date = 18 June 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref>

Among the city's grandest buildings are two former banks: [[Ulster Bank]] in Waring Street (built in 1860) and [[Northern Bank]], in nearby Donegall Street (built in 1769). The [[Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast|Royal Courts of Justice]] in Chichester Street are home to Northern Ireland's [[Courts of Northern Ireland|Supreme Court]]. Many of Belfast's oldest buildings are found in the [[Cathedral Quarter, Belfast|Cathedral Quarter]] area, which is currently undergoing redevelopment as the city's main cultural and tourist area.<ref name="Cathedral Quarter"/> Windsor House, {{convert|262|ft|m|abbr=on}} high, has 23 floors and is the second tallest building (as distinct from structure) in Ireland.<ref>{{cite web|last=Morgan |first=Ian |title=Ireland's tallest building to be turned into flats |publisher=24dash.com |date=4 March 2007 |url=http://www.24dash.com/printNews/1/17408.htm |access-date=2 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929091452/http://www.24dash.com/printNews/1/17408.htm |archive-date=29 September 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> Work has started on the taller [[Obel Tower]], which already surpasses the height of Windsor House in its unfinished state.

[[File:Scottish Provident Institution, Belfast.jpg|thumb|Scottish Provident Institution, an example of [[Victorian architecture]] in Belfast]]
The ornately decorated [[The Crown Liquor Saloon|Crown Liquor Saloon]], designed by Joseph Anderson in 1876, in Great Victoria Street is one of only two pubs in the UK that are owned by the [[List of National Trust properties in Northern Ireland|National Trust]] (the other is [[the George Inn, Southwark]] in London). It was made internationally famous as the setting for the classic film, ''[[Odd Man Out]]'', starring [[James Mason]].<ref>{{cite news | title = BBC seeks stars of Belfast film noir | publisher = BBC News Northern Ireland | date = 23 February 2007 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/6388303.stm | access-date = 23 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070226113327/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/6388303.stm | archive-date = 26 February 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> The restaurant panels in the Crown Bar were originally made for ''Britannic'', the sister ship of the ''Titanic'',<ref name="Go To Historic Buildings"/> built in Belfast.

The Harland and Wolff shipyard has two of the largest [[dry dock]]s in Europe,<ref>{{cite web |title=Harland and Wolff complete SeaRose Dry-Docking project |date=6 July 2012 |publisher=Harland and Wolff |url=http://www.harland-wolff.com/News/HARLAND-AND-WOLFF-COMPLETE-SEAROSE-DRY-DOCKING-PRO.aspx |access-date=20 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216091051/http://www.harland-wolff.com/News/HARLAND-AND-WOLFF-COMPLETE-SEAROSE-DRY-DOCKING-PRO.aspx |archive-date=16 December 2013 |url-status = live}}</ref> where the giant cranes, [[Samson and Goliath (cranes)|Samson and Goliath]] stand out against Belfast's skyline.
Including the Waterfront Hall and the [[Odyssey Arena]], Belfast has several other venues for performing arts. The architecture of the [[Grand Opera House (Belfast)|Grand Opera House]] has an oriental theme and was completed in 1895. It was bombed several times during the Troubles but has now been restored to its former glory.<ref>{{cite web | title = Grand Opera House | publisher = Cinema Treasures | url = http://cinematreasures.org/theaters/2061 | access-date = 1 June 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110622053609/http://cinematreasures.org/theaters/2061 | archive-date = 22 June 2011 |url-status = live}}</ref> [[Lyric Players' Theatre|The Lyric Theatre]], which re-opened on 1 May 2011 after undergoing a rebuilding programme and is the only full-time producing theatre in Northern Ireland, is where film star [[Liam Neeson]] began his career.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4083973.stm |title=Neeson in bid to revive theatre |work=BBC News |date=10 December 2004 |access-date=7 December 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080116220650/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4083973.stm| archive-date= 16 January 2008 |url-status = live}}</ref> The [[Ulster Hall]] (1859–1862) was originally designed for grand dances but is now used primarily as a concert and sporting venue. [[David Lloyd George|Lloyd George]], [[Charles Stewart Parnell|Parnell]] and [[Patrick Pearse]] all attended political rallies there.<ref name="Go To Historic Buildings"/>

A legacy of [[the Troubles]] are the many '[[peace lines]]' or '[[Peace Walls|peace walls]]' that still act as barriers to reinforce ethno-sectarian residential segregation in the city. In 2017, the [https://www.belfastinterfaceproject.org Belfast Interface Project] published a study entitled '[https://www.belfastinterfaceproject.org/sites/default/files/publications/Interfaces%20PDF.pdf Interface Barriers, Peacelines & Defensive Architecture]' that identified 97 separate walls, barriers and interfaces in Belfast. A history of the development of these structures can be found at the Peacewall Archive.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.peacewall-archive.net|title=Peacewall Archive|last=O'Leary|first=James|date=2 May 2019|website=Peacewall Archive|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705180716/http://www.peacewall-archive.net/|archive-date=5 July 2019|url-status = live}}</ref>

===Parks and gardens===
{{Main|List of parks and gardens in Belfast}}
[[File:Flower bed, Botanic Gardens, Belfast - geograph.org.uk - 1454550.jpg|thumb|The Palm House at the [[Botanic Gardens (Belfast)|Botanic Gardens]]]]

Sitting at the mouth of the River Lagan where it becomes a deep and sheltered lough, Belfast is surrounded by mountains that create a micro-climate conducive to horticulture. From the Victorian Botanic Gardens in the heart of the city to the heights of Cave Hill Country Park, the great expanse of [[Lagan Valley]] Regional Park<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laganvalley.co.uk|title=Home|website=Laganvalley.co.uk|access-date=11 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180412145237/http://www.laganvalley.co.uk/|archive-date=12 April 2018|url-status = live}}</ref> to Colin Glen, Belfast contains an abundance of parkland and forest parks.<ref name="Parks and gardens">{{cite news| title = Parks and gardens| publisher = gotobelfast| date = 1 April 2007| url = http://visit-belfast.com/things-to-do/category/attractions/parks-and-gardens| access-date = 16 May 2009| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130610192643/http://visit-belfast.com/things-to-do/category/attractions/parks-and-gardens| archive-date = 10 June 2013|url-status = dead}}</ref>

Parks and gardens are an integral part of Belfast's heritage, and home to an abundance of local wildlife and popular places for a picnic, a stroll or a jog. Numerous events take place throughout including festivals such as Rose Week and special activities such as bird watching evenings and great beast hunts.<ref name="Parks and gardens"/>

Belfast has over forty public parks. The Forest of Belfast is a partnership between government and local groups, set up in 1992 to manage and conserve the city's parks and open spaces. They have commissioned more than 30 public sculptures since 1993.<ref>{{cite news |title=Why city art is being put on the map |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/5120974.stm |access-date=18 May 2014 |archive-date=29 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529144557/https://secure-uk.imrworldwide.com/cgi-bin/m?rnd=1622299556508&ci=bbc&cg=0&sr=1600x1000&ts=v51.js&cd=24&lg=en-US&je=n&ck=y&tz=0&ct=&hp=&tl=BBC%20NEWS%20%7C%20UK%20%7C%20Northern%20Ireland%20%7C%20Why%20city%20art%20is%20being%20put%20on%20the%20map&si=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fuk_news%2Fnorthern_ireland%2F5120974.stm&rp= |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2006, the [[Belfast City Council|City Council]] set aside £8 million to continue this work.<ref>{{cite web |title=Your City, Your Space strategy |publisher=[[Belfast City Council]] |url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/parksandopenspaces/openspacestrategy.asp?menuitem=yourcity |access-date=18 May 2007 |page=49 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207183843/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/parksandopenspaces/openspacestrategyfunding.pdf |archive-date=7 February 2012 }}</ref> The [[Belfast Naturalists' Field Club]] was founded in 1863 and is administered by National Museums and Galleries of Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite web |title=About the Field Club |publisher=Belfast Naturalists' Field Club |url=http://www.bnfc.org.uk/BNFC/History.html |access-date=18 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205082017/http://www.bnfc.org.uk/BNFC/History.html |archive-date=5 February 2016 |url-status = live}}</ref>
[[File:City Quays Rec.jpg|alt=A picture of a recreational ground with a sculpture of a salmon and a building in the background.|left|thumb|A recreation ground next to the [[Obel Tower]]. The [[Salmon of Knowledge]] is visible on the left.]]
With an average of 670,000 visitors per year between 2007 and 2011, one of the most popular parks is [[Belfast Botanic Gardens|Botanic Gardens]]<ref>{{citation |title=Gardens and Tourism |publisher=[[Northern Ireland Tourist Board]] |page=5 |date=March 2012 |url=http://www.nitb.com/FileHandler.ashx?id=2259 |access-date=25 May 2014 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401104711/http://www.nitb.com/FileHandler.ashx?id=2259 |archive-date=1 April 2014 }}</ref> in the [[Queen's Quarter, Belfast|Queen's Quarter]]. Built in the 1830s and designed by [[Charles Lanyon|Sir Charles Lanyon]], Botanic Gardens Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron [[Greenhouse|glasshouse]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Palm House Botanic Gardens, Belfast City | publisher = Houses, Castles and Gardens of Ireland | url = http://www.gardensireland.com/palm-house.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080513021454/http://www.gardensireland.com/palm-house.html | archive-date = 13 May 2008 | access-date = 18 May 2007}}</ref> Other attractions in the park include the Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/parksandopenspaces/tropicalravine.asp|access-date=30 May 2009|publisher=Belfast City Council|title=Tropical Ravine|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090517075802/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/parksandopenspaces/tropicalravine.asp|archive-date=17 May 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[U2]] played here in 1997. [[Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park]], to the south of the city centre, attracts thousands of visitors each year to its International Rose Garden.<ref name="Go To Belfast: Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park">{{cite web | title = Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park and City of Belfast International Rose Garden | publisher = Go To Belfast | url = http://www.gotobelfast.com/thingstodo/viewdetail.cfm/TDVenue_Key/421/level/page/category_key/197/Page_Key/279/parent_key/0/type/Page/PaGeName/Restaurant_Month.htm | access-date = 18 May 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070531190626/http://www.gotobelfast.com/thingstodo/viewdetail.cfm/TDVenue_Key/421/level/page/category_key/197/Page_Key/279/parent_key/0/type/Page/PaGeName/Restaurant_Month.htm |archive-date = 31 May 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref> Rose Week in July each year features over 20,000 blooms.<ref>{{cite web | title = Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park | website = Discover Northern Ireland | publisher = Northern Ireland Tourist Board | url = http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/product.aspx?ProductID=2795 | access-date = 18 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070615145945/http://www.discovernorthernireland.com/product.aspx?ProductID=2795 | archive-date = 15 June 2007 | url-status = dead }}</ref> It has an area of {{convert|128|acre|km2}} of meadows, woodland and gardens and features a [[Diana, Princess of Wales]] Memorial Garden, a [[Japanese garden]], a [[walled garden]], and the Golden Crown Fountain commissioned in 2002 as part of the [[Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Queen's Golden Jubilee]] celebrations.<ref name="Go To Belfast: Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park"/>

In 2008, Belfast was named a finalist in the Large City (200,001 and over) category of the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]] [[Britain in Bloom]] competition along with [[London Borough of Croydon]] and [[Sheffield]].

[[Belfast Zoo]] is owned by Belfast City Council. The council spends £1.5 million every year on running and promoting the zoo, which is one of the few local government-funded zoos in the UK and Ireland. The zoo is one of the top visitor attractions in Northern Ireland, receiving more than 295,000 visitors a year. The majority of the animals are in danger in their natural habitat. The zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including [[Asian elephant]]s, [[Barbary lion]]s, [[Malayan sun bear]]s (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of [[western lowland gorilla]]s, a troop of [[common chimpanzee]]s, a pair of [[red panda]]s, a pair of [[Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo]]s and [[Francois' langur]]s. The zoo also carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat.<ref>{{cite news|title=Parks and gardens |publisher=belfastzoo |date=1 April 2007 |url=http://www.belfastzoo.co.uk/aboutbelfastzoo/HistoryofBelfastZoo.aspx |access-date=16 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414005143/http://www.belfastzoo.co.uk/aboutbelfastzoo/HistoryofBelfastZoo.aspx |archive-date=14 April 2009 |url-status = live}}</ref>

==Demography==
{{Details|List of people from Belfast}}
{{Historical populations
|state=collapsed
|percentages=pagr
|1757|8549
|1782|13105
|1791|18320
|1806|22095
|1821|37277
|1831|53287
|1841|75308
|1851|97784
|1861|119393
|1871|174412
|1881|208122
|1891|255950
|1901|349180
|1911|386947
|1926|415151
|1937|438086
|1951|443671
|1961|415856
|1966|398405
|1971|362082
|1981|314270
|1991|279237
|2001|277391
|2006|267374
|2011|286000
|2014|333000
||footnote=<ref>{{cite book| last= Wakefield| first= Edward| title= An account of Ireland, statistical and political: in two volumes| volume= 2| publisher= Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown| location= London| pages= 693–694| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YeI_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA693| year= 1812| access-date= 16 October 2015| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151231214225/https://books.google.com/books?id=YeI_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA693| archive-date= 31 December 2015|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.cso.ie/census |title= Census for post 1821 figures |publisher= Cso.ie |access-date= 12 August 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100920090814/http://cso.ie/census |archive-date= 20 September 2010 |url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.histpop.org |title= Home |publisher= Histpop.Org |date= 2 April 2007 |access-date= 13 November 2010 |url-status = dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160507023856/http://www.histpop.org/ |archive-date= 7 May 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nisranew.nisra.gov.uk/census |title= Northern Ireland Census of Population|publisher= Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |access-date= 12 August 2010 |url-status = dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100404114651/http://www.nisranew.nisra.gov.uk/census/ |archive-date= 4 April 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last= Lee
|first= J. J.
|editor-last= Goldstrom
|editor-first= J. M.
|editor2-last= Clarkson
|editor2-first= L. A.
|title= Irish Population, Economy, and Society: Essays in Honour of the Late K. H. Connell
|year= 1981
|publisher= [[Clarendon Press]]
|location= Oxford, England
|chapter= On the accuracy of the Pre-famine Irish censuses
}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Mokyr
| first1 = Joel
| author-link = Joel Mokyr
| last2 = O Grada
| first2 = Cormac
| title = New Developments in Irish Population History, 1700–1850
| journal = The Economic History Review
| volume = 37
| issue = 4
| pages = 473–488
| date = November 1984
| url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120035880/abstract
| archive-url = https://archive.today/20121204160709/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120035880/abstract
| url-status = dead
| archive-date = 4 December 2012
| doi = 10.1111/j.1468-0289.1984.tb00344.x
| hdl = 10197/1406
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/factsandfigures/demographics.asp |title= Belfast City Council. Belfast: A Profile of the City. Demographics |publisher =Belfastcity.gov.uk |access-date= 12 August 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100925231740/http://belfastcity.gov.uk/factsandfigures/demographics.asp |archive-date= 25 September 2010 |url-status = dead}}</ref>
}}
At the [[United Kingdom 2001 census|2001 census]], the population was 276,459,<ref name="Belfast Urban Area">{{cite web|title=Comparative Demography Profile: Belfast District Council, Northern Ireland|website=2001 census data (Crown Copyright)|publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics & Research Agency|year=2001|url=http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Demography&mainLevel=CouncilArea&mainArea=Belfast&mainText=&mainTextExplicitMatch=null&compLevel=CountryProfile&compArea=Northern+Ireland&compText=&compTextExplicitMatch=null|access-date=17 May 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927161000/http://www.nicensus2001.gov.uk/nica/browser/profile.jsp?profile=Demography&mainLevel=CouncilArea&mainArea=Belfast&mainText=&mainTextExplicitMatch=null&compLevel=CountryProfile&compArea=Northern+Ireland&compText=&compTextExplicitMatch=null|archive-date=27 September 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref> while 579,554 people lived in the wider [[Belfast Metropolitan Area]].<ref name="Belfast Metropolitan Area">{{cite web|title=Area Profile of Belfast Metropolitan Urban Area (BMUA)|website=2001 Census data|publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics & Research Agency|year=2001|url=http://www.ninis.nisra.gov.uk/mapxtreme_towns/report.asp?settlementName=Belfast%20Metropolitan%20Urban%20Area%20(BMUA)&BandName=Belfast%20Metropolitan%20Urban%20Area%20(BMUA)|access-date=16 May 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927001507/http://www.ninis.nisra.gov.uk/mapxtreme_towns/report.asp?settlementName=Belfast%20Metropolitan%20Urban%20Area%20%28BMUA%29&BandName=Belfast%20Metropolitan%20Urban%20Area%20%28BMUA%29|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref>

This made it the [[list of largest United Kingdom settlements by population|fifteenth-largest city]] in the United Kingdom, but the [[list of conurbations in the United Kingdom|eleventh-largest conurbation]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Pointer, Graham|url=http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/fom2005/03_FOPM_UrbanAreas.pdf|title=The UK's major urban areas|publisher=UK National Statistics|access-date=7 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130215510/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_compendia/fom2005/03_FOPM_UrbanAreas.pdf|archive-date=30 November 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref>

Belfast experienced a huge growth in population in the first half of the 20th century. This rise slowed and peaked around the start of the Troubles with the 1971 census showing almost 600,000 people in the Belfast Urban Area.<ref name="Geography in Action Urban Growth">{{cite web|last=Stephen|first=Roulston|title=Urban Structure: Growth of Belfast|website=Geography in Action|publisher=National Grid for Learning|year=2006|url=http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Urban_structure/Urban_growth.html|access-date=18 May 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415203906/http://geographyinaction.co.uk/Urban_structure/Urban_growth.html|archive-date=15 April 2007|url-status = live}}</ref> Since then, the inner city numbers have dropped dramatically as people have moved to swell the [[Greater Belfast]] suburb population. The 2001 census population in the same Urban Area had fallen to 277,391<ref name="Belfast Urban Area"/> people, with 579,554 people living in the wider [[Belfast Metropolitan Area]].<ref name="Belfast Metropolitan Area"/>

The 2001 census recorded 81,650 people from Catholic backgrounds and 79,650 people from Protestant backgrounds of working age living in Belfast.<ref>{{citation|title=An analytical look at religious background and residential segregation in Belfast|url=http://www.statslife.org.uk/social-sciences/1630-an-analytical-look-at-religious-background-and-residential-segregation-in-belfast|first=Andrew|last=McCulloch|journal=Significance Magazine|access-date=13 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140713053454/http://www.statslife.org.uk/social-sciences/1630-an-analytical-look-at-religious-background-and-residential-segregation-in-belfast|archive-date=13 July 2014|url-status = live}}</ref> The population density in 2011 was 24.88 people/hectare (compared to 1.34 for the rest of Northern Ireland).<ref name="nisra density 2011">{{cite web|title=Population Density: QS102NI (administrative geographies)|publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|year=2011|url=http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/public/SearchResults.aspx?sk=population;density;|access-date=30 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829203732/http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/public/SearchResults.aspx?sk=population;density;|archive-date=29 August 2017|url-status = live}}</ref>

As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the [[Belfast City Centre|Central Business District]], with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south.<ref name="Geography in Action Urban Growth"/> An area of deprivation is found in the inner parts of the north and west of the city. The areas around the [[Falls Road, Belfast|Falls Road]], [[Ardoyne]] and [[New Lodge, Belfast|New Lodge]] (Catholic nationalist) and the [[Shankill Road]] (Protestant loyalist) are among the ten most deprived wards in Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite news|title=Revealed: Northern Ireland's 10 most deprived areas|date=26 July 2018|url=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern-ireland/revealed-northern-irelands-10-most-deprived-areas-37157128.html|access-date=8 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708191202/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/northern-ireland/revealed-northern-irelands-10-most-deprived-areas-37157128.html|archive-date=8 July 2019|url-status = live|newspaper=[[Belfast Telegraph]]}}</ref>

[[File:Belfast murals Ac.jpg|thumb|A loyalist mural in Belfast]]
Despite a period of relative peace, most areas and districts of Belfast still reflect the divided nature of Northern Ireland as a whole. Many areas are still highly segregated along ethnic, political and religious lines, especially in working-class neighbourhoods.<ref>{{cite web|last=Stephen|first=Roulston|title=Ethnic Diversity: Segregation in Belfast. Introduction to Ethnic Diversity in Belfast|website=Geography in Action|publisher=National Grid for Learning|year=2006|url=http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Ethnic%20Diversity/Ethnic_intro.html|access-date=18 May 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070518001158/http://www.geographyinaction.co.uk/Ethnic%20Diversity/Ethnic_intro.html|archive-date=18 May 2007|url-status = live}}</ref>

These zones – [[Irish Catholic|Catholic]]/[[Irish Republicanism in Northern Ireland|republican]] on one side and [[Protestant]]/[[Ulster loyalism|loyalist]] on the other – are invariably marked by [[Northern Ireland flags issue|flags]], [[graffiti]] and [[Northern Irish murals|murals]]. Segregation has been present throughout the history of Belfast but has been maintained and increased by each outbreak of violence in the city. This escalation in segregation, described as a "ratchet effect", has shown little sign of decreasing.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lloyd|first=C.|title=Measuring local segregation in Northern Ireland|journal=Centre for Spatial Territorial Analysis and Research (C-STAR)|year=2003|url=http://www.qub.ac.uk/c-star/pubs/lloydetal.pdf|access-date=12 March 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060911211739/http://www.qub.ac.uk/c-star/pubs/lloydetal.pdf|archive-date=11 September 2006|url-status = live}}</ref>

The highest levels of segregation in the city are in west Belfast with many areas greater than 90% Catholic. Opposite but comparatively high levels are seen in the predominantly Protestant east Belfast.<ref name="Ethnic Segregation">{{cite journal|last=Doherty|first=P.|title=Ethnic Residential Segregation in Belfast|journal=Centre for the Study of Conflict|page=Chapter 8|year=1995|url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/csc/reports/apartbel.htm#conclude|access-date=12 March 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060303104237/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/csc/reports/apartbel.htm#conclude|archive-date=3 March 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> Areas where segregated working-class areas meet are known as [[interface area]]s and sometimes marked by [[peace lines]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.belfastinterfaceproject.org/sites/default/files/publications/Interfaces%20PDF.pdf|title=Interface Barriers, Peacelines, and Defensive Architecture|last=Belfast Interface Project|date=2017|website=Belfast Interface Project|access-date=2 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001030844/https://www.belfastinterfaceproject.org/sites/default/files/publications/Interfaces%20PDF.pdf|archive-date=1 October 2017|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/jan/22/peace-walls-troubles-belfast-feature|title=Belfast, divided in the name of peace|last=O'Hagan|first=Sean|date=21 January 2012|work=The Guardian|access-date=2 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203064233/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2012/jan/22/peace-walls-troubles-belfast-feature|archive-date=3 February 2018|url-status = live}}</ref> When violence flares, it tends to be in interface areas.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

[[Ethnic minorities in Northern Ireland|Ethnic minority]] communities have been in Belfast since the 1930s.<ref name="Who lives here">{{cite web|title=Ethnic minorities: Who lives here?|website=Northern Ireland Learning: Teacher's Notes|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/schools/11_16/citizenship/pdfs/ctz_eth_pg02_tn.pdf|access-date=24 May 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605142712/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/schools/11_16/citizenship/pdfs/ctz_eth_pg02_tn.pdf|archive-date= 5 June 2007|url-status = live}}</ref> The largest groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians.<ref name="QS208NI%20(a)">{{cite web|title=Northern Ireland Neighbourhood Information Service|url=http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/Download/Census%202011_Excel/2011/QS208NI%20(a).xls|access-date=11 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612120812/http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/Download/Census%202011_Excel/2011/QS208NI%20(a).xls|archive-date=12 June 2015|url-status = live}}</ref><ref name="KS201NI%20(a)">{{cite web|title=Northern Ireland Neighbourhood Information Service|url=http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/Download/Census%202011/KS201NI%20(a).xlsx|access-date=11 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150612112801/http://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/Download/Census%202011/KS201NI%20(a).xlsx|archive-date=12 June 2015|url-status = live}}</ref>

Since the expansion of the European Union, numbers have been boosted by an influx of Eastern European [[immigrants]]. Census figures (2011) showed that Belfast has a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%,<ref name="KS201NI%20(a)"/> while 18,420 or 6.6%<ref name="QS208NI%20(a)"/> of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland.<ref name="QS208NI%20(a)"/> Almost half of those born outside the UK and Ireland live in [[Belfast South (UK Parliament constituency)|south Belfast]], where they comprise 9.5% of the population.<ref name="QS208NI%20(a)"/> The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims<ref>{{cite web|title=About Us|publisher=Belfast Islamic Centre|url=http://belfastislamiccentre.org.uk/about_us/about_us.htm|year=2007|access-date=24 May 2007|url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707070907/http://www.belfastislamiccentre.org.uk/about_us/about_us.htm|archive-date=7 July 2007}}</ref> and 200 [[Hindu]] families<ref>{{cite web|title=Hinduism|website=Primary Focus: Programme 1 – Indian Community|publisher=BBC|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/schools/4_11/pfocus/citizenship/spring2001|access-date=8 October 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070313133102/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/schools/4_11/pfocus/citizenship/spring2001/|archive-date=13 March 2007|url-status = live}}</ref> living in Northern Ireland live in the [[Greater Belfast]] area.

===2011 Census===
On Census Day (27 March 2011) the usually resident population of Belfast Local Government District (2014) was 333,871 accounting for 18.44% of the NI total.<ref>{{OGL-attribution|version=3.0|{{cite web |title=Census 2011 Population Statistics for Belfast Local Government District (2014) |url=https://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/public/AreaProfileReportViewer.aspx?FromAPAddressMulipleRecords=Belfast@Exact%20match%20of%20location%20name:%20@Exact%20Match%20Of%20Location%20Name:%20%20Belfast@22? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309023052/https://www.ninis2.nisra.gov.uk/public/AreaProfileReportViewer.aspx?FromAPAddressMulipleRecords=Belfast@Exact%20match%20of%20location%20name:%20@Exact%20Match%20Of%20Location%20Name:%20%20Belfast@22 |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 March 2021 |website=NINIS }}}}</ref> This represents a 1.60% increase since the 2001 Census.

On Census Day 27 March 2011, in Belfast Local Government District (2014), considering the resident population:
* 3.23% were from an ethnic minority population and the remaining 96.77% were white (including Irish Traveller);
* 48.82% belong to or were brought up in the Catholic faith and 42.47% belong to or were brought up in a 'Protestant and Other Christian (including Christian related)'denomination; and
* 43.32% indicated that they had a British national identity, 35.10% had an Irish national identity and 26.92% had a Northern Irish national identity.
Respondents could indicate more than one national identity

On Census Day 27 March 2011, in Belfast Local Government District (2014), considering the population aged 3 years old and over:

* 13.45% had some knowledge of Irish;
* 5.23% had some knowledge of Ulster-Scots; and
* 4.34% did not have English as their first language.

On Census Day 27 March 2011, considering the population aged 16 years old and over:

* 25.56% had a degree or higher qualification; while
* 41.21% had no or low (Level 1*) qualifications.
Level 1 is 1–4 O Levels/CSE/GCSE (any grades) or equivalent

On Census Day 27 March 2011, considering the population aged 16 to 74 years old:

* 63.84% were economically active, 36.16% were economically inactive;
* 52.90% were in paid employment; and
* 5.59% were unemployed, of these 43.56% were long-term unemployed.
Long-term unemployed are those who stated that they have not worked since 2009 or earlier

{{clear}}
<gallery class="center" widths="220" heights="220" caption="The Belfast City Council area in the 2011 census">
File:Population Density Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Population density
File:Religion Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage Catholic or brought up Catholic
File:National Identity Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Most commonly stated national identity
File:Born Outside UK And Ireland Belfast City Council 2011 Census.png|Percentage born outside the UK and Ireland
</gallery>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Belfast}}

[[File:Belfast's Harland and Wolff Shipyard (RMS Adriatic), 1907.jpg|thumb|A 1907 [[stereoscope]] postcard depicting the construction of a passenger liner (the RMS ''Adriatic'') at the [[Harland and Wolff]] shipyard]]
When the population of Belfast town began to grow in the 17th century, its economy was built on commerce.<ref name="Belfast, The Making of the City 1">{{cite book | last = Beckett | first = JC | title = Belfast, The Making of the City. Chapter 1: Belfast to the end of the eighteenth century | publisher = Appletree Press Ltd | year= 2003 | location = Belfast | pages = 13–26 | isbn = 978-0-86281-878-4|display-authors=etal}}</ref> It provided a market for the surrounding countryside and the natural inlet of [[Belfast Lough]] gave the city its own port. The port supplied an avenue for trade with Great Britain and later Europe and North America. In the mid-17th century, Belfast exported beef, butter, hides, tallow and corn and it imported coal, cloth, wine, brandy, paper, timber and tobacco.<ref name="Belfast, The Making of the City 1"/>

Around this time, the linen trade in Northern Ireland blossomed and by the middle of the 18th century, one fifth of all the linen exported from Ireland was shipped from Belfast.<ref name="Belfast, The Making of the City 1"/> The present city however is a product of the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>{{cite news |last=McCreary |first=Alf |title=The Industrial Revolution transformed Belfast, making it Ireland's biggest city – and it all began with the port. |work=[[The Belfast Telegraph]] |date=22 January 2014 |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/archive/belfast-400/the-industrial-revolution-transformed-belfast-making-it-irelands-biggest-city-and-it-all-began-with-the-port-29224161.html |access-date=25 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150920111931/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/archive/belfast-400/the-industrial-revolution-transformed-belfast-making-it-irelands-biggest-city-and-it-all-began-with-the-port-29224161.html |archive-date=20 September 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref> It was not until industry transformed the linen and shipbuilding trades that the economy and the population boomed. By the turn of the 19th century, Belfast had transformed into the largest linen producing centre in the world,<ref name="Belfast, The Making of the City 3">{{cite book | last = Beckett | first = JC |author2=Boyle, E | title = Belfast, The Making of the City. Chapter 3: "Linenopolis": the rise of the textile industry | publisher = Appletree Press Ltd | year= 2003 | location = Belfast | pages = 41–56 | isbn = 978-0-86281-878-4}}</ref> earning the nickname "[[Linenopolis]]".

Belfast harbour was dredged in 1845 to provide deeper berths for larger ships. Donegall Quay was built out into the river as the harbour was developed further and trade flourished.<ref name="Belfast, The Making of the City 4">{{cite book | last = Beckett | first = JC |author2=Sweetman, R | title = Belfast, The Making of the City. Chapter 4: The development of the port | publisher = Appletree Press Ltd | year= 2003 | location = Belfast | pages = 57–70 | isbn = 978-0-86281-878-4}}</ref> The [[Harland and Wolff]] shipbuilding firm was created in 1861, and by the time the ''[[RMS Titanic|Titanic]]'' was built, in 1912, it had become the largest shipyard in the world.<ref name="Titanic in History"/>

[[File:Harlandandwolffcranes.JPG|thumb|[[Samson and Goliath (cranes)|Samson and Goliath]], Harland & Wolff's gantry cranes]]
[[Short Brothers]] plc is a British aerospace company based in Belfast. It was the first aircraft manufacturing company in the world. The company began its association with Belfast in 1936, with Short & Harland Ltd, a venture jointly owned by Shorts and Harland and Wolff. Now known as Shorts Bombardier it works as an international aircraft manufacturer located near the Port of Belfast.<ref name="Corporate Series">{{cite web|title=Corporate Series Northern Ireland |website=Corporate Northern Ireland 2007 |publisher=Corporate Series |url=http://www.corporateseries.com/nireland/07/CNI_section07.pdf |access-date=7 December 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216070011/http://www.corporateseries.com/nireland/07/CNI_section07.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2008 }}</ref>

The rise of mass-produced and cotton clothing following [[World War I]] were some of the factors which led to the decline of Belfast's international linen trade.<ref name="Belfast, The Making of the City 3"/> Like many British cities dependent on traditional heavy industry, Belfast suffered serious decline since the 1960s, exacerbated greatly in the 1970s and 1980s by the Troubles. More than 100,000 manufacturing jobs have been lost since the 1970s.<ref name="Management Today">{{cite journal | title = Northern Ireland – Where is the bright new future? | journal = Management Today | date = 23 March 2006 | url = http://www.managementtoday.co.uk/news/542849/ | access-date = 16 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071211205513/http://www.managementtoday.co.uk/news/542849/ | archive-date = 11 December 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> For several decades, Northern Ireland's fragile economy required significant public support from the [[Exchequer|British exchequer]] of up to £4 billion per year.<ref name="Management Today"/>

===After the Troubles===
The [[Provisional Irish Republican Army#End of the armed campaign|IRA ceasefire]] in 1994 and the signing of the Good Friday Agreement in 1998 have given investors increased confidence to invest in Belfast.<ref>{{cite web|title=Durkan "hopeful" For Future of Good Friday Agreement |publisher=Department of Finance and Personnel |url=http://archive.nics.gov.uk/dfp/010209f-dfp.htm |access-date=17 September 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012210212/http://archive.nics.gov.uk/dfp/010209f-dfp.htm |archive-date=12 October 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 13 February 2002 | publisher = House of Commons | url = https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo020213/text/20213w02.htm | access-date = 17 September 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080118232203/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200102/cmhansrd/vo020213/text/20213w02.htm | archive-date = 18 January 2008 |url-status = live}}</ref> This has led to a period of sustained economic growth and large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Developments include [[Victoria Square, Belfast|Victoria Square]], the [[Cathedral Quarter, Belfast|Cathedral Quarter]], and the [[Laganside]] with the [[Odyssey (Belfast)|Odyssey]] complex and the landmark [[Waterfront Hall]]. [[File:Waterfront Hall, Belfast.jpg|thumb|left|The Waterfront Hall. Built in 1997, the hall is a concert, exhibition and conference venue.]]
Other major developments include the regeneration of the [[Titanic Quarter, Belfast|Titanic Quarter]], and the erection of the [[Obel Tower]], a skyscraper set to be the tallest tower on the island.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/5251794.stm |access-date= 13 March 2007 |work= BBC News |date= 7 August 2006 |title= U2 Tower strikes bad chord with residents |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060823185208/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/5251794.stm |archive-date= 23 August 2006 |url-status = live}}</ref>
Today, Belfast is Northern Ireland's educational and commercial hub. In February 2006, Belfast's unemployment rate stood at 4.2%, lower than both the Northern Ireland<ref>{{cite web | title = Monthly Labour Market Report | publisher = Department of Enterprise, Trade and Investment | date= 15 February 2006 | url = http://www.detini.gov.uk/cgi-bin/downdoc?id=1941 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223435/http://www.detini.gov.uk/cgi-bin/downdoc?id=1941 | archive-date = 27 September 2007 | access-date = 18 May 2007}}</ref> and the UK average of 5.5%.<ref>
{{cite web | title = Employment | website = National Statistics | publisher = Office for National Statistics | date= March 2006 | url = http://www.statistics.gov.uk/cci/nugget.asp?id=12 | access-date = 18 May 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070518132223/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/nugget.asp?ID=12| archive-date= 18 May 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> Over the past 10 years employment has grown by 16.4%, compared with 9.2% for the UK as a whole.<ref>{{cite news | title = From bombs and bullets to boom towns | work = The Guardian | date = 1 April 2007 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/business/2007/apr/01/northernireland.theobserver | access-date = 16 May 2007 | location = London | first = Oliver | last = Morgan | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140108031729/http://www.theguardian.com/business/2007/apr/01/northernireland.theobserver | archive-date = 8 January 2014 |url-status = live}}</ref>

Northern Ireland's [[peace dividend]] has led to soaring property prices in the city. In 2007, Belfast saw house prices grow by 50%, the fastest rate of growth in the UK.<ref>{{cite press release | title = Northern Ireland Reaches Watershed in House Price Growth | publisher = University of Ulster | date = 15 November 2007 | url = http://news.ulster.ac.uk/releases/2007/3504.html | access-date = 10 December 2007 |url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071217065312/http://news.ulster.ac.uk/releases/2007/3504.html | archive-date = 17 December 2007}}</ref> In March 2007, the average house in Belfast cost £91,819, with the average in south Belfast being £141,000.<ref>{{cite news | last =Carson | first = Helen | title = Typical price of Ulster home edges ever closer to £200,000 | work = The Belfast Telegraph | date= 28 February 2007 | url = http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/local-national/article2311541.ece | archive-url = https://archive.today/20070302103251/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/local-national/article2311541.ece |url-status = dead| archive-date = 2 March 2007 | access-date = 13 March 2007}}</ref> In 2004, Belfast had the lowest owner occupation rate in Northern Ireland at 54%.<ref>{{cite press release | title = House Owner Occupation Rates | publisher = Halifax | date= 19 November 2004 | url = http://www.hbosplc.com/economy/includes/19-11-04UKowneroccupation.doc | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070605142713/http://www.hbosplc.com/economy/includes/19-11-04UKowneroccupation.doc | archive-date = 5 June 2007 | access-date = 18 May 2007|format=DOC}}</ref>

Peace has boosted the numbers of tourists coming to Belfast. There were 6.4 million visitors in 2005, which was a growth of 8.5% from 2004. The visitors spent £285.2 million, supporting more than 15,600 jobs.<ref>{{Cite book | title = Belfast 2005: Tourism Facts and Figures | place = Belfast | publisher = Belfast City Council | year = 2006 | url = http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/tourism/docs/FactsFigures2005.pdf | access-date = 18 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070605142741/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/tourism/docs/FactsFigures2005.pdf | archive-date = 5 June 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> Visitor numbers rose by 6% to reach 6.8 million in 2006, with tourists spending £324 million, an increase of 15% on 2005.<ref>{{cite news | title= Record number of visitors come to Belfast | work= GO Belfast | page=6 | date=July–August 2007}}</ref> The city's two airports have helped make the city one of the most visited weekend destinations in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|title=Invest in Belfast: A 2007 City Guide for Investors |publisher=Belfast City Council |url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/investinbelfastguide/lifequality.asp |access-date=18 May 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010040408/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/investinbelfastguide/lifequality.asp |archive-date=10 October 2007 }}</ref>

Belfast has been the fastest-growing economy of the thirty largest cities in the UK over the past decade, a new economy report by Howard Spencer has found. ''"That's because [of] the fundamentals of the UK economy and [because] people actually want to invest in the UK,"'' he commented on that report.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wilson-nesbitt.com/articles/841/30062008/belfast_uks_fastest-growing_economy |title=Belfast 'UK's fastest-growing economy' |publisher=Wilson-nesbitt.com |date=30 June 2008 |access-date=12 August 2010 |archive-date=18 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718052816/http://www.wilson-nesbitt.com/articles/841/30062008/belfast_uks_fastest-growing_economy |url-status = dead}}</ref>

[[BBC]] Radio 4's World reported furthermore that despite higher levels of corporation tax in the UK than in the Republic. There are "huge amounts" of foreign investment coming into the country.

''[[The Times]]'' wrote about Belfast's growing economy: "According to the region's development agency, throughout the 1990s Northern Ireland had the fastest-growing regional economy in the UK, with GDP increasing 1 per cent per annum faster than the rest of the country. As with any modern economy, the service sector is vital to Northern Ireland's development and is enjoying excellent growth. In particular, the region has a booming tourist industry with record levels of visitors and tourist revenues and has established itself as a significant location for call centres."<ref name="The Times">{{cite web|url= http://www.bcglocations.com/uk/northernireland/northernireland_intro.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20061104103706/http://www.bcglocations.com/uk/northernireland/northernireland_intro.html|archive-date=4 November 2006|title=Northern Ireland – Overview|website=The Times|publisher=Bcglocations.com |access-date=12 August 2010}}</ref>
Since the ending of the region's conflict tourism has boomed in Northern Ireland, greatly aided by low cost.<ref name="The Times"/>

''[[Der Spiegel]]'', a German weekly magazine for politics and economy, titled Belfast as ''The New Celtic Tiger'' which is "open for business".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/the-new-celtic-tiger-belfast-is-open-for-business-a-563841.html |title=The New Celtic Tiger: Belfast is Open for Business |website=Der Spiegel |date=4 July 2008 |access-date=12 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018064351/http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/the-new-celtic-tiger-belfast-is-open-for-business-a-563841.html |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status = live}}</ref>

==Infrastructure==
[[File:Belfast-University-of-Ulster.jpg|thumb|[[Ulster University]], Belfast campus]]

Belfast saw the worst of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, with nearly half of the total deaths in the conflict occurring in the city. However, since the [[Good Friday Agreement]] in 1998, there has been significant [[urban regeneration]] in the city centre including Victoria Square, [[Titanic Quarter, Belfast|Queen's Island]] and [[Laganside]] as well as the Odyssey complex and the landmark [[Waterfront Hall]]. The city is served by two airports: The [[George Best Belfast City Airport]] adjacent to Belfast Lough and [[Belfast International Airport]] which is near [[Lough Neagh]]. [[Queen's University of Belfast]] is the main university in the city. The [[Ulster University]] also maintains a campus in the city, which concentrates on fine art, design and architecture.

Belfast is one of the constituent cities that makes up the [[Dublin-Belfast corridor]] region, which has a population of just under 3 million.

===Utilities===
[[File:SilentValley.jpg|thumb|Silent Valley Reservoir, showing the brick-built overflow]]

Most of Belfast's water is supplied via the [[Mourne Conduit|Aquarius pipeline]] from the [[Silent Valley Reservoir]] in [[County Down]], created to collect water from the [[Mourne Mountains]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The Silent Valley |publisher=Northern Ireland Water |year=2007 |url=http://www.niwater.com/silent-valley/ |access-date=30 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531123627/http://www.niwater.com/silent-valley/ |archive-date=31 May 2014 |url-status = live}}</ref> The rest of the city's water is sourced from [[Lough Neagh]], via ''Dunore Water Treatment Works'' in County Antrim.<ref name="BMA plan">{{cite web|title=Strategic Plan Framework: Public Services and Utilities |website=Draft Belfast Metropolitan Area Plan 2015 |publisher=The Planning Service |url=http://www.planningni.gov.uk/areaplans_policy/Plans/BMA/draft_plan/01Part1_3/03Strategic_Framework/publics_u.htm |access-date=26 May 2007 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927095510/http://www.planningni.gov.uk/areaplans_policy/Plans/BMA/draft_plan/01Part1_3/03Strategic_Framework/publics_u.htm |archive-date=27 September 2007 }}</ref> The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their [[Rates (tax)|rates]] bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs have been deferred by [[Northern Ireland Assembly|devolution]] in May 2007.<ref>{{cite web | title = Water Reform Implemented: Secretary of State announces deferral of charges | publisher = Water Reform NI | date = March 2007 | url = http://www.waterreformni.gov.uk/ | access-date = 26 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070609093844/http://www.waterreformni.gov.uk/ | archive-date = 9 June 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> Belfast has approximately {{convert|1300|km|0|abbr=on}} of [[sanitary sewer|sewers]], which are currently being replaced in a project costing over £100 million and due for completion in 2009.<ref>{{cite web| title = Belfast Sewers Project – Key Facts | publisher = Belfast.co.uk | year= 2021 | url = https://belfast.co.uk/uncategorized/belfast-sewers-project-key-facts/ | access-date = 6 June 2021}}</ref>

Power is provided from a number of [[List of power stations in Northern Ireland|power stations]] via [[Northern Ireland Electricity|NIE Networks Limited]] transmission lines. [[Phoenix Natural Gas|Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd.]] started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed [[Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline]].<ref name="BMA plan"/> [[Rates (tax)|Rates]] in Belfast (and the rest of Northern Ireland) were reformed in April 2007. The discrete [[Capital (economics)|capital]] value system means rates bills are determined by the capital value of each domestic property as assessed by the ''Valuation and Lands Agency''.<ref>{{cite web | title = Summary of domestic rating reforms | publisher = Department of Finance and Personnel | year= 2005 | url = http://www.ratingreviewni.gov.uk/index/domestic/domestic-summary.htm | access-date = 26 May 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070505011123/http://www.ratingreviewni.gov.uk/index/domestic/domestic-summary.htm| archive-date= 5 May 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> The recent dramatic rise in house prices has made these reforms unpopular.<ref>{{cite web | title = Domestic Rates Reform | publisher = Fair Rates Campaign | url = http://www.fairratescampaign.co.uk/rates_reform.html | access-date = 26 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070928014217/http://www.fairratescampaign.co.uk/rates_reform.html | archive-date = 28 September 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

===Health care===

The [[Belfast Health and Social Care Trust|Belfast Health & Social Care Trust]] is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the [[Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety|Department of Health]]. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres.<ref>{{cite web | title = Review of Public Administration: Consultation on Draft Legislation To Establish Five New Integrated Health And Social Services Trusts | publisher = DHSSPS | url = http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/hpssreview-trust-consultation-document.pdf | access-date = 17 September 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070927114140/http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/hpssreview-trust-consultation-document.pdf| archive-date= 27 September 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> The [[Royal Victoria Hospital, Belfast|Royal Victoria Hospital]] is an internationally renowned centre of excellence in trauma care and provides specialist trauma care for all of Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Payne | first = William | title = Hospital Development:PFI beyond DBFO | journal = ProQuest Information and Learning Company | date= September 1998 | url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3873/is_199809/ai_n8824797/print | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080118062947/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3873/is_199809/ai_n8824797/print |url-status = dead| archive-date = 18 January 2008 | access-date = 6 May 2007}}</ref> It also provides the city's specialist [[Neurosurgery|neurosurgical]], [[ophthalmology]], [[Otolaryngology|ENT]], and [[dentistry]] services. The [[Belfast City Hospital]] is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a cancer centre that rivals the best in the world.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Improving cancer statistics – a new cancer centre for Northern Ireland | journal = The Ulster Medical Journal| pmc =1891734 | year = 2006 | volume = 75 | issue = 2 | pmid = 16755938 | last1 = Morrison | first1 = PJ | page = 110 }}</ref> The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the [[Belfast City Hospital|City Hospital]] is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite web | title = Belfast City Hospital: About the Unit | publisher = The Renal Association | date = November 2006 | url = http://www.renal.org/bapn/bapn-information-and-resources/centres/lists/centres/belfast | access-date = 24 May 2007 |url-status = dead| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151231214226/http://www.renal.org/bapn/bapn-information-and-resources/centres/lists/centres/belfast | archive-date = 31 December 2015}}</ref>
[[Musgrave Park Hospital]] in south Belfast specialises in [[Orthopedic surgery|orthopaedics]], [[rheumatology]], [[sports medicine]] and [[Rehabilitation psychology|rehabilitation]]. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit, costing £9 million and opened by the [[Prince of Wales]] and the [[Duchess of Cornwall]] in May 2006.<ref>{{cite news | title = TRH open Northern Ireland's first Regional Acquired Brain Injury Unit | publisher = The Prince of Wales | date= 15 May 2006 | url = http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/newsandgallery/news/trh_open_northern_ireland_s_first_regional_acquired_brain_in_778.html | access-date = 6 May 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070307071451/http://www.princeofwales.gov.uk/newsandgallery/news/trh_open_northern_ireland_s_first_regional_acquired_brain_in_778.html |archive-date = 7 March 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref> Other hospitals in Belfast include the [[Mater Infirmorum Hospital|Mater Hospital]] in north Belfast and the [[Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children|Children's Hospital]].

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in Belfast}}
[[File:George Best Belfast City Airport - geograph.org.uk - 714574.jpg|thumb|[[George Best Belfast City Airport]].]]

Belfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the {{convert|22.5|mi|km|0}} [[M2 motorway (Northern Ireland)|M2]] and [[M22 motorway (Northern Ireland)|M22 motorway]] route.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wesleyjohnston.com/roads/m2.html|title=M2 / M22 Motorway|publisher=Wesleyjohnston.com|access-date=12 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204012656/http://wesleyjohnston.com/roads/m2.html|archive-date=4 December 2010|url-status = live}}</ref> A 2005 survey of how people travel in Northern Ireland showed that people in Belfast made 77% of all journeys by car, 11% by public transport and 6% on foot.<ref name="Travel Survey">{{Cite journal|author=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |title=Travel Survey for Northern Ireland 2002–04 |publisher=Department for Regional Development |date=18 October 2005 |url=http://www.drdni.gov.uk/statistic-details.htm?publication_id=161 |format=PDF |access-date=6 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519124721/http://www.drdni.gov.uk/statistic-details.htm?publication_id=161 |archive-date=19 May 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> It showed that Belfast has 0.70 cars per household compared to figures of 1.18 in the East and 1.14 in the West of Northern Ireland.<ref name="Travel Survey"/> A road improvement-scheme in Belfast began early in 2006, with the upgrading of two junctions along the [[Westlink Belfast|Westlink]] dual-carriageway to [[grade separation|grade-separated]] standard. The improvement scheme was completed five months ahead of schedule in February 2009, with the official opening taking place on 4 March 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drdni.gov.uk/index/publications/publications-details.htm?docid=5070 |title=The Official Opening of the M1/Westlink Improvement Scheme |publisher=The Department for Regional Development |date=12 March 2009 |access-date=1 February 2011 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227104252/http://www.drdni.gov.uk/index/publications/publications-details.htm?docid=5070 |archive-date=27 December 2010 }}</ref>

Commentators have argued that this may create a bottleneck at York Street, the next [[at-grade intersection]], until that too is upgraded.{{Citation needed|date=August 2015}} On 25 October 2012 the stage 2 report for the York Street intersection was approved<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drdni.gov.uk/index/roadimprovements/schemes.htm|title=Road Improvements Schemes – In Planning|publisher=The Department for Regional Development NI|access-date=17 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121122083339/http://www.drdni.gov.uk/index/roadimprovements/schemes.htm|archive-date=22 November 2012|url-status = live}}</ref> and in December 2012 the planned upgrade moved into stage 3 of the development process. If successfully completing the necessary statutory procedures, work on a grade separated junction to connect the Westlink to the M2/M3 motorways is scheduled to take place between 2014 and 2018,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drdni.gov.uk/index/roadimprovements/schemes/yorkstreet.htm |title=York Street Interchange – Scheme Homepage |publisher=The Department for Regional Development NI |date=26 November 2009 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130610042038/http://www.drdni.gov.uk/index/roadimprovements/schemes/yorkstreet.htm |archive-date=10 June 2013 }}</ref> creating a continuous link between the M1 and M2, the two main motorways in Northern Ireland.

[[File:Gt Victoria Street station, Belfast (9) - geograph.org.uk - 2223181.jpg|thumb|left|[[Great Victoria Street]] station on [[Northern Ireland Railways]]]]
[[Hackney carriage|Black taxis]] are common in the city, operating on a [[Share taxi|share]] basis in some areas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nutley |first=Stephen D. |title=Unconventional and Community Transport in the United Kingdom |publisher=Gordon and Breach Science Publishers |year=1990 |pages=318–322 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=k5rrC4nYek8C&pg=PA318 |issn=0278-3819 |isbn=9782881247644 |access-date=16 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231214225/https://books.google.com/books?id=k5rrC4nYek8C&pg=PA318 |archive-date=31 December 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref> These are outnumbered by [[Taxicabs of the United Kingdom#Private hire ('minicabs')|private hire taxis]]. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of [[Translink (Northern Ireland)|Translink]]. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by [[Metro (Belfast)|Translink Metro]], with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 [[quality bus corridor]]s running along main radial roads,<ref>{{cite web |title=Metro Corridor & Zone Guide |publisher=[[Metro (Belfast)|Translink Metro]] |date=27 August 2012 |url=http://www.translink.co.uk/Services/Metro-Service-Page/Metro-Corridor-Zone-Guide |access-date=2 June 2014 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140711034346/http://www.translink.co.uk/Services/Metro-Service-Page/Metro-Corridor-Zone-Guide/ |archive-date=11 July 2014 }}</ref>

More distant suburbs are served by [[Ulsterbus]]. [[Northern Ireland Railways]] provides [[Belfast Suburban Rail|suburban services]] along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to [[Carrickfergus]], [[Larne]] and [[Larne Harbour railway station|Larne Harbour]], eastwards towards [[Bangor, County Down|Bangor]] and south-westwards towards [[Lisburn]] and [[Portadown railway station|Portadown]]. This service is known as the [[Belfast Suburban Rail]] system. Belfast is linked [[Belfast-Derry railway line|directly]] to [[Coleraine railway station|Coleraine]], [[Portrush railway station|Portrush]] and [[Londonderry railway station|Derry]]. Belfast has a direct rail connection with [[Dublin]] called ''[[Enterprise (train)|Enterprise]]'' which is operated jointly by NIR and [[Iarnród Éireann]], the state railway company of the [[Republic of Ireland]]. There are no rail services to cities in other countries of the United Kingdom, due to the [[Irish Sea fixed crossing|lack of a bridge or tunnel]] connecting [[Great Britain]] to the island of [[Ireland]]. There is, however, a combined ferry and rail ticket between Belfast and cities in Great Britain, which is referred to as ''Sailrail''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seat61.com/NorthernIreland.htm|title=London to Belfast by train & ferry from £55|website=Seat61.com|access-date=11 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909133736/https://www.seat61.com/NorthernIreland.htm|archive-date=9 September 2018|url-status = live}}</ref>

[[File:Belfast-GliderBus-TitanicQuarter-P1510185.jpg|thumb|[[Glider (Belfast)|Glider]] bus rapid transit services opened in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.belfastlive.co.uk/news/belfast-news/belfast-glider-buses-passengers-tomorrow-15077835|title=Glider buses to let passengers on from TOMORROW as part of test run|last=Fitzmaurice|first=Maurice|date=27 August 2018|work=belfastlive|access-date=23 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829212044/https://www.belfastlive.co.uk/news/belfast-news/belfast-glider-buses-passengers-tomorrow-15077835|archive-date=29 August 2018|url-status = live}}</ref>]]

In April 2008, the [[Department for Regional Development]] reported on a plan for a light-rail system, similar to that in [[Dublin]]. The consultants said Belfast does not have the population to support a light rail system, suggesting that investment in bus-based rapid transit would be preferable. The study found that bus-based rapid transit produces positive economic results, but light rail does not. The report by Atkins & KPMG, however, said there would be the option of migrating to light rail in the future should the demand increase.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/player/nol/newsid_7330000/newsid_7336800/7336822.stm?bw=bb&mp=wm&news=1&bbcws=1 |title=video No light rail system for city |work=BBC News |date=8 April 2008 |access-date=30 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324203825/http://news.bbc.co.uk/player/nol/newsid_7330000/newsid_7336800/7336822.stm?bw=bb&mp=wm&news=1&bbcws=1 |archive-date=24 March 2012 |url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title = City to get rapid transit network | work = BBC Northern Ireland | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/7335313.stm| access-date = 4 April 2008 | date=8 April 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080409114158/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/7335313.stm| archive-date= 9 April 2008 |url-status = live}}</ref>

The city has two airports: [[Belfast International Airport]] offering, domestic, European and international flights such as Orlando operated seasonally by [[Virgin Atlantic]]. The airport is located northwest of the city, near Lough Neagh, while the [[George Best Belfast City Airport]], which is closer to the city centre by train from [[Sydenham railway station, Northern Ireland|Sydenham]] on the [[Bangor, County Down|Bangor]] Line, adjacent to Belfast Lough, offers UK domestic flights and a few European flights. In 2005, Belfast International Airport was the 11th busiest commercial airport in the UK, accounting for just over 2% of all UK terminal passengers while the George Best Belfast City Airport was the 16th busiest and had 1% of UK terminal passengers. The Belfast – Liverpool route is the busiest domestic flight route in the UK excluding London with 555,224 passengers in 2009. Over 2.2 million passengers flew between Belfast and London in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency |title=Northern Ireland Transport Statistics Annual 2005–2006 |publisher=Department for Regional Development 555,224 passengers in 2009. |date=28 September 2006 |url=http://www.drdni.gov.uk/statistic-details.htm?publication_id=170 |format=PDF |access-date=2 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519124540/http://www.drdni.gov.uk/statistic-details.htm?publication_id=170 |archive-date=19 May 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

Belfast has a large [[Port of Belfast|port]] used for exporting and importing goods, and for passenger ferry services. [[Stena Line]] runs regular routes to [[Cairnryan]] in Scotland using its conventional vessels—with a crossing time of around 2 hours 15 minutes. Until 2011 the route went to [[Stranraer]] and used inter alia a HSS (High Speed Service) vessel—with a crossing time of around 90 minutes. Stena Line also operates a route to [[Liverpool]]. A seasonal sailing to [[Douglas, Isle of Man]] is operated by the [[Isle of Man Steam Packet|Isle of Man Steam Packet Company]].

The [[Glider (Belfast)|Glider]] bus service is a new form of transport in Belfast. Introduced in 2018, it is a rapid transit system linking East Belfast, West Belfast and the Titanic Quarter from the City Centre.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infrastructure-ni.gov.uk/articles/belfast-rapid-transit-glider-introduction|website=Infrastructure-ni.gov.uk|access-date=15 May 2018|title=Archived copy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180515141539/https://www.infrastructure-ni.gov.uk/articles/belfast-rapid-transit-glider-introduction|archive-date=15 May 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Using [[articulated buses]], the £90 million service saw a 17% increase in its first month in Belfast, with 30,000 more people using the Gliders every week. The service is being recognised as helping to modernise the city's public transport.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.itv.com/news/utv/2018-10-03/glider-bus-passengers-increase-17-in-first-month/|website=itv.com|access-date=15 May 2018|title=Archived copy|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007160721/http://www.itv.com/news/utv/2018-10-03/glider-bus-passengers-increase-17-in-first-month/|archive-date=7 October 2018|url-status = live}}</ref>

[[National Cycle Route 9]] to [[Newry]],<ref>{{cite web | title = Route 9 | url = https://www.sustrans.org.uk/find-a-route-on-the-national-cycle-network/route-9/ | publisher = [[Sustrans]] | access-date = 8 April 2021 | archive-date = 2 March 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210302172024/https://www.sustrans.org.uk/find-a-route-on-the-national-cycle-network/route-9/ | url-status = live }}</ref> which will eventually connect with Dublin,{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} starts in Belfast.

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Belfast}}
[[File:ACDC-Hughes-long ago.jpg|thumb|[[AC/DC]] with [[Bon Scott]] (centre) pictured with guitarist [[Angus Young]] (left) and bassist [[Cliff Williams]] (back), performing at the [[Ulster Hall]] in August 1979]]

Belfast's population is evenly split between its Protestant and Catholic residents.<ref name="Belfast Urban Area"/> These two distinct cultural communities have both contributed significantly to the city's culture. Throughout the Troubles, Belfast artists continued to express themselves through poetry, art and music. In the period since the [[Belfast Agreement|Good Friday Agreement]] in 1998, Belfast has begun a social, economic and cultural transformation giving it a growing international cultural reputation.<ref>{{cite web | title = Summary of the bid | website = One Belfast Where Hope and History Rhyme (Internet Archive) | publisher = Imagine Belfast 2008 | date= 22 November 2002 | url = http://www.imaginebelfast2008.com/front.html | access-date = 24 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021207124752/http://www.imaginebelfast2008.com/front.html |archive-date=7 December 2002}}</ref> In 2003, Belfast had an unsuccessful bid for the 2008 [[European Capital of Culture]]. The bid was run by an independent company, ''Imagine Belfast'', who boasted that it would "make Belfast the meeting place of Europe's legends, where the meaning of history and belief find a home and a sanctuary from caricature, parody and oblivion."<ref>{{cite news | title = The official websites on UK bids for European capital of culture 2008 | work = The Guardian | date = 30 October 2002 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/society/regeneration/page/0,,774007,00.html | access-date = 13 March 2007 | location = London | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151015211045/http://www.theguardian.com/society/regeneration/page/0,,774007,00.html | archive-date = 15 October 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref> According to ''[[The Guardian]]'' the bid may have been undermined by the [[History of Belfast|city's history]] and volatile politics.<ref>{{cite news | last = Ward | first = D | author2 = Carter, H | title = Six cities shortlisted for culture capital bid | work = The Guardian | date = 31 October 2002 | url = https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/oct/31/travelnews.travel1 | access-date = 13 March 2007 | location = London | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131209114824/http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2002/oct/31/travelnews.travel1 | archive-date = 9 December 2013 |url-status = live}}</ref>

In 2004–05, art and cultural events in Belfast were attended by 1.8 million people (400,000 more than the previous year). The same year, 80,000 people participated in culture and other arts activities, twice as many as in 2003–04.<ref name="Belfast Cultural Strategy">{{cite web | title = Integrated Cultural Strategy for Belfast | publisher = Capital City: Belfast City Councils Development Agenda | date = May 2006 | url = http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/culture/culturalstrategy.asp | format = PDF | access-date = 24 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071020083835/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/culture/culturalstrategy.asp | archive-date = 20 October 2007 | url-status = dead }}</ref> A combination of relative peace, international investment and an active promotion of arts and culture is attracting more tourists to Belfast than ever before. In 2004–05, 5.9 million people visited Belfast, a 10% increase from the previous year, and spent £262.5 million.<ref name="Belfast Cultural Strategy"/>

The [[Ulster Orchestra]], based in Belfast, is Northern Ireland's only full-time [[symphony orchestra]] and is well renowned in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1966, it has existed in its present form since 1981, when the [[BBC Northern Ireland]] Orchestra was disbanded.<ref>{{cite web | title = Welcome to the new season | publisher = Ulster Orchestra Society | url = http://www.ulster-orchestra.org.uk/concerts/welcome.html | access-date = 24 May 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070205212256/http://www.ulster-orchestra.org.uk/concerts/welcome.html |archive-date = 5 February 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref> The music school of Queen's University is responsible for arranging a notable series of lunchtime and evening concerts, often given by renowned musicians which are usually given in The Harty Room at the university (University Square).

[[File:The Beatles emerging from the Ritz Cinema, Fisherwick Place, Belfast November 8, 1963.jpg|thumb|left|[[The Beatles]] emerging from the Ritz Cinema, Belfast following their concert, 8 November 1963.]]

Musicians and bands who have written songs about or dedicated to Belfast include
<references group="www.belfastundergroundclubs.com" />[[U2]], [[Van Morrison]], [[Snow Patrol]], [[Simple Minds]], [[Elton John]], [[Rogue Male (band)|Rogue Male]], [[Katie Melua]], [[Boney M]], [[Paul Muldoon]], [[Stiff Little Fingers]], [[Nanci Griffith]], [[Glenn Patterson]], [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]], [[James Taylor]], [[Fun Boy Three]], [[Spandau Ballet]], [[The Police]], [[Barnbrack]], [[Gary Moore]], [[Neon Neon]], [[Toxic Waste (band)|Toxic Waste]], [[Energy Orchard]], and [[Billy Bragg]].

Belfast has a longstanding underground club scene which was established in the early 1980s.<ref>{{cite web|title = The History of Belfast Underground Clubs|url = http://www.belfastundergroundclubs.com|website = www.belfastundergroundclubs.com|access-date = 7 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160216113737/http://www.belfastundergroundclubs.com/|archive-date = 16 February 2016|url-status = live}}</ref>

Belfast has the highest concentration of Irish-speakers in Northern Ireland. Like all areas of the island of Ireland outside of the [[Gaeltacht]], the Irish language in Belfast is not that of an unbroken intergenerational transmission. Due to community activity in the 1960s, including the establishment of the [[Shaw's Road|Shaw's Road Gaeltacht]] community, the expanse in the Irish language arts, and the advancements made in the availability of Irish medium education throughout the city, it can now be said that there is a 'mother-tongue' community of speakers.{{Dubious|date=November 2010}} The language is heavily promoted in the city and is particularly visible in the Falls Road area, where the signs on both the iconic black taxis and on the public buses are bilingual.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forbairtfeirste.com/forbairt-news/comharthai-bus-gaeilge-san-iarthar-irish-language-bus-signs-in-the-west/ |title=ComharthaÃ Bus Gaeilge san Iarthar / Irish language bus signs in the West | Here comes the new Belfast |publisher=Forbairtfeirste.com |access-date=2 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227211258/http://www.forbairtfeirste.com/forbairt-news/comharthai-bus-gaeilge-san-iarthar-irish-language-bus-signs-in-the-west/ |archive-date=27 February 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Projects to promote the language in the city are funded by various sources, notably [[Foras na Gaeilge]], an all-Ireland body funded by both the Irish and British governments. There are a number of Irish language Primary schools and one secondary school in Belfast. The provision of certain resources for these schools (for example, such as the provision of textbooks) is supported by the charitable organisation TACA.

In late August 2018, at least three groups were vying for the right to purchase the 5,500 [[RMS Titanic]] relics that were an asset of the bankrupt [[Premier Exhibitions]]. One of the offers was by a group including the [[National Maritime Museum]] and [[National Museums Northern Ireland]], with assistance by [[James Cameron]].<ref>{{cite magazine |author=Dawn McCarty |author2=Jef Feeley |author3=Chris Dixon |title=James Cameron: Getting Titanic Artifacts to U.K. Would Be 'a Dream' |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/07/news-titanic-uk-belfast-bankruptcy-cameron/ |magazine=National Geographic |date=24 July 2018 |access-date=2 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902220610/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2018/07/news-titanic-uk-belfast-bankruptcy-cameron/ |archive-date=2 September 2018 |url-status = live}}</ref> Oceanographer [[Robert Ballard]] said he favored this bid since it would ensure that the memorabilia would be permanently displayed in Belfast (where the Titanic was built) and in [[Greenwich]]. A decision as to the outcome was to be made by a [[United States district court]] judge.<ref>{{cite web|author1=Dawn McCarty|author2=Jef Feeley|author3=Chris Dixon|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-31/bankrupt-titanic-exhibitor-sets-biggest-sale-ever-of-ship-relics|title=Bankrupt Titanic exhibitor sets biggest sale of ship relics|publisher=Bloomberg|date=31 August 2018|access-date=2 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902220606/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-08-31/bankrupt-titanic-exhibitor-sets-biggest-sale-ever-of-ship-relics|archive-date=2 September 2018|url-status = live}}</ref>

===Media===
[[Image:BBC Northern Ireland Belfast.jpg|thumb|right|[[Broadcasting House, Belfast]], Headquarters of the BBC in Northern Ireland.]]
Belfast is the home of the ''[[Belfast Telegraph]]'', ''[[Irish News]]'', and ''[[The News Letter]]'', the oldest [[English language|English-language]] daily newspaper in the world still in publication.<ref>{{cite web | title = Research Guide: Irish News & Newspapers | publisher = Boston College | year= 2007 | url = http://www.bc.edu/libraries/research/guides/s-irishnews/ | access-date = 24 May 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070809020149/http://www.bc.edu/libraries/research/guides/s-irishnews/ |archive-date = 9 August 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Johnston | first = Ruth | title = Belfast News Letter | website = Your Place and Mine | publisher = BBC | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/yourplaceandmine/belfast/newsletter.shtml | access-date = 24 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061107233738/http://www.bbc.co.uk/northernireland/yourplaceandmine/belfast/newsletter.shtml | archive-date = 7 November 2006 |url-status = live}}</ref>

The city is the headquarters of [[BBC Northern Ireland]], [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] station [[Ulster Television|UTV]] and commercial radio stations [[Q Radio Belfast|Q Radio]] and [[U105]]. Two community radio stations, [[Blast 106]] and Irish-language station [[Raidió Fáilte]], broadcast to the city from west Belfast, as does [[Queen's Radio]], a student-run radio station which broadcasts from [[Queen's University Belfast Students' Union|Queen's University Students' Union]].

One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, [[NvTv]], is based in the [[Cathedral Quarter, Belfast|Cathedral Quarter]] of the city. There are two independent cinemas in Belfast: the [[Queen's Film Theatre]] and the [[Strand Cinema]], which host screenings during the [[Belfast Film Festival]] and the [[Belfast Festival at Queen's]]. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.homelyplanet.org/about-homely-planet/ |title=About Homely Planet |publisher=Homelyplanet.org |access-date=20 May 2014 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205212122/http://www.homelyplanet.org/about-homely-planet/ |archive-date=5 December 2013 }}</ref>

The city has become a popular film location; The Paint Hall at Harland and Wolff has become one of the [[UK Film Council]]'s main studios. The facility comprises four stages of {{convert|16000|sqft|m2|sigfig=2}}. Shows filmed at The Paint Hall include the film ''[[City of Ember]]'' (2008) and [[HBO]]'s ''[[Game of Thrones]]'' series (beginning in late 2009).

In November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the [[2011 MTV Europe Music Awards|MTV Europe Music Awards]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Henry |first=Lesley-Ann |title=MTV Europe Music Awards to be held in Belfast |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/mtv-awards/mtv-europe-music-awards-to-be-held-in-belfast-28665779.html |access-date=14 November 2011 |newspaper=The Belfast Telegraph |date=2 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103141140/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/mtv-awards/mtv-europe-music-awards-to-be-held-in-belfast-28665779.html |archive-date=3 November 2013 |url-status = live}}</ref> The event was hosted by [[Selena Gomez]] and celebrities such as [[Justin Bieber]], [[Jessie J]], [[Hayden Panettiere]], and [[Lady Gaga]] travelled to Northern Ireland to attend the event, held in the [[Odyssey Arena]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Jones |first=Lucy |title=MTV Europe Music Awards 2011: as it happened |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=6 November 2011 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/8871749/MTV-EMAs-2011-as-it-happened.html |access-date=20 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230223659/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/8871749/MTV-EMAs-2011-as-it-happened.html |archive-date=30 December 2013 |url-status = live}}</ref>

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in Belfast}}
[[File:Kingspan_Stadium,_Belfast.jpg|thumb|[[Ravenhill Stadium]] is the home of [[Ulster Rugby]]]]

Belfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as [[association football|football]], [[Gaelic games]], [[Rugby football|rugby]], [[cricket]], and [[ice hockey]]. The [[Belfast Marathon]] is run annually on May Day, and attracted 20,000 participants in 2011.<ref name="Belfast Marathon">{{cite web|title=Belfast Marathon breaks 20,000 barrier |publisher=Belfast City Council |date=18 April 2011 |url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/news/news.asp?id=2600&month=April%202011 |access-date=9 July 2011 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110924105740/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/news/news.asp?id=2600&month=April%202011 |archive-date=24 September 2011 }}</ref>

The [[Northern Ireland national football team]], ranked 23rd in August 2017 in the [[FIFA World Rankings]],<ref>{{cite web |title=FIFA/Coca-Cola World Rankings |publisher=FIFA |date=August 2017 |url=https://www.fifa.com/associations/association=nir/ranking/gender=m/index.html |access-date=4 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917065444/http://www.fifa.com/associations/association=NIR/ranking/gender=m/index.html |archive-date=17 September 2017 |url-status = live}}</ref>{{needs update|date=January 2021}} plays its home matches at [[Windsor Park]]. The 2017–18 [[NIFL Premiership|Irish League]] champions [[Crusaders F.C.|Crusaders]] are based at [[Seaview (football ground)|Seaview]], in the north of the city. Other [[Northern Ireland football system#Senior|senior]] clubs are [[Glentoran F.C.|Glentoran]], [[Linfield F.C.|Linfield]], [[Cliftonville F.C.|Cliftonville]], [[Harland & Wolff Welders F.C.|Harland & Wolff Welders]] and [[PSNI F.C.|PSNI]]. [[Northern Ireland football system#Intermediate|Intermediate-level]] clubs are: [[Dundela F.C.|Dundela]], [[Newington Youth F.C.|Newington Youth]], [[Queen's University A.F.C.|Queen's University]] and [[Sport & Leisure Swifts F.C.|Sport & Leisure Swifts]], who compete in the [[NIFL Premier Intermediate League]]; [[Albert Foundry F.C.|Albert Foundry]], [[Bloomfield F.C.|Bloomfield]], [[Colin Valley F.C.|Colin Valley]], [[Crumlin Star F.C.|Crumlin Star]], [[Dunmurry Recreation F.C.|Dunmurry Rec.]], Dunmurry Young Men, [[East Belfast F.C.|East Belfast]], [[Grove United F.C.|Grove United]], [[Immaculata F.C.|Immaculata]], [[Iveagh United F.C.|Iveagh United]], [[Malachians F.C.|Malachians]], [[Orangefield Old Boys F.C.|Orangefield Old Boys]], [[Rosario Youth Club F.C.|Rosario Youth Club]], [[St Luke's F.C.|St Luke's]], [[St Patrick's Young Men F.C.|St Patrick's Young Men]], [[Shankill United F.C.|Shankill United]], [[Short Brothers F.C.|Short Brothers]] and [[Sirocco Works F.C.|Sirocco Works]] of the [[Dunmurry Young Men]] [[Northern Amateur Football League]] and [[Brantwood F.C.|Brantwood]] and [[Donegal Celtic]] of the [[Ballymena & Provincial Football League|Ballymena & Provincial League]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Belfast was the home town of former [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] player [[George Best]], the 1968 [[European Footballer of the Year]], who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery.<ref>{{cite news | last = McCann | first = Nuala | title = A city mourns for the Belfast Boy | work = BBC News Northern Ireland | publisher = BBC | date = 3 December 2005 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4495026.stm | access-date = 18 May 2005 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061219212141/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/northern_ireland/4495026.stm | archive-date = 19 December 2006 |url-status = live}}</ref> Since his death the [[George Best Belfast City Airport|City Airport]] was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre.<ref>{{cite web | title = George Best Memorial Trust | publisher = George Best Trust | url = http://www.georgebesttrust.com/ | access-date = 18 May 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070929121852/http://www.georgebesttrust.com/ |archive-date = 29 September 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref>

Belfast is home to over twenty [[Gaelic football]] and [[hurling]] clubs.<ref>[http://antrim.gaa.ie/clubs/?2 South Antrim Clubs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009201454/http://antrim.gaa.ie/clubs/?2 |date=9 October 2007 }}. CLG Aontroim. Retrieved 11 November 2007.</ref> [[Casement Park]] in west Belfast, home to the [[Antrim GAA|Antrim]] county teams, has a capacity of 32,000 which makes it the second largest [[Gaelic Athletic Association]] ground in [[Ulster]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Antrim chief in protest at Maze games | newspaper = Sunday Mirror | url = http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4161/is_20050313/ai_n12944637 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080118070631/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4161/is_20050313/ai_n12944637 |url-status = dead| archive-date = 18 January 2008 | access-date = 17 September 2007 | date=13 March 2005}}</ref> In May 2020, the foundation of [[East Belfast GAA]] returned Gaelic Games to unionist East Belfast after decades of its absence in the area. The current club president is Irish-language enthusiast [[Linda Ervine]] who comes from a unionist background in the area. The team currently plays in the Down Senior County League.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Conway|first=Gail|title=GAA returns to Unionist East Belfast|url=https://www.rte.ie/news/2020/0718/1154137-gaa-east-belfast/|website=rte.ie|access-date=21 July 2020|archive-date=21 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721225215/https://www.rte.ie/news/2020/0718/1154137-gaa-east-belfast/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 1999 [[Heineken Cup]] champions [[Ulster Rugby]] play at [[Ravenhill Stadium]] in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's [[All-Ireland League (rugby union)|All-Ireland League]]: [[Belfast Harlequins]] in Division 1B; and [[Instonians]], [[Queen's University RFC|Queen's University]] and [[Malone RFC|Malone]] in Division 2A.

Belfast is home to the [[Stormont (cricket ground)|Stormont cricket ground]] since 1949 and was the venue for the [[Irish cricket team]]'s first ever [[One Day International]] against [[England cricket team|England]] in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |title=Civil Service Cricket Club |website=ESPNcricinfo |publisher=ESPNSports Media |date=16 July 2015 |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/ground/58588.html |access-date=4 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128223957/http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/ground/58588.html |archive-date=28 January 2017 |url-status = live}}</ref>

Belfast is home to one of the biggest British [[ice hockey]] clubs, the [[Belfast Giants]]. The Giants were founded in 2000 and play their games at the 9,500 capacity Odyssey Arena, where crowds normally range from 4,000 to 7,000. Many ex-NHL players have featured on the Giants roster, none more famous than world superstar [[Theo Fleury]]. The Giants play in the 10-team professional [[Elite Ice Hockey League]] which is the top league in Britain. The Giants have been [[British ice hockey league champions|league champions]] 5 times, most recently in the 2018–19 season. The [[Belfast Giants]] are a huge brand in Northern Ireland and their increasing stature in the game led to the [[Belfast Giants]] playing the [[Boston Bruins]] of the [[NHL]] on 2 October 2010 at the Odyssey Arena in Belfast, losing the game 5–1.

Other significant sportspeople from Belfast include double world snooker champion [[Alex Higgins|Alex "Hurricane" Higgins]]<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/4913768.stm | title = Snooker on the ropes – Hurricane |publisher=BBC | date= 16 April 2007 | access-date=17 September 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070821230132/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/other_sports/snooker/4913768.stm| archive-date= 21 August 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref> and world champion boxers [[Wayne McCullough]], [[Rinty Monaghan]] and [[Carl Frampton]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.wbaonline.com/dates/dates03.asp | title = WBA History | publisher = World Boxing Association | access-date=17 September 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011113939/http://www.wbaonline.com/dates/dates03.asp |archive-date = 11 October 2007|url-status = dead}}</ref>
Leander ASC is a well known swimming club in Belfast. Belfast produced the Formula One racing stars [[John Watson (racing driver)|John Watson]] who raced for five different teams during his career in the 1970s and 1980s and Ferrari driver [[Eddie Irvine]].

==Notable people==
{{main|List of people from Belfast}}

{{div col|colwidth=30em|gap=2em|rules=yes|small=yes}}
'''Academia and science'''
* [[John Stewart Bell]], physicist
* [[Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell]], astrophysicist
* [[John Boyd Dunlop]], inventor
* [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin|Lord Kelvin]], physicist and engineer

'''Arts and media'''
* [[Anthony Boyle]], actor
* [[Sir Kenneth Branagh]], actor<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-42865155|title=Branagh granted freedom of Belfast|first=Robbie|last=Meredith|date=17 July 2018|work=BBC News|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722033032/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-42865155|archive-date=22 July 2018|url-status = live}}</ref>
* [[Gordon Burns]], journalist, TV Gameshow Host
* [[Ciaran Carson]], writer
* [[Frank Carson]], comedian<ref>{{cite news |author=Dennis Barker |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2012/feb/23/frank-carson-obituary |title=Frank Carson obituary |work=The Guardian |location=London |access-date=6 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180728232327/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2012/feb/23/frank-carson-obituary |archive-date=28 July 2018 |url-status = live}}</ref>
* [[Jamie Dornan]], actor
* [[Barry Douglas (musician)|Barry Douglas]], musician
* [[Sir James Galway]], musician
* [[Eamonn Holmes]], broadcaster<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/film-tv/news/he-wont-be-cracking-on-any-time-soon-ruth-responds-to-love-island-stars-crush-on-eamonn-holmes-37134762.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=22 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723003634/https://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/film-tv/news/he-wont-be-cracking-on-any-time-soon-ruth-responds-to-love-island-stars-crush-on-eamonn-holmes-37134762.html |archive-date=23 July 2018 |url-status = live}}</ref>
* [[Brian Desmond Hurst]], film director
* [[Oliver Jeffers]], artist
* [[C. S. Lewis]], author<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-38070648|title=Narnia comes to Belfast|date=23 November 2016|work=BBC News|access-date=17 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180721014234/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-38070648|archive-date=21 July 2018|url-status = live}}</ref>
* [[Paula Malcomson]], actress
* [[Gerry McAvoy]], musician and long time bass guitarist with [[Rory Gallagher]]
* [[Gary Moore]], guitarist
* [[Sir Van Morrison]], singer-songwriter
* [[Doc Neeson]], singer-songwriter
* [[Patricia Quinn (Northern Irish actress)|Patricia Quinn]], actress
* [[Roy Walker (comedian)]], TV Gameshow Host

'''Politics'''
* [[Gerry Adams]]. politician
* [[James Craig, 1st Viscount Craigavon|Lord Craigavon]], former [[Prime Minister of Northern Ireland]]
*[[Abba Eban]] (1915–2002), Israeli diplomat and politician, and President of the [[Weizmann Institute of Science]]
* [[Chaim Herzog]], former [[President of Israel]]
* [[Mary McAleese]], former [[President of Ireland]]
* [[Peter Robinson (Northern Ireland politician)|Peter Robinson]], former [[First Minister of Northern Ireland]]
* [[David Trimble, Baron Trimble|Lord Trimble]], former First Minister of Northern Ireland, [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner

'''Sports'''
* [[Paddy Barnes]], boxer, [[Olympic Games]] Bronze Medalist
* [[George Best]], football player, [[Ballon D'or]] winner
* [[Danny Blanchflower]], football player and manager
* [[Jackie Blanchflower]], football player
* [[Christopher Brunt]], football player
* [[Craig Cathcart]], football player
* [[P. J. Conlon]], baseball player
* [[Killian Dain]], professional wrestler
* [[Mal Donaghy]], football player
* [[Corry Evans]], football player
* [[Jonny Evans]], football player
* [[Dave Finlay]], professional wrestler
* [[Carl Frampton]], boxer
* [[Craig Gilroy]], rugby union player
* [[Alex Higgins]], snooker player
* [[Paddy Jackson]], rugby union player
* [[Jim Magilton]], football player and manager
* [[Tony McCoy|Sir Tony McCoy]], horse racing jockey
* [[Wayne McCullough]], [[World Boxing Council|WBC]] World Champion Boxer, [[Olympic Games]] Silver Medalist, Patron of Northern Ireland Children's Hospice
* [[Alan McDonald (association football)|Alan McDonald]], football player
* [[Rory McIlroy]], golfer
* [[Sammy McIlroy]], football player and manager
* [[Owen Nolan]], hockey player, Olympic gold medalist
* [[Mary Peters (athlete)|Lady Mary Peters]], Olympic sportswoman and gold medalist
* [[Tommy Robb (motorcyclist)|Tommy Robb]], [[Grand Prix motorcycle racing|Grand Prix]] motorcycle road racer
* [[Pat Rice]], football player and coach
* [[Trevor Ringland]], rugby union player
* [[Gary Wilson (cricketer)|Gary Wilson]], cricketer

'''Other'''
* [[Patrick Carlin]], [[Victoria Cross]] recipient
* [[Shaw Clifton]], former General of [[The Salvation Army]]
* [[Rotha Johnston|Dame Rotha Johnston]], entrepreneur
* [[James Joseph Magennis]], Victoria Cross recipient
* [[Jonathan Simms]], victim of variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (vCJD), noted for unprecedented survival rate of a decade with the disease
{{div col end}}

==Education==
{{See also|List of primary schools in Belfast|List of secondary schools in Belfast|List of grammar schools in Belfast}}

Belfast has two universities. [[Queen's University Belfast]] was founded in 1845 and is a member of the [[Russell Group]], an association of 24 leading research-intensive universities in the UK.<ref>{{cite web | title = About The Russell Group: Aims and objectives | publisher = The Russell Group | year = 2007 | url = http://www.russellgroup.ac.uk/about.html | access-date = 24 May 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070607022414/http://www.russellgroup.ac.uk/about.html | archive-date = 7 June 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref> It is one of the largest universities in the UK with 25,231 undergraduate and postgraduate students spread over 250 buildings, 120 of which are listed as being of architectural merit.<ref>{{cite web|title=About Queen's: Facts and Figures |publisher=Queen's University Belfast |year=2007 |url=http://www.qub.ac.uk/home/TheUniversity/AboutQueens/UniversityInformation/FactsandFigures/ |access-date=24 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513043014/http://www.qub.ac.uk/home/TheUniversity/AboutQueens/UniversityInformation/FactsandFigures/ |archive-date=13 May 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref>

[[Ulster University]], created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus in the [[Cathedral Quarter, Belfast|Cathedral Quarter]] of Belfast. The Belfast campus has a specific focus on Art and Design and Architecture, and is currently undergoing major redevelopment. The [[Jordanstown]] campus, just {{convert|7|mi|km|0|spell=in}} from Belfast city centre concentrates on engineering, health and social science. The [[Coleraine]] campus, about {{convert|55|mi|0|abbr=on}} from Belfast city centre concentrates on a broad range of subjects. Course provision is broad – biomedical sciences, environmental science and geography, psychology, business, the humanities and languages, film and journalism, travel and tourism, teacher training and computing are among the campus strengths. The [[Magee College|Magee]] campus, about {{convert|70|mi|0|abbr=on}} from Belfast city centre has many teaching strengths; including business, computing, creative technologies, nursing, Irish language and literature, social sciences, law, psychology, peace and conflict studies and the performing arts. The [[Conflict Archive on the Internet]] (CAIN) Web Service receives funding from both universities and is a rich source of information and source material on the Troubles as well as society and politics in Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite web| title = Conflict and Politics in Northern Ireland (1968 to the Present) | publisher = Conflict Archive on the Internet (CAIN) | year= 2007 | url = http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ | access-date = 24 May 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070530181849/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/| archive-date= 30 May 2007 |url-status = live}}</ref>

[[Belfast Metropolitan College]] is a large [[further education]] college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in [[vocational education]]. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland.<ref>{{cite web | title = Belfast Metropolitan College – About Us | publisher = Belfast Metropolitan College | year = 2007 | url = http://www.belfastmet.ac.uk/aboutus/ | access-date = 12 December 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071216075936/http://www.belfastmet.ac.uk/aboutus/ | archive-date = 16 December 2007 |url-status = dead}}</ref>

The [[Belfast Education and Library Board]] was established in 1973 as the local council responsible for education, youth and library services within the city.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us: The Roles and Functions of the Belfast Education and Library Board |publisher=[[Belfast Education and Library Board]] |url=http://www.belb.org.uk/about_us.asp |access-date=18 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430222926/http://www.belb.org.uk/about_us.asp |archive-date=30 April 2015 |url-status = dead}}</ref> In 2006, this board became part of the [[Education Authority]] for Northern Ireland. There are 184 primary, secondary and [[Grammar school|grammar]] schools in the city.<ref>{{cite web|title=Schools Database – List of Institutions |publisher=Department of Education |url=http://www.denidata.nics.gov.uk/appinstitutes/instmain.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051229125351/http://www.denidata.nics.gov.uk/appinstitutes/instmain.aspx |url-status = dead|archive-date=29 December 2005 |access-date=24 May 2007 }}</ref>

==Tourism==
[[File:Titanic Belfast side view.jpg|thumb|[[Titanic Belfast]], devoted to the Belfast-built [[RMS Titanic|RMS ''Titanic'']], opened in 2012]]

Belfast is one of the most visited cities in the UK,<ref>{{cite news |title=Belfast fifth most popular UK tourist destination |publisher=[[Belfast Newsletter]] |date=22 May 2013 |url=http://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/belfast-fifth-most-popular-uk-tourist-destination-1-5114241 |access-date=19 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519184131/http://www.newsletter.co.uk/news/belfast-fifth-most-popular-uk-tourist-destination-1-5114241 |archive-date=19 May 2014 |url-status = live}}</ref> and the second most visited on the island of Ireland.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/titanic-belfast-becomes-second-most-visited-tourist-attraction-on-island-of-ireland-1.1370127|title=Titanic Belfast becomes second most visited tourist attraction on island of Ireland|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en-US|access-date=19 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161019152055/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/titanic-belfast-becomes-second-most-visited-tourist-attraction-on-island-of-ireland-1.1370127|archive-date=19 October 2016|url-status = live}}</ref> In 2008, 7.1 million tourists visited the city.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/tourism-venues/tourism/tourismfacts.aspx|title=Tourism facts and figures – Belfast City Council|website=Belfastcity.gov.uk|access-date=19 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013162042/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/tourism-venues/tourism/tourismfacts.aspx|archive-date=13 October 2016|url-status = dead}}</ref> Numerous popular tour bus companies and boat tours run there throughout the year, including tours based on the popular series [[Game of Thrones]], which has had various filming locations around Northern Ireland.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://visitbelfast.com/pages/game-of-thrones-belfast-northern-ireland|title=Visit Belfast|website=visitbelfast.com|language=en|access-date=4 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205003331/https://visitbelfast.com/pages/game-of-thrones-belfast-northern-ireland|archive-date=5 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Frommer's]], the American travel guidebook series, listed Belfast as the only United Kingdom destination in its ''Top 12 Destinations to Visit'' in 2009. The other listed destinations were [[Berlin, Germany|Berlin]] (Germany), [[Cambodia]], [[Cape Town]] (South Africa), [[Cartagena, Colombia|Cartagena]] (Colombia), [[Istanbul]] (Turkey), the [[Lassen Volcanic National Park]] (US), [[Saqqara]] (Egypt), the [[Selma To Montgomery National Historic Trail]] (US), [[Waiheke Island]] (New Zealand), Washington, D.C. (US), and [[Waterton Lakes National Park]] (Canada).<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/travelnews/3883369/Belfast-one-of-worlds-top-destinations.html |title=Belfast Makes the Top 12 |work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922121215/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/travelnews/3883369/Belfast-one-of-worlds-top-destinations.html |archive-date=22 September 2018 |url-status = live}}</ref>

The Belfast City Council is currently investing into the complete redevelopment of the Titanic Quarter, which is planned to consist of apartments, hotels, and a riverside entertainment district. A major visitor attraction, [[Titanic Belfast]] is a monument to Belfast's maritime heritage on the site of the former Harland & Wolff shipyard, opened on 31 March 2012. It features a criss-cross of escalators and suspended walkways and nine high-tech galleries.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dougan |first=Patrice |title=Inside Titanic Belfast – a guided tour |work=[[The Belfast Telegraph]] |date=2 April 2012 |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/archive/titanic/inside-titanic-belfast-a-guided-tour-28733118.html |access-date=19 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031153007/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/archive/titanic/inside-titanic-belfast-a-guided-tour-28733118.html |archive-date=31 October 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref> They also hope to invest in a new modern transport system (including high-speed rail and others) for Belfast, with a cost of £250 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/250m-titanic-tourist-attraction-and-transport-system-set-for-belfast-28512145.html |title=Telegraph article; Announcement of redevelopment of Titanic Quarter |website=The Belfast Telegraph |date=27 November 2008 |access-date=30 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151003023202/http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/250m-titanic-tourist-attraction-and-transport-system-set-for-belfast-28512145.html |archive-date=3 October 2015 |url-status = live}}</ref>

2017 was a great year for Belfast in terms of tourism with nearly 1.5 million trips being made to the city, generating around 5 million bed nights and incredible tourism revenue of 328 million pounds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sites.visitbelfast.com/assets/gallery/generic/VB_AnnualReport.pdf |title=Visit Belfast Annual Review 2017/2018 |work=Visit Belfast |access-date=15 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190515102955/http://sites.visitbelfast.com/assets/gallery/generic/VB_AnnualReport.pdf |archive-date=15 May 2019 |url-status = live}}</ref>

In 2018, Belfast saw six new hotels being opened, with the biggest in Northern Ireland, the £53 million [[Grand Central Hotel Belfast]] officially open to the public. The other hotels included AC Marriot, Hampton By Hilton, EasyHotel, Maldron Belfast City Centre and Flint. The new hotels have helped to increase a further 1,000 bedrooms in the city.<ref name="auto">{{cite news |url=http://www.irishnews.com/business/2019/01/01/news/further-growth-expected-in-belfast-tourism-market-after-record-2018-1518432/ |title=Further growth expected in Belfast tourism market after record 2018 |work=The Irish News |access-date=15 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190202232244/http://www.irishnews.com/business/2019/01/01/news/further-growth-expected-in-belfast-tourism-market-after-record-2018-1518432/ |archive-date=2 February 2019 |url-status = live}}</ref>
Belfast was successful in attracting many conferencing events, both national and international, to the city in 2018. Over 60 conferences took place that year with 30,000 people helping contribute to a record 45 million pounds for the local economy.<ref name="auto"/>

There is a tourist information centre located at [[Donegall Square|Donegall Square North]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Tourist information centre |website=Tourism |publisher=[[Belfast City Council]] |year=2014 |url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/tourism-venues/tourism/touristcentre.aspx |access-date=19 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519235250/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/tourism-venues/tourism/touristcentre.aspx |archive-date=19 May 2014 |url-status = live}}</ref>

==Twin towns – sister cities==
Belfast City Council takes part in the [[Twin towns and sister cities|twinning scheme]],<ref name="2014 cities">{{cite web |title=Belfast signs Sister Cities accord with Boston |website=News |publisher=[[Belfast City Council]] |date=12 May 2014 |url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/News/News-37859.aspx |access-date=15 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151231214225/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/News/News-37859.aspx |archive-date=31 December 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and is twinned with the following sister cities:
* [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]], United States (since 1994)<ref name="2014 cities"/>
* [[Hefei]], [[Anhui|Anhui Province]], China (since 2005)<ref name="2014 cities"/>
* [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], United States (since 2014)<ref name="2014 cities"/>
* [[Shenyang]], [[Liaoning|Liaoning Province]], China (since 2016)<ref>{{cite web |title=Belfast signs Sister City Agreement with Shenyang, China today to collaborate in number of areas |website=News |publisher=[[Belfast City Council]] |date=16 May 2016 |url=http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/News/News-37859.aspx |access-date=26 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603075313/http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/News/News-37859.aspx |archive-date=3 June 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Freedom of the City==
The following people and military units have received the [[Freedom of the City]] of Belfast.

{{Expand list|date=October 2020}}

===Individuals===
* [[Andrew Carnegie]]: 28 September 1910.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lurganmail.co.uk/heritage-and-retro/retro/through-archives-andrew-carnegie-be-awarded-freedom-city-belfast-2984047|title=THROUGH THE ARCHIVES: Andrew Carnegie to be awarded freedom of the City of Belfast|website=www.lurganmail.co.uk|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=29 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529144536/https://www.lurganmail.co.uk/heritage-and-retro/retro/through-archives-andrew-carnegie-be-awarded-freedom-city-belfast-2984047|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[John Jordan (diplomat)|Rt Hon Sir John Jordan]] {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|GCMG|GCIE|KCB|PC}}: 28 September 1910.
* [[Winston Churchill|Rt Hon Sir Winston Churchill]] {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|KG|OM|CH|TD|DL|FRS|RA}}: 16 December 1955.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2507&dat=19551125&id=jGhAAAAAIBAJ&pg=4266,3047250&hl=en|title=The Glasgow Herald – Google News Archive Search|website=news.google.com|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=29 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529144617/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2507&dat=19551125&id=jGhAAAAAIBAJ&pg=4266%2C3047250&hl=en|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist//ITN/1955/12/16/T16125501/?s=* |title=SIR WINSTON CHURCHILL RECEIVES FREEDOM OF THE CITY OF BELFAST & LONDONDERRY |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6DXxSnXp4?url=http://www.itnsource.com/shotlist//ITVProgs/1992/01/07/Y05870109/ |archive-date=9 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfRqlTN4g5w|title=Selected Originals – Ulster Honours Churchill Aka Ulster Honours Sir Winston Aka Churchill 2 (1955)|last=British Pathé|date=13 April 2014|via=YouTube|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=17 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817234827/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mfRqlTN4g5w&feature=youtu.be|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Mary Peters (athlete)|Lady Mary Peters]] {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|LG|CH|DBE|DStJ}}: 2 November 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-20182389|title=Dame Mary Peters granted freedom of Belfast|date=2 November 2012|via=www.bbc.com|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=28 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128065430/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-20182389|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Kenneth Branagh|Sir Kenneth Branagh]]: 30 January 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-northern-ireland-42834498|title=Branagh, Belfast and the BBC|via=www.bbc.com|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=29 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210529144556/https://www.bbc.com/news/av/uk-northern-ireland-42834498|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Military units===
* The [[Royal Ulster Rifles]]: 6 February 1954.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.royal-irish.com/events/freedom-of-the-city-of-belfast-for-the-royal-ulster-rifles|title=Freedom of the City of Belfast for The Royal Ulster Rifles | Royal Irish – Virtual Military Gallery|website=www.royal-irish.com|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=1 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601092344/https://www.royal-irish.com/events/freedom-of-the-city-of-belfast-for-the-royal-ulster-rifles|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The [[Royal Sussex Regiment]]: 1961.<ref name="auto"/>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Beesley, S. and Wilde, J. 1997. ''Urban Flora of Belfast''. Institute of Irish Studies & The Queen's University of Belfast.{{ISBN|0 85389 695 X}}
* Deane, C. Douglas. 1983. ''The Ulster Countryside.'' Century Books. {{ISBN|0-903152-17-7}}
* Gillespie, R. 2007. ''Early Belfast.'' Belfast Natural History & Philosophical Society in Association with Ulster Historical Foundation. {{ISBN|978-1-903688-72-4}}.
* Nesbitt, Noel. 1982. ''The Changing Face of Belfast.'' Ulster Museum, Belfast. Publication no. 183.
* Pollock, V. and Parkhill, T. 1997. ''Belfast''. National Museums of Northern Ireland. {{ISBN|978-0-7509-1754-4}}
* Scott, Robert. 2004. ''Wild Belfast: On Safari in the City.'' [[Blackstaff Press]]. {{ISBN|0-85640-762-3}}.
* Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1984. ''Early Photographs from the Lawrence Collection in Belfast Town 1864–1880.'' The Friar's Bush Press, {{ISBN|978-0-946872-01-5}}
* Walker, B.M. and Dixon, H. 1983. ''No Mean City: Belfast 1880–1914.'' {{ISBN|0-946872-00-7}}.
* Connolly, S.J. Ed. 2012. Belfast 400 People Places and History. Liverpool University Press. {{ISBN|978-1-84631-635-7}}
* McCracken, E. 1971. ''The Palm House and Botanic Garden, Belfast''. Ulster Architectural Heritage Society.
* McMahon, Sean. 2011. ''A Brief History of Belfast.'' The Brehon Press. Belfast. {{ISBN|978-1-905474-24-0}}
* Fulton, C. 2011. ''Coalbricks and Prefabs, Glimpses of Belfast in the 1950s.'' Thedoc Press. {{ISBN|978-0-9570762-0-4}}
* O'Reilly, D. 2010. " Rivers of Belfast". Colourpoint Books. {{ISBN|978-1-906578-75-6}}
{{refend}}
* Weatherall, Norman (text) and Evans, David (paintings) 2002 ''South Belfast Terrace and Villa.'' Cottage Publications {{ISBN|1900935287}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Belfast}}
{{wikivoyage}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/ Belfast City Council]

{{Belfast City Council}}
{{Northern Ireland districts}}
{{1972 districts of Northern Ireland}}
{{IrishCities}}
{{List of British Territories capitals}}
{{List of European capitals by region}}
{{UK cities}}
{{Outdoor sculptures in Belfast}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Belfast| ]]
[[Category:Capital cities in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Cities in Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Districts of Northern Ireland, 1972–2015]]
[[Category:Districts of Northern Ireland, 2015-present]]
[[Category:Populated coastal places in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Port cities and towns in Northern Ireland]]
[[Category:Port cities and towns of the Irish Sea]]

Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B

2021-08-10T14:01:37Z

Denvercoder9: /* Launch statistics */ extend graph up to 2021

{{short description|Historic launch pad operated by NASA}}
{{Use American English|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox launch pad
| name = Launch Complex 39B
| image = Kennedy LC-39B, June 2019.jpg
| caption = Aerial view in June 2019, with Mobile Launcher-1 on the pad for testing
| site = [[Kennedy Space Center]]
| location = [[Merritt Island]], [[Florida]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|28|37|38|N|80|37|15|W|region:US_type:landmark|display=title, inline}}
| operator = [[NASA]]
| inclination = 28–62°
| paddetails = {{Infobox launch pad/pad
| status = Active
| launches = 57
| first_launch = {{Start-date|May 18, 1969}}
| first_details = [[Saturn V]] [[Apollo 10|SA-505]]
| last_launch = {{Start-date|October 28, 2009}}
| last_details = [[Ares I-X|Prototype Ares I]]
| rockets = {{Hlist|[[Saturn V]]|[[Saturn IB]]|[[Space Shuttle]]|[[Ares I]]|[[Space Launch System|SLS]]}}
}}
{{Infobox NRHP
| name = Launch Complex 39--Pad B
| embed = yes
| location = John F. Kennedy Space Center, [[Titusville, Florida]]
| locmapin = Florida#USA
| built = 1967-1968
| added = January 21, 2000
| area = {{convert|160|acre}}
| mpsub = {{NRHP url|id=64500111|title=John F. Kennedy Space Center MPS}}
| refnum = 99001639<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}}</ref>
}}
}}

'''Launch Complex 39B''' ('''LC-39B''') is the second of [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|Launch Complex 39]]'s two [[launch pad]]s, located at [[NASA]]'s [[Kennedy Space Center]] in [[Merritt Island]], [[Florida]]. The pad, along with [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|Launch Complex 39A]], were first designed for the [[Saturn V]] launch vehicle, which at the time was the United States' most powerful rocket. Typically used to launch NASA's [[Human spaceflight|crewed spaceflight missions]] since the late 1960s, the pad is currently being reconfigured for use by the agency's [[Space Launch System]] rocket, a [[Shuttle-Derived Vehicle|Shuttle-derived launch vehicle]] which will be used in the [[Artemis program]] and subsequent Moon to Mars campaigns. The pad had also been leased for use by NASA to aerospace company [[Northrop Grumman]], for use as a launch site for their Shuttle-derived [[OmegA]] launch vehicle, for [[National Security Space Launch]] flights and commercial launches, before the OmegA was cancelled.

==History==
===Apollo program===
In 1961, President Kennedy proposed to Congress the goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. Congressional approval led to the launch of the [[Apollo program]], which required a massive expansion of NASA operations, including an expansion of launch operations from the Cape to adjacent Merritt Island to the north and west.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceline.org/capehistory/3a.html|title=The History of Cape Canaveral, Chapter 3: NASA Arrives (1959–Present)|publisher=Spaceline.org|access-date=2009-07-06}}</ref>

Launch Complex 39B was designed to handle launches of the [[Saturn V]] rocket, the largest and most powerful launch vehicle, which would propel Apollo spacecraft to the Moon. Launch Complex 39B's inaugural launch in May 1969 was also that of the only Saturn V to launch from the pad; SA-505, used to launch the [[Apollo 10]] mission.

After the [[Apollo 17]] mission in 1972, Pad 39B was used for [[Saturn IB]] launches. The [[Mobile launcher platform#Saturn V and Space Shuttle|Mobile Launcher]]s were then modified for the Saturn IB rocket, by adding a "milk-stool" extension platform to the launch pedestal, so that the [[S-IVB]] upper stage and Apollo spacecraft swing arms would reach their targets. These were used for three crewed [[Skylab]] flights and the [[Apollo-Soyuz]], since the Saturn IB pads 34 and 37 at Cape Canaveral had been decommissioned.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://afspacemuseum.org/ccafs/CX34/
| title = Launch Complex 34
| access-date = February 11, 2017}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://afspacemuseum.org/ccafs/CX37/
| title = Launch Complex 37
| access-date = February 11, 2017}}
</ref>

===Space Shuttle===
With the advent of the [[Space Shuttle program]] in the early 1980s, the original structure of the launch pads were remodeled for the needs of the [[Space Shuttle]]. Pad 39A hosted all Space Shuttle launches until January 1986, when {{OV|99}} would become the first to launch from pad 39B during the ill-fated [[STS-51-L]] mission, which ended with [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|the destruction of ''Challenger'' and the death of the mission's crew]] a minute into the flight.

Launch Complex 39B hosted 53 Space Shuttle launches until December 2006, when ''Discovery'' launched from the pad for the final time during the [[STS-116]] mission. The program's remaining flights launched from pad 39A. To support the final Shuttle mission to the Hubble Space Telescope [[STS-125]] launched from pad 39A in May 2009, ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'' was placed on 39B if needed to launch the [[STS-400]] rescue mission.

===Constellation program===
Launch Complex 39B would subsequently be reconfigured for crewed [[Ares I]] launches as part of the [[Constellation program]]; the [[Ares I-X]] mission launched a prototype Ares I from 39B in October 2009, prior to the program's cancellation the following year. Since then, no launches from pad 39B have occurred.

{{Clear}}

== Launch statistics ==
{{#invoke:Chart|bar chart
| float = center
| width = 750
| height = 350
| stack = 1
| group 1 = 0:0:0:0:1: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0 
| group 2 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:3:0: 1:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0 
| group 3 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:1:0:2:5: 3:2:4:5:3: 3:6:2:2:3: 2:3:2:0:0: 1:3:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0 
| group 4 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:1: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0 
| group 5 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0 
| colors = Grey : Black : Orange : Green : Firebrick
| group names = [[Saturn V]] : [[Saturn IB]] : [[Space Shuttle]] : [[Ares I]] : [[Space Launch System|SLS]]
| x legends = 1965 ::::: 1970 ::::: 1975 ::::: 1980 ::::: 1985 ::::: 1990 ::::: 1995 ::::: 2000 ::::: 2005 ::::: 2010 ::::: 2015 ::::: 2020 :
| units suffix = _launches
}}

== Current status ==
After the Ares I-X test flight in 2009, NASA removed Fixed Service Structure (FSS) from Pad 39B, returning the location to an Apollo-like "clean pad" design for the first time since 1977. This approach is intended to make the pad available to multiple types of vehicles that will arrive at the pad with service structures on the [[mobile launcher platform]], as opposed to using fixed structures on the pad.<ref>{{cite news|title=Historic space shuttle pad soon to be scrap|url=https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/space/2011-03-23-shuttle-launch-pad_N.htm|newspaper=USA Today|date=23 March 2011}}</ref> The LH2, LOX, and water tanks used for the sound suppression system are the only structures left from the Space Shuttle era.<ref name=nsf20150322>{{cite news |last1=Bergin|first1=Chris |title=KSC Pads continue preparations for future vehicles |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/03/ksc-pads-preparations-future-vehicles/ |access-date=24 March 2015 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com |date=2015-03-22 }}</ref><ref name="sound">{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/sound-suppression-system.html|title=Sound Suppression System|access-date=September 30, 2007|publisher=NASA|year=2006|author=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/shuttle/sts127/status.html |title=STS-127 Rollaround starts |access-date=2009-05-31 |publisher=Space Flight Now}}</ref>

{{As of|2012|6}}, repairs and modifications to selected facility systems at LC-39B for [[Space Launch System]] (SLS) processing and launch operations, as part of the first phase of a five-phase project, were being completed. The second phase of this project is currently budgeted for $89.2 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/632670main_NASA_FY13_Budget_CECR-508.pdf |title=NASA FY13 Budget |publisher=NASA |access-date=23 February 2016 }}</ref>{{update after|2014|4|16}}

In 2014, NASA announced that it would make LC-39B available to commercial users during times when it is not needed by the Space Launch System.<ref name=sfn20140415>{{cite news |last=Clark|first=Stephen |title=SpaceX's mega-rocket to debut next year at pad 39A |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/15pad39a/#.U06Y5VfTnhN|access-date=2014-04-16 |newspaper=SpaceflightNow |date=2014-04-15 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|United States|Spaceflight}}
* [[List of Cape Canaveral and Merritt Island launch sites]]
{{Clear}}

== References ==
'''Sources'''
{{Refbegin}}
# {{Cite book|last=Ward|first=Jonathan H.|title=Countdown to a Moon Launch: Preparing Apollo for Its Historic Journey|date=2015|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|location=[[Greensboro, North Carolina]]|access-date=May 20, 2020|isbn=978-3-319-17792-2|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-17792-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdgjCgAAQBAJ}}
# {{Cite web|last=Bergin|first=Chris|title=KSC's historic Pad 39B laying the foundations for hosting big rockets|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/05/pad-39b-foundations-hosting-big-rockets/|website=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]]|access-date=May 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520031736/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/05/pad-39b-foundations-hosting-big-rockets/|archive-date=May 20, 2020|date=May 30, 2017|url-status=live}}
{{Refend}}
'''Citations'''
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39B}}
* [https://www.nasa.gov/content/launch-pad-39b Launch Pad 39B] at [[NASA]]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/c/capecanaverallc39b.html Cape Canaveral LC39B] at [[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]
* [http://nasatech.net/PadBmod300_091014/ Pad B modifications for Ares 1-X, level 300]
* [http://nasatech.net/PadBmod275_091014/ Pad B modifications for Ares 1-X, level 275]
* [http://nasatech.net/PadBmod255_091014/ Pad B modifications for Ares 1-X, level 255]
* [http://nasatech.net/PadBmod235_091014/ Pad B modifications for Ares 1-X, level 235]
* [http://nasatech.net/ntSubPad39B_PAGE.html The conversion to SLS configuration on Launch Pad 39B – Construction Progress as of June 27, 2014]

{{Kennedy Space Center}}
{{Merritt Island}}
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[[Category:1969 establishments in Florida]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Artemis program]]
[[Category:Constellation program]]
[[Category:Kennedy Space Center launch sites]]
[[Category:Space Shuttle program]]

Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A

2021-08-10T13:56:09Z

Denvercoder9: /* Launch statistics */ remove 2022 from chart

{{short description|Historic launch pad operated by NASA and SpaceX}}
{{Use American English|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox launch pad
| name = Launch Complex 39A
| image = Kennedy Space Center (49944982388).jpg
| caption = Aerial view in May 2020, with [[Crew Dragon Endeavour]] atop a [[Falcon 9]] with the pad's crew access arm extended.

| site = [[Kennedy Space Center]]
| location = [[Merritt Island, Florida]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|28|36|30.2|N|80|36|15.6|W|type:landmark_region:US}}
| operator = {{Unbulleted list|[[NASA]] (1967-2014)|[[SpaceX]] (2014-present)}}
| inclination = 28–62°

| paddetails = {{Infobox launch pad/pad
| status = Active
| launches = 125
| first_launch = November 9, 1967
| first_details = [[Saturn V]] [[Apollo 4|SA-501]]
| last_launch = June 3, 2021
| last_details = [[Falcon 9 Block 5]] / [[SpaceX CRS-22]]
| rockets = {{Hlist|[[Saturn V]]|[[Space Shuttle]]|[[Falcon 9]]|[[Falcon Heavy]]|[[SpaceX Starship|Starship]]}}
}}
{{Infobox NRHP
| embed = yes
| name = Launch Complex 39--Pad A
| locmapin = Florida#USA
| built = 1964–1968
| added = January 21, 2000
| area = {{convert|160|acre}}
| mpsub = [[John F. Kennedy Space Center MPS]]
| refnum = 99001638<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
}}
}}

'''Launch Complex 39A''' ('''LC-39A''') is the first of [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|Launch Complex 39]]'s two [[launch pad]]s, located at [[NASA]]'s [[Kennedy Space Center]] in [[Merritt Island]], [[Florida]]. The pad, along with [[Launch Complex 39B]], were first designed for the [[Saturn V]] launch vehicle, which is still the United States' most powerful rocket. Typically used to launch NASA's [[Human spaceflight|crewed spaceflight missions]] since the late 1960s, the pad was leased by [[SpaceX]] and has been modified to support [[SpaceX launch vehicles|their launch vehicles]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/6/9270317/spacex-falcon-heavy-rocket-scheduled-launch-spring-2016|title=After delays, SpaceX's massive Falcon Heavy rocket set to launch in spring 2016|author=Dante D'Orazio |date=6 September 2015|publisher=Vox Media|work=The Verge}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-seeks-to-accelerate-falcon-9-production-and-launch-rates-this-year/|title=Spacex seeks to accelerate falcon 9 production and launch rates this year|publisher=SpaceNews|date=4 February 2016}}</ref>

== History ==
=== Apollo program ===
In 1961, President Kennedy proposed to Congress the goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. Congressional approval led to the launch of the [[Apollo program]], which required a massive expansion of NASA operations, including an expansion of launch operations from the Cape to adjacent Merritt Island to the north and west.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceline.org/capehistory/3a.html|title=The History of Cape Canaveral, Chapter 3: NASA Arrives (1959–Present)|publisher=Spaceline.org|access-date=2009-07-06}}</ref>

First, Launch Complex 39C,<ref>Launch Complex 39</ref> Launch Complex 39A was designed to handle launches of the [[Saturn V]] rocket, the largest and most powerful launch vehicle, which would propel Apollo spacecraft to the Moon. The first launch from Launch Complex 39A came in 1967 with the first Saturn V launch, which carried the uncrewed [[Apollo 4]] spacecraft. The second uncrewed launch, [[Apollo 6]], also used Pad 39A. With the exception of [[Apollo 10]], which used Pad 39B (due to the "all-up" testing resulting in a 2-month turnaround period), all crewed Apollo-Saturn V launches, commencing with [[Apollo 8]], used Pad 39A.

=== Space Shuttle ===
With the advent of the [[Space Shuttle program]] in the early 1980s, the original structure of the launch pads were remodeled for the needs of the [[Space Shuttle]]. The first usage of Pad 39A for the Space Shuttle came in 1979, when [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|''Enterprise'']] was used to check the facilities prior to the first operational launch. Since then, Pad 39A hosted all Space Shuttle launches until January 1986, when {{OV|99}} would become the first to launch from pad 39B during the ill-fated [[STS-51-L]] mission.

During the launch of ''Discovery'' on [[STS-124]] on May 31, 2008, the pad at LC-39A suffered extensive damage, in particular to the concrete trench used to deflect the SRBs' flames.<ref name="damage">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/080602-sts124-pad39a-damage.html#comments|title=NASA Eyes Launch Pad Damage for Next Shuttle Flight|work=Space.com}}</ref> The subsequent investigation found that the damage was the result of carbonation of epoxy and corrosion of steel anchors that held the [[refractory brick]]s in the trench in place. The damage had been exacerbated by the fact that [[hydrochloric acid]] is an exhaust by-product of the solid rocket boosters.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://pbma.nasa.gov/docs/public/pbma/images/msm/STS-124FlameTrench_SFCS.pdf|title=Hit the Bricks|journal=System Failure Case Studies|publisher=NASA|date=August 2010|volume=4|issue=8|pages=1–4|author=Lilley, Steve K.|access-date=July 20, 2011|url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928091534/http://pbma.nasa.gov/docs/public/pbma/images/msm/STS-124FlameTrench_SFCS.pdf|archive-date=September 28, 2011}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

Just as for the first 24 shuttle flights, LC-39A supported the final shuttle flights, starting with [[STS-117]] in June 2007 and ending with the [[Space Shuttle retirement|retirement of the Shuttle fleet]] in July 2011. Prior to the SpaceX lease agreement, the pad remained as it was when ''Atlantis'' launched on the final shuttle mission on July 8, 2011, complete with a [[mobile launcher platform]].

=== SpaceX ===
[[File:PAD 39A lease announcement.jpg|thumb|250px|KSC Director [[Robert D. Cabana|Bob Cabana]] announces the signing of the pad 39A lease agreement on April 14, 2014. [[SpaceX]] COO [[Gwynne Shotwell]] stands nearby.]]

Talks for use of the pad were underway between NASA and [[Space Florida]] — the [[State of Florida]]'s [[economic development agency]] — as early as 2011, but no deal materialized by 2012, and NASA then pursued other options for removing the pad from the federal government inventory.<ref name=nsf20141117/>

By early 2013, NASA publicly announced that it would allow commercial launch providers to lease LC-39A,<ref>[http://www.americaspace.com/?p=30313 "NASA not abandoning LC-39A" January 17, 2013], accessed February 7, 2013.</ref> and followed that, in May 2013, with a formal solicitation for proposals for [[private spaceflight|commercial use]] of the pad.<ref name=nsw20130520>[http://www.newspacewatch.com/articles/nasa-requests-proposals-for-commercial-use-of-pad-39a.html NASA requests proposals for commercial use of Pad 39A], ''NewSpace Watch'', May 20, 2013, accessed May 21, 2013.</ref> There were two competing bids for the commercial use of the launch complex.<ref name=leasedoc/> [[SpaceX]] submitted a bid for exclusive use of the launch complex, while [[Jeff Bezos]]' [[Blue Origin]] submitted a bid for shared non-exclusive use of the complex, so that the launchpad would handle multiple vehicles, and costs could be shared over the long-term. One potential shared user in the Blue Origin plan was [[United Launch Alliance]].<ref name=os20130818>{{cite news|last=Matthews|first=Mark K.|title=Musk, Bezos fight to win lease of iconic NASA launchpad|url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2013-08-18/news/os-fight-over-ksc-launchpad-20130818_1_spacex-elon-musk-christina-ra|access-date=2013-08-21|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=2013-08-18}}</ref> Prior to the end of the bid period, and prior to any public announcement by NASA of the results of the process, Blue Origin filed a protest with the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S.]] [[General Accounting Office]] (GAO) "over what it says is a plan by NASA to award an exclusive commercial lease to SpaceX for use of mothballed space shuttle launch pad 39A".<ref name=pa20130910/> NASA had planned to complete the bid award and have the pad transferred by October 1, 2013, but the protest "will delay any decision until the GAO reaches a decision, expected by mid-December".<ref name=pa20130910>{{cite news|last=Messier|first=Doug|title=Blue Origin Files Protest Over Lease on Pad 39A|url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/09/09/49934/|access-date=2013-09-11|newspaper=Parabolic Arc|date=2013-09-10}}</ref> On December 12, 2013, the GAO denied the protest and sided with NASA, which argued that the solicitation contained no preference on the use of the facility as multi-use or single-use. "The [solicitation] document merely asks bidders to explain their reasons for selecting one approach instead of the other and how they would manage the facility".<ref name=pa20131212>{{cite news|last=Messier|first=Doug|title=Blue Origin Loses GAO Appeal Over Pad 39A Bid Process |url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/12/12/blue-origin-loses-gao-appeal-pad-39a-bid-process/|access-date=2013-12-13|newspaper=Parabolic Arc|date=2013-12-12}}</ref>

On December 13, 2013, NASA announced that it had selected SpaceX as the new commercial tenant.<ref name=padnego>{{cite news|last=Clark|first=Stephen|title=SpaceX to begin negotiations for shuttle launch pad |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1312/13pad39a/#.UquHkWRDv_o|access-date=December 13, 2013|newspaper=SpaceflightNow|date=December 13, 2013}}</ref> On April 14, 2014, SpaceX signed a lease agreement<ref name=flortoda>{{cite web|url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2014/04/14/spacex-takes-over-ksc-pad-39a/7711859/|title=SpaceX takes over KSC pad 39A|last=Dean|first=James|date=April 14, 2014 |publisher=Florida Today|access-date=April 15, 2014}}</ref> that gave it a 20-year exclusive lease on LC-39A.<ref name=leasedoc>{{cite web|url=https://prod.nais.nasa.gov/eps/eps_data/159268-OTHER-001-001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511114338/https://prod.nais.nasa.gov/eps/eps_data/159268-OTHER-001-001.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 11, 2015 |title=Selection Statement for Lease of Launch Complex 39A|date=December 12, 2013|publisher=NASA|access-date=December 23, 2013}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> SpaceX planned to launch [[SpaceX launch vehicles|their launch vehicles]] from the pad and build a new hangar nearby.<ref name=leasedoc/><ref name=flortoda/><ref name=tss20140321>{{cite AV media|people=Gwynne Shotwell|date=2014-03-21|title=Broadcast 2212: Special Edition, interview with Gwynne Shotwell|medium=audio file|url=http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3|access-date=2014-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322013556/http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3|archive-date=March 22, 2014|format=mp3|time=20:00–21:10|publisher=The Space Show|id=2212 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Elon Musk]], CEO of SpaceX, stated that he wanted to shift most of SpaceX's NASA launches to LC-39A, including [[Commercial Resupply Services|commercial cargo]] and [[Commercial Crew Development|crew]] missions to the [[International Space Station]].<ref name=padnego/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1312/12gao/#.UrhmtbSTJe4|title=GAO decision opens door for commercial lease of pad 39A|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=December 12, 2013|publisher=Spaceflight Now|access-date=December 23, 2013|quote=Musk said he wants to launch SpaceX's commercial cargo and crew missions to the International Space Station from launch pad 39A}}</ref>

==== Modifications ====
In 2015, SpaceX built the [[Horizontal Integration Facility]] (HIF) just outside the perimeter of the existing launch pad in order to house both the Falcon 9 and the Falcon Heavy rockets, and their associated hardware and payloads, during preparation for flight.<ref name=sfn20150225>{{cite news|last1=Clark|first1=Stephen|title=Falcon Heavy rocket hangar rises at launch pad 39A |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2015/02/25/falcon-heavy-rocket-hangar-rises-at-pad-39a/|access-date=28 February 2015|work=Spaceflight Now|date=25 February 2015}}</ref> Both types of launch vehicles will be transported from the HIF to the launch pad aboard a Transporter Erector (TE) which will ride on rails up the former crawlerway path.<ref name=nsf20141117/><ref name=sfn20150225/> Also in 2015, the launch mount for the Falcon Heavy was constructed on Pad 39A over the existing infrastructure.<ref name=cs20140414/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|title=Falcon Heavy into production as Pad 39A HIF rises out of the ground|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/02/falcon-heavy-production-39a-hif-rises/|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|access-date=19 February 2015|date=18 February 2015}}</ref> The work on both the HIF building and the pad was substantially complete by late 2015.<ref name=nsf20151008>{{cite news|last1=Gebhardt|first1=Chris|title=Canaveral and KSC pads: New designs for space access |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/10/canaveral-ksc-pads-new-designs-space-access/|access-date=2015-10-11|newspaper=NASASpaceFlight.com|date=2015-10-08}}</ref> A rollout test of the new Transporter Erector was conducted in November 2015.<ref name=nsf20151109>{{cite news|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|title=SpaceX conducts test rollout for 39A Transporter/Erector |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/11/spacex-conducts-rollout-39a-te/|access-date=11 November 2015|work=NASASpaceFlight.com|date=2015-11-09}}</ref>

In February 2016, SpaceX indicated that they had "completed and activated Launch Complex 39A",<ref name=sn20160204/> but still had more work yet to do to support crewed flights. SpaceX originally planned to be ready to accomplish the first launch at pad 39A — of a Falcon Heavy — as early as 2015,<ref name=ft20140414>{{cite news|last=Dean|first=James|title=With nod to history, SpaceX gets launch pad 39A OK |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2014/04/15/nod-history-spacex-gets-ok/7721971/|access-date=2014-04-15|newspaper=Florida Today|date=2014-04-14}}</ref> as they had had architects and engineers working on the new design and modifications since 2013.<ref name=sfn20140415>{{cite news|last=Clark|first=Stephen|title=SpaceX's mega-rocket to debut next year at pad 39A |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/15pad39a/#.U06Y5VfTnhN|access-date=2014-04-16|newspaper=SpaceflightNow|date=2014-04-15}}</ref><ref name=cs20140414>{{cite news|title=NASA signs over historic Launch Pad 39A to SpaceX|url=http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-041414a-launch-pad-39a-spacex.html|access-date=2014-04-15|newspaper=collectSpace|date=2014-04-14}}</ref> By late 2014, a preliminary date for a [[wet dress rehearsal]] of the Falcon Heavy was set for no earlier than July 1, 2015.<ref name=nsf20141117>{{cite news|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|title=Pad 39A – SpaceX laying the groundwork for Falcon Heavy debut |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/11/pad-39a-spacex-groundwork-falcon-heavy-debut/|access-date=2014-11-17|work=NASA Spaceflight|date=2014-11-18}}</ref> Due to a failure in a June 2015 Falcon 9 launch, SpaceX had to delay launching the Falcon Heavy in order to focus on the Falcon 9's failure investigation and its return to flight.<ref>{{cite web|author=Clark, Stephen|title=First flight of Falcon Heavy delayed again|url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2015/07/21/first-flight-of-falcon-heavy-delayed-again/|publisher=spaceflightnow.com|date=2015-07-21|access-date=2015-10-06}}</ref> In early 2016, considering the busy Falcon 9 launch manifest, it became unclear if the Falcon Heavy would be the first vehicle to launch from Pad 39A, or if one or more Falcon 9 missions would precede a Falcon Heavy launch.<ref name=sn20160204>{{cite news|last=Foust|first=Jeff|url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-seeks-to-accelerate-falcon-9-production-and-launch-rates-this-year/|title=SpaceX seeks to accelerate Falcon 9 production and launch rates this year |work=[[SpaceNews]]|date=2014-02-04|access-date=2016-02-06}}</ref> In the following months, the Falcon Heavy launch was delayed multiple times and eventually pushed back to February 2018.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.investors.com/news/spacex-to-test-fire-falcon-heavy-ahead-of-maiden-flight-despite-zuma-questions/|title=SpaceX Performs Falcon Heavy Rocket Static Fire Test After Delays {{!}} Stock News & Stock Market Analysis - IBD|last=Daily|first=Investor's Business|date=2018-01-24|work=Investor's Business Daily|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref>

In 2019, SpaceX began substantial modification to LC 39A in order to begin work on phase 1 of the construction to prepare the facility to launch [[test article (aerospace)|prototypes]] of the large {{cvt|9|m}}-diameter [[methalox]] reusable rocket — [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] — from a launch stand, which will fly from 39A on suborbital test flight trajectories with six or fewer [[Raptor (rocket engine)|Raptor]] engines. A second phase of the construction is planned for 2020 to build a much more capable launch mount capable of launching the entire Starship launch vehicle,<ref>[https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/10/construction-starship-39a-facility-pace/ https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/10/construction-starship-39a-facility-pace/]</ref> powered by 43 Raptor engines and producing a total of {{cvt|72|MN|lbf}} liftoff thrust when departing 39A.<ref name=teslarati20192809>{{cite news|last1=Groh|first1=Jamie|title=SpaceX debuts Starship's new Super Heavy booster design |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-ceo-elon-musk-debuts-starships-new-super-heavy-booster-design/|work=Teslarati|date=28 September 2019|access-date=8 October 2019}}</ref>

==== Launch history ====
The first SpaceX launch from pad 39A was [[SpaceX CRS-10]] on February 19, 2017, using a Falcon 9 launch vehicle; it was the company's 10th cargo resupply mission to the International Space Station,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spacex.com/webcast|title=CRS-10 MISSION|last=spacexcmsadmin|date=2016-01-29|newspaper=SpaceX|access-date=2017-02-18}}</ref> and the first uncrewed launch from 39A since [[Skylab]].

While [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40]] (SLC-40) was undergoing reconstruction after the loss of the [[AMOS-6]] satellite on September 1, 2016, all SpaceX's east coast launches were from Pad 39A until SLC-40 became operational again in December 2017. These included the May 1, 2017, launch of [[NROL]]-76, the first SpaceX mission for the [[National Reconnaissance Office]], with a classified payload.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-falcon-9-echostar-23-slc-40-return/|title=SpaceX Static Fires Falcon 9 for EchoStar 23 launch as SLC-40 targets return|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]] |first=Chris|last=Bergin|date=March 9, 2017|access-date=March 18, 2017}}</ref>

On February 6, 2018, Pad 39A hosted the successful liftoff of the Falcon Heavy on its [[Falcon Heavy Test Flight|maiden launch]], carrying [[Elon Musk]]'s [[Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster|Tesla Roadster]] car to space;<ref>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2018/02/06/technology/future/spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-mainbar/index.html|title=SpaceX launches Falcon Heavy, the world's most powerful rocket|last=Wattles |first=Jackie|work=CNNMoney|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref> and the first flight of the human-rated spacecraft {{ComV|Dragon 2}}; ([[Crew Dragon Demo-1|Demo-1]]) took place there on March 2, 2019.

The second Falcon Heavy flight, carrying the [[Arabsat-6A]] communications satellite for Arabsat of Saudi Arabia, successfully launched on April 11, 2019. The satellite is to provide [[Ku band|Ku-band]] and [[Ka band|Ka-band]] communication services for the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa|northern Africa]], as well as for [[South Africa]]. The launch was notable as it marked the first time that SpaceX was able to successfully soft-land all three of the [[SpaceX reusable launch system development program|reusable booster stages]], which will be refurbished for future launches.<ref name="launch schedule">{{cite web|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/launch-schedule/|title=Launch Schedule – Spaceflight Now|website=Spaceflightnow.com|access-date=February 20, 2019}}</ref>

The [[Crew Dragon Demo-2]] test flight launched with astronauts [[Bob Behnken]] and [[Doug Hurley]] from Launch Complex 39A on 30 May 2020, and docked to pressurised mating adapter [[PMA-2]] on the [[Harmony (ISS module)|Harmony module]] of the [[International Space Station|ISS]] on 31 May 2020.<ref>{{cite web|title=Upcoming Spaceflight Events|url=http://nextspaceflight.com/events/|website=nextspaceflight.com |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="M20-050">{{cite web|last1=Potter|first1=Sean|title=NASA to Host Preview Briefings for First Crew Launch with SpaceX|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-to-host-preview-briefings-interviews-for-first-crew-launch-with-spacex|website=NASA|access-date=30 April 2020|date=20 April 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Historic Test Flight of SpaceX Crew Dragon|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-america-in-historic-test-flight-of-spacex-crew-dragon|access-date=30 May 2020|date=30 May 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
The first operational [[Commercial Crew Program|Commercial Crew ]] mission [[SpaceX Crew-1| Crew-1]] was launched on November 15th, [[2020 in spaceflight|2020]].<ref>https://spacenews.com/spacex-launches-first-operational-crew-dragon-mission-to-iss/</ref>

== Launch statistics ==
{{ #invoke:Chart | bar chart
| float = center
| width = 750
| height = 350
| stack = 1
| group 1 = 0:0:1:2:3: 1:2:2:1:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0: 0:0:0: 0:0 
| group 2 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:2:3:4:5: 9:1:0:2:5: 6:5:4:1:4: 4:1:6:3:1: 3:3:3:1:0: 0:0:3:4:5: 3:3:0:0:0: 0:0: 0:0:0: 0:0 
| group 3 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:12:2:1: 11:7 
| group 4 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0: 0:1:2: 0:0 
| colors = Grey : Orange : SteelBlue : Gold
| group names = [[Saturn V]] : [[Space Shuttle]] : [[Falcon 9]] : [[Falcon Heavy]]
| x legends = 1965 ::::: 1970 ::::: 1975 ::::: 1980 ::::: 1985 ::::: 1990 ::::: 1995 ::::: 2000 ::::: 2005 ::::: 2010 ::::: 2015 ::::: 2020 :
| units suffix = _launches
| y tick marks = 5
}}

== Current status ==
On April 14, 2014, the private American aerospace manufacturer and space transportation services company [[SpaceX]] signed a lease agreement<ref name=flortoda/> that gave it a 20-year exclusive lease on LC-39A.<ref name=leasedoc/> SpaceX has launched [[SpaceX launch vehicles|their launch vehicles]] from the pad and built a new hangar nearby.<ref name=leasedoc/><ref name=flortoda/><ref name=tss20140321/>

[[Elon Musk]], CEO of SpaceX, stated that he wanted to shift most of SpaceX's NASA launches to LC-39A, including [[Commercial Resupply Services|commercial cargo]] and [[Commercial Crew Development|crew]] missions to the [[International Space Station]].<ref name=padnego/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1312/12gao/#.UrhmtbSTJe4|title=GAO decision opens door for commercial lease of pad 39A |last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=December 12, 2013|publisher=Spaceflight Now|access-date=December 23, 2013|quote=Musk said he wants to launch SpaceX's commercial cargo and crew missions to the International Space Station from launch pad 39A}}</ref>

SpaceX utilizes the former [[Fixed Service Structure]] (FSS) of the Pad 39A [[#Launch towers|launch towers]] and intends to extend it above its former {{convert|350|ft|m|sp=us|adj=on}} height. It did not need the [[Rotating Service Structure]] (RSS)<ref name=nsf20141117/> and removed it beginning in February 2016.<ref name=ses20141021>{{cite web|title=SES-9|work=SES|url=http://www.ses.com/ses-9 |publisher=SES |date=October 21, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021043414/http://www.ses.com/ses-9|archive-date=2014-10-21|access-date=2016-02-23}}</ref>

NASA removed the Orbiter Servicing Arm — with intent to use the space later to build a museum — and the [[White room (spaceflight)|white room]] by which astronauts entered the Space Shuttle.<ref name=cs20140414/> SpaceX indicated in late 2014 that additional levels to the FSS would not be added in the near term.<ref name=nsf20141117/> SpaceX plans to eventually add at least two additional levels to the FSS, to provide [[human spaceflight|crew]] access for the [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Dragon 2]] launches.<ref name=nsf20140728>{{cite news|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|title=SpaceX Roadmap building on its rocket business revolution|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/07/spacex-roadmap-rocket-business-revolution/|access-date=2014-07-28|publisher=NASAspaceflight|date=2014-07-28}}</ref>

SpaceX assembles its launch vehicles horizontally in a hangar near the pad, and transports them horizontally to the pad before erecting the vehicle to vertical for the launch.<ref name=sfn20140415/> For [[United States Department of Defense|military]] missions from Pad 39A, [[payload]]s will be vertically integrated, as that is required per launch contract with the [[United States Air Force|USAF]].<ref name=sfn20140415/><ref name=nsf20140728/>

Pad 39A will be used to host launches of astronauts on the [[Dragon V2|crewed]]-version of the [[SpaceX Dragon|Dragon space capsule]] in a [[public–private partnership]] with NASA. {{As of|2014|04}}, the NASA plan called for the first NASA crewed missions in 2017.<ref name=sfn20140415/> SpaceX intends to add "a crew gantry access arm and white room to allow for crew and cargo ingress to the vehicle. The existing Space Shuttle evacuation slide-wire basket system will also be re-purposed to provide a safe emergency egress for the Dragon crew in the event of an emergency on the pad that does not necessitate using the [[Crew Dragon]]'s launch abort system".<ref name=sx20150227>{{cite web|last1=Reisman|first1=Garrett|title=Statement of Garrett Reisman before the Subcommittee on Space Committee on Science, Space, and Technology U.S. House Of Representatives|url=http://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/HHRG-114-SY16-WState-GReisman-20150227.pdf|publisher=US House of Representatives publication of a SpaceX document provided to the committee|access-date=28 February 2015|date=27 February 2015}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

In August 2018, SpaceX's Crew Access Arm (CAA) was installed on a new level, which was built at the necessary height to enter the Crew Dragon spacecraft atop a Falcon 9 rocket. It very closely resembles [[jetway]]s that are frequently found at airports.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/08/20/spacexs-astronaut-walkway-installed-on-florida-launch-pad/|title=SpaceX's astronaut walkway installed on Florida launch pad|work=Spaceflight Now|first=Stephen|last=Clark|date=August 20, 2018|access-date=August 22, 2018}}</ref> In September 2018, the refurbished Space Shuttle Emergency Egress System was raised to this new level.

In August 2019, SpaceX submitted an Environmental Assessment for [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] launch system at Kennedy Space Center.<ref>{{cite web|title=Draft Environmental Assessment for the SpaceX Starship and Super Heavy Launch Vehicle at Kennedy Space Center (KSC)|url=https://netspublic.grc.nasa.gov/main/20190801_Final_DRAFT_EA_SpaceX_Starship.pdf|website=NASA Public NEPA Documents|publisher=SpaceX |access-date=20 September 2019}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> This document included plans for the construction of additional structures at LC-39A to support Starship launches, including a dedicated pad, liquid methane tanks, and a Landing Zone.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ralph|first1=Eric|title=SpaceX prepares to break ground on Starship launch facilities at Pad 39A|url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-breaks-ground-starship-super-heavy-florida-launch-pad/|website=TESLARATI|access-date=20 September 2019|date=18 September 2019}}</ref> These are separate from the existing structures that support Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Apollo 11 Launch - GPN-2000-000630.jpg|[[Apollo 11]] launch at LC-39A (1969)
File:Enterprise KSC 1979.jpg|{{OV|101}} at LC-39A during the fit check tests (1979)
File:Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_at_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg|{{OV|104}} at LC-39A (2007)
File:39A SpaceX Deluge Test.webm|Deluge system test at pad 39A (2017)
File:SpaceX HIF at KSC LC-39A (27550168066).jpg|SpaceX [[Horizontal Integration Facility]] (HIF)
File:KSC-20190624-PH_KLS01_0056.jpg|[[Falcon Heavy]] at LC-39A (2019)
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Rocketry|Spaceflight}}
{{Commons category|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A}}
* {{annotated link|List of Cape Canaveral and Merritt Island launch sites}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/lc39a.html Launch Complex 39-A]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qAEjsS0i06k&feature=channel NASA-produced video tour of Shuttle on Pad 39A 1 month before launch]
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/apacheman/sets/72157628298421411/with/6463141403/ photos of work areas and catacombs beneath Pad 39A]
* [http://nasatech.net/ntSubPad39A_PAGE.html A comprehensive virtual tour over, under, around, and through the infrastructure of Launch Pad 39A]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/c/capecanaverallc39a.html Cape Canaveral LC39A] from ''[[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]''

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[[Category:Kennedy Space Center launch sites]]
[[Category:1964 establishments in Florida]]
[[Category:SpaceX facilities]]
[[Category:National Register of Historic Places in Brevard County, Florida]]
[[Category:Apollo program]]
[[Category:Space Shuttle program]]
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[[Category:Constellation program]]

Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A

2021-08-10T13:55:51Z

Denvercoder9: /* Launch statistics */ fix 2020 F9 launch count

{{short description|Historic launch pad operated by NASA and SpaceX}}
{{Use American English|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox launch pad
| name = Launch Complex 39A
| image = Kennedy Space Center (49944982388).jpg
| caption = Aerial view in May 2020, with [[Crew Dragon Endeavour]] atop a [[Falcon 9]] with the pad's crew access arm extended.

| site = [[Kennedy Space Center]]
| location = [[Merritt Island, Florida]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|28|36|30.2|N|80|36|15.6|W|type:landmark_region:US}}
| operator = {{Unbulleted list|[[NASA]] (1967-2014)|[[SpaceX]] (2014-present)}}
| inclination = 28–62°

| paddetails = {{Infobox launch pad/pad
| status = Active
| launches = 125
| first_launch = November 9, 1967
| first_details = [[Saturn V]] [[Apollo 4|SA-501]]
| last_launch = June 3, 2021
| last_details = [[Falcon 9 Block 5]] / [[SpaceX CRS-22]]
| rockets = {{Hlist|[[Saturn V]]|[[Space Shuttle]]|[[Falcon 9]]|[[Falcon Heavy]]|[[SpaceX Starship|Starship]]}}
}}
{{Infobox NRHP
| embed = yes
| name = Launch Complex 39--Pad A
| locmapin = Florida#USA
| built = 1964–1968
| added = January 21, 2000
| area = {{convert|160|acre}}
| mpsub = [[John F. Kennedy Space Center MPS]]
| refnum = 99001638<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
}}
}}

'''Launch Complex 39A''' ('''LC-39A''') is the first of [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39|Launch Complex 39]]'s two [[launch pad]]s, located at [[NASA]]'s [[Kennedy Space Center]] in [[Merritt Island]], [[Florida]]. The pad, along with [[Launch Complex 39B]], were first designed for the [[Saturn V]] launch vehicle, which is still the United States' most powerful rocket. Typically used to launch NASA's [[Human spaceflight|crewed spaceflight missions]] since the late 1960s, the pad was leased by [[SpaceX]] and has been modified to support [[SpaceX launch vehicles|their launch vehicles]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2015/9/6/9270317/spacex-falcon-heavy-rocket-scheduled-launch-spring-2016|title=After delays, SpaceX's massive Falcon Heavy rocket set to launch in spring 2016|author=Dante D'Orazio |date=6 September 2015|publisher=Vox Media|work=The Verge}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-seeks-to-accelerate-falcon-9-production-and-launch-rates-this-year/|title=Spacex seeks to accelerate falcon 9 production and launch rates this year|publisher=SpaceNews|date=4 February 2016}}</ref>

== History ==
=== Apollo program ===
In 1961, President Kennedy proposed to Congress the goal of landing a man on the Moon by the end of the decade. Congressional approval led to the launch of the [[Apollo program]], which required a massive expansion of NASA operations, including an expansion of launch operations from the Cape to adjacent Merritt Island to the north and west.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceline.org/capehistory/3a.html|title=The History of Cape Canaveral, Chapter 3: NASA Arrives (1959–Present)|publisher=Spaceline.org|access-date=2009-07-06}}</ref>

First, Launch Complex 39C,<ref>Launch Complex 39</ref> Launch Complex 39A was designed to handle launches of the [[Saturn V]] rocket, the largest and most powerful launch vehicle, which would propel Apollo spacecraft to the Moon. The first launch from Launch Complex 39A came in 1967 with the first Saturn V launch, which carried the uncrewed [[Apollo 4]] spacecraft. The second uncrewed launch, [[Apollo 6]], also used Pad 39A. With the exception of [[Apollo 10]], which used Pad 39B (due to the "all-up" testing resulting in a 2-month turnaround period), all crewed Apollo-Saturn V launches, commencing with [[Apollo 8]], used Pad 39A.

=== Space Shuttle ===
With the advent of the [[Space Shuttle program]] in the early 1980s, the original structure of the launch pads were remodeled for the needs of the [[Space Shuttle]]. The first usage of Pad 39A for the Space Shuttle came in 1979, when [[Space Shuttle Enterprise|''Enterprise'']] was used to check the facilities prior to the first operational launch. Since then, Pad 39A hosted all Space Shuttle launches until January 1986, when {{OV|99}} would become the first to launch from pad 39B during the ill-fated [[STS-51-L]] mission.

During the launch of ''Discovery'' on [[STS-124]] on May 31, 2008, the pad at LC-39A suffered extensive damage, in particular to the concrete trench used to deflect the SRBs' flames.<ref name="damage">{{cite web|url=http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/080602-sts124-pad39a-damage.html#comments|title=NASA Eyes Launch Pad Damage for Next Shuttle Flight|work=Space.com}}</ref> The subsequent investigation found that the damage was the result of carbonation of epoxy and corrosion of steel anchors that held the [[refractory brick]]s in the trench in place. The damage had been exacerbated by the fact that [[hydrochloric acid]] is an exhaust by-product of the solid rocket boosters.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://pbma.nasa.gov/docs/public/pbma/images/msm/STS-124FlameTrench_SFCS.pdf|title=Hit the Bricks|journal=System Failure Case Studies|publisher=NASA|date=August 2010|volume=4|issue=8|pages=1–4|author=Lilley, Steve K.|access-date=July 20, 2011|url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928091534/http://pbma.nasa.gov/docs/public/pbma/images/msm/STS-124FlameTrench_SFCS.pdf|archive-date=September 28, 2011}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

Just as for the first 24 shuttle flights, LC-39A supported the final shuttle flights, starting with [[STS-117]] in June 2007 and ending with the [[Space Shuttle retirement|retirement of the Shuttle fleet]] in July 2011. Prior to the SpaceX lease agreement, the pad remained as it was when ''Atlantis'' launched on the final shuttle mission on July 8, 2011, complete with a [[mobile launcher platform]].

=== SpaceX ===
[[File:PAD 39A lease announcement.jpg|thumb|250px|KSC Director [[Robert D. Cabana|Bob Cabana]] announces the signing of the pad 39A lease agreement on April 14, 2014. [[SpaceX]] COO [[Gwynne Shotwell]] stands nearby.]]

Talks for use of the pad were underway between NASA and [[Space Florida]] — the [[State of Florida]]'s [[economic development agency]] — as early as 2011, but no deal materialized by 2012, and NASA then pursued other options for removing the pad from the federal government inventory.<ref name=nsf20141117/>

By early 2013, NASA publicly announced that it would allow commercial launch providers to lease LC-39A,<ref>[http://www.americaspace.com/?p=30313 "NASA not abandoning LC-39A" January 17, 2013], accessed February 7, 2013.</ref> and followed that, in May 2013, with a formal solicitation for proposals for [[private spaceflight|commercial use]] of the pad.<ref name=nsw20130520>[http://www.newspacewatch.com/articles/nasa-requests-proposals-for-commercial-use-of-pad-39a.html NASA requests proposals for commercial use of Pad 39A], ''NewSpace Watch'', May 20, 2013, accessed May 21, 2013.</ref> There were two competing bids for the commercial use of the launch complex.<ref name=leasedoc/> [[SpaceX]] submitted a bid for exclusive use of the launch complex, while [[Jeff Bezos]]' [[Blue Origin]] submitted a bid for shared non-exclusive use of the complex, so that the launchpad would handle multiple vehicles, and costs could be shared over the long-term. One potential shared user in the Blue Origin plan was [[United Launch Alliance]].<ref name=os20130818>{{cite news|last=Matthews|first=Mark K.|title=Musk, Bezos fight to win lease of iconic NASA launchpad|url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2013-08-18/news/os-fight-over-ksc-launchpad-20130818_1_spacex-elon-musk-christina-ra|access-date=2013-08-21|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=2013-08-18}}</ref> Prior to the end of the bid period, and prior to any public announcement by NASA of the results of the process, Blue Origin filed a protest with the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S.]] [[General Accounting Office]] (GAO) "over what it says is a plan by NASA to award an exclusive commercial lease to SpaceX for use of mothballed space shuttle launch pad 39A".<ref name=pa20130910/> NASA had planned to complete the bid award and have the pad transferred by October 1, 2013, but the protest "will delay any decision until the GAO reaches a decision, expected by mid-December".<ref name=pa20130910>{{cite news|last=Messier|first=Doug|title=Blue Origin Files Protest Over Lease on Pad 39A|url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/09/09/49934/|access-date=2013-09-11|newspaper=Parabolic Arc|date=2013-09-10}}</ref> On December 12, 2013, the GAO denied the protest and sided with NASA, which argued that the solicitation contained no preference on the use of the facility as multi-use or single-use. "The [solicitation] document merely asks bidders to explain their reasons for selecting one approach instead of the other and how they would manage the facility".<ref name=pa20131212>{{cite news|last=Messier|first=Doug|title=Blue Origin Loses GAO Appeal Over Pad 39A Bid Process |url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2013/12/12/blue-origin-loses-gao-appeal-pad-39a-bid-process/|access-date=2013-12-13|newspaper=Parabolic Arc|date=2013-12-12}}</ref>

On December 13, 2013, NASA announced that it had selected SpaceX as the new commercial tenant.<ref name=padnego>{{cite news|last=Clark|first=Stephen|title=SpaceX to begin negotiations for shuttle launch pad |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1312/13pad39a/#.UquHkWRDv_o|access-date=December 13, 2013|newspaper=SpaceflightNow|date=December 13, 2013}}</ref> On April 14, 2014, SpaceX signed a lease agreement<ref name=flortoda>{{cite web|url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2014/04/14/spacex-takes-over-ksc-pad-39a/7711859/|title=SpaceX takes over KSC pad 39A|last=Dean|first=James|date=April 14, 2014 |publisher=Florida Today|access-date=April 15, 2014}}</ref> that gave it a 20-year exclusive lease on LC-39A.<ref name=leasedoc>{{cite web|url=https://prod.nais.nasa.gov/eps/eps_data/159268-OTHER-001-001.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511114338/https://prod.nais.nasa.gov/eps/eps_data/159268-OTHER-001-001.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=May 11, 2015 |title=Selection Statement for Lease of Launch Complex 39A|date=December 12, 2013|publisher=NASA|access-date=December 23, 2013}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> SpaceX planned to launch [[SpaceX launch vehicles|their launch vehicles]] from the pad and build a new hangar nearby.<ref name=leasedoc/><ref name=flortoda/><ref name=tss20140321>{{cite AV media|people=Gwynne Shotwell|date=2014-03-21|title=Broadcast 2212: Special Edition, interview with Gwynne Shotwell|medium=audio file|url=http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3|access-date=2014-03-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140322013556/http://archived.thespaceshow.com/shows/2212-BWB-2014-03-21.mp3|archive-date=March 22, 2014|format=mp3|time=20:00–21:10|publisher=The Space Show|id=2212 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Elon Musk]], CEO of SpaceX, stated that he wanted to shift most of SpaceX's NASA launches to LC-39A, including [[Commercial Resupply Services|commercial cargo]] and [[Commercial Crew Development|crew]] missions to the [[International Space Station]].<ref name=padnego/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1312/12gao/#.UrhmtbSTJe4|title=GAO decision opens door for commercial lease of pad 39A|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=December 12, 2013|publisher=Spaceflight Now|access-date=December 23, 2013|quote=Musk said he wants to launch SpaceX's commercial cargo and crew missions to the International Space Station from launch pad 39A}}</ref>

==== Modifications ====
In 2015, SpaceX built the [[Horizontal Integration Facility]] (HIF) just outside the perimeter of the existing launch pad in order to house both the Falcon 9 and the Falcon Heavy rockets, and their associated hardware and payloads, during preparation for flight.<ref name=sfn20150225>{{cite news|last1=Clark|first1=Stephen|title=Falcon Heavy rocket hangar rises at launch pad 39A |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2015/02/25/falcon-heavy-rocket-hangar-rises-at-pad-39a/|access-date=28 February 2015|work=Spaceflight Now|date=25 February 2015}}</ref> Both types of launch vehicles will be transported from the HIF to the launch pad aboard a Transporter Erector (TE) which will ride on rails up the former crawlerway path.<ref name=nsf20141117/><ref name=sfn20150225/> Also in 2015, the launch mount for the Falcon Heavy was constructed on Pad 39A over the existing infrastructure.<ref name=cs20140414/><ref>{{cite web|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|title=Falcon Heavy into production as Pad 39A HIF rises out of the ground|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/02/falcon-heavy-production-39a-hif-rises/|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|access-date=19 February 2015|date=18 February 2015}}</ref> The work on both the HIF building and the pad was substantially complete by late 2015.<ref name=nsf20151008>{{cite news|last1=Gebhardt|first1=Chris|title=Canaveral and KSC pads: New designs for space access |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/10/canaveral-ksc-pads-new-designs-space-access/|access-date=2015-10-11|newspaper=NASASpaceFlight.com|date=2015-10-08}}</ref> A rollout test of the new Transporter Erector was conducted in November 2015.<ref name=nsf20151109>{{cite news|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|title=SpaceX conducts test rollout for 39A Transporter/Erector |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/11/spacex-conducts-rollout-39a-te/|access-date=11 November 2015|work=NASASpaceFlight.com|date=2015-11-09}}</ref>

In February 2016, SpaceX indicated that they had "completed and activated Launch Complex 39A",<ref name=sn20160204/> but still had more work yet to do to support crewed flights. SpaceX originally planned to be ready to accomplish the first launch at pad 39A — of a Falcon Heavy — as early as 2015,<ref name=ft20140414>{{cite news|last=Dean|first=James|title=With nod to history, SpaceX gets launch pad 39A OK |url=http://www.floridatoday.com/story/tech/science/space/2014/04/15/nod-history-spacex-gets-ok/7721971/|access-date=2014-04-15|newspaper=Florida Today|date=2014-04-14}}</ref> as they had had architects and engineers working on the new design and modifications since 2013.<ref name=sfn20140415>{{cite news|last=Clark|first=Stephen|title=SpaceX's mega-rocket to debut next year at pad 39A |url=http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n1404/15pad39a/#.U06Y5VfTnhN|access-date=2014-04-16|newspaper=SpaceflightNow|date=2014-04-15}}</ref><ref name=cs20140414>{{cite news|title=NASA signs over historic Launch Pad 39A to SpaceX|url=http://www.collectspace.com/news/news-041414a-launch-pad-39a-spacex.html|access-date=2014-04-15|newspaper=collectSpace|date=2014-04-14}}</ref> By late 2014, a preliminary date for a [[wet dress rehearsal]] of the Falcon Heavy was set for no earlier than July 1, 2015.<ref name=nsf20141117>{{cite news|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|title=Pad 39A – SpaceX laying the groundwork for Falcon Heavy debut |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/11/pad-39a-spacex-groundwork-falcon-heavy-debut/|access-date=2014-11-17|work=NASA Spaceflight|date=2014-11-18}}</ref> Due to a failure in a June 2015 Falcon 9 launch, SpaceX had to delay launching the Falcon Heavy in order to focus on the Falcon 9's failure investigation and its return to flight.<ref>{{cite web|author=Clark, Stephen|title=First flight of Falcon Heavy delayed again|url=http://spaceflightnow.com/2015/07/21/first-flight-of-falcon-heavy-delayed-again/|publisher=spaceflightnow.com|date=2015-07-21|access-date=2015-10-06}}</ref> In early 2016, considering the busy Falcon 9 launch manifest, it became unclear if the Falcon Heavy would be the first vehicle to launch from Pad 39A, or if one or more Falcon 9 missions would precede a Falcon Heavy launch.<ref name=sn20160204>{{cite news|last=Foust|first=Jeff|url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-seeks-to-accelerate-falcon-9-production-and-launch-rates-this-year/|title=SpaceX seeks to accelerate Falcon 9 production and launch rates this year |work=[[SpaceNews]]|date=2014-02-04|access-date=2016-02-06}}</ref> In the following months, the Falcon Heavy launch was delayed multiple times and eventually pushed back to February 2018.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.investors.com/news/spacex-to-test-fire-falcon-heavy-ahead-of-maiden-flight-despite-zuma-questions/|title=SpaceX Performs Falcon Heavy Rocket Static Fire Test After Delays {{!}} Stock News & Stock Market Analysis - IBD|last=Daily|first=Investor's Business|date=2018-01-24|work=Investor's Business Daily|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref>

In 2019, SpaceX began substantial modification to LC 39A in order to begin work on phase 1 of the construction to prepare the facility to launch [[test article (aerospace)|prototypes]] of the large {{cvt|9|m}}-diameter [[methalox]] reusable rocket — [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] — from a launch stand, which will fly from 39A on suborbital test flight trajectories with six or fewer [[Raptor (rocket engine)|Raptor]] engines. A second phase of the construction is planned for 2020 to build a much more capable launch mount capable of launching the entire Starship launch vehicle,<ref>[https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/10/construction-starship-39a-facility-pace/ https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/10/construction-starship-39a-facility-pace/]</ref> powered by 43 Raptor engines and producing a total of {{cvt|72|MN|lbf}} liftoff thrust when departing 39A.<ref name=teslarati20192809>{{cite news|last1=Groh|first1=Jamie|title=SpaceX debuts Starship's new Super Heavy booster design |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-ceo-elon-musk-debuts-starships-new-super-heavy-booster-design/|work=Teslarati|date=28 September 2019|access-date=8 October 2019}}</ref>

==== Launch history ====
The first SpaceX launch from pad 39A was [[SpaceX CRS-10]] on February 19, 2017, using a Falcon 9 launch vehicle; it was the company's 10th cargo resupply mission to the International Space Station,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spacex.com/webcast|title=CRS-10 MISSION|last=spacexcmsadmin|date=2016-01-29|newspaper=SpaceX|access-date=2017-02-18}}</ref> and the first uncrewed launch from 39A since [[Skylab]].

While [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40]] (SLC-40) was undergoing reconstruction after the loss of the [[AMOS-6]] satellite on September 1, 2016, all SpaceX's east coast launches were from Pad 39A until SLC-40 became operational again in December 2017. These included the May 1, 2017, launch of [[NROL]]-76, the first SpaceX mission for the [[National Reconnaissance Office]], with a classified payload.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/03/spacex-falcon-9-echostar-23-slc-40-return/|title=SpaceX Static Fires Falcon 9 for EchoStar 23 launch as SLC-40 targets return|work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]] |first=Chris|last=Bergin|date=March 9, 2017|access-date=March 18, 2017}}</ref>

On February 6, 2018, Pad 39A hosted the successful liftoff of the Falcon Heavy on its [[Falcon Heavy Test Flight|maiden launch]], carrying [[Elon Musk]]'s [[Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster|Tesla Roadster]] car to space;<ref>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2018/02/06/technology/future/spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-mainbar/index.html|title=SpaceX launches Falcon Heavy, the world's most powerful rocket|last=Wattles |first=Jackie|work=CNNMoney|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref> and the first flight of the human-rated spacecraft {{ComV|Dragon 2}}; ([[Crew Dragon Demo-1|Demo-1]]) took place there on March 2, 2019.

The second Falcon Heavy flight, carrying the [[Arabsat-6A]] communications satellite for Arabsat of Saudi Arabia, successfully launched on April 11, 2019. The satellite is to provide [[Ku band|Ku-band]] and [[Ka band|Ka-band]] communication services for the [[Middle East]] and [[North Africa|northern Africa]], as well as for [[South Africa]]. The launch was notable as it marked the first time that SpaceX was able to successfully soft-land all three of the [[SpaceX reusable launch system development program|reusable booster stages]], which will be refurbished for future launches.<ref name="launch schedule">{{cite web|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/launch-schedule/|title=Launch Schedule – Spaceflight Now|website=Spaceflightnow.com|access-date=February 20, 2019}}</ref>

The [[Crew Dragon Demo-2]] test flight launched with astronauts [[Bob Behnken]] and [[Doug Hurley]] from Launch Complex 39A on 30 May 2020, and docked to pressurised mating adapter [[PMA-2]] on the [[Harmony (ISS module)|Harmony module]] of the [[International Space Station|ISS]] on 31 May 2020.<ref>{{cite web|title=Upcoming Spaceflight Events|url=http://nextspaceflight.com/events/|website=nextspaceflight.com |access-date=1 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="M20-050">{{cite web|last1=Potter|first1=Sean|title=NASA to Host Preview Briefings for First Crew Launch with SpaceX|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-to-host-preview-briefings-interviews-for-first-crew-launch-with-spacex|website=NASA|access-date=30 April 2020|date=20 April 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=NASA Astronauts Launch from America in Historic Test Flight of SpaceX Crew Dragon|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-america-in-historic-test-flight-of-spacex-crew-dragon|access-date=30 May 2020|date=30 May 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
The first operational [[Commercial Crew Program|Commercial Crew ]] mission [[SpaceX Crew-1| Crew-1]] was launched on November 15th, [[2020 in spaceflight|2020]].<ref>https://spacenews.com/spacex-launches-first-operational-crew-dragon-mission-to-iss/</ref>

== Launch statistics ==
{{ #invoke:Chart | bar chart
| float = center
| width = 750
| height = 350
| stack = 1
| group 1 = 0:0:1:2:3: 1:2:2:1:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0: 0:0:0: 0:0 
| group 2 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:2:3:4:5: 9:1:0:2:5: 6:5:4:1:4: 4:1:6:3:1: 3:3:3:1:0: 0:0:3:4:5: 3:3:0:0:0: 0:0: 0:0:0: 0:0 
| group 3 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:12:2:1: 11:7 
| group 4 = 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0: 0:0: 0:1:2: 0:0 
| colors = Grey : Orange : SteelBlue : Gold
| group names = [[Saturn V]] : [[Space Shuttle]] : [[Falcon 9]] : [[Falcon Heavy]]
| x legends = 1965 ::::: 1970 ::::: 1975 ::::: 1980 ::::: 1985 ::::: 1990 ::::: 1995 ::::: 2000 ::::: 2005 ::::: 2010 ::::: 2015 ::::: 2020 ::
| units suffix = _launches
| y tick marks = 5
}}

== Current status ==
On April 14, 2014, the private American aerospace manufacturer and space transportation services company [[SpaceX]] signed a lease agreement<ref name=flortoda/> that gave it a 20-year exclusive lease on LC-39A.<ref name=leasedoc/> SpaceX has launched [[SpaceX launch vehicles|their launch vehicles]] from the pad and built a new hangar nearby.<ref name=leasedoc/><ref name=flortoda/><ref name=tss20140321/>

[[Elon Musk]], CEO of SpaceX, stated that he wanted to shift most of SpaceX's NASA launches to LC-39A, including [[Commercial Resupply Services|commercial cargo]] and [[Commercial Crew Development|crew]] missions to the [[International Space Station]].<ref name=padnego/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/news/n1312/12gao/#.UrhmtbSTJe4|title=GAO decision opens door for commercial lease of pad 39A |last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=December 12, 2013|publisher=Spaceflight Now|access-date=December 23, 2013|quote=Musk said he wants to launch SpaceX's commercial cargo and crew missions to the International Space Station from launch pad 39A}}</ref>

SpaceX utilizes the former [[Fixed Service Structure]] (FSS) of the Pad 39A [[#Launch towers|launch towers]] and intends to extend it above its former {{convert|350|ft|m|sp=us|adj=on}} height. It did not need the [[Rotating Service Structure]] (RSS)<ref name=nsf20141117/> and removed it beginning in February 2016.<ref name=ses20141021>{{cite web|title=SES-9|work=SES|url=http://www.ses.com/ses-9 |publisher=SES |date=October 21, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021043414/http://www.ses.com/ses-9|archive-date=2014-10-21|access-date=2016-02-23}}</ref>

NASA removed the Orbiter Servicing Arm — with intent to use the space later to build a museum — and the [[White room (spaceflight)|white room]] by which astronauts entered the Space Shuttle.<ref name=cs20140414/> SpaceX indicated in late 2014 that additional levels to the FSS would not be added in the near term.<ref name=nsf20141117/> SpaceX plans to eventually add at least two additional levels to the FSS, to provide [[human spaceflight|crew]] access for the [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Dragon 2]] launches.<ref name=nsf20140728>{{cite news|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|title=SpaceX Roadmap building on its rocket business revolution|url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/07/spacex-roadmap-rocket-business-revolution/|access-date=2014-07-28|publisher=NASAspaceflight|date=2014-07-28}}</ref>

SpaceX assembles its launch vehicles horizontally in a hangar near the pad, and transports them horizontally to the pad before erecting the vehicle to vertical for the launch.<ref name=sfn20140415/> For [[United States Department of Defense|military]] missions from Pad 39A, [[payload]]s will be vertically integrated, as that is required per launch contract with the [[United States Air Force|USAF]].<ref name=sfn20140415/><ref name=nsf20140728/>

Pad 39A will be used to host launches of astronauts on the [[Dragon V2|crewed]]-version of the [[SpaceX Dragon|Dragon space capsule]] in a [[public–private partnership]] with NASA. {{As of|2014|04}}, the NASA plan called for the first NASA crewed missions in 2017.<ref name=sfn20140415/> SpaceX intends to add "a crew gantry access arm and white room to allow for crew and cargo ingress to the vehicle. The existing Space Shuttle evacuation slide-wire basket system will also be re-purposed to provide a safe emergency egress for the Dragon crew in the event of an emergency on the pad that does not necessitate using the [[Crew Dragon]]'s launch abort system".<ref name=sx20150227>{{cite web|last1=Reisman|first1=Garrett|title=Statement of Garrett Reisman before the Subcommittee on Space Committee on Science, Space, and Technology U.S. House Of Representatives|url=http://science.house.gov/sites/republicans.science.house.gov/files/documents/HHRG-114-SY16-WState-GReisman-20150227.pdf|publisher=US House of Representatives publication of a SpaceX document provided to the committee|access-date=28 February 2015|date=27 February 2015}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

In August 2018, SpaceX's Crew Access Arm (CAA) was installed on a new level, which was built at the necessary height to enter the Crew Dragon spacecraft atop a Falcon 9 rocket. It very closely resembles [[jetway]]s that are frequently found at airports.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/08/20/spacexs-astronaut-walkway-installed-on-florida-launch-pad/|title=SpaceX's astronaut walkway installed on Florida launch pad|work=Spaceflight Now|first=Stephen|last=Clark|date=August 20, 2018|access-date=August 22, 2018}}</ref> In September 2018, the refurbished Space Shuttle Emergency Egress System was raised to this new level.

In August 2019, SpaceX submitted an Environmental Assessment for [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]] launch system at Kennedy Space Center.<ref>{{cite web|title=Draft Environmental Assessment for the SpaceX Starship and Super Heavy Launch Vehicle at Kennedy Space Center (KSC)|url=https://netspublic.grc.nasa.gov/main/20190801_Final_DRAFT_EA_SpaceX_Starship.pdf|website=NASA Public NEPA Documents|publisher=SpaceX |access-date=20 September 2019}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> This document included plans for the construction of additional structures at LC-39A to support Starship launches, including a dedicated pad, liquid methane tanks, and a Landing Zone.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Ralph|first1=Eric|title=SpaceX prepares to break ground on Starship launch facilities at Pad 39A|url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-breaks-ground-starship-super-heavy-florida-launch-pad/|website=TESLARATI|access-date=20 September 2019|date=18 September 2019}}</ref> These are separate from the existing structures that support Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy launches.

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Apollo 11 Launch - GPN-2000-000630.jpg|[[Apollo 11]] launch at LC-39A (1969)
File:Enterprise KSC 1979.jpg|{{OV|101}} at LC-39A during the fit check tests (1979)
File:Space_Shuttle_Atlantis_at_Launch_Pad_39A.jpg|{{OV|104}} at LC-39A (2007)
File:39A SpaceX Deluge Test.webm|Deluge system test at pad 39A (2017)
File:SpaceX HIF at KSC LC-39A (27550168066).jpg|SpaceX [[Horizontal Integration Facility]] (HIF)
File:KSC-20190624-PH_KLS01_0056.jpg|[[Falcon Heavy]] at LC-39A (2019)
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Rocketry|Spaceflight}}
{{Commons category|Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A}}
* {{annotated link|List of Cape Canaveral and Merritt Island launch sites}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/facilities/lc39a.html Launch Complex 39-A]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qAEjsS0i06k&feature=channel NASA-produced video tour of Shuttle on Pad 39A 1 month before launch]
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/apacheman/sets/72157628298421411/with/6463141403/ photos of work areas and catacombs beneath Pad 39A]
* [http://nasatech.net/ntSubPad39A_PAGE.html A comprehensive virtual tour over, under, around, and through the infrastructure of Launch Pad 39A]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/c/capecanaverallc39a.html Cape Canaveral LC39A] from ''[[Encyclopedia Astronautica]]''

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[[Category:Constellation program]]

Ares I

2021-07-06T10:43:51Z

Denvercoder9: more consistent units

{{short description|Canceled NASA rocket key to the Constellation program}}
{{About|the Ares I launch vehicle|other uses|Ares (disambiguation)}}
{{No orbit for payload|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox rocket
|image = Ares I launch.jpg
|caption = Ares 1 launch
|name = Ares I
|function = [[Human-rating certification|Human-rated]] orbital [[launch vehicle]]
|manufacturer = [[Alliant Techsystems]] (Stage I) [[Boeing]] (Stage II)
|country-origin = United States
|pcost= at least US$ 6 billion<ref name="spms" />
|height = {{Convert|94|m|sp=us}}
|diameter = {{Convert|5.5|m|sp=us}}
|stages = 2
|capacities = {{Infobox Rocket/Payload|location=LEO|mass={{convert|25400|kg|abbr=on}}}}
|family = Followed by [[Liberty (rocket)|Liberty]]
|status = Cancelled
|sites = [[Kennedy Space Center]], [[LC-39B]]
|launches = 1 (prototype)
|first=October 2009 (Prototype)
|stagedata =
{{Infobox Rocket/Stage
|type = stage
|stageno = First
|engines = 1 [[solid rocket|Solid]]
|thrust = {{cvt|15000|kN}}
|burntime = ~150 seconds
|fuel = [[solid rocket|Solid]]}}
{{Infobox Rocket/Stage
|type = stage
|stageno = Second
|engines = 1 [[J-2 (rocket engine)#J-2X|J-2X]]
|thrust = {{cvt|1308|kN}} 
|burntime = ~800 seconds
|fuel = [[Liquid hydrogen|LH{{sub|2}}]] / [[LOX]]}}
}}
'''Ares I''' was the crew [[launch vehicle]] that was being developed by [[NASA]] as part of the [[Constellation program]].<ref name="Overview">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/index.html|access-date=August 5, 2009 |title=NASA–Ares Launch Vehicles |date=July 24, 2009 |first=Brooke |last=Boen |publisher=NASA | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090720032757/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/index.html| archive-date= July 20, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The name "Ares" refers to the Greek deity [[Ares]], who is [[interpretatio graeca|identified]] with the Roman god [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]].<ref name="name video">{{Cite video| url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/on_demand_video.html?param=http://mfile.akamai.com/18565/rm/etouchsyst2.download.akamai.com/18355/real.nasa-global/ares/ares768k.ram&_id=83741&_title=Ares%3A%20NASA%27s%20New%20Rockets&_tnimage=151364main_ares_64.jpg|access-date=August 15, 2009 |format=[[RealMedia]] |title=Ares: NASA's New Rockets |publisher=[[NASA TV]]}}{{dead link|date=June 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Ares I was originally known as the "Crew Launch Vehicle" (CLV).<ref name="New">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/main/work_assign.html |access-date=August 15, 2009 |title=Building NASA's New Spacecraft: Constellation Work Assignments |first1=Brian |last1=Dunbar |first2=Jim |last2=Wilson |date=November 23, 2007 |publisher=NASA}}</ref>

NASA planned to use Ares I to launch [[Orion (spacecraft)#Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV)|Orion]], the [[spacecraft]] intended for NASA [[human spaceflight]] missions after the [[Space Shuttle]] was retired in 2011. Ares I was to complement the larger, uncrewed [[Ares V]], which was the cargo launch vehicle for Constellation. NASA selected the Ares designs for their anticipated overall safety, reliability and cost-effectiveness.<ref name="SafetyDesign">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/aresl/index.html |title=NASA – Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle |access-date=May 13, 2009 |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=April 29, 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090504015905/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/aresl/index.html |archive-date= May 4, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, the Constellation program, including Ares I, was cancelled by U.S. president [[Barack Obama]] in October 2010 with the passage of his 2010 NASA authorization bill. In September 2011, NASA detailed the [[Space Launch System]] as its new vehicle for human exploration beyond Earth's orbit.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/sls1.html NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System]</ref>

== Development ==

=== Advanced Transportation System Studies ===
In 1995 Lockheed Martin produced an Advanced Transportation System Studies (ATSS) report for the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]]. A section of the ATSS report describes several possible vehicles much like the Ares I design, with liquid rocket second stages stacked above segmented [[solid rocket booster]] (SRB) first stages.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19960028972_1996058483.pdf |title=Technical Area 2 Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle Development Final Report |pages=3–17, 3–18 |publisher=[[NASA]] |work=[[Lockheed Martin]] |date=July 1995 | access-date=August 7, 2009}}</ref> The variants that were considered included both the [[J-2 (rocket engine)#J-2S|J-2S]] engines and [[Space Shuttle Main Engine]]s (SSMEs) for the second stage. The variants also assumed use of the [[Advanced Solid Rocket Motor]] (ASRM) as a first stage, but the ASRM was cancelled in 1993 due to significant cost overruns.

=== Exploration Systems Architecture Study ===

President [[George W. Bush]] had announced the [[Vision for Space Exploration]] in January 2004, and NASA under [[Sean O'Keefe]] had solicited plans for a [[Crew Exploration Vehicle]] from multiple bidders, with the plan for having two competing teams. These plans were discarded by incoming administrator [[Michael D. Griffin|Michael Griffin]], and on April 29, 2005, NASA chartered the [[Exploration Systems Architecture Study]] to accomplish specific goals:<ref name="ESAS report">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/news/ESAS_report.html |title=Exploration Systems Architecture Study – Final Report |first=Erin |last=Mahoney |date=December 31, 2008| publisher=[[NASA]]| access-date=August 5, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090831023206/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/news/ESAS_report.html| archive-date= August 31, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>

*determine the "top-level requirements and configurations for crew and cargo launch systems to support the lunar and Mars exploration programs"
*assess the "CEV requirements and plans to enable the CEV to provide crew transport to the ISS"
*"develop a reference lunar exploration architecture concept to support sustained human and robotic lunar exploration operations"
*"identify key technologies required to enable and significantly enhance these reference exploration systems"

[[File:Ares I Evolution.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.25|Concept image of the evolution of the Ares I design from pre-[[Exploration Systems Architecture Study|ESAS]] to latest developments.]]
A Shuttle-derived launch architecture was selected by NASA for the Ares I. Originally, the crewed vehicle would have used a four-segment solid rocket booster (SRB) for the first stage, and a simplified Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) for the second stage. An uncrewed version was to use a five-segment booster with the same second stage.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1040 |title=NASA Plans to Build Two New Shuttle-derived Launch Vehicles |publisher=[[Spaceref.com]] |date=July 5, 2005 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> Shortly after the initial design was approved, additional tests revealed that the Orion spacecraft would be too heavy for the four-segment booster to lift,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.NASAspaceflight.com/content/?cid=4659 |title=NASA makes major design changes to CEV |publisher=[[NASAspaceflight.com]] |date=July 22, 2006 |first=Chris |last=Bergin |access-date=August 5, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405215413/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=4659 |archive-date=April 5, 2008}}</ref> and in January 2006 NASA announced they would slightly reduce the size of the Orion spacecraft, add a fifth segment to the solid-rocket first stage, and replace the single SSME with the Apollo-derived [[J-2 (rocket engine)#J-2X|J-2X]] motor.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/may/HQ_08116_power_pack_tests.html |title=NASA Successfully Completes First Series of Ares Engine Tests |first=Brian |last=Dunbar |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=May 9, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> While the change from a four-segment first stage to a five-segment version would allow NASA to construct virtually identical motors, the main reason for the change to the five-segment booster was the move to the J-2X.<ref name="J2X">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/187393main_j2x_fs_nov08.pdf |title=The J–2X Engine |publisher=[[Marshall Space Flight Center]] |date=November 18, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref>

The Exploration Systems Architecture Study concluded that the cost and safety of the Ares was superior to that of either of the [[Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle]] (EELVs).<ref name="ESAS report"/> The cost estimates in the study were based on the assumption that new launch pads would be needed for [[Human-rating certification|human-rated]] EELVs.<ref name="ESAS report"/> The facilities for the current EELVs (LC-37 for Delta IV, LC-41 for Atlas V) are in place and could be modified, but this may not have been the most cost effective solution as LC-37 is a contractor owned and operated (COGO) facility and modifications for the Delta IV H were determined to be similar to those required for Ares I.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/377875main_081109%20Human%20Rated%20Delta%20IV.pdf|title=Human-Rated Delta IV Heavy Study – Constellation Architecture Impacts|publisher=Aerospace Corporation|date=June 1, 2009|access-date=February 1, 2012}}.</ref> The ESAS launch safety estimates for the Ares were based on the Space Shuttle, despite the differences, and included only launches after the post-Challenger Space Shuttle redesign.<ref>{{cite web |title = Report to the President: Actions to Implement the Recommendations of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident|publisher=NASA| date = July 14, 1986| url = https://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/actions.pdf }}</ref> The estimate counted each Shuttle launch as two safe launches of the Ares booster. The safety of the [[Atlas V]] and [[Delta IV]] was estimated from the failure rates of all [[Delta II]], [[Atlas-Centaur]], and Titan launches since 1992, although they are not similar designs.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

In May 2009 the previously withheld appendices to the 2006 ESAS study were leaked, revealing a number of apparent flaws in the study, which gave safety exemptions to the selected Ares I design while using a model which penalized the EELV-based designs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=To the moon and beyond: NASA's Exploration Systems Architecture Study |url=https://wikileaks.org/wiki/To_the_moon_and_beyond:_NASA's_Exploration_Systems_Architecture_Study,_630_pages,_2006 |date=March 6, 2009 |publisher= [[WikiLeaks]] |access-date=May 16, 2016}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2009}}

===Role in Constellation program===
[[File:SDLV rockets.jpg|thumb|right|An early concept image of the Ares I (right) and [[Ares V]] (left) rockets]]

Ares I was the crew launch component of the Constellation program. Originally named the "Crew Launch Vehicle" or CLV, the Ares name was chosen from the Greek deity [[Ares]].<ref name="New"/> Unlike the Space Shuttle, where both crew and cargo were launched simultaneously on the same rocket, the plans for Project Constellation outlined having two separate launch vehicles, the Ares I and the Ares V, for crew and cargo, respectively. Having two separate launch vehicles allows for more specialized designs for the crew and heavy cargo launch rockets.<ref name="Constellation overview">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/163092main_constellation_program_overview.pdf |title=Constellation Program Overview |last=Connolly |first=John F. |date=October 2006 |publisher=Constellation Program Office |access-date=July 6, 2009}}</ref>

The Ares I rocket was specifically being designed to launch the [[Orion (Constellation program)|Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle]]. Orion was intended as a crew capsule, similar in design to the [[Apollo program]] capsule, to transport astronauts to the [[International Space Station]], the [[Moon]], and eventually [[Mars]]. Ares I might have also delivered some (limited) resources to [[orbit]], including supplies for the International Space Station or subsequent delivery to the planned [[Lunar outpost (NASA)|lunar base]].<ref name="SafetyDesign"/>

=== Contractor selection ===
NASA selected Alliant Techsystems, the builder of the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster]]s, as the prime contractor for the Ares I first stage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bergin |first=Chris |url=http://www.NASAspaceflight.com/2005/12/atk-win-clv-contract/ |title=ATK win CLV contract |publisher=[[NASAspaceflight.com]] |date=December 7, 2005 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Ares1stStage">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/230922main_1stStage_FS.pdf |title=NASA's Ares I First Stage, Powering the Ares I Rocket for liftoff |publisher=[[Marshall Space Flight Center]] |date=April 29, 2009 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> NASA announced that [[Rocketdyne]] would be the main subcontractor for the [[J-2 (rocket engine)#J-2X|J-2X]] rocket engine on July 16, 2007.<ref name ="Rocketdyne">{{cite press |title = NASA Awards Upper Stage Engine Contract for Ares Rockets |publisher =[[NASA]] |date = July 16, 2007 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/jul/HQ_C07030_J2X_Contract_prt.htm |access-date=July 17, 2007}}</ref> NASA selected [[Boeing]] to provide and install the [[avionics]] for the Ares I rocket on December 12, 2007.<ref>{{Cite press release |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/dec/HQ_C07060_Ares_1_Avionics.html |title=NASA Selects Prime Contractor For Ares I Rocket Avionics |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=December 12, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref>

On August 28, 2007 NASA awarded the Ares I Upper Stage manufacturing contract to Boeing. Boeing built the S-IC stage of the [[Saturn V]] rocket at [[Michoud Assembly Facility|Michoud Aerospace Factory]] in the 1960s. The upper stage of Ares I was to have been built at the same rocket factory used for the Space Shuttle's External Tank and the Saturn V's [[S-IC]] first stage.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Harry |last=Wadsworth |url=http://www.lockheedmartin.com/ssc/michoud/about/History.html |title=History – History of Michoud |publisher=[[Lockheed Martin]] |access-date=August 7, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804011158/http://www.lockheedmartin.com/ssc/michoud/about/History.html |archive-date=August 4, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://boeing.com/history/boeing/saturn.html |title=Boeing History – Saturn V Moon Rocket |publisher=Boeing |access-date=July 19, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090719093659/http://www.boeing.com/history/boeing/saturn.html |archive-date=July 19, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

=== J-2X engines ===
{{Main|J-2X}}

At approximately US$20–25 million per engine, the Rocketdyne-designed and produced J-2X would have cost less than half as much as the more complex [[RS-25]] engine (around $55 million).<ref name="DeltaIVcheaper">{{Cite news| url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/Study061509.xml&headline=Study%20Finds%20Human-rated%20Delta%20IV%20Cheaper&channel=space| title=NASA Study Finds Human-rated Delta IV Cheaper| publisher=[[Aviation Week]]| date=June 15, 2009 |access-date=August 9, 2009}}</ref> Unlike the Space Shuttle Main Engine, which was designed to start on the ground, the J-2X was designed from inception to be started in both mid-air and in near-vacuum. This air-start capability was critical, especially in the original J-2 engine used on the Saturn V's [[S-IVB]] stage, to propel the [[Apollo spacecraft]] to the Moon. The Space Shuttle Main Engine, on the other hand, would have required extensive modifications to add an air-start capability<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nss.org/resources/library/spacepolicy/2005Architecture-01-ExecutiveSummary.pdf|title=2005 ESAS Architecture Executive Summary|date=January 2004|website=NSS.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423135006/http://www.nss.org/resources/library/spacepolicy/2005Architecture-01-ExecutiveSummary.pdf|archive-date=April 23, 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=April 23, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="J2X"/>

=== System requirements review ===
[[File:Aiaa2.jpg|thumb|right|A concept image of an Ares I launching from [[Kennedy Space Center]] launchpad 39B.]]

On January 4, 2007, NASA announced that the Ares I had completed its system requirements review, the first such review completed for any crewed spacecraft design since the Space Shuttle.<ref name="Review">{{Cite press release| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/07-002.html |title=NASA Completes Review Milestone for Ares I Vehicle |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=January 4, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> This review was the first major milestone in the design process, and was intended to ensure that the Ares I launch system met all the requirements necessary for the Constellation Program. In addition to the release of the review, NASA also announced that a redesign in the tank hardware was made. Instead of separate LH2 and LO2 tanks, separated by an "intertank" like that of the [[Space Shuttle External Tank]], the new LH2 and LOX tanks would have been separated by a common bulkhead like that employed on the Saturn V [[S-II]] and S-IVB stages. This would have provided a significant mass saving and eliminated the need to design a second stage interstage unit that would have had to carry the weight of the Orion spacecraft with it.<ref name="Ares1stStage"/>

=== Analysis and testing ===

In January 2008, [[NASA Watch]] revealed that the first stage [[solid-fuel rocket|solid rocket]] of the ''Ares I'' could have created high vibrations during the first few minutes of ascent. The vibrations would have been caused by thrust oscillations inside the first stage.<ref name="Houston Chronicle">{{Cite news |last=Carreau |first=Mark |url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/front/5467711.html |title=Severe vibration problem plagues moon rocket design |work=Houston Chronicle |date=January 19, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}} – note: article does not seem to still be available online (February 19, 2010)</ref> NASA officials had identified the potential problem at the Ares I system design review in late October 2007, stating in a press release that it wanted to solve it by March 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Keith |last=Cowing |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1266 |title=NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate Responds to Ares 1 and Orion Questions |publisher=[[NASA Watch]] |date=January 17, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> NASA admitted that this problem was very severe, rating it four out of five on a risk scale, but the agency was very confident in solving it.<ref name="Houston Chronicle"/> The mitigation approach developed by the Ares engineering team included active and passive vibration damping, adding an active tuned-mass absorber and a passive "compliance structure" – essentially a spring-loaded ring that would have detuned the Ares I stack.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/thrust_oscillation.html Thrust Oscillation Mitigation Approach]. NASA</ref> NASA also pointed out that, since this would have been a new launch system, like the [[Apollo spacecraft|Apollo]] or Space Shuttle systems, it was normal for such problems to arise during the development stage.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Seth |last=Borenstein |url=http://www.space.com/news/080118-nasa-new-rocket-shake.html |title=NASA's Next Rocket May Shake Too Much |publisher=[[Space.com]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=January 18, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> According to NASA, analysis of the data and telemetry from the Ares I-X flight showed that vibrations from thrust oscillation were within the normal range for a Space Shuttle flight.<ref name="splashdown">[http://www.space.com/common/media/video/player.php?videoRef=SP_091110_ares-launch Video of Ares I-X First Stage splashdown] from NASA via Space.com, November 10, 2009</ref>

A study released in July 2009 by the [[45th Space Wing]] of the US Air Force concluded that an abort 30–60 seconds after launch would have a ~100% chance of killing all crew, due to the capsule being engulfed until ground impact by a cloud of {{Convert|4000|F|C}} solid propellant fragments, which would melt the capsule's nylon parachute material. NASA's study showed the crew capsule would have flown beyond the more severe danger.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=31792 |title=USAF 45th Space Wing Study: Capsule~100%-Fratricide Environments (Implications for NASA's Ares-1 and Crew) |publisher=45th Space Wing |date=July 16, 2009 |access-date=July 19, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/space/orl-new-blow-to-nasa-ares-071809,0,3051613.story |title=Report: No escape system could save astronauts if Ares I rocket exploded during first minute |publisher=[[Orlando Sentinel]] |first=Mark K. |last=Matthew |date=July 17, 2009 |access-date=July 19, 2009 |quote=Subtitle: Report saying crew would be doomed is yet another blow to NASA's troubled Constellation program to return U.S. to the moon then Mars |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720215310/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/space/orl-new-blow-to-nasa-ares-071809,0,3051613.story |archive-date=July 20, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

[[File:Ares I-X launch 08.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ares I-X]] launches from [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch pad 39B on October 28, 2009.]]

The Ares I igniter was an advanced version of the flight-proven igniter used on the Space Shuttle's solid rocket boosters. It was approximately 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter and 36 inches (91 cm) long, and took advantage of upgraded insulation materials that had improved thermal properties to protect the igniter's case from the burning solid propellant.<ref name="Igniter">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/igniter_test.html |access-date=August 5, 2009 |title=NASA Ares Iginiter Tests |first=Brooke |last=Boen |date=March 12, 2009 |publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref> NASA successfully completed test firing of the igniter for the Ares I engines on March 10, 2009 at [[Alliant Techsystems|ATK Launch Systems]] test facilities near [[Promontory, Utah]]. The igniter test generated a flame 200 feet (60 meters) in length, and preliminary data showed the igniter performed as planned.<ref name="Igniter" />

Development of the Ares I propulsion elements continued to make strong progress. On September 10, 2009, the first Ares I development motor (DM-1) was successfully tested in a full-scale, full-duration test firing.<ref>"NASA and ATK Successfully Test Ares First Stage Motor". http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/dm1_success.html. Retrieved October 21, 2011.</ref> This test was followed by two more development motor tests, DM-2 on August 31, 2010 and DM-3 on September 8, 2011. For DM-2 the motor was cooled to a core temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius), and for DM-3 it was heated to above 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 degrees Celsius). In addition to other objectives, these two tests validated Ares motor performance at extreme temperatures.<ref>"NASA and ATK Successfully Test Five-Segment Solid Rocket Motor". http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/10-202.html. Retrieved October 21, 2011.</ref><ref>"NASA Successfully Tests Five-Segment Solid Rocket Motor". http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/features/dm3.html. Retrieved October 21, 2011.</ref> NASA conducted a successful 500-second test firing of the J-2X rocket engine at John C. Stennis Space Center in November 2011.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/j2x/500_second_test.html|title= NASA's New Upper Stage Engine Passes Major Test|publisher=NASA|date=November 9, 2011|access-date=February 1, 2012}}.</ref>

The Ares I prototype, [[Ares I-X]], successfully completed a test launch on October 28, 2009.<ref name="Ares I-X page">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/flighttests/aresIx/index.html |title=NASA Ares I-X (flight test prototype) page |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=October 27, 2009 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091026172612/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/flighttests/aresIx/index.html| archive-date= October 26, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Ares I-X sheet">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/354470main_aresIX_fs_may09.pdf |title=Constellation Program: Ares I-X Flight Test Vehicle |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=October 27, 2009 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091026204347/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/354470main_aresIX_fs_may09.pdf| archive-date= October 26, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=NTRS>{{cite web |author1=Karlgaard, Christopher D. |author2=Beck, Roger E. |author3=Derry, Stephen D. |author4=Brandon, Jay M. |author5=Starr, Brett R. |author6=Tartabini, Paul V. |author7=Olds, Aaron D. |title=Ares I-X Best Estimated Trajectory and Comparison with Pre-Flight Predictions |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110014643_2011015361.pdf |work=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |publisher=NASA Langley Research Center |date=n.d. |access-date=September 15, 2011}}</ref> Launch Pad 39B was damaged more than with a Space Shuttle launch. During descent, one of the three parachutes of the Ares I-X's first stage failed to open, and another opened only partially, causing the booster to splash down harder and suffer structural damage.<ref name=NasaSF_Ares_I-X_pad39b_parachute>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/10/pad-39b-suffers-substantial-damage-ares-i-x-parachute-update |author=Bergin, Chris |title=Pad 39B suffers substantial damage from Ares I-X launch – Parachute update |publisher=NasaSpaceFlight |date= October 31, 2009 |access-date=November 2, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091103083047/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/10/pad-39b-suffers-substantial-damage-ares-i-x-parachute-update| archive-date= November 3, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The launch accomplished all primary test objectives.<ref name=NasaSF_Ares_I-X_pad39b_parachute/><ref>{{cite web |author= Stephan R. Davis |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20100020885_2010020400.pdf |title=Operational Lessons Learned from the Ares I-X Flight Test |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|date=n.d. |access-date=February 1, 2012}}</ref>

=== Schedule and cost ===

NASA completed the Ares I system requirements review in January 2007.<ref name="Review" /> Project design was to have continued through the end of 2009, with development and qualification testing running concurrently through 2012. {{As of|2009|7}}, flight articles were to have begun production towards the end of 2009 for a first launch in June 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/flighttests/aresIx/index.html |title=NASA Ares I-X (flight test prototype) page |first=Brooke |last=Boen |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=July 9, 2009 |access-date=August 9, 2009}}</ref> Since 2006 the first launch of a human was planned for no later than 2014,<ref>{{Cite web |first=John |last=Connolly |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/163092main_constellation_program_overview.pdf |title=Constellation Program Overview |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=October 2006 |access-date=August 9, 2009 }}</ref> which is four years after the planned retirement of the Space Shuttle.

Delays in the Ares I development schedule due to budgetary pressures and unforeseen engineering and technical difficulties would have increased the gap between the end of the Space Shuttle program and the first operational flight of Ares I.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1244 |title=First Stage Design Problems Arise For NASA's Ares 1 Rocket |publisher=[[Spaceref.com]] |date=November 16, 2007}}</ref> Because the Constellation program was never allocated the funding originally projected,<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=10051|title=The Budgetary Implications of NASA's Current Plans for Space Exploration|publisher=Congressional Budget Office|date=April 2009|access-date=February 1, 2012}}.</ref> the total estimated cost to develop the Ares I through 2015 rose from $28 billion in 2006 to more than $40 billion in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2009-05-06/news/Shuttle_1_orion-rocket-plan-for-nasa |title=Obama plans to order full review of NASA's Ares I, Orion plans |publisher=[[Orlando Sentinel]] |date=May 6, 2009}}</ref> The [[Ares I-X]] project cost was $445 million.<ref>{{cite news|last=Harwood |first=William |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-19514_3-10379270-239.html |title=Ares I-X rocket hauled to launch pad for critical test flight | The Space Shot - CNET News |publisher=News.cnet.com |date=October 20, 2009 |access-date=March 1, 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Mobile Launching Platform 1 (Ares I) stationary at ML east park site.jpg|thumb|left|Mobile Launcher-1 for Ares I at east park site]]

Originally scheduled for first test flights in 2011, the independent analysis by the [[Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee|Augustine Commission]] found in late 2009 that due to technical and financial problems Ares I was not likely to have had its first crewed launch until 2017–2019 under the current budget, or late 2016 with an unconstrained budget.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/GAP072809.xml&headline=U.S.%20Spaceflight%20Gap%20Wider%20Than%20Thought |title=US Spaceflight Gap Wider Than Thought |publisher=[[Aviation Week]] |date=July 28, 2009}}</ref> The Augustine Commission also stated that Ares I and Orion would have an estimated recurring cost of almost $1 billion per flight.<ref>{{Citation |title = Review of U.S. Human Spaceflight Plans Committee – Final Report |url = http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/396093main_HSF_Cmte_FinalReport.pdf |year = 2009 |access-date =December 12, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091122095823/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/396093main_HSF_Cmte_FinalReport.pdf| archive-date= November 22, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> However, later financial analysis in March 2010 showed that the Ares I would have cost $1 billion or more to operate per flight had the Ares I flown just once a year. If the Ares I system were flown multiple times a year the [[marginal cost]]s could have fallen to as low as $138 million per launch.<ref name="spms">[http://spacepolicyonline.com/pages/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=817:how-much-would-ares-i-cost&catid=67:news&Itemid=27 Space Policy Online: How Much Would Ares I Cost? by Marcia Smith. written Thursday, March 25, 2010 21:41] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716113530/http://spacepolicyonline.com/pages/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=817%3Ahow-much-would-ares-i-cost&catid=67%3Anews&Itemid=27 |date=July 16, 2011 }}</ref> In March 2010, NASA administrator Charlie Bolden testified to congress that the Ares I would cost $4–4.5 billion a year, and $1.6 billion per flight.<ref>[http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/news/how-much-would-ares-i-cost?A=SearchResult&SearchID=1565489&ObjectID=4501984&ObjectType=35 Space Policy Online: How Much Would Ares I Cost? by Marcia Smith. written 05-Dec-2011]</ref> The Ares I marginal cost was predicted to have been a fraction of the Shuttle's marginal costs even had it flown multiple times per year. By comparison, the cost of launching three astronauts on a crewed Russian Soyuz is $153 million.<ref>[http://www.universetoday.com/2010/02/10/russia-may-raise-price-of-soyuz-seats/ "Russia May Raise Price of Soyuz Seats"]. universetoday.com, February 10, 2010.</ref> Representative [[Robert Aderholt]] stated in March 2010 that he had received a letter from NASA which claimed that it would have cost $1.1 billion to fly the Ares I rocket three times a year.<ref>[https://www.americaspace.com/2010/03/24/an-inconvenient-truth-about-ares-vs-commercial-launch-costs/ AmericaSpace For a nation that explores: An Inconvenient Truth About Ares vs. Commercial Launch Costs by Jim Hillhouse. written March 24th, 2010]</ref>

On February 8, 2011 it was reported that [[Alliant Techsystems]] and [[Astrium]] proposed to use Ares I's first stage with the second stage from the [[Ariane 5]] to form a new rocket named [[Liberty (rocket)|Liberty]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/10792-liberty-rocket-ressurects-scrapped-nasa-ares1.html |title=Scrapped NASA Rocket May be Resurrected for Commercial Launches |publisher=[[space.com]] |access-date=February 8, 2011}}</ref>

===Cancellation===
On February 1, 2010, President [[Barack Obama]] announced a proposal to cancel the Constellation program effective with the U.S. 2011 fiscal year budget,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/420990main_FY_201_%20Budget_Overview_1_Feb_2010.pdf NASA.gov]</ref> but later announced changes to the proposal in a [[Barack Obama space policy speech at Kennedy Space Center|major space policy speech]] at Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010. In October 2010, the NASA authorization bill for 2010 was signed into law which canceled Constellation.<ref>[http://www.space.com/9305-president-obama-signs-vision-space-exploration-law.html "President Obama Signs New Vision for U.S. Space Exploration Into Law"]. Space.com, October 11, 2010.</ref> Previous legislation kept Constellation contracts in force until passage of a new funding bill for 2011.<ref>[http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/awx/2010/10/22/awx_10_22_2010_p0-264465.xml&headline=Constellation%20Is%20Dead,%20But%20Pieces%20Live%20On "Constellation Is Dead, But Pieces Live On"]. ''Aviation Week'', October 26, 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.space.com/9712-nasa-stuck-limbo-congress-takes.html "NASA Stuck in Limbo as New Congress Takes Over"]. Space.com, January 7, 2011.</ref>

== Design ==
[[File:Saturn-V Shuttle Ares-I Ares-V comparison (06-2006).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Comparison of the basic size and shape of the [[Saturn V]], [[Space Shuttle]], Ares I, and [[Ares V]].]]

Ares I had a payload capability in the 25-tonne (28-short-ton; 25-long-ton) class and was comparable to vehicles such as the [[Delta IV]] and the [[Atlas V]].<ref name="SafetyDesign" /> The NASA study group that selected what would become the Ares I rated the vehicle as almost twice as safe as an Atlas or Delta IV-derived design.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/140637main_ESAS_06.pdf |title=Part 6 of the Exploration Systems Architecture Study Final Report |date=January 10, 2006 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> The rocket was to have made use of an [[aluminum-lithium]] alloy which is lower in density but similar in strength compared to other aluminum alloys. The alloy is produced by [[Alcoa]].<ref>{{citation |url = http://www.rdmag.com/News/2009/11/Materials-Aluminum-lithium-alloy-soars-with-Ares |title = Aluminum-lithium alloy soars with Ares |date = November 18, 2009 |publisher = R&D Magazine |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://archive.today/20120908133249/http://www.rdmag.com/News/2009/11/Materials-Aluminum-lithium-alloy-soars-with-Ares |archive-date = September 8, 2012 |df = mdy-all }}</ref>
[[File:Ares I.png|thumb|right|upright=1.1|Exploded view of the Ares I]]

=== First stage ===
The first stage was to have been a more powerful and reusable [[solid fuel rocket]] derived from the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster]] (SRB). Compared with the Solid Rocket Booster, which had four segments, the most notable difference was the addition of a fifth segment. This fifth segment would have enabled the Ares I to produce more thrust.<ref name="SafetyDesign" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1177 |title=NASA To Evaluate Non-recoverable First Stage for Ares I Launch Vehicle |publisher=[[Spaceref.com]] |date=December 4, 2006}}</ref> Other changes made to the Solid Rocket Booster were to have been the removal of the [[Space Shuttle External Tank]] (ET) attachment points and the replacement of the Solid Rocket Booster nosecone with a new forward adapter that would have interfaced with the liquid-fueled second stage. The adapter was to have been equipped with solid-fueled separation motors to facilitate the disconnection of the stages during ascent.<ref name="SafetyDesign" /> The grain design was also changed, and so were the insulation and liner. By the Ares I first stage ground test, the case, grain design, number of segments, insulation, liner, throat diameter, thermal protection systems and nozzle had all changed.<ref>ATK Inc. [http://www.atk.com/Products/documents/Ares%20I%20First%20Stage.pdf], "Ares I First Stage Ground Test", ATK Investor Relations and Public Affairs, September 9, 2009, p. 2. {{dead link|date=April 2017 |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

=== Upper stage ===
The upper stage, derived from the Shuttle's External Tank (ET) and based on the [[S-IVB]] stage of the Saturn V, was to be propelled by a single [[J-2X]] rocket engine fueled by [[liquid hydrogen]] (LH2) and [[liquid oxygen]] (LOX).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/187391main_aresI_fs_nov08.pdf |title=Constellation Program: America's Fleet of Next-Generation Launch Vehicles, The Ares l Crew Launch Vehicle |date=November 2008 |access-date=January 10, 2009 |publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref> The J-2X was derived from the original [[J-2 engine]] used during the Apollo program, but with more thrust (~294,000 lbf) and fewer parts than the original engine. On July 16, 2007, NASA awarded [[Rocketdyne]] a sole-source contract for the J-2X engines to be used for ground and flight tests.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA Awards Upper Stage Engine Contract for Ares Rockets |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=July 16, 2007 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/jul/HQ_C07030_J2X_Contract_prt.htm}}</ref> Rocketdyne was the prime contractor for the original J-2 engines used in the Apollo program.

Although its J-2X engine was derived from an established design, the upper stage itself would have been wholly new. Originally to have been based on both the internal and external structure of the ET, the original design called for separate fuel and oxidizer tanks, joined together by an "intertank" structure, and covered with the spray-on foam insulation to keep venting to a minimum. The only new hardware on the original ET-derived second stage would have been the thrust assembly for the J-2X engine, new fill/drain/vent disconnects for the fuel and oxidizer, and mounting interfaces for the solid-fueled first stage and the Orion spacecraft.

Using a concept going back to the Apollo program, the "intertank" structure was dropped to decrease mass, and in its place, a common bulkhead, similar to that used on both the [[S-II]] and S-IVB stages of the Saturn V, would have been used between the tanks. The savings from these changes were used to increase propellant capacity, which was {{Convert|297900|lb|kg|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.NASAspaceflight.com/2007/02/ares-i-upper-stage-change-receives-additional-capacity/ |title=Ares I Upper Stage change – receives additional capacity |publisher=[[NASAspaceflight.com]] |access-date=August 7, 2009}}</ref> The spray-on foam insulation was the only part of the Shuttle's ET that would have been used on this new Saturn-derived upper stage.

== See also ==
*[[Ares IV]], a proposed heavy-lift variant of Ares I and V combined.
*[[DIRECT]], shuttle-derived launcher proposed as alternative to Ares I and Ares V.
*[[Liberty (rocket)]], a proposed medium-lift rocket like the Ares I, a SDLV using an SRB-derivative first stage
*[[Omega (rocket)|Omega]], ATK's proposed new rocket based on SDLV SRB-derived first and second stages and [[Aerojet Rocketdyne]] RL10 third stage
*[[List of Constellation missions]]
*[[Boilerplate (spaceflight)]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Project Constellation}}
*[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/aresI.html NASA Ares I page]
*[http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-08-51 GAO-08-51, Ares I Report to Congress, GAO]

{{Project Constellation}}
{{NASA navbox}}
{{Reusable launch systems}}
{{US launch systems}}
{{J-2 (rocket engine)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}

[[Category:Cancelled space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:Partially reusable space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:Ares (rocket family)]]
[[Category:Shuttle-derived space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:Orion (spacecraft)]]

Ares I

2021-07-06T10:42:53Z

Denvercoder9: consistent thrust units in infobox

{{short description|Canceled NASA rocket key to the Constellation program}}
{{About|the Ares I launch vehicle|other uses|Ares (disambiguation)}}
{{No orbit for payload|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox rocket
|image = Ares I launch.jpg
|caption = Ares 1 launch
|name = Ares I
|function = [[Human-rating certification|Human-rated]] orbital [[launch vehicle]]
|manufacturer = [[Alliant Techsystems]] (Stage I) [[Boeing]] (Stage II)
|country-origin = United States
|pcost= at least US$ 6 billion<ref name="spms" />
|height = {{Convert|94|m|sp=us}}
|diameter = {{Convert|5.5|m|sp=us}}
|stages = 2
|capacities = {{Infobox Rocket/Payload|location=LEO|mass={{convert|25400|kg|abbr=on}}}}
|family = Followed by [[Liberty (rocket)|Liberty]]
|status = Cancelled
|sites = [[Kennedy Space Center]], [[LC-39B]]
|launches = 1 (prototype)
|first=October 2009 (Prototype)
|stagedata =
{{Infobox Rocket/Stage
|type = stage
|stageno = First
|engines = 1 [[solid rocket|Solid]]
|thrust = {{cvt|15000|kN}}
|burntime = ~150 seconds
|fuel = [[solid rocket|Solid]]}}
{{Infobox Rocket/Stage
|type = stage
|stageno = Second
|engines = 1 [[J-2 (rocket engine)#J-2X|J-2X]]
|thrust = {{cvt|1308|kN}} 
|burntime = ~800s
|fuel = [[Liquid hydrogen|LH{{sub|2}}]] / [[LOX]]}}
}}
'''Ares I''' was the crew [[launch vehicle]] that was being developed by [[NASA]] as part of the [[Constellation program]].<ref name="Overview">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/index.html|access-date=August 5, 2009 |title=NASA–Ares Launch Vehicles |date=July 24, 2009 |first=Brooke |last=Boen |publisher=NASA | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090720032757/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/index.html| archive-date= July 20, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The name "Ares" refers to the Greek deity [[Ares]], who is [[interpretatio graeca|identified]] with the Roman god [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]].<ref name="name video">{{Cite video| url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/nasatv/on_demand_video.html?param=http://mfile.akamai.com/18565/rm/etouchsyst2.download.akamai.com/18355/real.nasa-global/ares/ares768k.ram&_id=83741&_title=Ares%3A%20NASA%27s%20New%20Rockets&_tnimage=151364main_ares_64.jpg|access-date=August 15, 2009 |format=[[RealMedia]] |title=Ares: NASA's New Rockets |publisher=[[NASA TV]]}}{{dead link|date=June 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Ares I was originally known as the "Crew Launch Vehicle" (CLV).<ref name="New">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/main/work_assign.html |access-date=August 15, 2009 |title=Building NASA's New Spacecraft: Constellation Work Assignments |first1=Brian |last1=Dunbar |first2=Jim |last2=Wilson |date=November 23, 2007 |publisher=NASA}}</ref>

NASA planned to use Ares I to launch [[Orion (spacecraft)#Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV)|Orion]], the [[spacecraft]] intended for NASA [[human spaceflight]] missions after the [[Space Shuttle]] was retired in 2011. Ares I was to complement the larger, uncrewed [[Ares V]], which was the cargo launch vehicle for Constellation. NASA selected the Ares designs for their anticipated overall safety, reliability and cost-effectiveness.<ref name="SafetyDesign">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/aresl/index.html |title=NASA – Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle |access-date=May 13, 2009 |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=April 29, 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090504015905/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/aresl/index.html |archive-date= May 4, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, the Constellation program, including Ares I, was cancelled by U.S. president [[Barack Obama]] in October 2010 with the passage of his 2010 NASA authorization bill. In September 2011, NASA detailed the [[Space Launch System]] as its new vehicle for human exploration beyond Earth's orbit.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/systems/sls/sls1.html NASA Announces Design for New Deep Space Exploration System]</ref>

== Development ==

=== Advanced Transportation System Studies ===
In 1995 Lockheed Martin produced an Advanced Transportation System Studies (ATSS) report for the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]]. A section of the ATSS report describes several possible vehicles much like the Ares I design, with liquid rocket second stages stacked above segmented [[solid rocket booster]] (SRB) first stages.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19960028972_1996058483.pdf |title=Technical Area 2 Heavy Lift Launch Vehicle Development Final Report |pages=3–17, 3–18 |publisher=[[NASA]] |work=[[Lockheed Martin]] |date=July 1995 | access-date=August 7, 2009}}</ref> The variants that were considered included both the [[J-2 (rocket engine)#J-2S|J-2S]] engines and [[Space Shuttle Main Engine]]s (SSMEs) for the second stage. The variants also assumed use of the [[Advanced Solid Rocket Motor]] (ASRM) as a first stage, but the ASRM was cancelled in 1993 due to significant cost overruns.

=== Exploration Systems Architecture Study ===

President [[George W. Bush]] had announced the [[Vision for Space Exploration]] in January 2004, and NASA under [[Sean O'Keefe]] had solicited plans for a [[Crew Exploration Vehicle]] from multiple bidders, with the plan for having two competing teams. These plans were discarded by incoming administrator [[Michael D. Griffin|Michael Griffin]], and on April 29, 2005, NASA chartered the [[Exploration Systems Architecture Study]] to accomplish specific goals:<ref name="ESAS report">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/news/ESAS_report.html |title=Exploration Systems Architecture Study – Final Report |first=Erin |last=Mahoney |date=December 31, 2008| publisher=[[NASA]]| access-date=August 5, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090831023206/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/exploration/news/ESAS_report.html| archive-date= August 31, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref>

*determine the "top-level requirements and configurations for crew and cargo launch systems to support the lunar and Mars exploration programs"
*assess the "CEV requirements and plans to enable the CEV to provide crew transport to the ISS"
*"develop a reference lunar exploration architecture concept to support sustained human and robotic lunar exploration operations"
*"identify key technologies required to enable and significantly enhance these reference exploration systems"

[[File:Ares I Evolution.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.25|Concept image of the evolution of the Ares I design from pre-[[Exploration Systems Architecture Study|ESAS]] to latest developments.]]
A Shuttle-derived launch architecture was selected by NASA for the Ares I. Originally, the crewed vehicle would have used a four-segment solid rocket booster (SRB) for the first stage, and a simplified Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) for the second stage. An uncrewed version was to use a five-segment booster with the same second stage.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1040 |title=NASA Plans to Build Two New Shuttle-derived Launch Vehicles |publisher=[[Spaceref.com]] |date=July 5, 2005 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> Shortly after the initial design was approved, additional tests revealed that the Orion spacecraft would be too heavy for the four-segment booster to lift,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.NASAspaceflight.com/content/?cid=4659 |title=NASA makes major design changes to CEV |publisher=[[NASAspaceflight.com]] |date=July 22, 2006 |first=Chris |last=Bergin |access-date=August 5, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405215413/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/content/?cid=4659 |archive-date=April 5, 2008}}</ref> and in January 2006 NASA announced they would slightly reduce the size of the Orion spacecraft, add a fifth segment to the solid-rocket first stage, and replace the single SSME with the Apollo-derived [[J-2 (rocket engine)#J-2X|J-2X]] motor.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2008/may/HQ_08116_power_pack_tests.html |title=NASA Successfully Completes First Series of Ares Engine Tests |first=Brian |last=Dunbar |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=May 9, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> While the change from a four-segment first stage to a five-segment version would allow NASA to construct virtually identical motors, the main reason for the change to the five-segment booster was the move to the J-2X.<ref name="J2X">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/187393main_j2x_fs_nov08.pdf |title=The J–2X Engine |publisher=[[Marshall Space Flight Center]] |date=November 18, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref>

The Exploration Systems Architecture Study concluded that the cost and safety of the Ares was superior to that of either of the [[Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle]] (EELVs).<ref name="ESAS report"/> The cost estimates in the study were based on the assumption that new launch pads would be needed for [[Human-rating certification|human-rated]] EELVs.<ref name="ESAS report"/> The facilities for the current EELVs (LC-37 for Delta IV, LC-41 for Atlas V) are in place and could be modified, but this may not have been the most cost effective solution as LC-37 is a contractor owned and operated (COGO) facility and modifications for the Delta IV H were determined to be similar to those required for Ares I.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/377875main_081109%20Human%20Rated%20Delta%20IV.pdf|title=Human-Rated Delta IV Heavy Study – Constellation Architecture Impacts|publisher=Aerospace Corporation|date=June 1, 2009|access-date=February 1, 2012}}.</ref> The ESAS launch safety estimates for the Ares were based on the Space Shuttle, despite the differences, and included only launches after the post-Challenger Space Shuttle redesign.<ref>{{cite web |title = Report to the President: Actions to Implement the Recommendations of the Presidential Commission on the Space Shuttle Challenger Accident|publisher=NASA| date = July 14, 1986| url = https://history.nasa.gov/rogersrep/actions.pdf }}</ref> The estimate counted each Shuttle launch as two safe launches of the Ares booster. The safety of the [[Atlas V]] and [[Delta IV]] was estimated from the failure rates of all [[Delta II]], [[Atlas-Centaur]], and Titan launches since 1992, although they are not similar designs.{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

In May 2009 the previously withheld appendices to the 2006 ESAS study were leaked, revealing a number of apparent flaws in the study, which gave safety exemptions to the selected Ares I design while using a model which penalized the EELV-based designs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=To the moon and beyond: NASA's Exploration Systems Architecture Study |url=https://wikileaks.org/wiki/To_the_moon_and_beyond:_NASA's_Exploration_Systems_Architecture_Study,_630_pages,_2006 |date=March 6, 2009 |publisher= [[WikiLeaks]] |access-date=May 16, 2016}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=August 2009}}

===Role in Constellation program===
[[File:SDLV rockets.jpg|thumb|right|An early concept image of the Ares I (right) and [[Ares V]] (left) rockets]]

Ares I was the crew launch component of the Constellation program. Originally named the "Crew Launch Vehicle" or CLV, the Ares name was chosen from the Greek deity [[Ares]].<ref name="New"/> Unlike the Space Shuttle, where both crew and cargo were launched simultaneously on the same rocket, the plans for Project Constellation outlined having two separate launch vehicles, the Ares I and the Ares V, for crew and cargo, respectively. Having two separate launch vehicles allows for more specialized designs for the crew and heavy cargo launch rockets.<ref name="Constellation overview">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/163092main_constellation_program_overview.pdf |title=Constellation Program Overview |last=Connolly |first=John F. |date=October 2006 |publisher=Constellation Program Office |access-date=July 6, 2009}}</ref>

The Ares I rocket was specifically being designed to launch the [[Orion (Constellation program)|Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle]]. Orion was intended as a crew capsule, similar in design to the [[Apollo program]] capsule, to transport astronauts to the [[International Space Station]], the [[Moon]], and eventually [[Mars]]. Ares I might have also delivered some (limited) resources to [[orbit]], including supplies for the International Space Station or subsequent delivery to the planned [[Lunar outpost (NASA)|lunar base]].<ref name="SafetyDesign"/>

=== Contractor selection ===
NASA selected Alliant Techsystems, the builder of the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster]]s, as the prime contractor for the Ares I first stage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bergin |first=Chris |url=http://www.NASAspaceflight.com/2005/12/atk-win-clv-contract/ |title=ATK win CLV contract |publisher=[[NASAspaceflight.com]] |date=December 7, 2005 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Ares1stStage">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/230922main_1stStage_FS.pdf |title=NASA's Ares I First Stage, Powering the Ares I Rocket for liftoff |publisher=[[Marshall Space Flight Center]] |date=April 29, 2009 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> NASA announced that [[Rocketdyne]] would be the main subcontractor for the [[J-2 (rocket engine)#J-2X|J-2X]] rocket engine on July 16, 2007.<ref name ="Rocketdyne">{{cite press |title = NASA Awards Upper Stage Engine Contract for Ares Rockets |publisher =[[NASA]] |date = July 16, 2007 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/jul/HQ_C07030_J2X_Contract_prt.htm |access-date=July 17, 2007}}</ref> NASA selected [[Boeing]] to provide and install the [[avionics]] for the Ares I rocket on December 12, 2007.<ref>{{Cite press release |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/dec/HQ_C07060_Ares_1_Avionics.html |title=NASA Selects Prime Contractor For Ares I Rocket Avionics |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=December 12, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref>

On August 28, 2007 NASA awarded the Ares I Upper Stage manufacturing contract to Boeing. Boeing built the S-IC stage of the [[Saturn V]] rocket at [[Michoud Assembly Facility|Michoud Aerospace Factory]] in the 1960s. The upper stage of Ares I was to have been built at the same rocket factory used for the Space Shuttle's External Tank and the Saturn V's [[S-IC]] first stage.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Harry |last=Wadsworth |url=http://www.lockheedmartin.com/ssc/michoud/about/History.html |title=History – History of Michoud |publisher=[[Lockheed Martin]] |access-date=August 7, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804011158/http://www.lockheedmartin.com/ssc/michoud/about/History.html |archive-date=August 4, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://boeing.com/history/boeing/saturn.html |title=Boeing History – Saturn V Moon Rocket |publisher=Boeing |access-date=July 19, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090719093659/http://www.boeing.com/history/boeing/saturn.html |archive-date=July 19, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

=== J-2X engines ===
{{Main|J-2X}}

At approximately US$20–25 million per engine, the Rocketdyne-designed and produced J-2X would have cost less than half as much as the more complex [[RS-25]] engine (around $55 million).<ref name="DeltaIVcheaper">{{Cite news| url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id=news/Study061509.xml&headline=Study%20Finds%20Human-rated%20Delta%20IV%20Cheaper&channel=space| title=NASA Study Finds Human-rated Delta IV Cheaper| publisher=[[Aviation Week]]| date=June 15, 2009 |access-date=August 9, 2009}}</ref> Unlike the Space Shuttle Main Engine, which was designed to start on the ground, the J-2X was designed from inception to be started in both mid-air and in near-vacuum. This air-start capability was critical, especially in the original J-2 engine used on the Saturn V's [[S-IVB]] stage, to propel the [[Apollo spacecraft]] to the Moon. The Space Shuttle Main Engine, on the other hand, would have required extensive modifications to add an air-start capability<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nss.org/resources/library/spacepolicy/2005Architecture-01-ExecutiveSummary.pdf|title=2005 ESAS Architecture Executive Summary|date=January 2004|website=NSS.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423135006/http://www.nss.org/resources/library/spacepolicy/2005Architecture-01-ExecutiveSummary.pdf|archive-date=April 23, 2017|url-status=dead|access-date=April 23, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="J2X"/>

=== System requirements review ===
[[File:Aiaa2.jpg|thumb|right|A concept image of an Ares I launching from [[Kennedy Space Center]] launchpad 39B.]]

On January 4, 2007, NASA announced that the Ares I had completed its system requirements review, the first such review completed for any crewed spacecraft design since the Space Shuttle.<ref name="Review">{{Cite press release| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/07-002.html |title=NASA Completes Review Milestone for Ares I Vehicle |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=January 4, 2007 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> This review was the first major milestone in the design process, and was intended to ensure that the Ares I launch system met all the requirements necessary for the Constellation Program. In addition to the release of the review, NASA also announced that a redesign in the tank hardware was made. Instead of separate LH2 and LO2 tanks, separated by an "intertank" like that of the [[Space Shuttle External Tank]], the new LH2 and LOX tanks would have been separated by a common bulkhead like that employed on the Saturn V [[S-II]] and S-IVB stages. This would have provided a significant mass saving and eliminated the need to design a second stage interstage unit that would have had to carry the weight of the Orion spacecraft with it.<ref name="Ares1stStage"/>

=== Analysis and testing ===

In January 2008, [[NASA Watch]] revealed that the first stage [[solid-fuel rocket|solid rocket]] of the ''Ares I'' could have created high vibrations during the first few minutes of ascent. The vibrations would have been caused by thrust oscillations inside the first stage.<ref name="Houston Chronicle">{{Cite news |last=Carreau |first=Mark |url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/front/5467711.html |title=Severe vibration problem plagues moon rocket design |work=Houston Chronicle |date=January 19, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}} – note: article does not seem to still be available online (February 19, 2010)</ref> NASA officials had identified the potential problem at the Ares I system design review in late October 2007, stating in a press release that it wanted to solve it by March 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Keith |last=Cowing |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1266 |title=NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate Responds to Ares 1 and Orion Questions |publisher=[[NASA Watch]] |date=January 17, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> NASA admitted that this problem was very severe, rating it four out of five on a risk scale, but the agency was very confident in solving it.<ref name="Houston Chronicle"/> The mitigation approach developed by the Ares engineering team included active and passive vibration damping, adding an active tuned-mass absorber and a passive "compliance structure" – essentially a spring-loaded ring that would have detuned the Ares I stack.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/thrust_oscillation.html Thrust Oscillation Mitigation Approach]. NASA</ref> NASA also pointed out that, since this would have been a new launch system, like the [[Apollo spacecraft|Apollo]] or Space Shuttle systems, it was normal for such problems to arise during the development stage.<ref>{{Cite news|first=Seth |last=Borenstein |url=http://www.space.com/news/080118-nasa-new-rocket-shake.html |title=NASA's Next Rocket May Shake Too Much |publisher=[[Space.com]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date=January 18, 2008 |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> According to NASA, analysis of the data and telemetry from the Ares I-X flight showed that vibrations from thrust oscillation were within the normal range for a Space Shuttle flight.<ref name="splashdown">[http://www.space.com/common/media/video/player.php?videoRef=SP_091110_ares-launch Video of Ares I-X First Stage splashdown] from NASA via Space.com, November 10, 2009</ref>

A study released in July 2009 by the [[45th Space Wing]] of the US Air Force concluded that an abort 30–60 seconds after launch would have a ~100% chance of killing all crew, due to the capsule being engulfed until ground impact by a cloud of {{Convert|4000|F|C}} solid propellant fragments, which would melt the capsule's nylon parachute material. NASA's study showed the crew capsule would have flown beyond the more severe danger.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=31792 |title=USAF 45th Space Wing Study: Capsule~100%-Fratricide Environments (Implications for NASA's Ares-1 and Crew) |publisher=45th Space Wing |date=July 16, 2009 |access-date=July 19, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/space/orl-new-blow-to-nasa-ares-071809,0,3051613.story |title=Report: No escape system could save astronauts if Ares I rocket exploded during first minute |publisher=[[Orlando Sentinel]] |first=Mark K. |last=Matthew |date=July 17, 2009 |access-date=July 19, 2009 |quote=Subtitle: Report saying crew would be doomed is yet another blow to NASA's troubled Constellation program to return U.S. to the moon then Mars |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090720215310/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/space/orl-new-blow-to-nasa-ares-071809,0,3051613.story |archive-date=July 20, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

[[File:Ares I-X launch 08.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ares I-X]] launches from [[Kennedy Space Center]] launch pad 39B on October 28, 2009.]]

The Ares I igniter was an advanced version of the flight-proven igniter used on the Space Shuttle's solid rocket boosters. It was approximately 18 inches (46 cm) in diameter and 36 inches (91 cm) long, and took advantage of upgraded insulation materials that had improved thermal properties to protect the igniter's case from the burning solid propellant.<ref name="Igniter">{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/igniter_test.html |access-date=August 5, 2009 |title=NASA Ares Iginiter Tests |first=Brooke |last=Boen |date=March 12, 2009 |publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref> NASA successfully completed test firing of the igniter for the Ares I engines on March 10, 2009 at [[Alliant Techsystems|ATK Launch Systems]] test facilities near [[Promontory, Utah]]. The igniter test generated a flame 200 feet (60 meters) in length, and preliminary data showed the igniter performed as planned.<ref name="Igniter" />

Development of the Ares I propulsion elements continued to make strong progress. On September 10, 2009, the first Ares I development motor (DM-1) was successfully tested in a full-scale, full-duration test firing.<ref>"NASA and ATK Successfully Test Ares First Stage Motor". http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/dm1_success.html. Retrieved October 21, 2011.</ref> This test was followed by two more development motor tests, DM-2 on August 31, 2010 and DM-3 on September 8, 2011. For DM-2 the motor was cooled to a core temperature of 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius), and for DM-3 it was heated to above 90 degrees Fahrenheit (32 degrees Celsius). In addition to other objectives, these two tests validated Ares motor performance at extreme temperatures.<ref>"NASA and ATK Successfully Test Five-Segment Solid Rocket Motor". http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/10-202.html. Retrieved October 21, 2011.</ref><ref>"NASA Successfully Tests Five-Segment Solid Rocket Motor". http://www.nasa.gov/exploration/features/dm3.html. Retrieved October 21, 2011.</ref> NASA conducted a successful 500-second test firing of the J-2X rocket engine at John C. Stennis Space Center in November 2011.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/j2x/500_second_test.html|title= NASA's New Upper Stage Engine Passes Major Test|publisher=NASA|date=November 9, 2011|access-date=February 1, 2012}}.</ref>

The Ares I prototype, [[Ares I-X]], successfully completed a test launch on October 28, 2009.<ref name="Ares I-X page">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/flighttests/aresIx/index.html |title=NASA Ares I-X (flight test prototype) page |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=October 27, 2009 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091026172612/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/flighttests/aresIx/index.html| archive-date= October 26, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name="Ares I-X sheet">{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/354470main_aresIX_fs_may09.pdf |title=Constellation Program: Ares I-X Flight Test Vehicle |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=October 27, 2009 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091026204347/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/354470main_aresIX_fs_may09.pdf| archive-date= October 26, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=NTRS>{{cite web |author1=Karlgaard, Christopher D. |author2=Beck, Roger E. |author3=Derry, Stephen D. |author4=Brandon, Jay M. |author5=Starr, Brett R. |author6=Tartabini, Paul V. |author7=Olds, Aaron D. |title=Ares I-X Best Estimated Trajectory and Comparison with Pre-Flight Predictions |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20110014643_2011015361.pdf |work=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics |publisher=NASA Langley Research Center |date=n.d. |access-date=September 15, 2011}}</ref> Launch Pad 39B was damaged more than with a Space Shuttle launch. During descent, one of the three parachutes of the Ares I-X's first stage failed to open, and another opened only partially, causing the booster to splash down harder and suffer structural damage.<ref name=NasaSF_Ares_I-X_pad39b_parachute>{{cite web |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/10/pad-39b-suffers-substantial-damage-ares-i-x-parachute-update |author=Bergin, Chris |title=Pad 39B suffers substantial damage from Ares I-X launch – Parachute update |publisher=NasaSpaceFlight |date= October 31, 2009 |access-date=November 2, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091103083047/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2009/10/pad-39b-suffers-substantial-damage-ares-i-x-parachute-update| archive-date= November 3, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> The launch accomplished all primary test objectives.<ref name=NasaSF_Ares_I-X_pad39b_parachute/><ref>{{cite web |author= Stephan R. Davis |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20100020885_2010020400.pdf |title=Operational Lessons Learned from the Ares I-X Flight Test |publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|date=n.d. |access-date=February 1, 2012}}</ref>

=== Schedule and cost ===

NASA completed the Ares I system requirements review in January 2007.<ref name="Review" /> Project design was to have continued through the end of 2009, with development and qualification testing running concurrently through 2012. {{As of|2009|7}}, flight articles were to have begun production towards the end of 2009 for a first launch in June 2011.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/flighttests/aresIx/index.html |title=NASA Ares I-X (flight test prototype) page |first=Brooke |last=Boen |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=July 9, 2009 |access-date=August 9, 2009}}</ref> Since 2006 the first launch of a human was planned for no later than 2014,<ref>{{Cite web |first=John |last=Connolly |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/163092main_constellation_program_overview.pdf |title=Constellation Program Overview |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=October 2006 |access-date=August 9, 2009 }}</ref> which is four years after the planned retirement of the Space Shuttle.

Delays in the Ares I development schedule due to budgetary pressures and unforeseen engineering and technical difficulties would have increased the gap between the end of the Space Shuttle program and the first operational flight of Ares I.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1244 |title=First Stage Design Problems Arise For NASA's Ares 1 Rocket |publisher=[[Spaceref.com]] |date=November 16, 2007}}</ref> Because the Constellation program was never allocated the funding originally projected,<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.cbo.gov/doc.cfm?index=10051|title=The Budgetary Implications of NASA's Current Plans for Space Exploration|publisher=Congressional Budget Office|date=April 2009|access-date=February 1, 2012}}.</ref> the total estimated cost to develop the Ares I through 2015 rose from $28 billion in 2006 to more than $40 billion in 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2009-05-06/news/Shuttle_1_orion-rocket-plan-for-nasa |title=Obama plans to order full review of NASA's Ares I, Orion plans |publisher=[[Orlando Sentinel]] |date=May 6, 2009}}</ref> The [[Ares I-X]] project cost was $445 million.<ref>{{cite news|last=Harwood |first=William |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-19514_3-10379270-239.html |title=Ares I-X rocket hauled to launch pad for critical test flight | The Space Shot - CNET News |publisher=News.cnet.com |date=October 20, 2009 |access-date=March 1, 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Mobile Launching Platform 1 (Ares I) stationary at ML east park site.jpg|thumb|left|Mobile Launcher-1 for Ares I at east park site]]

Originally scheduled for first test flights in 2011, the independent analysis by the [[Review of United States Human Space Flight Plans Committee|Augustine Commission]] found in late 2009 that due to technical and financial problems Ares I was not likely to have had its first crewed launch until 2017–2019 under the current budget, or late 2016 with an unconstrained budget.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/GAP072809.xml&headline=U.S.%20Spaceflight%20Gap%20Wider%20Than%20Thought |title=US Spaceflight Gap Wider Than Thought |publisher=[[Aviation Week]] |date=July 28, 2009}}</ref> The Augustine Commission also stated that Ares I and Orion would have an estimated recurring cost of almost $1 billion per flight.<ref>{{Citation |title = Review of U.S. Human Spaceflight Plans Committee – Final Report |url = http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/396093main_HSF_Cmte_FinalReport.pdf |year = 2009 |access-date =December 12, 2009| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091122095823/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/396093main_HSF_Cmte_FinalReport.pdf| archive-date= November 22, 2009 | url-status= live}}</ref> However, later financial analysis in March 2010 showed that the Ares I would have cost $1 billion or more to operate per flight had the Ares I flown just once a year. If the Ares I system were flown multiple times a year the [[marginal cost]]s could have fallen to as low as $138 million per launch.<ref name="spms">[http://spacepolicyonline.com/pages/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=817:how-much-would-ares-i-cost&catid=67:news&Itemid=27 Space Policy Online: How Much Would Ares I Cost? by Marcia Smith. written Thursday, March 25, 2010 21:41] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716113530/http://spacepolicyonline.com/pages/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=817%3Ahow-much-would-ares-i-cost&catid=67%3Anews&Itemid=27 |date=July 16, 2011 }}</ref> In March 2010, NASA administrator Charlie Bolden testified to congress that the Ares I would cost $4–4.5 billion a year, and $1.6 billion per flight.<ref>[http://www.spacepolicyonline.com/news/how-much-would-ares-i-cost?A=SearchResult&SearchID=1565489&ObjectID=4501984&ObjectType=35 Space Policy Online: How Much Would Ares I Cost? by Marcia Smith. written 05-Dec-2011]</ref> The Ares I marginal cost was predicted to have been a fraction of the Shuttle's marginal costs even had it flown multiple times per year. By comparison, the cost of launching three astronauts on a crewed Russian Soyuz is $153 million.<ref>[http://www.universetoday.com/2010/02/10/russia-may-raise-price-of-soyuz-seats/ "Russia May Raise Price of Soyuz Seats"]. universetoday.com, February 10, 2010.</ref> Representative [[Robert Aderholt]] stated in March 2010 that he had received a letter from NASA which claimed that it would have cost $1.1 billion to fly the Ares I rocket three times a year.<ref>[https://www.americaspace.com/2010/03/24/an-inconvenient-truth-about-ares-vs-commercial-launch-costs/ AmericaSpace For a nation that explores: An Inconvenient Truth About Ares vs. Commercial Launch Costs by Jim Hillhouse. written March 24th, 2010]</ref>

On February 8, 2011 it was reported that [[Alliant Techsystems]] and [[Astrium]] proposed to use Ares I's first stage with the second stage from the [[Ariane 5]] to form a new rocket named [[Liberty (rocket)|Liberty]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/10792-liberty-rocket-ressurects-scrapped-nasa-ares1.html |title=Scrapped NASA Rocket May be Resurrected for Commercial Launches |publisher=[[space.com]] |access-date=February 8, 2011}}</ref>

===Cancellation===
On February 1, 2010, President [[Barack Obama]] announced a proposal to cancel the Constellation program effective with the U.S. 2011 fiscal year budget,<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/420990main_FY_201_%20Budget_Overview_1_Feb_2010.pdf NASA.gov]</ref> but later announced changes to the proposal in a [[Barack Obama space policy speech at Kennedy Space Center|major space policy speech]] at Kennedy Space Center on April 15, 2010. In October 2010, the NASA authorization bill for 2010 was signed into law which canceled Constellation.<ref>[http://www.space.com/9305-president-obama-signs-vision-space-exploration-law.html "President Obama Signs New Vision for U.S. Space Exploration Into Law"]. Space.com, October 11, 2010.</ref> Previous legislation kept Constellation contracts in force until passage of a new funding bill for 2011.<ref>[http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&id=news/awx/2010/10/22/awx_10_22_2010_p0-264465.xml&headline=Constellation%20Is%20Dead,%20But%20Pieces%20Live%20On "Constellation Is Dead, But Pieces Live On"]. ''Aviation Week'', October 26, 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.space.com/9712-nasa-stuck-limbo-congress-takes.html "NASA Stuck in Limbo as New Congress Takes Over"]. Space.com, January 7, 2011.</ref>

== Design ==
[[File:Saturn-V Shuttle Ares-I Ares-V comparison (06-2006).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.15|Comparison of the basic size and shape of the [[Saturn V]], [[Space Shuttle]], Ares I, and [[Ares V]].]]

Ares I had a payload capability in the 25-tonne (28-short-ton; 25-long-ton) class and was comparable to vehicles such as the [[Delta IV]] and the [[Atlas V]].<ref name="SafetyDesign" /> The NASA study group that selected what would become the Ares I rated the vehicle as almost twice as safe as an Atlas or Delta IV-derived design.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/140637main_ESAS_06.pdf |title=Part 6 of the Exploration Systems Architecture Study Final Report |date=January 10, 2006 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=August 5, 2009}}</ref> The rocket was to have made use of an [[aluminum-lithium]] alloy which is lower in density but similar in strength compared to other aluminum alloys. The alloy is produced by [[Alcoa]].<ref>{{citation |url = http://www.rdmag.com/News/2009/11/Materials-Aluminum-lithium-alloy-soars-with-Ares |title = Aluminum-lithium alloy soars with Ares |date = November 18, 2009 |publisher = R&D Magazine |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://archive.today/20120908133249/http://www.rdmag.com/News/2009/11/Materials-Aluminum-lithium-alloy-soars-with-Ares |archive-date = September 8, 2012 |df = mdy-all }}</ref>
[[File:Ares I.png|thumb|right|upright=1.1|Exploded view of the Ares I]]

=== First stage ===
The first stage was to have been a more powerful and reusable [[solid fuel rocket]] derived from the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster]] (SRB). Compared with the Solid Rocket Booster, which had four segments, the most notable difference was the addition of a fifth segment. This fifth segment would have enabled the Ares I to produce more thrust.<ref name="SafetyDesign" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1177 |title=NASA To Evaluate Non-recoverable First Stage for Ares I Launch Vehicle |publisher=[[Spaceref.com]] |date=December 4, 2006}}</ref> Other changes made to the Solid Rocket Booster were to have been the removal of the [[Space Shuttle External Tank]] (ET) attachment points and the replacement of the Solid Rocket Booster nosecone with a new forward adapter that would have interfaced with the liquid-fueled second stage. The adapter was to have been equipped with solid-fueled separation motors to facilitate the disconnection of the stages during ascent.<ref name="SafetyDesign" /> The grain design was also changed, and so were the insulation and liner. By the Ares I first stage ground test, the case, grain design, number of segments, insulation, liner, throat diameter, thermal protection systems and nozzle had all changed.<ref>ATK Inc. [http://www.atk.com/Products/documents/Ares%20I%20First%20Stage.pdf], "Ares I First Stage Ground Test", ATK Investor Relations and Public Affairs, September 9, 2009, p. 2. {{dead link|date=April 2017 |fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

=== Upper stage ===
The upper stage, derived from the Shuttle's External Tank (ET) and based on the [[S-IVB]] stage of the Saturn V, was to be propelled by a single [[J-2X]] rocket engine fueled by [[liquid hydrogen]] (LH2) and [[liquid oxygen]] (LOX).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/187391main_aresI_fs_nov08.pdf |title=Constellation Program: America's Fleet of Next-Generation Launch Vehicles, The Ares l Crew Launch Vehicle |date=November 2008 |access-date=January 10, 2009 |publisher=[[NASA]]}}</ref> The J-2X was derived from the original [[J-2 engine]] used during the Apollo program, but with more thrust (~294,000 lbf) and fewer parts than the original engine. On July 16, 2007, NASA awarded [[Rocketdyne]] a sole-source contract for the J-2X engines to be used for ground and flight tests.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NASA Awards Upper Stage Engine Contract for Ares Rockets |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=July 16, 2007 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2007/jul/HQ_C07030_J2X_Contract_prt.htm}}</ref> Rocketdyne was the prime contractor for the original J-2 engines used in the Apollo program.

Although its J-2X engine was derived from an established design, the upper stage itself would have been wholly new. Originally to have been based on both the internal and external structure of the ET, the original design called for separate fuel and oxidizer tanks, joined together by an "intertank" structure, and covered with the spray-on foam insulation to keep venting to a minimum. The only new hardware on the original ET-derived second stage would have been the thrust assembly for the J-2X engine, new fill/drain/vent disconnects for the fuel and oxidizer, and mounting interfaces for the solid-fueled first stage and the Orion spacecraft.

Using a concept going back to the Apollo program, the "intertank" structure was dropped to decrease mass, and in its place, a common bulkhead, similar to that used on both the [[S-II]] and S-IVB stages of the Saturn V, would have been used between the tanks. The savings from these changes were used to increase propellant capacity, which was {{Convert|297900|lb|kg|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.NASAspaceflight.com/2007/02/ares-i-upper-stage-change-receives-additional-capacity/ |title=Ares I Upper Stage change – receives additional capacity |publisher=[[NASAspaceflight.com]] |access-date=August 7, 2009}}</ref> The spray-on foam insulation was the only part of the Shuttle's ET that would have been used on this new Saturn-derived upper stage.

== See also ==
*[[Ares IV]], a proposed heavy-lift variant of Ares I and V combined.
*[[DIRECT]], shuttle-derived launcher proposed as alternative to Ares I and Ares V.
*[[Liberty (rocket)]], a proposed medium-lift rocket like the Ares I, a SDLV using an SRB-derivative first stage
*[[Omega (rocket)|Omega]], ATK's proposed new rocket based on SDLV SRB-derived first and second stages and [[Aerojet Rocketdyne]] RL10 third stage
*[[List of Constellation missions]]
*[[Boilerplate (spaceflight)]]
{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Project Constellation}}
*[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/ares/aresI.html NASA Ares I page]
*[http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-08-51 GAO-08-51, Ares I Report to Congress, GAO]

{{Project Constellation}}
{{NASA navbox}}
{{Reusable launch systems}}
{{US launch systems}}
{{J-2 (rocket engine)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2012}}

[[Category:Cancelled space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:Partially reusable space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:Ares (rocket family)]]
[[Category:Shuttle-derived space launch vehicles]]
[[Category:Orion (spacecraft)]]

Inflation

2021-06-22T15:13:10Z

Denvercoder9: Undid revision 1029846390 by 2A01:4B00:8680:6E00:A888:7F34:8F7A:8FE (talk)

{{about|a rise in general price level|the expansion of the early universe|Inflation (cosmology)|other uses|Inflation (disambiguation)}}
{{use mdy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{short description|Rise in price level in an economy over time}}
{{macroeconomics sidebar}}
[[File:US Inflation.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Price inflation (CPI year-on-year) in the United States from 1914 to 2018.]]
[[File:World Inflation Rate 2019.png|thumb|380px|Inflation in countries around the world in 2019.]]

In [[economics]], '''inflation''' (or less frequently, '''price inflation''') is a general rise in the [[price level]] of an economy over a period of time.<ref>{{harvnb|Wyplosz|Burda|1997}} (Glossary)</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Blanchard|2000}} (Glossary)</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Barro|1997}} (Glossary)</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Abel|Bernanke|1995}} (Glossary)</ref>
When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services; consequently, inflation reflects a reduction in the [[purchasing power]] per unit of money{{snd}}a loss of [[real versus nominal value (economics)|real value]] in the medium of exchange and unit of account within the economy.<ref>[http://www.sedlabanki.is/?PageID=195 Why price stability?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014031836/http://www.sedlabanki.is/?PageID=195 |date=October 14, 2008 }}, Central Bank of Iceland, Accessed on September 11, 2008.</ref><ref>Paul H. Walgenbach, Norman E. Dittrich and Ernest I. Hanson, (1973), Financial Accounting, New York: Harcourt Brace Javonovich, Inc. Page 429. "The Measuring Unit principle: The unit of measure in accounting shall be the base money unit of the most relevant currency. This principle also assumes that the unit of measure is stable; that is, changes in its general purchasing power are not considered sufficiently important to require adjustments to the basic financial statements."</ref> The opposite of inflation is [[deflation]], a sustained decrease in the general price level of goods and services. The common measure of inflation is the '''inflation rate''', the annualised percentage change in a general [[price index]], usually the [[consumer price index]], over time.<ref name="Mankiw 2002 22–32">{{Harvnb|Mankiw|2002|pp=22–32}}</ref>

Economists believe that very high rates of inflation and [[hyperinflation]] are harmful, and are caused by excessive growth of the [[money supply]].<ref>Robert Barro and Vittorio Grilli (1994), ''European Macroeconomics'', Ch. 8, p. 139, Fig. 8.1. Macmillan, {{ISBN|0-333-57764-7}}.</ref> Views on which factors determine low to moderate rates of inflation are more varied. Low or moderate inflation may be attributed to fluctuations in [[real versus nominal value (economics)|real]] [[demand]] for goods and services, or changes in available supplies such as during [[scarcity|scarcities]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/series/MZMV|title=MZM velocity|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref> However, the consensus view is that a long sustained period of inflation is caused by money supply growing faster than the rate of [[economic growth]].<ref name="Mankiw 2002 pp=81–107">{{Harvnb|Mankiw|2002|pp=81–107}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Abel|Bernanke|2005|pp=266–269}}</ref>

Inflation affects economies in various positive and negative ways. The negative effects of inflation include an increase in the [[opportunity cost]] of holding money, uncertainty over future inflation which may discourage investment and savings, and if inflation were rapid enough, shortages of [[good (economics)|goods]] as consumers begin [[Hoarding (economics)|hoarding]] out of concern that prices will increase in the future. Positive effects include reducing [[unemployment]] due to [[nominal rigidity|nominal wage rigidity]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Mankiw|2002|pp=238–255}}</ref> allowing the central bank greater freedom in carrying out [[monetary policy]], encouraging loans and investment instead of money hoarding, and avoiding the inefficiencies associated with deflation.

Today, most economists favour a low and steady rate of inflation.<ref name="econjournalwatch.org">Hummel, Jeffrey Rogers. "Death and Taxes, Including Inflation: the Public versus Economists" (January 2007).[http://econjwatch.org/articles/death-and-taxes-including-inflation-the-public-versus-economists] p. 56</ref> Low (as opposed to zero or [[Deflation|negative]]) inflation reduces the severity of economic [[recessions]] by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a [[liquidity trap]] prevents [[monetary policy]] from stabilising the economy.<ref name="aeaweb.org">"[http://www.aeaweb.org/articles.php?doi=10.1257/089533003772034934 Escaping from a Liquidity Trap and Deflation: The Foolproof Way and Others]" Lars E.O. Svensson, ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'', Volume 17, Issue 4 Fall 2003, pp. 145–166</ref> The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to [[monetary authority|monetary authorities]]. Generally, these monetary authorities are the [[central bank]]s that control monetary policy through the setting of [[interest rate]]s, through [[open market operation]]s, and through the setting of banking [[reserve requirements]].<ref name=Taylor>{{Cite book |last = Taylor |first=Timothy |title=Principles of Economics |publisher=Freeload Press |date=2008 |isbn=978-1-930789-05-0}}</ref>

== Definition ==
The term "inflation" originally referred to a rise in the general price level caused by an imbalance between the quantity of money and trade needs.<ref>Bryan, Michael F., [https://www.clevelandfed.org/newsroom-and-events/publications/economic-commentary/economic-commentary-archives/1997-economic-commentaries/ec-19971015-on-the-origin-and-evolution-of-the-word-inflation.aspx "On the Origin and Evolution of the Word Inflation"], ''Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, Economic Commentary,'' 15 October 1997.</ref> However, economists today commonly use the term "inflation" to refer to increases in the price level. An increase in the money supply may be called [[monetary inflation]], to distinguish it from rising prices, which for clarity may be called "[[price inflation]]".<ref name="Bryan"/> Economists generally agree that in the long run, price inflation is related to increases in the money supply.<ref name="federalreserve2004/hh/2004/july/testimony.htm"> Federal Reserve Board's semiannual Monetary Policy Report to the Congress. Introductory statement by Jean-Claude Trichet on July 1, 2004</ref>

Conceptually, inflation refers to the general trend of prices, not changes in any specific price. For example, if people choose to buy more cucumbers than tomatoes, cucumbers consequently become more expensive and tomatoes cheaper. These changes are not related to inflation; they reflect a shift in tastes. Inflation is related to the value of currency itself. When currency was linked with gold, if new gold deposits were found, the price of gold and the value of currency would fall, and consequently, prices of all other goods would become higher.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/cards/inflation-definition-and-explanation/inflation-explanation|title=What is inflation? – Inflation, explained – Vox|date=July 25, 2014|work=Vox|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref>

Other economic concepts related to inflation include: [[deflation]]{{snd}}a fall in the general price level; [[disinflation]]{{snd}}a decrease in the rate of inflation; [[hyperinflation]]{{snd}}an out-of-control inflationary spiral; [[stagflation]]{{snd}}a combination of inflation, slow economic growth and high unemployment; [[reflation]]{{snd}}an attempt to raise the general level of prices to counteract deflationary pressures; and [[asset price inflation]]{{snd}}a general rise in the prices of financial assets without a corresponding increase in the prices of goods or services.

== Background ==

===Classical economics===
By the nineteenth century, economists categorised three separate factors that cause a rise or fall in the price of goods: a change in the ''[[Value (economics)|value]]'' or production costs of the good, a change in the ''price of money'' which then was usually a fluctuation in the [[commodity]] price of the metallic content in the currency, and ''currency depreciation'' resulting from an increased supply of currency relative to the quantity of redeemable metal backing the currency. Following the proliferation of private [[banknote]] currency printed during the [[American Civil War]], the term "inflation" started to appear as a direct reference to the ''currency depreciation'' that occurred as the quantity of redeemable banknotes outstripped the quantity of metal available for their redemption. At that time, the term inflation referred to the [[devaluation]] of the currency, and not to a rise in the price of goods.<ref name="Bryan">{{cite web|first=Michael F. |last=Bryan|url=https://www.clevelandfed.org/newsroom-and-events/publications/economic-commentary/economic-commentary-archives/1997-economic-commentaries/ec-19971015-on-the-origin-and-evolution-of-the-word-inflation.aspx|publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland, Economic Commentary|date=October 15, 1997|title=On the Origin and Evolution of the Word "Inflation"}}</ref>

This relationship between the over-supply of banknotes and a resulting [[depreciation]] in their value was noted by earlier classical economists such as [[David Hume]] and [[David Ricardo]], who would go on to examine and debate what effect a currency devaluation (later termed ''[[monetary inflation]]'') has on the price of goods (later termed ''price inflation'', and eventually just ''inflation'').<ref>Mark Blaug, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=4nd6alor2goC&pg=PA127&lpg=PA127&dq=bullionist+inflation&source=web&ots=mG3_PT_O6q&sig=ViD-klPJPpaZxCBjdcPKh9zlwyU&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result#PPA128,M1 Economic Theory in Retrospect]", pg. 129: "...this was the cause of inflation, or, to use the language of the day, 'the depreciation of banknotes.'"</ref>

===Money supply===

Historically, large infusions of gold or silver into an economy had led to inflation. For instance, when silver was used as currency, the government could collect silver coins, melt them down, mix them with other metals such as copper or lead and reissue them at the same [[Real versus nominal value (economics)|nominal value]], a process known as [[debasement]]. At the ascent of [[Nero]] as Roman emperor in AD 54, the [[denarius]] contained more than 90% silver, but by the 270s hardly any silver was left. By diluting the silver with other metals, the government could issue more coins without increasing the amount of silver used to make them. When the cost of each coin is lowered in this way, the government profits from an increase in [[seigniorage]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mint.ca/royalcanadianmintpublic/RcmImageLibrary.aspx?filename=RCM_AR06_E.pdf |title=Annual Report (2006), Royal Canadian Mint, p. 4 |publisher=Mint.ca |access-date=May 21, 2011}}</ref> This practice would increase the money supply but at the same time the relative value of each coin would be lowered. As the relative value of the coins becomes lower, consumers would need to give more coins in exchange for the same goods and services as before. These goods and services would experience a price increase as the value of each coin is reduced.<ref>Frank Shostak, "[https://mises.org/story/3018 Commodity Prices and Inflation: What's the connection", Mises Institute]</ref>

The adoption of [[fiat currency]] by many countries, from the 18th century onwards, made much larger variations in the supply of money possible. Rapid increases in the [[money supply]] have taken place a number of times in countries experiencing political crises, producing [[hyperinflation]]s{{snd}} episodes of extreme inflation rates much higher than those observed in earlier periods of [[commodity money]]. The [[hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic]] of Germany is a notable example. Currently, the hyperinflation in [[Venezuela]] is the highest in the world, with an annual inflation rate of 833,997% as of October 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Corina |first1=Pons |last2=Luc |first2=Cohen |last3=O'Brien |first3=Rosalba |title=Venezuela's annual inflation hit 833,997 percent in October: Congress |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-economy/venezuelas-annual-inflation-hit-833997-percent-in-october-congress-idUSKCN1NC2F9 |access-date=9 November 2018 |work=Reuters |date=7 November 2018}}</ref>

However, since the 1980s, inflation has been held low and stable in countries with strong independent [[central bank]]s. This has led to a moderation of the [[business cycle]] and a reduction in variation in most macroeconomic indicators - an event known as the [[Great Moderation]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/article1294376.ece |title=Welcome to 'the Great Moderation' |first=Gerard |last=Baker |work=The Times |date=2007-01-19 |publisher=Times Newspapers |location=[[London, England|London]] |issn=0140-0460 |access-date=15 April 2011}}</ref>

==Historical inflationary periods==
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 350
| header =
| image1 =
Fineness_of_early_Roman_Imperial_silver_coins.png
| caption1 = Silver purity through time in early Roman imperial silver coins. To increase the number of silver coins in circulation while short on silver, the Roman imperial government repeatedly [[debasement|debased]] the coins. They melted relatively pure silver coins and then struck new silver coins of lower purity but of nominally equal value. Silver coins were relatively pure before Nero (AD 54-68), but by the 270s had hardly any silver left.
| image2 = Decline_of_the_antoninianus.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = The silver content of Roman silver coins rapidly declined during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]].
}}

Rapid increases in the quantity of money or in the overall [[money supply]] have occurred in many different societies throughout history, changing with different forms of money used.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Dobson |first=Roger |title=How Alexander caused a great Babylon inflation |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |date=January 27, 2002 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/how-alexander-caused-a-great-babylon-inflation-671072.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515070120/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/how-alexander-caused-a-great-babylon-inflation-671072.html |archive-date=May 15, 2011 |access-date=April 12, 2010 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | last = Harl | first = Kenneth W. | author-link = Kenneth W. Harl | title = Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700 | place = [[Baltimore]] | publisher = [[The Johns Hopkins University Press]] | date = June 19, 1996 | isbn = 0-8018-5291-9 }}</ref>

===Ancient China===
[[Song Dynasty]] China introduced the practice of printing paper money to create [[fiat currency]].<ref name="Glahn">{{cite book|author=Richard von Glahn|title=Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700|date=December 27, 1996|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20408-9|page=48}}</ref> During the Mongol [[Yuan Dynasty]], the government spent a great deal of money fighting [[Mongol conquests|costly wars]], and reacted by printing more money, leading to inflation.<ref name="Ropp2010">{{cite book|author=Paul S. Ropp|title=China in World History|date=July 9, 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517073-3|pages=82}}</ref> Fearing the inflation that plagued the Yuan dynasty, the [[Ming Dynasty]] initially rejected the use of paper money, and reverted to using copper coins.<ref name="Bernholz">{{cite book|author=Peter Bernholz|title=Monetary Regimes and Inflation: History, Economic and Political Relationships|year=2003|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-84376-155-6|pages=53–55}}</ref>

===Medieval Egypt===
During the [[Mali Empire|Malian]] king [[Mansa Musa]]'s [[hajj]] to [[Mecca]] in 1324, he was reportedly accompanied by a [[camel train]] that included thousands of people and nearly a hundred camels. When he passed through [[Cairo]], he spent or gave away so much gold that it depressed its price in Egypt for over a decade, causing high inflation.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20060524015912/http://www.blackhistorypages.net/pages/mansamusa.php Mansa Musa]. Black History Pages</ref> A contemporary Arab historian remarked about Mansa Musa's visit:

{{quote|Gold was at a high price in Egypt until they came in that year. The mithqal did not go below 25 dirhams and was generally above, but from that time its value fell and it cheapened in price and has remained cheap till now. The mithqal does not exceed 22 dirhams or less. This has been the state of affairs for about twelve years until this day by reason of the large amount of gold which they brought into Egypt and spent there [...].|sign=[[Chihab Al-Umari]]|source=Kingdom of Mali<ref>{{cite web |title=Kingdom of Mali – Primary Source Documents |url=http://www.bu.edu/africa/outreach/resources/k_o_mali/ |website=African studies Center |publisher=[[Boston University]] |access-date=30 January 2012}}</ref>}}

==="Price revolution" in Western Europe===
From the second half of the 15th century to the first half of the 17th, Western Europe experienced a major inflationary cycle referred to as the "[[price revolution]]",<ref>[[Earl J. Hamilton]], ''American Treasure and the Price Revolution in Spain, 1501–1650'' Harvard Economic Studies, 43 (Cambridge, Massachusetts: [[Harvard University Press]], 1934)</ref><ref>[http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/ecipa/archive/UT-ECIPA-MUNRO-99-02.pdf John Munro: ''The Monetary Origins of the 'Price Revolution':South Germany Silver Mining, Merchant Banking, and Venetian Commerce, 1470–1540'', Toronto 2003] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306002320/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/ecipa/archive/UT-ECIPA-MUNRO-99-02.pdf |date=March 6, 2009 }}</ref> with prices on average rising perhaps sixfold over 150 years. This was largely caused by the sudden influx of gold and silver from the [[New World]] into [[Habsburg Spain]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Walton, Timothy R. |title=The Spanish Treasure Fleets |publisher=Pineapple Press (FL) |year= 1994|page=85 |isbn=1-56164-049-2 }}</ref> The silver spread throughout a previously [[Commercial revolution|cash-starved Europe]] and caused widespread inflation.<ref>[https://ideas.repec.org/p/bsl/wpaper/2007-12.html The Price Revolution in Europe: Empirical Results from a Structural Vectorautoregression Model. Peter Kugler and Peter Bernholz, University of Basel, 2007]</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Tracy, James D. |title=Handbook of European History 1400–1600: Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Reformation |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |location=Boston |year= 1994|page=655 |isbn=90-04-09762-7 }}</ref> Demographic factors also contributed to upward pressure on prices, with European population growth after depopulation caused by the [[Black Death]] pandemic.

== Measures ==
{{See also|Consumer price index}}

[[File:FRED graph US CPI for All Urban Consumers 1969–2019.png|thumb|upright=1.5|US Consumer Price Index (CPI) 1969 to 2019, obtained from the [[Federal Reserve Economic Data|FRED Database]]. Inflation is the increase in the CPI.]]

Since there are many possible measures of the price level, there are many possible measures of price inflation. Most frequently, the term "inflation" refers to a rise in a broad price index representing the overall price level for goods and services in the economy. The [[Consumer Price Index]] (CPI), the [[Personal consumption expenditures price index]] (PCEPI) and the [[GDP deflator]] are some examples of broad price indices. However, "inflation" may also be used to describe a rising price level within a narrower set of assets, goods or services within the economy, such as [[commodity|commodities]] (including food, fuel, metals), [[tangible asset]]s (such as real estate), [[financial asset]]s (such as stocks, bonds), services (such as entertainment and health care), or [[Labour (economics)|labor]]. Although the values of capital assets are often casually said to "inflate," this should not be confused with inflation as a defined term; a more accurate description for an increase in the value of a capital asset is appreciation. The [[Reuters-CRB Index]] (CCI), the [[Producer Price Index]], and [[Employment Cost Index]] (ECI) are examples of narrow price indices used to measure price inflation in particular sectors of the economy. [[Core inflation]] is a measure of inflation for a subset of consumer prices that excludes food and energy prices, which rise and fall more than other prices in the short term. The [[Federal Reserve Board]] pays particular attention to the core inflation rate to get a better estimate of long-term future inflation trends overall.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kiley |first=Michael J. |title=Estimating the common trend rate of inflation for consumer prices and consumer prices excluding food and energy prices |work=Finance and Economic Discussion Series |publisher=Federal Reserve Board |date=July 2008|url=http://www.federalreserve.gov/pubs/feds/2008/200838/200838pap.pdf|access-date= May 13, 2015 }}</ref>

The inflation rate is most widely calculated by determining the movement or change in a price index, typically the [[consumer price index]].<ref>''See:''
* {{harvnb|Taylor|Hall|1993}};
* {{harvnb|Blanchard|2000}};
The consumer price index measures movements in prices of a fixed basket of goods and services purchased by a "typical consumer".</ref>
The inflation rate is the percentage change of a price index over time. The [[Retail Prices Index]] is also a measure of inflation that is commonly used in the United Kingdom. It is broader than the CPI and contains a larger basket of goods and services.

To illustrate the method of calculation, in January 2007, the U.S. Consumer Price Index was 202.416, and in January 2008 it was 211.080. The formula for calculating the annual percentage rate inflation in the CPI over the course of the year is: <math>\left(\frac{211.080-202.416}{202.416}\right)\times100\%=4.28\%</math>
The resulting inflation rate for the CPI in this one-year period is 4.28%, meaning the general level of prices for typical U.S. consumers rose by approximately four percent in 2007.<ref>The numbers reported here refer to the US Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers, All Items, series CPIAUCNS, from base level 100 in base year 1982. They were downloaded from the FRED database at the [[Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis]] on August 8, 2008.</ref>

Other widely used price indices for calculating price inflation include the following:
* '''[[Producer price index|Producer price indices]]''' (PPIs) which measures average changes in prices received by domestic producers for their output. This differs from the CPI in that price subsidization, profits, and taxes may cause the amount received by the producer to differ from what the consumer paid. There is also typically a delay between an increase in the PPI and any eventual increase in the CPI. Producer price index measures the pressure being put on producers by the costs of their raw materials. This could be "passed on" to consumers, or it could be absorbed by profits, or offset by increasing productivity. In India and the United States, an earlier version of the PPI was called the [[Wholesale price index]].
* '''[[Commodity price index|Commodity price indices]]''', which measure the price of a selection of commodities. In the present commodity price indices are weighted by the relative importance of the components to the "all in" cost of an employee.
* '''[[Core inflation|Core price indices]]''': because food and oil prices can change quickly due to changes in [[supply and demand]] conditions in the food and oil markets, it can be difficult to detect the long run trend in price levels when those prices are included. Therefore, most [[List of national and international statistical services|statistical agencies]] also report a measure of 'core inflation', which removes the most volatile components (such as food and oil) from a broad price index like the CPI. Because core inflation is less affected by short run supply and demand conditions in specific markets, [[central bank]]s rely on it to better measure the inflationary impact of current [[monetary policy]].

Other common measures of inflation are:
* '''[[GDP deflator]]''' is a measure of the price of all the goods and services included in gross domestic product (GDP). The US Commerce Department publishes a deflator series for US GDP, defined as its nominal GDP measure divided by its real GDP measure.

∴ <math>\mbox{GDP Deflator} = \frac{\mbox{Nominal GDP}}{\mbox{Real GDP}}</math>
* '''Regional inflation''' The Bureau of Labor Statistics breaks down CPI-U calculations down to different regions of the US.
* '''Historical inflation''' Before collecting consistent econometric data became standard for governments, and for the purpose of comparing absolute, rather than relative standards of living, various economists have calculated imputed inflation figures. Most inflation data before the early 20th century is imputed based on the known costs of goods, rather than compiled at the time. It is also used to adjust for the differences in real standard of living for the presence of technology.
* '''[[Asset price inflation]]''' is an undue increase in the prices of real or financial assets, such as [[stock]] (equity) and real estate. While there is no widely accepted index of this type, some central bankers have suggested that it would be better to aim at stabilizing a wider general price level inflation measure that includes some asset prices, instead of stabilizing CPI or core inflation only. The reason is that by raising interest rates when stock prices or real estate prices rise, and lowering them when these asset prices fall, central banks might be more successful in avoiding [[economic bubble|bubbles]] and crashes in asset prices.{{Dubious|date=November 2008}}

=== Issues in measuring ===
Measuring inflation in an economy requires objective means of differentiating changes in nominal prices on a common set of goods and services, and distinguishing them from those price shifts resulting from changes in value such as volume, quality, or performance. For example, if the price of a can of corn changes from $0.90 to $1.00 over the course of a year, with no change in quality, then this price difference represents inflation. This single price change would not, however, represent general inflation in an overall economy. To measure overall inflation, the price change of a large "basket" of representative goods and services is measured. This is the purpose of a [[price index]], which is the combined price of a "basket" of many goods and services. The combined price is the sum of the weighted prices of items in the "basket". A weighted price is calculated by multiplying the [[unit price]] of an item by the number of that item the average consumer purchases. Weighted pricing is a necessary means to measuring the impact of individual unit price changes on the economy's overall inflation. The [[Consumer Price Index]], for example, uses data collected by surveying households to determine what proportion of the typical consumer's overall spending is spent on specific goods and services, and weights the average prices of those items accordingly. Those weighted average prices are combined to calculate the overall price. To better relate price changes over time, indexes typically choose a "base year" price and assign it a value of 100. Index prices in subsequent years are then expressed in relation to the base year price.<ref name=Taylor /> While comparing inflation measures for various periods one has to take into consideration the [[Base effect (inflation)|base effect]] as well.

Inflation measures are often modified over time, either for the relative weight of goods in the basket, or in the way in which goods and services from the present are compared with goods and services from the past. Basket weights are updated regularly, usually every year, to adapt to changes in consumer behavior. Sudden changes in consumer behavior can still introduce a weighting bias in inflation measurement. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic it has been shown that the basket of goods and services was no longer representative of consumption during the crisis, as numerous goods and services could no longer be consumed due to government containment measures (“lock-downs”).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Seiler|first=Pascal|date=2020-09-16|title=Weighting bias and inflation in the time of COVID-19: evidence from Swiss transaction data|url=https://doi.org/10.1186/s41937-020-00057-7|journal=Swiss Journal of Economics and Statistics|volume=156|issue=1|pages=13|doi=10.1186/s41937-020-00057-7|issn=2235-6282|pmc=7493696|pmid=32959014}}</ref>

Over time, adjustments are also made to the type of goods and services selected to reflect changes in the sorts of goods and services purchased by 'typical consumers'. New products may be introduced, older products disappear, the quality of existing products may change, and consumer preferences can shift. Both the sorts of goods and services which are included in the "basket" and the weighted price used in inflation measures will be changed over time to keep pace with the changing marketplace.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Different segments of the population may naturally consume different "baskets" of goods and services and may even experience different inflation rates. It is argued that companies have put more innovation into bringing down prices for wealthy families than for poor families.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Botella |first1=Elena |title=That "Inflation Inequality" Report Has a Major Problem |url=https://slate.com/business/2019/11/inflation-inequality-not-about-beer-lettuce.html |access-date=11 November 2019 |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |date=8 November 2019}}</ref>

Inflation numbers are often [[seasonally adjusted]] to differentiate expected cyclical cost shifts. For example, home heating costs are expected to rise in colder months, and seasonal adjustments are often used when measuring for inflation to compensate for cyclical spikes in energy or fuel demand. Inflation numbers may be averaged or otherwise subjected to statistical techniques to remove [[statistical noise]] and [[Volatility (finance)|volatility]] of individual prices.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

When looking at inflation, economic institutions may focus only on certain kinds of prices, or ''special indices'', such as the [[core inflation]] index which is used by central banks to formulate [[monetary policy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/coreinflation.asp|title=Why Core Inflation is Important|last=Kenton|first=Will|website=Investopedia|language=en|access-date=2020-01-17}}</ref>

Most inflation indices are calculated from weighted averages of selected price changes. This necessarily introduces distortion, and can lead to legitimate disputes about what the true inflation rate is. This problem can be overcome by including all available price changes in the calculation, and then choosing the [[median]] value.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.clevelandfed.org/Research/commentary/1991/1201.pdf |title=Median Price Changes: An Alternative Approach to Measuring Current Monetary Inflation |access-date=May 21, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515145028/http://www.clevelandfed.org/Research/commentary/1991/1201.pdf |archive-date=May 15, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> In some other cases, governments may intentionally report false inflation rates; for instance, during the presidency of [[Cristina Kirchner]] (2007–2015) the [[government of Argentina]] was criticised for manipulating economic data, such as inflation and GDP figures, for political gain and to reduce payments on its inflation-indexed debt.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/02/02/us-imf-argentina-idUSBRE91019920130202 |title=IMF reprimands Argentina for inaccurate economic data |access-date=February 2, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-02-01/argentina-becomes-first-nation-censured-by-imf-on-inflation-data.html |title=Argentina Becomes First Nation Censured by IMF on Economic Data |access-date=February 2, 2013}}</ref>

===Inflation expectations===
Inflation expectations or expected inflation is the rate of inflation that is anticipated for some period of time in the foreseeable future. There are two major approaches to modeling the formation of inflation expectations. [[Adaptive expectations]] models them as a weighted average of what was expected one period earlier and the actual rate of inflation that most recently occurred. [[Rational expectations]] models them as unbiased, in the sense that the expected inflation rate is not systematically above or systematically below the inflation rate that actually occurs.

A long-standing survey of inflation expectations is the University of Michigan survey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fred.stlouisfed.org/series/MICH|title=University of Michigan: Inflation Expectation|publisher=Economic Research, Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis}}</ref>

Inflation expectations affect the economy in several ways. They are more or less built into [[nominal interest rate]]s, so that a rise (or fall) in the expected inflation rate will typically result in a rise (or fall) in nominal interest rates, giving a smaller effect if any on [[real interest rate]]s. In addition, higher expected inflation tends to be built into the rate of wage increases, giving a smaller effect if any on the changes in [[real wages]]. Moreover, the response of inflationary expectations to monetary policy can influence the division of the effects of policy between inflation and unemployment (see [[Monetary policy credibility]]).

== Causes ==
Historically, a great deal of economic literature was concerned with the question of what causes inflation and what effect it has. There were different schools of thought as to the causes of inflation. Most can be divided into two broad areas: quality theories of inflation and quantity theories of inflation.

The quality theory of inflation rests on the expectation of a seller accepting currency to be able to exchange that currency at a later time for goods they desire as a buyer. The [[quantity theory of money|quantity theory of inflation]] rests on the quantity equation of money that relates the money supply, its [[velocity of money|velocity]], and the nominal value of exchanges.

Currently, the quantity theory of money is widely accepted as an accurate model of inflation in the long run. Consequently, there is now broad agreement among economists that in the long run, the inflation rate is essentially dependent on the growth rate of the money supply relative to the growth of the economy. However, in the short and medium term inflation may be affected by supply and demand pressures in the economy, and influenced by the relative elasticity of wages, prices and interest rates.<ref name="federalreserve2004">[http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/hh/2004/july/testimony.htm ''Federal Reserve Board's semiannual Monetary Policy Report to the Congress''] [http://www.federalreserve.gov/BOARDDOCS/Speeches/2003/20030723/Economics Roundtable] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930200359/http://www.federalreserve.gov/BOARDDOCS/Speeches/2003/20030723/Economics |date=September 30, 2007 }} [http://www.ecb.int/press/pressconf/2004/html/is040701.en.html ''Introductory statement by Jean-Claude Trichet on July 1, 2004''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812054831/http://www.federalreserve.gov/boarddocs/hh/2004/july/testimony.htm |date=August 12, 2015 }}</ref>

The question of whether the short-term effects last long enough to be important is the central topic of debate between monetarist and Keynesian economists. In [[monetarism]] prices and wages adjust quickly enough to make other factors merely marginal behavior on a general trend-line. In the [[Keynesian economics|Keynesian]] view, prices and wages adjust at different rates, and these differences have enough effects on real output to be "long term" in the view of people in an economy.

=== Keynesian view ===
[[Keynesian economics]] proposes that changes in the money supply do not directly affect prices in the short run, and that visible inflation is the result of demand pressures in the economy expressing themselves in prices.

There are three major sources of inflation, as part of what [[Robert J. Gordon]] calls the "[[triangle model]]":<ref>Robert J. Gordon (1988), ''Macroeconomics: Theory and Policy'', 2nd ed., Chap. 22.4, 'Modern theories of inflation'. McGraw-Hill.</ref>
* ''[[Demand-pull inflation]]'' is caused by increases in aggregate demand due to increased private and government spending, etc. Demand inflation encourages economic growth since the excess demand and favourable market conditions will stimulate investment and expansion.
* ''[[Cost-push inflation]]'', also called "supply shock inflation," is caused by a drop in aggregate supply (potential output). This may be due to natural disasters, or increased prices of inputs. For example, a sudden decrease in the supply of oil, leading to increased oil prices, can cause cost-push inflation. Producers for whom oil is a part of their costs could then pass this on to consumers in the form of increased prices. Another example stems from unexpectedly high insured losses, either legitimate (catastrophes) or fraudulent (which might be particularly prevalent in times of recession).{{citation needed|date=March 2011}} High inflation can prompt employees to demand rapid wage increases, to keep up with consumer prices. In the cost-push theory of inflation, rising wages in turn can help fuel inflation. In the case of collective bargaining, wage growth will be set as a function of inflationary expectations, which will be higher when inflation is high. This can cause a [[price/wage spiral|wage spiral]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/287700/inflation/3512/The-cost-push-theory|title=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref> In a sense, inflation begets further inflationary expectations, which beget further inflation.
* [[Built-in inflation]] is induced by [[adaptive expectations]], and is often linked to the "[[price/wage spiral]]". It involves workers trying to keep their wages up with prices (above the rate of inflation), and firms passing these higher labor costs on to their customers as higher prices, leading to a feedback loop. Built-in inflation reflects events in the past, and so might be seen as [[hangover inflation]].

[[Demand-pull theory]] states that inflation accelerates when [[aggregate demand]] increases beyond the ability of the economy to produce (its [[potential output]]). Hence, any factor that increases aggregate demand can cause inflation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Sullivan |first1=Arthur |author-link1=Arthur O'Sullivan (economist) |last2=Sheffrin |first2=Steven M. |title=Economics: Principles in Action |edition=2nd |series=The Wall Street Journal:Classroom Edition |year=2003 |orig-year= January 2002|publisher= Pearson Prentice Hall: Addison Wesley Longman|location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 |isbn=0-13-063085-3 |page= 341}}</ref> However, in the long run, aggregate demand can be held above productive capacity only by increasing the quantity of money in circulation faster than the real growth rate of the economy. Another (although much less common) cause can be a rapid decline in the ''demand'' for money, as happened in Europe during the [[Black Death]], or in the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere|Japanese occupied territories]] just before the defeat of Japan in 1945.

The effect of money on inflation is most obvious when governments finance spending in a crisis, such as a civil war, by printing money excessively. This sometimes leads to [[hyperinflation]], a condition where prices can double in a month or less. The money supply is also thought to play a major role in determining moderate levels of inflation, although there are differences of opinion on how important it is. For example, [[Monetarism|monetarist]] economists believe that the link is very strong; Keynesian economists, by contrast, typically emphasize the role of [[aggregate demand]] in the economy rather than the money supply in determining inflation. That is, for Keynesians, the money supply is only one determinant of aggregate demand.

Some Keynesian economists also disagree with the notion that central banks fully control the money supply, arguing that central banks have little control, since the money supply adapts to the demand for bank credit issued by commercial banks. This is known as the theory of [[endogenous money]], and has been advocated strongly by [[post-Keynesian]]s as far back as the 1960s. This position is not universally accepted{{snd}} banks create money by making loans, but the aggregate volume of these loans diminishes as real interest rates increase. Thus, central banks can influence the money supply by making money cheaper or more expensive, thus increasing or decreasing its production.

A fundamental concept in inflation analysis is the relationship between inflation and unemployment, called the [[Phillips curve]]. This model suggests that there is a [[trade-off]] between [[price stability]] and employment. Therefore, some level of inflation could be considered desirable to minimize unemployment. The Phillips curve model described the U.S. experience well in the 1960s but failed to describe the [[1973–75 recession|stagflation experienced in the 1970s]]. Thus, modern macroeconomics describes inflation using a Phillips curve that is able to shift due to such matters as supply shocks and structural inflation. The former refers to such events like the [[1973 oil crisis]], while the latter refers to the [[price/wage spiral]] and [[Adaptive expectations|inflationary expectations]] implying that inflation is the new normal. Thus, the Phillips curve represents only the demand-pull component of the triangle model.

Another concept of note is the [[potential output]] (sometimes called the "natural gross domestic product"), a level of GDP, where the economy is at its optimal level of production given institutional and natural constraints. (This level of output corresponds to the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment, [[NAIRU]], or the "natural" rate of unemployment or the full-employment unemployment rate.) If GDP exceeds its potential (and unemployment is below the NAIRU), the theory says that inflation will ''accelerate'' as suppliers increase their prices and built-in inflation worsens. If GDP falls below its potential level (and unemployment is above the NAIRU), inflation will ''decelerate'' as suppliers attempt to fill excess capacity, cutting prices and undermining built-in inflation.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Coe | first = David T | title = Nominal Wages. The NAIRU and Wage Flexibility | publisher = Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development | url = http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/59/19/33917832.pdf }}</ref>

However, one problem with this theory for policy-making purposes is that the exact level of potential output (and of the NAIRU) is generally unknown and tends to change over time. Inflation also seems to act in an asymmetric way, rising more quickly than it falls. Worse, it can change because of policy: for example, high unemployment under British Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] might have led to a rise in the NAIRU (and a fall in potential) because many of the unemployed found themselves as [[Structural unemployment|structurally unemployed]], unable to find jobs that fit their skills. A rise in structural unemployment implies that a smaller percentage of the labor force can find jobs at the NAIRU, where the economy avoids crossing the threshold into the realm of accelerating inflation.

==== Unemployment ====
A connection between inflation and unemployment has been drawn since the emergence of large scale unemployment in the 19th century, and connections continue to be drawn today. However, the [[unemployment rate]] generally only affects inflation in the short-term but not the long-term.<ref name=chang>Chang, R. (1997) [https://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/ACFC7.pdf "Is Low Unemployment Inflationary?"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113212953/https://www.frbatlanta.org/filelegacydocs/ACFC7.pdf |date=November 13, 2013 }} ''Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Economic Review'' 1Q97:4–13</ref> In the long term, the [[velocity of money]] is far more predictive of inflation than low unemployment.<ref name=hossfeld>Oliver Hossfeld (2010) [http://www.hhl.de/fileadmin/texte/publikationen/forschungspapiere/HOSSFELD_USMONEY_INFERWP_2010-4.pdf "US Money Demand, Monetary Overhang, and Inflation Prediction"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113215511/http://www.hhl.de/fileadmin/texte/publikationen/forschungspapiere/HOSSFELD_USMONEY_INFERWP_2010-4.pdf |date=November 13, 2013 }} ''International Network for Economic Research'' working paper no. 2010.4</ref>

In [[Marxian economics]], the unemployed serve as a [[reserve army of labor]], which restrain wage inflation. In the 20th century, similar concepts in Keynesian economics include the [[NAIRU]] (Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment) and the [[Phillips curve]].

=== Monetarist view ===
[[File:M2andInflation.png|thumb|right|Inflation and the growth of money supply (M2)]]
{{Details|Monetarism}}

Monetarists believe the most significant factor influencing inflation or deflation is how fast the money supply grows or shrinks. They consider fiscal policy, or government spending and taxation, as ineffective in controlling inflation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lagassé, Paul |title=The Columbia Encyclopedia |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |year=2000 |chapter=Monetarism |isbn=0-7876-5015-3 |edition=6th |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/columbiaencyclop00laga }}</ref> The monetarist economist [[Milton Friedman]] famously stated, ''"Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon."''<ref>{{cite book|first1=Milton|last1= Friedman|first2=Anna Jacobson |last2=Schwartz|title=A Monetary History of the United States, 1867–1960|url=https://archive.org/details/monetaryhistoryo00frie|url-access=registration|year=1963|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

Monetarists assert that the empirical study of monetary history shows that inflation has always been a monetary phenomenon. The [[quantity theory of money]], simply stated, says that any change in the amount of money in a system will change the price level. This theory begins with the [[equation of exchange]]:

:<math>MV = PQ</math>
where
:<math>M</math> is the nominal quantity of money;
:<math>V</math> is the [[velocity of money]] in final expenditures;
:<math>P</math> is the general price level;
:<math>Q</math> is an index of the [[real versus nominal value (economics)|real value]] of final expenditures;

In this formula, the general price level is related to the level of real economic activity (''Q''), the quantity of money (''M'') and the velocity of money (''V''). The formula is an identity because the velocity of money (''V'') is defined to be the ratio of final nominal expenditure (<math> PQ </math>) to the quantity of money (''M'').

Monetarists assume that the velocity of money is unaffected by monetary policy (at least in the long run), and the real value of output is determined in the long run by the productive capacity of the economy. Under these assumptions, the primary driver of the change in the general price level is changes in the quantity of money. With exogenous velocity (that is, velocity being determined externally and not being influenced by monetary policy), the money supply determines the value of nominal output (which equals final expenditure) in the short run. In practice, velocity is not exogenous in the short run, and so the formula does not necessarily imply a stable short-run relationship between the money supply and nominal output. However, in the long run, changes in velocity are assumed to be determined by the evolution of the payments mechanism. If velocity is relatively unaffected by monetary policy, the long-run rate of increase in prices (the inflation rate) is equal to the long-run growth rate of the money supply plus the exogenous long-run rate of velocity growth minus the long run growth rate of real output.<ref name="Mankiw 2002 pp=81–107" />

=== Effect of economic growth ===
If economic growth matches the growth of the money supply, inflation should not occur when all else is equal.<ref>{{Cite journal |first= Miguel |last= Sigrauski |title= Inflation and Economic Growth |journal= Journal of Political Economy |year= 1961|volume= 75 |issue= 6 |pages= 796–810 |doi= 10.1086/259360|citeseerx= 10.1.1.330.9556 |s2cid= 153472492 }}</ref> A large variety of factors can affect the rate of both. For example, investment in [[Stock market|market production]], infrastructure, education, and [[preventive health care]] can all grow an economy in greater amounts than the investment spending.<ref>{{Cite journal |first= David R. |last= Henderson |year= 1999 |title= Does Growth Cause Inflation?|url=https://www.cato.org/policy-report/novemberdecember-1999/does-growth-cause-inflation|journal= Cato Policy Report |volume= 21}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/01/02/business/20110102-metrics-graphic.html?_r=0|title=In Investing, It's When You Start And When You Finish|newspaper=New York Times|date=January 2, 2012}}</ref>

=== Rational expectations theory ===
{{Details|Rational expectations theory}}

Rational expectations theory holds that economic actors look rationally into the future when trying to maximize their well-being, and do not respond solely to immediate opportunity costs and pressures. In this view, while generally grounded in monetarism, future expectations and strategies are important for inflation as well.

A core assertion of rational expectations theory is that actors will seek to "head off" central-bank decisions by acting in ways that fulfill predictions of higher inflation. This means that central banks must establish their credibility in fighting inflation, or economic actors will make bets that the central bank will expand the money supply rapidly enough to prevent recession, even at the expense of exacerbating inflation. Thus, if a central bank has a reputation as being "soft" on inflation, when it announces a new policy of fighting inflation with restrictive monetary growth economic agents will not believe that the policy will persist; their inflationary expectations will remain high, and so will inflation. On the other hand, if the central bank has a reputation of being "tough" on inflation, then such a policy announcement will be believed and inflationary expectations will come down rapidly, thus allowing inflation itself to come down rapidly with minimal economic disruption.

===Heterodox views===
There are also other theories about inflation that are no longer accepted by [[mainstream economics|mainstream economists]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2020}}

==== Austrian view ====
{{See also|Austrian School|Monetary inflation}}

The [[Austrian School]] stresses that inflation is not uniform over all assets, goods, and services. Inflation depends on differences in markets and on where newly created money and credit enter the economy.{{Citation needed|date=January 2014}} [[Ludwig von Mises]] said that inflation should refer to an increase in the quantity of money that is not offset by a corresponding increase in the need for money, and that price inflation will necessarily follow.<ref>{{cite book|last=Von Mises|first=Ludwig|title=The Theory of Money and Credit|year=1912|publisher=Yale University Press|page=240|url=https://mises.org/books/tmc.pdf|edition=1953|access-date=January 23, 2014|quote=In theoretical investigation there is only one meaning that can rationally be attached to the expression Inflation: an increase in the quantity of money (in the broader sense of the term, so as to include fiduciary media as well), that is not offset by a corresponding increase in the demand for money (again in the broader sense of the term), so that a fall in the objective exchange-value of money must occur.}}</ref><ref name="TheTheory">The Theory of Money and Credit, Mises (1912, [1981], p. 272)</ref>

==== Real bills doctrine ====
{{main|Real bills doctrine}}

The real bills doctrine asserts that banks should issue their money in exchange for short-term real bills of adequate value. As long as banks only issue a dollar in exchange for assets worth at least a dollar, the issuing bank's assets will naturally move in step with its issuance of money, and the money will hold its value. Should the bank fail to get or maintain assets of adequate value, then the bank's money will lose value, just as any financial security will lose value if its asset backing diminishes. The real bills doctrine (also known as the backing theory) thus asserts that inflation results when money outruns its issuer's assets. The quantity theory of money, in contrast, claims that inflation results when money outruns the economy's production of goods.

Currency and banking schools of economics argue the RBD, that banks should also be able to issue currency against bills of trading, which is "real bills" that they buy from merchants. This theory was important in the 19th century in debates between "Banking" and "Currency" schools of monetary soundness, and in the formation of the [[Federal Reserve]]. In the wake of the collapse of the international gold standard post 1913, and the move towards deficit financing of government, RBD has remained a minor topic, primarily of interest in limited contexts, such as [[currency board]]s. It is generally held in ill repute today, with [[Frederic Mishkin]], a governor of the [[Federal Reserve]] going so far as to say it had been "completely discredited."

The debate between currency, or quantity theory, and the [[British Banking School|banking schools]] during the 19th century prefigures current questions about the credibility of money in the present. In the 19th century, the banking schools had greater influence in policy in the United States and Great Britain, while the [[British Currency School|currency schools]] had more influence "on the continent", that is in non-British countries, particularly in the Latin Monetary Union and the earlier Scandinavia monetary union.

In 2019 monetary historians [[Thomas M. Humphrey]] and [[Richard H. Timberlake]] published "Gold, the Real Bills Doctrine, and the Fed: Sources of Monetary Disorder 1922-1938".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Humphrey |first1=Thomas M. |last2=Timberlake |first2=Richard H. |title=Gold, the Real Bills Doctrine, and the Fed : sources of monetary disorder 1922-1938 |date=2019 |publisher=Cato Institute |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-948647-13-7 |edition=First}}</ref>

== Effects ==
=== General ===
Inflation is the decrease in the purchasing power of a currency. That is, when the general level of prices rise, each monetary unit can buy fewer goods and services in aggregate. The impact of inflation differs on different sectors of the economy, with some sectors being adversely impacted while others benefitting. For example, with inflation, those segments in society which own physical assets, such as property, stock etc., benefit from the price/value of their holdings going up, when those who seek to acquire them will need to pay more for them. Their ability to do so will depend on the degree to which their income is fixed. For example, increases in payments to workers and pensioners often lag behind inflation, and for some people income is fixed. Also, individuals or institutions with cash assets will experience a decline in the purchasing power of the cash. Increases in the price level (inflation) erode the real value of money (the functional currency) and other items with an underlying monetary nature.

Debtors who have debts with a fixed nominal rate of interest will see a reduction in the "real" interest rate as the inflation rate rises. The real interest on a loan is the nominal rate minus the inflation rate. The formula ''R = N-I'' approximates the correct answer as long as both the nominal interest rate and the inflation rate are small. The correct equation is ''r = n/i'' where ''r'', ''n'' and ''i'' are expressed as [[ratio]]s (e.g. 1.2 for +20%, 0.8 for −20%). As an example, when the inflation rate is 3%, a loan with a nominal interest rate of 5% would have a real interest rate of approximately 2% (in fact, it's 1.94%). Any unexpected increase in the inflation rate would decrease the real interest rate. Banks and other lenders adjust for this inflation risk either by including an inflation risk premium to fixed interest rate loans, or lending at an adjustable rate.

=== Negative ===
High or unpredictable inflation rates are regarded as harmful to an overall economy. They add inefficiencies in the market, and make it difficult for companies to budget or plan long-term. Inflation can act as a drag on productivity as companies are forced to shift resources away from products and services to focus on profit and losses from currency inflation.<ref name=Taylor /> Uncertainty about the future purchasing power of money discourages investment and saving.<ref>{{cite journal | title=Personal Savings and Anticipated Inflation | journal=The Economic Journal | last=Bulkley | first=George | volume=91 | issue=361 |date=March 1981| pages=124–135 | doi=10.2307/2231702 | jstor=2231702}}</ref> Inflation can also impose hidden tax increases. For instance, inflated earnings push taxpayers into higher income tax rates unless the tax brackets are indexed to inflation.

With high inflation, purchasing power is redistributed from those on fixed nominal incomes, such as some pensioners whose pensions are not indexed to the price level, towards those with variable incomes whose earnings may better keep pace with the inflation.<ref name=Taylor /> This redistribution of purchasing power will also occur between international trading partners. Where fixed [[exchange rate]]s are imposed, higher inflation in one economy than another will cause the first economy's exports to become more expensive and affect the [[balance of trade]]. There can also be negative impacts to trade from an increased instability in currency exchange prices caused by unpredictable inflation.

;[[Hoarding]]: People buy durable and/or non-perishable commodities and other goods as stores of wealth, to avoid the losses expected from the declining purchasing power of money, creating shortages of the hoarded goods.

;Social unrest and revolts: Inflation can lead to massive demonstrations and revolutions. For example, inflation and in particular food inflation is considered as one of the main reasons that caused the 2010–11 [[Tunisian revolution]]<ref>"Les Egyptiens souffrent aussi de l'accélération de l'inflation", Céline Jeancourt-Galignani{{snd}} La Tribune, February 10, 2011</ref> and the [[2011 Egyptian revolution]],<ref name="tna">{{Cite news|url=http://www.thenewage.co.za/8894-1007-53-Egypt_protests_a_ticking_time_bomb_Analysts|title=Egypt protests a ticking time bomb: Analysts|author=AFP|publisher=The New Age|date=January 27, 2011|access-date=January 29, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209104208/http://www.thenewage.co.za/8894-1007-53-Egypt_protests_a_ticking_time_bomb_Analysts|archive-date=February 9, 2011|df=mdy-all}}</ref> according to many observers including [[Robert Zoellick]],<ref>"Les prix alimentaires proches de "la cote d'alerte"" – Le Figaro, with AFP, February 20, 2011</ref> president of the [[World Bank]]. Tunisian president [[Zine El Abidine Ben Ali]] was ousted, Egyptian President [[Hosni Mubarak]] was also ousted after only 18 days of demonstrations, and protests soon spread in many countries of North Africa and Middle East.

;[[Hyperinflation]]: If inflation becomes too high, it can cause people to severely curtail their use of the currency, leading to an acceleration in the inflation rate. High and accelerating inflation grossly interferes with the normal workings of the economy, hurting its ability to supply goods. Hyperinflation can lead to the abandonment of the use of the country's currency (for example as in [[North Korea]]) leading to the adoption of an external currency ([[dollarization]]).<ref name="cato">{{Cite news|url=http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/north-korea-hyperinflation-dollarization|title=North Korea: From Hyperinflation to Dollarization?|author=Steve H. Hanke|date=July 2013|access-date=August 21, 2014}}</ref>

;[[Allocative efficiency]]: A change in the supply or demand for a good will normally cause its [[relative price]] to change, signaling the buyers and sellers that they should re-allocate resources in response to the new market conditions. But when prices are constantly changing due to inflation, price changes due to genuine relative [[price signal]]s are difficult to distinguish from price changes due to general inflation, so agents are slow to respond to them. The result is a loss of [[economic efficiency|allocative efficiency]].

;[[Shoe leather cost]]: High inflation increases the opportunity cost of holding cash balances and can induce people to hold a greater portion of their assets in interest paying accounts. However, since cash is still needed to carry out transactions this means that more "trips to the bank" are necessary to make withdrawals, proverbially wearing out the "shoe leather" with each trip.

;[[Menu cost]]s: With high inflation, firms must change their prices often to keep up with economy-wide changes. But often changing prices is itself a costly activity whether explicitly, as with the need to print new menus, or implicitly, as with the extra time and effort needed to change prices constantly.

=== Positive ===
;Labour-market adjustments: Nominal wages are [[Sticky (economics)|slow to adjust downwards]]. This can lead to prolonged disequilibrium and high unemployment in the labor market. Since inflation allows real wages to fall even if nominal wages are kept constant, moderate inflation enables labor markets to reach equilibrium faster.<ref>Tobin, James, American Economic Review, march (1969), "Inflation and Unemployment"</ref>

;Room to maneuver: The primary tools for controlling the money supply are the ability to set the [[discount window|discount rate]], the rate at which banks can borrow from the central bank, and [[open market operations]], which are the central bank's interventions into the bonds market with the aim of affecting the nominal interest rate. If an economy finds itself in a recession with already low, or even zero, nominal interest rates, then the bank cannot cut these rates further (since negative nominal interest rates are impossible) to stimulate the economy{{snd}} this situation is known as a [[liquidity trap]].

;Mundell–Tobin effect: The [[Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences|Nobel]] laureate Robert Mundell noted that moderate inflation would induce savers to substitute lending for some money holding as a means to finance future spending. That substitution would cause market clearing real interest rates to fall.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mundell|first=James|journal=Journal of Political Economy|volume=LXXI|year=1963|pages=280–83 |title=Inflation and Real Interest|issue=3|doi=10.1086/258771|s2cid=153733633}}</ref> The lower real rate of interest would induce more borrowing to finance investment. In a similar vein, Nobel laureate James Tobin noted that such inflation would cause businesses to substitute investment in [[physical capital]] (plant, equipment, and inventories) for money balances in their asset portfolios. That substitution would mean choosing the making of investments with lower rates of real return. (The rates of return are lower because the investments with higher rates of return were already being made before.)<ref>Tobin, J. Econometrica, Vol. 33, (1965), pp. 671–84 "Money and Economic Growth"</ref> The two related effects are known as the [[Mundell–Tobin effect]]. Unless the economy is already overinvesting according to models of [[Economic growth|economic growth theory]], that extra investment resulting from the effect would be seen as positive.

;Instability with deflation: Economist [[Sho-Chieh Tsiang|S.C. Tsiang]] noted that once substantial deflation is expected, two important effects will appear; both a result of money holding substituting for lending as a vehicle for saving.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tsiang |first1=S. C. |title=A Critical Note on the Optimum Supply of Money |journal=Journal of Money, Credit and Banking |date=1969 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=266–280 |doi=10.2307/1991274 |jstor=1991274 |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/mcb/jmoncb/v1y1969i2p266-80.html |language=en}}</ref> The first was that continually falling prices and the resulting incentive to hoard money will cause instability resulting from the likely increasing fear, while money hoards grow in value, that the value of those hoards are at risk, as people realize that a movement to trade those money hoards for real goods and assets will quickly drive those prices up. Any movement to spend those hoards "once started would become a tremendous avalanche, which could rampage for a long time before it would spend itself."<ref>Tsiang, 1969 (p272)</ref> Thus, a regime of long-term deflation is likely to be interrupted by periodic spikes of rapid inflation and consequent real economic disruptions. Moderate and stable inflation would avoid such a seesawing of price movements.

The second effect noted by Tsiang is that when savers have substituted money holding for lending on financial markets, the role of those markets in channeling savings into investment is undermined. With nominal interest rates driven to zero, or near zero, from the competition with a high return money asset, there would be no price mechanism in whatever is left of those markets. With financial markets effectively euthanized, the remaining goods and physical asset prices would move in perverse directions. For example, an increased desire to save could not push interest rates further down (and thereby stimulate investment) but would instead cause additional money hoarding, driving consumer prices further down and making investment in consumer goods production thereby less attractive. Moderate inflation, once its expectation is incorporated into nominal interest rates, would give those interest rates room to go both up and down in response to shifting investment opportunities, or savers' preferences, and thus allow financial markets to function in a more normal fashion.

== Controlling inflation ==
[[File:Federal Funds Rate (effective).svg|thumb|right|The U.S. effective [[federal funds rate]] charted over fifty years]]

===Monetary Policy===
{{Main|Monetary policy}}
Although both [[fiscal policy|fiscal]] and monetary policy can affect inflation, ever since the 1980s, most countries primarily rely on monetary policy to control inflation. When inflation beyond an acceptable level is taking place, the country's [[central bank]] can increase the [[interest rate]], which typically will tend to slow or stop the growth of the [[money supply]]. Some central banks have a [[symmetrical inflation target]] while others only control inflation when it rises above a threshold, whether publicly disclosed or not.

In the 21st century, most economists favor a low and steady rate of inflation. In most countries, central banks or other monetary authorities are tasked with keeping their interbank lending rates at low stable levels, and the target inflation rate of about 2% to 3%. Central banks target a low inflation rate because they believe that high inflation is economically costly because it would create uncertainty about differences in [[relative price]]s and about the inflation rate itself. A low positive inflation rate is targeted rather than a zero or negative one because the latter could cause or worsen [[recession]]s;<ref name="econjournalwatch.org"/> low (as opposed to zero or [[Deflation|negative]]) inflation reduces the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduces the risk that a [[liquidity trap]] prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy.<ref name="aeaweb.org"/>

Higher interest rates reduce the economy's money supply because fewer people seek loans. When banks make loans, the loan proceeds are generally deposited in bank accounts that are part of the money supply. Therefore, when a person pays back a loan and no other loans are made to replace it, the amount of bank deposits and hence the money supply decrease. For example, in the early 1980s, when the [[federal funds rate]] exceeded 15%, the quantity of [[Federal Reserve]] dollars fell 8.1%, from US$8.6 trillion down to $7.9 trillion.

In the latter part of the 20th century, there was a debate between [[Keynesian]]s and [[monetarist]]s about the appropriate instrument to use to control inflation. Monetarists emphasize a low and steady growth rate of the money supply, while the Keynesians emphasize reducing [[aggregate demand]] during economic expansions and increasing demand during recessions to keep inflation stable. Control of aggregate demand can be achieved using both monetary policy and fiscal policy (increased taxation or reduced government spending to reduce demand).

===Other methods and new technologies===
A variety of other methods and policies have been proposed and used to control inflation. The inflationary nature of fiat systems provides a potential large market opportunity for new technologies such as [[blockchain]]-based solutions that mitigate or even solve for the erosion in purchasing power. These systems may take on the form of simple [[Fiat money|fiat]] pegs immediately available for credit markets, or more sophisticated systems that avoid inflationary products entirely, swapping one asset presentation for another — similar to commodity-backed currencies of the past.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kameir|first=Christian|title=Council Post: Blockchain Investment Opportunity: Fiat Money|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbesfinancecouncil/2020/02/18/blockchain-investment-opportunity-fiat-money/|access-date=2021-01-16|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>

==== Fixed exchange rates ====
{{Main|Fixed exchange rate}}
Under a fixed exchange rate currency regime, a country's currency is tied in value to another single currency or to a basket of other currencies (or sometimes to another measure of value, such as gold). A fixed exchange rate is usually used to stabilize the value of a currency, vis-a-vis the currency it is pegged to. It can also be used as a means to control inflation. However, as the value of the reference currency rises and falls, so does the currency pegged to it. This essentially means that the inflation rate in the fixed exchange rate country is determined by the inflation rate of the country the currency is pegged to. In addition, a fixed exchange rate prevents a government from using domestic monetary policy to achieve macroeconomic stability.

Under the [[Bretton Woods system|Bretton Woods]] agreement, most countries around the world had currencies that were fixed to the U.S. dollar. This limited inflation in those countries, but also exposed them to the danger of [[speculative attack]]s. After the Bretton Woods agreement broke down in the early 1970s, countries gradually turned to [[floating exchange rates]]. However, in the later part of the 20th century, some countries reverted to a fixed exchange rate as part of an attempt to control inflation. This policy of using a fixed exchange rate to control inflation was used in many countries in South America in the later part of the 20th century (e.g. [[Argentine Currency Board|Argentina (1991–2002)]], Bolivia, Brazil, and Chile). 

==== Gold standard ====
{{Main|Gold standard}}
[[File:Two 20kr gold coins.png|thumb|right|Two 20 [[Swedish krona|krona]] gold coins from the [[Scandinavian Monetary Union]], a historical example of an international gold standard]]

The gold standard is a monetary system in which a region's common medium of exchange is paper notes (or other monetary token) that are normally freely convertible into pre-set, fixed quantities of gold. The standard specifies how the gold backing would be implemented, including the amount of [[Bullion coin|specie]] per currency unit. The currency itself has no ''innate value'', but is accepted by traders because it can be redeemed for the equivalent specie. A [[Silver certificate (United States)|U.S. silver certificate]], for example, could be redeemed for an actual piece of silver.

The gold standard was partially abandoned via the international adoption of the [[Bretton Woods system]]. Under this system all other major currencies were tied at fixed rates to the US dollar, which itself was tied by the US government to gold at the rate of US$35 per ounce. The Bretton Woods system broke down in 1971, causing most countries to switch to [[fiat currency|fiat money]]{{snd}} money backed only by the laws of the country.

Under a gold standard, the long term rate of inflation (or deflation) would be determined by the growth rate of the supply of gold relative to total output.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last =Bordo|first = Michael D.|date =2002|url = http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GoldStandard.html |title =Gold Standard|encyclopedia =The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics|publisher = Library of Economics and Liberty}}</ref> Critics argue that this will cause arbitrary fluctuations in the inflation rate, and that monetary policy would essentially be determined by gold mining.<ref name="BarskyDeLong">{{cite journal|last1=Barsky |first1=Robert B |first2=J Bradford |last2=DeLong |year=1991 |title=Forecasting Pre-World War I Inflation: The Fisher Effect and the Gold Standard |journal=Quarterly Journal of Economics |volume=106 |issue=3 |pages=815–36 |url=https://ideas.repec.org/a/tpr/qjecon/v106y1991i3p815-36.html |access-date=September 27, 2008|doi=10.2307/2937928|jstor=2937928}}</ref><ref name="DeLong">{{cite web |url=http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/Politics/whynotthegoldstandard.html |title=Why Not the Gold Standard? |last=DeLong |first=Brad |access-date=September 25, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101018035441/http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/politics/whynotthegoldstandard.html |archive-date=October 18, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== Wage and price controls ====
{{Main|Incomes policy}}
Another method attempted in the past have been wage and [[price controls]] ("incomes policies"). Wage and price controls have been successful in wartime environments in combination with rationing. However, their use in other contexts is far more mixed. Notable failures of their use include [[Nixon shock|the 1972 imposition of wage and price controls]] by [[Richard Nixon]]. More successful examples include the [[The Accord|Prices and Incomes Accord]] in Australia and the [[Wassenaar Agreement]] in the [[Netherlands]].

In general, wage and price controls are regarded as a temporary and exceptional measure, only effective when coupled with policies designed to reduce the underlying causes of inflation during the [[Wage and price controls|wage and price]] control regime, for example, winning the war being fought. They often have perverse effects, due to the distorted signals they send to the market. Artificially low prices often cause rationing and shortages and discourage future investment, resulting in yet further shortages. The usual economic analysis is that any product or service that is under-priced is overconsumed. For example, if the official price of bread is too low, there will be too little bread at official prices, and too little investment in bread making by the market to satisfy future needs, thereby exacerbating the problem in the [[long term]].

Temporary controls may ''complement'' a recession as a way to fight inflation: the controls make the recession more efficient as a way to fight inflation (reducing the need to increase unemployment), while the recession prevents the kinds of distortions that controls cause when demand is high. However, in general the advice of economists is not to impose price controls but to liberalize prices by assuming that the economy will adjust and abandon unprofitable economic activity. The lower activity will place fewer demands on whatever commodities were driving inflation, whether labor or resources, and inflation will fall with total economic output. This often produces a severe recession, as productive capacity is reallocated and is thus often very unpopular with the people whose livelihoods are destroyed (see [[creative destruction]]).

== Cost-of-living allowance ==
{{See also|Cost of living}}

The real purchasing power of fixed payments is eroded by inflation unless they are inflation-adjusted to keep their real values constant. In many countries, employment contracts, pension benefits, and government entitlements (such as [[social security]]) are tied to a cost-of-living index, typically to the [[consumer price index]].<ref name="cola wars">{{cite web |url=http://www.govexec.com/dailyfed/0906/090806rp.htm |title=COLA Wars |date=September 8, 2006 |work=Government Executive |publisher=[[National Journal Group]] |access-date=September 23, 2008 |last=Flanagan |first=Tammy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005120234/http://www.govexec.com/dailyfed/0906/090806rp.htm |archive-date=October 5, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> A ''cost-of-living adjustment'' (COLA) adjusts salaries based on changes in a cost-of-living index. It does not control inflation, but rather seeks to mitigate the consequences of inflation for those on fixed incomes. Salaries are typically adjusted annually in low inflation economies. During hyperinflation they are adjusted more often.<ref name="cola wars" /> They may also be tied to a cost-of-living index that varies by geographic location if the employee moves.

Annual escalation clauses in employment contracts can specify retroactive or future percentage increases in worker pay which are not tied to any index. These negotiated increases in pay are colloquially referred to as cost-of-living adjustments ("COLAs") or cost-of-living increases because of their similarity to increases tied to externally determined indexes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ssa.gov/oact/cola/colasummary.html|title=Cost-Of-Living Adjustment (COLA)|last=SueKunkel|website=www.ssa.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-05-15}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=21em}}
* [[Hyperinflation]]
* [[Indexed unit of account]]
* [[Inflationism]]
* [[Inflation hedge]]
* [[Headline inflation]]
* [[Core inflation]]
* [[List of countries by inflation rate]]
* [[Measuring economic worth over time]]
* [[Overconsumption]]
* [[Real versus nominal value (economics)]]
* [[Steady-state economy]]
* [[Welfare cost of inflation]]
* [[Supply shock]]
* [[Template:Inflation]] – for price conversions in Wikipedia articles
{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* {{Cite journal |last1=Abel |first1=Andrew |last2=Bernanke |first2=Ben |author-link2=Ben Bernanke |title=Macroeconomics |publisher=Pearson |year=2005 |edition=5th }} Measurement of inflation is discussed in Ch. 2, pp. 45–50; Money growth & Inflation in Ch. 7, pp. 266–269; Keynesian business cycles and inflation in Ch. 9, pp. 308–348.
* {{Cite book |last=Barro |first=Robert J. |author-link =Robert Barro |title=Macroeconomics |publisher=MIT Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |year=1997 |page= 895 |isbn=0-262-02436-5 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Blanchard |first=Olivier |author-link=Olivier Blanchard |title=Macroeconomics |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J |year=2000 |isbn=0-13-013306-X |edition=2nd }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Mankiw |first=N. Gregory |author-link=N. Gregory Mankiw |title=Macroeconomics |publisher=Worth |year=2002 |edition=5th }} Measurement of inflation is discussed in Ch. 2, pp. 22–32; Money growth & Inflation in Ch. 4, pp. 81–107; Keynesian business cycles and inflation in Ch. 9, pp. 238–255.
* {{Cite book |last1=Hall |first1=Robert E. |author-link=Robert Hall (economist) |last2=Taylor |first2=John B. |author-link2=John B. Taylor |title=Macroeconomics |publisher=W.W. Norton |location=New York |year=1993 |page=[https://archive.org/details/macroeconomics00hall/page/637 637] |isbn=0-393-96307-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/macroeconomics00hall/page/637 }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Burda |first1=Michael C. |author-link=Michael C. Burda |last2=Wyplosz |first2=Charles |title=Macroeconomics: a European text |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=1997 |isbn=0-19-877468-0 }}

== Further reading ==
* [[Leonardo Auernheimer|Auernheimer, Leonardo]], "The Honest Government's Guide to the Revenue From the Creation of Money," Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 82, No. 3, May/June 1974, pp. 598–606.
* [[William Baumol|Baumol, William J.]] and [[Alan S. Blinder]], ''Macroeconomics: Principles and Policy'', Tenth edition. Thomson South-Western, 2006. {{ISBN|0-324-22114-2}}
* [[Milton Friedman|Friedman, Milton]], Nobel lecture: [https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/economics/laureates/1976/friedman-lecture.pdf Inflation and unemployment] 1977
* [[Frederic Mishkin|Mishkin, Frederic S.]], ''The Economics of Money, Banking, and Financial Markets'', New York, Harper Collins, 1995.
* [[Federal Reserve Bank of Boston]], [http://www.bos.frb.org/economic/conf/conf53/index.htm "Understanding Inflation and the Implications for Monetary Policy: A Phillips Curve Retrospective"], Conference Series 53, June 9–11, 2008, Chatham, Massachusetts. (Also cf. [[Phillips curve]] article)

== External links ==
{{Library resources box
|by=no
|onlinebooks=no
|others=no
|about=yes
|label=Inflation}}
* [https://data.oecd.org/price/inflation-cpi.htm OECD Consumer Price Index]
* [http://www.bls.gov/cpi/ United States Bureau of Labor Statistics – Consumer Price Index]
* [http://dailytools.in/FinanceInvestment/InflationCalculator General purpose compounded inflation calculator]
* [http://www.aier.org/cost-living-calculator U.S. Cost of Living Calculator (1913–present)] ([[American Institute for Economic Research|AIER]])
* [http://www.bls.gov/data/inflation_calculator.htm U.S. Inflation Calculator (1913–present)] ([[US Bureau of Labor Statistics|US BLS]])
* [https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/theme/59 U.S. Inflation (historical documents)] ([[Federal Reserve Economic Data#Other Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis data services|FRASER]])
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080422012228/http://www.riksbank.com/templates/Page.aspx?id=27404 World Inflation (1290–2006)] ([[Consumer Price Index]]) ([[Swedish Riksbank]])
* [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/FP.CPI.TOTL.ZG World Bank annual inflation rates for all countries]
* [https://oxibiz.com/what-is-inflation-learn-how-inflation-works/ How inflation works?]

{{Economics}}
{{United States – Commonwealth of Nations recessions}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Inflation| ]]
[[Category:Financial economics]]
[[Category:Macroeconomic aggregates]]
[[Category:Macroeconomic problems]]

2020 in spaceflight

2021-06-12T22:44:37Z

Denvercoder9: /* Notes */ drop empty section

{{short description|Spaceflight-related events during the year of 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox Year in spaceflight
| year = 2020
| image = {{Photomontage|
| photo1a = Crew Dragon Demo-2 Bob and Doug.jpg{{!}}Bob and Doug during Crew Dragon Demo-2
| photo2a = SpaceX Boca Chica Launch Pad - SN9.jpg{{!}}Image of a Starship test prototype before suborbital launch
| photo2b = OSIRIS-REX SamCam TAGSAM Event 2020-10-20 small.gif{{!}}Animation of the asteroid Bennu being sampled by OSIRIS-REX for return to earth
| photo3a = Chang-e 5 assembly factory test 1.png{{!}} Chang-e 5 assembly in the factory before a successful launch
| size = 250
| spacing = 3
| color = transparent
| color_border = transparent
}}
| caption = Highlights from spaceflight in 2020
| first = 7 January
| last = 29 December
| total = 114
| success = 104
| failed = 10
| partial = 0
| catalogued = 104
| firstflight =
| firstsat = {{plainlist|
* {{GTM}}
* {{SVN}}
* {{MCO}}
}}
| firstlaunch =
| firsttrav =
| firstsublaunch = {{NLD}}
| maidens = {{plainlist|
* [[Galactic Energy|Ceres-1]]
* [[Kuaizhou#Models|Kuaizhou 11]]
* [[LauncherOne]]
* [[Long March 5|Long March 5B]]
* [[Long March 7#CZ-7A variant|Long March 7A]]
* [[Long March 8]]
* [[Qased (rocket)|Qased]]
* [[Rockets by Astra#Rocket 3|Rocket 3]]
}}
| retired = {{plainlist|
* [[H-IIB]]
}}
| orbital = 4
| suborbital = 0
| totalcrew = 12
| EVAs = 8
}}
{{TLS-L|alignment=right|fixed=on}}

This article documents notable '''spaceflight events during the year 2020'''.
{{TOC level|3}}

== Overview ==
=== Exploration of the Solar System ===
Three [[List of missions to Mars|missions to]] [[Mars]] were launched in 2020, including two rovers, two orbiters, and a lander. [[NASA]] has launched the [[Mars 2020|Mars 2020 mission]], which includes the [[Perseverance (rover)|''Perseverance'']] rover and [[Ingenuity (helicopter)|''Ingenuity'']] helicopter, and will [[Mars sample-return mission|cache samples for eventual return]] to [[Earth]].<ref name="3Mars">{{cite web |url=https://www.space.com/three-mars-missions-launch-july-2020.html|title=It's the month of Mars! 3 Red Planet missions set to launch in July|publisher=Space.com|last=Wall|first=Mike|date=7 July 2020 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref> The [[China National Space Administration]] (CNSA) has launched its [[Mars Global Remote Sensing Orbiter and Small Rover|Tianwen-1 mission]], which includes an orbiter, a lander, a small rover and a deployable camera;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MzA3OTA2ODgxMQ==&mid=2649795427&idx=1&sn=7ef1ec1c2beb3e5a383e0f509cdf34d8|title=天外送祝福，月圆迎华诞——天问一号以"自拍国旗"祝福祖国71华诞|trans-title=Blessings from the heavens, and the full moon celebrates China's birthday —— Tianwen-1 blesses China's 71st birthday with national flag selfie|website=mp.weixin.qq.com|date=1 October 2020|access-date=1 October 2020|language=zh}}</ref> it is China's first mission to another planet using its own delivery vehicle.<ref name="3Mars"/> Finally, the [[United Arab Emirates]], in partnership with American universities, has launched the [[Hope Mars Mission]] orbiter on a [[H-IIA|Japanese rocket]].<ref name="3Mars"/>

In November, China launched [[Chang'e 5]], the first [[sample-return mission]] to the Moon since [[Luna 24]] in 1976. Chang'e 5 used the recently developed [[Long March 5]] [[heavy-lift rocket]]. The mission performed the first-ever robotic [[lunar orbit rendezvous]].<ref name="1strobotic">{{cite web |url=https://spacenews.com/change-5-spacecraft-smashes-into-moon-after-completing-mission/|title=Chang'e-5 spacecraft smashes into moon after completing mission|publisher=Spacenews.com|date=8 December 2020 |access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref>

NASA's [[OSIRIS-REx]] mission landed on asteroid [[101955 Bennu]] in October to obtain a surface sample for return to earth. [[JAXA]]'s [[Hayabusa2]] mission returned samples of [[162173 Ryugu]] to Earth on 5 December 2020, with its re-entry vehicle recovered in [[RAAF Woomera Range Complex|Woomera, Australia]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=2020-12-06|title=Hayabusa-2: Capsule with asteroid samples in 'perfect' shape|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55201662|access-date=2020-12-26}}</ref>

One solar mission was launched: [[ESA]]'s [[Solar Orbiter]], on 10 February 2020, intended to study the Sun’s [[heliosphere]]. [[Parker Solar Probe]], launched in 2018, decreased its minimal distance to the Sun further to 14.2 million km.

=== Human spaceflight ===
In the United States, [[SpaceX]]'s [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Dragon 2]] spacecraft made its first crewed flight to the [[International Space Station]] on 31 May 2020 as part of the [[Commercial Crew Program]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Wall |first=Mike|url=https://www.space.com/spacex-may-launch-astronauts-to-space-early-2020.html|title=SpaceX Could Launch NASA Astronauts Into Space in Early 2020|publisher=Space.com|date=10 October 2019 |access-date=18 October 2019}}</ref> enabling American human orbital spaceflight capability for the first time since the [[Space Shuttle]]'s retirement in 2011. Dragon 2 became the first commercial system to fly humans to Earth orbit. The second crewed Dragon mission and its first operational mission, [[Crew-1]], launched on 15 November 2020.

China conducted a uncrewed flight test of a [[Chinese next-generation crewed spacecraft|next generation crewed spacecraft]] in May 2020,<ref name="space-20200505"/> and continues preparations for the 2021 launch of the [[Core Cabin Module|Tianhe Core Cabin Module]] of the [[Chinese large modular space station|Chinese Space Station]].<ref name="space-20191002"/>

NASA astronaut [[Christina Koch]] set a women's record-breaking 328 days spaceflight ending on 6 February 2020. [[Scott Kelly (astronaut)|Scott Kelly]] still holds the all-time American record with 340 days; Cosmonaut [[Valeri Polyakov]] holds the all-time spaceflight length record of 437 days. Koch also participated in the first all-female spacewalk with [[Jessica Meir]] on 18 October 2019.<ref>{{cite web |website=cnn.com|title=Astronaut Christina Koch lands back on Earth after a record-breaking 328 days in space. Here's what she did|author=Ashley Strickland|date=6 February 2020|access-date=6 February 2020 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/02/05/us/astronaut-christina-koch-spaceflight-record-scn/index.html}}</ref>

=== Rocket innovation ===
[[SpaceX]] made three atmospheric test flights with prototypes of its fully reusable two-stage-to-orbit vehicle [[SpaceX Starship|Starship]].<ref name=SN5hopTeslarati>{{cite web |last=Ralph |first=Eric |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-sn5-hop-debut-success-mars/ |title=SpaceX Starship leaps towards Mars with picture-perfect hop debut |date=4 August 2020 |access-date=4 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet |user=NASASpaceflight |number=1301578029366480898 |date=3 Sep 2020 |title=IGNITION! Starship SN6 Hop Test! Under the power of Raptor SN29, SN6 has completed a near-mirror test of SN5's hop! SUCCESS Again!}}</ref><ref name="ars_starshipSN8">{{cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/12/starship-rises-high-performs-a-flawless-flip-but-doesnt-quite-stick-the-landing/|title=So, it turns out SpaceX is pretty good at rocketing|date=10 December 2020}}</ref>

The trend towards cost reduction in access continued and several rockets made their maiden flights in 2020. Despite the increasing competition the cost of delivering cargo to the [[ISS]] went up.<ref>{{cite web |last=Berger |first=Eric |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2018/04/nasa-to-pay-more-for-less-cargo-delivery-to-the-space-station/ |title=NASA to pay more for less cargo delivery to the space station |publisher=[[Ars Technica]] |date=26 April 2018 |access-date=13 November 2018}}</ref>

=== Satellite innovation ===
SpaceX started operation of its [[Starlink]] constellation in late 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/starlink-public-beta-speed-cost-subscription-elon-musk-2020-11|title=SpaceX's Starlink internet speeds are consistently topping 150 Mbps — now Elon Musk says the biggest challenge is slashing the US$600 up-front cost for users|access-date=2 December 2020|archive-date=17 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117160211/https://www.businessinsider.com/starlink-public-beta-speed-cost-subscription-elon-musk-2020-11|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2 December 2020, 955 satellites have been launched and Starlink is in a public beta testing phase. [[OneWeb satellite constellation|OneWeb]] planned to start service in 2020 as well,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spacenews.com/onewebs-first-big-deployment-launch-slips-to-january/|title=OneWeb's first big deployment launch slips to January|last=Henry|first=Caleb|publisher=SpaceNews|date=8 November 2019|access-date=9 November 2019}}</ref> but filed for bankruptcy in March 2020 after 74 satellites were launched.<ref>{{cite news|last=Henry|first=Caleb|url=https://spacenews.com/oneweb-files-for-chapter-11-bankruptcy/|title=OneWeb files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy |publisher=SpaceNews|date=27 March 2020|access-date=28 March 2020}}</ref> OneWeb emerged from bankruptcy and plans to restart launches in December 2020.<ref name="SFN20200922">{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/09/22/oneweb-to-resume-launches-in-december-after-bankruptcy/|title=OneWeb to resume launches in December after bankruptcy|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=22 September 2020 |access-date=24 September 2020}}</ref>

The [[Mission Extension Vehicle]] [[MEV-1 (spacecraft)|MEV-1]] became the first [[telerobotic|telerobotically-operated]] spacecraft to service another satellite on-orbit when it completed the first phase of a 5-year mission to extend the life of the [[Intelsat 901]] (I-901) satellite. In February 2020, MEV-1 captured the [[communications satellite]], which had been moved to graveyard orbit some months before. In April 2020, MEV-1 successfully brought Intelsat-901 it back to position in [[geosynchronous]] orbit where it is now expected to operate for another five years. This was a space industry first as [[On-orbit satellite servicing|satellite servicing]] had previously been accomplished only with on-orbit human assistance, during the missions to service the [[Hubble Space Telescope]] in the early 2000s.<ref name=cnbc20200417>{{cite web|last=Sheetz |first=Michael|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/04/17/northrop-grumman-mev-1-spacecraft-services-intelsat-901-satellite.html|title=For the first time ever, a robotic spacecraft caught an old satellite and extended its life|publisher=CNBC|date=17 April 2020|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref>

== Orbital launches ==
{{TLS-M|2020}}
{{TLS-H2}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"|

=== January ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 7 January |time = 02:19:21<ref name=sfn-log/><ref>{{cite web|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/01/spacex-kick-start-global-2020-starlink/|title=SpaceX kick-starts global 2020 launch year with Starlink mission|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=6 January 2020|access-date=7 January 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L2<ref>{{cite tweet|user=LaunchStuff|number=1207891715631259648|title=Falcon 9 second stage re-entry notam.|publisher=FAA|date=20 December 2019|access-date=21 December 2019}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40|SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 7 January |time = 15:20:14<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbosa|first=Rui C.|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/01/long-march-3b-launch-opens-chinas-busy-2020-schedule/|title=Long March 3B launch opens China's busy 2020 schedule|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=7 January 2020|access-date=7 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-3b-rocket-launch-tongxinjishushiyan-5-satellite|title=长征三号乙 • 通信技术试验卫星五号 • 2020年中国首发 • 任务成功|trans-title=Long March 3B • Communication Technology Test Satellite No. 5 • China's first launch in 2020 • Mission Success|publisher=spaceflightfans.cn|date=7 January 2020|access-date=7 January 2020|language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 3B]]/E
|flight = 3B-Y62<ref name=cz3/>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 2|LC-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} TJSW-5
|user = [[Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 15 January |time = 02:53<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbosa|first=Rui C.|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/01/long-march-2d-kuanfu-1-co-passengers/|title=Long March 2D launches Kuanfu-1 and co-passengers |publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=14 January 2020|access-date=15 January 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2D]]
|flight = 2D-Y58
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center|Taiyuan]] LC-9
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jilin-1]] Kuanfu-01 (Wideband-01)
|user = [[Chang Guang Satellite Technology]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ARG}} [[ÑuSat]] 7 (''Sophie'')
|user = [[Satellogic]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ARG}} ÑuSat 8 (''Marie'')
|user = Satellogic
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Tianqi-5<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/qmgL51d6HRWDJUUjFCnVLA|title=天启五号卫星成功发射|trans-title=Tianqi 5 Successfully Launched|publisher=Guodian Gaoke |date=15 January 2020|access-date=15 January 2020|via=WeChat|language=zh}}</ref>
|user = Guodian Gaoke
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 16 January |time = 03:02<ref>{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Andrew|url=https://spacenews.com/china-launches-yinhe-1-commercial-low-earth-orbit-5g-satellite/|title=China launches Yinhe-1 commercial low Earth orbit 5G satellite|publisher=SpaceNews|date=16 January 2020|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Kuaizhou]] 1A
|flight = Y9<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbosa|first=Rui C.|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/01/kuaizhou-1a-yinhe-1-china/|title=Kuaizhou-1A lofts Yinhe-1 for China|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=15 January 2020|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|LA-4]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[ExPace]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Yinhe-1]] / GS-SparkSat-03 / Galaxy-1<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecns.cn/news/sci-tech/2019-12-12/detail-ifzrtayn1411491.shtml|title=Commercial company to launch China's first low-Earth 5G backhaul satellite with capacity of 10 Gbps|publisher=China News Service|date=12 December 2019|access-date=13 December 2019}}</ref>
|user = [[Galaxy Space]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 16 January |time = 21:05<ref>{{cite web|last=Gray|first=Tyler|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/01/arianespace-busy-2020-dual-passenger-ariane-5-mission/|title=Arianespace gears up for busy 2020 with dual-passenger Ariane 5 mission|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=16 January 2020|access-date=16 January 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|EUR}} [[Ariane 5]] ECA
|flight = [[Ariane flight VA251|VA251]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Guiana Space Centre|Kourou]] [[ELA-3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Arianespace]]
|remarks = GSAT-30 will replace [[INSAT-4A]].
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Eutelsat Konnect]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/eutelsat-konnect.htm|title=Eutelsat Konnect|publisher=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter |last=Krebs|access-date=28 September 2019}}</ref>
|user = [[Eutelsat]]
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[GSAT-30]]
|user = [[ISRO]]
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 29 January |time = 14:06:49 <ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/01/29/spacex-boosts-60-more-starlink-satellites-into-orbit-after-weather-delays/|title=SpaceX boosts 60 more Starlink satellites into orbit after weather delays|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=29 January 2020|access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="nsf-20200129">{{cite web|last=Burghardt |first=Thomas|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/01/spacex-launch-third-operational-starlink-mission/|title=SpaceX's Third Operational Starlink Mission launches|publisher=NASASpaceflight.com|date=29 January 2020|access-date=29 January 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L3
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Cape Canaveral SLC-40
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Starlink × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 31 January |time = 02:56<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rocketlabusa.com/missions/completed-missions/birds-of-a-feather/|title=Birds of a Feather|publisher=Rocket Lab|date=31 January 2020|access-date=31 January 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
|flight = "Birds of a Feather"
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZL}} [[Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1|Mahia LC-1A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab]]
|remarks = First launch contracted via the NRO's Rapid Acquisition of a Small Rocket (RASR) program.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[NROL]]-151
|user = [[National Reconnaissance Office|NRO]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== February ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 6 February |time = 21:42:41<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/02/07/successful-soyuz-launch-deploys-34-satellites-for-oneweb-network/ |title=Successful Soyuz launch deploys 34 satellites for OneWeb network |work=Spaceflight Now |date=7 February 2020 |access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/02/50th-arianespace-starsem-mission-oneweb-launch/ |title=The 50th Arianespace, Starsem mission completes OneWeb launch |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=6 February 2020 |access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1b]] / [[Fregat]]
|flight = ST27<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.arianespace.com/mission-update/soyuz-st27-success/ |title=Arianespace helps boost global connectivity with its latest Soyuz mission at the service of OneWeb |work=[[Arianespace]] |date=7 February 2020 |access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KAZ}} [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site 31/6]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Arianespace]] / {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Starsem]]
|remarks = Second OneWeb mission. Baikonur flight 1.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UK}} [[OneWeb satellite constellation|OneWeb]] × 34
|user = [[OneWeb]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 February |time = 01:34<ref>{{cite web |last=Graham |first=William |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/02/h-iia-igs-optical-7-launch/ |title=H-IIA conducts IGS Optical 7 launch |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=8 February 2020 |access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[H-IIA]] 202
|flight = F41<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mhi.com/jp/notice/notice_200206.html |language=ja |script-title=ja:H-IIAロケット41号機の打上げについて |publisher=Mitsubishi Heavy Industries |date=6 February 2020 |access-date=6 February 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Tanegashima Space Center|Tanegashima]] [[Yoshinobu Launch Complex|LA-Y1]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|MHI]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Information Gathering Satellite|IGS]]-Optical 7
|user = [[Cabinet Intelligence and Research Office|CSICE]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 February |time = 15:45<ref>{{cite web |last=Graham |first=William |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/02/irans-simorgh-rocket-fails-to-loft-zafar-1-into-orbit/ |title=Iran's Simorgh rocket fails to loft Zafar-1 into orbit |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=9 February 2020 |access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IRN}} [[Simorgh (rocket)|Simorgh]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IRN}} [[Semnan Space Center|Semnan]] [[Imam Khomeini Spaceport|LP-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IRN}} [[Iranian Space Agency|ISA]]
|remarks = Satellite failed to reach orbit.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IRN}} [[Zafar (satellite)|Zafar 1]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.tehrantimes.com/news/444317/All-Iranian-environmental-satellite-unveiled |title=All-Iranian environmental satellite unveiled |work=[[Tehran Times]] |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Iran University of Science and Technology|IUST]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|d-date = 9 February
|outcome = Launch failure
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 10 February |time = 04:03<ref>{{cite web |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/02/esa-solar-orbiter-atlas-v-study-sun/ |title=ESA Solar Orbiter mission rides on ULA Atlas V to study the Sun |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=9 February 2020 |access-date=10 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Atlas V]] 411
|flight = AV-087<ref name=gunter-atlas5 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-41]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[United Launch Alliance|ULA]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|EUR}} [[Solar Orbiter]]
|user = [[European Space Agency|ESA]]
|orbit = [[Heliocentric orbit|Heliocentric]]
|function = [[Heliophysics]]
|outcome = En route
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=5
|date = 15 February |time = 20:21:04<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/02/15/antares-rocket-lifts-off-from-virginia-on-space-station-cargo-mission/ |title=Antares rocket lifts off from Virginia on space station cargo mission |work=Spaceflight Now |date=15 February 2020 |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Antares 230+]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport|MARS]] [[Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Launch Pad 0|LP-0A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Northrop Grumman]]
|remarks = Red-Eye 2, Red-Eye 3, DeMi, and the [[Educational Launch of Nanosatellites|ELaNa]] 30 satellite TES-10 were carried within the Cygnus spacecraft and will be released into orbit at a later date.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/02/18/cygnus-freighter-delivers-new-british-made-antenna-to-international-space-station/ |title=Cygnus freighter delivers new British-made antenna to International Space Station |work=Spaceflight Now |date=18 February 2020 |access-date=18 February 2020}}</ref> Red-Eye 2 was deployed into orbit from ISS on 17 June 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keeter |first=Bill |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2020/06/17/iss-daily-summary-report-6172020/ |title=ISS Daily Summary Report – 6/17/2020 |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=25 June 2020}}</ref> Red-Eye 3 was deployed into orbit on 23 June 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keeter |first=Bill |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2020/06/23/iss-daily-summary-report-6232020/ |title=ISS Daily Summary Report – 6/23/2020 |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=23 June 2020 |access-date=25 June 2020}}</ref> DeMi and TechEdSat-10 were deployed on 13 July.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keeter |first=Bill |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2020/07/13/iss-daily-summary-report-7132020/ |title=ISS Daily Summary Report – 7/13/2020 |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=13 July 2020 |access-date=17 July 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cygnus NG-13]] S.S. ''Robert H. Lawrence''
|user = [[NASA]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[ISS logistics]]
|d-date = 29 May
|outcome = Successful
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Red-Eye (satellite)|Red-Eye 2]]
|user = [[DARPA]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Red-Eye (satellite)|Red-Eye 3]]
|user = DARPA
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Deformable Mirror (satellite)|DeMi]]
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[TechEdSat#TechEdSat-10|TechEdSat-10]] (TES-10)<ref>{{cite web |last=Hill |first=Denise |url=https://www.nasa.gov/image-feature/cubesat-launch-initiative-deploys-109th-cubesat/ |title=CubeSat Launch Initiative Deploys 109th CubeSat |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=13 July 2020 |access-date=17 July 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = NASA
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 17 February |time = 15:05:55<ref>{{cite web |last=Baylor |first=Michael |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/02/spacex-falcon-reusability-record-fifth-starlink-launch/ |title=SpaceX successfully conducts fifth Starlink launch – booster misses drone ship |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=17 February 2020 |access-date=17 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L4
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Cape Canaveral [[SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 18 February |time = 22:18<ref>{{cite web |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/02/ariane-5-japanese-south-korean-satellites-gto/ |title=Ariane 5 lifts Japanese, South Korean satellites to Geostationary Transfer Orbit |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=18 February 2020 |access-date=18 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|EUR}} [[Ariane 5]] ECA
|flight = [[Ariane flight VA252|VA252]]<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.arianespace.com/press-release/flight-va252-arianespace-at-the-service-of-sky-perfect-jsat-japan-and-kari-korea-with-jcsat-17-and-geo-kompsat-2b/ |title=Flight VA252: Arianespace at the service of SKY Perfect JSAT (Japan) and KARI (Korea) with JCSAT-17 and GEO-KOMPSAT-2B |work=[[Arianespace]] |date=11 February 2020 |access-date=11 February 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Guiana Space Centre|Kourou]] [[ELA-3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} Arianespace
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[JCSAT-17]]<ref>{{cite pr |url=http://www.arianespace.com/press-release/arianespace-to-launch-jcsat-17-for-sky-perfect-jsat/ |title=Arianespace to launch JCSAT-17 for SKY Perfect JSAT |publisher=[[Arianespace]] |date=4 January 2017 |access-date=8 January 2017}}</ref>
|user = [[SKY Perfect JSAT Group|JSAT]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KOR}} [[GEO-KOMPSAT]]-2B<ref>{{cite web |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/geo-kompsat-2b.htm |title=GEO-KOMPSAT 2B (GK 2B, Cheollian 2B) |work=Gunter's Space Page |first=Gunter |last=Krebs |access-date=25 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kari.re.kr/eng/sub03_02_02.do#link |title=Geostationary Korea Multi Purpose Satellite(GEO-KOMPSAT, Cheollian) |publisher=[[Korea Aerospace Research Institute|KARI]] |access-date=10 March 2018}}</ref>
|user = [[Korea Aerospace Research Institute|KARI]]
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Ocean monitoring]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 19 February |time = 21:07<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/02/long-march-2d-maiden-launch-xichang-four-satellites/ |title=Long March-2D conducts maiden launch from Xichang with four satellites |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=19 February 2020 |access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/china-resumes-space-launch-activity-amid-coronavirus-outbreak/ |title=China resumes space launch activity amid coronavirus outbreak |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=19 February 2020 |access-date=19 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2D]]
|flight = 2D-Y61<ref name=cz2 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 3|LC-3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks = First Long March 2D launch from Xichang.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} XJS-C
|user = [[Shanghai Academy of Spaceflight Technology|SAST]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} XJS-D
|user = SAST
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} XJS-E
|user = [[Harbin Institute of Technology|HIT]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} XJS-F
|user = [[China Academy of Space Technology|CAST]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 20 February |time = 08:24:54<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/02/20/soyuz-rocket-launches-russian-military-satellite-after-one-month-delay/ |title=Soyuz rocket launches Russian military satellite after one-month delay |work=Spaceflight Now |date=20 February 2020 |access-date=20 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="nsf-20200220">{{cite web |last=Graham |first=William |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/02/soyuz-2-1a-launches-ninth-meridian-satellite/ |title=Soyuz 2-1a launches ninth Meridian satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=20 February 2020 |access-date=20 February 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1a]] / [[Fregat-M]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 43|Site 43/3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Strategic Missile Troops|RVSN RF]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Meridian (satellite)|Meridian-M 9]] (19L)<ref name=gunter-meridian>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/meridian-m.htm |title=Meridian-M (14F112M) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=20 February 2020 |access-date=23 February 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Ministry of Defence (Russia)|Ministry of Defence]]
|orbit = [[Molniya orbit|Molniya]]
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== March ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 7 March |time = 04:50:31<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/07/late-night-launch-of-spacex-cargo-ship-marks-end-of-an-era/ |title=Late-night launch of SpaceX cargo ship marks end of an era |work=Spaceflight Now |date=7 March 2020 |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = F9-082
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks = Final flight of [[SpaceX Dragon#Dragon CRS|Dragon 1]]. G-SATELLITE (Gundam Satellite) carries two miniature [[Gundam (fictional robot)|Gundam]] figurines to promote the [[2020 Summer Olympics|Tokyo 2020 Summer Olympics]]. Quetzal-1 is [[Guatemala]]'s first satellite.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iss.jaxa.jp/iss/flight/dragon_spx20/ |title=ドラゴン補給船運用20号機（SpX-20）ミッション |trans-title=Dragon Supply Vessel Unit 20 (SpX-20) Mission |work=[[JAXA]] |date=5 March 2020 |access-date=6 March 2020 |language=ja}}</ref> G-SATELLITE and Quetzal-1 were deployed into orbit from the ISS on 28 April 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keeter |first=Bill |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2020/04/28/iss-daily-summary-report-4282020/ |title=ISS Daily Summary Report – 4/28/2020 |work=[[NASA]] |date=28 April 2020 |access-date=30 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{YouTube|id=7M39SjJJsEc|title="Small Satellite, Quetzal-1 Deployment from “Kibo"「きぼう」から超小型衛星（Quetzal-1）の放出"}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.fukuishimbun.co.jp/articles/-/1077428 |title=「ガンダム衛星」宇宙に放出感染終息後、メッセージ検討五輪組織委 |trans-title='Gundam Satellite' released into space, message to be sent after the end of the infection |newspaper=Fukui Shimbun |date=29 April 2020 |access-date=1 May 2020 |url-access=subscription |language=ja}}</ref> ''Lynk the World'', Lynk's fourth satellite, was launched to the ISS on this flight and deployed into space by the [[Cygnus NG-13]] spacecraft on 13 May.<ref>{{cite tweet |last=McDowell |first=Jonathan |user=planet4589 |number=1262408144296312835 |title=Clarification on the Cygnus deployment (thanks to @SEOPSLLC and to Ben Lamm): Cygnus carried an attached Lynk test payload which extended an antenna; it also deployed one free flying cubesat for @LynkTheWorld at 2325 UTC May 13. Both payloads went up on SPX-20. |date=18 May 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX CRS-20]]
|user = [[NASA]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[ISS logistics]]
|outcome = Successful<ref>{{cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |url=https://spacenews.com/final-first-generation-cargo-dragon-spacecraft-returns-to-earth/ |title=Final first-generation cargo Dragon spacecraft returns to Earth |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=7 April 2020 |access-date=7 April 2020}}</ref>
|d-date = 7 April
|d-time = 18:50
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[G-SATELLITE]]
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Tokyo Organising Committee of the Olympic and Paralympic Games|TOCOG]] / [[University of Tokyo]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Space advertising]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|GTM}} [[Quetzal-1]] (Guatesat-1)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nodal.am/2020/03/quetzal-1-guatemala-lanzo-su-primer-satelite-al-espacio/ |title=Quetzal-1: Guatemala lanzó su primer satélite al espacio |trans-title=Quetzal-1: Guatemala launches its first satellite into space |work=Nodal |date=9 March 2020 |access-date=10 March 2020 |language=es}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Universidad del Valle de Guatemala|UVG]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Lynk 4 (''Lynk the World'')<ref>{{cite tweet |user=LynkTheWorld |number=1237774051109552128 |title=Lynk is happy to announce the successful launch of our 4th satellite, Lynk the World, the world's 4th cell tower in space! |date=11 March 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/dragon.htm |title=Dragon C2, CRS-1,... CRS-20 (SpX 1,... 20) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=15 April 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Lynk (company)|Lynk]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 March |time = 11:55<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/09/china-launches-beidou-satellite-aims-for-completion-of-navigation-network-in-may/ |title=China launches Beidou satellite, aims for completion of navigation network in May |work=Spaceflight Now |date=9 March 2020 |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 3B]]/E
|flight = 3B-Y69<ref name=cz3 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 2|LC-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[BeiDou]]-3 [[List of BeiDou satellites|G2Q]]<ref name=gunter-bd3g>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/bd-3g.htm |title=BD-3 G |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=9 January 2020 |access-date=24 February 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[CNSA]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Satellite navigation|Navigation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 16 March |time = 13:34<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/03/long-march-7a-fails-xinjishu-yanzheng-6/ |title=Long March 7A fails during Xinjishu Yanzheng-6 mission |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=16 March 2020 |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/launch-of-chinas-new-long-march-7a-ends-in-failure/ |title=Launch of China's new Long March 7A ends in failure |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=16 March 2020 |access-date=16 March 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 7|Long March 7A]]
|flight = Y1
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site|Wenchang]] LC-2
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks = First flight of Long March 7A. Failed to reach orbit.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Xinjishu Yanzheng-6 (XJY-6)
|user = {{abbr|TBA|To be announced}}
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = Technology demonstration
|d-date = 16 March
|outcome = Launch failure
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 16 March |time = 18:28<ref>{{cite web |url=https://tass.ru/kosmos/7996715 |title=Ракету "Союз" со спутником "Глонасс-М" запустили с Плесецка |trans-title=Soyuz rocket with Glonass-M satellite launched from Plesetsk |work=[[TASS]] |date=16 March 2020 |access-date=16 March 2020 |language=ru}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1b]] / [[Fregat-M]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 43|Site 43/4]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Strategic Missile Troops|RVSN RF]]
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[GLONASS-M]] [[List of GLONASS satellites|760]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://radiosputnik.ria.ru/20200414/1570010848.html |title=По целевому назначению. Спутник "Глонасс-М" введен в эксплуатацию |trans-title=Glonass-M satellite commissioned as intended |work=[[RIA Novosti]] |date=14 April 2020 |access-date=7 July 2020 |language=ru}}</ref>
|user = [[Russian Aerospace Forces|VKS]]
|orbit = [[Medium Earth orbit|Medium Earth]]
|function = Navigation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 18 March |time = 12:16:39<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/18/falcon-9-rocket-overcomes-engine-failure-to-deploy-starlink-satellites/ |title=Falcon 9 rocket overcomes engine failure to deploy Starlink satellites |work=Spaceflight Now |date=18 March 2020 |access-date=18 March 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L5
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = Fifth flight of [[Falcon 9 booster B1048|booster B1048]]; recovery was not successful.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 21 March |time = 17:06:58<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/21/soyuz-rocket-successfully-launches-34-more-oneweb-satellites/ |title=Soyuz rocket successfully launches 34 more OneWeb satellites |work=Spaceflight Now |date=21 March 2020 |access-date=22 March 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1b]] / [[Fregat]]
|flight = ST28<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arianespace.com/mission/soyuz-flight-st28/ |title=Soyuz Flight ST28 |work=[[Arianespace]] |date=March 2020 |access-date=22 March 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KAZ}} [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site 31/6]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Arianespace]] / {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Starsem]]
|remarks = Baikonur flight 2.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UK}} [[OneWeb satellite constellation|OneWeb]] × 34
|user = [[OneWeb]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 24 March |time = 03:43<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/03/long-march-2c-latest-yaogan-weixing-mission/ |title=Long March 2C successfully launched latest Yaogan Weixing mission |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=23 March 2020 |access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2C]]
|flight = 2C-Y42<ref>{{cite web |url=https://forum.nasaspaceflight.com/index.php?action=dlattach;topic=44685.0;attach=1621955;image |title=Long March 2C Y42 launch postcard |work=[[Xichang Satellite Launch Center]] |publisher=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=March 2020 |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Xichang [[Xichang Launch Complex 3|LC-3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Yaogan]] 30-06 01
|user = [[Chinese Academy of Sciences|CAS]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Yaogan 30-06 02
|user = CAS
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Yaogan 30-06 03
|user = CAS
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 26 March |time = 20:18<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/26/atlas-5-rocket-launch-caps-deployment-of-ultra-secure-military-communications-network/ |title=Atlas 5 launch caps deployment of ultra-secure military communications network |work=Spaceflight Now |date=26 March 2020 |access-date=28 March 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Atlas V]] 551
|flight = AV-086<ref name=gunter-atlas5 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[CCSFS|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-41]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[United Launch Alliance|ULA]]
|remarks = The TDO-2 Cubesat was also known as OrCa (Orbital Calibration) by the team which designed it at Georgia Tech University.<ref>{{cite web |title=All Eyes on Cape Canaveral for the Latest AE CubeSat Launch on March 26 |url=https://www.ae.gatech.edu/news/2020/03/all-eyes-cape-canaveral-latest-ae-cubesat-launch-march-26 |website=Georgia Institute of Technology - College of Engineering |access-date=4 February 2021}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[AEHF]]-6<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lockheedmartin.com/en-us/products/aehf.html |title=AEHF Advanced Extremely High Frequency |work=[[Lockheed Martin]] |access-date=16 February 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[U.S. Space Force]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Military communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} TDO-2<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.losangeles.af.mil/News/Article-Display/Article/2107986/space-and-missile-systems-centers-multi-manifest-satellite-vehicle-ready-for-in/ |title=Space and Missile Systems Center's multi-manifest satellite vehicle ready for integration on AEHF-6 mission |work=[[Space and Missile Systems Center]] |publisher=[[Los Angeles Air Force Base|LAAFB]] |date=10 March 2020 |access-date=11 March 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[U.S. Space Force]]
|orbit = [[Highly elliptical orbit|Highly elliptical]]
|function = [[Satellite laser ranging|Laser ranging]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== April ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 April |time = 08:05:06<ref>{{cite web |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/soyuz-2-1a-human-launch-ms-16/ |title=Russia conducts first Soyuz 2.1a human launch; MS-16 crew arrives at Station |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=8 April 2020 |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1a]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KAZ}} [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site 31/6]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Roscosmos]]
|remarks = First crewed flight of Soyuz-2.1a.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz MS-16]]
|user = Roscosmos
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[Expedition 62]]/[[Expedition 63|63]]
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 22 October
|d-time = 02:31
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 April |time = 11:46<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/04/09/chinese-rocket-fails-during-launch-of-indonesian-communications-satellite/ |title=Chinese rocket fails during launch of Indonesian communications satellite |work=Spaceflight Now |date=9 April 2020 |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 3B]]/E
|flight = 3B-Y71<ref name=cz3 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 2|LC-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks = Intended to replace [[Palapa-D]]. Failed to reach orbit.<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/palapa-n1.htm |title=Palapa N1 (Nusantara 2) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=9 April 2020 |access-date=9 April 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IDN}} [[Nusantara Dua]] (Palapa-N1)
|user = [[PT Pasifik Satelit Nusantara|PSN]] / [[Indosat]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Launch failure
|d-date = 9 April
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 22 April |time = 03:59<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/04/22/iran-places-military-satellite-in-orbit/ |title=Iran places military satellite in orbit |work=Spaceflight Now |date=22 April 2020 |access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IRN}} [[Qased (rocket)|Qased]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IRN}} [[Shahrud, Iran|Shahrud Missile Test Site]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IRN}} [[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps|IRGC]]
|remarks = First launch of the Qased.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IRN}} [[Noor (satellite)|Noor 1]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/noor.htm |title=Noor 1 |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=26 April 2020 |access-date=26 April 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps|IRGC]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 22 April |time = 19:30:30<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/04/22/spacexs-starlink-network-surpasses-400-satellite-mark-after-successful-launch/ |title=SpaceX's Starlink network surpasses 400-satellite mark after successful launch |work=Spaceflight Now |date=22 April 2020 |access-date=23 April 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L6
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 25 April |time = 01:51:41<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/04/25/soyuz-launches-from-kazakhstan-with-space-station-supply-ship/ |title=Soyuz launches from Kazakhstan with space station supply ship |work=Spaceflight Now |date=25 April 2020 |access-date=26 April 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1a]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KAZ}} [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site 31/6]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Roscosmos]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Progress MS-14]] / 75P
|user = [[Roscosmos]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[ISS logistics]]
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 29 April 2021
|d-time = 00:42:27<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/30913/ |title=Завершен полет корабля-рекордсмена "Прогресс МС-14" |trans-title=The flight of the record-breaking vehicle "Progress MS-14" has been completed |work=[[Roscosmos]] |date=29 April 2021 |access-date=30 April 2021 |language=ru}}</ref>
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== May ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 5 May |time = 10:00<ref name="space-20200505">{{cite web |last=Bartels |first=Meghan |url=https://www.space.com/china-long-march-5b-next-gen-space-capsule-launch-success.html |title=China launches next-generation space capsule on Long March 5B rocket test flight |website=[[Space.com]] |date=5 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200505154419/https://www.space.com/china-long-march-5b-next-gen-space-capsule-launch-success.html |archive-date=5 May 2020 |access-date=5 May 2020 |quote=China space agency completed a vital test launch today (May 5) when the first launch of its heavy-lift Long March 5B rocket went off without a hitch. [...] Lift-off of today's mission occurred at 6 p.m. local time (6 a.m. EDT, 1000 GMT). |url-status=live}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 5B]]
|flight = Y1<ref name=cz5 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site|Wenchang]] LC-1
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks = First flight of [[Long March 5B]], testing a [[Chinese next-generation crewed spacecraft|new crewed spacecraft]].<ref name="space-20191002">{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://www.space.com/china-new-spacecraft-crewed-moon-missions.html |title=This Is China's New Spacecraft to Take Astronauts to the Moon (Photos) |work=[[Space.com]] |date=2 October 2019 |access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref> The capsule successfully returned to Earth on 8 May, following on-orbit testing.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/08/chinas-next-generation-crew-spacecraft-lands-after-unpiloted-test-flight/ |title=China's next-generation crew spacecraft lands after unpiloted test flight |work=Spaceflight Now |date=8 May 2020 |access-date=8 May 2020}}</ref><ref name="jones-2020005">{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/long-march-5b-launch-clears-path-for-chinese-space-station-project/ |title=Long March 5B launch clears path for Chinese space station project |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=5 May 2020 |access-date=6 May 2020}}</ref> An experimental secondary payload, meant to test [[Atmospheric entry#Inflatable heat shield reentry|inflatable heat shield reentry]] technologies, malfunctioned during its return to Earth on 6 May.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/06/experimental-chinese-cargo-return-capsule-malfunctions-during-re-entry/ |title=Experimental Chinese cargo return capsule malfunctions during re-entry |work=Spaceflight Now |date=6 May 2020 |access-date=6 May 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Chinese next-generation crewed spacecraft]]
|user = [[CNSA]]
|orbit = [[Highly elliptical orbit|Highly elliptical]]
|function = [[Flight test]]
|d-date = 8 May
|d-time = 05:49
|outcome = Successful
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Flexible Inflatable Cargo Return Module<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/rcs-fc-sc.htm |title=RCS-FC-SC |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=6 May 2020 |access-date=6 May 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation|CASIC]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|d-date = 6 May
|outcome = Spacecraft failure
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 12 May |time = 01:16<ref name=xingyun>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/12/first-two-smallsats-launched-for-chinese-data-relay-constellation/ |title=First two smallsats launched for Chinese data relay constellation |work=Spaceflight Now |date=12 May 2020 |access-date=12 May 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Kuaizhou]] 1A
|flight = Y6<ref name=kz1a />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|LA-4]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[ExPace]]
|remarks = Xingyun-2 01/02 are the first two small satellites launched for the Xingyun narrow-band Internet of Things constellation to perform data relay and tracking services. The constellation will eventually consist of 80 such satellites.<ref name=xingyun />
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Xingyun-2 01
|user = [[China Aerospace Science and Industry Corporation#Commercial aerospace|Xingyun Satellite Co.]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Internet of things|IoT]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Xingyun-2 02
|user = Xingyun Satellite Co.
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = IoT
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 17 May |time = 13:14:00<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ulalaunch.com/missions/atlas-v-ussf-7 |title=Atlas V USSF-7 |work=[[United Launch Alliance|ULA]] |date=17 May 2020 |access-date=17 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/17/upgraded-x-37b-spaceplane-rockets-into-orbit-aboard-atlas-5-launcher/ |title=Upgraded X-37B spaceplane rockets into orbit aboard Atlas 5 launcher |work=Spaceflight Now |date=17 May 2020 |access-date=17 May 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Atlas V]] 501
|flight = AV-081<ref name=gunter-atlas5 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-41]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[United Launch Alliance|ULA]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[U.S. Space Force|USSF]]-7 ([[Boeing X-37|X-37B OTV-6]])
|user = [[U.S. Space Force]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[FalconSAT]]-8
|user = [[U.S. Air Force Academy]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 20 May |time = 17:31:00<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mhi.com/notice/notice_200521.html |title=Launch Result of the H-II Transfer Vehicle KOUNOTORI9 aboard the H-IIB Vehicle No. 9 |publisher=[[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]] |date=21 May 2020 |access-date=21 May 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[H-IIB]]
|flight = F9
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Tanegashima Space Center|Tanegashima]] [[Yoshinobu Launch Complex|LA-Y2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|MHI]]
|remarks = Final [[H-II Transfer Vehicle|HTV]] cargo launch, and final flight of the [[H-IIB]] rocket. The [[HTV-X]] and [[H3 (rocket)|H3 rocket]] will replace them, respectively.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Kounotori 9|HTV-9]]
|user = [[JAXA]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[ISS logistics]]
|d-date = 20 August
|d-time = 07:07
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 22 May |time = 07:31:17<ref>{{cite web |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/eks4.html |title=Russia launches missile-watching satellite |work=RussianSpaceWeb |date=22 May 2020 |access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Graham |first=William |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/05/russias-soyuz-2-1b-missile-detection-satellite/ |title=Russia's Soyuz-2-1b launches missile detection satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=22 May 2020 |access-date=22 May 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1b]] / [[Fregat]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 43|Site 43/4]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Strategic Missile Troops|RVSN RF]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[EKS (satellite system)|EKS-4]] (Tundra 14L)<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/tundra.htm |title=Tundra (EKS, 14F142) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=26 September 2019 |access-date=18 May 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Russian Aerospace Forces|VKS]]
|orbit = [[Molniya orbit|Molniya]]
|function = [[Missile defense|Early warning]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 25 May |time = 19:50<ref name="nsf-20200525">{{cite web |last=Burghardt |first=Thomas |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/05/virgin-orbit-first-orbital-launch-launcherone/ |title=Virgin Orbit's First Orbital Launch Attempt Terminated Shortly After Release |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=25 May 2020 |access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[LauncherOne]]
|flight = F1
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cosmic Girl (airplane)|Cosmic Girl]], [[Mojave Air and Space Port|Mojave]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Virgin Orbit]]
|remarks = First orbital flight of LauncherOne. Mission was terminated shortly after first stage ignition.<ref name="nsf-20200525" /><ref>{{cite tweet |user=Virgin_Orbit |number=1265023835478175745 |title=LauncherOne maintained stability after release, and we ignited our first stage engine, NewtonThree. An anomaly then occurred early in first stage flight. We'll learn more as our engineers analyze the mountain of data we collected today. |date=25 May 2020 |access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Boilerplate (spaceflight)|Dummy payload]]
|user = [[Virgin Orbit]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Flight test]]
|outcome = Launch failure
|d-date = 25 May
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[STARSHINE (satellite)|Starshine 4]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/starshine-1.htm |title=Starshine 1, 2, 4 |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=29 May 2020 |access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[NASA]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Education
|outcome = Launch failure
|d-date = 25 May
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 29 May |time = 20:13<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/05/long-march-11-launches-out-of-xichang-for-the-first-time/ |title=Long March 11 launches out of Xichang for the first time |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=29 May 2020 |access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/chinas-long-march-11-rocket-launches-satellites-at-xichang-satellite-launch-center-for-the-first-time |title=长征十一号 • 新技术试验卫星G星和H星 • 该型号火箭首次在西昌发射 • 任务成功 |trans-title=Long March 11 • New technology test satellites G and H • First launch of this rocket type from Xichang • Mission Success |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=29 May 2020 |access-date=30 May 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 11]]
|flight =
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] LC-4<ref name="cz-11">{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/cz-11.htm |title=CZ-11 (Chang Zheng-11) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=10 December 2020 |access-date=10 December 2020}}</ref>
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} XJS-G
|user = [[Chinese Academy of Sciences|CAS]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} XJS-H
|user = [[National University of Defense Technology|NUDT]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 30 May |time = 19:22:45<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/30/nasa-astronauts-launch-from-us-soil-for-first-time-in-nine-years/ |title=NASA astronauts launch from U.S. soil for first time in nine years |work=Spaceflight Now |date=30 May 2020 |access-date=3 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Thompson |first=Amy |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-demo2-nasa-astronaut-launch-success.html |title=Liftoff! SpaceX launches 1st astronauts for NASA on historic test flight |work=[[Space.com]] |date=30 May 2020 |access-date=30 May 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = F9-085
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks = Crew Dragon Demo 2: Crewed flight test of [[SpaceX Dragon 2]] as part of the [[Commercial Crew Development]] program. Mission successfully concluded on 2 August after two months in space.<ref>{{cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |url=https://spacenews.com/crew-dragon-splashes-down-to-end-successful-test-flight/ |title=Crew Dragon splashes down to end successful test flight |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=2 August 2020 |access-date=3 August 2020}}</ref> First crewed orbital spaceflight with a private spacecraft.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theverge.com/21255700/spacex-crew-dragon-mission-launch-nasa-commercial-space-travel-tourism|title=How the SpaceX Crew Dragon mission could shape the future of commercial space|date=21 May 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpX-DM2]] ''[[Crew Dragon Endeavour|Endeavour]]''
|user = SpaceX / NASA
|orbit = Low Earth (ISS)
|function = [[Expedition 63]] / [[Human spaceflight|Crewed]] [[flight test]]
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 2 August
|d-time = 18:48
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 31 May |time = 08:53<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/05/long-march-2d-lofts-gaofen-9/ |title=Long March 2D lofts Gaofen-9 |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=31 May 2020 |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-2d-rocket-launch-gaofen-9b-satellite |title=长征二号丁 • 高分九号02星、和德四号卫星 • Long March 2D • Gaofen 9-02 • 任务圆满成功 |trans-title=Long March 2D • Gaofen-9 02, HEAD-4 • Mission Success |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=31 May 2020 |access-date=31 May 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2D]]
|flight = 2D-Y51
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Jiuquan [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|SLS-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Gaofen-9 02<ref name="gunter-gf9">{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/gf-9.htm |title=Gaofen 9 (GF 9) |work=Gunter's Space Page |access-date=1 April 2020}}</ref>
|user = CNSA
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} HEAD-4<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/head-1.htm |title=HEAD 1, 2A, 2B (Hede 1, 2A, 2B) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=9 December 2019 |access-date=31 May 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[HEAD Aerospace]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Automatic identification system|AIS ship tracking]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== June ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 4 June |time = 01:25:33<ref name=sfn-log/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Fletcher |first1=Colin |last2=Gray |first2=Tyler |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/06/spacex-launch-eighth-starlink-jrti-debut/ |title=SpaceX Launches Eighth Starlink Mission, Read The Instructions With East Coast Droneship Debut |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=3 June 2020 |access-date=4 June 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L7
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks = Fifth flight of [[Falcon 9 booster B1049|booster B1049]]; recovery was successful (first booster to be recovered after 5th flight).
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 10 June |time = 18:31:24<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/06/long-march-2c-lofts-haiyang-1d/ |title=Long March 2C lofts Haiyang-1D |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=10 June 2020 |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-2c-rocket-launch-haiyang-1d-satellite |title=长征二号丙 • 海洋一号04星(HY-1D) |trans-title=Long March 2C • HaiYang-1D |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=9 June 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2C]]
|flight = 2C-Yxx<ref name=cz2 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center|Taiyuan]] LC-9
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[HaiYang (satellite)|HaiYang]] 1D
|user = [[Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Natural Resources]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=6
|date = 13 June |time = 05:12:12<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/06/13/university-built-cubesat-launched-with-swarm-of-auroral-science-nodes/ |title=University-built CubeSat launched with swarm of auroral science nodes |work=Spaceflight Now |date=13 June 2020 |access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
|flight = "Don't Stop Me Now"<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rocketlabusa.com/missions/completed-missions/dont-stop-me-now/ |title=Don't Stop Me Now |work=[[Rocket Lab]] |date=13 June 2020 |access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZL}} [[Mahia LC-1A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab]]
|remarks = Launch of the [[Educational Launch of Nanosatellites|ELaNa]] 32 mission,<ref name="Upcoming-ELaNa" /> plus additional payloads.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.rocketlabusa.com/news/updates/media-release-rocket-labs-next-mission-to-launch-satellites-for-nasa-nro-and-the-university-of-new-south-wales/ |title=Rocket Lab's Next Mission to Launch Satellites for NASA, NRO and the University of New South Wales |work=[[Rocket Lab]] |date=9 March 2020 |access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> ANDESITE will conduct magnetospheric research using an experimental [[Fractionated spacecraft|fractionated]] formation of eight [[picosatellite]]s, to be deployed after reaching orbit.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Parham |first1=J. Brent |last2=Kromis |first2=Maria |last3=Teng |first3=Phillip |last4=Zosuls |first4=Aleks |last5=Walsh |first5=Brian |last6=Semeter |first6=Joshua |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4293&context=smallsat |title=ANDESITE: A Student-Built Swarm from Concept to Launch and Beyond |location=Logan, Utah |conference=32nd Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites |publisher=[[Utah State University|USU]] |date=5 August 2018 |access-date=4 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="gunter-andesite">{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/andesite.htm |title=ANDESITE |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=9 May 2020 |access-date=4 June 2020}}</ref> Three NRO payloads were deployed as part of [[List of NRO launches|RASR-2]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Blinde |first=Loren |url=https://intelligencecommunitynews.com/nro-launches-second-mission-of-2020/ |title=NRO launches second mission of 2020 |work=Intelligence Community News |date=18 June 2020 |access-date=18 June 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab#Photon satellite bus|Photon]] (''Pathfinder'')<ref>{{cite web |title=Information furnished in conformity with the Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space |url=https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/osoindex/data/documents/nz/st/stsgser.e952.html |quote=13 June 2020, Photon Pathfinder, The Photon Pathfinder is the same space object as the Electron Kick Stage Rocket Body, essentially extending the function of the third stage so that it may act as a satellite in its own right. (Registered as a Photon bus)}}</ref>
|user = Rocket Lab
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Flight test]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[ANDESITE (satellite)|ANDESITE]] Mule + Node × 8<ref name="gunter-andesite" />
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Boston University]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Aurora|Auroral science]] [[Technology demonstration]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[USA-301]]<ref name="gunter-usa301">{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/usa-301.htm |title=USA 301, 302, 303 |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=14 June 2020 |access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[National Reconnaissance Office|NRO]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[USA-302]]<ref name="gunter-usa301" />
|cubesat = yes
|user = NRO
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[USA-303]]<ref name="gunter-usa301" />
|cubesat = yes
|user = NRO
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|AUS}} M2 Pathfinder
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[University of New South Wales|UNSW Canberra]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 13 June |time = 09:21:18<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/06/13/starlink-satellite-deployments-continue-with-successful-falcon-9-launch/ |title=Starlink satellite deployments continue with successful Falcon 9 launch |work=Spaceflight Now |date=13 June 2020 |access-date=14 June 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L8
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Cape Canaveral SLC-40
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = First SmallSat Rideshare mission launch.<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=SpaceX |number=1271116917420388352 |title=Targeting Saturday, June 13 at 5:21 a.m. EDT for launch of 58 Starlink satellites and 3 @planetlabs spacecraft – the first SpaceX SmallSat Rideshare Program launch |date=11 June 2020 |access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Starlink × 58
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SkySat]] 16–18<ref>{{cite web |last=Kanayama |first=Lee |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/05/planet-labs-skysats-to-rideshare-with-spacex-starlink-launches/ |title=Planet Labs SkySats to rideshare with SpaceX Starlink launches |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=13 May 2020 |access-date=13 May 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Planet Labs]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 17 June |time = 07:19<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/06/long-march-2d-gaofen-9-03-satellite/ |title=Long March 2D lofts Gaofen-9 (03) satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-2d-rocket-launch-gaofen-9c-satellite |title=长征二号丁 • 高分九号03星、皮星三号A星、和德五号卫星 • 任务成功 |trans-title=Long March 2D • Gaofen-9 03, Pixing-3A, HEAD-5 • Mission Success |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=17 June 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2D]]
|flight = 2D-Y52
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|SLS-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Gaofen-9 03<ref name="gunter-gf9" />
|user = [[CNSA]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} HEAD-5
|user = [[HEAD Aerospace]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Automatic identification system|AIS ship tracking]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Pixing-3A
|user = [[Zhejiang University]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 23 June |time = 01:43<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/06/china-complete-beidou-constellation-long-march-3b/ |title=China launches final Beidou-3 with Long March 3B Return To Flight |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=22 June 2020 |access-date=23 June 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/long-march-3b-beidou-geo-3b-satellite |title=长征三号乙 • 北斗三号GEO-3 • 北斗三号组网收官之战 • Long March 3B • BDS(GEO-3) · 该火箭事故后复飞 · 发射任务圆满成功 |trans-title=Long March 3B • Beidou No. 3 GEO-3 • End of Beidou No. 3 Network Deployment Effort • LM-3B reflight after launch failure • Mission Success |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=23 June 2020 |access-date=23 June 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 3B]]/E
|flight = 3B-Y68
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 2|LC-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks = [[List of BeiDou satellites|Last satellite]] of the BeiDou-3 constellation to be launched, completing the [[BeiDou]] Navigation Satellite System.<ref>{{cite web |last=Makichuk |first=Dave |url=https://www.asiatimes.com/2019/10/article/beidou-3-satellite-system-rocketing-ahead/ |title=BeiDou-3 satellite system rocketing ahead |work=[[Asia Times]] |date=24 October 2019 |access-date=24 October 2019}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[BeiDou]]-3 [[List of BeiDou satellites|G3Q]]<ref name=gunter-bd3g />
|user = CNSA
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Satellite navigation|Navigation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 30 June |time = 20:10:46<ref>{{cite web |last=Atkinson |first=Ian |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/06/spacex-launch-third-gps-block-iii-satellite/ |title=SpaceX launches third GPS Block III satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=30 June 2020 |access-date=30 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="sfn-20200630">{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/06/30/spacex-launches-its-first-mission-for-u-s-space-force/ |title=SpaceX launches its first mission for the U.S. Space Force |work=Spaceflight Now |date=30 June 2020 |access-date=1 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = F9-088
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Cape Canaveral SLC-40
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = Named after African-American polar explorer [[Matthew Henson]]. Originally named ''Columbus''.<ref name="sfn-20201002">{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/02/space-force-announces-new-nicknames-for-gps-satellites/ |title=Space Force announces new nicknames for GPS satellites |work=Spaceflight Now |date=2 October 2020 |access-date=2 October 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[GPS Block IIIA|GPS IIIA]]-[[List of GPS satellites#Block III|03]] ''Matthew Henson''
|user = [[U.S. Space Force]]
|orbit = [[Medium Earth orbit|Medium Earth]]
|function = Navigation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== July ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 3 July |time = 03:10<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/07/long-march-4b-new-gaofen-satellite/ |title=Long March 4B lofts new Gaofen satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=3 July 2020 |access-date=3 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-4b-rocket-launch-gaofen-duomo-satellite |title=长征四号乙 • 高分多模卫星、八一小卫星 (BY70-2) |trans-title=Long March 4B • Gaofen Multi-Mode and Xibaipo Bayi 02 (BY70-2) • Mission Success |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=3 July 2020 |access-date=3 July 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 4B]]
|flight = 4B-Y43
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center|Taiyuan]] LC-9
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Gaofen Duomo (Multi-Mode)
|user = [[China Academy of Space Technology|CAST]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Xibaipo (BY70-2)
|user = [[Luquan District|Luquan]] No.1 Middle School
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Science communication|Popular science]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 4 July |time = 21:19:36<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/04/rocket-lab-satellite-launch-fails-before-reaching-orbit/ |title=Rocket Lab satellite launch fails before reaching orbit |work=Spaceflight Now |date=4 July 2020 |access-date=5 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
|flight = "Pics Or It Didn't Happen"
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZL}} [[Mahia LC-1A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab]]
|remarks = Failed during second stage flight.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Foust |first1=Jeff |title=Rocket Lab Electron launch fails |url=https://spacenews.com/rocket-lab-electron-launch-fails/ |website=[[SpaceNews]] |date=4 July 2020 |access-date=4 July 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} CE-SAT-IB
|user = [[Canon Inc.]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|d-date = 4 July
|outcome = Launch failure
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Flock (satellite)|Flock-4e]] × 5
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Planet Labs]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|d-date = 4 July
|outcome = Launch failure
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UK}} Faraday-1
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[In-Space Missions]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|d-date = 4 July
|outcome = Launch failure
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 4 July |time = 23:44<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-2d-rocket-launch-chuangxin-6b-satellite |title=长征二号丁 • 实验六号02星 |trans-title=Long March 2D • Shiyan-6 02 (SY-6-02) |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=1 July 2020 |access-date=1 July 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2D]]
|flight = 2D-Y29<ref name=cz2 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|SLS-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Shiyan-6 02
|user = [[China Academy of Space Technology|CAST]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 6 July |time = 01:00<ref>{{cite web |last=Ahronheim |first=Anna |url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/ofek-16-observation-satellite-launched-into-space-by-defense-ministry-634007 |title=Ofek 16 reconnaissance satellite launched into space by Defense Ministry |work=[[The Jerusalem Post]] |date=6 July 2020 |access-date=5 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/06/israel-successfully-places-surveillance-satellite-into-orbit/ |title=Israel successfully places surveillance satellite into orbit |work=Spaceflight Now |date=6 July 2020 |access-date=6 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} [[Shavit|Shavit-2]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} [[Palmachim Airbase]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} [[Israel Aerospace Industries|IAI]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} [[Ofeq]] 16
|user = [[Ministry of Defense (Israel)|Israel Ministry of Defence]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 July |time = 12:11:04<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/07/long-march-3b-launches-apstar-6d/ |title=Long March 3B launches APStar-6D |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=9 July 2020 |access-date=9 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/long-march-3b-rokcet-launch-apstar-6d-communication-satellite |title=长征三号乙 • 亚太6D |trans-title=Long March 3B • Asia Pacific 6D |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=8 July 2020 |access-date=8 July 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 3B]]/E
|flight = 3B-Y64
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 3|LC-3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[APStar 6D]]
|user = [[APT Satellite Holdings|APT Satellite Co.]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 10 July |time = 04:17<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/first-launch-of-chinese-kuaizhou-11-rocket-ends-in-failure/ |title=First launch of Chinese Kuaizhou-11 rocket ends in failure |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=10 July 2020 |access-date=10 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/kz-11-rocket-first-launch |title=快舟十一号 • 一箭2星 • 火箭首飞 · Kuaizhou 11 maiden flight • 任务失败 |trans-title=Kuaizhou 11 • Two satellites • First flight • Mission failed |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=10 July 2020 |access-date=10 July 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Kuaizhou 11]]
|flight =
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|LA-4]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[ExPace]]
|remarks = First flight of Kuaizhou 11.<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/kuaizhou-11.htm |title=Kuaizhou-11 (KZ-11) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=6 June 2020 |access-date=7 June 2020}}</ref> The rocket failed to reach space.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Bilibili]] Video Satellite ([[Jilin-1]] Gaofen-02E)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cntechpost.com/2020/06/01/bilibili-youtube-of-china-to-launch-satellite-for-video-content-production/ |title=Bilibili, YouTube of China, to launch satellite for video content production |work=cnTechPost |date=1 June 2020 |access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Chang Guang Satellite Technology]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Launch failure
|d-date = 10 July
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CentiSpace-1 S2 (Xiangrikui 2)
|user = Beijing Future Navigation Technology
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Launch failure
|d-date = 10 July
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 15 July |time = 13:46<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/15/minotaur-rocket-successfully-deploys-four-nro-satellites-in-orbit/ |title=Minotaur rocket successfully deploys four NRO satellites in orbit |work=Spaceflight Now |date=15 July 2020 |access-date=17 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Minotaur IV]] / [[Orion 38]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport|MARS]] [[LP-0B]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Northrop Grumman]]
|remarks = [[NROL]]-129 mission.<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/nrol-129.htm |title=NROL 129 |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=17 July 2020 |access-date=17 July 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} USA-305
|user = [[National Reconnaissance Office|NRO]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} USA-306
|user = NRO
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} USA-307
|user = NRO
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} USA-308
|user = NRO
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 19 July |time = 21:58:14<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gebhardt |first1=Chris |last2=Gray |first2=Tyler |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/07/uae-ready-for-first-mars-mission/ |title=United Arab Emirates begins historic first interplanetary mission |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=19 July 2020 |access-date=19 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mhi.com/notice/notice_200720.html |title=Launch Result of the H-IIA Launch Vehicle No.42 (H-IIA F42) which carries aboard the HOPE |publisher=[[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]] |date=20 July 2020 |access-date=27 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[H-IIA]] 202<ref name=gunter-h2a />
|flight = F42
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Tanegashima Space Center|Tanegashima]] [[Yoshinobu Launch Complex|LA-Y1]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|MHI]]
|remarks = Emirates Mars Mission; first [[United Arab Emirates|Emirati]] [[space probe]].
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UAE}} [[Hope Mars Mission|''Hope'']] (Al-Amal)
|user = [[Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre]]
|orbit = [[Heliocentric orbit#Trans-Mars Injection|TMI]] to [[Areocentric orbit|Areocentric]]
|function = [[Mars orbiter]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 20 July |time = 21:30<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/20/spacex-delivers-south-koreas-first-military-satellite-into-on-target-orbit/ |title=SpaceX delivers South Korea's first military satellite into on-target orbit |work=Spaceflight Now |date=20 July 2020 |access-date=20 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = F9-089
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks = South Korea's first dedicated military communications satellite.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KOR}} [[ANASIS-II]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/anasis-2.htm |title=Anasis 2 (KMilSatCom 1) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=23 October 2019 |access-date=5 November 2019}}</ref>
|user = [[Republic of Korea Army]]
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = [[Military satellite|Military communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 23 July |time = 04:41<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/23/china-launches-robotic-mission-to-orbit-land-and-drive-on-mars/ |title=China launches robotic mission to orbit, land, and drive on Mars |work=Spaceflight Now |date=23 July 2020 |access-date=23 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 5]]
|flight = Y4<ref name=cz5 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Wenchang Satellite Launch Center|Wenchang]] LC-1
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks = China's first independent Mars mission.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Tianwen-1]]
|user = [[CNSA]]
|orbit = TMI to Areocentric
|function = Mars orbiter and [[Mars rover|rover]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Tianwen-1 Deployable Camera
|user = CNSA
|orbit = TMI (Martian flyby)
|function = Photography
|outcome = Successful
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Drop Camera<ref>{{Cite web|title=The scientific image map was unveiled, and it was a one-time tour! my country's first Mars exploration mission was a complete success|url=https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/w_3t4yp7pGjSMl7CTJ1-Gw|url-status=live|access-date=6 June 2021|quote=The picture of the "touring group photo" shows the rover traveling about 10 meters south of the landing platform, releasing the separate camera installed at the bottom of the vehicle, and then retreating to the vicinity of the landing platform.}}</ref>
|user = CNSA
|orbit = TMI to Areocentric
|function = Mars lander / Photography
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 23 July |time = 14:26:21<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/23/soyuz-progress-ms-15/ |title=Progress supply ship docks with space station after last-minute misalignment |work=Spaceflight Now |date=23 July 2020 |access-date=23 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1a]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KAZ}} [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site 31/6]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Roscosmos]]
|remarks = It was initially planned for this Progress vehicle to deorbit the [[Pirs (ISS module)|''Pirs'' module]] to make way for the arrival of [[Nauka (ISS module)|''Nauka'']] in early 2021. This was later delayed to a subsequent mission.<ref name="rsw-2020" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://ria.ru/20200402/1569499441.html |title=Запуск российского модуля "Наука" к МКС отложили на 2021 год |trans-title=Launch of Russian module "Nauka" to ISS postponed until 2021 |work=[[RIA Novosti]] |date=2 April 2020 |access-date=4 April 2020 |language=ru}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Progress MS-15]] / 76P
|user = [[Roscosmos]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[ISS logistics]]
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 9 February 2021
|d-time = 09:13<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.roscosmos.ru/29938/ |title=Прогресс МС-15 завершил свой полет |trans-title=Progress MS-15 completes its flight |work=[[Roscosmos]] |date=9 February 2021 |accessdate=9 February 2021 |language=ru}}</ref>
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 25 July |time = 03:13<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/07/long-march-4b-lofts-ziyuan-3-satellite/ |title=Long March 4B lofts latest Ziyuan-3 satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=24 July 2020 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/25/china-launches-high-resolution-mapping-satellite/ |title=China launches high-resolution mapping satellite |work=Spaceflight Now |date=25 July 2020 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Long March 4B
|flight = 4B-Y45
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Taiyuan LC-9
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Ziyuan (satellite)|Ziyuan]] III-03
|user = [[Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Natural Resources]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Tianqi-10
|user = Guodian Gaoke
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Lobster Eye X-ray Explorer (NJU-HKU №1)<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/hkatg-successfully-carries-out-in-orbit-technology-validation-of-golden-bauhinia-satellite-constellation-301099714.html |title=HKATG successfully carries out in-orbit technology validation of 'Golden Bauhinia' satellite constellation |work=HKATG |publisher=PR Newswire |date=25 July 2020 |access-date=27 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/china-launches-ziyuan-earth-observation-and-lobster-eye-x-ray-astronomy-satellites/ |title=China launches Ziyuan Earth observation and lobster eye X-ray astronomy satellites |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=25 July 2020 |access-date=25 July 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Nanjing University|NJU]] / [[University of Hong Kong|HKU]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[X-ray astronomy]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 30 July |time = 11:50<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/30/nasas-perseverance-rover-leaves-earth-bound-for-mars/ |title=NASA's Perseverance rover leaves Earth bound for Mars |work=Spaceflight Now |date=30 July 2020 |access-date=30 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Atlas V]] 541
|flight = AV-088
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Cape Canaveral [[SLC-41]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[United Launch Alliance|ULA]]
|remarks = [[Mars 2020]] mission.<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-invites-media-to-launch-of-mars-2020-perseverance-rover |title=NASA Invites Media to Launch of Mars 2020 Perseverance Rover |work=[[NASA]] |date=3 June 2020 |access-date=4 June 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Perseverance (rover)|''Perseverance'']]
|user = [[NASA]] / [[JPL]]
|orbit = TMI to Martian surface
|function = [[Mars rover]]
|d-date = 18 February 2021 |d-time = 20:43:42<ref>{{cite web |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/02/perseverance-ready-for-daring-at-jezero-crater/ |title=NASA, Perseverance in epicly successful entry, descent, and landing at Jezero Crater, Mars |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=18 February 2021 |access-date=18 February 2021}}</ref>
|d-span = 2
|outcome = Landed on Mars; Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Mars Helicopter|''Ingenuity'']]
|user = NASA / JPL
|orbit = TMI to Martian surface
|function = [[Mars aircraft]]
|d-span = inherit
|outcome = Landed on Mars
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 30 July |time = 21:25:19<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/07/30/proton-rocket-lifts-off-with-two-russian-express-comsats/ |title=Proton rocket lifts off with two Russian Express comsats |work=Spaceflight Now |date=30 July 2020 |access-date=31 July 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Proton-M]] / [[Briz-M]] P4
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KAZ}} [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 200|Site 200/39]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Roscosmos
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Ekspress (satellite constellation)|Ekspress]] 80
|user = [[Russian Satellite Communications Company|RSCC]]
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Ekspress 103
|user = RSCC
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== August ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 6 August |time = 04:01:54<ref name="nsf-20200806">{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/08/chinese-long-march-2ds-50th-latest-gaofen-9/ |title=Chinese Long March 2D's 50th launch lofts latest Gaofen-9 satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=6 August 2020 |access-date=6 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/20200806-china-long-march-2d-rocket-launch-satellite |title=长征二号丁 • 高分九号04星、清华重力与大气科学卫星 |trans-title=Long March 2D • Gaofen-9 04, Tsinghua Gravity and Atmospheric Science Satellite |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=6 August 2020 |access-date=6 August 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2D]]
|flight = 2D-Y56
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|SLS-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Gaofen-9 04
|user = [[CNSA]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Q-SAT<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://www.space.com/china-launches-gaofen-earth-observing-satellite.html |title=China launches 2 satellites from desert launch site |work=[[Space.com]] |date=6 August 2020 |access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Tsinghua University]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Gravitational field|Gravitational research]] [[Atmospheric science]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 7 August |time = 05:12:05<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/08/07/spacex-closes-out-busy-week-with-launch-of-more-starlink-satellites/ |title=SpaceX closes out busy week with launch of more Starlink satellites |work=Spaceflight Now |date=7 August 2020 |access-date=7 August 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L9
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks = Starlink SmallSat Rideshare mission to deploy BlackSky Global 7 and 8;<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/blacksky-global.htm |title=BlackSky Global 1, ..., 60 |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=18 August 2020 |access-date=27 August 2020}}</ref> first Starlink rideshare contracted with Spaceflight Industries, dubbed "SXRS-1".<ref>{{cite web |last=Sorensen |first=Jodi |url=https://spaceflight.com/spaceflight-to-launch-its-first-rideshare-payloads-on-a-spacex-starlink-mission/ |title=Spaceflight to Launch Its First Rideshare Payloads on a SpaceX Starlink Mission |work=[[Spaceflight Industries]] |date=17 June 2020 |access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 57
|user = [[SpaceX]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} BlackSky 5 (Global-7)
|user = [[Spaceflight Industries#BlackSky|BlackSky Global]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} BlackSky 6 (Global-8)
|user = [[Spaceflight Industries#BlackSky|BlackSky Global]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 15 August |time = 22:04<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/08/15/debuting-upgrades-ariane-5-rocket-deploys-three-u-s-built-satellites-in-orbit/ |title=Debuting upgrades, Ariane 5 rocket deploys three U.S.-built satellites in orbit |work=Spaceflight Now |date=15 August 2020 |access-date=17 August 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|EUR}} [[Ariane 5]] ECA
|flight = [[Ariane flight VA253|VA253]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Guiana Space Centre|Kourou]] [[ELA-3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Arianespace]]
|remarks = MEV-2 successfully docked with [[Intelsat 10-02]] on 12 April 2021.<ref>{{cite web |last=Rainbow |first=Jason |url=https://spacenews.com/mev-2-servicer-successfully-docks-to-live-intelsat-satellite/ |title=MEV-2 servicer successfully docks to live Intelsat satellite |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=12 April 2021 |access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[BSAT-4b]]
|user = [[Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation|BSAT]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Galaxy 30]]
|user = [[Intelsat]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Mission Extension Vehicle|MEV-2]]
|user = [[Northrop Grumman]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[On-orbit satellite servicing|Satellite servicing]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 18 August |time = 14:31:16<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/08/18/spacex-adds-more-satellites-to-ever-growing-starlink-network/ |title=SpaceX adds more satellites to ever-growing Starlink network |work=Spaceflight Now |date=18 August 2020 |access-date=18 August 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L10
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = Starlink SmallSat Rideshare mission to deploy SkySat 19–21.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Starlink × 58
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SkySat]] 19–21<ref>{{cite web |last=Van Ryswyk |first=Martin |url=https://www.planet.com/pulse/12x-rapid-revisit-announcement/ |title=Planet's New Rapid Revisit Platform To Capture Up To 12 Images Per Day |work=[[Planet Labs]] |date=9 June 2020 |access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Planet Labs]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 23 August |time = 02:27:04<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/08/long-march-2d-lofts-gaofen-9-05/ |title=Long March 2D lofts Gaofen-9 (05) |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=23 August 2020 |access-date=24 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-2d-rocket-launch-gaofen-9e-satellite |title=长征二号丁 • 高分九号05星 • Long March 2D • Gaofen-9E |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=21 August 2020 |access-date=22 August 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Long March 2D
|flight = 2D-Y57
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Jiuquan SLS-2
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Gaofen-9 05
|user = CNSA
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Tiantuo-5
|user = [[National University of Defense Technology|NUDT]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Duo Gongneng Shiyan Weixing
|user = [[PLA Academy of Military Science|AMS]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=3
|date = 30 August |time = 23:18:56<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/08/31/spacex-launches-first-polar-orbit-mission-from-florida-in-decades/ |title=SpaceX launches first polar orbit mission from Florida in decades |work=Spaceflight Now |date=31 August 2020 |access-date=31 August 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = F9-092
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Cape Canaveral SLC-40
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = First [[polar orbit]] mission from [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral Air Force Station]] since [[ESSA-9]] in 1969. SmallSat Rideshare mission to deploy Tyvak-0172 and GNOMES-1.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ARG}} [[SAOCOM 1B]]
|user = [[CONAE]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} EG-2 ([[Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems|Tyvak]]-0172)<ref name="via-20210223" /><ref name="sn-20210223" />
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[EchoStar]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Spacecraft failure
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[GNOMES (satellite)|GNOMES-1]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/gnomes-1.htm |title=GNOMES 1, ..., 20 |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=16 November 2020 |access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[PlanetIQ]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Radio occultation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 31 August |time = 03:05:47<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/08/31/rocket-lab-returns-to-service-with-successful-launch-for-capella/ |title=Rocket Lab returns to service with successful launch for Capella |work=Spaceflight Now |date=31 August 2020 |access-date=31 August 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
|flight = "I Can't Believe It's Not Optical"
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZL}} [[Mahia LC-1A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab]]
|remarks = Return-to-flight mission for Electron. Second launch of the Photon satellite bus.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Sequoia (Capella 2)
|user = [[Capella Space]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab#Photon satellite bus|Photon]] (''First Light'')
|user = Rocket Lab
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Flight test]]
|outcome = Operational<ref>{{cite web |last1=Grush |first1=Loren |title=Rocket Lab secretly launched its own company-made satellite on latest flight |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/9/3/21420278/rocket-lab-photon-satellite-electron-kick-stage-first-flight-demonstration |website=The Verge |access-date=3 September 2020 |language=en |date=3 September 2020}}</ref>
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== September ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=21
|date = 3 September |time = 01:51:10<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/09/03/vega-rocket-deploys-53-satellites-on-successful-return-to-flight-mission/ |title=Vega rocket deploys 53 satellites on successful return to flight mission |work=Spaceflight Now |date=3 September 2020 |access-date=3 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.arianespace.com/press-release/with-vega-arianespace-successfully-performs-the-first-european-mission-to-launch-multiple-small-satellites/ |title=With Vega, Arianespace successfully performs the first European mission to launch multiple small satellites |work=[[Arianespace]] |date=3 September 2020 |access-date=3 September 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|EUR}} [[Vega (rocket)|Vega]]
|flight = [[Vega flight VV16|VV16]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Guiana Space Centre|Kourou]] [[ELA-1|ELV]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Arianespace]]
|remarks = Small Satellites Mission Service Proof of Concept (SSMS PoC) mission.<ref name="vv16-launchkit">{{cite web|url=https://www.arianespace.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/VV16-launchkit-EN-new.pdf |title=Launch Kit VV16 SSMS PoC Flight|publisher=Arianespace|date=27 August 2020|access-date=27 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="carmelli-aiaa">{{cite conference|last=Carmelli|first=F. |url=https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4444&context=smallsat|title=The first Vega ride-share mission flight|location=Logan, Utah|conference=33rd Annual AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites|publisher=Utah State University|date=3–8 August 2019|access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref> Return to flight for Vega after the [[Vega flight VV15|July 2019 launch failure]]. 53 satellites were deployed by the SSMS dispenser, including 14 Flock CubeSats carried on SSMS QuadPack deployers, while 12 additional Flock CubeSats were deployed separately by the ION SCV LUCAS satellite.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dorbit.space/mission-updates|title=D-Orbit mission updates|publisher=D-Orbit|date=28 October 2020|access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref><ref name="vv16-launchkit"/><ref name="nsf-20200601">{{cite web|last=Kanayama|first=Lee|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/06/arianespace-launch-preparations-two-month-pause/|title=Arianespace return to Vega launch preparations following two month pause
|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=1 June 2020|access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref> NEMO-HD and TRISAT are [[Slovenia]]'s first satellites,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.sta.si/2760576/first-slovenian-satellites-expectedly-to-be-launched-in-june|title=First Slovenian satellites expectedly to be launched in June|publisher=Slovenian Press Agency|date=6 May 2020|access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref> and OSM-1 Cicero is [[Monaco]]'s first satellite.<ref name="monaco-first">{{cite web|last=Senoble|first=Lola|url=https://www.monaco-tribune.com/en/2020/06/monacos-first-nanosatellite-soon-to-launch-into-space/|title=Monaco's first nanosatellite soon to launch into space|publisher=Monaco Tribune|date=11 June 2020|access-date=12 June 2020}}</ref> Two of the Lemur-2 CubeSats failed to deploy, leading them to de-orbit along with the fourth stage of the Vega booster.<ref>{{cite web|title=Two US satellites fail to enter orbit due to abnormal situation|url=https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/Two_US_satellites_fail_to_enter_orbit_due_to_abnormal_situation_Reports_999.html|publisher=RIA Novosti|date=11 October 2020|access-date=14 October 2020|via=SpaceDaily}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Athena (satellite)|Athena]]
|user = [[Facebook]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Brodkin|first=Jon|url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2018/07/facebook-follows-spacex-and-oneweb-into-high-speed-satellite-broadband/|title=Facebook follows SpaceX and OneWeb into high-speed satellite broadband|publisher=Ars Technica|date=23 July 2018|access-date=21 March 2019}}</ref>
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} [[ESAIL (satellite)|ESAIL]]<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/>
|user = [[exactEarth]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Automatic identification system|AIS ship tracking]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} [[GHGSat-C1]] (''Iris'')<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ghgsat.com/our-platforms/iris/|title=GHGSat-C1 – Iris – GHGSat's second greenhouse gas emissions monitoring satellite |publisher=GHGSat|date=16 June 2020|access-date=21 June 2020}}</ref><ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/>
|user = [[GHGSat]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} {{#invoke:flag|icon|SVN}} [[NEMO-HD]]<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/><ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/>
|user = [[UTIAS]] / [[Space-SI]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ARG}} [[ÑuSat]] 6 (''Hypatia'')<ref name="gunter-nusat"/>
|user = [[Satellogic]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[UPM-Sat|UPM-Sat 2]]<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/>
|user = [[Technical University of Madrid|UPM]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Technology demonstration]] Education
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ITA}} [[ION CubeSat Carrier]] 1 (ION SCV LUCAS)<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/>
|user = [[D-Orbit]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[CubeSat]] deployer
|outcome = Operational<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spacedaily.com/reports/D_Orbit_announces_successful_ORIGIN_mission_999.html |title=D-Orbit announces successful ORIGIN mission |work=D-Orbit |publisher=SpaceDaily |date=29 October 2020 |access-date=30 October 2020}}</ref>
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Flock (satellite)|Flock-4v]] × 26<ref>{{cite web|last=Safyan|first=Mike|url=https://www.planet.com/pulse/planets-first-launch-of-2020-26-superdoves-on-a-vega/ |title=Planet's First Launch Of 2020: 26 SuperDoves On A Vega|publisher=Planet Labs|date=13 February 2020|access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Planet Labs]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} AMICal SAT<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Grenoble Alpes University|CSUG]] / [[Moscow State University|MSU]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Aurora|Auroral science]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHE}} {{#invoke:flag|icon|ITA}} [[DIDO-3]]<ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[SpacePharma]] / [[Israel Space Agency|ISA]] / [[Italian Space Agency|ASI]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Micro-g environment|Microgravity research]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[FSSCAT]] A and B<ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Krebs|first=Gunter|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/fsscat.htm|title=FSSCAT A, B (3Cat 5A, 5B) |publisher=Gunter's Space Page|date=13 February 2020|access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Polytechnic University of Catalonia|UPC]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Lemur-2]] × 8<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Spire Global]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational (6/8)
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|MCO}} OSM-1 Cicero<ref name="monaco-first"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Werner|first=Debra|url=https://spacenews.com/osm-geooptics-satellite/|title=Cubesat built in Monaco reveals new partnership approach|publisher=SpaceNews|date=17 June 2020|access-date=17 June 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Orbital Solutions Monaco|OSM]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Radio occultation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|THA}} [[Napa-1|NAPA-1]] (RTAFSAT-1)<ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Krebs|first=Gunter|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/rtaf-sat.htm|title=NAPA 1, 2 (RTAF-SAT 1, 2)|publisher=Gunter's Space Page|date=13 February 2020|access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Royal Thai Air Force|RTAF]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|BEL}} PICASSO<ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy|BIRA-IASB]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Atmospheric science|Atmospheric research]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|BEL}} SIMBA<ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Royal Meteorological Institute|RMI]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceBEE]] × 12<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Swarm Technologies]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} TARS<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Kepler Communications]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|SVN}} [[TRISAT]]<ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[University of Maribor]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Education
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|EST}} TTÜ100<ref name="carmelli-aiaa"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Tallinn University of Technology|TalTech]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} EG-1 ([[Tyvak Nano-Satellite Systems|Tyvak]]-0171)<ref name="vv16-launchkit"/><ref name="via-20210223">{{cite web |last=Jewett |first=Rachel |url=https://www.satellitetoday.com/business/2021/02/23/hughes-jupiter-3-launch-slips-to-second-half-2022/ |title=Hughes Jupiter 3 Launch Slips to Second Half 2022 |work=Via Satellite |date=23 February 2021 |accessdate=23 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="sn-20210223">{{cite web |last=Werner |first=Debra |url=https://spacenews.com/echostar-q4-2020/ |title=EchoStar reports Jupiter-3 delay and nanosatellite failures |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=23 February 2021 |accessdate=23 February 2021}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[EchoStar]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Partial spacecraft failure; Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 3 September |time = 12:46:14<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/09/03/spacex-launches-more-starlink-satellites-beta-testing-well-underway/|title=SpaceX launches more Starlink satellites, beta testing well underway|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=3 September 2020|access-date=3 September 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L11
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 4 September |time = 07:30<ref>{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Andrew|url=https://spacenews.com/china-carries-out-secretive-launch-of-reusable-experimental-spacecraft/|title=China carries out secretive launch of 'reusable experimental spacecraft'|publisher=SpaceNews|date=4 September 2020|access-date=4 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://novosti-kosmonavtiki.ru/articles/75563.html |title=Возвращаемый экспериментальный корабль|trans-title=Reusable experimental spacecraft|publisher=Novosti Kosmonavtiki|date=4 September 2020|access-date=5 September 2020|language=ru}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2F]]/T
|flight = 2F-T3<ref name=cz2 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|SLS-1]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks = Chinese experimental [[Reusable spacecraft|reusable]] [[spaceplane]].
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Chongfu Shiyong Shiyan Hangtian Qi]] (Reusable Experimental Spacecraft)
|user = CASC
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Flight test]]
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 6 September
|d-time = 02:00<ref>{{cite tweet|last=McDowell|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan McDowell|user=planet4589|number=1302638350684299270|title=Recap on 2020-063 launch: All data *consistent* with an experimental X-37-style spaceplane launch from Jiuquan at 07:30 UTC, 4 September 2020 and landing on runway 05 at Lop Nor at 02:00 UTC, 6 September 2020, after two days in a 331 x 347 km x 50.2° orbit and jettison of one object prior to deorbit|date=6 September 2020|access-date=7 September 2020}}</ref>
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Unidentified satellite<ref>{{cite web|last=Jones|first=Andrew|url=https://spacenews.com/chinese-reusable-experimental-spacecraft-releases-object-before-returning-to-earth/ |title=Chinese reusable experimental spacecraft releases object before returning to Earth|publisher=SpaceNews|date=7 September 2020|access-date=7 September 2020}}</ref>
|user = CASC
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 7 September |time = 05:57<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbosa|first=Rui C.|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/09/long-march-4b-lofts-gaofen-11-02/|title=Long March 4B lofts Gaofen-11 (02)|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=7 September 2020|access-date=7 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-4b-rocket-launch-gaofen-11b-satellite|title=长征四号乙 • 高分十一号02星 • Long March 4B • Gaofen-11B|website=spaceflightfans.cn|date=7 September 2020|access-date=7 September 2020|language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 4B]]
|flight = 4B-Y46
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center|Taiyuan]] LC-9
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Gaofen|Gaofen 11-02]]
|user = [[CNSA]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 September |time = 03:19<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/09/12/astras-first-orbital-launch-attempt-falters-during-first-stage-burn/|title=Astra launch falters during first stage burn|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=12 September 2020|access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://astra.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/Rocket-3.1-Launch-Press-Kit.pdf|title=Rocket 3.1 Launch Press Kit|publisher=[[Astra (aerospace)|Astra]]|date=31 August 2020|access-date=10 September 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rockets by Astra#Rocket 3|Rocket 3]]
|flight = Rocket 3.1
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska|Kodiak]] LP-3B
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Astra (aerospace)|Astra]]
|remarks = First flight of Rocket 3. Failed during first stage flight. Originally intended to be the second of two launches for the [[DARPA Grand Challenge#2018 Launch Challenge|DARPA Launch Challenge]], Rocket 3.1's launch was Astra's first orbital launch attempt following the loss of Rocket 3.0 during a prelaunch test in March 2020.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sheetz|first=Michael |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/04/05/rocket-startup-astra-trims-staff-to-survive-pandemic-until-next-year.html|title=Rocket startup Astra trims staff to survive pandemic until next year|publisher=CNBC|date=5 April 2020|access-date=7 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/03/24/astra-suffers-anomaly-during-pre-launch-test-in-alaska/|title=Astra suffers "anomaly" during pre-launch test in Alaska|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=24 March 2020|access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Astra Test Payload
|user = Astra
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Flight test
|d-date = 12 September
|outcome = Launch failure
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 September |time = 05:02<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/09/12/chinese-smallsat-launcher-fails/|title=Chinese smallsat launcher fails|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=12 September 2020|access-date=13 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-kz-1a-rocket-launch-jilin-1-gaofen-02c-satellites|title=快舟一号甲 • 吉林一号遥感卫星星座 • 高分02-C星 • Kuaizhou-1A • Jilin-1 (Gaofen 02-C)|website=spaceflightfans.cn|date=11 September 2020|access-date=11 September 2020|language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Kuaizhou]] 1A
|flight = Y3<ref name=kz1a>{{cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau_det/kuaizhou-1a.htm|title=Kuaizhou-1A (KZ-1A)|publisher=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|date=15 May 2020|access-date=2 June 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Jiuquan [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|SLS-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[ExPace]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jilin-1]] [[Gaofen|Gaofen-02C]]
|user = [[Chang Guang Satellite Technology]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|d-date = 12 September
|outcome = Launch failure
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 15 September |time = 01:23<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/09/17/china-successfully-launches-satellites-from-ocean-going-platform/|title=China successfully launches satellites from ocean-going platform|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=17 September 2020|access-date=18 September 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 11]]H
|flight = Y2
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} De Bo 3 Launch Platform, [[Yellow Sea]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks = Second Long March 11 sea launch.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Jilin-1 [[Gaofen|Gaofen-03B]] × 6
|user = Chang Guang Satellite Technology
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Jilin-1 Gaofen-03C × 3
|user = Chang Guang Satellite Technology
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 21 September |time = 05:40<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbosa|first=Rui C.|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/09/long-march-4b-launches-ocean-observation-satellite/|title=Long March 4B launches new ocean observation satellite|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=21 September 2020|access-date=21 September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/china-long-march-4b-rocket-launch-haiyang-2c-satellite|title=长征四号乙 • 海洋二号03星 |trans-title=Long March 4B • HaiYang 2C|website=spaceflightfans.cn|date=21 September 2020|access-date=21 September 2020|language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Long March 4B
|flight = 4B-Y41
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Jiuquan SLS-2
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[HaiYang (satellite)|HaiYang 2C]]
|user = [[Ministry of Natural Resources of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Natural Resources]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 27 September |time = 03:23<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbosa|first=Rui C.|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/09/suprise-chinese-launch-lofts-huanjing-duo/|title=Surprise Chinese launch lofts Huanjing duo|date=27 September 2020|access-date=28 September 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Long March 4B
|flight = 4B-Y42
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Taiyuan LC-9
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Huanjing (satellite)|Huanjing 2A]]
|user = CNSA
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Huanjing (satellite)|Huanjing 2B]]
|user = CNSA
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=14
|date = 28 September |time = 11:20<ref>{{cite web|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/09/russia-launches-3-gonets-18-smallsats/|title=Russia launches 3 Gonets communication satellites, 18 international smallsats|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=28 September 2020|access-date=28 September 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1b]] / [[Fregat]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 43|Site 43/4]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Roscosmos]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Gonets-M 17<ref name=gunter-gonets-m>{{cite web | url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/gonets-m.htm | title=Gonets-M | publisher=Gunter's Space Page | first=Gunter | last=Krebs | date=30 April 2020|access-date=19 June 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Gonets Satellite System]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Gonets-M 18<ref name="gunter-gonets-m" />
|user = Gonets Satellite System
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Gonets-M 19<ref name="gunter-gonets-m" />
|user = Gonets Satellite System
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FIN}} [[ICEYE#Satellites|ICEYE X6]]<ref name="gonets-payloads"/>
|user = [[ICEYE]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FIN}} ICEYE X7<ref name="gonets-payloads"/>
|user = ICEYE
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|DEU}} SALSAT<ref name="gonets-payloads"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Jewett|first=Rachel|url=https://www.satellitetoday.com/launch/2020/09/08/exolaunch-to-deliver-salsat-into-orbit-for-german-university/|title=Exolaunch to Deliver SALSAT into Orbit for German University|publisher=Satellite Today|date=8 September 2020|access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[TU Berlin]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Spectrum analyzer|Spectrum analysis]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} Kepler × 2<ref>{{cite web|last=Werner|first=Debra|url=https://spacenews.com/kepler-exolaunch-contract/|title=Kepler signs launch agreement with Exolaunch|publisher=SpaceNews |date=19 August 2020|access-date=20 August 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Kepler Communications|Kepler]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|LTU}} LacunaSat-3<ref name="gonets-payloads"/><ref>{{cite web|last=Henry|first=Caleb|url=https://spacenews.com/lacuna-space-aims-to-ride-iot-wave-with-a-32-cubesat-constellation/ |title=Lacuna Space aims to ride IoT wave with a 32-cubesat constellation|publisher=SpaceNews|date=13 August 2019|access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[NanoAvionics]] / [[Lacuna Space]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Internet of things|IoT]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Lemur-2]] × 4<ref name="gonets-payloads">{{cite web|url=http://vestnik-glonass.ru/news/vo_vlasti/voennuyu-kosmicheskuyu-infrastrukturu-budut-ispolzovat-dlya-zapuska-grazhdanskikh-sputnikov/|title=Военную космическую инфраструктуру будут использовать для запуска гражданских спутников|trans-title=Military space infrastructure will be used to launch civilian satellites |publisher=Vestnik GLONASS|date=14 September 2020|access-date=15 September 2020|language=ru}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Spire Global]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UAE}} MeznSat<ref name="gonets-payloads"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wam.ae/en/details/1395302869584|title=MeznSat satellite - a new Emirati achievement in space sector |publisher=Emirates News Agency - WAM|date=13 September 2020|access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Khalifa University]] / [[American University of Ras Al Khaimah (AURAK)|AURAK]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|DEU}} NetSat × 4<ref name="gonets-payloads"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.satnews.com/story.php?number=87640248|title=Self-Organizing Smallsats to Form the First 3D Formation |publisher=SatNews|date=27 May 2020|access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Center for Telematics|ZFT]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Descartes<ref name="msu-sats">{{cite web|url=https://www.msu.ru/science/main_themes/osushchestvlen-uspeshnyy-zapusk-mka-moskovskogo-universiteta-dekart-.html |title=Осуществлен успешный запуск МКА Московского университета "Декарт"!|trans-title=Moscow State University satellite "Descartes" has been successfully launched!|publisher=Moscow State University|date=5 October 2020|access-date=23 October 2020|language=ru}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Moscow State University|MSU]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Space weather]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Norby<ref name="msu-sats"/>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Novosibirsk State University|NSU]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Space weather
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Yarilo × 2<ref name="gonets-payloads"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://tass.com/science/1076172|title=Russia plans to launch Yarilo mission in 2020 to study the Sun|agency=TASS |date=3 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Bauman Moscow State Technical University|BMSTU]] / [[Lebedev Physical Institute]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Heliophysics]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== October ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=8
|date = 3 October |time = 01:16:14<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/03/antares-rocket-takes-aim-on-space-station-with-zero-gravity-toilet-other-supplies/ |title=Antares rocket takes aim on space station with zero-gravity toilet, other supplies|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=3 October 2020|access-date=5 October 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Antares 230+]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport|MARS]] [[Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport Launch Pad 0|LP-0A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Northrop Grumman]]
|remarks = The [[Educational Launch of Nanosatellites|ELaNa 31]] mission launched on this resupply flight.<ref name="Upcoming-ELaNa"/> All CubeSats launched on this mission were successfully deployed on 5 November 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last=Keeter |first=Bill |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/stationreport/2020/11/05/iss-daily-summary-report-11-05-2020/ |title=ISS Daily Summary Report |work=[[NASA]] |date=5 November 2020 |access-date=9 November 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cygnus NG-14]] S.S. ''Kalpana Chawla''<ref name="NG-14 Naming">{{cite web |last=Pearlman |first=Robert Z. |url=https://www.space.com/cygnus-cargo-spacecraft-named-kalpana-chawla.html |title=Cargo spacecraft named for fallen NASA astronaut Kalpana Chawla |work=[[Space.com]] |date=9 September 2020 |access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref>
|user = [[NASA]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[ISS logistics]]
|d-date = 26 January 2021
|d-time = 20:23
|outcome = Successful<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.northropgrumman.com/space/cygnus-ng-14-mission-page/ |title=Cygnus NG-14 Mission Page |work=[[Northrop Grumman]] |date=26 January 2021 |access-date=26 January 2021}}</ref>
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Bobcat-1]]
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Ohio University]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]]
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[NEUTRON-1]]
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[University of Hawaii]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Small Satellite Research Laboratory#The Spectral Ocean Color (SPOC) Satellite|SPOC]]
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[University of Georgia]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Lemur-2]]
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Spire Global]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Djara<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2020/10/14/2108689/0/en/The-Australian-Office-of-National-Intelligence-Partners-with-Spire-for-first-Supercomputing-Satellite.html |title=The Australian Office of National Intelligence Partners with Spire for first Supercomputing Satellite |work=[[Spire Global]] |publisher=GlobeNewswire |date=14 October 2020 |access-date=9 November 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Office of National Intelligence|ONI]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} DESCENT
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[York University]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} SATLLA-1<ref>{{cite web |last=Ronen |first=Rony |url=https://www.ariel-asc.com/post/satlla-1-reached-iss |title=SATLLA-1 Reached ISS |work=[[Ariel University]] |date=11 October 2020 |access-date=9 November 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Ariel University]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Education
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 6 October |time = 11:29:34<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/06/spacex-breaks-cycle-of-scrubs-with-successful-falcon-9-launch/|title=SpaceX breaks cycle of scrubs with successful Falcon 9 launch|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=6 October 2020|access-date=6 October 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L12
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 11 October |time = 16:57<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbosa|first=Rui C.|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/10/long-march-3b-lofts-gaofen-13/|title=Long March 3B lofts Gaofen-13 |publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=11 October 2020|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/long-march-3b-rocket-launch-gaofen-13-satellite|title=长征三号乙 • 高分十三号 • Long March 3B • Gaofen-13|website=spaceflightfans.cn|date=6 October 2020|access-date=8 October 2020|language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 3B]]/E
|flight = 3B-Y63<ref>{{cite web|last=Krebs|first=Gunter|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau_det/cz-3bg3.htm|title=CZ-3B/G3 (Chang Zheng-3B/G3)|publisher=Gunter's Space Page|date=11 October 2020|access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 2|LC-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Gaofen-13
|user = [[SASTIND]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 14 October |time = 05:45:04<ref name=sfn-log/><ref>{{cite web|last=Harwood|first=William|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/14/soyuz-crew-docks-with-international-space-station/|title=Soyuz crew docks with International Space Station|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=14 October 2020|access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1a]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|KAZ}} [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] [[Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 31|Site 31]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Roscosmos]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz MS-17]]
|user = [[Roscosmos]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[Expedition 63]]/[[Expedition 64|64]]
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 17 April 2021
|d-time = 04:55<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-astronaut-kate-rubins-crewmates-return-safely-to-earth |title=NASA Astronaut Kate Rubins, Crewmates Return Safely to Earth |work=[[NASA]] |date=16 April 2021 |access-date=17 April 2021}}</ref>
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 18 October |time = 12:25:57<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/18/spacex-launches-another-batch-of-starlink-satellites/|title=SpaceX launches another batch of Starlink satellites|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=18 October 2020|access-date=19 October 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L13
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Kennedy LC-39A
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Starlink × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 24 October |time = 15:31:34<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/24/spacex-adds-another-60-satellites-to-starlink-network/ |title=SpaceX adds another 60 satellites to Starlink network |work=Spaceflight Now |date=24 October 2020 |access-date=25 October 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L14
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Starlink × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 25 October |time = 19:08:42<ref name="nsf-20201025">{{cite web |last=Graham |first=William |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/10/russia-launches-soyuz-with-next-generation-navigation-satellite/ |title=Russia launches Soyuz with next-generation navigation satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=25 October 2020 |access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/26/russia-launches-glonass-navigation-satellite/ |title=Russia launches Glonass navigation satellite |work=Spaceflight Now |date=26 October 2020 |access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1b]] / [[Fregat]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 43|Site 43/3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Strategic Missile Troops|RVSN RF]]
|remarks = Also known as GLONASS-K 705. Replaced [[Kosmos 2516]] ([[GLONASS-M]] [[List of GLONASS satellites|753]]) following its failure in November 2020.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ria.ru/20201226/glonass-1591012399.html |title=Новейший "Глонасс-К" сменит вышедший из строя аппарат, рассказал источник |trans-title=Newest Glonass-K to replace failed satellite, source says |work=[[RIA Novosti]] |date=26 December 2020 |access-date=27 December 2020 |language=ru}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{nobr|{{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[GLONASS-K]] [[List of GLONASS satellites|15 (K1 №3)]]}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ria.ru/20200706/1573928223.html|title=Источник рассказал о первом за шесть лет запуске спутника "Глонасс"|trans-title=Source discusses first Glonass-K launch in six years|publisher=RIA Novosti|date=6 July 2020|access-date=6 July 2020|language=ru}}</ref>
|user = [[Russian Aerospace Forces|VKS]]
|orbit = [[Medium Earth orbit|Medium Earth]]
|function = [[Satellite navigation|Navigation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 26 October |time = 15:19<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/10/china-launches-new-yaogan-30-group-of-military-satellites/ |title=China launches new Yaogan-30 group of military satellites |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=26 October 2020 |access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 2C]]
|flight = 2C-Y43
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Xichang [[Xichang Launch Complex 3|LC-3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Yaogan]] 30-07 01
|user = [[Chinese Academy of Sciences|CAS]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Yaogan 30-07 02
|user = CAS
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Yaogan 30-07 03
|user = CAS
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Tianqi-6
|user = Guodian Gaoke
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Internet of things|IoT]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 28 October |time = 21:21:27<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/10/28/rocket-lab-successfully-launches-satellites-for-planet-and-canon/ |title=Rocket Lab successfully launches satellites for Planet and Canon |work=Spaceflight Now |date=28 October 2020 |access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rocketlabusa.com/missions/completed-missions/in-focus/ |title=In Focus |work=[[Rocket Lab]] |date=28 October 2020 |access-date=29 October 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
|flight = "In Focus"
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZL}} [[Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1|Mahia LC-1A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} CE-SAT-IIB
|user = [[Canon Inc.]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Flock (satellite)|Flock-4e']] × 9
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Planet Labs]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== November ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 5 November |time = 23:24:23<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/06/spacex-launches-gps-navigation-satellite-from-cape-canaveral/ |title=SpaceX launches GPS navigation satellite from Cape Canaveral |work=Spaceflight Now |date=6 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = F9-097
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks = Named after the Shoshone woman [[Sacagawea]], who helped guide the [[Lewis and Clark Expedition]].<ref name="sfn-20201002" />
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[GPS Block IIIA|GPS IIIA]]-[[List of GPS satellites#Block III|04]] ''Sacagawea''
|user = [[U.S. Space Force]]
|orbit = [[Medium Earth orbit|Medium Earth]]
|function = [[Satellite navigation|Navigation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 6 November |time = 03:19<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/11/long-march-6-lofts-ten-argentinian-satellites/ |title=Long March 6 lofts ten Argentinian satellites |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=6 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/longmarch_nusat-09-18 |title=长征六号 • ÑuSat 09-18 (一箭十星组网任务) • Long March 6 • ÑuSat 09-18 |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=13 October 2020 |access-date=22 October 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 6]]
|flight = Y3
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center|Taiyuan]] LC-16
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks = ÑuSat 9–18.<ref name=gunter-nusat>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/nusat-1.htm |title=ÑuSat 1, ..., 98 (Aleph-1 1, ..., 98) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=12 June 2020 |access-date=15 July 2020}}</ref> Beihangkongshi-1 carries the first iodine [[Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion|electric space propulsion]] system to be tested in space.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ARG}} [[ÑuSat]] × 10
|user = [[Satellogic]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]] ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Taiyuan (BY-03)<ref name="jones-20201106">{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://www.space.com/china-long-march-6-rocket-launches-13-satellites |title=China launches 13 satellites on a single Long March 6 rocket |work=[[Space.com]] |date=6 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref>
|user = Jinshan Middle School / [[Origin Space]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Education / [[Ultraviolet astronomy]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Tianyan 05 (UESTC)<ref name="jones-20201106" />
|user = ADASpace / MinoSpace
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Beihangkongshi-1<ref>{{cite web |last=Werner |first=Debra |url=https://spacenews.com/thrustme-2020-demonstration/ |title=Spacety launches satellite to test ThrustMe iodine electric propulsion and constellation technologies |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=6 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = Spacety
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 7 November |time = 07:12<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/chinese-rocket-firm-galactic-energy-succeeds-with-first-orbital-launch-secures-funding/ |title=Chinese rocket firm Galactic Energy succeeds with first orbital launch, secures funding |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=7 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/beijing-xinghe-galactic-energy-technology-co-ltd-ceres-1-rocket-first-launch |title=谷神星一号运载火箭 • 天启星座十一星（一颗） • 星河动力公司首次轨道发射 • 中国民营首次入轨SSO • 首飞成功 |trans-title=Ceres 1 carrier rocket • Tianqi-11 satellite • Galactic Energy's first orbital launch • First Chinese privately operated launch to SSO • Successful first flight |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=7 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Ceres-1]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Galactic Energy]]
|remarks = First flight of Ceres-1.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Tianqi-11
|user = Guodian Gaoke
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Internet of things|IoT]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 7 November |time = 09:41<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/07/indian-pslv-deploys-10-satellites-in-first-launch-since-start-of-pandemic/ |title=Indian PSLV deploys 10 satellites in first launch since start of pandemic |work=Spaceflight Now |date=7 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c49-eos-01 |title=PSLV-C49/EOS-01 |work=[[ISRO]] |date=28 October 2020 |access-date=7 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[PSLV-DL]]
|flight = C49
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre|Satish Dhawan]] [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre First Launch Pad|FLP]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[ISRO]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[EOS-01]] ([[RISAT]]-2BR2)<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/risat-2b.htm |title=RISAT 2B, 2BR1, 2BR2 (EOS 01) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=7 November 2020 |access-date=8 November 2020}}</ref>
|user = ISRO
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|LUX}} KSM × 4<ref>{{cite web |last=Kadib |first=Charbel |url=https://www.spaceconnectonline.com.au/launch/4525-kleos-space-issues-scouting-mission-update-amid-covid-delays |title=Kleos Space issues Scouting Mission update amid COVID delays |work=Space Connect |date=14 September 2020 |access-date=15 September 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = Kleos Space
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Satellite navigation|Navigation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Lemur-2]] × 4
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Spire Global]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|LTU}} R2 (LacunaSat-2)<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/m6p.htm |title=M6P 1, 2 |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=26 October 2020 |access-date=26 October 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[NanoAvionics]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 November |time = 15:59:04<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/11/long-march-3b-second-tiantong-1/ |title=Long March 3B lofts second Tiantong-1 spacecraft |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=12 November 2020 |access-date=12 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/长征三号乙-•-天通一号02星-•-long-march-3b-•-tiantong-1-02 |title=长征三号乙 • 天通一号02星 • Long March 3B • Tiantong-1-02 • 发射成功 [Successful launch] |work=spaceflightfans.cn |date=23 October 2020 |access-date=12 November 2020 |language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 3B]]/E
|flight = 3B-Y73
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 2|LC-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Tiantong-1]] 02
|user = [[China Satellite Communications|China Satcom]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 13 November |time = 22:32<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/14/ula-declares-success-on-atlas-5-launch-with-new-solid-rocket-boosters/ |title=ULA declares success on Atlas 5 launch with new solid rocket boosters |work=Spaceflight Now |date=14 November 2020 |access-date=15 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Atlas V]] 531
|flight = AV-090<ref name=gunter-atlas5 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Cape Canaveral [[SLC-41]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[United Launch Alliance|ULA]]
|remarks = The first [[Graphite-Epoxy Motor#GEM-63|GEM 63]] solid rocket motors flew on this mission. May be an [[Satellite Data System|SDS]] satellite.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[NROL]]-101
|user = [[National Reconnaissance Office|NRO]]
|orbit = [[Molniya orbit|Molniya]]
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 16 November |time = 00:27:17<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/16/astronauts-ride-spacex-crew-capsule-in-landmark-launch-for-commercial-spaceflight/ |title=Astronauts fly with SpaceX in landmark launch for commercial spaceflight |work=Spaceflight Now |date=16 November 2020 |access-date=16 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = F9-098
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = Carrying four astronauts. Second crewed and first operational [[Crew Dragon]] mission, as part of the [[Commercial Crew Program]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Bartels |first=Meghan |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-nasa-astronaut-launches-american-spaceflight-moment.html |title=SpaceX's 1st astronaut launch will be a 'unique moment' for America, NASA chief says |work=[[Space.com]] |date=26 May 2020 |access-date=26 May 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX Crew-1]] ''[[Crew Dragon Resilience|Resilience]]''
|user = SpaceX / [[NASA]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[Expedition 64]]/[[Expedition 65|65]]
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 2 May 2021
|d-time = 06:56
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 17 November |time = 01:52:20<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/17/european-vega-rocket-suffers-second-failure-in-three-launches/ |title=European Vega rocket suffers second failure in three launches |work=Spaceflight Now |date=17 November 2020 |access-date=20 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|EUR}} [[Vega (rocket)|Vega]]
|flight = [[Vega flight VV17|VV17]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.arianespace.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/VV17-launchkit-EN2.pdf |title=VV17 Launch Kit |work=[[Arianespace]] |date=10 November 2020 |access-date=12 November 2020}}</ref>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Guiana Space Centre|Kourou]] [[ELA-1|ELV]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Arianespace]]
|remarks = Mission failure due to human error. Cables leading to [[thrust vector control]] actuators were inverted during engine assembly, causing the [[AVUM]] upper stage to tumble upon ignition.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/17/arianespace-traces-cause-of-vega-launch-failure-to-human-error/ |title=Arianespace traces cause of Vega launch failure to 'human error' |work=Spaceflight Now |date=17 November 2020 |access-date=20 November 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ESP}} [[SEOSat-Ingenio]]
|user = [[ESA]] / [[CDTI]] / [[Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial|INTA]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Launch failure
|d-date = 17 November
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[TARANIS]]
|user = [[CNES]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Upper-atmospheric lightning|TLE observation]]
|outcome = Launch failure
|d-date = 17 November
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=9
|date = 20 November |time = 02:20:01<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/20/rocket-lab-recovers-booster-after-launch-with-30-small-satellites/ |title=Rocket Lab recovers booster after launch with 30 small satellites |work=Spaceflight Now |date=20 November 2020 |access-date=21 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
|flight = "Return to Sender"
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZL}} [[Mahia LC-1A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab]]
|remarks = The DragRacer mission will test [[Tethers Unlimited]]'s Terminator Tape, an [[electrodynamic tether]] that can passively de-orbit satellites in order to reduce [[space debris]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Werner |first=Debra |url=https://spacenews.com/trisept-millennium-dragracer/ |title=TriSept, Millennium, Tethers Unlimited and Rocket Lab to demonstrate de-orbit technology |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=5 August 2019 |access-date=9 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/dragracer.htm |title=Dragracer A, B |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=10 May 2020 |access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref> ''Alchemy'', the tethered satellite, is expected to take 45 days to de-orbit; ''Augury'', the untethered satellite, is expected to take up to 9 years.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gohd |first=Chelsea |url=https://www.space.com/dragracer-space-junk-terminator-tape-satellite-deorbit-test.html |title=Experimental DragRacer satellites will test 'Terminator Tape' for space junk cleanup this fall |work=[[Space.com]] |date=8 August 2020 |access-date=8 August 2020}}</ref> First stage recovery using parachutes was successfully attempted on this flight, with the intact booster splashing down in the Pacific Ocean.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} ''Alchemy'' (DragRacer A)
|cubesat = yes
|user = TriSept
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Success
|d-date = January 3 2021
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} ''Augury'' (DragRacer B)
|cubesat = yes
|user = TriSept
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} BRO-2
|cubesat = yes
|user = UnseenLabs
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[SIGINT]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} BRO-3
|cubesat = yes
|user = UnseenLabs
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = SIGINT
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZL}} APSS-1 (Waka Āmiorangi Aotearoa)
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[University of Auckland]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Ionosphere|Ionospheric research]]
|outcome = Spacecraft failure<ref>{{cite web |last=Keall |first=Chris |url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/auckland-we-have-a-problem-student-satellite-lost-in-space/JQ4GFAKEN4XVDZR4EQ6EO5EQAA/ |title=Auckland, we have a problem: Student satellite lost in space |work=[[The New Zealand Herald]] |date=29 November 2020 |access-date=6 December 2020 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Landmapper|Landmapper-BC 5]]<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/landmapper-bc.htm |title=Landmapper-BC 1, ..., 12 (Corvus-BC 1, ..., 12) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=5 December 2020 |access-date=6 December 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = Astro Digital
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceBEE]] × 18
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Swarm Technologies]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZ}} SpaceBEE NZ × 6
|cubesat = yes
|user = Swarm Technologies NZ
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Gnome Chompski<ref>{{cite web |last=Campbell |first=Ian Carlos |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/11/2/21546596/valve-gabe-newell-gnome-space-new-zealand-rocket-labs |title=Valve's Gabe Newell is sending a gnome to space |work=[[The Verge]] |date=2 November 2020 |access-date=2 November 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Gabe Newell]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Charity (practice)|Charity]] / [[Mass simulator]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 21 November |time = 17:17:08<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/21/international-satellite-launches-to-extend-measurements-of-sea-level-rise/ |title=International satellite launches to extend measurements of sea level rise |work=Spaceflight Now |date=21 November 2020 |access-date=24 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = F9-099
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[VAFB|Vandenberg]] [[SLC-4E]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} {{#invoke:flag|icon|EUR}} [[Sentinel-6]] ''Michael Freilich''
|user = NASA / [[NOAA]] / ESA / [[Eumetsat]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Oceanography]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 23 November |time = 20:30:12<ref>{{cite web |last=Burghardt |first=Thomas |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/11/change5-sample-return-launch/ |title=China launches world's first lunar sample return mission since 1976 |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=23 November 2020 |access-date=24 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 5]]
|flight = Y5<ref name=cz5 />
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site|Wenchang]] LC-1
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks = China's first lunar sample return mission. Lunar landing was confirmed on 1 December. The reentry capsule landed on Earth on 16 December and safely delivered {{convert|1.7|kg|lb|abbr=on}} of [[lunar soil]] and rock samples. The orbiter is currently on an extended mission to the Sun–Earth {{L1}} point.<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/change-5-orbiter-embarks-on-extended-mission-to-sun-earth-lagrange-point/ |title=Chang'e-5 orbiter embarks on extended mission to Sun-Earth Lagrange point |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=21 December 2020 |access-date=22 December 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Chang'e 5]] lander
|user = [[CNSA]]
|orbit = [[Selenocentric orbit|Selenocentric]]
|function = [[Lunar lander]]
|d-date = 1 December
|d-time = 15:11
|outcome = Successful
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Chang'e 5 ascender
|user = CNSA
|orbit = Selenocentric
|function = [[Space rendezvous]]
|d-date = 7 December
|d-time = 23:30
|outcome = Successful
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Chang'e 5 orbiter
|user = CNSA
|orbit = Initial: Selenocentric Current: [[Lagrangian point#Sun–Earth|Sun–Earth]] {{L1}}
|function = [[Exploration of the Moon|Lunar orbiter]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Chang'e 5 return capsule
|user = CNSA
|orbit = Selenocentric
|function = Lunar [[Sample-return mission|sample return]]
|d-date = 16 December
|d-time = 17:59
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 25 November |time = 02:13:12<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/11/25/spacex-launches-60-more-starlink-satellites-on-100th-falcon-9-flight/ |title=SpaceX launches 60 more Starlink satellites on 100th Falcon 9 flight |work=Spaceflight Now |date=25 November 2020 |access-date=26 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = Starlink V1.0-L15
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Cape Canaveral SLC-40
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = First time that a Falcon 9 first-stage booster ([[List of Falcon 9 first-stage boosters|B1049.7]]) has been launched and recovered for the seventh time.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Starlink]] × 60
|user = SpaceX
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 29 November |time = 07:25<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/japan-launches-jdrs-1-optical-data-relay-satellite-for-military-civilian-use/ |title=Japan launches JDRS-1 optical data relay satellite for military, civilian use |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=29 November 2020 |access-date=29 November 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Graham |first=William |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/11/japan-launches-data-relay-satellite/ |title=Japan launches joint military, scientific optical data relay satellite |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=28 November 2020 |access-date=29 November 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[H-IIA]] 202
|flight = F43
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Tanegashima Space Center|Tanegashima]] [[Yoshinobu Launch Complex|LA-Y1]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries|MHI]]
|remarks = Japanese Optical Data Relay Satellite.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} JDRS-1 ([[Laser Utilizing Communication System|LUCAS]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.satnavi.jaxa.jp/project/lucas/ |title=光衛星間通信システム (LUCAS) |trans-title=Optical satellite communication system (LUCAS) |work=[[JAXA]] |access-date=30 October 2020 |language=ja}}</ref>
|user = [[Cabinet Secretariat (Japan)|CAS]] / [[JAXA]]
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = [[Data relay satellite|Data relay]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|colspan=8 style="background:white;"| {{TLS-M|2020}}

=== December ===
|-
{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 2 December|time = 01:33:28<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/02/soyuz-rocket-launches-emirati-reconnaissance-satellite-after-lengthy-delay/|title=Soyuz rocket launches Emirati military satellite after lengthy delay|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=2 December 2020|access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz ST-A]] / [[Fregat-M]]
|flight = VS24
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Guiana Space Centre|Kourou]] [[Ensemble de Lancement Soyouz|ELS]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Arianespace]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UAE}} [[:fr:Falcon Eye|FalconEye-2]]
|user = [[UAE Armed Forces]]
|orbit = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]] ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Reconnaissance satellite|Reconnaissance]] ([[IMINT]])
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=4
|date = 3 December |time = 01:14:36<ref>{{cite web|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/soyuz-2s-110th-mission-satellites/|title=Soyuz 2's 110th mission launches three civilian communication satellites|work=[[NASASpaceFlight]]|date=2 December 2020|access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/gonets-block17.html|title=Soyuz launches Gonets trio, secret cargo|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb|date=2 December 2020|access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Soyuz-2.1b]] / [[Fregat]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 43|Site 43/3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Roscosmos]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Gonets-M]] 20<ref name="gunter-gonets-m"/>
|user = [[Gonets Satellite System]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Gonets-M 21<ref name="gunter-gonets-m"/>
|user = Gonets Satellite System
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Gonets-M]] 22<ref name="gunter-gonets-m"/>
|user = Gonets Satellite System
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} ERA-1 ([[List of Kosmos satellites (2501–2750)|Kosmos 2548]])<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/03/soyuz-rocket-lifts-off-from-plesetsk-with-russian-relay-satellites/|title=Soyuz rocket lifts off from Plesetsk with Russian relay satellites|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=3 December 2020|access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Ministry of Defence (Russia)|Ministry of Defence]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Military satellite|Military]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 6 December |time = 03:58<ref>{{cite web|last=Barbosa|first=Rui C.|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/first-long-march-3b-extended-fairing-gaofen-14/|title=First Long March 3B launch with extended G5 fairing lofts Gaofen-14|work=NASASpaceflight|date=5 December 2020|access-date=6 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/long-march-3b-rocket-launch-gaofen-14-satellite|title=长征三号乙 • 高分十四号 • Long March 3B • Gaofen-14 • 型号首飞取得圆满成功 [Successful first flight of this rocket variant]|website=spaceflightfans.cn|date=22 November 2020|access-date=6 December 2020|language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 3B]]/E
|flight = 3B-Y70
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] [[Xichang Launch Complex 3|LC-3]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks = First Long March 3B launch to sun-synchronous orbit.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Gaofen-14
|user = [[SASTIND]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 6 December |time = 16:17:08<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/06/spacex-launches-first-in-new-line-of-upgraded-space-station-cargo-ships/|title=SpaceX launches first in new line of upgraded space station cargo ships|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=6 December 2020|access-date=6 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|flight = F9-101
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks = First flight of the cargo version of Dragon 2. Nanoracks Bishop Airlock launched aboard this resupply flight. The airlock is now docked to the ISS as of 12/22/20.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX CRS-21]]
|user = [[NASA]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[ISS]])
|function = [[ISS logistics]]
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 14 January 2021
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Nanoracks Bishop Airlock]]
|user = [[Nanoracks]] / NASA
|orbit = Low Earth (ISS)
|function = [[Satellite deployment]] / [[Assembly of the International Space Station|ISS assembly]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 December |time = 20:14<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/10/china-launches-two-small-satellites-for-gravitational-wave-research/|title=China launches two small satellites for gravitational wave research|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=10 December 2020|access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/long-march-11-launch-gravitational-wave-high-energy-electromagnetic-counterpart-all-sky-monitor|title=长征十一号 • 引力波暴高能电磁对应体全天监测器双星 • 中科院空间科学战略先导科技专项（二期）首发星 • Long March-11 • Gravitational wave high-energy Electromagnetic Counterpart All-sky Monitor • 任务成功 [Mission success]|website=spaceflightfans.cn|date=15 November 2020|access-date=10 December 2020|language=zh}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 11]]
|flight = Y9<ref name="cz-11"/>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Xichang LC-4
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Gravitational Wave High-energy Electromagnetic Counterpart All-sky Monitor|GECAM]] A and B<ref>{{cite conference|last=Fan|first=Quanlin |url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/activities/2019/UNJordanWorkshop/Presentations/1.4_20190312--Chinas_Space_Science_Missions_V3.61.pdf|title=Current and Future Space Science Missions in China: Gravitational wave high-energy Electromagnetic Counterpart All-sky Monitor (GECAM)|location=Amman, Jordan|conference=UN/Jordan Workshop: Global Partnership in Space Exploration and Innovation|publisher=UNOOSA |page=17|date=25 March 2019|access-date=30 October 2019}}</ref>
|user = [[Chinese Academy of Sciences|CAS]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = [[Gravitational-wave astronomy]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 11 December |time = 01:09<ref>{{cite web|last=Thompson|first=Amy|url=https://www.space.com/delta-iv-heavy-nrol-44-launch.html|title=Powerful Delta IV Heavy rocket launches secret US spy satellite to orbit|publisher=Space.com|date=11 December 2020|access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Delta IV Heavy]]
|flight = D-385
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 37|SLC-37B]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[United Launch Alliance|ULA]]
|remarks = First launch from the newly renamed [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station]].
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Orion (satellite)|Orion 10]] / [[NROL-44]] <ref>{{cite web|last=Krebs|first=Gunter|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/orion-5_nro.htm|title=Orion 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12|publisher=Gunter's Space Page|date=29 August 2020|access-date=18 September 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[National Reconnaissance Office|NRO]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 13 December |time = 17:30<ref>{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/13/siriusxm-satellite-rides-spacex-rocket-into-orbit/|title=SiriusXM satellite rides SpaceX rocket into orbit|publisher=Spaceflight Now|date=13 December 2020|access-date=13 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = F9-102
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] [[Cape Canaveral Space Launch Complex 40|SLC-40]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = Replacement for the XM-3 satellite launched in 2005. While conducting in-orbit testing the satellite experienced payload unit failures. Exact cause has not been announced.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sheetz |first1=Michael |title=Sirius XM's latest satellite, built by Maxar and launched by SpaceX, suffers failure in orbit |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/27/sirius-xm-satellite-sxm-7-fails-built-by-maxar-and-launched-by-spacex.html |website=CNBC |language=en |date=27 January 2021}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Sirius XM#Satellites|SXM-7]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Krebs|first=Gunter|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/sxm-7.htm|title=SXM 7, 8|work=Gunter's Space Page|date=13 December 2020|access-date=13 December 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Sirius XM]]
|orbit = [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]]
|function = [[Communications satellite|Communications]]
|outcome = Spacecraft failure
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 14 December |time = 05:50:00<ref>{{cite web |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/angara5-flight2.html |title=Second mission of the Angara-5 rocket |publisher=RussianSpaceWeb |date=3 October 2020 |access-date=14 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Graham |first=William |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/russia-resumes-angara-test-third/ |title=Russia resumes Angara test flights with third mission |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=14 December 2020 |access-date=14 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Angara A5]] / [[Briz-M]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome Site 35|Site 35/1]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Strategic Missile Troops|RVSN RF]]
|remarks = Second orbital flight of Angara A5.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} IPM 2 (dummy payload)<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/ipm.htm |title=IPM |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=14 December 2020 |access-date=14 December 2020}}</ref>
|user = [[Russian Aerospace Forces|VKS]]
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = [[Flight test]]
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 15 December |time = 10:09:27<ref name=sfn-log /><ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/15/rocket-lab-closes-out-year-with-launch-of-synspectives-first-radar-satellite/ |title=Rocket Lab closes out year with launch of Synspective's first radar satellite |publisher=Spaceflight Now |date=15 December 2020 |access-date=15 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]]
|flight = "The Owl's Night Begins"
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|NZL}} [[Mahia LC-1A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rocket Lab]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} StriX-α
|user = Synspective
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Earth observation
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 15 December |time = 20:55<ref>{{cite web|last=Burghardt|first=Thomas|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/astra-second-orbital-launch-attempt/|title=Astra succeeds in reaching space with Rocket 3.2|work=[[NASASpaceFlight]]|date=15 December 2020|access-date=15 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://astra.com/blog/rocket-3-2-ready-to-launch/|title=Rocket 3.2 Ready To Launch |publisher=[[Astra (aerospace)|Astra]]|date=11 December 2020|access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Rockets by Astra#Rocket 3|Rocket 3]]
|flight = Rocket 3.2
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska|Kodiak]] LP-3B
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Astra (aerospace)|Astra]]
|remarks = Second of three Rocket 3 orbital launch attempts. Successfully achieved an apogee of {{cvt|390|km}}, but fell just short of orbital velocity due to a suboptimal second stage fuel mixture.<ref>{{cite web |last=Etherington |first=Darrell |url=https://techcrunch.com/2020/12/15/launch-startup-astras-rocket-reaches-space-for-the-first-time/ |title=Launch startup Astra's rocket reaches space |work=[[TechCrunch]] |date=15 December 2020 |access-date=15 December 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = ''No payload''
|user = Astra
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Flight test
|outcome = Launch failure
|d-date = 15 December
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 17 December |time = 10:11<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c50-cms-01|title=PSLV-C50/CMS-01|publisher=ISRO|date=11 December 2020|access-date=11 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[PSLV-XL]]
|flight = C50<ref name=pslv/>
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre|Satish Dhawan]] [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre Second Launch Pad|SLP]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[ISRO]]
|remarks = Replacement for [[GSAT-12]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/17/pslv-delivers-indian-communications-satellite-into-orbit/ |title=PSLV delivers Indian communications satellite into orbit |work=Spaceflight Now |date=17 December 2020 |access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[CMS-01]] ([[GSAT]]-12R)
|user = ISRO
|orbit = Geosynchronous
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 18 December |time = 12:26:26<ref>{{cite press release|url=https://www.arianespace.com/press-release/flight-st29-successful-oneweb-constellations-satellites-deployment-with-arianespaces-first-mission-from-the-vostochny-cosmodrome/|title=Flight ST29: Successful OneWeb constellation's satellites deployment with Arianespace's first mission from the Vostochny Cosmodrome|publisher=Arianespace|date=18 December 2020|access-date=18 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Soyuz-2.1b / Fregat
|flight = ST29
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Vostochny Cosmodrome|Vostochny]] [[Vostochny Cosmodrome Site 1S|Site 1S]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} Arianespace / {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Starsem]]
|remarks = Vostochny flight 1. Third large batch of satellites, and the first after bankruptcy in early 2020.<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/18/oneweb-resumes-deployment-of-650-satellite-broadband-network/ |title=OneWeb resumes deployment of 650-satellite broadband network |work=Spaceflight Now |date=18 December 2020 |access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UK}} [[OneWeb satellite constellation|OneWeb]] × 36
|user = [[OneWeb]]
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Communications
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 19 December |time = 14:00<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/19/spacex-closes-out-record-year-of-launches-from-floridas-space-coast/ |title=SpaceX closes out record-setting year of launches from Florida's Space Coast |work=Spaceflight Now |date=19 December 2020 |access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Falcon 9 Block 5
|flight = F9-103
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Kennedy LC-39A
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} SpaceX
|remarks = NROL-108 mission.<ref>{{cite web |last=Krebs |first=Gunter |url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_sdat/usa-312.htm |title=USA 312, 313 (NROL 108) |work=Gunter's Space Page |date=21 December 2020 |access-date=21 December 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[List of USA satellites|USA-312]]
|user = NRO
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} USA-313
|user = NRO
|orbit = Low Earth
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=5
|date = 22 December |time = 04:37:37<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spaceflightfans.cn/event/cz-8__testflight|title=长征八号首飞任务 • 新技术验证七号等五星• Long March 8 Demonstration Launch • XJS-7 • 首飞任务取得圆满成功 [First flight complete success]|website=spaceflightfans.cn|date=22 December 2020|access-date=22 December 2020|language=zh}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Andrew |url=https://spacenews.com/china-launches-first-long-march-8-from-wenchang-spaceport/ |title=China launches first Long March 8 from Wenchang spaceport |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=22 December 2020 |access-date=22 December 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/long-march-8-debuts-nine-satellites/ |title=Long March 8 – a future reusable rocket – conducts debut launch |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=22 December 2020 |access-date=22 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 8]]
|flight = Y1
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site|Wenchang]] LC-2<ref name=cz8/>
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation|CASC]]
|remarks = First flight of [[Long March 8]].
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Xinjishu Yanzheng-7 (XJY-7)
|user = [[China Academy of Space Technology|CAST]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Technology demonstration]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Hisea-1<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.spacety.com/index.php/2021/01/04/imagery-from-worlds-first-c-band-commercial-smallsat-sar-hisea-1-satellite-unveiled/ |title=Imagery from Hisea-1 SAR Satellite Unveiled |work=Spacety |date=4 January 2021 |access-date=3 June 2021}}</ref>
|user = Spacety
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Tianqi-8 (Ping'an-1)
|user = Guodian Gaoke
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Internet of things|IoT]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Yuanguang
|cubesat = yes
|user = Spacety / [[Hubei University of Technology|HBUT]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Space tribology]]
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ETH}} {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} ET-SMART-RSS (Zhixing-1A)<ref>{{cite web|last=Ibeh|first=Joseph|url=https://africanews.space/essti-confirms-launch-details-of-et-smart-rss-satellite-built-alongside-chinese-partner/|title=ESSTI Confirms Launch Details of ET-SMART-RSS Satellite, Built In Collaboration With Chinese Partner|publisher=Space in Africa|date=2 October 2020|access-date=4 October 2020}}</ref>
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Ethiopian Space Science and Technology Institute|ESSTI]] / [[Beijing Smart Satellite Technology|SMART]]
|orbit = Low Earth ([[Sun-synchronous orbit|SSO]])
|function = [[Earth observation satellite|Earth observation]]
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=2
|date = 27 December |time = 15:44<ref>{{cite web |last=Barbosa |first=Rui C. |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/long-march-4c-concludes-chinas-2020/ |title=Long March 4C lofting of Yaogan Weixing-33 concludes China's 2020 launch campaign |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |date=27 December 2020 |access-date=27 December 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Long March 4C]]
|flight = 4C-Y35
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] [[Jiuquan Launch Area 4|SLS-2]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} CASC
|remarks = Replacement for Yaogan 33, which was lost in a launch failure on 22 May 2019.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Yaogan]] 33(R)
|user = CAS
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}} {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Weina-2
|cubesat = yes
|user = [[Shanghai Engineering Center for Microsatellites|SECM]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Technology demonstration
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 29 December |time = 16:42:07<ref>{{cite web |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/12/29/french-military-surveillance-satellite-launched-by-soyuz-rocket/ |title=French military surveillance satellite launched by Soyuz rocket |work=Spaceflight Now |date=29 December 2020 |access-date=2 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.arianespace.com/press-release/flight-vs25-arianespace-orbits-the-cso-2-military-observation-satellite-for-france/ |title=Flight VS25: Arianespace orbits the CSO-2 military observation satellite for France |work=[[Arianespace]] |date=29 December 2020 |access-date=2 January 2021}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Soyuz ST-A / Fregat-M
|flight = VS25
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} Kourou ELS
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} Arianespace
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} [[Composante Spatiale Optique|CSO-2]]
|user = [[CNES]] / [[Direction générale de l'armement|DGA]]
|orbit = Low Earth (SSO)
|function = Reconnaissance
|outcome = Operational
}}
}}

|} 

{{TLS-M|2020}}

== Suborbital flights ==
{{TLS-H2}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 January |time = 08:00:00
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[S-310]]
|flight = 45
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Uchinoura Space Center|Uchinoura]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[JAXA]]
|remarks = Apogee: 131 km<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jaxa.jp/press/2020/01/20200109-2_j.html |language=ja |script-title=ja:観測ロケットS-310-45号機打上げ結果について |date=9 January 2020 |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name =
|user = [[JAXA]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|function = Technology
|d-date = 9 January
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 19 January |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[K-4 (missile)|K-4]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Visakhapatnam]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Indian Navy]]
|remarks = Apogee: 500 km? The missile was from a submerged platform located in the coastal waters of Andhra Pradesh. This test was undertaken in full operational configuration during which the missile traversed a distance of over 3,500 km in approximately 21 minutes.<ref>{{cite web |last=Peri |first=Dinakar |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/india-successfully-test-fires-3500-km-k-4-slbm/article30601739.ece |title=India successfully test-fires 3,500-km range submarine-launched ballistic missile K-4 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=11 February 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|user = Indian Navy
|orbit= Suborbital
|function = Missile test
|d-date = 19 January
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 19 January |time = 15:30<ref>{{cite web |last=Thompson |first=Amy |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-crew-dragon-launch-abort-test-success.html |title=SpaceX aces Crew Dragon launch abort test, destroys rocket on purpose |work=[[Space.com]] |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=4 June 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Falcon 9 Block 5]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[LC-39A]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX]]
|remarks = Apogee: 40 km.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-51169705 |title=SpaceX completes emergency crew escape manoeuvre |first=Jonathan |last=Amos |publisher=BBC |date=19 January 2020 |access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref> In-flight abort test at [[Max Q]]. It was planned that the capsule from the first demonstration mission [[SpX-DM1]] would be used, but that capsule having been subsequently destroyed after the mission in a fire during a ground-test, a new capsule was assigned for this mission.<ref name="sfn_CrewDragonAnomaly">{{cite web|last=Clark|first=Stephen|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/20/spacex-confirms-anomaly-during-crew-dragon-engine-test/|title=SpaceX confirms anomaly during Crew Dragon abort engine test|work=Spaceflight Now|date=20 April 2019|access-date=28 June 2019}}</ref><ref name=nsf-20170811>{{cite news |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/08/spacex-boeing-home-stretch-commercial-crew-readiness/ |title=SpaceX and Boeing in home stretch for Commercial Crew readiness |work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]] |date=11 August 2017 |access-date=17 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Clark |first=Stephen |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2018/08/09/nasa-signs-off-on-spacexs-load-and-go-procedure-for-crew-launches/ |title=NASA signs off on SpaceX's "load-and-go" procedure for crew launches |work=Spaceflight Now |date=9 August 2018 |access-date=9 August 2018}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[SpaceX Dragon 2]]
|user = [[SpaceX]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 19 January
|function = Test flight
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 24 January |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[K-4 (missile)|K-4]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Visakhapatnam]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|IND}} [[Indian Navy]]
|remarks = Apogee: 500 km?
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|user = Indian Navy
|orbit= Suborbital
|function = Missile test
|d-date = 24 January
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 27 January |time = 13:40
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} [[Black Brant (rocket)#Black Brant IX|Black Brant IX]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Poker Flat Research Range]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[NASA]]
|remarks = Apogee: {{convert|260|km}}
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} PolarNOx 2
|user = [[Virginia Tech]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 27 January
|function = [[Thermosphere]] research
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 5 February |time = 08:33
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Minuteman-III]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]] LF-04
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[US Air Force]]
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} FTU-2
|user = [[US Air Force]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 5 February
|function = Test flight
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 February |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[UGM-133 Trident II]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[USS Maine (SSBN-741)]], [[Pacific Missile Range Facility]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[US Navy]]
|remarks = Demonstration and Shakedown Operation (DASO) 30
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name =
|user = [[US Navy]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 12 February
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 16 February |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[UGM-133 Trident II]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[USS Maine (SSBN-741)]], [[Pacific Missile Range Facility]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[US Navy]]
|remarks = Demonstration and Shakedown Operation (DASO) 30
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name =
|user = [[US Navy]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 16 February
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 19 February |time = 23:14
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} Improved Malemute
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|SWE}} [[Esrange]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|SWE}} SSC
|remarks = Apogee 120 km (74 mi)
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = SPIDER-2
|user = SNSA
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 19 February
|function = Atmospheric analysis
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 20 March |time = 08:30
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} UGM-27 Polaris (STARS)
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Barking Sands [[Barking Sands Launch Complex 42|LC-42]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[US Navy]]
|remarks = Common-Hypersonic Glide Body, successful hypersonic glide vehicle test.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2020-04/news/pentagon-tests-hypersonic-glide-body|title=Pentagon Tests Hypersonic Glide Body|work=Arms Control Today|publisher=Arms Control Association|date=April 2020|author1=Kingston Reif |author2=Shannon Bugos}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} C-HGB
|user = [[US Navy]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|function = Technology
|outcome = Successful
|d-time = 20 March
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 15 April |time = 15:00 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia Conducts Anti-satellite Weapon Test|url=https://missilethreat.csis.org/russia-conducts-anti-satellite-weapon-test/}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} PL-19 "Nudol"
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Plesetsk cosmodrome
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}}
|remarks = Anti-satellite missile test
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name =
|user =
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 15 April
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 June |time=
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} M51
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} ''Le Téméraire'', Audierne Bay
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|FRA}} DGA/[[French Navy|Marine nationale]]
|remarks = Apogee: {{convert|1000|km}}?
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|user = DGA/Marine nationale
|orbit= Suborbital
|function = Test flight
|d-date = 12 June
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date= 14 June |time =
|rocket={{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Momo (rocket)|Momo 5]]
|site={{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Taiki Aerospace Research Field]]
|LSP={{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} [[Interstellar Technologies]]
|remarks = About 35 seconds into flight, sparks were observed near the engine nozzle. About thirty seconds later, the engine failed and the rocket tumbled out of control.
|payload={{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}}
|user = [[Kochi University of Technology]]
|orbit= Suborbital
|function= ?
|outcome= Launch failure
|d-date= 14 June
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 4 August |time = 07:21
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Minuteman-III]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]] LF-10
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[US Air Force]]
|remarks = Mission GT-235GM
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} 3x Mk 12 RV
|user = [[US Air Force]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 4 August
|function = Test flight
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 August
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} [[Sparrow target missile|Silver Sparrow]]?
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} [[F-15 Eagle]], [[Israel]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|ISR}} IAF
|remarks = Apogee: ~{{convert|100|km}}?, AST-18a target, successfully intercepted by Arrow 2
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|user = Israeli Air Force
|orbit= Suborbital
|function = ABM target
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 12 August
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 16 August <ref>{{cite tweet |user=Skyrora |number=1294955336068210688 |date=16 August 2020 |title=We have lift off! Skylark Micro Launch I has successfully been launched. Our tech team are now working on launch recovery. More photos and videos to follow! }}</ref> |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UK}} [[Skyrora|Skylark Micro]]
|flight = Launch I
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|Iceland}} [[Langanes|Langanes Peninsula]] Launch Site
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|UK}} [[Skyrora]]
|remarks = Maiden flight of [[Skyrora|Skylark Micro]]. Apogee: 26,86 km.<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Callaghan |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jonathanocallaghan/2020/08/18/skyrora-reaches-three-times-the-height-of-mount-everest-with-rocket-launch-from-iceland/#7fb466b97fcc |title=Skyrora Rocket Launch From Iceland Reaches Three Times The Height Of Mount Everest
|work=[[Forbes]] |date=18 August 2020 |access-date=20 August 2020}}</ref>
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|user = [[Skyrora]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|function = Test flight
|outcome = Successful
|d-date = 16 August
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 2 September |time = 07:03
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Minuteman-III]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]] LF-04
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[US Air Force]]
|remarks = Mission GT-233GM
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} 1x RV
|user = [[US Air Force]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 2 September
|function = Test flight
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 8 September |time = 18:00<ref>{{cite web |last=Hatfield |first=Miles |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/with-dust-2-launch-nasa-s-sounding-rocket-program-is-back-on-the-range |title=With DUST-2 Launch, NASA's Sounding Rocket Program is Back on the Range |work=[[NASA]] |date=8 September 2020 |access-date=9 September 2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} [[Black Brant (rocket)#Black Brant IX|Black Brant IX]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[White Sands Missile Range]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[NASA]]
|remarks = Apogee: {{convert|346|km}}
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} {{#invoke:flag|icon|JPN}} DUST-2
|user = [[NASA]] / [[JAXA]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 8 September
|function = Formation and growth of small particles
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date= 19 September |time = 00:39
|rocket={{#invoke:flag|icon|NLD}} T-Minus Engineering Dart
|flight = TED-1
|site={{#invoke:flag|icon|AUS}} Koonibba Test Range
|LSP={{#invoke:flag|icon|NLD}} T-Minus Engineering
|remarks = First flight of the T-minus Dart. First Dutch space launch
|payload={{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|AUS}} DEWC-SP1
|user = DEWC Systems
|orbit= Suborbital
|function= Miniaturized Orbital Electronic Warfare Sensor System
|outcome= Successful
|d-date= 19 September
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date= 19 September |time = 02:19
|rocket={{#invoke:flag|icon|NLD}} T-Minus Engineering Dart
|flight = TED-2
|site={{#invoke:flag|icon|AUS}} Koonibba Test Range
|LSP={{#invoke:flag|icon|NLD}} T-Minus Engineering
|remarks = Flew 1 hour and 40 minutes after the previous flight.
|payload={{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|AUS}} DEWC-SP2
|user = DEWC Systems
|orbit= Suborbital
|function= Miniaturized Orbital Electronic Warfare Sensor System
|outcome= Successful
|d-date= 19 September
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 13 October |time = 13:36
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[New Shepard]]
|flight = NS-13
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Corn Ranch]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Blue Origin]]
|remarks = 7th flight of the same capsule. Onboard payloads include Space Lab Technologies, Southwest Research Institute, seeds and postcards for Club for the Future, and multiple payloads for NASA including SPLICE to test future lunar landing technologies in support of the [[Artemis program#Support missions|Artemis program]].
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} Crew Capsule 2.0
|user = [[Blue Origin]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 13 October
|function = Test flight/Payload delivery
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 29 October |time = 19:27 <ref>{{Cite web|title=MINUTEMAN III TEST LAUNCH DEMONSTRATES SAFE, RELIABLE DETERRENT|url=https://www.dvidshub.net/video/771084/minuteman-iii-test-launch-demonstrates-safe-reliable-deterrent#.X5qONndF76U.twitter}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Minuteman-III]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Vandenberg Air Force Base]] LF-09
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[US Air Force]]
|remarks = Mission GT-236GM
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} 1x RV
|user = [[US Air Force]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 29 October
|function = Test flight
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 29 October<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Probe Rocket, which we produced with domestic and national technologies within the scope of our studies, crossed the space limit on October 29|url=https://twitter.com/roketsan/status/1326922200255959041}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|TUR}} SR-0 (Roketsan made L.V.)
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|TUR}} Sinop
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|TUR}} Roketsan
|remarks = Apogee 136 kilometers (84.5 mi).
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|TUR}}
|user = Roketsan
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 29 October
|function = Test flight
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 2 November |time = 10:20<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sounding Rocket to See What Keeps Intergalactic Space Sizzling|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/sounding-rocket-to-see-what-keeps-intergalactic-space-sizzling}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CAN}} [[Black Brant (rocket)#Black Brant IX|Black Brant IX]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[White Sands Missile Range]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[NASA]]
|remarks = Apogee: {{convert|285|km}}
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} DEUCE
|user = [[NASA]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 2 November
|function = Astronomy
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 17 November |time = 05:50<ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S. successfully conducts SM-3 Block IIA Intercept Test against an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile Target|url=https://www.mda.mil/news/20news0003.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=SM-3 Block IIA Set For First Ever ICBM Intercept Test|url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2020/02/sm-3-block-iia-set-for-first-ever-icbm-intercept-test/}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} ICBM-T2
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|MHL}} [[Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} US Missile Defense Agency
|remarks = ICBM target for and intercepted by SM-3 FMT-44.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} SM-3 target
|user = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}}
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 17 November
|function = Target for SM-3 FMT-44
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 17 November |time = <ref>{{Cite web|title=U.S. successfully conducts SM-3 Block IIA Intercept Test against an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile Target|url=https://www.mda.mil/news/20news0003.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=SM-3 Block IIA Set For First Ever ICBM Intercept Test|url=https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2020/02/sm-3-block-iia-set-for-first-ever-icbm-intercept-test/}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} SM-3 Block IIA
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[USS John Finn]]
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} US Missile Defense Agency/U.S. Navy
|remarks = Intercepted ICBM-T2 in space.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} Kill vehicle
|user = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[U.S. Navy]]
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 17 November
|function = ICBM interceptor
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 December |time = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia Military Shows Off Nuclear Forces with Air, Land and Sea Missile Launches|url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-shows-off-nuclear-forces-military-video-1553696}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia conducts drills of its strategic nuclear forces|url=https://apnews.com/article/moscow-russia-b4786e2760a403699a84967e6526f243}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} R-29RMU
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Russian submarine Karelia (K-18)|Karelia (submarine)]], Barents Sea
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Russian Ministry of Defense
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = 1x RV?
|user =
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 9 December
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 9 December |time = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia Military Shows Off Nuclear Forces with Air, Land and Sea Missile Launches|url=https://www.newsweek.com/russia-shows-off-nuclear-forces-military-video-1553696}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The launch of the Yars ICBM from the Plesetsk cosmodrome was shot from different angles|url=https://tvzvezda.ru/news/forces/content/20201291837-CSGZY.html?utm_source=tvzvezda&utm_medium=longpage&utm_campaign=longpage&utm_term=v1}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} RS-24 Yars
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Plesetsk cosmodrome
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Russian Ministry of Defense
|remarks =
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = 1x RV?
|user =
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 9 December
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 December |time = 16:15 <ref>{{Cite web|title=VIRGIN GALACTIC FLIGHT TEST PROGRAM UPDATE – VSS UNITY PREPARING FOR FIRST ROCKET POWERED FLIGHT FROM NEW MEXICO|url=https://investors.virgingalactic.com/news/news-details/2020/Virgin-Galactic-Flight-Test-Program-Update--VSS-Unity-Preparing-For-First-Rocket-Powered-Flight-From-New-Mexico/default.aspx}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[SpaceShipTwo]]
|flight = 19
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Spaceport America]]
|remarks = First attempted crewed spaceflight from New Mexico. One second after ignition, the spacecraft's engine aborted, and shut down. The two crewmembers aboard, [[David Mackay (pilot)|David Mackay]] and [[Frederick Sturckow]], piloted the spacecraft to a safe landing.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gebhardt |first1=Chris |last2=Burghardt |first2=Thomas |title=VSS Unity aborts after engine start, safely lands with crew back at Spaceport America |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/new-mexico-joins-human-spaceflight-with-unity-flight/ |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com |access-date=29 December 2020}}</ref>
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[Virgin Galactic]]
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|US}} [[VSS Unity]]
|user = [[Virgin Galactic]]
|orbit = [[Sub-orbital spaceflight|Suborbital]]
|function = Crewed spaceflight
|outcome = Aborted
|d-date = 12 December
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 December<ref name="ap-20201212">{{cite web |last=Isachenkov |first=Vladimir |url=https://apnews.com/article/politics-moscow-russia-0e699d8b69c881c9d96fb40943a8ee03 |title=Russian nuclear submarine test-fires 4 missiles |work=[[Associated Press]] |date=12 December 2020 |access-date=20 December 2020}}</ref> |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Russian submarine Vladimir Monomakh|K-551 Vladimir Monomakh (submarine)]], Sea of Okhotsk
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Russian Ministry of Defense
|remarks = Rapid launch of four intercontinental ballistic missiles.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = 1x RV
|user = Russian Ministry of Defense
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 12 December
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 December |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Russian submarine Vladimir Monomakh|K-551 Vladimir Monomakh (submarine)]], Sea of Okhotsk
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Russian Ministry of Defense
|remarks = Rapid launch of four intercontinental ballistic missiles.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = 1x RV
|user = Russian Ministry of Defense
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 12 December
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 December |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Russian submarine Vladimir Monomakh|K-551 Vladimir Monomakh (submarine)]], Sea of Okhotsk
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Russian Ministry of Defense
|remarks = Rapid launch of four intercontinental ballistic missiles.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = 1x RV
|user = Russian Ministry of Defense
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 12 December
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 12 December |time =
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[RSM-56 Bulava]]
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} [[Russian submarine Vladimir Monomakh|K-551 Vladimir Monomakh (submarine)]], Sea of Okhotsk
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Russian Ministry of Defense
|remarks = Rapid launch of four intercontinental ballistic missiles.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = 1x RV
|user = Russian Ministry of Defense
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 12 December
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 16 December |time = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Russia has launched an anti-satellite missile test, US Space Command says|url=https://www.space.com/russia-launches-anti-satellite-missile-test-2020}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} PL-19 "Nudol"
|site = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}} Plesetsk cosmodrome
|LSP = {{#invoke:flag|icon|RUS}}
|remarks = Anti-satellite missile test
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name =
|user =
|orbit = Suborbital
|d-date = 16 December
|function = Missile test
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

|} 

== Launches from the Moon ==
{{TLS-H2}}-

{{TLS-RL|NoPL=1
|date = 3 December |time= 15:10 <ref>{{Cite web|title=Chinese spacecraft takes off from moon with samples|url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2020-12/03/c_139561693.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=If I heard correctly the mission director called out the takeoff time as 15:10:21.000 UTC.|url=https://twitter.com/Cosmic_Penguin/status/1334540212525887491}}</ref>
|rocket = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} [[Chang'e 5]] ascent vehicle
|site = Chang'e 5 descent stage, [[Mons Rümker]]
|LSP = [[CNSA]]
|remarks = Sample return mission. First flight of the Chang'e ascent stage. Rendezvoused and docked with the Chang'e 5 Earth return vehicle to transfer lunar soil samples for return to Earth.
|payload = {{TLS-PL
|name = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}} Lunar soil sample
|user = {{#invoke:flag|icon|CHN}}[[CNSA]]
|orbit = Selenocentric orbit
|function = Sample return
|d-date = 7 December 2020
|outcome = Successful
}}
}}

|} 

== Deep-space rendezvous ==
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
! Date (UTC)
! Spacecraft
! Event
! Remarks
|-
| 29 January
| ''[[Parker Solar Probe]]''
| 4th [[perihelion]]
|
|-
| 17 February
| [[Juno (spacecraft)|''Juno'']]
| 25th [[perijove]] of [[Jupiter]]
|
|-
| 10 April
| ''Juno''
| 26th perijove
|
|-
| 10 April
| ''[[BepiColombo]]''
| [[Gravity assist]] at [[Earth]]
|
|-
| 2 June
| ''Juno''
| 27th perijove
|
|-
| 7 June
| ''Parker Solar Probe''
| 5th perihelion
|
|-
| 11 July
| ''Parker Solar Probe''
| Third gravity assist at [[Venus]]
|
|-
| 25 July
| ''Juno''
| 28th perijove
|
|-
| 16 September
| ''Juno''
| 29th perijove
|
|-
| 27 September
| ''Parker Solar Probe''
| 6th perihelion
|
|-
| 16 October
| ''BepiColombo''
| First gravity assist at Venus
|
|-
| 20 October <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2020/nasa-s-osiris-rex-ready-for-touchdown-on-asteroid-bennu|title=NASA's OSIRIS-REx Ready for Touchdown on Asteroid Bennu|date=20 May 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
| [[OSIRIS-REx]]
| [[Touch-and-go landing|Touch-and-go]] maneuver on [[Bennu (asteroid)|Bennu]] for sampling
|
|-
| 8 November
| ''Juno''
| 30th perijove
|
|-
| 28 November
|[[Chang'e 5]]
| Lunar orbital insertion <ref>{{cite tweet |user=Cosmic_Penguin |number=1333308272795811845 |date=29 Nov 2020 |title=Well well well...on Chinese social media this picture was leaked which shows all critical timings of Chang'e 5 around cis-lunar space! The timings were very close to the actual ones for the few things that happened already. Translation, clockwise from lower right in UTC:}}</ref>
|
|-
| 1 December
|Chang'e 5 lander and ascent vehicle
| Lunar landing
| Sample return mission successfully landed in [[Mons Rümker]] region of [[Oceanus Procellarum]], coordinates {{coord|43.0576|N|51.9161|E|globe:Moon}}.
|-
| 5 December
|Chang'e 5 ascent vehicle and orbiter
|[[Lunar orbit rendezvous]]
| First-ever robotic rendezvous and docking in lunar orbit
|-
| 5 December <ref>{{cite press release|date=14 July 2020|title=Joint Statement for Cooperation in the Hayabusa2 Sample Return Mission by the Australian Space Agency and the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency |url=https://www.jaxa.jp/press/2020/07/20200714-1_j.html|publisher=JAXA|access-date=14 July 2020}}</ref>
| ''[[Hayabusa2]]''
| Sample return to Earth
|
|-
| 7 December
|Chang'e 5 ascent vehicle
|Lunar impact
|Intentional de-orbit following docking and transfer of samples to orbiter and reentry capsule
|-
| 13 December
|Chang'e 5 orbiter and reentry capsule
| [[Trans-Earth injection]]
|
|-
| 16 December
|Chang'e 5 reentry capsule
| Lunar sample return
| Perform a [[Boost-glide|skip reentry]] to reduce the heating loads
|-
| 26 December
| [[Solar Orbiter]]
| First gravity assist at Venus <ref name="Solar Orbiter launch">{{cite web|url=https://sci.esa.int/web/solar-orbiter/-/44181-mission-operations|title=Solar Orbiter: Mission Operations|publisher=ESA|date=12 February 2020|access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref>
|
|-
| 30 December
| ''Juno''
| 31st perijove
|
|} 

== Extravehicular activities (EVAs) ==
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|-
!Start Date/Time
!Duration
!End Time
!Spacecraft
!Crew
!Remarks
|-
|{{nowrap|15 January}} 18:04
|7 hours {{nowrap|29 minutes}}
|01:33
|{{nowrap| [[Expedition 61]] }}

[[Quest Joint Airlock|ISS ''Quest'']]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Christina Koch]]}}
{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Jessica Meir]]
|
During the 7-hour, 29-minute spacewalk, the two NASA astronauts successfully replaced nickel-hydrogen batteries with newer, more powerful lithium-ion batteries for the power channel on one pair of the station’s solar arrays.<ref>{{cite web |last=Garcia |first=Mark |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2020/01/15/astronauts-wrap-up-first-spacewalk-of-2020/ |title=Astronauts Wrap Up First Spacewalk of 2020 |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=15 January 2020 |access-date=25 June 2020}}</ref>
|-
|20 January 17:33
|6 hours {{nowrap|58 minutes}}
|00:31
|[[Expedition 61]]

[[Quest Joint Airlock|ISS ''Quest'']]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Christina Koch]]}}
{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Jessica Meir]]
|
During the six hour and 58-minute spacewalk, the two NASA astronauts successfully completed the battery upgrade for one channel on one pair of the station’s solar arrays.

Work included removing the last two nickel-hydrogen batteries from this area of the station’s backbone near the port solar array and moving them to an external platform. The batteries will be stored there until they can be disposed of in the next Japanese HTV cargo spacecraft after it delivers tons of supplies to the space station later this year. Meir and Koch also installed the sixth and final new lithium-ion battery, and ground controllers verified the new batteries powered up successfully to provide an improved and more efficient power capacity for station operations.<ref>{{cite web |last=Garcia |first=Mark |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2020/01/20/meir-koch-complete-battery-swaps-to-upgrade-station-power-systems/ |title=Meir, Koch Complete Battery Swaps to Upgrade Station Power Systems |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=20 January 2020 |access-date=25 June 2020}}</ref>
|-
|25 January 11:04
|6 hours {{nowrap|16 minutes}}
|17:20
|[[Expedition 61]]

[[Quest Joint Airlock|ISS ''Quest'']]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Andrew R. Morgan|Andrew Morgan]]}}
{{#invoke:flag|icon|Italy}} [[Luca Parmitano]]
|
During the 6 hour, 16 minute spacewalk, the two astronauts successfully completed leak checks for the cooling system on the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) and opened a valve to being pressurizing the system. Preliminary testing shows AMS is responding as expected.<ref>{{cite web |last=Garcia |first=Mark |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2020/01/25/astronauts-wrap-up-spacewalk-repair-job-on-cosmic-ray-detector/ |title=Astronauts Wrap Up Spacewalk Repair Job on Cosmic Ray Detector |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=25 January 2020 |access-date=25 June 2020}}</ref>
|-
|26 June 11:02
|6 hours {{nowrap|7 minutes}}
|17:39
|[[Expedition 63]]

[[Quest Joint Airlock|ISS ''Quest'']]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Chris Cassidy]]}}
{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Robert Behnken]]}}
|
The spacewalkers removed five of six aging nickel-hydrogen batteries for one of two power channels for the starboard 6 (S6) truss, installed two of three new lithium-ion batteries, and installed two of three associated adapter plates that are used to complete the power circuit to the new batteries. Mission control reports that the two new batteries are working.{{pb}}The two NASA astronauts completed all the work planned for this first of four spacewalks to replace batteries that provide power for the station’s solar arrays on the starboard truss of the complex as well as initial tasks originally planned for the second scheduled spacewalk next Wednesday. The new batteries provide an improved and more efficient power capacity for operations.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lewis |first=Marie |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2020/06/26/cassidy-and-behnken-conclude-spacewalk-to-replace-batteries/ |title=Cassidy and Behnken Conclude Spacewalk to Replace Batteries |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=26 June 2020 |access-date=7 August 2020}}{{PD-notice}}</ref>
|-
|1 July 11:13
|6 hours {{nowrap|1 minutes}}
|17:14
|[[Expedition 63]]

[[Quest Joint Airlock|ISS ''Quest'']]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Chris Cassidy]]}}
{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Robert Behnken]]}}
|
During the six hour and one-minute spacewalk, the two NASA astronauts completed half the work to upgrade the batteries that provide power for one channel on one pair of the station’s solar arrays. The new batteries provide an improved and more efficient power capacity for operations.

They successfully moved and connected one new, powerful lithium-ion battery and its adapter place to complete the circuit to the new battery and relocated one aging nickel-hydrogen battery to an external platform for future disposal.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cawley |first=James |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2020/07/01/nasa-astronauts-wrap-up-battery-spacewalk/ |title=Cassidy and Behnken Wrap up Battery Spacewalk |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=1 July 2020 |access-date=7 August 2020}}{{PD-notice}}</ref>
|-
|16 July 11:10
|6 hours
|17:10
|[[Expedition 63]]

[[Quest Joint Airlock|ISS ''Quest'']]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Chris Cassidy]]}}
{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Robert Behnken]]}}
|
The two NASA astronauts completed all the work to replace batteries that provide power for the International Space Station’s solar arrays on the starboard truss of the complex. The new batteries provide an improved and more efficient power capacity for operations.

The spacewalkers removed six aging nickel-hydrogen batteries for the second of two power channels for the starboard 6 (S6) truss, installed three new lithium-ion batteries, and installed the three associated adapter plates that are used to complete the power circuit to the new batteries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sempsrott |first=Danielle |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2020/07/16/nasa-astronauts-conclude-todays-spacewalk/ |title=NASA Astronauts Conclude Today's Spacewalk |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=16 July 2020 |access-date=7 August 2020}}</ref>
|-
|21 July 11:12
|5 hours {{nowrap|29 minutes}}
|16:41
|[[Expedition 63]]

[[Quest Joint Airlock|ISS ''Quest'']]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Chris Cassidy]]}}
{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|USA}} [[Robert Behnken]]}}
|
The two NASA astronauts installed a protective storage unit that includes two Robotic External Leak Locator (RELL) units the Canadian Space Agency’s Dextre robot can use to detect leaks of ammonia, which is used to operate the station’s cooling system. They removed two lifting fixtures at the base of station solar arrays on the near port truss, or backbone, of the station. The "H-fixtures" were used for ground processing of the solar arrays prior to their launch.

They then completed tasks to prepare the outside of the Tranquility module for the arrival later this year of the Nanoracks commercial airlock on a SpaceX cargo delivery mission. They also routed ethernet cables and removed a lens filter cover from an external camera.<ref>{{cite web |last=Heiney |first=Anna |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/2020/07/21/behnken-and-cassidy-conclude-ten-spacewalks-each/ |title=NASA Behnken and Cassidy Conclude Ten Spacewalks Each |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=21 July 2020 |access-date=7 August 2020}}</ref>
|-
|18 November 15:12
|6 hours {{nowrap|48 minutes}}
|22:00
|[[Expedition 64]]

[[Poisk_(ISS_module)|Poisk Airlock]]
|{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|Russia}} [[Sergey_Ryzhikov_(cosmonaut)|Sergey Ryzhikov]]}}
{{nowrap|{{#invoke:flag|icon|Russia}} [[Sergey Kud-Sverchkov]]}}
|
Spacewalk was conducted using [[Poisk_(ISS_module)|Poisk Module]] airlock for the first time in 11 years.

This spacewalk includes works in preparation of Pirs module decommissioning and departure: relocated antenna and repositioned instruments Replacement of fluid flow regulator was not done as astronauts were unable to open new module compartment, this task was deferred to a future spacewalk.<ref>{{cite web |last=Garcia |first=Mark |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/spacestation/2020/11/18/cosmonauts-wrap-up-spacewalk-at-station/ |title=Cosmonauts Wrap Up Spacewalk at Station |publisher=[[NASA]] |date=18 November 2020 |access-date=19 November 2020}}</ref>
|-
|} 

== Orbital launch statistics ==
{{See also|Timeline of spaceflight}}

=== By country ===
For the purposes of this section, the yearly tally of orbital launches by country assigns each flight to the country of origin of the rocket, not to the launch services provider or the spaceport. For example, [[Soyuz at the Guiana Space Centre|Soyuz launches by Arianespace in Kourou]] are counted under Russia because [[Soyuz-2]] is a Russian rocket. Launches from the Moon are not included in the statistics.
<div style="float:left; padding-top:50px; padding-right:20px;">
{{#invoke:Chart|pie chart
| radius = 100
| slices =
( 39 : China : red )
( 5 : Europe : navy )
( 2 : India : darkorange )
( 2 : Iran : darkgreen )
( 1 : Israel : teal )
( 4 : Japan : white )
( 0 : North Korea : crimson )
( 17 : Russia : brown )
( 0 : Ukraine : yellow )
( 44 : USA : blue )
| units suffix =
| hide group legends = true
}}
</div>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan=2 | Country
! Launches
! Successes
! Failures
! Partial failures
! Remarks
|-
| style="background:red;" | || align=left | {{CHN}} || 39 || 35 || 4 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:navy;" | || align=left | {{EUR}} || 5 || 4 || 1 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:darkorange;" | || align=left | {{IND}} || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:darkgreen;" | || align=left | {{IRN}} || 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:teal;" | || align=left | {{ISR}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:white;" | || align=left | {{JPN}} || 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:brown;" | || align=left | {{RUS}} || 17 || 17 || 0 || 0 || align=left | Includes two [[Soyuz at the Guiana Space Centre|Soyuz launches from Kourou]]
|-
|style="background:blue;" | || nowrap align=left | {{USA}} || 44 || 40 || 4 || 0 || align=left | Includes seven [[Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1|Electron launches from Mahia]]
|- class="sortbottom"
! colspan=2 | World || 114 || 104 || 10 || 0 || align=left |
|}
{{clear}}

=== By rocket ===

{{ #invoke:Chart | bar chart
| float = center
| width = 990
| height = 440
| stack = 1
| group 1 = 2:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 2 = 0: 3:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 3 = 0:0: 5:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 4 = 0:0:0: 7:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 5 = 0:0:0:0: 5:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 6 = 0:0:0:0:20:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 7 = 0:0:0:0: 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 8 = 0:0:0:0:0: 3:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 9 = 0:0:0:0:0: 1:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 10 = 0:0:0:0:0:0: 3:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 11 = 0:0:0:0:0:0: 1:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 12 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:11:0:0:0:0 
| group 13 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 8:0:0:0:0 
| group 14 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 6:0:0:0:0 
| group 15 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 3:0:0:0:0 
| group 16 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 1:0:0:0:0 
| group 17 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 1:0:0:0:0 
| group 18 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 1:0:0:0:0 
| group 19 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 3:0:0:0:0 
| group 20 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:13:0:0:0 
| group 21 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 2:0:0:0 
| group 22 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 2:0:0 
| group 23 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 2:0 
| group 24 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:11 

| colors = DarkTurquoise : MediumBlue : Goldenrod : Black : Teal : LightSeaGreen : DarkGreen : Olive : DarkKhaki : HotPink : MediumVioletRed : FireBrick : IndianRed : Salmon : Sienna : Tomato : PaleVioletRed : Pink : Crimson : Chocolate : CornflowerBlue : Gold : SkyBlue : LightGrey
| group names = [[Antares (rocket)#Antares 200 series|Antares 230+]] : [[Ariane 5]] : [[Atlas V]] : [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]] : [[Falcon 9]] new : Falcon 9 reused : [[Falcon Heavy]] : [[H-IIA]] : [[H-IIB]] : [[Kuaizhou#Models|Kuaizhou 1A]] : [[Kuaizhou#Models|Kuaizhou 11]] : [[Long March 2]] : [[Long March (rocket family)#Variants|Long March 3]] : [[Long March (rocket family)#Variants|Long March 4]] : [[Long March 5]] : [[Long March 6]] : [[Long March 7]] : [[Long March 8]] : [[Long March 11]] : [[Soyuz-2]] (Russia) : [[Soyuz-2|Soyuz-ST]] (Europe) : [[Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle|PSLV]] : [[Vega (rocket)|Vega]] : [[Comparison of orbital launch systems|Others]]
| x legends = [[Antares (rocket)|Antares]] : [[Ariane (rocket family)|Ariane]] : [[Atlas (rocket family)|Atlas]] : [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]] : [[Falcon (rocket family)|Falcon]] : [[H-II (rocket family)|H-II]] : [[Kuaizhou]] : [[Long March (rocket family)|Long March]] : [[R-7 (rocket family)|R-7]] : [[Indian Space Research Organisation#Launch vehicles|SLV]] : [[Vega (rocket)|Vega]] : [[Comparison of orbital launch systems|Others]]
| units suffix = _launches
}}

==== By family ====
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style=text-align:center
|-
! Family
! Country
! Launches
! Successes
! Failures
! Partial failures
! Remarks
|-
|align=left| [[Angara (rocket family)|Angara]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Antares (rocket)|Antares]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Ariane (rocket family)|Ariane]] ||align=left| {{EUR}} || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Rockets by Astra|Astra]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 2 || 0 || 2 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Atlas (rocket family)|Atlas]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 5 || 5 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Galactic Energy|Ceres]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Delta (rocket family)|Delta]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 7 || 6 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Falcon (rocket family)|Falcon]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 25 || 25 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[H-II (rocket family)|H-II]] ||align=left| {{JPN}} || 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Kuaizhou]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} || 4 || 2 || 2 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[LauncherOne]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Long March (rocket family)|Long March]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} || 34 || 32 || 2 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Minotaur (rocket family)|Minotaur]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[R-7 (rocket family)|R-7]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} || 15 || 15 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Safir (rocket)|Safir]] ||align=left| {{IRN}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Indian Space Research Organisation#Launch vehicle fleet|SLV]] ||align=left| {{IND}} || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Shavit]] ||align=left| {{ISR}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Simorgh (rocket)|Simorgh]] ||align=left| {{IRN}} || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Universal Rocket]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Vega (rocket)|Vega]] ||align=left| {{EUR}} || 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 ||
|}

==== By type ====
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style=text-align:center
|-
! Rocket
! Country
! Family
! Launches
! Successes
! Failures
! Partial failures
! Remarks
|-
|align=left| [[Angara (rocket family)|Angara]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} ||align=left| Angara || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Antares (rocket)#Antares 200 series|Antares 200]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Antares || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Ariane 5]] ||align=left| {{flag|Europe}} ||align=left| Ariane || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Atlas V]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Atlas || 5 || 5 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Galactic Energy|Ceres-1]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Ceres || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Delta IV]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Delta || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Electron || 7 || 6 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Falcon 9]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Falcon || 25 || 25 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[H-IIA]] ||align=left| {{JPN}} ||align=left| H-II || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[H-IIB]] ||align=left| {{JPN}} ||align=left| H-II || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||align=left| Final flight
|-
|align=left| [[Kuaizhou]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Kuaizhou || 4 || 2 || 2 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[LauncherOne]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| LauncherOne || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 2]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March || 11 || 11 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March (rocket family)#Variants|Long March 3]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March || 8 || 7 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March (rocket family)#Variants|Long March 4]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March || 6 || 6 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 5]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 6]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 7]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 8]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 11]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Minotaur IV]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Minotaur || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle|PSLV]] ||align=left| {{IND}} ||align=left| SLV || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} ||align=left| Universal Rocket || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Qased (rocket)|Qased]] ||align=left| {{IRN}} ||align=left| Safir || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Rockets by Astra#Rocket 3|Rocket 3]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Astra || 2 || 0 || 2 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Shavit]] ||align=left| {{ISR}} ||align=left| Shavit || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Simorgh (rocket)|Simorgh]] ||align=left| {{IRN}} ||align=left| Simorgh || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Soyuz-2]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} ||align=left| R-7 || 15 || 15 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Vega (rocket)|Vega]] ||align=left| {{flag|Europe}} ||align=left| Vega || 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 ||
|}

==== By configuration ====
{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible collapsed" style=text-align:center
|-
! Rocket
! Country
! Type
! Launches
! Successes
! Failures
! Partial failures
! Remarks
|-
|align=left| [[Angara (rocket family)#Angara A5|Angara A5]] / [[Briz (rocket stage)#Briz-M|Briz-M]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} ||align=left| Angara || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Antares (rocket)#Antares 200 series|Antares 230+]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Antares || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Ariane 5#Variants|Ariane 5 ECA]] ||align=left| {{flag|Europe}} ||align=left| Ariane 5 || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Atlas V#Versions|Atlas V 411]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Atlas V || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Atlas V#Versions|Atlas V 501]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Atlas V || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Atlas V#Versions|Atlas V 531]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Atlas V || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Atlas V#Versions|Atlas V 541]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Atlas V || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Atlas V#Versions|Atlas V 551]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Atlas V || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Delta IV Heavy]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Delta IV || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Galactic Energy|Ceres-1]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Ceres-1 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Electron (rocket)|Electron]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Electron || 7 || 6 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Falcon 9 Block 5]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Falcon 9 || 25 || 25 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[H-IIA#Variants|H-IIA 202]] ||align=left| {{JPN}} ||align=left| H-IIA || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[H-IIB]] ||align=left| {{JPN}} ||align=left| H-IIB || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||align=left| Final flight
|-
|align=left| [[Kuaizhou#Models|Kuaizhou 1A]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Kuaizhou || 3 || 2 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Kuaizhou#Models|Kuaizhou 11]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Kuaizhou || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[LauncherOne]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| LauncherOne || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 2C]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 2 || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 2D]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 2 || 7 || 7 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 2F]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 3B#Long March 3B/E|Long March 3B/E]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 3 || 8 || 7 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 4B]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 4 || 5 || 5 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 4C]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 4 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 5]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 5 || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 5|Long March 5B]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 5 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 6]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 6 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 7#CZ-7A variant|Long March 7A]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 7 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 8]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 8 || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Long March 11]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} ||align=left| Long March 11 || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Minotaur IV]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Minotaur IV || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Proton-M]] / [[Briz (rocket stage)#Briz-M|Briz-M]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} ||align=left| Proton || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle#PSLV-XL|PSLV-XL]] ||align=left| {{IND}} ||align=left| PSLV || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle#PSLV-DL|PSLV-DL]] ||align=left| {{IND}} ||align=left| PSLV || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Qased (rocket)|Qased]] ||align=left| {{IRN}} ||align=left| Qased || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Rockets by Astra#Rocket 3|Rocket 3]] ||align=left| {{USA}} ||align=left| Rocket 3 || 2 || 0 || 2 || 0 ||align=left| Maiden flight
|-
|align=left| [[Shavit]] ||align=left| {{ISR}} ||align=left| Shavit || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Simorgh (rocket)|Simorgh]] ||align=left| {{IRN}} ||align=left| Simorgh || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Soyuz-2#Soyuz-2.1a|Soyuz-2.1a]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} ||align=left| Soyuz-2 || 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Soyuz-2#Soyuz-2.1a|Soyuz-2.1a]] / [[Fregat#Fregat-M/Fregat-MT|Fregat-M]] or ST-A ||align=left| {{RUS}} ||align=left| Soyuz-2 || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Soyuz-2#Soyuz-2.1b|Soyuz-2.1b]] / [[Fregat#Fregat-M/Fregat-MT|Fregat-M]] or ST-B ||align=left| {{RUS}} ||align=left| Soyuz-2 || 8 || 8 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Vega (rocket)|Vega]] ||align=left| {{flag|Europe}} ||align=left| Vega || 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|}

=== By spaceport ===
{{ #invoke:Chart | bar chart
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| width = 990
| height = 440
| stack = 1
| group 1 = 13:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 2 = 7:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 3 = 5:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 4 = 13:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 5 = 1:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 6 = 0: 7:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 7 = 0:0: 2:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 8 = 0:0:0: 1:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 9 = 0:0:0: 1:0:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 10 = 0:0:0:0: 1:0:0:0:0:0 
| group 11 = 0:0:0:0:0: 4:0:0:0:0 
| group 12 = 0:0:0:0:0:0: 7:0:0:0 
| group 13 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 7:0:0 
| group 14 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 7:0 
| group 15 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 1:0 
| group 16 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:20 
| group 17 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:10 
| group 18 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 3 
| group 19 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 1 
| group 20 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 2 
| group 21 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 1 
| group 22 = 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0:0: 0 

| colors = FireBrick : Crimson : IndianRed : LightCoral : Wheat : MediumBlue : Orange : ForestGreen : LightGreen : Teal : MediumPurple : LightSeaGreen : Black : SteelBlue : LightSteelBlue : Blue : DodgerBlue : DeepSkyBlue : MediumSlateBlue : Indigo : SkyBlue : White
| group names = [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] : [[Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center|Taiyuan]] : [[Wenchang Spacecraft Launch Site|Wenchang]] : [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] : [[Yellow Sea]] : [[Guiana Space Centre|Kourou]] : [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre|Satish Dhawan]] : [[Semnan Space Center|Semnan]] : [[Shahrud, Iran|Shahrud]] : [[Palmachim Airbase|Palmachim]] : [[Tanegashima Space Center|Tanegashima]] : [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] : [[Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1|Mahia]] : [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] : [[Vostochny Cosmodrome|Vostochny]] : [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] : [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] : [[Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport|MARS]] : [[Mojave Air and Space Port|Mojave]] : [[Pacific Spaceport Complex – Alaska|PSCA]] : [[Vandenberg Air Force Base|Vandenberg]] :
| x legends = China : France : India : Iran : Israel : Japan : Kazakhstan : New Zealand : Russia : United States
| units suffix = _launches
}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:center
|-
! Site
! Country
! Launches
! Successes
! Failures
! Partial failures
! Remarks
|-
|align=left| [[Baikonur Cosmodrome|Baikonur]] ||align=left| {{KAZ}} || 7 || 7 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station|Cape Canaveral]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 20 || 20 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center|Jiuquan]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} || 13 || 11 || 2 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 10 || 10 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Guiana Space Centre|Kourou]] ||align=left| {{FRA}} || 7 || 6 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Rocket Lab Launch Complex 1|Mahia]] ||align=left| {{NZL}} || 7 || 6 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport|MARS]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Mojave Air and Space Port|Mojave]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Pacific Spaceport Complex - Alaska|PSCA]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 2 || 0 || 2 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Palmachim Airbase|Palmachim]] ||align=left| {{ISR}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Plesetsk Cosmodrome|Plesetsk]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} || 7 || 7 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre|Satish Dhawan]] ||align=left| {{IND}} || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Shahrud, Iran|Shahrud]] ||align=left| {{IRN}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||align=left| First orbital launch
|-
|align=left| [[Semnan spaceport|Semnan]] ||align=left| {{IRN}} || 1 || 0 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center|Taiyuan]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} || 7 || 7 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Tanegashima Space Center|Tanegashima]] ||align=left| {{JPN}} || 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Vandenberg Air Force Base|Vandenberg]] ||align=left| {{USA}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Vostochny Cosmodrome|Vostochny]] ||align=left| {{RUS}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Wenchang Satellite Launch Center|Wenchang]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} || 5 || 4 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Xichang Satellite Launch Center|Xichang]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} || 13 || 12 || 1 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Yellow Sea]] ||align=left| {{CHN}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|- class="sortbottom"
! colspan=2 | Total || 114 || 104 || 10 || 0 ||
|}

=== By orbit ===
{{ #invoke:Chart | bar chart
| float = center
| width = 890
| height = 440
| stack = 1
| group 1 = 30:0:0:0:0 
| group 2 = 11:0:0:0:0 
| group 3 = 32:0:0:0:0 
| group 4 = 1:0:0:0:0 
| group 5 = 0: 5:0:0:0 
| group 6 = 0: 3:0:0:0 
| group 7 = 0:0:17:0:0 
| group 8 = 0:0:0: 1:0 
| group 9 = 0:0:0:0: 4 
| group 10 = 0:0:0:0: 0 

| colors = Navy : MediumBlue : RoyalBlue : DodgerBlue : LightSeaGreen : SkyBlue : SaddleBrown : DarkGray : Gold : White
| group names = Low Earth : Low Earth (ISS) : Low Earth (SSO) : Low Earth (retrograde) : Medium Earth : Molniya : Geosychronous : Lunar transfer : Heliocentric :
| x legends = [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]] : [[Medium Earth orbit|Medium Earth]] / [[Molniya orbit|Molniya]] : [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]] / [[Geosynchronous transfer orbit|transfer]] : [[High Earth orbit|High Earth]] / [[Lunar transfer orbit|Lunar transfer]] : [[Heliocentric orbit|Heliocentric]]
| units suffix = _launches
}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:center
|-
! Orbital regime
! Launches
! Achieved
! Not achieved
! Accidentally achieved
! Remarks
|-
|align=left| Transatmospheric || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Low Earth orbit|Low Earth]] / [[Sun-synchronous orbit|Sun-synchronous]] || 82 || 74 || 8 || 0 ||align=left| Including flights to the [[International Space Station|ISS]]
|-
|align=left| [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous]] / [[Geosynchronous transfer orbit|GTO]] || 19 || 17 || 2 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Medium Earth orbit|Medium Earth]] / [[Molniya orbit|Molniya]] || 8 || 8 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[High Earth orbit|High Earth]] / [[Trans-lunar injection|Lunar transfer]] || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 ||
|-
|align=left| [[Heliocentric orbit]] / [[Hohmann transfer orbit|Planetary transfer]] || 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 ||
|- class="sortbottom"
! Total || 114 || 104 || 10 || 0 ||
|}

== Suborbital launch statistics ==

=== By country ===
For the purposes of this section, the yearly tally of suborbital launches by country assigns each flight to the country of origin of the rocket, not to the launch services provider or the spaceport. Flights intended to fly below 80km (50 mi) are omitted.
<div style="float:left; padding-top:50px; padding-right:20px;">
{{#invoke:Chart|pie chart
| radius = 100
| slices =
( 3 : Canada : #FE6F5E )
( 1 : France : #9966CC )
( 2 : India : darkorange )
( 1 : Israel : teal )
( 2 : Japan : white )
( 2 : The Netherlands : #91A3B0 )
( 8 : Russia : brown )
( 1 : Turkey : #7C3030 )
( 11 : USA : blue )
| units suffix =
| hide group legends = true
}}
</div>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! colspan=2 | Country
! Launches
! Successes
! Failures
! Partial failures
! Remarks
|-
| style="background:#FE6F5E;" | || align=left | {{CAN}} || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:#9966CC;" | || align=left | {{FRA}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:darkorange;" | || align=left | {{IND}} || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:teal;" | || align=left | {{ISR}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:white;" | || align=left | {{JPN}} || 2 || 1 || 1 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:#91A3B0;" | || align=left | {{NLD}} || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 || align=left | Includes T-Minus Dart launches from Australia
|-
| style="background:brown;" | || align=left | {{RUS}} || 8 || 8 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
| style="background:#7C3030;" | || align=left | {{TUR}} || 1 || 1 || 0 || 0 || align=left |
|-
|style="background:blue;" | || nowrap align=left | {{USA}} || 11 || 11 || 0 || 0 || align=left | 
|- class="sortbottom"
! colspan=2 | World || 31 || 30 || 1 || 0 || align=left |
|}
{{clear}}

== First successful orbital launch ==
* [[Galactic Energy|Ceres-1]]
* [[Long March 5|Long March 5B]]
* [[Long March 8]]
* [[Qased (rocket)|Qased]]


== See also ==
* [[Timeline of Solar System exploration#2020s]]
* [[2020 SO]], a near-Earth object orbiting Earth and Sun that was confirmed to be a [[space debris|remnant]] of [[1966 in spaceflight]] in December<ref>{{cite news |last1=Talbert |first1=Tricia |title=New Data Confirm 2020 SO to be 1960s Upper Centaur Rocket Booster |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/new-data-confirm-2020-so-to-be-the-upper-centaur-rocket-booster-from-the-1960-s |access-date=16 January 2021 |work=NASA |date=2 December 2020}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=cz2>{{cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/cz-2.htm|title=CZ-2 (Chang Zheng-2)|work=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|access-date=4 September 2020}}</ref>
<ref name=cz3>{{cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/cz-3.htm|title=CZ-3 (Chang Zheng-3)|work=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|access-date=8 July 2020}}</ref>
<ref name=cz5>{{cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/cz-5.htm|title=CZ-5 (Chang Zheng-5)|work=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|access-date=5 May 2020}}</ref>
<ref name=cz8>{{cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/cz-8.htm|title=CZ-8 (Chang Zheng-8)|work=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|access-date=25 July 2018}}</ref>
<ref name=pslv>{{cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/pslv.htm|title=PSLV|work=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|access-date=1 November 2019}}</ref>
<ref name=gunter-atlas5>{{cite web|url=https://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/atlas-5.htm|title=Atlas-5|work=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|access-date=24 May 2020}}</ref>
<ref name=gunter-h2a>{{cite web|url=http://space.skyrocket.de/doc_lau/h-2a.htm|title=H-2A|work=Gunter's Space Page|first=Gunter|last=Krebs|access-date=4 August 2017}}</ref>
<ref name="rsw-2020">{{cite web|last=Zak|first=Anatoly|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/2020.html|title=Space exploration in 2020: Planned Russian orbital launch attempts|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb|date=10 June 2020|access-date=10 June 2020}}</ref>

<ref name=sfn-log>{{cite web|url=https://spaceflightnow.com/launch-log/|title=Launch Log|publisher=Spaceflight Now|last=Clark|first=Stephen|date=15 December 2020|access-date=16 December 2020}}</ref>
<ref name="Upcoming-ELaNa">{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/content/upcoming-elana-cubesat-launches|title=Upcoming ELaNa CubeSat Launches|publisher=NASA|date=10 August 2020|access-date=10 August 2020}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>


}}

== External links ==
{{TLS-R}}

{{TLS-L|year=2020|nav=on}}
{{Orbital launches in 2020}}
{{2020 in space}}
{{Portal bar|Spaceflight}}

[[Category:2020 in spaceflight| ]]
[[Category:Spaceflight by year]]
[[Category:2020-related lists]]
[[Category:2020-related timelines]]

Talk:SpaceX Starship

2021-04-20T12:32:50Z

Denvercoder9: /* Dry mass of stages */

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{{Old moves|* [[Starship (rocket and spacecraft)]] → [[Starship (spacecraft)]], '''No consensus''', 17 August 2019 ([[Talk:SpaceX_Starship/Archive_1#Requested move 12 August 2019|Discussion]])
* [[Starship (rocket and spacecraft)]] → [[SpaceX Starship]], '''Moved''', 30 August 2019 ([[Talk:SpaceX_Starship/Archive_1#Requested move 28 August 2019|Discussion]])
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== Starship main photograph. ==

The current photo is from SpaceX's Flickr, and not allowed on Wikipedia. Similarly, most other photos I find are also under copyright. If someone could find a good photo of SN8's flight without copyright restrictions, that would be great.

Should we try reaching out to SpaceX or another launch photographer for a photo to use? [[User:N828335|N828335]] ([[User talk:N828335|talk]]) 04:21, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

:Good idea. I know there are all kinds of people who took shots on Twitter, including a couple residents of Boca Chica who still do photographs and such for private companies/enterprises. Of those, the most prominent that I can remember is @BocaChicaGal on Twitter--I know that in addition to her taking a live video of the full six-minute-plus hop, she also got a load of good photos onto her Twitter. Maybe reach out to her? [[User:XFalcon2004x|XFalcon2004x]] ([[User talk:XFalcon2004x|talk]]) 14:10, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

::Sounds good. I will contact her first (using [[Wikipedia:Example requests for permission]]), and if not I have several other people I could try. For the time being, I replaced the main photo with one of SN5's hop, which has no issues. [[User:N828335|N828335]] ([[User talk:N828335|talk]]) 16:56, 17 December 2020 (UTC)

:I've uploaded my photo of the SN8 launch; it's not a great photo, but it's more representative of the final Starship design than the current SN5 image. I'll leave it to others to decide whether or not the current SN5 image should be replaced with this. [[File:SpaceX Starship SN8 launch as viewed from South Padre Island.jpg|thumb|SpaceX Starship SN8 launch as viewed from South Padre Island]] [[User:Forest Katsch|Forest Katsch]] ([[User talk:Forest Katsch|talk]]) 02:33, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

:: Thanks so much, several articles needed this. I never was able to reach out to a launch photographer for SN8, but I plan on doing so for SN9.[[User:N828335|N828335]] ([[User talk:N828335|talk]]) 05:19, 24 December 2020 (UTC)
::: This is a great photo. When it is eventually replaced in the lead, I would love to see it moved to the [[SpaceX_Starship#Suborbital_flight_testing|Suborbital flight testing]] section. [[User:Jared.h.wood|JaredHWood]][[User talk:Jared.h.wood|💬]] 20:42, 24 January 2021 (UTC)

== Sometimes, "Superheavy" is spelled as one word by SpaceX ==

FWIW, SpaceX is sometimes spelling Superheavy as a single word, unlike the earliest mentions of the name when it seemed always to be "Super Heavy". One example is [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rV1SoOpe63U here, at 14:40 in the video], on the signage at the Boca Chica launch site, where it is written on signage: "'''Starship Superheavy Orbital Launch Pad'''".

I'm not suggesting we should change the article text at this time; but SpaceX names have a way of evolving by the company, and of course [[WP:COMMONNAME|emerging]] in the spaceflight media and vernacular usage. So, just something to be aware of and watch. Cheers. [[User:N2e|N2e]] ([[User talk:N2e|talk]]) 14:17, 24 January 2021 (UTC)
:I just checked [https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship the SpaceX website] and it is spelled '''Super Heavy''' there. I also checked the article and it is correct in every instance including proper capitalization. [[User:Jared.h.wood|JaredHWood]][[User talk:Jared.h.wood|💬]] 20:27, 24 January 2021 (UTC)

::Exactly, it has been spelled as two separate words in most cases for the last couple of years. I just pointed out we have one instance of the other use. Changes in these things take time, and this section is just to capture instances of the other spelling if/when we see them. Def not suggesting any change, as I said. But the way names are fluid at SpaceX with Muskian naming conventions (BFR became Mars Colonial Transporter became Interplanetary Transport System became BFR became Starship/Super Heavy but is also referred to (by SpaceX) as the Starship system), it won't be surprising to this observer if, over the next couple of years, we see SpaceX simplify spelling of ''Super Heavy'' to ''Superheavy''. Examples abound of such changes when word or concept usage increases; for example in the cryptocurrency domain, the terminology "a hash of a block of items to be timestamped ..., forming a chain" stated in a cryptography research paper in 2008, was frequently referred to as a "block chain" (two words) for the first several years as the concept got built into technology that was in actual use, but by 2015 was widely spelled [[blockchain]], and "blockchain" is the only way you find the word used today. With it being SpaceX usage that will heavily matter, such a change could certainly come much faster in this instance. [[User:N2e|N2e]] ([[User talk:N2e|talk]]) 12:11, 25 January 2021 (UTC)

:::Starting to collect instances seen reading the news: [https://techstory.in/spacex-changes-two-raptor-engines-of-the-sn9-starship/], 17 Jan 2021. "... paired with the Superheavy rocket"

== Reorganizing ''Prototypes and testing'' section ==

I recently renamed the ''Prototypes'' section ''Prototypes and testing'' and have been adding content there. I want to layout my ideas for what I'd like to do next and get feedback and suggestions before going any further.

'''Previous section layout:'''
{{tq2|
*'''Prototypes''' — starhopper, mk1, mk2, raptors, autogenious pressure, F9 vs Starship, termal protection, reentry
**'''Starhopper''' — description of starhopper and build history
**'''Low-altitude prototypes''' — history of MK1, MK2, SN1-6 accomplishments
**'''High-altitude prototypes''' — SN8 accomplishments, mention of SN9-18
**'''Testing''' — Starhopper test benchmarks, list of SN5-9 test benchmarks
**'''Suborbital test flights''' — Link to [[List of Starship flights]]
}}

My goal is to transition the content in this section away from anything that looks like a history of prototypes and testing processes. We would keep the link to [[Starship_development_history#Prototypes_and_testing]] to preserve that. The subsections would instead focus on descriptions and purpose of each prototype and test type.

'''Proposed section layout:'''
{{tq2|
*'''Prototypes and testing''' — SpaceX design and testing philosophy (build, test, fly, fix, test, fly...)
**'''Pad only prototypes''' — description and accomplishments of MK1/MK2, SN1-5
**'''Low-altitude prototypes''' — description and accomplishments of starhopper, SN5-6
**'''High-altitude prototypes''' — description and accomplishments of SN8-10, Super Heavy
**'''Orbital prototypes''' — currently known information about SN15+
**'''Pad Testing''' — description and purpose of ambient, cryo & static fire
**'''Suborbital flight testing''' — description and purpose of launch, ascent, descent, landing
**'''Orbital flight testing''' — description and purpose of stable orbit, reentry orbital refueling
}}

This is the basic outline, please let me know if you support these proposed changes. Also speak up if you are opposed to anything you see here. If you see problems with it, or see something I forgot please offer that up. For example, if you believe that Starhopper just needs its own section please speak up, I'm iffy on that and your preference would tip me in that direction. Thanks. [[User:Jared.h.wood|JaredHWood]][[User talk:Jared.h.wood|💬]] 23:19, 24 January 2021 (UTC)

:Thank you for trying to fix this. I agree that the section as of now is quite confusing. I like your proposal, but since we are talking about the prototypes and the testing procedures separately, why not split the section in two? Something like "Prototypes" and "Testing procedures". --[[User:Ita140188|Ita140188]] ([[User talk:Ita140188|talk]]) 10:49, 25 January 2021 (UTC)

:::As an editor who lived through the previous multi-week discussion in 2019 that led to the (unfortunate, in my view) merge of the article ''[[Starship (rocket)]]'' (an obviously notable rocket on its own, totally separate from the eventual two-stage launch stack that SpaceX would build a couple years in the future), with all the material on the MCT/ITS/BFR/Starship-Super Heavy stack, into a single article on the stack; while hiving the development history off into a different second article called [[Starship development history]], I'll just offer this perspective. Starship has a very high level of interest, by both the general public and by rocket and spaceflight ''aficianados''. We should thus expect editors to continue to frequently come to this article and endeavor to add detail of many many quite notable events in the iterative development lives of all of this related technology to ''this'' article; all of which will continue to make this article a bit of a mess. I think this article, as (now) the main article for the two-stage orbital [[launch vehicle]], the Starship system, is definitely the wrong article for the massive detail of the prototypes and testing of Starship as you are proposing.

:::Starship as just the-upper-stage of the Starship system is "''the''" ''upper stage'' that is heading toward perhaps becoming the most notable upper stage ever built. The 50-meter Starship upper stage has 2+ yrs of history on its own, with many hundreds of media articles published about it, its (many) future uses, and its current development&testing; details are gonna proliferate. Much of that is of interest, and Wikipedia can certainly have more detail on just about anything, as long as the article is [[WP:GNG|notable]] and [[WP:V|verifiable]]. Heck, the Starship second stage is already likely the most notable second stage since the two Saturn rocket upper stages, and they both have articles on them as individual stages: [[S-II]], and [[S-IVB]]. I just don't believe all that detail you are thinking about fits in ''this'' article, the main article on the Starship system. But that's not to say such detail, well-written and well-sourced, would not fit elsewhere in the large [[emergence|emerging]] Wikipedia. [[User:N2e|N2e]] ([[User talk:N2e|talk]]) 14:10, 25 January 2021 (UTC)

Thank you {{u|Ita140188}} and {{u|N2e}} great points. After reading this I went over and took a look at the [[Space Shuttle]] article and its layout. What if we did something similar the Design and Development section over there. Here is another proposal based on that:
{{tq2|
*'''Design and Development'''
**'''History''' — Move the current '''History''' section here
**'''Design Process''' — SpaceX design and testing philosophy (build, test, fly, fix, test, fly...) differences from other launch providers, factory around the rocket, etc.
**'''Development''' — all the prototype stuff goes in several paragraphs here
**'''Testing''' — all the testing stuff goes here
}}
With this outline, any section that gets too large could be expanded to it's own article at some point in the future. [[User:Jared.h.wood|JaredHWood]][[User talk:Jared.h.wood|💬]] 16:05, 25 January 2021 (UTC)

:I feel that this sectioning is not very intuitive. For example, I would think that ''Development'' and ''Testing'' should be part of ''History''. Maybe better have something like this:
{{tq2|
*'''Design and Development'''
**'''Early concepts''' — Move the beginning of the current '''History''' section here
**'''Design process''' — SpaceX design and testing philosophy (build, test, fly, fix, test, fly...) differences from other launch providers, factory around the rocket, etc.
**'''Development''' — all the prototype stuff goes in several paragraphs here, together with parts of current '''History''' section
**'''Testing''' — all the testing stuff goes here
}}
:But I still think that it would be best to keep the current structure and have a History section separated from the development. The History section should be a summary without all the details of the development process. --[[User:Ita140188|Ita140188]] ([[User talk:Ita140188|talk]]) 02:36, 27 January 2021 (UTC)
::I think that {{ping|N2e}}'s recent change where he created a specific section for '''Starship upper stage''' is a very good direction to go for this article. That will easily become it's own article in the not to distant future. I am going to let this proposal rest for a while and just focus on making small changes to the '''Protoypes and Testing''' section to make it more about <big><big>"Starship"</big></big> and less about "all the starships". [[User:Jared.h.wood|JaredHWood]][[User talk:Jared.h.wood|💬]] 19:23, 29 January 2021 (UTC)
:::{{ping|N828335}} I saw your revert of the flight table. No worries on my part. Take a look and see if you approve of the way I combined the testing section after your revert. [[User:Jared.h.wood|JaredHWood]][[User talk:Jared.h.wood|💬]] 00:31, 30 January 2021 (UTC)
::::Looks good now, thanks. Also note that I think the flight list, [[Template:Starship flights/suborbital]], contains too many details, and will work soon on migrating a lot of that information into the [[Starship development history]] article. (A lot of the info there isn't even about the flight, but the pre-flight activites) [[User:N828335|N828335]] ([[User talk:N828335|talk]]) 00:55, 30 January 2021 (UTC)
:::::This may not be the best place for it, but since the topic has been broached here, and because at present, the [[:Template:Starship flights/suborbital]] is used in ''this'' article, I will respond to the comment. I think [[User:N828335|N828335]]'s post about drastically reducing the amount of detail in the table template, and leaving the main detail in the [[Starship development history]] article, is a '''very''' good idea. I wholeheartedly support a reduction of the info overloading that has developed in that table.
:::::Moreover, it is possible that with a major reduction of detail in that template, then the table of prototype test flights might continue to fit, and therefore be included, in ''this'' article. But that may be a whole separate discussion, so I'll not cloud this discussion section further at this point. [[User:N2e|N2e]] ([[User talk:N2e|talk]]) 21:31, 30 January 2021 (UTC)
::::::Good, I have already started moving details and merging them into [[Starship development history]]. I added a notice on the template as well, to warn other editors. [[User:N828335|N828335]] ([[User talk:N828335|talk]]) 22:00, 30 January 2021 (UTC)
:::::::Great stuff. Thanks for all your feedback and suggestions for the Prototypes and testing section. The result has been better than what I originally proposed. I'll keep whittling away at writing intro sentences in that section. Thanks for the collab! [[User:Jared.h.wood|JaredHWood]][[User talk:Jared.h.wood|💬]] 03:18, 31 January 2021 (UTC)

== SN8 & Safety ==

Originally brought this up on the SpaceX talk page. Earlier we didn't have much information, only that some FAA launch licensee "violation" occurred. Per the [https://www.theverge.com/2021/1/29/22256657/spacex-launch-violation-explosive-starship-faa-investigation-elon-musk The verge]. But now it looks like SpaceX intentionally did it. Per [https://twitter.com/nextspaceflight/status/1356593169148702720 NASASpaceflight/Micheal Baylor] they didn't get a waiver & but still launched. Seems they intentionally violated "public safety". Whether or not this should be included in the controversy section or not - or just the SN8 section I'm not sure.
I don't think its worth noting FAA-SN9's issues tho. [[User:OkayKenji|OkayKenji]] ([[User talk:OkayKenji|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/OkayKenji|contribs]]) 14:37, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
:{{re|OkayKenji}} My recommendation would be to add this content to [[Starship development history]]. This is important information about Starship development and testing, but it is new and emerging information. I think adding it there to document it as part of Starship history would be good. Then if it continues to be a notable issue, like if a long term suspension occurs or if Starship is associated with notable FAA policy changes it could be added here. [[User:Jared.h.wood|JaredHWood]][[User talk:Jared.h.wood|💬]] 15:22, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
::Oh! Didn't realize we had a dedicated article on that, yeah I agree (that sort of what I was thinking). [[User:OkayKenji|OkayKenji]] ([[User talk:OkayKenji|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/OkayKenji|contribs]]) 16:58, 2 February 2021 (UTC)

== SN9 Failure ==

In multiple discord servers and websites, they say that SN9 was a failure since the main goal was to land it, but it exploded. I think the page should say Failure.

[[User:Liaiwen|Liaiwen]] ([[User talk:Liaiwen|talk]]) 21:23, 2 February 2021 (UTC)

: I agree. Discussion on going here: [[Template talk:Starship flights/suborbital]] [[User:N828335|N828335]] ([[User talk:N828335|talk]]) 21:29, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
That was not a failure. The main goal was to gather data, not to just land. The same is with SN8, SN9, and SN10. Literally, SN10 did the mission objectives, so it should be a success even though it RUDed 8 minutes later. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:LeviathanOwO|LeviathanOwO]] ([[User talk:LeviathanOwO#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/LeviathanOwO|contribs]]) 21:49, 17 March 2021 (UTC) 

== Infobox image. ==

The new infobox image shows Starship itself more closely but it's pretty low quality. I prefer the [[:File:SpaceX Starship SN8 launch as viewed from South Padre Island.jpg|previous image]] with the plume. {{ping|LeVanTuan1998}} Assuming you took the photo yourself, do you have a full-resolution version that might be reworked into a more useable image? [[User:nagualdesign|nagual]][[User talk:nagualdesign|design]] 03:22, 5 March 2021 (UTC)
:{{re|nagualdesign}} Nope, they took the image straight from NASA spaceflight's recent video, [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dkXUS321oZ4&t=41s ]. I have already reverted their edits and flagged their photo for deletion on the commons. Not to mention the same user had previously uploaded over 20 other photos with copyvios: [[commons:User talk:LeVanTuan1998]].
::Okay. Thanks for letting me know. [[User:nagualdesign|nagual]][[User talk:nagualdesign|design]] 03:42, 5 March 2021 (UTC)
::{{ping|N828335}} Could you also mark [[:File:Falcon 9 Demo-2 Launching 6 (3).jpg]] for deletion. I'm not an administrator or reviewer on Commons but I have reviewed the license on Flickr and it's CC-BY-NC-ND-2.0, which is not allowed on Commons. I'm surprised that they haven't been banned already. Smacks of wilful ignorance to me. [[User:nagualdesign|nagual]][[User talk:nagualdesign|design]] 05:05, 5 March 2021 (UTC)
:::Not sure about the specifics in this case, but photos by NASA are generally OK. Also note there is a "nominate for deletion" button on the sidebar in commons, anyone can do it. [[User:N828335|N828335]] ([[User talk:N828335|talk]]) 05:24, 5 March 2021 (UTC)

== Primary sources tag ==

I am working on consolidating and replacing primary sources so the template tag can be removed from the page. I will try to replace every Elon Musk twitter quote with a reliable secondary source. Question: Is referencing the official [https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/ SpaceX Starship] page acceptable use of a primary source if it is only used for vehicle specifications such as length, diameter, capacity, etc? [[User:JHelzer|JHelzer]][[User talk:JHelzer|💬]] 04:12, 12 March 2021 (UTC)
:{{re|JHelzer}} That should be OK. Per [[WP:Primary]], the thing to avoid is mainly the interpretation of primary sources. "A primary source may be used on Wikipedia only to make straightforward, descriptive statements of facts that can be verified by any educated person with access to the primary source but without further, specialized knowledge." In my opinion, this definitely includes direct vehicle characteristics. I would also argue (although not by a wiki policy) that a primary source for these details would be the best option. Thank you for your work fixing the other, more problematic cases. [[User:N828335|N828335]] ([[User talk:N828335|talk]]) 05:03, 12 March 2021 (UTC)
:{{re|JHelzer}} I fear you may have removed too much. See the next section. — Greg the Guru [[Special:Contributions/2600:8801:8002:4700:3C00:94CD:C328:6F43|2600:8801:8002:4700:3C00:94CD:C328:6F43]] ([[User talk:2600:8801:8002:4700:3C00:94CD:C328:6F43|talk]]) 11:15, 17 March 2021 (UTC)
::I thought I was careful to remove only twitter sources that were duplicates of the information found on the official SpaceX starship page. I will have to double-check the history when I have time to do another source session here. If I have removed a source that contained unique information, I am sorry. That would have been unintentional. [[User:JHelzer|JHelzer]][[User talk:JHelzer|💬]] 21:38, 17 March 2021 (UTC)
:::{{re|JHelzer}} The source you cited would be fully expected to have that information, but, unfortunately, it never has. It has lots and lots of other technical information, but not that tidbit. It's not surprising that you missed it. — Greg the Guru [[Special:Contributions/2600:8801:8002:4700:A110:8E27:5AFE:9AE4|2600:8801:8002:4700:A110:8E27:5AFE:9AE4]] ([[User talk:2600:8801:8002:4700:A110:8E27:5AFE:9AE4|talk]]) 11:02, 18 March 2021 (UTC)
::::Thanks Greg, for your understanding and assumption of good faith. I am planning to continue working on primary sources to justify the removal of the tag at the top of the article. I'll be watchful as I go. [[User:JHelzer|JHelzer]][[User talk:JHelzer|💬]] 17:53, 18 March 2021 (UTC)

== Dry mass of stages ==

The dry mass of both stages both source a page with lots of information about the stages, but not the dry mass.

The dry mass of the second stage is available from a number of sources, but the root of all of them is a presentation given by Elon Musk on 29 September 2019 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UUtNR6BhjE) when the weight of the orbiter went from 85t to 200t. Musk stated that his goal was to iterate his way to a dry mass of 120t or less. (For what it's worth, I think he will make it, but it's still a goal.) The gross mass of the second stage is the sum of three integers (dry mass, propellant mass, and payload), so if the three source numbers are OK, then this ought to be OK as well.

The dry mass of first stage booster has never been authoritatively stated since that date. I've hunted and hunted, since I calculate profiles based on the weight of stages, and I can't find anything. All of the values since then have been calculated, and my question here is if the logic described below counts as original research.

The initial calculation was based on this tweet from 26 September 2019: "Mk1 ship is around 200 tons dry and 1400 tons wet, but aiming for 120 by Mk4 or Mk5. Total stack mass with max payload is 5000 tons." If you assume 5000 tons is exact, you can subtract out the first stage propellant (3300t), the second stage dry mass (120t), the second stage propellant (1200t), and the maximum payload (100t) and get 280t. If you assumed that the maximum payload was still the goal weight from before of 150t, you get 230t, and this was the value in the page for a while.

Almost six months later, Musk tweated this on 16 March 2020: "Slight booster length increase to 70 m, so 120 m for whole system. Liftoff mass ~5000 mT." You can look up the mass per volume of the propellants, so this stretch of 2m is around 100t. When recalculated as above, this yields 130t, and there's a comment in the page that this is too low, so Musk must have been using a payload of 100t, and therefore the value must be 180t. This is the value in the page now.

Note that both calculations assume that the 5000t is exact and not rounded. Instead, I believe the number is rounded, since "five thousand tonnes" is so much better in a sound bite. If it's not exact, then none of the numbers above can be accurate, and the best you can do is give a range. Two years ago, long before the weights increased, I was using 180t as the value. The number is in my notes, but I didn't write down where I got it. Thus, I believe 180t is likely to be significantly low, and the most likely range is 230t to 280t.

If the above counts as original research, both the dry weight and the gross weight of the first stage should be removed (or commented out?). If it isn't original research, is the range I suggest above reasonable? — Greg the Guru [[Special:Contributions/2600:8801:8002:4700:3C00:94CD:C328:6F43|2600:8801:8002:4700:3C00:94CD:C328:6F43]] ([[User talk:2600:8801:8002:4700:3C00:94CD:C328:6F43|talk]]) 11:15, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

:Greg, I do remember removing the source for the tweet about Mk1 statistics. My thinking is that Mk1 is not a good representation of the current prototypes or the final Starship specs. I was also thinking that information posted on the SpaceX Starship website would be better maintained and more reliable than an aging tweet. I also replaced older sources that predicted future performance in favor of more current sources that recounted the event after it occurred. You suggest that the calculations above may constitute original research and I believe they do. I love following Starship progress, but at the current stage of development, I think it is too early to post predictions of what the mass specification of Starship will be. I assume they are currently changing from prototype to prototype. [[User:JHelzer|JHelzer]][[User talk:JHelzer|💬]] 22:11, 17 March 2021 (UTC)

:5000 looks too much like a rounded number to end up with that precision. It could easily be 4900 or 5100 and the other numbers have the same problem. In addition the design is still not completely fixed yet so numbers are likely to change - mixing numbers from different times isn't going to work. [[WP:CALC]] allows uncontroversial calculations but this isn't covered. --[[User:Mfb|mfb]] ([[User talk:Mfb|talk]]) 04:28, 18 March 2021 (UTC)

{{re|JHelzer}} {{re|Mfb}} I am inclined to think the Mk1 number is OK, as Musk has continued to use it in off-the-cuff tweets. I marked it as a goal to reflect what he said at the time. (And based on the one weighing that they accidentally leaked, the weight is on track to meet the goal.) I commented out the dry and gross mass for the booster, and left a comment about what to do when a valid source is added. — Greg the Guru [[Special:Contributions/2600:8801:8002:4700:A110:8E27:5AFE:9AE4|2600:8801:8002:4700:A110:8E27:5AFE:9AE4]] ([[User talk:2600:8801:8002:4700:A110:8E27:5AFE:9AE4|talk]]) 11:34, 18 March 2021 (UTC)

I've {{Diff|SpaceX Starship|prev|1018886137|removed}} an authoritative statement of the 3680 tonnes gross mass for the first stage, as (a) it's incorrect since it was calculated as 5000t - 1200t propellant - 120t second stage dry mass, ignoring payload and (b) we can't give a figure with that much accuracy using this method anyway. [[User:Denvercoder9|Denvercoder9]] ([[User talk:Denvercoder9|talk]]) 12:32, 20 April 2021 (UTC)

== Starship SN10 ==

SN10 exploded after landing, but the landing should be written as success, not as a partial success. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/64.121.103.144|64.121.103.144]] ([[User talk:64.121.103.144#top|talk]]) 14:08, 19 March 2021 (UTC) 
:: SN10 had landing leg failures. It touched down at 10m/s which is too fast. The engine was commanded to increase power and was unable to comply. Numerous fixes are being put into place for SN11. Stated simply; it landed, but it landed too hard. All of this describes a partial success. [[User:JHelzer|JHelzer]][[User talk:JHelzer|💬]] 15:09, 19 March 2021 (UTC)
::I would call it "partial success". The RUD was post-landing, but problems during landing contributed to it. --[[User:Dan Wylie-Sears 2|Dan Wylie-Sears 2]] ([[User talk:Dan Wylie-Sears 2|talk]]) 12:54, 20 March 2021 (UTC)
:::It dose not matter what I or you would call it. Wikipedia discurages original research. We should look for third party references and see what it is called there. [[User:Gial Ackbar|Gial Ackbar]] ([[User talk:Gial Ackbar|talk]]) 13:46, 20 March 2021 (UTC)
{{outdent}}Longer discussion at [[Talk:List_of_Starship_flights#SN10_outcome]] so perhaps best discussed there. Discussion at [[Talk:List_of_Starship_flights#SN9_outcome]] was against using partial success or partial failure descriptions. [[User:C-randles|crandles]] ([[User talk:C-randles|talk]]) 15:15, 20 March 2021 (UTC)

== New Starships ==

I think that new Starships should be added to the table as soon as SpaceX announces them, not when they roll out.
[[Special:Contributions/64.121.103.144|64.121.103.144]] ([[User talk:64.121.103.144|talk]]) 00:42, 30 March 2021 (UTC)
:SpaceX typically doesn't discuss the existence of prototypes before they are getting ready for flights. --[[User:Mfb|mfb]] ([[User talk:Mfb|talk]]) 19:45, 30 March 2021 (UTC)
::These are found in the [[Starship development history]] article. This is not a list of vehicles.--[[User:Jrcraft Yt|Jrcraft Yt]] ([[User talk:Jrcraft Yt|talk]]) 21:15, 30 March 2021 (UTC)

== Invitation ==

Everybody who edits this article should edit the draft, [[Draft:Starship SN11]]. Note: a version of this draft has been declined for too little sources, please add them.
[[Special:Contributions/64.121.103.144|64.121.103.144]] ([[User talk:64.121.103.144|talk]]) 17:48, 3 April 2021 (UTC)
:Everybody who edits this article should edit the draft, [[Draft:Starship SN15]].
[[Special:Contributions/64.121.103.144|64.121.103.144]] ([[User talk:64.121.103.144|talk]]) 22:17, 4 April 2021 (UTC)

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion:
* [[commons:File:Starship HLS.jpg|Starship HLS.jpg]]
Participate in the deletion discussion at the [[commons:Commons:Deletion requests/File:Starship HLS.jpg|nomination page]]. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 04:06, 18 April 2021 (UTC)

SpaceX Starship

2021-04-20T12:31:28Z

Denvercoder9: /* {{anchor|Super Heavy}}Super Heavy booster */ remove incorrectly calculated and overly precise figure for booster liftoff mass (see talk page)

{{short description|Super-heavy-lift reusable launch vehicle}}
{{Primary sources|date=March 2021}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox rocket
|name = Starship
|image = File:SpaceX Starship SN8 launch as viewed from South Padre Island.jpg
|caption = SpaceX Starship SN8 prototype during a flight test at [[Boca Chica, Texas]], December 2020
|function = {{plainlist|
* [[Reusable launch system]] 
* [[Human spaceflight#Passenger travel via spacecraft|Intercontinental transport]]
* [[Space tourism]] 
* [[Outer space|Earth–lunar transport]] 
* [[Colonization of Mars|Mars colonization]]<ref name=cnbc20200901/>
* [[Interplanetary spaceflight|Multiplanetary transport]]
}}
|cpl = US$2 million (aspirational)<ref name="sdc20191106">{{Cite news |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=19 November 2019 |title=SpaceX's Starship May Fly for Just $2 Million Per Mission, Elon Musk Says |publisher=Space.com |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-flight-passenger-cost-elon-musk.html |url-status=live |access-date=19 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717231526/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-flight-passenger-cost-elon-musk.html |archive-date=17 July 2020}}</ref>
|manufacturer = [[SpaceX]]
|country-origin = United States
|height = {{cvt|{{#expr:120}}|m}}<ref name=sx20200524/><ref name="musk20200316">{{Cite tweet |number=1239598329274798085 |user=elonmusk |title=Slight booster length increase to 70 m, so 120 m for whole system. Liftoff mass ~5000 mT. |date=16 March 2020}}</ref> (not including landing legs)
|diameter = {{cvt|9|m}}<ref name="sx20200524"/>
|mass = {{cvt|5000|t|lb}} (with maximum payload)(estimated)<ref name="sx20200524"/><ref name="musk20200316" />
|stages = 2
|capacities =
{{Infobox rocket/payload
|location = [[Low Earth orbit|LEO]]
|kilos = +{{cvt|100|t|lb}}<ref name=sx20200524/>
|volume = {{cvt|1100|m3}}<ref name=sx20200524/>
}}
{{Infobox rocket/payload
|location = [[Geostationary Transfer Orbit|GTO]]
|kilos = {{cvt|21|t|lb}}<ref name=sx20200524/>
}}
|family = [[SpaceX launch vehicles]]
|comparable = {{hlist|[[Saturn V]]|[[N1 (rocket)|N1]]|[[Space Launch System]]|[[Long March 9]]|[[Falcon Heavy]]|[[Energia (rocket)|Energia]]|[[Space Shuttle]]}}
|status = In development
|sites = {{hlist||[[SpaceX South Texas launch site|Boca Chica]]|[[Kennedy Space Center|Kennedy]] [[Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39A|LC-39A]]|[[SpaceX floating spaceport|Floating launch platform]]}}


|stagedata =
{{Infobox rocket/stage
|type = stage
|name = Super Heavy
|stageno = First
|length = {{cvt|72|m}}<ref name="musk20200316" /><ref name=sx20200524/> (including landing legs)
|diameter = {{cvt|9|m}}<ref name=sx20200524/>

|propmass = {{cvt|3400|t|lb}}<ref name=sx20200524/>
|engines = ~28 [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor]]<ref name=sn20200901/>
|thrust = {{circa|{{cvt|{{#expr:2000*8+3000*20}}|kN}}}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=https://mobile.twitter.com/NASASpaceflight/status/1300549287563202561 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190001/https://mobile.twitter.com/NASASpaceflight/status/1300549287563202561 |archive-date=2 September 2020 |access-date=1 September 2020}}</ref>
|SI = {{cvt|330|isp|km/s}}<ref name="musk20170929" />
|fuel = Subcooled [[Liquid methane|{{chem2|CH4}}]]{{\}}[[Liquid oxygen|LOX]]<ref name="sx20200524"/>
}}
{{Infobox rocket/stage
|type = stage
|name = Starship
|stageno = Second
|length = {{cvt|50|m}}<ref name=sx20200524/>
|diameter = {{cvt|9|m}}<ref name=sx20200524/>
|empty = (goal) {{cvt|120|t|lb}}<ref name="musk20190926">{{Cite tweet |number=1177066483375058944 |user=elonmusk |title=Mk1 ship is around 200 tons dry and 1400 tons wet, but aiming for 120 by Mk4 or Mk5. Total stack mass with max payload is 5000 tons. |date=26 September 2019}}</ref>
|gross = {{cvt|{{#expr:120+1200}}|t|lb}}<ref name=musk20190926/>
|propmass = {{cvt|1200|t|lb}}<ref name=sx20200524/>
|engines = 6 [[Raptor (rocket engine family)|Raptor]]<ref name="sx20200524"/>
|thrust = {{circa|{{cvt|{{#expr:2000*6}}|kN}}}}<ref name="sx20200524"/>
|SI = {{cvt|380|isp}} (vacuum)<ref name="SpaceX20180917">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zu7WJD8vpAQ |title=First Private Passenger on Lunar BFR Mission |date=17 September 2018 |last=Musk |first=Elon |publisher=SpaceX |author-link=Elon Musk |access-date=18 September 2018 |via=YouTube}}</ref>
|fuel = Subcooled [[Liquid methane|{{chem2|CH4}}]]{{\}}[[Liquid oxygen|LOX]]<ref name="sx20200524"/>
}}


}}

The '''Starship''' system is a [[reusable launch vehicle|fully reusable]], [[two-stage-to-orbit|two‑stage‑to‑orbit]] [[super heavy-lift launch vehicle|super heavy‑lift launch vehicle]] under development by [[SpaceX]]. The system is composed of a booster stage, named '''Super Heavy''', and a second stage, also referred to as "'''''Starship'''''". The second stage is being designed as a long‑duration [[Cargo spacecraft|cargo]] and passenger‑carrying spacecraft. The spacecraft will serve as both the second stage and the in‑space long‑duration orbital spaceship.

Engine development started in 2012, and Starship development began in 2016 as a self‑funded [[private spaceflight]] project. Testing of the second stage Starship began in 2019 as part of an extensive [[Starship development history|development program]] to prove out launch‑and‑landing and iterate on a variety of design details, particularly with respect to the vehicle's [[atmospheric reentry]]. The first prototypes made low‑altitude, low‑velocity [[flight test]]ing of [[VTVL|vertical launches and landings]] in 2019‑2020. On 9 December 2020, Starship prototype SN8 performed the first high‑altitude test flight, demonstrating most of the atmospheric re‑entry maneuvers. The test was deemed a success, although a hard landing caused the explosion of the prototype. More prototype Starships have been built and more are under construction as the [[iterative design]] progresses. All test articles have a {{cvt|9|m}}‑diameter stainless steel hull.

In June 2019, SpaceX indicated they could potentially launch commercial payloads using Starship as early as 2021. In April 2020, [[NASA]] selected a modified [[Human-rating certification|crew‑rated]] Starship system as one of three potential lunar landing system design concepts to receive funding for a 10‑month‑long initial design phase for the NASA [[Artemis program]]. As of March 2021, SpaceX is conducting atmospheric flights to 10 km altitude with Starship prototypes. As of April 2021, Starship has been chosen by NASA to land humans back on the Moon.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon|title=Official NASA article announcing that Starship was chosen as Artemis lander.|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416221751/http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Nomenclature ==
The name of the vehicle changed many times after its first announcement and during the first several years of development.<ref name="nsf20190921">{{Cite news |last=Baylor |first=Michael |date=21 September 2019 |title=Elon Musk's upcoming Starship presentation to mark 12 months of rapid progress |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/09/elon-musks-starship-presentation-12-months-progress/ |url-status=live |access-date=21 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621073626/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/09/elon-musks-starship-presentation-12-months-progress/ |archive-date=21 June 2020 |quote=''While the names of the vehicles have changed numerous times over the years, the spacecraft is currently called Starship with its first stage booster called Super Heavy''.}}</ref>
At least as early as 2005, SpaceX used the codename, "BFR", for a conceptual heavy‑lift vehicle, "far larger than the Falcon family of vehicles",<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jeff Foust |date=14 November 2005 |title=Big plans for SpaceX |publisher=The Space Review |url=http://www.thespacereview.com/article/497/1 |url-status=live |access-date=16 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051124153155/http://www.thespacereview.com/article/497/1 |archive-date=24 November 2005}}</ref><ref name="nsf20051118">https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2005/11/spacex-set-maiden-flight-goals/ SPACEX set maiden flight – goals] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190131093730/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2005/11/spacex-set-maiden-flight-goals/|date=31 January 2019}}, NASASpaceFlight.com, 18 November 2005, accessed 31 January 2019.</ref> with a goal of {{cvt|100|tonne}} to orbit. Beginning in mid‑2013, SpaceX referred to both the mission architecture and the vehicle as the Mars Colonial Transporter.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Steve Schaefer |date=6 June 2013 |title=SpaceX IPO Cleared For Launch? Elon Musk Says Hold Your Horses |work=Forbes |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveschaefer/2013/06/06/with-tesla-and-solarcity-soaring-elon-musk-talks-down-spacex-ipo-plans/ |url-status=live |access-date=29 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306041303/https://www.forbes.com/sites/steveschaefer/2013/06/06/with-tesla-and-solarcity-soaring-elon-musk-talks-down-spacex-ipo-plans/ |archive-date=6 March 2017}}</ref>
By the time a large 12‑meter diameter design concept was unveiled in September 2016, SpaceX had begun referring to the overall system as the Interplanetary Transport System.

With the announcement of a new 9‑meter design in September 2017, SpaceX resumed referring to the vehicle as "BFR",<ref name="sn20170929">{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=29 September 2017 |title=Musk unveils revised version of giant interplanetary launch system |publisher=SpaceNews |url=https://spacenews.com/musk-unveils-revised-version-of-giant-interplanetary-launch-system/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20171008075705/http://spacenews.com/musk-unveils-revised-version-of-giant-interplanetary-launch-system/ |archive-date=8 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="sfn20170929">{{Cite news |last=William Harwood |date=29 September 2017 |title=Elon Musk revises Mars plan, hopes for boots on ground in 2024 |publisher=Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/09/29/elon-musk-revises-mars-plan-hopes-for-boots-on-ground-in-2024/ |url-status=live |access-date=30 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130055228/https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/09/29/elon-musk-revises-mars-plan-hopes-for-boots-on-ground-in-2024/ |archive-date=30 January 2018 |quote=The new rocket is still known as the BFR, a euphemism for 'Big (fill-in-the-blank) Rocket'. The reusable BFR will use 31 Raptor engines burning densified, or super-cooled, liquid methane and liquid oxygen to lift 150 tons, or 300,000 pounds, to [[low Earth orbit]], roughly equivalent to NASA's [[Saturn V]] Moon rocket.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=12 April 2017 |title=Artist's Rendering of the BFR |publisher=SpaceX |url=http://www.spacex.com/media-gallery/detail/149426/9376 |url-status=live |access-date=3 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171003124638/http://www.spacex.com/media-gallery/detail/149426/9376 |archive-date=3 October 2017}}</ref>
with Musk stating "we are searching for the right name, but the code name, at least, is BFR".<ref name="musk20170929"/> SpaceX President [[Gwynne Shotwell]] subsequently stated that BFR stands for "Big Falcon Rocket".<ref name="Acronym Explained">{{Cite web |last=Mike Wall |title=What's in a Name? SpaceX's 'BFR' Mars Rocket Acronym Explained |url=https://www.space.com/38393-spacex-bfr-mars-colony-rocket-name.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207164503/https://www.space.com/38393-spacex-bfr-mars-colony-rocket-name.html |archive-date=7 February 2018 |access-date=11 February 2018 |website=space.com}}</ref> However, Elon Musk had explained in the past that although BFR is the official name, he drew inspiration from the [[BFG (weapon)|BFG]] weapon in the [[Doom (franchise)|''Doom'']] video games.<ref name="gq-elon-interview">{{Cite web |last=Heath |first=Chris |date=12 December 2015 |title=Elon Musk Is Ready to Conquer Mars |url=https://www.gq.com/story/elon-musk-mars-spacex-tesla-interview |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212142443/http://www.gq.com/story/elon-musk-mars-spacex-tesla-interview |archive-date=12 December 2015 |access-date=14 February 2018 |website=gq.com}}</ref> The BFR had also occasionally been referred to informally by the media and internally at SpaceX as "Big Fucking Rocket".<ref name="RocketBillionaires">{{Cite book |last=Fernholz |first=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9YosDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244 |title=Rocket Billionaires: Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos, and the New Space Race |date=20 March 2018 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-1328662231 |location=Boston |page=244 |quote=SpaceX would build a huge rocket: the BFR, or Big Falcon Rocket – or, more crudely among staff, the Big Fucking Rocket |access-date=21 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522042840/https://books.google.ca/books?id=9YosDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA244 |archive-date=22 May 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Slezak |first=Michael |last2=Solon |first2=Olivia |date=29 September 2017 |title=Elon Musk: SpaceX can colonise Mars and build moon base |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/sep/29/elon-musk-spacex-can-colonise-mars-and-build-base-on-Moon |url-status=live |access-date=21 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143704/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/sep/29/elon-musk-spacex-can-colonise-mars-and-build-base-on-moon |archive-date=12 June 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Burgess |first=Matt |date=29 September 2017 |title=Elon Musk's Big Fucking Rocket to Mars is his most ambitious yet |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/elon-musk-bfr-big-rocket-earth-mars-spacex |url-status=live |magazine=Wired UK |location=London |publisher=Condé Nast Publications |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512045348/http://www.wired.co.uk/article/elon-musk-bfr-big-rocket-earth-mars-spacex |archive-date=12 May 2018 |access-date=21 May 2018}}</ref> At the time, the second stage/spacecraft was referred to as "BFS" (Big Falcon Ship or Big Fucking Ship).<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/feb/08/spacewatch-tourists-wait-spacex-bigger-rocket Space Tourists will have to wait as SpaceX plans bigger rocket] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180919021700/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/feb/08/spacewatch-tourists-wait-spacex-bigger-rocket|date=19 September 2018}}. Stu Clark, ''The Guardian'', 8 February 2018</ref><ref name="68IAC-trans">{{Cite web |date=September 2017 |title=Making Life Multiplanetary: Abridged transcript of Elon Musk's presentation to the 68th International Astronautical Congress in Adelaide, Australia |url=http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/making_life_multiplanetary_transcript_2017.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180808022709/http://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/making_life_multiplanetary_transcript_2017.pdf |archive-date=8 August 2018 |access-date=27 March 2019 |publisher=SpaceX}}</ref>
The booster first stage was also at times referred to as the "BFR" (Big Falcon Rocket or Big Fucking Rocket).<ref name="BI-2018-12-24">{{Cite news |last=Dave Mosher |date=24 December 2018 |title=Elon Musk: SpaceX to launch a Starship spaceship prototype this spring |publisher=Business Insider |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-big-falcon-rocket-spaceship-hopper-vehicle-launches-2018-12 |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115182003/https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-big-falcon-rocket-spaceship-hopper-vehicle-launches-2018-12 |archive-date=15 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="NHReg-2018-11-19">{{Cite news |last=Dave Mosher |date=19 November 2018 |title=NASA 'will eventually retire' its new mega-rocket if SpaceX, Blue Origin can safely launch their own powerful rockets |publisher=New Haven Register |url=https://www.nhregister.com/technology/businessinsider/article/NASA-will-retire-its-new-mega-rocket-if-SpaceX-or-13401618.php |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115132430/https://www.nhregister.com/technology/businessinsider/article/NASA-will-retire-its-new-mega-rocket-if-SpaceX-or-13401618.php |archive-date=15 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="SiliconUK-2018-12-28">{{Cite news |last=Matthew Broersma |date=28 December 2018 |title=SpaceX Starts Construction of Mars Rocket Prototype |publisher=Silicon.co.uk |url=https://www.silicon.co.uk/workspace/spacex-starts-construction-of-mars-rocket-prototype-240005 |url-status=live |access-date=15 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190115132529/https://www.silicon.co.uk/workspace/spacex-starts-construction-of-mars-rocket-prototype-240005 |archive-date=15 January 2019}}</ref>

In November 2018, the spaceship was renamed Starship, and the first stage booster was named Super Heavy.<ref name=gw20181119/><ref name="engadget20181120">{{Cite news |last=Lawler |first=Richard |date=20 November 2018 |title=SpaceX BFR has a new name: Starship |work=engadget.com |url=https://www.engadget.com/2018/11/20/starship-bfr-spacex/ |url-status=live |access-date=21 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120213752/https://www.engadget.com/2018/11/20/starship-bfr-spacex/ |archive-date=20 November 2018}}</ref>
The whole system, with the booster stage and spaceship, is also referred to as "Starship".<ref name=cummings20200611a/>{{rp|16:20–16:48}}
The combination of Starship spacecraft and Super Heavy booster is called the "Starship system" by SpaceX in their payload users guide.<ref name="sx-pug202003">{{Cite web |date=March 2020 |title=Starship Users Guide, Revision 1.0, March 2020 |url=https://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/starship_users_guide_v1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402122214/https://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/starship_users_guide_v1.pdf |archive-date=2 April 2020 |access-date=18 May 2020 |publisher=SpaceX |quote=SpaceX's Starship system represents a fully reusable transportation system designed to service Earth orbit needs as well as missions to the Moon and Mars. This two-stage vehicle – composed of the Super Heavy rocket (booster) and Starship (spacecraft)}}</ref>
The term "Super Heavy" had also been previously used by SpaceX in a different context. In February 2018, at about the time of the first [[Falcon Heavy]] launch, Musk had suggested the possibility of a Falcon Super Heavy—a Falcon Heavy with extra boosters.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 February 2018 |title=Here are four things we learned from Elon Musk before the first Falcon Heavy launch |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/5/16975850/spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-elon-musk-tesla-questions |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125115433/https://www.theverge.com/2018/2/5/16975850/spacex-falcon-heavy-launch-elon-musk-tesla-questions |archive-date=25 November 2018 |access-date=25 November 2018}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|Starship development history}}

===Early concepts===
The launch vehicle was initially mentioned in public discussions by SpaceX CEO [[Elon Musk]] in 2012 as part of a description of the company's overall Mars system architecture, then known as "Mars Colonial Transporter" (MCT).<ref name="dn20121213">{{Cite news |date=13 December 2012 |title=Huge Mars Colony Eyed by SpaceX Founder |publisher=Discovery News |url=http://news.discovery.com/space/alien-life-exoplanets/mars-colony-spacex-121126.htm |url-status=live |access-date=25 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141115083758/http://news.discovery.com/space/alien-life-exoplanets/mars-colony-spacex-121126.htm |archive-date=15 November 2014}}</ref>
By August 2014, media sources speculated that the initial [[flight test]] of the [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor]]‑driven super‑heavy launch vehicle could occur as early as 2020, in order to fully test the engines under orbital spaceflight conditions; however, any colonization effort was then reported to continue to be "deep into the future".<ref name="nsf20140830">{{Cite news |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=29 August 2014 |title=Battle of the Heavyweight Rockets -- SLS could face Exploration Class rival |publisher=NASAspaceflight.com |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/08/battle-heavyweight-rockets-sls-exploration-rival/ |url-status=live |access-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316061403/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2014/08/battle-heavyweight-rockets-sls-exploration-rival/ |archive-date=16 March 2015}}</ref>

In mid‑September 2016, Musk noted that the Mars Colonial Transporter name would not continue, as the system would be able to "go well beyond Mars", and that a new name would be needed. The name selected was "Interplanetary Transport System" (ITS).<ref name="ars20160918">{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=18 September 2016 |title=Elon Musk scales up his ambitions, considering going "well beyond" Mars |publisher=Ars Technica |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2016/09/spacexs-interplanetary-transport-system-will-go-well-beyond-mars/ |url-status=live |access-date=19 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920000810/http://arstechnica.com/science/2016/09/spacexs-interplanetary-transport-system-will-go-well-beyond-mars/ |archive-date=20 September 2016}}</ref> In September 2017, at the 68th annual meeting of the [[International Astronautical Congress]], SpaceX unveiled an updated vehicle design.<ref name="musk20170929" />

In September 2018 Musk showed another redesigned concept for the second stage and spaceship with three rear fins and two front canard fins added for atmospheric entry, replacing the previous delta wing and [[split flap]]s shown a year earlier.<ref name="teslarati_moonflight">{{Cite news |last=Eric Ralph |date=14 September 2018 |title=SpaceX has signed a private passenger for the first BFR launch around the Moon |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-private-passenger-bfr-moon-mission/ |url-status=live |access-date=14 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914132048/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-private-passenger-bfr-moon-mission/ |archive-date=14 September 2018}}</ref> He also announced a planned 2023 lunar circumnavigation mission, a [[private spaceflight]] called ''[[dearMoon project]]''.<ref name="wired20180918">{{Cite news |date=18 September 2018 |title=Elon Musk Says SpaceX Will Send Yusaku Maezawa (and Artists!) to the Moon |publisher=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/spacex-will-send-yusaku-maezawa-and-artists-to-the-moon/ |url-status=live |access-date=27 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716034529/https://www.wired.com/story/spacex-will-send-yusaku-maezawa-and-artists-to-the-moon/ |archive-date=16 July 2019}}</ref> The two major parts of the launch vehicle were given descriptive names in November 2018: "Starship" for the upper stage and "Super Heavy" for the booster stage, which Musk pointed out was "needed to escape Earth's deep gravity well (not needed for other planets or moons)".<ref name="gw20181119">{{Cite news |last=Boyle |first=Alan |author-link=Alan Boyle |date=19 November 2018 |title=Goodbye, BFR... hello, Starship: Elon Musk gives a classic name to his Mars spaceship |publisher=GeekWire |url=https://www.geekwire.com/2018/goodbye-bfr-hello-starship-elon-musk-gives-classic-name-mars-spaceship/ |url-status=live |access-date=22 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228144549/https://www.geekwire.com/2018/goodbye-bfr-hello-starship-elon-musk-gives-classic-name-mars-spaceship/ |archive-date=28 December 2019 |quote=Starship is the spaceship/upper stage and Super Heavy is the rocket booster needed to escape Earth's deep gravity well (not needed for other planets or moons)}}</ref>

===Shift to stainless steel and early testing===
In January 2019, Musk announced that Starship would no longer be constructed out of [[carbon fiber]], and that [[stainless steel]] would be used instead, citing several reasons including cost, strength, and ease of production.<ref name="ps20190122">{{Cite news |last=D'Agostino |first=Ryan |date=22 January 2019 |title=Elon Musk: Why I'm Building the Starship out of Stainless Steel |publisher=Popular Mechanics |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/rockets/a25953663/elon-musk-spacex-bfr-stainless-steel/ |url-status=live |access-date=30 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190122161633/https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/rockets/a25953663/elon-musk-spacex-bfr-stainless-steel/ |archive-date=22 January 2019}}</ref> Later in May, the Starship design changed back to just six [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor engines]], with three [[Rocket engine nozzle#Atmospheric use|optimized for sea‑level]] and three [[Rocket engine nozzle#Vacuum use|optimized for vacuum]].<ref name="musk20190522b">{{Cite tweet |number=1131433322276483072 |user=elonmusk |title=3 sea level optimized Raptors, 3 vacuum optimized Raptors (big nozzle) |date=22 May 2019 |first=Elon |last=Musk}}</ref> Later that month, an initial [[test article (aerospace)|test article]], ''[[Starhopper]]'', was being finished for untethered flight tests at the [[SpaceX South Texas launch site]], while two "orbital prototypes" without aerodynamic control surfaces were under construction, one in South Texas and one on the [[Florida]] [[Space Coast]]. The following month, SpaceX publicly announced that discussions had begun with three telecommunications companies for using Starship, rather than Falcon 9, for launching commercial satellites for paying customers in 2021. No specific companies or launch contracts were announced at that time.<ref name="sn20190628">{{Cite news |last=Henry |first=Caleb |date=28 June 2019 |title=SpaceX targets 2021 commercial Starship launch |publisher=SpaceNews |url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-targets-2021-commercial-starship-launch/ |url-status=live |access-date=29 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723183803/https://spacenews.com/spacex-targets-2021-commercial-starship-launch/ |archive-date=23 July 2020}}</ref>

''Starhopper'' made its initial flight test in July 2019, a "hop" of around {{cvt|20|m}} altitude,<ref name="ars20190726">{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=26 July 2019 |title=SpaceX's Starship prototype has taken flight for the first time |publisher=Ars Technica |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/07/spacexs-starship-prototype-has-taken-flight-for-the-first-time/ |url-status=live |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804140323/https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/07/spacexs-starship-prototype-has-taken-flight-for-the-first-time/ |archive-date=4 August 2019}}</ref> and a second and final "hop" in August 2019, reached an altitude of around {{cvt|150|m}}<ref name="spacenews20190827">{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=27 August 2019 |title=SpaceX's Starhopper completes test flight |publisher=SpaceNews |url=https://spacenews.com/spacexs-starhopper-completes-test-flight/ |url-status=live |access-date=28 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902185955/https://spacenews.com/spacexs-starhopper-completes-test-flight/ |archive-date=2 September 2020}}</ref> and landing around {{cvt|100|m}} from the launchpad.
In September 2019 Musk unveiled Starship Mk1, a more advanced test article.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 October 2019 |title=SpaceX's Starship is a new kind of rocket, in every sense |publisher=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2019/10/05/spacexs-starship-is-a-new-kind-of-rocket-in-every-sense |url-status=live |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111225747/https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2019/10/05/spacexs-starship-is-a-new-kind-of-rocket-in-every-sense |archive-date=11 November 2019}}</ref><ref name="spacecom23112019">{{Cite news |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=30 September 2019 |title='Totally Nuts'? Elon Musk Aims to Put a Starship in Orbit in 6 Months. Here's SpaceX's Plan. |publisher=Space.com |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-reach-orbit-six-months.html |url-status=live |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001170638/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-reach-orbit-six-months.html |archive-date=1 October 2019}}</ref>
The Mk1 was destroyed in a tank pressure test in November, and SpaceX ceased construction on the Mk2 prototype in Florida and moved on to work on the Mk3 article.<ref name="trati20191202">{{Cite news |last=Eric Ralph |date=2 December 2019 |title=SpaceX Starship hardware mystery solved amid reports of Florida factory upheaval |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-hardware-mystery-solved/ |url-status=live |access-date=2 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191203003732/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-hardware-mystery-solved/ |archive-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>

Adopting a new "serial number" nomenclature, the Mk3 article was renamed Starship SN1 by SpaceX to signify the major evolution in building techniques, the rings were now taller and each was made of one single sheet of steel, drastically reducing the [[Single point of failure|failure points]] in welding lines. The worksite in Texas was also significantly expanded. In February 2020, SN1 was also destroyed during pressurization.<ref name="spacenews.com">{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=https://spacenews.com/second-starship-prototype-damaged-in-pressurization-test/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902185954/https://spacenews.com/second-starship-prototype-damaged-in-pressurization-test/ |archive-date=2 September 2020 |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref> The company then focused on resolving the problem that led to SN1's failure by assembling a stripped‑down version of their next planned prototype, SN2; SN2 ended up being basically a test tank.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musk |first=Elon |date=2 March 2020 |title=We're stripping SN2 to bare minimum to test the thrust puck to dome weld under pressure, first with water, then at cryo. Hopefully, ready to test in a few days. |url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1234400445847736320?s=19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902185950/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1234400445847736320?s=19 |archive-date=2 September 2020 |access-date=19 April 2020 |website=@elonmusk}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> This time the pressure test was successful and SpaceX began work on SN3.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musk |first=Elon |date=9 March 2020 |title=SN2 (with thrust puck) passed cryo pressure and engine thrust load tests late last night |url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1237087558376599554?s=19 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902185950/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1237087558376599554?s=19 |archive-date=2 September 2020 |access-date=19 April 2020 |website=@elonmusk}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> However, in April 2020, SN3 was also destroyed during testing due to a test configuration error.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Jeff Foust |title=Third Starship prototype destroyed in tanking test |url=https://spacenews.com/third-starship-prototype-destroyed-in-tanking-test/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190011/https://spacenews.com/third-starship-prototype-destroyed-in-tanking-test/ |archive-date=2 September 2020 |access-date=16 April 2020 |publisher=SpaceNews}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=5 April 2020 |title=Starship SN3 failure due to bad commanding. SN4 already under construction |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/spacex-starship-sn3-ground-flight-testing/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422214616/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/spacex-starship-sn3-ground-flight-testing/ |archive-date=22 April 2020 |access-date=19 April 2020 |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com}}</ref> At that time, construction of SN4 was underway.<ref name=":1" />

===Prototypes testing===
On 26 April 2020, Starship SN4 became the first full‑scale prototype to pass a cryogenic proof test. On 5 May 2020, SN4 completed a single engine static fire with one mounted Raptor engine and became the first full Starship tank to pass a Raptor static fire.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ralph |first=Eric |title=SpaceX's Starship rocket just breathed fire for the first time (and survived) |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-survives-raptor-static-fire/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200507161858/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-survives-raptor-static-fire/ |archive-date=7 May 2020 |access-date=6 May 2020 |website=Teslarati}}</ref> SN4 would complete a total of 4 short static fires (2 to 5 seconds long) before being destroyed in a massive explosion due to a propellant leak from the quick disconnect mechanism.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 June 2020 |title=SpaceX's Starship explosion explained by Elon Musk |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-explosion-explained-elon-musk |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724185503/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-explosion-explained-elon-musk/ |archive-date=24 July 2020 |website=teslarati.com}}</ref> On 4 August 2020 Starship SN5 completed a 150 meter flight test, landing at an adjacent landing site, thus becoming the first full‑scale prototype to perform a successful flight test.<ref name="nasaspaceflight_sn5_2020">{{cite news |last1=Baylor |first1=Michael |title=Starship SN5 conducts successful 150-meter flight test |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/08/starship-sn5-set-150-meter-flight-test/ |access-date=20 March 2021 |work=NASASpaceFlight.com |date=3 August 2020 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201174033/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/08/starship-sn5-set-150-meter-flight-test/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Musk declared in June 2020 that Starship was by then the top SpaceX priority, except for anything related to reduction of [[Crew Dragon]] return risk for the upcoming [[Crew Dragon Demo-2|Crew Dragon Demo‑2]] flight to the ISS,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=7 June 2020 |title=Elon Musk tells SpaceX employees that its Starship rocket is the top priority now |publisher=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/07/elon-musk-email-to-spacex-employees-starship-is-the-top-priority.html |url-status=live |access-date=9 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609094608/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/06/07/elon-musk-email-to-spacex-employees-starship-is-the-top-priority.html |archive-date=9 June 2020}}</ref> and remained so in September 2020.<ref name="cnbc20200901">{{Cite news |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=1 September 2020 |title=Elon Musk says SpaceX's Starship rocket will launch "hundreds of missions" before flying people |publisher=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/01/elon-musk-spacex-starship-to-fly-hundreds-of-missions-before-people.html |url-status=live |access-date=2 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190003/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/09/01/elon-musk-spacex-starship-to-fly-hundreds-of-missions-before-people.html |archive-date=2 September 2020}}</ref> In September 2020, Musk clarified that SpaceX intends to exclusively fly cargo transport missions initially, and that [[human spaceflight|passenger flights]] would come only much later.<ref name="sn20200901">{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=1 September 2020 |title=Musk emphasizes progress in Starship production over testing |publisher=SpaceNews |url=https://spacenews.com/musk-emphasizes-progress-in-starship-production-over-testing/ |url-status=live |access-date=1 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190006/https://spacenews.com/musk-emphasizes-progress-in-starship-production-over-testing/ |archive-date=2 September 2020}}</ref><ref name="cnbc20200901" />

In July 2020, SpaceX procured two [[Deepwater drilling|deepwater]] [[Drilling rig|oil rigs]] from [[Valaris plc]] for $3.5 million each. These [[semi-submersible platform|semi‑submersible platform]]s, renamed [[SpaceX floating spaceport|''Deimos'' and ''Phobos'']] after the two [[moons of Mars]], will be modified into two [[floating launch platform]]s for Super Heavy/Starship orbital launches. As of January 2021, refit is underway on ''Deimos'' at the [[Port of Brownsville]], and ''Phobos'' at the [[Port of Galveston]].<ref name="cnbc20200119">{{Cite news |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=19 January 2021 |title=SpaceX bought two former Valaris oil rigs to build floating launchpads for its Starship rocket |work=[[CNBC]] |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/19/spacex-bought-former-valaris-oil-rigs-to-build-starship-launchpads.html |access-date=19 January 2021 |archive-date=19 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210119182444/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/01/19/spacex-bought-former-valaris-oil-rigs-to-build-starship-launchpads.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nsf20210119">{{Cite news |last=Burghardt |first=Thomas |date=19 January 2021 |title=SpaceX acquires former oil rigs to serve as floating Starship spaceports |work=[[NASASpaceFlight]] |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/01/spacex-rigs-starship-spaceports/ |access-date=20 January 2021 |archive-date=20 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120001114/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/01/spacex-rigs-starship-spaceports/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Current plans are for both the first stage (Super Heavy) booster and the second stage (Starship) to be landed on land, unlike the many sea landings seen with their Falcon 9 boosters.<ref name="bi20200616">{{Cite news |last=Mosher |first=Dave |date=16 June 2020 |title=Elon Musk: 'SpaceX is building floating, superheavy-class spaceports' for its Starship rocket to reach the moon, Mars, and fly passengers around Earth |work=[[Business Insider]] |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-spacex-starship-ocean-spaceports-offshore-engineer-job-posting-2020-6 |url-status=live |access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617073600/https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-spacex-starship-ocean-spaceports-offshore-engineer-job-posting-2020-6 |archive-date=17 June 2020}}</ref>

On 9 December 2020, SN8 flew a largely successful {{cvt|12.5|km|ft}} flight test, which included the first 3‑engine flight test, the first test of the [[body flaps]] during its novel "bellyflop" descent, and the first test of the "flip maneuver" landing burn at the end of the free‑fall phase.<ref name="nsf20201209">{{Cite news |date=9 December 2020 |title=From hops to hopes - Starship SN8 advances test program into the next phase |work=NASASpaceFlight.com |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/from-hops-hopes-starship-sn8-test-program-next-phase/ |access-date=11 December 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210130805/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/from-hops-hopes-starship-sn8-test-program-next-phase/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However the fuel header tank pressure was low during the landing burn, and SN8 landed at a higher speed than intended and exploded.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wall |first=Mike |date=10 December 2020 |title=SpaceX's Starship SN8 Prototype Soars on Epic Test Launch, with Explosive Landing |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/spacexs-starship-sn8-prototype-soars-on-epic-test-launch-with-explosive-landing/ |access-date=3 March 2021 |website=Scientific American |archive-date=23 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123020133/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/spacexs-starship-sn8-prototype-soars-on-epic-test-launch-with-explosive-landing/ |url-status=live }}</ref> On 2 February 2021, SN9 attempted a {{cvt|10|km|ft}} flight, but once again exploded on landing after one of the Raptor engines failed to ignite.<ref name="sheetz202102">{{Cite news |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=2 February 2021 |title=SpaceX's Starship prototype again explodes on landing attempt after successful launch |language=en |work=[[CNBC]] |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/02/spacex-starship-sn9-explodes-on-attempted-landing.html |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=2 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202204159/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/02/spacex-starship-sn9-explodes-on-attempted-landing.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 3 March 2021, SN10 completed the first intact landing of Starship after a 10km ascent. However, the landing was harder than expected due to unexpected low thrust.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1368016384458858500 |title=Thrust was low despite being commanded high for reasons unknown at present, hence hard touchdown. We’ve never seen this before. Next time, min two engines all the way to the ground & restart engine 3 if engine 1 or 2 have issues. |access-date=2021-03-30 |user=elonmusk}}</ref> Immediately after the landing, there was a fire visible near the vehicle's skirt, prompting the deployment of the landing site's fire suppression system. Approximately eight minutes after the landing, the vehicle's liquid oxygen and methane tanks ruptured catastrophically, resulting in the fiery explosion of SN10 on the landing pad before it could be made safe and recovered. <ref name="space_SN10_2021">{{cite news |last1=Wall |first1=Mike |title=SpaceX's SN10 Starship prototype lands after epic test launch — but then explodes |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn10-test-launch-landing-explosion |access-date=4 March 2021 |work=space.com |date=4 March 2021 |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304004046/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn10-test-launch-landing-explosion |url-status=live }}</ref>

== ''Starship'' upper stage ==
[[File:BFR at stage separation 2-2018.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Artist's concept of the 2018 version of Starship upper stage following stage separation]]

The upper stage of Starship is intended to function both as a second stage to reach [[orbital speed|orbital velocity]] on launches from Earth, and also be used in outer space as an on‑orbit long‑duration spacecraft. This is in contrast to most previous launch vehicle and spacecraft designs. Starship is being designed to be capable of reentering Earth's atmosphere from orbital velocities and landing vertically, with a design goal of rapid re‑usability without the need for extensive refurbishment.<ref name=spacex20190928/>

According to Musk, when Starship is used for [[beyond Earth orbit]] (BEO) launches to Mars, the functioning of the overall expedition system will necessarily include [[In situ resource utilization|propellant production on the Mars surface]]. This is necessary for the return trip and to reuse the spaceship to keep costs as low as possible. Lunar destinations ([[Circumlunar trajectory|circumlunar]] flybys, orbits and landings) will be possible without lunar‑propellant depots, so long as the spaceship is refueled in a high‑elliptical orbit before the lunar transit begins.<ref name=musk201803journal/> Some lunar flybys will be possible without orbital refueling as evidenced by the mission profile of the ''[[dearMoon project]]''.{{r|SpaceX20180917}}

The SpaceX approach is to tackle the hardest problems first, and Musk sees the hardest problem for getting to sustainable human civilization on Mars to be building a fully‑reusable orbital Starship, so that is the major focus of SpaceX resources as of 2020.<ref name="ars20200305">{{Cite news |last=berger |first=Eric |date=5 March 2020 |title=Inside Elon Musk's plan to build one Starship a week and settle Mars |publisher=Ars Technica |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/03/inside-elon-musks-plan-to-build-one-starship-a-week-and-settle-mars/ |url-status=live |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200305204228/https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/03/inside-elon-musks-plan-to-build-one-starship-a-week-and-settle-mars/ |archive-date=5 March 2020 |quote=''Musk tackles the hardest engineering problems first. For Mars, there will be so many logistical things to make it all work, from power on the surface to scratching out a living to adapting to its extreme climate. But Musk believes that the initial, hardest step is building a reusable, orbital Starship to get people and tons of stuff to Mars. So he is focused on that''.}}</ref> For example, it is planned for the spacecraft to eventually incorporate [[life support system]]s, but {{as of|2019|09|lc=y}}, Musk has stated that it is yet to be developed, as the early flights will all be cargo only.<ref name=cnbc20200901/>

=== General characteristics ===

{{As of|2019|9}}, the Starship upper stage is expected to be a {{cvt|9|m|}} diameter, {{cvt|50|m|}} tall, fully reusable spacecraft with a dry mass of {{cvt|120|t}} or less,<ref name=spacex20190928/> powered by six [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor engines]].

Starship is designed with the ability to re‑enter Earth's atmosphere and [[Retropropulsive landing|retropropulsively land]] on a designated landing pad. Landing reliability is projected by SpaceX to ultimately be able to achieve "airline levels" of safety due to engine‑out capability. The spacecraft is also designed to be able to perform automatic [[Proximity operations|rendezvous]] and [[Docking and berthing of spacecraft|docking]] operations, and perform on‑orbit propellant transfers between Starships.<ref name="musk20190721" />

Starship is also designed with the goal to reach other planets and moons in the solar system after on‑orbit propellant loading. While [[retropropulsion]] is intended to be used for the final landing maneuver on the Earth, Moon, or Mars, 99.9% of the energy dissipation on Earth reentry is to be removed aerodynamically, and on Mars, 99% aerodynamically even using the much thinner [[Atmosphere of Mars|Martian atmosphere]],<ref name="spacex20191020">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=94&v=bysu8XN5OfY |title=SpaceX - Mars Society Convention 2019 |date=20 October 2019 |last=Paul Wooster |time=47:30-49:00 |access-date=25 October 2019 |quote=''Vehicle is designed to be able to land at the Earth, Moon or Mars. Depending on which ... the ratio of the energy dissipated aerodynamically vs. propulsively is quite different. In the case of the Moon, it's entirely propulsive. ... Earth: over 99.9% of the energy is removed aerodynamically ... Mars: over 99% of the energy is being removed aerodynamically at Mars''. |medium=video |via=YouTube}}</ref> where "'''body flaps'''"<ref name="nsf20201209" /><ref name="musk20200805">{{Cite tweet |number=1290826885375696899 |user=elonmusk |title=We will do several short hops to smooth out launch process, then go high altitude with body flaps |date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806161427/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1290826885375696899 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> are used to control attitude during descent and optimize both trajectory and energy dissipation during descent.<ref name="sx20200524"/>

As envisioned in the 2017 design unveiling, the Starship is to have a pressurized volume of approximately {{cvt|825|m3||abbr=}}, which could be configured for up to 40 cabins, large common areas, central storage, a [[Galley (kitchen)|galley]], and a [[solar flare]] shelter for Mars missions.<ref name="68IAC-trans" />

===Propulsion===
The [[liquid methane|methane]]/[[liquid oxygen|oxygen]]‑propellant [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor engines]] will be the main propulsion system on Starship.
Starship will use three sea‑level optimized Raptor engines and three vacuum‑optimized Raptor engines. The sea‑level engines are identical to the engines on the [[Super Heavy (rocket)|Super Heavy]] booster. Transport use in space is expected to use a vacuum‑optimized Raptor engine variant to optimize [[specific impulse]] (Isp) to approximately {{cvt|380|isp|mph km/s}}.<ref name=spacex20190928/>
Total Starship thrust will be approximately {{cvt|{{#expr:1170}}|tf|kN lbf|order=out}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wang |first=Brian |date=31 August 2019 |title=SpaceX Orbital Starship Aiming for 20 Kilometer Flight in October and Orbital Attempt After |url=https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2019/08/spacex-orbital-starship-aiming-for-20-kilometer-flight-in-october-and-orbital-attempt-after.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105132801/https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2019/08/spacex-orbital-starship-aiming-for-20-kilometer-flight-in-october-and-orbital-attempt-after.html |archive-date=5 January 2020 |access-date=1 April 2020 |publisher=Next Big Future}}</ref>

Starship will use [[pressure fed]] hot gas [[reaction control system]] (RCS) thrusters using methane gas for [[attitude control]], including the final pre‑landing pitch‑up maneuver from belly flop to tail down, and stability during high‑wind landings up to {{cvt|60|km/h}}.<ref name="dodd20191001">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIQ36Kt7UVg A conversation with Elon Musk about Starship] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001150343/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIQ36Kt7UVg|date=1 October 2019}}, Tim Dodd, 1 October 2019, accessed 12 June 2020</ref><ref>https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1015648140341403648 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602191208/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1015648140341403648|date=2 June 2020}}, Elon Musk, 18 July 2018, accessed 12 June 2020</ref>
Initial prototypes are using nitrogen [[cold gas thruster]]s, which are substantially less mass efficient, but are expedient for quick building to support early prototype flight testing.<ref name="spacex20190928" />

=== Variants ===
Starship is planned to eventually be built in at least these operational variants:<ref name="musk201803journal">{{Cite journal |last=Musk |first=Elon |date=1 March 2018 |title=Making Life Multi-Planetary |journal=New Space |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=2–11 |bibcode=2018NewSp...6....2M |doi=10.1089/space.2018.29013.emu}}</ref><ref name="userguide">{{Cite web |title=Starship users guide |url=https://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/starship_users_guide_v1.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200331112946/https://www.spacex.com/sites/spacex/files/starship_users_guide_v1.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2020 |access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref>
* Spaceship: a large, long‑duration spacecraft capable of carrying passengers or cargo to interplanetary destinations, to LEO, or [[Earth-to-Earth spaceflight|Earth‑to‑Earth spaceflight]].<ref name="musk201803journal" />
* Satellite delivery spacecraft: a vehicle able to transport and place spacecraft into orbit,<ref name=sn20190628/> or handle the in‑space recovery of spacecraft and [[space debris]] for return to Earth or movement to another orbit. In the March 2020 users guide, this was shown with a large cargo bay door that can open in space to facilitate delivery and pickup of cargo.<ref name="musk201803journal" />
* Tanker: a cargo‑only [[propellant tanker]] to support the refilling of propellants in Earth orbit. The tanker will enable launching a heavy spacecraft to interplanetary space as the spacecraft being refueled can use its tanks twice, first to reach LEO and afterwards to leave Earth orbit. The tanker variant, also required for high‑payload lunar flights, is expected to come only later; initial in‑space [[propellant transfer]] will be from one standard Starship to another.<ref name="musk20190721">[https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1153126586897424384 "Orbital refilling is critical for high payload to moon or Mars. Initially just Starship to Starship, later dedicated tankers".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190905124643/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1153126586897424384|date=5 September 2019}}, Elon Musk, Twitter, 21 July 2019, accessed 22 July 2019.</ref>
* Lunar‑surface‑to‑orbit transport: a variant of Starship without [[Air brake (aeronautics)|airbrakes]] or [[heat shield]]ing that is required for in‑atmosphere‑operations. Additionally, the spacecraft will be equipped with a docking port on the nose, additional landing engines (installed much higher up to reduce dust clouds during landing) and have white paint (as opposed to the bare steel planned for regular Starships). In April 2021, NASA selected the [[Starship HLS]] variant to be a human‑rated [[HLS (NASA)|lunar lander]] for the [[Artemis program]], and contracted for two operational Moon missions, with a human lunar landing occurring on the second one, as early as 2025.<ref name=ars20210416/>

The spaceship design is expected to be flexible. For example, a possible modification to the base Starship would have only an [[Expendable launch system|expendable]] three‑engine Starship with no fairing, rear fins, or landing legs, in order to optimize its [[mass ratio]] for interplanetary exploration with [[space probe|robotic probes]].<ref name="trati20190401">{{Cite news |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=1 April 2019 |title=SpaceX CEO Elon Musk proposes Starship, Starlink tech for Solar System tour |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-starlink-solar-system-tour/ |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403104011/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-starlink-solar-system-tour/ |archive-date=3 April 2019}}</ref>

===Materials and construction===
Starship has a stainless steel structure and tank construction. Its [[strength-to-mass ratio|strength‑to‑mass ratio]] should be comparable to or better than the earlier SpaceX design alternative of carbon fiber [[composite material|composites]] across the anticipated temperature ranges, from the low temperatures of [[cryogenic]] propellants to the high temperatures of atmospheric reentry<ref name="trati20181224">{{Cite news |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=24 December 2018 |title=SpaceX CEO Elon Musk: Starship prototype to have 3 Raptors and "mirror finish" |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-elon-musk-starship-prototype-three-raptors-mirror-finish/ |url-status=live |access-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224133103/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-elon-musk-starship-prototype-three-raptors-mirror-finish/ |archive-date=24 December 2018}}</ref>
Some parts of the craft will be built with a stainless steel alloy that "has undergone [a type of] cryogenic treatment, in which metals are "... [[Cryogenic cold-forming|cold‑formed]]/worked [to produce a] cryo‑treated steel ..." dramatically lighter and more wear‑resistant than traditional hot‑rolled steel."<ref name="trati20181224" />

The spacecraft will also have a [[thermal protection system]] against the harsh conditions of atmospheric reentry. This will include hexagonal ceramic tiles that will be used on the windward side of Starship.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ralph |first=Eric |title=SpaceX tests ceramic Starship heat shield tiles on Starhopper's final flight test |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-tests-starship-heat-shield-tiles-on-starhopper/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924185711/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-tests-starship-heat-shield-tiles-on-starhopper/ |archive-date=24 September 2019 |access-date=8 September 2019 |publisher=Teslarati}}</ref><ref name="musk20190924" /><ref name="musk20190724">[https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1154229558989561857 Thin tiles on windward side of ship and nothing on leeward or anywhere on booster looks like lightest option] {{Webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190811063116/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1154229558989561857|date=11 August 2019}}, Elon Musk, 24 July 2019, accessed 25 July 2019</ref>
Earlier designs included a double stainless‑steel skin with active coolant flowing in between the two layers, or with some areas additionally containing multiple small pores that would allow for [[transpiration cooling]].<ref name="musk20190924">[https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1176561209971101696 Could do it, but we developed low cost reusable tiles that are much lighter than transpiration cooling and quite robust] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924182426/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1176561209971101696|date=24 September 2019}}, Elon Musk, 24 September 2019, accessed 24 September 2019</ref><ref name=nsf20190403>{{cite news|last=Gebhardt|first=Chris|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/04/starhopper-first-flight-starship-superheavy-updates/|title=Starhopper conducts Raptor Static Fire test |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com|date=3 April 2019|access-date=4 April 2019|archive-date=4 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404103545/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/04/starhopper-first-flight-starship-superheavy-updates/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/4/3/18271547/spacex-starship-starhopper-raptor-engine-ignition-hop-static-fire-test|title=SpaceX just fired up the engine on its test Starship vehicle for the first time |last=Grush|first=Loren|date=3 April 2019|publisher=The Verge|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404031741/https://www.theverge.com/2019/4/3/18271547/spacex-starship-starhopper-raptor-engine-ignition-hop-static-fire-test|archive-date=4 April 2019|access-date=4 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>[https://futurism.com/the-byte/spacex-starship-elon-musk-bleed-water SpaceX Starship Will "Bleed Water" From Tiny Holes, Says Elon Musk] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124102121/https://futurism.com/the-byte/spacex-starship-elon-musk-bleed-water |date=24 January 2019 }}. Kristin Houser, ''Futurism''. 22 January 2019.</ref><ref name="trati20190123">{{Cite news |last=Eric Ralph |date=23 January 2019 |title=SpaceX CEO Elon Musk explains Starship's "transpiring" steel heat shield in Q&A |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-ceo-elon-musk-starship-transpiring-steel-heat-shield-interview/ |url-status=live |access-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190124041422/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-ceo-elon-musk-starship-transpiring-steel-heat-shield-interview/ |archive-date=24 January 2019}}</ref>

=== Starship Human Landing System ===
{{further|Artemis program#Human Landing System}} 

A modified version known as the '''Starship Human Landing System''' ('''Starship HLS''') was selected by NASA in April 2021 for use for long‑duration crewed lunar landings as part of [[NASA]]'s [[Artemis program]]. This followed a three-team competition begun in April 2020 to develop human-capable lunar landing systems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SpaceX, Blue Origin and Dynetics will build human lunar landers for NASA's next trip back to the Moon |url=https://social.techcrunch.com/2020/04/30/spacex-blue-origin-and-dynetics-will-build-human-lunar-landers-for-nasas-next-trip-back-to-the-moon/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902185949/https://techcrunch.com/2020/04/30/spacex-blue-origin-and-dynetics-will-build-human-lunar-landers-for-nasas-next-trip-back-to-the-moon/ |archive-date=2 September 2020 |access-date=1 May 2020 |website=techcrunch.com}}</ref> The Starship HLS variant is being designed to stay on and around the Moon hence both the [[heat shield]] and [[Air brake (aeronautics)|air‑brakes]]—integral parts of the main Starship design—are not included in the Starship HLS design. The variant will use high‑thrust [[methox]] [[reaction control system|RCS]] thrusters located mid‑body on Starship HLS during the final "tens of meters" of the terminal lunar descent and landing,<ref name="cummings20200611">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEnz8V97Qck&t=2100 |title=Human Landing System: Putting Boots Back on the Moon |date=11 June 2020 |last=Cummings |first=Nick |publisher=American Astronautical Society |time=35:00–36:02 |access-date=12 June 2020 |quote=''for the terminal descent of Starship, a few tens of meters before we touch down on the lunar surface, we actually use a high-thrust RCS system, so that we don't impinge on the surface of the Moon with the high=thrust Raptor engines. ... uses the same methane and oxygen propellants as Raptor''. |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref name="musk20200608">{{Cite web |last=Musk |first=Elon |title=Forward thrusters are to stabilize ship when landing in high winds. If goal is max payload to moon per ship, no heatshield or flaps or big gas thruster packs are needed. No need to bring early ships back. They can serve as part of moon base alpha. |url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1270061515094155264?s=20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190007/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1270061515094155264?s=20 |archive-date=2 September 2020 |website=twitter.com}}</ref> and will also include a smaller crew area and a much larger cargo bay, be powered by a solar array located on its nose below the docking port. SpaceX intends to use the same high‑thrust RCS thrusters for liftoff from the lunar surface.<ref name=cummings20200611/>{{rp|50:30}} The HLS variant will be launched to Earth orbit via the Super Heavy booster and use orbital refueling to reload propellants into Starship HLS for the lunar transit and lunar landing operations. In the 2020 mission concept, and still in the April 2021 Starship selection announcement, a NASA [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion spacecraft]] is planned by NASA to carry the NASA crew to the lander in lunar orbit where they would depart and descend to the surface in Starship HLS. After Lunar surface operations, it would ascend using the same Starship HLS vehicle and return the crew to the Orion. Although not confirmed yet, the vehicle in theory could be refueled in orbit to carry more crews and cargo to the surface.<ref name=nsf20200501/><ref name=nasapr-20200430/>

SpaceX was one of three teams developing their lunar lander designs for the Artemis program over a year-long<ref name="nasa20210127">[https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2 NextSTEP H: Human Landing System] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208221410/https://www.nasa.gov/nextstep/humanlander2/ |date=8 December 2020 }}, NASA, 27 January 2021, retrieved 31 January 2021.</ref> period in 2020–2021, starting in May 2020.<ref name=nasa20210127/> The other teams considered were the 'National Team'—led by [[Blue Origin]] but including [[Lockheed Martin]], [[Northrop Grumman]], and [[Draper Laboratory|Draper]] and [[Dynetics]], including [[Sierra Nevada Corporation|SNC]] and other unspecified companies.<ref name="nasapr-20200430">{{Cite web |last=Potter |first=Sean |date=30 April 2020 |title=NASA Names Companies to Develop Human Landers for Artemis Missions |url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511104107/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-names-companies-to-develop-human-landers-for-artemis-moon-missions/ |archive-date=11 May 2020 |access-date=15 May 2020 |website=NASA}} {{PD-notice}}</ref><ref name="nsf20200501">{{Cite news |date=1 May 2020 |title=NASA Selects Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX Human Landers for Artemis |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/nasa-blue-origin-dynetics-spacex-hls-artemis/ |url-status=live |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200515175509/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/nasa-blue-origin-dynetics-spacex-hls-artemis/ |archive-date=15 May 2020}}</ref>

On 16 April 2021, NASA selected Starship HLS for crewed lunar lander development<ref>{{cite news |title=NASA selects SpaceX to develop crewed lunar lander |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-spacex-to-develop-crewed-lunar-lander/ |last=Foust|first=Jeff |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=16 April 2021 |accessdate=18 April 2021}}</ref> plus two lunar demonstration flights — one uncrewed and one crewed — no earlier than 2024. The contract is valued at {{USD|2.89 billion}} over a number of years.<ref name=ars20210416>{{Cite news |title=NASA selects SpaceX as its sole provider for a lunar lander - "We looked at what’s the best value to the government." |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/04/nasa-selects-spacex-as-its-sole-provider-for-a-lunar-lander/ |last=Berger |first=Eric |work=[[Ars Technica]] |date=16 April 2021 |accessdate=17 April 2021 |archive-date=17 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417003215/https://arstechnica.com/science/2021/04/nasa-selects-spacex-as-its-sole-provider-for-a-lunar-lander/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Two NASA [[Artemis program#Astronauts|Artemis astronauts]] are to land on the second Starship HLS landing.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Brown|first=Katherine|date=2021-04-16|title=As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on Moon|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon|url-status=live|website=[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA.gov]]|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416221751/http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/}}</ref>

=== Prototypes and testing ===
{{main|Starship development history#Starship and Super Heavy}}
The SpaceX testing philosophy, referred to as "test, fly, fail, fix, repeat", is evident in the Starship development and testing program. SpaceX is willing to regularly test prototypes to destruction, counting the data gathered as a successful part of the overall process. This allowance for failures, willingness to build flight articles in view of the public, and fast cadence of prototype construction makes the Starship design process unique in the spaceflight industry.<ref name="bergin202012">{{Cite web |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=9 December 2020 |title=From hops to hopes – Starship SN8 advances test program into the next phase |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/from-hops-hopes-starship-sn8-test-program-next-phase/ |access-date=2 February 2021 |website=Nasa Spaceflight |quote=Challenges with any test program can be expected. However, coupled with SpaceX's allowance for failures as part of its "Test, Fly, Fail, Fix" mantra, such setbacks have not proven to be critical in Starship's advances. |archive-date=22 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222173550/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/12/from-hops-hopes-starship-sn8-test-program-next-phase/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the first two years of development, from December 2018 to December 2020, SpaceX built and tested 13 (12 if the unfinished MK4 is not counted) prototypes. These include MK4 whose development was suspended mid‑construction; MK1, SN1, SN3, SN4, SN7 (test tank), SN7.1 (test tank) and SN8 which were tested to destruction; MK2 and SN2 (test tank) which were retired before flight; Starhopper, SN5 and SN6 which were flight tested and retired.<ref name="dodd202011">{{Cite web |last=Dodd |first=Tim |date=10 November 2020 |title=Starship SN8 {{pipe}} 12.5-kilometer hop |url=https://everydayastronaut.com/starship-sn8-12-5-kilometer-hop/ |access-date=2 February 2021 |website=Everyday Astronaut |archive-date=28 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128062747/https://everydayastronaut.com/starship-sn8-12-5-kilometer-hop/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2021 SpaceX has continued building and testing prototypes including SN7.2 (test tank) and SN9 with SN10.<ref name="Arevalo202101">{{Cite web |last=Arevalo |first=Evelyn |date=26 January 2021 |title=SpaceX pressure tests the Starship SN7.2 tank at the South Texas Launch Site |url=https://www.tesmanian.com/blogs/tesmanian-blog/sn7-2 |access-date=2 February 2021 |website=Tesmania |quote=Today, January 26, SpaceX is testing a Starship propellant dome tank known as 'SN7.2', at the Boca Chica Beach launch pad. January 26 UPDATE: Elon Musk shares SN7.2 Passed initial pressure test. |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126201152/https://www.tesmanian.com/blogs/tesmanian-blog/sn7-2 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="sheetz202102" />

==== ''Starhopper'' ====
[[File:SpaceX_Starhopper.jpg|thumb|''Starhopper'' before test flight]]
The construction of the initial test article—the ''Starship Hopper''<ref>[https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/licenses_permits/media/Final%20Experimental%20Permit%20and%20Orders%20EP%2019-012%20Starship%20Hopper%20(06-21-2019).pdf Commercial Space Transportation Experimental Permit -- Experimental Permit Number: EP19-012], FAA, 21 June 2019, accessed 29 June 2019 {{PD-notice}}</ref> or '''''Starhopper'''''<ref name="trati20190312">{{Cite web |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=12 March 2019 |title=SpaceX begins static Starhopper tests as Raptor engine arrives on schedule |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starhopper-static-tests/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106004206/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starhopper-static-tests/ |archive-date=6 January 2020 |access-date=22 March 2019 |publisher=Teslarati}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Gebhardt |first=Chris |date=18 March 2019 |title=Starhopper first flight as early as this week; Starship/Superheavy updates |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/03/starhopper-first-flight-starship-superheavy-updates/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331001358/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/03/starhopper-first-flight-starship-superheavy-updates/ |archive-date=31 March 2019 |access-date=22 March 2019 |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com}}</ref>—began in early December 2018 and the external frame and skin was complete by 10 January 2019. Constructed outside in the open on a SpaceX property just {{cvt|3.2|km}} from [[Boca Chica Village, Texas|Boca Chica Beach]] in South Texas, the external body of the rocket rapidly came together in less than six weeks from half‑inch (12.5 mm) steel.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Musk |first=Elon |date=6 February 2020 |title=Unmodified water tower machines do not work well for orbital rockets, as mass efficiency is critical for the latter, but not the former. Hopper, for example, was made of 12.5 mm steel versus 4 mm for SN1 orbital design. Optimized skins will be |url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1225688871158968324 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200208034823/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1225688871158968324 |archive-date=8 February 2020 |access-date=10 February 2020 |website=@elonmusk}}</ref> Originally thought by onlookers at the [[SpaceX South Texas Launch Site]] to be the initial construction of a large water tower, the stainless steel vehicle was built by welders and construction workers in more of a [[shipyard]] form of construction than traditional [[aerospace manufacturing]]. The full ''Starhopper'' vehicle is {{cvt|9|m}} in diameter and was originally {{cvt|39|m}} tall in January 2019.<ref name=trati20181224/><ref name="ars20190108">{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=8 January 2019 |title=Here's why Elon Musk is tweeting constantly about a stainless-steel starship |publisher=Ars Technica |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/01/elon-musk-is-really-really-excited-about-his-starship/ |url-status=live |access-date=12 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209005033/https://arstechnica.com/science/2019/01/elon-musk-is-really-really-excited-about-his-starship/ |archive-date=9 December 2019}}</ref> Subsequent wind damage to the nose cone of the vehicle resulted in a SpaceX decision to scrap the nose section, and fly the low‑velocity hopper tests with no nose cone, resulting in an {{cvt|18|m}} tall test vehicle.<ref name=nsf20190602/>

The low‑altitude, low‑velocity ''Starhopper'' was used for initial integrated testing of the [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor rocket engine]] with a flight‑capable propellant structure, and was slated to also test the newly designed [[autogenous pressurization]] system that is replacing traditional [[helium]] tank pressurization as well as initial launch and landing algorithms for the much larger {{convert|9|m|adj=on}} diameter rocket.<ref name=nsf20190403/> SpaceX originally developed their reusable booster technology for the 3‑meter‑diameter [[Falcon 9]] from 2012 to 2018. The ''Starhopper'' prototype was also the platform for the first flight tests of the [[full-flow staged combustion|full‑flow staged combustion]] [[methalox]] Raptor engine.<ref name=nsf20190725/> Only one engine was installed but Starhopper could have been fitted with up to three engines to facilitate engine‑out tolerance testing.<ref name=nsf20190403/>
''Starhopper'' was also used to flight test a number of subsystems of Starship to begin to expand the [[flight envelope]] of the Starship design.<ref name=ars20190108/><ref name="sn20171015c">{{Cite news |last=Jeff Foust |date=15 October 2017 |title=Musk offers more technical details on BFR system |publisher=SpaceNews |url=http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |url-status=live |access-date=15 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190010/https://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |archive-date=2 September 2020 |quote=[The] spaceship portion of the BFR, which would transport people on point-to-point suborbital flights or on missions to the moon or Mars, will be tested on Earth first in a series of short hops. ... a full-scale Ship doing short hops of a few hundred kilometers altitude and lateral distance ... fairly easy on the vehicle, as no heat shield is needed, we can have a large amount of reserve propellant and don't need the high area ratio, deep space Raptor engines.}}</ref><ref name="sn20180312">{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=12 March 2018 |title=Musk reiterates plans for testing BFR |publisher=SpaceNews |url=http://spacenews.com/musk-reiterates-plans-for-testing-bfr/ |url-status=live |access-date=15 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190008/https://spacenews.com/musk-reiterates-plans-for-testing-bfr/ |archive-date=2 September 2020 |quote=Construction of the first prototype spaceship is in progress. "We are actually building that ship right now", he said. "I think we will probably be able to do short flights, short sort of up-and-down flights, probably sometime in the first half of next year'}}</ref> ''Starhopper'' testing ran from March to August 2019 with all ''Starhopper'' test flights at low altitude.<ref>{{Cite news |date=29 March 2019 |title=SpaceX's Starship hopper steps towards first hop with several cautious tests |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-hopper-cautious-testing/ |url-status=live |access-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330164526/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-hopper-cautious-testing/ |archive-date=30 March 2019}}</ref><ref name="sn20181224">{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=24 December 2018 |title=Musk teases new details about redesigned next-generation launch system |publisher=SpaceNews |url=https://spacenews.com/musk-teases-new-details-about-redesigned-next-generation-launch-system/ |url-status=live |access-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200822190334/https://spacenews.com/musk-teases-new-details-about-redesigned-next-generation-launch-system/ |archive-date=22 August 2020}}</ref>

The maiden flight test of the ''Starhopper'' test vehicle, and also the maiden flight test of any full‑flow staged combustion rocket engine, was on 25 July 2019, and attained a height of {{cvt|18|m}}.<ref name=nsf20190725/><ref name="faa-permits">{{Cite web |title=FAA {{!}} Commercial Space Data {{!}} Permitted Launches |url=https://www.faa.gov/data_research/commercial_space_data/launches/?type=Permitted |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190421174346/https://www.faa.gov/data_research/commercial_space_data/launches/?type=Permitted |archive-date=21 April 2019 |access-date=7 August 2019 |publisher=FAA}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> This was not a full‑duration burn but a 22‑second test. SpaceX is developing their next‑generation rocket to be reusable from the beginning, just like an aircraft, and thus needs to start with narrow flight test objectives, while still aiming to land the rocket successfully to be used subsequently in further tests to expand the flight envelope.<ref name=nsf20190725/> The second and final untethered test flight of the ''Starhopper'' test article was carried out on 27 August 2019, to a VTVL altitude of {{cvt|150|m}}.<ref name="nsf20190826a">{{Cite web |last=Baylor |first=Michael |date=27 August 2019 |title=SpaceX's Starhopper completes 150 meter test hop |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/08/faa-spacexs-starhopper-hop/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202121340/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/08/faa-spacexs-starhopper-hop/ |archive-date=2 December 2019 |access-date=27 August 2019 |publisher=NASASpaceFlight}}</ref>

==== Low‑altitude prototypes ====
[[File:Starship sn5.jpg|thumb|SN5 being moved by a crane onto a stand before test flight]]
Construction of the [[Mark (designation)|Mark]] 1 (Mk1) in Boca Chica, Texas and Mark 2 (Mk2) in Cocoa, Florida began in December 2018.<ref name="nsf20190528">{{Cite news |last=Gray |first=Tyler |date=28 May 2019 |title=SpaceX ramps up operations in South Texas as Hopper tests loom |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/05/spacex-ramps-up-hopper-tests-loom/ |url-status=live |access-date=30 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609123614/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2019/05/spacex-ramps-up-hopper-tests-loom/ |archive-date=9 June 2019}}</ref><ref name="musk20181222">{{Cite tweet |number=1076611280700530688 |user=elonmusk |title=We're building subsections of the Starship Mk1 orbital design there in [San Pedro] |author-link=Elon Musk |date=22 December 2018}}</ref> Planned for high‑altitude and high‑velocity testing,<ref name="musk20190110">{{Cite tweet |number=1083575233423003648 |user=elonmusk |title=Should be done with first orbital prototype around June |author-link=Elon Musk |date=10 January 2019}}</ref> the prototypes were described to be taller than the ''Starhopper'', have thinner skins, and a smoothly curving nose section.<ref name="nsf20190528" /><ref name="bi20190111">{{Cite news |last=Kanter |first=Jake |date=11 January 2019 |title=Elon Musk released a photo of his latest rocket, and it already delivers on his promise of looking like liquid silver |publisher=Business Insider |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-released-a-photo-spacexs-test-hopper-rocket-2019-1 |url-status=live |access-date=13 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190112220819/https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-released-a-photo-spacexs-test-hopper-rocket-2019-1 |archive-date=12 January 2019}}</ref> Like Starhopper, the vehicles measured {{cvt|9|m}} in diameter but were full‑height at approximately {{cvt|50|m}}, making them the first full‑size Starship prototypes.<ref name="Wall Sep30">[https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-reach-orbit-six-months.html 'Totally Nuts'? Elon Musk Aims to Put a Starship in Orbit in 6 Months. Here's SpaceX's Plan.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001170638/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-reach-orbit-six-months.html|date=1 October 2019}} Mike Wall, ''Space.com'', 30 September 2019</ref> On 20 November 2019, the Starship Mk1 was partially destroyed during max pressure tank testing, when the forward LOX tank ruptured along a weld line of the craft's steel structure, propelling the bulkhead several meters upwards. The upper bulkhead went airborne and landed some distance away from the craft. No injuries were reported.<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 November 2019 |title=Watch SpaceX's Starship Mk1 partially explode during test |url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/business/2019/11/21/spacex-mk1-partially-explodes-texas-test.cnn-business/video/playlists/business-news/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191123101742/https://edition.cnn.com/videos/business/2019/11/21/spacex-mk1-partially-explodes-texas-test.cnn-business/video/playlists/business-news/ |archive-date=23 November 2019 |access-date=21 November 2019 |website=cnn.com}}</ref> After the incident, SpaceX decided not to repair and retest Mk1. Both Mk1 and Mk2 were retired and focus turned to the Mk3 and Mk4 builds which were designed for orbit.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Grush |first=Loren |date=20 November 2019 |title=SpaceX's prototype Starship rocket partially bursts during testing in Texas |url=https://www.theverge.com/2019/11/20/20974884/spacex-starship-rocket-prototype-failure-test-texas |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121085720/https://www.theverge.com/2019/11/20/20974884/spacex-starship-rocket-prototype-failure-test-texas |archive-date=21 November 2019 |access-date=21 November 2019 |publisher=The Verge}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Spaceflight |first=Mike Wall 2019-11-20T23:16:59Z |title=SpaceX's 1st Full-Size Starship Prototype Suffers Anomaly in Pressure Test |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-prototype-anomaly-pressure-test.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121070633/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-prototype-anomaly-pressure-test.html |archive-date=21 November 2019 |access-date=21 November 2019 |website=space.com}}</ref>

The prototype in Texas (Mk3) was renamed to SN1 ([[serial number]] 1). It was destroyed in February 2020 during a pressure test when the tank ruptured near the thrust puck.<ref name="SN1destruction">{{Cite news |title=SpaceX's Starship SN1 prototype appears to burst during pressure test |url=https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn1-prototype-bursts-videos.html |url-status=live |access-date=1 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301004628/https://www.space.com/spacex-starship-sn1-prototype-bursts-videos.html |archive-date=1 March 2020}}</ref> The thrust puck serves as both the lower dome of the fuel tank and the mount for the Raptor engines. After this incident, SpaceX built SN2 as a scaled down test tank to focus testing on the structure of the thrust puck. SN2 successfully passed the pressure and cryogenic tests proving the design changes.<ref name="dodd202011" /> SpaceX returned to full size prototype testing with SN3 which failed the cryogenic proof test. During testing the LOX (Liquid Oxygen) Tank experienced a loss of pressure and collapsed due to bad commanding in the test sequence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 April 2020 |title=Starship SN3 failure due to bad commanding. SN4 already under construction |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/spacex-starship-sn3-ground-flight-testing/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200422214616/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/04/spacex-starship-sn3-ground-flight-testing/ |archive-date=22 April 2020 |access-date=25 April 2020 |publisher=NASASpaceFlight}}</ref> SN4 successfully completed a cryogenic pressure test on 26 April 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |date=27 April 2020 |title=Starship passes key pressurization test |url=https://spacenews.com/starship-passes-key-pressurization-test/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190002/https://spacenews.com/starship-passes-key-pressurization-test/ |archive-date=2 September 2020 |access-date=27 April 2020 |website=spacenews.com}}</ref> but exploded a few weeks later after a successful engine test when SpaceX tested a new "quick disconnect" design as part of [[ground support equipment]] testing. After passing all pad tests, SN5 completed a 150 m hop on 4 August 2020, descending to a nearby landing pad. This marked the first successful launch and landing of a prototype with full‑height propellant tanks.<ref name="inverse">{{Cite web |title=SpaceX Starship: Elon Musk Outlines Next Steps for 'crazy tall' Ship |url=https://www.inverse.com/innovation/spacex-starship-elon-musk-outlines-next-steps |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812140110/https://www.inverse.com/innovation/spacex-starship-elon-musk-outlines-next-steps |archive-date=12 August 2020 |access-date=15 August 2020}}</ref><ref name="sfn-20200805">{{Cite news |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=5 August 2020 |title=SpaceX clears big hurdle on next-gen Starship rocket program |publisher=Spaceflight Now |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/08/05/spacex-clears-big-hurdle-on-next-gen-starship-rocket-program/ |url-status=live |access-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806154519/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/08/05/spacex-clears-big-hurdle-on-next-gen-starship-rocket-program/ |archive-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> SN6 performed the same flight test plan just one month later.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/09/starship-sn6-hop-super-heavy-coming/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200904040435/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2020/09/starship-sn6-hop-super-heavy-coming/ |archive-date=4 September 2020 |access-date=4 September 2020}}</ref>

==== High‑altitude prototypes====
[[File:SpaceX Boca Chica Launch Pad - SN9.jpg|thumb|Starship SN9 sitting on the launch pad awaiting its test flight]]
High‑altitude prototypes include installation of the nose cone and aerodynamic surfaces allowing testing of ascent, controlled engine cutoff, vehicle reorientation, controlled descent, the flip maneuver and landing.<ref name="nsf20201209" />

SN8 was the first high‑altitude prototype to perform a test flight. On 9 December 2020, SN8 launched and ascended to an altitude of {{cvt|12.5|km|ft}}. During ascent, the three Raptor engines were cut one by one allowing the rocket to perform a successful and novel [[skydiver|skydiver‑like]] horizontal descent. As the vehicle neared the ground, it used a combination of aerodynamic surfaces and engine gimbaling to rotate back to a vertical position for a propulsive landing attempt. Lower than expected pressure in the methane header tank following the rapid rotation caused inadequate final deceleration and a [[hard landing]] resulted in an explosion on the landing pad and total destruction of the test vehicle.<ref name="ars20201209">{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=9 December 2020 |title=So, it turns out SpaceX is pretty good at rocketing |work=[[Ars Technica]] |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/12/starship-rises-high-performs-a-flawless-flip-but-doesnt-quite-stick-the-landing/ |access-date=10 December 2020 |archive-date=10 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210002117/https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/12/starship-rises-high-performs-a-flawless-flip-but-doesnt-quite-stick-the-landing/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

SN9 and SN10 both followed the same general test flight plan. SN9's flight took it to {{cvt|10|km|ft}}, on 2 February 2021. The flight went well up until the landing, where one of the Raptor engines did not relight causing a failure to counteract the momentum of the landing flip maneuver. This failure caused SN9 to slam into the ground diagonally and explode.<ref name="sheetz202102" /> SN10 performed the same test profile, but used all three engines for the final flip maneuver successfully decelerating enough to land intact. Several minutes after the landing the Starship exploded and was tossed in the air, before slamming down on its side on the landing pad.<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 March 2021 |title=SpaceX Starship lands upright, then explodes in latest test |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2021/03/04/spacex-starship-explodes-after-landing-upright-latest-test/6918852002/ |access-date=11 March 2021 |website=USA Today |publisher=USA Today |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309234522/https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/2021/03/04/spacex-starship-explodes-after-landing-upright-latest-test/6918852002/ |url-status=live }}</ref> SpaceX CEO Elon Musk later revealed that the single Raptor engine that was used for the final landing burn couldn't reach high thrust despite being commanded to do so, thus SN10's landing was harder than intended. The cause of the low thrust is probably due to partial helium ingestion from the fuel header tank.<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=elonmusk |number=1369379914139451406 | title=SN10 engine was low on thrust due (probably) to partial helium ingestion from fuel header tank. Impact of 10m/s crushed legs & part of skirt. Multiple fixes in work for SN11.}}</ref>

SN11 was launched to 10 km on 30 March 2021, as heavy fog covered the launch site. Telemetry was lost about 5 minutes and 49 seconds after launch as the vehicle disintegrated during its landing attempt.<ref>{{Cite tweet |user=elonmusk |number=1376891464333017090 |title=Looks like engine 2 had issues on ascent & didn’t reach operating chamber pressure during landing burn, but, in theory, it wasn’t needed. Something significant happened shortly after landing burn start. Should know what it was once we can examine the bits later today.}}</ref> The explosion was caused by a methane leak in one of the Raptor engines, which led to a malfunction when it attempted to relight for the landing burn.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bergin|first=Chris|date=2021-04-08|title=Starship SN15 rolls to launch site as Raptor testing ups a gear|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/04/starship-sn15-rollout-raptor-testing/|access-date=2021-04-09|website=NASASpaceFlight.com|language=en-US|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411213856/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/04/starship-sn15-rollout-raptor-testing/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Testing program ====
{{see also|Starship development history#Starship and Super Heavy}}
{{transcluded section|source=List of Starship flights|part=yes}}
Starship prototypes are subjected to several tests on the launch stand before flight testing. These include the ''ambient-temperature pressure test'', ''cryogenic proof test'', and [[Launch_vehicle_system_tests#Static_fire|static fire]] of the engines. During the ''ambient-temperature pressure test'' the test article's propellant tanks are filled with benign air‑temperature [[Nitrogen|nitrogen gas]]. This test checks for leaks, verifies basic vehicle valve and plumbing performance, and ensure a basic level of structural integrity.<ref name="t_sn9">{{Cite web |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=30 December 2020 |title=SpaceX's next Starship gets frosty to prepare for first launch |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-sn9-frosty-first-launch-plans/ |access-date=1 January 2021 |website=Teslarati |quote=... what is generally known as an ambient temperature pressure test, filling Starship SN9's propellant tanks with benign air-temperature nitrogen gas. Used to check for leaks, verify basic vehicle valve and plumbing performance, and ensure a basic level of structural integrity ... SpaceX started loading its oxygen and methane tanks with liquid nitrogen around 2:30 pm CST (UTC-6). While used similarly to verify structural integrity like an ambient pressure test, a 'cryo proof' adds the challenge of thermal stresses to ensure that Starship can safely load, hold, and offload supercool liquids. ...&nbspIn a first, Starship SN9 was transported to the launch pad last week with two of three central Raptor engines already installed and had that missing third engine installed within a few days of arrival. SN9 is also the first Starship to attempt its first proof tests with any Raptor – let alone three – installed. |archive-date=1 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210101130312/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-sn9-frosty-first-launch-plans/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The ''ambient-temperature pressure test'' is followed by the ''cryogenic proof test'' where the vehicle's oxygen and methane tanks are loaded with [[liquid nitrogen]]. This also tests structural integrity but adds the challenge of thermal stresses to ensure that Starship can safely load, hold, and offload supercool liquids.<ref name="t_sn9" /> SN9 was the first prototype to arrive at the test stand with engines already installed.<ref name="t_sn9" /> For previous test articles with thrust structures, a hydraulic ram was attached to the thrust puck to simulate the thrust of one, two, or three Raptor engines.<ref name="t_202115">{{Cite web |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=15 January 2021 |title=SpaceX returns to Starship program roots with new 'test tank' prototype |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-program-new-test-tank-assembly/ |access-date=26 January 2021 |website=Teslarati |quote=... went through similar testing but included the use of a hydraulic ram designed to simulate the thrust of one, two, or three Raptors on the 'thrust puck' those engines would otherwise attach to. |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126180152/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-program-new-test-tank-assembly/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
SN4 was the first full scale prototype to pass the ''cryogenic proof test''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Leman |first=Jennifer |date=27 April 2020 |title=SpaceX's Starship Prototype Finally Nailed a Crucial Test |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/rockets/a32287555/starship-sn4-success/ |access-date=26 January 2021 |website=Popular Mechanics |quote=... the tank had aced its cryogenic proof test—a feat that has eluded previous full-scale prototypes. |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125110735/https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/rockets/a32287555/starship-sn4-success/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Finally a ''static fire test'' is performed by loading [[Cryogenic fuel|liquid oxygen and liquid methane]] and firing the Raptor engines briefly while Starship is held down on the test stand.

{{trim|{{#section-h:List of Starship flights|Starship test flights}}}}

== {{anchor|Super Heavy}}''Super Heavy'' booster==
[[File:Super heavy-lift launch vehicles.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Comparison of [[super heavy-lift launch vehicle|super heavy‑lift launch vehicle]]s. Masses listed are the maximum payload to [[low Earth orbit]] in metric tons.]]

The booster stage '''Super Heavy''' is expected to be {{cvt|72|m}} long and {{cvt|9|m}} in diameter.
It is to be constructed of stainless steel tanks and structure, holding [[Subcooled propellant|subcooled]] liquid methane and liquid oxygen ({{chem2|CH4}}/LOX) propellants, powered by 28 [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor rocket engines]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mack |first=Eric |title=Elon Musk: SpaceX starting on 'Super Heavy' booster for Starship rocket bound for Mars |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/elon-musk-spacex-starting-on-powerful-super-heavy-rocket-booster-to-power-mars-trip/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200908232431/https://www.cnet.com/news/elon-musk-spacex-starting-on-powerful-super-heavy-rocket-booster-to-power-mars-trip/ |archive-date=8 September 2020 |access-date=26 September 2020 |website=cnet.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1300699036505247744|url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1300699036505247744|access-date=2021-04-14|website=Twitter|language=en|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414170026/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1300699036505247744|url-status=live}}</ref>  that will provide {{cvt|72000|kN}} total liftoff thrust.<ref name="teslarati20192809">{{Cite web |last=Groh |first=Jamie |title=SpaceX debuts Starship's new Super Heavy booster design |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-ceo-elon-musk-debuts-starships-new-super-heavy-booster-design/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207110117/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-ceo-elon-musk-debuts-starships-new-super-heavy-booster-design/ |archive-date=7 December 2019 |access-date=29 September 2019 |website=teslarati.com}}</ref><ref name="sx20200524"/>
The specification propellant capacity of Super Heavy was shown as {{cvt|3400|t|lb}} in May 2020,<ref name="sx20200524">{{Cite web |title=Starship : Official SpaceX Starship Page |url=https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522145915/https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship/ |archive-date=22 May 2020 |access-date=24 May 2020 |publisher=SpaceX}}</ref> 3% more than in the earlier high-level design as of September 2019.<ref name="sx20200524"/>

The initial prototype Super Heavy will be full size.<ref name="musk20190317">{{Cite web |last=Musk |first=Elon |date=17 March 2019 |title=Full size |url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1107374051410886656 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622012549/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1107374051410886656 |archive-date=22 June 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> It is expected however, to initially fly with less than the full complement of 28<ref name="musk20200503">{{Cite web |title=Elon Musk: Super Heavy will have 31 engines, not 37 |url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1256857873897803776 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508181622/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1256857873897803776 |archive-date=8 May 2020 |access-date=3 May 2020 |website=twitter.com}}</ref> engines.<ref name="musk20190523">{{Cite web |last=Musk |first=Elon |date=23 May 2019 |title=First flights would have fewer, so as to risk less loss of hardware. Probably around 20. |url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1131625229367693312 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190921092652/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1131625229367693312 |archive-date=21 September 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref>

The Super Heavy external design changed throughout 2019/2020 as the detailed design was iterated and the Raptor engines were tested and achieved higher power levels. In September 2019, a design change for the booster stage to have six fins that serve exclusively<ref name="spacex20190928">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sOpMrVnjYeY |title=Starship Update |date=28 September 2019 |last=Elon Musk |publisher=SpaceX |time=1:45 |access-date=30 September 2019 |medium=video |via=YouTube}}</ref>{{rp|26:25–28:35}} as fairings to cover the six landing legs, and four diamond‑shaped welded steel [[grid fin]]s<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1179799146464628736 |user=elonmusk |title=Welded steel |date=3 October 2019 |first=Elon |last=Musk}}</ref> to provide aerodynamic control on descent, was discussed.<ref name="trati20190928">{{Cite news |last=Groh |first=Jamie |date=28 September 2019 |title=SpaceX debuts Starship's new Super Heavy booster design |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-ceo-elon-musk-debuts-starships-new-super-heavy-booster-design/ |url-status=live |access-date=30 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207110117/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-ceo-elon-musk-debuts-starships-new-super-heavy-booster-design/ |archive-date=7 December 2019}}</ref> In August 2020, as the first build of "booster prototype 1" was to get underway,<ref name=sn20200901/> Musk noted that the leg design had been modified to just four landing legs and fins, to improve supersonic engine plume re‑circulation margins.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Musk, Elon [@elonmusk] (30 August 2020). "Booster design has shifted to four legs with a wider stance (to avoid engine plume impingement in vacuum), rather than six" (Tweet) |url=https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1299839516065234944 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200829224142/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1299839516065234944 |archive-date=29 August 2020 |access-date=4 September 2020 |website=twitter.com}}</ref>

=== Landing ===
In September 2016, Elon Musk described the possibility of landing the ITS booster on the launch mount.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Elon Musk |date=28 September 2016 |title=Making Humans a Multiplanetary Species |url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=H7Uyfqi_TE8 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109181647/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H7Uyfqi_TE8 |archive-date=9 January 2020 |access-date=27 January 2020 |publisher=SpaceX}}</ref> He re‑described this concept in September 2017 with the Big Falcon Booster (BFB).<ref name="nsf20180809">{{Cite news |last=Gaynor |first=Phillip |date=9 August 2018 |title=The Evolution of the Big Falcon Rocket |publisher=NASASpaceFlight.com |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/08/evolution-big-falcon-rocket/ |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817161710/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2018/08/evolution-big-falcon-rocket/ |archive-date=17 August 2018}}</ref><ref name=musk201803journal/><ref name="sn20171015b">{{Cite news |last=Jeff Foust |date=15 October 2017 |title=Musk offers more technical details on BFR system |publisher=SpaceNews |url=http://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |url-status=live |access-date=15 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190019/https://spacenews.com/musk-offers-more-technical-details-on-bfr-system/ |archive-date=2 September 2020 |quote=[Musk wrote,] "The flight engine design is much lighter and tighter, and is extremely focused on reliability"}}</ref><ref name=68IAC-trans/> In 2019, Musk announced that the booster would initially have landing legs to support the early [[VTVL]] development testing of Super Heavy.<ref name="musk20190326">{{Cite tweet |number=1110575556335042560 |user=elonmusk |title=Yes, otherwise propellant usage for an atmospheric entry would be very high and/or center of mass would need to be very tightly constrained. Yes, but we're going to skip that at first to avoid fragging launch pads. |date=26 March 2019 |first=Elon |last=Musk}}</ref><ref name="musk20190207">{{Cite tweet |number=1093645444456935425 |user=elonmusk |title=Prob wise for version 1 to have legs or we will frag a lot of launch pads |date=7 February 2019 |first=Elon |last=Musk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=SpaceX Super Heavy block 1 will have landing legs as Starship |url=https://www.humanmars.net/2019/02/spacex-super-heavy-block-1-will-have.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901110314/https://www.humanmars.net/2019/02/spacex-super-heavy-block-1-will-have.html |archive-date=1 September 2019 |access-date=3 December 2019}}</ref> More recently, Musk had again expressed the long term goal of landing on the launch mount.<ref name=trati20201230/> In December 2020, Musk added the possibility of catching the booster by the grid fins using the launch tower arm, eliminating the need for landing legs entirely and simplifying recovery processes.<ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1344327757916868608 |user=elonmusk |title=We're going to try to catch the Super Heavy Booster with the launch tower arm, using the grid fins to take the load |date=30 December 2020 |first=Elon |last=Musk}}</ref><ref name="trati20201230">{{Cite news |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=30 December 2020 |title=SpaceX Starship boosters could forgo landings entirely, says Elon Musk |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-super-heavy-booster-recovery/ |access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=30 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201230202456/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-super-heavy-booster-recovery/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet |number=1344342598694047744 |user=elonmusk |title=[Catching SuperHeavy] saves mass & cost of legs & enables immediate repositioning of booster on to launch mount — ready to refly in under an hour |date=30 December 2020 |first=Elon |last=Musk}}</ref>

=== Prototypes===
In late 2020, the segments of the first booster, codenamed BN1 were observed at Boca Chica.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=9 November 2020 |title=SpaceX begins assembling first Starship Super Heavy booster in South Texas |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-first-super-heavy-booster-assembly/ |access-date=15 November 2020 |website=Teslarati |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112194013/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-starship-first-super-heavy-booster-assembly/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In March 2021, Elon Musk indicated he was hopeful that the first orbital flight could be made as early as July 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=2021-03-15 |title=Starship SN11 prepares to fly as SpaceX pushes for Orbital flight this summer |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/03/starship-sn11-spacex-orbital-flight-summer/ |access-date=2021-03-17 |website=NASASpaceFlight.com |language=en-US |archive-date=17 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210317175529/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2021/03/starship-sn11-spacex-orbital-flight-summer/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The two segments of BN1 were stacked together in the High Bay for the first time on 18 March 2021.<ref>Mary, @BocaChicaGal (March 18, 2021) https://twitter.com/bocachicagal/status/1372659329812340746?s=21 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418113354/https://twitter.com/bocachicagal/status/1372659329812340746?s=21 |date=18 April 2021 }} Tweet – @Twitter</ref> The first booster is a production pathfinder and will also help develop transport processes from the Boca Chica build area to the launch/landing area.<ref>@elonmusk (March 18, 2021) https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1372695421487824903?s=21 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418113354/https://twitter.com/elonmusk/status/1372695421487824903?s=21 |date=18 April 2021 }} Tweet – Twitter</ref>

== Intended uses ==
===Orbital launches===
Starship is intended to become the primary SpaceX orbital vehicle.
SpaceX intends to eventually replace its existing Falcon 9 and [[SpaceX Dragon 2]] fleet with Starship, which is expected to take cargo to orbit at far lower cost than any other existing launch vehicle.<ref name="nsf20170929">{{Cite news |last=Chris Gebhardt |date=29 September 2017 |title=The Moon, Mars, and around the Earth – Musk updates BFR architecture, plans |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/09/the-moon-mars-earth-musk-updates-bfr-plans/ |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001081759/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2017/09/the-moon-mars-earth-musk-updates-bfr-plans/ |archive-date=1 October 2017}}</ref><ref name=musk201803journal/><ref name="musk20170929" />{{rp|24:50–27:05}}
In November 2019, Elon Musk estimated that fuel will cost US$900,000 per launch and total launch costs could drop as low as US$2 million.<ref>{{Cite news |date=6 November 2019 |title=Elon Musk says SpaceX's Starship could fly for as little as $2 million per launch |url=https://techcrunch.com/2019/11/06/elon-musk-says-spacexs-starship-could-fly-for-as-little-as-2-million-per-launch/ |url-status=live |access-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107072234/https://techcrunch.com/2019/11/06/elon-musk-says-spacexs-starship-could-fly-for-as-little-as-2-million-per-launch/ |archive-date=7 November 2019}}</ref>

In addition to the [[Space launch market competition|commercial launch market]] that SpaceX has been servicing since 2013, the company intends to use Starship to launch the largest portion of its own internet satellite constellation, [[Starlink]], with more than 12,000 satellites intended to be launched by 2026, more than six times the total number of active satellites on orbit in 2018.<ref name="tmf20181208">{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Rich |date=8 December 2018 |title=A Renamed BFR Could Be Key to SpaceX's Satellite Internet Dream |publisher=The Motley Fool |url=https://www.fool.com/investing/2018/12/08/renamed-bfr-could-be-key-spacexs-satellite-interne.aspx |url-status=live |access-date=6 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327001802/https://www.fool.com/investing/2018/12/08/renamed-bfr-could-be-key-spacexs-satellite-interne.aspx |archive-date=27 March 2019}}</ref> An orbital launch of Starship could place ~400 Starlink satellites into orbit with a single launch, whereas the Falcon 9 flights in 2019‑2020 can launch only ~60.<ref name=cnbc20200901/>

===Other space missions===
Starship is an architecture designed to do many diverse spaceflight missions, principally due to the very low [[marginal cost]] per mission that the fully‑reusable spaceflight vehicles bring to spaceflight technology that were absent in the first six decades after humans put technology into space.<ref name=cummings20200611a/>{{rp|30:10–31:30}} Specifically, in addition to orbital launches, Starship is designed to be used for:{{r|nsf20170929|nsf20180809}}
* Long‑duration spaceflights to [[outer space]], beyond the earth‑moon system.
* Sending crew such as space tourists to the [[International Space Station]], the [[Lunar Gateway]], and other orbital installations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Archived copy |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/rockets/news/a28440/spacex-new-rocket-design-mars-moon-earth-flights-plane/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926160254/https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/rockets/news/a28440/spacex-new-rocket-design-mars-moon-earth-flights-plane/ |archive-date=26 September 2020 |access-date=25 September 2020}}</ref>
* Mars transportation, as cargo and passenger transports.
* Long‑duration flights to the outer planets of the [[Solar System]], for cargo and astronauts.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Rincon |first=Paul |date=4 March 2021 |title=What is Elon Musk's Starship? |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55564448 |access-date=20 March 2021 |archive-date=16 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210316143042/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-55564448 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Reusable lunar lander "Starship Human Landing System" (Starship HLS), to transport astronauts and cargo to the Moon's surface and back to the [[Lunar Gateway|Gateway]] in [[lunar orbit]];<ref name=nsf20200501/> as well as more advanced heavy cargo lunar use cases that are envisioned by SpaceX but are not any part of the HLS variant that NASA has contracted with SpaceX for early design work.<ref name="cummings20200611a">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KEnz8V97Qck&t=2100 |title=Human Landing System: Putting Boots Back on the Moon |date=11 June 2020 |last=Cummings |first=Nick |publisher=American Astronautical Society |access-date=12 June 2020 |via=YouTube}}</ref>{{rp|13:34–20:10}}

===Long‑haul Earth transport===
In 2017, SpaceX mentioned the theoretical possibility of using Starship to carry passengers on suborbital flights between two points on Earth. Any two points on Earth could be connected in under one hour, providing commercial long‑haul transport competing with long‑range aircraft.<ref name="cnbc20190318">{{Cite news |last=Sheetz |first=Michael |date=18 March 2019 |title=Super fast travel using outer space could be $20 billion market, disrupting airlines, UBS predicts |publisher=CNBC |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/18/ubs-space-travel-and-space-tourism-a-23-billion-business-in-a-decade.html |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029110228/https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/18/ubs-space-travel-and-space-tourism-a-23-billion-business-in-a-decade.html |archive-date=29 October 2019}}</ref><ref name="spacexE2E20170928">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zqE-ultsWt0 |title=Starship {{pipe}} Earth to Earth |date=28 September 2017 |last=Elon Musk |publisher=SpaceX |time=1:45 |access-date=30 March 2019 |medium=video |via=YouTube}}</ref> SpaceX however announced no concrete plans to pursue the two stage "Earth‑to‑Earth" use case.<ref name="musk20170929">{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tdUX3ypDVwI |title=Becoming a Multiplanet Species |date=29 September 2017 |last=Elon Musk |publisher=SpaceX |place=68th annual meeting of the International Astronautical Congress in Adelaide, Australia |access-date=14 December 2017 |medium=video |via=YouTube}}</ref><ref name=sn20171015c/><ref name="rollingstone20171115">{{Cite news |last=Neil Strauss |date=15 November 2017 |title=Elon Musk: The Architect of Tomorrow |publisher=Rolling Stone |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747 |url-status=live |access-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311233225/https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/features/elon-musk-inventors-plans-for-outer-space-cars-finding-love-w511747 |archive-date=11 March 2018}}</ref>

Over two years later, in May 2019, Musk floated the idea of using single‑stage Starship to travel up to {{cvt|10000|km}} on Earth‑to‑Earth flights at speeds approaching {{cvt|20|Mach|km/h mph|sigfig=2}} with an acceptable payload saying it "dramatically improves cost, complexity and ease of operations".<ref name="trati20190530">{{Cite news |last=Ralph |first=Eric |date=30 May 2019 |title=SpaceX CEO Elon Musk wants to use Starships as Earth-to-Earth transports |publisher=Teslarati |url=https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-elon-musk-wants-starship-spaceliners/ |url-status=live |access-date=31 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530233210/https://www.teslarati.com/spacex-elon-musk-wants-starship-spaceliners/ |archive-date=30 May 2019}}</ref>
In June 2020, Musk estimated that Earth‑to‑Earth test flights could begin in "2 or 3 years", i.e. 2022 or 2023, and that planning was underway for "floating superheavy‑class spaceports for Mars, Moon and hypersonic travel around Earth".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mosher |first=Dave |date=16 June 2020 |title=Elon Musk: 'SpaceX is building floating, superheavy-class spaceports' for its Starship rocket to reach the moon, Mars, and fly passengers around Earth |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-spacex-starship-ocean-spaceports-offshore-engineer-job-posting-2020-6 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617073600/https://www.businessinsider.com/elon-musk-spacex-starship-ocean-spaceports-offshore-engineer-job-posting-2020-6 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |access-date=16 June 2020 |publisher=Business Insider}}</ref>

In April 2021, [[Chief operating officer|COO]] [[Gwynne Shotwell]] clarified that she believes SpaceX "will be flying large numbers of people on Starship in five years ... including point-to-point transportation between two locations on Earth".<ref name=sn20210415>{{cite news |title=SpaceX adds to latest funding round |url=https://spacenews.com/spacex-adds-to-latest-funding-round/ |last=Foust |first=Jeff |work=[[SpaceNews]] |date=15 April 2021 |accessdate=15 April 2021 |archive-date=18 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418113252/https://spacenews.com/spacex-adds-to-latest-funding-round/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Funding ==
SpaceX has been developing the Starship system with [[Capital (economics)|private funding]], including the [[SpaceX Raptor|Raptor rocket engine]] used on both stages of the vehicle, since 2012.<ref name="ars20190929">{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=29 September 2019 |title=Elon Musk, Man of Steel, reveals his stainless Starship |publisher=Ars Technica |url=https://arstechnica.com/features/2019/09/after-starship-unveiling-mars-seems-a-little-closer/ |url-status=live |access-date=30 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191228174451/https://arstechnica.com/features/2019/09/after-starship-unveiling-mars-seems-a-little-closer/ |archive-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> After 2016, SpaceX has contracted to supply specific development and operational work for the US government. These have included building a single custom-order prototype Raptor engine for the USAF in 2016-2018, and in 2020, NASA contracting for SpaceX to do a year of development work for a special modified Starship second stage that could be used for Lunar passenger and cargo transport from the NASA [[Lunar Gateway]] space station to the surface of the Moon and return. NASA also signed a contract in 2020 for a special in-space cryogenic propellant-transfer demonstration mission. None of these contracts were funding for the mainline development of the Starship system. In 2021, NASA also awarded two operational lunar flights to SpaceX using a special lunar variant of Starship called [[Starship HLS]], as well as some{{how much|date=April 2021}} development funding to support lunar vehicle and engine development.<ref name=ars20210416/>

The [[New product development|development]] work on the new two-stage launch vehicle design has been nearly entirely [[Private spaceflight|privately funded]] by SpaceX.<ref name=ars20210416/> The entire project is possible only as a result of SpaceX's multi-faceted approach focusing on the reduction of launch [[cost]]s.<ref name="nsf20160927a">{{cite web|last1=Bergin|first1=Chris|last2=Gebhardt|first2=Chris|url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2016/09/spacex-reveals-mars-game-changer-colonization-plan/|title=SpaceX reveals ITS Mars game changer via colonization plan|publisher=NASASpaceFlight|date=27 September 2016|access-date=5 May 2020|archive-date=13 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713031720/http://2016/09/spacex-reveals-mars-game-changer-colonization-plan/|url-status=live}}</ref> However, the full build-out of the Mars colonization plans—after Starship initial development—was envisioned by Musk in 2016 to be ultimately funded by [[Public–private partnership|both private and public funds]]. The speed of commercially available Mars transport for both cargo and humans will be driven, in large part, by [[Demand|market demand]] as well as constrained by the [[Supply (economics)|technology development and development funding]].

In 2016, Musk said that the company had no expectation of receiving NASA contracts for any of the development work SpaceX was doing. He also indicated then that such contracts, if received, would be good.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marcia Smith on Twitter: "Musk: no expectation of any future NASA contracts. If get them good, if not, not so good, but no expectation". |url=https://twitter.com/SpcPlcyOnline/status/780894498893225984 |date=27 September 2016 |accessdate= 13 February 2021 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902190012/https://twitter.com/SpcPlcyOnline/status/780894498893225984|archive-date=2 September 2020 }}</ref> In January 2016 the US Air Force contracted with SpaceX US$33.7 million to develop a [[Raptor prototype upper-stage engine|prototype Raptor engine for a methalox upper stage for Falcon 9 and Falcon Heavy]], with up to a further US$61.4 million available for additional USAF requirements. SpaceX has no plans to develop a methalox second stage for the Falcon launch vehicles, but the Air Force wanted this technology to be developed.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.parabolicarc.com/2016/01/18/spacex-air-force-funding-infusion-raptor-engine/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=4 March 2021 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108124724/http://www.parabolicarc.com/2016/01/18/spacex-air-force-funding-infusion-raptor-engine/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2017, the company settled on a 9-meter diameter design and commenced procuring equipment for vehicle manufacturing operations. In late 2018, they switched the design from [[Carbon fiber reinforced polymer|carbon composite]] materials for the main structures to [[stainless steel]], but entirely done by ordinary company economic incentives to further lower build costs.<ref name=wired20180918/> without requiring review by NASA or US government sources.

Beginning in 2019, SpaceX began to offer specific services to potential future customers using Starship/Super Heavy/Raptor technology, and such product offerings can result in [[revenue]] to the company from this line of technologies, even while development is continuing. In June 2019, SpaceX indicated they could potentially launch commercial payloads using Starship as early as 2021,<ref name=sn20190628/> which often results in the [[Revenue recognition in spaceflight systems|recognition of revenue]] before a flight is launched. By late 2019, SpaceX projected that, with company private investment funding, including contractual funds from [[Yusaku Maezawa]] who has contracted for a private lunar mission, they had sufficient funds to advance the Earth‑orbit and lunar‑orbit extent of Starship flight operations, although they could choose to raise additional funds in order "to go to the Moon or landing on Mars".<ref name=ars20190929/>

In April 2020, [[NASA]] announced they would pay SpaceX US$135 million for initial design work of a variation of the Starship second‑stage vehicle and spaceship—a "Starship Human Landing System", or [[Starship HLS]]—as one of three potential Lunar human landing systems for the NASA [[Artemis program]]<ref name=nasapr-20200430/><ref name="ars20200430">{{Cite news |last=Berger |first=Eric |date=30 April 2020 |title=NASA awards lunar lander contracts to Blue Origin, Dynetics—and Starship |publisher=Ars Technica |url=https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/04/nasa-awards-lunar-lander-contracts-to-blue-origin-dynetics-and-starship/ |url-status=live |access-date=15 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200513224239/https://arstechnica.com/science/2020/04/nasa-awards-lunar-lander-contracts-to-blue-origin-dynetics-and-starship/ |archive-date=13 May 2020}}</ref>
In October 2020, NASA awarded SpaceX US$53.2 million to conduct a large scale flight demonstration to transfer 10 metric tons of cryogenic propellant between the tanks of two Starship vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hall |first=Loura |date=13 October 2020 |title=2020 NASA Tipping Point Selections |url=http://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping_points/2020_selections |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201019084046/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/spacetech/solicitations/tipping_points/2020_selections/ |archive-date=19 October 2020 |access-date=19 October 2020 |publisher=NASA}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>

On 16 April 2021, NASA selected SpaceX's Starship for the [[Artemis_program#Human_Landing_System |Artemis human landing system]].<ref name="WaPoApril16">{{cite news |last1=Davenport |first1=Christian |title=Elon Musk’s SpaceX wins contract to develop spacecraft to land astronauts on the moon |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/04/16/nasa-lunar-lander-contract-spacex/ |access-date=16 April 2021 |work=Washington Post |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416175151/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/04/16/nasa-lunar-lander-contract-spacex/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The contract is valued at {{USD|2.89 billion}} over a number of years.<ref name=ars20210416/><ref name ="NASAannouncementApril16">{{Cite web|last=Brown|first=Katherine|date=2021-04-16|title=As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on Moon|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon|url-status=live|website=[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration|NASA.gov]]|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416221751/http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/}}</ref>

== Criticism ==
The Starship vehicle design has been criticized for not adequately protecting astronauts from [[ionizing radiation]] on Mars missions;<ref name="TheVerge" /><ref name="Mosher 2018">[https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-meeting-mars-mission-planning-workshop-2018-8 SpaceX is quietly planning Mars-landing missions with the help of NASA and other spaceflight experts. It's about time.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306135502/https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-meeting-mars-mission-planning-workshop-2018-8 |date=6 March 2019 }} Dave Mosher, ''Business Insider''. 11 August 2018. Quote: "Keeping the human body healthy in space is another challenge that Porterfield said SpaceX needs to figure out".</ref><ref name="Verge Oct2019">[https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/4/20895056/elon-musk-starship-spacex-human-health-life-support-radiation Elon Musk's future Starship updates could use more details on human health and survival.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008165907/https://www.theverge.com/2019/10/4/20895056/elon-musk-starship-spacex-human-health-life-support-radiation |date=8 October 2019 }} Loren Grush, ''The Verge''. 4 October 2019,</ref><ref name="Rolfe 2019">[https://theconversation.com/elon-musks-starship-may-be-more-moral-catastrophe-than-bold-step-in-space-exploration-124450 Elon Musk's Starship may be more moral catastrophe than bold step in space exploration.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227110030/http://theconversation.com/elon-musks-starship-may-be-more-moral-catastrophe-than-bold-step-in-space-exploration-124450 |date=27 December 2019 }} Samantha Rolfe, University of Hertfordshire, ''The Conversation''. 2 October 2019. Quote: "I'm not sure that it is fair or ethical to expect astronauts to be exposed to dangerous levels of radiation that could leave them with considerable health problems—or worse, imminent death".</ref> Musk has stated that he thinks the transit time to Mars will be too brief to lead to an increased risk of cancer, saying "it's not too big of a deal".<ref name="TheVerge">[https://www.theverge.com/2016/9/28/13087110/spacex-elon-musk-mars-plan-habitat-radiation-funding-questions The biggest lingering questions about SpaceX's Mars colonization plans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227020815/https://www.theverge.com/2016/9/28/13087110/spacex-elon-musk-mars-plan-habitat-radiation-funding-questions |date=27 December 2018 }}. Loren Grush, ''The Verge''. 28 September 2016. Quote: "The radiation thing is often brought up, but I think it's not too big of a deal".</ref><ref>[https://www.businessinsider.com/mars-radiation-levels-spacex-nasa-exposure-2018-4 The first Mars settlers may get blasted with radiation levels 8 times higher than government limits allow.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810004453/https://www.businessinsider.com/mars-radiation-levels-spacex-nasa-exposure-2018-4 |date=10 August 2019 }} Skye Gould and Dave Mosher, ''Business Insider''. Quote: "Ambient radiation damage is not significant for our transit times" - Elon Musk.</ref><ref>[https://www.geekwire.com/2017/spacex-elon-musk-bfr-reddit/ SpaceX's Elon Musk explains how his big rocket's short hops will lead to giant leaps.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010163802/https://www.geekwire.com/2017/spacex-elon-musk-bfr-reddit/ |date=10 October 2019 }} Alan Boyle, ''Geek Wire''. 14 October 2019. Quote: "Ambient radiation damage is not significant for our transit times", Musk replied. "Just need a solar storm shelter, which is a small part of the ship".</ref> The lifetime cancer risk increase caused by the dose incurred on a multi‑year Mars mission has been estimated to amount to a 5% increase in total cancer risk, a number which can be greatly reduced through simple shielding measures.<ref>{{Cite web |last=December 2013 |first=Mike Wall 09 |title=Radiation on Mars 'Manageable' for Manned Mission, Curiosity Rover Reveals |url=https://www.space.com/23875-mars-radiation-life-manned-mission.html |access-date=10 December 2020 |website=Space.com |language=en |archive-date=15 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201215082045/https://www.space.com/23875-mars-radiation-life-manned-mission.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Critics have also attacked the Starship test campaign at the [[SpaceX South Texas launch site]]. Debris from launch explosions has traveled over five miles downwind, leading residents to argue that it damages the surrounding ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-04-06|title=Public responds to SpaceX debris from SN11, still scattered across Boca Chica|url=https://www.kxan.com/news/texas/public-responds-to-spacex-debris-from-sn11-still-scattered-across-boca-chica/|access-date=2021-04-09|website=KXAN Austin|language=en-US|archive-date=6 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210406181628/https://www.kxan.com/news/texas/public-responds-to-spacex-debris-from-sn11-still-scattered-across-boca-chica/|url-status=live}}</ref> Environmental activists accuse SpaceX of not adhering to the conditions outlined in their original Environmental Impact Statement, and have urged the Environmental Protection Agency to require an updated EIS.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-01-03|title=SpaceX|url=https://www.sierraclub.org/texas/lower-rio-grande-valley/spacex|access-date=2021-04-09|website=Sierra Club|language=en|archive-date=3 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210403200737/https://www.sierraclub.org/texas/lower-rio-grande-valley/spacex|url-status=live}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
* [[List of Starship flights]]
* [[List of crewed spacecraft]]
* {{annotated link|Mars to Stay}}
* {{annotated link|Space colonization}}
* {{annotated link|Space exploration}}
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{Commonscatinline}}
* {{Official website|https://www.spacex.com/vehicles/starship}}

{{SpaceX}}
{{Crewed spacecraft}}
{{Cargo spacecraft}}
{{US human spaceflight programs}}
{{Artemis program}}

[[Category:SpaceX Starship| ]]
[[Category:Reusable launch systems]]
[[Category:VTVL rockets]]
[[Category:SpaceX launch vehicles]]
[[Category:SpaceX spacecraft]]
[[Category:Crewed spacecraft]]
[[Category:Cargo spacecraft]]
[[Category:Proposed spacecraft]]

GTC

2021-04-15T16:37:21Z

Denvercoder9: /* Science and medicine */ remove broken entry

'''GTC''' may refer to:
{{TOC_right}}
==Education==
* [[General Teaching Council (disambiguation)]]
* [[Gateway Technical College]], in Wisconsin, United States
* [[Green Templeton College, Oxford]], a constituent college of the University of Oxford
* [[Greenville Technical College]], in South Carolina, United States
* [[Griffin Technical College]], now part of Southern Crescent Technical College, in Georgia, United States
* [[Gwinnett Technical College]], in Georgia, United States
* [[Government Tolaram College]], in [[Narayanganj]], [[Bangladesh]]

== Science and medicine ==
* [[Generalised tonic-clonic seizure]]
* [[Graceful tree conjecture]]
* [[Gran Telescopio Canarias]], a Spanish telescope
* Gigatonnes of [[carbon]] (GtC)
* GTC, a codon for the amino acid [[valine]]

== Technology ==
* [[Game time card]], in online gaming
* [[Genome Therapeutics Corporation]], a defunct American biotech company
* [[GPU Technology Conference]], an annual technical conference started by Nvidia in 2009
* [[Opel GTC]], a concept car
* [[General Technologies Corp.]], a Canadian manufacturer of diagnostic and test equipment for vehicles
* [[Giant Tech Companies]], big technology companies like Facebook, Google, etc

=== Telecommunications ===
* [[Generic Token Card]], in wireless and point-to-point communications
* [[Grameen Telecom]], a Bangladeshi telecommunications company
* [[GTC Wireless]], an American telecommunications company

==Other uses==
* [[Gauhati Town Club]], an Indian sports club
* [[General Trade Company]], a defunct Dano-Norwegian trading company
* ''[[GeTai Challenge]]'', abbreviated as GTC, a Singaporean reality singing competition for getai singers organised by MediaCorp
* [[Girls' Training Corps]], a former British girls' voluntary organisation
* [[Going to California (TV series)|''Going to California'' (TV series)]]
* [[Good 'til cancelled]], an investment order
* ''[[Gran Turismo Concept]]'', a video game
* [[Grand Traverse County, Michigan|Grand Traverse County]], in Michigan, United States
* [[Grand Trunk Corporation]], a Canadian National Railway subsidiary
* [[Ground Training Competition]], of the Royal Air Force
* [[Grudge Training Center]], a mixed martial arts training center in Colorado, United States
* [[Ground Transportation Center]], a transit center within an airport providing ground transportation, such as buses, trains, taxies, to the city
* [[Guild of Television Camera Professionals]] an organisation for professional camera people
* General terms and conditions, a translation from the German legal phrase [[:de:Allgemeine_Geschäftsbedingungen (Deutschland)|Allgemeine Geschäftsbedingungen]]

{{disambiguation|school}}

Born This Way Foundation

2021-04-08T15:41:56Z

Denvercoder9: fix heading

{{Infobox organization
| name = Born This Way Foundation
| logo = BTWF-LOGO-PNG.png
| logo_alt = Born This Way Foundation's Logo
| founded_date = {{start date and age|2011}}
| founders = [[Lady Gaga]] [[Cynthia Germanotta]]
| type = [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]
| location = [[Massachusetts]], U.S.
| coordinates =
| origins =
| key_people =
| area_served =
| product = 
| focus = 
| revenue = $903,263<ref name="Ratings">{{cite web | url=http://990s.foundationcenter.org/990_pdf_archive/452/452752227/452752227_201512_990.pdf | title=Born This Way Foundation | website=Foundation Center | access-date=26 June 2017 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827093801/http://990s.foundationcenter.org/990_pdf_archive/452/452752227/452752227_201512_990.pdf | archive-date=August 27, 2017 | df=mdy-all }}</ref>
| revenue_year = 2015
| expenses = $757,950<ref name="Ratings" />
| expenses_year = 2015
| homepage = {{URL|BornThisWay.Foundation}}
}}
'''Born This Way Foundation''' (sometimes abbreviated as '''BTWF''') is a [[non-profit organization]] founded in 2012 by American artist and activist [[Lady Gaga]] and her mother, [[Cynthia Germanotta]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Swearer|first=Susan|date=2015-02-03|title=Born This Way Foundation: Reaching Young People Directly|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/born-this-way-foundation-reaching-young-people-directly_b_6606762|access-date=2020-06-10|website=HuffPost|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Boyle|first=Kelli|title=Lady Gaga's Mom Wants You To Prioritize Your Mental Health & Here's How — EXCLUSIVE|url=https://www.elitedaily.com/p/cynthia-germanotta-lady-gagas-born-this-way-foundation-prioritizes-mental-health-exclusive-9088825|access-date=2020-06-10|website=Elite Daily|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Cynthia Germanotta, President of Born This Way Foundation, To Receive Champion Award Presented By The University of Miami Health System During World OutGames Miami|url=https://www.prweb.com/releases/2017/05/prweb14300335.htm|access-date=2020-06-10|website=PRWeb}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Healthy Minds with Dr. Jeffrey Borenstein {{!}} Youth & Mental Wellness: Lady Gaga Born This Way Foundation {{!}} Season 5 {{!}} Episode 1|url=https://www.pbs.org/video/youth-mental-wellness-lady-gaga-born-this-way-foundation-cobfnf/|language=en|access-date=2020-06-10}}</ref> Named after the singer's album ''[[Born This Way (album)|Born This Way]]'' (2011), the Foundation is committed to supporting the wellness of young people and working with them to "make the world kinder and braver".

The Foundation prioritizes the mental health and wellness of young people by working to promote kindness and open and honest conversations about mental health, validating the emotions of young people, and eradicating the stigma around mental health.

Furthermore, the Foundation works to "connect, engage, and inspire young people — on the road, in their communities, and online". The Foundation's programs focus on modeling healthy conversations about mental wellness, connecting youth with resources and services, and fostering communities that prioritize mental health.

==Background==
In the documentary “Inside the Outside",<ref>{{Cite web|last=Peck|first=Jamie|title=Watch 'Lady Gaga: Inside The Outside' For The Gaga's Most Intimate Interview Ever|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/2298178/lady-gaga-inside-the-outside-mtv-documentary-video/|access-date=2020-06-12|website=MTV News|language=en}}</ref> [[Lady Gaga]] talked about being bullied herself and thrown in a trash can while classmates looked on. Lady Gaga often shares her personal experiences with the public, and has always hoped to “establish a standard of Bravery and Kindness, as well as a community worldwide that protects and nurtures others in the face of bullying and abandonment. She and her mother started BTWF to work with young people and provide the skills and opportunities they need to build a kinder and braver world.<ref name="Hughes">{{Cite web|last=Hughes|first=Sarah Anne|date=2011-11-03|title=Lady Gaga creates Born This Way Foundation to empower youth|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/celebritology/post/lady-gaga-creates-born-this-way-foundation-to-empower-youth/2011/11/03/gIQAUPEKiM_blog.html|access-date=2020-06-12|website=Washington Post|language=en-US}}</ref>

When Lady Gaga launched the Foundation with her mother in 2012, she stated to the Washington Post, “Together we hope to establish a standard of Bravery and Kindness, as well as a community worldwide that protects and nurtures others…"<ref name="Hughes"/>

In a PBS interview,<ref name="pbs.org">{{Citation|title=Healthy Minds with Dr. Jeffrey Borenstein {{!}} Youth & Mental Wellness: Lady Gaga Born This Way Foundation {{!}} Season 5 {{!}} Episode 1|url=https://www.pbs.org/video/youth-mental-wellness-lady-gaga-born-this-way-foundation-cobfnf/|language=en|access-date=2020-06-12}}</ref> Cynthia Germanotta stated that Lady Gaga was bullied at an early age and subsequently developed anxiety and depression, struggling with mental illness throughout college. As her career took off, she talked openly about her mental health challenges and the importance of kindness.

In 2016, Lady Gaga discussed the importance of kindness and compassion at the 84th Annual [[United States Conference of Mayors|U.S. Conference of Mayors]] in Indianapolis. She joined the [[14th Dalai Lama]] at the event to talk about building "compassionate cities" around the country. During her speech, Gaga told city representatives, "Kindness is a free currency from a well that will never dry up," and, "The most efficient way for you to act with young people is to be a calming force.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Stephens|first=Britt|date=2016-06-27|title=Lady Gaga Meets the Dalai Lama and Spreads Her Message of "Kindness and Compassion" to US Mayors|url=https://www.popsugar.com/node/41778649|access-date=2020-06-12|website=POPSUGAR Celebrity|language=en-US}}</ref>"

Cynthia Germanotta told PBS in 2018 that the Foundation was “built out of a lifelong passion to help young people. Our mission has always been to build a kinder and braver world … By creating safe communities for young people and offering skills and opportunities to empower them and inspire them...” In doing so, the Foundation focuses on promoting kindness, creating positive environments, and encouraging mental wellness among youth.<ref name="pbs.org"/>

Executive Director Maya Enista Smith additionally stated that the Foundation exists “to help eliminate the stigma surrounding mental health and equip young people to have those conversations that lead to that destigmatization.<ref>{{Cite web|date=September 6, 2018|title=Learning About Lady Gaga's Born This Way Foundation|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZEmCVz8PiI}}</ref>”

In October 2018, Lady Gaga was named as one of [[Elle (magazine)|''Elle'']]'s Women in Hollywood honorees. During her acceptance speech, she encouraged everyone to “work together to beckon the world towards kindness” and opened up about the PTSD she developed after she was assaulted at age 19. She additionally advocated for stronger mental health resources, stating she wanted to see mental health become a “global priority”.

“It is my personal dream that there would be a mental health expert teacher or therapist in every school in this nation and hopefully, one day, around the world,” Lady Gaga said. “Let’s lift our voices. I know we are, but let’s get louder. And not just as women. But as humans.”<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-10-16|title=Lady Gaga Opens Up About Sexual Assault and Mental Health in Vulnerable ELLE Women in Hollywood Acceptance Speech|url=https://www.elle.com/culture/celebrities/a23813974/lady-gaga-opens-up-about-sexual-assault-and-mental-health-elle-women-in-hollywood-acceptance-speech/|access-date=2020-06-12|website=ELLE|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lady Gaga Moved to Tears During Emotional Speech on Sexual Assault, Mental Illness|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/rambling-reporter/lady-gaga-breaks-down-speech-sexual-assault-mental-illness-1152706|access-date=2020-06-12|website=The Hollywood Reporter|language=en}}</ref>

In November 2018, Lady Gaga accepted the [[SAG-AFTRA|SAG-AFTRA Foundation's]] Artists Inspiration Award, and in a 25-minute speech shared her own mental health struggles,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Malkin|first=Marc|date=2018-11-09|title=Lady Gaga Opens Up About Her ‘Mental Health Crisis’|url=https://variety.com/2018/scene/news/lady-gaga-mental-health-struggles-1203023093/|access-date=2020-06-12|website=Variety|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lady Gaga Calls for Mental Health Care Support for SAG-AFTRA Artists|url=https://www.wmagazine.com/story/lady-gaga-mental-health-sag-aftra/|access-date=2020-06-12|website=W Magazine {{!}} Women's Fashion & Celebrity News|language=en-US}}</ref> advocated for stronger mental health resources in the industry by requesting SAG-AFTRA partner with the Foundation, and encouraged people to share their mental health stories.

“When I speak about mental health, even or especially when I’m speaking about mine, it is often met with quietness, or maybe a somber line of fans waiting outside to whisper to me in the shadows about their darkest secrets,” she said in her acceptance speech. “We need to bring mental health into the light. We need to share our stories so that global mental health no longer resides and festers in the darkness.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lady Gaga Talks Suicide and Masochistic Behavior at SAG-AFTRA Foundation Gala|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/rambling-reporter/lady-gaga-talks-suicide-masochistic-behavior-at-sag-aftra-gala-1159825|access-date=2020-06-12|website=The Hollywood Reporter|language=en}}</ref>”

She additionally encouraged everyone to “live in a culture of kindness through our individual acts and take back what determines our future.”

==History==
[[File:Lady Gaga autograph.svg|thumb|150px|Lady Gaga's signature]]The organization was launched<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hughes|first=Sarah Anne|date=2011-11-03|title=Lady Gaga creates Born This Way Foundation to empower youth|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/celebritology/post/lady-gaga-creates-born-this-way-foundation-to-empower-youth/2011/11/03/gIQAUPEKiM_blog.html|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Washington Post|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Lady Gaga Launches Born This Way Foundation|url=https://abcnews.go.com/blogs/entertainment/2012/03/lady-gaga-launches-born-this-way-foundation-2|access-date=2020-06-15|website=ABC News|language=en}}</ref> on February 29, 2012, by artist Lady Gaga and her mother Cynthia Germanotta, who said, "challenge meanness and cruelty by inspiring young people to create a support system in their respective communities." Media proprietor [[Oprah Winfrey]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-02-14|title=Oprah Teams Up With Lady Gaga for Born This Way Foundation Launch|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/506141/oprah-teams-up-with-lady-gaga-for-born-this-way-foundation-launch|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Billboard}}</ref> writer [[Deepak Chopra]], and [[United States Secretary of Health and Human Services]] [[Kathleen Sebelius]] spoke at the inauguration. The Foundation's original funding included $1.2 million from Lady Gaga, $500,000 from the [[John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation]], and $850,000 from retailer [[Barneys New York]].

BTWF was the beneficiary of Barneys New York's 2011 holiday campaign which also featured "Lady Gaga’s Workshop". In May 2012, [[Viacom (2005–2019)|Viacom]] announced it would be the Foundation's lead media partner for the development of events, programming and "opportunities that empower young people to build a braver, kinder world." In August 2012, Lady Gaga was named by American business magazine ''[[Forbes]]'' as fourteenth on their "World's 100 Most Powerful Women" list due in part to her BTWF work.

In 2018, Born This Way Foundation was the recipient of [[Girls, Inc.|Girls Inc.]]’s Champion For Girls Award and the Children Mending Heart’s “Global Changemakers” Award. That same year, co-founder of the Foundation Cynthia Germanotta was invited to speak at the [[United Nations General Assembly]] on behalf of the organization to discuss mental health and launch a new “United for Global Mental Health” initiative.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-26|title=Lady Gaga's Mom Cynthia Germanotta Addresses UN, Stresses the Importance of Mental Health Resources|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8477134/lady-gaga-mom-cynthia-germanotta-speaks-at-unga|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Billboard}}</ref>

===Controversy===
In March 2014, gossip blogger [[Roger Friedman]] of Showbiz411, and formerly of Fox News before he was fired, criticized the Foundation's spending reflected in its federal tax reports. The reports noted spending of $348,000 on its Born Brave bus tour; approximately $1.5 million on fees related to web and social media, publicity, and legalities, and only $5,000 in grants to individuals and other organizations. "It’s unclear that anyone was really helped by the Born This Way Foundation other than lawyers, consultants, publicists and travel agents," Friedman wrote. "We do the work," Lady Gaga wrote in response.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Michaels|first=Sean|date=2014-03-14|title=Lady Gaga denies claims regarding Born This Way Foundation funds|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/mar/14/lady-gaga-denies-born-this-way-foundation-funds|access-date=2020-06-15|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> "We do not raise money and allocate the funds to other charities for them to do the work.”<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://ew.com/article/2014/03/13/lady-gaga-charity-controversy/|title=Lady Gaga's mom defends charges that Born This Way charity spent millions on overhead and donated only $5,000|website=EW.com}}</ref> “A clear understanding of the differences between a grant-making organization and one that carries out its work directly would have made this a non-story," [[Cynthia Germanotta]] added in an op-ed in the ''[[Huffington Post]]''<ref name="auto"/> "We are not a grant-maker that funds the work of other charities, and were never intended to be ... [But] we are having a profound impact in just a very short period of time.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/lady-gaga-102-1246546|title=Lady Gaga's mother addresses reports that her daughter's foundation gives tiny amount to charity | NME|date=March 13, 2014}}</ref>

[[Charity Navigator]] in 2018 gave the charity a score of 75 out of 100, the same as its passing score for Finance and Accountability.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.charitynavigator.org/ein/452752227|title=Born This Way Foundation | Rating by Charity Navigator|website=www.charitynavigator.org}}</ref>

== Programming and Campaigns ==

=== Dom Pérignon ===
Gaga collaborated with Champagne house [[Dom Pérignon]] to release a limited edition of bottles along with a sculpture designed by her. The campaign, released on April 6, 2021, was shot by [[Nick Knight (photographer)|Nick Knight]] and visualized by [[Nicola Formichetti]], and is described as a "celebration of pushing the boundaries of creation, constant reinvention, and passionate dedication."<ref>{{cite news|last=Aniftos|first=Rania|title=Lady Gaga & Dom Pérignon to Launch Limited Edition Bottles|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/lifestyle/9549109/lady-gaga-dom-perignon-limited-edition-bottle|access-date=April 6, 2021|work=Billboard|date=March 31, 2021}}</ref>

=== Channel Kindness ===
On September 15, 2016, Born This Way Foundation launched a new program called Channel Kindness,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Born This Way Foundation to launch Channel Kindness in honor of Lady Gaga's 31st birthday, catch a sneak peek featuring 'Dear Evan Hansen' cast members|language=en-US|work=AXS|url=https://www.axs.com/born-this-way-foundation-to-launch-channel-kindness-in-honor-of-lady-g-116593|access-date=2020-06-15}}</ref> which is designed “to give youth a voice in a media landscape that too often ignores or misrepresents young people.” In creating this program, Born This Way Foundation recognized the absence of positive stories<ref>{{Cite web|last=Germanotta|first=Cynthia|date=2016-09-16|title=We Have Enough Bad News. It's Time To Channel Kindness.|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/we-have-enough-bad-news-i_b_12030826|access-date=2020-06-15|website=HuffPost|language=en}}</ref> in today's media. Channel Kindness is designed to fill that void and provide individuals across the globe with some much-needed optimism and encouragement.

From 2017–2018, the program recruited and trained 100 youth reporters ages 15–24 from across the United States to recognize and broadcast acts of kindness they saw in their everyday lives and communities. Their stories are published on ChannelKindness.org and are spread across the program's social media channels.

In 2018, BTWF announced it would expand Channel Kindness, which is now open to anyone from across the U.S. and, for the first time, around the world to share their stories on the platform.<ref>{{Cite web|last=AyshaM|date=2020-04-11|title=Share Your Story: Channel Kindness Submission Guidelines|url=https://www.channelkindness.org/calling-all-storytellers/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Channel Kindness|language=en-US}}</ref>

==== #MultiplyYourGood ====
In honor of World Kindness Day in 2018, Born This Way Foundation announced the launch of the #MultiplyYourGood Channel Kindness Challenge.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-11-13|title=Lady Gaga's Born This Way Foundation Launches #MultiplyYourGood Challenge|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8484676/lady-gaga-born-this-way-foundation-multiplyyourgood-challenge|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Billboard}}</ref> With support from [[Zappos]], the campaign called on individuals to celebrate their power to make a difference by volunteering or donating to a nonprofit in their community. For every act of good performed during the challenge, BTWF pledged to “multiply” it by performing an act of good for one of the organization's nonprofit partners.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Brandi Neal|title=Here’s How To Take The Born This Way Foundation’s #MultiplyYourGood Challenge To Give Back This Holiday Season|url=https://www.bustle.com/p/born-this-way-foundations-multiply-your-good-challenge-wants-you-to-give-back-during-the-holidays-13190662|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Bustle|language=en}}</ref>

The Foundation's diverse network of partners, including [[SoulCycle]], which invited riders to take part, and [[Starbucks]], which hosted community events on [[World Kindness Day]] 2018 in ten stores nationwide, helped amplify the campaign. The in-store activations invited guests to participate in an activity that met the needs of a local nonprofits, such as collecting donated items or writing holiday messages for homeless youth.

==== #Someone2Turn2 ====
Born This Way Foundation and United for Global Mental Health announced the launch of the #Someone2Turn2 Channel Kindness Challenge<ref>{{Cite web|last=Borge|first=Jonathan|date=2018-10-12|title=Lady Gaga's Mom On How Her Family Battles Mental Health Issues|url=https://www.oprahmag.com/entertainment/a23739868/lady-gaga-mom-born-this-way-foundation/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Oprah Magazine|language=en-US}}</ref> to foster healthy conversations about mental wellness in honor of [[World Mental Health Day]] on Wednesday, October 10, 2018. Inspired by the work of the [[Friendship bench|Friendship Bench]] initiative, the #Someone2Turn2 challenged the public to have a real, honest, and open discussion about mental health with the person they turn to when they need support and then share who their #Someone2Turn2 is on social media.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Smith|first=Maya Enista|title=5 ways to talk about mental health that'll leave you feeling better|url=https://mashable.com/article/how-to-talk-about-mental-health/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Mashable|language=en}}</ref>

=== #BeKind21 ===
<nowiki>#</nowiki>BeKind21<ref>{{Cite news|title=#BeKind21 - Born This Way Foundation|language=en-US|work=Born This Way Foundation|url=https://bornthisway.foundation/current-programs/bekind21/|access-date=2020-06-15}}</ref> is an annual initiative that encourages people to do at least one kind activity a day for 21 days, starting on September 1 and extending to September 21. Inspired by the idea that it takes 21 days to build a habit, the campaign culminated in 2018 on the [[International Day of Peace|U.N. International Day of Peace]] and inspired over 8 million acts of kindness. As part of #BeKind21, participants could take a pledge to make kindness a habit, as the campaign stems from beliefs that kindness can heal the world and when someone gives to others, they give back to their own wellness. In its second year,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-08-15|title=Lady Gaga's Born This Way Foundation '21 Days to Be Kind' Challenge|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/pop/8527474/lady-gaga-born-this-way-foundation-21-days-to-be-kind-challenge|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Billboard}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Moyer|first=Phillip|date=2019-08-14|title=LIVE: Las Vegas launches annual '21 Days to Be Kind' with Born This Way Foundation|url=https://news3lv.com/news/local/las-vegas-launches-annual-21-days-to-be-kind-challenge-with-born-this-way-foundation|access-date=2020-06-15|website=KSNV}}</ref> Born This Way Foundation reported over 7,000 sign-ups and 1.6 million participants for the #BeKind21 campaign, partnering with over 130 organizations: schools,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cool Schools: Kindness campaign underway at Model Elementary|url=https://www.abc57.com/news/cool-schools-kindness-campaign-underway-at-model-elementary|access-date=2020-06-15|website=ABC57|language=en}}</ref> nonprofits,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-09-02|title=MGM Resorts International Joins Lady Gaga's Born This Way Foundation For 21 Days to Be Kind Challenge|url=https://www.looktothestars.org/news/19255-mgm-resorts-international-joins-lady-gagas-born-this-way-foundation-for-21-days-to-be-kind-challenge|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Look to the Stars|language=en}}</ref> and corporations. Also in 2019, those who signed up for the campaign were encouraged to form “Kindness Teams” on which they could do kind acts as a group. The efforts of the 2019 #BeKind21 campaign resulted in over 40 million acts of kindness—up over 32 million from the year before—and it will kick off its third year on September 1, 2020.

=== #BeKindBeThere ===
<nowiki>#</nowiki>BeKindBeThere is a joint initiative between Born This Way Foundation and [[Jack.org]] to highlight Jack.org's program BeThere.org.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Jack.org|title=Lady Gaga's Born This Way Foundation and Jack.org Announce the #BeKindBeThere Initiative|url=https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/lady-gagas-born-this-way-foundation-and-jackorg-announce-the-bekindbethere-initiative-301059030.html|access-date=2020-06-15|website=www.prnewswire.com|language=en}}</ref> BeThere.org<ref>{{Cite web|title=Be There - Created by Jack.org|url=https://bethere.org/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=bethere.org}}</ref> aims to teach young people the skills necessary to support someone else's mental health while protecting their own. BeThere.org offers five steps, or “Golden Rules,” to support someone who is struggling with their mental health. These are: (1) say what you see by breaking the ice and starting a conversation, (2) show you care by building trust and supporting someone, (3) hear them out by being a good listener and balancing the conversation, (4) know your role by setting boundaries to protect your relationship and own mental health, and (5) connect to help by accessing professional and community resources. Promoted with video conversation between the two organizations and across all social media platforms with the hashtag #BeKindBeThere, these golden rules can be found in more detail on BeThere.org.

=== Teen Mental Health First Aid ===
In 2019, Born This Way Foundation partnered with the National Council for Behavioral Health to bring teen Mental Health First Aid (teenMHFA) training to the United States.<ref name="Teens">{{Cite web|date=2019-06-06|title=Teens|url=https://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/population-focused-modules/teens/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Mental Health First Aid|language=en-US}}</ref> teenMHFA is an in-person training designed for high school students in grades 10 to 12 “to learn about mental illnesses, including how to identify and respond to a developing mental health or substance use problem among their peers.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shaffer|first=Claire|date=2019-06-12|title=Lady Gaga Announces Expansion of Teen Mental Health Program|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/lady-gaga-born-this-way-foundation-teen-mental-health-first-aid-847303/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Rolling Stone|language=en-US}}</ref>” The program herein is built upon the idea that, during mental health crises, teens often first turn to each other for support and guidance, rather than to structural resources.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Teen Mental Health First Aid: Inside the Lady Gaga-backed program for high school students|url=https://www.today.com/health/mental-health-first-aid-inside-lady-gaga-backed-program-teens-t154454|access-date=2020-06-15|website=TODAY.com|language=en}}</ref> Addressing this chain of dialogue, students learn a five-step action plan to help their friends who may be facing a mental health problem or crisis, such as suicide, and how to find and involve a responsible and trusted adult.<ref name="Teens"/>

Starting with a pilot set of eight schools across the nation, the program expanded to an additional 20 primary institutions in the fall of 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lady Gaga Expands Teen Mental Health Program, Hopes to Grow to Include 'Every School in This Country'|url=https://www.newsweek.com/lady-gaga-expands-teen-mental-health-program-hopes-grow-include-every-school-this-country-1444030|access-date=15 June 2020|website=NewsWeek.com}}</ref> In June 2019, Born This Way Foundation convened a group of teens trained through teenMHFA in Las Vegas to reflect on the program.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lady Gaga + Students on teen Mental Health First Aid!|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-nXw1I-F-38|access-date=15 June 2020|website=YouTube}}</ref> During her June 6 show of her ENIGMA residency, Lady Gaga brought the students onstage to discuss the mental wellness program<ref>{{Cite web|title=Two Kickapoo High teens share Las Vegas stage with Lady Gaga. Here's why.|url=https://www.news-leader.com/story/news/education/2019/06/27/lady-gaga-concert-las-vegas-born-this-way-foundation-kickapoo-high-students/1565182001/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Springfield News-Leader|language=en}}</ref> with attendees.<ref>{{Cite web|date=7 June 2019|title=Lady Gaga Million Reasons Enigma|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cOH2Urw72lk|url-status=live|archive-date=15 June 2020|website=YouTube}}</ref>

Starting in the spring of 2020, 40 additional schools<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-26|title=Teaching students mental health first aid|url=https://newschannel20.com/news/local/teaching-students-mental-health-first-aid|access-date=2020-06-15|website=WICS}}</ref> were chosen to participate in the second round of Teen Mental Health First Aid training programs. This expansion brings the total number of schools participating to more than 75 schools<ref>{{Cite web|title=NCSS and local high schools to participate in National Teen Mental Health first aid pilot|url=https://www.newsbreak.com/news/0O1IUWs9/ncss-and-local-high-schools-to-participate-in-national-teen-mental-health-first-aid-pilot|access-date=2020-06-15|website=News Break|language=en}}</ref> nationwide.

=== Emotion Revolution Summit at Yale University ===
On October 24, 2015, Born This Way Foundation and the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence|url=https://www.ycei.org/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence|language=en-US}}</ref> hosted the Emotion Revolution Summit<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mansfield|first=Brian|title=Gaga, Yale team up for Emotion Revolution|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/music/2015/04/09/lady-gaga-yale-emotion-revolution/25514969/|access-date=2020-06-15|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US}}</ref> to raise awareness of how much emotions play into young people's decision-making and wellness. The event consisted of round-table discussions, workshops, and speeches from a variety of educators and advocates, including Lady Gaga herself. Lady Gaga asked the over 200 young people at the conference to focus on and care for their own mental and emotional health. She invited them to join a movement addressing the importance of emotions on social media using the hashtag #IAmNotJust.

Born This Way Foundation and the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence also collected data from these students and found that when students were asked how they currently feel in school, 75% of the responses were negative.

=== "What does bravery mean to you?" Campaign ===
From March 28 to April 11, 2012, the Born This Way Foundation ran a poster campaign<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-03-30|title=Lady Gaga Launches Charity Poster Contest|url=https://www.looktothestars.org/news/8124-lady-gaga-launches-charity-poster-contest|access-date=2020-06-15|website=Look to the Stars|language=en}}</ref> to inspire bravery and encouraged supporters to submit images that answer the question, "What does bravery mean to you?" with the 10 semi finalists selected by Lady Gaga and her mother, and leading to a prize for the winner(s), selected by fans.

== Community Activations ==

=== The Channel Kindness Tour ===
From August 1, 2017, through December 18, 2017, Born This Way Foundation accompanied Lady Gaga on her [[Joanne World Tour]], visiting over 30 cities across the US and Canada. The Channel Kindness Tour included in venues activations, which allowed local nonprofits to connect directly with concert goes; communities conversations on mental health and services events; and Channel Kindness Awards which recognized eight youth across the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://artistwaves.com/how-lady-gagas-born-this-way-foundation-is-spreading-kindness-on-the-joanne-tour/|title=How Lady Gaga’s Born This Way Foundation is Spreading Kindness on the Joanne Tour|date=August 10, 2017}}</ref>

=== Share Kindness ===
In 2016, the Foundation joined forces with [[Today (U.S. TV program)|''Today'']] and [[NBC]] with the goal to inspire 1 million acts of kindness before the end of the year. With the hashtag #ShareKindness, people were encouraged to celebrate empathy and generosity by committing an act of kindness for someone else in their schools, homes, businesses, and communities.

To help kick off #ShareKindness, Lady Gaga and her mother Cynthia Germanotta, visited the [[Ali Forney Center]], a shelter for homeless LGBTQ+ youth in Harlem in New York City.

Lady Gaga surprised the youth with gifts, encouraging messages, and led a meditation session alongside her mother. She encouraged the group with her mantra, “You are brave. You are courageous,” and concluded with a strong statement of gratitude to each of the youth: “Thank you for being alive.”

Lady Gaga also emphasized the value of kindness: “Kindness to me is an action of love or a showing of love to someone else and I also believe that kindness is the cure to violence and hatred around the world."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foodbanksj.org/2016/12/05/lady-gagas-born-way-foundation-launches-sharekindness-experience-partnership-today/|title=Lady Gaga's Born this Way Foundation Launches the #ShareKindness Experience in Partnership with Today!|date=December 5, 2016|website=Food Bank of South Jersey}}</ref>

=== Born Brave Bus ===
The Foundation announced in May 2012 that the Born Brave Bus would follow Lady Gaga on tour as an initiative to inspire bravery, empower the youth, and connect young people to resources in their community. In June 2012, "Born Brave" communities and school groups, dedicated to making a positive change where they live. Born Brave Nation, a name chosen by Born This Way Foundation supporters, requested founding members in July 2012, but the bus had not yet launched. The Foundation partnered with community organizations like [[Campus Pride]], [[GLSEN]], the [[National Association of School Psychologists]] and [[Youth Service America]] to connect young people to the resources in their communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thenationalcouncil.org/press-releases/lady-gagas-born-brave-bus-tour-back-on-the-road/|title=Lady Gaga’s Born Brave Bus Tour Back on the Road|website=National Council}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/1700197/lady-gaga-born-brave-bus-tour-kickoff/|title=Lady Gaga Unveils Born Brave Bus At Kickoff Of U.S. Tour|first=James|last=Montgomery|website=MTV News}}</ref>

== Partnerships ==

=== Starbucks/Cups of Kindness ===
In 2017, the Foundation and [[Starbucks]] teamed up to introduce the Starbucks Cups of Kindness collection: four special drinks, the Matcha Lemonade, Violet Drink, Pink Drink, and Ombré Pink Drink. For each cup of kindness beverage that was purchased between June 13 and June 19, Starbucks donated $0.25 to Born This Way Foundation and the Channel Kindness project.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.starbucks.com/home/|title=Starbucks Coffee Company|website=www.starbucks.com}}</ref>

On June 3, 2019, Starbucks announced it was partnering with Born This Way Foundation for Pride Month in order to fundraise for the Foundation and offer support to grassroots LGBTQ+ organizations across the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elitedaily.com/p/starbucks-2019-pride-partnership-with-the-born-this-way-foundation-is-everything-17947070|title=Starbucks Is Doing Something Amazing With Lady Gaga's Foundation For Pride Month|website=Elite Daily}}</ref> For the month of June, Starbucks Foundation matched any donations that were made to Born This Way Foundation up to $250,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/2019/06/234419/starbucks-lady-gaga-born-this-way-foundation|title=Lady Gaga's Foundation & Starbucks Are Raising Money To Help LGBTQ+ Youth|first=Michelle Santiago|last=Cortés|website=www.refinery29.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bornthisway.foundation/starbucks/|title=Born This Way Foundation and Starbucks|website=bornthisway.foundation}}</ref>

=== United For Global Mental Health ===
In October 2018, the Foundation helped launch United for Global Mental Health at “Time to Act on Global Mental Health: Building Momentum on Mental Health in the SDG Era,” an event organized by United for Global Mental Health during the [[United Nations General Assembly|United National General Assembly]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://unitedgmh.org/|title=Home Page | United for Global Mental Health|website=unitedgmh.org}}</ref> The Foundation's Co-Founder and President Cynthia Germanotta shared her personal story and helped moderate panels to help bring the topic of mental health at the forefront of the world stage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8477134/lady-gaga-mom-cynthia-germanotta-speaks-at-unga|title=Lady Gaga's Mom Cynthia Germanotta Addresses UN, Stresses the Importance of Mental Health Resources|website=Billboard}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://webtv.un.org/news-features/watch/time-to-act-on-global-mental-health-building-momentum-on-mental-health-in-the-sdg-era/5840588462001/?term=|title=Time to Act on Global Mental Health - Building Momentum on Mental Health in the SDG Era|website=United Nations Web TV}}</ref>

=== DonorsChoose.org ===
Born This Way Foundation partners with [[DonorsChoose]] to fund mental health projects at schools across the country. The partnership has matched donations from 1,900 donors to fund these projects. Through this partnership, BTWF and DonorsChoose have funded 697 projects at 416 different schools. These projects have worked to help 75,981 students and 507 teachers. The projects range from an after-school kindness club to a drawing space for students, and much more.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.donorschoose.org/classroom-support/born-this-way-foundation-supporting-men/21029333/|title=Born This Way Foundation: Supporting Mental + Emotional Wellness|website=DonorsChoose}}</ref>

=== The National Council on Behavioral Health - Mental Health First Aid ===
In August 2017, Born This Way Foundation partnered with the National Council for Behavioral Health to train 150,000 people in Mental Health First Aid. Training sessions were held along the stops for Lady Gaga's Joanne world tour, as part of BTWF's Channel Kindness Tour. Mental Health First Aid trains individuals to recognize and respond to people experiencing mental health or substance abuse crises.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-08-10|title=National Council for Behavioral Health and Lady Gaga’s Born This Way Foundation Team Up to Train 150,000 Mental Health First Aiders|url=https://www.mentalhealthfirstaid.org/external/2017/08/national-council-born-this-way-partnership/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Mental Health First Aid|language=en-US}}</ref>

Born This Way Foundation continues to work with Mental Health First Aid to encourage supporters to get trained in the program.<ref name="Brandi Neal">{{Cite web|last=Brandi Neal|title=Lady Gaga’s Mom Is Using #BeKindBeTheDifference To Break Stigma Around Mental Health|url=https://www.bustle.com/p/cynthia-germanotta-lady-gagas-mom-wants-mental-health-first-aid-to-be-a-priority-with-the-be-kind-be-the-difference-campaign-9062386|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Bustle|language=en}}</ref>

=== Staples ===
[[Staples Inc.|Staples]] and Born This Way Foundation teamed up to create the Staples for Students Digital Kindness Tree to encourage people nationwide to promote kindness in schools and celebrate everyday acts of kindness. Consumers helped it grow by visiting www.StaplesKindnessTree.com or by Tweeting with hashtag #GrowKindness. On the website and Twitter, users had the opportunity to describe an act of kindness that they recently performed, witnessed or pledge to do. Each time an act of kindness was reported, a “leaf” was added to the tree, which continued to grow throughout the summer with each kind act reported.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Staples and Lady Gaga’s Born This Way Foundation Promote a Positive Classroom Experience at Staples for Students Kindness Summit|url=https://news.staples.com/media-information/press-releases/press-release-details/2017/Staples-and-Lady-Gagas-Born-This-Way-Foundation-Promote-a-Positive-Classroom-Experience-at-Staples-for-Students-Kindness-Summit/default.aspx|access-date=2020-06-17|website=news.staples.com|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Office Depot ===
In 2012, Lady Gaga expressed an interest in being part of the "natural fabric of schooling." In July 2012, BTWF partnered with the supplier of office products [[Office Depot]] to create a range of limited edition back-to-school products including: "empowerment gift cards" containing motivational messages, and "bravery bracelets." Office Depot agreed to donate 25% of the sale value for each item sold and guaranteed US$1 million donation in 2012 to the Foundation.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-07-17|title=Office Depot and Born This Way Foundation Connect with the Youth Market at Highly Anticipated Teen Award Show|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20120717005935/en/Office-Depot-Born-Foundation-Connect-Youth-Market|access-date=2020-06-17|website=www.businesswire.com|language=en}}</ref> This led the Florida Family Association, what ''New York Times'' noted was a “one-man Christian fundamentalist organization,” to accuse Office Depot of influencing teenagers to reject heterosexuality. In support of the efforts by Office Depot and Born This Way Foundation, public service announcement videos that highlighted the mission of the initiative were created by model and actor [[Patrick Schwarzenegger]], and by pop singer [[Greyson Chance]] to be aired on Facebook, YouTube, and other outlets.<ref>{{Citation|title=Patrick Schwarzenegger joins Born This Way Foundation and Office Depot!|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xzSF-jYzOwg|language=en|access-date=2020-06-17}}</ref>

==Research==
The Foundation has worked with various partners to conduct and amplify research focused on youth wellness and empowerment. Below is a list of research commissioned or supported by Born This Way Foundation.

===2019===
====Youth Mental Health in America====
In early 2019, the Foundation worked with the Benenson Strategy Group to survey more than 2,000 young people between the ages of 13–24 to explore how young people perceive mental health, their level of access to mental health resources, and what those resources look like.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Youth Mental Health in America: Understanding Resource Availability and Preferences - Born This Way Foundation|language=en-US|work=Born This Way Foundation|url=https://bornthisway.foundation/research/1-in-3-young-people-say-they-lack-reliable-access-to-mental-wellness-resources/|access-date=2020-06-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=2019 California Youth Mental Health Wellness Survey Results Press Release {{!}} Mental Health Services|url=https://www.mhsoac.ca.gov/2019-california-youth-mental-health-wellness-survey-results-press-release|access-date=2020-06-17|website=www.mhsoac.ca.gov}}</ref>

Key findings of the survey revealed that young people care about their mental health but lack access to crucial resources to support themselves.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Born This Way Foundation|date=2019-03-21|title=Youth Mental Health in America: Understanding Resource Availability a…|url=https://www.slideshare.net/btwfoundation/youth-mental-health-in-america-understanding-resource-availability-and-preferences-137480866?ref=https://bornthisway.foundation/research/1-in-3-young-people-say-they-lack-reliable-access-to-mental-wellness-resources/}}</ref> Young people shared they are unaware of where to go and the cost associated with finding mental health resources. The data showed that youth are interested in using a variety of resources to support their mental health. The survey showed that young people need more education on existing mental health resources and expanded access to these resources.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-03-12|title=Nine in 10 young people in the US are 'worried about their mental health'|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/mental-health-us-national-survey-lady-gaga-born-this-way-foundation-a8819331.html|access-date=2020-06-17|website=The Independent|language=en}}</ref>

=== 2018 ===

==== Mental Health Online Diaries: Understanding Child-Parent/Guardian Relationships ====
In early 2018, BTWF commissioned a study from the Benenson Strategy Group to conduct a series of online ethnographic diary interviews between 20 young people aged 13–24 and their parents/guardians to learn more about the family dynamics of mental health and wellness.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Mental Health Online Diaries: Understanding Child-Parent/Guardian Relationships - Born This Way Foundation|language=en-US|work=Born This Way Foundation|url=https://bornthisway.foundation/research/hard-conversations-dont-happen-when-young-people-fear-being-judged/|access-date=2020-06-17}}</ref>

The questions allowed researchers to further understand what makes for supportive environments and relationships and the ways in which young people and their parents/guardians feel connected or disconnected to their families and broader support network.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Born This Way Foundation|date=2018-08-30|title=Mental Health Online Diaries: Understanding Child-Parent/Guardian Rel…|url=https://www.slideshare.net/btwfoundation/mental-health-online-diaries-understanding-childparentguardian-relationships}}</ref> Findings from this Mental Health Online Diaries study revealed that counter to common narratives, young people see immense value in real life relationships, parents are making an effort to talk about mental health but sometimes do not connect, and hard conversations do not happen when young people fear being judged and parents do not initiate them.<ref name="themighty.com">{{Cite web|title=When I Realized I Needed to Change the Way I Talk to My Daughters About Mental Health|url=https://themighty.com/2018/08/cynthia-bissett-germanotta-lady-gaga-mental-health-parenting/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=The Mighty|language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Digital Communities: Youth Mental Health and Online Behavior ====
With data gathered during the Kind Communities survey, the Foundation explored questions related to youth mental health and their digital habits.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Digital Communities: Youth Mental Health + Online Behavior - Born This Way Foundation|language=en-US|work=Born This Way Foundation|url=https://bornthisway.foundation/research/online-communities-are-a-source-of-comfort-for-many-your-people/|access-date=2020-06-17}}</ref> In addition to examining the correlation between social media use and mental wellness, the Digital Communities: Youth Mental Health and Online Behavior survey sought to better understand how youth – including those who identify as LGBT+ – perceive their digital communities and how they use online resources to better understand and manage their mental health.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Born This Way Foundation|date=2018-01-10|title=Digital Communities: Youth Mental Health and Online Behavior|url=https://www.slideshare.net/btwfoundation/digital-communities-youth-mental-health-and-online-behavior}}</ref><ref name="nbcnews.com">{{Cite web|title=LGBTQ youth more likely to seek community online, survey shows|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/lgbtq-youth-more-likely-seek-community-online-survey-shows-n836496|access-date=2020-06-17|website=NBC News|language=en}}</ref>

=== 2017 ===

==== Kind Communities – A Bridge To Youth Mental Wellness ====
In 2017, the Foundation commissioned the “Kind Communities – A Bridge To Youth Mental Wellness” survey from the Benenson Strategy Group.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Kind Communities - A Bridge to Youth Mental Wellness - Born This Way Foundation|language=en-US|work=Born This Way Foundation|url=https://bornthisway.foundation/research/kind-communities-a-bridge-to-youth-mental-wellness/|access-date=2020-06-17}}</ref> The survey collected data from over 3,000 young people between the ages of 15-24 and over 1,000 parents, asking questions about mental health and wellness. Some of the key findings from this comprehensive study include: Young people who describe their environments as kind are more likely to be mentally healthy, youth rely on a small set of close friends for support, and young people with access to tangible resources are more mentally healthy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Born This Way Foundation|date=2017-07-26|title=Kind Communities - A Bridge To Youth Mental Wellness|url=https://www.slideshare.net/btwfoundation/kind-communities-a-bridge-to-youth-mental-wellness}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Gibbs|first=Adrienne|title=Want To Improve The Workplace? New Research By Lady Gaga's Foundation Quantifies Kindness|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/adriennegibbs/2017/07/27/want-to-improve-the-workplace-new-survey-by-lady-gagas-foundation-quantifies-effects-of-kindness/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>

=== 2016 ===

==== Born Brave Experiences Research ====
The Born Brave Experiences Research is a series of studies focused on improving our understanding of the factors that influence youth empowerment, youth engagement, mental health, and emotional well-being. By working with partners across the country and surveying youth themselves, the research gained is used to learn how to better promote kindness and mental wellness in schools, communities, and homes. The surveys were conducted by Dr. Sue Swearer, the Willa Cather Professor of Educational Psychology at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. Dr. Swearer has chaired Born This Way Foundation's Research Advisory Board and led the Born Brave Experience research with assistance from Raul Palacios, Ed.S, a Doctoral Student at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Born Brave Experiences Study {{!}} College of Education and Human Sciences|url=https://cehs.unl.edu/empowerment/born-brave-experiences-study/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=cehs.unl.edu}}</ref>

=== 2015 ===

==== Emotion Revolution Survey ====
In 2015, the Foundation and the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence partnered to launch the Emotion Revolution Survey.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2015-11-04|title=The Emotion Revolution: What We Learned from the Young People|language=en-US|work=Born This Way Foundation|url=https://bornthisway.foundation/the-emotion-revolution-what-we-learned-from-the-young-people/|access-date=2020-06-17}}</ref> Collecting data from over 22,000 high school students, the survey found that when students were asked how they currently feel in school, 75% of the responses were negative. In fact, the most common responses were “tired,” “stressed,” and “bored.” However, when students were asked how they want to feel in school, the most frequently listed emotions were overwhelmingly positive, such as “happy,” “energized,” and “excited.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence|url=https://www.ycei.org/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Mansfield|first=Brian|title=Gaga, Yale team up for Emotion Revolution|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/music/2015/04/09/lady-gaga-yale-emotion-revolution/25514969/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=USA TODAY|language=en-US}}</ref>”

== Additional Projects ==

# On October 16, 2016, toy company [[Mattel]] released the Zomby Gaga collector doll for pre-order as a part of their Monster High doll line in partnership with the BTWF. The doll is based on Gaga's Zombie Boy inspired skeleton tattoo makeup and tuxedo look from the Born This Way music video and designed by Gaga's sister Natali Germanotta together with Mattel. The doll was released on Jan 2, 2017, with all proceeds benefiting the Foundation.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}
# White House National Conference on Mental Health - In 2013, BTWF became an official partner of President Barack Obama and Vice President Joe Biden's Empowerment Initiative to help create and continue “a national conversation to increase understanding and awareness about mental health.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-06-03|title=Background on the National Conference on Mental Health|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/06/03/background-national-conference-mental-health|access-date=2020-06-17|website=whitehouse.gov|language=en}}</ref>”
# In September 2012, Gaga launched a new project called A Body Revolution 2013 to address poor body image and body acceptance. This was done, in part, because media outlets had negatively remarked on supposed weight gains by the performer. To start the project, she posted images of herself in underwear on LittleMonsters.com and asked others to follow her lead stating, "May we make our flaws famous, and thus redefine the heinous." She accompanied the photos with statements that she suffered from the eating disorders bulimia and anorexia nervosa since she was 15.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Body Revolution: Is Lady Gaga's New Project Resisting Beauty Standards or Reinforcing Them?|url=https://www.bitchmedia.org/post/body-revolution-is-lady-gagas-new-project-fat-shame-feminist-magazine-music-pop-culture-body-image|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Bitch Media|language=en}}</ref>
# In August 2012, Born This Way Foundation Co-founder Cynthia Germanotta was one of the speakers at the U.S. Department of Education's third annual Federal Partners in Bullying Prevention Summit to coordinate "anti-bullying efforts with the best available research." She appeared with White House senior advisor [[Valerie Jarrett]] with their speeches broadcast on [[C-SPAN]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-04-14|title=Education Dept. Hosts Third Annual Bullying Prevention Summit {{!}} C-SPAN|url=http://archive.li/fqeDk|access-date=2020-06-17|website=archive.li}}</ref> Born This Way Foundation's work was discussed among other ongoing anti-bullying efforts.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-08-07|title=Mother Gaga comes to Washington|url=https://www.washingtonexaminer.com/mother-gaga-comes-to-washington|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Washington Examiner|language=en}}</ref>

== Awards and Recognitions ==
Cynthia Germanotta, Lady Gaga, and Born This Way Foundation have been the recipient of numerous honors, including the National Council for Behavioral Health's Change Champion Award, the Family Online Safety Institute's award for Outstanding Achievement, the National Association of School Psychologists Special Friend to Children Award, the Anti-Defamation League's "No Place for Hate" Making a Difference Award, the Children Mending Hearts Global Changemakers Award, and the President's Medal of Excellence from the Teachers College, Columbia University. Logo also named the Foundation 2013's Most Innovative Charity at their annual NewNowNext Awards.

# The New York Academy Of Medicine – Bold & Brave Award for Cynthia Germanotta<ref>{{cite web|date=October 22, 2019|url=https://www.nyam.org/news/article/new-york-academy-medicine-honors-robert-f-smith-harlem-capital-and-cynthia-germanotta-annual-gala/|title=
The New York Academy Of Medicine Honors Robert F. Smith, Harlem Capital And Cynthia Germanotta At Annual Gala|publisher=The New York Academy Of Medicine|access-date=March 24, 2021}}</ref>
# The Brain & Behavior Research Foundation – 2019 Honorary Pardes Humanitarian Prize in Mental Health for Cynthia Germanotta and Born This Way Foundation<ref>{{cite web|date=October 15, 2019|url=https://www.bbrfoundation.org/content/cynthia-germanotta-and-born-way-foundation-receive-2019-honorary-pardes-humanitarian-prize|title=Cynthia Germanotta and Born This Way Foundation Receive 2019 Honorary Pardes Humanitarian Prize in Mental Health|publisher=Brain & Behavior Research Foundation|access-date=March 24, 2021}}</ref>
# 2018 Erasing the Stigma Awards – Leadership Award for Born This Way Foundation<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.looktothestars.org/news/17851-rick-springfield-to-be-honored-at-erasing-the-stigma-leadership-awards|title=Rick Springfield To Be Honored At Erasing The Stigma Leadership Awards|publisher=Look to the Stars|access-date=March 24, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Erasing the Stigma – About|url=https://erasingthestigma.org/about/|publisher=Didi Hirsch Mental Health Services|access-date=March 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202193145/https://erasingthestigma.org/about/|archive-date=February 2, 2021}}</ref>
# Children Mending Hearts award for Cynthia Germanotta and Born This Way Foundation<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lady Gaga Honors Her Mother at Children Mending Hearts Fundraiser|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/lady-gaga-honored-mother-cynthia-germanotta-at-children-mending-hearts-fundraiser-1119015|access-date=2020-06-17|website=The Hollywood Reporter|language=en}}</ref>
# National Council for Behavioral Health's Change Champion Award<ref>{{Cite web|title=National Council for Behavioral Health Honors Excellence in Addiction Treatment, Behavioral Health Integration, Advocacy|url=https://www.thenationalcouncil.org/press-releases/national-council-behavioral-health-honors-excellence-addiction-treatment-behavioral-health-integration-advocacy/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=National Council|language=en-US}}</ref>
# Anti-Defamation League's “No Place for Hate” award for Born This Way Foundation<ref>{{Cite web|title=Born This Way Foundation Receives ADL’s Making a Difference Award|url=https://www.adl.org/news/press-releases/born-this-way-foundation-receives-adls-making-a-difference-award|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Anti-Defamation League|language=en}}</ref>
# NewNowNext Awards Most Innovative Charity for Born This Way Foundation<ref>{{Cite web|last=Spargo 4/15/2013|first=Chris|title=Logo NewNowNext Awards Winners|url=http://www.newnownext.com/logo-newnownext-awards-winners/04/2013/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=LOGO News}}</ref>
# President's Medal of Excellence for Cynthia Germanotta<ref>{{Cite web|title=Teachers College Academic Festival 2017|url=https://www.tc.columbia.edu/articles/2017/april/academic-festival-2017/|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Teachers College - Columbia University|language=en}}</ref>
# Family Online Safety Institute's award for Cynthia Germanotta<ref name="lcrenshaw">{{Cite web|last=lcrenshaw|date=2016-01-19|title=Cynthia Germanotta|url=https://www.uschamberfoundation.org/bio/cynthia-germanotta|access-date=2020-06-17|website=U.S. Chamber of Commerce Foundation|language=en}}</ref>
# 2013 – National Association of School Psychologists Special Friend of Children Award<ref name="lcrenshaw"/>
# Women Builder Council - Change Agent Award for Cynthia Germanotta<ref>{{Cite web|title=Honoree - WBC 13th Anniversary Award Dinner|url=https://wbcnyc.org/2017dinner/honoree.html|access-date=2020-06-17|website=wbcnyc.org}}</ref>

== Notable Press ==
* When I Realized I Needed to Change the Way I Talk to My Daughters About Mental Health. The Mighty – August 2018<ref name="themighty.com"/>
* Lady Gaga's Mom Cynthia Germanotta Addresses UN, Stresses the Importance of Mental Health Resources. Billboard – September 2018<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-26|title=Lady Gaga's Mom Cynthia Germanotta Addresses UN, Stresses the Importance of Mental Health Resources|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/8477134/lady-gaga-mom-cynthia-germanotta-speaks-at-unga|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Billboard}}</ref>
* The Mental Health Lesson Lady Gaga's Mom Wishes She Learned Years Ago. Refinery 29 – October 6, 2017<ref>{{Cite web|last=Coughlin|first=Sara|title=Lady Gaga’s Mom Regrets Not Having This Conversation With Her Daughter Years Ago|url=https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/lady-gaga-mother-cynthia-germanotta-mental-health|access-date=2020-06-17|website=www.refinery29.com|language=en}}</ref>
* Long Island Middle Schoolers Participating In Born This Way Foundation's Kindness Challenge. CBS New York – September 20, 2018<ref>{{Cite web|date=2018-09-20|title=Baldwin Middle School Participating In Kindness Challenge|url=https://newyork.cbslocal.com/2018/09/20/born-this-way-foundation-kindness-challenge/|access-date=2020-06-17|language=en-US}}</ref>
* Lady Gaga's #BeKindBeTheDifference Campaign Brings Awareness To Mental Health In The Best Way. Elite Daily – May 1, 2018<ref>{{Cite web|last=Burke|first=Caroline|title=Lady Gaga Wants You To #BeKindBeTheDifference For Mental Health Awareness Month|url=https://www.elitedaily.com/p/lady-gagas-bekindbethedifference-campaign-brings-awareness-to-mental-health-in-the-best-way-8950526|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Elite Daily|language=en}}</ref>
* Cynthia Germanotta, Lady Gaga's Mom, Wants Mental Health First Aid To Be A Priority With The “Be Kind Be The Difference” Campaign. Bustle – May 12, 2018<ref name="Brandi Neal"/>
* LGBTQ youth more likely to seek community online, survey shows. NBC News – January 2018<ref name="nbcnews.com"/>
* Cynthia Germanotta On Ending Mental Health Stigma. MSNBC – October 11, 2018<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cynthia Germanotta On Ending Mental Health Stigma|url=https://www.msnbc.com/the-beat-with-ari-melber/watch/cynthia-germanotta-on-ending-mental-health-stigma-1342352451743|access-date=2020-06-17|website=MSNBC.com|language=en}}</ref>
* Dalai Lama, Lady Gaga Talk of Kindness at Mayors Conference. Associated Press – June 26, 2016<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-06-26|title=Dalai Lama, Lady Gaga talk of kindness at mayors conference|url=https://apnews.com/188292fb03d749b78f98879e7b157ad0|access-date=2020-06-17|website=AP NEWS}}</ref>
* The President of the Born This Way Foundation Urges Tech Executives to Sign a Pledge to End Online Harassment. Vox– June 1, 2016<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bhuiyan|first=Johana|date=2016-06-01|title=The president of the Born This Way Foundation urges tech executives to sign a pledge to end online harassment|url=https://www.vox.com/2016/6/1/11824834/lady-gaga-online-harassment-born-this-way-foundation-cynthia-germanotta|access-date=2020-06-17|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref>
* Lady Gaga Launches Foundation. Boston Globe – March 1, 2012<ref>{{Cite web|last=Farrell|first=Michael B.|first2=Christina|last2= Reinwald|date=1 March 2012|title=Lady Gaga launches foundation|url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2012/03/01/harvard-and-oprah-winfrey-help-lady-gaga-launch-foundation-whose-mission-includes-discouraging-bullying-online-and-school/H3VpFikgUkYMb4IJL4szHK/story.html|access-date=2020-06-17|work=The Boston Globe|language=en-US}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Happy Hippie Foundation]]
* [[Clara Lionel Foundation]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://bornthiswayfoundation.org/}}
* {{YouTube|qPsuK6hsBC0|Foundation Inaugural Event video}}

{{Lady Gaga}}

[[Category:2011 establishments in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Anti-bullying campaigns]]
[[Category:Anti-bullying organizations in the United States]]
[[Category:Foundations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Lady Gaga]]
[[Category:LGBT organizations in the United States]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2011]]

Joseph Morelle

2021-03-13T10:15:29Z

Denvercoder9: /* Electoral history */ drop duplicate table

{{About|the congressman}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2018}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Joe Morelle
| image = Joe Morelle official photo (cropped 2).jpg
| state = [[New York (state)|New York]]
| district = {{ushr|ny|25|25th}}
| term_start = November 13, 2018
| term_end =
| predecessor = [[Louise Slaughter]]
| successor =
| office1 = Majority Leader of the [[New York State Assembly|New York Assembly]]
| term_start1 = January 1, 2013
| term_end1 = November 13, 2018
| predecessor1 = [[Ronald Canestrari]]
| successor1 = [[Crystal Peoples-Stokes]]
| office2 = Acting [[List of Speakers of the New York State Assembly|Speaker of the New York State Assembly]]
| term_start2 = February 2, 2015
| term_end2 = February 3, 2015
| predecessor2 = [[Sheldon Silver]]
| successor2 = [[Carl Heastie]]
| office3 = Member of the [[New York State Assembly|New York Assembly]] from the 136th district
| term_start3 = January 1, 1991
| term_end3 = November 13, 2018
| predecessor3 = [[Pinny Cooke]]
| successor3 = [[Jamie Romeo]]
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1957|4|29}}
| birth_place = [[Utica, New York]], U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Mary Beth Bauer|1984}}
| children = 3
| education = [[State University of New York at Geneseo|State University of New York, Geneseo]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
| website = {{url|morelle.house.gov|House website}}
}}
'''Joseph D. Morelle''' ({{IPAc-en|m|ə|'|r|ɛ|l|i}} {{Respell|mə|RELL|ee}}; born April 29, 1957)<ref name="Vote Smart"/> is an American politician serving as the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. Representative]] for [[New York's 25th congressional district]] since 2018. A [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]], he was formerly a member of the [[New York State Assembly]] representing the 136th Assembly district, which includes eastern portions of the City of [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]] and the [[Monroe County, New York|Monroe County]] suburbs of [[Irondequoit, New York|Irondequoit]] and [[Brighton, Monroe County, New York|Brighton]]. Speaker [[Sheldon Silver]] appointed him as Majority Leader of the New York State Assembly in January 2013 and Morelle served as Acting Speaker in the Speaker's absence.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/28/nyregion/sheldon-silver-to-be-replaced-as-speaker-of-new-york-state-assembly.html |title=Sheldon Silver to Be Replaced as Speaker of New York State Assembly |first1=Jesse |last1=McKinley |first2=Thomas |last2=Kaplan |first3=Susanne |last3=Craig |newspaper=New York Times |date=January 27, 2015 |access-date=January 27, 2015}}</ref> He was elected to the [[United States House of Representatives]] for [[New York's 25th congressional district]] in November 2018 following the death of longtime Congresswoman [[Louise Slaughter]].

==Early life and education==
Morelle was born in [[Utica, New York]], to Gilbert and Juliette Morelle. Gil was a Korean War veteran, a heating and cooling technician and a lifelong Plumbers and Pipefitters Union member. Joe had two younger brothers, Rich and Paul, and a sister, Julie, growing up Catholic, on Vayo Street, in the town of [[Irondequoit, New York|Irondequoit]], where he attended [[Eastridge High School]].<ref name="Official bio"/> He went on to receive a [[bachelor's degree]] in [[political science]] from [[SUNY Geneseo]]<ref name="Official bio"/> in 1986.<ref name="Vote Smart"/>

In his early years, he was a sales manager for a [[drycleaning]] and laundry business.<ref>{{Citation | date = November 11, 1990 | title = Morelle Narrowly Wins Over Ogden | periodical = [[Democrat and Chronicle]] | location = [[Rochester, New York]] | pages = 8A}}</ref> He got his political start working for State Senator John D. Perry as a constituent services representative in Rochester and legislative aide in Albany.<ref name=Hand>{{cite news |last=Hand |first=Jon |date=January 28, 2015 |title=Timeline on Joseph Morelle's career |url=https://www.democratandchronicle.com/story/news/2015/01/28/joseph-morelle-irondequoit-assembly-speaker/22489681/ |work=[[Democrat and Chronicle]] |location=Rochester, NY}}</ref>

==Political career==
===County legislature===
Morelle, a [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]], made his first foray into elective politics at the age of 24 when he ran for a seat in the Monroe County legislature.<ref>{{Citation | date = November 4, 1981 | title = GOP Keeps Control of County Legislature | periodical = [[Democrat and Chronicle]] | location = [[Rochester, New York]] | pages = 2A}}</ref> He failed to unseat the incumbent on the first try, but prevailed in the 1983 election.<ref>{{Citation | date = November 9, 1983 | title = Democrats Gain 2 Seats in Legislature | periodical = [[Democrat and Chronicle]] | location = [[Rochester, New York]] | pages = 3A}}</ref> He was re-elected once before running for the New York State legislature.<ref>{{Citation | date = November 4, 1987 | title = Morelle Defeats His Challenger | periodical = [[Democrat and Chronicle]] | location = [[Rochester, New York]] | pages = 3A}}</ref>

===State legislature===
[[File:Garth Fagan, NYS Assemblyman Joseph Morelle, NYS Senator James Alesi, and Nazareth College President Daan Braveman.jpg|thumb|left|175px|In 2009 with [[Garth Fagan]], [[James Alesi]], and [[Nazareth College (New York)|Nazareth College]] president Daan Braveman]]
[[File:Joseph Morelle parade.JPG|thumb|150px|Marching on Independence Day in 2011]]
[[File:HochulMorelleLaborDayParade2014.JPG|thumb|150px|In 2014 with [[Kathy Hochul]]]]
Morelle was first elected to the State Assembly in 1990.<ref name="Official bio"/> He ran uncontested in the November 2008 [[general election]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://elections.nytimes.com/2008/results/states/legislature/new-york.html |title=Election Results 2008: New York State Legislature |work=[[The New York Times]] |year=2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120511013928/http://elections.nytimes.com/2008/results/states/legislature/new-york.html |archive-date=May 11, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.ny.gov/NYSBOE/elections/2008/General/NYSAssembly08.pdf |title=Assembly Election Returns: November 4, 2008 |publisher=[[New York State Board of Elections]] |year=2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120823001135/http://www.elections.ny.gov/NYSBOE/elections/2008/General/NYSAssembly08.pdf |archive-date=August 23, 2012 }}</ref> and won the November 2010 general election with 61 percent of the vote.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://elections.nytimes.com/2010/results/new-york/state-legislature |title=Election Results 2010: New York State Legislature |work=[[The New York Times]] |year=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615060350/http://elections.nytimes.com/2010/results/new-york/state-legislature |archive-date=June 15, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.ny.gov/NYSBOE/elections/2010/general/2010Assembly.pdf |title=Assembly Election Returns: November 2, 2010 |publisher=[[New York State Board of Elections]] |year=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218082901/http://www.elections.ny.gov/NYSBOE/elections/2010/general/2010Assembly.pdf |archive-date=December 18, 2013 }}</ref>

During his tenure in the State Legislature, among the more than 200 laws authored by Morelle are major reforms to the [[workers compensation]] system, laws to require [[carbon monoxide]] detectors in one- and two-family homes, toughen regulations governing charitable organizations, protect the elderly and infirm who live in [[nursing home]]s or receive [[home care|home based health care]], and raise senior citizens' [[property tax|real property tax]] exemption. Morelle sponsored bills to exempt veterans from certain state licensing fees, protect their gravesites, and assist them with regard to the civil service application process.

In January 2001, Morelle was appointed the Chairman of the Assembly Standing Committee on Tourism, Arts, and Sports Development. He worked with area leaders to develop Rochester as a center for tourism and the arts in Western New York.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}

In addition to the Tourism Committee, Morelle's standing committee assignments included Economic Development, Job Creation, Commerce and Industry; Higher Education; Local Governments; and Libraries and Education Technology. At his request, the Speaker created the Subcommittee on Manufacturing in order to give New York's manufacturing sector a greater voice in state government.

In 2005, Morelle issued a report, "Creating a State of Innovation: Unleashing The Power of New York's Entrepreneurial Economy," detailing New York's economic decline, particularly in Upstate, and offering numerous policy recommendations to reverse this years-long trend.

In 2005, Morelle was elected chairman of the Monroe County Democratic Committee,<ref>{{Citation | date = May 27, 2005 | title = Morelle Officially Seeks Chair | periodical = [[Democrat and Chronicle]] | location = [[Rochester, New York]] | pages = 2A}}</ref> and held this position until 2014.

====Campaign violations====
In 1990, an acting state Supreme Court justice ruled that Morelle fraudulently obtained several signatures on nominating petitions to qualify him for an [[independent_politician#State and local offices|independent line]] on the 1990 ballot (New York permits [[cross-filing]] in some circumstances) during his run for the State Assembly.<ref name=Hand/> Morelle remained on the ballot and won the election.<ref name="Guilty"/> He later admitted that he allowed family members to sign the petitions for the individuals whose names appeared on them and did not personally witness the signatures, both of which are illegal.<ref name="Guilty">{{cite news |last=Venere |first=Emil |date=January 23, 1992 |title=Morelle Pleads Guilty in Election-Law Violations |url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/138210137/ |work=[[Democrat and Chronicle]] |location=Rochester, NY |url-access=subscription |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |page=1B}}</ref> In 1991 he was charged with seven misdemeanor counts of violating state election law.<ref name="Guilty"/> Morelle denied intentionally violating the law, but accepted a plea bargain in which he was found guilty of two counts of disorderly conduct.<ref name="Guilty"/> He was sentenced to 32 hours of community service and a $25 fine.<ref name="Guilty"/> Because disorderly conduct is a violation of the law, rather than a misdemeanor or felony, Morelle's guilty plea enabled him to avoid having a permanent criminal record as a result of the incident.<ref name="Guilty"/>

==U.S. House of Representatives==

=== Elections ===
==== 2018 special election ====
{{main|2018 New York's 25th congressional district special election}}
After the death of Representative [[Louise Slaughter]], Morelle announced he was a Democratic candidate for [[New York's 25th congressional district]]; he won the Democratic Party's nomination on June 26, 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.democratandchronicle.com/story/news/politics/albany/2018/03/25/joseph-morelle-run-louise-slaughters-congressional-seat/456891002/|title=Assemblyman Joseph Morelle to run for Louise Slaughter's congressional seat|work=Rochester Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=March 26, 2018|language=en}}</ref> On November 6 he ran in two elections–a special election for the last two months of Slaughter's 16th term, and a regular election for a full two-year term. He won both, defeating Republican Jim Maxwell.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.democratandchronicle.com/story/news/politics/elections/2018/11/06/joe-morelle-house-ny-25-jim-maxwell-election-results-succeed-louise-slaughter/1907717002/|title=Joe Morelle defeats Jim Maxwell for Louise Slaughter's seat|work=Rochester Democrat and Chronicle|access-date=November 7, 2018|language=en}}</ref>

===Tenure===
Morelle was sworn in on November 13, 2018.

=== Committee assignments ===
*[[United States House Committee on Armed Services|'''Committee on Armed Services''']]
*[[United States House Committee on Rules|'''Committee on Rules''']]
*[[United States House Committee on the Budget|'''Committee on the Budget''']]
*[[United States House Committee on Education and Labor|'''Committee on Education and Labor''']]
**[[United States House Education Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Elementary and Secondary Education|'''Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Elementary and Secondary Education''']]
**[[United States House Education Subcommittee on Health, Employment, Labor, and Pensions|'''Subcommittee on Health, Employment, Labor, and Pensions''']]

=== Caucus memberships ===
*'''[[Congressional Progressive Caucus]]'''
*'''[[New Democrat Coalition]]'''<ref>{{cite web|title=Members|url=https://newdemocratcoalition-himes.house.gov/members|publisher=New Democrat Coalition|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208100356/https://newdemocratcoalition-himes.house.gov/members|archive-date=February 8, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Electoral history==
{{Election box begin no change
| title = Democratic primary results<ref name=demprimaryresults>{{Cite news|url=https://www2.monroecounty.gov/files/boe/results/Canvass%20Book%202018.pdf|title=Monroe County Board of Elections Canvassing Book 2018|access-date=June 23, 2019|language=en}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link no change
| candidate = Joseph Morelle
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| votes = 16,245
| percentage = 45.63%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = Rachel A. Barnhart
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| votes = 7,003
| percentage = 19.67%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = Robin Wilt
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| votes = 6,158
| percentage = 17.30%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = Adam McFadden
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| votes = 6,103
| percentage = 17.14%
}}
{{Election box end}}

{{Election box begin | title=New York's 25th congressional district special election, 2018}}<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/elections/results/new-york-house-district-25</ref>
{{Election box winning candidate with party link
| candidate = Joseph Morelle
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| votes = 141,290
| percentage = 58.29%
| change = +2.10%
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link
| candidate = Jim Maxwell
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| votes = 101,085
| percentage = 41.71%
| change = -2.10%
}}
{{Election box total
|votes = 242,375
|percentage = 100.0
|change = N/A
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no swing
|winner = Democratic Party (United States)
}}
{{Election box end}}

{{Election box begin no change
| title = New York's 25th congressional district, 2018
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Joseph Morelle''
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| votes = 147,979
| percentage = 54.8
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Joseph Morelle''
| party = Independence Party of New York
| votes = 4,585
| percentage = 1.7
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Joseph Morelle''
| party = Working Families Party
| votes = 4,575
| percentage = 1.7
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Joseph Morelle''
| party = Women's Equality Party (New York)
| votes = 2,105
| percentage = 0.8
}}
{{Election box candidate no change
| candidate = '''[[Joseph Morelle]]'''
| party = Total
| votes = '''159,244'''
| percentage = '''59.0'''
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Jim Maxwell''
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| votes = 91,342
| percentage = 33.8
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Jim Maxwell''
| party = Conservative Party of New York State
| votes = 17,781
| percentage = 6.6
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Jim Maxwell''
| party = Reform Party of New York State
| votes = 1,613
| percentage = 0.6
}}
{{Election box candidate no change
| candidate = Jim Maxwell
| party = Total
| votes = 110,736
| percentage = 41.0
}}
{{Election box total no change
| votes = 269,980
| percentage = 100.0
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no change
|winner = Democratic Party (United States)
}}
{{Election box end}}
{{Election box begin no change
| title = New York's 25th congressional district, 2020<ref name="Federal Certification">{{Cite web|date=September 17, 2020|title=November 3, 2020 General Election Certification|url=https://www.elections.ny.gov/NYSBOE/Elections/2020/General/CertificationforNov32020GeneralElection.pdf|access-date=September 25, 2020|website=New York State Board of Elections}}</ref><ref name="NYgenr">{{cite web |title=2020 Election Results |url=https://www.elections.ny.gov/2020ElectionResults.html |website=New York State Board of Elections |access-date=December 3, 2020}}</ref>
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Joseph Morelle''
| party = Democratic Party (United States)
| votes = 187,503
| percentage = 53.9
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Joseph Morelle''
| party = Working Families Party
| votes = 14,584
| percentage = 4.2
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''Joseph Morelle''
| party = Independence Party of New York
| votes = 4,309
| percentage = 1.2
}}
{{Election box winning candidate no change
| candidate = [[Joseph Morelle]] (incumbent)
| party = Total
| votes = 206,396
| percentage = 59.3
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''George Mitris''
| party = Republican Party (United States)
| votes = 115,940
| percentage = 33.4
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = ''George Mitris''
| party = Conservative Party of New York
| votes = 20,258
| percentage = 5.8
}}
{{Election box candidate no change
| candidate = George Mitris
| party = Total
| votes = 136,198
| percentage = 39.2
}}
{{Election box candidate with party link no change
| candidate = Kevin Wilson
| party = Libertarian Party of New York
| votes = 5,325
| percentage = 1.5
}}
{{Election box total no change
| votes = 347,919
| percentage = 100.0
}}
{{Election box hold with party link no change
|winner = Democratic Party (United States)
}}
{{Election box end}}

==Personal life==
Morelle lives in Irondequoit with his wife, Mary Beth.<ref name="Official bio"/> They have three children:<ref name="Official bio"/> Lauren, Joseph Junior, and Nicholas.<ref name="Vote Smart"/>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name="Official bio">{{cite web
|url= http://assembly.state.ny.us/mem/?ad=021&sh=bio
|title= Assembly District 132, Joseph D. Morelle: Biography
|publisher= [[New York State Assembly]]
|access-date= March 25, 2011}}
</ref>

<ref name="Vote Smart">{{cite web
|url= http://www.votesmart.org/bio.php?can_id=4362
|title= Assembly Member Joseph D. Morelle (NY)
|publisher= [[Project Vote Smart]]
|access-date= March 25, 2011}}
</ref>

}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Joseph Morelle}}
*[https://morelle.house.gov Congressman Morelle] official U.S. House website
*[https://www.votemorelle.com/ Campaign website]
{{CongLinks | congbio=M001206 | congress=joseph-morelle/M001206 | votesmart=4362 | fec=H8NY25105 }}
* {{C-SPAN|josephmorelle}}

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{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[New York State Assembly|New York Assembly]] from the 132nd district|years=1991–2012}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Phil Palmesano]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Phil Palmesano]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[New York State Assembly|New York Assembly]] from the 136th district|years=2013–2018}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Jamie Romeo]]}}
|-
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{{s-ttl|title=Majority Leader of the [[New York State Assembly|New York Assembly]]|years=2013–2018}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Speakers of the New York State Assembly|Speaker of the New York Assembly]] {{small|Acting}}|years=2015}}
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|-
{{s-par|us-hs}}
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{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States Representatives from New York|U.S. House of Representatives]] from [[New York's 25th congressional district]]|years=2018–present}}
{{s-inc}}
|-
{{s-prec|usa}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[Seniority in the United States House of Representatives|United States Representatives by seniority]]|years=297th}}
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{{s-end}}
{{USCongRep-start|congresses= 115th-present [[United States Congress]] |state=[[United States congressional delegations from New York|New York]]}}
{{USCongRep/NY/115}}
{{USCongRep/NY/116}}
{{USCongRep/NY/117}}
{{USCongRep-end}}
{{NY-FedRep}}
{{USHouseCurrent}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Morelle, Joseph D.}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:2012 United States presidential electors]]
[[Category:21st-century American politicians]]
[[Category:Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the New York State Assembly]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)]]
[[Category:New York (state) Democrats]]
[[Category:Politicians from Rochester, New York]]
[[Category:State University of New York at Geneseo alumni]]