Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Firefox

2023-02-15T00:37:33Z

Explodingbrain: Clarified a sentence by adding brackets and a comma.

{{Short description|Free and open-source web browser by Mozilla}}
{{About|the web browser|other uses|Firefox (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|Phoenix (web browser)|the early-1990s web browser developed at the University of Chicago|Phoenix (tkWWW-based browser)}}
{{Pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=May 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox software
| name = Firefox 
| title = Mozilla Firefox
| logo = Firefox logo, 2019.svg 
| screenshot = [[File:Firefox100DarkThemeWin11.png|200px|Firefox 100 on Windows 11]]
| caption = Firefox 100 on [[Windows 11]]
| developer = [[Mozilla Foundation]] and its contributors [[Mozilla Corporation]]
| released = {{Start date and age|2004|11|9}}
| ver layout = stacked
| repo = 
| programming language = [[C++]], [[JavaScript]], [[HTML]], [[C (programming language)|C]], [[Rust (programming language)|Rust]], and others<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.infoworld.com/article/3165424/web-browsers/mozilla-binds-firefoxs-fate-to-the-rust-language.html|title=Mozilla binds Firefox's fate to the Rust language|last=Yegulalp|first=Serdar|date=February 3, 2017|work=InfoWorld|access-date=August 19, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819063448/http://www.infoworld.com/article/3165424/web-browsers/mozilla-binds-firefoxs-fate-to-the-rust-language.html|archive-date=August 19, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Mozilla Firefox Open Source Project on Open Hub: Languages Page|url=https://www.openhub.net/p/firefox/analyses/latest/languages_summary|access-date=October 15, 2021|website=www.openhub.net|archive-date=October 7, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007234007/https://www.openhub.net/p/firefox/analyses/latest/languages_summary|url-status=live}}</ref>
| operating system = [[Linux]] [[macOS Sierra|macOS 10.12]] or later [[Windows 7]] or later [[Android Lollipop|Android 5.0]] or later<ref name="Firefox for Android upgrade FAQs">{{cite web|url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/firefox-android-upgrade-faqs?redirectslug=firefox-preview-upgrade-faqs&redirectlocale=en-US|title=Firefox for Android upgrade FAQs|access-date=August 16, 2020|archive-date=August 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200812152044/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/firefox-android-upgrade-faqs?redirectslug=firefox-preview-upgrade-faqs&redirectlocale=en-US|url-status=live}}</ref> [[iOS 13]].0 or later
| included with = Various [[Unix-like]] operating systems
| engines = [[Gecko (software)|Gecko]], [[Quantum (Mozilla)|Quantum]], and [[SpiderMonkey]]
| language count = 97
| language footnote = <ref name="languages" />
| genre = [[Web browser]]
| license = [[Mozilla Public License|MPL 2.0]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/about/legal/eula/|title=Mozilla|access-date=October 20, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021035640/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/about/legal/eula/|archive-date=October 21, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Licensing-Policies" />
| website = {{Official URL}}
| standard =
| AsOf =
}}
'''Mozilla Firefox''', or simply '''Firefox''', is a [[Free and open-source software|free and open-source]]<ref name="LWNtrademark">{{cite web|url=https://lwn.net/Articles/118268/|title=Debian and Mozilla – a study in trademarks|date=January 10, 2005|website=[[LWN.net]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801163012/https://lwn.net/Articles/118268/|archive-date=August 1, 2017 |access-date=September 14, 2011 |author=Corbet, Jonathan |url-status=live}}</ref> [[web browser]] developed by the [[Mozilla Foundation]] and its subsidiary, the [[Mozilla Corporation]]. It uses the [[Gecko (software)|Gecko]] [[Browser engine|rendering engine]] to display web pages, which implements current and anticipated web standards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://download-firefox.org/spread-firefox/gecko-layout-engine-and-mozilla-firefox/|title=Gecko Layout Engine|date=July 17, 2008|publisher=download-firefox.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100615131607/http://download-firefox.org/spread-firefox/gecko-layout-engine-and-mozilla-firefox/|archive-date=June 15, 2010|access-date=May 10, 2012}}</ref> In November 2017, Firefox began incorporating new technology under the code name "[[Quantum (Mozilla)|Quantum]]" to promote [[Parallel computing|parallelism]] and a more intuitive [[user interface]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2017/11/14/introducing-firefox-quantum/|title=Introducing the New Firefox: Firefox Quantum|last=Mayo|first=Mark|date=November 14, 2017|website=The Mozilla Blog|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627114050/https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2017/11/14/introducing-firefox-quantum/|archive-date=June 27, 2018|access-date=May 26, 2018}}</ref> Firefox is available for [[Windows 7]] and later versions, [[macOS]], and [[Linux]]. [[#Unofficial ports|Its unofficial ports]] are available for various [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] operating systems, including [[FreeBSD]],<ref name="FreeBSD ports">{{cite web|title=FreeBSD ports|url=https://svnweb.freebsd.org/ports/head/www/firefox/|access-date=March 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323104221/https://svnweb.freebsd.org/ports/head/www/firefox/|archive-date=March 23, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[OpenBSD]],<ref name="OpenBSD ports">{{cite web|title=OpenBSD ports|url=http://cvsweb.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/cvsweb/ports/www/mozilla-firefox/|access-date=March 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190120074628/http://cvsweb.openbsd.org/cgi-bin/cvsweb/ports/www/mozilla-firefox/|archive-date=January 20, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[NetBSD]],<ref name="NetBSD pkgsrc">{{cite web|title=NetBSD pkgsrc|url=http://cvsweb.netbsd.org/bsdweb.cgi/pkgsrc/www/firefox/|access-date=October 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101015707/http://cvsweb.netbsd.org/bsdweb.cgi/pkgsrc/www/firefox/|archive-date=November 1, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> [[illumos]],<ref name="OpenIndiana Wiki">{{cite web|title=OpenIndiana Wiki|url=https://wiki.openindiana.org/oi/Firefox|access-date=October 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101015421/https://wiki.openindiana.org/oi/Firefox|archive-date=November 1, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Solaris Unix]].<ref name="Open Source software in Solaris, Github">{{cite web|title=Open Source software in Solaris, Github|website=[[GitHub]]|url=https://github.com/oracle/solaris-userland/tree/master/components/desktop/firefox|access-date=October 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181231234544/https://github.com/oracle/solaris-userland/tree/master/components/desktop/firefox|archive-date=December 31, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> It is also available for [[Firefox for Android|Android]] and [[Firefox for iOS|iOS]]. However, as with all other iOS web browsers, the iOS version uses the [[WebKit]] layout engine instead of Gecko due to platform requirements. An optimized version is also available on the [[Amazon Fire TV]] as one of the two main browsers available with [[Amazon Silk|Amazon's Silk Browser]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Firefox for Fire TV|url=https://www.amazon.com/Mozilla-Firefox-for-Fire-TV/dp/B078B5YMPD|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707103351/https://www.amazon.com/Mozilla-Firefox-for-Fire-TV/dp/B078B5YMPD|archive-date=July 7, 2020|access-date=July 17, 2020|website=Amazon}}</ref>

Firefox was created in 2002 under the code name "Phoenix" by members of the [[Mozilla]] community who desired a standalone browser rather than the [[Mozilla Application Suite]] bundle. During its [[Software release life cycle#Beta|beta]] phase, it proved to be popular with its testers and was praised for its speed, security, and add-ons compared to [[Microsoft]]'s then-dominant [[Internet Explorer 6]]. It was released on November 9, 2004,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/3993959.stm|title=Firefox browser takes on Microsoft|date=November 9, 2004|work=[[BBC News]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171220113953/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/3993959.stm|archive-date=December 20, 2017}}</ref> and challenged [[Internet Explorer]]'s dominance with 60 million downloads within nine months.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/4508897.stm|title=The assault on software giant Microsoft|last=Weber|first=Tim|date=May 9, 2005|work=[[BBC News]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925233936/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4508897.stm|archive-date=September 25, 2017}}</ref> It is the [[spiritual successor]] of [[Netscape Navigator]], as the Mozilla community was created by [[Netscape]] in 1998, before their acquisition by [[AOL]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/technology/technology-blog/2008/02/curtains-for-netscape.html|title=Curtains for Netscape – Tech Bytes|last=Jay|first=Paul|date=February 28, 2008|publisher=CBC News|access-date=June 26, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150705110100/http://www.cbc.ca/technology/technology-blog/2008/02/curtains-for-netscape.html|archive-date=July 5, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Firefox usage share grew to a peak of 32.21% in November 2009,<ref name=":2">{{cite web |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/worldwide/#monthly-200901-201301 |title=Desktop Browser Market Share Worldwide (Jan 2009 – Jan 2013) |last=StatCounter |website=gs.statcounter.com |access-date=October 23, 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=October 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011022101/https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/worldwide#monthly-200901-201301 }}</ref> with [[Firefox 3.5]] overtaking [[Internet Explorer 7]], although not all versions of Internet Explorer as a whole;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/#browser_version-ww-weekly-200827-200951|title=StatCounter Global Stats – Browser, OS, Search Engine including Mobile Usage Share|website=StatCounter Global Stats|access-date=July 14, 2018|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526/http://gs.statcounter.com/%23mobile_browser-ww-monthly-201012-201111-bar#browser_version-ww-weekly-200827-200951|archive-date=May 26, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/#browser_version-ww-monthly-200902-201006|title=StatCounter global stats – Top 12 browser versions|publisher=StatCounter|access-date=March 12, 2010|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120526/http://gs.statcounter.com/%23mobile_browser-ww-monthly-201012-201111-bar#browser_version-ww-monthly-200902-201006|archive-date=May 26, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> its usage then declined in competition with [[Google Chrome]].<ref name=":2" /> {{As of|2022|12}}, according to [[StatCounter]], it had a 7.1% usage share as a desktop web browser, making it the fourth-most popular desktop web browser after Google Chrome (66.1%), [[Microsoft Edge]] (11.2%), and [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] (9.6%).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Desktop Browser Market Share Worldwide|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/worldwide/#monthly-200901-202208|access-date=September 5, 2022|website=StatCounter Global Stats|language=en}}</ref> [[usage share of web browsers|Across all platforms]], it again places fourth with a usage share of 3.04%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share#monthly-200901-202208|title=Browser Market Share Worldwide|website=StatCounter Global Stats|access-date=September 5, 2022}}</ref>

== History ==
{{See also|Firefox early version history|Firefox version history}}
The project began as an experimental branch of the [[Mozilla Application Suite|Mozilla project]] by [[Dave Hyatt]], [[Joe Hewitt (programmer)|Joe Hewitt]], and [[Blake Ross]]. They believed the commercial requirements of [[Netscape]]'s sponsorship and developer-driven [[feature creep]] compromised the utility of the Mozilla browser.<ref>{{cite web |last=Goodger |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Goodger |title=Where Did Firefox Come From? |work=Inside Firefox |publisher=MozillaZine Weblogs |date=February 6, 2006 |url=http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/ben/archives/009698.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110623034401/http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/ben/archives/009698.html |archive-date=June 23, 2011 |access-date=January 7, 2012}}</ref> To combat what they saw as the [[Mozilla Application Suite|Mozilla Suite]]'s [[software bloat]], they created a standalone browser, with which they intended to replace the Mozilla Suite.<ref name=secrets>{{cite book |last=Yeow |first=Cheah Chu |year=2005 |title=Firefox Secrets |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sfciobmzOOcC |publisher=SitePoint Pty Ltd |isbn=978-0-9752402-4-3 |access-date=December 12, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323104230/https://books.google.com/books?id=sfciobmzOOcC |archive-date=March 23, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Version 0.1 was released on September 23, 2002.<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/2012/09/happy-birthday-firefox-the-little-web-browser-that-could-turns-10/ |title=Happy Birthday, Firefox: The Little Web Browser That Could Turns 10 |last=Gilbertson |first=Scott |date=September 24, 2012 |magazine=Wired |access-date=September 20, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805143306/https://www.wired.com/2012/09/happy-birthday-firefox-the-little-web-browser-that-could-turns-10/ |archive-date=August 5, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> On April 3, 2003, the [[Mozilla Foundation|Mozilla Organization]] announced that it planned to change its focus from the Mozilla Suite to Firefox and [[Mozilla Thunderbird|Thunderbird]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www-archive.mozilla.org/roadmap/roadmap-02-Apr-2003.html |title=mozilla development roadmap |last1=Eich |first1=Brendan |author-link=Brendan Eich |last2=Hyatt |first2=David |author-link2=Dave Hyatt |date=April 2, 2003 |publisher=[[Mozilla]] |access-date=August 2, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410050040/http://www-archive.mozilla.org/roadmap/roadmap-02-Apr-2003.html |archive-date=April 10, 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Phoenix 0.1.png|thumb|left|Screenshot of Phoenix 0.1 on [[Windows XP]] ]]
The Firefox project has undergone several name changes.<ref>See:
*{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.1-release-notes.html |title=Phoenix 0.1 (Pescadero) release Notes and FAQ |date=May 28, 2003 |website=mozilla.org |access-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030528145420/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.1-release-notes.html |archive-date=May 28, 2003}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.2-release-notes.html |title=Phoenix 0.2 (Santa Cruz) release Notes and FAQ |date=December 3, 2003 |website=mozilla.org |access-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031203013057/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.2-release-notes.html |archive-date=December 4, 2003}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.3-release-notes.html |title=Phoenix 0.3 (Lucia) release Notes and FAQ |date=December 3, 2003 |website=mozilla.org |access-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031203013057/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.3-release-notes.html |archive-date=December 4, 2003}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.4-release-notes.html |title=Phoenix 0.4 (Oceano) Release Notes and FAQ |date=December 3, 2003 |website=mozilla.org |access-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031203013057/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.4-release-notes.html |archive-date=December 3, 2003}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.5-release-notes.html |title=Phoenix 0.5 (Naples) Release Notes and FAQ |date=December 3, 2003 |website=mozilla.org |access-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031203013057/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.5-release-notes.html |archive-date=December 3, 2003}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.6-release-notes.html |title=Mozilla Firebird 0.6 Release Notes and FAQ |date=December 3, 2003 |website=mozilla.org |access-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031203013057/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.6-release-notes.html |archive-date=December 3, 2003}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.6.1-release-notes.html |title=Mozilla Firebird 0.6.1 Release Notes and FAQ |date=December 3, 2003 |website=mozilla.org |access-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031203013057/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.6.1-release-notes.html |archive-date=December 3, 2003}}
*{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.7-release-notes.html |title=Mozilla Firebird 0.7 Release Notes |date=October 28, 2003 |website=mozilla.org |access-date=February 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031028041058/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firebird/0.7-release-notes.html |archive-date=October 28, 2003}}</ref> The nascent browser was originally named Phoenix, after the [[phoenix (mythology)|mythical bird]] that rose triumphantly from the ashes of its dead predecessor (in this case, from the "ashes" of Netscape Navigator, after it was sidelined by Microsoft Internet Explorer in the "[[First Browser War]]"). Phoenix was renamed in 2003 due to a trademark claim from [[Phoenix Technologies]]. The replacement name, Firebird, provoked an intense response from the [[Firebird (database server)|Firebird]] database software project.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mozilla browser becomes Firebird |publisher=IBPhoenix |url=http://www.ibphoenix.com/main.nfs?a=ibphoenix&page=ibp_Mozilla0 |access-date=January 30, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070914035447/http://www.ibphoenix.com/main.nfs?a=ibphoenix&page=ibp_Mozilla0 |archive-date=September 14, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/mozillas-firebird-gets-wings-clipped/ |title=Mozilla's Firebird gets wings clipped |last=Festa |first=Paul |date=May 7, 2003 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629063203/https://www.cnet.com/news/mozillas-firebird-gets-wings-clipped/ |archive-date=June 29, 2018 |publisher=[[CNET]] |access-date=January 30, 2007}}</ref> The Mozilla Foundation reassured them that the browser would always bear the name Mozilla Firebird to avoid confusion. After further pressure, Mozilla Firebird became Mozilla Firefox on February 9, 2004.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/mozilla-holds-fire-in-naming-fight/ |title=Mozilla holds 'fire' in naming fight |last=Festa |first=Paul |date=February 9, 2004 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629063422/https://www.cnet.com/news/mozilla-holds-fire-in-naming-fight/ |archive-date=June 29, 2018 |publisher=[[CNET]] |access-date=January 24, 2007}}</ref> The name Firefox was said to be derived from a nickname of the [[red panda]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Red panda |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Red_Panda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111062619/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Red_Panda |archive-date=January 11, 2014 |publisher=BBC Nature |access-date=August 20, 2014}}</ref> which became the mascot for the newly named project.<ref name="Firefox name FAQ">{{cite web |title=Firefox name FAQ |last1=Garrity |first1=Steven |last2=Markham |first2=Gervase |last3=Goodger |first3=Ben |last4=Decrem |first4=Bart |display-authors=etal |website=mozilla.org |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firefox/firefox-name-faq.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228204829/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firefox/firefox-name-faq.html |archive-date=February 28, 2012 |access-date=March 13, 2012}}</ref> For the abbreviation of Firefox, Mozilla prefers ''Fx'' or ''fx,'' although it is often abbreviated as ''FF''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox 1.5 Release Notes |url=https://website-archive.mozilla.org/www.mozilla.org/firefox_releasenotes/en-US/firefox/releases/1.5.html#FAQ |date=November 29, 2005 |website=mozilla.org archive |access-date=November 17, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118131918/http://website-archive.mozilla.org/www.mozilla.org/firefox_releasenotes/en-US/firefox/releases/1.5.html#FAQ |archive-date=November 18, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The Firefox project went through many versions before version 1.0 and had already gained a great deal of acclaim from numerous media outlets, such as ''[[Forbes]]''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/2004/09/29/cx_ah_0929tentech.html |title=Better Browser Now the Best |website=[[Forbes]] |access-date=May 20, 2020 |archive-date=May 3, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503084908/https://www.forbes.com/2004/09/29/cx_ah_0929tentech.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ptech.wsj.com/archive/ptech-20040916.html|title=Personal Technology -- Personal Technology from The Wall Street Journal.|date=September 17, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040917095122/http://ptech.wsj.com/archive/ptech-20040916.html|archive-date=September 17, 2004}}</ref> Among Firefox's popular features were the integrated [[pop-up blocker]], tabbed browsing, and an extension mechanism for adding functionality. Although these features have already been available for some time in other browsers such as the [[Mozilla Suite]] and [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]], Firefox was the first of these browsers to have achieved large-scale adoption.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}} Firefox attracted attention as an alternative to [[Internet Explorer]], which had come under fire for its alleged poor program design and insecurity—detractors cite IE's lack of support for certain Web standards, use of the potentially dangerous [[ActiveX]] component, and vulnerability to spyware and malware installation.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}} Microsoft responded by releasing [[Windows XP]] Service Pack 2, which added several important security features to Internet Explorer 6.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lake|first=Matt|title=SERVICE AND SUPPORT|url=https://www.cnet.com/reviews/microsoft-windows-xp-home-edition-w-sp2-review/|access-date=September 20, 2021|website=CNET|language=en|archive-date=February 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211204829/https://www.cnet.com/reviews/microsoft-windows-xp-home-edition-w-sp2-review/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Version 1.0 of Firefox was released on November 9, 2004.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://website-archive.mozilla.org/www.mozilla.org/firefox_releasenotes/en-US/firefox/releases/1.0.html |title=Firefox 1.0 Release Notes |date=November 9, 2004 |website=mozilla.org archive |access-date=June 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627005158/https://website-archive.mozilla.org/www.mozilla.org/firefox_releasenotes/en-US/firefox/releases/1.0.html |archive-date=June 27, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> This was followed by version 1.5 in November 2005, version 2.0 in October 2006, version 3.0 in June 2008, version 3.5 in June 2009, version 3.6 in January 2010, and version 4.0 in March 2011. From version 5 onwards, the development and release model changed into a "rapid" one; by the end of 2011 the stable release was version 9, and by the end of 2012 it reached version 17.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Mozilla Firefox Release Notes|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/releases/|access-date=September 20, 2021|website=Mozilla|language=en|archive-date=September 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917224831/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/releases/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Major redesigns of its [[graphical user interface]] occurred on versions 4.0 in March 2011, 29.0 "Australis" in April 2014, 57.0 "Quantum" in November 2017, and 89.0 "Proton" in June 2021.

In 2016, Mozilla announced a project known as [[Quantum (Mozilla)|Quantum]], which sought to improve Firefox's Gecko engine and other components to improve the browser's performance, modernize its architecture, and transition the browser to a [[Process isolation|multi-process]] model. These improvements came in the wake of decreasing market share to [[Google Chrome]], as well as concerns that its performance was lapsing in comparison. Despite its improvements, these changes required existing [[Add-on (Mozilla)|add-ons]] for Firefox to be made incompatible with newer versions, in favor of a new [[Browser extension|extension]] system that is designed to be similar to Chrome and other recent browsers. Firefox 57, which was released in November 2017, was the first version to contain enhancements from Quantum, and has thus been named ''Firefox Quantum''. A Mozilla executive stated that Quantum was the "biggest update" to the browser since version 1.0.<ref name="cnet57">{{cite news |url=https://www.cnet.com/special-reports/mozilla-firefox-fights-back-against-google-chrome/ |title=Inside Mozilla: Firefox fights back |last=Shankland |first=Stephen |date=August 4, 2017 |work=[[CNET]] |access-date=October 9, 2017 |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803165258/https://www.cnet.com/special-reports/mozilla-firefox-fights-back-against-google-chrome/ |archive-date=August 3, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/why-you-should-root-for-mozillas-firefox-57-in-the-browser-wars/ |title=Why you should root for Mozilla's Firefox 57 in the browser wars |last=Dignan |first=Larry |date=August 6, 2017 |publisher=[[ZDNet]] |access-date=October 9, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211021103/https://www.zdnet.com/article/why-you-should-root-for-mozillas-firefox-57-in-the-browser-wars/ |archive-date=December 11, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/3237054/internet/mozilla-seeks-return-to-glory-with-release-of-firefox-quantum.html |title=Mozilla seeks return to glory with release of Firefox Quantum |last=Keizer |first=Gregg |date=November 14, 2017 |work=[[Computerworld]] |access-date=December 11, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171223114527/https://www.computerworld.com/article/3237054/internet/mozilla-seeks-return-to-glory-with-release-of-firefox-quantum.html |archive-date=December 23, 2017 |url-status=live |publisher=[[International Data Group]]}}</ref> Unresponsive and crashing pages only affect other pages loaded within the same process. While Chrome uses separate processes for each loaded tab, Firefox distributes tabs over four processes by default (since Quantum), in order to balance memory consumption and performance. The process count can be adjusted, where more processes increase performance at the cost of memory, therefore suitable for computers with larger RAM capacity.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoffman |first1=Chris |title=What's New in Firefox Quantum, the Firefox You've Been Waiting For |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/332449/whats-new-in-firefox-quantum/ |website=How-To Geek |access-date=October 29, 2021 |language=en |date=November 14, 2017 |archive-date=October 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028154320/https://www.howtogeek.com/332449/whats-new-in-firefox-quantum/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox's performance settings {{!}} Firefox Help |url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/performance-settings |website=support.mozilla.org |access-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029162332/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/performance-settings |url-status=live }} (<code>about:config</code> property: <code>dom.ipc.processCount.web</code>)</ref>

On May 3, 2019, the expiration of an intermediate signing certificate on Mozilla servers caused Firefox to automatically disable and lock all browser extensions (add-ons).<ref name="FFAABlog">{{cite web |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/addons/2019/05/04/update-regarding-add-ons-in-firefox/ | title=Update Regarding Add-ons in Firefox | publisher=Mozilla | date=May 4, 2019 | access-date=May 4, 2019 | author=Needham, Kev | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504142118/https://blog.mozilla.org/addons/2019/05/04/update-regarding-add-ons-in-firefox/ | archive-date=May 4, 2019 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="addon_expiry_brouhaha">{{cite news |last=Brinkmann |first=Martin |title=Your Firefox extensions are all disabled? That's a bug! |publisher=GHacks |date=May 4, 2019 |url=https://www.ghacks.net/2019/05/04/your-firefox-extensions-are-all-disabled-thats-a-bug/ |access-date=May 4, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504065552/https://www.ghacks.net/2019/05/04/your-firefox-extensions-are-all-disabled-thats-a-bug/ |archive-date=May 4, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mozilla began the roll-out of a fix shortly thereafter, using their Mozilla Studies component.<ref name="FFAABlog" /><ref name="addon_expiry_brouhaha" />

On January 13, 2022, an issue with Firefox's HTTP/3 implementation resulted in a widespread outage for multiple hours.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://9to5mac.com/2022/01/13/firefox-browser-suddenly-failing-to-load-websites-this-morning-heres-the-fix/amp/ | title=Firefox is suddenly failing to load websites this morning, here's the fix | publisher=9To5Mac | date=January 13, 2021 | access-date=January 13, 2021 }}</ref>

== Features ==
{{Main|Features of Firefox}}
Features of the desktop edition include [[tab (interface)|tabbed browsing]], full-screen mode, [[spell checker|spell checking]], [[incremental search]], [[smart bookmarks]], bookmarking and downloading through [[drag and drop]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox Tip – Drag Bookmarks to your Toolbar |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/theden/2012/07/20/drag-bookmarks-to-your-toolbar/ |website=The Den |publisher=Mozilla |access-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029162334/https://blog.mozilla.org/theden/2012/07/20/drag-bookmarks-to-your-toolbar/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Brinkmann |first1=Martin |title=Speed up the Download Process in Firefox with drag and drop? - gHacks Tech News |url=https://www.ghacks.net/2007/12/28/speed-up-download-process-in-firefox-with-drag-and-drop/ |website=gHacks Technology News |access-date=October 29, 2021 |date=December 28, 2007 |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029162334/https://www.ghacks.net/2007/12/28/speed-up-download-process-in-firefox-with-drag-and-drop/ |url-status=live }}</ref> a [[download manager]], [[User profile#Digital User Profiles|user profile]] management,<ref>{{cite web |title=Profile Manager – Create, remove or switch Firefox profiles {{!}} Firefox Help |url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/profile-manager-create-remove-switch-firefox-profiles |website=support.mozilla.org |access-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-date=October 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029160607/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/profile-manager-create-remove-switch-firefox-profiles |url-status=live }}</ref> [[privacy mode|private browsing]], bookmark tags, bookmark [[data export|exporting]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/export-firefox-bookmarks-to-backup-or-transfer|title=Export Firefox bookmarks to an HTML file to back up or transfer bookmarks | Firefox Help|website=support.mozilla.org|accessdate=August 13, 2021|archive-date=August 12, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812010516/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/export-firefox-bookmarks-to-backup-or-transfer|url-status=live}}</ref> offline mode,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kaufman |first1=Lori |title=How to Enable Offline Browsing in Firefox |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/263854/how-to-enable-offline-browsing-in-firefox/ |website=How-To Geek |access-date=August 31, 2021 |date=July 27, 2016 |archive-date=August 31, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831132207/https://www.howtogeek.com/263854/how-to-enable-offline-browsing-in-firefox/ |url-status=live }}</ref> a [[screenshot]] tool, [[web development tools]], a "page info" feature which shows a list of page metadata and multimedia items,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/firefox-page-info-window |title=Firefox Page Info window – Firefox Help |access-date=September 24, 2021 |archive-date=September 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924004942/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/firefox-page-info-window |url-status=live }}</ref> a sophisticated configuration menu at <code>about:config</code> for [[power user]]s, and more location-aware browsing (also known as "[[geolocation]]") based on a Google service.<ref name=mozgeo>{{cite web |title=Location-Aware Browsing |url=https://www.mozilla.com/firefox/geolocation/|access-date=July 5, 2009 |publisher=Mozilla Foundation}} (section "''What information is being sent, and to whom? (...)''")</ref> Firefox has an integrated search system which uses Google by default in most markets but an update for American users in 2021 made it start including paid promotions by default in its suggestions.<ref name="techcrunch-google">{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/11/14/mozilla-terminates-its-deal-with-yahoo-and-makes-google-the-default-in-firefox-again/|title=Mozilla terminates its deal with Yahoo and makes Google the default in Firefox again|last1=Lardinois|first1=Frederic|date=November 14, 2017|website=TechCrunch|access-date=November 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171114211602/https://techcrunch.com/2017/11/14/mozilla-terminates-its-deal-with-yahoo-and-makes-google-the-default-in-firefox-again/|archive-date=November 14, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thurrott.com/cloud/web-browsers/mozilla-firefox/258006/is-mozilla-firefox-getting-sketchy|title=Is Mozilla Firefox getting sketchy?|first=Paul|last=Thurrott|newspaper=Thurrott.com |date=2021-10-09|accessdate=2022-08-25}}</ref> [[DNS over HTTPS]] is another feature whose default behaviour is determined geographically.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/2/25/21152335/mozilla-firefox-dns-over-https-web-privacy-security-encryption|title=Firefox turns controversial encryption on by default in the US|first=Jon|last=Porter|publisher=The Verge|date=2020-02-25|accessdate=2022-08-25}}</ref>

Firefox provides an environment for web developers in which they can use built-in tools, such as the Error Console or the [[DOM Inspector]], and [[browser extension|extensions]], such as [[Firebug (software)|Firebug]] and more recently there has been an integration feature with [[Pocket (service)|Pocket]]. Firefox Hello was an implementation of [[WebRTC]], added in October 2014, which allows users of Firefox and other compatible systems to have a video call, with the extra feature of screen and file sharing by sending a link to each other. Firefox Hello was scheduled to be removed in September 2016.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/mozilla-firefox-hello-discontinue-september/|title=Hang up the phone: Mozilla to pull the plug on Firefox Hello in September|last=Parrish|first=Kevin|date=August 5, 2016|website=[[Digital Trends]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115104933/https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/mozilla-firefox-hello-discontinue-september/|archive-date=January 15, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Former features include a [[File Transfer Protocol]] (FTP) client for browsing file servers, the ability to block images from individual domains (until version 72),<ref name=FF72>{{cite web |title=Firefox 72.0, See All New Features, Updates and Fixes |url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/72.0/releasenotes/ |website=Mozilla |access-date=October 20, 2021 |language=en |date=January 7, 2020 |quote=Support for blocking images from individual domains has been removed from Firefox, because of low usage and poor user experience. |archive-date=January 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107143038/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/72.0/releasenotes/ |url-status=live }}</ref> a [[Features of Firefox#3D Page Inspector|3D page inspector]] (versions 11 to 46), tab grouping (until version 44), and the ability to add customized extra toolbars (until version 28).<ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox 45 Will Remove Tab Groups Today, Get This Add-on To Replace It – Slashdot |url=https://news.slashdot.org/story/16/03/08/1446243/firefox-45-will-remove-tab-groups-today-get-this-add-on-to-replace-it |website=news.slashdot.org |language=en |date=March 8, 2016 |access-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812010822/https://news.slashdot.org/story/16/03/08/1446243/firefox-45-will-remove-tab-groups-today-get-this-add-on-to-replace-it |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=How to Add Extra Bookmarks Toolbars in Firefox |url=https://www.guidingtech.com/3524/extra-bookmarks-toolbar-firefox/ |website=Guiding Tech |date=June 1, 2010 |access-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-date=August 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812010048/https://www.guidingtech.com/3524/extra-bookmarks-toolbar-firefox/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=FF3D>{{cite web |title=3D view – Firefox Developer Tools {{!}} MDN |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Tools/3D_View |website=developer.mozilla.org |quote=From Firefox 47 onwards, 3D view is no longer available. |access-date=September 26, 2021 |archive-date=September 26, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926215611/https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Tools/3D_View |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Browser extensions ===
Functions can be added through [[add-on (Mozilla)|add-ons]] created by [[third-party developer]]s. Add-ons are primarily coded using an [[HTML]], [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]], [[JavaScript]], with [[API]] known as [[WebExtensions]], which is designed to be compatible with [[Google Chrome]] and [[Microsoft Edge]] extension systems.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Browser Extensions|url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Mozilla/Add-ons/WebExtensions|access-date=July 16, 2020|website=MDN Web Docs|language=en|archive-date=July 19, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719033959/https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Mozilla/Add-ons/WebExtensions|url-status=live}}</ref> Firefox previously supported add-ons using the [[XUL]] and [[XPCOM]] APIs, which allowed them to directly access and manipulate much of the browser's internal functionality. As compatibility was not included in the multi-process architecture, XUL add-ons have been deemed ''Legacy add-ons'' and are no longer supported on Firefox 57 "Quantum" and newer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/addons/2017/08/10/upcoming-changes-compatibility/|title=Upcoming Changes in Compatibility Features|last=Villalobos|first=Jorge|date=August 10, 2017|website=Mozilla Add-ons Blog|access-date=December 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226113447/https://blog.mozilla.org/addons/2017/08/10/upcoming-changes-compatibility/|archive-date=December 26, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/08/mozilla-sets-plan-to-dump-firefox-add-ons-move-to-chrome-like-extensions/|title=Mozilla sets plan to dump Firefox add-ons, move to Chrome-like extensions|last=Bright|first=Peter|date=August 21, 2015|work=Ars Technica|access-date=December 11, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201203245/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/08/mozilla-sets-plan-to-dump-firefox-add-ons-move-to-chrome-like-extensions/|archive-date=December 1, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Mozilla has occasionally installed extensions for users without their permission. This happened in 2017 when an extension designed to promote the show [[Mr Robot]] was silently added in an update to Firefox.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/2017/12/16/16784628/mozilla-mr-robot-arg-plugin-firefox-looking-glass|title=Mozilla faces blowback after slipping Mr Robot plugin into Firefox|first=Russell|last=Brandom|publisher=The Verge|date=2017-12-16|accessdate=2022-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.com/2017/12/18/mozilla_mr_robot_firefox_promotion/|title=Mozilla's creepy Mr Robot stunt in Firefox flops in touching tribute to TV show's 2nd season|first=Shaun|last=Nichols|publisher=The Register|date=2017-12-18|accessdate=2022-08-25}}</ref>

=== Themes ===
Firefox can have themes added to it, which users can create or download from third parties to change the appearance of the browser.<ref name="ars-webextensions">{{cite web|title=Mozilla sets plan to dump Firefox add-ons, move to Chrome-like extensions|url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/08/mozilla-sets-plan-to-dump-firefox-add-ons-move-to-chrome-like-extensions/|website=Ars Technica|access-date=August 22, 2015|date=August 21, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822085215/http://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2015/08/mozilla-sets-plan-to-dump-firefox-add-ons-move-to-chrome-like-extensions/|archive-date=August 22, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title= Social & Communication: Add-ons for Firefox|url=https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/extensions/social-communication/|website= addons.mozilla.org|access-date= November 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151203235652/https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/extensions/social-communication/|archive-date= December 3, 2015|url-status= live}}</ref>

=== Guest session ===
In 2013, Firefox for Android added a ''guest session'' mode, which wiped browsing data such as tabs, cookies, and history at the end of each guest session. Guest session data was kept even when restarting the browser or device, and deleted only upon a manual exit. The feature was removed in 2019, purportedly to "''streamline the experience''".<ref>{{cite web |title=Share Your Firefox with Friends & Family While Keeping Your Web Information Private with Guest Browsing |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2013/10/29/share-your-firefox-with-friends-family-while-keeping-your-web-information-private-with-guest-browsing |website=The Mozilla Blog |date=October 29, 2013 |access-date=January 27, 2021 |archive-date=January 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127033206/https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2013/10/29/share-your-firefox-with-friends-family-while-keeping-your-web-information-private-with-guest-browsing/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/share-your-android-device-firefox-guest-session|title=Share your Android device with a Firefox Guest Session | Firefox for Android (ESR) Help|website=support.mozilla.org|access-date=January 27, 2021|archive-date=January 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127031057/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/share-your-android-device-firefox-guest-session|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Standards ===
[[File:Acid3 Mozilla Firefox test.png|thumb|The result of the [[Acid3]] test on Firefox 17]]

Firefox implements many [[web standards]], including [[HTML4]] (almost full [[HTML5]]), [[XML]], [[XHTML]], [[MathML]], [[Scalable Vector Graphics|SVG]] 1.1 (full),<ref>{{Cite web|title="SVG" {{!}} Can I use... Support tables for HTML5, CSS3, etc|url=https://caniuse.com/?search=SVG|access-date=December 13, 2021|website=caniuse.com}}</ref> SVG 2 (partial),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG/SVG_2_support_in_Mozilla|title=SVG 2 support in Mozilla|website=MDN Web Docs|access-date=July 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920222508/https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/SVG/SVG_2_support_in_Mozilla|archive-date=September 20, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en/SVG_in_Firefox |access-date=September 30, 2007 |title=SVG in Firefox |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829121506/http://developer.mozilla.org/en/SVG_in_Firefox |archive-date=August 29, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Cascading Style Sheets|CSS]] (with extensions),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en/CSS_Reference/Mozilla_Extensions |title=CSS Reference: Mozilla Extensions – MDC |publisher=Developer.mozilla.org |date=April 24, 2011 |access-date=August 17, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824232755/https://developer.mozilla.org/en/CSS_Reference/Mozilla_Extensions |archive-date=August 24, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> ECMAScript ([[JavaScript]]), [[Document Object Model|DOM]], [[XSLT]], [[XPath]], and [[APNG]] (Animated [[Portable Network Graphics|PNG]]) images with [[Alpha compositing|alpha transparency]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en/Gecko_FAQ |title=Which open standards is the Gecko development project working to support, and to what extent does it support them? |work=Gecko FAQ |access-date=January 24, 2007 |author=|date=January 21, 2007 |publisher=Mozilla Developer Network |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913104800/http://developer.mozilla.org/en/Gecko_FAQ |archive-date=September 13, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> Firefox also implements standards proposals created by the [[WHATWG]] such as client-side storage,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whatwg.org/specs/web-apps/current-work/#storage |title=WHATWG specification – Web Applications 1.0 – Working Draft. Client-side session and persistent storage |access-date=February 7, 2007 |date=February 7, 2007 |publisher=Web Hypertext Application Technology Working Group |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6G2tLSqvy?url=http://www.whatwg.org/specs/web-apps/current-work/#storage |archive-date=April 21, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en/DOM/Storage |title=DOM:Storage |access-date=February 7, 2007 |author=|date=September 30, 2007 |publisher=Mozilla Developer Network |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080901163339/http://developer.mozilla.org/en/DOM/Storage |archive-date=September 1, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[canvas element]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ibm.com/developerworks/xml/library/x-futhtml1/|title=The future of HTML, Part 1: WHATWG|last=Dumbill|first=Edd|date=December 6, 2005|publisher=[[IBM]]|access-date=January 24, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011142035/http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/xml/library/x-futhtml1/|archive-date=October 11, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> These standards are implemented through the Gecko layout engine, and [[SpiderMonkey]] JavaScript engine. Firefox 4 was the first release to introduce significant HTML5 and CSS3 support.

Firefox has passed the [[Acid2]] standards-compliance test since version 3.0.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.betanews.com/article/Latest-Firefox-beta-passes-Acid2-test-IE8-claims-to-pass-also/1198178648|title=Latest Firefox beta passes Acid2 test, IE8 claims to pass also|last=Fulton|first=Scott M.|date=December 20, 2007|publisher=BetaNews|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628072328/https://betanews.com/2007/12/20/latest-firefox-beta-passes-acid2-test-ie8-claims-to-pass-also/|archive-date=June 28, 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=December 21, 2007}}</ref> Mozilla had originally stated that they did not intend for Firefox to pass the [[Acid3]] test fully because they believed that the SVG fonts part of the test had become outdated and irrelevant, due to [[WOFF]] being agreed upon as a standard by all major browser makers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.conceivablytech.com/5430/products/why-firefox-4-will-never-pass-the-acid3-test/|title=Why Firefox 4 Will Never Pass The Acid3 Test|last=Bailey|first=Daniel|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203005137/http://www.conceivablytech.com/5430/products/why-firefox-4-will-never-pass-the-acid3-test/|archive-date=February 3, 2011 |access-date=February 1, 2011}}</ref> Because the SVG font tests were removed from the Acid3 test in September 2011, Firefox 4 and greater scored 100/100.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://plus.google.com/107429617152575897589/posts/JdHnqpuUER4|title=Acid3 2011 Update|last=Hickson|first=Ian|date=September 17, 2011|access-date=September 17, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012170339/https://plus.google.com/107429617152575897589/posts/JdHnqpuUER4|archive-date=October 12, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tomsguide.com/us/acid3-browser-test-web-standard-compatibility-IE9,news-12583.html|title=Acid3 Test Simplified; All Modern Browsers Score 100|last=Perry|first=Douglas|date=September 20, 2011|website=Tom's Guide|publisher=Purch Group|access-date=July 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628015834/https://www.tomsguide.com/us/acid3-browser-test-web-standard-compatibility-IE9,news-12583.html|archive-date=June 28, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Firefox also implements "Safe Browsing,"<ref name=mozcomphishff3>{{cite web |title=Phishing and Malware Protection |url=https://www.mozilla.com/firefox/phishing-protection/ |access-date=November 29, 2009 |publisher=Mozilla Corp. |at=How does Phishing and Malware Protection work in Firefox? |archive-date=August 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813112436/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/how-does-phishing-and-malware-protection-work |url-status=live }}</ref> a [[proprietary format|proprietary protocol]]<ref name=googsb2prot>{{cite web |title=Client specification for the Google Safe Browsing v2.1 protocol |url=https://code.google.com/p/google-safe-browsing/wiki/Protocolv2Spec |access-date=November 29, 2009 |publisher=Google Inc. |quote=Do not use this protocol without explicit written permission from Google. '''Note''': This is not a license to use the defined protocol. [...] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211021242/http://code.google.com/p/google-safe-browsing/wiki/Protocolv2Spec |archive-date=February 11, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> from Google used to exchange data related with phishing and malware protection.

Since version 38 on [[Windows Vista]] and newer, Firefox supports the playback of video content protected by HTML5 [[Encrypted Media Extensions]] (EME). For security and privacy reasons, EME is implemented within a wrapper of open-source code that allows execution of a [[proprietary software|proprietary]] [[digital rights management|DRM]] module by [[Adobe Systems]]—Adobe Primetime Content Decryption Module (CDM). CDM runs within a "[[sandbox (computer security)|sandbox]]" environment to limit its access to the system and provide it a randomized device ID to prevent services from [[Device fingerprint|uniquely identifying the device]] for tracking purposes. The DRM module, once it has been downloaded, is enabled, and disabled in the same manner as other [[Plug-in (computing)|plug-ins]]. Since version 47,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/47.0/releasenotes/|title=Firefox 47.0, See All New Features, Updates and Fixes|website=Mozilla|access-date=July 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160719121556/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/47.0/releasenotes/|archive-date=July 19, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> "Google's Widevine CDM on Windows and Mac OS X so streaming services like [[Amazon Video]] can switch from [[Silverlight]] to encrypted HTML5 video" is also supported. Mozilla justified its partnership with Adobe and Google by stating:

{{quote|Firefox downloads and enables the Adobe Primetime and Google Widevine CDMs by default to give users a smooth experience on sites that require DRM. Each CDM runs in a separate container called a sandbox and you will be notified when a CDM is in use. You can also disable each CDM and opt-out of future updates|source=Watch DRM content on Firefox<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/enable-drm|title=Watch DRM content on Firefox | Firefox Help|website=support.mozilla.org|access-date=July 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907004404/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/enable-drm|archive-date=September 7, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>}}

and that it is "an important step on Mozilla's roadmap to remove [[NPAPI]] plugin support."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2016/04/08/mozilla-to-test-widevine-cdm-in-firefox-nightly/|title=Mozilla To Test Widevine CDM in Firefox Nightly|date=April 8, 2016|access-date=July 13, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607175843/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2016/04/08/mozilla-to-test-widevine-cdm-in-firefox-nightly/|archive-date=June 7, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Upon the introduction of EME support, builds of Firefox on Windows were also introduced that exclude support for EME.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/2155440/firefox-will-get-drm-copy-protection-despite-mozillas-concerns.html|title=Mozilla hates it, but streaming video DRM is coming to Firefox|last=Kirk|first=Jeremy|date=May 15, 2014|work=PC World|access-date=July 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180515132001/https://www.pcworld.com/article/2155440/firefox-will-get-drm-copy-protection-despite-mozillas-concerns.html|archive-date=May 15, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="pcw-f38drm">{{cite web|url=https://www.pcworld.com/article/2922116/firefox-38-arrives-with-contentious-closed-source-drm-integrated-by-default.html|title=Firefox 38 arrives with contentious closed-source DRM integrated by default|last=Paul|first=Ian|date=May 13, 2015|website=PC World|access-date=August 12, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802081751/http://www.pcworld.com/article/2922116/firefox-38-arrives-with-contentious-closed-source-drm-integrated-by-default.html|archive-date=August 2, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Free Software Foundation]] and [[Cory Doctorow]] condemned Mozilla's decision to support EME.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infoq.com/news/2014/05/firefox-drm|title=Mixed reactions greet Mozilla plans to add HTML5 DRM in Firefox|first=James|last=Chesters|publisher=InfoQ|date=May 20, 2014|access-date=May 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190507011817/https://www.infoq.com/news/2014/05/firefox-drm|archive-date=May 7, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Security ==
{{See also|Browser security}}

Firefox allowed for a [[sandbox (computer security)|sandbox security model]] to manage privileges accorded to [[JavaScript]] code, but that feature has since been deprecated.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/en/Bypassing_Security_Restrictions_and_Signing_Code |title=Bypassing Security Restrictions and Signing Code |access-date=January 24, 2007 |last=Ranganathan |first=Arun |author2=Netscape Communications |date=November 11, 2002 |publisher=Mozilla Developer Network |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917162645/http://developer.mozilla.org/en/Bypassing_Security_Restrictions_and_Signing_Code |archive-date=September 17, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> It limits scripts from accessing data from other websites based on the [[same-origin policy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://developer.mozilla.org/En/Same_origin_policy_for_JavaScript |title=The Same Origin Policy |date=June 8, 2001 |access-date=November 12, 2007 |publisher=Mozilla Developer Network |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014022433/http://developer.mozilla.org/En/Same_origin_policy_for_JavaScript |archive-date=October 14, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> It also provides support for [[smart card]]s to web applications, for authentication purposes.<ref>[https://developer.mozilla.org/en/JavaScript_crypto Developer documentation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204153404/https://developer.mozilla.org/en/JavaScript_crypto |date=December 4, 2008 }} on using [[PKCS 11]] modules (primarily smart cards) for cryptographic purposes</ref> It uses [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]] to protect communications with web servers using strong [[cryptography]] when using the [[HTTPS]] protocol.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/security/pki/psm/help_21/ssl_help.html |title=Privacy & Security Preferences – SSL |access-date=January 24, 2007 |date=August 31, 2001 |publisher=Mozilla |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070207074919/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/security/pki/psm/help_21/ssl_help.html |archive-date=February 7, 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> The freely available [[HTTPS Everywhere]] add-on enforces HTTPS, even if a regular HTTP [[URL]] is entered. Firefox now supports HTTP/2.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.browsermentor.com/why-you-should-use-firefox/|title=Why You Should Use Firefox: 7 Reasons – BrowserMentor|first=Rahul|last=B|date=February 26, 2021|access-date=February 26, 2021|archive-date=August 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813112455/https://www.browsermentor.com/why-you-should-use-firefox/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Mozilla Foundation offers a "bug bounty" (US$3,000 to US$7,500 cash reward) to researchers who discover severe security holes in Firefox.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/security/client-bug-bounty/ |title=Mozilla Security Bug Bounty Program |access-date=July 20, 2016 |publisher=Mozilla |archive-date=November 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112151333/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/security/client-bug-bounty/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Official guidelines for handling security vulnerabilities discourage early [[Full disclosure (computer security)|disclosure of vulnerabilities]] so as not to give potential attackers an advantage in creating exploits.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/security/security-bugs-policy.html |title=Handling Mozilla Security Bugs |access-date=January 24, 2007 |date=February 11, 2003 |publisher=Mozilla |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218155814/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/security/security-bugs-policy.html |archive-date=February 18, 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Because Firefox generally has fewer publicly known security [[vulnerability (computing)|vulnerabilities]] than Internet Explorer (see ''[[Comparison of web browsers]]''), improved security is often cited as a reason to switch from Internet Explorer to Firefox.<ref name=WSJHowTo>{{cite news |url=http://ptech.wsj.com/archive/ptech-20040916.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070221061526/http://ptech.wsj.com/archive/ptech-20040916.html |archive-date=February 21, 2007 |title=How to Protect Yourself From Vandals, Viruses If You Use Windows |last=Mossberg |first=Walter S. |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=September 16, 2004 |access-date=October 17, 2006 |quote=I suggest dumping Microsoft's Internet Explorer Web browser, which has a history of security breaches. I recommend instead Mozilla Firefox, which is free at mozilla.org. It's not only more secure but also more modern and advanced, with tabbed browsing, which allows multiple pages to be open on one screen, and a better pop-up ad blocker than the belated one Microsoft recently added to IE.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.securityfocus.com/columnists/249|title=Time to Dump Internet Explorer|last=Granneman|first=Scott|date=June 17, 2004|publisher=SecurityFocus|access-date=January 24, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061016205832/http://www.securityfocus.com/columnists/249|archive-date=October 16, 2006|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Costa |first=Dan |editor-first=Scott |editor-last=Vamosi |title=Mozilla Firefox {{sic|Browser|nolink=yes}} review |publisher=[[CNET]] |date=March 24, 2005 |url=https://reviews.cnet.com/browsers/mozilla-firefox/4505-3514_7-31117280.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071226062127/http://reviews.cnet.com/browsers/mozilla-firefox/4505-3514_7-31117280.html |archive-date=December 26, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2103152 |title=Are the Browser Wars Back? |access-date=January 24, 2007 |last=Boutin |first=Paul |date=June 30, 2004 |work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070124211350/http://www.slate.com/id/2103152/ |archive-date=January 24, 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported that exploit code for known critical security vulnerabilities in Internet Explorer was available for 284 days in 2006. In comparison, exploit code for known, critical security vulnerabilities in Firefox was available for nine days before Mozilla issued a patch to remedy the problem.<ref>{{cite news |last=Krebs |first=Brian |title=Internet Explorer Unsafe for 284 Days in 2006 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=January 4, 2007 |url=http://blog.washingtonpost.com/securityfix/2007/01/internet_explorer_unsafe_for_2.html |access-date=January 24, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110424031839/http://blog.washingtonpost.com/securityfix/2007/01/internet_explorer_unsafe_for_2.html |archive-date=April 24, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2006 [[NortonLifeLock|Symantec]] study showed that, although Firefox had surpassed other browsers in the number of vendor-confirmed vulnerabilities that year through September, these vulnerabilities were patched far more quickly than those found in other browsers, with Firefox's vulnerabilities being fixed on average one day after the exploit code was made available, as compared to nine days for Internet Explorer.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.techweb.com/wire/security/193005335 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080207192416/http://www.techweb.com/wire/security/193005335 |archive-date=February 7, 2008 |title=Firefox Sports More Bugs, But IE Takes 9 Times Longer To Patch |access-date=January 24, 2007 |last=Keizer |first=Gregg |date=September 25, 2006 |publisher=TechWeb}}</ref> Symantec later clarified their statement, saying that Firefox still had fewer security vulnerabilities than Internet Explorer, as counted by security researchers.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.infoworld.com/d/security-central/symantec-adjusts-browser-bug-count-096 |title=Symantec adjusts browser bug count |access-date=January 24, 2007 |last=McMillan |first=Robert |date=March 7, 2006 |publisher=InfoWorld |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090728151158/http://www.infoworld.com/d/security-central/symantec-adjusts-browser-bug-count-096 |archive-date=July 28, 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In October 2009, Microsoft's security engineers acknowledged that Firefox was vulnerable to a security issue found in the 'Windows Presentation Foundation' browser plug-in since February of that year. A [[.NET Framework]] 3.5 SP1 [[Windows Update]] had silently installed the vulnerable plug-in into Firefox.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.idg.no/cw/art.cfm?id=5CF0A4A7-1A64-67EA-E45F5A54F2136086|title=Sneaky Microsoft plug-in puts Firefox users at risk (Internet – Software – Security)|last=Keizer|first=Gregg|date=October 16, 2009|website=IDG News|publisher=International Data Group|access-date=December 19, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019084007/http://news.idg.no/cw/art.cfm?id=5CF0A4A7-1A64-67EA-E45F5A54F2136086|archive-date=October 19, 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> This vulnerability has since been patched by Microsoft.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/ms09-054.mspx|title=Microsoft Security Bulletin MS09-054 - Critical|date=October 13, 2009|publisher=Microsoft|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318054555/https://www.microsoft.com/technet/security/bulletin/ms09-054.mspx|archive-date=March 18, 2010 |access-date=March 17, 2010}}</ref>

In 2010, a study of the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] (NIST), based on data compiled from the [[National Vulnerability Database]] (NVD), Firefox was listed as the fifth-most vulnerable desktop software, with Internet Explorer as the eighth, and [[Google Chrome]] as the first.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.securityweek.com/dirty-dozen-list-top-desktop-applications-security-vulnerabilities|title=Web Browsers, Desktop Software Top "Dirty Dozen" Apps List|date=November 17, 2010|access-date=January 2, 2013|publisher=Securityweek.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121126033030/http://www.securityweek.com/dirty-dozen-list-top-desktop-applications-security-vulnerabilities|archive-date=November 26, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[InfoWorld]] has cited security experts saying that, as Firefox becomes more popular, more vulnerabilities will be found,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.infoworld.com/d/security-central/security-firms-fight-firefox-fire-fire-032|title=Security firms fight Firefox fire with fire|last=Francis|first=Bob|date=May 12, 2005|work=InfoWorld|access-date=June 24, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090611140829/http://www.infoworld.com/d/security-central/security-firms-fight-firefox-fire-fire-032|archive-date=June 11, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> a claim that [[Mitchell Baker]], president of the Mozilla Foundation, has denied. "There is this idea that market share alone will make you have more vulnerabilities. It is not relational at all," she said.<ref name="popularity-insecure">{{cite web |last=Kanellos |first=Michael |title=Popularity won't make Firefox insecure, says Mozilla head |publisher=silicon.com |date=March 23, 2005 |url=http://software.silicon.com/applications/0,39024653,39128935,00.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110521071123/http://www.silicon.com/technology/software/2005/03/23/popularity-wont-make-firefox-insecure-says-mozilla-head-39128935/ |archive-date=May 21, 2011 |access-date=October 13, 2006}}</ref>

{{As of|2011|February|11|df=US}}, Firefox 3.6 had no known unpatched security [[vulnerability (computing)|vulnerabilities]] according to Secunia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://secunia.com/product/28698/ |title=Vulnerability Report: Mozilla Firefox 3.6.x |access-date=February 11, 2011 |publisher=Secunia |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120718112014/http://secunia.com/product/28698/ |archive-date=July 18, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Internet Explorer 8]] had five unpatched security vulnerabilities; the worst being rated "Less Critical" by Secunia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://secunia.com/advisories/product/21625/ |title=Vulnerability Report: Microsoft Internet Explorer 8.x |access-date=February 11, 2011 |publisher=Secunia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110220202947/http://secunia.com/advisories/product/21625 |archive-date=February 20, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Mozilla claims that all patched vulnerabilities of Mozilla products are publicly listed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/security/known-vulnerabilities/ |title=Known Vulnerabilities in Mozilla Products |work=Mozilla |access-date=September 12, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141119065654/https://www.mozilla.org/security/known-vulnerabilities/ |archive-date=November 19, 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Firefox 11, released in January 2012, introduced a 3D page inspector that visualizes web pages' [[document object model]] three-dimensionally through [[WebGL]]. The feature was accessible from the developer tools.<ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox gets 3D page inspector tool |url=http://devlup.com/tech-articles/browsers/firefox-gets-3d-page-inspector-tool/3554/ |access-date=July 1, 2021 |date=January 10, 2012 |journal= |archive-date=July 9, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183731/http://devlup.com/tech-articles/browsers/firefox-gets-3d-page-inspector-tool/3554/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

On January 28, 2013, Mozilla was recognized as the most trusted internet company for privacy in 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2013/01/28/privacy-day-2013/|title=Mozilla Recognized as Most Trusted Internet Company for Privacy|last=Anderson|first=Harvey|date=January 28, 2013|website=The Mozilla Blog|publisher=Mozilla|access-date=March 23, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130322134828/https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2013/01/28/privacy-day-2013/|archive-date=March 22, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> This study was performed by the Ponemon Institute and was a result of a survey from more than 100,000 consumers in the United States.

In February 2013, plans were announced for Firefox 22 to disable [[third-party cookie]]s by default. However, the introduction of the feature was then delayed so Mozilla developers could "collect and analyze data on the effect of blocking some third-party cookies." Mozilla also collaborated with [[Stanford University]]'s "Cookie Clearinghouse" project to develop a [[blacklist]] and [[whitelist]] of sites that will be used in the filter.<ref name="pcmag-tpcookies">{{cite news|url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2415810,00.asp|title=Firefox 22 to Disable Third-Party Cookies by Default|last=Murphy|first=David|date=February 24, 2013|work=PC Magazine|access-date=September 21, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926022552/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,2415810,00.asp|archive-date=September 26, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="cw-cookieblocking">{{cite news|url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9240218/Mozilla_again_postpones_Firefox_third_party_cookie_blocking_this_time_for_months|title=Mozilla again postpones Firefox third-party cookie-blocking, this time for months|last=Keizer|first=Gregg|date=June 20, 2013|work=Computerworld|access-date=September 21, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130926102706/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9240218/Mozilla_again_postpones_Firefox_third_party_cookie_blocking_this_time_for_months|archive-date=September 26, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Version 23, released in August 2013, followed the lead of its competitors by blocking [[HTML element#Frames|iframe]], stylesheet, and script resources served from non-HTTPS servers embedded on HTTPS pages by default. Additionally, [[JavaScript]] could also no longer be disabled through Firefox's preferences, and JavaScript was automatically re-enabled for users who upgraded to 23 or higher with it disabled. The change was made due to its use across the majority of websites, the potential repercussions on inexperienced users who are unaware of its impact, along with the availability of extensions such as [[NoScript]], which can disable JavaScript in a more controlled fashion. The following release added the ability to disable JavaScript through the developer tools for testing purposes.<ref name="ff23-relnotes">{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/23.0/releasenotes/|title=Firefox 23 Release Notes|date=August 6, 2013|publisher=[[Mozilla.org]]|access-date=March 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328214014/http://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/23.0/releasenotes/|archive-date=March 28, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2013/08/firefox-23-lands-with-a-new-logo-and-mixed-content-blocking/|title=Firefox 23 lands with a new logo and mixed content blocking|last=Bright|first=Peter|date=August 6, 2013|work=[[Ars Technica]]|access-date=March 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140218022903/http://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2013/08/firefox-23-lands-with-a-new-logo-and-mixed-content-blocking/|archive-date=February 18, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.extremetech.com/computing/163291-firefox-23-finally-kills-the-blink-tag-removes-ability-to-turn-off-javascript-introduces-new-logo|title=Firefox 23 finally kills the blink tag, removes ability to turn off JavaScript, introduces new logo|last=Anthony|first=Sebastian|date=August 7, 2013|newspaper=ExtremeTech|access-date=March 14, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329071544/http://www.extremetech.com/computing/163291-firefox-23-finally-kills-the-blink-tag-removes-ability-to-turn-off-javascript-introduces-new-logo|archive-date=March 29, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2015, [[TorrentFreak]] reported that using Firefox when connected to the internet using a VPN can be a serious security issue due to the browser's support for [[WebRTC#Concerns|WebRTC]].<ref>[https://torrentfreak.com/huge-security-flaw-leaks-vpn-users-real-ip-addresses-150130/ Huge Security Flaw Leaks VPN Users' Real IP-addresses] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222081035/http://torrentfreak.com/huge-security-flaw-leaks-vpn-users-real-ip-addresses-150130/ |date=February 22, 2015 }} TorrentFreak.com (January 30, 2015). Retrieved February 21, 2015.</ref>

Beginning with Firefox 48, all extensions must be signed by Mozilla to be used in release and beta versions of Firefox. Firefox 43 blocked unsigned extensions but allowed enforcement of extension signing to be disabled. All extensions must be submitted to [[Mozilla Add-ons]] and be subject to code analysis in order to be signed, although extensions do not have to be listed on the service to be signed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Addons/Extension Signing |url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Addons/Extension_Signing |website=Mozilla wiki |access-date=November 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191010005008/https://wiki.mozilla.org/Addons/Extension_Signing |archive-date=October 10, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="signing">{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/addons/2015/02/10/extension-signing-safer-experience/|title=Introducing Extension Signing: A Safer Add-on Experience|last1=Villalobos|first1=Jorge|date=February 10, 2015|website=Mozilla Add-ons Blog|access-date=November 23, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191029202549/https://blog.mozilla.org/addons/2015/02/10/extension-signing-safer-experience/|archive-date=October 29, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> On May 2, 2019, Mozilla announced that it would be strengthening the signature enforcement with methods that included the retroactive disabling of old extensions now deemed to be insecure. A Firefox update on May 3 led to bug reports about all extensions being disabled. This was found to be the result of an overlooked certificate and not the policy change set to go into effect on June 10.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/firefox-fixes-borked-extensions-for-everyone-but-legacy-1834548155|title=Firefox fixes borked extensions for everyone but legacy users|first=Victoria|last=Song|publisher=Gizmodo|date=May 6, 2019|access-date=May 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506165014/https://gizmodo.com/firefox-fixes-borked-extensions-for-everyone-but-legacy-1834548155|archive-date=May 6, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Firefox versions prior to 7.0, an [[information bar]] appears on the browser's first start asking users whether they would like to send performance statistics, or "telemetry", to [[Mozilla Corporation|Mozilla]]. It is enabled by default in development versions of Firefox, but not in release versions.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Telemetry/FAQ#Why_is_Telemetry_enabled_by_default_on_the_Firefox_pre-release_channels.3F|title=FAQ – Why is Telemetry enabled by default on the Firefox pre-release channels?|website=MozillaWiki|publisher=Mozilla|access-date=July 26, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810084936/https://wiki.mozilla.org/Telemetry/FAQ#Why_is_Telemetry_enabled_by_default_on_the_Firefox_pre-release_channels.3F|archive-date=August 10, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> According to Mozilla's privacy policy,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/privacy/firefox/|title=Mozilla Firefox Privacy Policy|publisher=[[Mozilla Corporation]], a subsidiary of the [[Mozilla Foundation]]|access-date=June 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614123101/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/privacy/firefox/|archive-date=June 14, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> these statistics are stored only in aggregate format, and the only [[personally identifiable information]] transmitted is the user's [[IP address]].

In November 2018, Firefox began using a [[Sandbox (computer security)|sandbox]] to isolate web tabs from each other and from the rest of the system. Its lack of such a feature had previously earned it negative comparisons with Google Chrome and Microsoft Edge.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2016/12/firefox-takes-the-next-step-towards-rolling-out-multi-process-to-everyone/|title=Firefox takes the next step toward rolling out multi-process to everyone|last=Bright|first=Peter|date=December 21, 2016|newspaper=Ars Technica|access-date=December 25, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224234423/http://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2016/12/firefox-takes-the-next-step-towards-rolling-out-multi-process-to-everyone/|archive-date=December 24, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Sandbox#Current_Status|title=Security/Sandbox – MozillaWiki|website=wiki.mozilla.org|access-date=November 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113025949/https://wiki.mozilla.org/Security/Sandbox#Current_Status|archive-date=November 13, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Since version 60 Firefox includes the option to use [[DNS over HTTPS]] (DoH), which causes [[Domain Name System|DNS lookup]] requests to be sent encrypted over the HTTPS protocol. To use this feature the user must set certain preferences beginning with "network.trr" (Trusted Recursive Resolver) in [[about:config]]: if network.trr.mode is 0, DoH is disabled; 1 activates DoH in addition to unencrypted DNS; 2 causes DoH to be used before unencrypted DNS; to use only DoH, the value must be 3. By setting network.trr.uri to the URL [https://developers.cloudflare.com/1.1.1.1/setup/windows/ 1.1.1.1]{{dead link|date=October 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes}}, special [[Cloudflare]] servers will be activated.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://heise.de/-4079547|title=Private Auskunft – DNS mit Privacy und Security vor dem Durchbruch|journal=C't|date=June 22, 2018|volume=2018|issue=14|pages=176–179|access-date=July 25, 2018|language=de|archive-date=November 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112151338/https://www.heise.de/select/ct/2018/14/1530492966691096|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www-heise-de.translate.goog/select/ct/2018/14/1530492966691096?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB&_x_tr_pto=nui|title=About Encrypted DNS by Carsten Strotmann & Jürgen Schmidt|journal=C't|date=June 22, 2018|volume=2018|issue=14|pages=176–179|access-date=July 25, 2018|language=de|archive-date=November 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112151338/https://www.heise.de/select/ct/2018/14/1530492966691096|url-status=live|quote=This is the English Translation of Previous Citation.}}</ref> Mozilla has a privacy agreement with this server host that restricts their collection of information about incoming DNS requests.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://developers.cloudflare.com/1.1.1.1/commitment-to-privacy/privacy-policy/firefox/|title=Cloudflare Resolver for Firefox|website=cloudflare.com|access-date=July 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180722071110/https://developers.cloudflare.com/1.1.1.1/commitment-to-privacy/privacy-policy/firefox/|archive-date=July 22, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On May 21, 2019, Firefox was updated to include the ability to block scripts that used a computer's [[Central processing unit|CPU]] to mine [[cryptocurrency]] without a user's permission, in Firefox version 67.0. The update also allowed users to block known [[Device fingerprint|fingerprinting]] scripts that track their activity across the web, however it does not resist fingerprinting on its own.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wood |first1=Marissa |title=Latest Firefox Release is Faster than Ever |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2019/05/21/latest-firefox-release-is-faster-than-ever/ |website=The Mozilla Blog |access-date=May 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521231343/https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2019/05/21/latest-firefox-release-is-faster-than-ever/ |archive-date=May 21, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On July 2, 2019, Mozilla introduced a mechanism to allow Firefox to automatically trust OS-installed certificates to prevent TLS errors.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hackhex.com/security/firefox-update-to-trusts-os-installed-certificates-to-prevent-tls-errors-5886.html|title=Firefox Update to Trusts OS-Installed Certificates to Prevent TLS Errors|date=July 2, 2019|website=Hack Hex|access-date=July 2, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702124351/https://hackhex.com/security/firefox-update-to-trusts-os-installed-certificates-to-prevent-tls-errors-5886.html|archive-date=July 2, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 2019, [[ZDNet]] reported Firefox version 68 ESR passed all minimum requirements for mandatory security features during an exam by the [[Federal Office for Information Security]] of Germany.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/germanys-cyber-security-agency-recommends-firefox-as-most-secure-browser/|title=Germany's cyber-security agency recommends Firefox as most secure browser|website=ZDNet|first1=Catalin|last1=Cimpanu|date=October 17, 2019|access-date=October 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024172218/https://www.zdnet.com/article/germanys-cyber-security-agency-recommends-firefox-as-most-secure-browser/|archive-date=October 24, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In Mozilla Foundation Security Advisory 2020–03, the company reported that the {{CVE|2019-17026}} vulnerability (type confusion vulnerability in IonMonkey) had been detected in the wild and was being actively exploited.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/security/advisories/mfsa2020-03/|title=Security Vulnerabilities fixed in Firefox 72.0.1 and Firefox ESR 68.4.1|website=Mozilla|access-date=January 10, 2020|archive-date=January 10, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200110160200/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/security/advisories/mfsa2020-03/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.helpnetsecurity.com/2020/01/09/cve-2019-17026/|title=Mozilla patches actively exploited Firefox zero-day|date=January 9, 2020|website=Help Net Security|access-date=January 10, 2020|archive-date=February 16, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216152329/https://www.helpnetsecurity.com/2020/01/09/cve-2019-17026/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In March 2021, Firefox launched SmartBlock in version 87 to offer protection against [[cross-site tracking]], without breaking the websites users visit.<ref>{{Cite web|date=March 25, 2021|title=What is Firefox SmartBlock? Mozilla's 'best of both worlds' browsing explained|url=https://www.trustedreviews.com/news/what-is-firefox-smartblock-4129258|access-date=March 30, 2021|website=Trusted Reviews|language=en|archive-date=March 25, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325172240/https://www.trustedreviews.com/news/what-is-firefox-smartblock-4129258|url-status=live}}</ref> Also known as state partitioning or "total cookie protection", works via a feature in the browser that isolates data from each site visited by the user to ensure that cross-site scripting is very difficult if not impossible. The feature also isolates local storage, service workers and other common ways for sites to store data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.howtogeek.com/811311/firefox-now-blocks-cross-site-cookie-tracking-everywhere/|title=Firefox Now Blocks Cross-Site Cookie Tracking Everywhere|website=How To Geek|date=June 14, 2022|access-date=May 15, 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Localizations ==
{{Main|Mozilla localizations}}

Firefox is a widely [[internationalization and localization|localized]] web browser. The first official release in November 2004 was available in 24 different languages and for 28 [[Locale (computer software)|locales]], including [[British English]], [[American English]], [[Peninsular Spanish|European Spanish]], [[Rioplatense Spanish|Argentine Spanish]], [[Standard Chinese|Chinese]] in [[Traditional Chinese characters]] and [[Simplified Chinese characters]] and in [[Bengali–Assamese script|Bengali script]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://archive.mozilla.org/pub/mozilla.org/firefox/releases/1.0/win32/ |title=Index of /pub/firefox/releases/1.0/win32/ |access-date=August 22, 2011}}</ref> {{As of|2023|2}}, currently supported versions 110.0 and 102.8.0esr are available in 97 locales (88 languages).<ref name="languages">{{cite web |url=https://archive.mozilla.org/pub/firefox/releases/ |title=Mozilla Firefox release files |publisher=Mozilla |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009133701/https://archive.mozilla.org/pub/firefox/releases/ |access-date=October 1, 2020 |archive-date=October 9, 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Platform availability ==
The desktop version of Firefox is available and supports Microsoft Windows, macOS, and Linux, while [[Firefox for Android]] is available for Android (formerly Firefox for mobile, it also ran on [[Maemo]], [[MeeGo]] and [[Firefox OS]]) and [[Firefox for iOS]] is available for iOS. Smartphones that [[Linux for mobile devices|support Linux]] but don't support Android or iOS apps can also run Firefox in its desktop version, for example using [[postmarketOS]].

{{Firefox release compatibility}}

Firefox source code may be [[Compiler|compiled]] for various operating systems; however, officially distributed binaries are provided for the following:

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Required hardware and software<ref name="sysreq 101.0">{{cite web|date=May 31, 2022|title=Firefox System Requirements|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/101.0/system-requirements/|access-date=June 1, 2022|website=mozilla.org|publisher=Mozilla Foundation}}</ref>
|-
! Requirement
! Microsoft Windows
! Linux desktop
! macOS
! Android<ref name="mobile_req">{{cite web |title=Will Firefox work on my mobile device? |work=Mozlla Support |url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/will-firefox-work-my-mobile-device |publisher=Mozilla |access-date=December 3, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202141442/https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/will-firefox-work-my-mobile-device |archive-date=December 2, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>
! iOS
|-
! [[Central processing unit|CPU]]
| colspan="2" | [[Pentium 4]] or newer with [[SSE2]]<ref name="ARMv7_and_8" /> (or [[ARMv8-A|ARM64]] for Windows<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/11/firefox-beta-for-windows-10-on-qualcomm-snapdragon-always-connected-pcs-now-available|title=Firefox Beta for Windows 10 on Qualcomm Snapdragon Always Connected PCs Now Available|last=Harmston|first=Chuck|website=Future Releases|language=en-US|access-date=April 4, 2020|archive-date=February 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221193106/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/04/11/firefox-beta-for-windows-10-on-qualcomm-snapdragon-always-connected-pcs-now-available/|url-status=live}}</ref>)
| Any [[x86-64]] and ARM64 CPU<ref name="ARMv7_and_8" />
| [[ARMv7]], ARM64, [[IA-32]] and [[x64]]<ref name="ARMv7_and_8">{{Cite web|url=https://firefox-source-docs.mozilla.org/build/buildsystem/supported-configurations.html|title=Supported build targets — Firefox Source Docs documentation|website=firefox-source-docs.mozilla.org|access-date=January 14, 2021|archive-date=January 16, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116103308/https://firefox-source-docs.mozilla.org/build/buildsystem/supported-configurations.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
| ARM64
|-
! [[Random-access memory|Memory (RAM)]]
| colspan="3" | 512 [[Megabyte|MB]] for the 32-bit version and 2 [[Gigabyte|GB]] for the 64-bit version
| 384 MB
| ?
|-
! [[Data storage device]] free space
| colspan="3" | 200 MB
| 80 MB
| ?
|-
! Operating system
| [[Windows 7]] or later [[Windows Server 2008 R2|Server 2008 R2]] or later<ref name="sysreq 101.0" />
| style="line-height:1.1em;"|
; Minimum
* [[GTK]] 3.14 or newer<ref name="sysreq 101.0" />
* [[C++ Standard Library|libstdc++]] 4.8.1 or newer
* [[X.Org Server|X.Org]] 1.0 or newer
* [[glibc]] 2.17 or newer

; Recommended
* [[NetworkManager]] 0.7 or newer
* [[D-Bus|DBus]] 1.0 or newer
* [[GNOME]] 2.16 or newer
* [[PulseAudio]]
* [[X.Org Server|X.Org]] 1.7 or newer
* libxtst 1.2.3 or newer
| [[macOS Sierra|macOS 10.12]] or newer
| [[Android Lollipop|5.0]] or newer<ref name="Firefox for Android upgrade FAQs" />
| [[iOS 13]] or later<ref name="ios_req">{{cite web |title=Firefox Web Browser on the App Store |work=App Store |url=https://apps.apple.com/us/app/apple-store/id989804926 |publisher=Apple |access-date=November 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830073541/https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/apple-store/id989804926 |archive-date=August 30, 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref>
|}

=== Microsoft Windows ===
Firefox 1.0 was released for [[Windows 9x]], as well as [[Windows NT 4.0]] and later. Some users reported the 1.x builds were operable (but not installable) on [[Windows NT 3.51]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-amie.co.uk/technical/mozilla-firefox-and-windows-nt-3-51/|title=Mozilla Firefox and Windows NT 3.51|last=Tilley|first=Chris|date=April 21, 2006|website=C:Amie|access-date=December 25, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226084426/http://www.c-amie.co.uk/technical/mozilla-firefox-and-windows-nt-3-51/|archive-date=December 26, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

The version 42.0 release includes the first [[x64]] build. It requires [[Windows 7]] and [[Windows Server 2008 R2|Server 2008 R2]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2015/12/15/firefox-64-bit-for-windows-available/|title=Firefox 64-bit Web Browser for Windows Now Available|last=Mayo|first=Mark|date=December 15, 2015|work=Future Releases|publisher=[[Mozilla Foundation]]|via=blog.mozilla.org|access-date=December 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214183058/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2015/12/15/firefox-64-bit-for-windows-available/|archive-date=December 14, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Starting from version 49.0, Firefox for Windows requires and uses the [[SSE2]] instruction set.

In September 2013, Mozilla released a [[Universal Windows Platform apps|Metro-style version]] of Firefox, optimized for [[touchscreen]] use, on the "Aurora" release channel. However, on March 14, 2014, Mozilla cancelled the project because of a lack of user adoption.<ref name="fx-metrocancelled">{{cite web|last=Nightingale|first=Johnathan|date=March 14, 2014|title=Update on Metro|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2014/03/14/metro/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424075847/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2014/03/14/metro/|archive-date=April 24, 2017|access-date=March 14, 2014|work=Firefox Future Releases Blog}}</ref><ref name="mozandroid-devices">{{cite web|title=Mozilla Firefox Web Browser – Supported Android Devices|url=https://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/will-firefox-work-my-mobile-device|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626194325/http://support.mozilla.org/en-US/kb/will-firefox-work-my-mobile-device|archive-date=June 26, 2013|access-date=July 20, 2013|publisher=Mozilla}}</ref><ref name="engadget-firefoxmetro">{{cite news|last=Lutz|first=Zachary|date=September 21, 2013|title=Firefox for Windows 8 enters Aurora channel with touch and gesture support|work=Engadget|url=https://www.engadget.com/2013/09/21/firefox-for-windows-8-enters-aurora-channel/|url-status=live|access-date=September 21, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924082341/http://www.engadget.com/2013/09/21/firefox-for-windows-8-enters-aurora-channel/|archive-date=September 24, 2013}}</ref>

In April 2017, users of Firefox 52.0.2 on [[Windows XP]], [[Windows Vista]], [[Windows Server 2003]] and [[Windows Server 2008]] who had automatic updates enabled were migrated to Firefox 52 ESR. Support for these operating systems ended in June 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2016/12/23/firefox-support-for-xp-and-vista/|title=Update on Firefox Support for Windows XP and Vista|date=December 23, 2016|work=Future Releases|publisher=[[Mozilla Foundation]]|via=blog.mozilla.org|access-date=December 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214183333/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2016/12/23/firefox-support-for-xp-and-vista/|archive-date=December 14, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Traditionally, installing the Windows version of Firefox entails visiting the Firefox website and downloading an installer package, depending on the desired localization and system architecture. In November 2021, Mozilla made Firefox available on [[Microsoft Store]]. The Store-distributed package does not interfere with the traditional installation.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Warren|first=Tom|date=November 9, 2021|title=Mozilla's Firefox browser arrives in the Windows store (sic)|url=https://www.theverge.com/2021/11/9/22771845/mozilla-firefox-microsoft-store-windows-download|website=[[The Verge]]|publisher=[[Vox Media]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Pegoraro|first=Rob|date=November 9, 2021|title=Firefox Arrives in the Microsoft Store|url=https://www.pcmag.com/news/firefox-arrives-in-the-microsoft-store|website=[[PCMag.com]]|publisher=[[Ziff Davis]]}}</ref>

=== macOS ===
[[File:Firefox 57 High Sierra.png|thumb|Firefox 57 on [[macOS High Sierra]]]]
The first official release (Firefox version 1.0) supported [[macOS]] (then called Mac OS X) on the [[PowerPC]] architecture. Mac OS X builds for the [[IA-32]] architecture became available via a [[universal binary]] which debuted with Firefox 1.5.0.2 in 2006.

Starting with version 4.0, Firefox was released for the x64 architecture to which macOS had migrated.<ref name=maclinux64>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/projects/firefox/3.7a5/releasenotes/ |title=Mozilla Developer Preview Alpha 5 Release Notes |publisher=Mozilla |date=June 14, 2010 |access-date=July 10, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629211729/http://www.mozilla.org/projects/firefox/3.7a5/releasenotes/ |archive-date=June 29, 2011}}</ref> Version 4.0 also dropped support for PowerPC architecture, although other projects continued development of a PowerPC version of Firefox.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gibbs |first=Samuel |date=April 27, 2011 |title=TenFourFox brings Firefox 4 to PPC Macs |url=https://www.engadget.com/2011-04-27-tenfourfox-brings-firefox-4-to-ppc-macs.html |work=Engadget |access-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607200413/https://www.engadget.com/2011-04-27-tenfourfox-brings-firefox-4-to-ppc-macs.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Firefox was originally released for Mac OS X 10.0 and higher.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mozilla.org/products/firefox/system-requirements.html |title=Firefox System Requirements |date=November 9, 2004 |access-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041111034010/http://www.mozilla.org/products/firefox/system-requirements.html |archive-date=November 11, 2004}}</ref> The minimum OS then increased to Mac OS X 10.2 in Firefox 1.5 and 10.4 in Firefox 3.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mozilla.com/firefox/system-requirements.html |title=Firefox System Requirements |date=November 29, 2005 |access-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051215094626/http://www.mozilla.com/firefox/system-requirements.html |archive-date=December 15, 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/3.0/system-requirements/ |title=Firefox 3.0 System Requirements |date=June 17, 2008 |access-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607200524/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/3.0/system-requirements/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Firefox 4 dropped support for Mac OS X 10.4 and PowerPC Macs, and Firefox 17 dropped support for Mac OS X 10.5 entirely.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/4.0/system-requirements/ |title=Firefox 4.0 System Requirements |date=March 22, 2011 |access-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731154936/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/4.0/system-requirements/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/17.0/system-requirements/ |title=Firefox 17.0 System Requirements |date=November 20, 2012 |access-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-date=July 31, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731154950/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/17.0/system-requirements/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The system requirements were left unchanged until 2016, when Firefox 49 dropped support for Mac OS X 10.6–10.8.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/48.0/releasenotes/ |title=Firefox 48.0 Release Notes |date=August 2, 2016 |access-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-date=September 20, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160920221127/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/48.0/releasenotes/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2016/04/29/update-on-firefox-support-for-os-x/ |title=Update on Firefox support for OS X |date=April 29, 2016 |access-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-date=June 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607200403/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2016/04/29/update-on-firefox-support-for-os-x/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Most recently, Mozilla ended support for OS X 10.9–10.11 in Firefox 79, with those users being supported on the Firefox 78 ESR branch until November 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2020/06/23/update-on-firefox-support-for-macos-10-9-10-10-and-10-11/|title=Update on Firefox Support for macOS 10.9, 10.10 and 10.11|date=June 23, 2020|access-date=July 28, 2020|archive-date=July 21, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721204255/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2020/06/23/update-on-firefox-support-for-macos-10-9-10-10-and-10-11/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/78.0/releasenotes/ |title=Firefox 78 release notes |date=June 30, 2020 |access-date=September 8, 2020 |archive-date=June 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200630133108/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/78.0/releasenotes/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/79.0/system-requirements/ |title=Firefox 79 system requirements |date=July 28, 2020 |access-date=September 8, 2020 |archive-date=July 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728141256/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/79.0/system-requirements/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Linux ===
[[File:Firefox 96 screenshot.png|thumb|Firefox 96 on [[Arch Linux]]]]
[[File:WikipediaMainpageEngFirefox99x64Ubuntu2004date20220504.webm|thumb|Opening Wikipedia main page with Mozilla Firefox 99 on Ubuntu 20.04]]
Since its inception, Firefox for Linux supported the 32-bit memory architecture of the IA-32 instruction set. 64-bit builds were introduced in the 4.0 release.<ref name=maclinux64 /> The 46.0 release replaced [[GTK]] 2.18 with 3.4 as a system requirement on Linux and other systems running X.Org.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/46.0/system-requirements/|title=Firefox 46.0 System Requirements|website=Mozilla|access-date=February 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180109063904/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/46.0/system-requirements/|archive-date=January 9, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Starting with 53.0, the 32-bit builds require the [[SSE2]] instruction set. Firefox also can run on number of other architectures on Linux, including [[ARM architecture|ARM]], [[AArch64]], [[PowerPC]], [[IBM POWER instruction set architecture|POWER]], [[Sparc]], [[HPPA]], [[MIPS architecture|MIPS]], [[s390]], and in the past [[DEC Alpha|Alpha]], [[IA-64]] (Intel Itanium) and [[Motorola 68000 series|m68k]].

=== Firefox for Android ===
{{Main|Firefox for Android}}

Firefox for mobile, codenamed "Fennec", was first released for [[Maemo]] in January 2010 with version 1.0<ref>{{cite web |date=2010-01-28 |title=Firefox for Nokia N900 Release Notes |url=https://website-archive.mozilla.org/www.mozilla.org/firefox_releasenotes/en-US/mobile/1.0/releasenotes/ |access-date=2012-02-09 |publisher=mozilla.org}}</ref> and for [[Android (operating system)|Android]] in March 2011 with version 4.0.<ref name="ff43">{{cite web |title=Mozilla Launches Firefox 4 for Android, Allowing Users to Take the Power and Customization of Firefox Everywhere |url=http://blog.mozilla.com/blog/2011/03/29/mozilla-launches-firefox-4-for-android-allowing-users-to-take-the-power-and-customization-of-firefox-everywhere-2/ |access-date=2011-03-29}}</ref> Support for Maemo was discontinued after version 7, released in September 2011.<ref>{{cite web |year=2013 |title=System Requirements – Firefox for Android 7.0 release notes |url=https://website-archive.mozilla.org/www.mozilla.org/firefox_releasenotes/en-US/mobile/7.0/releasenotes/#system-requirements |access-date=2015-03-28 |work=Mozilla website archive |publisher=Mozilla}}</ref> Fennec had a user interface optimized for phones and tablets. It included the Awesome Bar, tabbed browsing, add-on support, a password manager, location-aware browsing, and the ability to synchronize with the user's other devices with Mozilla Firefox using [[Firefox Sync]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox mobile features |publisher=Mozilla |url=https://www.mozilla.com/mobile/features/ |access-date=January 30, 2010}}</ref> It was criticized for being slow,<ref>{{Cite web|title=r/firefox – Why is Android Firefox so slow?|url=https://www.reddit.com/r/firefox/comments/bxr3yc/why_is_android_firefox_so_slow/|access-date=September 6, 2020|website=reddit|date=June 7, 2019|language=en-US|archive-date=November 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112151410/https://www.reddit.com/r/firefox/comments/bxr3yc/why_is_android_firefox_so_slow/|url-status=live}}</ref> however, in part due to its poor port of Gecko.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|title=GeckoView in 2019 – Mozilla Hacks – the Web developer blog|url=https://hacks.mozilla.org/2019/06/geckoview-in-2019|access-date=September 6, 2020|website=Mozilla Hacks – the Web developer blog|language=en-US|archive-date=August 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817152237/https://hacks.mozilla.org/2019/06/geckoview-in-2019/|url-status=live}}</ref> At the end of its existence, it had a market share of 0.5% on Android.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Market share for mobile, browsers, operating systems and search engines {{!}} NetMarketShare|url=https://netmarketshare.com/?options=%7B%22filter%22:%7B%22$and%22:%5B%7B%22platform%22:%7B%22$in%22:%5B%22Android%22%5D%7D%7D%5D%7D,%22dateLabel%22:%22Custom%22,%22attributes%22:%22share%22,%22group%22:%22browser%22,%22sort%22:%7B%22share%22:-1%7D,%22id%22:%22browsersDesktop%22,%22dateInterval%22:%22Monthly%22,%22dateStart%22:%222018-06%22,%22dateEnd%22:%222020-05%22,%22segments%22:%22-1000%22%7D|access-date=September 6, 2020|website=netmarketshare.com|archive-date=November 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112151351/https://netmarketshare.com/?options=%7B%22filter%22%3A%7B%22%24and%22%3A%5B%7B%22platform%22%3A%7B%22%24in%22%3A%5B%22Android%22%5D%7D%7D%5D%7D%2C%22dateLabel%22%3A%22Custom%22%2C%22attributes%22%3A%22share%22%2C%22group%22%3A%22browser%22%2C%22sort%22%3A%7B%22share%22%3A-1%7D%2C%22id%22%3A%22browsersDesktop%22%2C%22dateInterval%22%3A%22Monthly%22%2C%22dateStart%22%3A%222018-06%22%2C%22dateEnd%22%3A%222020-05%22%2C%22segments%22%3A%22-1000%22%7D|url-status=live}}</ref>

In August 2020, Mozilla launched a new version of its [[Firefox for Android]] app, named Firefox Daylight to the public<ref name="Zare">{{Cite web |last=Zare |first=Vesta |title=Fast, personalized and private by design on all platforms: introducing a new Firefox for Android experience |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2020/08/25/introducing-a-new-firefox-for-android-experience |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200905194022/https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2020/08/25/introducing-a-new-firefox-for-android-experience/ |archive-date=September 5, 2020 |access-date=September 6, 2020 |website=The Mozilla Blog |language=en-US}}</ref> and codenamed [[Firefox for Android|Fenix]],<ref>{{Citation |title=mozilla-mobile/fenix |date=September 5, 2020 |url=https://github.com/mozilla-mobile/fenix |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200907140813/https://github.com/mozilla-mobile/fenix |publisher=Mozilla Mobile |access-date=September 6, 2020 |archive-date=September 7, 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> after a little over a year of testing.<ref name="auto" /> It boasted higher speeds with its new [[GeckoView]] engine, which is described as being "the only independent [[Browser engine|web engine browser]] available on [[Android (operating system)|Android]]". It also added Enhanced Tracking Protection 2.0, a feature that blocks many known [[Internet tracking|trackers]] on the Internet.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Firefox Launched a New Android App to Lure Users From Chrome |language=en-us |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/firefox-android-app-new-update-daylight |url-status=live |access-date=August 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200827201914/https://www.wired.co.uk/article/firefox-android-app-new-update-daylight |archive-date=August 27, 2020 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref> It also added the ability to place the address bar on the bottom, and a new Collections feature.<ref name="Zare" /> However, it was criticized for only having nine [[Add-ons for Firefox|Add-ons]] at launch, and missing certain features.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 1, 2020 |title=Latest Firefox Update Upsets Users Due To Missing Features |url=https://www.androidheadlines.com/2020/08/latest-firefox-update-upsets-users-features.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200905040145/https://www.androidheadlines.com/2020/08/latest-firefox-update-upsets-users-features.html |archive-date=September 5, 2020 |access-date=September 6, 2020 |website=Android Headlines |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=August 7, 2020 |title=Three Reasons not to upgrade to the new Firefox for Android browser right now – gHacks Tech News |url=https://www.ghacks.net/2020/08/07/three-reasons-not-to-upgrade-to-the-new-firefox-for-android-browser-right-now/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917204555/https://www.ghacks.net/2020/08/07/three-reasons-not-to-upgrade-to-the-new-firefox-for-android-browser-right-now/ |archive-date=September 17, 2020 |access-date=September 6, 2020 |newspaper=Ghacks Technology News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hellstrom |first=Jeremy |date=August 26, 2020 |title=Maybe Don't Update Firefox for Android |url=https://pcper.com/2020/08/maybe-dont-update-firefox-for-android/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925032149/https://pcper.com/2020/08/maybe-dont-update-firefox-for-android/ |archive-date=September 25, 2020 |access-date=September 6, 2020 |website=[[PC Perspective]] |language=en-US}}</ref> In response, Mozilla stated that they will allow more Add-ons with time.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 3, 2020 |title=Mozilla promises expanded extensions support following controversial Firefox Android update |url=https://www.androidpolice.com/2020/09/03/firefox-update-faces-backlash-due-to-missing-features-and-few-supported-extensions/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200905234334/https://www.androidpolice.com/2020/09/03/firefox-update-faces-backlash-due-to-missing-features-and-few-supported-extensions/ |archive-date=September 5, 2020 |access-date=September 6, 2020 |website=Android Police |language=en-US}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| align = center
| direction = horizontal
| width = 200
| image1 = FennecMeeGo (cropped).png | caption1 = Firefox on [[MeeGo]] OS
| image2 = Firefox in firefox os.png | caption2 = Firefox on [[Firefox OS]]
| image3 = Firefox Android 101 screenshot.jpg | caption3 = Firefox 101 on [[Android (operating system)|Android]]
}}

{{Firefox for Android release compatibility}}

=== Firefox for iOS ===
Mozilla initially refused to port Firefox to iOS, due to the restrictions Apple imposed on third-party iOS browsers. Instead of releasing a full version of the Firefox browser, Mozilla released Firefox Home, a companion app for the iPhone and iPod Touch based on the [[Firefox Sync]] technology, which allowed users to access their Firefox browsing history, bookmarks, and recent tabs. It also included Firefox's "Awesomebar" location bar. Firefox Home was not a web browser, the application launched web pages in either an embedded viewer for that one page, or by opening the page in the Safari app.<ref>{{cite web |author=Dolecourt, Jessica |date=May 27, 2010 |title=Firefox Home: A not-quite Firefox iPhone app |url=http://reviews.cnet.com/8301-19512_7-20006090-233.html?tag=mncol |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023083335/http://reviews.cnet.com/8301-19512_7-20006090-233.html?tag=mncol |archive-date=October 23, 2012 |access-date=2010-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=May 26, 2010 |title=Firefox Home Coming Soon to the iPhone |url=http://blog.mozilla.com/blog/2010/05/26/firefox-home-coming-soon-to-the-iphone/ |access-date=2010-06-03}}</ref> Mozilla pulled Firefox Home from the [[App Store (iOS)|App Store]] in September 2012, stating it would focus its resources on other projects. The company subsequently released the [[source code]] of Firefox Home's underlying synchronization software.<ref name="CW">{{cite web |last=Keizer |first=Gregg |date=September 4, 2012 |title=Mozilla exits iOS as it retires Firefox Home |url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9230877/Mozilla_exits_iOS_as_it_retires_Firefox_Home |access-date=September 14, 2012 |publisher=Computer World}}</ref>

In April 2013, then-Mozilla CEO [[Gary Kovacs]] said that Firefox would not come to iOS if Apple required the use of the [[WebKit]] layout engine to do so. One reason given by Mozilla was that prior to iOS 8, Apple had supplied third-party browsers with an inferior version of their JavaScript engine which hobbled their performance, making it impossible to match Safari's JavaScript performance on the iOS platform.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bilton |first=Ricardo |date=March 10, 2013 |title=Mozilla wants to bring Firefox to iOS, but mean ol' Apple's standing in its way |url=https://venturebeat.com/2013/03/10/mozilla-firefox-ios/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018233945/http://venturebeat.com/2013/03/10/mozilla-firefox-ios/ |archive-date=October 18, 2016 |access-date=September 18, 2016 |website=VentureBeat}}</ref> Apple later opened their "Nitro" JavaScript engine to third-party browsers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shankland |first=Stephen |date=June 4, 2014 |title=iOS 8 grants new power to rival browsers, Web-based apps |url=https://www.cnet.com/news/ios-8-grants-new-power-to-rival-browsers-web-based-apps/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160901151602/http://www.cnet.com/news/ios-8-grants-new-power-to-rival-browsers-web-based-apps/ |archive-date=September 1, 2016 |access-date=September 18, 2016 |publisher=CNET}}</ref> In 2015, Mozilla announced it was moving forward with Firefox for iOS, with a preview release made available in New Zealand in September of that year.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 3, 2015 |title=Firefox for iOS Now Available for Preview |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2015/09/03/firefox-for-ios-now-available-for-preview/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904142955/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2015/09/03/firefox-for-ios-now-available-for-preview/ |archive-date=September 4, 2015 |access-date=September 7, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Clarke |first=Gavin |date=September 4, 2015 |title=Fruity Firefox: Mozilla caves to Apple, unveils iOS-friendly browser |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/09/04/mozilla_reveals_firefox_ios_preview_apple/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906221803/http://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/09/04/mozilla_reveals_firefox_ios_preview_apple |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |access-date=September 7, 2015 |website=[[The Register]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=May 22, 2015 |title=Update on Firefox for iOS |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2015/05/22/update-on-firefox-for-ios/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905091030/https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2015/05/22/update-on-firefox-for-ios/ |archive-date=September 5, 2015 |access-date=September 7, 2015}}</ref> It fully released in November later that year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Calimlim |first=Aldrin |date=November 12, 2015 |title=Finally, Mozilla's Firefox Web browser is now available on iOS |url=http://appadvice.com/appnn/2015/11/finally-mozillas-firefox-web-browser-is-now-available-on-ios |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161005130721/http://appadvice.com/appnn/2015/11/finally-mozillas-firefox-web-browser-is-now-available-on-ios |archive-date=October 5, 2016 |access-date=September 6, 2020 |website=AppAdvice |language=en}}</ref> It is the first [[Firefox]]-branded browser not to use the [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]] [[Browser engine|layout engine]] as is used in Firefox for [[Mozilla Firefox|desktop]] and [[Firefox for mobile|mobile]]. Apple's policies require all iOS apps that browse the web to use the built-in [[WebKit]] rendering framework and WebKit JavaScript, so using Gecko is not possible.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Porter |first=Jon |date=2020-09-18 |title=Here are the browsers iOS 14 now lets you set as default |url=https://www.theverge.com/21444995/ios-14-default-browsers-chrome-edge-firefox-duckduckgo-safari |access-date=2020-11-11 |website=The Verge |language=en |quote=All browsers are still required to use WebKit}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=12 September 2019 |title=App Store Review Guidelines |url=https://developer.apple.com/app-store/review/guidelines/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304025827/https://developer.apple.com/app-store/review/guidelines/ |archive-date=2020-03-04 |access-date=2020-11-11 |website=developer.apple.com |quote=2.5.6 Apps that browse the web must use the appropriate WebKit framework}}</ref> Unlike [[Firefox for Android|Firefox on Android]], Firefox for iOS does not support browser add-ons.

In November 2016, Firefox released a new iOS app titled [[Firefox Focus]], a private web browser.<ref>{{cite web |last=Perez |first=Sarah |date=November 17, 2016 |title=Mozilla launches Firefox Focus, a private web browser for iPhone |url=https://techcrunch.com/2016/11/17/mozilla-launches-firefox-focus-a-private-web-browser-for-iphone/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510080834/https://techcrunch.com/2016/11/17/mozilla-launches-firefox-focus-a-private-web-browser-for-iphone/ |archive-date=May 10, 2017 |access-date=May 6, 2017 |website=[[TechCrunch]]}}</ref>

=== Firefox Reality (AR/VR) ===
Firefox Reality was released for Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality headsets in September 2018.<ref name="FirefoxReality">{{cite news|url=https://www.roadtovr.com/firefox-reality-vr-browser-launch-oculus-go-daydream-vive-focus/|title='Firefox Reality', Mozilla's VR Web Browser, Launches on Major Standalone Headsets|archive-date=November 9, 2020|access-date=October 1, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034242/https://www.roadtovr.com/firefox-reality-vr-browser-launch-oculus-go-daydream-vive-focus/|url-status=live}}</ref> It supports traditional web-browsing through 2D windows and immersive VR pages through [[WebVR|Web VR]]. Firefox Reality is available on [[HTC Vive]], [[Oculus (brand)|Oculus]], [[Google Daydream]] and [[Microsoft Hololens]] headsets. In February 2022 Mozilla announced that [[Igalia]] took over stewardship of this project under the new name of Wolvic.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/mozilla/update-on-firefox-reality/ |title=Update on Firefox Reality |access-date=Dec 22, 2022}}</ref>

=== Unofficial ports ===
Firefox has also been ported to [[FreeBSD]],<ref name="FreeBSD">{{cite web|url=https://www.freshports.org/www/firefox/|title=FreeBSD port of Firefox|access-date=September 30, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141005134424/http://www.freshports.org/www/firefox|archive-date=October 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> [[NetBSD]],<ref name="NetBSD1">{{cite web|url=https://pkgsrc.se/www/firefox/|title=pkgsrc package of Firefox|access-date=December 10, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928164002/https://pkgsrc.se/www/firefox|archive-date=September 28, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> [[OpenBSD]],<ref name="OpenBSD">{{Cite web|url=http://ports.su/www/mozilla-firefox|title=OpenBSD ports ∴ www/mozilla-firefox|website=ports.su|access-date=December 23, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223055452/http://ports.su/www/mozilla-firefox|archive-date=December 23, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> [[OpenIndiana]],<ref name="OpenIndiana">[http://pkgsrc-repo.uk.openindiana.org/packages/www/firefox-l10n-3.6.15.tgz Source package of Firefox 3.6.15] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304231602/http://pkgsrc-repo.uk.openindiana.org/packages/www/firefox-l10n-3.6.15.tgz |date=March 4, 2016 }}. pkgsrc-repo.uk.openindiana.org.</ref> [[OS/2]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://hobbes.nmsu.edu/h-viewer.php?dir=/pub/os2/apps/internet/www/browser&file=firefox-38.8.0.en-us.os2-wpi.wpi|title=[hobbes.nmsu.edu] Viewing file: /pub/os2/apps/internet/www/browser/firefox-38.8.0.en-us.os2-wpi.wpi|website=hobbes.nmsu.edu|access-date=October 18, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115064409/http://hobbes.nmsu.edu/h-viewer.php?dir=%2Fpub%2Fos2%2Fapps%2Finternet%2Fwww%2Fbrowser&file=firefox-38.8.0.en-us.os2-wpi.wpi|archive-date=January 15, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> [[ArcaOS]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arca-noaes-support-of-open-source-projects-firefox/|title=Arca Noae's support of open source projects: Firefox|access-date=September 6, 2020|website=arcanoae.com|date=June 8, 2016|archive-date=September 20, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200920115609/https://www.arcanoae.com/arca-noaes-support-of-open-source-projects-firefox/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[SkyOS]], [[RISC OS]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Icon Bar: Firefox_released_for_RISC_OS_5_Updated: The Icon Bar: Firefox released for RISC OS 5 [Updated]|url=https://www.iconbar.com/Firefox_released_for_RISC_OS_5_Updated/news1097.html|access-date=January 20, 2021|website=The Icon Bar|language=en-GB|archive-date=August 13, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210813112445/https://www.iconbar.com/Firefox_released_for_RISC_OS_5_Updated/news1097.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[BeOS]]/[[Haiku (operating system)|Haiku]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www-archive.mozilla.org/ports/beos/|title=Bezilla: Mozilla for BeOS|website=www-archive.mozilla.org|access-date=August 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820061412/https://www-archive.mozilla.org/ports/beos/|archive-date=August 20, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BeBytes">{{Cite web|url=http://www.be.wildman-productions.org/index.php?action=displaypage&pagename=appitem&appid=1|title=BeBytes – The BeOS Software Archive|website=www.be.wildman-productions.org|access-date=August 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190415061608/http://www.be.wildman-productions.org/index.php?action=displaypage&pagename=appitem&appid=1|archive-date=April 15, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="BeBits1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bebits.com/app/3143|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120717032004/http://www.bebits.com/app/3143|url-status=dead|title=Firefox entry on BeBits|archive-date=July 17, 2012}}</ref><ref name="BeBits2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bebits.com/app/2715|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415005220/http://www.bebits.com/app/2715|url-status=dead|title=Firefox Bleeding Edge entry on BeBits|archive-date=April 15, 2012}}</ref> and an unofficial rebranded version called [[Timberwolf (web browser)|Timberwolf]] has been available for [[AmigaOS 4]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-08-16 |title=Timberwolf Browser |url=https://www.amigaos.net/software/53/timberwolf-browser |access-date=2022-12-24 |website=AmigaOS |language=en}}</ref> An unofficial continuation of the Mac OS X [[PowerPC]] release was actively developed as [[TenFourFox]] until October 5, 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Release notes for TenFourFox Feature Parity Release 32|website=[[GitHub]]|url=https://github.com/classilla/tenfourfox/wiki/ZZFPRReleaseNotes32|access-date=December 25, 2021|language=en}}</ref>

The Firefox port for OpenBSD is maintained by Landry Breuil since 2010. Firefox is regularly built for the current branch of the operating system, the latest versions are packaged for each release and remain frozen until the next release. In 2017, Landry began hosting packages of newer Firefox versions for OpenBSD releases from 6.0 onwards, making them available to installations without the ports system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://undeadly.org/cgi?action=article&sid=20170425173917|publisher=OpenBSD Journal|access-date=December 18, 2017|date=April 25, 2017|title=The many ways of running firefox on OpenBSD|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228112231/https://undeadly.org/cgi?action=article&sid=20170425173917|archive-date=December 28, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Solaris (operating system)|Solaris]] port of Firefox (including [[OpenSolaris]]) was maintained by the Oracle Solaris Desktop Beijing Team,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ftp.mozilla.org/pub/firefox/releases/52.0.2esr/contrib/ |title=Directory Listing: /pub/firefox/releases/52.0.2esr/contrib/ |publisher=Ftp.mozilla.org |access-date=February 14, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215023333/https://ftp.mozilla.org/pub/firefox/releases/52.0.2esr/contrib/ |archive-date=February 15, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://unixpackages.com/packages/mozilla |title=Mozilla – Firefox, Thunderbird & Sunbird |publisher=UNIX Packages |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208111945/https://unixpackages.com/packages/mozilla |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> until March 2017 when the team was disbanded.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} There was also an unofficial port of [[Firefox 3.6]].x to [[IBM AIX]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/systems/power/software/aix/browsers/ |title=IBM AIX: Web browsers for AIX |publisher=03.ibm.com |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105042100/http://www-03.ibm.com/systems/power/software/aix/browsers/ |archive-date=January 5, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www-archive.mozilla.org/unix/aix.html |title=Mozilla on AIX FAQ |publisher=Archive.mozilla.org |access-date=October 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706074002/http://www-archive.mozilla.org/unix/aix.html |archive-date=July 6, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> and of v1.7.x to [[UnixWare]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ftp.sco.com/pub/unixware7/714/other/mozilla_1_7_13a/UW7.README.html |title=README Mozilla, v. 1.7.13 for SCO(R) UnixWare(R) 7.1.3 SCO(R) UnixWare(R) 7.1.4 |publisher=Ftp.sco.com |date=June 6, 2005 |access-date=October 29, 2015}}</ref>

{{Firefox contrib release compatibility}}

== Experimental builds and ESR ==
Besides official releases, Mozilla provides development builds of Firefox in distribution channels named, in order of most to least stable, "Beta", "Developer Edition" (formerly "Aurora", renamed on November 10, 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/35.0a2/auroranotes/|title=Firefox – Aurora Notes (35.0a2) – Mozilla|date=November 10, 2014|access-date=November 21, 2014|quote=Version 35.0a2, first offered to Firefox Developer Edition users in November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118020735/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/35.0a2/auroranotes/|archive-date=November 18, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1072181|title=Bug 1072181 – Investigate tweaking aurora for developers|access-date=November 21, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150701231218/https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=1072181|archive-date=July 1, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>), and "Nightly".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/channel/|title=Firefox Channels|work=Mozilla|access-date=July 1, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708090753/https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/channel/|archive-date=July 8, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> Starting from Firefox 54, "Developer Edition" is based on the "Beta" build.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hacks.mozilla.org/2017/04/simplifying-firefox-release-channels/|title=Simplifying Firefox Release Channels and Improving Developer Edition's Stability|last1=Spivak|first1=Ali|last2=Camp|first2=Dave|date=April 17, 2017|work=Mozilla|last3=Ledru|first3=Sylvestre|access-date=June 1, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517185024/https://hacks.mozilla.org/2017/04/simplifying-firefox-release-channels/|archive-date=May 17, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Firefox ESR''' ({{vanchor|Extended Support Release}}) is a version of Firefox for organizations and other groups that need extended support for mass deployments. Each ESR release, based on the regular version released at the same time, is supported for one year.<ref name="mozilla-esr-faq">{{cite web |title=Firefox Extended Release Support for Your Organization, Business, Enterprise – Overview |publisher=Mozilla.org |url=https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/organizations/ |access-date=March 17, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307001306/http://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/organizations/ |archive-date=March 7, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Unlike the regular ("rapid") releases, ESRs are not updated with new features and performance enhancements every four weeks, but rather are updated with only high-risk-reduction or high-impact security fixes or major stability fixes with [[point release]]s, until the end of the ESR cycle.<ref>{{cite news |last=Paul |first=Ryan |title=Firefox extended support will mitigate rapid release challenges |publisher=Arstechnica.com |date=January 10, 2012 |url=https://arstechnica.com/business/news/2012/01/firefox-extended-support-will-mitigate-rapid-release-challenges.ars |access-date=April 4, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412001748/http://arstechnica.com/business/news/2012/01/firefox-extended-support-will-mitigate-rapid-release-challenges.ars |archive-date=April 12, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Licensing ==
Firefox [[source code]] is [[free software]], with most of it being released under the [[Mozilla Public License]] (MPL) version 2.0.<ref name="Licensing-Policies">{{citation |url=https://www.mozilla.org/foundation/licensing.html |title=Mozilla Licensing Policies |publisher=mozilla.org |access-date=January 5, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402181908/http://www.mozilla.org/foundation/licensing.html |archive-date=April 2, 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> This license permits anyone to view, modify, or redistribute the source code. As a result, several publicly released applications have been built from it, such as [[Netscape (web browser)|Netscape]], [[Flock (web browser)|Flock]], [[Miro (software)|Miro]], [[GNU IceCat]], [[Mozilla Corporation software rebranded by the Debian project|Iceweasel]], [[Songbird (software)|Songbird]], [[Pale Moon (web browser)|Pale Moon]], [[Waterfox]], and [[Comodo IceDragon]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

In the past, Firefox was licensed solely under the MPL, then version 1.1,<ref name=mozrelicensing>{{cite web|url=https://www-archive.mozilla.org/MPL/relicensing-faq.html |title=Mozilla Relicensing FAQ |access-date=January 24, 2007 |publisher=Mozilla |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100513062601/http://www-archive.mozilla.org/MPL/relicensing-faq.html |archive-date=May 13, 2010}}</ref> which the [[Free Software Foundation]] criticized for being [[weak copyleft]], as the license permitted, in limited ways, proprietary [[derivative work]]s. Additionally, code only licensed under MPL 1.1 could not legally be linked with code under the [[GNU General Public License|GPL]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/netscape-npl.html |title=On the Netscape Public License |access-date=January 24, 2007 |last=Stallman |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Stallman |publisher=[[Free Software Foundation]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070203202915/http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/netscape-npl.html |archive-date=February 3, 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html#MPL |title=Various Licenses and Comments about Them. Mozilla Public License (MPL) |access-date=January 24, 2007 |publisher=[[Free Software Foundation]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100724023833/https://www.gnu.org/licenses/license-list.html#MPL |archive-date=July 24, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> To address these concerns, Mozilla re-licensed most of Firefox under the [[Multi-licensing|tri-license]] scheme of MPL 1.1, GPL 2.0, or [[GNU Lesser General Public License|LGPL]] 2.1. Since the re-licensing, developers were free to choose the license under which they received most of the code, to suit their intended use: GPL or LGPL linking and derivative works when one of those licenses is chosen, or MPL use (including the possibility of proprietary derivative works) if they chose the MPL.<ref name=mozrelicensing /> However, on January 3, 2012, Mozilla released the GPL-compatible MPL 2.0,<ref>{{cite web|title=Announcing Version 2.0 of the Mozilla Public License |publisher=[[Mozilla]] |date=January 3, 2012 |url=https://mpl.mozilla.org/2012/01/03/announcing-mpl-2-0 |access-date=June 6, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306113159/http://mpl.mozilla.org/2012/01/03/announcing-mpl-2-0/ |archive-date=March 6, 2012 }}</ref> and with the release of Firefox 13 on June 5, 2012, Mozilla used it to replace the tri-licensing scheme.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.h-online.com/open/news/item/Firefox-13-released-now-using-SPDY-by-default-1605039.html|title=Firefox 13 released – now using SPDY by default|date=June 5, 2012|access-date=June 6, 2012|publisher=The H – Open|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607032245/http://www.h-online.com/open/news/item/Firefox-13-released-now-using-SPDY-by-default-1605039.html|archive-date=June 7, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

The crash reporting service was initially closed-source but switched with version 3 from a program called [[crash reporter#Talkback|Talkback]] to the open-source [[Breakpad]] (and Socorro server).{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

== Trademark and logo ==
{{See also|Mozilla software rebranded by Debian}}

The name "Mozilla Firefox" is a [[registered trademark symbol|registered trademark]]; along with the official Firefox logo, it may only be used under certain terms and conditions. Anyone may redistribute the official binaries in unmodified form and use the Firefox name and branding for such distribution, but restrictions are placed on distributions which modify the underlying source code.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/foundation/trademarks/policy.html|title=Mozilla Trademark Policy|access-date=January 30, 2007|publisher=Mozilla|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070128203012/http://www.mozilla.org/foundation/trademarks/policy.html|archive-date=January 28, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> The name "Firefox" derives from a nickname of the [[red panda]].<ref name="Firefox name FAQ" />

Mozilla has placed the Firefox logo files under open-source licenses,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mxr.mozilla.org/mozilla-central/source/browser/branding/official/LICENSE|title=MXR is retired|website=mxr.mozilla.org|access-date=June 18, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105160726/https://mxr.mozilla.org/mozilla-central/source/browser/branding/official/LICENSE|archive-date=November 5, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=541761|title=541761 – Some text implies the Firefox logo is under a non-free copyright license|website=bugzilla.mozilla.org|access-date=January 10, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130420225505/https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=541761|archive-date=April 20, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> but its trademark guidelines do not allow displaying altered<ref name=MozComLegalStuff>{{cite web |url=https://www.mozilla.com/about/logo/legal.html |title=Legal Stuff |access-date=March 7, 2009 |publisher=Mozilla Corp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730224539/http://blog.mozilla.org/press/media-library/|archive-date=July 30, 2013}}</ref> or similar logos<ref name=MozComStopLogo>{{cite web |title=Stop Logo Cruelty |publisher=Mozilla Corp. |url=https://www.mozilla.com/about/logo/stop.html |access-date=March 7, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100522010026/http://www.mozilla.com/en-US/about/logo/stop.html |archive-date=May 22, 2010 }} ''"'''Don't''' Create new elements that look enough like the Firefox logo so as to cause confusion."''</ref> in contexts where trademark law applies.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

[[File:Iceweasel icon.svg|thumb|upright|Logo used for [[Iceweasel]] ]]
There has been some controversy over the Mozilla Foundation's intentions in stopping certain open-source distributions from using the "Firefox" trademark.<ref name=LWNtrademark /> Open-source browsers "enable greater choice and innovation in the market rather than aiming for mass-market domination."<ref name=":0" /> Mozilla Foundation Chairperson [[Mitchell Baker]] explained in an interview in 2007 that distributions could freely use the Firefox trademark if they did not modify source code, and that the Mozilla Foundation's only concern was with users getting a consistent experience when they used "Firefox".<ref>{{cite news |first=Dan |last=Warne |title=The stoush over Linux distributions using the Firefox trademark |work=APC Magazine |publisher=ACP Magazines Ltd |date=May 7, 2007 |url=http://apcmag.com/the_stoush_over_linux_distributions_using_the_firefox_trademark.htm |access-date=January 18, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817064956/http://apcmag.com/the_stoush_over_linux_distributions_using_the_firefox_trademark.htm |archive-date=August 17, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

To allow distributions of the code ''without'' using the official branding, the Firefox [[build automation|build system]] contains a "branding switch". This switch, often used for alphas ("Auroras") of future Firefox versions, allows the code to be compiled without the official logo and name and can allow a derivative work unencumbered by restrictions on the Firefox trademark to be produced. In the unbranded build, the trademarked logo and name are replaced with a freely distributable generic globe logo and the name of the release series from which the modified version was derived.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

Distributing modified versions of Firefox under the "Firefox" name required explicit approval from Mozilla for the changes made to the underlying code, and required the use of ''all'' of the official branding. For example, it was not permissible to use the name "Firefox" without also using the official logo. When the [[Debian]] project decided to stop using the official Firefox logo in 2006 (because Mozilla's copyright restrictions at the time were incompatible with [[Debian Free Software Guidelines|Debian's guidelines]]), they were told by a representative of the Mozilla Foundation that this was not acceptable and was asked either to comply with the published trademark guidelines or cease using the "Firefox" name in their distribution.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://bugs.debian.org/cgi-bin/bugreport.cgi?bug=354622|title=Debian Bug report logs – #354622: Uses Mozilla Firefox trademark without permission|publisher=Debian|access-date=January 30, 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130206164312/http://bugs.debian.org/cgi-bin/bugreport.cgi?bug=354622|archive-date=February 6, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>  Debian switched to branding their modified version of Firefox "[[Mozilla software rebranded by Debian|Iceweasel]]" (but in 2016 switched back to Firefox), along with other Mozilla software. [[GNU IceCat]] is another derived version of Firefox distributed by the [[GNU Project]], which maintains its separate branding.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/bug-gnuzilla/2007-09/msg00004.html|title=Re: ice weasel|date=September 23, 2007|access-date=July 6, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706183225/http://lists.gnu.org/archive/html/bug-gnuzilla/2007-09/msg00004.html|archive-date=July 6, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Branding and visual identity ===
{{Main|Firefox logo}}
The Firefox icon is a trademark used to designate the official Mozilla build of the Firefox software and builds of official distribution partners.<ref>[https://www.mozilla.org/foundation/trademarks/distribution-policy.html Mozilla Trademark Policy for Distribution Partners] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402194222/https://www.mozilla.org/foundation/trademarks/distribution-policy.html |date=April 2, 2013 }} Version 0.9 (DRAFT). Retrieved November 2, 2006.</ref> For this reason, software distributors who distribute modified versions of Firefox do not use the icon.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

Early Firebird and Phoenix releases of Firefox were considered to have reasonable visual designs but fell short when compared to many other professional software packages. In October 2003, professional interface designer Steven Garrity authored an article covering everything he considered to be wrong with Mozilla's visual identity.<ref name="branding-mozilla">{{cite web|last=Garrity|first=Steven|title=Branding Mozilla: Towards Mozilla 2.0|url=http://www.actsofvolition.com/files/mozillabranding/|access-date=February 8, 2009|date=October 23, 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115202336/http://www.actsofvolition.com/files/mozillabranding/|archive-date=January 15, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>

Shortly afterwards, the Mozilla Foundation invited Garrity to head up the new visual identity team. The release of Firefox 0.8 in February 2004 saw the introduction of the new branding efforts. Included were new icon designs by silverorange, a group of web developers with a long-standing relationship with Mozilla. The final renderings are by [[Jon Hicks (designer)|Jon Hicks]], who had worked on [[Camino (web browser)|Camino]].<ref name="branding-mozilla-followup">{{cite web|url=http://www.actsofvolition.com/archive/2004/february/brandingmozilla|title=Branding Mozilla: Towards Firefox 1.0|last=Garrity|first=Steven|date=February 9, 2004|access-date=February 8, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205043028/http://www.actsofvolition.com/archive/2004/february/brandingmozilla|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="branding-firefox">{{cite web|url=https://www.hicksdesign.co.uk/journal/branding-firefox|title=Branding Firefox|last=Hicks|first=Jon|date=February 9, 2004|publisher=Hicksdesign|access-date=February 8, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208065605/http://hicksdesign.co.uk/journal/branding-firefox|archive-date=February 8, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> The logo was later revised and updated, fixing several flaws found when it was enlarged.<ref name="spot-the-difference">{{cite web|url=https://www.hicksdesign.co.uk/journal/spot-the-difference/|title=Spot the Difference|last=Hicks|first=Jon|date=December 17, 2004|publisher=Hicksdesign|access-date=February 8, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205061152/http://www.hicksdesign.co.uk/journal/spot-the-difference/|archive-date=February 5, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> The animal shown in the logo is a stylized fox, although "firefox" is usually a common name for the [[red panda]]. The panda, according to Hicks, "didn't really conjure up the right imagery" and was not widely known.<ref name="branding-firefox" />

In June 2019, Mozilla unveiled a revised Firefox logo, which was officially implemented on version 70. The new logo is part of an effort to build a brand system around Firefox and its complementary apps and services, which are now being promoted as a suite under the Firefox brand.

<gallery style="text-align:center" caption="Logo history">
File:Mozilla Phoenix logo vector.svg|Logo of "Phoenix" and "Firebird" before being renamed as Firefox
File:Mozilla Firefox 0.8 logo.png|Firefox 0.8–0.10, from February 9, 2004 to November 8, 2004
File:Mozilla Firefox logo 2004.svg|Firefox 1.0–3.0, from November 9, 2004 to June 29, 2009
File:Mozilla Firefox 3.5 logo.png|Firefox 3.5–22, from June 30, 2009 to August 5, 2013
File:Mozilla Firefox logo 2013.svg|Firefox 23–56, from August 6, 2013 to November 13, 2017<ref>{{cite web|last=Martell|first=Sean|title=(Re)building a simplified Firefox logo|url=http://blog.seanmartell.com/2013/06/27/rebuilding-a-simplified-firefox-logo/|work=Reticulating Splines|access-date=September 5, 2013|date=June 27, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130702182008/http://blog.seanmartell.com/2013/06/27/rebuilding-a-simplified-firefox-logo/|archive-date=July 2, 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>
File:Firefox Logo, 2017.svg|Firefox 57–69, from November 14, 2017 to October 21, 2019
File:Firefox logo, 2019.svg|Firefox 70 and later, since October 22, 2019
</gallery>

<gallery style="text-align:center;margin:0 auto" heights="110" widths="110" caption="Other logos, used for nightly versions">
File:Mozilla Nightly icon 2011.png|The 2011 Nightly logo, used to represent [[nightly build]]s of [[pre-alpha version]]s
File:Mozilla Firefox Nightly logo 2013.png|The 2013 Nightly logo
File:Firefox Nightly Logo, 2017.svg|The 2017 Nightly logo
File:Firefox Nightly logo, 2019.svg|The 2019 Nightly logo

</gallery>
<gallery style="text-align:center;margin:0 auto" heights="110" widths="110" caption="Other logos, used for developer/aurora versions">
File:Mozilla Aurora icon.png|The 2011 Aurora logo, used to represent an [[alpha release]]
File:Mozilla Firefox Aurora logo 2013.png|The 2013 Aurora logo
File:Firefox Developer Edition logo, 2013.png|The 2015 Developer Edition logo
File:Firefox Developer Edition logo, 2017.svg|The 2017 Developer Edition logo
File:Firefox Developer Edition logo,2019.svg|The 2019 Developer Edition logo
</gallery>

<gallery style="text-align:center;margin:0 auto" heights="110" widths="110" caption="Other logos">
File:Deer park globe.svg|Blue globe artwork, distributed with the [[source code]], and is explicitly not protected as a trademark<ref>[https://www.mozilla.org/foundation/trademarks/faq.html Mozilla Trademark Policy FAQ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407213521/http://www.mozilla.org/foundation/trademarks/faq.html|date=April 7, 2013 }}: "What are the Mozilla Trademarks and Logos?". Retrieved November 2, 2006</ref>
File:Firefox brand logo, 2019.svg|The logo for the Firefox brand of products and services, as of July 2019. It appears as if the fox was removed, but this is not the logo for the browser itself.
</gallery>

== Promotion ==
[[File:Firefox mascot - FISL 16.jpg|thumb|Firefox mascot at the [[FISL]]{{nbsp}}16 (2015), Brazil]]

Firefox was adopted rapidly, with 100 million downloads in its first year of availability.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Palmer |first1=Judi |last2=Colvig |first2=Mary |title=Firefox surpasses 100 million downloads |publisher=Mozilla |date=October 19, 2005 |url=https://www-archive.mozilla.org/press/mozilla-2005-10-19.html |access-date=February 4, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090621002130/http://www-archive.mozilla.org/press/mozilla-2005-10-19.html |archive-date=June 21, 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> This was followed by a series of aggressive marketing campaigns starting in 2004 with a series of events [[Blake Ross]] and Asa Dotzler called "marketing weeks".<ref>{{cite web |last=Ross |first=Blake |author-link=Blake Ross |title=Week 1: Press reviews |publisher=Blake Ross |date=July 7, 2004 |url=http://www.blakeross.com/archives/000228.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040805210701/http://www.blakeross.com/archives/000228.html |archive-date=August 5, 2004 |access-date=February 4, 2007}}</ref>

Firefox continued to heavily market itself by releasing a marketing portal dubbed "Spread Firefox" (SFX) on September 12, 2004,<ref>{{cite web|work=Spread Firefox: Sfx Team's Blog |title=We're igniting the web. Join us! |date=September 12, 2004 |url=http://www.spreadfirefox.com/node/115 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070125002055/http://www.spreadfirefox.com/node/115 |archive-date=January 25, 2007 |access-date=February 4, 2007}}</ref> It debuted along with the Firefox Preview Release, creating a centralized space for the discussion of various marketing techniques. The release of their [[Mozilla Manifesto|manifesto]] stated that "the Mozilla project is a global community of people who believe that openness, innovation and opportunity are key to the continued health of the Internet."<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last=Krishnamurthy|first=Sandeep|date=August 1, 2009|title=CASE: Mozilla vs. Godzilla — The Launch of the Mozilla Firefox Browser|journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing|volume=23|issue=3|pages=259–271|doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2009.04.008}}</ref> A two-page ad in the edition of December 16 of ''The New York Times'', placed by Mozilla Foundation in coordination with Spread Firefox, featured the names of the thousands of people worldwide who contributed to the Mozilla Foundation's fundraising campaign to support the launch of the Firefox 1.0 web browser.<ref name="Mozilla Foundation">{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/press/files/2013/11/nytimes-firefox-final.pdf|title=Mozilla Foundation Places Two-Page Advocacy Ad in the New York Times|date=December 15, 2004|publisher=Mozilla Foundation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180628015444/https://blog.mozilla.org/press/files/2013/11/nytimes-firefox-final.pdf|archive-date=June 28, 2018 |url-status=live |access-date=June 15, 2010}}</ref> SFX portal enhanced the "Get Firefox" button program, giving users "referrer points" as an incentive. The site lists the top 250 referrers. From time to time, the SFX team or SFX members launch marketing events organized at the Spread Firefox website. As a part of the Spread Firefox campaign, there was an attempt to break the world download record with the release of Firefox 3.<ref name="WorldRecord">{{cite web|url=http://www.spreadfirefox.com/worldrecord/|title=Set a Guinness World Record Enjoy a Better Web|last=Colvig|first=Mary|date=July 2, 2008|work=Mozilla Blog|publisher=Mozilla Foundation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112114317/http://blog.mozilla.com/blog/2008/07/02/were-official/|archive-date=January 12, 2011 |access-date=May 30, 2008}}</ref> This resulted in an official certified [[Guinness World Records|Guinness world record]], with over eight million downloads.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9215243/Firefox_4_sets_unofficial_download_record|title=Firefox 4 sets unofficial download record|last=Keizer|first=Gregg|date=March 27, 2011|work=Computerworld|access-date=August 21, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011112844/http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9215243/Firefox_4_sets_unofficial_download_record|archive-date=October 11, 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2011, Mozilla announced that it would be retiring Spread Firefox (SFX). Three months later, in May 2011, Mozilla officially closed Spread Firefox. Mozilla wrote that "there are currently plans to create a new iteration of this website [Spread Firefox] at a later date."<ref>{{cite web |last=Snyder |first=Ryan |title=Spread Firefox |publisher=Mozilla Blog |date=February 25, 2011 |url=https://blog.mozilla.org/website-archive/2011/02/25/spread-firefox/ |access-date=May 15, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120601030624/http://blog.mozilla.org/website-archive/2011/02/25/spread-firefox/ |archive-date=June 1, 2012}}</ref>

In celebration of the third anniversary of the founding of the [[Mozilla Foundation]], the "World Firefox Day" campaign was established on July 15, 2006,<ref>{{cite web|title=World Firefox Day Launches |author=Sfx Team |publisher=Spread Firefox: Sfx Team's Blog |url=http://www.spreadfirefox.com/node/24241 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061210145456/http://www.spreadfirefox.com/node/24241 |archive-date=December 10, 2006 |access-date=January 24, 2007 |date=July 16, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www-archive.mozilla.org/press/mozilla-foundation.html |title=Mozilla Foundation Announcement |date=July 15, 2003 |publisher=Mozilla |access-date=June 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315101954/https://www-archive.mozilla.org/press/mozilla-foundation.html |archive-date=March 15, 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and ran until September 15, 2006.<ref>{{cite web |title=Friends of Firefox Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://www.worldfirefoxday.com/faq.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071116084027/http://worldfirefoxday.com/faq.php |archive-date=November 16, 2007 |access-date=November 27, 2007}}</ref> Participants registered themselves and a friend on the website for nomination to have their names displayed on the Firefox Friends Wall, a digital wall that was displayed at the headquarters of the Mozilla Foundation.

The Firefox community has also engaged in the promotion of their web browser. In 2006, some of Firefox's contributors from [[Oregon State University]] made a [[crop circle]] of the Firefox logo in an [[oat]] field near [[Amity, Oregon]], near the intersection of Lafayette Highway and Walnut Hill Road.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://firefoxcropcircle.com/circle/ |title=Take Back the Field |work=Oregon State Linux Users Group |date=August 14, 2006 |access-date=August 28, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111006171912/http://firefoxcropcircle.com/circle/ |archive-date=October 6, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> After Firefox reached 500 million downloads on February 21, 2008, the Firefox community celebrated by visiting [[Freerice]] to earn 500 million grains of rice.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.mozilla.com/blog/2008/02/21/500-million-firefox-downloads-complete-500-million-grains-in-progress/|title=500 million Firefox downloads: complete; 500 million grains: in progress|last=Colvig|first=Mary|date=February 21, 2008|work=Mozilla Blog|publisher=Mozilla|access-date=June 24, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110813142828/http://blog.mozilla.com/blog/2008/02/21/500-million-firefox-downloads-complete-500-million-grains-in-progress/|archive-date=August 13, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other initiatives included Live Chat – a service Mozilla launched in 2007 that allowed users to seek technical support from volunteers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.mozilla.com/sumo/2007/12/28/firefox-live-chat-launching-today/|title=Firefox Support Blog " Blog Archive " Firefox Live Chat launching today|last=Tenser|first=David|date=December 28, 2007|publisher=The Mozilla Blog|access-date=August 6, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110827184112/http://blog.mozilla.com/sumo/2007/12/28/firefox-live-chat-launching-today/|archive-date=August 27, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The service was later retired.<ref name="Brinkmann8">{{cite news|url=https://www.ghacks.net/2008/01/02/firefox-live-chat-support/|title=Firefox Live Chat Support|last=Brinkmann|first=Martin|date=January 2, 2008|newspaper=gHacks Technology News|access-date=May 2, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502143814/http://www.ghacks.net/2008/01/02/firefox-live-chat-support/|archive-date=May 2, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

To promote the launch of Firefox Quantum in November 2017, Mozilla partnered with [[Reggie Watts]] to produce a series of TV ads and social media content.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2017/11/14/fast-for-good-launching-the-new-firefox-into-the-world/|title=Mozilla Blog|date=November 14, 2017|publisher=The Mozilla Blog|access-date=July 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723082154/https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2017/11/14/fast-for-good-launching-the-new-firefox-into-the-world/|archive-date=July 23, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Performance ==
=== 2000s ===
In December 2005, ''Internet Week'' ran an article in which many readers reported high memory usage in Firefox 1.5.<ref>{{cite news |last=Finnie |first=Scot |title=Firefox 1.5: Not Ready For Prime Time? |work=InformationWeek |date=December 8, 2005 |url=http://www.informationweek.com/software/opensource/174909795 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090624202020/http://www.informationweek.com/news/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=174909795 |archive-date=June 24, 2009 |access-date=January 24, 2007}}</ref> Mozilla developers said that the higher memory use of Firefox 1.5 was at least partially due to the new fast backwards-and-forwards (FastBack) feature.<ref>{{cite web |last=Goodger |first=Ben |author-link=Ben Goodger |title=About the Firefox 'memory leak' |work=MozllaZine weblogs |date=February 14, 2006 |url=http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/ben/archives/009749.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717141231/http://weblogs.mozillazine.org/ben/archives/009749.html |archive-date=July 17, 2011 |access-date=November 17, 2007}}</ref> Other known causes of memory problems were malfunctioning extensions such as [[Google Toolbar]] and some older versions of [[AdBlock]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kb.mozillazine.org/?title=Problematic_extensions&oldid=30448 |title=Problematic Extensions |access-date=January 24, 2007 |author=MozillaZine Knowledge Base contributors |date=January 19, 2007 |publisher=MozillaZine Knowledge Base |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501042724/http://kb.mozillazine.org/?title=Problematic_extensions&oldid=30448 |archive-date=May 1, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> or plug-ins, such as older versions of Adobe Acrobat Reader.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kb.mozillazine.org/?title=Adobe_Reader&oldid=30451 |title=Adobe Reader |access-date=January 24, 2007 |author=MozillaZine Knowledge Base contributors |date=January 17, 2007 |publisher=MozillaZine Knowledge Base |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501042720/http://kb.mozillazine.org/?title=Adobe_Reader&oldid=30451 |archive-date=May 1, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> When ''PC Magazine'' in 2006 compared memory usage of Firefox 2, [[Opera (web browser)|Opera 9]], and [[Internet Explorer 7]], they found that Firefox used approximately as much memory as each of the other two browsers.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,1991370,00.asp |title=Which New Browser Is Best: Firefox 2, Internet Explorer 7, or Opera 9? |access-date=January 24, 2007 |date=July 19, 2006 |last=Muchmore |first=Michael W. |work=[[PC Magazine]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080317040651/http://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,1991370,00.asp |archive-date=March 17, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2006, [[Softpedia]] noted that Firefox 1.5 took longer to start up than other browsers,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.softpedia.com/reviews/windows/Mozilla-Firefox-Review-13677.shtml|title=Mozilla Firefox 1.5 Final Review|access-date=September 22, 2006|date=November 30, 2005|last=Muradin|first=Alex|publisher=Softpedia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027180757/http://www.softpedia.com/reviews/windows/Mozilla-Firefox-Review-13677.shtml|archive-date=October 27, 2006|url-status=live}}</ref> which was confirmed by further [[browser speed test|speed tests]].<ref name=speedcmp>{{cite web|url=http://www.howtocreate.co.uk/browserSpeed.html#winspeed|title=Browser Speed Comparisons|access-date=January 24, 2007|last=Wilton-Jones|first=Mark|publisher=How To Create|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110622065856/http://www.howtocreate.co.uk/browserSpeed.html#winspeed|archive-date=June 22, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

Internet Explorer 6 launched more swiftly than Firefox 1.5 on Windows XP since many of its components were built into the OS and loaded during system startup. As a workaround for the issue, a preloader application was created that loaded components of Firefox on startup, similar to Internet Explorer.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sourceforge.net/projects/ffpreloader/|title=Firefox Preloader|access-date=April 26, 2007|publisher=SourceForge|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070513224644/http://sourceforge.net/projects/ffpreloader|archive-date=May 13, 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> A Windows Vista feature called [[SuperFetch]] performs a similar task of preloading Firefox if it is used often enough.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

Tests performed by ''[[PC World]]'' and Zimbra in 2006 indicated that Firefox 2 used less memory than Internet Explorer 7.<ref name=pcworldreview>{{cite news |last=Larkin |first=Erik |title=Radically New IE 7 or Updated Mozilla Firefox 2 – Which Browser Is Better? |work=[[PC World]] |date=October 24, 2006 |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/127309-6/radically_new_ie_7_or_updated_mozilla_firefox_2which_browser_is_better.html |access-date=May 18, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913021731/http://www.pcworld.com/article/127309-6/radically_new_ie_7_or_updated_mozilla_firefox_2which_browser_is_better.html |archive-date=September 13, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Dargahi |first=Ross |title=IE 7 vs IE 6 |publisher=Zimbra |date=October 19, 2006 |url=http://www.zimbrablog.com/blog/archives/2006/10/ie-7-vs-ie-6.html |access-date=January 24, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080615025653/http://www.zimbrablog.com/blog/archives/2006/10/ie-7-vs-ie-6.html |archive-date=June 15, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Firefox 3 used less memory than Internet Explorer 7, Opera 9.50 Beta, [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]] 3.1 Beta, and Firefox 2 in tests performed by Mozilla, CyberNet, and The Browser World.<ref>{{cite news|first=Ryan|last=Paul|title=Firefox 3 goes on a diet, eats less memory than IE and Opera|publisher=Ars Technica|date=March 17, 2008|url=https://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2008/03/firefox-3-goes-on-a-diet-eats-less-memory-than-ie-and-opera.ars|access-date=June 1, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090131231615/http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2008/03/firefox-3-goes-on-a-diet-eats-less-memory-than-ie-and-opera.ars|archive-date=January 31, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://cybernetnews.com/cybernotes-browser-performance-comparisons/|title=Browser Performance Comparisons|last=Ryan|first=Wagner|date=March 26, 2008|access-date=June 1, 2008|publisher=CyberNet News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625154908/http://cybernetnews.com/cybernotes-browser-performance-comparisons/|archive-date=June 25, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox 3.0 Beta 4 Vs Opera 9.50 Beta Vs Safari 3.1 Beta: Multiple Sites Opening Test |publisher=The Browser World |date=March 29, 2008 |url=http://www.thebrowserworld.com/2008/03/29/firefox-30-beta-4-vs-opera-950-beta-vs-safari-31-beta-multiple-sites-opening-test/ |access-date=June 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080616073517/http://www.thebrowserworld.com/2008/03/29/firefox-30-beta-4-vs-opera-950-beta-vs-safari-31-beta-multiple-sites-opening-test/ |archive-date=June 16, 2008 }}</ref> In mid-2009, BetaNews benchmarked Firefox 3.5 and declared that it performed "nearly ten times better on XP than Microsoft Internet Explorer 7".<ref name="betanews">{{cite news|url=http://www.betanews.com/article/The-final-score-Firefox-35-performs-at-251-the-speed-of-30/1246470925|title=The final score: Firefox 3.5 performs at 251% the speed of 3.0|last=Fulton, III|first=Scott M.|date=July 1, 2009|access-date=May 4, 2010|publisher=BetaNews|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090704025550/http://www.betanews.com/article/The-final-score-Firefox-35-performs-at-251-the-speed-of-30/1246470925|archive-date=July 4, 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== 2010s ===
In January 2010, Lifehacker compared the performance of Firefox 3.5, Firefox 3.6, Google Chrome 4 (stable and Dev versions), Safari 4, and Opera (10.1 stable and 10.5 pre-alpha versions). Lifehacker timed how long browsers took to start and reach a page (both right after boot-up and after running at least once already), timed how long browsers took to load nine tabs at once, tested JavaScript speeds using Mozilla's Dromaeo online suite (which implements Apple's [[Browser speed test#Apple benchmarks|SunSpider]] and Google's V8 tests) and measured memory usage using Windows 7's process manager. They concluded that Firefox 3.5 and 3.6 were the fifth- and sixth-fastest browsers, respectively, on startup, 3.5 was third- and 3.6 was sixth-fastest to load nine tabs at once, 3.5 was sixth- and 3.6 was fifth-fastest on the JavaScript tests. They also concluded that Firefox 3.6 was the most efficient with memory usage followed by Firefox 3.5.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://lifehacker.com/5457242/browser-speed-tests-firefox-36-chrome-4-opera-105-and-extensions|title=Browser Speed Tests: Firefox 3.6, Chrome 4, Opera 10.5, and Extensions|last=Purdy|first=Kevin|date=January 26, 2010|access-date=May 4, 2010|publisher=Lifehacker|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100504143754/http://lifehacker.com/5457242/browser-speed-tests-firefox-36-chrome-4-opera-105-and-extensions|archive-date=May 4, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref>

In February 2012, ''[[Tom's Hardware]]'' performance tested Chrome 17, Firefox 10, [[Internet Explorer 9]], Opera 11.61, and Safari 5.1.2 on Windows 7. ''Tom's Hardware'' summarized their tests into four categories: Performance, Efficiency, Reliability, and Conformance. In the performance category they tested [[HTML5]], [[Java (software platform)|Java]], [[JavaScript]], [[Document Object Model|DOM]], [[CSS 3]], [[Adobe Flash|Flash]], [[Silverlight]], and [[WebGL]] ([[WebGL 2]] is current as of version 51; and Java and Silverlight stop working as of version 52)—they also tested startup time and page load time. The performance tests showed that Firefox was either "acceptable" or "strong" in most categories, winning three categories (HTML5, HTML5 [[hardware acceleration]], and Java) only finishing "weak" in CSS performance. In the efficiency tests, ''Tom's Hardware'' tested memory usage and management. In this category, it determined that Firefox was only "acceptable" at performing light memory usage, while it was "strong" at performing heavy memory usage. In the reliability category, Firefox performed a "strong" amount of proper page loads. In the final category, conformance, it was determined that Firefox had "strong" conformance for JavaScript and HTML5. In conclusion, ''Tom's Hardware'' determined that Firefox was the best browser for Windows 7 OS, but that it only narrowly beat Google Chrome.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/chrome-17-firefox-10-ubuntu,3129-17.html|title=Benchmark Analysis: Windows 7 and Ubuntu 11.10|last=Overa|first=Adam|date=February 21, 2012|publisher=Tom's Hardware|access-date=April 8, 2012|archive-date=September 13, 2012|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120913011235/http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/chrome-17-firefox-10-ubuntu,3129-17.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In June 2013, ''Tom's Hardware'' again performance tested Firefox 22, Chrome 27, Opera 12, and [[Internet Explorer 10]]. They found that Firefox slightly edged out the other browsers in their "performance" index, which examined wait times, JavaScript execution speed, HTML5/CSS3 rendering, and hardware acceleration performance. Firefox also scored the highest on the "non-performance" index, which measured memory efficiency, reliability, security, and standards conformance, finishing ahead of Chrome, the runner-up. ''Tom's Hardware'' concluded by declaring Firefox the "sound" winner of the performance benchmarks.<ref name="Overa13">{{cite news|url=https://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/chrome-27-firefox-21-opera-next,3534-12.html|title=Chrome 27, Firefox 22, IE10, And Opera Next, Benchmarked|last=Overa|first=Adam|date=June 30, 2013|newspaper=Tom's Hardware|access-date=May 2, 2014|archive-date=July 3, 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130703091630/http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/chrome-27-firefox-21-opera-next,3534-12.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2014, a benchmark testing the memory usage of Firefox 29, Google Chrome 34, and [[Internet Explorer 11]] indicated that Firefox used the least memory when a substantial number of tabs were open.<ref name="Brinkmann14">{{cite news|url=https://www.ghacks.net/2014/01/02/chrome-34-firefox-29-internet-explorer-11-memory-use-2014/|title=Chrome 34, Firefox 29, Internet Explorer 11: Memory Use 2014|last=Brinkmann|first=Martin|date=January 2, 2014|newspaper=gHacks Technology News|access-date=May 2, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140505225706/http://www.ghacks.net/2014/01/02/chrome-34-firefox-29-internet-explorer-11-memory-use-2014/|archive-date=May 5, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

In benchmark testing in early 2015 on a "high-end" Windows machine, comparing [[Microsoft Edge]], Internet Explorer, Firefox, Chrome, and Opera, Firefox achieved the highest score on three of the seven tests. Four different JavaScript performance tests gave conflicting results. Firefox surpassed all other browsers on the [[Browser speed test|Peacekeeper benchmark]] but was behind the Microsoft products when tested with SunSpider. Measured with Mozilla's Kraken, it came second place to Chrome, while on Google's [[Browser speed test#Octane|Octane]] challenge it took third behind Chrome and Opera. Firefox took the lead with WebXPRT, which runs several typical HTML5 and JavaScript tasks. Firefox, Chrome, and Opera all achieved the highest possible score on the Oort Online test, measuring WebGL rendering speed (WebGL 2 is now current). In terms of HTML5 compatibility testing, Firefox was ranked in the middle of the group.<ref name="TekRevue-2015-04-01">{{cite web|url=https://www.tekrevue.com/spartan-benchmarks-ie-chrome-firefox-opera/|title=Spartan Benchmarks: Spartan vs. IE, Chrome, Firefox, and Opera|last=Tanous|first=Jim|date=April 1, 2015|website=TekRevue|access-date=January 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226174659/http://www.tekrevue.com/spartan-benchmarks-ie-chrome-firefox-opera/|archive-date=December 26, 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

A similar set of benchmark tests in 2016 showed Firefox's JavaScript performance on Kraken and the newer [[Browser speed test#JetStream|Jetstream]] tests trailing slightly behind all other tested browsers except Internet Explorer (IE), which performed relatively poorly. On Octane, Firefox came ahead of IE and Safari, but again slightly behind the rest, including [[Vivaldi (web browser)|Vivaldi]] and Microsoft Edge. Edge took overall first place on the Jetstream and Octane benchmarks.<ref name="digitaltrends.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/best-browser-internet-explorer-vs-chrome-vs-firefox-vs-safari-vs-edge/|title=Battle of the best browsers: Edge vs. Chrome vs. Firefox vs. Safari vs. Opera vs. IE|last=Coppock|first=Mark|date=May 27, 2018|website=[[Digital Trends]]|access-date=January 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103215548/http://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/best-browser-internet-explorer-vs-chrome-vs-firefox-vs-safari-vs-edge/|archive-date=January 3, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Firefox Quantum ===
As of the adoption of Firefox 57 and Mozilla's [[Gecko (software)#Quantum|Quantum project]] entering production browsers in November 2017, Firefox was tested to be faster than Chrome in independent JavaScript tests, and demonstrated to use less memory with many browser tabs opened.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/best-browser-internet-explorer-vs-chrome-vs-firefox-vs-safari-vs-edge/|title=Firefox Quantum vs. Chrome: Which Is Faster?|last=Murray|first=Matt|date=November 18, 2017|website=[[Digital Trends]]|access-date=April 23, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517061601/https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/best-browser-internet-explorer-vs-chrome-vs-firefox-vs-safari-vs-edge/|archive-date=May 17, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/five-reasons-to-try-mozilla-firefox-quantum/4116662.html|title=5 Reasons to Try Firefox 'Quantum' Browser|last1=Lynn|first1=Bryan|date=November 15, 2017|work=[[Voice of America]] (VOA)|access-date=October 31, 2018|last2=Robbins|first2=Jill|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101095453/https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/five-reasons-to-try-mozilla-firefox-quantum/4116662.html|archive-date=November 1, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> [[TechRadar]] rated it as the fastest web browser in a May 2019 report.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/best/browser/|title=The Best Browser 2019|archive-date=July 14, 2019|access-date=July 15, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714204710/https://www.techradar.com/best/browser|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Usage share ==
{{Further|Usage share of web browsers}}
[[File:StatCounter-browser-ww-yearly-2009-2020 (updated until November).png|thumb|upright=1.36|[[Usage share of web browsers]] according to [[StatCounter]]]]

Downloads have continued at an increasing rate since Firefox 1.0 was released on November 9, 2004, and {{as of |2009|7|31|lc=y|}} Firefox had already been downloaded over one billion times.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/firefox-1-billion-downloads-only-part-of-the-story/|title=Firefox: 1 billion downloads only part of the story|last=Shankland|first=Stephen|date=July 31, 2009|publisher=CNET News|access-date=December 19, 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609001042/http://www.cnet.com/news/firefox-1-billion-downloads-only-part-of-the-story/|archive-date=June 9, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> This number does not include downloads using software updates or those from third-party websites.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://feeds.spreadfirefox.com/downloads/firefox.xml |title=Spread Firefox: Mozilla Firefox Download Counts |access-date=February 14, 2007 |publisher=Mozilla |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050717012950/http://feeds.spreadfirefox.com/downloads/firefox.xml |archive-date=July 17, 2005}}</ref> They do not represent a user count, as one download may be installed on many machines, one person may download the software multiple times, or the software may be obtained from a third-party.{{Citation needed|date=September 2020}}

In July 2010, [[IBM]] asked all employees (about 400,000) to use Firefox as their default browser.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/ibm-names-firefox-its-default-browser/#!|title=IBM names Firefox its default browser|last=Shankland|first=Stephen|date=July 1, 2010|publisher=[[CNET]]|access-date=November 21, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140418003917/http://www.cnet.com/news/ibm-names-firefox-its-default-browser/#!|archive-date=April 18, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Firefox was the second-most used web browser until November 2011, when Google Chrome surpassed it.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/press/chrome-overtakes-firefox-globally-for-first-time |title=Chrome Overtakes Firefox Globally for First Time |access-date=December 17, 2017 |date=December 1, 2011 |first=Amir |last=Eggheck |publisher=StatCounter |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171214120933/http://gs.statcounter.com/press/chrome-overtakes-firefox-globally-for-first-time |archive-date=December 14, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to Mozilla, Firefox has more than 450 million users {{as of|2012|10|lc=on}}.<ref name="At a Glance">{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/press/ataglance/|title=At a Glance|website=Mozilla Press Center|publisher=Mozilla|access-date=December 7, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204035522/http://blog.mozilla.org/press/ataglance/|archive-date=December 4, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2010/11/18/state-of-mozilla/|title=Mozilla: $104 Million In Revenues, 400 Million Users, Google Deal Running Through 2011|last=Siegler|first=MG|date=November 18, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629022722/https://techcrunch.com/2010/11/18/state-of-mozilla/|archive-date=June 29, 2017 |url-status=live |access-date=June 8, 2011}}</ref>

Up to early 2020, Firefox was the second-most widely used desktop browser, and that position made it the third-most popular with 3.82% of worldwide [[usage share of web browsers]] across all platforms.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share#monthly-202011-202011-bar |title=Desktop Browser Market Share Worldwide {{!}} Statcounter Global Stats |publisher=StatCounter |date=August 1, 2019 |access-date=November 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913223459/https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share#monthly-202011-202011-bar |archive-date=September 13, 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

{{bar box
|title=Desktop/laptop browser statistics
|titlebar=#DDD
|width=440px
|barwidth=250px
|float=center
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Google Chrome]]|#A3D3FF|66.97|66.97%}}
{{bar percent|[[Safari (web browser)|Safari]]|#A3D3FF|9.97|9.97%}}
{{bar percent|[[Microsoft Edge]]|#A3D3FF|8.84|8.84%}}
{{bar percent|'''Mozilla Firefox'''|#A3FFA3|8.07|8.07%}}
{{bar percent|[[Opera (web browser)|Opera]]|#A3D3FF|2.45|2.45%}}
{{bar percent|Other|#A3A3A3|3.69|3.69%}}
{{bar gap|height=11}}
|caption=Desktop web browser market share according to [[StatCounter]] for March 2021<ref>{{cite web |title=Desktop Browser Market Share Worldwide |url=https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/worldwide/#monthly-202108-202108-bar |website=StatCounter Global Stats |access-date=January 4, 2020 |archive-date=October 9, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009174918/https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/worldwide/#monthly-202011-202011-bar |url-status=live }}</ref>}}

According to the Firefox Public Data report by Mozilla, the active monthly count of Desktop clients has decreased from around 310 million in 2017 to 260 million in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://data.firefox.com/|title=Firefox Public Data Report|website=data.firefox.com|access-date=May 26, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504070939/https://data.firefox.com/|archive-date=May 4, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
From Oct 2020, the desktop market share of Firefox started to decline in countries where it used to be the most popular.
In Eritrea, it dropped from 50% in Oct 2020 to 9.32% in Sept 2021.
In Cuba, it dropped from 54.36% in Sept 2020 to 38.42% in Sept 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/eritrea/|title=Desktop Browser Market Share Eritrea|website=StatCounter Global Stats|language=en|access-date=July 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903211021/https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/eritrea#monthly-201805-201905|archive-date=September 3, 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Desktop Browser Market Share Cuba|url=https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/cuba/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190903210936/https://gs.statcounter.com/browser-market-share/desktop/cuba|archive-date=September 3, 2019|access-date=July 12, 2020|website=StatCounter Global Stats}}</ref>

== Third-party forks ==
In addition to versions of Firefox made internally and the email client [[Mozilla Thunderbird]],<ref name="supernova">{{Cite web |url=https://blog.thunderbird.net/2023/02/the-future-of-thunderbird-why-were-rebuilding-from-the-ground-up/ |quote=Thunderbird is literally a bunch of code running on top of Firefox. All the tabs and sections you see in our applications are just browser tabs with a custom user interface. |publisher=MZLA Technologies Corporation |lang=en-US |title=Why We’re Rebuilding The Thunderbird Interface From Scratch |date=2023-02-09 |accessdate=2023-02-11}}</ref> there are [[:Category:Web browsers based on Firefox|several third-party web browsers based on Firefox]],<ref>{{cite web |last1=Macbeth |first1=Sam |title=Building a Firefox Fork |url=https://sammacbeth.eu/blog/2020/12/27/firefox-fork.html |website=SamMacbeth.eu |access-date=May 23, 2022}}</ref> including:
{{div col}}
* [[Abrowser]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox-based Browsers |url=https://alternativeto.net/category/browsers/firefox-based/ |website=AlternativeTo |access-date=May 23, 2022}}</ref>
* [[Pale Moon#Basilisk|Basilisk]]
* [[Classilla]]
* [[Cliqz]]<ref>{{cite web |author1=Tech @ Cliqz |title=Why we forked Firefox and not Chromium |url=https://0x65.dev/blog/2019-12-17/why-we-forked-firefox-and-not-chromium.html |website=0x65.dev/blog |access-date=May 23, 2022 |language=en |date=December 17, 2019}}</ref>
* [[Comodo IceDragon]]
* ''[[Ghostery]] Dawn''<ref>{{cite web |author1=[[Ghostery]] |title=Ghostery Browser Linux Support |url=https://github.com/ghostery/ghostery-browser-linux-support |website=[[GitHub]] |access-date=May 23, 2022 |date=May 22, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ghostery Dawn |url=https://www.ghostery.com/dawn |website=Ghostery |access-date=May 23, 2022}}</ref>
* [[GNU IceCat]]
* [[K-Meleon]]
* {{anchor|LibreWolf}}LibreWolf, a fork focused on privacy and security<ref>{{cite web |last1=Das |first1=Ankush |title=LibreWolf vs Firefox: Comparing the Privacy Heroes of Open-Source Browsers |url=https://itsfoss.com/librewolf-vs-firefox/ |website=It's FOSS |access-date=May 23, 2022 |date=April 14, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LibreWolf Browser |url=https://librewolf.net/ |website=librewolf.net |access-date=May 23, 2022 |quote=LibreWolf is designed to increase protection against tracking and fingerprinting techniques, while also including a few security improvements. This is achieved through our privacy and security oriented settings and patches. LibreWolf also aims to remove all the telemetry, data collection and annoyances, as well as disabling anti-freedom features like DRM.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LibreWolf |url=https://gitlab.com/librewolf-community |website=[[GitLab]] |access-date=5 September 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=LibreWolf: a privacy-focused Firefox fork |url=https://ubunlog.com/en/freewolf/ |website=Ubunlog |access-date=5 September 2022 |language=en |date=27 June 2022}}</ref>
* [[Light Browser]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Light is a fast-loading, stripped down Firefox fork |url=https://betanews.com/2014/02/04/light-is-a-fast-loading-stripped-down-firefox-fork/ |website=[[BetaNews]] |access-date=May 23, 2022 |language=en |date=February 4, 2014}}</ref>
* [[Mull Browser]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Our 5 Best Privacy Browser Picks for Android |url=https://avoidthehack.com/best-privacy-browsers-android |website=testserver.avoidthehack.com |access-date=May 23, 2022 |language=en |date=February 17, 2022}}</ref>
* [[Pale Moon]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoffman |first1=Chris |title=Why You Shouldn't Use Firefox Forks Like Waterfox, Pale Moon, or Basilisk |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/335712/update-why-you-shouldnt-use-waterfox-pale-moon-or-basilisk/ |website=How-To Geek |access-date=May 23, 2022}}</ref>
* ''Parrotgeek Firefox Legacy'' (for [[Mac OS X]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox Legacy |url=https://parrotgeek.com/fxlegacy.html |website=parrotgeek.com |access-date=May 23, 2022}}</ref>
* [[Swiftweasel]]
* [[TenFourFox]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cunningham |first1=Andrew |title=PowerPC fork of Firefox that lasted for over a decade has reached the end of the road |url=https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2021/10/tenfourfox-one-of-the-last-modern-browsers-for-powerpc-macs-is-officially-dead/ |website=Ars Technica |access-date=May 23, 2022 |language=en-us |date=October 14, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Firefox: Browser Fork |url=https://forums.librehash.com/t/firefox-browser-fork/255 |website=Librehash Forums |access-date=May 23, 2022 |date=January 31, 2021}}</ref>
* [[Tor browser]]
* [[Waterfox]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Proven |first1=Liam |title=Waterfox: A Firefox fork that could teach Mozilla a lesson |url=https://www.theregister.com/2021/11/04/waterfox_firefox_fork/ |access-date=May 23, 2022 |work=[[theregister.com]] |date=November 4, 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Wild Fox]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Wild Fox: Firefox Fork with H.264 Support |url=https://www.osnews.com/story/23303/wild-fox-firefox-fork-with-h264-support/ |website=OSnews |access-date=May 23, 2022}}</ref>
{{end div col}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Internet|Linux|Free and open-source software}}
* [[Firefox User Extension Library]]
* [[History of the web browser]]
* [[List of free and open-source software packages]]
* [[Mozilla Prism]]
* [[XULRunner]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Cheah |first=Chu Yeow |year=2005 |title=Firefox Secrets: A Need-to-Know Guide |publisher=O'Reilly |isbn=978-0-9752402-4-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/firefoxsecrets0000chea }}
* {{cite book |last=Feldt |first=Kenneth C. |year=2007 |title= Programming Firefox |publisher=O'Reilly |isbn=978-0-596-10243-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Granneman |first=Scott |year= 2005 |title= Don't Click on the Blue e!: Switching to Firefox |publisher=O'Reilly |isbn=978-0-596-00939-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Hofmann |first=Chris |author2=Marcia Knous |author3=John Hedtke |year=2005 |title=Firefox and Thunderbird Garage |publisher=Prentice Hall PTR |isbn=978-0-13-187004-8}}
* {{cite book |last=McFarlane |first=Nigel |year=2005 |title=Firefox Hacks |publisher=O'Reilly |isbn=978-0-596-00928-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/firefoxhackstips00mcfa }}
* {{cite book |last=Reyes |first=Mel |year=2005 |title=Hacking Firefox: More Than 150 Hacks, Mods, and Customizations |url=https://archive.org/details/hackingfirefoxmo0000reye |url-access=registration |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-7645-9650-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Blake |author-link=Blake Ross |year=2006 |title=Firefox for Dummies |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-74899-1}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt=Firefox|q=no|s=no|d=Q698|b=Using Firefox|voy=no|m=no|mw=Firefox|species=no}}
* {{Official website}}
* {{curlie|Computers/Software/Internet/Clients/Web/Browsers/Firefox }}
*[https://www.microsoft.com/p/mozilla-firefox/9nzvdkpmr9rd Firefox] at [[Microsoft Store]]

{{Mozilla projects}}
{{gopher clients}}
{{Aggregators}}
{{Timeline of web browsers|2000s}}
{{Web browsers|desktop}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Firefox| ]]
[[Category:2002 software]]
[[Category:Android web browsers]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Cross-platform free software]]
[[Category:Cross-platform web browsers]]
[[Category:Free multilingual software]]
[[Category:Free software programmed in C++]]
[[Category:Free web browsers]]
[[Category:Gecko-based software]]
[[Category:History of the Internet]]
[[Category:IOS web browsers]]
[[Category:Linux web browsers]]
[[Category:MacOS web browsers]]
[[Category:Mozilla]]
[[Category:OS/2 web browsers]]
[[Category:POSIX web browsers]]
[[Category:Free software programmed in Rust]]
[[Category:Software that uses XUL]]
[[Category:Software using the Mozilla license]]
[[Category:Unix Internet software]]
[[Category:Web browsers for AmigaOS]]
[[Category:Web browsers that use GTK]]
[[Category:Web browsers]]
[[Category:Windows web browsers]]

1946 Australian referendum (Industrial Employment)

2023-02-03T00:09:51Z

Explodingbrain: Corrected year of 1944 referendum.

{{Use Australian English|date=October 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{infobox referendum
| name = Australian Industrial Employment referendum, 1946
| country = Australia
| title = Do you approve of the proposed law for the alteration of the Constitution entitled — ''"Constitution Alteration (Industrial Employment) 1946"'' ?
| date = {{start date|1946|09|28|df=y}}
| voting_system = {{bulleted list|A simple majority of voters nationwide.|A majority in 4 out of the 6 states.}}
| outcome = Proposal rejected due to gaining a majority in only 2 of the 6 states.
| map = 1937_Australian_Aviation_referendum_-_State_majorities.svg
| map_size = 220
| map_caption = Majority in each [[States and territories of Australia|state]]. {{col-begin}}{{col-2}}{{legend|#4daf4a|'''Yes:'''}}[[Queensland]] [[Victoria, Australia|Victoria]]{{col-2}}{{legend|#e41a1c|'''No:'''}}[[New South Wales]] [[South Australia]] [[Tasmania]] [[Western Australia]]{{col-end}}
}}
The ''Constitution Alteration (Industrial Employment) Bill'' 1946,<ref name="Industrial Employment Bill">{{url|https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/legislation/billshistorical/HBILL194345V200055/upload_binary/055 - CONSTITUTION ALTERATION (INDUSTRIAL EMPLOYMENT) Bill 1946.pdf|''Constitution Alteration (Industrial Employment) Bill'' 1946}} (Cth).</ref> was an unsuccessful proposal to alter the [[Australian Constitution]] to give the Commonwealth power to make laws regulating employment in industry. It was put to voters for approval in a [[1946 Australian referendum|referendum held on 28 September 1946]]. The question was narrowly rejected, with a minority of 1.80% in the fourth state, South Australia.{{refn|name=Handbook}}

==Question==
''Do you approve of the proposed law for the alteration of the Constitution entitled 'Constitution Alteration (Industrial Employment) 1946'?''

The proposal was to insert into [[Section 51 of the Constitution of Australia|section 51]] that the Parliament have power to make laws with respect to:<blockquote>:'''(xxxiv.A.) Terms and conditions of employment in industry, but not so as to authorize any form of industrial conscription;'''<ref name="Industrial Employment Bill"/></blockquote>

==Results==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Result{{hsp}}{{refn|name=Handbook}}
|- align=center
! rowspan="2" | State
! rowspan="2" | Electoral roll
! rowspan="2" | Ballots issued
! align=center colspan="2" | For
! align=center colspan="2" | Against
! align=center rowspan="2" | Informal
|-
! align=center | Vote
! align=center | %
! align=center | Vote
! align=center | %
|- align="right"
! style="text-align:left;" | New South Wales
| 1,858,749
| 1,757,150
| 833,822
! {{Yes|51.72}}
| 778,280
| align="center" | 48.28
| 145,048
|- align="right"
! style="text-align:left;" | Victoria
| 1,345,537
| 1,261,374
| 609,355
! {{Yes|52.08}}
| 560,773
| align="center" | 47.92
| 91,246
|- align="right"
! style="text-align:left;" | Queensland
| 660,316
| 612,170
| 243,242
| align="center" | 43.42
| 316,970
! {{No|56.58}}
| 51,958
|- align="right"
! style="text-align:left;" | South Australia
| 420,361
| 399,301
| 179,153
| align="center" | 48.20
| 192,516
! {{No|51.80}}
| 27,632
|- align="right"
! style="text-align:left;" | Western Australia
| 300,337
| 279,066
| 142,186
! {{Yes|55.74}}
| 112,881
| align="center" | 44.26
| 23,999
|- align="right"
! style="text-align:left;" | Tasmania
| 154,553
| 144,880
| 52,517
| align="center" | 41.37
| 74,440
! {{No|58.63}}
| 17,923
|- align="right"
! style="text-align:left;" | Armed forces{{hsp}}{{efn|Armed forces totals are also included in their respective states.}}
| 
| 37,021
| 20,445
| align="center" | 55.23
| 15,239
| align="center" | 41.16
| 1337
|- bgcolor="#FFE0C0" align="right"
! style="text-align:left" | Total for Commonwealth
| 4,739,853
| 4,453,941
| 2,060,275
! {{Yes|50.30}}
| 2,035,860
| align="center" | 49.70
| 357,806
|-
! style="text-align:left;"| Results
| colSpan="8" | ''Obtained majority in three states and an overall majority of 24,415 votes.'' '''Not carried'''
|}

{{Notelist}}

==Discussion==
This was the sixth occasion in which the commonwealth sought power to regulate terms and conditions of employment, rather than using the [[Section 51(xxxv) of the Constitution of Australia|conciliation and arbitration power]], having been unsuccessful in [[1911 Australian referendum (Trade and Commerce)|1911]], [[1913 Australian referendum (Industrial Matters)|1913]], [[1919 Australian referendum (Legislative Powers)|1919]], [[1926 Australian referendum (Industry and Commerce)|1926]] and [[1944 Australian Post-War Reconstruction and Democratic Rights referendum|1944]].{{refn|name=Handbook}}

For a referendum to approve an amendment of the constitution, it must ordinarily achieve a ''[[double majority]]'': approved by a majority of states (i.e., four of the six states) as well as a majority of those voting nationwide.<ref name="s128">{{Cite Legislation AU|Cth|act|coaca430|Constitution|128}} Mode of altering the Constitution.</ref> This was the third of five referendums ({{As of|2021|10|lc=y}}) to achieve an overall majority, but fail the requirement of a majority of states.<ref>Handbook of the 44th Parliament (2014) {{cite web |url=https://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22handbook%2Fnewhandbook%2F2014-10-31%2F0048%22 |title=Part 5 - Referendums and Plebiscites - Constitutional referendums |publisher=[[Parliamentary Library of Australia]]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Politics of Australia]]
*[[History of Australia]]

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
{{refn|name=Handbook|Handbook of the 44th Parliament (2014) {{cite web |url=http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/search/display/display.w3p;query=Id%3A%22handbook%2Fnewhandbook%2F2014-10-31%2F0049%22 |title=Part 5 - Referendums and Plebiscites - Referendum results |publisher=[[Parliamentary Library of Australia]]}}}}
}}

==Further reading==
* Standing Committee on Legislative and Constitutional Affairs (1997) ''[http://www.aph.gov.au/HOUSE/committee/laca/Inquiryinconch.htm Constitutional Change: Select sources on Constitutional change in Australia 1901–1997] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605092632/http://www.aph.gov.au/HOUSE/committee/laca/Inquiryinconch.htm |date=5 June 2011 }}''. Australian Government Printing Service, Canberra.
* Bennett, Scott (2003). ''[http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/RP/2002-03/03RP11.htm Research Paper no. 11 2002–03: The Politics of Constitutional Amendment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216200422/http://www.aph.gov.au/library/pubs/rp/2002-03/03RP11.htm |date=16 February 2012 }}'' Australian Department of the Parliamentary Library, Canberra.
* Australian Electoral Commission (2007) ''[http://www.aec.gov.au/Elections/referendums/Referendum_Dates_and_Results.htm Referendum Dates and Results 1906 – Present]'' AEC, Canberra.

{{Australian Referendums|year=1946}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Australian Referendum, 1946 (Industrial Employment)}}
[[Category:1946 in Australia|Referendum (Industrial Employment)]]
[[Category:1946 referendums]]
[[Category:Constitutional referendums in Australia|1946 (Industrial Employment)]]
[[Category:Aftermath of World War II in Australia]]

Sanchi Stupa

2023-01-13T10:45:40Z

Explodingbrain: Fixed grammar.

{{Short description|Buddhist complex, famous for its Great Stupa, in Madhya Pradesh, India}}
{{for|the crude oil tanker|Sanchi (tanker)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}
{{Infobox building
| image = East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4398.JPG
| image_caption = The Great Stupa at Sanchi, Raisen district, MP.
| pushpin_map = India#India Madhya Pradesh#South Asia
| pushpin_relief = yes
| pushpin_map_caption = Sanchi Stupa
| map_dot_label = Sanchi Stupa
| building_type = [[Stupa]] and surrounding buildings
| location = [[Sanchi Town]], [[Raisen district]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[India]]
| location_town = [[Sanchi]], [[Raisen district]]
| location_country = {{flag|India}}
| architectural_style = [[Buddhist architecture|Buddhist]],Mauryan
| start_date = 3rd century BCE
| inauguration_date =
| demolition_date =
| height = {{convert|16.46|m|ft|abbr=on}} (dome of the Great Stupa)
| diameter = {{convert|36.6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (dome of the Great Stupa)
| other_dimensions =
| embedded = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
|child = yes
|Official_name = Buddhist Monument at Sanchi
|ID = 524
|Year = 1989
|Criteria = Cultural: i, ii, iii, iv, vi
}}
}}
{{coord|23.479223|77.739683|display=title}}
'''Sanchi''' is a [[Buddhist art|Buddhist complex]], famous for its Great Stupa, on a hilltop at [[Sanchi Town]] in [[Raisen District]] of the [[States and territories of India|State]] of [[Madhya Pradesh]], India. It is located, about 23 kilometres from [[Raisen|Raisen town]], district headquarter and {{convert|46|km}} north-east of [[Bhopal]], capital of [[Madhya Pradesh]].

The Great [[Stupa]] at Sanchi is one of the oldest stone structures in India, and an important monument of [[Indian Architecture]].<ref>[http://www.frontline.in/archives.htm Buddhist Art] Frontline Magazine 13–26 May 1989</ref> It was originally commissioned by the Mauryan emperor [[Ashoka the Great]] in the 3rd century BCE. Its nucleus was a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. It was crowned by the '<nowiki/>''chhatra''', a parasol-like structure symbolising high rank, which was intended to honour and shelter the relics. The original construction work of this stupa was overseen by Ashoka, whose wife Devi was the daughter of a merchant of nearby [[Vidisha]]. Sanchi was also her birthplace as well as the venue of her and Ashoka's wedding. In the 1st century BCE, four elaborately carved [[torana]]s (ornamental gateways) and a balustrade encircling the entire structure were added. The Sanchi Stupa built during Mauryan period was made of bricks. The composite flourished until the 11th century.

Sanchi is the center of a region with a number of stupas, all within a few miles of Sanchi, including [[Satdhara]] (9 km to the W of Sanchi, 40 stupas, the [[Relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana]], now enshrined in the new Vihara, were unearthed there), [[Bhojpur Stupas|Bhojpur]] (also called Morel Khurd, a fortified hilltop with 60 stupas) and [[Andher Stupas|Andher]] (respectively 11 km and 17 km SE of Sanchi), as well as [[Sonari Stupa|Sonari]] (10 km SW of Sanchi).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=IUbUDAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=buddhist+landscape&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjl2aqogdrSAhWHyoMKHYD9AoMQ6AEIHzAB#v=onepage&q=buddhist%20landscape&f=false Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 12 Aug 2016]</ref><ref name="BCCI">Buddhist Circuit in Central India: Sanchi, Satdhara, Sonari, Andher, Travel ... [https://books.google.fr/books?id=TOrKExVXXpkC&pg=PT3& p. 31]</ref> Further south, about 100 km away, is [[Saru Maru]]. [[Bharhut]] is 300 km to the northeast.

Sanchi Stupa is depicted on the reverse side of the [[Indian 200-rupee note|Indian currency note of {{INR}}200]] to signify its importance to Indian cultural heritage.<ref>[https://www.financialexpress.com/photos/business-gallery/821450/rs-50-rs-200-rs-500-and-rs-2000-notes-images-here-are-the-new-currency-notes-released-by-rbi/lite/] Rs 50, Rs 200, Rs 500 and Rs 2000 notes images: Here are the new currency notes released by RBI</ref>

== Transport ==
The nearest airport is [[Bhopal]].
Trains are available from [[Bhopal]] and Rani Kamlapati to Sanchi railway station. Buses are available from [[Bhopal]] and [[Vidisha]].

==Overview==
[[File:Plan of Sanchi.jpg|thumb|300px|Plan of the monuments of the hill of Sanchi, numbered 1 to 50.]]
The monuments at Sanchi today comprise a series of Buddhist monuments starting from the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan Empire]] period (3rd century BCE), continuing with the [[Gupta Empire]] period (5th century CE), and ending around the 12th century CE.<ref name="BC">{{cite book |title=Buddhist Circuit in Central India: Sanchi, Satdhara, Sonari, Andher, Travel Guide |date=2010 |publisher=Goodearth Publications |isbn=9789380262055 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TOrKExVXXpkC&pg=PT12}}</ref> It is probably the best preserved group of Buddhist monuments in India.<ref name="BC"/> The oldest, and also the largest monument, is the Great Stupa also called Stupa No. 1, initially built under the Mauryans, and adorned with one of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]].<ref name="BC"/> During the following centuries, especially under the [[Shunga Empire|Shungas]] and the [[Satavahana Empire|Satavahanas]], the Great Stupa was enlarged and decorated with gates and railings, and smaller stupas were also built in the vicinity, especially [[Sanchi Stupa No.2|Stupa No.2]], and Stupa No.3.<ref name="BC"/>

Simultaneously, various temple structures were also built, down to the [[Gupta Empire]] period and later. Altogether, Sanchi encompasses most of the evolutions of [[ancient Indian architecture]] and ancient [[Buddhist architecture]] in India, from the early stages of Buddhism and its first artistic expression, to the [[Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|decline of the religion in the subcontinent]].<ref name="BC"/>{{-}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="175px">
File:General view of the Stupas at Sanchi.jpg|''General view of the Stupas at Sanchi'' by [[Frederick Charles Maisey|F.C. Maisey]], 1851 (The Great Stupa on top of the hill, and Stupa 2 at the forefront)
File:रायसेनमण्डलम्.jpg|The Great Stupa (Stupa No.1), started in the 3rd century BCE
File:Sanchi Stupa No2.jpg|Stupa No.2
File:003 Front View (33709016166).jpg|Stupa No.3
File:Temple 17 - Buddhist Monument - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4494.JPG|Buddhist Temple, No.17
</gallery>

== Mauryan Period (3rd century BCE)==
[[File:Sanchi pillar of Ashoka.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The Ashoka pillar at Sanchi.]]
The "Great Stupa" at Sanchi is the oldest structure and was originally commissioned by the emperor [[Ashoka]] the Great of the [[Maurya Empire]] in the 3rd century BCE.<ref name="Alī Jāvīd p.50">World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 p. 50 by Alī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, New York [https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-lGID3WpQC&pg=PA50]</ref> Its nucleus was a hemispherical brick structure built over the [[Śarīra|sacred relics of the Buddha]],<ref name="Alī Jāvīd p.50" /> with a raised terrace encompassing its base, and a railing and stone umbrella on the summit, the [[Chatra (umbrella)|chatra]], a parasol-like structure symbolizing high rank.<ref name="Marshall 31">Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 31]</ref><ref>The [[Butkara Stupa]] is an example of such a hemispherical stupa structure from the Maurya period, that was extensively documented through archaeological work</ref> The original Stupa only had about half the diameter of today's stupa, which is the result of enlargement by the [[Sungas]]. It was covered in brick, in contrast to the stones that now cover it.<ref name="Marshall 31" />

According to one version of the [[Mahavamsa]], the Buddhist chronicle of [[Sri Lanka]], Ashoka was closely connected to the region of Sanchi. When he was heir-apparent and was journeying as Viceroy to [[Ujjain]], he is said to have halted at [[Vidisha]] (10 kilometers from Sanchi), and there married the daughter of a local banker. She was called [[Devi (wife of Ashoka)|Devi]] and later gave Ashoka two sons, Ujjeniya and [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahendra]], and a daughter [[Sanghamitta]]. After Ashoka's accession, Mahendra headed a Buddhist mission, sent probably under the auspices of the Emperor, to Sri Lanka, and that before setting out to the island he visited his mother at Chetiyagiri near Vidisa, thought to be Sanchi. He was lodged there in a sumptuous vihara or monastery, which she herself is said to have had erected.<ref>Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 8ff] Public Domain text</ref>

=== Ashoka pillar ===
{{see also|Pillars of Ashoka}}
{{multiple image|perrow=3|total_width=300|caption_align=center
| align = right
| direction =horizontal
| header=
| image1 = Sanchi capital of Ashoka.jpg
| image2 = Sanchi Wheel reconstruction by Percy Brown.jpg
| image3 = Adoration of the pillar of Ashoka Sanchi Stupa 3 South Gateway Right pillar top panel.jpg
| footer=The [[capital (architecture)|capital]] of the Sanchi pillar of [[Ashoka]], as discovered (left), and simulation of original appearance by [[Percy Brown (art historian)|Percy Brown]] (center).<ref>Reconstitution with four lions and crowning wheel by Percy Brown: [[:File:Sanchi Great Stupa diagram.jpg|Diagram of Sanchi Great Stupa]]</ref> It is very similar to the [[Lion Capital of Ashoka]] at [[Sarnath]], except for the [[abacus (architecture)|abacus]], here adorned with [[flame palmette]]s and facing [[geese]], 250 BCE. [[Sanchi Archaeological Museum]].<ref name="p.25-28 Ashoka pillar">Described in Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 pp. 25-28 Ashoka pillar].</ref> To the right: depiction of the four lions capital surmounted by a [[Wheel of Law]] at Sanchi, [[Satavahana]] period, 1st century CE, South gateway of [[stupa]] 3.<ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh |date=1996 |publisher=Anmol Publications |isbn=978-81-7041-859-7 |page=783 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AcwAQAAIAAJ |language=en|quote=It may be mentioned that the motif of lions carrying a wheel occurs at Sanchis which might be a representation of the Sarnath's Asokan pillar capital .}}</ref>
}}
A pillar of finely polished sandstone, one of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]], was also erected on the side of the main [[Torana]] gateway. The bottom part of the pillar still stands. The upper parts of the pillar are at the nearby [[Sanchi Archaeological Museum]]. The capital consists in four lions, which probably supported a [[Wheel of Law]],<ref name=":1">Buddhist Architecture by Huu Phuoc Le [https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA155 p. 155]</ref> as also suggested [[:File:Carving of Ashokan pillar at Sanchi.jpg|by later illustrations among the Sanchi reliefs]]. The pillar has an Ashokan inscription ([[List of Edicts of Ashoka|Schism Edict]])<ref name=":1"/> and an inscription in the ornamental [[Sankha Lipi]] from the Gupta period.<ref name="Alī Jāvīd p.50" /> The Ashokan inscription is engraved in early [[Brahmi]] characters. It is unfortunately much damaged, but the commands it contains appear to be the same as those recorded in the [[Sarnath]] and [[Kausambi]] edicts, which together form the three known instances of Ashoka's "Schism Edict". It relates to the penalties for schism in the Buddhist sangha:

{{blockquote|... the path is prescribed both for the monks and for the nuns. As long as (my) sons and great-grandsons (shall reign; and) as long as the Moon and the Sun (shall endure), the monk or nun who shall cause divisions in the [[Sangha]], shall be compelled to put on white robes and to reside apart. For what is my desire? That the Sangha may be united and may long endure.|Edict of [[Ashoka]] on the Sanchi pillar.<ref>John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 93] Public Domain text</ref>}}

The pillar, when intact, was about 42 feet in height and consisted of round and slightly tapering monolithic shaft, with bell-shaped capital surmounted by an [[abacus (architecture)|abacus]] and a crowning ornament of four lions, set back to back, the whole finely finished and polished to a remarkable luster from top to bottom. The abacus is adorned with four [[flame palmette]] designs separated one from the other by pairs of [[geese]], symbolical perhaps of the flock of the Buddha's disciples. The lions from the summit, though now quite disfigured, still testify to the skills of the sculptors.<ref name="Marshall 90">Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 90ff] Public Domain text</ref>

The [[sandstone]] out of which the pillar is carved came from the quarries of [[Chunar]] several hundred miles away, implying that the builders were able to transport a block of stone over forty feet in length and weighing almost as many tons over such a distance. They probably used water transport, using rafts during the rainy season up until the Ganges, Jumna and Betwa rivers.<ref name="Marshall 90" />

===Temple 40===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Sanchi Temple 40.jpg
| width1 = 215
| caption1 = Sanchi Temple 40 was a 3rd-century BCE temple, one of the first known in India, constructed around the same time as the core of the Great Stupa.
| image2 = IA Temple 40 Sanchi.jpg
| width2 = 160
| caption2 = Conjectural reconstruction of the original timber-built Temple 40, burnt down in the 2nd century BCE.
}}
Another structure which has been dated, at least partially, to the 3rd century BCE, is the so-called [[:Commons:category:Sanchi Temple 40|Temple 40]], one of the first instances of free-standing temples in India.<ref name="BA147">Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, p. 147</ref> Temple 40 has remains of three different periods, the earliest period dating to the Maurya age, which probably makes it contemporary to the creation of the Great Stupa. An inscription even suggests it might have been established by [[Bindusara]], the father of Ashoka.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology |date=2016 |publisher=SAGE Publications India |isbn=9789351506454 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmAlDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT67 |language=ar}}</ref> The original 3rd century BCE temple was built on a high rectangular stone platform, 26.52×14×3.35 metres, with two flights of stairs to the east and the west. It was an [[apsidal]] hall, probably made of timber. It was burnt down sometime in the 2nd century BCE.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Abram |first1=David |last2=(Firm) |first2=Rough Guides |title=The Rough Guide to India |date=2003 |publisher=Rough Guides |isbn=9781843530893 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAMik_6LbwUC&pg=PA393}}</ref><ref name="Guide to Sanchi">{{cite book |last1=Marshall |first1=John |title=Guide to Sanchi |date=1955 |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.gov.ignca.4365/4365#page/n153/mode/2up}}</ref>

Later, the platform was enlarged to 41.76×27.74 metres and re-used to erect a pillared hall with fifty columns (5×10) of which stumps remain. Some of these pillars have inscriptions of the 2nd century BCE. In the 7th or 8th century a small shrine was established in one corner of the platform, re-using some of the pillars and putting them in their present position.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chakrabarty |first1=Dilip K. |title=India: An Archaeological History: Palaeolithic Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199088140 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wPQtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT424}}</ref><ref name="Guide to Sanchi"/>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="2" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|+ style="background:#F4A460; font-size: 100%; text-align:center"| Maurya structures and decorations at Sanchi (3rd century BCE)
|-
|align="center" style="font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"|[[File:Sanchi Great Stupa Mauryan configuration.jpg|250px]] Approximate reconstitution of the Great Stupa with its [[pillar of Ashoka]], under the [[Mauryan Empire|Mauryas]] circa 260 BCE.
|
<gallery mode="packed" heights="180px">
File:Ashokan Pillar - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4361.JPG|Remains of the [[Pillars of Ashoka|Ashokan Pillar]] in polished stone (right of the Southern Gateway), with its Edict.
File:Minor Pillar Edict of Ashoka at Sanchi.jpg|Sanchi [[Minor Pillar Edicts|Minor Pillar Edict]] of [[Ashoka]], in-situ (detail of the previous image).
File:Ashoka pillar remains near Southern Gateway Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg|Remains of the shaft of the pillar of Ashoka, under a shed near the Southern Gateway.
File:Sanchi capital right side view.jpg|Side view of the capital. [[Sanchi Archaeological Museum]].<ref name="p.25-28 Ashoka pillar"/>
</gallery>
|}

== Shunga period (2nd century BCE)==
On the basis of [[Ashokavadana]], it is presumed that the stupa may have been vandalized at one point sometime in the 2nd century BCE, an event some have related to the rise of the Shunga emperor [[Pushyamitra Shunga]] who overtook the Mauryan Empire as an army general. It has been suggested that Pushyamitra may have destroyed the original stupa, and his son [[Agnimitra]] rebuilt it.<ref>"Who was responsible for the wanton destruction of the original brick stupa of [[Ashoka]] and when precisely the great work of reconstruction was carried out is not known, but it seems probable that the author of the former was [[Pushyamitra Shunga|Pushyamitra]], the first of the [[Shunga Empire|Shunga]] kings (184-148 BC), who was notorious for his hostility to Buddhism, and that the restoration was affected by [[Agnimitra]] or his immediate successor." in John Marshall, ''A Guide to Sanchi,'' p. 38. Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918).</ref> The original brick stupa was covered with stone during the Shunga period.

Given the rather decentralized and fragmentary nature of the [[Shunga Empire|Shunga state]], with many cities actually issuing their own coinage, as well as the relative dislike of the Shungas for Buddhism, some authors argue that the constructions of that period in Sanchi cannot really be called "Shunga". They were not the result of royal sponsorship, in contrast with what happened during the Mauryas, and the dedications at Sanchi were private or collective, rather than the result of royal patronage.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Julia |title=Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD |date=12 August 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-43263-2 |page=58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IUbUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR58 |language=en|quote="It is inaccurate to refer to the post-Mauryan monuments at Sanchi as Sunga. Not only was Pusyamitra reputedly animical to Buddhism, but most of the donative inscriptions during this period attest to predominantly collective and nonroyal modes of sponsorship."}}</ref>

The style of the Shunga period decorations at Sanchi bear a close similarity to those of [[Bharhut]], as well as the peripheral balustrades at the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in [[Bodh Gaya]].
[[File:Sanchi Great Stupa under the Sungas.jpg|thumb|300px|The Great Stupa under the [[Sungas]]. The Sungas nearly doubled the diameter of the initial stupa, encasing it in stone, and built a [[balustrade]] and a [[guard rail|railing]] around it.]]

=== Great Stupa (No 1) ===

During the later rule of the Shunga, the stupa was expanded with stone slabs to almost twice its original size. The dome was flattened near the top and crowned by three superimposed parasols within a square railing. With its many tiers it was a symbol of the [[dharma]], the Wheel of the Law. The dome was set on a high circular drum meant for [[circumambulation]], which could be accessed via a double staircase. A second stone pathway at ground level was enclosed by a stone balustrade. The railings around Stupa 1 do not have artistic reliefs. These are only slabs, with some dedicatory inscriptions. These elements are dated to circa 150 BCE,<ref name="Shaw 88" /> or 175–125 BCE.<ref name="HP 149" /> Although the railings are made up of stone, they are copied from a wooden prototype, and as John Marshall has observed the joints between the coping stones have been cut at a slant, as wood is naturally cut, and not vertically as stone should be cut. Besides the short records of the donors written on the railings in Brahmi script, there are two later inscriptions on the railings added during the time of the Gupta Period.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Marshall|first1=John|title=A guide to Sanchi|date=1936|publisher=Eastern Book House|location=Patna|isbn=81-85204-32-2|page=36}}</ref> Some reliefs are visible on the stairway balustrade, but they are probably slightly later than those at Stupa No2,<ref name="Allen" /> and are dated to 125–100 BCE.<ref name="HP 149">''Buddhist Architecture'' Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 [https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA149 p. 149]</ref> Some authors consider that these reliefs, rather crude and without obvious Buddhist connotations, are the oldest reliefs of all Sanchi, slightly older even than the reliefs of [[Sanchi Stupa No.2]].<ref name="HP 149" />

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="2" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
| colspan=2 style="background:#CD853F; font-size: 100%; text-align:center"| '''Great Stupa (No1). Shunga period structures and decorations (2nd century BCE)'''
|-
| style="background:#DEB887; font-size: 100%; width: 1%; text-align: center"|[[File:Great Sanchi Stupa Side view.jpg|200px]] Great Stupa (Stupa expansion and balustrades only are Shunga). Undecorated ground railings dated to approximately 150 BCE.<ref name="Shaw 88" /> Some reliefs on the stairway balustrade.
|
<gallery>
File:Interiors of Stupa 1.JPG|Shunga balustrade and staircase.
File:Great Sanchi Stup masonry work.jpg|Shunga stonework.
File:Donation engravings on Vedika, Sanchi.jpg|Shunga vedika (railing) with inscriptions.
File:Great Sanchi Stupa Gallery (3).jpg|Deambulatory pathway.
File:Stupa 1, Sanchi 03.jpg|Summit railing and umbrellas.
</gallery> 
'''Stairway balustrade reliefs''' 
<gallery mode="packed" heights="70px">
Balustrade flame palmette Sanchi Stupa No1.jpg|[[Flame palmette]].
Balustrade flame palmette and lotus Sanchi Stupa No1.jpg|Flame palmette and lotus.
Balustrade peacock Sanchi Stupa No1.jpg|[[Peacock]].
File:Sanchi Stupa 1 Ballustrade Centaur.jpg|Woman riding a [[Centaur]].
File:Sanchi Stupa 1 Ballustrade Lotus.jpg|Lotus.
File:Sanchi Stupa 1 Ballustrade half lotus.jpg|Half lotus.
File:Sanchi Stupa 1 Ballustrade lion.jpg|Lion.
File:Sanchi Stupa 1 Ballustrade elephant.jpg|Elephant.
File:Sanchi Stupa 1 Ballustrade Elephant with branch.jpg|Elephant with branch.
Balustrade floral motif Sanchi Stupa No1.jpg|Floral motif.
</gallery>
|}

=== Stupa No. 2: the first Buddhist reliefs ===

{{main|Sanchi Stupa No. 2}}
[[File:Sanchi Stupa 2 man on horse.jpg|thumb|left|Mason's marks in [[Kharoshti]] indicate that craftsmen from the north-west were responsible for foreign reliefs of Stupa No. 2.<ref name="AG" /> This medallion was made circa 115 BCE.<ref name="Shaw 90" />]]
The stupas which seem to have been commissioned during the rule of the Shungas are the Second and then the Third [[stupa]]s (but not the highly decorated gateways, which are from the following [[Satavahana]] period, as known from inscriptions), following the ground balustrade and stone casing of the Great Stupa (Stupa No 1). The reliefs are dated to circa 115 BCE for the medallions, and 80 BCE for the pillar carvings,<ref name="Shaw 90">Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jzkyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 p. 90]</ref> slightly before the reliefs of [[Bharhut]] for the earliest, with some reworks down to the 1st century CE.<ref name="Shaw 88">Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, C. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Left Coast Press, 2013 [https://books.google.com/books?id=jzkyBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 p. 88ff]</ref><ref name="Shaw 90" />

[[File:Sunga railings detail.jpg|thumb|Sunga period railings were initially blank (left: Great Stupa), and only started to be decorated circa 115 BCE with [[Sanchi Stupa No.2|Stupa No.2]] (right).<ref name="Walters" /><ref name="Bell 15" />]]
[[Sanchi Stupa No.2|Stupa No. 2]] was established later than the Great Stupa, but it is probably displaying the earliest architectural ornaments.<ref name="Allen">Ornament in Indian Architecture Margaret Prosser Allen, University of Delaware Press, 1991 [https://books.google.com/books?id=vyXxEX5PQH8C&pg=PA18 p. 18]</ref> For the first time, clearly Buddhist themes are represented, particularly the four events in the life of the Buddha that are: the Nativity, the Enlightenment, the First Sermon and the Decease.<ref>Buddhist Architecture, Huu Phuoc Le, Grafikol, 2010 [https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA149 p. 149]</ref>

The decorations of Stupa No. 2 have been called "the oldest extensive stupa decoration in existence",<ref name="Walters">"The railing of Sanchi Stupa No.2, which represents the oldest extensive stupa decoration in existence, (and) dates from about the second century B.C.E." Constituting Communities: Theravada Buddhism and the Religious Cultures of South and Southeast Asia, John Clifford Holt, Jacob N. Kinnard, Jonathan S. Walters, SUNY Press, 2012 [https://books.google.com/books?id=PnnG8sclrdYC&pg=PA197 p. 197]</ref> and this Stupa is considered as the birthplace of [[Jataka]] illustrations.<ref name="Bell 15">Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China, Alexander Peter Bell, LIT Verlag Münster, 2000 [https://books.google.com/books?id=77hHrXX4COgC&pg=PA15 p. 15ff]</ref> The reliefs at Stupa No.2 bear mason marks in [[Kharoshthi]], as opposed to the local [[Brahmi]] script.<ref name="AG" /> This seems to imply that foreign workers from the north-west (from the region of [[Gandhara]], where [[Kharoshthi]] was the current script) were responsible for the motifs and figures that can be found on the railings of the stupa.<ref name="AG">An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, by [[Amalananda Ghosh]], BRILL [https://books.google.fr/books?id=Wba-EZhZcfgC&pg=PA295 p. 295]</ref> Foreigners from Gandhara are otherwise known to have visited the region around the same time: in 115 BCE, the embassy of [[Heliodurus|Heliodorus]] from [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Antialkidas]] to the court of the [[Sungas]] king [[Bhagabhadra]] in nearby [[Vidisha]] is recorded, in which Heliodorus established the [[Heliodorus pillar]] in a dedication to [[Vāsudeva]]. This would indicate that relations had improved at that time, and that people traveled between the two realms.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization, Sailendra Nath Sen, New Age International, 1999 [https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA170 p. 170]</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="2" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|+ style="background:#CD853F; font-size: 100%; text-align: center"| [[Sanchi Stupa No.2|Stupa No. 2]]. Shunga structures and decorations (end of 2nd century BCE)
|-
| style="background:#DEB887; text-align:center ; width: 10%;" |[[File:Sanchi Stupa No2.jpg|200px]] Stupa No. 2 Shunga period, but mason's marks in [[Kharoshti]] point to craftsmen from the north-west (region of [[Gandhara]]) for the earliest reliefs (circa 115 BCE).<ref name="AG" /><ref name="Shaw 90"/><ref name="Shaw 88"/>
|
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Sanchi Stupa 2 man on horse.jpg|Foreigner on a horse. The medallions are dated circa 115 BCE.<ref name="Shaw 90" />
File:Lakshmi Sanchi Stupa 2.jpg|[[Lakshmi]] with lotus and two child attendants, probably derived from [[:File:Venus with two cupids 2.jpg|similar images of Venus]]<ref>An Indian Statuette From Pompeii, Mirella Levi D'Ancona, in Artibus Asiae, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1950) [https://ja.scribd.com/document/260301968/An-Indian-Statuette-From-Pompeii p. 171]</ref>
Flying griffin Sanchi Stupa 2.jpg|[[Griffin]] with [[Brahmi script]] inscription.
Female riding a Centaur Sanchi Stupa 2.jpg|Female riding a [[Centaur]].
File:Lotus within beads and reels motif Stupa No2 Sanchi.jpg|Lotus within [[beads and reels]] motif.
</gallery>
|}

=== Stupa No. 3 ===

Stupa No. 3 was built during the time of the Shungas, who also built the railing around it as well as the staircase. The [[Relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana]], the disciples of the Buddha are said to have been placed in Stupa No. 3, and relics boxes were excavated tending to confirm this.<ref>Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 81]</ref>

The reliefs on the railings are said to be slightly later than those of Stupa No. 2.<ref name="HP 149" />

The single torana gateway oriented to the south is not Shunga, and was built later under the [[Satavahanas]], probably circa 50 BCE.<ref name="HP 149" />

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|+ style="background:#CD853F; font-size: 100%; text-align: center"|Stupa No. 3. Shunga structures and decorations (2nd century BCE)
|-
| style="background:#DEB887; text-align:center"|[[File:Stupa 3 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4268.JPG|200px]] Stupa No. 3 (Stupa and balustrades only are Shunga).
|
<gallery>
File:005 Stairway Railing (33364948500).jpg|Stairway and railing.
File:006 Floral Design (33749716585).jpg|Lotus medallions.
File:007 Floral Design (33620496811).jpg|Floral designs.
File:Post relief Stupa 3 Sanchi.jpg|Post relief.<ref>Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 82]</ref>
File:Sanchi Stupa No 3 relics.jpg|[[Relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana]].
</gallery>
|}

=== Sunga Pillar ===
[[File:Sanchi pillar 25 with own capital.jpg|thumb|upright|Sunga pillar No25 with own capital on the side.]]
Pillar 25 at Sanchi is also attributed to the Sungas, in the 2nd–1st century BCE, and is considered as similar in design to the [[Heliodorus pillar]], locally called ''Kham Baba'' pillar, dedicated by [[Heliodurus|Heliodorus]], the ambassador to the [[Indo-Greek]] king [[Antialkidas]], in nearby [[Vidisha]] circa 100 BCE.<ref name="Marshall 95">Marhall, "A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 95 Pillar 25]. Public Domain text</ref> That it belongs to about the period of the Sunga, is clear alike from its design and from the character of the surface dressing.

The height of the pillar, including the capital, is 15 ft, its diameter at the base 1 ft. 4 in. Up to a height of 4 ft. 6 in. the shaft is [[octagonal]]; above that, sixteen-sided. In the octagonal portion all the facets are flat, but in the upper section the alternate facets are fluted, the eight other sides being produced by a concave chamfering of the [[arris]]es of the [[octagon]]. This method of finishing off the arris at the point of transition between the two sections are features characteristic of the second and first centuries BCE. The west side of the shaft is split off, but the tenon at the top, to which the capital was mortised, is still preserved. The capital is of the usual bell-shaped [[Persepolitan]] type, with [[lotus flower|lotus]] leaves falling over the shoulder of the bell. Above this is a circular cable necking, then a second circular necking relieved by a [[bead]] and lozenge pattern, and, finally, a deep square [[abacus]] adorned with a [[Guard rail|railing]] in relief. The crowning feature, probably a lion, has disappeared.<ref name="Marshall 95" />

== Satavahana period (1st century BCE – 1st century CE)==
{{multiple image
| align = left
| caption_align = center
| direction =horizontal
| header=Satavahana gateways (from 50 - 0 BCE)
| total_width=400
| image1 = South Gateway - Rear Side - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4383 with arrow.jpg
| caption1 = The southern gateway of the Great Stupa (Stupa 1) at Sanchi was, according to an inscription (see arrow), donated under the rule of "King Satakarni", probably [[Satakarni II]].<ref name="EP169">{{cite book |last1=Alcock |first1=Susan E. |last2=Alcock |first2=John H. D'Arms Collegiate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor Susan E. |last3=D'Altroy |first3=Terence N. |last4=Morrison |first4=Kathleen D. |last5=Sinopoli |first5=Carla M. |title=Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521770200 |page=169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MBuPx1rdGYIC&pg=PA169}}</ref>
| image2 = Siri-Satakani inscription Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gateway Rear of top architrave.jpg
| caption2 = The inscription appears on the relief of a stupa at the center of the top architrave, at the rear. It is written in three lines in early [[Brahmi script]] over the dome of the stupa in this relief.<ref name="p.48">John Marshall, "A guide to Sanchi", [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 48]</ref> Dated circa 50 BCE- 0 CE.
| footer=
}}
The [[Satavahana Empire]] under [[Satakarni II]] conquered eastern [[Malwa]] from the [[Shunga Empire|Shungas]].<ref name="IH251">{{cite book |title=Indian History |publisher=Tata McGraw-Hill Education |isbn=9781259063237 |page=251 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ORnlAAAAQBAJ&pg=SL1-PA251}}</ref> This gave the Satavahanas access to the Buddhist site of Sanchi, in which they are credited with the building of the decorated gateways around the original [[Mauryan Empire]] and [[Sunga]] [[stupa]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Kailash Chand |title=Malwa Through The Ages |date=1972 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=9788120808249 |page=154 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA154}}</ref> From the 1st century BCE, the highly decorated gateways were built. The balustrade and the gateways were also colored.<ref name="Alī Jāvīd p.50" /> Later gateways/toranas are generally dated to the 1st century CE.<ref name="Allen"/>

The ''[[:File:Siri-Satakani inscription Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gateway Rear of top architrave.jpg|Siri-Satakani inscription]]'' in the [[Brahmi script]] records the gift of one of the top [[architrave]]s of the Southern Gateway by the artisans of the Satavahana king [[Satakarni II]]:<ref name="EP169">{{cite book |last1=Alcock |first1=Susan E. |last2=Alcock |first2=John H. D'Arms Collegiate Professor of Classical Archaeology and Classics and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor Susan E. |last3=D'Altroy |first3=Terence N. |last4=Morrison |first4=Kathleen D. |last5=Sinopoli |first5=Carla M. |title=Empires: Perspectives from Archaeology and History |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521770200 |page=169 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MBuPx1rdGYIC&pg=PA169}}</ref>
{{blockquote|{{Script|Brah|𑀭𑀸𑀜𑁄 𑀲𑀺𑀭𑀺 𑀲𑀸𑀢𑀓𑀡𑀺𑀲}} (Rāño Siri Sātakaṇisa) {{Script|Brah|𑀆𑀯𑁂𑀲𑀡𑀺𑀲 𑀯𑀸𑀲𑀺𑀣𑀻𑀧𑀼𑀢𑀲}} (āvesaṇisa vāsitḥīputasa) {{Script|Brah|𑀆𑀦𑀁𑀤𑀲 𑀤𑀸𑀦𑀁}} (Ānaṁdasa dānaṁ)"Gift of Ananda, the son of Vasithi, the foreman of the artisans of [[rajan]] Siri Satakarni"|[[:File:Siri-Satakani inscription Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gateway Rear of top architrave.jpg|Inscription of the Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa]]<ref name="p.48"/>}}

There are some uncertainties about the date and the identity of the [[Satakarni]] in question, as a king Satakarni is mentioned in the [[Hathigumpha inscription]] which is sometimes dated to the 2nd century BCE. Also, several Satavahana kings used the name "Satakarni", which complicates the matter. Usual dates given for the gateways range from 50 BCE to the 1st century CE, and the builder of the earliest gateways is generally considered to be [[Satakarni II]], who ruled in 50-25 BCE.<ref name="IH251"/><ref name="Allen" /> Another early Satavahana monument is known, [[:File:Nasik cave 19.jpg|Cave No.19]] of king [[Kanha (Satavahana dynasty)|Kanha]] (100-70 BCE) at the [[Nasik Caves]], which is much less developed artistically than the Sanchi toranas.

=== Material and carving technique ===
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|header=From ivory to stone carving under the Satavahanas
|image1=Statuetta indiana di Lakshmi, avorio, da pompei, 1-50 dc ca., 149425, 02.JPG
|caption1=[[Pompeii Lakshmi]], 1st century CE.
|width1=138
|image2=Yakshini Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg
|caption2=Yashini, East Gateway, Sanchi.
|width2=170
}}
Although made of stone, the [[torana]] gateways were carved and constructed in the manner of wood and the gateways were covered with narrative sculptures. It has also been suggested that the stone reliefs were made by ivory carvers from nearby [[Vidisha]], and an inscription on the Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa ("''[[:File:Worship of the Bodhisattva's hair Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gateway.jpg|The Worship of the Bodhisattva's hair]]''") was dedicated by the Guild of Ivory Carvers of [[Vidisha]].<ref name="p.51">World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Volume 1 by Alī Jāvīd, Tabassum Javeed, Algora Publishing, 2008 [https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-lGID3WpQC&pg=PA51 p. 51]</ref><ref>In the Realm of Gods and Kings by Andrew Topsfield, Philip Wilson Publishers, 2014 [https://books.google.com/books?id=cEBcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA250 p. 250]</ref>

[[File:Vidisha ivory carvers inscription in Sanchi.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1|Inscription ''"Vedisakehi daṃtakārehi rupakaṃmaṃ kataṃ"'' ({{Script|Brah|𑀯𑁂𑀤𑀺𑀲𑀓𑁂𑀨𑀺 𑀤𑀁𑀢𑀓𑀸𑀭𑁂𑀨𑀺 𑀭𑀼𑀧𑀓𑀁𑀫𑀁 𑀓𑀢𑀁}}, "Ivory workers from [[Vidisha]] have done the carving").<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=Manika |title=Mālwa in Post-Maurya Period: A Critical Study with Special Emphasis on Numismatic Evidences |date=1981 |publisher=Punthi Pustak |page=100 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jba1AAAAIAAJ}}</ref>]]
The inscription reads: ''"[[:File:Vidisha ivory carvers inscription in Sanchi.jpg|Vedisakehi damtakārehi rupakammam katam]]"'' meaning "The ivory-workers from Vidisha have done the carving".<ref name="ReferenceA">Indian and Foreign Review – Volume 23 – Page 58, 1985</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Vogel |first1=Jean Ph |title=India antiqua |date=1947 |publisher=Brill Archive |page=130 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GckUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA130}}</ref> Some of the [[Begram ivories]] or the "[[Pompeii Lakshmi]]" give an indication of the kind of ivory works that could have influenced the carvings at Sanchi.

The reliefs show scenes from the life of the Buddha integrated with everyday events that would be familiar to the onlookers and so make it easier for them to understand the Buddhist creed as relevant to their lives. At Sanchi and most other stupas the local population donated money for the embellishment of the stupa to attain spiritual merit. There was no direct royal patronage. Devotees, both men and women, who donated money towards a sculpture would often choose their favourite scene from the life of the Buddha and then have their names inscribed on it. This accounts for the random repetition of particular episodes on the stupa (Dehejia 1992).

On these stone carvings the Buddha was never depicted as a human figure, due to [[aniconism in Buddhism]]. Instead the artists chose to represent him by certain attributes, such as the horse on which he left his father's home, his footprints, or a canopy under the [[bodhi tree]] at the point of his enlightenment. The human body was thought to be too confining for the Buddha.

=== Architecture: evolution of the load-bearing pillar capital ===
{{multiple image|perrow=3|total_width=400|caption_align=center|align = right
| header=Evolution of the Indian load-bearing pillar capital, down to 1st century Sanchi
| image1 = Pataliputra capital. Department of Archaeology, Government of India.jpg
| caption1 =Mauryan capital ([[Pataliputra capital]]) 4th-3rd c. BCE
| image2=Sarnath capital in Sarnath Museum.jpg
| caption2 =[[Sarnath capital]], [[Sarnath]], c.3rd-1st c. BCE
| image4 = Bharhut pillar capital.jpg
| caption4 = [[Bharhut]] capital 2nd c. BCE
| image5 =Sanchi lion pillar with flame palmette.jpg
| caption5 = Sanchi lion capital 1st c. BCE
| image6 = Elephants Eastern Gateway Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg
| caption6 = Sanchi elephant capital 1st c. BCE/CE
| image7 = Dwarfs - West Face - North Pillar - West Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4326.JPG
| caption7 = Sanchi [[Yaksha]]s capital 1st c. CE
}}
Similarities have been found in the designs of the [[capital (architecture)|capitals]] of various areas of northern India from the time of [[Ashoka]] to the time of the [[Satavahanas]] at Sanchi: particularly between the [[Pataliputra capital]] at the [[Mauryan Empire]] capital of [[Pataliputra]] (3rd century BCE), the pillar capitals at the [[Sunga Empire]] Buddhist complex of [[Bharhut]] (2nd century BCE), and the pillar capitals of the Satavahanas at Sanchi (1st centuries BCE/CE).<ref name="Tadgell" />

The earliest known example in India, the [[Pataliputra capital]] (3rd century BCE) is decorated with rows of repeating [[rosette (design)|rosettes]], [[ovolo]]s and [[bead and reel]] mouldings, [[Meander (art)|wave-like]] [[Scroll (art)|scrolls]] and side [[volute]]s with central [[Rosette (decoration)|rosettes]], around a prominent central [[flame palmette]], which is the main motif. These are quite similar to [[Classical Greece|Classical Greek]] designs, and the capital has been described as quasi-[[Ionic order|Ionic]].<ref>A Companion to Asian Art and Architecture by Deborah S. Hutton, John Wiley & Sons, 2015, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7DX-CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA438 p. 438]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA44 "Buddhist Architecture" by Huu Phuoc Le Grafikol, 2010, p. 44]</ref> Greek influence,<ref>the "pilaster capitals with Greek florals and a form which is of Greek origin (though generally described as Persian) go back to [[Archaic Greece|Late Archaic]]."in "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" John Boardman, Princeton University Press, 1993, p. 110</ref> as well as [[Persian Empire|Persian]] [[Achaemenid architecture|Achaemenid influence]] have been suggested.<ref name="auto1">"The Archaeology of South Asia: From the Indus to Asoka, c.6500 BCE-200 CE" Robin Coningham, Ruth Young Cambridge University Press, 31 aout 2015, p. 414 [https://books.google.com/books?id=hB5TCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA414]</ref>

The [[Sarnath capital]] is a pillar capital discovered in the archaeological excavations at the ancient [[Buddhist]] site of [[Sarnath]].<ref name="ASI">{{cite book |title=Archaeological Survey Of India Annual Report 1906-7 |date=1909 |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.208474/page/n132 72] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.208474}}</ref> The pillar displays [[Ionic order|Ionic]] volutes and [[palmette]]s.<ref name="BRM">{{cite book |last1=Mani |first1=B. R. |title=Sarnath : Archaeology, Art and Architecture |date=2012 |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |page=[https://archive.org/details/sarnatharchaeolo00mani/page/60 60] |url=https://archive.org/details/sarnatharchaeolo00mani}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Majumdar |first1=B. |title=Guide to Sarnath |date=1937 |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.30293/page/n63 41] |url=https://archive.org/details/in.gov.ignca.30293}}</ref> It has been variously dated from the 3rd century BCE during the [[Mauryan Empire]] period,<ref>Presented as a "Mauryan capital, 250 BC" with the addition of recumbent lions at the base, in the page "Types of early capitals" in {{cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Percy |title=Indian Architecture (Buddhist And Hindu) |date=1959 |page=x |url=https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.54756#page/n33/mode/2up}}</ref><ref name="ASI"/> to the 1st century BCE, during the [[Sunga Empire]] period.<ref name="BRM"/> One of the faces shows a galopping horse carrying a rider, while the other face shows an elephant and its [[Mahout|mahaut]].<ref name="BRM"/>

The pillar capital in Bharhut, dated to the 2nd century BCE during the [[Sunga Empire]] period, also incorporates many of these characteristics,<ref>Early Buddhist Narrative Art by Patricia Eichenbaum Karetzky [https://books.google.com/books?id=9LjmXHFXju4C&pg=PR16 p. 16]</ref><ref>Early Byzantine Churches in Macedonia & Southern Serbia by R.F. Hoddinott [https://books.google.com/books?id=WoSuCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA17 p. 17]</ref> with a central [[anta capital]] with many [[rosette (design)|rosettes]], [[bead and reel|beads-and-reels]], as well as a central [[palmette]] design.<ref name="Tadgell">The East: Buddhists, Hindus and the Sons of Heaven, Architecture in context II, Routledge, 2015, by Christopher Tadgell [https://books.google.com/books?id=DaTbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 p. 24]</ref><ref>India Archaeological Report, Cunningham, pp. 185-196</ref><ref>Age of the Nandas and Mauryas by Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri [https://books.google.com/books?id=YoAwor58utYC&pg=PA376 p. 376 sq]</ref> Importantly, recumbent animals (lions, symbols of Buddhism) were added, in the style of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]].

The Sanchi pillar capital is keeping the general design, seen at Bharhut a century earlier, of recumbent lions grouped around a central square-section post, with the central design of a [[flame palmette]], which started with the Pataliputra capital. However the design of the central post is now simpler, with the flame palmette taking all the available room.<ref>A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set), Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 2003 [https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA87 p. 87]</ref> Elephants were later used to adorn the pillar capitals (still with the central palmette design), and lastly, [[Yakshas]] (here the palmette design disappears).

=== Main themes of the reliefs ===
[[File:Sanchi3.jpg|thumb|300px|The Great Stupa at the time of the [[Satavahanas]].]]

==== Jatakas ====
{{see also|Jataka tales}}
Various Jatakas are illustrated. These are Buddhist moral tales relating edifying events of the former lives of the Buddha as he was still a [[Bodhisattva]]. Among the Jatakas being depicted are the [[Syama Jataka]], the [[Vessantara]] Jataka and the [[Mahakapi Jataka]].

==== Miracles ====
Numerous miracles made by the Buddha are recorded. Among them:
* [[:File:Miracle of the Buddha walking on a River - East Face - South Pillar - East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi.jpg|The miracle of the Buddha walking on water]].<ref name=":0"/>
* [[:File:Miracle of fire and wood Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|The miracle of fire and wood]]

==== Temptation of the Buddha ====
Numerous scene refer to the temptation of the Buddha, when he was confronted with the seductive daughters of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] and with his army of demons. Having resisted the temptations of Mara, the Buddha finds enlightenment.
Other similar scenes on the same subject:
* [[:File:Temptation of the Buddha with Mara's army fleeing.jpg|Temptation of the Buddha]] with Mara's army fleeing.
* [[:File:Temptation and enlightenment of the Buddha.jpg|Enlightenment of the Buddha]] with Mara's army fleeing.<ref>Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 71]</ref>
[[File:Temptation of the Buddha with Mara and his daughters and the demons of Mara fleeing Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|Temptation of the Buddha, with the Buddha on the left (symbolized by his throne only) surrounded by rejoicing devotees, [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] and his daughters (center), and the demons of Mara fleeing (right).<ref>Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 55]</ref>]]

==== War over the Buddha's Relics ====
{{See also|Śarīra|Relics associated with Buddha}}
The southern gate of Stupa No1, thought to be oldest and main entrance to the stupa,<ref>[A Guide To Sanchi, Marshall, John, 1918 https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35740 p. 37]</ref> has several depictions of the story of the Buddha's relics, starting with the War over the Relics.

After the death of the Buddha, the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s of [[Kushinagar]] wanted to keep his ashes, but the other kingdoms also wanting their part went to war and besieged the city of Kushinagar. Finally, an agreement was reached, and the Buddha's cremation relics were divided among 8 royal families and his disciples.<ref name="Lopez Jr">{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/83105/Buddha/230773/The-Buddhas-relics | first =Donald S Jr. | last = Lopez| title = The Buddha's relics}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Relics of the Buddha|first=J.S. |last=Strong|author-link=John S. Strong |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_KLAxmR8PZAC |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-11764-5 |pp=136–37}}</ref> This famous view shows warfare techniques at the time of the Satavahanas, as well as a view of the city of [[Kushinagar]] of the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s, which has been relied on for the understanding of ancient Indian cities.

Other narrative panels related to the War over the Buddha's Relics at Sanchi are:
* "''[[:File:King of the Mallas bringing the relics of the Buddha to Kushinagara.jpg|The King of the Mallakas bringing the relics of the Buddha to Kushinagara]]''", right after the death of the Buddha, before the War itself. In this relief, the king is seen seated on an elephant, holding the relics on his head.<ref>Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 pp. 68-69]</ref>
* "''[[:File:Siege of Kushinagara by the seven kings.jpg|The siege of Kushinagara by the seven kings]]''", another relief on the same subject.

[[File:War of the Relics of the Buddha Sanchi Stupa 1Southern Gateway.jpg|thumb|1000px|center|War over the Buddha's Relics, kept by the city of [[Kushinagar]], South Gate, Stupa no.1, Sanchi.<ref name="p.83ff">Asiatic Mythology by J. Hackin [https://books.google.com/books?id=HAZrFhvqnTkC&pg=PA83 p. 83ff]</ref>]]

==== Removal of the relics by Ashoka ====
According to Buddhist legend, a few centuries later, the relics would be removed from the eight guardian kingdoms by [[King Ashoka]], and enshrined into 84,000 stupas.<ref name="Lopez Jr"/>{{sfn|Strong|2007|pp=136–37}}<ref>Asoka and the Buddha-Relics, T.W. Rhys Davids, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1901, pp. 397-410 [http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-ENG/rhy1.htm]</ref> Ashoka obtained the ashes from seven of the guardian kingdoms, but failed to take the ashes from the [[Nāga|Nagas]] at [[Ramagrama]] who were too powerful, and were able to keep them. This scene is depicted in one of the transversal portions of the southern gateway of Stupa No1 at Sanchi. Ashoka is shown on the right in his chariot and his army, the stupa with the relics is in the center, and the Naga kings with their serpent hoods at the extreme left under the trees.<ref>Asiatic Mythology by J. Hackin [https://books.google.com/books?id=HAZrFhvqnTkC&pg=PA84 p. 84]</ref>
[[File:013 King Asoka visits Ramagrama (33428090870).jpg|thumb|1000px|center|King [[Ashoka]] visits [[Ramagrama]], to take relics of the Buddha from the [[Nāga|Nagas]], but he failed, the Nagas being too powerful. Southern gateway, Stupa 1, Southern Gateway, Sanchi.<ref name="Harvard University Press">{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=Political Violence in Ancient India |date=2017 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674975279 |page=162 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6A4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA162}}</ref>]]

==== Building of the Bodh Gaya temple by Ashoka ====
[[File:Sanchi King Ashoka with his Queens, South Gate, Stupa no. 1.jpg|thumb|left|Ashoka in grief, supported by his two queens, in a relief at Sanchi. Stupa 1, Southern gateway. The identification with Ashoka is confirm by a similar relief from [[Kanaganahalli]] inscribed "Raya Asoko".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Singh |first1=Upinder |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=9788131711200 |page=333 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA333}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Thapar |first1=Romila |title=Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199088683 |page=27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoAyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT27}}</ref><ref name="Harvard University Press"/>]]
[[File:Bodhi tree temple depicted in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern gateway.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Bodhi tree temple depicted in Sanchi, Stupa 1, Southern gateway.]]
Ashoka went to [[Bodh Gaya]] to visit the [[Bodhi Tree]] under which the Buddha had his enlightenment, as described his [[Major Rock Edict|Major Rock Edict No.8]]. However Ashoka was profoundly grieved when he discovered that the sacred [[pipal tree]] was not properly being taken care of and dying out due to the neglect of Queen Tiṣyarakṣitā.<ref name="Lahiri">Ashoka in Ancient India Nayanjot Lahiri, Harvard University Press, 2015 [https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA296 p. 296]</ref>

As a consequence, Ashoka endeavoured to take care of the Bodhi Tree, and built a temple around it. This temple became the center of [[Bodh Gaya]]. A sculpture at Sanchi, southern gateway of Stupa No1, shows Ashoka in grief being supported by his two Queens. Then the relief above shows the Bodhi Tree prospering inside its new temple. Numerous other sculptures at Sanchi show scenes of devotion towards the Bodhi Tree, and the Bodhi Tree inside its temple at Bodh Gaya.<ref name="Lahiri" />

Other versions of the relief depicting the temple for the Bodhi Tree are visible at Sanchi, such as the [[:File:Pipal tree temple of Bodh Gaya depicted in Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|Temple for the Bodhi Tree (Eastern Gateway).]]

==== Foreign devotees ====
[[File:Foreigners at Sanchi Stupa I North Gateway.jpg|thumb|350px|Foreign devotees and musicians on the Northern Gateway of Stupa I.<ref name="RS441">"Musicians generally described as "Greeks" from the eastern gateway at Sanchi" in {{cite book |last1=Stoneman |first1=Richard |title=The Greek Experience of India: From Alexander to the Indo-Greeks |date=2019 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691185385 |pages=441–444, Fig. 15.6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8MFnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA441}}</ref>]]
Some of the friezes of Sanchi also show devotees in Greek attire, wearing kilted tunics and some of them a Greek ''[[Pileus (hat)|piloi]]'' hat.<ref>"Sculptures showing Greeks or the Greek type of human figures are not lacking in ancient India. Apart from the proverbial Gandhara, Sanchi and Mathura have also yielded many sculptures that betray a close observation of the Greeks." in Graeco-Indica, India's cultural contacts, by [[Udai Prakash Arora]], published by Ramanand Vidya Bhawan, 1991, p. 12</ref><ref>These "Greek-looking foreigners" are also described in Susan Huntington, "The art of ancient India", p. 100</ref><ref name="RS441"/> They are also sometimes described as [[Sakas]], although the historical period seems too early for their presence in Central India, and the two pointed hats seem too short to be Scythian.<ref name="RS441"/> The official notice at Sanchi describes "[[:File:Scene Index - North Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4272.JPG|Foreigners worshiping Stupa]]".<ref>[[:File:Scene Index - North Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4272.JPG|Sanchi notice "Foreigners worshiping Stupa"]]</ref> The men are depicted with short curly hair, often held together with a [[headband]] of the type commonly seen on [[Greek coins]]. The clothing too is Greek, complete with [[tunic]]s, capes and sandals, typical of the [[:File:Greek travelling costume.jpg|Greek travelling costume]].<ref name="Manjari Ukil Originals 2006, p.162">"The Greeks evidently introduced the himation and the chiton seen in the terracottas from Taxila and the short kilt worn by the soldier on the Sanchi relief." in Foreign influence on Indian culture: from c. 600 B.C. to 320 A.D., Manjari Ukil Originals, 2006, p. 162</ref> The musical instruments are also quite characteristic, such as the "thoroughly Greek" double flute called [[aulos]].<ref name="RS441"/><ref name="HPR"/> Also visible are [[carnyx]]-like [[Cornu (horn)|horns]].<ref name="HPR">"The scene shows musicians playing a variety of instruments, some of them quite extraordinary such as the Greek double flute and wind instruments with dragon head from West Asia" in The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia, Himanshu Prabha Ray, Cambridge University Press, 2003 [https://books.google.com/books?id=iHHzP4uVpn4C&pg=PA255 p. 255]</ref>

The actual participation of [[Yavanas]]/[[Yonas]] (Greek donors)<ref name="IAS">{{cite book|title=Purātattva, Number 8|date=1975|publisher=Indian Archaeological Society|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MW9DAAAAYAAJ|page=188|quote=A reference to a Yona in the Sanchi inscriptions is also of immense value.(...) One of the inscriptions announces the gift of a Setapathia Yona, "Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam" i.e the gift of a Yona, inhabitant of Setapatha. '''The word Yona can't be here anything, but a Greek donor'''}}</ref> to the construction of Sanchi is known from three inscriptions made by self-declared Yavana donors:
* The clearest of these reads "''Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam''" ("Gift of the [[Yona]] of Setapatha"),<ref>Epigraphia Indica Vol.2 [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.100320/2015.100320.Archaeological-Survey-Of-India-Epigraphia-Indica-Vol-2 p. 395 inscription 364]</ref><ref>John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p. 348 inscription No.475]</ref> Setapatha being an uncertain city, possibly a location near [[Nasik]],<ref name="Singh">The Idea of Ancient India: Essays on Religion, Politics, and Archaeology, [[SAGE Publications]] India, Upinder Singh, 2016 [https://books.google.com/books?id=KIWTCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 p. 18]</ref> a place where other dedications by Yavanas are known, in cave No.17 of the [[Nasik Caves]] complex, and on the pillars of the [[Karla Caves]] not far away.
* A second similar inscription on a pillar reads: ''"[Sv]etapathasa (Yona?)sa danam"'', with probably the same meaning, ("Gift of the [[Yona]] of Setapatha").<ref name="Singh" /><ref>John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p. 308 inscription No.89]</ref>
* The third inscription, on two adjacent pavement slabs reads ''"Cuda yo[vana]kasa bo silayo"'' ("Two slabs of Cuda, the Yonaka").<ref>John Mashall, The Monuments of Sanchi [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p. 345 inscription No.433]</ref><ref name="Singh" />

Around 113 BCE, [[Heliodurus|Heliodorus]], an ambassador of the [[Indo-Greek]] ruler [[Antialcidas]], is known to have dedicated a pillar, the [[Heliodorus pillar]], around 5 miles from Sanchi, in the village of [[Vidisha]].

Another rather similar foreigner is also depicted in [[Bharhut]], the [[Bharhut Yavana]] (circa 100 BCE), also wearing a tunic and a royal headband in the manner of a Greek king, and displaying a Buddhist [[triratna]] on his sword.<ref name="p.180">Faces of Power: Alexander's Image and Hellenistic Politics by Andrew Stewart [https://books.google.com/books?id=1SUw29Q_SeMC&pg=PA180 p. 180]</ref><ref name="Antiquity, John Boardman 1993, p.112">"The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity", John Boardman, 1993, p. 112</ref> [[:File:Udayagiri Yavana warrior.jpg|Another one]] can be seen in the region of [[Odisha]], in the [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves]].

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan=1 cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|align="center" colspan=1 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Northwestern foreigners at Sanchi'''
|-
|<gallery mode="packed" heights="150px">
File:Sanchi Stupa 2 man on horse.jpg|Foreigner on a horse, circa 115 BCE, Stupa No2.<ref name="AG"/><ref name="Shaw 90"/>
File:Foreigners in Greek dress playing carnyxes and aolus flute at Sanchi.jpg|Detail of the foreigners, in Greek dress and playing [[carnyx]]es and [[Musical system of ancient Greece|aolus]] flute. Northern Gateway of Stupa I (detail).
File:Foreigners riding winged lions Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|Foreigners holding grapes and riding winged lions, Sanchi Stupa 1, Eastern Gateway.<ref>"The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, 1993, p. 112 Note 91</ref>
File:Torana of Stupa 3 in Sanchi Foreign riders.jpg|Foreign horseriders, Southern Gateway of Stupa 3.
File:Torana of Stupa 3 in Sanchi Foreigner fighting a Makara.jpg|Foreigner with headband fighting a [[Makara (Hindu mythology)|Makara]]. Southern Gateway of Stupa 3.
File:Sanchi foreigners Western gate rear top architrave.jpg|Foreigners on horses, wearing headbands, caps and boots. Western gate of Stupa 1.
</gallery>
|}

==== Aniconism ====
[[File:Miracle at Kapilavastu Suddhodana praying as his son the Buddha rises in the air with only path visible Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|thumb|Aniconism in ''Miracle at [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]]'': King [[Suddhodana]] praying as his son the [[Buddha]] rises in the air, praised by celestial beings (but only his path, the horizontal slab in the air, is visible).<ref name="p.58 Third Panel">Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 58 Third Panel]</ref>]]
{{see also|Aniconism in Buddhism}}
In all these scenes, the Buddha is never represented, being absent altogether even from scenes of his life where he is playing a central role: in the ''[[:File:Miracle of the Buddha walking on a River - East Face - South Pillar - East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi.jpg|Miracle of the Buddha walking on the river Nairanjana]]'' he is just represented by his path on the water;<ref name="p.64">Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 64]</ref> in the ''[[:File:Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu in full Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu]]'', he walks in the air at the end of the procession, but his presence is only suggested by people turning their heads upward toward the symbol of his path.<ref name="p.64"/>

[[File:Chankrama.jpg|thumb|left|"The promenade of the Buddha", or [[Chankrama]], used to depict the Buddha in motion in [[Aniconism in Buddhism|Buddhist aniconism]].]]
In one of the reliefs of the ''[[:File:Miracle at Kapilavastu Suddhodana praying as his son the Buddha rises in the air with only path visible Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|Miracle at Kapilavastu]]'', King [[Suddhodana]] is seen praying as his son the [[Buddha]] rises in the air. The Buddha praised is praised by celestial beings, but only his path is visible in the form of a slab hanging in middle air, called a ''chankrama'' or "promenade".<ref name="p.58 Third Panel"/>

Otherwise, the presence of the Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne, as in the scene of ''[[:File:Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.jpg|Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha]]''.<ref name=":0">A Guide to Sanchi, Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 65]</ref> Similar scenes would later appear in the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]], but this time with representations of the Buddha. [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]] detailed every panel in his seminal work "A Guide to Sanchi".<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 A Guide to Sanchi, John Marshall]</ref>

This anoconism is relation to the image of the Buddha could be in conformity with an ancient Buddhist prohibition against showing the Buddha himself in human form, known from the ''[[Sarvastivada]] [[vinaya]]'' (rules of the early Buddhist school of the [[Sarvastivada]]): ''""Since it is not permitted to make an image of the Buddha's body, I pray that the Buddha will grant that I can make an image of the attendant Bodhisattva. Is that acceptable?" The Buddha answered: "You may make an image of the Bodhisattava""''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rhi |first1=Ju-Hyung |title=From Bodhisattva to Buddha: The Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=54 |issue=3/4 |date=1994 |pages=220–221 |doi=10.2307/3250056 |jstor=3250056 }}</ref>

=== The Gateways or Toranas ===
The gateways depict various scenes of the life of the Buddha, as well as events after his death, in particular the War of the Relics and the efforts of emperor [[Ashoka]] to spread the Buddhist faith.

==== Stupa 1 Southern Gateway ====
The Southern Gateway of Stupa No1 is thought to be oldest and main entrance to the stupa.<ref>A Guide To Sanchi, Marshall, John, 1918 [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.35740 p. 37]</ref> The narrative friezes of this gateway put great emphasis on the relics of the Buddha, and on the role of [[Ashoka]] in spreading the Buddhist faith. This gateway is one of the two which were reconstructed by Major Cole in 1882–83. The whole of the right jamb and half of the left are new and blank, as well as the west end of the lowest architrave, the east end of the middle architrave, and the six vertical uprights between the architraves.<ref name="Marshall 46" />

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="3" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = {{{1<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F0E68C; font-size: 100%;"| '''[[:Commons:Category:Sanchi gateways : South gateway of stupa 1|Southern Gateway]]''' ("Great Stupa" No1, Sanchi. 1st century BCE.)
|-
|colspan=2 align="center" style="font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"|[[File:Sanchi (2).JPG|250px]]
|'''The Southern Gateway of Stupa 1'''. The Southern Gateway of Stupa 1 is one of the four richly carved gateways or [[torana]]s, surrounding Stupa 1, the "Great Stupa". It is the main one as it was erected in front of the steps by which the terrace was ascended. The Southern Gateway was also the first to be erected. Then followed, in chronological order, the Northern, the Eastern and the Western, their succession in each case being demonstrated by the style of their carvings. It is probable, however, that not more than three or four decades intervened between the building of the Southern and Western gateways.

A few of the surfaces of the Southern Gateway are undecorated or lost. Like the other gateways, the Southern Gateway is composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in their turn support a superstructure of three architraves with volute ends.<ref name="Marshall 37">John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 37ff] (Public Domain text)</ref>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Architraves'''
|-
|align="center"|[[File:Architraves with Four Lions Pillar Heads - South Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4352.JPG|120px]]
Front architraves
|align="center"|[[File:Architraves - Rare Side - South Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4384.jpg|120px]]
Rear architraves
|Some material was lost over two thousand years, and the restoration had to make up for lost elements with some blank slabs. The whole of the right jamb and half of the left are new, as well as the west end of the lowest architrave, the east end of the middle architrave, and the six vertical uprights between the architraves. When the gateway was restored, the top and the lowest lintels appear to have been reversed by mistake, since the more important sculptures on them now face the stupa instead of facing outwards.<ref name="Marshall 46" />
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:013 King Asoka visits Ramagrama (33428090870).jpg|250px]]
Front middle architrave
|'''King [[Ashoka]] visits [[Ramagrama]]'''. King [[Ashoka]] visited [[Ramagrama]], to take relics of the Buddha from the [[Nāga|Nagas]], but he failed, the Nagas being too powerful. 
After the death of the [[Buddha]], his relics were originally divided into eight portions, and shared between eight princes. Each of the princes constructed a [[stupa]] at or near his capital city, within which the respective portion of the ashes was enshrined.<ref name=Shrestha1999>{{cite journal|last=Shrestha|first=SS|title=Ramagrama excavation|journal=Ancient Nepal: Journal of the Department of Archaeology|volume=142|pages=1–12|year=1999|url=http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/ancientnepal/pdf/ancient_nepal_142_01.pdf|access-date=2014-11-30}}</ref> These eight stupas were erected at [[Rajagriha]], [[Vaisali]], [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]], [[Allakappa]], [[Ramagrama]], [[Vothadvipa]], [[Pava]] and [[Kusinara]].<ref name="Marshall 50" /> 
About two centuries later, in order to spread the Buddhist faith, [[Asoka]] endeavored to gather the eight shares of the relics to divide them up, and distribute them among 84,000 stupas, which he himself erected. He only obtained seven of these portions: he failed to secure the relics of Ramagrama in the [[Nepal]] [[Tarai]], in face of the resolute opposition of their devoted guardians, the [[Nāga|Nagas]].<ref name="Marshall 46" /> 
Here, in the centre of the architrave, is depicted the stupa of Ramagrama. Above the stupa are heavenly figures bearing garlands in their hands. To the right, the Emperor Asoka is approaching in his chariot, accompanied by a retinue of elephants, horsemen and footmen; and to the left, the Nagas and Nagis, in human form with serpent hoods, worshiping at the stupa, bringing offerings, or emerging from the waters of a lotus-pond.<ref name="Marshall 46">John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 46ff] (Public Domain text)</ref>
On the projecting end of this architrave is an elephant in a lotus-pond with mahaut and females on its back, and a second female scrambling up behind; in the background, a pavilion with female figures looking out. To what particular incident this relief refers, is not known.<ref name="Marshall 46" /> 
An inscription on the dome of the stupa records that the architrave was the gift of one Balamitra, pupil of "Ayachuda (Arya-Kshudra), the preacher of the Law".
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:022 Stupas and Bodhi Trees representing the Seven Buddhas (33772342726).jpg|250px]]
Rear top architrave
|'''The seven Buddhas'''.
{{see also|List of the named Buddhas}}
Six Buddhas of the past and Gautama Buddha, with his [[Bodhi Tree]] at the extreme right.In the central section are three stupas alternating with four trees with thrones in front of them, adored by figures both human and divine. These represent the six Buddhas of the past (namely : [[Vipassī Buddha|Vipassi]], [[Sikhī Buddha|Sikhi]], [[Vessabhū Buddha|Vessabhu]], [[Kakusandha Buddha|Kakusandha]], [[Koṇāgamana Buddha|Konagamana]] and [[Kassapa Buddha|Kaasapa]]) and [[Gautama Buddha]]. Three are symbolized by their stupas, and four by the trees under which each respectively attained enlightenment. The tree on the extreme right is the [[pipal tree]] of Gautama Buddha and the one next to it is the [[banyan tree]] of [[Kasyapa]] Buddha. The identification of the others is less certain.
[[File:Siri-Satakani inscription Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gateway Rear of top architrave.jpg|thumb|120px|The [[Satakarni II|Siri-Satakani]] inscription]]
The inscription on the dome of the central stupa reads "L. 1. rano Siri Satakanisa/ L. 2. avesanisa vasithiputasa/ L. 3. Anamdasa danam" ("Gift of Anamda, the son of Vdsithi (Vdsishthi ), the foreman of the artisans (avesanin) of [[rajan]] [[Satakarni II|Siri-Satakani]]).<ref name="Marshall 46" /> This inscription has been decisive in attributing the construction of the gateways to the time of the [[Satavahana Empire]]. 
On each of the projecting ends of this lintel is a horse with attendants and royal umbrella, issuing from a city gate. Possibly it is Kanthaka, the horse of Gautama, when he was going forth from the city of [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]].<ref name="Marshall 46" /> 
When the gateway was restored, this lintel (together with the bottom one) appears to have been reversed by mistake, since the more important sculptures on them now face the stupa instead of facing outwards.<ref name="Marshall 46" />
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:War over the Buddha's Relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi.jpg|250px]]
Rear bottom architrave 
[[File:Sanchi3 N-MP-220.jpg|200px]] 
Full architrave with wings
|'''War over the Buddha's Relics'''.
{{see also|Relics associated with Buddha}}
[[File:Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of Kusinagara circa 500 BCE adapted from a relief at Sanchi.jpg|thumb|This Sanchi relief permitted this reconstruction of the city of [[Kushinagara]] circa 500 BCE.]]
The Buddha died in [[Kushinagara]], the capital of the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s, who initially tried to keep all the relics of the Buddha for themselves. A war erupted in which the chiefs of seven other clans waged war against the Mallakas of Kushinara for the possession of the Buddha's relics. In the centre of the architrave, the siege of Kushinara is in progress; to right and left, the victorious chiefs are departing in chariots and on elephants, with the relics borne on the heads of the latter.<ref name="Marshall 46" /> 
The scene is carried through on to the projecting ends of the architrave, and the seated elephants on the intervening false capitals are clearly intended to be part and parcel of the scene.<ref name="Marshall 46" /><ref name="p.83ff"/> 
When the gateway was restored, this lintel (together with the top one) appears to have been reversed by mistake, since the more important sculptures on them now face the stupa instead of facing outwards.<ref name="Marshall 46" />
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillar capitals'''
|-
|align="center"|[[File:018 Lions uphold the Pillar (33428081050).jpg|120px]]
Left
|align="center"|[[File:Four Lions - East Pillar Top - South Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4356.JPG|120px]]
Right
|The pillars of the Southern Gateway feature lions in the manner of the [[Pillars of Ashoka]]. They are the only pillar capitals of the Sanchi complex to do so.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillars'''
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"|'''External faces'''
|-
|align=center|[[File:Left external side Southern Gateway Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg|80px]]
|align=center|[[File:Right external side Southern Getaway Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg|80px]]
|The left external face consists in a foliage scroll inhabited by numerous animals and garlands, as well as an amorous couple repeated several time. Of the right pillar external face, nothing remains, and it has been left blank by the reconstitution under Marshall.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Front face'''
|-
|style="width: 10%;"|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Ashoka with his two Queens visiting the Deer Park Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''[[Ashoka]] with his two Queens visiting the [[Sarnath|Deer Park]]'''. A Persepolitan column, rising from a stepped base and supporting a wheel with thirty-two spokes and an equal number of [[triratna]] devices on its outer rim. This is the [[dharmachakra]] or "Wheel of the Law", the emblem of the Buddha's first sermon. On either side of the wheel are celestial figures with garlands; below them are four groups of worshipers, and below the latter, [[deer]]s, to indicate the spot where the first sermon was preached, namely, in the [[Sarnath|Deer Park]] (Mrigadava) near [[Benares]]. In each of the groups of worshipers is a king with attendant females, the same figures apparently being repeated four times. They probably represent Asoka with his two queens visiting the Deer Park during his pilgrimage to the holy places of Buddhism.<ref name="Marshall 50">A Guide to Sanchi, John Marshall [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 50ff] Public Domain text</ref>
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Procession of King Ashoka on his charriot Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''Procession of king [[Ashoka]] on his chariot'''. The Emperor Asoka in his chariot with his retinue around.<ref name="Marshall 50" />
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Cortège of Mara - South Face - West Pillar - South Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4353.JPG|120px]]
|'''The Cortège of Mara'''. According to Marshall, relating the panel to the next one on the inner face, deities are seen on foot, on horseback and on elephants, hastening to do homage to the Bodhisattva's locks.<ref name="Marshall 50" />
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Inner face'''
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Bodhi tree temple depicted in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''Bodhi tree temple of [[Bodh Gaya]] built by Ashoka.''' The temple around the [[Bodhi Tree]] (the [[pipal tree]] beneath which the Buddha had attained enlightenment) was erected by Asoka himself. This Temple is [[hypaethral]]. Here the sanctity of the tree is indicated by umbrellas and garlands, and on the throne inside the shrine are three [[triratna]] symbols.<ref name="Marshall 50" />
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Sanchi King Ashoka with his Queens, South Gate, Stupa no. 1.jpg|120px]]
|'''Ashoka in grief, supported by his two Queens'''. Ashoka is in grief as he saw the pipal tree of the Buddha being neglected by the jealous Queen [[Tissarakkha|Tishyarakshita]]. He is so shocked that he has to be supported by two of his wives. He would thereafter build a temple around the tree, seen in the panel above, and which would become the sacred temple of [[Bodh Gaya]].<ref>Interpretation in "Ashoka in Ancient India", by Nayanjot Lahiri, Harvard University Press, 2015 [https://books.google.com/books?id=bJ_XCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA296 p. 296]</ref><ref name="Marshall 50" />
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Trayastrimsa Heaven.jpg|120px]]
|'''Worship of the [[Bodhisattva]]'s hair'''. In the lowest panel of the inner face is a company of deities in the [[Trayastrimsa]] heaven, where [[Indra]] held sway, rejoicing over and worshiping the hair of the [[Bodhisattva]]. The story told in the Buddhist scriptures is that, before embracing a religious life, Gautama divested himself of his princely garments and cut off his long hair with his sword, casting both hair and turban into the air, whence they were borne by the devas to the Trayastrimsa heaven and worshiped there.<ref name="Marshall 50" />
This particular relief was dedicated by the Guild of Ivory Carvers of [[Vidisha]] (horizontal inscription on the lintel), suggesting that a part of the gateways at least was made by ivory carvers.<ref name="p.51"/> At the least, the delicacy of workmanship and spatial effect attained in the panel of the Trayastrimsa heaven is particularly striking, and makes it understandable that, as the inscription on it records, it was the work of ivory-carvers of [[Vidisha]]. The inscription reads: 'Vedisehi dantakarehi rupadamam katam' meaning "The ivory-carvers from Vidisha have done the carving".<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>Epigraphia Indice Vol.2 [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.100320/2015.100320.Archaeological-Survey-Of-India-Epigraphia-Indica-Vol-2 p. 378 Inscription No.200]</ref> Some of the [[Begram ivories]] or the "''[[Pompeii Lakshmi]]''" give an indication of the kind of ivory works that could have influenced the carvings at Sanchi.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Rear face'''
|-
|Unique panel
|align="center"|[[File:Rear view Left pillar Stupa 1 South Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|To the left of the panel, a royal figure is seated beneath a canopy, holding a female by the hand; in the middle, another female seated on a low stool; to the right, two other figures standing, with a child behind bearing a garland (?). At the back of them is a [[True plantains|plantain]] tree, and above, a [[Chaitya]]'s window with an umbrella on either side. The meaning of this scene is uncertain.<ref name="Marshall 50" />
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar'''
|-
|
|
|Blank. All reliefs and inscriptions lost.
|}
<noinclude>

==== Stupa 1 Northern Gateway ====
The Northern Gateway is the best preserved of all the gateways, and was the second to be erected. The numerous panels relate various events of the life of the Buddha. Only one atypical panel (Right pillar, Inner face/ Top panel) shows ''[[:File:Foreigners making a dedication to Stupa 1at the Northern Gateway of Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg|Foreigners making a dedication at the Southern Gateway of Stupa No 1]]''.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="3" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = {{{1<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} align=center colspan=3 style="background:#A9A9A9; font-size: 100%;"| '''[[:Commons:Category:Sanchi gateways : North gateway of stupa 1|Northern Gateway]]''' ("Great Stupa" No1, Sanchi. 1st century BCE.)
|-
|colspan=2 align="center" style="font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"|[[File:North Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4273.JPG|250px]]
|'''The Northern Gateway of Stupa 1'''. The Northern Gateway of Stupa 1 is one of the four richly carved gateways or [[torana]]s, surrounding Stupa 1, the "Great Stupa". The Northern Gateway was the second to be erected.

The best preserved of all four gateways is the Northern one, which still retains most of its ornamental figures and gives a good idea of the original appearance of all the gateways. Like the other gateways, the Northern Gateway is composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in their turn support a superstructure of three architraves with volute ends.<ref name="Marshall 37"/>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Architraves'''
|-
|[[File:Sanchi Stupa, Bhopal, Inda 16.JPG|120px]]
Front architraves
|[[File:GATEWAY OF PEACE.JPG|120px]]
Rear architraves
|The architraves are all almost intact. They are crowned by two large decorated [[Shrivatsa]] symbols in the round, symbols of Buddhism, as well as the remnants of a [[Dharmachakra]] (Wheel of the Law) at the center. The lintels have seated lions and [[Yakshini]]s, also in the round, at their ends.
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:Temptation of the Buddha with Mara and his daughters and the demons of Mara fleeing Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|250px]]
Rear central architrave
|[[File:Vajrasana Diamond Throne of Ashoka at Bodh Gaya.jpg|thumb|upright|The actual "[[Diamond throne]]" at [[Bodh Gaya]], built by Ashoka circa 260 BCE.]]
'''Temptation of the Buddha with [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] and his daughters, and the demons of Mara fleeing'''. Towards the left end of the panel is the [[pipal tree]] at [[Bodh Gaya]] with an umbrella and streamers above, and, in front, the [[diamond throne]] (Vajrasana) of the Buddha, whereon he sat when he withstood the temptations and threats of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]], the Satan of Buddhism, and when he attained to Buddhahood. Human and celestial beings are adoring it. The figure to the left of it is perhaps [[Gautama Buddha#Ascetic life and awakening|Sujata]], bringing the meal which she prepared for Gautama before he began his last meditation prior to his enlightenment. Near the middle of the panel is Mara, seated on a throne with attendants around, and advancing from him towards the throne are his daughters, who sought by their blandishments to seduce Gautama from his purpose. On his other side, i.e., in the right half of the panel, are the hosts of Mara's demons, personifying the vices, the passions and the fears of mankind. The vigor and humor with which these fantastic beings are portrayed is very striking, and far more forceful than anything of the kind produced by the artists of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]].<ref>Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 55ff] Public Domain text</ref> 
See also [[s:The Life of Buddha/Part One/19. Mara's Defeat|Mara's Defeat (in "The Life of Buddha")]].
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillar capitals'''
|-
|align="center"|[[File:Left capital Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
Left
|align="center"|[[File:Right capital Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
Right
|Elephants facing the four directions decorate the top of the gateway pillars and support the architraves. They are gathered around a central pillar of square section decorated with a large [[flame palmette]] design. The capitals are flanked by a dancing [[Yakshini]] under foliage.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillars'''
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''External faces'''
|-
|align=center|[[File:Left side Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|40px]]
Left
|align=center|[[File:Right external face of Northwern Gateway Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg|40px]]
Right
|'''Left'''. The external side of the left pillar (facing the east) doesn't have narrative reliefs, but only displays [[Buddhist symbolism|Buddhist symbols]] as well as intricate vegetal designs. The external face is separated vertically in three bands, the central band consisting in a superposition of numerous [[flame palmette]]s (nine in total), and the two external bands consisting in a superposition of hooks holdings [[garland]]s. The bottom of the pillar face has two [[Buddha footprint|footprints of the Buddha]] with a [[Dharmachakra|wheel of the Law]] on their sole. The pillar face is crowned by a decorated [[Shrivatsa]] symbol.<ref name="Marshall 58">John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 58ff] (Public Domain text)</ref>
'''Right'''. The external face on the right side has the same background decoration, with the three vertical bands and the superposition of [[flame palmette]]s, and hooks holdings [[garland]]s, but lacks the bottom and top symbols of the [[Buddha footprint]] and the decorated [[Shrivatsa]].
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Front face''' (Most of the scenes on this face appear to relate to [[Sravasti]].)
|-
|style="width: 10%;"|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Great Miracle at Savrasti (also called Miracle of the Mango Tree) Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|[[File:Buddha performs miracle of Sravasti Gandhara.jpg|thumb|150px|The Buddha in [[levitation]] performing the Miracle of Sravasti, Gandhara, 100-200 CE.]]
'''[[Great Miracle at Sravasti]] (also called Mango Tree Miracle, when the Buddha walks in the air)'''. 
In the center, a [[mango tree]] with the throne of the [[Buddha]] in front (the Buddha, of course, [[aniconism|not being illustrated]]). Round the Buddha is a circle of his followers bringing garlands to the tree or in attitudes of adoration. It was beneath a mango tree that, according to the [[Pali]] texts, Buddha performed the great miracle at [[Sravasti]], when he walked in the air, and flames broke from his shoulders and streams of water from his feet. But here there is no definite indication of the miracle.<ref name="Marshall 58"/>

In the [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] (non-[[aniconism|aniconic]]) [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]], the Buddha would simply be shown in his human form, rising slightly in the air, with flames springing from his feet and water emanating from his shoulders.
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Jetavana of Sravasti Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''[[Jetavana]] of [[Sravasti]], showing the three preferred residences of the Buddha'''.
[[File:Bharhut Jetavana Jataka.jpg|thumb|150px|Jetavana story, [[Bharhut]], 2nd century BCE.]]
The [[Jetavana]] at [[Sravasti]], showing the three favourite residences of the Buddha: the Gandhakuti, the Kosambakuti and the Karorikuti, with the throne of the Buddha in the front of each. The Jetavana garden was presented to the Buddha by the rich banker [[Anathapindika]], who purchased it for as many gold pieces as would cover the surface of the ground. Hence, the foreground of the relief is shown covered with ancient Indian coins ( [[karshapana]]s ), just as it is in the similar relief at [[Bharhut]], where the details of the coins are more in evidence.<ref name="Marshall 58" />
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Aerial promenade of the Buddha Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''Aerial promenade of the Buddha'''. Presumably, the long band on top of the heads of devotees is the promenade the Buddha is walking on. The long open pavilion (mandapa) calls to mind the one at [[Sravasti]], which is portrayed in the [[Bharhut]] relief.<ref name="Marshall 58" />
|-
|4th panel
|align="center"|[[File:Procession of Prasenajit of Kosala leaving Sravasti to meet the Buddha.jpg|120px]]
|'''Procession of King [[Prasenajit]] of [[Kosala]] leaving [[Sravasti]] to meet the Buddha'''. A royal procession issuing from a city gate, probably [[Prasenajit]] of [[Kosala]] going forth from [[Sravasti]] to meet the Buddha.<ref name="Marshall 58" />
|-
|5th panel
|align="center"|[[File:Paradise of Indra (nandana) Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''Paradise of [[Indra]] ([[nandana]])'''. The meaning of this scene, which is analogous to several others on the gateways, is not clear. Perhaps, like the scene on the gateways of
Stupa No3, it may represent the Paradise of [[Indra]] ([[nandana]]), where pleasure and passion held sway.<ref name="Marshall 58" />
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Inner face''' (This face refers particularly to [[Rajagriha]])
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:The Visit of Indra to the Buddha in the Indrasaila cave near Rajagriha Sanchi Stupa 1Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|[[File:Indras Visit to Indrasala Cave - Schist - ca 2nd Century CE - Kushana Period - Loriyan Tangai - ACCN 5100-A23290 - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2016-03-06 1519.JPG|thumb|The same scene in the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]]. [[Loriyan Tangai]].]]
'''Visit of [[Indra]] to the Buddha in the [[Indrasaila cave]] near [[Rajagriha]]'''. In the upper part of the panel is an artificial cave resembling in its facade many [[Indian rock-cut architecture|rock-cut]] Buddhist [[chaitya]] shrines in [[Western India|Western]] and [[Central India]]. In front of the door is the throne which marks the presence of the Buddha. The animals peering out from among the rocks serve to indicate the wildness of the spot. Below is the company of Indra in attitudes of worship, but which of these figures represents Indra and which his musician [[Panchasikha]] who accompanied him, it is not possible to determine.<ref name="Marshall 58" />
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Royal cortege leaving Rajagriha.jpg|120px]]
|'''Royal cortege leaving [[Rajagriha]]'''. A king and his royal cortege issuing from a city. As the panel on this side of the pillar relates particularly to Rajagriha, it is probable that the King is either [[Bimbisara]] or [[Ajatashatru]], on a visit to the Buddha at the [[Gridhrakuta]] Hill, and that the city is Rajagriha.<ref name="Marshall 58" /> See also: [[s:The Life of Buddha/Part One/16. Siddhartha and King Vimbasara|Siddhartha and King Bimbasara (in "The Life of Buddha")]].
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Bamboo garden (Venuvana) at Rajagriha, the visit of Bimbisara.jpg|120px]]
|'''Bamboo garden (Venuvana) at [[Rajagriha]], the visit of [[Bimbisara]]'''. The Bamboo garden (Venuvana ) at Rajagriha, with the throne of the Buddha in the center and devotees around. The identity of the spot is indicated by the bamboos on either side of the panel.<ref name="Marshall 58" /> This event refers to a visit of King [[Bimbisara]] to the Buddha.<ref name="Marshall 58" /> 
{{See also|s:The Life of Buddha/Part Two/7. The Buddha at the Bamboo Grove|l1=The Buddha at the Bamboo Grove (in "The Life of Buddha")}}
|-
|4th panel
|align="center"|[[File:Dvarapala Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''[[Dvarapala]] guardian deity'''. Positioned as it is, in the inside panel of the gateway, the deity guards the left side of the entrance to the stupa. This Dvarapala is faced by another one on the right side.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar, Inner face'''
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Sanchi Great Stupa Northern Gateway foreigners.jpg|120px]]
|'''Foreigners making a dedication to Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa'''. Probably the dedication of a stupa, but it might also refer to the death ([[parinirvana]]) of the Buddha. Among the crowds who are celebrating the occasion with music and dancing, some are wearing dresses and high boots suggestive of a cold climate. The individual and realistic features of the people can also be noticed.<ref name="Marshall 57">John Marshall, A Guide to Sanchi, 1918 [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 57ff] (Public Domain text)</ref> The official notice at Sanchi reads "[[:File:Scene Index - North Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4272.JPG|Foreigners worshiping Stupa]]". The relief shows 18 of these foreigners and 4 [[Gandharva]] celestial deities in the sky above. 
[[File:Foreigners in Greek dress playing carnyxes and aolus flute at Sanchi.jpg|thumb|150px|Foreigners playing [[carnyx]]es and [[aulos]] flute at Sanchi (detail).]]
These have been called "Greek-looking foreigners"<ref>Susan Huntington, "The art of ancient India", p. 100</ref> wearing Greek clothing complete with [[tunic]]s, capes and sandals, typical of the [[:File:Greek travelling costume.jpg|Greek travelling costume]],<ref name="Manjari Ukil Originals 2006, p.162"/> and using Greek and [[Central Asian]] musical instruments ( the double flute [[aulos]], or the [[carnyx]]-like [[Cornu (horn)|Cornu horns]]), possibly pointing to the [[Indo-Greeks]]. 
Another rather similar foreigner is also depicted in [[Bharhut]], the [[:File:Bharhut Stupa Yavana.jpg|Bharhut Yavana]], also wearing a tunic and a royal headband in the manner of a Greek king, and displaying a Buddhist [[triratna]] on his sword.<ref name="p.180"/><ref name="Antiquity, John Boardman 1993, p.112"/> The top of the panel show celestial divinities celebrating the dedication of the Stupa.
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Offering of a bowl of honey to the Blessed One by a monkey Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''Offering of a bowl of honey to the Blessed One by a monkey'''. The offering of a bowl of honey to the Blessed One by a monkey. The Buddha is here represented by his [[pipal tree]] and throne, to which devotees are doing obeisance. The figure of the monkey is twice repeated, first with the bowl and then with empty hands after the gift has been made. The incident is portrayed in much the same way on the reliefs of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]].<ref name="Marshall 57" />
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Miracle at Kapilavastu Suddhodana praying as his son the Buddha rises in the air with only path visible Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''Miracle at [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]]'''. [[Suddhodana]] praying as his son the [[Buddha]] rises in the air, praised by celestial beings (only his path is visible). This panel is to be interpreted in conjunction with the corresponding panel adjoining it on the front face of the same pillar. When Buddha returned to his native city of Kapilavastu, his father Suddhodana came forth with a royal retinue to meet him, and a question of etiquette arose as to which should salute the other first: the father, who was king, or the son, who had become the Buddha. Thereupon the Buddha solved the difficulty by walking miraculously in mid-air. Here, in the panel on the inner face, we see a [[banyan tree]], and, in front of it, the throne symbolizing the Buddha; while suspended in the air above it is the chahkrama or promenade on which the Buddha used to take his exercise and which here symbolises that he is walking in the air. Above it are celestial beings ([[gandharva]]s) with garlands in their hands. To the right of the tree is King [[Suddhodana]] with attendants, one of whom is holding the royal umbrella. The reason for the banyan tree ([[Ficus Indica]], Skr : nyagrodha) is that King Suddhodana presented a park of banyan trees to his son on his return, and the tree, therefore, helps to localize the incident. In the corresponding scene on the front face the Buddha is probably represented in this park with disciples (but invisible due to [[aniconism]]) and followers around him.<ref name="Marshall 57" />
|-
|4th panel
|align="center"|[[File:Dvarapala Sanchi Stupa 1Northern Gateway right pillar.jpg|120px]]
|'''[[Dvarapala]] guardian deity'''. Positioned as it is, in the inside panel of the gateway, the deity guards the right side of the entrance to the stupa. This Dvarapala is faced by another one on the left side.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar, Front face'''
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Descent of the Buddha from the Trayastrimsa Heaven Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|[[File:05 Descent to Sankasya, 3c (34342993764).jpg|thumb|120px|The same scene in the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]].]]'''Descent of the Buddha from the [[Trayastrimsa]] Heaven at [[Sankissa]]'''. The descent of the Buddha from the [[Trayastrimsa]] Heaven, where [[Maya (mother of the Buddha)|Maya]], his mother, had been reborn and whither he himself ascended to preach the Law to her. This miracle is supposed to have taken place at [[Sankissa]] (Sankasya). In the center of the relief is the miraculous ladder by which the Buddha descended, attended by [[Brahma]] and [[Indra]]. At the top of the ladder is the tree and throne of the Buddha with the gods on either side in an attitude of adoration. Other [[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]] attend on him as he descends, among whom the one to the right of the ladder holding a [[chauri]] and [[lotus (plant)|lotus]] may be Brahma. At the foot of the ladder the tree and throne are repeated with a trio of devotees on either side, indicating that the Buddha has returned again to earth.<ref name="Marshall 56">Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 56]</ref>
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Departure of the Buddha from Kapilavastu Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gate.jpg|120px]]
|'''The Great Departure of the Buddha from [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]]'''. A royal figure in a chariot drives forth from a city gate, with a horse in front. The scene is analogous to the scene of Buddha's departure from Kapilavastu on the East Gateway, but in that case there is no chariot, and in this case there is no umbrella above the horse to indicate the presence of the Buddha. However, a royal umbrella being held over an empty spot in the chariot would suggest the presence of the Buddha. The figure standing at its side with a water-pot (bhrihgara) in his hand indicates that a gift is being made. Alternatively, it could be King Suddhodana going forth from Kapilavastu to meet his son, the Buddha, on the occasion when he presented him with a park of mango trees.<ref name="Marshall 56" /> 
See also [[s:The Life of Buddha/Part One/12. Siddhartha Leaves His Father's Palace|Siddhartha Leaves His Father's Palace (in "The Life of Buddha")]].
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Teaching the Sakyans Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''Teaching the [[Sakyans]]''': This panel may represent the Buddha teaching the [[Sakyans]]. It can also be interpreted in relation to the panel of the Miracle at Kapilavastu on the same pillar (Right pillar, Inner face,3rd panel). When Buddha returned to his native city of Kapilavastu, his father Suddhodana came forth with a royal retinue to meet him, and the Buddha performed his Miracle of the Walk in the Air. In this scene, on the front face of the pillar, the Buddha is probably represented in this very park with disciples and followers around him.<ref name="Marshall 56" />
|-
|4th panel
|align="center"|[[File:Broken scene Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|Unidentified broken scene.
|}<noinclude>

==== Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway ====
The Eastern Gateway describes historical events during the life of the Buddha, as well as several miracles performed by the Buddha. It was the third gateway to be erected.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="3" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = {{{1<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} align=center colspan=3 style="background:#FFDAB9; font-size: 100%;"| '''[[:Commons:Category:Sanchi gateways : East gateway of stupa 1|Eastern Gateway]]''' ("Great Stupa" No1, Sanchi. 1st century BCE/CE.)
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"style="font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"|[[File:East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4398.JPG|250px]]
|'''The Eastern Gateway of Stupa 1'''. The Eastern Gateway of Stupa 1 is one of the four richly carved gateways or [[torana]]s, surrounding Stupa 1, the "Great Stupa". It is the third gateway to have been constructed. Like the other gateways, the Southern Gateway is composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in their turn support a superstructure of three architraves with volute ends.<ref name="Marshall 37"/>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Architraves'''
|-
|[[File:Sanchi 6-09.jpg|120px]]
Front architraves
|[[File:Sanchi2 N-MP-220.jpg|120px]]
Rear architraves
|The architraves are all almost intact. They were crowned by two large decorated [[Shrivatsa]] symbols in the round, symbols of Buddhism (only one of them remains). The lintels have elephants mounted by [[Mahut]]s, and a single seated lion, at their ends. A single remaining [[Yakshini]] (top right corner) suggests that many more have been lost.
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:Sanchi Eastern Gateway The Great Departure.jpg|250px]] 
Front architrave, center
|'''The Great Departure'''. During the night, Prince [[Gautama Buddha|Siddharta]] leaves the Palace of [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]] (far left) while his wife [[Yasodhara]], his baby [[Rahula]] and the dancers are sleeping. Siddharta rides his horse Kanthaka, who is being lifted above the ground by [[Yaksha]]s in order not to make noise and to avoid awakening the guards. The horse is seen progressing from left to right, away from the city, and progressively higher in the air. Siddharta is not visible, but a chatra royal parasol is held by [[Chandaka]] in order to signify the fact that Siddharta is riding on the horse. After his arrival in the forest on the right, Siddharta discards his robes, cuts off his hair and returns the horse to Chandaka. The horse is seen returning without a rider, walking on the ground this time, and, of course, devoid of the [[chatra]] parasol over it this time. When Siddharta stays in the forest, he is symbolized by the two soles of his feet (extreme right). Siddharta has renounced the world.<ref>The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996 [https://books.google.fr/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA4 p. 4]</ref>
|-
|Central front architrave, right
|align="center"|[[File:Yakshini Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|The famous [[Yakshini]], under foliage and hanging in front of an elephant, on the side.of the East Gateway.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillar capitals'''
|-
|Right capital
|align="center"|[[File:Elephants Eastern Gateway Stupa 1 Sanchi.jpg|120px]]
|The pillars of the Eastern Gateway feature elephants in the four direction, conducted by [[mahut]]s holding a Buddhist banner. They are gathered around a pillar of square section, decorated with a [[flame palmette]] design. A [[Yakshini]] under foliage flanks them on the side.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillars'''
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Front face'''
|-
|style="width: 10%;"|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Chankrama Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway Left pillar Front top panel.jpg|120px]]
|'''The Miracle of Walking in the air at Savrasti'''. While the Buddha walks in the air, devotees are aligned and look upwards. The Buddha is not visible ([[aniconism]]), and only his path ([[chankrama]]) is, separating the panel horizontally in two parts.
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Pipal tree temple of Bodh Gaya depicted in Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|[[File:Diamond throne discovery.jpg|thumb|150px|The [[Diamond throne]] as discovered.]]
'''Temple for the [[Bodhi Tree]] in [[Bodh Gaya]]'''. 
The illumination of the Buddha occurred here under the [[Bodhi Tree]] at [[Bodh Gaya]], and Asoka built a [[Diamond throne]] at the location, as well as a temple to protect the Bodhi Tree within. Spreading through its upper windows, the branches of the sacred tree can be seen. To right and left of the temple are four figures in an attitude of adoration, perhaps the Guardian Kings of the Four Quarters ([[Lokapalas]]).<ref name="Marshall 60" />

The throne was discovered after excavations near the location of the Bodhi tree in the 19th century, and is now revered at the [[Mahabodhi Temple]] in [[Bodh Gaya]].
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Miracle of the Buddha walking on a River - East Face - South Pillar - East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi.jpg|120px]]
|'''Miracle of the Buddha walking on the River [[Nairanjana]]'''. The Nairanjana river is shown in flood and [[Kasyapa]] accompanied by a disciple and a boatman are hastening in a boat to the rescue of the Buddha. Then, in the lower part of the picture, the Buddha, represented by his promenade (chahbama), appears walking on the face of the waters, and in the foreground the figures of Kasyapa and his disciple are twice repeated, now on dry ground and doing homage to the Master (represented by the throne at the right hand, bottom corner).<ref name="Marshall 60" /> 
Throughout, The Buddha is not visible (aniconism), only represented by a path on the water, and his empty throne bottom right.<ref name="Marshall 60">Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 60ff] Public Domain text</ref>
|-
|Bottom panel
|align="center"|[[File:Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of Rajagriha to visit the Buddha.jpg|120px]]
|'''[[Bimbisara]] with his royal cortege issuing from the city of [[Rajagriha]] to visit the Buddha'''. Bimbisara with his royal cortege issuing from the city of [[Rajagriha]], on a visit to the Buddha, here symbolized by his empty throne. This visit took place after the conversion of [[Kasyapa]], which was brought about by a series of miracles, one of which is illustrated in the panel above.<ref name="Marshall 60" />
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Inner face''' (This face is concerned with the miracles by which Buddha converted the [[Brahman]] [[Kasyapa]] and his disciples.)
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Visit of Indra and Brahma to the Buddha Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway Left pillar Inner top panel.jpg|120px]]
|'''Visit of [[Indra]] and [[Brahma]] to the Buddha'''. The visit of [[Indra]] and [[Brahma]] to the Buddha takes place in the town of [[Uruvilva]]. Near the center of the panel is the throne indicating the presence of the Buddha, surmounted by the umbrella; behind it, Indra and Brahma standing in an attitude of adoration; in the background, the houses of Uruvilva and the people at their daily tasks. To the left, a man and woman, the woman grinding spices on a "cari" stone; nearby, to the right, another woman is at work at a table, while a third is pounding rice with pestle and mortar, and a fourth winnowing the grain with a fan. In the foreground is the river Nairanjana, with cattle on its banks and a woman drawing water in a pitcher. One of the villagers has his hands joined in the attitude of prayer.<ref name="Marshall 60" />
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Buddha tames the Naga at Uruvela Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway Left pillar Inner 2nd panel.jpg|120px]]
|'''Buddha tames the [[Nāga|Naga]] at [[Uruvilva]]''' This panel is about the victory of the Buddha over the serpent in the fire chapel at Uruvilva. The Buddha obtained the permission of Kasyapa to pass the night in a fire chapel at his hermitage, which was inhabited by a fearsome [[Nāga|Naga]]. The Naga attacked him with smoke and fire but was met with the same weapons, and being overcome crept into the Buddha's begging bowl. In the middle of the panel is the fire temple with a fire altar in front and a throne indicating the presence of the Buddha within, while behind the throne is the five-headed Naga. Flames are issuing from the windows in the roof. On either side of the temple are the Brahmanical ascetics standing in an attitude of respect and veneration. 
In the foreground, to the right, is a leaf-hut (parna-sala) and an ascetic at its threshold seated on a mat, with his knees bound up by a band and his hair (jafa) twisted turban-wise about his head. Evidently he is a Brahman doing penance. Before him is another Brahman standing and apparently reporting to him the miracle; and near by is a small fire altar and the instruments of [[Vedic]] sacrifice. To the left is the Nairanjana river, in which another ascetic is bathing and from which three young novices are drawing water.<ref name="Marshall 60" />
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Miracle of fire and wood Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''The miracle of fire and wood'''. This is a depicting of the miracles of the wood, the fire and the offering. In the story of [[Kasyapa]]'s conversion it is related that, after the miracle of the fire temple, a sacrifice was prepared by the Brahmans, but the wood for the fire could not be split, the fire could not be made to burn, and the oblation could not be offered, until in each case the Buddha gave his consent. 
In the relief, this triple miracle is dramatically represented. In the foreground, to the right, a [[Brahman]] ascetic has his axe raised to split the wood, but the axe will not descend until Buddha gives the word; then we see the axe driven home into the log. Similarly, a Brahman is engaged fanning the fire on an altar, but the fire will not burn until the Buddha permits it. Then we see the altar repeated and flames blazing upon it. The third phase of the miracle, that of the oblation, is indicated by the single figure of a Brahman holding an oblation spoon over a flaming altar. 
The other figures in this panel, of two novices bringing wood and provisions, are mere accessories, while the [[stupa]] in the background, decorated with shell designs and surrounded by a square railing, serves to give local color to the scene.<ref name="Marshall 60" />
|-
|Bottom panel
|align="center"|[[File:Dvarapala - North Face - South Pillar - East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4441.JPG|120px]]
|[[Dvarapala]] guardian.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar, Inner Face''' (This face of the pillar is devoted to scenes at [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]], the birthplace of Gautama) 
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Homage of King Suddhodana Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway Right pillar inner top panel.jpg|120px]]
|'''Homage of King [[Suddhodana]] to the Buddha'''. In the center, the tree and throne of the Buddha, with a group of worshipers around, including King Suddhodana, the father of the Buddha, who is standing immediately in front of the throne. The king wears the same headdress here as in the panel below. The episode represented is the homage paid by the King
to his son after his return to Kapilavastu.<ref name="Marshall 60" />
|-
|Second panel
|align="center"|[[File:Procession of king Suddhodana from Kapilavastu in full Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''Procession of king [[Suddhodana]] from [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]]'''.
[[File:Maya's dream Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern gateway.jpg|thumb|200px|At the top of the panel, [[Maya (mother of the Buddha)|Maya]]'s dream of the visit of an elephant, in [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]]. See also [[s:The Life of Buddha/Part One/2. Maya's Dream|Maya's Dream (in "The life of Buddha)"]].]]
At the top is portrayed the dream of [[Maya (mother of the Buddha)|Maya]], the mother of the Buddha, otherwise called the conception of the [[Bodhisattva]]. Maya, the queen, is
seen lying in a pavilion of the palace, and on her is descending the Bodhisattva in the form of a white elephant. This scene, which was well known to all Buddhists, serves to identify the city here represented as [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]]. 
Below it is a royal procession threading its way through the streets of the city and issuing forth from the gate. This is the procession of King Suddhodana, when he went forth to meet his son on his return to Kapilavastu. Then, at the bottom of the panel, is portrayed the miracle which Buddha performed on this occasion by walking in mid-air; and, in the extreme
left hand bottom corner, is a [[banyan tree]] (nyagrodha) to signify the park of banyans which Suddhodana presented to his son. The Buddha walking in mid-air is represented, as on the Northern Gateway, by his promenade (chankrama); and suggested by the upturned faces of the king and his retinue as they gaze wonderingly on the miracle.<ref name="Marshall 60" />
|-
|Bottom panel
|align="center"|[[File:Dvarapala - South Face - North Pillar - East Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4438.JPG|120px]]
|[[Dvarapala]] guardian.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar, Front Face'''
|-
|Full length
|align="center"|[[File:The six inferior heavens of the Gods Sanchi Stupa 1 East Gateway Right pillar front.jpg|120px]]
|'''The six inferior heavens of the Gods'''. The six inferior heavens of the gods ([[Devaloka]]s ) or "Kamavachara heavens", in which the passions are still unsubdued, an integral part of [[Buddhist cosmology]]. Starting from the base they are as follows: (1) The heaven of the Four Great Kings: the Regents of the Four Quarters ([[Lokapala]]; [[Chaturmaharajika]]); (2) The heaven of the Thirty-three gods ([[Trayastrimisa]]) over whom [[Śakra (Buddhism)|Sakra]] presides; (3) The heaven over which [[Yama]], the God of Death, reigns, where there is no change of day or night; (4) The Tushita heaven, where the [[Bodhisattvas]] are born before they appear on earth as the saviors of mankind, and where Maitreya now resides; (5) The heaven of the [[Nirmanarati]], who create their own pleasures; (6) The heaven of the [[Parinirmita]]-[[Vasavartin]] gods, who indulge in pleasures created for them by others and over whom [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] is king. 
Each of these six heavens or devalokas is represented by a storey of a palace, the front of which is divided by pillars into three bays, the pillars in the alternate storeys being
either plain or provided with elaborate Persepolitan capitals. In the central bay there sits a god, like an Indian king, holding a thunderbolt ([[vajra]]) in his right hand and a flask containing nectar ([[amrita]]) in his left. Behind him are his women attendants holding the royal umbrella ([[Muttra]]) and flywhisk ([[chauri]]). In the bay to his right, seated on a slightly lower seat, is his viceroy (uparaja); and to his left are the court musicians and dancers. With slight variations the same figures are repeated in each of the six heavens.
Nothing, perhaps, could give a better idea of the monotony of pleasure in the Buddhist heavens than the sameness of these reiterations. 
The topmost panel of all, with two figures seated on a terrace and attendants behind, is treated quite differently from the Devalokas below and appears to represent the lowest of the Brahmaloka, which according to the Buddhist ideas rise above the inferior heavens.<ref>A Guide to Sanchi, Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 62ff] Public Domain text</ref>
|}<noinclude>

==== Stupa 1 Western Gateway ====
The Western Gateway of Stupa 1 is the last of the four gateway of the Great Stupa to have been built.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="3" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = {{{1<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} align=center colspan=3 style="background:#E9967A; font-size: 100%;"| '''[[:Commons:Category:Sanchi gateways : West gateway of stupa 1|Western Gateway]]''' ("Great Stupa" No1, Sanchi, 1st century BCE/CE.)
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"style="font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"|[[File:Sanchi portique ouest.jpg|250px]]
|'''The Western Gateway of Stupa 1'''. The Western Gateway of Stupa 1 is one of the four richly carved gateways or [[torana]]s, surrounding Stupa 1, the "Great Stupa". It is the last of the four gateway to have been constructed.
Like the other gateways, the Western Gateway is composed of two square pillars surmounted by capitals, which in their turn support a superstructure of three architraves with volute ends.<ref name="Marshall 37"/>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Architraves'''
|-
|align=center|[[File:West Torana, Sanchi 03.jpg|120px]]
Front architraves
|align=center|[[File:Upper part of the gateway at Sanchi Stupa.jpg|120px]]
Rear architraves
||The architraves are all almost intact, but there are almost no remains of "in the round" decorations around or on top of the lintels. Only remains a fragment of [[capital (architecture)|capital]] with a base composed of lions, at the center top of the [[torana]].
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:King of the Mallas bringing the relics of the Buddha to Kushinagara.jpg|250px]]
Rear top architrave
|'''King of the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s bringing the relics of the Buddha to [[Kushinagara]]'''. After the death of the Buddha his relics were taken possession of by the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s of [[Kushinagara]], whose chief is here depicted riding on an elephant and bearing the relics into the town of Kusinagara on his own head. The tree behind the throne in front of the city gate appears to be a [[Shala tree]] ( shorea robusta ), and to refer to the fact that Buddha's [[parinirvana]] took place in a grove of those trees. The two groups of figures carrying banners and offerings, which occupy the ends of this architrave, are probably connected with the central scene, serving to indicate the rejoicing of the Mallakas over the possession of the relics.<ref name="Marshall 68" />
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:Siege of Kushinagara by the seven kings.jpg|250px]]
Rear middle architrave
|[[File:King of the Mallas under siege.jpg|thumb|120px|King of the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s of [[Kushinagara]] under siege (left end of the architrave).]]
'''Siege of [[Kushinagara]] by the seven kings.''' This is another portrayal of "The war of the relics" (see Southern Gateway architrave). Here the seven rival claimants, distinguished by their seven royal umbrellas, are advancing with their armies to the city of [[Kushinagara]], the siege of which has not yet begun. The seated royal figure at the left end of
the architrave may represent the chief of the [[Malla (tribe)|Mallaka]]s within the city. The princely figures in the corresponding relief at the right end appear to be repetitions of some of the rival claimants.<ref name="Marshall 68" />
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:Temptation of the Buddha with Mara's army fleeing.jpg|250px]]
Rear bottom architrave
|'''Temptation of the Buddha with [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]'s army fleeing.''' This scene extends over the three sections of the architrave, In the center is the temple of [[Bodh Gaya]] with the [[pipal tree]] and the throne of the Buddha within; to the right, the armies of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] fleeing discomfited from the Buddha; to the left, the devas celebrating the victory of the Buddha over the Evil One and exalting his glorious achievements. The temple at Bodh Gaya, which enclosed the [[Bodhi tree]], was built two centuries later by Emperor [[Ashoka]]. Its portrayal in this scene, therefore, is an anachronism.<ref name="Marshall 68" /> 
{{See also|s:The Life of Buddha/Part One/20. Siddhartha Becomes the Buddha|l1=Siddhartha Becomes the Buddha (in "The Life of Buddha")}}
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillar capitals'''
|-
|[[File:Dwarfs - West Face - North Pillar - West Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4326.JPG|120px]]
Left
|[[File:Dwarfs - West Face - South Pillar - West Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4322.JPG|120px]]
Right
|The pillar capitals consist in groups of four [[Yaksha]]s (tectonic deities) supporting the architraves.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillars'''
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Front face'''
|-
|style="width: 10%;"|Unique panel
|align="center"|[[File:Scenes of Enjoyments - West Face - North Pillar - West Gateway - Stupa 1 - Sanchi.jpg|120px]]
|'''Paradise of Indra'''. Probably the "Paradise of [[Indra]]" ([[nandana]]) with the river [[Mandakini River|Mandakini]] in the foreground. This can be related to the scenes on the North Gateway and on the small gateway of the Third Stupa.<ref name="Marshall 68" />
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Inner face'''
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Syama Jataka Sanchi Stupa 1Western Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|'''[[Syama Jataka]]''' Syama, the Buddha in a previous life, was the only son of a blind hermit and his wife, whom he supports with devotion. One day, Syama goes to draw water at the river and is shot with an arrow by the King of [[Benares]], who is out hunting. Owing to the king's penitence and his parents' sorrow [[Indra]] intervenes and allows Syama to be healed and his parents' sight to be restored. At the right hand top corner of the panel arc the two hermitages with the father and mother seated in front of them. Below them their son Syama is coming to draw water from the stream. Then, to the left, we see the figure of the King thrice repeated, first shooting the lad in the water, then with bow in hand, then standing penitent with bow and arrow discarded; and in the left top corner are the father, mother and son restored to health, and by their side the god Indra and the king. The Buddha in a previous life was thus given as an example of [[filial piety]].<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 Marshall]</ref>
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Enlightenment of the Buddha with the Nagas rejoincing.jpg|120px]]
|'''Enlightenment of the Buddha with the [[Nāga|Nagas]] rejoincing'''. The scene depicts the enlightenment (sambodhi ) of the Buddha. In the center is the throne of the Buddha beneath the [[pipal tree]], which is being garlanded by angels ([[gandharvas]]); round about are the [[Nāga|Nagas]] and Nagis celebrating the victory of the Buddha over [[Mara (demon)|Mara]].<ref name="p.73">Marshall [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 73]</ref> See also: [[s:The Life of Buddha/Part One/20. Siddhartha Becomes the Buddha|Siddhartha Becomes the Buddha (in "The Life of Buddha")]].
|-
|Bottom panel
|align="center"|[[File:Miraculous crossing of the Ganges by the Buddha when he left Rajagriha to visit Vaisali.jpg|120px]]
|[[File:Maisey Sanchi relief.jpg|thumb|120px|Full relief.<ref name="Maisey" />]]
'''Miraculous crossing of the [[Ganges]] by the Buddha when he left [[Rajagriha]] to visit [[Vaisali]]''' (partial remain). Only the upper part of this panel remains, but it appears to depict the miraculous crossing of the Ganges by the Buddha when he left [[Rajagriha]] to visit [[Vaisali]]. 
The lower part of the panel appears to have been cut away, when the gateway was restored by Col. Cole. The panel is shown complete in Maisey's illustration in ''Sanchi and its remains'' (Plaque XXI)<ref name="Maisey">Maisey, ''Sanchi and its remains", [https://archive.org/details/cu31924095909390 Plaque XXI]</ref>
<ref name="p.73"/> See also: [[s:The Life of Buddha/Part Three/16. The Buddha Instructs the Monks of Vaisali|The Buddha Instructs the Monks of Vaisali (in "The Life of Buddha")]]
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar, Inner Face'''
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Temptation and enlightenment of the Buddha.jpg|120px]]
|'''Enlightenment of the Buddha with [[Mara (demon)|Mara]]'s army fleeing'''. The enlightenment ([[sambodhi]]) of the Buddha. Towards the top of the panel is the [[pipal tree]] and the throne of the Buddha, and round them a throng of worshipers, men and women, gods and animals. It is the moment after the discomfiture of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]] and his hosts. The [[Nāga|Nagas]], winged creatures, angels and archangels, each urging his comrades on, went up to the Great Being at the [[Bodhi tree]]'s foot and as they came they shouted for joy that the sage had won; that the Tempter was overthrown. 
The deva with the giant head, riding either on the elephant or on the lion to the right of the panel, is probably meant to be [[Indra]] or [[Brahma]]. The interpretation of the three sorrowing figures standing on three sides of the throne in the foreground is problematical. In the Mahabhinishkramana scene on the East Gateway we have already seen that the artist inserted a [[jambul|jambu]] tree in the middle of the panel, to remind the spectator of the first meditation of the Bodhisattva and the path on which it led him. So, here, these three figures, which are strikingly similar to the three sorrowing Yakshas in the Mahdbhinishkramana scene and were probably executed by the same hand, may be a reminder of the Great Renunciation which led to the attainment of Buddhahood, the gateway behind being also a reminder of the gateway of [[Kapilavastu (ancient city)|Kapilavastu]].<ref name="Marshall 68">Marshall "A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 68ff] Public Domain text</ref> See also: [[s:The Life of Buddha/Part One/20. Siddhartha Becomes the Buddha|Siddhartha Becomes the Buddha (in "The Life of Buddha")]].
|-
|Second panel
|align="center"|[[File:The Gods entreating Buddha to preach Sanchi Stupa 1 Western Gateway right pillar Inner panel No2.jpg|120px]]
|'''The Gods entreating Buddha to preach'''. The gods entreating the Buddha to preach. The Buddhist scriptures tell us that after his enlightenment the Buddha hesitated to make known the truth to the world. Then [[Brahma]], [[Indra]], the four [[Lokapalas]] (Regents of the Four Quarters) and the archangels of the heavens approached him and besought him to turn the Wheel of the Law. It was when the Buddha was seated beneath the banyan tree (nyagrodha) shortly after his enlightenment, that this entreaty was made, and it is a banyan tree with the throne beneath that is depicted in this relief. The four figures side by side in the foreground may be the four Lokapalas.<ref name="Marshall 68" /> See also: [[s:The Life of Buddha/Part Two/2. The Buddha is Prepared to Preach the Doctrine|The Buddha is Prepared to Preach the Doctrine (in "The Life of Buddha")]].
|-
|Bottom panel
|align="center"|[[File:Dvarapala Sanchi Stupa 1 Western Gateway.jpg|120px]]
|[[Dvarapala]] guardian.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar, Front Face'''
|-
|Top panel
|align="center"|[[File:Mahakapi Jataka.jpg|120px]]
|'''[[Mahakapi Jataka]]'''. The story runs that the [[Bodhisattva]] was born as a monkey, ruler over 80,000 monkeys. They lived at a spot near the [[Ganges]] and ate of the fruit of a great [[mango tree]]. King [[Brahmadatta]] of [[Benares]], desiring to possess the mangoes, surrounded the tree with his soldiers, in order to kill the animals, but the Bodhisattva formed a bridge over the stream with his own body and by this means enabled the whole tribe to escape into safety. 
[[File:Mahakapi Jataka in Bharhut.jpg|120px|thumb|The Mahakapi Jataka in [[Bharhut]].]]
[[Devadatta]], the jealous and wicked cousin of the Buddha, was in that life one of the monkeys and, thinking it a good chance to destroy his enemy, jumped on the Bodhisattva's back and broke his heart. The king, seeing the good deed of the Bodhisattva and repenting of his own attempt to kill him, tended him with great care when he was dying and
afterwards gave him royal obsequies. 
Down the panel of the relief flows, from top to bottom, the river Ganges. To the left, at the top, is the great mango tree to which two monkeys are clinging, while the king of the monkeys is stretched across the river from the mango tree to the opposite bank, and over his body some monkeys have already escaped to the rocks and jungles beyond. In
the lower part of the panel, to the left, is king Brahmadatta on horseback with his soldiers, one of whom with bow and arrow is aiming upwards at the Bodhisattva. Higher up the panel the figure of the king is repeated, sitting beneath the mango tree and conversing with the dying Bodhisattva, who, according to the Jataka story, gave the king good advice on the duties of a chief.<ref name="Marshall 68" />
|-
|2nd panel
|align="center"|[[File:The Bodhisattva preaching in the Tushita Heaven Sanchi Stupa 1 Western Gateway Right pillar Front second panel.jpg|120px]]
|'''The [[Bodhisattva]] preaching in the [[Tushita]] Heaven'''. In the center of the panel is the tree and throne of the Buddha, and round about the throne a company of gods standing upon clouds in attitudes of adoration. At the top of the panel are [[gandharvas]] bringing garlands and below them, on each side of the
tree, come [[Indra]] and [[Brahma]], riding on lion-like creatures. A conventional method is used to depict the clouds beneath the feet of the gods in the foreground and among the figures in the upper part of the panel. They have the appearance almost of rocks with flames breaking from them.<ref name="Marshall 68" />
|-
|3rd panel
|align="center"|[[File:Visit of Sakra Sanchi Western Gateway Right Pillar 3rd Front panel.jpg|120px]]
|'''The visit of Sakra'''. The Buddha, represented by his throne, beneath a flowery tree with hills and jungle around. Possibly the tree is the [[Rajayatana]] tree at [[Bodh Gaya]], beneath which the Buddha sat shortly after his enlightenment. The figures in the foreground adoring the Buddha appear to be [[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]].<ref name="Marshall 68" />
|-
|4th panel
|align="center"|[[File:Sanchi - lions.JPG|120px]]
|'''Heraldic lions'''. Three heraldic lions standing on conventionalized floral device. The turn in the upper leaves is peculiar. This method of treating foliage is peculiar to the Early School and is never found in later work. The inscription over this panel records that the pillar was a gift of Balamitra, pupil of Ayachuda (Arya-kshudra).<ref name="Marshall 68" />
|}<noinclude>

==== Stupa 3 Southern Gateway ====
The gateway of Stupa No 3, is the last of all the [[Satavahana]] gateways that were built at Sanchi. It is located to the immediate south of Stupa No 3, is smaller than the four gateways encircling the Great Stupa. It is also slightly older, and generally dated to the 1st century CE.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="3" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = {{{1<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} align=center colspan=3 style="background:#90EE90; font-size: 100%;"| '''[[:Commons:Category:Sanchi gateways : South gateway of stupa 3|Southern Gateway]]''' (Stupa No 3, Sanchi. 1st century CE.)
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"style="font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"|[[File:Sanchi Stupa No.2 Front view1.jpg|240px]]
|The gateway of Stupa No 3, located to the immediate south of Stupa No 3, is smaller than the four gateways encircling the Great Stupa. It is also slightly older, and generally dated to the 1st century CE. This gateway stands 17 feet high, and is adorned with reliefs in the same style as those on the gateways of the Great Stupa. Indeed, the majority of these reliefs are mere repetitions of the subjects and scenes portrayed on the larger gateways, with a few exceptions, especially the front face of the lowest architrave.<ref name="Marshall 83">Marshall, " A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 83] Public Domain text</ref>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Architraves'''
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|Front architraves [[File:Stupa 3 front architraves.jpg|240px]]
|Architrave posts, or "false capitals", are roughly square-shaped and can be seen at the junction between architrave and pillar, and between the architraves themselves. Here, there are nine of them altogether on just the surface of the front architraves.
<gallery>
File:Torana of Stupa 3 in Sanchi Foreigner fighting a Makara.jpg|Foreign heroe fighting a [[Makara (Hindu mythology)|Makara]]
Stupa 3 front architrave bottom panel right post.jpg|Hero with headband wrestling a Makara.
File:Torana of Stupa 3 in Sanchi Foreign riders.jpg|Foreigners riding horses.
File:Stupa 3 front architraves middle panel right post.jpg|Indians riding horses.
File:Stupa 3 front architraves top panel left post.jpg|Indians riding bulls.
File:Stupa 3 front architraves top panel right post.jpg|Indians riding bulls.
File:059 Queen Maya lustrated by Elephants (33364982300).jpg|Queen Maya lustrated by Elephants.
File:024 Buddha represented by Dharmacakra (32936540413).jpg|The Buddha represented by the [[Dharmacakra]].
File:025 Bodhi Tree (32936538733).jpg|Bodhi Tree.
</gallery>
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:Stupa 3 front architraves top panel.jpg|240px]]
Top front architrave
|[[File:GandharaScrolls.JPG|thumb|Floral scrolls in the art of Gandhara.]]
Genies among foliage forming scrolls. This kind of scrolls are generally considered to be of [[Hellenistic art|Hellenistic]] origin, and were to be used extensively in the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]] as well.<ref>Buddhist Art in India, Ceylon, and Java, Jean Philippe Vogel, Adriaan Jacob Barnouw, Asian Educational Services, 1936 [https://books.google.com/books?id=wQ2x0cbZkn0C&pg=PA41 p. 41]</ref><ref>The Goose in Indian Literature and Art, Brill Archive [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMsUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA58 p. 58]</ref>
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:Stupa 3 front architrave middle panel.jpg|240px]]
Middle front architrave
|Buddhas represented by a [[Chaitya]] and two [[Bodhi Tree]]s and empty thrones.
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:019 Nandanavana with Indra (32936548653).jpg|240px]]
Bottom front architrave
|The only scene which differs materially from those on the gateways of the Great Stupa is the one delineated on the front face of the lowest architrave, which appears to represent the Heaven of [[Indra]] ([[Nandanavana]]). In the centre is the pavilion of the god, with Indra himself seated on a throne surrounded by women attendants. In the foreground is the river MandakinI, which bounds the heaven of Indra, and to right and left of the pavilion are mountains and jungle forming a pleasure-garden for the gods and demigods who are taking their case therein. Then, in the corners next to the false capitals, are [[Nāga|Naga]] kings seated with their attendants on the folds of seven-hooded Nagas, whose coils mingled with the waters of the river are carried through to the ends of the architrave, and go to form the spirals adorning its extremities. The sea monsters ([[Makara Guardians|Makaras]]) and the heroes wrestling with them, which are portrayed on the false capitals of this architrave, are particularly appropriate in this position, where their coils combine effectively with those of the Nagas.<ref name="Marshall 83" />
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|Rear architraves [[File:Stupa 3 rear architraves.jpg|240px]] 
|Ordered left to right, from top to bottom:
<gallery>
File:046 Lion (33593460712).jpg|Winged lion.
File:047 Lions (33365000720).jpg|Winged lions.
File:057 Buddha represented by Dharmacakra (33749746625).jpg|The Buddha represented by the [[Dharmacakra]].
File:051 Men and Women on Elephants (33364997340).jpg|Men and Women on Elephants.
File:052 Men and Women on Elephants (33364996150).jpg|Men and Women on Elephants.
File:062 Stupa representing a Buddha (33620520931).jpg|[[Stupa]] representing a Buddha.
File:027 Lakshmi lustrated by Elephants (32936535203).jpg|[[Lakshmi]] lustrated by Elephants.
File:056 Men on Lions (33749747015).jpg|Men on lions.
File:026 Men on Lions (33593372572).jpg|Men on lions.
</gallery>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillar capitals'''
|-
|[[File:Stupa 3 Left pillar capital.jpg|110px]]
Left
|[[File:Stupa 3 Right pillar capital.jpg|110px]]
Right
|The pillar capitals consist in groups of four [[Yaksha]]s (tectonic deities) supporting the architraves. This choice is similar to the last of the gateways of the Great Stupa, the Western Gateway.
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#DCDCDC; font-size: 100%;"| '''Pillars'''
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Front face'''
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:Stupa 3 Adoration of a Stupa Sanchi South Gateway Left pillar top panel.jpg|Adoration of a Stupa.|150px]]
|The variety and the detail of the pillar panels is much less than at the Great Stupa. Here the first panel shows the adoration of a stupa by four Indian devotees. Then, other devotees simply line up in the second and the third panels below.
<gallery>
File:Stupa 3 Left pillar front second panel.jpg|2nd panel
File:Stupa 3 Left pillar front third panel.jpg|3rd panel
</gallery>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Inner face'''
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[File:041 Worshipping the Bodhi Tree (32906630124).jpg|150px]]
Top panel.
|Worshipping the Bodhi Tree. This classic and rather simply depicted scene is again the unique didactic scene on this face of the pillar. The following panel in only composed of aligned devotee, and at the bottom is a panel with [[Dvarapala]] guardian deity as seen on the other gateways, or possibly a devotee, as he seems not to be armed.
<gallery>
File:042 Devotees Worshipping (33709076186).jpg|Second panel
043 Devotee (33709073556).jpg|Bottom panel [[Dvarapala]] guardian deity or devotee.
</gallery>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Left pillar, Rear face'''
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[File:063 Dharmacakra on Pillar (33620519361).jpg|150px]]
Top panel.
|Uncharacteristically, the rear panel of the left pillar of the gateway is fully decorated, down to its bottom. This can be explained by the fact that the stupa is not surrounded by a railing as in the Great Stupa, therefore rendering this rear space free. The right pillar of the gateway however does not have decoration on the back. The top panel is the [[Dharmacakra]] on a Pillar.
<gallery>
File:064 Worshipping the Bodhi Tree (33620517001).jpg|Second panel
File:Stupa 3 Left pillar rear Bottom panel.jpg|Possibly demons, or the attack of [[Mara (demon)|Mara]].
</gallery>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar, Inner Face'''
|-
|colspan=2 align=center|[[File:037 Worshipping the Bodhi Tree (32936624133).jpg|150px]]
Top panel.
|Worshipping the Bodhi Tree. This classic and rather simply depicted scene is again the unique didactic scene on this face of the pillar. It even faces a similar "Worshipping the Bodhi Tree" scene on the pillar surface facing it across the entrance. The next panel going down is only composed of aligned devotees, and at the bottom is a panel with [[Dvarapala]] guardian deity as seen on the other gateways, or possibly a devotee, as he seems not to be armed.
<gallery>
File:038 Devotees Worshipping (32906635894).jpg|Second panel
File:039 Devotee (33749765915).jpg|Bottom panel [[Dvarapala]] guardian deity or devotee.
</gallery>
|-
|align=center colspan=3 style="background:#F5F5F5; font-size: 100%;"| '''Right pillar, Front Face'''
|-
|colspan=2 align="center"|[[File:Adoration of the pillar of Ashoka Sanchi Stupa 3 South Gateway Right pillar top panel.jpg|Adoration of the pillar of [[Ashoka]].|150px]]
|[[File:Sanchi capital right side view.jpg|thumb|100px|This would be the [[Ashoka]]n capital (wheel lost) depicted in this panel.]]
Again variety and the detail of the pillar panels is much less than at the Great Stupa. The first panel however is extremely interesting, as it shows the adoration of what looks like the pillar of Ashoka at the Southern Gateway of the Great Stupa. Then other devotees simply line up in the second and the third panels below.
<gallery>
File:Stupa 3 Right pillar front second panel.jpg|2nd panel
File:Stupa 3 Right pillar front third panel.jpg|3rd panel
</gallery>
|}<noinclude>

== Later periods ==
[[File:Stupas and monasteries at Sanchi in the early centuries of the Christian era.jpg|thumb|300px|Stupas and monasteries at Sanchi in the early centuries of the current era. Reconstruction, 1900]]
Further stupas and other religious Buddhist structures were added over the centuries until the 12th century CE.

===Western Satraps===
The rule of the Satavahanas in the area Sanchi during the 1st centuries BCE/CE is well attested by the finds of Satavahana copper coins in [[Vidisha]], [[Ujjain]] and [[Eran]] in the name of [[Satakarni]], as well as the Satakarni inscription on the Southern Gateway of Stupa No.1.<ref name="Shaw 58" />

Soon after, however, the region fell to the [[Indo-Scythians|Scythian]] [[Western Satraps]], possibly under [[Nahapana]] (120 CE),<ref>Indian Numismatic Studies by K. D. Bajpai [https://books.google.com/books?id=chGrJUMarHoC&pg=PA100 p. 100]</ref> and then certainly under [[Rudradaman I]] (130-150 CE), as shown by his inscriptions in [[Junagadh]].<ref name="Shaw 58" /> The Satavahanas probably regained the region for some time, but were again replaced by the Western Satraps in the mid-3rd century CE, during the rule of [[Rudrasena II (Western Satrap)|Rudrasena II]] (255-278 CE). The Western Satraps remained well into the 4th century as shown by the nearby [[Kanakerha inscription]] mentioning the construction of a well by the Saka chief and "righteous conqueror" [[Sridharavarman]], who ruled circa 339-368 CE.<ref name="Shaw 58">Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD, Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 [https://books.google.fr/books?id=IUbUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PR58 pp. 58-59]</ref> Therefore, it seems that the [[Kushan Empire]] did not extend to the Sanchi area, and the few Kushan works of art found in Sanchi appear to have come from [[Mathura]].<ref name="Shaw 58" /> In particular, a few Mathura statues in the name of the Kushan ruler [[Vasishka]] (247-267 CE) were found in Sanchi.<ref name="S7">{{cite book |last1=Mitra |first1=Debala |title=Sanchi |date=2001 |publisher=Archeological Survey of India |page=[https://archive.org/details/sanchi00mitr/page/7 7] Note 1 |url=https://archive.org/details/sanchi00mitr}}</ref><ref name="CAT29">{{cite book |last1=Kuraishi |first1=Mohammad Hamid |last2=Kak |first2=Ram Chandra |last3=Chanda |first3=Ramaprasad |last4=Marshall |first4=John Hubert |title=Catalogue of the Museum of Archaeology at Sanchi, Bhopal State |date=1922 |publisher=Calcutta, Superintendent Government Printing, India |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924023945110/page/n36 29]–32 |url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924023945110}}</ref>

===Guptas===
The next rulers of the area were the Guptas.<ref name="Shaw 58" /> Inscriptions of a victorious [[Chandragupta II]] in the year 412-423 CE can be found on the railing near the Eastern Gateway of the Great Stupa.<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of India [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p. 388]</ref>

[[File:Sanchi, inscription of Chandragupta II.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]].]]
[[File:Sanchi temple 17.jpg|thumb|Temple 17: a [[Gupta period]] [[tetrastyle]] [[prostyle]] temple of [[Classical architecture|Classical]] appearance. 5th century CE<ref name="books.google.com">[https://books.google.com/books?id=CyLiDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT283 2500 Years of Buddhism by P.V. Bapat, p. 283]</ref>]]
{{blockquote|"The glorious Candragupta (II), (...) who proclaims in the world the good behaviour of the excellent people, namely, the dependents (of the king), and who has acquired banners of victory and fame in many battles"|[[Sanchi inscription of Chandragupta II]], 412-413 CE.<ref>Marshall, The Monuments of India [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 p. 388 inscription 833]</ref>}}

Temple 17 is an early stand-alone [[temple]] (following the great cave temples of [[Indian rock-cut architecture]]), as it dates to the early [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] period (probably first quarter of 5th century CE). It may have been built for Buddhist use (which is not certain), but the type of which it represents a very early version was to become very significant in [[Hindu temple architecture]].<ref>Rowland, 219-220; Harle, 111; Michell (1988), 94</ref> It consists of a flat roofed square sanctum with a portico and four pillars. The interior and three sides of the exterior are plain and undecorated but the front and the pillars are elegantly carved, giving the temple an almost 'classical' appearance,<ref name="books.google.com"/> not unlike the 2nd century rock-cut cave temples of the [[Nasik Caves]]. The four columns are more traditional, the octagonal shafts rising from square bases to bell capitals, surmounted by large [[Abacus (architecture)|abacus]] blocks carved with back-to-back lions.<ref>Rowland, 219-220</ref>

Next to Temple 17 stands Temple 18, the framework of a mostly 7th-century apsidal [[chaitya]]-hall temple, again perhaps Buddhist or Hindu, that was rebuilt over an earlier hall. This was probably covered by a wood and thatch roof.<ref>Rowland, 219; Michell (1990), 185</ref>

Near the Northwern Gateway also used to stand a [[Vajrapani]] pillar. Another pillar of [[Padmapani]] used to stand, and [[:File:WLA vanda The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.jpg|the statue]] is now in the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]], [[London]].

=== Lion pillar No 26 ===
[[File:Pillar 26 capital at Sanchi.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Pillar 26: one of the two four-lions [[stambha]] capitals at Sanchi, with lions, central [[flame palmette]] and [[Wheel of Law]] (axis, stubs of the spokes and part of the circumference only), initially located at the Northern Gateway of the Great Stupa. [[Sanchi Archaeological Museum]].]]
Pillar No26 stands a little to the north of the Sunga pillar No25. It belongs to the early Gupta age. Apart from its design, it is distinguished
from the other pillars on the site by the unusual quality and colour of its stone, which is harder than that ordinarily quarried in the [[Udayagiri Caves|Udayagiri hill]], and of a pale
buff hue splashed and streaked with amethyst. At Sanchi this particular variety of stone was used only in monuments of the Gupta period. This pillar was approximately 22 ft. 6 in. in height and was composed of two pieces only, one comprising the circular shaft and square base, the other the bell-capital, necking, lions and crowning [[chakra]]. On the northwest side of the lowest section, which is still in situ, is a short mutilated inscription in Gupta characters recording the gift of the pillar by a ''viharasvamin'' (master of a monastery), the son of Gotaisimhabala.<ref name="Marshall 96" />

[[File:Sanchi lion and wheel pillar by Cunningham.jpg|thumb|upright|Pillar 26: lion pillar capital at time of discovery, with [[Dharmachakra]] wheel (reconstruction). Northern Gateway.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cunningham |first1=Alexander |title=Report of Tours in Bundelkhand and Malwa in 1874-75 and 1876-77 |date=1 January 1880 |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India |page=Plate XXI |url=https://zenodo.org/record/3930384#.YvFZH3ZBxhE}}</ref>]]
As was usual with pillars of the Gupta age, the square base projected above the ground level, the projection in this case being 1 ft. 2 in., and was enclosed by a small square platform. The lion capital of this pillar is a feeble imitation of the one which surmounted the pillar of Asoka, with the addition of a wheel at the summit and with certain other variations of detail. For example, the cable necking above the bell-capital, is composed of a series of strands bound together with a riband. Also, the reliefs on the circular [[abacus (architecture)|abacus]], consist of birds and lotuses of unequal sizes disposed in irregular fashion, not with the symmetrical precision of earlier Indian art. Finally, these lions, like those on the pillars of the Southern Gateway, are provided with five claws on each foot, and their modelling exhibits little regard for truth and little artistry.<ref name="Marshall 96">Marshall "A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 96 Pillar 26]. Public Domain text</ref>

There has been much confusion about the dating of this pillars, since it was often presented from the beginning as a pillar of Ashoka. Marshall himself describes the pillar as early [[Gupta Empire]] in convincing terms, either from the points of view of material, technique or artistry.<ref name="Marshall 96" /> The Government of India Photo Division describes it in [[:File:Sanchi Ashoka pillar and capital cropped.jpg|this image]] as "An Asoka pillar and its broken lion capital near the south gateway of the Great Stupa." [http://photodivision.gov.in/IntroPhotodetails.asp?thisPage=972]. The British Library Online also describes it as 3rd century BCE Mauryan, although probably pasting the original text from the 19th century [http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/p/019pho000001003u01359000.html]. Sachim Kumar Tiwary in ''Monolithic Pillars of The Gupta Period'', affirms a Gupta date.<ref>Sachim Kumar Tiwary in ''Monolithic Pillars of The Gupta Period'' B.R. Publishing Corporation 2014 [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/book/details/monolithic-pillars-of-gupta-period-NAL701/ p. 92], [http://www.exoticindiaart.com/books-2015/nal701i.jpg page scan]</ref> The [[Sanchi Archaeological Museum]] gives it a date of 600 CE, which would even put it beyond the Gupta period proper, at the time of the [[Later Gupta dynasty]].<ref>[[Sanchi Archaeological Museum]] website notice [http://www.museumsanchiasi.mp.gov.in/sculptures/gallery1/lion_capital.html]</ref>

=== Pillar 35 ===
[[File:Vajrapani Pillar - Pillar 35 - Buddhist Monuments - Sanchi Hill 2013-02-21 4288.JPG|thumb|upright|left|Pillar 35 column stump (right), and bell capital with [[abacus (architecture)|abacus]], positioned upside down.]]
[[File:Sanchi Pillar 35 Vajrapani statue.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Vajrapani]] statue of pillar 35, 5th c. CE. [[Sanchi Archaeological Museum]].]]
The massive pillar near the North Gateway, numbered 35 in the plan, was erected during the Gupta period. Every feature, whether structural, stylistic or technical, is typical of
Gupta workmanship. Most of the shaft has been destroyed, but the stump still remains in situ, and the foundations are intact. The form, too, of the platform around its base is sufficiently clear, and the capital and statue which it is said to have supported, are both relatively well-preserved. What remains of the shaft is 9 ft. in length, 3 ft. 10 in. of which, measured from the top, are circular and smooth, and the remainder, constituting the base, square and rough-dressed. In the Gupta age, it was the common practice to keep the
bases of such monolithic columns square, whereas those of the Maurya age were invariably circular. The columns of the Maurya period are distinguished by its exquisite dressing and highly polished surface; but in this case the dressing of the stone is characterized by no such lustrous finish.<ref name="Marshall 97">Marshall "A Guide to Sanchi" [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.459148 p. 97 Pillar 35]. Public Domain text</ref>

The [[Persepolitan]] [[capital (architecture)|capital]] and square [[abacus]] ornamented with a balustrade in relief are cut entire from a single block of stone. So, too, is the statue
which was found lying alongside the capital and which is believed to have belonged to the same pillar. This statue represents a man clad in a [[dhoti]] and adorned with bracelets, earrings, bejewelled necklace and headdress. The hair falls in curls over the shoulders and back, and beneath it at the back fall the ends of two ribbons.<ref name="Marshall 97" /> It is thought that the statue represents [[Vajrapani]]. The attribution to Vajrapani is indicated by the stub of a [[vajra]] thunderbold in the right hand and a halo of 24 rays.<ref>Great Monuments of India, DK [https://books.google.com/books?id=oXa60HtlNOYC&pg=PA41 p. 41]</ref> The dedication of the Vajrapani pillar is also mentioned in a 5th-century inscription.<ref>Malwa Through The Ages, by Kailash Chand Jain [https://books.google.com/books?id=_3O7q7cU7k0C&pg=PA277 p. 277]</ref>

An interesting feature of the image is the halo which is pierced with twelve small holes evenly disposed around its edge. Manifestly the halo, is too small in proportion to the size of the statue, and these holes were no doubt intended for the attachment of the outer rays, which were probably fashioned out of copper gilt, the rest of the statue itself being possibly painted or gilded. This statue stood on the summit of the pillar, and is a work of the Gupta period.<ref name="Marshall 97" /> The statue is currently in the [[Sanchi Archaeological Museum]] and is attributed to the 5th century CE.<ref>"Buddhist Landscapes in Central India: Sanchi Hill and Archaeologies of Religious and Social Change, c. Third Century BC to Fifth Century AD", Julia Shaw, Routledge, 2016 [https://books.google.com/books?id=IUbUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PP20 p. 20]</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="1" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = {{{1<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} align=center colspan=1 style="background:#F4A460; font-size: 100%;"| '''Gupta period remains'''
|-
|<gallery mode="packed">
File:A Seated Buddha statue (Gupta temple).JPG|A Seated Buddha statue (Gupta temple).
File:Buddha Statue, Sanchi Stupa, Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh.jpg|Buddha Statue (Great Stupa).
File:Sanchi Sculpture 5.jpg|Seated Buddha (Great Stupa).
File:WLA vanda The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.jpg|Statue of [[Padmapani]] (5th c.or 9th c.) [[Victoria and Albert Museum]].
File:Sanchi pillar with single lion.jpg|Pillar 34 with lion.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.532798 Marshall p. 52 Pillar 34]</ref>
File:Pillar capital fragment Sanchi Stupa 1.jpg|The winged lion capital of pillar 34 (lost).
</gallery>
|}
Following the destruction of the Guptas by the [[Alchon Huns]], and with the [[decline of Buddhism in India]], Buddhist artistic creation at Sanchi slowed down.

[[File:Temple 18, Sanchi.jpg|thumb|Temple 18 at Sanchi, an [[apsidal]] hall with [[Maurya]] foundations, rebuilt at the time of [[Harsha]] (7th century CE).]]
[[:File:Sanchi (Ruins of Gupta Temple).JPG|Temple 45]] was the last Buddhist temple built during the mid to late 9th century.<ref>[http://orca.cf.ac.uk/54362/1/U584463.pdf Reconstructing a Latina Temple Spire: Temple 45, Sanchi, Dissertation submitted to Cardiff University, Fiona Buckee, 2010]</ref> Another point to be noted is that at that time the monuments were enclosed within a wall.

With the decline of [[Buddhism]] in India, the monuments of Sanchi went out of use and fell into a state of disrepair. In 1818, General Taylor of the Bengal Cavalry recorded a visit to Sanchi. At that time the monuments were left in a relatively good condition. Although the jungle had overgrown the complex, several of the Gateways were still standing, and Sanchi, being situated on a hill, had escaped the onslaught of the [[Muslim]] conquerors who had destroyed the nearby city of [[Vidisha]] ([[Bhilsa]]) only 5 miles away.<ref>Ornament in Indian Architecture, Margaret Prosser Allen, University of Delaware Press, 1991 [https://books.google.com/books?id=vyXxEX5PQH8C&pg=PA18 p. 18]</ref>

== Sanchi and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara ==
Although the initial craftsmen for stone reliefs in Sanchi seem to have come from [[Gandhara]], with the first reliefs being carved at [[Sanchi Stupa No.2]] circa 115 BCE,<ref name="AG" /> the art of Sanchi thereafter developed considerably in the 1st century BCE/CE and is thought to predate the blooming of the [[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]], which went on to flourish until around the 4th century CE. The art of Sanchi is thus considered as the ancestor of the didactic forms of [[Buddhist art]] that would follow, such as the art of Gandhara.<ref name="Bell">Didactic Narration: Jataka Iconography in Dunhuang with a Catalogue of Jataka Representations in China, Alexander Peter Bell, LIT Verlag Münster, 2000 [https://books.google.com/books?id=77hHrXX4COgC&pg=PA31 p. 31ff]</ref> It is also, with [[Bharhut]], the oldest.<ref>Asoka, Mookerji Radhakumud, Motilal Banarsidass Publishe, 1962 [https://books.google.com/books?id=uXyftdtE1ygC&pg=PA204 p. 204]</ref>

As didactic Buddhist reliefs were adopted by Gandhara, the content evolved somewhat together with the emergence of [[Mahayana Buddhism]], a more theistic understanding of Buddhism. First, although many of the artistic themes remained the same (such as Maya's dream, The Great Departure, Mara's attacks...), many of the stories of the previous lives of the Buddha were replaced by the even more numerous stories about the [[Bodhisattvas]] of the Mahayana [[pantheon (religion)|pantheon]].<ref name="Bell" /> Second, another important difference is the treatment of the image of the Buddha: whereas the art of Sanchi, however detailed and sophisticated, is [[aniconic]],<ref>The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996 [https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA26 p. 26]</ref> the art of Gandhara added illustrations of the Buddha as a man wearing Greek-style clothing to play a central role in its didactic reliefs.<ref>The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development, Yuvraj Krishan, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1996 [https://books.google.com/books?id=kDyJh--iaL0C&pg=PA1 p. 1ff]</ref><ref>The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys Rafi-us Samad, Algora Publishing, 2011 [https://books.google.com/books?id=PMEd8Cqh-YQC&pg=PA23 p. 23]</ref>

The presence of Greeks at or near Sanchi at the time is known ([[Indo-Greek]] ambassador [[Heliodurus|Heliodorus]] at [[Vidisha]] circa 100 BCE, the Greek-like [[:File:Foreigners at Sanchi Stupa I North Gateway.jpg|foreigners illustrated at Sanchi worshiping the Great Stupa]], or the Greek "Yavana" devotees who had dedicatory inscriptions made at Sanchi<ref name="Singh"/>), but more precise details about exchanges or possible routes of transmission are elusive.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto;" align="center" colspan="6" cellpadding="3" style="font-size: 80%; width: 100%;"
|-
|state = {{{1<includeonly>|collapsed</includeonly>}}} align=center colspan=6 style="background:#BC8F8F; font-size: 100%; width: 1%;"| '''Sanchi and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara'''
|-
|
|align="center"|'''Maya's dream'''
|align="center"|'''The Great Departure'''
|align="center"|'''Mara's attack'''
|align="center"|'''Enlightenment'''
|align="center"|'''The Buddha Preaching'''
|-
|align="center"|'''Sanchi''' (1st c. BCE/CE)
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Maya's dream Sanchi Stupa 1 Eastern gateway.jpg|150px]] Maya's dream of a white elephant.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Departure of the Buddha from Kapilavastu Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gate.jpg|120px]] The Buddha, under the umbrella on the chariot, is not illustrated.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Temptation and enlightenment of the Buddha.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Enlightenment of the Buddha with the Nagas rejoincing.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Teaching the Sakyans Sanchi Stupa 1 Northern Gateway.jpg|120px]] The Buddha is symbolized by an empty throne.
|-
|align="center"|'''[[Greco-Buddhist art]] of [[Gandhara]]''' (1st c.CE-4th c.CE)
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Maya's Dream and its Interpretation, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century AD, schist - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01634.JPG|150px]] Very similar illustration from Gandhara.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Scenes from the Life of the Buddha, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century, schist - Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive - DSC04149.JPG|170px]] The Buddha in person leaves the city.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:L'attaque de Mâra (musée d'art asiatique de Dahlem, Berlin) (12488794514).jpg|120px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Buddha's Sermon, Gandhara, 2nd-3rd century AD, schist - Ethnological Museum, Berlin - DSC01650.JPG|120px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|align="center" style="font-size: 80%;"|[[File:Preaching Buddha, Gandhara, c. 3rd-4th century AD, gray schist - Matsuoka Museum of Art - Tokyo, Japan - DSC07116.JPG|150px]] The Buddha is illustrated centrally.
|}

== Western rediscovery ==
[[File:Sanchi Great Stupa 1851.jpg|thumb|The Great Stupa as breached by [[Thomas Herbert Maddock|Sir Herbert Maddock]] in 1822. Watercolor by [[Frederick Charles Maisey]], in 1851.]]
[[File:Ruins at Stupa 1 Sanchi Joseph Beglar 1875.jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of the Southern Gateway, Sanchi in 1875.]]
[[File:A Gate to the Stupa of Sanchi 1932.jpg|thumb|upright|A Gate to the Stupa of Sanchi 1932]]
General Henry Taylor (1784–1876) who was a British officer in the [[Third Anglo-Maratha War|Third Maratha War]] of 1817–1819, was the first known Western historian to document in 1818 (in English) the existence of Sanchi Stupa. The site was in a total state of abandon. The Great Stupa was clumsily breached by [[Thomas Herbert Maddock|Sir Herbert Maddock]] in 1822, although he was not able to reach the center, and he then abandoned.<ref name="JA"/> [[Alexander Cunningham]] and [[Frederick Charles Maisey]] made the first formal survey and excavations at Sanchi and the surrounding stupas of the region in 1851.<ref name="BL">{{cite news |last1=Wright |first1=Colin |title='Miscellaneous Series. Plate.12. Juma Masjid, Chanderi'. Maisey in a top-hat sketching in the foreground |url=http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/other/019wdz000000546u00027000.html |work=www.bl.uk}}</ref><ref name="JA">{{cite book |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland |date=1851 |publisher=Cambridge University Press for the Royal Asiatic Society |pages=108–109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_kAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA108}}</ref> Amateur [[archaeologists]] and treasure hunters ravaged the site until 1881, when proper restoration work was initiated. Between 1912 and 1919 the structures were restored to their present condition under the supervision of [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Sir John Marshall]].<ref>[http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/archaeology/primarydocs/Sanchi/HistArt.htm John Marshall, "An Historical and Artistic Description of Sanchi", from ''A Guide to Sanchi,'' Calcutta: Superintendent, Government Printing (1918). pp. 7-29 on line, Project South Asia.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210033559/http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/archaeology/primarydocs/Sanchi/HistArt.htm |date=10 February 2009 }}</ref>

19th Century Europeans were very much interested in the Stupa which was originally built by Ashoka. French sought the permission to take away the eastern gateway to France. English, who had established themselves in India, majorly as a political force, were interested too in carrying it to England for a museum. They were satisfied with plaster-cast copies which were carefully prepared and the original remained at the site, part of Bhopal state. The rule of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and her successor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money for the preservation of the ancient site. [[John Marshall (archaeologist)|John Marshall]], Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India from 1902 to 1928, acknowledged her contribution by dedicating his important volumes on Sanchi to Sultan Jehan. She had funded the museum that was built there. As one of the earliest and most important Buddhist architectural and cultural pieces, it has drastically transformed the understanding of early India with respect to Buddhism. It is now a marvellous example of the carefully preserved archaeological site by the Archeological Survey of India. The place of Sanchi Stupa in Indian history and culture can be gauged from the fact that Reserve Bank of India introduced new 200 Indian Rupees notes with Sanchi Stupa in 2017.<ref>[https://paisaboltahai.rbi.org.in/pdf/100295-1001%20Rs%20200%20note-Eng_7-1-19-01.pdf Reserve Bank of India, know your banknotes]</ref>

Since Sanchi remained mostly intact, few artefacts of Sanchi can be found in Western Museums: for example, [[:File:WLA vanda The Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara.jpg|the Gupta statue of Padmapani]] is at the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] in [[London]], and [[Sanchi Yakshi Figure|one of the Yashinis]] can be seen at the [[British Museum]].

Today, around fifty monuments remain on the hill of Sanchi, including three main stupas and several temples. The monuments have been listed among other famous monuments in the [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] since 1989.

The reliefs of Sanchi, especially those depicting Indian cities, have been important in trying to imagine what ancient Indian cities look like. Many modern simulations are based on the urban illustrations of Sanchi.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.54756 Percy Brown, Indian Architecture, 1955]</ref>
{{clear}}
<gallery>
File:Great Stupa Sanchi 1875.jpg|Great Stupa, Eastern Gateway, in 1875.
File:West Gate Sanchi 1882.jpg|West Gateway in 1882.
File:South Gateway Sanchi 1882.jpg|South Gateway in 1882.
File:Northern Gateway Sanchi 1861.jpg|Great Stupa, Northern Gateway in 1861.
File:Temple 18 at Sanchi in 1861.jpg|Temple 18 in 1861.
File:A vision of ancient Indian court life, using motifs from Sanchi (wood engraving, 1878).jpg|A vision of ancient Indian court life, using motifs from Sanchi (wood engraving, 1878).
</gallery>

== Chetiyagiri Vihara and the Sacred Relics ==
[[File:Chetiyagiri Vihar 02.jpg|thumb|Chetiyagiri Vihara]]
The bone relics (asthi avashesh) of Buddhist Masters along with the reliquaries, obtained by Maisey and Cunningham were divided and taken by them to England as personal trophies.<ref>Brekke, Torkel, Bones of Contention: Buddhist Relics, Nationalism and the Politics of Archaeology, Numen, Volume 54, Number 3, 2007, pp. 270-303(34)</ref> Maisey's family sold the objects to [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] where they stayed for a long time. The Buddhists in England, Sri Lanka and India, led by the [[Mahabodhi Society]] demanded that they be returned. Some of the relics of [[Sariputta]] and [[Moggallana]] were sent back to Sri Lanka, where they were publicly displayed in 1947.<ref>"Ceylon Allowed To Keep Sanchi Relics Till May 8", ''Indian Express'' – 28 Apr 1947.</ref> It was such a grand event where the entire population of Sri Lanka came to visit them. However, they were later returned to India. But a new temple Chetiyagiri Vihara was constructed to house the relics, in 1952.<ref>BUDDHA DISCIPLES WILL BE REBURIED; Relics of Followers of Ancient Leader to Be Reinterred at Rites in India Saturday, THE NEW YORK TIMES, 25 November 1952</ref> In a nationalistic sense, this marked the formal reestablishment of the Buddhist tradition in India. Some of the relics were obtained by Burma.<ref>Sariputta and Moggallana in the Golden Land: The Relics of the Buddha's Chief Disciples at the Kaba Aye Pagoda, [[James (Jack) Daulton|Jack Daulton]], Journal of Burma Studies, Volume 4, 1999 pp. 101-128</ref>

== Inscriptions ==
[[File:Sanchi_Inscription_(BM).JPG|thumb|left|Inscribed panel from Sanchi in [[Brahmi]] script in the [[British Museum]]<ref>[https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/A_1887-0717-1 British Museum collection]</ref>]]
[[File:Danam letters on Sanchi inscription.jpg|thumb|The last two letters to the right of this inscription in [[Brahmi]] form the word "dǎnam" (donation). This hypothesis permitted the decipherment of the [[Brahmi]] script by [[James Prinsep]] in 1837.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Salomon |first1=Richard |title=Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages |date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195356663|page=207|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XYrG07qQDxkC&pg=PA206}}</ref>]]
Sanchi, especially Stupa 1, has a large number of [[Brahmi]] inscriptions. Although most of them are small and mention donations, they are of great historical significance. [[James Prinsep]] in 1837, noted that most of them ended with the same two Brahmi characters. Princep took them as "danam" (donation), which permitted the decipherment of the Brahmi script.<ref>Indian Epigraphy : A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages, Richard Salomon, [[Oxford University Press]], 1998</ref><ref>''Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor'', [[Charles Allen (writer)|Charles Allen]], Little, Brown Book Group Limited, 2012</ref>

An analysis of the donation records<ref>A study of inscribed reliefs within the context of donative inscriptions at Sanchi, Author: Milligan, Matthew David, Thesis, p. 77</ref> shows that while a large fraction of the donors were local (with no town specified), a number of them were from [[Ujjain]], [[Vidisha]], Kurara, Nadinagar, Mahisati, Kurghara, Bhogavadhan and Kamdagigam. Three inscriptions are known from [[Yavana]] ([[Indo-Greek]])<ref name="IAS"/> donors at Sanchi, the clearest of which reads "''Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam''" ("Gift of the [[Yona]] of Setapatha"), Setapatha being an uncertain city.<ref name="Singh" />

== See also ==
{{BuddhasHolySites}}
* [[Bharhut]]
* [[Relics of Sariputra and Mahamoggallana]]
* [[Begram ivories]]
* [[Deekshabhoomi]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Literature ==
* Dehejia, Vidya. (1992). Collective and Popular Bases of Early Buddhist Patronage: Sacred Monuments, 100 BC-AD 250. In B. Stoler Miller (ed.) ''The Powers of Art''. Oxford University Press: Oxford. {{ISBN|0-19-562842-X}}.
* Dehejia, Vidya. (1997). ''Indian Art''. Phaidon: London. {{ISBN|0-7148-3496-3}}
*Harle, J.C., ''The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent'', 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press Pelican History of Art, {{ISBN|0300062176}}
*[[John Marshall (archaeologist)|Marshall, Sir John]], ''A Guide to Sanchi'', 1918, Indian Government, Calcutta
*Michell, George (1988), ''The Hindu Temple: An Introduction to its Meaning and Forms'', 1977, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0-226-53230-1}}
*Michell, George (1990), ''The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu'', 1990, Penguin Books, {{ISBN|0140081445}}
* Mitra, Debala. (1971). ''Buddhist Monuments''. Sahitya Samsad: Calcutta. {{ISBN|0-89684-490-0}}
*Rowland, Benjamin, ''The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain'', 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, {{ISBN|0140561021}}
*Life in Sanchi sculpture by A. L Srivastava( Book )

== External links ==
{{Wikivoyage|Sanchi}}
{{EB1911 Poster|Sānchi}}
* {{commons category-inline}}
* [http://projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/docs/ Source Documents and Texts in South Asian Studies]
* [http://sanchi.org/ Sanchi.org]
* [https://www.mptourism.com/destination-sanchi.php Sanchi Stupa — The World Heritage Site]
* [http://www.bergerfoundation.ch/wat4/museum1?museum=Sanchi&col=pays&country=Inde&genre=%&cd=7256-3191-2328:7256-3191-2325:7256-3191-2326&cdindex=2"Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh)", Jacques-Edouard Berger Foundation, World Art Treasures]
* [http://www.kamit.jp/02_unesco/01_sanchi/san_eng.htm Monuments at Sanchi (UNESCO World Heritage)]
* [https://goo.gl/maps/BoNAtFr6rDq Google Street View tour of Sanchi]

{{World Heritage Sites in India}}
{{Raisen district}}
{{Adjacent communities
|title=Adjacent Buddhist structures
| Centre = Sanchi
| N =
| E = [[Bhojpur Stupas]]
|SE=[[Andher Stupas]]
| S = [[Saru Maru]]
|SW=[[Sonari Stupa]]
| W = [[Satdhara]]
}}

[[Category:3rd-century BC religious buildings and structures]]
[[Category:1818 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:Stone buildings]]
[[Category:Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2001]]
[[Category:All articles containing potentially dated statements]]
[[Category:Villages in Raisen district]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Raisen district]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in India]]
[[Category:Maurya Empire]]
[[Category:Indian architectural history]]
[[Category:Buddhist art]]
[[Category:Stupas in India]]
[[Category:Buddha statues in India]]
[[Category:Buddhist sites in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Madhya Pradesh]]
[[Category:Mauryan art]]
[[Category:Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India]]
[[Category:Buddhist relics]]

[[fr:Sanchi]]

User:Explodingbrain/Sample page

2023-01-09T00:42:05Z

Explodingbrain: Creating sandbox

Welcome to Wikipedia! This page is a [[Wikipedia:About the sandbox|sandbox]], an area where you can experiment and test edits. It contains simple examples of various elements you'll find around Wikipedia. It may be deleted after a period of inactivity; please do not use it to draft an article or create anything else you wish to last.

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Pema Chödrön

2023-01-06T06:42:41Z

Explodingbrain: Fixed reference.

{{Short description|American Tibetan Buddhist nun}}
{{Infobox religious biography
|name = Pema Chödrön
|image= Pema_chodron_2007_cropped.jpg
|caption = At the [[Omega Institute]], May 2007.
|birth_name = Deirdre Blomfield-Brown
|alias =
|dharma name =
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1936|07|14}}
|birth_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[United States]]
|death_date =
|death_place =
|nationality =
|religion = [[Buddhism]]
|school =
|lineage =[[Shambhala Buddhism]]
|title = [[Bhikkhuni]]
|location =
|education = [[Sarah Lawrence College]] [[University of California, Berkeley]]
|occupation =resident teacher [[Gampo Abbey]]
|teacher =[[Chögyam Trungpa]] [[Dzigar Kongtrul Rinpoche]]
|reincarnation of =
|predecessor =
|successor =
|students =
|spouse =
|partner =
|children =Edward Bull Arlyn Bull
|website ={{URL|pemachodronfoundation.org}}
}}
'''Pema Chödrön''' (པདྨ་ཆོས་སྒྲོན། ''padma chos sgron'' “lotus dharma lamp”; born '''Deirdre Blomfield-Brown,''' July 14, 1936) is an American [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan-Buddhist]]. She is an ordained nun, former [[acharya]] of [[Shambhala Buddhism]]<ref name="exacharya">{{cite news | title=Famed Buddhist nun Pema Chodron retires, cites handling of sexual misconduct allegations against her group's leader | newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2020/01/17/famed-buddhist-nun-pema-chodron-retires-cites-handling-sexual-misconduct-charges-against-group-leader/ | access-date=2020-01-17 }}</ref> and disciple of [[Chögyam Trungpa]] Rinpoche.<ref name=lion/><ref name="gampoabbey">{{cite web | title = Ani Pema Chödrön | work = Gampo Abbey | url = http://www.gampoabbey.org/pema-bio.php | access-date = 2014-10-21 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130324235412/http://www.gampoabbey.org/pema-bio.php | archive-date = 2013-03-24 }}</ref> Chödrön has written several dozen books and audiobooks, and is principal teacher at [[Gampo Abbey]] in [[Nova Scotia]].<ref name="gampoabbey"/><ref name="Cahill">{{cite book |author=Susan Neunzig Cahill |title=Wise Women: Over Two Thousand Years of Spiritual Writing by Women |year=1996 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/wisewomenovertwo00cahi/page/377 377] |url=https://archive.org/details/wisewomenovertwo00cahi/page/377 |isbn=0-393-03946-3 |url-access=registration }}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Chödrön was born Deirdre Blomfield-Brown in 1936 in [[New York City]].<ref name=lion/><ref name="pbs"/> She grew up [[Catholic]].<ref name="pbs"/> She attended [[Miss Porter's School]] in [[Farmington, Connecticut]], and grew up on a [[New Jersey]] farm with an older brother and sister.<ref name="pbs"/><ref name="Dakini Power">Haas, Michaela (2013). "Dakini Power: Twelve Extraordinary Women Shaping the Transmission of Tibetan Buddhism in the West". Snow Lion. {{ISBN|1559394072}}, p. 123.</ref> She obtained a bachelor's degree in [[English literature]] from [[Sarah Lawrence College]] and a master's degree in elementary education from the [[University of California, Berkeley]].<ref name=lion>{{cite web| title = Becoming Pema|author=Andrea Miller|work=Lion's Roar | url = http://www.lionsroar.com/becoming-pema/# |date=October 20, 2014| access-date = 2014-10-21 }}</ref>

==Career==
[[File:Stupa of Enlightenment Gampo Abbey.jpg|thumb|Stupa of Enlightenment at Chodron's Gampo Abbey]]
Chödrön began studying with [[Lama]] [[Chime Rinpoche]] during frequent trips to London over a period of several years.<ref name=lion/> While in the United States she studied with [[Chogyam Trungpa|Trungpa Rinpoche]] in San Francisco.<ref name=lion/> In 1974, she became a novice Buddhist nun under [[Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa|Rangjung Rigpe Dorje]], the sixteenth [[Gyalwa Karmapa]].<ref name=lion/><ref>{{cite book |author=Fabrice Midal |title=Recalling Chögyam Trungpa |year=2005 |publisher=Shambhala Publications | page=476 |isbn=1-59030-207-9 }}</ref> In Hong Kong in 1981 she became the first American in the [[Vajrayana]] tradition to become a fully ordained nun or [[Bhikkhuni|bhikṣuṇī]].<ref name="Dakini Power"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Sandy Boucher |title=Turning the Wheel: American Women Creating the New Buddhism |year=1993 |publisher=Beacon Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/turningwheelamer0000bouc_uaee/page/93 93–97] |url=https://archive.org/details/turningwheelamer0000bouc_uaee/page/93 |isbn=0-8070-7305-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James William Coleman |title=The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press | page=[https://archive.org/details/newbuddhismweste00cole/page/150 150] | url=https://archive.org/details/newbuddhismweste00cole|url-access=registration |isbn=0-19-515241-7 }}</ref>

Trungpa appointed Chödrön director of the Boulder Shambhala Center (Boulder Dharmadhatu) in Colorado in the early 1980s.<ref>Boucher (1993) pp. 96-97</ref> Chödrön moved to [[Gampo Abbey]] in 1984, the first Tibetan Buddhist monastery in North America for Western men and women, and became its first director in 1986.<ref name="Cahill"/> Chödrön's first book, ''The Wisdom of No Escape'', was published in 1991.<ref name=lion/> Then, in 1993, she was given the title of [[acharya]] when Trungpa's son, [[Sakyong Mipham Rinpoche]], assumed leadership of his father's [[Shambhala]] lineage.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

In 1994, she became ill with [[chronic fatigue syndrome]], but gradually her health improved. During this period, she met [[Dzigar Kongtrul Rinpoche]] and took him as her teacher.<ref name=lion/> That year she published her second book, ''Start Where You Are''<ref name=lion/> and in 1996, ''When Things Fall Apart''.<ref name=lion/> ''No Time to Lose'', a commentary on [[Shantideva]]'s ''[[Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life]],'' was published in 2005.<ref>{{citation |author=Pema Chödrön |author-link=Pema Chödrön |title=No Time to Lose: A Timely Guide to the Way of the Bodhisattva |location=Boston |publisher=Shambhala |year=2005 |isbn=1-59030-135-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/notimetolosetime0000chod/ }}</ref> That year, Chödrön became a member of The Committee of Western Bhikshunis.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Committee of Western Bhikshunis: Ven. Bhiksuni Pema Chödrön | url = http://archive.thubtenchodron.org/BuddhistNunsMonasticLife/the_committee_of_western_bhikshunis.html | date = Sep 17, 2006 | access-date = 2014-10-21 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://archive.today/20141021072257/http://archive.thubtenchodron.org/BuddhistNunsMonasticLife/the_committee_of_western_bhikshunis.html | archive-date = 2014-10-21 }}</ref> ''Practicing Peace in Times of War'' came out in 2007.<ref>{{cite web | title = Practicing Peace In A Time Of War | url = https://www.publishersweekly.com/978-1-59030-401-3 | access-date = 6 June 2017}}</ref> In 2016 she was awarded the Global Bhikkhuni Award, presented by the Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association of Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lionsroar.com/pema-chodron-and-thubten-chodron-receive-global-bhikkhuni-award/ |title=8 North American Buddhist nuns, including Pema Chödrön and Thubten Chodron, receive "Global Bhikkhuni Award" - Lion's Roar |publisher=Lionsroar.com |date=2016-11-10 |access-date=2016-12-10}}</ref> In 2020 she retired from her acharya role from [[Shambhala International]], in part due to the group's handling of sexual misconduct allegations, saying, "I do not feel that I can continue any longer as a representative and senior teacher of Shambhala given the unwise direction in which I feel we are going."<ref name="exacharya" /><ref>{{cite web | title=Letter from Ani Pema Chödrön | url=https://shambhalatimes.org/2020/01/16/letter-from-ani-pema-chodron/ | date=2020-01-16 }}</ref>

==Teaching==
Chödrön teaches the traditional "Yarne"<ref>''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Contribution to Indian Culture''. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London 1962. pg 54</ref> retreat at [[Gampo Abbey]] each winter and the ''Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life'' in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] each summer.<ref name="pbs"/> A central theme of her teaching is the principle of "shenpa", or "[[Upādāna|attachment]]", which she interprets as the moment one is hooked into a cycle of habitual negative or self-destructive thoughts and actions. According to Chödrön, this occurs when something in the present stimulates a reaction to a past experience.<ref name="pbs">[https://www.pbs.org/moyers/faithandreason/print/faithandreason107_print.html Bill Moyers and Pema Chödrön . August 4, 2006]</ref>
[[Image:Pema Chodron 1.jpg|thumb|right|Pema Chödrön giving a talk from her book ''No Time to Lose'', 2005]]

==Personal life==
Chödrön married at age 21 and had two children but was divorced in her mid-twenties.<ref name=lion/> She remarried and then divorced a second time eight years later.<ref name=lion/> She has three grandchildren, all of whom reside in the San Francisco Bay Area.<ref name="Oprah Interview">{{cite web|last1=Staff Writer (Interview)|title=Oprah Talks to Pema Chödrön|url=http://www.oprah.com/spirit/Oprah-Winfrey-Talks-to-Pema-Chodron|website=Oprah.com|publisher=Harpo Productions|access-date=Dec 1, 2015}}</ref>

==Bibliography==

{{Main|Pema Chödrön bibliography}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Library resources box|by=yes|about=no}}
*[https://pemachodronfoundation.org/about/pema-chodron/ Profile at the Pema Chödrön Foundation]

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Modern Buddhist writers}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chodron, Pema}}
[[Category:1936 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century lamas]]
[[Category:20th-century American philosophers]]
[[Category:American Buddhist nuns]]
[[Category:American spiritual writers]]
[[Category:Buddhist nuns]]
[[Category:American scholars of Buddhism]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhism writers]]
[[Category:Converts to Buddhism from Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:American Buddhists]]
[[Category:American former Christians]]
[[Category:People with chronic fatigue syndrome]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhists from the United States]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhist spiritual teachers]]
[[Category:UC Berkeley Graduate School of Education alumni]]
[[Category:American women philosophers]]
[[Category:Writers from New York City]]
[[Category:Miss Porter's School alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century American women writers]]
[[Category:Buddhist acharyas]]
[[Category:American women non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Buddhist nuns]]
[[Category:21st-century Buddhist nuns]]
[[Category:Sarah Lawrence College alumni]]
[[Category:21st-century American women]]

Pema Chödrön

2023-01-06T04:19:29Z

Explodingbrain: Added for reference to publishing year for "No time to lose: a timely guide to the way of the Bodhisattva".

{{Short description|American Tibetan Buddhist nun}}
{{Infobox religious biography
|name = Pema Chödrön
|image= Pema_chodron_2007_cropped.jpg
|caption = At the [[Omega Institute]], May 2007.
|birth_name = Deirdre Blomfield-Brown
|alias =
|dharma name =
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1936|07|14}}
|birth_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[United States]]
|death_date =
|death_place =
|nationality =
|religion = [[Buddhism]]
|school =
|lineage =[[Shambhala Buddhism]]
|title = [[Bhikkhuni]]
|location =
|education = [[Sarah Lawrence College]] [[University of California, Berkeley]]
|occupation =resident teacher [[Gampo Abbey]]
|teacher =[[Chögyam Trungpa]] [[Dzigar Kongtrul Rinpoche]]
|reincarnation of =
|predecessor =
|successor =
|students =
|spouse =
|partner =
|children =Edward Bull Arlyn Bull
|website ={{URL|pemachodronfoundation.org}}
}}
'''Pema Chödrön''' (པདྨ་ཆོས་སྒྲོན། ''padma chos sgron'' “lotus dharma lamp”; born '''Deirdre Blomfield-Brown,''' July 14, 1936) is an American [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan-Buddhist]]. She is an ordained nun, former [[acharya]] of [[Shambhala Buddhism]]<ref name="exacharya">{{cite news | title=Famed Buddhist nun Pema Chodron retires, cites handling of sexual misconduct allegations against her group's leader | newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2020/01/17/famed-buddhist-nun-pema-chodron-retires-cites-handling-sexual-misconduct-charges-against-group-leader/ | access-date=2020-01-17 }}</ref> and disciple of [[Chögyam Trungpa]] Rinpoche.<ref name=lion/><ref name="gampoabbey">{{cite web | title = Ani Pema Chödrön | work = Gampo Abbey | url = http://www.gampoabbey.org/pema-bio.php | access-date = 2014-10-21 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130324235412/http://www.gampoabbey.org/pema-bio.php | archive-date = 2013-03-24 }}</ref> Chödrön has written several dozen books and audiobooks, and is principal teacher at [[Gampo Abbey]] in [[Nova Scotia]].<ref name="gampoabbey"/><ref name="Cahill">{{cite book |author=Susan Neunzig Cahill |title=Wise Women: Over Two Thousand Years of Spiritual Writing by Women |year=1996 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |page=[https://archive.org/details/wisewomenovertwo00cahi/page/377 377] |url=https://archive.org/details/wisewomenovertwo00cahi/page/377 |isbn=0-393-03946-3 |url-access=registration }}</ref>

==Early life and education==
Chödrön was born Deirdre Blomfield-Brown in 1936 in [[New York City]].<ref name=lion/><ref name="pbs"/> She grew up [[Catholic]].<ref name="pbs"/> She attended [[Miss Porter's School]] in [[Farmington, Connecticut]], and grew up on a [[New Jersey]] farm with an older brother and sister.<ref name="pbs"/><ref name="Dakini Power">Haas, Michaela (2013). "Dakini Power: Twelve Extraordinary Women Shaping the Transmission of Tibetan Buddhism in the West". Snow Lion. {{ISBN|1559394072}}, p. 123.</ref> She obtained a bachelor's degree in [[English literature]] from [[Sarah Lawrence College]] and a master's degree in elementary education from the [[University of California, Berkeley]].<ref name=lion>{{cite web| title = Becoming Pema|author=Andrea Miller|work=Lion's Roar | url = http://www.lionsroar.com/becoming-pema/# |date=October 20, 2014| access-date = 2014-10-21 }}</ref>

==Career==
[[File:Stupa of Enlightenment Gampo Abbey.jpg|thumb|Stupa of Enlightenment at Chodron's Gampo Abbey]]
Chödrön began studying with [[Lama]] [[Chime Rinpoche]] during frequent trips to London over a period of several years.<ref name=lion/> While in the United States she studied with [[Chogyam Trungpa|Trungpa Rinpoche]] in San Francisco.<ref name=lion/> In 1974, she became a novice Buddhist nun under [[Rangjung Rigpe Dorje, 16th Karmapa|Rangjung Rigpe Dorje]], the sixteenth [[Gyalwa Karmapa]].<ref name=lion/><ref>{{cite book |author=Fabrice Midal |title=Recalling Chögyam Trungpa |year=2005 |publisher=Shambhala Publications | page=476 |isbn=1-59030-207-9 }}</ref> In Hong Kong in 1981 she became the first American in the [[Vajrayana]] tradition to become a fully ordained nun or [[Bhikkhuni|bhikṣuṇī]].<ref name="Dakini Power"/><ref>{{cite book |author=Sandy Boucher |title=Turning the Wheel: American Women Creating the New Buddhism |year=1993 |publisher=Beacon Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/turningwheelamer0000bouc_uaee/page/93 93–97] |url=https://archive.org/details/turningwheelamer0000bouc_uaee/page/93 |isbn=0-8070-7305-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=James William Coleman |title=The New Buddhism: The Western Transformation of an Ancient Tradition |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press | page=[https://archive.org/details/newbuddhismweste00cole/page/150 150] | url=https://archive.org/details/newbuddhismweste00cole|url-access=registration |isbn=0-19-515241-7 }}</ref>

Trungpa appointed Chödrön director of the Boulder Shambhala Center (Boulder Dharmadhatu) in Colorado in the early 1980s.<ref>Boucher (1993) pp. 96-97</ref> Chödrön moved to [[Gampo Abbey]] in 1984, the first Tibetan Buddhist monastery in North America for Western men and women, and became its first director in 1986.<ref name="Cahill"/> Chödrön's first book, ''The Wisdom of No Escape'', was published in 1991.<ref name=lion/> Then, in 1993, she was given the title of [[acharya]] when Trungpa's son, [[Sakyong Mipham Rinpoche]], assumed leadership of his father's [[Shambhala]] lineage.{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

In 1994, she became ill with [[chronic fatigue syndrome]], but gradually her health improved. During this period, she met [[Dzigar Kongtrul Rinpoche]] and took him as her teacher.<ref name=lion/> That year she published her second book, ''Start Where You Are''<ref name=lion/> and in 1996, ''When Things Fall Apart''.<ref name=lion/> ''No Time to Lose'', a commentary on [[Shantideva]]'s ''[[Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life]],'' was published in 2005.<ref>{{citation |author=Pema Chödrön |author-link=Pema Chödrön |title=No Time to Lose: A Timely Guide to the Way of the Bodhisattva |location=Boston |publisher=Shambhala |year=2005 |isbn=1-59030-135-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/notimetolosetime0000chdr }}</ref> That year, Chödrön became a member of The Committee of Western Bhikshunis.<ref>{{cite web | title = The Committee of Western Bhikshunis: Ven. Bhiksuni Pema Chödrön | url = http://archive.thubtenchodron.org/BuddhistNunsMonasticLife/the_committee_of_western_bhikshunis.html | date = Sep 17, 2006 | access-date = 2014-10-21 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://archive.today/20141021072257/http://archive.thubtenchodron.org/BuddhistNunsMonasticLife/the_committee_of_western_bhikshunis.html | archive-date = 2014-10-21 }}</ref> ''Practicing Peace in Times of War'' came out in 2007.<ref>{{cite web | title = Practicing Peace In A Time Of War | url = https://www.publishersweekly.com/978-1-59030-401-3 | access-date = 6 June 2017}}</ref> In 2016 she was awarded the Global Bhikkhuni Award, presented by the Chinese Buddhist Bhikkhuni Association of Taiwan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lionsroar.com/pema-chodron-and-thubten-chodron-receive-global-bhikkhuni-award/ |title=8 North American Buddhist nuns, including Pema Chödrön and Thubten Chodron, receive "Global Bhikkhuni Award" - Lion's Roar |publisher=Lionsroar.com |date=2016-11-10 |access-date=2016-12-10}}</ref> In 2020 she retired from her acharya role from [[Shambhala International]], in part due to the group's handling of sexual misconduct allegations, saying, "I do not feel that I can continue any longer as a representative and senior teacher of Shambhala given the unwise direction in which I feel we are going."<ref name="exacharya" /><ref>{{cite web | title=Letter from Ani Pema Chödrön | url=https://shambhalatimes.org/2020/01/16/letter-from-ani-pema-chodron/ | date=2020-01-16 }}</ref>

==Teaching==
Chödrön teaches the traditional "Yarne"<ref>''Buddhist Monks and Monasteries of India: Their History and Contribution to Indian Culture''. George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London 1962. pg 54</ref> retreat at [[Gampo Abbey]] each winter and the ''Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life'' in [[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] each summer.<ref name="pbs"/> A central theme of her teaching is the principle of "shenpa", or "[[Upādāna|attachment]]", which she interprets as the moment one is hooked into a cycle of habitual negative or self-destructive thoughts and actions. According to Chödrön, this occurs when something in the present stimulates a reaction to a past experience.<ref name="pbs">[https://www.pbs.org/moyers/faithandreason/print/faithandreason107_print.html Bill Moyers and Pema Chödrön . August 4, 2006]</ref>
[[Image:Pema Chodron 1.jpg|thumb|right|Pema Chödrön giving a talk from her book ''No Time to Lose'', 2005]]

==Personal life==
Chödrön married at age 21 and had two children but was divorced in her mid-twenties.<ref name=lion/> She remarried and then divorced a second time eight years later.<ref name=lion/> She has three grandchildren, all of whom reside in the San Francisco Bay Area.<ref name="Oprah Interview">{{cite web|last1=Staff Writer (Interview)|title=Oprah Talks to Pema Chödrön|url=http://www.oprah.com/spirit/Oprah-Winfrey-Talks-to-Pema-Chodron|website=Oprah.com|publisher=Harpo Productions|access-date=Dec 1, 2015}}</ref>

==Bibliography==

{{Main|Pema Chödrön bibliography}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Library resources box|by=yes|about=no}}
*[https://pemachodronfoundation.org/about/pema-chodron/ Profile at the Pema Chödrön Foundation]

{{Buddhism topics}}
{{Modern Buddhist writers}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chodron, Pema}}
[[Category:1936 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century lamas]]
[[Category:20th-century American philosophers]]
[[Category:American Buddhist nuns]]
[[Category:American spiritual writers]]
[[Category:Buddhist nuns]]
[[Category:American scholars of Buddhism]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhism writers]]
[[Category:Converts to Buddhism from Roman Catholicism]]
[[Category:American Buddhists]]
[[Category:American former Christians]]
[[Category:People with chronic fatigue syndrome]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhists from the United States]]
[[Category:Tibetan Buddhist spiritual teachers]]
[[Category:UC Berkeley Graduate School of Education alumni]]
[[Category:American women philosophers]]
[[Category:Writers from New York City]]
[[Category:Miss Porter's School alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century American women writers]]
[[Category:Buddhist acharyas]]
[[Category:American women non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Buddhist nuns]]
[[Category:21st-century Buddhist nuns]]
[[Category:Sarah Lawrence College alumni]]
[[Category:21st-century American women]]

Mayor of Bulawayo

2023-01-01T13:29:53Z

Explodingbrain: Removed misdirected link to Martin Moyo.

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox official post|post=Mayor|body=Bulawayo|image=|insignia=File:Bulawayo Zimbabwe COA.svg|insigniasize=150px|insigniacaption=Coat of arms of Bulawayo|incumbent=[[Solomon Mguni]]|incumbentsince=2013|predecessor=|style=[[His Worship]]|residence=|termlength=|formation={{Start date and age|1897|11|25|df=yes}}|salary=|inaugural=[[Isidore Hirschler]]|website=|footnotes=}}The '''Executive''' '''Mayor of Bulawayo''' is the executive of the government of [[Bulawayo]], [[Zimbabwe]]. The Mayor is a member of the [[Bulawayo City Council]], and is assisted by a [[deputy mayor]]. The Mayor uses the style "[[His Worship]]".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-press+release-byo-60096.html|title=New Year Message by his Worship the Mayor of Bulawayo, Councillor Martin M Moyo|date=2014-12-31|website=Bulawayo24 News|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-12-10}}</ref> The current mayor is [[Solomon Mguni]] since 2018.

== History ==
Bulawayo's first mayor, [[Isidore Hirschler]], took office on 25 November 1897.<ref name="Sharland 1976">{{Cite journal|last=Sharland|first=Joanna|date=March 1976|title=The Jewish Communities' Contribution to Rhodesia|url=http://www.rhodesia.nl/rhodesiana/volume34.pdf|journal=Rhodesiana|volume=34|pages=45–46}}</ref> In 1981, following [[Zimbabwe]]'s independence from the [[United Kingdom]], Bulawayo's first black mayor, [[Naison Ndlovu]], took office.

== List of mayors ==
The following is a list of past mayors of Bulawayo.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Mayor
! Term start
! Term end
! class="unsortable" | 
! style="border-left-style:hidden;padding:0.1em 0em" |Party
!Ref
|-
|{{Sortname|Isidore|Hirschler}}
| data-sort-value="1875" |25 November 1897
| data-sort-value="1876" |2 August 1898
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref name="Sharland 1976" /><ref name="JVL">{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0004_0_03725.html|title=Bulawayo|publisher=Jewish Virtual Library|access-date=24 November 2013}}</ref>
|-
|{{Sortname|Charles Theodore|Holland}}
| data-sort-value="1784" |2 August 1898
|1899
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Henry Frederick|White}}
|1899
|1900
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref name="DSO">{{cite news|url=http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/LotDetailsPrintable.aspx?intObjectID=1550497|title=D.S.O.|date=19 April 1901|access-date=24 November 2013|publisher=London Gazette}}</ref>
|-
|{{Sortname|William H.|Haddon}}
|27 September 1900
|1901
|
|
|<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aylNAAAAYAAJ|title=Reports on the administration of Rhodesia: 1889/92-1900/02|date=1899|publisher=British South Africa Company|pages=75|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|{{Sortname|John|Kerr|dab=Rhodesian politician}}
|1901
|1902
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=219QAQAAMAAJ|title=South Africa|date=1908|volume=76|pages=296|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|{{Sortname|J. E.|Scott}}
|1902
|1904
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Walter|Baxendale}}
|1904
|1906
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref name="Ferguson 1907">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QrkTAAAAYAAJ|title=Southern Rhodesia: an Account of Its Past History, Present Development, Natural Riches, and Future Prospects: With Special Particulars for Intending Settlers, Numerous Illustrations and Much General Information|last=Ferguson|first=Fergus W.|date=1907|publisher=W. H. & L. Collingridge|pages=127–128|language=en}}</ref>
|-
|{{Sortname|E. F.|Philip}}
|1906
|1907
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Emanuel|Basch}}
|1907
|1911
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref name="JVL" /><ref name="Ferguson 1907" />
|-
|{{Sortname|Alex|Fraser|dab=Rhodesian politician}}
|1911
|1912
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Walter|Baxendale}}
|1912
|1913
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref name="Ferguson 1907" />
|-
|{{Sortname|Alex|Fraser|dab=Rhodesian politician}}
|1913
|1914
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|W. B.|Bucknall}}
|1914
|1915
|
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|W. J.|Atterbury}}
|1915
|1917
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|George|Stewart|dab=politician}}
|1917
|1918
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sn|W. J.|Atterbury}}
|1918
|1919
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|James|Cowden}}
|1919
|1923
| bgcolor="#FF7F00" |
|[[Responsible Government Association|RGA]]
|<ref name="Ranger">{{cite book|title=Bulawayo Burning: The Social History of a Southern African City, 1893–1960|last=Ranger|first=Terence|publisher=Boydell & Brewer|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tothevictoriafalls.com/vfpages/tourism/air.html|title=The Age of Ai|date=212|publisher=To The Victoria Falls|access-date=24 November 2013}}</ref>
|-
|{{Sortname|J. H.|Bookless}}
|1923
|1924
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Henry Robert|Barbour}}
|1924
|1927
| bgcolor="#FF7F00" |
|[[Rhodesia Party]]
|
|-
|{{Sortname|H. B.|Ellenbogen}}
|1927
|1929
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref name="JVL" /><ref name="Ranger" />
|-
|{{Sortname|W. H.|Peard}}
|1929
|1932
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref name="Ranger" />
|-
|{{Sortname|William|Maver}}
|1932
|1933
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Theodore|Holdengarde}}
|1933
|1934
| bgcolor="{{party color|United Federal Party}}" |
|[[United Federal Party|United Party]]
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Cessy|Harris}}
|1934
|1936
| bgcolor="" |
|
|<ref name="JVL" />
|-
|{{Sortname|Donald|Macintyre|dab=politician}}
|1936
|1938
| bgcolor="{{party color|Labour Party (UK)}}" |
|[[Southern Rhodesia Labour Party|Labour Party]]
|<ref name="Ranger" />
|-
|{{Sortname|Theodore|Holdengarde}}
|1938
|1940
| bgcolor="yellow" |
|[[Southern Rhodesia Liberal Party|Liberal Party]]
|
|-
|{{Sortname|D. W.|Young}}
|1940
|1942
| bgcolor="" |
|
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Edward Jonathan|Davies}}
|1942
|1944
| bgcolor="{{party color|Labour Party (UK)}}" |
|[[Southern Rhodesia Labour Party|Labour Party]]
|
|-
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|-
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|1959
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|{{Sortname|Margot|Brett}}
|1960
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|{{Sn|Jack Graham|Pain}}
|1961
|1962
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|-
|{{Sortname|Sydney Henderson|Millar}}
|1962
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|1964
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|-
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|1965
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|-
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|1970
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|{{Sn|T. H.|Doyle}}
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|1971
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|{{Sn|H.|Coronel}}
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|{{Sortname|Ralph S.|Harris}}
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|{{Sn|Eugene D.|Gordon}}
|1973
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|{{Sn|Charles McKenzie|Scott}}
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|[[Rhodesian Front]]
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|{{Sortname|Joanna|Sharland}}
|1977
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|1979
|1981
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|1983
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|
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| bgcolor="black" |
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| bgcolor="black" |
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|
|-
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|
|-
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| bgcolor="{{party color|Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front}}" |
|[[ZANU–PF]]
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Dennis|Ndlovu}}
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| data-sort-value="1984" |1991
| bgcolor="{{party color|Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front}}" |
|[[ZANU–PF]]
|
|-
|{{Sn|Nelson|Sidanile}}
|1991
|1992
| bgcolor="{{party color|Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front}}" |
|[[ZANU–PF]]
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Israel|Gadhlula}}
|1992
|1993
| bgcolor="{{party color|Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front}}" |
|[[ZANU–PF]]
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Joshua|Malinga}}
|1993
|1995
| bgcolor="{{party color|Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front}}" |
|[[ZANU–PF]]
|
|-
|{{Sortname|Abel|Siwela}}
|1996
|2000
| bgcolor="{{party color|Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front}}" |
|[[ZANU–PF]]
|<ref name="ZESN">{{cite report|url=http://www.zesn.org.zw/publications/publication_52.doc|title=Bulawayo Mayoral and Council By-Elections Report|author=Zimbabwe Election Support Network|date=2001|access-date=23 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203060220/http://www.zesn.org.zw/publications/publication_52.doc|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 December 2013}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{Sn|Japhet Ndabeni|Ncube}}
| rowspan="2" |2001
| rowspan="2" |2008
| bgcolor="{{party color|Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai}}" |
|[[Movement for Democratic Change (1999–2005)|MDC]] {{Small|(before 2005)}}
| rowspan="2" |<ref name="ZESN" />
|-
| bgcolor="#FF7F00" |
|[[Movement for Democratic Change – Mutambara|MDC–M]] {{Small|(after 2005)}}
|-
|{{Sortname|Patrick|Thaba-Moyo}}
|2008
| data-sort-value="2013" |2013
| bgcolor="{{party color|Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai}}" |
|[[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai|MDC–T]]
|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.southerneye.co.zw/2013/09/18/mayor-urged-hit-ground-running/|title=Mayor urged to hit ground running|date=18 September 2008|access-date=23 November 2013|publisher=SOuthern Eye}}</ref>
|-
|{{Sortname|Martin|Moyo}}
| data-sort-value="2013" |2013
|2018
| bgcolor="{{party color|Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai}}" |
|[[Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai|MDC–T]]
|<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/news-12366-New+mayors+for+Bulawayo,+Gweru/news.aspx|title=New mayors for Kwekwe, Bulawayo, Gweru and Masvingo|date=16 September 2013|access-date=23 November 2013|publisher=NewZimbabwe.com}}</ref>
|-
|{{Sortname|Solomon|Mguni}}
|{{Dts|2018|09|07|format=dmy}}
|
| bgcolor="{{party color|Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai}}" |
|[[MDC Alliance]]
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailynews.co.zw/articles/2018/09/10/new-bulawayo-mayor-lays-out-vision|title=New Bulawayo mayor lays out vision|last=Muvundusi|first=Jeffrey|date=2018-09-10|website=DailyNews Live|access-date=2019-01-20}}</ref>
|}

== References ==

<references />

[[Category:Lists of political office-holders in Zimbabwe]]
[[Category:Bulawayo]]
[[Category:Mayors of Bulawayo|*]]

User:Explodingbrain

2023-01-01T02:39:26Z

Explodingbrain:

Hello world!
I love Wikipedia. I've been using it for years. Just working out how to get more involved in contributing.

Eucla, Western Australia

2023-01-01T01:52:30Z

Explodingbrain: Added link to archive.org for reference to ABC story discussing the closure of Greyhound Australia's Nullabor bus service.

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Use Australian English|date=August 2012}}
{{Infobox Australian place
| type = town
| name = Eucla
| state = wa
| image = Eucla Hotel Motel, 2017 (03).jpg
| caption = Eucla Motor Hotel, 2017
| image_alt =
| relief =
| local_map = yes
| zoom = 8
| coordinates = {{coord|31|40|30|S|128|52|59|E|display=inline,title}}
| pushpin_map_caption =
| pushpin_label_position = left
| map_alt =
| pop = 
| poprank =
| density =
| density_footnotes =
| established = 1870s (gazetted in 1885)
| established_footnotes =
| abolished =
| gazetted =
| postcode = 6443
| elevation = 93
| elevation_footnotes =
| area = {{cvt |input=P2046}}
| timezone = [[UTC+8:45|CWST]] (unofficial)
| utc = +8:45
| dist1 = 1434
| dir1 = E
| location1 = [[Perth]]
| dist2 = 893
| dir2 = E
| location2 = [[Kalgoorlie]]
| dist3 = 11
| dir3 = W
| location3 = WA-SA border
| dist4 = 492
| dir4 = W
| location4 = [[Ceduna, South Australia|Ceduna]]
| lga = Shire of Dundas
| seat =
| region =
| county =
| division =
| stategov = [[Electoral district of Kalgoorlie|Kalgoorlie]]
| fedgov = [[Division of O'Connor|O'Connor]]
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| visitation_footnotes =
| managing_authorities =
| url =
| maxtemp = 22.6
| maxtemp_footnotes =
| mintemp = 12.1
| mintemp_footnotes =
| rainfall = 273.9
| rainfall_footnotes =
| near-n =
| near-ne =
| near-e =
| near-se =
| near-s =
| near-sw =
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| footnotes =
}}

'''Eucla''' is the easternmost locality in [[Western Australia]], located in the [[Goldfields-Esperance]] region of [[Western Australia]] along the [[Eyre Highway]], approximately {{convert|11|km|mi|0}} west of the [[South Australia]]n border. At the [[2016 Australian census]], Eucla had a population of 53.<ref name=Census2016Y>{{Census 2016 AUS|id=SSC50493|name=Eucla (State Suburb) |access-date=5 April 2018|quick=on}}</ref>

It is the only Western Australian location on the Eyre Highway that has a direct view of the [[Great Australian Bight]] due to its elevated position immediately next to the '''Eucla Pass''' – where the highway moves out and above the basin known as [[Roe Plains]] that occurs between the Madura and Eucla passes.

==History==
The name Eucla is believed to originate from an [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] word "Yinculyer" which one (uncited) source gives as referring to the rising of the planet [[Venus]]. It was first used by Europeans for the area at some point before 1867.

In 1841, [[Edward John Eyre|Eyre]] and [[John Baxter (explorer)|Baxter]] became the first European explorers to visit the area. In 1867, the president of the Marine Board of South Australia declared a port at Eucla,<ref>{{LandInfo WA|c|E|17 April 2007}}</ref> and in 1870, [[John Forrest]] camped at the location for nearly two weeks. In 1873, land was taken up at Moopina Station near the present townsite, and work commenced on a [[electrical telegraph|telegraph]] line from [[Albany, Western Australia|Albany]] to [[Adelaide]]. Land was set aside at Eucla for the establishment of a manual repeater station, and when the telegraph line opened in 1877, Eucla was one of the most important telegraph stations on the line. The station was important as a conversion point because South Australia and Victoria used [[American Morse code]] (locally known as the Victorian alphabet) while Western Australia used the [[Morse code|international Morse code]] that is familiar today.<ref>[http://members.iinet.net.au/~oseagram/eucla.html The intercolonial telegraph line at Eucla], retrieved 1 April 2007.</ref>

A jetty and tram line were constructed for offloading supplies brought in by sea. The town was proclaimed a township and gazetted in 1885, and reached its peak in the 1920s, prior to the construction of a new telegraph line further north alongside the [[Trans-Australian Railway]] in 1929.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.walkabout.com.au/locations/WAEucla.shtml|title=Walkabout – Eucla|author=Walkabout Australia|access-date=17 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824104930/http://www.walkabout.com.au/locations/WAEucla.shtml|archive-date=24 August 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the 1890s a [[Rabbits in Australia|rabbit plague]] passed through the area and ate much of the [[Delisser Sandhills]]' [[dune]] vegetation, thus destabilising the dune system and causing large sand drifts to encroach on the townsite. The original town was abandoned, and a new townsite established about 4 km to the north and higher up on the escarpment. The ruins of the original telegraph station which still stand amongst the dunes are a local tourist attraction.

Many of the pioneer farmers and telegraph operators were buried at Eucla, but as the sand dunes encroached onto their graves, some of the headstones and plaques were removed and can now be seen at the museum at Eucla.

In 1898, the population of the town was 96 (82 males and 14 females).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article33153441 |title=Population of Western Australia |newspaper=[[Western Mail (Western Australia)|Western Mail]] |location=Perth, Western Australia|date=22 April 1898 |access-date=31 May 2012 |page=23 |publisher=National Library of Australia}}</ref>

In 1971, worldwide media publicity came to the town after reports (and indistinct photographs) emerged of a half-naked blonde girl who had gone wild and lived and ran with the kangaroos, who came to be known as the "[[Nullarbor Nymph]]". The story subsequently turned out to be a hoax created by the residents of the tiny settlement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.topfloorarts.com/nullarbornymph/homepage.html|title=The Nullarbor Nymph Hoax|author=Dora Dallwitz|access-date=17 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061118002839/http://www.topfloorarts.com/nullarbornymph/homepage.html|archive-date=18 November 2006|url-status=dead}} – contains scans of media articles, photos and interviews with the locals.</ref>

==Climate==
Eucla has a [[semi-arid climate]] (''BSk'') with [[Mediterranean climate]] (''Csb'') tendencies. Summers are warm and dry, although mild by [[Australian outback]] standards. However, very hot days can occur, caused by hot northerly winds from the [[Great Victoria Desert]]. Winters are mild to cool with a rainfall peak. For a semi-desert climate the [[humidity]] is rather high all-year round, due to the moisture from the nearby ocean. Despite its close proximity to the desert, the locality only gets 94.4 clear days annually, which is lower than the humid subtropical cities like [[climate of Sydney|Sydney]] and {{NSWcity|Newcastle}} on the east coast. With summers being right around {{convert|22|C|F|0}} means, temperatures are near the border between [[maritime climate|maritime]] and [[subtropical climate]]s, although Eucla is highly variable due to the combined cool-ocean and hot-desert influences.

Average maximum temperatures vary from {{convert|25|to|27|C|F}} from December to March, to {{convert|18|C}} in July. The average annual rainfall of {{convert|320.1|mm}} is evenly spread through the year, with monthly totals ranging from {{convert|14.9|mm|in}} in January to {{convert|35.0|mm|in}} in December. The highest temperature was {{convert|49.8|°C|0}} on 19 December 2019, while the lowest was {{convert|-2.2|°C|0}} on 20 June 1936.<ref name="bureau">{{cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_011003_All.shtml|title=Climate statistics for Eucla|publisher=[[Bureau of Meteorology]]|access-date=14 December 2022}}</ref>

{{Weather box
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|precipitation colour= green
|location = Eucla (1981–2010 averages, extremes 1910–present)
|Jan record high C = 48.6
|Feb record high C = 47.6
|Mar record high C = 46.9
|Apr record high C = 42.0
|May record high C = 36.5
|Jun record high C = 33.3
|Jul record high C = 30.3
|Aug record high C = 33.9
|Sep record high C = 40.1
|Oct record high C = 43.1
|Nov record high C = 46.7
|Dec record high C = 49.8
|year record high C =
|Jan high C = 26.8
|Feb high C = 26.6
|Mar high C = 25.6
|Apr high C = 24.2
|May high C = 21.4
|Jun high C = 18.9
|Jul high C = 18.2
|Aug high C = 19.7
|Sep high C = 22.1
|Oct high C = 24.0
|Nov high C = 25.2
|Dec high C = 25.7
|year high C = 23.2
|Jan low C = 16.7
|Feb low C = 17.3
|Mar low C = 15.5
|Apr low C = 13.5
|May low C = 11.0
|Jun low C = 8.2
|Jul low C = 7.1
|Aug low C = 7.7
|Sep low C = 9.3
|Oct low C = 11.5
|Nov low C = 13.4
|Dec low C = 15.2
|year low C = 12.2
|Jan record low C = 3.5
|Feb record low C = 7.8
|Mar record low C = 6.7
|Apr record low C = 2.0
|May record low C = 0.0
|Jun record low C = -2.2
|Jul record low C = -0.6
|Aug record low C = 0.0
|Sep record low C = -0.6
|Oct record low C = 1.5
|Nov record low C = 2.8
|Dec record low C = 3.8
|year record low C =
| Jan precipitation mm = 14.9
|Feb precipitation mm = 18.0
|Mar precipitation mm = 31.1
|Apr precipitation mm = 29.3
|May precipitation mm = 30.3
|Jun precipitation mm = 34.0
|Jul precipitation mm = 29.5
|Aug precipitation mm = 29.8
|Sep precipitation mm = 28.9
|Oct precipitation mm = 17.8
|Nov precipitation mm = 21.6
|Dec precipitation mm = 35.0
|year precipitation mm = 320.1
|Jan precipitation days = 4.4
|Feb precipitation days = 5.6
|Mar precipitation days = 8.4
|Apr precipitation days = 8.8
|May precipitation days = 11.0
|Jun precipitation days = 11.5
|Jul precipitation days = 11.5
|Aug precipitation days = 11.0
|Sep precipitation days = 8.9
|Oct precipitation days = 7.4
|Nov precipitation days = 6.3
|Dec precipitation days = 6.8
|year precipitation days = 101.6
|Jan afthumidity = 62
|Feb afthumidity = 63
|Mar afthumidity = 63
|Apr afthumidity = 62
|May afthumidity = 59
|Jun afthumidity = 58
|Jul afthumidity = 58
|Aug afthumidity = 57
|Sep afthumidity = 57
|Oct afthumidity = 58
|Nov afthumidity = 60
|Dec afthumidity = 62
|year afthumidity = 60
|source 1 = Australian [[Bureau of Meteorology]]<ref name="bureau"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/cdio/cvg/av?p_stn_num=011003&p_prim_element_index=0&p_comp_element_index=0&redraw=null&p_display_type=full_statistics_table&normals_years=1981-2010&tablesizebutt=normal|title=Climate statistics for Eucla: 1981–2010|publisher=[[Bureau of Meteorology]]|access-date=21 December 2019}}</ref>
}}

==Present day==
[[File:Eucla Telegraph Station DSC04567.JPG|right|thumb|Telegraph Station]]
Eucla is the largest stopping point between [[Norseman, Western Australia|Norseman]] and [[Penong, South Australia|Penong]] for travellers along the [[Eyre Highway]]. It has a hotel and restaurant, a police station, a golf club (7 km to the north), a museum dedicated to the Old Telegraph Station, and a meteorological station. These, together with fishing, are the major activities in the locality. There is a Travellers Cross that, despite its name, commemorates locals who have died.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chapelhill.homeip.net/FamilyHistory/Photos/Eucla_Travellers_Cross-WA/ |title=Travellers Cross|access-date=12 April 2008}}</ref>

The South Australian settlement of [[Border Village]] is located {{convert|12|km|0}} east of Eucla. Primarily established as a quarantine checkpoint for agricultural produce, this small settlement also comprises a licensed roadhouse and caravan park.

==Time zone==
Eucla and the surrounding area, notably [[Mundrabilla, Western Australia|Mundrabilla]] and [[Madura, Western Australia|Madura]] in Western Australia and [[Border Village, South Australia|Border Village]] in South Australia, use the Central Western Time Zone of [[UTC+8:45]]. Although it has no official sanction, it is universally observed in this area, stopping just to the east of [[Caiguna, Western Australia|Caiguna]].

==Transport==
Eucla is a major stop-off point along the [[Eyre Highway]].

In October 2005, [[Greyhound Australia]] announced the closure of their Nullarbor service due to rising fuel prices and declining passenger numbers.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nullarbor bus service proves too costly|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200510/s1478262.htm|work=ABC Online|publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=10 October 2005|access-date=17 October 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007054439/http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200510/s1478262.htm |archive-date=7 October 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="nolines">
Image:Eucla pass 2008.jpg|Eucla Pass
Image:Euclapastfrom west.JPG|Eucla Pass from the west
Image:Eucla coast from pass.jpg|Eucla Pass looking toward south coast
</gallery>

==See also==
{{commons|Eucla Telegraph Station}}
* [[Eucla Airport]]
* [[Rabbits in Australia]]
* [[List of extreme temperatures in Australia]]

==References==
{{reflist|40em}}

==Further reading==
* {{ Cite book | last1 = Saunders | first1 = B. A. | title = Spirit of the Desert: The Story of Eucla, WA, after the East-West Telegraph Era | location = Kalgoorlie, W.A. | publisher = B.A. Saunders for the Eyre Highway Community Association | year = 2005 | ISBN = 0-646-44583-9 }}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Eucla}}
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.dundas.wa.gov.au/eyre-highway.aspx Shire of Dundas – Towns of the Eyre Highway]
*[http://www.chapelhill.homeip.net/FamilyHistory/Photos/Eucla_Travellers_Cross-WA/ Photos of the Travellers Cross]

{{Towns Nullarbor}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Towns in Western Australia]]
[[Category:Nullarbor Plain]]
[[Category:Shire of Dundas]]
[[Category:Roadhouses in Western Australia]]
[[Category:Great Australian Bight]]
[[Category:Eyre Highway]]

Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Subscribe

2022-03-18T00:17:04Z

Explodingbrain: Added :User talk:Explodingbrain

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"title": "User talk:Alex Bakharev"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alexchris"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alfie"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alsd2"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alucard 16"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Amakuru"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Amartyabag"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ammarpad"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Amortias"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Amorymeltzer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Anasskoko"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andrew Dalby/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andrew Gray"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andrew11374265"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andromedabluesphere440/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andyvphil"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Angelo.romano"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Anir1uph"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Another Believer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AnotherEditor144/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AntanO"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AntiCompositeNumber"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Antrocent"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aoba47"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aoi"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Apokrif"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Applodion"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Apwoolrich"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Arccosecant"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Arjuno3"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ArnabSaha"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Arunram"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Arwel Parry"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Asartea"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aseleste"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AshLin"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ashlesh007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Asukite"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Athomeinkobe"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Atlantic306"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Atlasowa"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Attilios"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AugusteBlanqui"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aunva6/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Auspolfan123"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AustinZeli"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Avatar317"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Awbfiend"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Awesome Aasim"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AwfulReader"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AxG"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ayenaee"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BEANS X2/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Babajobu"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Babymissfortune"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Badgernet"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Baekemm"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bait30"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Balko Kabo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Balon Greyjoy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bamyers99"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Banoffeemonster"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Barkeep49"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BarrelProof"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Baseball Watcher"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Basement12"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bduke"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bearian"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BeatrixBelibaste"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Beauty School Dropout"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Becksguy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BellBundy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bellagio99"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Benc0917"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Benjamin112"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Benjaminikuta"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bernat Tortajada"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Berrely"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BethNaught"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BeywheelzLetItRip"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bharathiya"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bibliomaniac15"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Biblioworm"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Biexx"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Big universe"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BigHaz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Biggins"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bilby"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Billhpike"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Billinghurst"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bingobro"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bisbis"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bkonrad"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Blahma"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Blaze Wolf"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Blethering Scot"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Blue Riband"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BlueCaper/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BlueMoonlet/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bobdog54"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bobherry"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Boothsift"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Booyahhayoob/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bop34/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Borgarde"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BoringHistoryGuy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bouchecl"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bovineboy2008"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bovlb"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Braincricket"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brandon.b2005"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BrandonXLF"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Breawycker/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brewster239"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brianann MacAmhlaidh"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brigade Piron"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brinacor"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Britishfinance"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BrownHairedGirl"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BrxBrx"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bsadowski1"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bsoyka"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BubbaDaAmogus"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bug2266"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Buggie111"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BullRangifer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Buster7"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BusterD"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Buttons to Push Buttons"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CAPTAIN RAJU"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CASSIOPEIA"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CFCF"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CMBJ"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CMtemCA"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CWH"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cabayi/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Caiaffa/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Caius G."
},
{
"title": "User talk:Caknuck"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CalOtter"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Calidum"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Callanecc"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CambridgeBayWeather/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Candido"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Captain Almighty Nutz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Caro7200"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cat-five"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Catfish Jim and the soapdish"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cbs527"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Celestina007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ceyockey"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chamal N"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ChamithN"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Checkingfax"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chess"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chewings72"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chicdat"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chlod/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chris G"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chris Mason/SignPost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Christian75"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ckatz/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clariosophic"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clarkcj12/signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Class455"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ClaudineChionh"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clog Wolf"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cloud atlas"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clovermoss"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clpo13"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cocoaguy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Codl"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Coldupnorth"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CommanderOzEvolved/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Compassionate727"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Confermusearename"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Conifer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ContinueWithCaution"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CookieMonster755"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Coretheapple"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Courcelles"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CptViraj"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Crash Underride"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Crazynas"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Creffett"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cryptic Canadian"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cube lurker"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Culex"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CupcakePerson13"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Curtisk404"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cwmhiraeth"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CycloneYoris"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cyclonebiskit"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cyclopia"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CycoMa1"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cyde"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cyfraw"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DBetancourt (WMF)"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DDupard"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DRAGON BOOSTER"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dakotajone"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Daniel"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Daniel Mietchen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DannyS712"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Danre98/news"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DariuZzandor"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dartslilly"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Darwinian Ape"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Davejohnsan/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Davey2010"
},
{
"title": "User talk:David Fuchs"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DavidCane"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Davidbuddy9"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Daylen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dcflyer/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dcheagle"
},
{
"title": "User talk:De la Marck"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DePiep"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Deepfriedokra"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Deisenbe"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Deskana"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dexterfung"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dey subrata/signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Diannaa"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dibbydib"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Diego Moya"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Difficultly north"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DigitalCompas/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DirkJandeGeer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Disavian"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DiscantX"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Djr xi/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dlthewave"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dmartin969/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doc James"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doctor 17"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DoggieTimesTwo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DogsRNice"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dominic Mayers II"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Donald Albury"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Donald Trung"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doncram"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Double Plus Ungood"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doublesurd"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doug Weller"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dr Bowser"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dr. Sroy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Drcrazy102"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Drjmarkov"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DubitoErgoCogito"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dumelow"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dutchy45"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dwaipayanc"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dwayne/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dylan620/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dylsss"
},
{
"title": "User talk:E0126E"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EMP"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eat me, I'm an azuki"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ebe123/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ecritures"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EdSaperia"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eddie891"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Edgars2007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Edison"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EdisonLin27"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Editorofthewiki"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Edmund Patrick"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Edwardx"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eevee01"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EggRoll97"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eggybonk11"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ejgertz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ejs-80"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ElHef/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ElKevbo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Elliot321"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Emha"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Emphrase"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EnPassant"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Enjoyer of World"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Entity137"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EpicPupper2"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Epicgenius/Archive 0"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Erachima"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eric-Wester"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EricSerge"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ErrantX"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Esowteric"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eternal Shadow"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EthanGaming7640"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eug"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eumat114"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Explodingbrain"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Extabulis"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Extraordinary Writ"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ezlev"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FMecha"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FULBERT"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fabrictramp"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FactMaster007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Faendalimas"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FairlyFlatFoot"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Farpen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fawnstream"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fcbcampnou"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FeRDNYC"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fehufanga"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Felipe da Fonseca"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Feminist"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fenix down"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fgnievinski"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Figureskatingfan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Finell"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Firestar464"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FiveFaintFootprints"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fixman/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Flori4nK"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Floul1/SignPost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fluffernutter"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FlyingAce"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FormalDude"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fox"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FrankDev"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frdp"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Freakmighty"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fredlesaltique"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Freoanlsji"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frickeg"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Froggydame"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Froid"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frood"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frosty"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frotz/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Froztbyte"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Funplussmart"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gaelan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GalaxyDog"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ganeshk"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Garagepunk66"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gareth Griffith-Jones"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gasheadsteve"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gatoclass"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GavinTing"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Geartooth/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ged UK"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gehenna1510"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GeometryDashFan12"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Georgewilliamherbert"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gerald Waldo Luis"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gestrid"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gharouni"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ghmyrtle"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GhostInTheMachine/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GiFontenelle"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Giggity"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gigs"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gilderien"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gilliam"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gillyweed"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Giraffer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Girona7"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gitz6666/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GlassCobra"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Glen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gluons12"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Go Phightins!"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GoatLordServant"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gobonobo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Godot13"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gog the Mild"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Golbez"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Goldsztajn"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GrahamHardy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Green Mostaza"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GreenMeansGo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Greengreengreenred"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Greenrd"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GretLomborg"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gulmammad"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Guy Macon/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Guywan/News/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gwen Gale"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gwenhope/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gökhan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HAL333"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HHill"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HJ Mitchell"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HJKeats"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HaEr48"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Hallward's Ghost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ham II"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Haminoon"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Hans5958/Feeds/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Happily888"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Harry585"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HawkAussie"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Hawkeye7"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Hdjensofjfnen/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HeartGlow30797/Subscriptions"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Heartfox"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HelenDegenerate"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Hello world 6"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Helloimahumanbeing"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Helpful Cat/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Hemlock Martinis"
},
{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:HickoryOughtShirt?4"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Hydnjo"
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:HyperEagle"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:I dream of horses"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:IShadowed"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Ilamb94"
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{
"title": "User talk:ImprovedWikiImprovment"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Incagnito"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Innisfree987"
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{
"title": "User talk:Innotata"
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{
"title": "User talk:Insertcleverphrasehere"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Invertzoo"
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{
"title": "User talk:Iryna Harpy"
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{
"title": "User talk:Isabelle Belato"
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Ita140188"
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Iñaki LL"
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{
"title": "User talk:J Milburn"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:JohnChrysostom"
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{
"title": "User talk:Jonashtand"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Jowaninpensans"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Justarandomamerican"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Kanogul/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:KarasuGamma"
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{
"title": "User talk:Karthikndr"
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{
"title": "User talk:Katie Allie"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kb03"
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{
"title": "User talk:Keahapana"
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{
"title": "User talk:Keilana"
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{
"title": "User talk:Keira1996"
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{
"title": "User talk:Ken987654156"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kerry Raymond"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kevin McE"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kevon kevono"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kewlgrapes"
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{
"title": "User talk:Khascall"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kieran207"
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{
"title": "User talk:Killarnee"
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{
"title": "User talk:KillerChihuahua"
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{
"title": "User talk:Killiondude"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kiltpin"
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{
"title": "User talk:King of Hearts"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kingboyk"
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{
"title": "User talk:Klemen Kocjancic"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kndimov/Wikipedia Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:KnightLago"
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{
"title": "User talk:Knope7"
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{
"title": "User talk:Knucklepuff"
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{
"title": "User talk:Koavf/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kosack"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kosboot"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kostajh"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kreiny"
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{
"title": "User talk:Krillzyx"
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{
"title": "User talk:Ks0stm"
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{
"title": "User talk:Ktin"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kusma"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Kwj2772/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kylekieran/subpage"
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{
"title": "User talk:KyloRen3/Newsletters"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:LJF2019"
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{
"title": "User talk:Launchballer"
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{
"title": "User talk:Laurascudder"
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{
"title": "User talk:Laveol"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lcawte"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Leaky caldron"
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{
"title": "User talk:Learnerktm"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lectonar"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lectrician1"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lectrician2"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lee Vilenski"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lefcentreright"
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{
"title": "User talk:Legoktm"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leiem"
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{
"title": "User talk:LemonOrangeLime"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leomk0403"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leschnei"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lettherebedarklight"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leutha"
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{
"title": "User talk:LiAnna (Wiki Ed)"
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{
"title": "User talk:Libcub"
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{
"title": "User talk:Librarygurl"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lid"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lincyblincy"
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{
"title": "User talk:Liz"
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{
"title": "User talk:Ljcool2006/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:LlamaAl"
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{
"title": "User talk:Llll5032"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lomrjyo"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lord Roem"
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{
"title": "User talk:Loriendrew"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lourdes"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lova Falk"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lucky102"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lugnuts"
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{
"title": "User talk:Luk"
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{
"title": "User talk:LukeSurl"
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{
"title": "User talk:Luístro"
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{
"title": "User talk:M-Mustapha"
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{
"title": "User talk:MC10/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:MER-C"
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{
"title": "User talk:MPGuy2824"
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{
"title": "User talk:MRD2014"
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{
"title": "User talk:MRRaja001"
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{
"title": "User talk:Maarten Jansen"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mabeenot"
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{
"title": "User talk:Macdonald-ross"
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{
"title": "User talk:MadGuy7023"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mahveotm"
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{
"title": "User talk:Maile66"
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{
"title": "User talk:Majora"
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{
"title": "User talk:Malayala Sahityam"
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{
"title": "User talk:Manning Bartlett"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marchije"
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{
"title": "User talk:Margin1522"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marie D Martel"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marioedit8"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marius851000"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mark Chung"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mark Miller"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marksomnian"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marquardtika"
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{
"title": "User talk:Martha Forsyth"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marvinthefish"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mary Mark Ockerbloom"
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{
"title": "User talk:Masem"
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{
"title": "User talk:MasqueOfTheRedDeath"
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{
"title": "User talk:MassiveEartha"
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{
"title": "User talk:Masssly"
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{
"title": "User talk:Masumrezarock100"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mathmitch7"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mathmo"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mattbuck"
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{
"title": "User talk:MatthewRMiller2"
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{
"title": "User talk:Matthewrbowker"
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{
"title": "User talk:Maunus/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Maury Markowitz"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mdaniels5757"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Meanderingbartender"
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{
"title": "User talk:Meaou"
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{
"title": "User talk:Meno25"
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{
"title": "User talk:Merbabu"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mercurywoodrose"
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{
"title": "User talk:Meters"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mgasparin"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mgiganteus1"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mgp28"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mgreason"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Millahnna"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Minna Sora no Shita"
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{
"title": "User talk:Minorax"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mkdw/News"
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Moonriddengirl"
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{
"title": "User talk:Moonythedwarf"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Morvram"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mr Robot 2020"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Muboshgu"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Newyorkadam"
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{
"title": "User talk:NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh/Signpost"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Ohmyerica"
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"title": "User talk:Oi Ryeinadams"
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{
"title": "User talk:Oiyarbepsy"
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{
"title": "User talk:Olaf Kosinsky"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Patsagorn Y./ξ"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Ragesoss"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rainclaw7"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ravichandar84"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Reach Out to the Truth"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RealFakeKim"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Reaper Eternal"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Reb1981"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Recury"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Redactedentity"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Reimu chan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Remagoxer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Reo On"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RetroCraft314"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RetroTimeLady"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rhain/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rhododendrites"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rich Smith"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Richhaddon"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RicoCorinth"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rijinatwiki"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rlin8"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rob3512"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RobDuch"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Robert32315"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Roberticus/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Robvanvee"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rock drum"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rockstone35"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rockwren"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Roger Davies"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rogerd"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rohini"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RolandR"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rosiestep"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RossO/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Roundtheworld"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RoySmith"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rrius"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rschen7754"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rsrikanth05"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RubenSchade/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ruby2010"
},
{
"title": "User talk:RuiyuShen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Runner1928"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rusalkii"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Rusty4321/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ryan Postlethwaite"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ryan032/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ryk72/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:S0091"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SD5/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SMasters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SS49"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SSSB"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ST47"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sa.vakilian/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sabrebd"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sachinvenga"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sahara4u"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sailawen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Salvio giuliano"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sam Sailor"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Samwalton9"
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{
"title": "User talk:Sandiooses"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Santoshdts"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sarah Krichen WMFr"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sarahpeppel"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SarekOfVulcan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Saucy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SaxTeacher/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Scarpy"
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{
"title": "User talk:Schierbecker"
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{
"title": "User talk:Schutz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Schwede66"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Schweiwikist/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Scope creep"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Scottyoak2/Subscriptions"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ScoutHarris"
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{
"title": "User talk:Sculpordwarfprunesea"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Segenay"
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{
"title": "User talk:Senator2029"
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{
"title": "User talk:Seraphimblade"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Seresin/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Serial Number 54129"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Severestorm28"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SewChicago"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ShadowWarfare"
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{
"title": "User talk:Shadowrvn728"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sheila1988"
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{
"title": "User talk:ShelfSkewed"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Shellwood"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Shibbolethink"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Shizhao"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Shoy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Shudde"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Shushugah/news"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Shyam"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sigehelmus"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Silent Billy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Siliconred"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Simon Adler"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SimonD/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sir Magnus Fluffbrains"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SirEdimon"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SixTwoEight"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sixula"
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{
"title": "User talk:Sjb72"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sjones23/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Skr15081997/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SkyGazer 512"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Slafayette"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sm8900"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Smallchief"
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{
"title": "User talk:Smartyllama"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Smileguy91"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Snow Rise"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Snowded"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Snowmanonahoe/Subscriptions"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Snowolf"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Softlavender"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SoldatenLieder 3"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Solomon7968"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Soman"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Some1"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SouthernKangaroo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SouthernKangaroo/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Spacejunkjim"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SpacetimeIsCool"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SparklingPessimist"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SpartaN"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Speednat"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Spencer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Spinningspark/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Spirit of Eagle"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Spiritia"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Spock3301/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sportsguy17"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sportzpikachu"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Springee"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Springfield2020"
},
{
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},
{
"title": "User talk:SriMesh"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Srikeit"
},
{
"title": "User talk:StAnselm"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Stamptrader/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Stanistani"
},
{
"title": "User talk:StarshipSLS"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Staxringold"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Stefan/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Stickee/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Stickymatch"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Storchy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:StudiesWorld"
},
{
"title": "User talk:StuffOfInterest"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Stwalkerster"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sudonet"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Sukey"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Suonii180"
},
{
"title": "User talk:SuperHamster"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Surturz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Susan118"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Susmuffin"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Syed"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TCN7JM"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TCappelletto (WMF)"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TJMSmith"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TadejM"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tamanoeconomico"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TapefaceYT"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TapticInfo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tariqabjotu"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tau Fermion"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Taumata994"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Techman224"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Terasail"
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{
"title": "User talk:TerraCodes"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Thanoscar21"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tharthan/Mailbox"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The Anome"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The Banner"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The Earwig"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The Grid"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The Herald"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The Obento Musubi/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The Rambling Man"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The boss 1998"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The creeper2007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:The4lines"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TheDoctorWho"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TheGGoose"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TheMadDesperado"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TheSLEEVEmonkey"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TheVirginiaHistorian"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Theda"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Thekillerpenguin"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Theonesean"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Theory42"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Thine Antique Pen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Thingofme"
},
{
"title": "User talk:This is Paul"
},
{
"title": "User talk:This, that and the other"
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{
"title": "User talk:Thomas Meng"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Thomas888b"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Thriley"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tigerboy1966"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tikuko"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Timbaaa"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Timdwilliamson/signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Timotheus Canens"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tinucherian"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tiredmeliorist"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Titodutta"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ToBeFree"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Toa Nidhiki05"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Toandanel49/signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tobias1984"
},
{
"title": "User talk:TodorBozhinov"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Tolly4bolly"
},
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
"title": "User talk:Tr3ndyBEAR"
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Triptothecottage"
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{
"title": "User talk:Trivialist/updates"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Vensatry"
},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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},
{
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{
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},
{
"title": "User talk:Vukky"
},
{
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Was a bee/Signpost"
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{
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Wetrorave"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Yitbe/Signpost"
},
{
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},
{
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},
{
"title": "User talk:Yohannvt"
},
{
"title": "User talk:YorkshireLad"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ZLEA"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Zarasophos"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Zarex/Newsletters/Wikipedia Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Zellfaze"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Zeromonk"
},
{
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},
{
"title": "User talk:ZoyaBoris"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Zubin12"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Åntøinæ"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ÞValor"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ಮಲ್ನಾಡಾಚ್ ಕೊಂಕ್ಣೊ"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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},
{
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}

Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Subscribe

2022-03-18T00:16:40Z

Explodingbrain: Removed :User talk:Explodingbrain

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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Adarshjchandran"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AddWittyNameHere"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Admrboltz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Adolphus79"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aegeou2"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AfroThundr3007730/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Agyaanapan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ahmad252"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Air55"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ajpolino"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Akakievich"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Al83tito"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alansohn"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alberto79"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ale jrb"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alessgrimal"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alex Bakharev"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alexchris"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alfie"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alsd2"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Alucard 16"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Amakuru"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Amartyabag"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ammarpad"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Amortias"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Amorymeltzer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Anasskoko"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andrew Dalby/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Andrew Gray"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andrew11374265"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andromedabluesphere440/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Andyvphil"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Angelo.romano"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Anir1uph"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Another Believer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AnotherEditor144/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AntanO"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AntiCompositeNumber"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Antrocent"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aoba47"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aoi"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Apokrif"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Applodion"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Apwoolrich"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Arccosecant"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Arjuno3"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ArnabSaha"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Arunram"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Arwel Parry"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Asartea"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aseleste"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AshLin"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ashlesh007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Asukite"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Athomeinkobe"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Atlantic306"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Atlasowa"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Attilios"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AugusteBlanqui"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Aunva6/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Auspolfan123"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AustinZeli"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Avatar317"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Awbfiend"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Awesome Aasim"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AwfulReader"
},
{
"title": "User talk:AxG"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ayenaee"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BEANS X2/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Babajobu"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Babymissfortune"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Badgernet"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Baekemm"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bait30"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Balko Kabo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Balon Greyjoy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bamyers99"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Banoffeemonster"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Barkeep49"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BarrelProof"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Baseball Watcher"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Basement12"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bduke"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bearian"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BeatrixBelibaste"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Beauty School Dropout"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Becksguy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BellBundy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bellagio99"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Benc0917"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Benjamin112"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Benjaminikuta"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bernat Tortajada"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Berrely"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BethNaught"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BeywheelzLetItRip"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bharathiya"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bibliomaniac15"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Biblioworm"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Biexx"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Big universe"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BigHaz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Biggins"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bilby"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Billhpike"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Billinghurst"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bingobro"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bisbis"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bkonrad"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Blahma"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Blaze Wolf"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Blethering Scot"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Blue Riband"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BlueCaper/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BlueMoonlet/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bobdog54"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bobherry"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Boothsift"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Booyahhayoob/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bop34/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Borgarde"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BoringHistoryGuy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bouchecl"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bovineboy2008"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bovlb"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Braincricket"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brandon.b2005"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BrandonXLF"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Breawycker/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brewster239"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brianann MacAmhlaidh"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brigade Piron"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Brinacor"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Britishfinance"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BrownHairedGirl"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BrxBrx"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bsadowski1"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bsoyka"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BubbaDaAmogus"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Bug2266"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Buggie111"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BullRangifer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Buster7"
},
{
"title": "User talk:BusterD"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Buttons to Push Buttons"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CAPTAIN RAJU"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CASSIOPEIA"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CFCF"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CMBJ"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CMtemCA"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CWH"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cabayi/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Caiaffa/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Caius G."
},
{
"title": "User talk:Caknuck"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CalOtter"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Calidum"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Callanecc"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CambridgeBayWeather/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Candido"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Captain Almighty Nutz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Caro7200"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cat-five"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Catfish Jim and the soapdish"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cbs527"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Celestina007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ceyockey"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chamal N"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ChamithN"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Checkingfax"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chess"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chewings72"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chicdat"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chlod/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chris G"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Chris Mason/SignPost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Christian75"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ckatz/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clariosophic"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clarkcj12/signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Class455"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ClaudineChionh"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clog Wolf"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cloud atlas"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clovermoss"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Clpo13"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cocoaguy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Codl"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Coldupnorth"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CommanderOzEvolved/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Compassionate727"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Confermusearename"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Conifer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ContinueWithCaution"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CookieMonster755"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Coretheapple"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Courcelles"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CptViraj"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Crash Underride"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Crazynas"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Creffett"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cryptic Canadian"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cube lurker"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Culex"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CupcakePerson13"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Curtisk404"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cwmhiraeth"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CycloneYoris"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cyclonebiskit"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cyclopia"
},
{
"title": "User talk:CycoMa1"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cyde"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Cyfraw"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DBetancourt (WMF)"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DDupard"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DRAGON BOOSTER"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dakotajone"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Daniel"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Daniel Mietchen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DannyS712"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Danre98/news"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DariuZzandor"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dartslilly"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Darwinian Ape"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Davejohnsan/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Davey2010"
},
{
"title": "User talk:David Fuchs"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DavidCane"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Davidbuddy9"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Daylen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dcflyer/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dcheagle"
},
{
"title": "User talk:De la Marck"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DePiep"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Deepfriedokra"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Deisenbe"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Deskana"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dexterfung"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dey subrata/signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Diannaa"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dibbydib"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Diego Moya"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Difficultly north"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DigitalCompas/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DirkJandeGeer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Disavian"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DiscantX"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DisillusionedBitterAndKnackered"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Djr xi/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dlthewave"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dmartin969/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doc James"
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{
"title": "User talk:Doctor 17"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DoggieTimesTwo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DogsRNice"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dominic Mayers II"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Donald Albury"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Donald Trung"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doncram"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Double Plus Ungood"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doublesurd"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Doug Weller"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dr Bowser"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dr. Sroy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Drcrazy102"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Drjmarkov"
},
{
"title": "User talk:DubitoErgoCogito"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dumelow"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dutchy45"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dwaipayanc"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dwayne/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dylan620/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Dylsss"
},
{
"title": "User talk:E0126E"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EMP"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eat me, I'm an azuki"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ebe123/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ecritures"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ed Erhart (WMF)"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EdSaperia"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eddie891"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Edgars2007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Edison"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EdisonLin27"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Editorofthewiki"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Edmund Patrick"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Edwardx"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eevee01"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EggRoll97"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eggybonk11"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ejgertz"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ejs-80"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ElHef/Newsletters"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ElKevbo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Elliot321"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Emha"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Emphrase"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EnPassant"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Enjoyer of World"
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{
"title": "User talk:Entity137"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EpicPupper2"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Epicgenius/Archive 0"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Erachima"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eric-Wester"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EricSerge"
},
{
"title": "User talk:ErrantX"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Esowteric"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eternal Shadow"
},
{
"title": "User talk:EthanGaming7640"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eug"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Eumat114"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Extabulis"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Extraordinary Writ"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ezlev"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FMecha"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FULBERT"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fabrictramp"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FactMaster007"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Faendalimas"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FairlyFlatFoot"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Farpen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fawnstream"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fcbcampnou"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FeRDNYC"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fehufanga"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Felipe da Fonseca"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Feminist"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fenix down"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fgnievinski"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Figureskatingfan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Finell"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Firestar464"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FiveFaintFootprints"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fixman/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Flori4nK"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Floul1/SignPost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fluffernutter"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FlyingAce"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FormalDude"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fox"
},
{
"title": "User talk:FrankDev"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frdp"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Freakmighty"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Fredlesaltique"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Freoanlsji"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frickeg"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Froggydame"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Froid"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frood"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frosty"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Frotz/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Froztbyte"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Funplussmart"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gaelan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GalaxyDog"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ganeshk"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Garagepunk66"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gareth Griffith-Jones"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gasheadsteve"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gatoclass"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GavinTing"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Geartooth/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ged UK"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gehenna1510"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GeometryDashFan12"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Georgewilliamherbert"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gerald Waldo Luis"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gestrid"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gharouni"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Ghmyrtle"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GhostInTheMachine/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GiFontenelle"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Giggity"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gigs"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gilderien"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gilliam"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gillyweed"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Giraffer"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Girona7"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gitz6666/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GlassCobra"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Glen"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gluons12"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Go Phightins!"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GoatLordServant"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gobonobo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Godot13"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gog the Mild"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Golbez"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Goldsztajn"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GrahamHardy"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Green Mostaza"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GreenMeansGo"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Greengreengreenred"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Greenrd"
},
{
"title": "User talk:GretLomborg"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gulmammad"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Guy Macon/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Guywan/News/Signpost"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gwen Gale"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gwenhope/News"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Gökhan"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HAL333"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HHill"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HJ Mitchell"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HJKeats"
},
{
"title": "User talk:HaEr48"
},
{
"title": "User talk:Hallward's Ghost"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Helloimahumanbeing"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Hemlock Martinis"
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{
"title": "User talk:Herobrine/Signpost"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Hhkohh"
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{
"title": "User talk:HickoryOughtShirt?4"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:I dream of horses"
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{
"title": "User talk:I'ma editor2022"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:John Cline"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:JohnChrysostom"
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{
"title": "User talk:Jonashtand"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Justarandomamerican"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Kanogul/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:KarasuGamma"
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{
"title": "User talk:Karthikndr"
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{
"title": "User talk:Katie Allie"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kb03"
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{
"title": "User talk:Keahapana"
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{
"title": "User talk:Keilana"
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{
"title": "User talk:Keira1996"
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{
"title": "User talk:Ken987654156"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kerry Raymond"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kevin McE"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kevon kevono"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kewlgrapes"
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{
"title": "User talk:Khascall"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kieran207"
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{
"title": "User talk:Killarnee"
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{
"title": "User talk:KillerChihuahua"
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{
"title": "User talk:Killiondude"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kiltpin"
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{
"title": "User talk:King of Hearts"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kingboyk"
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{
"title": "User talk:Klemen Kocjancic"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kndimov/Wikipedia Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:KnightLago"
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{
"title": "User talk:Knope7"
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{
"title": "User talk:Knucklepuff"
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{
"title": "User talk:Koavf/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kosack"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kosboot"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kostajh"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kreiny"
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{
"title": "User talk:Krillzyx"
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{
"title": "User talk:Ks0stm"
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{
"title": "User talk:Ktin"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kusma"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kwj2772/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Kylekieran/subpage"
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{
"title": "User talk:KyloRen3/Newsletters"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:LJF2019"
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{
"title": "User talk:Launchballer"
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{
"title": "User talk:Laurascudder"
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{
"title": "User talk:Laveol"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lcawte"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leaky caldron"
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{
"title": "User talk:Learnerktm"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lectonar"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lectrician1"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lectrician2"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lee Vilenski"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lefcentreright"
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{
"title": "User talk:Legoktm"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leiem"
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{
"title": "User talk:LemonOrangeLime"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leomk0403"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leschnei"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lettherebedarklight"
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{
"title": "User talk:Leutha"
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{
"title": "User talk:LiAnna (Wiki Ed)"
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{
"title": "User talk:Libcub"
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{
"title": "User talk:Librarygurl"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lid"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lincyblincy"
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{
"title": "User talk:Liz"
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{
"title": "User talk:Ljcool2006/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:LlamaAl"
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{
"title": "User talk:Llll5032"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lomrjyo"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lord Roem"
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{
"title": "User talk:Loriendrew"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lourdes"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lova Falk"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lucky102"
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{
"title": "User talk:Lugnuts"
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{
"title": "User talk:Luk"
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{
"title": "User talk:LukeSurl"
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{
"title": "User talk:Luístro"
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{
"title": "User talk:M-Mustapha"
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{
"title": "User talk:MC10/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:MER-C"
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{
"title": "User talk:MPGuy2824"
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{
"title": "User talk:MRD2014"
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{
"title": "User talk:MRRaja001"
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{
"title": "User talk:Maarten Jansen"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mabeenot"
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{
"title": "User talk:Macdonald-ross"
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{
"title": "User talk:MadGuy7023"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mahveotm"
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{
"title": "User talk:Maile66"
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{
"title": "User talk:Majora"
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{
"title": "User talk:Malayala Sahityam"
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{
"title": "User talk:Manning Bartlett"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marchije"
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{
"title": "User talk:Margin1522"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marie D Martel"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marioedit8"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marius851000"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mark Chung"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mark Miller"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marksomnian"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marquardtika"
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{
"title": "User talk:Martha Forsyth"
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{
"title": "User talk:Marvinthefish"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mary Mark Ockerbloom"
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{
"title": "User talk:Masem"
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{
"title": "User talk:MasqueOfTheRedDeath"
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{
"title": "User talk:MassiveEartha"
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{
"title": "User talk:Masssly"
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{
"title": "User talk:Masumrezarock100"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mathmitch7"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mathmo"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mattbuck"
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{
"title": "User talk:MatthewRMiller2"
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{
"title": "User talk:Matthewrbowker"
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{
"title": "User talk:Maunus/Signpost"
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{
"title": "User talk:Maury Markowitz"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mdaniels5757"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Meanderingbartender"
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{
"title": "User talk:Meaou"
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{
"title": "User talk:Meno25"
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{
"title": "User talk:Merbabu"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mercurywoodrose"
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{
"title": "User talk:Meters"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mgasparin"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mgiganteus1"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mgp28"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mgreason"
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:MichellevL (WMNL)"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Millahnna"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Minna Sora no Shita"
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Montanabw"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Moonriddengirl"
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{
"title": "User talk:Moonythedwarf"
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Morvram"
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{
"title": "User talk:Mr Robot 2020"
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{
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{
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"title": "User talk:Muboshgu"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Newyorkadam"
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{
"title": "User talk:NguoiDungKhongDinhDanh/Signpost"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
"title": "User talk:Ohmyerica"
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"title": "User talk:Oi Ryeinadams"
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"title": "User talk:Oiyarbepsy"
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"title": "User talk:Olaf Kosinsky"
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"title": "User talk:Oldosfan"
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"title": "User talk:OliverEastwood"
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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{
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Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/Subscribe

2022-03-18T00:16:14Z

Explodingbrain: Added :User talk:Explodingbrain

Wikipedia:Teahouse

2019-08-17T15:25:08Z

Explodingbrain: /* Is Mount Major, Victoria, Australia notable? */ new section

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==My page draft got rejected==

I created a page for one of my Company's products, which is an open source eCommerce solution. I see that there are pages for other open source eCommerce solutions. Kindly help me. What steps do I need to take to get the page published? [[User:Smitha.piccosoft]] —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|undated]] comment added 10:43, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 

== Help with revising a draft needed ==

Hello Experts

I tried - putting a lot of work into it - to write my first Wikipedia entry about an artist who is in the business since more than 20 years. I submitted the article and got the following feedback:
"This submission's references do not show that the subject qualifies for a Wikipedia article—that is, they do not show significant coverage (not just passing mentions) about the subject in published, reliable, secondary sources that are independent of the subject (see the guidelines on the notability of music-related topics). Before any resubmission, additional references meeting these criteria should be added (see technical help and learn about mistakes to avoid when addressing this issue). If no additional references exist, the subject is not suitable for Wikipedia."
Certainly nothing unusual for more experienced people like you.
The links I put on the article to show this artists international career were for example newspaper reviews. I'm afraid I don't understand what isn't "significant, reliable, secondary source and independent about this.
It might also just be, that I haven't technically understood how to submit references with "ref", all I placed were links. I'd very much appreciate if one of you could help me with a contact who knows how to do this. There is no doubt, this artist deserves a Wikipedia entry.
Many thanks and best wishes,
--[[User:Fmkaiser|Fmkaiser]] ([[User talk:Fmkaiser|talk]]) 19:44, 12 August 2019 (UTC)
— Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Fmkaiser|Fmkaiser]] ([[User talk:Fmkaiser#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Fmkaiser|contribs]]) 19:30, 12 August 2019 (UTC) 

:Hi {{u|Fmkaiser}} and welcome to the Teahouse. I haven't looked at all of your eighteen references, but can you point us to two or three that are independent (not interviews or publicity) and discuss the subject in detail? [[User:Dbfirs|Dbfirs]] 19:58, 12 August 2019 (UTC)

:Hi {{u|Dbfirs}}! Thanks for your fast reply. Sorry if my question is "stupid", but how can I point you to links here? Of course I'm happy to send you some links to international newspaper reviews, that aren't interviews nor publicity, but reviews of the artists performance and therefore independent. And I'm happy to discuss how I can revise the article so things get in the right way.
[[User:Fmkaiser|Fmkaiser]] ([[User talk:Fmkaiser|talk]]) 20:11, 12 August 2019 (UTC)

::Just tell us which numbers in your draft. If you can find better references, then add those first because the numbers will change. [[User:Dbfirs|Dbfirs]] 20:14, 12 August 2019 (UTC)

: ok, take a look at 1, 3, 5, 7, or 13, 14 etc.
[[User:Fmkaiser|Fmkaiser]] ([[User talk:Fmkaiser|talk]]) 20:58, 12 August 2019 (UTC)

::I'll leave it to someone who can read German to check 1, 3 and 5, but they look like brief mentions to me. Number 7 is just a brief mention. 13 and 14 are better but are about her performances. Can you find places where she is discussed at length? [[User:Dbfirs|Dbfirs]] 21:40, 12 August 2019 (UTC)

:::References 1, 3 and 5 are all about her performances too. Maybe a somewhere between 7 and 13/14 though. Sorry, [[User:Gehenna1510|Gehenna1510]] ([[User talk:Gehenna1510|talk]]) 22:47, 12 August 2019 (UTC)

The artist is on stage since more than 20 years. Parts of her career don't happen online, but in print media, which I can't access. Interviews are not allowed, reference 11 might therefore be tricky, although it says more. If you could compare my draft with the Wikipedia article about Paula Murrihy (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paula_Murrihy), can you please explain me what the difference of references is? Or differently asked, why did the article about Paula Murrihy get approval while my draft isn't?
Thanks a lot, really appreciate your help and input!
--[[User:Fmkaiser|Fmkaiser]] ([[User talk:Fmkaiser|talk]]) 06:34, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
:: {{u|Fmkaiser}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20170315201709/http://www.oper-frankfurt.de/de/ensemble-gaeste-teams/ensemble/?detail=66 The Oper Frankfurt link] for example had more about Murrihy than just a critique about her performance. The Scottish Symphony Orchestra article possibly even more (This one is not in the webarchive). You can add offline sources with the {{template|cite news}} template. It would like this (the parts behind the = is what you provide) <nowiki><ref>{{cite news|last=last name of the aricles author|first=first name of the articles author|title=title of the article|date=publishing date of the article|newspaper=the newspaper/magazine where the article is found}}</ref></nowiki> you can add more parameters like volume=, issue= or page= if you know them. Sources needs to be published, but they do not need to be available online, as long as you provide the necessary informations interested people need to get them. [[User:Gehenna1510|Gehenna1510]] ([[User talk:Gehenna1510|talk]]) 13:55, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
: Thank you Gehenna1510 for your input. I will look further into it on the weekend when I have more time. Will get back once I have found more.
--[[User:Fmkaiser|Fmkaiser]] ([[User talk:Fmkaiser|talk]]) 19:54, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
:: A cursory Google search showed some coverage by reliable sources so try to find articles like the Telegraph source you used. Also, you can provide a more detailed format for the Reference list. You can do this by clicking the Cite button when you are editing the draft using the Visual Editing interface. [[User:Darwin Naz|Darwin Naz]] ([[User talk:Darwin Naz|talk]]) 23:59, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Topic: ShareChat. Isn't it notable enough to be on Wikipedia? ==

I've been trying to publish Wiki page for ShareChat but it's getting rejected. Need some tips: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft:ShareChat — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Ankurshva|Ankurshva]] ([[User talk:Ankurshva#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ankurshva|contribs]]) 06:47, 13 August 2019 (UTC) 
:{{ping|Ankurshva}} - there are quite a lot of tips provided in the notices at the top of the draft. Do you feel you have addressed all of these, or is there some aspect of them that you don't understand? [[User:Hugsyrup|Hug]][[User_talk:Hugsyrup|syrup]] 07:31, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
::You have tripled the length of the draft since the last decline. However, much of what has been added - including entire sections - have no references. Either provide citations or deleted unreferenced content before submitting again. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 09:22, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
:::You disclosed a paid relationship on your Talk page: "I work for ShareChat (company Mohalla Tech Pvt Ltd), and, as part of my job responsibilities, I am editing this Wikipedia article about ShareChat on behalf of company Mohalla Tech Pvt Ltd." This information belongs on your User page. Also, you must comply with [[WP:PAID]]. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 09:24, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
:::: It's an app available only in India, and supports several Indian languages, '''but not English'''. It might be appropriate for one of those Indian language wikis. —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 09:16, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
::::::[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]], that makes no sense. Either it's notable or it's not. What has the demographic it services got anything to do with anything? It's borderline inappropriate to suggest such a thing, in my opinion. [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 17:26, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
::::::: My concern was the bolded part{{Snd}} it is '''intentionally''' not useful to the English-speaking world, for whom it is not developed or targeted, with which I have no problem whatsoever. Is it of interest (notable) to enwiki readers? Doesn't notability have at least some attention to audience? Has it been covered significantly by English-language sources? I understand this is not a requirement, but it '''is''' an impediment to verifiability. I apologize if you or anyone else is offended by what I wrote; that is certainly not my intent. —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 20:56, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
::::::: Just to expand a little, I can understand that mention of things not of interest to English-speakers can be useful from the standpoint of complete knowledge. They should certainly find a place in lists, etc. But if English-language sources don't find them notable enough, that seems a good indicator that a separate article may not be appropriate.
::::::: Having said all that, unless there is another ShareChat, I believe it '''is''' notable based on a quick Google search (the above was based on comments by other reviewers in the existing draft when I wrote the above). —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 21:07, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

== Maintaining column width in Tables ==

Can you tell me how to maintain or restrict column width in Tables without manual breaks? Thanks.[[User:Trouver|Trouver]] ([[User talk:Trouver|talk]]) 20:27, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
:Hello, {{u|Trouver}}, and welcome to the Teahouse. You didn't link to any particular article or table which you want to modify, or were having problems with, so may I just refer you to [[HELP:TABLES]] and, in particular, the subsection on setting column widths ([https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Table#Setting_column_widths see here])? I do hope thie guidance there helps resolve any editing issues you had. If not, come back and let us know exactly what problem you're having difficulty resolving. Regards, [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 22:02, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
::Thanks to you, Nick, I think I've solved the problem. Below is the link in case you'd like to check it out. It's about Ken Kimmelman, a filmmaker and the tables were for his films. But then I got a tag saying the lead section was too long, so I shortened it. According to the guidelines it seems OK to me now. Do you have the authority to remove the tag? Also I'd welcome any comments. Link: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ken_Kimmelman&editintro=Template%3ABLP_editintro
::Thanks again.[[User:Trouver|Trouver]] ([[User talk:Trouver|talk]]) 14:19, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:::You're welcome, {{u|Trouver}}. The table looks ok on my tiny phone screen in desktop view. If an editor thinks they've adressed an issue raise in a template at the top of a page, they're free to remove it tgenselves. (It still looks a bit too long and overly detailed, if I'm frank with you, but others might differ. No need to 'bust a gut' on my sayso - it's just my opinion.) Best wishes, [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 14:08, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== New Article - consensus to merge ==

I wrote a new article and the consensus is to merge it to another article. Should I do this merge or does it need to be done by a Wikipedia administrator? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cheeka19|Cheeka19]] ([[User talk:Cheeka19#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cheeka19|contribs]]) 22:01, 13 August 2019 (UTC) 
:Courtesy links: Article created:[[Environmental job]] AfD Decision to merge to: [[Green job]]
:Hello, {{u|Cheeka19}} and welcome to the Teahouse. First off, it's a good article - well done. I do agree that the term itself isn't really notable (not that I've ever heard the term "Green job" used either, despite having worked in that field. No, it doesn't require an adminstrator to merge content into another article. In fact, if you don't do it, it's likely to sit there untouched for some time. (I think admins would only be needed if edit histories needed to be merged so as to retain edit attribution. I think you'll need to restructure the [[Green job]] article and rewrite the lead. The article you created is very differnet content from that in [[Green job]], so it'll be a fairly easy case of copy/pasting in content into new sections. Once done, your page can be turned into a [[WP:REDIRECT]] so that anyone searching on 'Environmental job' can find the main article. (Finally, as a light-hearted aside, I was irked to see you hadn't included my job role in your article. I was a 'Biodiversity Officer' for six years, writing and encouraging the delivery of local [[Biodiversity Action Plan]]s. From my perspective, that was pretty notable work to help save the planet!) Regards from the UK, [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 23:18, 13 August 2019 (UTC)
::Hi, {{u|Nick Moyes}} Thanks for the welcome and feedback and thanks a million for your help. I'm sorry I didn't include Biodiversity Officer ;-) It's such a vast area! I will add to the article as I go and will include this in the future. I agree, Green job isn't a term used widely here in Australia either. I think it is mainly used in the United States. Thanks for letting me know I should do the merger. Do you have any suggestions at all about restructuring and rewriting the lead at all? I am so new here I want to get a good reputation and want to ensure I don't upset anyone with my restructuring and rewriting the lead. Any input from you would be VERY welcome. Regards from Australia {{u|Cheeka19}}
:::Hey, {{u|Cheeka19}}, sorry for the delay in replying. I'm not able to get to a keyboard very much these days, so have to wait to compose the more complex replies which I can't do on a mobile. First off, please don't add my old job title to your article. You are quite right - there are innumerable variants. Mine (and others) should only be included if there are sufficient [[WP:RS|reliable sources]] that talk about them independently.
:::To answer your question, what I'd do (off-wiki) is look at the Contents section of [[Green job]] and pencil where I might create new sections for the contents from [[Environmental job]]. (Did you know you can download and print a PDF of any article to work on?ge See link on left side of article page) I would create a new section corresponding to the 'By country' header and insert a 'By function' section (or its equivalent, such as 'By role'). I'd add just the most well-referenced subsections first. Then I'd look at the lead section and decide what needed to be inserted or changed there to better explain the article's expanded contents better. As you're in Australia, you're well positioned to enhanced the 'By country' section, too. I suggest this should be based on national/government/state careers or employment documents if possible. I do feel that your article was a little too much like a careers guide, so I'd not include (at least at this stage) things like Electric Car Engineer. I would also look for corresponding articles which you could wikilink to or add a 'see Main article' link. (See [[Ecology]] article for an exmaple of how these links are deployed right under sub-headings.)
::: I'm really excited to see your particular interests in editing on environmental matters. But can I give you a few 'words of wisdom' that may help you avoid difficulties? First off, please don't draft articles directly within your userpage. That is there for you to say a few words about yourself and your editing interests. (Avoid revealing personal information, however) So, either work on an article in your sandbox (and you can have many of them - such as [[User:Cheeka19/sandbox]], [[User:Cheeka19/sandbox1]], [[User:Cheeka19/sandbox2]] etc.) Or you could create a draft article via the [[WP:AFC|Articles for Creation]] wizard. I'd suggest you delete what's currently there on your userpage as soon as possible and replace it with a few word out yourself (rough geographic location, job interests or qualifications/educational status, hobbies and interests relevant to editing here).
:::Secondly, it can be demoralising to charge straight in try creating a new article (( one of the hardest challenges here), only to have some old spoil-sport put it up for deletion, or to drop by your user talk page with some warning or other about what you're doing wrong. I am well aware how discouraging that can be so, like learning to surf, get over the first few waves and falls without giving up, and you'll be well on your way to learning to become a great editor. Don't ever be discouraged by that, though do listen to what other experienced editors suggest. Making smaller edits to existing related topics is a great way to discover things you fancy working on, whilst fixing smaller issues. Did you know that every article should have one of more 'Categories' added at the bottom of the page? These are essential to aggregate related topics, but are also brilliant for finding those related articles. I often use my userpage to list pages I'm interested in working on in the future - almost as a notepad of things to do.
:::Finally, although my time to give detailed help or appraisals is currently a bit limited (and I'll undoubtedly take ages to respond), do feel free to drop by my talk page if you ever want input on environmental topics you're working on that maybe don't seem quite so appropriate to raise here at the Teahouse. Good luck, and all the very best from the UK, [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 22:58, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::::Hi, {{u|Nick Moyes}} A BIG thank you - I've done most of the changes advised - just a bit more improving to do so its less like a careers article. Thanks a million from [[User:Cheeka19|Cheeka19]] ([[User talk:Cheeka19|talk]])

== Wikipedia Page ==

I have created a page for Farha Ayaz Ghani, but could not find on google. Not able to understand whats wrong. Can u help me ?? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:WPSKKhan|WPSKKhan]] ([[User talk:WPSKKhan#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/WPSKKhan|contribs]]) 12:09, 14 August 2019 (UTC) 
:{{ping|WPSKKhan}} You created a sandbox page, not an article. Follow the instructions at [[WP:AFC]] to get that page turned into an article. You might also want to review [[User:Ian.thomson/Howto|this guide I wrote on writing articles]] to make sure that you're ready for your draft to be nominated as an article.
:Also, we're not connected to Google, so we have no say in how long it takes for an article to show up on there. [[User:Ian.thomson|Ian.thomson]] ([[User talk:Ian.thomson|talk]]) 12:16, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

:{{ec}}{{re|WPSKKhan}} Hi and welcome to the Teahouse. You created a draft in your own sandbox at [[User:WPSKKhan/sandbox]], which is not part of the visible Wikipedia. I have moved the page to the draftspace at [[Draft:Farha Ayaz Ghani]] and added a template to it that places it in the review queue of [[Wikipedia:Articles for creation]]. That way, an experienced user will review your draft and if accepted, place it in the mainspace, where it then can be found. Please have a bit of patience for the review to take place. Regards [[User:SoWhy|So]][[User talk:SoWhy|Why]] 12:18, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

:{{u|WPSKKhan}}, please note that references should ''follow'' the statements which they support. When you write something like "Farha Ayaz[5] belongs to a medical family, her mother is a famous Urdu writer", no-one can be sure what reference 5 is cited in support of. [[User:Maproom|Maproom]] ([[User talk:Maproom|talk]]) 21:27, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

== Check other's online status ==

Greetings! First, THANK YOU for volunteering at the TeaHouse! Is there a way to see if specific other users are online? In this case, I recently had help from a file mover and would write them directly if they are doing wiki now. Thanks [[User:NewsAndEventsGuy|NewsAndEventsGuy]] ([[User talk:NewsAndEventsGuy|talk]]) 17:30, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
:Hello, {{u|NewsAndEventsGuy}} and welcome to the Teahouse. We don't ever reveal who is or is not online. However, if you have a particular editor in mind, you could go to their user page, click the "User Contributions" link on the left hand side of the page (in desktop view). You can see their latest edits and match the timestamp to the current time. This gives your a broad sense of when they were last active. But all you need do is post a message on their Talk Page and they'll get a notification when they're next online and logged in. I hope this helps. [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 21:37, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

:{{u|NewsAndEventsGuy}} As far as I know, you cannot, but it would be useful to look at their contributions to see if they have edited recently (in the past 5 mins or so) so that you can make a judgement from there. Regards, [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 21:21, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

:To view a user’s contributions easily, click Preferences at the top of any Wikipedia page. Then click the Gadgets section. Scroll down to Appearance and tick the MoreMenu box before saving. Now, go onto the user’s page and click the ‘User’ tab next to the ‘View History’ tab at the top of the page. Then select Contributions. If you have anymore questions, don’t hesitate to ask. Regards, [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 21:25, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

::{{Ping|NewsAndEventsGuy}} Some users, especially sysops/admins, may hang out on the [[WP:IRC|IRC channels]]. —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 22:56, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
{{od}}
{{done}} Much thanks everyone! [[User:NewsAndEventsGuy|NewsAndEventsGuy]] ([[User talk:NewsAndEventsGuy|talk]]) 00:27, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== getting an article on wikipedia ==
hi i'm trying to contact wikipedia for my employer. She basically wants to get a tribute for her deceased husband who wrote 146 books (study-guide books for The Bible) & created a non-profit business to give them away for free. She is still doing that for anyone that asks. His website God'sPuzzleSolved.com shows up on Google when his name, Art Mokarow, is searched.
-Is there any way to get a multi-page Tribute article and his photo uploaded on wikipedia when his name is searched? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/66.170.202.226|66.170.202.226]] ([[User talk:66.170.202.226#top|talk]]) 17:34, 14 August 2019 (UTC) 
:If the purpose is [[WP:PROMO|promotional]], then no. See also [[WP:Conflict of interest]] editing. With those in mind, you would need to first use [[WP:Reliable sources]] to determine if her late husband qualifies under our [[WP:Notability]] guidelines. That's not everything, but it will get you started with the immediate steps. The TeaHouse volunteers may have other ideas. [[User:NewsAndEventsGuy|NewsAndEventsGuy]] ([[User talk:NewsAndEventsGuy|talk]]) 17:40, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
::Wikipedia does not have "tribute articles", and is not [[WP:NOTMEMORIAL|a place to memorialize someone]], no matter what good works they may have done. Wikipedia only summarizes what independent [[WP:RS|reliable sources]] state with significant coverage about a subject that meets Wikipedia's special definition of [[WP:N|notability]]. Wikipedia has no interest in enhancing search results for any subject or person. Are there independent sources that discuss this man? [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 17:51, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
::Since you are here representing your employer, you will need to review and comply with [[WP:COI]] and [[WP:PAID]]. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 17:52, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
:::What you created [[Draft:Tribute to Art Mokarow]] is not what Wikipedia is about and should be deleted. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 21:14, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

== TweakTown article creation rejection ==

Hi there,

A submission result for an article I wrote for TweakTown was deleted with message ''G11. Unambiguous advertising or promotion''.

Any suggestions, please? Here is the text:

{{Collapse top}}
<nowiki>{{short description|Online technology website owned by Tweak Town Pty Ltd}}</nowiki>

{{Infobox website
| name = TweakTown
| logo = TweakTown logo.png
| screenshot = TweakTown homepage screenshot.png
| collapsible = yes
| collapsetext = Screenshot
| url = {{URL|https://www.tweaktown.com}}
| type = [[Technology]] [[website]]
| language = English
| owner = Tweak Town Pty Ltd
| founder = Cameron Wilmot
| launch date = {{Start date and age|1999|09}}
| current status = Active
| alexa = {{DecreasePositive}} 21,573 ({{as of|2019|8|13|alt=August 2019}})<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/tweaktown.com |title= TweakTown Site Info | publisher= [[Alexa Internet]] |accessdate= August 13, 2019 }}</ref>
}}

'''''TweakTown''''' is an [[online]] [[technology]] [[website]] owned by Tweak Town Pty Ltd. It was founded in 1999 by Cameron Wilmot. The website provides detailed technology and gaming news, reviews, articles, and guides. Various contributors from the [[United States]] and [[Australia]] extensively test new computer parts and present their opinion on the test subjects on devices such as CPUs, motherboards, video cards, solid state drives, coolers, and other items. Its content has been cited by other technology websites such as [[The Inquirer]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theinquirer.net/inquirer/news/3076788/nvidia-super-geforce-rtx-e3-2019|title= Nvidia could reveal 'Super' GeForce RTX cards at E3|author=Roland Moore-Colyer|publisher=[[The Inquirer]]}}</ref> and [[TechRadar]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techradar.com/news/nvidias-next-gen-geforce-graphics-cards-could-launch-at-gtc-next-month-and-be-on-sale-in-april|title= Nvidia’s next-gen GeForce graphics cards could launch at GTC next month and be on sale in April|author=Roland Darren Allan|publisher=[[TechRadar]]}}</ref>.

The site includes a [[Internet forum|forum]] which provides a source of knowledge for users with technical questions regarding motherboards and more. The site also includes a section named Ask the Experts which allows its readers to submit questions and contributors of the site answer the questions.

TweakTown holds its annual media party<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.computexparties.com/event/tweaktown-computex-2019-party-20th-anniversary/|title= TweakTown Computex 2019 Party (20th Anniversary!)|author=Sandy@GlobalPR|publisher=Media Gate Group Co. Ltd.}}</ref> at [[Computex]] [[Taipei]] in [[Taiwan]]. During its Computex Taipei 2019 media party, the site celebrated its 20th [[anniversary]]. TweakTown attended its first Computex in 2000 and in 2017 had its own media booth at the show where [[overclocking]] was conducted.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitimes.com/news/a20070607VL211.html?chid=9|title= Computex 2007: Taiwan overclocker almost breaks world record during live show|author=Ricky Morris|publisher=[[DigiTimes]]}}</ref> TweakTown also attends other events including the [[Consumer Electronics Show]], Flash Memory Summit, and [[Gamescom]].

As of August 2019, [[SimilarWeb]] displays TweakTown with a global rank of #65 in the Computers Electronics and Technology category.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.similarweb.com/website/tweaktown.com|title= TweakTown.com Analytics - Market Share Stats & Traffic Ranking|publisher=[[SimilarWeb]]}}</ref>

<nowiki>== History ==</nowiki>

During its early days, TweakTown was known as Wilmot's Website and was managed and operated solely by Cameron Wilmot who was still in high school at the time. As time progressed, more contributors started providing content on the site. Wilmot's Website launched in 1998 and was renamed to TweakTown in 1999. During that time, the site domain name was purchased and a new design was created.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000510031520/http://www.tweaktown.com/|title= TweakTown - When perfection is not enough!|publisher=[[Wayback Machine]]}}</ref> The site has since undergone many site redesigns and includes work from many past and present contributors in the United States and Australia.

During the devastating floods of [[Queensland]] in 2011, TweakTown built a gaming [[computer]] which was raffled off and its community donated funds to the value of $6289.77 Australian dollars to the Queensland Flood Appeal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gigabytedaily.blogspot.com/2011/03/tweaktown-aussie-flood-dream-system.html|title= GIGABYTE Tech Daily: TweakTown Aussie Flood Dream System Appeal drew to a close, winner announced!|author=Dino|publisher=GIGABYTE Daily}}</ref>

<nowiki>== See also ==
* [[AnandTech]]
* [[Maximum PC]]
* [[The Tech Report]]
* [[Tom's Hardware]]
* [[List of Internet forums]]
* [[Computex]]

== References ==</nowiki>
{{Reflist talk|30em}}

<nowiki>==External links==
* {{Official website|https://www.tweaktown.com/}}

[[Category:Computing websites]]
[[Category:Magazines established in 1999]]</nowiki>
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:Please don't copy articles to talk pages. Especially not modifications like categories or headers. This causes unwanted problems. Thank you [[User:Gehenna1510|Gehenna1510]] ([[User talk:Gehenna1510|talk]]) 19:23, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

== citation: access date value ==

Hi.
I'm a little confused about access date value in citations and can't find a guideline page for it. For example, when adding an archived copy of a dead reference, should I add a new access date?
[[User:Harley.M.X|Harley.M.X]] ([[User talk:Harley.M.X|talk]]) 18:36, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
:Greetings, {{u|Harley.M.X}}, and welcome to the Teahouse. Yes, when you verify a URL or provide a valid archived copy, you should update the access date. That date indicates the last time that the particular URL or archived copy was validated to exist and support the article content, which you apparently just did. There is documentation on this at {{t|Cite web}} and other citation templates, but not a great deal of it. The documentation for access-date on Cite web is {{tq|access-date: Full date when the content pointed to by url was last verified to support the text in the article}}. I hope this helps! [[User:Cthomas3|'''''CThomas3''''']] ([[User talk:Cthomas3|talk]]) 18:52, 14 August 2019 (UTC)
:very helpful, thanks a lot! [[User:Harley.M.X|Harley.M.X]] ([[User talk:Harley.M.X|talk]]) 19:27, 14 August 2019 (UTC)

== Fair Use Images ==

Hello, I'm currently working on an article about a series of art books. I would very much like to show the covers of the books, (done by contemporary artists), but I don't own the copyrights. I see other series on Wikipedia ("The Best Science Fiction of the Year") where the cover for each book is shown and were uploaded under the Fair Use criteria. I cannot find how or where to upload "Fair Use" images. What do I have to do in order to post the covers? Thank you very much for your time. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Jpvicas|Jpvicas]] ([[User talk:Jpvicas#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jpvicas|contribs]]) 20:51, 14 August 2019 (UTC) 
:Hi {{u|Jpvicas}}. Wikipedia does allow some [[:WP:NFC|non-free content]] to be uploaded and used in articles, but each use of such content is required to meet [[:WP:NFCC|Wikipedia's non-free use content]]. With respect to copyrighted content like book covers, album covers, etc., item 1 of [[:Wikipedia:Non-free content#Images]] does in general allow copyrighted cover art to be uploaded and used, but pretty much only when the image is used for primary identification purposes in a stand-alone article about the work in question; so, a copyrighted book cover is generally deemed OK when it's used for primary identification purposes at the top of a stand-alone Wikipedia article about the book in question. Other types of non-free uses or use in other types of articles tends to be much harder to justify for the reasons given [[:Wikipedia:Non-free content#cite_note-3]]; it's not impossible to justify such non-free usage, but it can be pretty hard and typically requires that the cover art itself be the subject of sourced critical commentary in the article so that the [[:WP:NFC|context for non-free use]] required by [[:WP:NFCC#8|Wikipedia non-free content use criterion #8]] is clearly provided. In other words, simply discussing the book or mentioning by name in another article is usually not going to be seen as a sufficient justification for using a non-free image of the book's cover. -- [[User:Marchjuly|Marchjuly]] ([[User talk:Marchjuly|talk]]) 00:33, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::Thank you for your reply. Using the covers for identification is exactly what I want to do. I will have a Main Article which describes the series as a whole, and then have an individual page for each volume in the series describing its contents. The cover photos would be used on each volume page for identification. But I still need to know how to do this. Where do I go and how do I upload the images as "Fair Use" images? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Jpvicas|Jpvicas]] ([[User talk:Jpvicas#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jpvicas|contribs]]) 01:11, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
:::You can use [[:Wikipedia:File Upload Wizard]] to upload the files to Wikipedia, but you will first need to download the photos to your computer. If you find the wizard to be too confusing, you might then try asking for help at [[:Wikipedia:Files for upload]]. In general, you will need to make sure the file(s) you upload has two things: a [[:WP:FCT|file copyright license]] and a [[:WP:FUR|non-free use rationale]]. If you use the Upload Wizard you should be given options as to both, but you can always tweak the licensing/non-free use rationale manually after the upload has been completed by just editing the relevant file's page. I suggest using {{tl|Non-free book cover}} for the copyright license and {{tl|Non-free use rationale book cover}} for the non-free use rationale. You should typically only need one copyright license for a file, but you will need to provide a separate specific non-free use rationale for each non-free use of a file (note this is per use, not per article where the file is used). You should try to only use files from official sources whenever possible to aid in copyright verification, etc. per [[:WP:NFCC#4]] and [[:WP:NFCC#10a]]. If you've got any other questions about this, you can ask at [[:Wikipedia:Media copyright questions]] or [[:Wikipedia talk:Non-free content]]. -- [[User:Marchjuly|Marchjuly]] ([[User talk:Marchjuly|talk]]) 02:52, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== I would like to ask for help in writing an article about my boss. ==

Can some one write an article about my boss. I can pay for the service. I just need to get him a bio page on wikipedia. similar to Calvin Kline, Steve Wynn, or ?

Thank you.
Please feel free to contact me {{Redacted|Personal phone number}} — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Littlebang1|Littlebang1]] ([[User talk:Littlebang1#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Littlebang1|contribs]]) 00:03, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
:{{replyto|Littlebang1}} Quite frankly, Wikipedia is not concerned with your job duties, or what your boss has asked you to do. The vast majority of us here are volunteers who want to help build this encyclopedia for the benefit of humanity. This is just that- an encyclopedia- and not a place to merely tell about someone or post their resume. As an encyclopedia, we are interested in summarizing what independent [[WP:RS|reliable sources]] with significant coverage state about article subjects shown to meet our special definition of [[WP:N|notability]](more specifically, our definition of [[WP:BIO|notable people]]). Wikipedia is not interested in what an article subject wants to say about itself. The fact that other persons meet our definition of notability does not automatically mean your boss does too. See [[WP:OSE|other stuff exists]]. This is [[WP:NOTSOCIAL|not social media]] where everyone and anyone can write about themselves. Keep in mind that an article is [[WP:PROUD|not necessarily desirable]]. There are good reasons to not want one. Anything, good or bad, can be in an article about your boss as long as it appears in an independent source. You cannot prevent others from editing it, nor lock it to the text your boss might prefer. Feel free to show your boss this message. The best thing to do is to allow independent editors to notice the career of your boss and write about them of their own choosing.
:Wikipedia editors are volunteers. There are people and companies out there that offer the service of writing a Wikipedia article, but those are not endorsed or supported by Wikipedia. If you hire someone to write an article, they would need to disclose that and who is paying them per our [[WP:PAID|paid editing policy]]. Paying someone would not remove the notability requirement, nor the requirement of independent reliable sources. Beware in persons who demand payment up front; despite what they might say, no one can make you any guarantees(such as writing an article that will not be deleted). [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 00:18, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

:You yourself will also need to comply with the [[WP:COI|conflict of interest policy]] and the [[WP:PAID|paid editing policy]]. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 00:19, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Native American or American Indian ==

The Navajo, Apache, Mohican, Dakota, Lakota,Obijwe and all other peoples who were residing on this continent when Europeans arrived refer to themselves as native Americans, except in Canada where they are referred to as First Peoples. Yet I encounter references to them as American Indians, which is incorrect in so many ways, and stems from the mistake of Christoper Columbus in assuming that he had reached islands off the Indian subcontinent. So which is correct the native American self designation (actually Original Peoples would be more accurate) or the misnomer "American Indian". If questions like this should be asked elsewhere's then where should I ask them[[User:Oldperson|Oldperson]] ([[User talk:Oldperson|talk]]) 01:27, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

:Hello, [[User:Oldperson|Oldperson]]. Your question does not seem to pertain to the purpose of the Teahouse. We are here to discuss making Wikipedia better. Would you like to ask at the [[WP:Reference desk]]? It is populated by people who enjoy answering every sort of question.--[[User:Quisqualis|Quisqualis]] ([[User talk:Quisqualis|talk]]) 02:59, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

:Hi, "First People" is not really correct either, because the pre-European people of the Americas were not the first people in the world. The first Homo sapiens emerged in Africa, as best we can tell, around two hundred thousand to three hundred thousand years ago. People migrated around the world from there. [[User:Slowmusketeer|Slowmusketeer]] —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|undated]] comment added 16:26, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 

{{ping|Slowmusketeer}}Tomato tomahto. I mispoke, I am not Canadian, however checking Isee that they are referred to in Canada as Fist Nation. The designation is Canadian specific and political, so please no dickering about which was the "First Nation" in the world. That is a path we do not need to go down and is unproductive.[[User:Oldperson|Oldperson]] ([[User talk:Oldperson|talk]]) 16:33, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::{{Ping|Oldperson}} You might want to search for discussions in the "Wikipedia talk" namespace (e.g. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?sort=relevance&search=%22Native+American%22+AND+%22Indian%22&title=Special%3ASearch&profile=advanced&fulltext=1&advancedSearch-current=%7B%7D&ns5=1 here]) for previous discussions on the subject. —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 23:04, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Size of caption in infobox ==

Recently I have seen edits that changed captions in several infoboxes in biographies from "John Smith" to "<nowiki>John Smith</nowiki>". Is reducing the size of the caption advantageous? Should I begin applying this technique when I create infoboxes with images of individuals? [[User:Teblick|Eddie Blick]] ([[User talk:Teblick|talk]]) 02:23, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:Welcome to the Teahouse, {{u|Teblick}}. It might have been helpful had you supplied some example links, lest we could see some special need for this. (Very long caption text, or an orphan word) I would advise against trying this. You can find guidance at [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Captions]], which explicitly advises against using special formatting. Regards, [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 04:54, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

::{{u|Nick Moyes}}, thanks for your reply. Yes, I should have linked to a specific example. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ricardo_Cortez&curid=2711594&diff=910728024&oldid=895874994 This change] was the one that spurred me to post the question. I have noticed several similar changes in other articles in my watchlist in the last couple of weeks. I couldn't see that the reduction helped in any way, but I wanted to check with others who are more experienced. [[User:Teblick|Eddie Blick]] ([[User talk:Teblick|talk]]) 13:11, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

::: Such formatting is discouraged, since whatever it is intending to do may only work for the specific screen size and resolution, "skin", custom fonts/padding/bolding, etc. that the editing user employs. It may result in problems for many other users. Best to let the stylesheets and browser do their job. —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 23:09, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Why hasn't my draft been reviewed and article concerns ==

Hi there, it has been three months since I submitted my draft on action teaching to AFC and it has not yet been reviewed. I was wondering if there was any way to tell why this is, if this is normal, how long I should anticipate waiting, how to expedite the process, etc. I have disclosed on my user page that I produced this article as a part of an internship at my university, although that internship has now ended. Also, I was doing some further reading and was wondering if my draft is more of a stub than an article? And I was also wondering if my draft needs more secondary, independent sources. If you notice anything else that could be of use, that would also be great. Thanks for your help! [[User:Tleclair96|Tleclair96]] ([[User talk:Tleclair96|talk]]) 02:30, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

:[[Draft:Action Teaching]] is one of thousands of submissions in the queue now. Please be patient. As I looked at it, it did not seem that your draft demonstrates the notability of its subject. Better secondary sources should be sought.--[[User:Quisqualis|Quisqualis]] ([[User talk:Quisqualis|talk]]) 02:53, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== How to create a new Wikipedia page for a person? ==

Could you please, help me out to create my own first article about myself! — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Diwakar P Yadav|Diwakar P Yadav]] ([[User talk:Diwakar P Yadav#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Diwakar P Yadav|contribs]]) 05:11, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
:{{re|Diwakar P Yadav}} First of all, creating an article about yourself [[WP:AUTO|is Strongly discouraged]]. If you really want to do that, Start by reading [[WP:YFA]]. I recommend using [[WP:AFC|Articles for Creation submission system]] to ensure that the article is ready for mainspace when it gets moved there (Yes, its possible to use a different way, but the chances that someone sends it to [[WP:AFD|AFD]] are much higher then). [[Special:Contributions/2001:16B8:50A4:D900:EC2D:6E8D:EED4:E45F|2001:16B8:50A4:D900:EC2D:6E8D:EED4:E45F]] ([[User talk:2001:16B8:50A4:D900:EC2D:6E8D:EED4:E45F|talk]]) 06:05, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::The major question is are you famous enough that other people have published articles about you? Having a successful career in your area of expertise - including published articles and books - does not qualify as notable for Wikipedia. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 11:19, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Google Books ==

Is Google books a reliable source? -- [[User:CptViraj|CptViraj]] ([[User talk:CptViraj|📧]]) 05:51, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
: Hi {{u|CptViraj}}. [[:Google Books]] might be considered to be [[:WP:PSTS|a reliable source for certain content about itself]], but most likely not for other things. Some of the books hosted/found on Google Books, however, could be considered to be reliable sources about certain subjects if they satisfy [[:WP:RS]]. In such cases, you'd basciallly be citing the book in question as the source and perhaps using Google Books as a [[:WP:CONVENIENCE|convenience link]] simply to make verifying the source a bit easier. You don't need to do this per [[:WP:SAYWHERE]] as long as the book meets [[:WP:PUBLISHED]], but it can make it easier for others to verify the source. -- [[User:Marchjuly|Marchjuly]] ([[User talk:Marchjuly|talk]]) 06:24, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:: Gotcha! Thanks. -- [[User:CptViraj|CptViraj]] ([[User talk:CptViraj|📧]]) 07:00, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:::Let me expand a little bit, {{u|CptViraj}}. Google Books tries to index all published books, with greater or lesser success. Some of those books are reliable and others aren't. Google Books is great at feeding you bibliographic details but less decisive in assessing reliability. What's the reputation of the author? What's the assessment of the publisher? How has the specific article been received in terms of reliability? All these factors enter into the assessment. [[User:Cullen328|Cullen328]] [[User talk:Cullen328|''Let's discuss it'']] 07:13, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:::: Oh, Thank you for explaining. -- [[User:CptViraj|CptViraj]] ([[User talk:CptViraj|📧]]) 07:15, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

==Posting images==
how to post a picture — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Santhosh tamilnadu 626|Santhosh tamilnadu 626]] ([[User talk:Santhosh tamilnadu 626#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Santhosh tamilnadu 626|contribs]]) 06:34, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 

:Hello and welcome to Wikipedia! To upload an image to [[Wikimedia Commons]] read [[Wikipedia:Uploading images]] and [[Wikipedia:How to upload a photo]] - this process can be a little hard so, if you have difficulties, please don’t hesitate to return and ask for help. You must make sure it is within our [[WP:C|copyright guidelines]] - it must be your own image in most cases. Once that is done, read [[Wikipedia:Picture tutorial]] for how to add an image. Its a good idea to discuss adding the image before you do it, so that it is not removed. Regards, [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 06:51, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Vandalism help ==

I recently discovered vandalism in the first line of the Ariana Grande page. The page is locked to prevent vandalism so I couldn’t correct it. Could someone else fix it? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Jbedwar|Jbedwar]] ([[User talk:Jbedwar#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jbedwar|contribs]]) 07:17, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 

:Thank you for spotting that vandalism. I've reverted it. [[User:Dbfirs|Dbfirs]] 07:22, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== St. Paul's School, Darjeeling ==

Regarding the data provided on Wikipedia about St. Paul's school Darjeeling, the names of a few eminent past students have not been included. Also, the names of past rectors of the school ends abruptly with Mr. Hair Dang. There were others after him.

How does one go about having the above edited into the existing data?

Regards,

Jaswant Ch. Something
(Old Paulite 1967- 1977) — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/106.207.49.232|106.207.49.232]] ([[User talk:106.207.49.232#top|talk]]) 08:03, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 

:Hello there, welcome to Wikipedia! Thank you for spotting somewhere that may need expanding in an article. You can [[WP:BOLD|Be Bold]] and edit yourself. However, if you would like to know how to edit see [[Help:Editing]] or take the [[WP:TUTORIAL|Tutorial]]. In regards to the edit in question, you will need a [[WP:RS|reliable source]] to back up the changes you want to make. This is under our core policy of [[WP:V|Verifiability]], a policy that, if not followed, will most likely get your edit [[WP:REVERT|reverted]]. I hope that helps, if you have anymore questions please ask. Regards, [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 08:23, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

:Also, you have a connection with the subject meaning there is a small but definite [[WP:COI|Conflict of Interest]], please clink the blue link to read about this. If you feel like [[WP:COI]] or anything else prevents you from editing the article, just add a note on the article’s [[WP:TALKPAGE|Talk Page]] and someone knowledgeable on the subject should be able to help you out. Regards, [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 08:27, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Accusations of wrongdoing published on Wikipedia ==

Does Wikipedia allow mentions of accusations or indictments that are published in the media about living people? Example, can content about as yet unproven crimes be included in Wiki articles that are biographies of living people?[[Special:Contributions/111.91.2.108|111.91.2.108]] ([[User talk:111.91.2.108|talk]]) 08:51, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:Hello and welcome to the Teahouse. Wikipedia has a strict policy about how living people are written about, which you can see for yourself at [[WP:BLP]]. There is a specific section related to crimes, at [[WP:BLPCRIME]]. I could give a better answer if you wanted to share which article you are concerned about(though you don't need to)- but accusations are generally not appropriate for article content, especially if the person is not a well known public figure, such as a government official or celebrity like [[Jeffrey Epstein]](who was also a convicted criminal anyway). Something formal like an indictment is more likely to merit inclusion, as long as the text is clearly phrased to make it clear that the person is only indicted. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 09:09, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:I am also aware that some countries like New Zealand have laws against publishing or discussing the names/identities of criminal suspects before(and if) they are convicted. While these laws are not necessarily binding on Wikipedia(as it is physically located largely in the United States), they would affect the abilities of those countries' citizens to make such edits. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 09:12, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Company Wikipedia page ==

Hi there,

I'm wondering how to go about getting a company Wikipedia page - I've spoken to a few people and had different messages and warnings from each. We launched in 2014 but don't yet have a wiki page.

Please can someone point me in the direction of some help please?

Thanks, — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/212.187.164.182|212.187.164.182]] ([[User talk:212.187.164.182#top|talk]]) 09:42, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
:Hello and welcome to the Teahouse. You seem to have a common misconception about what Wikipedia is. Wikipedia is an encyclopedia and not a forum to merely tell about a company. As an encyclopedia, Wikipedia summarizes what independent [[WP:RS|reliable sources]] state about subjects that meet Wikipedia's special definition of [[WP:N|notability]](in this case, that of a [[WP:ORG|notable company]]). Wikipedia has no interest in what a company wants to say about itself, and has no interest in enhancing search results. We do not have "company pages", we have '''articles about''' companies. Furthermore, you have a [[WP:COI|conflict of interest]]; you will also need to comply with [[WP:PAID|the paid editing policy]](this is mandatory). It would be best if you allowed independent editors to take note of your company in independent reliable sources and write about it. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 09:58, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Watchlist - preferences settings - highlighting ==

I've recently made some cavalier tweaks to preferences and now I seem to have broken my watchlist. Specifically, changes I have not reviewed USED to be bolded but now the whole thing is in normal font. I have expanded to all changes (not just the most recent) and hid bots and categorization. Can't seem to find anything about flagging the un-reviewed diffs. Any ideas? (I also recently added a browser add-on (NoScript) but disabled it before posting here, so that's not the cause.) [[User:NewsAndEventsGuy|NewsAndEventsGuy]] ([[User talk:NewsAndEventsGuy|talk]]) 12:40, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:Welcome back, {{u|NewsAndEventsGuy}}. Assuming I have understood your question correctly, I think what you need to do is go to [[Special:Preferences]] and then 'Gadgets' and look for the section there labelled 'Watchlist'. Find and tick the box labelled ''Display pages on your watchlist that have changed since your last visit in bold (see customizing watchlists for more options)''. That should now display watchlist pages in bold that have changed since you last viewed them. [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 13:13, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::{{done}} Much thanks, Nick! If the world made sense the tab for "watchlist" would mention there is a related dookickie on the gadgets tab. [[User:NewsAndEventsGuy|NewsAndEventsGuy]] ([[User talk:NewsAndEventsGuy|talk]]) 13:49, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Hello ==
I recently created an article called [[Pembroke Aircraft Leasing 4 Ltd]] and [[Kieran Corr]]. It was deleted and my edits from it disappeared. What happened? [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 13:06, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:{{re|ThePacificMan}} There is absolutely no need to use profanities here (or indeed elsewhere on Wikipedia). I have removed it from your question, and will now take a look to try to answer you. [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 13:20, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::{{re|ThePacificMan}} Right, first off, have you read the long explanations left on you talk page about both these subjects? They explain that we have a process called 'speedy deletion' which can be applied to various types of pages which are promotional or do not demonstrate any measure of significance ([[WP:NOTABILITY]]) and both of these pages were deleted on those grounds. I'm not an administrator, so I cannot see the deleted content. But because the page has been deleted all of your edits - or anyone else's edits to that page - would also have been deleted. You can contest the deletion of either page or ask the deleting editor to send you a copy of the contents by email if that is important to you (details in those talk page messages). Sorry I can't give you more satisfactory answer, but you can read more about this process at [[WP:CSD|this page]]. In future, you might like to create a draft and to work on that until it's ready, and then submit it to [[WP:AFD|Articles For Creation]]. There, it will be reviewed and feedback given to you if it doesn't yet meet our criteria. This is a far less risky process than putting it straight in the encyclopedia and chancing it being speedily removed, as has happened here, I'm afraid. Regards, [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 13:42, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:::Thanks very much. [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 13:44, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::::{{re|ThePacificMan}} I would have said "you're very welcome" as I like to help people. But I see you feel it was acceptable to reinstate your use of a quite unecessary profanity here. This is a friendly space, read by new editors of all ages, many of them minors. Do you think that's a very mature or responsible thing to do? Please self-revert if you seriously expect to receive help and assistance from hosts like me here in future. [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 14:00, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
*Of course, that's not to say that draft space is immune from speedy. Speedy deletion is applied for inappropriate content even in draft and user spaces, promotional/spammy material and copyright violations for instance. But some other stuff that's speedied in article space can survive longer as draft to give time for improvement, including articles that have notability issues. [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 15:56, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Should images be moved to avoid breaking section heading lines? ==

I've compiled bulleted lists of prehistoric life by US state: [[List of the Paleozoic life of Wyoming|example]]. When an entry in one of these lists has an associated image, the image code is placed between the bullet and the name of the prehistoric life-form, per the manual of style. Unfortunately, if the list entry is late in the alphabet within a section the image spills over into the next section and breaks the horizontal line in the next section's heading. I was wondering if it was more important from a manual of style perspective to keep placement of an image within the associated individual list entry or if these images should be moved to an entry earlier in the list to prevent breaking the subsequent section heading line. [[User:Abyssal|Abyssal]] ([[User talk:Abyssal|talk]]) 13:57, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:Please, do not worry about breaking section lines. [[User:Ruslik0|Ruslik]]_[[User Talk:Ruslik0|Zero]] 14:14, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::{{Ping|Abyssal}} Placing {{Tlx|clear}} at the end of the section will ensure the next section starts after any content from the previous one. —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 17:52, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Username color ==

Why does my username appear in red?[[User:IAMrocknroll|IAMrocknroll]] ([[User talk:IAMrocknroll|talk]]) 14:03, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
: Hello. Your username appears red because it is [[Wikipedia:Red link|red linked]], wherein you don’t have a [[Wikipedia:User pages|user page]]. You are welcome to make one, so that your username will appear in blue. [[User:LPS and MLP Fan|LPS and MLP Fan]] ([[User talk:LPS and MLP Fan|LittlestPetShop]]) ([[Special:Contributions/LPS and MLP Fan|MyLittlePony]]) 14:02, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:: Hi {{u|IAMrocknroll}} Welcome to Teahouse. I have placed a "welcome message on your talk page" and now you could see your "talk" is in blue colour. If you write something on your usepage - [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:IAMrocknroll&action=edit&redlink=1 here]], you name will turn "blue colour". Cheers.[[User:CASSIOPEIA| CASSIOPEIA]]([[User talk:CASSIOPEIA|talk]]) 14:08, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Impossible to add a URL as External Links (Spam filter blocked it) ==

Hello everyone,
I am new here and I tried to edit a page and add an additional external link that was relevant but it was refused when I tried to publish my changes.

This is the message: ''The text you wanted to save was blocked by the spam filter. This is probably caused by a link to a blacklisted external site. The following text is what triggered our spam filter: cgap.org''

Can you help me to solve this issue?

Many thanks for your help.

Noel — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Noel92140|Noel92140]] ([[User talk:Noel92140#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Noel92140|contribs]]) 14:11, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:You should not add any links to this site. [[User:Ruslik0|Ruslik]]_[[User Talk:Ruslik0|Zero]] 14:12, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

:More info at [[Wikipedia:Spam blacklist]]. If you think you have a sufficient argument for using your link, there's guidance there where to make it. [[User:Gråbergs Gråa Sång|Gråbergs Gråa Sång]] ([[User talk:Gråbergs Gråa Sång|talk]]) 14:24, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Deleted articles ==
Hello, I recently created [[Pembroke Aircraft Leasing 4 Ltd]] and [[Kieran Corr]] and they both got deleted for no reason. What happened. [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 14:32, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

: You asked, and were answered, at [[#Hello]] above. --[[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 14:37, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:: No I didn't. [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 14:45, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:::You did, and if you continue to disrupt this forum, you will be blocked.[[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 14:47, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::::Ok sorry I don't understand what Nick Moyes is saying.[[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 15:06, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:::::Hey, {{u|ThePacificMan}}. I'm sorry if my explanation to your [[Wikipedia:Teahouse#Hello|question above]] wasn't clear. What particular bit would you like me (or others) to try to explain differently? I'm afraid we do expect editors, when pointed to other guidance pages to go off, read and attempt to understand them themselves and then to come back for assistance if they're still confused. Some of those explanations can be quite confusing to begin with, so you will need to commit to trying to understand them. The messages on your talk page really should explain what was the cause of their deletion. I need you to read them carefully and follow the blue hyperlinks to relevant policies and guidance pages. Having done that, if you help me understand what you don't follow, I'll try and help you in return.
:::::In essence, this encyclopaedia will only accept articles on topics that meet our [[WP:N|Notability guidelines]]. Drafts or pages that are considered promotional or non-notable do get put forward for speedy deletion, and those pages are liable to be deleted, well, pretty rapidly. I know it's darned frustrating, but it's nothing personal, and it's happened to many of us (including me). Cheers, [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 22:11, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::::::I have read some stuff on my previous question and my talk page. I still don't understand what reliable and non-reliable sources. To everyone on Wikipedia I'm sorry for my messages on this page yesterday. [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 08:16, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:::::::OK, {{u|ThePacificMan}} thank you very much for that apology. Let's put it all behind us and move on. If nobody replies to you, I'll try and explain what's meant by it, but I'll have to wait till I can sit down at a keyboard and compose a good reply. That'll be at least sometime around 22:00 UTC tonight, or possibly tomorrow. Sorry about that. [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 14:32, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::::::::That's ok there's days when we're busy just like me today :) [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 16:03, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:::::::::{{re|ThePacificMan}} Right, I've got 20 minutes before I have to go out for the day. Understanding the difference between reliable and unreliable sources is key too contributing to Wikipedia, so I'm glad you asked. Because we're an encyclopaedia of [[WP:N|notable topics]], not a collection of biased opinions or promotional guff on every single thing under the sun, we have to source everything that we collate here. And those sources have to be reliable. By that we mean the sources we cite have to be independent of the subject and be written by people who can be trusted. These would include newspaper editors, established book authors, news media with good editorial control (i.e. not the biased fake news type websites). We need to provide sources that other users can go off and find, believing them to be reliable. (See [[WP:RS|this guideline on reliable sources). Companies or people usually like to promote themselves in a way that makes them seem better than they are, and to hide all the bad stuff. So we don't regard those companies or people (who we term 'primary sources') as reliable. So if we write about a company, we need to pay little attention to their own website and PR material. Instead we judge whether a company or thing is notable by whether or not other people (authors, journalists, scientists etc) have taken notice and written about them in a format that we would accept as 'reliable'. The opposite of a 'reliable source' is an 'unreliable source'. Here, we'd include company websites and social media accounts, user-edit forums and user-edited websites (such as IMDB for films), Linked-In CVs, and so on. These are primary sources and can't be fully trusted to fairly portray the topic. You can imagine that my own website profile would be unlikely to tell you about my imprisonment for fraud and embezzlement, drug taking and that murder charge. My website would be deemed an 'unreliable source' as a place to go to get true information about me. In contrast, a good quality newspaper that reported on my trial and imprisonment would be regarded as a reliable source to add to an encyclopaedia article about me, provided it was written in a neutral and accurate way. Thankfully I'm not notable enough to have an article here, so none of my personal secrets have yet come out. (only joking!). On the subject of 'truth' - one complication is that what we do cite here doesn't necessarily have to be 'true' - it just needs to be verifiable from a reliable source. Because Wikipedia must be written in a neutral tone, it's quite acceptable to present two sides of a story (indeed, we encourage that) providing that both sides to a topic are not using unreliable sources as evidence.
:::::::::I realise you've some frustrating experiences trying to write about real subjects which have been rejected because the sources aren't seen (by Wikipedia eyes) as reliable. That's not to say they don't exist, but simply that, for organisations, three [[WP:RS|reliable sources]] are our requirement for meeting [[WP:NORG|notability for companies]]. If we didn't have that, every single company under the sun would be trying to create a page about themselves here, and we'd simply become a business directory. (No time to proof-read - happy for anyone to tweak what I've written if I've included errors) Regards, [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 08:48, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
: Thanks for all that information. So flightaware, flightglobal and bbc news are secondary sources and reliable because they are made by other people other then the company itself. [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 08:56, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Citing a mobile app ==

I have an iOS app published by the Boston Society of Architects/AIA but I'm not sure which template I should use to cite it. Right now I've cited in on the [[Norfolk County Registry of Deeds]] article, but would like to use it more. Any suggestions? Thanks! --[[User:Slugger O'Toole|Slugger O'Toole]] ([[User talk:Slugger O'Toole|talk]]) 14:45, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:[[User:Slugger O'Toole|Slugger O'Toole]], I think {{tlp|Citation}} is the generic citation template for citing any and everything, and others are more specific versions of it. So, whenever in doubt, I use that one. I'm also intrigued by the idea of citing a mobile app. Is this a reputed society that's putting their own research on apps; research that's not published any other way? The app might itself be using some other more traditional types of [[WP:RS|reliable sources]], and if that is the case, it would perhaps if better to cite those sources instead. [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 03:08, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Grammar bots ==

I see a problem with bots that are programed to go around correcting grammar all across Wikipedia. For example, let's say the bots don't like sentences to end with prepositions, or they don't like the Oxford comma. I've seen changes made that some experts would agree with, and some would not. There are plenty of situations in English usage that are not "settled law", and which the language in it's usual way, may eventually deal with. The English language has evolved naturally over time. That should be allowed. Instead, now machines exist, bots, that can manipulate the language wholesale in a way that can subvert and eliminate the language's ability to evolve naturally. If Wikipedia had existed (with its "Grammar Nazi" bots) in the time of Old English or Middle English, then the rest of the world would be conversing in modern English and Wikipedia would be full of a lot of strange quirks and spellings like "ye" and "thine", etc. My question is that if an editor wanted to discuss this, and object to what's going on -- how or where would that discussion take place? - [[User:Quarterpinion|Quarterpinion]] ([[User talk:Quarterpinion|talk]]) 15:19, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:This is the first I have heard of such grammar bots. Do you know the names of any of them? A bot should have a Talk page.--[[User:Quisqualis|Quisqualis]] ([[User talk:Quisqualis|talk]]) 16:03, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::Indeed; I am not aware of any "grammar bots". As noted by Quisqualis, every bot has a talk page that its operator follows. It sounds to me, though, that your issue seems to be with certain style concerns; probably the talk page of the [[WP:MOS|Manual of Style]] would be a good place to start. Please note that Wikipedia does not prefer any particular national style of English. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 16:36, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:::I looked at some recent pages edited by [[User:Quarterpinion|Quarterpinion]], and my best guess is, they were thrown off by the username "Giraffedata". Giraffedata has indeed declared a war on technically incorrect (but fairly common, even accepted if I'm not mistaken) usage/s of the word "comprise", but they are not a bot as far as I know, despite the username. [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 02:57, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

Thank you all, I appear to be mistaken—the phenomenon, which I do think is troubling and needs to be considered, may be due to actual individual humans operating Wikipedia's search tools in order to have a mass influence on the language all across the encyclopedia. Usedtobecool cites a good example. It's the principle that I wanted to address. I will withdraw this and think about it. Thanks, very much.[[User:Quarterpinion|Quarterpinion]] ([[User talk:Quarterpinion|talk]]) 03:40, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

:I’ll take 331dot’s suggestion and start with the style page that was referred to above. Individuals who manipulate the way English is used on Wikipedia in a wholesale manner, may not be “bots”, but they use Wikipedia’s search engines, and other devices and gadgets of Wikipedia. The “wholesale” manner of editing is “bot-like”, and the things we call a “bots” do have humans pushing their buttons. The result is that Wikipedia can program its engines to control the language with little thought or consideration — robotically. How the language is affected by our devices, as a principle, should be considered. Wikipedia is a thing built out of language (and also engines). Thanks again. - [[User:Quarterpinion|Quarterpinion]] ([[User talk:Quarterpinion|talk]]) 13:40, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

:: {{Ping|Quarterpinion}} Wikipedia has a right to have its articles conform to its house style, which (like everything else here) is the result of consensus; some editors correctly spend their time enforcing that. Take note of [[MOS:TIES]] and [[MOS:RETAIN]]. Some, including me, will edit to make an article correct and self-consistent, usually in the process of editing it for some other reason in my case; as long as you have it open and are fixing something, it's hard to ignore date format, [[WP:ENGVAR]], comma, [[MOS:DASH]], etc. problems, so we fix them per those policies. Others, as you've said, go around looking for making solely those kinds of edits, sometime unnecessarily, but sometimes technically correctly according to the guidelines. Reverting such edits wholesale without attempting to discuss it first (maybe at [[WT:MOS]]) can be seen as just as wrong as the original edits, even if they were wrong to begin with. —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 23:42, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

::: {{Ping|AlanM1}}, my concern doesn’t have to do specifically with conforming to the house style, or the MOS, except in the general way. I think its a question of how Wikipedia uses and relates to the English language — whether it’s thoughtfully or not — and do we allow the English language to evolve freely as it has, by consensus actually, for centuries. Can we edit thoughtlessly like robots on an assembly-line? Click, click, click? Yes, we can. Hundreds of edits can be made in a few minutes without much thought — by using devices on Wikipedia that were certainly not intended to contribute thoughtlessness. In this wholesale, robotic way, we can manipulate the language as with a shoe-horn or like “Whack-a-mole”, and we can treat the language in a demeaning way — as something not to exist with its usual freedom, but something to be manipulated grossly. But should we? - [[User:Quarterpinion|Quarterpinion]] ([[User talk:Quarterpinion|talk]]) 01:48, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Why my article is delince ==

Can say me the details where is error and why delince how to fix the error — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Yungdom1|Yungdom1]] ([[User talk:Yungdom1#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yungdom1|contribs]]) 16:08, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
:Hello and welcome, [[User:Yungdom1|Yungdom1]]! Your article draft was declined because it doesn't meet Wikipedia's minimum standards for inline citations. You can read more about correct citation [[WP:MINREF|here]]. Please also read [[WP:AUTOBIOGRAPHY]] and [[WP:COI]], if either of these apply to you. [[User:Chetsford|Chetsford]] ([[User talk:Chetsford|talk]]) 16:30, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::Specifically, the material under "Controversy" is contentious, so it must have an inline citation. [[User:William2001|William2001]]([[User talk:William2001|talk]]) 16:40, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== What would be the decision of UNSC regarding the current situation in Kashmir in general and the Kashmir issue in particular? ==

Tomorrow at 10: am in the morning the UNSC is going to decide the fate of the people of Jammu and Kashmir. The meeting will be a close door meeting in which the five permanent members of the UN security Council viz. USA, Russia, China, UK and France will be participating. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Shahid Ashraf Rather|Shahid Ashraf Rather]] ([[User talk:Shahid Ashraf Rather#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Shahid Ashraf Rather|contribs]]) 16:48, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
: Wikipedia or I cannot answer that question. Wikipedia is not a [[WP:CRYSTALBALL|crystal ball]], meaning that this encyclopedia cannot be used to predict future and possible events. Wikipedia is not a collection of unverifiable information. [[User:LPS and MLP Fan|LPS and MLP Fan]] ([[User talk:LPS and MLP Fan|LittlestPetShop]]) ([[Special:Contributions/LPS and MLP Fan|MyLittlePony]]) 16:53, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Discography ==

I'm thinking of creating a discography page for [[Bea Miller]] because she has two albums, four EPs, and over 10 singles. I would like to know how you move all the discography to a new page.
[[User:Billiekhalidfan|Billiekhalidfan]] ([[User talk:Billiekhalidfan|talk]]) 16:50, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:[[User:Billiekhalidfan|Billiekhalidfan]] that doesn't sound like enough content to merit splitting, especially considering the artist article already looks like a discography page. I advise proposing this at the artists talk page because if you create the discography page anyway, you'll need to make substantial deletions from the artist article to avoid content duplication. As for how to do it, you can simply copy content from the artist page to the new page, provided your edit summary provides attribution with something like "this content was copied from that page, see the history of that page for authorship information". [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 18:08, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Can my biography appear on Wikipedia if I'm a YouTube artist? ==

Can my biography appear on Wikipedia if I'm YouTube artist? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/41.246.25.246|41.246.25.246]] ([[User talk:41.246.25.246#top|talk]]) 16:51, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
:[[User:41.246.25.246|41.246.25.246]] - hello and welcome! Your, or anyone's, biography can appear on <Del>YouTube</del><ins>Wikipedia</ins> regardless of your profession but provided you meet the guidelines for [[WP:N|notability]] and [[WP:V|verification]]. However, it is generally recommended you do not contribute content in which you have an intimate or pecuniary interest. In your specific case, please review [[WP:AUTOBIOGRAPHY]]. [[User:Chetsford|Chetsford]] ([[User talk:Chetsford|talk]]) 16:59, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:{{ec}} Hello, {{u|41.246.25.246}}. Writing about yourself is a big [[Wikipedia:Avoiding common mistakes|mistake]]. You have a [[WP:COI|conflict of interest]] since you want to write about yourself. Also, you may not be [[WP:Notability|notable]] enough to be worthy of inclusion in this encyclopedia. [[User:LPS and MLP Fan|LPS and MLP Fan]] ([[User talk:LPS and MLP Fan|LittlestPetShop]]) ([[Special:Contributions/LPS and MLP Fan|MyLittlePony]]) 17:00, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::Merely being someone with a channel on YouTube does not merit that person an article. You would need to be extensively written about in independent [[WP:RS|reliable sources]] that indicate how you are [[WP:BIO|notable as a person]]. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 20:55, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== contesting speedy deletion ==

how can I contest a sppedy deletion? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Brihannalasom|Brihannalasom]] ([[User talk:Brihannalasom#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Brihannalasom|contribs]]) 17:06, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
:Go to the page that is tagged for deletion, and click the button that says “Contest this speedy deletion”. [[User:LPS and MLP Fan|LPS and MLP Fan]] ([[User talk:LPS and MLP Fan|LittlestPetShop]]) ([[Special:Contributions/LPS and MLP Fan|MyLittlePony]]) 17:08, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== How can I stop the speedy deletion of my article, and request for reconsidering the matter? ==

There was a page by some other person on one of my favourite film activist and poet. May be some of his family members opened this page and when he came to know of this page he himself requested for speedy deletion.

I have no connection with him, but I am become impressed by his biography. So I opened a page in his name with more specific details. But that page has also been speedily deleted. Is it like that, no information on him will be allowed from now on. He is a well known political and film activist, and people should know about the informations I furnished.

Please suggest me what I am to stop the speedy deletion of my article, and request for reconsidering the matter. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Brihannalasom|Brihannalasom]] ([[User talk:Brihannalasom#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Brihannalasom|contribs]]) 17:33, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 
:[[User:Brihannalasom|Brihannalasom]], there is an important question in need of answering. How did you come to know of the "more specific details"? [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 18:01, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::You cannot stop the speedy deletion of an article which has not yet been written. There is nothing to "reconsider". You can prevent speedy deletion by demonstrating that the subject of the article deserves an article in Wikipedia by adhering to [[WP:notability]] and [[WP:Reliable sources]].--[[User:Quisqualis|Quisqualis]] ([[User talk:Quisqualis|talk]]) 20:29, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Photographs ==

Are the photographs copyrighted? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/2600:1702:30C0:74E0:F892:5875:D81E:678E|2600:1702:30C0:74E0:F892:5875:D81E:678E]] ([[User talk:2600:1702:30C0:74E0:F892:5875:D81E:678E#top|talk]]) 20:05, 15 August 2019 (UTC) 

:Which photographs? Wikipedia assumes that all photographs are copyright by the photographer unless it can be shown otherwise. The photographer can release copyright when they upload a photo to [[Wikipedia Commons]]. See [[Wikipedia:Uploading images]] for guidance. If you want to use photographs from Wikipedia Commons, then that is permitted if you acknowledge the source. Photographs hosted on Wikipedia itself might be under "Fair use" so will be copyright and may not be used elsewhere. [[User:Dbfirs|Dbfirs]] 20:12, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== New Living Person Page Created ==

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft:Helen_Ramsaran

Hello I just published the following page, when will it be live? Or if there are any additional edits or steps i need to take elsewhere on wiki for this page to be live for other people to offer their edits?

[[User:Moshimena|Moshimena]] ([[User talk:Moshimena|talk]]) 20:19, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:{{u|Moshimena}} Hello and welcome to the Teahouse. If by "live" you mean it would be formally part of the encyclopedia, you would first need to submit it for review. Currently your article (not just "page") is just a draft. I will shortly add the appropriate information to allow you to submit it for review. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 20:57, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

Thank you![[User:Moshimena|Moshimena]] ([[User talk:Moshimena|talk]]) 02:36, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Reverting a article in a phone ==

How can I revert in a phone? Is it possible or not? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:CentralTime301|CentralTime301]] ([[User talk:CentralTime301#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/CentralTime301|contribs]]) 
:{{replyto|CentralTime301}} Hello and welcome to the Teahouse. Reverting on a phone is no different than reverting on a computer- if you are accessing the desktop version on your phone(instead of using the mobile version). There should be a link at the bottom of the mobile version for you to switch to the desktop version. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 20:59, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::I'm not sure reverts can be made on mobile so, like 331dot said, you will have to switch to desktop mode. Regards, [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 21:08, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

== Question about External links in disambiguation pages? ==

Is it considered an extrenal link if the link is going to another wikipedia site. For example, if there is a page about a topic that has a broken link on ambiguous is it acceptable to use a es.wikipedia link, if the resluting link is on topic. Seeing if the page does not exist on the originating language version of wikipeda?

I bring up the question because under [[Wikipedia:Disambiguation_dos_and_don'ts|dos and don'ts]], it says not to include extrenal links on this page.

However, is a link considered extrneal when it strictly uses

<nowiki>[https:// a_link]</nowiki>

or only when the page leaves the wikipedia.org domain?

[[User:Seamus M. Slack|Seamus M. Slack]] ([[User talk:Seamus M. Slack|talk]]) 22:21, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
:Hi there, {{u|Seamus M. Slack}}, and welcome to the Teahouse. No, [[WP:EL|External links]] should not include any links to any language version of Wikipedia. These should ''always'' be used within the main article contents. Either use normal wikilinks between two square brackets to link to other pages on English Wikipedia, or use the 'interlanguage link' template to link create a redlink to a non-existent article on English Wikipedia along with a small blue link to a non-English Wikipedia. The template you use is this one: {{tlx|ill}}. So, for lovers of alpine flowers, there is currently no article on English Wikipedia about the Pyrenean buttercup (''Ranunculus pyrenaeus'' L.), but there are on both French and German wikis, and seven other wikis. To create a link to it, you'd type <nowiki>''{{illm|Ranunculus pyrenaeus|de|Pyrenäen-Hahnenfuß}}''</nowiki> to create this link: ''{{illm|Ranunculus pyrenaeus|de|Pyrenäen-Hahnenfuß}}'' Note the redlink to English Wikipedia, but the small, functional blue link to German wikipedia, which uses the plant's German common name, not its scientific one. Does that answer your question? [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 23:12, 15 August 2019 (UTC)
::Thank you. I do feel welcomed. I didn't know about {{tlx|ill}}. Thanks and yes my question is answered. [[User:Seamus M. Slack|Seamus M. Slack]] ([[User talk:Seamus M. Slack|talk]]) 01:14, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== How to move a page in the desktop version in Wikipedia on a phone ==

How can I move a page in the desktop version of Wikipedia in a phone? Real example: [[KTSB-CA]] should be moved to a redirect to KTSB-CD.[[User:CentralTime301|CentralTime301]] ([[User talk:CentralTime301|talk]]) 23:43, 15 August 2019 (UTC)

:{{re|CentralTime301}} Its actually the same as on a desktop computer, see [[H:MOVE|Help:Move]]. However, I suggest that you use a responsive skin like monobook or timeless, vector (the default) is sometimes a bit buggy. [[Special:Contributions/2001:16B8:50F9:1600:EC2D:6E8D:EED4:E45F|2001:16B8:50F9:1600:EC2D:6E8D:EED4:E45F]] ([[User talk:2001:16B8:50F9:1600:EC2D:6E8D:EED4:E45F|talk]]) 05:14, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== New Subject Entry ==

Hello Editors.

I have been drafting an entry about a fashion designer that is currently not included in Wikipedia.

Where do I post my proposed subject to gain approval and have a review of references and content of an article?

Thanks!— Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:EMETIB MAILLIW|EMETIB MAILLIW]] ([[User talk:EMETIB MAILLIW#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/EMETIB MAILLIW|contribs]]) 05:06, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:Hello and welcome, [[User:EMETIB MAILLIW|EMETIB MAILLIW]]! If this is your first article, or you are very new to Wikipedia, it's a good idea to start with the [[Wikipedia:Article_wizard|Article Wizard]]. [[User:Chetsford|Chetsford]] ([[User talk:Chetsford|talk]]) 05:41, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

: The red error messages in your references in [[User:EMETIB MAILLIW/sandbox]] usually have a "help" link in blue. In each case this will give you a [[WP:wikilink|wikilink]] to specific help on each type of error. --[[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 09:13, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

David- I am such a novice, but under the advisement of Wiki mentors like you and Chetsford are proving handy.
I am not sure what you can see in my sandbox, but formatting the references or further advisement would be welcome. Thank you! EM [[User:EMETIB MAILLIW|EMETIB MAILLIW]] ([[User talk:EMETIB MAILLIW|talk]]) 09:31, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:See [[Help:Referencing for beginners]] for fixing references. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 11:14, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::{{re|EMETIB MAILLIW}} Also see [[Help:Your first article]] for more general help. [[User:Timtempleton|TimTempleton]] [[User talk:Timtempleton|(talk)]] [[Special:Contributions/Timtempleton|(cont)]] 15:23, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

{{re|David notMD}} and {{re|Timtempleton}}
Really appreciate your guidance and affirmation. If you can see my sandbox- Does it appear as if I am moving in the right direction for a first entry? The citations are there, but realize they require proper fixing! Thanks. EM [[User:EMETIB MAILLIW|EMETIB MAILLIW]] ([[User talk:EMETIB MAILLIW|talk]]) 16:34, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:Needs to be shorter, especially mention of info not about her. And learn how to ref. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 23:13, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Page not published ==

Hello wikites!

I tried to write my first Wikipedia entry about an economist who is in the business since more than 25 years. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:ElZorroK
The links I put on the article to show this persons career and standing in the economic community. I want a many aspiring young economist to find him and use his research material in resolving the issues around many economies around the world. I'd very much appreciate if one of you could help me. There is no doubt, he deserves a Wikipedia entry. Many thanks and best wishes. ElZorroK [[User:ElZorroK|ElZorroK]] ([[User talk:ElZorroK|talk]]) 05:07, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

:Hello {{u|ElZorroK}}, and welcome to the Teahouse! The relevant "rule" here is [[WP:NACADEMIC]]. If you conclude that your guy "has" that and that you can show it with [[WP:RS]], there is some more you need to do. Your article needs inline citations, see [[Help:Referencing for beginners]]. When you are done with that, see [[Wikipedia:So_you_made_a_userspace_draft#Ready!]]. Good luck! [[User:Gråbergs Gråa Sång|Gråbergs Gråa Sång]] ([[User talk:Gråbergs Gråa Sång|talk]]) 07:32, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::Your User page is the wrong place to draft an article (a very common error). Consider moving the content to [[Article wizard]]. As GGS mentioned already, needs referencing, and the references need to be to published content about Kevin Fox, not by him. Lastly, a Wikipedia article is not a CV. Listing memberships and the subject's publications do not contribute to the purpose of the article. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 11:16, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Help with using a photo from Hebrew Wiki - to use in English Wiki ==

There is a photo in the Hebrew Wikipedia article of Rabbi Yechezkel Sarna whichI'd like to include in the English Wiki article. Various unsaved experiments didn't work. Is it because of the photo not being in a "commons" area but rather in a language-specific .jpg collection?

Photo from Hebrew Wiki:
https://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?depth=1&hl=en&prev=search&rurl=translate.google.com&sl=iw&sp=nmt4&u=https://he.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%25A7%25D7%2595%25D7%2591%25D7%25A5:Yechezkel_Sarna.jpg&xid=25657,15700021,15700186,15700190,15700256,15700259,15700262,15700265&usg=ALkJrhjpNdBjR9nKDAXAMk3zbkB7QKp0tg
[[User:Pi314m|Pi314m]] ([[User talk:Pi314m|talk]]) 08:37, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

:Per [[WP:NFCI]] 10, that foto should be ok to use. ''How'' to technically do that, I don't know. {{u|Marchjuly}}? [[User:Gråbergs Gråa Sång|Gråbergs Gråa Sång]] ([[User talk:Gråbergs Gråa Sång|talk]]) 09:06, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

::Thanks, but ... it's the "How" that was the basis of my ''Help'' request. Sorry to seem like I'm double-dipping or asking for cake at the teahouse: Is this the right place, or should I repost my help request elsewhere [[User:Pi314m|Pi314m]] ([[User talk:Pi314m|talk]]) 10:14, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:::{{re|Pi314m}} I don't know if you can link across the different language Wikipedias. I think if you right click to download it to your computer, and then upload it to commons with the upload wizard, and include in the permissions that it's a photo of a deceased person, you'll get a link that works. You could also include the link to the original file in the notes, and if there are any problems, someone in OTRS will help you straighten it out. [[User:Timtempleton|TimTempleton]] [[User talk:Timtempleton|(talk)]] [[Special:Contributions/Timtempleton|(cont)]] 15:21, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::::{{u|Timtempleton}}, the linked page states that the image is copyrighted, that makes Commons the wrong place by default, or am I wrong? [[User:Gråbergs Gråa Sång|Gråbergs Gråa Sång]] ([[User talk:Gråbergs Gråa Sång|talk]]) 16:32, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:::::{{ping|Gråbergs Gråa Sång}} I don't think you're wrong per se. When someone uploads a file to Commons under a license such as [[:Creative Commons]], they are not really transferring their copyright ownership to Commons or anyone else; they are really just making a version of their work freely available for others to more easily use. Basically, they have created a boilerplate agreement allowing reuse of their work under certain terms for anyone who currently wants to or might someday want to use their work that makes individual agreements with each such person unnecessary. So, Commons does host copyrighted content, but only when it's been released by the copyright holder under a free license that Commons it accepts. The default in cases where a file's licensing cannot be verified is to deleted per [[:c:Commons:Project scope/Precautionary principle]]. -- [[User:Marchjuly|Marchjuly]] ([[User talk:Marchjuly|talk]]) 22:02, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::Hi {{u|Pi314m}}. Files like the one uploaded to Hebrew Wikipedia are local files, whereas files uploaded to Commons are global files. So, if you want to use a file uploaded locally to Hebrew Wikipedia on English Wikipedia, you will have to one of two things: upload the file to Commons or upload the file to English Wikipedia. Since Commons does not accept [[:c:COM:FAIR|fair use files]], you should only upload the file to Commons if your reasonably sure that it meets [[:c:Commons:Licensing]]. Commons will accept copyrighted files, but only when it can be verified that the copyright holder has agreed to release the file under an acceptable free license; technically, the copyright holder is relinquishing their copyright ownership over the file but rather simply making a version of the file freely available for others to use. If you've got any specific questions about this, you can ask for help at [[:c:Commons:Village pump/Copyright]].{{pb}}Now, if you don't think there's a way for the file to be uploaded to Commons, then it might be possible to upload the file locally to Wikipedia as [[:WP:NFC|non-free content]]. There are [[:WP:NFCCP|ten non-free content use criteria]] which need to be satisfied, but copyrighted files of deceased individuals are allowed to be uploaded and used per item 10 of [[:WP:NFCI]] as long as their use complies with [[:WP:NFCC|Wikipedia's non-free content use policy]]. Generally, such a file should be OK to use as long as (1) there's no reasonable expectation that a free equivalent image (it doesn't have to be the same image; just equivalent enough to serve the same encyclopedic purpose) can either be found or created ([[:WP:NFCC#1]]), and (2) the image is going to be used for primary identification purposes in the main infobox or at the top of a stand-alone Wikipedia article about the person-in-question. Other types of non-free use are not impossible to justify, but they do tend to be much harder to justify. If you've got any more questions about this, you can ask for help at [[:Wikipedia:Media copyright questions]] or [[:Wikipedia talk:Non-free content]]. -- [[User:Marchjuly|Marchjuly]] ([[User talk:Marchjuly|talk]]) 21:49, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Heard about a company from a friend, found a wiki draft page. Need help from experienced editor friends ==

Hi guys,

Need help getting a company draft page to life, its a notable company that has been in business for past 25 years nearly. Its privately held and hence much of its revenue info isnt shared.

Can somebody help me with what all may be required for it ?

-- volcanicsnow — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Volcanicsnow|Volcanicsnow]] ([[User talk:Volcanicsnow#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Volcanicsnow|contribs]]) 10:09, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 
:As mentioned on this user's talk page, they are being asked to violate [[WP:MEAT]], [[WP:COI]], [[WP:PAID]], and [[WP:PROMO]] and should not do this. --[[User:Yamla|Yamla]] ([[User talk:Yamla|talk]]) 10:47, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::Courtesy: draft in question is [[Draft:Fiorano Software]]. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 11:34, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:::I am not as sure as Yamla is that MEAT, or PAID apply. Perhaps COI if the friend is the person who created the draft article in question. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 11:38, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:::: What would also apply in the latter situation would be the prohibition of [[WP:PROXYING|PROXYING]]. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/David Biddulph|contribs]]) 11:42, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 
:::::Moot, as the major (original?) author of the draft has now requested speedy deletion. [[User:David notMD|David notMD]] ([[User talk:David notMD|talk]]) 11:45, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Disassociation with my email ==

I would like to remove my email from my account. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Arustiy89|Arustiy89]] ([[User talk:Arustiy89#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Arustiy89|contribs]]) 14:10, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 

: The option to be able to do that is available at [[Special:Preferences]], but please read the warning about the consequences. - [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 14:14, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::Echoing David's comment. You can turn off email alerts, but just keep it for password recovery. {{please}}. [[User:Timtempleton|TimTempleton]] [[User talk:Timtempleton|(talk)]] [[Special:Contributions/Timtempleton|(cont)]] 15:09, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== How do I create a link to an article in the real world? ==

A wikifriend recently sent me link to an article were I (“wikipedia editor Carptrash”) was mentioned and I’d like to put a link to it on my user page. Sounds doable, but here is the rub. The reference, which was not intended to be complimentary, is in [[Breitbart News]] and when I attempted to make the link I discovered that Breitbart is on a banned (or something) list and links to it on wikipedia can not be made. SO how can I circumvent this probably good regulation? [[User:Carptrash|Carptrash]] ([[User talk:Carptrash|talk]]) 15:47, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:You've to request for the specific link to be whitelisted at [[MediaWiki talk:Spam-whitelist]]. I am not sure what criteria they use in determining what to whitelist and what not. – [[User:Ammarpad|Ammarpad]] ([[User talk:Ammarpad|talk]]) 17:14, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== edit a locked Wikipedia page ==

How to edit a locked Wikipedia page — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Kashmiri Munda|Kashmiri Munda]] ([[User talk:Kashmiri Munda#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Kashmiri Munda|contribs]]) 16:10, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 
:Hello. I can give you more details if you tell me what color the lock is, but generally, locked pages can only be edited by editors that meet certain criterias. Please take a look at [[WP:Protection policy]]. Thank you. [[User:William2001|William2001]]([[User talk:William2001|talk]]) 16:14, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::Yes, the block (or whatever) is pink, but on a more careful look (my forst response was WTF?) I discovered:
:::Request that the entire website be allowed, that is, removed from the local or global spam blacklists (check both lists to see which one is affecting you). '''Which I do not want to do'''
:::Request that just the specific page be allowed, without unblocking the whole website, by asking on the spam whitelist talk page. '''Which is what I plan on doing,''' thanks, [[User:Carptrash|Carptrash]] ([[User talk:Carptrash|talk]]) 16:28, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Upload an article ==

Hi
I want to ask about how to make an article about person and make it visible/noticable(found)when search about it on google — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Obada Katatbeh|Obada Katatbeh]] ([[User talk:Obada Katatbeh#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Obada Katatbeh|contribs]]) 18:18, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 
*(FYI the editor wants to create an article on himself and presumably wants everyone to see it. –[[User:Davey2010|'''Davey''''''2010''']][[User talk:Davey2010|'''Talk''']] 18:23, 16 August 2019 (UTC))
:{{replyto|Obada Katatbeh}} Hello and welcome to the Teahouse. You seem to have a common misconception about what Wikipedia is. This is an encyclopedia and not a place for people to tell the world about themselves. Per our policy on autobiographies written at [[WP:AUTO]], autobiographical articles are strongly discouraged on Wikipedia. While they are not forbidden, in order for you to be successful in writing about yourself, you would need to forget everything you know about yourself and only write based on what independent [[WP:RS|reliable sources]] with significant coverage(not press releases, interviews, or brief mentions) write about you. The vast majority of people cannot do this, as we all naturally write favorably about ourselves. If you have reviewed Wikipedia's special [[WP:BIO|definition of a notable person]](or the more specific criteria for certain careers) and truly feel that you meet the criteria, you should allow others to write about you.
:Wikipedia has no control over Google search results, but generally articles are searchable once formally marked as reviewed; it then takes Google and other search engines time to index pages. Wikipedia also has no interest in helping your career or enhancing search results for you. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 18:32, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== Coloured ==

Hi there,how do you have a coloured background user page? And also how do you make an online bot? Thanks--[[User:RazorTheDJ|RazorTheDJ]] ([[User talk:RazorTheDJ|talk]]) 18:30, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:Colored background: <div style="background-color:#abcdef"> my Content </div> renders as <div style="background-color:#abcdef"> my Content </div>
:For help see [[CSS]]. [[Special:Contributions/2001:16B8:50F9:1600:ACAB:61DB:EF2C:A728|2001:16B8:50F9:1600:ACAB:61DB:EF2C:A728]] ([[User talk:2001:16B8:50F9:1600:ACAB:61DB:EF2C:A728|talk]]) 20:29, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:{{bcc|RazorTheDJ}}As for bots, see [[Help:Bots]]. [[User:Eman235#top|E'''man''']][[Special:Contribs/Eman235|2'''35''']]/[[User talk:Eman235#top|''talk'']] 20:34, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== PHP7 ==

Editors are making changes all over the place with nothing in the
Edit summary except the preceding mysterious word, or phrase, or something. When I click on it, I am taken to an equally mysterious page. What does it mean, and why don't editors explain exactly what they are doing? Thanks. [[User:BeenAroundAWhile|BeenAroundAWhile]] ([[User talk:BeenAroundAWhile|talk]]) 18:37, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:
:It's the new software which is gradually being brought on-line (and should be fully rolled out by the end of the year). The software runs only at the WMF end and you shouldn't notice any difference; at the moment edits on the new interface are being tagged so if there's any bug, the developers can see if they're connected to the switch from HHVM to PHP7 or not. Once the rollout is complete and HHVM is no longer being used anywhere I assume the tag will be switched off. TL;DR version; this tag is only for the developers to keep note and you can completely ignore it. ‑ [[User:Iridescent|Iridescent]] 18:47, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

: Some editors don't bother with an [[Help:edit summary|edit summary]], and they can be reminded, such as with {{tl|Uw-editsummary}}. Separately, the automatic PHP7 tag flagged by the Wikimedia software is explained at [[:mw:Beta_Features/PHP7]] (and the links from it), but can be ignored except by the software developers. Note that the PHP7 tag can apply to edits either with or without an edit summary. - [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 18:56, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

::Thanks, but that doesn't explain why editors don't say in an Edit summary exactly what they are doing with this new software. [[User:BeenAroundAWhile|BeenAroundAWhile]] ([[User talk:BeenAroundAWhile|talk]]) 00:36, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

::: It's not something that the user is doing. You'll see that [[:mw:Talk:Beta Features/PHP7]] says that "10% of all traffic is currently being randomly assigned to the PHP7 testing servers. The tag will show up on any edits made from servers running php7 to help us track issues that may ultimately be related to the php7 software. This isn't anything that a particular editor should be concerned about." As I explained (and I trust that someone will correct me if I'm wrong), what a user puts (or doesn't put) in an edit summary is entirely independent of whether the server uses PHP7 and adds the PHP7 flag to help the software developers in their performance studies. - [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 01:10, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Joseph Benti addition to Studio City page removed ==

My question is concerning an addition of a notable person 'Joseph Benti' which I added to this page, that was immediately removed by BeenAroundAwhile: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_City,_Los_Angeles#Notable_people

Here is the following cite that I wrote which was removed:
* [[Joseph Benti]], CBS news journalist and anchorman<ref>{{cite web|title=Reliving the RFK Assassination with CBS Newsman Joseph Benti|url=https://www.itsabouttv.com/2018/10/reliving-rfk-assassination-with-cbs.html|publisher=It's About TV|accessdate=2019-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=CBS NEWS SPECIAL REPORT: The Death of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.(TV)|url=https://www.paleycenter.org/collection/item/?q=charles+kuralt&p=9&item=T81:0794/|publisher=The Paley Center for Media|accessdate=2019-08-15}}</ref>

Prior to joining CBS network news in NYC, Mr. Benti started his career in Los Angeles working for KTLA which was owned by Gene Autry. I have included a Radaris link, which shows the Dona Dorotea address: https://radaris.com/~Emanuel-Benti/1061252293

The Wiki Studio City article does not specify that the reference of notable people must show their Studio City address in the article. Also, Mr. Benti does not use his first name, which is Emanuel. It was my opinion that the links to his work covering the assassination of Martin Luther King and Robert F. Kennedy were vastly more important than a reference to his home address.

However I will add a third reference from Los Angeles Magazine, June 1983 called "Second Chance Daddies" which references Mr. Benti's Laurel Canyon home. Included in the article are Harvey Cantor, the great civil rights photographer Steve Schapiro, Roger Gimbel, Al Campbell, and Harvey Korman. Five of Mr. Benti's children all attended and graduated from schools in Studio City that include: Carpenter Avenue Elementary, Walter Reed, Campbell Hall, and Corvallis High School (now Bridges Academy).

I have rewritten the article to include a third source from Los Angeles Magazine.

* [[Joseph Benti]], CBS news journalist and anchorman<ref>{{cite web|title=Reliving the RFK Assassination with CBS Newsman Joseph Benti|url=https://www.itsabouttv.com/2018/10/reliving-rfk-assassination-with-cbs.html|publisher=It's About TV|accessdate=2019-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=CBS NEWS SPECIAL REPORT: The Death of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.(TV)|url=https://www.paleycenter.org/collection/item/?q=charles+kuralt&p=9&item=T81:0794/|publisher=The Paley Center for Media|accessdate=2019-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=Mark |title=Second Chance Daddies |journal=Los Angeles Magazine |date=June 1, 1983 |volume=Volume 28, Number 6 |issue=June |page=218-223}}</ref>

{{reflist-talk}}

: The advice in such cases is at [[WP:Write the article first]]. If you draft an article with appropriate sourcing, & get it approved through the [[WP:Articles for creation|Articles for creation]] process, you could then link to the new article from the list of notable people. - [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 20:12, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

{{reflist-talk}}
User:David Biddulph: This is not an article. It is an edit to an existing page. [[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]] ([[User talk:Yosemite4|talk]]) 20:16, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
: Hi there [[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]] what do you specially need help with. It looks like you have had help on your talk page previously about this topic. [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 20:58, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::Also some of those references don't make sense to the topic..[[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 21:00, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:::Hello again, {{u|Yosemite4}}. As I told you on my talk page, there is widespread general consensus among experienced editors that lists of "notable people" on Wikipedia be limited to those people who are already the subjects of existing Wikipedia biographies. Those lists should consist of blue links, not red links or unlinked names. So, the first step is to write an acceptable Wikipedia biography of Benti. You can find advice at [[WP:YFA|Your first article]]. [[User:Cullen328|Cullen328]] [[User talk:Cullen328|''Let's discuss it'']] 00:29, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

: Hi there [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] Here is another reference: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Early_Show
He was anchorperson of the first hour-long network news program in history.

Now, as a point of discussion. William Shatner, who we all know as Captain Kirk, or the spokesman for Priceline.com, has one reference to a wikipedia page that says nothing about William Shatner. Ref: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studio_City,_Los_Angeles#cite_note-72
Page: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FYI_(American_TV_channel)#The_Biography_Channel

[[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]] ([[User talk:Yosemite4|talk]]) 00:39, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
::There is a place to discuss this matter at [[Talk:Studio_City,_Los_Angeles#Joseph_Benti]] [[User:BeenAroundAWhile|BeenAroundAWhile]] ([[User talk:BeenAroundAWhile|talk]]) 00:42, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
:::[[William Shatner]] is a very famous actor and his Wikipedia biography has 108 references. Joseph Benti is the subject of a completely unreferenced Wikipedia article that was deleted in 2007. There is a very big difference. If you want to add Joseph Benti to lists of notable people, then write an acceptable, well referenced draft article for him through the [[WP:AFC|Articles for creation]] process. Please be sure to let people know that you have a conflict of interest. [[User:Cullen328|Cullen328]] [[User talk:Cullen328|''Let's discuss it'']] 06:32, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

=== Joseph Benti addition to Studio City ===
I have asked that all discussion be submitted to the TEAHOUSE page article and not a relentless surge of private emails. The following editors have removed my submission without checking the edit. [User: David Biddulph] who lives in Britain and has no knowledge of Studio City.

Here is my edit:

* [[Joseph Benti]], CBS news journalist and anchorman<ref>{{cite web |title=The Early Show |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Early_Sho |website=Wikipedia |publisher=Wikipedia |accessdate=17 August 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Reliving the RFK Assassination with CBS Newsman Joseph Benti|url=https://www.itsabouttv.com/2018/10/reliving-rfk-assassination-with-cbs.html|publisher=It's About TV|accessdate=2019-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=CBS NEWS SPECIAL REPORT: The Death of Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.(TV)|url=https://www.paleycenter.org/collection/item/?q=charles+kuralt&p=9&item=T81:0794/|publisher=The Paley Center for Media|accessdate=2019-08-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=Mark |title=Second Chance Daddies |journal=Los Angeles Magazine |date=June 1, 1983 |volume=Volume 28, Number 6 |issue=June |page=218-223}}</ref>

I don't think it is fair to threaten me which is what this fellow did via my talk page. Please comment on the submission which now links to a Wikipedia page.

<excerpt from user's talk page redacted, as it isn't needed here>— Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]] ([[User talk:Yosemite4#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Yosemite4|contribs]]) 02:00, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

{{reflist-talk}}

: This isn't needed and just because someone is from a different country doesn't mean they don't know about that article. Please stop resubmitting. [[User:ThePacificMan|ThePacificMan]] ([[User talk:ThePacificMan|talk]]) 07:08, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

:* [[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]], Teahouse isn't the place to discuss content. Please take it to the talk page of relevant article/s. And please refrain from making ad-hominem comments on fellow editors. Where an editor is from, has nothing to do with what they could know of, nor does what an editor knows have anything to do with editing an encyclopedia. See [[WP:Verifiability]].

::As to what you characterise as threatening, those are automated messages generated to alert users who repeat unconstructive actions. The messages get more terse every iteration. This is done to impart upon users the seriousness of their actions when the first messages which are friendly reminders don't seem to work. Please note that, eventually, those messages will run out and when that happens, an admin action may be sought. Some people have a particular distaste of automated messages and will leave a personal message like [[User:Cullen328|Cullen328]] did. But, leaving an automated message is not a threat, even if it appears offensive to you. If you find it offensive, reply to them there and say so. The trick is to address the relevant conduct before it has to get to the level of needing harsher warnings. And [[User: David Biddulph| David Biddulph]]'s message was polite in any case, you may be thinking of someone else.[[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 07:37, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

=== Remove all conversation pertaining to Joseph Benti ===

You Wikipedia editors won. You actually have made it so I can't remove it. Clearly intended to destroy.

I want the personal material that I placed, removed from the TEAHOUSE. It is clear I have violated your standards and did without any direction. Remove the material.

My deletion is my edit. I came there for help and was debauched by a bunch of editors more concerned about being right than helping. It is clear that noon is interested in helping. No one even bothered to read my four submissions to the Studio City page. This is a bunch of men complicit in destroying a woman and hiding behind their screen names to do it.

[[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]] ([[User talk:Yosemite4|talk]]) 08:41, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

:Could you be so kind as to direct me to this incodent/edit in question? [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 08:50, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
:I can see the discussion, but I’m not sure what part you’re referring to. [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 08:55, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

:[[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]] It no longer matters.[[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]] ([[User talk:Yosemite4|talk]]) 08:57, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
::[[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]], your attacks are out of line. I'd redact them before more people see them. Please see [[WP:AGF]]. You are sorely mistaken if you think that that kind of attack will distract/deter people from acting to protect the encyclopedia and the community from disruptive behaviour such as yours. [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 09:14, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

=== Please remove all my sections referring to Joseph Benti - you won ===

Please remove all of my input concerning Joseph Benti. I submitted four revised entires based on input I received in private messages. And not one of them was answered.

What a swamp. Everyone hiding behind their screen names.

[[User:Yosemite4|Yosemite4]] ([[User talk:Yosemite4|talk]]) 08:56, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
:All sections are automatically archived by a bot, at the appropriate time. [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 09:03, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
::As noted at the top of every edit window, "Work submitted to Wikipedia can be edited, used, and redistributed—by anyone—subject to certain terms and conditions." Posts will not be removed just because you want them to be, sorry. [[User:331dot|331dot]] ([[User talk:331dot|talk]]) 09:37, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== NPP vs AfC ==

What is the difference between [[Wikipedia:New pages patrol]] and being a <code>new page reviewer</code>, and [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Articles for creation]] and being an <code>AfC reviewer</code>. <code>{{u|[[User:Waddie96|waddie96]]}} {[[User talk:Waddie96|talk]]}</code> 21:00, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:{{u|Waddie96}}, New Page Patrol is a patrol of articles in mainspace, AfC reviewing is checking articles in draftspace. NPP generally involves tagging pages for speedy deletion, PRODing, and draftifying. AfC spots articles ready for mainspace, and promotes them (it rarely involves deletion). The skill sets do overlap quite significantly, though. [[User:Bellezzasolo|∰'''Bellezzasolo'''✡]] [[User talk:Bellezzasolo|Discuss]] 21:18, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
::Erm, dont forget that New Page Patrol also involves ''approving'' many reasonable articles added directly to mainspace - not just deleting them! Note that once a draft article has gone thru the Articles for Creation review process and moved to mainspace, it ''still'' has to be NPP patrolled before we allow Google to index that new page. Both processes allow the respective reviewer to leave feedback for the creating editor. Its wrong to suggest that AfC reviewers ''spot'' draft articles that are ready for mainspace. Nothing happens until the creating editor is happy with their draft and actively submits it for review. Thats quite an important point worth clarifying. [[User:Nick Moyes|Nick Moyes]] ([[User talk:Nick Moyes|talk]]) 22:01, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:::Thanks {{u|Bellezzasolo}} and {{u|Nick Moyes}}!<code>{{u|[[User:Waddie96|waddie96]]}} {[[User talk:Waddie96|talk]]}</code> 06:56, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== About the Wikipedia:WikiProject Requested articles ==

Dear Fellow wikipedians,
I wanted to be a member of this wikiproject, when i realized that it was inactive and tagged it as such.
I saw that i can revive it. I have read the instructions to do that, but i have became a little puzzled. I would kindly ask someone to explain it with a little simpler words, and to ask my basic question: If i must, how can i become the <<leader>> of the wikiproject to revive it? (the policy didn't said something about that, i generally ask) I await your reply, [[User:Enivak| Eni vak]] [[User talk:Enivak| (speak)]] 21:31, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

== How to Delay Publication? ==

Is there a way to have a draft article "pre-reviewed" but delay the publication until later?.

The reason I ask is Iʻm working on a new article on a well-known historical site based on many years of primary source research that is about to be made public. I want the Wiki article to come out after the new info comes out... but I donʻt want to wait for months for review or debates with editors (which I have heard do occur).

Suggestions welcome! - Dean Hamer, PhD

PS- It would help to know the typical wait time for an article to be reviewed. If itʻs super-long, I could just submit right now.

— Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Dean Hamer PhD|Dean Hamer PhD]] ([[User talk:Dean Hamer PhD#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dean Hamer PhD|contribs]]) 22:29, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 

:Hello, {{U|Dean Hamer PhD}}. I can't quite work out what you're trying to do, but I cannot think of any rationale for this request that is consistent with what Wikipedia is. If you want to submit a draft for review, submit it; if you don't, don't. If you care about when an article is published, you are almost certainly working on it for the benefit of somebody or something other than Wikipedia: please don't do that. I cannot see how "a new article based on many years of primary source research" can have ''any'' relevance to a Wikipedia article you are writing: citing your own articles is regarded as editing with a [[WP:conflict of interest|conflict of interest]]; and putting anything in it which has been published only in your own article would be [[WP:original research|original research]] and not acceptable. --[[User:ColinFine|ColinFine]] ([[User talk:ColinFine|talk]]) 22:52, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

: To Colin's reply I would add the reminder that a Wikipedia article needs to be based on [[WP:secondary sources|secondary sources]], rather than the [[WP:primary sources|primary sources]] which you mention in your question. --[[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 23:01, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

:: {{Ping|Dean Hamer PhD}} If {{Tq|many years of primary source research that is about to be made public}} means that you will be referencing those unpublished (yet) sources in your article, that will be a problem, since it will not be [[WP:V|verifiable]] yet. The Wikipedia article needs to be reviewed ''after'' any sources it references are available for verification. —[[[User:AlanM1|AlanM1]]([[User talk:AlanM1#top|talk]])]— 00:21, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== what does it mean when in someones user Box it has the green dot in it and says helped promote the article to good status? ==

Just was wondering in the process of contributing to a page to make it one. Just did not get the wording for that still a bit new [[User:Jack90s15|Jack90s15]] ([[User talk:Jack90s15|talk]]) 23:05, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

: I'm not quite sure exactly which userbox you have in mind, but quite a number of those listed at [[WP:Userboxes/Wikipedia/Personal statistics]] refer to promoting to good article status. At least some of those link to [[WP:Good articles]] which explains the process. - [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 23:18, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:{{ec}} Hi {{u|Jack90s15}}. Certain Wikipedia articles have underdone a kind of optional formal peer review which has resulted in them being assessed as [[:Wikipedia:Good articles]] or [[:Wikipedia:Featured articles]]; so, the userbox you saw belongs to someone who either created such an article or who worked on improving it to help it become such an article. GA's and FA's are normally considered to be good examples of what every Wikipedia article should strive to be, but there are still quite a number of articles which are quite good which haven't undergone such a review process; in fact, most articles tend to be more informally reviewed as explained in [[:Wikipedia:Content assessment]]. -- [[User:Marchjuly|Marchjuly]] ([[User talk:Marchjuly|talk]]) 23:20, 16 August 2019 (UTC)

:Ok I get it now thanks!!! {{ping|David Biddulph}} {{ping|Marchjuly}} [[User:Jack90s15|Jack90s15]] ([[User talk:Jack90s15|talk]]) 00:55, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Freud-Hitler ==

Hi! I read an old news that [[Sigmund Freud]] suggested in 1895 that Adolf Hitler be committed to a mental institution and that's not mentioned in "Early years" of the Hitler's article. Should it be included? I don't want to edit an already Good Article. Thanks. --[[User:CoryGlee|CoryGlee]] ([[User talk:CoryGlee|talk]]) 23:28, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:Do you have the news source that says that? That is the first step in determining if it is something that is worthy of inclusion into the article. [[User:Sir Joseph|Sir Joseph]] [[User_talk:Sir Joseph|(talk)]] 23:34, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
: Where is your [[WP:REFB|reference]] to a published [[WP:reliable source|reliable source]] for this? - [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 23:35, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
Hi {{ping|David Biddulph}} and {{ping|Sir Joseph}}, I was reading this [https://books.google.com.ar/books?id=v3uiCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA669&lpg=PA669&dq=Sigmund+Freud+1895+Hitler+nightmare&source=bl&ots=RbqjSvgK7p&sig=ACfU3U36F-jcADqNWgPXaxsAIn0_MIX5sQ&hl=es-419&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjmxbK0x4jkAhVaGLkGHdUUB7EQ6AEwA3oECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=Sigmund%20Freud%201895%20Hitler%20nightmare&f=false This] and sources in Spanish such as this [https://www.lanacion.com.ar/opinion/la-pesadilla-de-hitler-nid209311 La Nación]. --[[User:CoryGlee|CoryGlee]] ([[User talk:CoryGlee|talk]]) 23:40, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:Hi, your first piece doesn't make the connection, just suggests it, so that would not be able to be used. The second piece, is an opinion piece, so I'm not sure, considering that I am reading a machine translation, and it's an opinion piece. But we would usually require more scholarly sources, especially for something like this. [[User:Sir Joseph|Sir Joseph]] [[User_talk:Sir Joseph|(talk)]] 23:50, 16 August 2019 (UTC)
:In 1895 Hitler was only 6 years old. So, this is unlikely that anybody would consider committing him at such a young age. This looks like just a piece of fake news. [[User:Ruslik0|Ruslik]]_[[User Talk:Ruslik0|Zero]] 10:09, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Canadian TV talent show "Take a Bow" ==

Wanting info on a Canadian TV show called "Take a Bow" I believe it was in 1965 or 1966. Looking for info on winners, and if video exists. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/24.114.217.29|24.114.217.29]] ([[User talk:24.114.217.29#top|talk]]) 23:36, 16 August 2019 (UTC) 
:We help with how to questions on editing Wikipedia here. You probably should take this to the [[WP:Reference desk|reference desk]]. [[User:John from Idegon|John from Idegon]] ([[User talk:John from Idegon|talk]]) 01:27, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Dutch 20th century musicians ==

This page includes politicians, and does NOT include thousands of professional Dutch musicians.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:20th-century_Dutch_musicians

But, go ahead, like the rest of my wiki work, delete it all. have fun spreading mis-information!
[[User:Basvossen|Basvossen]] ([[User talk:Basvossen|talk]]) 02:11, 17 August 2019 (UTC)Bas
:The article [[Hans Dijkstal]], about a Dutch politician, somehow was placed in two musician categories. I removed those two categories from the article.--[[User:Quisqualis|Quisqualis]] ([[User talk:Quisqualis|talk]]) 02:22, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Writing a Wikipedia article ==

Hello everybody, i am seeking help writing a Wikipedia article for a person that i believe should have recognition here for the work that he has done and continues to do in Africa. How do i go about writing this biography in a manner that does not seem to be promoting him. I have a draft that has already been deleted previously.

--[[User:OLIVIAHNOAH|OLIVIAHNOAH]] ([[User talk:OLIVIAHNOAH|talk]]) 03:07, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

:In Wikipedia, it is not sufficient that you believe he should have recognition here, you need to find independent [[WP:Reliable sources]] in which the subject has been written about at length, and the article should summarise these sources in your own words. Using such references is the only way that you can establish [[WP:Notability|notability in the Wikipedia sense]]. [[User:Dbfirs|Dbfirs]] 07:19, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== want to create a page for actor Rhian Rees ==

How do I do that? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Hallowean|Hallowean]] ([[User talk:Hallowean#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hallowean|contribs]]) 03:12, 17 August 2019 (UTC) 
:You can use the [[WP:Article wizard|article wizard]] to create the page. However, the person must be [[WP:Notability|notable]] enough to be included in the encyclopedia. [[User:LPS and MLP Fan|LPS and MLP Fan]] ([[User talk:LPS and MLP Fan|LittlestPetShop]]) ([[Special:Contributions/LPS and MLP Fan|MyLittlePony]]) 03:22, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Avoiding 3RR for LuLaRoe page ==

Hi Tea friends,

I hope you're well. I have just done two reverts on [[LuLaRoe]] as an IP user has been changing the company's listing from Multi-level Marketing to Pyramid scheme without additional citations. Many of the other companies on the [[List of multi-level marketing companies]] are described as MLM or Direct-selling, it is rare for "Pyramid" to be in the lede even though there is a Ponzi/Pyramid category heading.
I remember the difference between these terms being extensively discussed somewhere, but my concern at the moment is also that I don't want to engage in an edit war.
As they are unregistered, would we still progress to a discussion on the talkpage? What is the best way to proceed?

Thank you for your advice and time! [[User:SunnyBoi|SunnyBoi]] ([[User talk:SunnyBoi|talk]]) 04:48, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
: Hi {{u|SunnyBoi}} [[:WP:HUMAN|IP's are just like any other editor]] and they are going to be expected to engage in [[:WP:DR]] when there are disagreements over article content. At the same time, you wouldn't be considered exempt from [[:WP:3RR]] just because the other person is an IP, unless [[:WP:3RRNO|one of these applies]]. So, you should try and engage the IP in article talk page discussion and see if some sort of consensus can be established. Even if the IP elects not to participate in the discussion, other editors interested in the subject matter might. If through article talk page discussion, a consensus is established to in support of "multi-level marketing", then the IP will be obligated to adhere to it even if they don't agree; if it's established in favor of "pyramid scheme", then the same will apply to you. Ignoring such a consensus is going to be considered [[:WP:DE]] (absent any serious policy/guideline violations which would happen by implementing the consensus) even for an IP account.{{pb}}Now, in this particular case, it might depend on who reverted whom first; if the IP was [[:WP:BOLD]] and made their edit to change things to "pyramid scheme", then you would be perfectly OK in trying to apply [[:WP:BRD]] if you disagree; it would then be up to the IP to establish a consensus for the change. If it was the other way around, the burden would fall upon you to establish the consensus. It looks like the IP has been reverted by another editor; so, this version should probably be considered the [[:WP:STATUSQUO]]. The IP should now try and establish a consensus for their preferred version, which is probably going to require some pretty good sources cited in support since the claim seems quite contentious. If the IP continues to revert as before, then that would be [[:WP:EW]]; you can warn them about this on their user talk page, but if the reverting still continues you can either seek help at (1) [[:WP:RPP]] or (2) [[:WP:AN3]]. -- [[User:Marchjuly|Marchjuly]] ([[User talk:Marchjuly|talk]]) 06:46, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
:Looking a bit closer at this, it seems similar edits were previously made by different IPs; so, perhaps trying to discuss things is not going to very well. The previous edits were reverted by an administrator named {{u|C.Fred}} so maybe he'll watch the article in case the IP comes back again. -- [[User:Marchjuly|Marchjuly]] ([[User talk:Marchjuly|talk]]) 06:52, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Page "Gramophone" is badly needed ==

* EN pedia
** [[Gramophone]] - more or less a redirect (UPDATE: formally a disambiguation page)
** [[Record player]] - redirect
** [[Phonograph]] - messy
* data
** [[d:Q7112808]] - via "[[Record player]]" to "[[Phonograph]]"
** [[d:Q116434]] is subclass of [[d:Q7112808]] - directly to "[[Phonograph]]"
Two data items (one is subclass of the other) point to same page at EN pedia. And EN pedia is the only one lacking a usable page "Gramophone". This is not great. [[User:Taylor 49|Taylor 49]] ([[User talk:Taylor 49|talk]]) 08:36, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

:Hello there! You can [[WP:BOLD|Be Bold]] and improve the articles yourself. Other than that, I don’t really understand what you are saying. Regards, [[User:Willbb234|Willbb234]][[User talk:Willbb234|Talk]] (please {{[[Template:ping|ping]]}} me in replies) 09:01, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

: [[Gramophone]] is a [[WP:disambiguation page|disambiguation page]], not a [[WP:redirect|redirect]]. If you are suggesting that there is a [[WP:primary topic|primary topic]], the place to discuss that would be the talk page of the disambiguation page. - [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 09:52, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

[[File:FardierdeCugnot20050111.jpg|thumb|Cugnot's 1771 ''fardier à vapeur'']]
::{{u|Taylor 49}} has a good point. The relevant link on the [[Gramophone]] disambiguation page is to [[Phonograph]], which covers what used to be called gramophones and are now called record players. I have to click "page down" eight times before I find a picture of anything resembling a modern record player. Using the title "phonograph" when it hasn't been current for sixty years is absurd. And the image at the top of the article should be of a modern device, not one made in 1878. Sensibly, [[automobile]] redirects to [[car]], which has an image of modern cars at the top. If it were titled "road locomotive" and had this image at the top, it would be laughable. [[User:Maproom|Maproom]] ([[User talk:Maproom|talk]]) 10:26, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

::: Thanks for the comments. Apparently this has been discussed several times with contradicting results: [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&page=Gramophone+record] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Phonograph_record#Requested_move_28_September_2017 the "approximate consensus" is very weak] [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Phonograph_record/Archive_2#gramophone_record_2]. I am saying that a consensus about terminology (what "phonograph" and gramophone" are supposed to be) is needed and should be followed for all affected pages on all wikies (EN wikipedia, wikidata, commons). The existing situation is desperate (EN wiki the only one lacking a page about "gramophone", messy terminology with "gramophone" ?? "phonograph" ?? "turntable" ?? "record player". How are "phonogaph" and "gramophone" supposed to relate to each other?
:::* perfect synonyms ?
:::* "gramophone" is a hyponym of "phonograph" ?
:::* "phonograph" and "gramophone" are hyponyms of "device recording or playing sound stored as physical deviations of a groove located on a cylinder or disc"
:::I am proposing following solution:
:::* "phonograph" and "gramophone" are hyponyms of "device recording or playing sound stored as physical deviations of a groove located on a cylinder or disc"
:::* move [[Gramophone]] to [[Gramophone (disambiguation)]] (needs sysop's super-power, I can't "be bold" and do it myself)
:::* move [[Phonograph record]] to [[Gramophone record]] (needs sysop's super-power, I can't "be bold" and do it myself)
:::* create a page "[[Gramophone]]" as a primary topic about "modern" gramophones ie devices playing black "vinyl" discs
:::* reduce page "[[Phonograph]]" to the original invention using cylinders to record and play sound
:::* do something about [[LP record]] (more or less a dupe of [[Gramophone record]]/[[Phonograph record]])
:::Arguments:
:::* all other languages distinguish between "phonograph" and "gramophone"
:::* there are 2 separate items on wikidata (and I would oppose an idea to merge them)
:::* the term "gramophone" is most precise (as opposed to "phonograph" that is the original invention, "turntable" that can be a [[Railway turntable]], "record player" is confusing and can play pretty anything (sound __record__ed on magnetic tape, etc)
:::* the disc with the sound stored should have same name as the device playig it ie "gramophone"
:::* "vinyl" is a bad name since early gramophone records vere not made of [[Polyvinyl chloride]] and even worse, [[Vinyl group|vinyl]] is NOT the same as PVC, thus saying "vinyl" instead of "Polyvinyl chloride" is slang
:::* [[Wikipedia:Article_titles#Deciding_on_an_article_title|Deciding_on_an_article_title: '''Precision Conciseness Consistency''']] - "gramophone" is the best word
:::: see also [[Talk:Phonograph_record#Requested_move_17_August_2019]] -- [[User:Taylor 49|Taylor 49]] ([[User talk:Taylor 49|talk]]) 15:26, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Citing foreign references/sources ==

Hi,

I'm working on writing a Wikipedia page, I've started to collect all of my sources (according to the notability, etc.), and I was wondering if I can use notable sources of articles that are NOT in English.
How can I do that? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Merelmar|Merelmar]] ([[User talk:Merelmar#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Merelmar|contribs]]) 09:45, 17 August 2019 (UTC) 

: You'll find advice at [[WP:Verifiability#Non-English sources]]. --[[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 09:54, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Writing An Article On Pawan Singh National Rifle Assciation ==

Hi,
I am writing an article on pawan Singh. Kindly,can anyone guide me that the coverage links which i have with me do they match the notability criteria. As i have gone through the coverage links, and they are appropriate.
Mentioning below the coverage links:
* https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/shooting/pawan-singh-is-first-indian-to-be-elected-in-issfs-judges-committee/articleshow/66921388.cms
* https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/more-sports/shooting/pawan-singh-becomes-first-indian-shooting-jury-to-get-selected-for-olympics/articleshow/68860992.cms
* http://www.sakaltimes.com/sports/pawan-singh-first-indian-issf-judges-committee-28618
* http://www.punekarnews.in/former-india-shooting-coach-pawan-singh-to-conduct-training-to-create-future-shooting-judges/
* https://nrinews24x7.com/pawan-singh-becomes-first-indian-shooting-jury-to-get-selected-for-tokyo-olympics-2020/
* http://newsonair.nic.in/Main-News-Details.aspx?id=356234
* https://m.dailyhunt.in/news/india/english/news+bharati-epaper-newsbhar/grabbing+talent+on+international+dais+pawan+singh+is+first+indian+to+be+elected+in+issf+s+judges+committee-newsid-103390945
* https://onlinetyari.com/latest-news-articles/pawan-singh-first-indian-to-be-elected-to-i80120.html
* https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/west/pune-based-gurukul-gun-for-glory-determine-to-make-shooting-a-recreational-sport/articleshow/12704704.cms?from=mdr
* http://beta1times.sakalmediagroup.com/sports/pawan-singh-appointed-%E2%80%98competitions-manager%E2%80%99-7852
* https://www.newsbharati.com/Encyc/2018/12/4/Pawan-Singh-ISSF-judge.html
* https://www.hindustantimes.com/pune-news/india-has-chances-of-winning-more-medals-in-2020-tokyo-olympics-says-pawan-singh/story-Al8t0ECaog8STq1hFU8B8J.html
* https://realtime.rediff.com/news/-national-rifle-association-of-india
* https://www.fresherslive.com/current-affairs/articles/pawan-singh-is-the-first-indian-to-be-elected-in-issf-judges-committee-16813
* http://chandigarh.hubshooting.com/search/jui-pawan-singh/1
* https://www.channel1.in/pawan-singh-first-indian-to-be-elected-in-issfs-judges-committee/

Kindly someone have a look, and let me know. Regarding this.--[[User:Arjunsingh5478|Arjunsingh5478]] ([[User talk:Arjunsingh5478|talk]]) 10:14, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== how to add a reference ==

Greetings!

I tried to search for that help topic but found none. I need to put a ref link (the list at the bottom of the page) to the EDIT I put in. I can't seem to edit the reference list. Can anyone help me out on this?

Thank you!

Ray — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Jagganath69|Jagganath69]] ([[User talk:Jagganath69#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jagganath69|contribs]]) 11:03, 17 August 2019 (UTC) 

: See [[Help:Referencing for beginners]]. - [[User:David Biddulph|David Biddulph]] ([[User talk:David Biddulph|talk]]) 11:08, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Is Eno the Emu notable? ==

I was thinking of writing an article about Eno the Emu but found it hard to tell if he was notable.
There seem to be a good number of sources, including some non-local ones:
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/aug/07/eno-the-emu-north-carolina-wanted
https://www.travelandleisure.com/animals/eno-emu-loose-in-north-carolina
https://www.cnn.com/2019/08/01/us/emu-north-carolina-trnd/index.html
And some more detailed local ones:
https://chapelboro.com/town-square/eno-the-emu-eludes-authorities-draws-national-headlines
https://www.cbs17.com/news/eno-the-emu-spotted-in-hillsborough-still-on-the-run/
There doesn't seem to be very clear notability guidelines for Eno the Emu and other people or animals who are known, but not for doing much except existing. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Existence_%E2%89%A0_Notability#Don't_create_an_article_on_a_news_story_covered_in_109_newspapers also seems like it might affect it.
[[User:Mcavoybickford|Mcavoybickford]] ([[User talk:Mcavoybickford|talk]]) 11:41, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
:I'm not sure Eno would be notable. If we were to treat them as if they were a human, [[WP:BLP1E]] would apply - Eno's only notable for a single event, i.e. escaping. So, probably not (sorry Eno!). Others may have other views. [[User:Girth Summit|GirthSummit]][[User talk:Girth Summit| (blether)]] 14:26, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Cursor jumping when copying or cutting text ==

Hi - I realise I'm kind of forum shopping here, but if anyone has any insight into the issue discussed [[Wikipedia:Help_desk#Ctrl+c_/_Ctrl+x_jumping_issue|here]] it might save me a chunk of time experimenting with uninstalling and reinstalling a bunch of scripts. Basically, whenever I copy or cut text when editing anything on EnWiki, my cursor jumps to the top of the page, forcing me to scroll down to find where I was again. It only happens on EnWiki, not on (for example) meta, or in other applications, and [[User:Schazjmd|Schazjmd]] has said they've got the same problem. I suspect it's something to do with a script I've got installed, but I've no idea which one, so unless anyone has any tips I'm going to spend a bit of time uninstalling all my scripts and then reinstalling them one by one to see if I can get to the root of it. Cheers [[User:Girth Summit|GirthSummit]][[User talk:Girth Summit| (blether)]] 12:48, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
:Just an update on this, in case it rings a bell with anyone. Through some experimenting, Schazjmd and I have determined that it's something in preferences that seems to be causing it, rather than a script - he was able to stop it happening by disabling the 'Syntax highlighter', which is odd because it happens to me and I don't use that. The only way I've been able to stop it happening is to switch off the 2010 editing toolbar, which is probably too big a sacrifice. If anyone has any suggestions... [[User:Girth Summit|GirthSummit]][[User talk:Girth Summit| (blether)]] 14:18, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Nesting Infobox Academic in Infobox Officeholder. ==

The article I am having trouble with is [[Marie Smallface Marule]]. I was trying to produce a infobox similar to those on [[Francis Collins]] (scientist) and [[Robert C. Robbins]] (medical). When I try to nest/embed the academic infobox, I run into issues. Thank you! [[User:Thsmi002|Thsmi002]] ([[User talk:Thsmi002|talk]]) 14:12, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
:[[User:Thsmi002|Thsmi002]] there doesn't appear to be a set standard in implementing that. I tried the other parameter I knew and it worked. There may be templates in which neither of these work, who knows? [[User:Usedtobecool|Usedtobecool]] [[User talk:Usedtobecool|✉]] [[Special:Contributions/Usedtobecool|✨]] 14:39, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
::{{Yo|Usedtobecool}}, thank you! I forgot about the "child" parameter. [[User:Thsmi002|Thsmi002]] ([[User talk:Thsmi002|talk]]) 14:43, 17 August 2019 (UTC)

== Invitation to Teahouse ==

How can i send new users invitation of teahouse when they creat an account? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Jayson78740732156|Jayson78740732156]] ([[User talk:Jayson78740732156#top|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jayson78740732156|contribs]]) 

== Is Mount Major, Victoria, Australia notable? ==

I recently visited Mount Major, Victoria, Australia, which is near Dookie, Victoria. I was surprised to find there was no article about it on wikipedia (there is an article on a different Mount Major in the U.S.A.)

I would like to write a short article about it, but I'm not sure whether it's notable enough. I can't find much information about it, apart from brief mentions of the geology and location. e.g. http://greatershepparton.com.au/assets/files/documents/community/recreation/Walk_in_Greater_Shepparton_guide_-_final_version_May_2013.PDF

What's the verdict? Is it worth an article?

Soil type

2019-08-17T14:29:22Z

Explodingbrain:

{{merge to|Soil classification|date=December 2018}}
A '''soil type''' is a taxonomic unit in [[soil science]]. All soils that share a certain set of well-defined properties form a distinctive soil type.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Essentials of soil science|author=W.E.H. Blum, P. Schad, S. Nortcliff|year = 2018|publisher = Borntraeger Science Publishers, Stuttgart}}</ref> Soil type is a technical term of [[soil classification]], the science that deals with the systematic categorization of soils. Every soil of the world belongs to a certain soil type. Soil type is an abstract term. In nature, you will not find soil types. You will find soils that belong to a certain soil type.

In hierarchical soil classification systems, soil types mostly belong to the higher or intermediate level. A soil type can normally be subdivided into subtypes, and in many systems several soil types can be combined to entities of higher category. However, in the first classification system of the United States (Whitney, 1909)<ref>{{Cite book|title = Soils of the United States|author=M. Whitney|year = 1909|publisher = US Dept. Agric. Bur. Soil Bull. 55. Washington, D.C.}}</ref>, the soil type was the lowest level and the mapping unit.

For the definition of soil types, some systems use primarily such characteristics that are the result of soil-forming processes ([[pedogenesis]]). An example is the German soil systematics<ref>{{Cite book|title = Bodenkundliche Kartieranleitung, 5. Auflage|author=Ad-hoc-AG Boden|year = 2005|publisher = Schweizerbart, Stuttgart}}</ref>. Other systems combine characteristics resulting from soil-forming processes and characteristics inherited from the parent material. Examples are the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]]<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.fao.org/3/i3794en/I3794en.pdf|title = World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, Update 2015|author=IUSS Working Group WRB|year = 2015|publisher = World Soil Resources Reports 106, FAO, Rome}}</ref> (WRB) and the [[USDA soil taxonomy]]<ref name=ST>[https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/class/?cid=nrcs142p2_053580 Keys to Soil Taxonomy 2014]</ref>. Other systems do not ask whether the properties are the result of soil formation or not. An example is the [[Australian Soil Classification]]<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.clw.csiro.au/aclep/asc_re_on_line_V2/soilhome.htm|title = Australian Soil Classification, second edition (as Online Interactive Key)|author=R.F. Isbell and the National Committee on Soil and Terrain|year = 2016|publisher = CSIRO}}</ref>.

A convenient way to define a soil type is referring to [[soil horizon]]s. However, this is not always possible because some very initial soils may not even have a clear development of horizons. For other soils, it may be more convenient to define the soil type just referring to some properties common to the whole soil profile. For example, WRB defines the [[Arenosol]]s by their sand content. Many soils are more or less strongly influenced by human activities. This is reflected by the definition of many soil types in various classification systems.

Because soil type is a very general and widely used term, many soil classification systems do not use it for their definitions. The USDA soil taxonomy has six hierarchical levels that are named order, suborder, great group, subgroup, family, and series. The WRB calls the first level Reference Soil Group. The second level in WRB is constructed by adding qualifiers, and for the result (the Reference Soil Group plus the qualifiers), no taxonomic term is used.

==See also==
*[[:Category:Types of soil]]

==References==
{{reflist|45em}}

== External links ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041205053402/http://clic.cses.vt.edu/icomanth/02-AS_Classification.pdf Soil classification systems]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041012030817/http://www.itc.nl/~rossiter/research/rsrch_ss_class.html A Compendium of On-Line Soil Survey Information Soil Classification for Soil Survey]

{{soil science topics}}

[[Category:Pedology|Type, soil]]
[[Category:Types of soil| ]]
[[Category:Horticulture and gardening]]

[[es:Tipos de suelo]]
[[hi:मिट्टी के प्रकार]]

Salinity in Australia

2019-08-17T14:12:52Z

Explodingbrain: changed wording a bit and added a reference.

[[Image:Dumbleyung Lake.jpg|thumb|right|Areas near [[Dumbleyung Lake]] have become unsuitable for grazing due to increased salinity]]

[[Soil salinity]] and [[dryland salinity]] are two problems degrading the [[environment of Australia]]. Salinity is a concern in most states, but especially in the south-west of [[Western Australia]].<ref name="monwd">[http://www.science.org.au/nova/032/032key.htm Monitoring the white death – soil salinity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081224111521/http://www.science.org.au/nova/032/032key.htm |date=2008-12-24 }}. Australian Academy of Science.</ref>

The [[Eastern Mallee]] and the [[Western Mallee]] of [[Western Australia]] are areas that are prone to salinity with little remedial action being undertaken to rectify the problem. Lands surrounding [[Lake Bryde-East Lake Bryde]] and [[Dumbleyung Lake]] have also been affected.

In the [[Murray River]] valley [[irrigation]] has caused salinity problems. Land surrounding the town of [[Werrimull, Victoria|Werrimull]] in the northwest of Victoria have been affected by salinity due to [[Land clearing in Australia|land clearing]].

==Process==
The soil in Australia naturally contains salt, having accumulated over thousands of years. This salt may come from prevailing winds carrying ocean salt, the evaporation of inland seas, and from weathered parent rocks.<ref name="monwd"/> Rainfall absorbs this salt on the surface, and carries it down into the subsoil where it is stored in unsaturated soil profiles, until it is once again mobilised by ground water and rising [[water table]]s.<ref>Bell, David (1999). [http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/BT96110.htm Australian Trees for the Rehabilitation of Waterlogged and Salinity Damaged Landscapes]. ''[[Australian Journal of Botany]]'', '''47''': 697–716.</ref> When this ground water comes closer to the surface, this salt is also brought up. As the water eventually evaporates, it leaves behind all this concentrated salt, resulting in soil salinity.
This can be caused by an imbalance in the [[hydrological cycle]], or by irrigation.

Prior to British settlement in 1788, [[groundwater]] levels were in [[Hydrostatic equilibrium|equilibrium]]. Seasonal recharge, and year-round utilisation of ground water by deep rooted native vegetation resulted in ground water levels remaining static.<ref>C.J. Clarke, R.J. George, R.W. Bell, T.J. Hatton (January 2002). [http://www.publish.csiro.au/paper/SR01028.htm Dryland salinity in south-western Australia: its origins, remedies, and future research directions], ''Australian Journal of Soil Research'', '''40'''(1): 93–113.</ref>
[[Land clearing in Australia]] has resulted in a loss of this native vegetation, replaced largely by [[agriculture in Australia|agriculture]] and [[pasture]] crops. These are often [[annual plants]] and shallow rooted, and thus, unable to intercept, and adequately absorb stored, and rising ground water. This creates an imbalance in the hydrological cycle, and results in [[dryland salinity]].
Salinity is classified as a dissolved salt content of a substance like soil or water. Salinity can prevent crops and other vegetation from growing leaving land empty.

[[Image:Wheatbelt Versalzungsschaden.JPG|thumb|right|Salinity damage in the wheatbelt region of Western Australia near [[Babakin, Western Australia|Babakin]].]]

[[Irrigation in Australia|Irrigation]] is also a contributor to salinity. Firstly, the addition of irrigation acts to simulate rainfall, and if not applied at appropriate levels, can result in the recharge of water tables, and promotes rises in the water table.<ref>Pels, S. 1978. Waterlogging and Salinization in Irrigated Semi-arid Regions of NSW. ''Search'' Volume 9, pp 273-276.</ref>{{citation needed|reason=I failed to find this source. How to find it?|date=June 2015}}
Secondly, irrigation water itself can contain salts, which are deposited into the soil with its use. This level of salt can range from 0.5 - 2 tonne per hectare per year, and can greatly increase natural salt levels.<ref>{{Citation | author = ILRI | title = Effectiveness and Social/Environmental Impacts of Irrigation Projects: a Review | series = In: Annual Report 1988 of the International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI) | year = 1989 | pages = 18–34 | location = Wageningen, The Netherlands | url = http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/irreff.pdf }}</ref>

==Effects and impacts==
Over time this process has caused the thin top-soil layers to become irreversibly salty, and no longer suited for agriculture. By 1999 an estimated 2.5 million hectares of land had become salinised since the introduction of European farming methods.<ref name=ABCSlab99>{{cite news | url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/slab/salinity/default.htm | publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | year=1999 | title=Salinity - our silent disaster | first=Justin | last=Murphy | accessdate=29 August 2010 }}</ref>

Currently, around 5.7 million hectares of land is classed as having 'high potential' for salinisation, which that number expected to rise to 17 million hectares by 2050.<ref name=Salinity>[http://www.environment.gov.au/land/pressures/salinity/index.html Salinity]. Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities.</ref>

High soil salt levels have dramatic impact on plant root zones, in both native vegetation as well as agricultural and pasture crops, natural wetlands and surrounding water ways. An increase in salt can decrease the ability of plants to absorb water through their roots via [[osmosis]], cause leaf burn and [[necrosis]] through increased levels of [[sodium]] and [[chloride]], and create nutrient and [[ion]]ic imbalances, resulting in poor growth, and death.<ref name="Dryland salinity – causes and impacts">[http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0006/309381/Dryland-salinity-causes-and-impacts.pdf] Department of Primary Industry, NSW government</ref> Salinity can also adversely affect infrastructure such as roads and buildings, and underground pipes and cables through [[oxidation]].<ref name=Salinity />

''[[Muehlenbeckia horrida subsp. abdita]]'', commonly known as the Remote Thorny Lignum, is a critically endangered species due to its intolerance to salinity.

===Impacts by state===

====New South Wales====
Currently 5% of [[New South Wales]] is affected by dry land salinity, and around 50% is under threat.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood">[http://www.abc.net.au/learn/silentflood/stats.htm#wa] ABC.</ref>
15% of current irrigated land is impacted, and up to 30% is currently under threat.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood" />
The main regions currently affected, and at high risk, are The Murrumbidgee River catchment near Griffith, and Jemalong River Catchment near Forbes, as well as the Murray River irrigation area near Deniliquin.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood" />

====Victoria====
The current levels of salinity in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] are relatively small, with the main impact expected to occur in high risk areas in the coming years.
These high risk areas include the Campaspe, Loddon, Corangamite, Glenelg-Hopkins, Goulburn-Broken catchments, and Wimmera and Mallee regions.<ref name="Four Corners" >[http://www.abc.net.au/4corners/water/map/vic.htm].</ref>
The current cost to Victoria is estimated at $50million per year. This is expected to rise significantly with the impacts on agricultural land, wetlands and infrastructure in high risk areas to increase, mainly in part to an anticipated 10 fold increase in salt levels by 2050.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood" />

====Western Australia====
[[Western Australia]] contains the majority of land affected by salinity in Australia, with around 70%.
Over 2 million hectares are currently affected, and around 4 million hectares of land are currently listed as high risk, and 50% of divertible water is already considered overly saline.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood" />
Around 450 plant species are endemic to areas that are at high risk of salinisation<ref>George R, Short R, Short B & Pinjarra, 2006. Estimating the extent of salinity. Western Australian Department of Agriculture and Food.[https://archive.is/20120801220230/http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/PC_92353.html?s=0]</ref>
75% of water bird species in decline, a 75% reduction in sealed road life, and $400million in lost profits.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood"/>

====South Australia====
Salinity in [[South Australia]] is a problem in all principal agricultural areas, with 370000 hectares of land and wetlands impacted. At current rates, this is expected to increase by 60% by 2050.<ref name="Salinity - Overview - South Australia">{{cite web |url=http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/salinity/overview/sa.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-09-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111121120500/http://www.anra.gov.au/topics/salinity/overview/sa.html |archivedate=2011-11-21 |df= }} Australian Natural Resources Atlas, Department of Sustainabililty, Environment, Water, Population and Communities.</ref>
It is expected to cost the state around $47million per year in lost agricultural profit, and is expected to taint more than 20% of ground water to levels above those safe for human consumption.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood" />

====Tasmania====
[[Tasmania]] is relatively unaffected by salinity, with around 1% of agricultural land, and 8% of farm land adversely affected by salt, resulting in a current cost to the state of around $5million per year, rising to around $13million by 2050. The majority of this salinity is irrigation based.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood" />

====Queensland====
[[Queensland]] is the least affected state of Australia, due to its unique seasonal rainfall. Around 15000 hectares are currently affected, with 3.1million hectares considered highrisk.<ref name="Salinity, Australia's Silent Flood" />
At current rates however, salinity is predicted to have moderate scale impacts on land and infrastructure by 2050, with 12,000 km of roads, 1500 km of rail lines, and around 2.8million hectares of agricultural land, remnant vegetation, and wetlands and streams negatively affected<ref>Brough, M. 2007. Salinity. Department of Natural Resources and Water, Queensland State Government. {{cite web |url=http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/register/p02256ap.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-09-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110314100024/http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/register/p02256ap.pdf |archivedate=2011-03-14 |df= }}</ref>

==Impact reduction and management==

===Government initiatives===
The Australian governments have taken an integrated approach to target different scales of management. The approach is to manage the salinity issue at national, regional and state levels, down to local and individual farmers. Since 1983 the Australian governments have actioned the National Soil Conservation Program, National [[Landcare Australia|Landcare]] Program, [[Natural Heritage Trust]], National Action Plan for Salinity and Water and Caring for our Country.

The National Landcare Program focused on improving resource management and practices at the farm and local level.<ref>[http://svc009.wic050p.server-web.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/DAFF-Decade-NLP-REVIEW-2003.pdf National Landcare Program Review] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120424124158/http://svc009.wic050p.server-web.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/DAFF-Decade-NLP-REVIEW-2003.pdf |date=2012-04-24 }} 2003. Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry.</ref> The National Dryland Salinity Program (1993 to 2004), funded a broad range of research and development from which to roll out further government programs.<ref>Van Bueren, M., and Price, R.J., 2004, [http://lwa.gov.au/files/products/national-dryland-salinity-program/px040647/px040647.pdf Breaking Ground — Key Findings from 10 Years of Australia’s National Dryland Salinity Program] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110602120009/http://lwa.gov.au/files/products/national-dryland-salinity-program/px040647/px040647.pdf |date=2011-06-02 }}. Land & Water Australia, Canberra.</ref>

The National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality (NAPSWQ), implemented together with the [[Natural Heritage Trust]] (NHT) program, ran from 2000 to 2008. The NAPSWQ was adopted through an intergovernmental agreement between Australian commonwealth, state and territory governments. The plan aimed to help support community action and land managers in adversely affected catchments, and was rolled out by regional Natural Resource Management (NRM) organisations. The governments committed $1.4 billion over seven years to tackle the salinity problem. The plan involved input and participation from government, community, local business and land managers. The NAPSWQ focused on 21 regions across Australia that were deemed; through hazard assessments and [[dryland salinity]] risk, to be most affected by salinity and water problems.<ref>Australian Government 2008 [http://www.napswq.gov.au/napswq/index.html What is the National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110406083422/http://www.napswq.gov.au/napswq/index.html |date=2011-04-06 }}</ref> The goal of the NAPSWQ was to motivate and enable regional communities in preventing, stabilising and reversing trends in salinity; improve water quality and secure reliable allocations for both human, industrial and environment use.<ref name="Sinclair">Sinclair Knight Merz 2006 [http://www.nrm.gov.au/publications/books/pubs/evaluation-salinity.pdf Evaluation of salinity outcomes of regional investment] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110601225739/http://www.nrm.gov.au/publications/books/pubs/evaluation-salinity.pdf |date=2011-06-01 }}. Report to the Department of the Environment and Heritage and Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry April 2006.</ref> The overarching objectives of the NHT were biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of natural resources, community capacity building and institutional change.<ref name="Sinclair" />
The final report for the NAPSWQ states that ‘With few exceptions the massive efforts involved in delivering NAPSWQ and NHT programs have at best halted the degradation of these resources. This has reinforced the view of the [[State of the Environment|State of Environment]] (SoE) Report that concluded that the condition of these resources continues to decline despite the best efforts of the community and government'.<ref>State Natural Resource Management Office 2010 [http://www.nrm.wa.gov.au/nrm-in-wa/key-publications/national-action-plan.aspx National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality and Natural Heritage Trust program 2003–2009 Final Report]. Prepared for Western Australian State Government March 2010 p.1</ref>

In 2008 the initiative Caring for our Country was started to replace the National Action Plan, which had ceased.<ref>[http://www.napswq.gov.au/ National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060424155459/http://www.napswq.gov.au/ |date=2006-04-24 }}. Retrieved on 19 September 2011</ref> This Australian Government initiative aims to build on the work done under the NAPSWQ,<ref>[http://www.nrm.gov.au/me/index.html Australian Government 2011 Natural Resource Management - Monitoring, evaluation, reporting and improvement for Caring for our Country] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111128100438/http://www.nrm.gov.au/me/index.html |date=2011-11-28 }}.</ref> focusing on a more targeted asset-based approach,<ref>Alexander, Jennifer; Roberts, Anna and Pannell, David J. 2010 [http://search.informit.com.au/fullText;dn=201005363;res=APAFT Victoria catchment management approaches to salinity: learning from the National Action Plan experience]. Australasian Journal of Environmental Management, 17(1): 45-52.</ref> and aims to build attitudes of environmental stewardship.

==== Case study examples ====
Salinity management in the Murray-Darling Basin has included investment in salt interception schemes, rehabilitation of irrigation areas, and programs to educate landholders and irrigators on better practices<ref>Government of South Australia 2009 Salinity and water quality - Government of South Australia. Retrieved from:
http://www.sa.gov.au/subject/Water%2c+energy+and+environment/Water/River+Murray/Allocations+and+water+information/Salinity+and+water+quality
</ref>

In the South-west rivers region of Western Australia, salinity impacts on potable and irrigation water supplies, and the areas unique biodiversity. Outcomes of NRM programs in Western Australia include re-vegetation, fencing, soil treatment, drainage works, treatment for soil erosion, monitoring programs, support of community projects, training, conservation agreements and a Strategic Tree Farming project.<ref>State Natural Resource Management Office 2010 National Action Plan for Salinity andWater Quality and Natural HeritageTrust program 2003–2009 Final Report. Prepared for Western Australian State Government March 2010. Retrieved from: http://www.nrm.wa.gov.au/nrm-in-wa/key-publications/national-action-plan.aspx</ref>

Tasmania faces different salinity management issues due to its unique topography. Under the [http://www.nrm.gov.au/ Caring for our Country] Project Tasmania has set up demonstration farm sites which test management strategies of surface and sub-surface drainage, and trees planting to intercept water, and salt tolerant plant species.<ref>Australian Government Land and Coasts 2010 Natural Resource Management - North Tasmania NRM region featured project: Finding salinity solutions in Tasmania
{{cite web |url=http://www.nrm.gov.au/projects/tas/ntht/2006-04.html |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-09-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110602164830/http://www.nrm.gov.au/projects/tas/ntht/2006-04.html |archivedate=2011-06-02 |df= }}</ref>

===Best management practice===
There is no clear agreement about what constitutes best management practice for salinity in Australia. While there are a range of techniques and strategies available, success is often varied from one context to the next; there is no simple solution. Location, time frame and personal circumstances may all influence the effectiveness of particular options.<ref name="CSIRO">CSIRO. (2011). Salinity – Frequently asked questions. Retrieved from: http://www.clw.csiro.au/issues/salinity/faq.html</ref><ref name="Measham">Measham, T.G., Kelly, G.J. & Smith, F.P. (2007). Best management practice for complex problems: a case study of defining BMP for dryland salinity. Geographical Research, 45(3), p. 262-272.</ref>

Possible management strategies include:<ref name="CSIRO" /><ref name="Measham" /><ref>Pannell, D.J. & Ewing, M.A. (2006). Managing secondary dryland salinity: Options and challenges. Agricultural Water Management,80(1-3), p. 41-56.</ref>
*The use of salt-tolerant plants, such as:
**''[[Atriplex amnicola]]''
**Saltgrow - a hybrid gum tree being utilized within Australia to try to reverse damage within affected high-salinity areas.<ref name=NAFI>{{cite web | url=http://www.nafi.com.au/news/view.php3?id=187 | title=This Little Tree Can Help Save the Murray | first=Sean | last=Fewster | publisher=National Association of Forest Industries | date=5 February 2002 | accessdate=29 August 2010 }}</ref> The tree has been highly successful, and has been attributed to be able to completely remove salinity within damaged areas and allowed new grasses and shrubs that are not salt resistant, to grow.
*The use of perennial crops and pastures
*Engineering responses including deep drainage and pumping (to lower groundwater)
*Reverse banks and interceptor banks (to divert surface water)
*Revegetation with native species
*Establishing trees
*Preventing further clearing in vulnerable areas

A number of organisations are seeking ways to reduce the impact of salinity on Australian agriculture, including the Cooperative Research Centre for Plant-Based Management of Dryland Salinity.<ref name=DAFWA>{{cite web | url=http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/PC_92418.html | title=Salinity in Western Australia | publisher=[[Department of Agriculture and Food (Western Australia)]] | date=February 2009 | accessdate=29 August 2010 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://archive.is/20121127020441/http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/PC_92418.html | archivedate=27 November 2012 | df= }}</ref> [[Greening Australia]] and [[Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics]] have also implemented projects to alleviate salinity in Australia.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.abc.net.au/science/articles/2002/09/19/674726.htm | first=Maryke | last=Steffens | title=Native plants get a grip | date=19 September 2002 | publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] | accessdate=29 August 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.agribusiness-australia.com.au/research/200910/the-australian-centre-for-plant-functional-genomics/ | title=The Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics | date=20 October 2009 | publisher=''Agribusiness Australia'' | accessdate=29 August 2010 | deadurl=yes | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219235534/http://www.agribusiness-australia.com.au/research/200910/the-australian-centre-for-plant-functional-genomics/ | archivedate=19 February 2011 | df= }}</ref>

===Community-based management strategies===
Community-based approaches have been a key feature of many regional salinity management programs in Australia. This is in response to various government initiatives, notably the National [[Landcare Australia|Landcare]] Program (1989), [[Natural Heritage Trust]] (1997) and the National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality (2000).<ref name="Kingwell">Kingwell, R., John, M. & Robertson, M. (2008). A review of a community-based approach to combating land degradation: dryland salinity management in Australia. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 10(6), p. 899-912.</ref>
This approach provides the social platform required in many cases for the successful adoption of salinity management practices. Often lacking however, is the presence of scientific skills and detailed knowledge needed to develop viable technical and economic salinity management options.<ref name="Kingwell" /> It is also suggested that community-based approaches may reinforce existing power structures, disadvantaging those who are already marginalised when making decisions about salinity management.<ref>Robertson, M.J., Measham, T.G., Batchelor, G., George, R., Kingwell, R. & Hosking, K. (2009). Effectiveness of a publicly funded demonstration program to promote management of dryland salinity. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(10), p. 3023-3030.</ref>

Below are some examples of community-based programs currently operating in Australia and their contributions to salinity management.

====Landcare====
[[Landcare Australia|Landcare]] groups involve community members and landowners working together in a voluntary capacity to improve land management practices.<ref>Cary, J. & Webb, T. (2001). Landcare in Australia: Community participation and land management. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 56(4), p. 274-279.</ref> In relation to the management of salinity, these groups have been effective in: raising awareness and educating the community about dryland salinity; allowing local knowledge and information to be shared in order to develop suitable management plans; developing skills, building capacity and empowering communities to address salinity issues.<ref name="Kingwell" />

====Saltwatch====
Established in Victoria in 1987, Saltwatch is an ongoing community- and school-based program focused on monitoring salinity levels in Australian waterways. Students, teachers and community members are involved in collecting water samples from their local area, conducting salinity tests and recording this data. It is an effective educational tool that provides opportunities for partnerships to be developed between government agencies and the wider community, however it is not necessarily linked directly to the implementation of salinity management strategies.<ref>Department of Sustainability and Environment, State of Victoria. (2011). [http://www.dse.vic.gov.au/land-management/land/salinity/saltwatch Saltwatch].</ref><ref>Pfueller, S., Innes-Wardell, I., Skondras, H., Marshall, D. & Kruger, T. (1997). An Evaluation of Saltwatch: A school and community action research environmental education project. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 13(1997), p. 61-68.</ref>

==Climate change and its impact on salinity==
There are mixed predictions in relation to [[Climate change in Australia|climate change]]’s effect on salinity in Australia. Climate change could potentially ameliorate salinity in Australia in some circumstances, but in others it may have detrimental effects. It is predicted that in some instances climate change will result in the reduction in annual rainfall leading to a drier and warmer climate, which will ultimately reduce salinity.<ref>{{Cite conference| pages = 57–61| last = Howden| first = M.| title = Climate variability and climate change: challenges and opportunities for farming an even more sunburnt country| booktitle = Proceedings of the National Drought Forum, Brisbane| date = 2003}}</ref> Conversely climate changes impact on the salt concentration in water bodies is expected to be unfavourable.

Where there is a reduction in rainfall it is expected that salinity will be reduced. This will occur as a result of the water table being recharged less often, reducing the chance of the water table transporting underground salts to the surface of the land.<ref name="mal"/> Climate change may also result in the offsetting of rainfall into different seasons, resulting in larger down pours and extreme weather events in some locations within Australia. In these instances as evaporation will not occur at a faster pace than rainfall, it is likely to result in excessive additions to aquifers, which is also known as deep drainage.<ref name="sensp">Van Ittersum, M. K., Howden S. M. and Asseng S., 2003. Sensitivity of productivity and deep drainage of wheat cropping systems in a Mediterranean environment to changes inCO2, temperature and precipitation. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 97: 255–73</ref> This is an issue as dryland salinity is onset by additional deep drainage. In Australia this will be most evident in South Australia, Victoria and the lower half of Western Australia.<ref name="mal"/> However these changes are expected to be minimal as the water table may already be reduced from excessive periods of drought.<ref name="sensp"/>

On the other hand, the reduction of water in streams, rivers, water bodies and the like is likely to result in an increase of salt concentration in these water bodies. This will be particularly evident in groundwater flow systems of different catchments.<ref name="mal">Campbell, A. 2008. Managing Australian Landscapes in a Changing Climate: A climate change primer for regional Natural Resource Management bodies. Report to the Department of Climate Change, Canberra, Australia.</ref> Austin ''et al.'' of CSIRO have predicted that water in the Murrumbidgee will drop by up to approximately 48% by 2070 which will result in salt yields on the surface of the land falling by approximately 30%, however the stream salinity concentrations are predicted to increase by 11%.<ref>Austin, Jenet, Lu Zhang, Roger Jones, Paul Durack, [[Warrick Dawes]] and Peter Hairsine (2006) Implications of Climate Change for Natural Resource Management: an assessment of the impact of climate change on catchment salt and water balances in the Murray-Darling Basin. Report to the Australian Greenhouse Office, Canberra.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Conservation in Australia]]
*[[Fauna of Australia]]
*[[Geography of Australia]]
*[[Salinity control]]
* [[Agriculture in Australia]]
* [[Irrigation in Australia]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Jared Diamond]], ''[[Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed]]'', [[Penguin Books]], 2005 and 2011 ({{ISBN|9780241958681}}). See chapter 13 entitled « "Mining" Australia » (pages 378-416).

==External links==
*[http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/e6aff66c68ced997ca256dea000539d6!OpenDocument Australian Bureau of Statistics 2004 Year book]
*[http://www1.crcsalinity.com/ Cooperative Research Centre for Plant-Based Management of Dryland Salinity]
*[http://dpannell.fnas.uwa.edu.au/dppubnrm.htm David Pannell's publications of economic, social and policy aspects of dryland salinity]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041120202831/http://www.deh.gov.au/land/pressures/salinity/ Department of the Environment and Heritage]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041202173548/http://www.ndsp.gov.au/ National Dryland Salinity Program]

{{Portal bar|Australia|Environment}}

[[Category:Soil science]]
[[Category:Agriculture in Australia]]
[[Category:Environmental issues in Australia]]

Fertilizer

2018-03-21T05:28:38Z

Explodingbrain: /* Chemicals that affect nitrogen uptake */ added reference for nitrification inhibitors.

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
[[File:Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg|thumb|A large, modern fertilizer spreader]]
[[File:Lite-trac Spreader.jpg|thumb|A [[Lite-Trac]] Agri-Spread [[Lime (material)|lime]] and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show]]

A '''fertilizer''' ([[American English]]) or '''fertiliser''' ([[British English]]; [[American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization)|see spelling differences]]) is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than [[Liming (soil)|liming materials]]) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more [[plant nutrition|plant nutrients]] essential to the growth of [[plant]]s.

==Mechanism==
[[File:Reuse of urine demonstration - fertilised and not fertilised tomato plant experiment (3617543234).jpg|thumb|Six tomato plants grown with and without nitrate fertilizer on nutrient-poor sand/clay soil. One of the plants in the nutrient-poor soil has died.]]
Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration. This article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect.
Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:<ref name=Ull/>
* three main macronutrients:
** [[Nitrogen]] (N): leaf growth;
** [[Phosphorus]] (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit;
** [[Potassium]] (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants, promotion of flowering and fruiting;
* three secondary macronutrients: [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S);
* micronutrients: [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilisation|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn), [[boron]] (B), and of occasional significance there are [[silicon]] (Si), [[cobalt]] (Co), and [[vanadium]] (V) plus rare mineral catalysts.

The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead [[chemical compound|compounds]] containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers. The macro-nutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a [[dry matter]] (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in [[protein]]s, [[DNA]] and other components (e.g., [[chlorophyll]]). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably [[legume]]s) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by converting it to [[ammonia]]. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids.

Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of [[Parts-per notation|parts-per-million]] (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.asp|title = AESL Plant Analysis Handbook – Nutrient Content of Plant|publisher = Aesl.ces.uga.edu|date = |access-date = 11 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author1=H.A. Mills |author2=J.B. Jones Jr. |year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|isbn=1-878148-05-2}}</ref> These elements are often present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plant's metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts (enzymes) their impact far exceeds their weight percentage.

==Classification==
Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient (e.g., K, P, or N), in which case they are classified as "straight fertilizers." "Multinutrient fertilizers" (or "complex fertilizers") provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic (the topic of most of this article) versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except [[ureas]]. Organic fertilizers are usually (recycled) plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture.<ref>J. Benton Jones, Jr. "Inorganic Chemical
Fertilisers and Their Properties" in ''Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual'', Second Edition. CRC Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-4398-1609-7}}. eBook {{ISBN|978-1-4398-1610-3}}.</ref>

===Single nutrient ("straight") fertilizers===
The main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. [[Ammonium nitrate]] (NH4NO3) is also widely used. [[Urea]] is another popular source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate, respectively. A few percent of the nitrogen fertilizer market (4% in 2007)<ref name=ETE>{{cite book |last=Smil |first=Vaclav |title= Enriching the Earth |publisher= [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |page=135 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=G9FljcEASycC&pg=PA135 |isbn=9780262693134 |year=2004 }}</ref> has been met by [[calcium ammonium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2•NH4NO3•10H2O).

The main straight phosphate fertilizers are the [[superphosphate]]s. "Single superphosphate" (SSP) consists of 14–18% P2O5, again in the form of Ca(H2PO4)2, but also [[phosphogypsum]] (CaSO4 · 2 H2O). [[Triple superphosphate]] (TSP) typically consists of 44-48% of P2O5 and no gypsum. A mixture of single superphosphate and triple superphosphate is called double superphosphate. More than 90% of a typical superphosphate fertilizer is water-soluble.

===Multinutrient fertilizers===
These fertilizers are the most common. They consist of two or more nutrient components.

====Binary (NP, NK, PK) fertilizers====
Major two-component fertilizers provide both nitrogen and phosphorus to the plants. These are called NP fertilizers. The main NP fertilizers are [[monoammonium phosphate]] (MAP) and [[diammonium phosphate]] (DAP). The active ingredient in MAP is NH4H2PO4. The active ingredient in DAP is (NH4)2HPO4. About 85% of MAP and DAP fertilizers are soluble in water.

====NPK fertilizers====
{{Main article|Labeling of fertilizer}}
NPK fertilizers are three-component fertilizers providing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

[[NPK rating]] is a rating system describing the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in a fertilizer. NPK ratings consist of three numbers separated by dashes (e.g., 10-10-10 or 16-4-8) describing the chemical content of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |title= Summary of State Fertilizer Laws |url=http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dailys/03/dec03/121503/02N-0276_emc-000107-02.pdf |publisher= EPA |accessdate= 14 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Label Requirements of specialty and other bagged fertilizers |url= http://www.michigan.gov/mdard/0,4610,7-125-1569_16993_19405-49343--,00.html |publisher= Michigan Department of Agriculture and Rural Development |accessdate= 14 March 2013}}</ref> The first number represents the percentage of nitrogen in the product; the second number, P2O5; the third, K2O. Fertilizers do not actually contain P2O5 or K2O, but the system is a conventional shorthand for the amount of the phosphorus (P) or potassium (K) in a fertilizer. A {{convert|50|lb|adj=on}} bag of fertilizer labeled 16-4-8 contains {{cvt|8|lb}} of nitrogen (16% of the 50 pounds), an amount of phosphorus equivalent to that in 2 pounds of P2O5 (4% of 50 pounds), and 4 pounds of K2O (8% of 50 pounds). Most fertilizers are labeled according to this N-P-K convention, although Australian convention, following an N-P-K-S system, adds a fourth number for sulfur, and uses elemental values for all values including P and K.<ref>{{cite web|title=National Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description & Labelling |url=http://www.fertilizer.org.au/files/pdf/regulation/National%20Code%20of%20Practice%20for%20Fertilizer%20Description%20&%20Labelling%20March%2011%202011.pdf |publisher=Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry |accessdate=14 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228200433/http://www.fertilizer.org.au/files/pdf/regulation/National%20Code%20of%20Practice%20for%20Fertilizer%20Description%20%26%20Labelling%20March%2011%202011.pdf |archivedate=28 February 2015 |df= }}</ref>

===Micronutrients===
The main micronutrients are molybdenum, zinc, and copper. These elements are provided as water-soluble salts. Iron presents special problems because it converts to insoluble (bio-unavailable) compounds at moderate soil pH and phosphate concentrations. For this reason, iron is often administered as a [[Chelation|chelate complex]], e.g., the [[Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid|EDTA]] derivative. The micronutrient needs depend on the plant. For example, [[sugar beet]]s appear to require [[boron]], and [[legume]]s require [[cobalt]].<ref name=Ullmann1>Heinrich W. Scherer. "Fertilizers" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry''. 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a10_323.pub3}}</ref>

==Production==

===Nitrogen fertilizers===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px;"
|+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf '' Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options'', Table 3.3]. Retrieved 29 June 2009. United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]].</ref>
|-
! Country
! Total N use
(Mt pa)
! Amt. used for feed/pasture
(Mt pa)
|-
| China
| 18.7
| 3.0
|-
| India
| 11.9
| N/A<ref>http://fert.nic.in/page/production-inputs</ref>
|-
| U.S.
| 9.1
| 4.7
|-
| France
| 2.5
| 1.3
|-
| Germany
| 2.0
| 1.2
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| 1.7
| 0.7
|-
| Canada
| 1.6
| 0.9
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| 1.5
| 0.3
|-
| UK
| 1.3
| 0.9
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| 1.3
| 0.3
|-
| Spain
| 1.2
| 0.5
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| 0.4
| 0.1
|}
Nitrogen fertilizers are made from [[ammonia]] (NH3), which is sometimes injected into the ground directly. The [[Ammonia production|ammonia is produced]] by the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]].<ref name="ETE"/> In this energy-intensive process, [[natural gas]] (CH4) [[Hydrogen production|usually]] [[Steam reforming|supplies the hydrogen]], and the nitrogen (N2) is [[Nitrogen#Production|derived from the air]]. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for all other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] (NH4NO3) and [[urea]] (CO(NH2)2).

Deposits of [[sodium nitrate]] (NaNO3) ([[Chilean saltpeter]]) are also found in the [[Atacama desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen-rich fertilizers used.<ref>{{cite web|title=Supplemental technical report for sodium nitrate (crops)|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5090064|website=www.ams.usda.gov|accessdate=6 July 2014}}</ref> It is still mined for fertilizer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caliche Ore|url=http://www.sqm.com/ACERCADESQM/RecursosNaturales/Caliche.aspx|website=www.sqm.com|accessdate=6 July 2014}}</ref>

===Phosphate fertilizers===
{{Refimprove section|date=September 2015}}
All phosphate fertilizers are obtained by extraction from minerals containing the [[anion]] PO43−. In rare cases, fields are treated with the crushed mineral, but most often more soluble salts are produced by chemical treatment of phosphate minerals. The most popular phosphate-containing minerals are referred to collectively as [[phosphate rock]]. The main minerals are [[fluorapatite]] Ca5(PO4)3F (CFA) and [[hydroxyapatite]] Ca5(PO4)3OH. These minerals are converted to water-soluble phosphate salts by treatment with sulfuric or [[phosphoric acid]]s. The large production of [[sulfuric acid]] as an industrial chemical is primarily due to its use as cheap acid in processing phosphate rock into phosphate fertilizer. The global primary uses for both [[sulfur]] and [[phosphorus]] compounds relate to this basic process.

In the [[nitrophosphate process]] or Odda process (invented in 1927), phosphate rock with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) to produce a mixture of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2). This mixture can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with the three macronutrients N, P and K in easily dissolved form.<ref name=EFMA2000>{{cite web|last1=EFMA|title=Best available techniques for pollution prevention and control in the European fertilizer industry. Booklet No. 7 of 8: Production of NPK fertilizers by the nitrophosphate route.|url=http://www.fertilizerseurope.com/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/tecnical_publications/guidence_techn_documentation/EFMABATNPKN.pdf|website=www.fertilizerseurope.com|publisher=European Fertilizer Manufacturers’ Association|accessdate=28 June 2014|date=2000}}</ref>

===Potassium fertilizers===
[[Potash]] is a mixture of potassium minerals used to make potassium (chemical symbol: K) fertilizers. Potash is soluble in water, so the main effort in producing this nutrient from the ore involves some purification steps; e.g., to remove [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl) (common [[salt]]). Sometimes potash is referred to as K2O, as a matter of convenience to those describing the potassium content. In fact potash fertilizers are usually [[potassium chloride]], [[potassium sulfate]], [[potassium carbonate]], or [[potassium nitrate]].<ref name=FertEncyl/>

===Compound fertilizers===
Compound fertilizers, which contain N, P, and K, can often be produced by mixing straight fertilizers. In some cases, chemical reactions occur between the two or more components. For example, monoammonium and diammonium phosphates, which provide plants with both N and P, are produced by neutralizing phosphoric acid (from phosphate rock) and ammonia :
:NH3 + H3PO4 → (NH4)H2PO4
:2 NH3 + H3PO4 → (NH4)2HPO4

=== Organic fertilizers ===
{{Main article|Organic fertilizer}}
[[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]]
[[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]]

“Organic fertilizers” can describe those fertilizers with an organic — biologic — origin -- that is, fertilizers derived from living or formerly living materials. Organic fertilizers can also describe commercially available and frequently packaged products that strive to follow the expectations and restrictions adopted by “[[organic agriculture]]” and ”[[environmentally friendly]]" gardening — related systems of food and plant production that significantly limit or strictly avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. The “organic fertilizer” ''products'' typically contain both some organic materials as well as acceptable additives such as nutritive rock powders, ground sea shells (crab, oyster, etc.), other prepared products such as seed meal or kelp, and cultivated microorganisms and derivatives.

Fertilizers of an organic origin (the first definition) include such materials as [[manure|animal wastes]], plant wastes from agriculture, [[compost]], and treated [[sewage sludge]] ([[biosolid]]s). Beyond manures, animal sources can include products from the slaughter of animals — [[bloodmeal]], [[bone meal]], [[feather meal]], hides, hoofs, and horns all are typical components.<ref name=Ull>{{cite encyclopedia |doi= 10.1002/14356007.n10_n01 |title= Fertilizers, 2. Types |encyclopedia= Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |year=2009 |last1=Dittmar |first1=Heinrich |last2=Drach |first2=Manfred |last3=Vosskamp |first3=Ralf |last4=Trenkel |first4=Martin E. |last5=Gutser |first5=Reinhold |last6=Steffens |first6=Günter |isbn= 3527306730}}</ref> Organically derived materials available to industry such as sewage sludge may not be acceptable components of organic farming and gardening, because of factors ranging from residual contaminants to public perception. On the other hand, marketed “organic fertilizers” may include, and promote, processed organics ''because'' the materials have consumer appeal. No matter the definition nor composition, most of these products contain less concentrated nutrients, and the nutrients are not as easily quantified. They never-the-less can offer soil-building advantages as well as be appealing to those who are trying to farm / garden more “naturally”.

In terms of volume, [[peat]] is the most widely used packaged organic soil amendment. Since this immature form of coal, which improves the soil by aeration and absorbing water, confers no nutritional value to the plants, it is thus not a fertilizer as defined in the beginning of the article, but rather an amendment. [[Coir]], (derived from coconut husks), bark, and sawdust when added to soil all act similarly (but not identically) to peat and are also considered organic soil amendments - or texturizers - because of their limited nutritive inputs. Some organic additives can have a reverse effect on nutrients — fresh sawdust can consume soil nutrients as it breaks down, and may lower soil pH — but these same organic texturizers (as well as compost, etc.) may increase the availability of nutrients through improved cation exchange, or through increased growth of microorganisms that in turn increase availability of certain plant nutrients. Organic fertilizers such as composts and manures may be distributed locally without going into industry production, making actual consumption more difficult to quantify.

For fuller discussion, see the article on [[organic fertilizer]]s.

==Application==
Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

===Liquid vs solid===
Fertilizers are applied to crops both as solids and as liquid. About 90% of fertilizers are applied as solids. The most widely used solid inorganic fertilizers are urea, diammonium phosphate and potassium chloride.<ref name="IFA2017">{{cite web|title=About Fertilizers Home Page|url=https://www.fertilizer.org/En/Knowledge_Resources/About_Fertilizers/About_Fertilizers_Home_Page.aspx?|website=www.fertilizer.org|publisher=International Fertilizer Association|accessdate=19 December 2017}}</ref> Solid fertilizer is typically granulated or powdered. Often solids are available as [[prill]]s, a solid globule. Liquid fertilizers comprise anhydrous ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonium nitrate or urea. These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g., [[UAN]]). Advantages of liquid fertilizer are its more rapid effect and easier coverage.<ref name=Ull/> The addition of fertilizer to irrigation water is called "[[fertigation]]".<ref name=FertEncyl/>

=== Slow- and controlled-release fertilizers ===
Slow- and controlled-release involve only 0.15% (562,000 tons) of the fertilizer market (1995). Their utility stems from the fact that fertilizers are subject to antagonistic processes. In addition to their providing the nutrition to plants, excess fertilizers can be poisonous to the same plant. Competitive with the uptake by plants is the degradation or loss of the fertilizer. Microbes degrade many fertilizers, e.g., by immobilization or oxidation. Furthermore, fertilizers are lost by evaporation or leaching. Most slow-release fertilizers are derivatives of urea, a straight fertilizer providing nitrogen. [[Isobutylidenediurea]] ("IBDU") and urea-formaldehyde slowly convert in the soil to free urea, which is rapidly uptaken by plants. IBDU is a single compound with the formula (CH3)2CHCH(NHC(O)NH2)2 whereas the urea-formaldehydes consist of mixtures of the approximate formula (HOCH2NHC(O)NH)nCH2.

Besides being more efficient in the utilization of the applied nutrients, slow-release technologies also reduce the impact on the environment and the contamination of the subsurface water.<ref name=SRN/> Slow-release fertilizers (various forms including fertilizer spikes, tabs, etc.) which reduce the problem of "burning" the plants due to excess nitrogen. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a [http://www.agritab.com 'true time-release'] or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients.

Controlled release fertilizers are traditional fertilizers encapsulated in a shell that degrades at a specified rate. Sulfur is a typical encapsulation material. Other coated products use thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce diffusion-controlled release of [[urea]] or other fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a paraffin topcoat.

===Foliar application===
Foliar fertilizers are applied directly to leaves. The method is almost invariably used to apply water-soluble straight nitrogen fertilizers and used especially for high value crops such as fruits.<ref name=Ull/>
[[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]]

===Chemicals that affect nitrogen uptake===
Various chemicals are used to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen-based fertilizers. In this way farmers can limit the polluting effects of nitrogen run-off. Nitrification inhibitors (also known as nitrogen stabilizers) suppress the conversion of ammonia into nitrate, an anion that is more prone to leaching. 1-Carbamoyl-3-methylpyrazole (CMP), [[dicyandiamide]], nitrapyrin (2-chloro-6-trichloromethylpyridine) and 3,4-Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) are popular<ref name="YangFang2016">{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Ming|last2=Fang|first2=Yunting|last3=Sun|first3=Di|last4=Shi|first4=Yuanliang|title=Efficiency of two nitrification inhibitors (dicyandiamide and 3, 4-dimethypyrazole phosphate) on soil nitrogen transformations and plant productivity: a meta-analysis|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=6|issue=1|year=2016|issn=2045-2322|doi=10.1038/srep22075}}</ref>. Urease inhibitors are used to slow the hydrolytic conversion of urea into ammonia, which is prone to evaporation as well as nitrification. The conversion of urea to ammonia catalyzed by enzymes called [[urease]]s. A popular inhibitor of ureases is N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT).

=== Overfertilization ===
Careful fertilization technologies are important because excess nutrients can be detrimental.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |date= |accessdate=17 June 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629000817/http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |archivedate=29 June 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Fertilizer burn]] can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in damage or even death of the plant. Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their [[salt index]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Garrett|first1=Howard|title=Organic Lawn Care: Growing Grass the Natural Way|date=2014|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=9780292728493|pages=55–56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEHTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=22 July 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528143421/http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |archivedate=28 May 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref>

== Statistics ==
[[File:Fertilizer consumption map Europe.png|thumb|The map displays the statistics of [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1HzGlIAHphywl3AO2-S_aXDAS0VLL4IU6V19fVptSnjs/pubchart?oid=478882198&format=interactive fertilizer consumption] in western and central European counties from data published by The World Bank for 2012.]]

Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.<ref name=FertEncyl>Vasant Gowariker, V. N. Krishnamurthy, Sudha Gowariker, Manik Dhanorkar, Kalyani Paranjape "The Fertilizer Encyclopedia" 2009, John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9780470410349}}. Online {{ISBN|9780470431771}}. {{DOI|10.1002/9780470431771}}</ref><ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=W.M. |last2=Dibb|first2=D.W.|last3=Johnston|first3=A.E.|last4=Smyth|first4=T.J.|year=2005|title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production|journal=Agronomy Journal|volume=97|pages=1–6|doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001}}</ref> [[Market (economics)|Global market]] value is likely to rise to more than US$185 billion until 2019.<ref>Ceresana, Market Study Fertilizers - World, May 2013, http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/agriculture/fertilizers-world/</ref> The European fertilizer market will grow to earn revenues of approx. €15.3 billion in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/agriculture/fertilizers-europe/|title=Market Study Fertilizers - Europe |publisher= Ceresana.com}}</ref>

Data on the fertilizer consumption per hectare [[arable land]] in 2012 are published by [[The World Bank]].<ref>http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.CON.FERT.ZS/countries?order=wbapi_data_value_2007%20wbapi_data_value&sort=desc&display=default</ref> For the diagram below values of the European Union (EU) countries have been extracted and are presented as kilograms per hectare (pounds per acre). The total consumption of fertilizer in the EU is 15.9 million tons for 105 million hectare arable land area<ref name=arableland>{{cite web|url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-10-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006122431/http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do |archivedate=6 October 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref> (or 107 million hectare arable land according to another estimate<ref>[[Arable land]]</ref>). This figure equates to 151 kg of fertilizers consumed per ha arable land on average for the EU countries.

[[File:Fertilizer consumption in Europe.png|750px|The diagram displays the statistics of [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1HzGlIAHphywl3AO2-S_aXDAS0VLL4IU6V19fVptSnjs/pubchart?oid=1097435817&format=interactive fertilizer consumption] in western and central European counties from data published by The World Bank for 2012.]]

== Environmental effects ==

[[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]
[[File:EutrophicationEutrophisationEutrophierung.jpg|thumb|An [[algal bloom]] caused by eutrophication]]
{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle|Nitrogen fertilizer#Problems with inorganic fertilizer|Planetary boundaries#Biogeochemical}}

=== Water ===
{{Main article|Eutrophication}}
Agricultural run-off is a major contributor to the eutrophication of fresh water bodies. For example, in the US, about half of all the lakes are [[eutrophic]]. The main contributor to eutrophication is phosphate, which is normally a limiting nutrient; high concentrations promote the growth of cyanobacteria and algae, the demise of which consumes oxygen.<ref name=UllmannEnv/> Cyanobacteria blooms ('[[algal blooms]]') can also produce harmful [[Eutrophication#toxicity|toxins]] that can accumulate in the food chain, and can be harmful to humans.<ref name="toledo">http://www.toledofreepress.com/2014/08/02/do-not-drink-water-advisory-issued-for-city-of-toledo/</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmc=3709275|doi=10.3390/toxins5050992 | pmid=23676698 | volume=5 |title=Variations in the microcystin content of different fish species collected from a eutrophic lake |year=2013 |journal=Toxins (Basel) |pages=992–1009 | last1 = Schmidt | first1 = JR | last2 = Shaskus | first2 = M | last3 = Estenik | first3 = JF | last4 = Oesch | first4 = C | last5 = Khidekel | first5 = R | last6 = Boyer | first6 = GL}}</ref>

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of [[ocean]]s, especially in coastal zones, [[lake]]s and [[river]]s. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen greatly reduces the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean ‘Dead Zones’"], NY Times, 14 August 2008</ref> The number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines are increasing.<ref>{{cite web |author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News – Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |date= |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618192917/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |archivedate=18 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in northwestern Europe<ref name=VanGrinsven2012>{{cite journal|last1=Van Grinsven|first1=H. J. M.|last2=Ten Berge, H. F. M.; Dalgaard, T.; Fraters, B.; Durand, P.; Hart, A.; ... & Willems, W. J.|title=Management, regulation and environmental impacts of nitrogen fertilization in northwestern Europe under the Nitrates Directive; a benchmark study|journal=Biogeosciences|date=2012|volume=9|pages=5143–5160|doi=10.5194/bg-9-5143-2012|url=http://www.biogeosciences.net/9/5143/2012/bg-9-5143-2012.pdf|accessdate=3 July 2014|bibcode = 2012BGeo....9.5143V }}</ref> and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Farmer's Guide To Agriculture and Water Quality Issues: 3. Environmental Requirements & Incentive Programs For Nutrient Management|url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/wq/wqp/wqpollutants/nutrients/incentives.html|website=www.cals.ncsu.edu|accessdate=3 July 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200107/http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/wq/wqp/wqpollutants/nutrients/incentives.html|archivedate=23 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=State-EPA Nutrient Innovations Task Group|title=An Urgent Call to Action – Report of the State-EPA Nutrient Innovations Task Group|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/nitgreport.pdf|website=epa.gov|accessdate=3 July 2014|date=2009}}</ref> If eutrophication ''can'' be reversed, it may take decades{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} before the accumulated nitrates in [[groundwater]] can be broken down by natural processes.

==== Nitrate pollution ====
Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce and other plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or lost as run-off.<ref name=Nasir>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5 | title=Eutrophication of Lakes | journal=Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control | pages=55–71}}</ref> High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high [[water solubility]] of nitrate leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into [[surface water]] as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater, thereby causing [[groundwater pollution]].<ref>{{cite web|author1=C. J. Rosen |author2=B. P. Horgan |url=https://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/yard-garden/lawns/preventing-pollution-problems/ |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=9 January 2009 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |journal=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology |date= |doi=10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4 |volume=20 |pages=167–184}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=25 February 2004 |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040324090920/http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |archivedate=24 March 2004 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.<ref>{{cite journal | year = | title = Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Ecosystem Services | journal = Annual Review of Plant Biology | volume = 59 | issue = | pages = 341–363 | doi=10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932}}</ref>

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]).<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=1638204 |title = Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water | pmid=10903623 | volume=108 |year=2000 |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |pages=675–8 | last1 = Knobeloch | first1 = L | last2 = Salna | first2 = B | last3 = Hogan | first3 = A | last4 = Postle | first4 = J | last5 = Anderson | first5 = H | doi=10.1289/ehp.00108675}}</ref> The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Soil===

====Acidification====
{{See also|Soil pH|Soil acidification}}
Nitrogen-containing fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1126/science.324_721b |bibcode = 2009Sci...324..721S | volume=324 | title=Eutrophication: More Nitrogen Data Needed |journal=Science |pages=721–722}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2136/sssaj2007.0071N | volume=72 | title=Phosphorus Solubility in Response to Acidification of Dairy Manure Amended Soils | journal=Soil Science Society of America Journal | pages=238}}</ref> This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]].

==== Accumulation of toxic elements ====

=====Cadmium=====

The concentration of [[cadmium]] in phosphorus-containing fertilizers varies considerably and can be problematic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McLaughlin|first1=M. J.|last2=Tiller|first2=K. G.|last3=Naidu|first3=R.|last4=Stevens|first4=D. P.|title=Review: the behaviour and environmental impact of contaminants in fertilizers|journal=Soil Research|date=1996|volume=34|pages=1–54|doi=10.1071/sr9960001}}</ref> For example, mono-ammonium phosphate fertilizer may have a cadmium content of as low as 0.14 mg/kg or as high as 50.9 mg/kg.<ref name=Lugon2014>{{cite journal|last1=Lugon-Moulin|first1=N.|last2=Ryan|first2=L.|last3=Donini|first3=P.|last4=Rossi|first4=L.|title=Cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers used for tobacco production|journal=Agron. Sustain. Dev.|date=2006|volume=26|pages=151–155|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/88/63/51/PDF/hal-00886351.pdf|accessdate=27 June 2014|doi=10.1051/agro:2006010}}</ref> This is because the phosphate rock used in their manufacture can contain as much as 188 mg/kg cadmium<ref name=Zapata2004>{{cite web|last1=Zapata|first1=F.|last2=Roy|first2=R.N.|title=Use of Phosphate Rocks for Sustainable Agriculture: Secondary nutrients, micronutrients, liming effect and hazardous elements associated with phosphate rock use|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5053e/y5053e0d.htm|website=www.fao.org|publisher=FAO|accessdate=27 June 2014|date=2004}}</ref> (examples are deposits on [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal=J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11}}</ref> and the [[Christmas island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title=The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |pages=261–286 |doi=10.1080/00167616508728596|bibcode = 1965AuJES..12..261T }}</ref>). Continuous use of high-cadmium fertilizer can contaminate soil (as shown in New Zealand)<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of the Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 |pages=123–126 | doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8}}</ref> and plants.<ref name=Chaney2012>{{cite journal|last1=Chaney|first1=R.L.|title=Food safety issues for mineral and organic fertilizers|journal=Advances in Agronomy|date=2012|volume=117|pages=51–99|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-394278-4.00002-7}}</ref> Limits to the cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers has been considered by the [[European Commission]].<ref name=Oosterhuis2000>{{cite web|last1=Oosterhuis|first1=F.H.|last2=Brouwer|first2=F.M.|last3=Wijnants|first3=H.J.|title=A possible EU wide charge on cadmium in phosphate fertilisers: Economic and environmental implications.|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/taxation/pdf/cadium.pdf|website=dare.ubvu.vu.nl|accessdate=27 June 2014|date=2000}}</ref><ref name=FertilizersEurope2014>{{cite web|last1=Fertilizers Europe|title=Putting all the cards on the table|url=http://www.fertilizerseurope.com/fileadmin/user_upload/news_assets/FI-458-decadmiation__3_.pdf |website= www.fertilizerseurope.com |accessdate= 27 June 2014|date=2014}}</ref><ref name=Wates2014>{{cite web|last1=Wates|first1=J.|title=Revision of the EU fertilizer regulation and cadmium content of fertilisers|url=http://www.iatp.org/documents/revision-of-the-eu-fertilizer-regulation-and-cadmium-content-of-fertilisers|website=www.iatp.org|accessdate=27 June 2014|date=2014}}</ref> Producers of phosphorus-containing fertilizers now select phosphate rock based on the cadmium content.<ref name=UllmannEnv>Wilfried Werner "Fertilizers, 6. Environmental Aspects" Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.{{DOI|10.1002/14356007.n10_n05}}</ref>

=====Fluoride=====

Phosphate rocks contain high levels of fluoride. Consequently, the widespread use of phosphate fertilizers has increased soil fluoride concentrations.<ref name=Chaney2012 /> It has been found that food contamination from fertilizer is of little concern as plants accumulate little fluoride from the soil; of greater concern is the possibility of fluoride toxicity to livestock that ingest contaminated soils.<ref name=Loganathan2008>{{cite journal|last1=Loganathan|first1=P.|last2=Hedley|first2=M.J.|last3=Grace|first3=N.D.|title=Pasture soils contaminated with fertilizer-derived cadmium and fluorine: livestock effects.|journal=Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|date=2008|volume=192|pages=29–66|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-71724-1_2}}</ref><ref name=Cronin2000>{{cite journal|last1=Cronin|first1=S. J.|last2=Manoharan|first2=V.|last3=Hedley|first3=M. J.|last4=Loganathan|first4=P.|title=Fluoride: A review of its fate, bioavailability, and risks of fluorosis in grazed‐pasture systems in New Zealand|journal=New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research|date=2000|volume=43|pages=295-3214|doi=10.1080/00288233.2000.9513430}}</ref> Also of possible concern are the effects of fluoride on soil microorganisms.<ref name=Loganathan2008 /><ref name=Cronin2000 /><ref name=Wilke1987>{{cite journal|last1=Wilke|first1=B.M.|title=Fluoride-induced changes in chemical properties and microbial activity of mull, moder and mor soils|journal=Biology and Fertility of Soils|date=1987|volume=5|pages=49–55|doi=10.1007/BF00264346}}</ref>

===== Radioactive elements =====

The radioactive content of the fertilizers varies considerably and depends both on their concentrations in the parent mineral and on the fertilizer production process.<ref name=Chaney2012 /><ref name=Mortvedt2014>{{cite web|last1=Mortvedt|first1=JJ|last2=Beaton|first2=JD|title=Heavy Metal and Radionuclide Contaminants in Phosphate Fertilizers|url=http://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/scope54/6mortvedt.htm|accessdate=16 July 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726193234/http://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/scope54/6mortvedt.htm|archivedate=26 July 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Uranium-238 concentrations can range from 7 to 100 pCi/g in phosphate rock<ref name=EPA2016>{{cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm-fertilizer-and-fertilizer-production-wastes|title=TENORM: Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=2016|publisher=US EPA|accessdate=30 August 2017}}</ref> and from 1 to 67 pCi/g in phosphate fertilizers.<ref name=Khater2008>{{cite web|last1=Khater|first1=A. E. M.|title=Uranium and heavy metals in phosphate fertilizers|url=http://www.radioecology.info/Bergen2008/proceedings/26.%20Khater%20Uranium%20P.pdf|website=www.radioecology.info|accessdate=17 July 2014|date=2008}}</ref><ref name=NCRP1987>{{cite book|last1=NCRP|title=Radiation Exposure of the U.S. Population from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources|date=1987|publisher=National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements|pages=29–32|url=http://f3.tiera.ru/1/genesis/575-579/575000/1160670d5da187ab055c34ebc07487cf|accessdate=17 July 2014}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref> Where high annual rates of phosphorus fertilizer are used, this can result in uranium-238 concentrations in soils and drainage waters that are several times greater than are normally present.<ref name=NCRP1987 /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5}}</ref> However, the impact of these increases on the [[Sievert#Dose examples|risk to human health]] from radinuclide contamination of foods is very small (less than 0.05 m[[Sievert|Sv]]/y).<ref name=NCRP1987 /><ref name=Hanlon2012>{{cite web|last1=Hanlon|first1=E. A.|title=Naturally Occurring Radionuclides in Agricultural Products|url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ss441|website=edis.ifas.ufl.edu|publisher=University of Florida|accessdate=17 July 2014|date=2012}}</ref><ref name=Sharpley1987>{{cite journal|last1=Sharpley|first1=A. N.|last2=Menzel|first2=R. G.|title=The impact of soil and fertilizer phosphorus on the environment|journal=Advances in Agronomy|date=1987|volume=41|pages=297–324|doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60807-x}}</ref>

===== Other metals =====

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web|last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |title=Business | Fear In The Fields – How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer – Spreading Heavy Metals On Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe | Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=3 July 1997 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat Of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=3 July 1997 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020111124358/http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |archivedate=11 January 2002 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=FAO2004>{{cite book|last1=Zapata|first1=F|last2=Roy|first2=RN|title=Use of phosphate rocks for sustainable agriculture|date=2004|publisher=FAO|location=Rome|page=82|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/y5053e/y5053e00.pdf|accessdate=16 July 2014}}</ref> These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water-soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households, such as [[Miracle-Gro]]. These highly water-soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. There are also some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers made with high purity ingredients.

==== Trace mineral depletion ====
Attention has been addressed to the decreasing concentrations of elements such as iron, zinc, copper and magnesium in many foods over the last 50–60 years.<ref name=Davis2004>{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=D.R.|last2=Epp|first2=M.D.|last3=Riordan|first3=H.D.|title=Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999|journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition|date=2004|volume=23|pages=669–682|doi=10.1080/07315724.2004.10719409}}</ref><ref name=Thomas2007>{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=D.|title=The mineral depletion of foods available to us as a nation (1940–2002) – A Review of the 6th Edition of McCance and Widdowson|journal=Nutrition and Health|date=2007|volume=19|pages=21–55|doi=10.1177/026010600701900205}}</ref> [[Intensive farming]] practices, including the use of synthetic fertilizers are frequently suggested as reasons for these declines and organic farming is often suggested as a solution.<ref name=Thomas2007 /> Although improved crop yields resulting from NPK fertilizers are known to dilute the concentrations of other nutrients in plants,<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Jarrell1981>{{cite journal|last1=Jarrell|first1=W.M.|last2=Beverly|first2=R.B.|title=The Dilution Effect in Plant Nutrition Studies|journal=Advances in Agronomy|date=1981|volume=34|pages=197–224|doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60887-1}}</ref> much of the measured decline can be attributed to the use of progressively higher-yielding crop varieties which produce foods with lower mineral concentrations than their less productive ancestors.<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Fan2008>{{cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=M. S.|last2=Zhao|first2=F. J.|last3=Fairweather-Tait|first3=S. J.|last4=Poulton|first4=P. R.|last5=Dunham|first5=S. J.|last6=McGrath|first6=S. P.|title=Evidence of decreasing mineral density in wheat grain over the last 160 years.|journal=Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology|date=2008|volume=22|pages=315–324|doi=10.1016/j.jtemb.2008.07.002}}</ref><ref name=Zhao2009>{{cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=F. J.|last2=Su|first2=Y. H.|last3=Dunham|first3=S. J.|last4=Rakszegi|first4=M.|last5=Bedo|first5=Z.|last6=McGrath|first6=S. P.|last7=Shewry|first7=P. R.|title=Variation in mineral micronutrient concentrations in grain of wheat lines of diverse origin.|journal=Journal of Cereal Science|date=2009|volume=49|pages=290–295|doi=10.1016/j.jcs.2008.11.007}}</ref> It is, therefore, unlikely that organic farming or reduced use of fertilizers will solve the problem; foods with high nutrient density are posited to be achieved using older, lower-yielding varieties or the development of new high-yield, nutrient-dense varieties.<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Saltzman2013>{{cite journal|last1=Saltzman|first1=A.|last2=Birol|first2=E.|last3=Bouis|first3=H. E.|last4=Boy|first4=E.|last5=De Moura|first5=F.F.|last6=Islam|first6=Y.|last7=Pfeiffer|first7=W. H.|title=Biofortification: progress toward a more nourishing future|journal=Global Food Security|date=2013|volume=2|pages=9–17|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2012.12.003}}</ref>

Fertilizers are, in fact, more likely to solve trace mineral deficiency problems than cause them: In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref name=Moore>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Geoff|title=Soilguide - A handbook for understanding and managing agricultural soils|year=2001|publisher=Agriculture Western Australia|location=Perth, Western Australia|isbn=0 7307 0057 7|pages=161–207|url=http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/lwe/rpm/landcap/soilguide_introduction.pdf}}</ref> Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements.<ref name="Moore"/> Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.<ref name="Moore"/> Many other soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in both plants and humans, and zinc fertilizers are widely used to solve this problem.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=25 August 2010 |accessdate=17 June 2012}}</ref>

==== Changes in soil biology ====
High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[mycorrhiza]]l fungi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780881926118}}</ref>

=== Energy consumption and sustainability ===
In the USA in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas were consumed in the industrial [[Ammonia production|production of ammonia]], less than 1.5% of total U.S. [[List of countries by natural gas consumption|annual consumption of natural gas]].<ref name="Abram">{{Cite journal | title=A Primer on Ammonia, Nitrogen Fertilizers, and Natural Gas Markets |author1=Aleksander Abram |author2=D. Lynn Forster | publisher=Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University | year=2005 | page=38}}</ref>
A 2002 report suggested that the production of ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.<ref name="ifa">[http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp IFA – Statistics – Fertilizer Indicators – Details – Raw material reserves, (2002–10)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424083111/http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp |date=24 April 2008 }}</ref>

Ammonia is produced from [[natural gas]] and air.<ref name=Appl>{{cite book|last=Appl|first=Max|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 3|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=139–225 |doi=10.1002/14356007.o02_o11}}</ref> The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306075446/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|archivedate=6 March 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==== Contribution to climate change ====
The [[greenhouse gas]]es [[carbon dioxide]], [[methane]] and [[nitrous oxide]] are produced during the [[Haber process|manufacture]] of nitrogen fertilizer. The effects can be combined into an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide. The amount varies according to the efficiency of the process. The figure for the United Kingdom is over 2 kilogrammes of carbon dioxide equivalent for each kilogramme of ammonium nitrate.<ref name="Wood and Annette Cowie">{{Cite journal | title=A Review of Greenhouse Gas Emission Factors for Fertiliser Production |author1=Sam Wood |author2=Annette Cowie | publisher=IEA Bioenergy IEA Bioenergy | year=2004 }}</ref>
Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[nitrous oxide]], a [[greenhouse gas]].

=== Atmosphere ===
[[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]]
Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which was used at a rate of about 110 million tons (of N) per year in 2012,<ref name=FAO2012>{{cite book|last1=FAO|title=Current world fertilizer trends and outlook to 2016|date=2012|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|location=Rome|page=13|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/ag/agp/docs/cwfto16.pdf|accessdate=3 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature06592|bibcode = 2008Natur.451..293G | volume=451 | title=An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle |journal=Nature |pages=293–296 |pmid=18202647 | last1 = Gruber | first1 = N | last2 = Galloway | first2 = JN}}</ref> adding to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N2O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114121452/http://initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf |date=14 January 2009 }} [[UNESCO]] – [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref>
By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on anthropogenic [[climate change]].<ref name=Roy2002>{{cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=R. N.|last2=Misra|first2=R. V.|last3=Montanez|first3=A.|title=Decreasing reliance on mineral nitrogen-yet more food|journal=AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment|date=2002|volume=31|issue=2|pages=177–183|doi=10.1579/0044-7447-31.2.177|url=http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/decreasing_reliance_on_mineral_nitrogenyet_more_food_364.pdf|accessdate=3 July 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6XSv1br98?url=http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/decreasing_reliance_on_mineral_nitrogenyet_more_food_364.pdf|archivedate=1 April 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers. These emissions contribute to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots ">{{cite journal|last1=Bodelier|first1=Paul, L.E.|author2=Peter Roslev3, Thilo Henckel1 & Peter Frenzel1|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424 |pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..421B}}</ref><ref name=Banger2012>{{cite journal|last1=Banger|first1=K.|last2=Tian|first2=H.|last3=Lu|first3=C.|title=Do nitrogen fertilizers stimulate or inhibit methane emissions from rice fields?|journal=Global Change Biology|date=2012|volume=18|issue=10|pages=3259–3267|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02762.x}}</ref>

===Regulation===
In Europe problems with high nitrate concentrations in run-off are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within Britain, farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630000845/http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/|archivedate=30 June 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In the US, high concentrations of nitrate and phosphorus in runoff and drainage water are classified as non-point source pollutants due to their diffuse origin; this pollution is regulated at state level.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polluted Runoff: Nonpoint Source Pollution|url=http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/nps/|publisher=EPA|accessdate=23 July 2014}}</ref> Oregon and Washington, both in the United States, have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=23 May 2012 |accessdate=17 June 2012}}</ref><ref>http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ Washington and Oregon links</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]]
{{Main article|History of fertilizer}}

Management of [[soil fertility]] has been the preoccupation of farmers for thousands of years. Egyptians, Romans, Babylonians, and early Germans all are recorded as using minerals and or manure to enhance the productivity of their farms.<ref name=Ullmann1/> The modern science of plant nutrition started in the 19th century and the work of German chemist [[Justus von Liebig]], among others. [[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulfuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]], with whom he carried on for more than half a century on experiments in raising crops at the [[Rothamsted Research|Institute of Arable Crops Research]].<ref>{{EB1911|wstitle=Lawes, Sir John Bennet}}</ref>

The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen based fertilizer production.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The development of modern chemistry
| author = Aaron John Ihde
| publisher = Courier Dover Publications
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-486-64235-6
| page = 678
}}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N2) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO3−). A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway, combined with the building of large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture
| author = G. J. Leigh
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-19-516582-9
| pages = 134–139
}}</ref>

The 1910s and 1920s witness the rise of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from [[methane]] (CH4) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2). The ammonia from the Haber process is then converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950
| author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams
| author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1982
| isbn = 0-19-858159-9
| pages = 134–135
}}</ref> The development of synthetic fertilizer has significantly supported global [[population growth]] — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Erisman|first1=Jan Willem|author2=MA Sutton, J Galloway, Z Klimont, W Winiwarter|title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|pages=636–639|date=October 2008|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|accessdate=22 October 2010|issue=10|bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|archivedate=23 July 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The use of commercial fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million [[tonnes]] of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal |last=Glass |first=Anthony |date=September 2003 |title= Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal= Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |volume=22 |issue=5 |doi= 10.1080/713989757 |pages= 453–470}}</ref> Without commercial fertilizers it is estimated that about one-third of the food produced now could not be produced.<ref>Commercial fertilizers increase crop yields [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/food-and-soil.php]. Accessed 9 April 2012.</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per [[hectare]] ({{cvt|1|ha|acre |1|disp=out}}) requires {{convert|31|–|50|kg}} of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied; soybean crops require about half, as 20–25 kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal |author2=Uhde-Stone & Allan |year=2003 |title= Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource |journal= New Phythologist |volume=157 |pages= 423–447 |jstor= 1514050 |author1= Vance, Carroll P |issue=3 |publisher= Blackwell Publishing |doi= 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x}}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen-based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105 |title= Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=18 February 2010 |publisher= The Economist |accessdate= 21 February 2010}}</ref>

Controlled-nitrogen-release technologies based on polymers derived from combining urea and formaldehyde were first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.<ref name=SRN>{{Cite journal |url= http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/
| title= Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen |author= J. B. Sartain, University of Florida
| journal= Grounds Maintenance |year=2011}}</ref> The early product had 60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick-release) less than 15%. Methylene [[ureas]] were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, having 25% and 60% of the nitrogen as cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the range of 15% to 30%.

In the 1960s, the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] National Fertilizer Development Center began developing sulfur-coated urea; sulfur was used as the principal coating material because of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.<ref name=SRN/> Usually there is another wax or polymer which seals the sulfur; the slow-release properties depend on the degradation of the secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the sulfur. They typically provide 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications. When a hard polymer is used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles and traditional sulfur-coated.

== See also ==

* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Circulus (theory)]]
* [[Fertigation]]
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]
* [[History of organic farming]]
* [[Milorganite]]
* [[Phosphogypsum]]
* [[Soil defertilisation]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fertilizers}}
{{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}

* [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process]
* [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)]
* [http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization]
* [http://www.nutrientstewardship.com/ 4R's Nutrient Stewardship program from The Fertilizer Institute ]
{{PlantMineralDeficiency}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Fertilizers| ]]

Fertilizer

2018-03-21T05:16:39Z

Explodingbrain: /* Chemicals that affect nitrogen uptake */ added DMPP to list of nitrification inhibitors.

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
[[File:Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg|thumb|A large, modern fertilizer spreader]]
[[File:Lite-trac Spreader.jpg|thumb|A [[Lite-Trac]] Agri-Spread [[Lime (material)|lime]] and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show]]

A '''fertilizer''' ([[American English]]) or '''fertiliser''' ([[British English]]; [[American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization)|see spelling differences]]) is any material of natural or synthetic origin (other than [[Liming (soil)|liming materials]]) that is applied to soils or to plant tissues to supply one or more [[plant nutrition|plant nutrients]] essential to the growth of [[plant]]s.

==Mechanism==
[[File:Reuse of urine demonstration - fertilised and not fertilised tomato plant experiment (3617543234).jpg|thumb|Six tomato plants grown with and without nitrate fertilizer on nutrient-poor sand/clay soil. One of the plants in the nutrient-poor soil has died.]]
Fertilizers enhance the growth of plants. This goal is met in two ways, the traditional one being additives that provide nutrients. The second mode by which some fertilizers act is to enhance the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its water retention and aeration. This article, like many on fertilizers, emphasises the nutritional aspect.
Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:<ref name=Ull/>
* three main macronutrients:
** [[Nitrogen]] (N): leaf growth;
** [[Phosphorus]] (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit;
** [[Potassium]] (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants, promotion of flowering and fruiting;
* three secondary macronutrients: [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S);
* micronutrients: [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilisation|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn), [[boron]] (B), and of occasional significance there are [[silicon]] (Si), [[cobalt]] (Co), and [[vanadium]] (V) plus rare mineral catalysts.

The nutrients required for healthy plant life are classified according to the elements, but the elements are not used as fertilizers. Instead [[chemical compound|compounds]] containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers. The macro-nutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a [[dry matter]] (DM) (0% moisture) basis. Plants are made up of four main elements: hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are widely available as water and carbon dioxide. Although nitrogen makes up most of the atmosphere, it is in a form that is unavailable to plants. Nitrogen is the most important fertilizer since nitrogen is present in [[protein]]s, [[DNA]] and other components (e.g., [[chlorophyll]]). To be nutritious to plants, nitrogen must be made available in a "fixed" form. Only some bacteria and their host plants (notably [[legume]]s) can fix atmospheric nitrogen (N2) by converting it to [[ammonia]]. Phosphate is required for the production of DNA and [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]], the main energy carrier in cells, as well as certain lipids.

Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of [[Parts-per notation|parts-per-million]] (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.asp|title = AESL Plant Analysis Handbook – Nutrient Content of Plant|publisher = Aesl.ces.uga.edu|date = |access-date = 11 September 2015}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author1=H.A. Mills |author2=J.B. Jones Jr. |year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|isbn=1-878148-05-2}}</ref> These elements are often present at the active sites of enzymes that carry out the plant's metabolism. Because these elements enable catalysts (enzymes) their impact far exceeds their weight percentage.

==Classification==
Fertilizers are classified in several ways. They are classified according to whether they provide a single nutrient (e.g., K, P, or N), in which case they are classified as "straight fertilizers." "Multinutrient fertilizers" (or "complex fertilizers") provide two or more nutrients, for example N and P. Fertilizers are also sometimes classified as inorganic (the topic of most of this article) versus organic. Inorganic fertilizers exclude carbon-containing materials except [[ureas]]. Organic fertilizers are usually (recycled) plant- or animal-derived matter. Inorganic are sometimes called synthetic fertilizers since various chemical treatments are required for their manufacture.<ref>J. Benton Jones, Jr. "Inorganic Chemical
Fertilisers and Their Properties" in ''Plant Nutrition and Soil Fertility Manual'', Second Edition. CRC Press, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-4398-1609-7}}. eBook {{ISBN|978-1-4398-1610-3}}.</ref>

===Single nutrient ("straight") fertilizers===
The main nitrogen-based straight fertilizer is ammonia or its solutions. [[Ammonium nitrate]] (NH4NO3) is also widely used. [[Urea]] is another popular source of nitrogen, having the advantage that it is solid and non-explosive, unlike ammonia and ammonium nitrate, respectively. A few percent of the nitrogen fertilizer market (4% in 2007)<ref name=ETE>{{cite book |last=Smil |first=Vaclav |title= Enriching the Earth |publisher= [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] |page=135 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=G9FljcEASycC&pg=PA135 |isbn=9780262693134 |year=2004 }}</ref> has been met by [[calcium ammonium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2•NH4NO3•10H2O).

The main straight phosphate fertilizers are the [[superphosphate]]s. "Single superphosphate" (SSP) consists of 14–18% P2O5, again in the form of Ca(H2PO4)2, but also [[phosphogypsum]] (CaSO4 · 2 H2O). [[Triple superphosphate]] (TSP) typically consists of 44-48% of P2O5 and no gypsum. A mixture of single superphosphate and triple superphosphate is called double superphosphate. More than 90% of a typical superphosphate fertilizer is water-soluble.

===Multinutrient fertilizers===
These fertilizers are the most common. They consist of two or more nutrient components.

====Binary (NP, NK, PK) fertilizers====
Major two-component fertilizers provide both nitrogen and phosphorus to the plants. These are called NP fertilizers. The main NP fertilizers are [[monoammonium phosphate]] (MAP) and [[diammonium phosphate]] (DAP). The active ingredient in MAP is NH4H2PO4. The active ingredient in DAP is (NH4)2HPO4. About 85% of MAP and DAP fertilizers are soluble in water.

====NPK fertilizers====
{{Main article|Labeling of fertilizer}}
NPK fertilizers are three-component fertilizers providing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.

[[NPK rating]] is a rating system describing the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in a fertilizer. NPK ratings consist of three numbers separated by dashes (e.g., 10-10-10 or 16-4-8) describing the chemical content of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web |title= Summary of State Fertilizer Laws |url=http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/dailys/03/dec03/121503/02N-0276_emc-000107-02.pdf |publisher= EPA |accessdate= 14 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Label Requirements of specialty and other bagged fertilizers |url= http://www.michigan.gov/mdard/0,4610,7-125-1569_16993_19405-49343--,00.html |publisher= Michigan Department of Agriculture and Rural Development |accessdate= 14 March 2013}}</ref> The first number represents the percentage of nitrogen in the product; the second number, P2O5; the third, K2O. Fertilizers do not actually contain P2O5 or K2O, but the system is a conventional shorthand for the amount of the phosphorus (P) or potassium (K) in a fertilizer. A {{convert|50|lb|adj=on}} bag of fertilizer labeled 16-4-8 contains {{cvt|8|lb}} of nitrogen (16% of the 50 pounds), an amount of phosphorus equivalent to that in 2 pounds of P2O5 (4% of 50 pounds), and 4 pounds of K2O (8% of 50 pounds). Most fertilizers are labeled according to this N-P-K convention, although Australian convention, following an N-P-K-S system, adds a fourth number for sulfur, and uses elemental values for all values including P and K.<ref>{{cite web|title=National Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description & Labelling |url=http://www.fertilizer.org.au/files/pdf/regulation/National%20Code%20of%20Practice%20for%20Fertilizer%20Description%20&%20Labelling%20March%2011%202011.pdf |publisher=Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry |accessdate=14 March 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228200433/http://www.fertilizer.org.au/files/pdf/regulation/National%20Code%20of%20Practice%20for%20Fertilizer%20Description%20%26%20Labelling%20March%2011%202011.pdf |archivedate=28 February 2015 |df= }}</ref>

===Micronutrients===
The main micronutrients are molybdenum, zinc, and copper. These elements are provided as water-soluble salts. Iron presents special problems because it converts to insoluble (bio-unavailable) compounds at moderate soil pH and phosphate concentrations. For this reason, iron is often administered as a [[Chelation|chelate complex]], e.g., the [[Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid|EDTA]] derivative. The micronutrient needs depend on the plant. For example, [[sugar beet]]s appear to require [[boron]], and [[legume]]s require [[cobalt]].<ref name=Ullmann1>Heinrich W. Scherer. "Fertilizers" in ''Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry''. 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a10_323.pub3}}</ref>

==Production==

===Nitrogen fertilizers===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin:10px;"
|+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf '' Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options'', Table 3.3]. Retrieved 29 June 2009. United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]].</ref>
|-
! Country
! Total N use
(Mt pa)
! Amt. used for feed/pasture
(Mt pa)
|-
| China
| 18.7
| 3.0
|-
| India
| 11.9
| N/A<ref>http://fert.nic.in/page/production-inputs</ref>
|-
| U.S.
| 9.1
| 4.7
|-
| France
| 2.5
| 1.3
|-
| Germany
| 2.0
| 1.2
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| 1.7
| 0.7
|-
| Canada
| 1.6
| 0.9
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| 1.5
| 0.3
|-
| UK
| 1.3
| 0.9
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| 1.3
| 0.3
|-
| Spain
| 1.2
| 0.5
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| 0.4
| 0.1
|}
Nitrogen fertilizers are made from [[ammonia]] (NH3), which is sometimes injected into the ground directly. The [[Ammonia production|ammonia is produced]] by the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]].<ref name="ETE"/> In this energy-intensive process, [[natural gas]] (CH4) [[Hydrogen production|usually]] [[Steam reforming|supplies the hydrogen]], and the nitrogen (N2) is [[Nitrogen#Production|derived from the air]]. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for all other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] (NH4NO3) and [[urea]] (CO(NH2)2).

Deposits of [[sodium nitrate]] (NaNO3) ([[Chilean saltpeter]]) are also found in the [[Atacama desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen-rich fertilizers used.<ref>{{cite web|title=Supplemental technical report for sodium nitrate (crops)|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELPRDC5090064|website=www.ams.usda.gov|accessdate=6 July 2014}}</ref> It is still mined for fertilizer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Caliche Ore|url=http://www.sqm.com/ACERCADESQM/RecursosNaturales/Caliche.aspx|website=www.sqm.com|accessdate=6 July 2014}}</ref>

===Phosphate fertilizers===
{{Refimprove section|date=September 2015}}
All phosphate fertilizers are obtained by extraction from minerals containing the [[anion]] PO43−. In rare cases, fields are treated with the crushed mineral, but most often more soluble salts are produced by chemical treatment of phosphate minerals. The most popular phosphate-containing minerals are referred to collectively as [[phosphate rock]]. The main minerals are [[fluorapatite]] Ca5(PO4)3F (CFA) and [[hydroxyapatite]] Ca5(PO4)3OH. These minerals are converted to water-soluble phosphate salts by treatment with sulfuric or [[phosphoric acid]]s. The large production of [[sulfuric acid]] as an industrial chemical is primarily due to its use as cheap acid in processing phosphate rock into phosphate fertilizer. The global primary uses for both [[sulfur]] and [[phosphorus]] compounds relate to this basic process.

In the [[nitrophosphate process]] or Odda process (invented in 1927), phosphate rock with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) to produce a mixture of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2). This mixture can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with the three macronutrients N, P and K in easily dissolved form.<ref name=EFMA2000>{{cite web|last1=EFMA|title=Best available techniques for pollution prevention and control in the European fertilizer industry. Booklet No. 7 of 8: Production of NPK fertilizers by the nitrophosphate route.|url=http://www.fertilizerseurope.com/fileadmin/user_upload/publications/tecnical_publications/guidence_techn_documentation/EFMABATNPKN.pdf|website=www.fertilizerseurope.com|publisher=European Fertilizer Manufacturers’ Association|accessdate=28 June 2014|date=2000}}</ref>

===Potassium fertilizers===
[[Potash]] is a mixture of potassium minerals used to make potassium (chemical symbol: K) fertilizers. Potash is soluble in water, so the main effort in producing this nutrient from the ore involves some purification steps; e.g., to remove [[sodium chloride]] (NaCl) (common [[salt]]). Sometimes potash is referred to as K2O, as a matter of convenience to those describing the potassium content. In fact potash fertilizers are usually [[potassium chloride]], [[potassium sulfate]], [[potassium carbonate]], or [[potassium nitrate]].<ref name=FertEncyl/>

===Compound fertilizers===
Compound fertilizers, which contain N, P, and K, can often be produced by mixing straight fertilizers. In some cases, chemical reactions occur between the two or more components. For example, monoammonium and diammonium phosphates, which provide plants with both N and P, are produced by neutralizing phosphoric acid (from phosphate rock) and ammonia :
:NH3 + H3PO4 → (NH4)H2PO4
:2 NH3 + H3PO4 → (NH4)2HPO4

=== Organic fertilizers ===
{{Main article|Organic fertilizer}}
[[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]]
[[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]]

“Organic fertilizers” can describe those fertilizers with an organic — biologic — origin -- that is, fertilizers derived from living or formerly living materials. Organic fertilizers can also describe commercially available and frequently packaged products that strive to follow the expectations and restrictions adopted by “[[organic agriculture]]” and ”[[environmentally friendly]]" gardening — related systems of food and plant production that significantly limit or strictly avoid the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. The “organic fertilizer” ''products'' typically contain both some organic materials as well as acceptable additives such as nutritive rock powders, ground sea shells (crab, oyster, etc.), other prepared products such as seed meal or kelp, and cultivated microorganisms and derivatives.

Fertilizers of an organic origin (the first definition) include such materials as [[manure|animal wastes]], plant wastes from agriculture, [[compost]], and treated [[sewage sludge]] ([[biosolid]]s). Beyond manures, animal sources can include products from the slaughter of animals — [[bloodmeal]], [[bone meal]], [[feather meal]], hides, hoofs, and horns all are typical components.<ref name=Ull>{{cite encyclopedia |doi= 10.1002/14356007.n10_n01 |title= Fertilizers, 2. Types |encyclopedia= Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |year=2009 |last1=Dittmar |first1=Heinrich |last2=Drach |first2=Manfred |last3=Vosskamp |first3=Ralf |last4=Trenkel |first4=Martin E. |last5=Gutser |first5=Reinhold |last6=Steffens |first6=Günter |isbn= 3527306730}}</ref> Organically derived materials available to industry such as sewage sludge may not be acceptable components of organic farming and gardening, because of factors ranging from residual contaminants to public perception. On the other hand, marketed “organic fertilizers” may include, and promote, processed organics ''because'' the materials have consumer appeal. No matter the definition nor composition, most of these products contain less concentrated nutrients, and the nutrients are not as easily quantified. They never-the-less can offer soil-building advantages as well as be appealing to those who are trying to farm / garden more “naturally”.

In terms of volume, [[peat]] is the most widely used packaged organic soil amendment. Since this immature form of coal, which improves the soil by aeration and absorbing water, confers no nutritional value to the plants, it is thus not a fertilizer as defined in the beginning of the article, but rather an amendment. [[Coir]], (derived from coconut husks), bark, and sawdust when added to soil all act similarly (but not identically) to peat and are also considered organic soil amendments - or texturizers - because of their limited nutritive inputs. Some organic additives can have a reverse effect on nutrients — fresh sawdust can consume soil nutrients as it breaks down, and may lower soil pH — but these same organic texturizers (as well as compost, etc.) may increase the availability of nutrients through improved cation exchange, or through increased growth of microorganisms that in turn increase availability of certain plant nutrients. Organic fertilizers such as composts and manures may be distributed locally without going into industry production, making actual consumption more difficult to quantify.

For fuller discussion, see the article on [[organic fertilizer]]s.

==Application==
Fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

===Liquid vs solid===
Fertilizers are applied to crops both as solids and as liquid. About 90% of fertilizers are applied as solids. The most widely used solid inorganic fertilizers are urea, diammonium phosphate and potassium chloride.<ref name="IFA2017">{{cite web|title=About Fertilizers Home Page|url=https://www.fertilizer.org/En/Knowledge_Resources/About_Fertilizers/About_Fertilizers_Home_Page.aspx?|website=www.fertilizer.org|publisher=International Fertilizer Association|accessdate=19 December 2017}}</ref> Solid fertilizer is typically granulated or powdered. Often solids are available as [[prill]]s, a solid globule. Liquid fertilizers comprise anhydrous ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonia, aqueous solutions of ammonium nitrate or urea. These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g., [[UAN]]). Advantages of liquid fertilizer are its more rapid effect and easier coverage.<ref name=Ull/> The addition of fertilizer to irrigation water is called "[[fertigation]]".<ref name=FertEncyl/>

=== Slow- and controlled-release fertilizers ===
Slow- and controlled-release involve only 0.15% (562,000 tons) of the fertilizer market (1995). Their utility stems from the fact that fertilizers are subject to antagonistic processes. In addition to their providing the nutrition to plants, excess fertilizers can be poisonous to the same plant. Competitive with the uptake by plants is the degradation or loss of the fertilizer. Microbes degrade many fertilizers, e.g., by immobilization or oxidation. Furthermore, fertilizers are lost by evaporation or leaching. Most slow-release fertilizers are derivatives of urea, a straight fertilizer providing nitrogen. [[Isobutylidenediurea]] ("IBDU") and urea-formaldehyde slowly convert in the soil to free urea, which is rapidly uptaken by plants. IBDU is a single compound with the formula (CH3)2CHCH(NHC(O)NH2)2 whereas the urea-formaldehydes consist of mixtures of the approximate formula (HOCH2NHC(O)NH)nCH2.

Besides being more efficient in the utilization of the applied nutrients, slow-release technologies also reduce the impact on the environment and the contamination of the subsurface water.<ref name=SRN/> Slow-release fertilizers (various forms including fertilizer spikes, tabs, etc.) which reduce the problem of "burning" the plants due to excess nitrogen. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a [http://www.agritab.com 'true time-release'] or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients.

Controlled release fertilizers are traditional fertilizers encapsulated in a shell that degrades at a specified rate. Sulfur is a typical encapsulation material. Other coated products use thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce diffusion-controlled release of [[urea]] or other fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a paraffin topcoat.

===Foliar application===
Foliar fertilizers are applied directly to leaves. The method is almost invariably used to apply water-soluble straight nitrogen fertilizers and used especially for high value crops such as fruits.<ref name=Ull/>
[[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]]

===Chemicals that affect nitrogen uptake===
Various chemicals are used to enhance the efficiency of nitrogen-based fertilizers. In this way farmers can limit the polluting effects of nitrogen run-off. Nitrification inhibitors (also known as nitrogen stabilizers) suppress the conversion of ammonia into nitrate, an anion that is more prone to leaching. 1-Carbamoyl-3-methylpyrazole (CMP), [[dicyandiamide]], nitrapyrin (2-chloro-6-trichloromethylpyridine) and 3,4-Dimethylpyrazole phosphate (DMPP) are popular. Urease inhibitors are used to slow the hydrolytic conversion of urea into ammonia, which is prone to evaporation as well as nitrification. The conversion of urea to ammonia catalyzed by enzymes called [[urease]]s. A popular inhibitor of ureases is N-(n-butyl)thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT).

=== Overfertilization ===
Careful fertilization technologies are important because excess nutrients can be detrimental.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |date= |accessdate=17 June 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120629000817/http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |archivedate=29 June 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Fertilizer burn]] can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in damage or even death of the plant. Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their [[salt index]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Garrett|first1=Howard|title=Organic Lawn Care: Growing Grass the Natural Way|date=2014|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=9780292728493|pages=55–56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UEHTAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA55}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=22 July 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528143421/http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |archivedate=28 May 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref>

== Statistics ==
[[File:Fertilizer consumption map Europe.png|thumb|The map displays the statistics of [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1HzGlIAHphywl3AO2-S_aXDAS0VLL4IU6V19fVptSnjs/pubchart?oid=478882198&format=interactive fertilizer consumption] in western and central European counties from data published by The World Bank for 2012.]]

Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.<ref name=FertEncyl>Vasant Gowariker, V. N. Krishnamurthy, Sudha Gowariker, Manik Dhanorkar, Kalyani Paranjape "The Fertilizer Encyclopedia" 2009, John Wiley & Sons. {{ISBN|9780470410349}}. Online {{ISBN|9780470431771}}. {{DOI|10.1002/9780470431771}}</ref><ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=W.M. |last2=Dibb|first2=D.W.|last3=Johnston|first3=A.E.|last4=Smyth|first4=T.J.|year=2005|title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production|journal=Agronomy Journal|volume=97|pages=1–6|doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001}}</ref> [[Market (economics)|Global market]] value is likely to rise to more than US$185 billion until 2019.<ref>Ceresana, Market Study Fertilizers - World, May 2013, http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/agriculture/fertilizers-world/</ref> The European fertilizer market will grow to earn revenues of approx. €15.3 billion in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/agriculture/fertilizers-europe/|title=Market Study Fertilizers - Europe |publisher= Ceresana.com}}</ref>

Data on the fertilizer consumption per hectare [[arable land]] in 2012 are published by [[The World Bank]].<ref>http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.CON.FERT.ZS/countries?order=wbapi_data_value_2007%20wbapi_data_value&sort=desc&display=default</ref> For the diagram below values of the European Union (EU) countries have been extracted and are presented as kilograms per hectare (pounds per acre). The total consumption of fertilizer in the EU is 15.9 million tons for 105 million hectare arable land area<ref name=arableland>{{cite web|url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2011-10-19 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006122431/http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/submitViewTableAction.do |archivedate=6 October 2014 |df=dmy }}</ref> (or 107 million hectare arable land according to another estimate<ref>[[Arable land]]</ref>). This figure equates to 151 kg of fertilizers consumed per ha arable land on average for the EU countries.

[[File:Fertilizer consumption in Europe.png|750px|The diagram displays the statistics of [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1HzGlIAHphywl3AO2-S_aXDAS0VLL4IU6V19fVptSnjs/pubchart?oid=1097435817&format=interactive fertilizer consumption] in western and central European counties from data published by The World Bank for 2012.]]

== Environmental effects ==

[[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]
[[File:EutrophicationEutrophisationEutrophierung.jpg|thumb|An [[algal bloom]] caused by eutrophication]]
{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle|Nitrogen fertilizer#Problems with inorganic fertilizer|Planetary boundaries#Biogeochemical}}

=== Water ===
{{Main article|Eutrophication}}
Agricultural run-off is a major contributor to the eutrophication of fresh water bodies. For example, in the US, about half of all the lakes are [[eutrophic]]. The main contributor to eutrophication is phosphate, which is normally a limiting nutrient; high concentrations promote the growth of cyanobacteria and algae, the demise of which consumes oxygen.<ref name=UllmannEnv/> Cyanobacteria blooms ('[[algal blooms]]') can also produce harmful [[Eutrophication#toxicity|toxins]] that can accumulate in the food chain, and can be harmful to humans.<ref name="toledo">http://www.toledofreepress.com/2014/08/02/do-not-drink-water-advisory-issued-for-city-of-toledo/</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmc=3709275|doi=10.3390/toxins5050992 | pmid=23676698 | volume=5 |title=Variations in the microcystin content of different fish species collected from a eutrophic lake |year=2013 |journal=Toxins (Basel) |pages=992–1009 | last1 = Schmidt | first1 = JR | last2 = Shaskus | first2 = M | last3 = Estenik | first3 = JF | last4 = Oesch | first4 = C | last5 = Khidekel | first5 = R | last6 = Boyer | first6 = GL}}</ref>

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of [[ocean]]s, especially in coastal zones, [[lake]]s and [[river]]s. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen greatly reduces the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean ‘Dead Zones’"], NY Times, 14 August 2008</ref> The number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines are increasing.<ref>{{cite web |author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News – Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |date= |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618192917/http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |archivedate=18 June 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in northwestern Europe<ref name=VanGrinsven2012>{{cite journal|last1=Van Grinsven|first1=H. J. M.|last2=Ten Berge, H. F. M.; Dalgaard, T.; Fraters, B.; Durand, P.; Hart, A.; ... & Willems, W. J.|title=Management, regulation and environmental impacts of nitrogen fertilization in northwestern Europe under the Nitrates Directive; a benchmark study|journal=Biogeosciences|date=2012|volume=9|pages=5143–5160|doi=10.5194/bg-9-5143-2012|url=http://www.biogeosciences.net/9/5143/2012/bg-9-5143-2012.pdf|accessdate=3 July 2014|bibcode = 2012BGeo....9.5143V }}</ref> and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Farmer's Guide To Agriculture and Water Quality Issues: 3. Environmental Requirements & Incentive Programs For Nutrient Management|url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/wq/wqp/wqpollutants/nutrients/incentives.html|website=www.cals.ncsu.edu|accessdate=3 July 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923200107/http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/wq/wqp/wqpollutants/nutrients/incentives.html|archivedate=23 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=State-EPA Nutrient Innovations Task Group|title=An Urgent Call to Action – Report of the State-EPA Nutrient Innovations Task Group|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/nitgreport.pdf|website=epa.gov|accessdate=3 July 2014|date=2009}}</ref> If eutrophication ''can'' be reversed, it may take decades{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} before the accumulated nitrates in [[groundwater]] can be broken down by natural processes.

==== Nitrate pollution ====
Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce and other plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or lost as run-off.<ref name=Nasir>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5 | title=Eutrophication of Lakes | journal=Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control | pages=55–71}}</ref> High application rates of nitrogen-containing fertilizers combined with the high [[water solubility]] of nitrate leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into [[surface water]] as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater, thereby causing [[groundwater pollution]].<ref>{{cite web|author1=C. J. Rosen |author2=B. P. Horgan |url=https://www.extension.umn.edu/garden/yard-garden/lawns/preventing-pollution-problems/ |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=9 January 2009 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |journal=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology |date= |doi=10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4 |volume=20 |pages=167–184}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=25 February 2004 |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20040324090920/http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |archivedate=24 March 2004 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The excessive use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers (be they synthetic or natural) is particularly damaging, as much of the nitrogen that is not taken up by plants is transformed into nitrate which is easily leached.<ref>{{cite journal | year = | title = Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Ecosystem Services | journal = Annual Review of Plant Biology | volume = 59 | issue = | pages = 341–363 | doi=10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932}}</ref>

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]).<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=1638204 |title = Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water | pmid=10903623 | volume=108 |year=2000 |journal=Environ. Health Perspect. |pages=675–8 | last1 = Knobeloch | first1 = L | last2 = Salna | first2 = B | last3 = Hogan | first3 = A | last4 = Postle | first4 = J | last5 = Anderson | first5 = H | doi=10.1289/ehp.00108675}}</ref> The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}

===Soil===

====Acidification====
{{See also|Soil pH|Soil acidification}}
Nitrogen-containing fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>{{cite journal|doi= 10.1126/science.324_721b |bibcode = 2009Sci...324..721S | volume=324 | title=Eutrophication: More Nitrogen Data Needed |journal=Science |pages=721–722}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.2136/sssaj2007.0071N | volume=72 | title=Phosphorus Solubility in Response to Acidification of Dairy Manure Amended Soils | journal=Soil Science Society of America Journal | pages=238}}</ref> This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]].

==== Accumulation of toxic elements ====

=====Cadmium=====

The concentration of [[cadmium]] in phosphorus-containing fertilizers varies considerably and can be problematic.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McLaughlin|first1=M. J.|last2=Tiller|first2=K. G.|last3=Naidu|first3=R.|last4=Stevens|first4=D. P.|title=Review: the behaviour and environmental impact of contaminants in fertilizers|journal=Soil Research|date=1996|volume=34|pages=1–54|doi=10.1071/sr9960001}}</ref> For example, mono-ammonium phosphate fertilizer may have a cadmium content of as low as 0.14 mg/kg or as high as 50.9 mg/kg.<ref name=Lugon2014>{{cite journal|last1=Lugon-Moulin|first1=N.|last2=Ryan|first2=L.|last3=Donini|first3=P.|last4=Rossi|first4=L.|title=Cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers used for tobacco production|journal=Agron. Sustain. Dev.|date=2006|volume=26|pages=151–155|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/88/63/51/PDF/hal-00886351.pdf|accessdate=27 June 2014|doi=10.1051/agro:2006010}}</ref> This is because the phosphate rock used in their manufacture can contain as much as 188 mg/kg cadmium<ref name=Zapata2004>{{cite web|last1=Zapata|first1=F.|last2=Roy|first2=R.N.|title=Use of Phosphate Rocks for Sustainable Agriculture: Secondary nutrients, micronutrients, liming effect and hazardous elements associated with phosphate rock use|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5053e/y5053e0d.htm|website=www.fao.org|publisher=FAO|accessdate=27 June 2014|date=2004}}</ref> (examples are deposits on [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal=J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11}}</ref> and the [[Christmas island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title=The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |pages=261–286 |doi=10.1080/00167616508728596|bibcode = 1965AuJES..12..261T }}</ref>). Continuous use of high-cadmium fertilizer can contaminate soil (as shown in New Zealand)<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of the Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 |pages=123–126 | doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8}}</ref> and plants.<ref name=Chaney2012>{{cite journal|last1=Chaney|first1=R.L.|title=Food safety issues for mineral and organic fertilizers|journal=Advances in Agronomy|date=2012|volume=117|pages=51–99|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-394278-4.00002-7}}</ref> Limits to the cadmium content of phosphate fertilizers has been considered by the [[European Commission]].<ref name=Oosterhuis2000>{{cite web|last1=Oosterhuis|first1=F.H.|last2=Brouwer|first2=F.M.|last3=Wijnants|first3=H.J.|title=A possible EU wide charge on cadmium in phosphate fertilisers: Economic and environmental implications.|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/taxation/pdf/cadium.pdf|website=dare.ubvu.vu.nl|accessdate=27 June 2014|date=2000}}</ref><ref name=FertilizersEurope2014>{{cite web|last1=Fertilizers Europe|title=Putting all the cards on the table|url=http://www.fertilizerseurope.com/fileadmin/user_upload/news_assets/FI-458-decadmiation__3_.pdf |website= www.fertilizerseurope.com |accessdate= 27 June 2014|date=2014}}</ref><ref name=Wates2014>{{cite web|last1=Wates|first1=J.|title=Revision of the EU fertilizer regulation and cadmium content of fertilisers|url=http://www.iatp.org/documents/revision-of-the-eu-fertilizer-regulation-and-cadmium-content-of-fertilisers|website=www.iatp.org|accessdate=27 June 2014|date=2014}}</ref> Producers of phosphorus-containing fertilizers now select phosphate rock based on the cadmium content.<ref name=UllmannEnv>Wilfried Werner "Fertilizers, 6. Environmental Aspects" Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2002, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.{{DOI|10.1002/14356007.n10_n05}}</ref>

=====Fluoride=====

Phosphate rocks contain high levels of fluoride. Consequently, the widespread use of phosphate fertilizers has increased soil fluoride concentrations.<ref name=Chaney2012 /> It has been found that food contamination from fertilizer is of little concern as plants accumulate little fluoride from the soil; of greater concern is the possibility of fluoride toxicity to livestock that ingest contaminated soils.<ref name=Loganathan2008>{{cite journal|last1=Loganathan|first1=P.|last2=Hedley|first2=M.J.|last3=Grace|first3=N.D.|title=Pasture soils contaminated with fertilizer-derived cadmium and fluorine: livestock effects.|journal=Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|date=2008|volume=192|pages=29–66|doi=10.1007/978-0-387-71724-1_2}}</ref><ref name=Cronin2000>{{cite journal|last1=Cronin|first1=S. J.|last2=Manoharan|first2=V.|last3=Hedley|first3=M. J.|last4=Loganathan|first4=P.|title=Fluoride: A review of its fate, bioavailability, and risks of fluorosis in grazed‐pasture systems in New Zealand|journal=New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research|date=2000|volume=43|pages=295-3214|doi=10.1080/00288233.2000.9513430}}</ref> Also of possible concern are the effects of fluoride on soil microorganisms.<ref name=Loganathan2008 /><ref name=Cronin2000 /><ref name=Wilke1987>{{cite journal|last1=Wilke|first1=B.M.|title=Fluoride-induced changes in chemical properties and microbial activity of mull, moder and mor soils|journal=Biology and Fertility of Soils|date=1987|volume=5|pages=49–55|doi=10.1007/BF00264346}}</ref>

===== Radioactive elements =====

The radioactive content of the fertilizers varies considerably and depends both on their concentrations in the parent mineral and on the fertilizer production process.<ref name=Chaney2012 /><ref name=Mortvedt2014>{{cite web|last1=Mortvedt|first1=JJ|last2=Beaton|first2=JD|title=Heavy Metal and Radionuclide Contaminants in Phosphate Fertilizers|url=http://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/scope54/6mortvedt.htm|accessdate=16 July 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726193234/http://www.scopenvironment.org/downloadpubs/scope54/6mortvedt.htm|archivedate=26 July 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Uranium-238 concentrations can range from 7 to 100 pCi/g in phosphate rock<ref name=EPA2016>{{cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm-fertilizer-and-fertilizer-production-wastes|title=TENORM: Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=2016|publisher=US EPA|accessdate=30 August 2017}}</ref> and from 1 to 67 pCi/g in phosphate fertilizers.<ref name=Khater2008>{{cite web|last1=Khater|first1=A. E. M.|title=Uranium and heavy metals in phosphate fertilizers|url=http://www.radioecology.info/Bergen2008/proceedings/26.%20Khater%20Uranium%20P.pdf|website=www.radioecology.info|accessdate=17 July 2014|date=2008}}</ref><ref name=NCRP1987>{{cite book|last1=NCRP|title=Radiation Exposure of the U.S. Population from Consumer Products and Miscellaneous Sources|date=1987|publisher=National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements|pages=29–32|url=http://f3.tiera.ru/1/genesis/575-579/575000/1160670d5da187ab055c34ebc07487cf|accessdate=17 July 2014}}{{dead link|date=January 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref> Where high annual rates of phosphorus fertilizer are used, this can result in uranium-238 concentrations in soils and drainage waters that are several times greater than are normally present.<ref name=NCRP1987 /><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5}}</ref> However, the impact of these increases on the [[Sievert#Dose examples|risk to human health]] from radinuclide contamination of foods is very small (less than 0.05 m[[Sievert|Sv]]/y).<ref name=NCRP1987 /><ref name=Hanlon2012>{{cite web|last1=Hanlon|first1=E. A.|title=Naturally Occurring Radionuclides in Agricultural Products|url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ss441|website=edis.ifas.ufl.edu|publisher=University of Florida|accessdate=17 July 2014|date=2012}}</ref><ref name=Sharpley1987>{{cite journal|last1=Sharpley|first1=A. N.|last2=Menzel|first2=R. G.|title=The impact of soil and fertilizer phosphorus on the environment|journal=Advances in Agronomy|date=1987|volume=41|pages=297–324|doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60807-x}}</ref>

===== Other metals =====

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web|last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |title=Business | Fear In The Fields – How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer – Spreading Heavy Metals On Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe | Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=3 July 1997 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat Of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=3 July 1997 |accessdate=25 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=25 August 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20020111124358/http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |archivedate=11 January 2002 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=FAO2004>{{cite book|last1=Zapata|first1=F|last2=Roy|first2=RN|title=Use of phosphate rocks for sustainable agriculture|date=2004|publisher=FAO|location=Rome|page=82|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/y5053e/y5053e00.pdf|accessdate=16 July 2014}}</ref> These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water-soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households, such as [[Miracle-Gro]]. These highly water-soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. There are also some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers made with high purity ingredients.

==== Trace mineral depletion ====
Attention has been addressed to the decreasing concentrations of elements such as iron, zinc, copper and magnesium in many foods over the last 50–60 years.<ref name=Davis2004>{{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=D.R.|last2=Epp|first2=M.D.|last3=Riordan|first3=H.D.|title=Changes in USDA Food Composition Data for 43 Garden Crops, 1950 to 1999|journal=Journal of the American College of Nutrition|date=2004|volume=23|pages=669–682|doi=10.1080/07315724.2004.10719409}}</ref><ref name=Thomas2007>{{cite journal|last1=Thomas|first1=D.|title=The mineral depletion of foods available to us as a nation (1940–2002) – A Review of the 6th Edition of McCance and Widdowson|journal=Nutrition and Health|date=2007|volume=19|pages=21–55|doi=10.1177/026010600701900205}}</ref> [[Intensive farming]] practices, including the use of synthetic fertilizers are frequently suggested as reasons for these declines and organic farming is often suggested as a solution.<ref name=Thomas2007 /> Although improved crop yields resulting from NPK fertilizers are known to dilute the concentrations of other nutrients in plants,<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Jarrell1981>{{cite journal|last1=Jarrell|first1=W.M.|last2=Beverly|first2=R.B.|title=The Dilution Effect in Plant Nutrition Studies|journal=Advances in Agronomy|date=1981|volume=34|pages=197–224|doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(08)60887-1}}</ref> much of the measured decline can be attributed to the use of progressively higher-yielding crop varieties which produce foods with lower mineral concentrations than their less productive ancestors.<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Fan2008>{{cite journal|last1=Fan|first1=M. S.|last2=Zhao|first2=F. J.|last3=Fairweather-Tait|first3=S. J.|last4=Poulton|first4=P. R.|last5=Dunham|first5=S. J.|last6=McGrath|first6=S. P.|title=Evidence of decreasing mineral density in wheat grain over the last 160 years.|journal=Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology|date=2008|volume=22|pages=315–324|doi=10.1016/j.jtemb.2008.07.002}}</ref><ref name=Zhao2009>{{cite journal|last1=Zhao|first1=F. J.|last2=Su|first2=Y. H.|last3=Dunham|first3=S. J.|last4=Rakszegi|first4=M.|last5=Bedo|first5=Z.|last6=McGrath|first6=S. P.|last7=Shewry|first7=P. R.|title=Variation in mineral micronutrient concentrations in grain of wheat lines of diverse origin.|journal=Journal of Cereal Science|date=2009|volume=49|pages=290–295|doi=10.1016/j.jcs.2008.11.007}}</ref> It is, therefore, unlikely that organic farming or reduced use of fertilizers will solve the problem; foods with high nutrient density are posited to be achieved using older, lower-yielding varieties or the development of new high-yield, nutrient-dense varieties.<ref name=Davis2004 /><ref name=Saltzman2013>{{cite journal|last1=Saltzman|first1=A.|last2=Birol|first2=E.|last3=Bouis|first3=H. E.|last4=Boy|first4=E.|last5=De Moura|first5=F.F.|last6=Islam|first6=Y.|last7=Pfeiffer|first7=W. H.|title=Biofortification: progress toward a more nourishing future|journal=Global Food Security|date=2013|volume=2|pages=9–17|doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2012.12.003}}</ref>

Fertilizers are, in fact, more likely to solve trace mineral deficiency problems than cause them: In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref name=Moore>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Geoff|title=Soilguide - A handbook for understanding and managing agricultural soils|year=2001|publisher=Agriculture Western Australia|location=Perth, Western Australia|isbn=0 7307 0057 7|pages=161–207|url=http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/lwe/rpm/landcap/soilguide_introduction.pdf}}</ref> Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements.<ref name="Moore"/> Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.<ref name="Moore"/> Many other soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in both plants and humans, and zinc fertilizers are widely used to solve this problem.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc in Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=25 August 2010 |accessdate=17 June 2012}}</ref>

==== Changes in soil biology ====
High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[mycorrhiza]]l fungi.<ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780881926118}}</ref>

=== Energy consumption and sustainability ===
In the USA in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas were consumed in the industrial [[Ammonia production|production of ammonia]], less than 1.5% of total U.S. [[List of countries by natural gas consumption|annual consumption of natural gas]].<ref name="Abram">{{Cite journal | title=A Primer on Ammonia, Nitrogen Fertilizers, and Natural Gas Markets |author1=Aleksander Abram |author2=D. Lynn Forster | publisher=Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University | year=2005 | page=38}}</ref>
A 2002 report suggested that the production of ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.<ref name="ifa">[http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp IFA – Statistics – Fertilizer Indicators – Details – Raw material reserves, (2002–10)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424083111/http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp |date=24 April 2008 }}</ref>

Ammonia is produced from [[natural gas]] and air.<ref name=Appl>{{cite book|last=Appl|first=Max|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 3|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=139–225 |doi=10.1002/14356007.o02_o11}}</ref> The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306075446/http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|archivedate=6 March 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==== Contribution to climate change ====
The [[greenhouse gas]]es [[carbon dioxide]], [[methane]] and [[nitrous oxide]] are produced during the [[Haber process|manufacture]] of nitrogen fertilizer. The effects can be combined into an equivalent amount of carbon dioxide. The amount varies according to the efficiency of the process. The figure for the United Kingdom is over 2 kilogrammes of carbon dioxide equivalent for each kilogramme of ammonium nitrate.<ref name="Wood and Annette Cowie">{{Cite journal | title=A Review of Greenhouse Gas Emission Factors for Fertiliser Production |author1=Sam Wood |author2=Annette Cowie | publisher=IEA Bioenergy IEA Bioenergy | year=2004 }}</ref>
Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[nitrous oxide]], a [[greenhouse gas]].

=== Atmosphere ===
[[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]]
Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which was used at a rate of about 110 million tons (of N) per year in 2012,<ref name=FAO2012>{{cite book|last1=FAO|title=Current world fertilizer trends and outlook to 2016|date=2012|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|location=Rome|page=13|url=ftp://ftp.fao.org/ag/agp/docs/cwfto16.pdf|accessdate=3 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/nature06592|bibcode = 2008Natur.451..293G | volume=451 | title=An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle |journal=Nature |pages=293–296 |pmid=18202647 | last1 = Gruber | first1 = N | last2 = Galloway | first2 = JN}}</ref> adding to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N2O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114121452/http://initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf |date=14 January 2009 }} [[UNESCO]] – [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref>
By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on anthropogenic [[climate change]].<ref name=Roy2002>{{cite journal|last1=Roy|first1=R. N.|last2=Misra|first2=R. V.|last3=Montanez|first3=A.|title=Decreasing reliance on mineral nitrogen-yet more food|journal=AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment|date=2002|volume=31|issue=2|pages=177–183|doi=10.1579/0044-7447-31.2.177|url=http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/decreasing_reliance_on_mineral_nitrogenyet_more_food_364.pdf|accessdate=3 July 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6XSv1br98?url=http://www.planta.cn/forum/files_planta/decreasing_reliance_on_mineral_nitrogenyet_more_food_364.pdf|archivedate=1 April 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers. These emissions contribute to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots ">{{cite journal|last1=Bodelier|first1=Paul, L.E.|author2=Peter Roslev3, Thilo Henckel1 & Peter Frenzel1|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424 |pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193 |bibcode=2000Natur.403..421B}}</ref><ref name=Banger2012>{{cite journal|last1=Banger|first1=K.|last2=Tian|first2=H.|last3=Lu|first3=C.|title=Do nitrogen fertilizers stimulate or inhibit methane emissions from rice fields?|journal=Global Change Biology|date=2012|volume=18|issue=10|pages=3259–3267|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2486.2012.02762.x}}</ref>

===Regulation===
In Europe problems with high nitrate concentrations in run-off are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within Britain, farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110630000845/http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/|archivedate=30 June 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In the US, high concentrations of nitrate and phosphorus in runoff and drainage water are classified as non-point source pollutants due to their diffuse origin; this pollution is regulated at state level.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polluted Runoff: Nonpoint Source Pollution|url=http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/nps/|publisher=EPA|accessdate=23 July 2014}}</ref> Oregon and Washington, both in the United States, have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=23 May 2012 |accessdate=17 June 2012}}</ref><ref>http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ Washington and Oregon links</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]]
{{Main article|History of fertilizer}}

Management of [[soil fertility]] has been the preoccupation of farmers for thousands of years. Egyptians, Romans, Babylonians, and early Germans all are recorded as using minerals and or manure to enhance the productivity of their farms.<ref name=Ullmann1/> The modern science of plant nutrition started in the 19th century and the work of German chemist [[Justus von Liebig]], among others. [[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulfuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]], with whom he carried on for more than half a century on experiments in raising crops at the [[Rothamsted Research|Institute of Arable Crops Research]].<ref>{{EB1911|wstitle=Lawes, Sir John Bennet}}</ref>

The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen based fertilizer production.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The development of modern chemistry
| author = Aaron John Ihde
| publisher = Courier Dover Publications
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-486-64235-6
| page = 678
}}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N2) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO3−). A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway, combined with the building of large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture
| author = G. J. Leigh
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-19-516582-9
| pages = 134–139
}}</ref>

The 1910s and 1920s witness the rise of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from [[methane]] (CH4) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2). The ammonia from the Haber process is then converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950
| author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams
| author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1982
| isbn = 0-19-858159-9
| pages = 134–135
}}</ref> The development of synthetic fertilizer has significantly supported global [[population growth]] — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Erisman|first1=Jan Willem|author2=MA Sutton, J Galloway, Z Klimont, W Winiwarter|title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|pages=636–639|date=October 2008|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|accessdate=22 October 2010|issue=10|bibcode=2008NatGe...1..636E|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100723223052/http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|archivedate=23 July 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The use of commercial fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million [[tonnes]] of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal |last=Glass |first=Anthony |date=September 2003 |title= Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal= Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |volume=22 |issue=5 |doi= 10.1080/713989757 |pages= 453–470}}</ref> Without commercial fertilizers it is estimated that about one-third of the food produced now could not be produced.<ref>Commercial fertilizers increase crop yields [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/food-and-soil.php]. Accessed 9 April 2012.</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per [[hectare]] ({{cvt|1|ha|acre |1|disp=out}}) requires {{convert|31|–|50|kg}} of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied; soybean crops require about half, as 20–25 kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal |author2=Uhde-Stone & Allan |year=2003 |title= Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource |journal= New Phythologist |volume=157 |pages= 423–447 |jstor= 1514050 |author1= Vance, Carroll P |issue=3 |publisher= Blackwell Publishing |doi= 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x}}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen-based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105 |title= Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=18 February 2010 |publisher= The Economist |accessdate= 21 February 2010}}</ref>

Controlled-nitrogen-release technologies based on polymers derived from combining urea and formaldehyde were first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.<ref name=SRN>{{Cite journal |url= http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/
| title= Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen |author= J. B. Sartain, University of Florida
| journal= Grounds Maintenance |year=2011}}</ref> The early product had 60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick-release) less than 15%. Methylene [[ureas]] were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, having 25% and 60% of the nitrogen as cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the range of 15% to 30%.

In the 1960s, the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]] National Fertilizer Development Center began developing sulfur-coated urea; sulfur was used as the principal coating material because of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.<ref name=SRN/> Usually there is another wax or polymer which seals the sulfur; the slow-release properties depend on the degradation of the secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the sulfur. They typically provide 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications. When a hard polymer is used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles and traditional sulfur-coated.

== See also ==

* [[Agroecology]]
* [[Circulus (theory)]]
* [[Fertigation]]
* [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]
* [[History of organic farming]]
* [[Milorganite]]
* [[Phosphogypsum]]
* [[Soil defertilisation]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fertilizers}}
{{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}

* [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process]
* [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)]
* [http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization]
* [http://www.nutrientstewardship.com/ 4R's Nutrient Stewardship program from The Fertilizer Institute ]
{{PlantMineralDeficiency}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Fertilizers| ]]

Fertilizer

2013-01-03T06:44:32Z

Explodingbrain: Added reference for "Nutrient contents are very variable and their release to available forms that the plant can use may not occur at the right plant growth stage."

[[File:TVA Results of Fertilizer.gif|thumb|[[Tennessee Valley Authority]]: "Results of Fertilizer" demonstration 1942]]
[[File:Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg|thumb|A large, modern fertilizer spreader]]
[[File:Lite-trac Spreader.jpg|thumb|A [[Lite-Trac]] Agri-Spread lime and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show]]

'''Fertilizer''' (or '''fertiliser''') is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.<ref name="SSSA Glossary of Soil Science Terms">{{cite web|title=Glossary of Soil Science Terms|url=https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary#|publisher=[[Soil Science Society of America]]|accessdate=May 10, 2011}}</ref> Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.<ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=W.M.|last2=Dibb|first2=D.W.|last3=Johnston|first3=A.E.|last4=Smyth|first4=T.J.|year=2005|title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production|journal=Agronomy Journal|volume=97|pages=1–6|doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001}}</ref> European fertilizer market is expected to grow to €15.3 billion by 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/fertilizers |title=Market Study on Fertilizers |publisher= Ceresana.com}}</ref>

Mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for many centuries, whereas chemically synthesized inorganic fertilizers were only widely developed during the [[industrial revolution]]. Increased understanding and use of fertilizers were important parts of the pre-industrial [[British Agricultural Revolution]] and the industrial [[Green Revolution]] of the 20th century.

Inorganic fertilizer use has also significantly supported global [[population growth]] — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erisman|first=Jan Willem|coauthors=MA Sutton, J Galloway, Z Klimont, W Winiwarter|title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|year=2008|page=636|month=October|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|accessdate=October 22, 2010|issue=10}}</ref>

Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:

* six macronutrients: [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), [[potassium]] (K), [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S);
* eight micronutrients: [[boron]] (B), [[chlorine]] (Cl), [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilization|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn) and [[nickel]] (Ni) (1987).

The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (0% moisture) basis (DM). Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts per million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.htm |title=AESL Plant Analysis Handbook – Nutrient Content of Plant |publisher=Aesl.ces.uga.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author=H.A. Mills, J.B. Jones Jr.|year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|isbn=1-878148-05-2}}</ref>

Only three other macronutrients are required by all plants: [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]]. These nutrients are supplied by water and carbon dioxide.

The nitrogen-rich fertilizer [[ammonium nitrate]] is also used as an [[oxidizing agent]] in [[improvised explosive device]]s, sometimes called ''[[fertilizer bomb]]s'', leading to sale regulations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhs.gov/files/laws/ammonium-nitrate-regulations.shtm |title=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |publisher=Dhs.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

== Labeling of chemical fertilizer ==
{{Main|Labeling of fertilizer}}

The labeling of fertilizers varies. In most countries the macronutrients are labeled with an ''[[NPK rating|NPK]]'' analysis (in Australia, "N-P-K-S" adding [[sulfur]]).<ref name="Draft Code of Practice for Fertilier Description and Labeling">{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:CgW191hwEBIJ:www.fifa.asn.au/files/pdf/regulation/Draft%2520Code%2520of%2520Practice%2520for%2520Fertilizer%2520Description%2520%26%2520aaaaaaLabelling.pdf+labeling+of+fertilizer&hl=en&gl=us&sig=AHIEtbSJjp1liw8XbwDLtw2aqua-xK0n1g |title=Draft Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description and Labeling |date=2008-09-15|publisher=Fertilizer Industry Federation Association (FIFA)|accessdate=February 3, 2010}}</ref>

The three numbers on the fertilizer label represent an analysis of the composition by weight. These three numbers correspond to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K) and always appear in that specific order. When a 4th number is included, it indicates the sulfur content (N-P-K-S).

While the number for "N" represents the percentage weight of nitrogen, in some European countries, the other two components are not for the analysis of the element, but rather, the analysis of the "available" or "soluble" form of the element. In traditional chemical analysis, the tests used treated the sample so as to measure the equivalent P2O5 and K2O. For instance, some potassium-bearing rocks do not count as having available potassium.

Similarly the number for "P" in some countries is actually the weight of an equivalent quantity of P2O5 whereas in others (including Australia) it refers to elemental phosphorus. In order to calculate the weight of P in the formulation, the weight of P2O5 can be multiplied by 0.44 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of P2O5, but only 4.4 pounds of P.

Likewise, the number for "K" in Europe can refer to the weight of an equivalent quantity of K2O, whereas in Australia it refers to elemental potassium. In order to calculate the weight of K in the formulation, the weight of K2O can be multiplied by 0.83 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of K2O, but only 8.3 pounds of K.

As an example, the fertilizer ''[[potash]]'' (in modern times, muriate of potash or potassium chloride) is composed of 52% potassium and 48% chlorine by weight; chemical analysis of 100g of potassium chloride ([[KCl]]), would show 63g of equivalent potassium oxide ([[potassium oxide|K2O]]) when done in the manner of fertilizer analysis. The ''percentage yield'' of K2O from the original 100g of fertilizer is the number shown on the label. A potash fertilizer would thus be labeled 0-0-63, and ''not' (except in Australia and some other countries) ' 0-0-52.

== History ==
[[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]]
{{Main|History of fertilizer}}

Management of [[soil fertility]] has been the pre-occupation of farmers for thousands of years. The start of the modern science of plant nutrition dates to the 19th century and the work of [[Justus von Liebig]], among others.

[[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]], with whom he carried on for more than half a century on experiments in raising crops at the [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]].

The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen based fertilizer production. It was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist [[Kristian Birkeland]] along with his business partner [[Sam Eyde]] in 1903, based on a method used by [[Henry Cavendish]] in 1784.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The development of modern chemistry
| author = Aaron John Ihde
| publisher = Courier Dover Publications
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-486-64235-6
| page = 678
}}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N2) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO3-) in the reaction

HNO3 → H+ + NO3-

which may take place in the presence of water or another [[proton acceptor]]. Nitrate is an ion which plants can absorb.

A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway, combined with the building of large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture
| author = G. J. Leigh
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-19-516582-9
| pages = 134–139
}}</ref>

The Birkeland-Eyde process is relatively inefficient in terms of energy consumption. Therefore, in the 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a combination of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from [[methane]] (CH4) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2). The ammonia from the Haber process is then converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950
| author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams
| author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1982
| isbn = 0-19-858159-9
| pages = 134–135
}}</ref>

== Forms ==
Fertilizers come in various forms. The most typical form is solid fertilizer in granulated or powdered forms. The next most common form is liquid fertilizer; some advantages of liquid fertilizer are its immediate effect and wide coverage.

There are also slow-release fertilizers (various forms including fertilizer spikes, tabs, etc.) which reduce the problem of "burning" the plants due to excess nitrogen. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a [http://www.agritab.com 'true time-release'] or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients.

More recently, [[organic fertilizer]] is on the rise as people are resorting to [[environmental friendly]] (or 'green') products. Although organic fertilizers usually contain a lower concentration of nutrients, this lower concentration avoids complication of nitrogen burn harming the plants. In addition, organic fertilizers such as compost and worm castings break down slowly into complex organic structures ([[humus]]) which build the soil's structure and moisture- and nutrient-retaining capabilities.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

== Inorganic commercial fertilizer ==
Fertilizers are broadly divided into '''[[organic compound|organic]] fertilizers''' (composed of organic plant or animal matter), or '''[[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or commercial fertilizers'''. Plants can only absorb their required [[plant nutrition|nutrients]] if they are present in easily dissolved chemical compounds. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers provide the same needed chemical compounds. Organic fertilizers provided other macro and micro plant nutrients and are released as the organic matter decays—this may take months or years. Organic fertilizers nearly always have much lower concentrations of plant nutrients and have the usual problems of economical collection, treatment, transportation and distribution.

Inorganic fertilizers nearly always are readily dissolved and unless added have few other macro and micro plant nutrients. Nearly all nitrogen that plants use is in the form of NH3 or NO3 compounds. The usable phosphorus compounds are usually in the form of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and the potassium (K) is typically in the form of potassium chloride (KCl). In organic fertilizers nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds are released from the complex organic compounds as the animal or plant matter decays. In commercial fertilizers the same required compounds are available in easily dissolved compounds that require no decay—they can be used almost immediately after water is applied. Inorganic fertilizers are usually much more concentrated with up to 64% (18-46-0) of their weight being a given plant nutrient, compared to organic fertilizers that only provide 0.4% or less of their weight as a given [[plant nutrition|plant nutrient]].<ref>NPK ratios of common organic materials [http://permaculture.org.au/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Nitrogen fertilizers are often made using the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]] (invented about 1915) which uses natural gas (CH4+) for the hydrogen and nitrogen gas (N2) from the air at an elevated temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to form [[ammonia]] (NH3) as the end product. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] ([[Nitrogen|N]][[Hydrogen|H]]4[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]3) and [[urea]] ([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]]([[nitrogen|N]][[hydrogen|H]]2)2). These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g. [[UAN]]). Deposits of potassium nitrate (NaNO3) ([[saltpeter]]) are also found the [[Atacama desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen rich inorganic fertilizers used. It is still mined for fertilizer.

In the [[Nitrophosphate process]] or [[Odda Process]] (invented in 1927), [[phosphate rock]] with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) to produce a mixture of [[phosphoric acid]] (H3PO4) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2). This can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with all three N:P:K: plant nutrients in easily dissolved form.

[[Phosphate rock]] can also be processed into water-soluble phosphate (P2O5) with the addition of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to make the phosphoric acid in phosphate fertilizers. Phosphate can also be reduced in an electric furnace to make high purity phosphorus; however, this is more expensive than the acid process.

[[Potash]] can be used to make potassium (K) fertilizers. All commercial potash deposits come originally from marine deposits and are often buried deep in the earth. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl) and are obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. For deep potash deposits hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. [[Amine]] reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for [[plant nutrition]].<ref>Potash KCl fertilizer production [http://www.ipni.net/ipniweb/portal.nsf/0/68907f5d1e5922f8062577ce006ad872/$FILE/K%20Fert%20Prod%20&%20Tech%2011%2016%2010.pdf] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Compound fertilizers often combine N, P and K fertilizers into easily dissolved pellets. The N:P:K ratios quoted on fertilizers give the weight percent of the fertilizer in nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O equivalent)

The use of commercial inorganic fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million tonnes of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal|last=Glass|first=Anthony |date=September 2003|title=Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences|volume=22|issue=5|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/bpts/2003/00000022/00000005/art00003|doi=10.1080/713989757|page=453}}</ref> Without commercial fertilizers it is estimated that about one-third of the food produced now could not be produced.<ref>Commercial fertilizers increase crop yields [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/food-and-soil.php] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per hectare requires 31–50 kg of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied, soybean requires 20–25 kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vance|coauthors=Uhde-Stone & Allan|year=2003|title=Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource|journal=New Phythologist|volume=157|pages=423–447|jstor=1514050|author1=Vance, Carroll P|issue=3|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|doi=10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x}}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105|title=Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=February 18, 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=February 21, 2010}}</ref>

=== Controlled-release types ===
Urea and formaldehyde, reacted together to produce sparingly soluble polymers of various molecular weights, is one of the oldest controlled-nitrogen-release technologies, having been first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.<ref name=SRN>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/
| title=Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen |author=J. B. Sartain, University of Florida
| journal=Grounds Maintenance |date= (c)2011}}</ref> The early product had 60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick release) less than 15%. Methylene ureas were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, having 25 and 60% of the nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the range of 15 to 30%. Isobutylidene diurea, unlike the methylurea polymers, is a single crystalline solid of relatively uniform properties, with about 90% of the nitrogen water-insoluble.

In the 1960s, the [[National Fertilizer Development Center]] began developing Sulfur-coated urea; sulfur was used as the principle coating material because of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.<ref name=SRN/> Usually there is another wax or polymer which seals the sulfur; the slow release properties depend on the degradation of the secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the sulfur. They typically provide 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications. When a hard polymer is used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles and traditional sulfur-coated.

Other coated products use thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce diffusion-controlled release of urea or soluble inorganic fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a paraffin topcoat.

Besides being more efficient in the utilization of the applied nutrients, slow-release technologies also reduce the impact on the environment and the contamination of the subsurface water.<ref name=SRN/>

{| align="right" class="wikitable" style="margin:10px"
|+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options, Table 3.3 retrieved Jun 29, 2009] United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</ref>
|-
! Country
! Total N use
(Mt pa)
! Amt. used for feed/pasture
(Mt pa)
|-
| China
| 18.7
| 3.0
|-
| U.S.
| 9.1
| 4.7
|-
| France
| 2.5
| 1.3
|-
| Germany
| 2.0
| 1.2
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| 1.7
| 0.7
|-
| Canada
| 1.6
| 0.9
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| 1.5
| 0.3
|-
| UK
| 1.3
| 0.9
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| 1.3
| 0.3
|-
| Spain
| 1.2
| 0.5
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| 0.4
| 0.1
|}

=== Application ===
Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

Studies have shown that application of nitrogen fertilizer on off-season [[cover crops]] can increase the biomass (and subsequent [[green manure]] value) of these crops, while having a beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels for the main crop planted during the summer season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/544836/ |title=Nitrogen Applied |publisher=Newswise.com |date=2008-07-19 |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

Nutrients in soil can be thrown out of balance with high concentrations of fertilizers. The interconnectedness and complexity of this [[soil food web|soil ‘food web’]] means any appraisal of soil function must necessarily take into account interactions with the living communities that exist within the soil. Stability of the system is reduced by the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, which cause [[soil acidification]].

Applying excessive amounts of fertilizer has negative environmental effects, and wastes the growers' time and money. To avoid over-application, the nutrient status of crops should be assessed. Nutrient deficiency can be detected by visually assessing the physical symptoms of the crop. [[Nitrogen deficiency]], for example has a distinctive presentation in some species. However, quantitative tests are more reliable for detecting nutrient deficiency before it has significantly affected the crop. Both [[soil test]]s and [[Plant Tissue Test]]s are used in agriculture to fine-tune nutrient management to the crops needs.

=== Problems with inorganic fertilizer ===
See also [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Negative_environmental_effects|Negative environmental effects]]

==== Water pollution ====
The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Nitrates and watercourses|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/}}</ref> In Europe these problems are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within Britain farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/}}</ref>

==== Contamination with impurities ====
Common agricultural grade phosphate fertilizers usually contain impurities such as fluorides, cadmium and uranium, although concentrations of the latter two [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] are dependent on the source of the phosphate and the production process. These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households. These highly water soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. There are also some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers made with high purity ingredients.

Oregon and Washington in U. S. have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=2012-05-23 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ Washington and Oregon links</ref>

The most widely used inorganic fertilizer is super-phosphate and its double and triple strengthed derivatives double super and triple super. Super phosphate was first developed by Lawes at the Rothamstead Agricultural Research Institute in England in the early 19th Century.<ref>http://what-when-how.com/scientists/lawes-sir-john-bennet-1814-1900-english-agriculturist-scientist</ref> Lawes added sulfuric acid to conventional rock phosphate containing the mineral apatite, a calcium fluoro-phosphate. The resulting water soluble phosphorus was able to significantly improve yields on a variety of crops at the Rothamstead Centre and the Superphosphate industry was born.
Unfortunately over decades of subsequent usage - it became clear that the solubilisation of fluorine also occurred in the process and this had the same effect as the other halogen sterilants(chlorine, bromine, iodine) over time - soil sterilization.<ref>[http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf]</ref>

==== Fertilizer dependency ====
Effectively farmers unknowingly became 100% dependent on 'bought in' water soluble, inorganic fertilizers since the sterilization of soil microflora including its mycorrhiza, reduced the availability of other natural and trace minerals within the soil. This to some extent explains the resurgence of interest in organic and particularly 'biodynamic' farming systems since these systems replace the essential soil organisms so essential to converting soil minerals into plant available (but rarely water soluble) nutrients.<ref>[http://204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf 204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf Ahmad Ali Khan, et. al., ''Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria: Occurrence, Mechanisms and their Role in Crop Production,'' J. AGRIC. BIOL. SCI. 1(1):48-58, 2009]</ref> They do this by a variety of processes including chelation whereby essential minerals become plant available - as measured by weak citric acid extraction techniques. Hence the citric acid solubility of phosphate rocks has emerged as a measure of plant availability and enabled so-called 'reactive' phosphate rocks to be used as fertilizer minerals. These should not be confused with high fluorine apatite rocks in which the fluoride content performs a similar function to its role in hardening teeth enamel, i.e. immobilizing phosphorus. This explains the oceanic origins of many of these high fluorine rocks (Christmas Island, Ocean Island) since the fluorine absorbed from the sea has prevented what were originally massive deposits of bird guano - from being leached from the coral based limestone rocks on which they were originally deposited.

==== Soil acidification ====
Also regular use of acidulated fertilizers generally contribute to the accumulation of soil acidity in soils which progressively increases aluminium availability and hence toxicity. The use of such acidulated fertilizers in the tropical and semi-tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia has contributed to soil degradation on a large scale from aluminium toxicity, which can only be countered by applications of limestone or preferably magnesian dolomite, which neutralises acid soil pH and also provides essential magnesium.

==== Trace mineral depletion ====
Many inorganic fertilizers, particularly those based on superphosphate, may not replace [[trace mineral]] elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{cite book | first=Felicity | last=Lawrence | year=2004 | title=Not on the Label | chapter=214 | editor=Kate Barker | page=213 | publisher=Penguin | isbn=0-14-101566-7 }}</ref>
Explanations for this include the early encouragement of so-called "luxury consumption" of trace elements as a result of their acidulation and subsequent dissolution in soil water, by free sulphuric acid sourced from superphosphate. This mechanism has also been identified as a possible causal agent for take-up of the heavy metal cadmium from superphosphate based fertilizers.
In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref name=Moore>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Geoff|title=Soilguide - A handbook for understanding and managing agricultural soils|year=2001|publisher=Agriculture Western Australia|location=Perth, Western Australia|isbn=0 7307 0057 7|pages=161-207|url=http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/lwe/rpm/landcap/soilguide_introduction.pdf}}</ref> Such nutrients are described as 'rate limiting' nutrients. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements.<ref name="Moore"/> Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.<ref name="Moore"/>

Many soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in plants and humans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc is Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2010-08-25 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

==== Overfertilization ====
{{See also|Fertilizer burn}}
[[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]]

Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as underfertilization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> "Fertilizer burn" can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in drying out of the leaves and damage or even death of the plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.improve-your-garden-soil.com/fertilizer-burn.html |title=Avoiding Fertilizer Burn |publisher=Improve-your-garden-soil.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

==== High energy consumption ====
In the USA in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas was consumed in the industrial [[Ammonia production|production of ammonia]], less than 1.5% of total U.S. annual consumption of natural gas.<ref name="Abram">{{Cite document | title=A Primer on Ammonia, Nitrogen Fertilizers, and Natural Gas Markets | author=Aleksander Abram and D. Lynn Forster | publisher=Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University | year=2005 | page=38}}</ref>
A 2002 report suggested that the production of ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.<ref name="ifa">[http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp IFA – Statistics – Fertilizer Indicators – Details – Raw material reserves, (2002–10)]</ref>

Ammonia is overwhelmingly produced from natural gas, but other energy sources, together with a [[Hydrogen production|hydrogen source]] such as water (via [[water splitting]] or [[electrolysis]])<ref name=Häussinger>{{cite book|last=Häussinger|first=Peter|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 18|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=249-307|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.o13_o03/abstract|author=Peter Häussinger|authorlink=Hydrogen, 2. Production|coauthors=Reiner Lohmüller, Allan M. Watson}}</ref>, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds suitable for fertilizers.<ref name=Appl>{{cite book|last=Appl|first=Max|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 3|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=139-225|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.o02_o11/abstract|authorlink=Ammonia, 2. Production Processes|accessdate=3 January 2013}}</ref> The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.}}</ref>

==== Contribution to climate change ====
Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous_oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[Nitrous_oxide|nitrous oxide]], a [[Greenhouse_gas|greenhouse gas]].

==== Impacts on mycorrhizas ====
High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. <ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780881926118}}</ref>

==== Lack of long-term sustainability ====
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued indefinitely by definition as the resources used in their production are [[non-renewable]]. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or [[Salt lake|saline lakes]] such as the [[Dead Sea]]) and such resources are limited. However, more effective fertilizer utilization practices may decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of crop production practices can potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the critical need to improve and increase crop yields. Atmospheric (''[[nitrogen fixation|unfixed]]'') nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming over 70% of the [[atmospheric gas]]es), but this is not in a form useful to plants. To make nitrogen accessible to plants requires [[nitrogen fixation]] (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-accessible form).

Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using [[fossil fuel]]s such as natural gas and coal, which are limited resources. In lieu of converting natural gas to [[syngas]] for use in the [[Haber process]], it is also possible to convert renewable [[biomass]] to syngas (or [[wood gas]]) to supply the necessary energy for the process, though the amount of land and resources (ironically often including fertilizer) necessary for such a project may be prohibitive.

== Organic fertilizer ==
{{Main|Organic fertilizer}}
[[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]]
[[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]]

Organic fertilizers include naturally occurring organic materials, (e.g. [[chicken litter]], [[manure]], [[worm castings]], [[compost]], [[seaweed]], [[guano]], [[bone meal]]) or naturally occurring mineral deposits (e.g. [[Sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]). [[Poultry litter]] and cattle manure often create environmental and disposal problems, making their use as fertilizer beneficial. Bones can be processed into phosphate-rich bone meal; however, most are simply buried in landfills.

Even if all bones, human, animal and plant wastes were recovered to the extent practical and used for fertilizer, mineral fertilizers and synthetic nitrogen would still be required to make for losses to leaching, to the atmosphere, runoff and the losses impractical to recover.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

=== Benefits of organic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizers have been known to improve biodiversity ([[soil life]]) and long-term productivity of soil,<ref name="Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization">{{cite journal|last=Enwall|first=Karin|coauthors=Laurent Philippot,2 and Sara Hallin1|date=December 2005|title=Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|publisher=American Society for Microbiology|volume=71|issue=2|pages=8335–8343|url=http://aem.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/71/12/8335|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|pmid=16332820|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.12.8335-8343.2005|pmc=1317341}}</ref><ref name="Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity ">{{cite journal|last=Birkhofera|first=Klaus|coauthors= T. Martijn Bezemerb, c, d, Jaap Bloeme, Michael Bonkowskia, Søren Christensenf, David Duboisg, Fleming Ekelundf, Andreas Fließbachh, Lucie Gunstg, Katarina Hedlundi, Paul Mäderh, Juha Mikolaj, Christophe Robink, Heikki Setäläj, Fabienne Tatin-Frouxk, Wim H. Van der Puttenb, c and Stefan Scheua|date=September 2008|title=Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |publisher=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |volume=40|issue=9|pages=2297–2308 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TC7-4SR67X8-1&_user=10&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1189586172&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=835b56d01da86058b98352b95f68d2d8|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.05.007}}</ref> and may prove a large depository for excess [[carbon dioxide]].<ref name=" Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security">{{cite journal|last=Lal|first=R.|title= Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;304/5677/1623|publisher=[[Science (journal)]]|pmid=15192216|doi=10.1126/science.1097396|year=2004|volume=304|issue=5677|pages=1623–7|journal=Science}}</ref><ref name="Organic farming switch quadruples soil CO2 storage capacity">{{cite web|url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/280491/change_farming_to_cut_co2_emissions_by_25_per_cent.html|title=Change farming to cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent|last=Rees |first=Eifion|date= July 3, 2009|publisher=The Ecologist|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1755-1315/6/24/.../ees9_6_242025.pdf|title=ClimateChange: GlobalRisks,ChallengesandDecisions|last=Fliessbach|first=A.|coauthors=P Maeder(2), A Diop(3), LWM Luttikholt(1), N Scialabba(4), U Niggli(2), Paul Hepperly(3), T LaSalle(3) |year=2009|work=P24.17 Mitigation and adaptation strategies – organic agriculture|publisher=IOP Publishing |accessdate=February 2, 2010|location=IOPConf. Series: EarthandEnvironmentalScience6(2009)242025}}</ref>

Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil organisms by providing organic matter and [[micronutrients]] for organisms such as fungal [[mycorrhiza]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B0573:EEAECO%5D2.0.CO;2|title= Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems |last=PIMENTEL|first=David|coauthors= PAUL HEPPERLY, JAMES HANSON, DAVID DOUDS, and RITA SEIDEL|date=July 2005|publisher=BioScience|pages=ol. 55, No. 7, Pages 573–582 |accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> (which aid plants in absorbing nutrients), and can drastically reduce external inputs of pesticides, energy and fertilizer, at the cost of decreased yield.<ref name="Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming">{{cite journal|last= Mäder|first=Paul|coauthors= Andreas Fliebach,,1 David Dubois,2 Lucie Gunst,2 Padruot Fried,2 Urs Niggli1|date=May 31, 2002|title=Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming|journal=Science|publisher=Science|volume= 296 |issue= 5573 |pages=1694–1697|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5573/1694|accessdate=February 1, 2010|pmid= 12040197|doi= 10.1126/science.1071148}}</ref>

=== Disadvantages of organic fertilizers ===
{{unsourced section|date=January 2013}}
* Organic fertilizers may contain pathogens and other disease causing organisms if not properly composted.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lemunier|first=Mélanie|coauthors=Cédric Francou, Sandrine Rousseaux, Sabine Houot, Philippe Dantigny, Pascal Piveteau, Jean Guzzo|title=Long-Term Survival of Pathogenic and Sanitation Indicator Bacteria in Experimental Biowaste Composts|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|date=October 2005|year=2005|month=October|volume=71|issue=10|pages=5779-5786|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.10.5779-5786.2005|url=http://aem.asm.org/content/71/10/5779|accessdate=2 January 2013}}</ref>
* Nutrient contents are very variable and their release to available forms that the plant can use may not occur at the right plant growth stage.<ref name=Zublena>{{cite web|last=Zublena|first=J.P.|title=SoilFacts - Nutrient Content of Fertilizer and Organic Materials|url=http://www.soil.ncsu.edu/publications/Soilfacts/AG-439-18/|publisher=North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service|accessdate=3 January 2013|author=J.P. Zublena|coauthors=J. V. Baird, J. P. Lilly|month=June|year=1991}}</ref>
* Organic fertilizers are comparatively voluminous and can be too bulky to deploy the right amount of nutrients that will be beneficial to plants
* More expensive to produce
*Not so handy to apply in the soil.

=== Comparison with inorganic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically all lower than inorganic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=644_20 |title=Acta Horticulturae |publisher=Actahort.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/organic.html |title=AZ Master Gardener Manual: Organic Fetilizers |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>
One study{{Which|date=November 2009}} found that over a 140-day period, after 7 [[Leaching (agriculture)|leachings]]:

* Organic fertilizers had released between 25% and 60% of their nitrogen content
* Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs) had a relatively constant rate of release
* Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching

In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizer are both more dilute and also much less readily available to plants. According to the University of California's integrated pest management program, all ''organic fertilizers'' are classified as 'slow-release' fertilizers, and therefore cannot cause nitrogen burn.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/TOOLS/TURF/SITEPREP/amenfert.html |title=Healthy LawnsFertilizers vs. soil amendments |publisher=Ipm.ucdavis.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

Organic fertilizers from composts and other sources can be quite variable from one batch to the next.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msuorganicfarm.com/Compost.pdf |title=Crazy about Compost |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Without batch testing, amounts of applied nutrient cannot be precisely known. Nevertheless, one or more studies have shown they are at least as effective as chemical fertilizers over longer periods of use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=0002290EN&q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csa.com%2Fpartners%2Fviewrecord.php%3Frequester%3Dgs%26collection%3DTRD%26recid%3D0002290EN&uid=789131166&setcookie=yes |title=CSA |publisher=Md1.csa.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

==== Example of organic fertilizer ====
[[Chicken litter]], which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an organic fertilizer that has been shown to better condition soil for harvest than synthesized fertilizer. Researchers at the [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) studied the effects of using chicken litter, an organic fertilizer, versus synthetic fertilizers on cotton fields, and found that fields fertilized with chicken litter had a 12% increase in cotton yields over fields fertilized with synthetic fertilizer. In addition to higher yields, researchers valued commercially sold chicken litter at a $17/ton premium (to a total valuation of $78/ton) over the traditional valuations of $61/ton due to value added as a [[soil conditioner]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100623.htm|title= Researchers Study Value of Chicken Litter in Cotton Production |date=July 23, 2010}}</ref>

Other ARS studies have found that algae used to capture nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields can not only prevent water contamination of these nutrients, but also can be used as an organic fertilizer. ARS scientists originally developed the "algal turf scrubber" to reduce nutrient runoff and increase quality of water flowing into streams, rivers, and lakes. They found that this nutrient-rich algae, once dried, can be applied to cucumber and corn seedlings and result in growth comparable to that seen using synthetic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm|title= Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine |publisher=USDA Agricultural Research Service|date=May 7, 2010}}</ref>

=== Organic fertilizer sources ===
==== Animal ====
{{see also|Night soil}}
[[File:Hestemøj.jpg|thumb|Decomposing animal manure, an organic fertilizer source]]

Animal-sourced and human [[urea]] are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of urea are not.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecochem.com/t_natfert.html |title=In a natural organic system, nitrate in the soil is derived from the gradual breakdown of humus |publisher=Ecochem.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The common thread that can be seen through these examples is that ''organic'' agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (in contrast to the man-made [[Haber process]]), as well as being naturally occurring or via natural biological processes such as [[composting]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

Besides immediate application of urea to the soil, [[urine]] can also be improved by converting it to [[struvite]] already done with human urine by a Dutch firm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/innovation/2010/0625/1224272921729.html |title=Human urine conversion to struvite |publisher=Irishtimes.com |date=2010-06-06 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> The conversion is performed by adding magnesium to the urine. An added economical advantage of using urine as fertilizer is that it contains a large amount of phosphorus.

Recycled [[sewage sludge]] (aka [[biosolids]]) as soil amendment is only available to less than 1% of US ag{{Clarify|date=August 2011}} land. Industrial pollutants in sewage sludge prevents recycling it as fertilizer. The [[USDA]] prohibits use of [[sewage sludge]] in [[organic agriculture|organic agricultural]] operations in the U.S. due to industrial pollution, pharmaceuticals, hormones, heavy metals, and other factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/torg.html |title=Organic Farming | Agriculture | US EPA |publisher=Epa.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calorganicfarms.com/news/full.php?id=22 |title=CalOrganic Farms News |publisher=Calorganicfarms.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/biosolids/tnsss-overview.cfm |title=Biosolids: Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Report |publisher=EPA.gov |date=2009-01}}</ref> The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic fertilizers sold in the U.S.<ref name="USDA certification of high-nitrogen liquid fertilizer">{{cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_17001.cfm|title=USDA Toughens Oversight of Organic Fertilizer: Organic fertilizers must undergo testing |last=Schrack|first=Don|date=2009-02-23|publisher=The Packer |accessdate=November 19, 2009}}</ref>

==== Plant ====
Leguminous [[cover crop]]s are also grown to enrich soil as a [[green manure]] through [[nitrogen fixation]] from the atmosphere;<ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=373994&pageindex=6#page |title=Isolation and Study of Cultures of Chinese Vetch Nodule Bacteria |publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov |date=2010-07-06 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XO3pio5Opy8C&pg=PA564&lpg=PA564&dq=phosphorus+addition+fava+bean |title=Biological approaches to sustainable ... – Google Books |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2010-08-25|isbn=978-1-57444-583-1|year=2006|author1=Uphoff|first1=Norman Thomas}}</ref> content of [[soil]]s.

==== Mineral ====
Mined powdered [[limestone]],<ref name="google.com">{{cite web|url=http://google.com/search?q=cache:_KrbNzgsjrQJ:extension.agron.iastate.edu/sustag/pubs/Soil_Quality_Brochure.doc+limestone+organic+agriculture&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=opera |title=Organic Agriculture |publisher=Google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> [[rock phosphate]] and [[sodium nitrate]], are [[inorganic]] (not of biologic origins) compounds which are energetically intensive to harvest and are approved for usage in organic agriculture in ''minimal'' amounts.<ref name="google.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extension.org/article/18321/print/ |title=Can I Use This Input on My Organic Farm? |publisher=eXtension |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Alternative Farming Systems Information Center |url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml#resources |title=Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools |publisher=Nal.usda.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

== Negative environmental effects ==
{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle}} and [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Problems_with_inorganic_fertilizer|Problems with inorganic fertilizer]]
[[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]
[[File:EutrophicationEutrophisationEutrophierung.jpg|thumb||An [[algal bloom]] caused by eutrophication]]

=== Water quality ===
==== Eutrophication ====
{{Main|Eutrophication}}

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean ‘Dead Zones’"], NY Times, Aug. 14, 2008</ref> Visually, water may become cloudy and discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red).

About half of all the lakes in the United States are now [[eutrophic]], while the number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines are increasing.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News – Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. If eutrophication ''can'' be reversed, it may take decades{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

==== Blue baby syndrome ====
High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields, combined with the high solubilities of these fertilizers leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into surface water as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|author=C. J. Rosen and B. P. Horgan |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG2923.html |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=2009-01-09 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V94-3VW172B-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a887208bd6509db7ab1557a4fc43c5fa |title=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology - Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |publisher=ScienceDirect.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=2004-02-25 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The use of [[ammonium nitrate]] in ''inorganic'' fertilizers is particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over nitrate ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation) into runoff or groundwater.<ref>[http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Jillesha Services] Annual Review of Plant Biology Vol. 59: 341–363</ref>

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]), leading to [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] (which can lead to coma and death if not treated).<ref>{{cite web|author=Lynda Knobeloch, Barbara Salna, Adam Hogan, Jeffrey Postle, and Henry Anderson |url=http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2000/108p675-678knobeloch/abstract.html |title=Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water |publisher=Ehponline.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

=== Soil ===
==== Soil acidification ====
{{See also|Soil pH}}

Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/324/5928/721-b#R1</ref><ref>http://soil.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/72/1/238</ref> This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]].

==== Persistent organic pollutants ====
{{Main|Persistent organic pollutant}}

Toxic persistent organic pollutants ("POPs"), such as [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|Dioxins]], [[polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin]]s (PCDDs), and [[polychlorinated dibenzofuran]]s (PCDFs) have been detected in agricultural fertilizers and soil amendments<ref>pg 33: http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/recycling/fertiliz/risk/</ref>

==== Heavy metal accumulation ====
The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of [[cadmium]] in [[phosphate minerals]] (for example, minerals from [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal=J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11}}</ref> and the [[Christmas island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title=The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |pages=261–286}}</ref>) increases the contamination of soil with cadmium, for example in New Zealand.<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 |pages=123–126 | doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8}}</ref>

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web|last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |title=Business | Fear In The Fields – How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer – Spreading Heavy Metals On Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe | Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat Of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Concerns have been raised concerning [[fish meal]] mercury content by at least one source in Spain<ref name="Heavy-metal toxicity of catfish fertilizer concern">{{cite web|url=http://www.nowpublic.com/environment/catfish-toxic-suitable-fishmeal-production|title=The catfish 'Toxic' suitable for fishmeal production|date=November 16, 2009|publisher=NowPublic|accessdate=November 23, 2009}}</ref>

==== Radioactive element accumulation ====
[[Uranium]] is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers (at levels from 7 to 100 pCi/g).<ref name="Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/glossary/termuvwxyz.html#uranium|title=Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=March 11, 2009|publisher=US EPA|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and build up in vegetable produce.<ref name=taylor/> Average annual intake of uranium by adults is estimated to be about 0.5 mg (500 μg) from ingestion of food and water and 0.6 μg from breathing air.<ref name="Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs257/en/|title=Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium|date=January 2003|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>

Also, highly [[radioactive]] [[Polonium-210]] contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in its tissues; tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits [[alpha radiation]] estimated to cause about 11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Scholten LC, Timmermans CWM |title=Natural radioactivity in phosphate fertilizers |journal=Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems |year=1992 |volume=43 |pages=103–107 |doi=10.1007/BF00747688}}</ref><ref>American Public Health Association, Framing Health Matters, Waking a Sleeping Giant: The Tobacco Industry’s Response to the Polonium-210 Issue: Monique E. Muggli, MPH, Jon O. Ebbert, MD, Channing Robertson, PhD and Richard D. Hurt, MD [http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/9/1643]</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, The big idea: polonium, radon and cigarettes, Tidd J R Soc Med.2008; 101: 156–157 [http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/cgi/content/full/101/3/156]</ref><ref>The Age Melbourne Australia, Big Tobacco covered up radiation danger, William Birnbauer [http://www.theage.com.au/national/big-tobacco-covered-up-radiation-danger-20080906-4b54.html?page=-1]</ref>

For these reasons, it is recommended that [[nutrient budgeting]], through careful observation and monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application.

=== Atmosphere ===
[[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]]

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers; these emissions contribute greatly to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots ">{{cite journal|last=Bodelier|first=Paul, L.E.|coauthors=Peter Roslev3, Thilo Henckel1 & Peter Frenzel1|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6768/abs/403421a0.html|accessdate=Feb 2, 2009|pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193}}</ref>

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 1 billion tons per year presently<ref>http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7176/fig_tab/nature06592_F1.html An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle Nicolas Gruber & James N. Galloway Nature 451, 293–296(17 January 2008) {{doi|10.1038/nature06592}}</ref> to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N2O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] [[UNESCO]] – [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref>

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some{{Which|date=April 2009}} weather or soil conditions can cause emissions of the potent greenhouse gas—nitrous oxide. [[Ammonia]] gas (NH3) may be emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

The use of fertilizers on a global scale [[Attribution of recent climate change#Livestock and land use|emits significant quantities]] of [[greenhouse gas]] into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of:<ref>[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. retrieved Aug 9, 2007]</ref>

* animal [[manures]] and [[urea]], which release [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]], and [[carbon dioxide]] in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)
* fertilizers that use [[nitric acid]] or [[ammonium bicarbonate]], the production and application of which results in emissions of [[nitrogen oxides]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]] and [[carbon dioxide]] into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on [[anthropogenic climate change]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

=== Other problems ===
==== Increased pest fitness ====
Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain agricultural pests, such as [[aphid]]s (plant lice).<ref name="Jahn2004">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC |year=2004 |title=Effect of soil nutrients on the growth, survival and fecundity of insect pests of rice: an overview and a theory of pest outbreaks with consideration of research approaches. Multitrophic interactions in Soil and Integrated Control |journal=International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) wprs Bulletin |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=115–122}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001a">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Sanchez ER, Cox PG |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management |journal=International Rice Research Institute – Discussion Paper |volume=42 |page=18 |url=http://www.irri.org/publications/discussion/pdfs/DiscPaper42.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001b">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Cox PG, Rubia-Sanchez E, Cohen M |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413–430, |journal=S. Peng and B. Hardy [eds.] "Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation". Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, March 31,  – April 3, 2000, Los Baños, Philippines. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. |page=692}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1603/0046-225X-34.4.938 |author=Jahn GC, Almazan LP, Pacia J |year=2005 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.) |journal=Environmental Entomology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=938–943 |url=http://puck.esa.catchword.org/vl=33435372/cl=21/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/0046225x/v34n4/s26/p938}}</ref><ref name="Preap2001">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ, Jahn GC |year=2001 |title=Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on realized fecundity and survival rates of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål); Generating Outbreaks in Cambodia |journal=Journal of Asia Pacific Entomology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60107-7}}</ref><ref name="Preap2002">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Jahn GC |year=2002 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and host plant variety on fecundity and early instar survival of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål): immediate response |journal=Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Inter-Country Forecasting System and Management for Planthopper in East Asia. November 13–15, 2002. Guilin China. Published by Rural Development Administration (RDA) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) |pages=163–180, 226}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Fertigation]]
* [[History of organic farming]]
* [[Phosphogypsum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fertilizers}}
{{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}

* [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process]
* [http://www.tfi.org/factsandstats/fertilizer.cfm The Fertilizer Institute (TFI)] US Fertilizer Industry Association
* [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)]
* [http://cms.efma.org/ European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association]
* [http://www.agriculturesolutions.com/index.php?option=com_content&Itemid=111&id=87&lang=en&task=view How to read fertilizer tags article]
* [http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization]

{{PlantMineralDeficiency}}

[[Category:Fertilizers| ]]

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Fertilizer

2013-01-03T04:08:12Z

Explodingbrain: Added a reference for Western Australian soils being highly weathered, and lacking trace elements.

[[File:TVA Results of Fertilizer.gif|thumb|[[Tennessee Valley Authority]]: "Results of Fertilizer" demonstration 1942]]
[[File:Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg|thumb|A large, modern fertilizer spreader]]
[[File:Lite-trac Spreader.jpg|thumb|A [[Lite-Trac]] Agri-Spread lime and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show]]

'''Fertilizer''' (or '''fertiliser''') is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.<ref name="SSSA Glossary of Soil Science Terms">{{cite web|title=Glossary of Soil Science Terms|url=https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary#|publisher=[[Soil Science Society of America]]|accessdate=May 10, 2011}}</ref> Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.<ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=W.M.|last2=Dibb|first2=D.W.|last3=Johnston|first3=A.E.|last4=Smyth|first4=T.J.|year=2005|title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production|journal=Agronomy Journal|volume=97|pages=1–6|doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001}}</ref> European fertilizer market is expected to grow to €15.3 billion by 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/fertilizers |title=Market Study on Fertilizers |publisher= Ceresana.com}}</ref>

Mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for many centuries, whereas chemically synthesized inorganic fertilizers were only widely developed during the [[industrial revolution]]. Increased understanding and use of fertilizers were important parts of the pre-industrial [[British Agricultural Revolution]] and the industrial [[Green Revolution]] of the 20th century.

Inorganic fertilizer use has also significantly supported global [[population growth]] — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erisman|first=Jan Willem|coauthors=MA Sutton, J Galloway, Z Klimont, W Winiwarter|title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|year=2008|page=636|month=October|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|accessdate=October 22, 2010|issue=10}}</ref>

Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:

* six macronutrients: [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), [[potassium]] (K), [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S);
* eight micronutrients: [[boron]] (B), [[chlorine]] (Cl), [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilization|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn) and [[nickel]] (Ni) (1987).

The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (0% moisture) basis (DM). Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts per million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.htm |title=AESL Plant Analysis Handbook – Nutrient Content of Plant |publisher=Aesl.ces.uga.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author=H.A. Mills, J.B. Jones Jr.|year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|isbn=1-878148-05-2}}</ref>

Only three other macronutrients are required by all plants: [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]]. These nutrients are supplied by water and carbon dioxide.

The nitrogen-rich fertilizer [[ammonium nitrate]] is also used as an [[oxidizing agent]] in [[improvised explosive device]]s, sometimes called ''[[fertilizer bomb]]s'', leading to sale regulations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhs.gov/files/laws/ammonium-nitrate-regulations.shtm |title=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |publisher=Dhs.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

== Labeling of chemical fertilizer ==
{{Main|Labeling of fertilizer}}

The labeling of fertilizers varies. In most countries the macronutrients are labeled with an ''[[NPK rating|NPK]]'' analysis (in Australia, "N-P-K-S" adding [[sulfur]]).<ref name="Draft Code of Practice for Fertilier Description and Labeling">{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:CgW191hwEBIJ:www.fifa.asn.au/files/pdf/regulation/Draft%2520Code%2520of%2520Practice%2520for%2520Fertilizer%2520Description%2520%26%2520aaaaaaLabelling.pdf+labeling+of+fertilizer&hl=en&gl=us&sig=AHIEtbSJjp1liw8XbwDLtw2aqua-xK0n1g |title=Draft Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description and Labeling |date=2008-09-15|publisher=Fertilizer Industry Federation Association (FIFA)|accessdate=February 3, 2010}}</ref>

The three numbers on the fertilizer label represent an analysis of the composition by weight. These three numbers correspond to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K) and always appear in that specific order. When a 4th number is included, it indicates the sulfur content (N-P-K-S).

While the number for "N" represents the percentage weight of nitrogen, in some European countries, the other two components are not for the analysis of the element, but rather, the analysis of the "available" or "soluble" form of the element. In traditional chemical analysis, the tests used treated the sample so as to measure the equivalent P2O5 and K2O. For instance, some potassium-bearing rocks do not count as having available potassium.

Similarly the number for "P" in some countries is actually the weight of an equivalent quantity of P2O5 whereas in others (including Australia) it refers to elemental phosphorus. In order to calculate the weight of P in the formulation, the weight of P2O5 can be multiplied by 0.44 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of P2O5, but only 4.4 pounds of P.

Likewise, the number for "K" in Europe can refer to the weight of an equivalent quantity of K2O, whereas in Australia it refers to elemental potassium. In order to calculate the weight of K in the formulation, the weight of K2O can be multiplied by 0.83 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of K2O, but only 8.3 pounds of K.

As an example, the fertilizer ''[[potash]]'' (in modern times, muriate of potash or potassium chloride) is composed of 52% potassium and 48% chlorine by weight; chemical analysis of 100g of potassium chloride ([[KCl]]), would show 63g of equivalent potassium oxide ([[potassium oxide|K2O]]) when done in the manner of fertilizer analysis. The ''percentage yield'' of K2O from the original 100g of fertilizer is the number shown on the label. A potash fertilizer would thus be labeled 0-0-63, and ''not' (except in Australia and some other countries) ' 0-0-52.

== History ==
[[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]]
{{Main|History of fertilizer}}

Management of [[soil fertility]] has been the pre-occupation of farmers for thousands of years. The start of the modern science of plant nutrition dates to the 19th century and the work of [[Justus von Liebig]], among others.

[[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]], with whom he carried on for more than half a century on experiments in raising crops at the [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]].

The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen based fertilizer production. It was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist [[Kristian Birkeland]] along with his business partner [[Sam Eyde]] in 1903, based on a method used by [[Henry Cavendish]] in 1784.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The development of modern chemistry
| author = Aaron John Ihde
| publisher = Courier Dover Publications
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-486-64235-6
| page = 678
}}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N2) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO3-) in the reaction

HNO3 → H+ + NO3-

which may take place in the presence of water or another [[proton acceptor]]. Nitrate is an ion which plants can absorb.

A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway, combined with the building of large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture
| author = G. J. Leigh
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-19-516582-9
| pages = 134–139
}}</ref>

The Birkeland-Eyde process is relatively inefficient in terms of energy consumption. Therefore, in the 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a combination of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from [[methane]] (CH4) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2). The ammonia from the Haber process is then converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950
| author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams
| author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1982
| isbn = 0-19-858159-9
| pages = 134–135
}}</ref>

== Forms ==
Fertilizers come in various forms. The most typical form is solid fertilizer in granulated or powdered forms. The next most common form is liquid fertilizer; some advantages of liquid fertilizer are its immediate effect and wide coverage.

There are also slow-release fertilizers (various forms including fertilizer spikes, tabs, etc.) which reduce the problem of "burning" the plants due to excess nitrogen. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a [http://www.agritab.com 'true time-release'] or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients.

More recently, [[organic fertilizer]] is on the rise as people are resorting to [[environmental friendly]] (or 'green') products. Although organic fertilizers usually contain a lower concentration of nutrients, this lower concentration avoids complication of nitrogen burn harming the plants. In addition, organic fertilizers such as compost and worm castings break down slowly into complex organic structures ([[humus]]) which build the soil's structure and moisture- and nutrient-retaining capabilities.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

== Inorganic commercial fertilizer ==
Fertilizers are broadly divided into '''[[organic compound|organic]] fertilizers''' (composed of organic plant or animal matter), or '''[[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or commercial fertilizers'''. Plants can only absorb their required [[plant nutrition|nutrients]] if they are present in easily dissolved chemical compounds. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers provide the same needed chemical compounds. Organic fertilizers provided other macro and micro plant nutrients and are released as the organic matter decays—this may take months or years. Organic fertilizers nearly always have much lower concentrations of plant nutrients and have the usual problems of economical collection, treatment, transportation and distribution.

Inorganic fertilizers nearly always are readily dissolved and unless added have few other macro and micro plant nutrients. Nearly all nitrogen that plants use is in the form of NH3 or NO3 compounds. The usable phosphorus compounds are usually in the form of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and the potassium (K) is typically in the form of potassium chloride (KCl). In organic fertilizers nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds are released from the complex organic compounds as the animal or plant matter decays. In commercial fertilizers the same required compounds are available in easily dissolved compounds that require no decay—they can be used almost immediately after water is applied. Inorganic fertilizers are usually much more concentrated with up to 64% (18-46-0) of their weight being a given plant nutrient, compared to organic fertilizers that only provide 0.4% or less of their weight as a given [[plant nutrition|plant nutrient]].<ref>NPK ratios of common organic materials [http://permaculture.org.au/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Nitrogen fertilizers are often made using the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]] (invented about 1915) which uses natural gas (CH4+) for the hydrogen and nitrogen gas (N2) from the air at an elevated temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to form [[ammonia]] (NH3) as the end product. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] ([[Nitrogen|N]][[Hydrogen|H]]4[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]3) and [[urea]] ([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]]([[nitrogen|N]][[hydrogen|H]]2)2). These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g. [[UAN]]). Deposits of potassium nitrate (NaNO3) ([[saltpeter]]) are also found the [[Atacama desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen rich inorganic fertilizers used. It is still mined for fertilizer.

In the [[Nitrophosphate process]] or [[Odda Process]] (invented in 1927), [[phosphate rock]] with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) to produce a mixture of [[phosphoric acid]] (H3PO4) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2). This can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with all three N:P:K: plant nutrients in easily dissolved form.

[[Phosphate rock]] can also be processed into water-soluble phosphate (P2O5) with the addition of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to make the phosphoric acid in phosphate fertilizers. Phosphate can also be reduced in an electric furnace to make high purity phosphorus; however, this is more expensive than the acid process.

[[Potash]] can be used to make potassium (K) fertilizers. All commercial potash deposits come originally from marine deposits and are often buried deep in the earth. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl) and are obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. For deep potash deposits hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. [[Amine]] reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for [[plant nutrition]].<ref>Potash KCl fertilizer production [http://www.ipni.net/ipniweb/portal.nsf/0/68907f5d1e5922f8062577ce006ad872/$FILE/K%20Fert%20Prod%20&%20Tech%2011%2016%2010.pdf] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Compound fertilizers often combine N, P and K fertilizers into easily dissolved pellets. The N:P:K ratios quoted on fertilizers give the weight percent of the fertilizer in nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O equivalent)

The use of commercial inorganic fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million tonnes of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal|last=Glass|first=Anthony |date=September 2003|title=Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences|volume=22|issue=5|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/bpts/2003/00000022/00000005/art00003|doi=10.1080/713989757|page=453}}</ref> Without commercial fertilizers it is estimated that about one-third of the food produced now could not be produced.<ref>Commercial fertilizers increase crop yields [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/food-and-soil.php] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per hectare requires 31–50 kg of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied, soybean requires 20–25 kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vance|coauthors=Uhde-Stone & Allan|year=2003|title=Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource|journal=New Phythologist|volume=157|pages=423–447|jstor=1514050|author1=Vance, Carroll P|issue=3|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|doi=10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x}}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105|title=Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=February 18, 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=February 21, 2010}}</ref>

=== Controlled-release types ===
Urea and formaldehyde, reacted together to produce sparingly soluble polymers of various molecular weights, is one of the oldest controlled-nitrogen-release technologies, having been first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.<ref name=SRN>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/
| title=Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen |author=J. B. Sartain, University of Florida
| journal=Grounds Maintenance |date= (c)2011}}</ref> The early product had 60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick release) less than 15%. Methylene ureas were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, having 25 and 60% of the nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the range of 15 to 30%. Isobutylidene diurea, unlike the methylurea polymers, is a single crystalline solid of relatively uniform properties, with about 90% of the nitrogen water-insoluble.

In the 1960s, the [[National Fertilizer Development Center]] began developing Sulfur-coated urea; sulfur was used as the principle coating material because of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.<ref name=SRN/> Usually there is another wax or polymer which seals the sulfur; the slow release properties depend on the degradation of the secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the sulfur. They typically provide 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications. When a hard polymer is used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles and traditional sulfur-coated.

Other coated products use thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce diffusion-controlled release of urea or soluble inorganic fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a paraffin topcoat.

Besides being more efficient in the utilization of the applied nutrients, slow-release technologies also reduce the impact on the environment and the contamination of the subsurface water.<ref name=SRN/>

{| align="right" class="wikitable" style="margin:10px"
|+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options, Table 3.3 retrieved Jun 29, 2009] United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</ref>
|-
! Country
! Total N use
(Mt pa)
! Amt. used for feed/pasture
(Mt pa)
|-
| China
| 18.7
| 3.0
|-
| U.S.
| 9.1
| 4.7
|-
| France
| 2.5
| 1.3
|-
| Germany
| 2.0
| 1.2
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| 1.7
| 0.7
|-
| Canada
| 1.6
| 0.9
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| 1.5
| 0.3
|-
| UK
| 1.3
| 0.9
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| 1.3
| 0.3
|-
| Spain
| 1.2
| 0.5
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| 0.4
| 0.1
|}

=== Application ===
Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

Studies have shown that application of nitrogen fertilizer on off-season [[cover crops]] can increase the biomass (and subsequent [[green manure]] value) of these crops, while having a beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels for the main crop planted during the summer season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/544836/ |title=Nitrogen Applied |publisher=Newswise.com |date=2008-07-19 |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

Nutrients in soil can be thrown out of balance with high concentrations of fertilizers. The interconnectedness and complexity of this [[soil food web|soil ‘food web’]] means any appraisal of soil function must necessarily take into account interactions with the living communities that exist within the soil. Stability of the system is reduced by the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, which cause [[soil acidification]].

Applying excessive amounts of fertilizer has negative environmental effects, and wastes the growers' time and money. To avoid over-application, the nutrient status of crops should be assessed. Nutrient deficiency can be detected by visually assessing the physical symptoms of the crop. [[Nitrogen deficiency]], for example has a distinctive presentation in some species. However, quantitative tests are more reliable for detecting nutrient deficiency before it has significantly affected the crop. Both [[soil test]]s and [[Plant Tissue Test]]s are used in agriculture to fine-tune nutrient management to the crops needs.

=== Problems with inorganic fertilizer ===
See also [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Negative_environmental_effects|Negative environmental effects]]

==== Water pollution ====
The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Nitrates and watercourses|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/}}</ref> In Europe these problems are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within Britain farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/}}</ref>

==== Contamination with impurities ====
Common agricultural grade phosphate fertilizers usually contain impurities such as fluorides, cadmium and uranium, although concentrations of the latter two [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] are dependent on the source of the phosphate and the production process. These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households. These highly water soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. There are also some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers made with high purity ingredients.

Oregon and Washington in U. S. have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=2012-05-23 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ Washington and Oregon links</ref>

The most widely used inorganic fertilizer is super-phosphate and its double and triple strengthed derivatives double super and triple super. Super phosphate was first developed by Lawes at the Rothamstead Agricultural Research Institute in England in the early 19th Century.<ref>http://what-when-how.com/scientists/lawes-sir-john-bennet-1814-1900-english-agriculturist-scientist</ref> Lawes added sulfuric acid to conventional rock phosphate containing the mineral apatite, a calcium fluoro-phosphate. The resulting water soluble phosphorus was able to significantly improve yields on a variety of crops at the Rothamstead Centre and the Superphosphate industry was born.
Unfortunately over decades of subsequent usage - it became clear that the solubilisation of fluorine also occurred in the process and this had the same effect as the other halogen sterilants(chlorine, bromine, iodine) over time - soil sterilization.<ref>[http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf]</ref>

==== Fertilizer dependency ====
Effectively farmers unknowingly became 100% dependent on 'bought in' water soluble, inorganic fertilizers since the sterilization of soil microflora including its mycorrhiza, reduced the availability of other natural and trace minerals within the soil. This to some extent explains the resurgence of interest in organic and particularly 'biodynamic' farming systems since these systems replace the essential soil organisms so essential to converting soil minerals into plant available (but rarely water soluble) nutrients.<ref>[http://204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf 204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf Ahmad Ali Khan, et. al., ''Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria: Occurrence, Mechanisms and their Role in Crop Production,'' J. AGRIC. BIOL. SCI. 1(1):48-58, 2009]</ref> They do this by a variety of processes including chelation whereby essential minerals become plant available - as measured by weak citric acid extraction techniques. Hence the citric acid solubility of phosphate rocks has emerged as a measure of plant availability and enabled so-called 'reactive' phosphate rocks to be used as fertilizer minerals. These should not be confused with high fluorine apatite rocks in which the fluoride content performs a similar function to its role in hardening teeth enamel, i.e. immobilizing phosphorus. This explains the oceanic origins of many of these high fluorine rocks (Christmas Island, Ocean Island) since the fluorine absorbed from the sea has prevented what were originally massive deposits of bird guano - from being leached from the coral based limestone rocks on which they were originally deposited.

==== Soil acidification ====
Also regular use of acidulated fertilizers generally contribute to the accumulation of soil acidity in soils which progressively increases aluminium availability and hence toxicity. The use of such acidulated fertilizers in the tropical and semi-tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia has contributed to soil degradation on a large scale from aluminium toxicity, which can only be countered by applications of limestone or preferably magnesian dolomite, which neutralises acid soil pH and also provides essential magnesium.

==== Trace mineral depletion ====
Many inorganic fertilizers, particularly those based on superphosphate, may not replace [[trace mineral]] elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{cite book | first=Felicity | last=Lawrence | year=2004 | title=Not on the Label | chapter=214 | editor=Kate Barker | page=213 | publisher=Penguin | isbn=0-14-101566-7 }}</ref>
Explanations for this include the early encouragement of so-called "luxury consumption" of trace elements as a result of their acidulation and subsequent dissolution in soil water, by free sulphuric acid sourced from superphosphate. This mechanism has also been identified as a possible causal agent for take-up of the heavy metal cadmium from superphosphate based fertilizers.
In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s.<ref name=Moore>{{cite book|last=Moore|first=Geoff|title=Soilguide - A handbook for understanding and managing agricultural soils|year=2001|publisher=Agriculture Western Australia|location=Perth, Western Australia|isbn=0 7307 0057 7|pages=161-207|url=http://www.agric.wa.gov.au/objtwr/imported_assets/content/lwe/rpm/landcap/soilguide_introduction.pdf}}</ref> Such nutrients are described as 'rate limiting' nutrients. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements.<ref name="Moore"/> Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.<ref name="Moore"/>

Many soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in plants and humans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc is Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2010-08-25 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

==== Overfertilization ====
{{See also|Fertilizer burn}}
[[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]]

Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as underfertilization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> "Fertilizer burn" can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in drying out of the leaves and damage or even death of the plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.improve-your-garden-soil.com/fertilizer-burn.html |title=Avoiding Fertilizer Burn |publisher=Improve-your-garden-soil.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

==== High energy consumption ====
In the USA in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas was consumed in the industrial [[Ammonia production|production of ammonia]], less than 1.5% of total U.S. annual consumption of natural gas.<ref name="Abram">{{Cite document | title=A Primer on Ammonia, Nitrogen Fertilizers, and Natural Gas Markets | author=Aleksander Abram and D. Lynn Forster | publisher=Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University | year=2005 | page=38}}</ref>
A 2002 report suggested that the production of ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.<ref name="ifa">[http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp IFA – Statistics – Fertilizer Indicators – Details – Raw material reserves, (2002–10)]</ref>

Ammonia is overwhelmingly produced from natural gas, but other energy sources, together with a [[Hydrogen production|hydrogen source]] such as water (via [[water splitting]] or [[electrolysis]])<ref name=Häussinger>{{cite book|last=Häussinger|first=Peter|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 18|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=249-307|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.o13_o03/abstract|author=Peter Häussinger|authorlink=Hydrogen, 2. Production|coauthors=Reiner Lohmüller, Allan M. Watson}}</ref>, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds suitable for fertilizers.<ref name=Appl>{{cite book|last=Appl|first=Max|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 3|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=139-225|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.o02_o11/abstract|authorlink=Ammonia, 2. Production Processes|accessdate=3 January 2013}}</ref> The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.}}</ref>

==== Contribution to climate change ====
Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous_oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[Nitrous_oxide|nitrous oxide]], a [[Greenhouse_gas|greenhouse gas]].

==== Impacts on mycorrhizas ====
High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. <ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780881926118}}</ref>

==== Lack of long-term sustainability ====
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued indefinitely by definition as the resources used in their production are [[non-renewable]]. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or [[Salt lake|saline lakes]] such as the [[Dead Sea]]) and such resources are limited. However, more effective fertilizer utilization practices may decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of crop production practices can potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the critical need to improve and increase crop yields. Atmospheric (''[[nitrogen fixation|unfixed]]'') nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming over 70% of the [[atmospheric gas]]es), but this is not in a form useful to plants. To make nitrogen accessible to plants requires [[nitrogen fixation]] (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-accessible form).

Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using [[fossil fuel]]s such as natural gas and coal, which are limited resources. In lieu of converting natural gas to [[syngas]] for use in the [[Haber process]], it is also possible to convert renewable [[biomass]] to syngas (or [[wood gas]]) to supply the necessary energy for the process, though the amount of land and resources (ironically often including fertilizer) necessary for such a project may be prohibitive.

== Organic fertilizer ==
{{Main|Organic fertilizer}}
[[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]]
[[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]]

Organic fertilizers include naturally occurring organic materials, (e.g. [[chicken litter]], [[manure]], [[worm castings]], [[compost]], [[seaweed]], [[guano]], [[bone meal]]) or naturally occurring mineral deposits (e.g. [[Sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]). [[Poultry litter]] and cattle manure often create environmental and disposal problems, making their use as fertilizer beneficial. Bones can be processed into phosphate-rich bone meal; however, most are simply buried in landfills.

Even if all bones, human, animal and plant wastes were recovered to the extent practical and used for fertilizer, mineral fertilizers and synthetic nitrogen would still be required to make for losses to leaching, to the atmosphere, runoff and the losses impractical to recover.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

=== Benefits of organic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizers have been known to improve biodiversity ([[soil life]]) and long-term productivity of soil,<ref name="Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization">{{cite journal|last=Enwall|first=Karin|coauthors=Laurent Philippot,2 and Sara Hallin1|date=December 2005|title=Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|publisher=American Society for Microbiology|volume=71|issue=2|pages=8335–8343|url=http://aem.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/71/12/8335|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|pmid=16332820|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.12.8335-8343.2005|pmc=1317341}}</ref><ref name="Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity ">{{cite journal|last=Birkhofera|first=Klaus|coauthors= T. Martijn Bezemerb, c, d, Jaap Bloeme, Michael Bonkowskia, Søren Christensenf, David Duboisg, Fleming Ekelundf, Andreas Fließbachh, Lucie Gunstg, Katarina Hedlundi, Paul Mäderh, Juha Mikolaj, Christophe Robink, Heikki Setäläj, Fabienne Tatin-Frouxk, Wim H. Van der Puttenb, c and Stefan Scheua|date=September 2008|title=Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |publisher=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |volume=40|issue=9|pages=2297–2308 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TC7-4SR67X8-1&_user=10&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1189586172&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=835b56d01da86058b98352b95f68d2d8|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.05.007}}</ref> and may prove a large depository for excess [[carbon dioxide]].<ref name=" Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security">{{cite journal|last=Lal|first=R.|title= Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;304/5677/1623|publisher=[[Science (journal)]]|pmid=15192216|doi=10.1126/science.1097396|year=2004|volume=304|issue=5677|pages=1623–7|journal=Science}}</ref><ref name="Organic farming switch quadruples soil CO2 storage capacity">{{cite web|url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/280491/change_farming_to_cut_co2_emissions_by_25_per_cent.html|title=Change farming to cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent|last=Rees |first=Eifion|date= July 3, 2009|publisher=The Ecologist|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1755-1315/6/24/.../ees9_6_242025.pdf|title=ClimateChange: GlobalRisks,ChallengesandDecisions|last=Fliessbach|first=A.|coauthors=P Maeder(2), A Diop(3), LWM Luttikholt(1), N Scialabba(4), U Niggli(2), Paul Hepperly(3), T LaSalle(3) |year=2009|work=P24.17 Mitigation and adaptation strategies – organic agriculture|publisher=IOP Publishing |accessdate=February 2, 2010|location=IOPConf. Series: EarthandEnvironmentalScience6(2009)242025}}</ref>

Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil organisms by providing organic matter and [[micronutrients]] for organisms such as fungal [[mycorrhiza]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B0573:EEAECO%5D2.0.CO;2|title= Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems |last=PIMENTEL|first=David|coauthors= PAUL HEPPERLY, JAMES HANSON, DAVID DOUDS, and RITA SEIDEL|date=July 2005|publisher=BioScience|pages=ol. 55, No. 7, Pages 573–582 |accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> (which aid plants in absorbing nutrients), and can drastically reduce external inputs of pesticides, energy and fertilizer, at the cost of decreased yield.<ref name="Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming">{{cite journal|last= Mäder|first=Paul|coauthors= Andreas Fliebach,,1 David Dubois,2 Lucie Gunst,2 Padruot Fried,2 Urs Niggli1|date=May 31, 2002|title=Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming|journal=Science|publisher=Science|volume= 296 |issue= 5573 |pages=1694–1697|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5573/1694|accessdate=February 1, 2010|pmid= 12040197|doi= 10.1126/science.1071148}}</ref>

=== Disadvantages of organic fertilizers ===
{{unsourced section|date=January 2013}}
* Organic fertilizers may contain pathogens and other disease causing organisms if not properly composted<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lemunier|first=Mélanie|coauthors=Cédric Francou, Sandrine Rousseaux, Sabine Houot, Philippe Dantigny, Pascal Piveteau, Jean Guzzo|title=Long-Term Survival of Pathogenic and Sanitation Indicator Bacteria in Experimental Biowaste Composts|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|date=October 2005|year=2005|month=October|volume=71|issue=10|pages=5779-5786|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.10.5779-5786.2005|url=http://aem.asm.org/content/71/10/5779|accessdate=2 January 2013}}</ref>
* Nutrient contents are very variable and their release to available forms that the plant can use may not occur at the right plant growth stage
* Organic fertilizers are comparatively voluminous and can be too bulky to deploy the right amount of nutrients that will be beneficial to plants
* More expensive to produce
*Not so handy to apply in the soil.

=== Comparison with inorganic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically all lower than inorganic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=644_20 |title=Acta Horticulturae |publisher=Actahort.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/organic.html |title=AZ Master Gardener Manual: Organic Fetilizers |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>
One study{{Which|date=November 2009}} found that over a 140-day period, after 7 [[Leaching (agriculture)|leachings]]:

* Organic fertilizers had released between 25% and 60% of their nitrogen content
* Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs) had a relatively constant rate of release
* Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching

In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizer are both more dilute and also much less readily available to plants. According to the University of California's integrated pest management program, all ''organic fertilizers'' are classified as 'slow-release' fertilizers, and therefore cannot cause nitrogen burn.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/TOOLS/TURF/SITEPREP/amenfert.html |title=Healthy LawnsFertilizers vs. soil amendments |publisher=Ipm.ucdavis.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

Organic fertilizers from composts and other sources can be quite variable from one batch to the next.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msuorganicfarm.com/Compost.pdf |title=Crazy about Compost |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Without batch testing, amounts of applied nutrient cannot be precisely known. Nevertheless, one or more studies have shown they are at least as effective as chemical fertilizers over longer periods of use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=0002290EN&q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csa.com%2Fpartners%2Fviewrecord.php%3Frequester%3Dgs%26collection%3DTRD%26recid%3D0002290EN&uid=789131166&setcookie=yes |title=CSA |publisher=Md1.csa.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

==== Example of organic fertilizer ====
[[Chicken litter]], which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an organic fertilizer that has been shown to better condition soil for harvest than synthesized fertilizer. Researchers at the [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) studied the effects of using chicken litter, an organic fertilizer, versus synthetic fertilizers on cotton fields, and found that fields fertilized with chicken litter had a 12% increase in cotton yields over fields fertilized with synthetic fertilizer. In addition to higher yields, researchers valued commercially sold chicken litter at a $17/ton premium (to a total valuation of $78/ton) over the traditional valuations of $61/ton due to value added as a [[soil conditioner]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100623.htm|title= Researchers Study Value of Chicken Litter in Cotton Production |date=July 23, 2010}}</ref>

Other ARS studies have found that algae used to capture nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields can not only prevent water contamination of these nutrients, but also can be used as an organic fertilizer. ARS scientists originally developed the "algal turf scrubber" to reduce nutrient runoff and increase quality of water flowing into streams, rivers, and lakes. They found that this nutrient-rich algae, once dried, can be applied to cucumber and corn seedlings and result in growth comparable to that seen using synthetic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm|title= Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine |publisher=USDA Agricultural Research Service|date=May 7, 2010}}</ref>

=== Organic fertilizer sources ===
==== Animal ====
{{see also|Night soil}}
[[File:Hestemøj.jpg|thumb|Decomposing animal manure, an organic fertilizer source]]

Animal-sourced and human [[urea]] are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of urea are not.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecochem.com/t_natfert.html |title=In a natural organic system, nitrate in the soil is derived from the gradual breakdown of humus |publisher=Ecochem.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The common thread that can be seen through these examples is that ''organic'' agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (in contrast to the man-made [[Haber process]]), as well as being naturally occurring or via natural biological processes such as [[composting]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

Besides immediate application of urea to the soil, [[urine]] can also be improved by converting it to [[struvite]] already done with human urine by a Dutch firm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/innovation/2010/0625/1224272921729.html |title=Human urine conversion to struvite |publisher=Irishtimes.com |date=2010-06-06 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> The conversion is performed by adding magnesium to the urine. An added economical advantage of using urine as fertilizer is that it contains a large amount of phosphorus.

Recycled [[sewage sludge]] (aka [[biosolids]]) as soil amendment is only available to less than 1% of US ag{{Clarify|date=August 2011}} land. Industrial pollutants in sewage sludge prevents recycling it as fertilizer. The [[USDA]] prohibits use of [[sewage sludge]] in [[organic agriculture|organic agricultural]] operations in the U.S. due to industrial pollution, pharmaceuticals, hormones, heavy metals, and other factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/torg.html |title=Organic Farming | Agriculture | US EPA |publisher=Epa.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calorganicfarms.com/news/full.php?id=22 |title=CalOrganic Farms News |publisher=Calorganicfarms.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/biosolids/tnsss-overview.cfm |title=Biosolids: Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Report |publisher=EPA.gov |date=2009-01}}</ref> The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic fertilizers sold in the U.S.<ref name="USDA certification of high-nitrogen liquid fertilizer">{{cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_17001.cfm|title=USDA Toughens Oversight of Organic Fertilizer: Organic fertilizers must undergo testing |last=Schrack|first=Don|date=2009-02-23|publisher=The Packer |accessdate=November 19, 2009}}</ref>

==== Plant ====
Leguminous [[cover crop]]s are also grown to enrich soil as a [[green manure]] through [[nitrogen fixation]] from the atmosphere;<ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=373994&pageindex=6#page |title=Isolation and Study of Cultures of Chinese Vetch Nodule Bacteria |publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov |date=2010-07-06 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XO3pio5Opy8C&pg=PA564&lpg=PA564&dq=phosphorus+addition+fava+bean |title=Biological approaches to sustainable ... – Google Books |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2010-08-25|isbn=978-1-57444-583-1|year=2006|author1=Uphoff|first1=Norman Thomas}}</ref> content of [[soil]]s.

==== Mineral ====
Mined powdered [[limestone]],<ref name="google.com">{{cite web|url=http://google.com/search?q=cache:_KrbNzgsjrQJ:extension.agron.iastate.edu/sustag/pubs/Soil_Quality_Brochure.doc+limestone+organic+agriculture&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=opera |title=Organic Agriculture |publisher=Google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> [[rock phosphate]] and [[sodium nitrate]], are [[inorganic]] (not of biologic origins) compounds which are energetically intensive to harvest and are approved for usage in organic agriculture in ''minimal'' amounts.<ref name="google.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extension.org/article/18321/print/ |title=Can I Use This Input on My Organic Farm? |publisher=eXtension |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Alternative Farming Systems Information Center |url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml#resources |title=Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools |publisher=Nal.usda.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

== Negative environmental effects ==
{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle}} and [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Problems_with_inorganic_fertilizer|Problems with inorganic fertilizer]]
[[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]
[[File:EutrophicationEutrophisationEutrophierung.jpg|thumb||An [[algal bloom]] caused by eutrophication]]

=== Water quality ===
==== Eutrophication ====
{{Main|Eutrophication}}

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean ‘Dead Zones’"], NY Times, Aug. 14, 2008</ref> Visually, water may become cloudy and discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red).

About half of all the lakes in the United States are now [[eutrophic]], while the number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines are increasing.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News – Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. If eutrophication ''can'' be reversed, it may take decades{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

==== Blue baby syndrome ====
High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields, combined with the high solubilities of these fertilizers leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into surface water as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|author=C. J. Rosen and B. P. Horgan |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG2923.html |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=2009-01-09 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V94-3VW172B-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a887208bd6509db7ab1557a4fc43c5fa |title=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology - Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |publisher=ScienceDirect.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=2004-02-25 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The use of [[ammonium nitrate]] in ''inorganic'' fertilizers is particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over nitrate ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation) into runoff or groundwater.<ref>[http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Jillesha Services] Annual Review of Plant Biology Vol. 59: 341–363</ref>

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]), leading to [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] (which can lead to coma and death if not treated).<ref>{{cite web|author=Lynda Knobeloch, Barbara Salna, Adam Hogan, Jeffrey Postle, and Henry Anderson |url=http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2000/108p675-678knobeloch/abstract.html |title=Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water |publisher=Ehponline.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

=== Soil ===
==== Soil acidification ====
{{See also|Soil pH}}

Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/324/5928/721-b#R1</ref><ref>http://soil.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/72/1/238</ref> This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]].

==== Persistent organic pollutants ====
{{Main|Persistent organic pollutant}}

Toxic persistent organic pollutants ("POPs"), such as [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|Dioxins]], [[polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin]]s (PCDDs), and [[polychlorinated dibenzofuran]]s (PCDFs) have been detected in agricultural fertilizers and soil amendments<ref>pg 33: http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/recycling/fertiliz/risk/</ref>

==== Heavy metal accumulation ====
The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of [[cadmium]] in [[phosphate minerals]] (for example, minerals from [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal=J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11}}</ref> and the [[Christmas island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title=The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |pages=261–286}}</ref>) increases the contamination of soil with cadmium, for example in New Zealand.<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 |pages=123–126 | doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8}}</ref>

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web|last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |title=Business | Fear In The Fields – How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer – Spreading Heavy Metals On Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe | Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat Of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Concerns have been raised concerning [[fish meal]] mercury content by at least one source in Spain<ref name="Heavy-metal toxicity of catfish fertilizer concern">{{cite web|url=http://www.nowpublic.com/environment/catfish-toxic-suitable-fishmeal-production|title=The catfish 'Toxic' suitable for fishmeal production|date=November 16, 2009|publisher=NowPublic|accessdate=November 23, 2009}}</ref>

==== Radioactive element accumulation ====
[[Uranium]] is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers (at levels from 7 to 100 pCi/g).<ref name="Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/glossary/termuvwxyz.html#uranium|title=Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=March 11, 2009|publisher=US EPA|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and build up in vegetable produce.<ref name=taylor/> Average annual intake of uranium by adults is estimated to be about 0.5 mg (500 μg) from ingestion of food and water and 0.6 μg from breathing air.<ref name="Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs257/en/|title=Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium|date=January 2003|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>

Also, highly [[radioactive]] [[Polonium-210]] contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in its tissues; tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits [[alpha radiation]] estimated to cause about 11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Scholten LC, Timmermans CWM |title=Natural radioactivity in phosphate fertilizers |journal=Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems |year=1992 |volume=43 |pages=103–107 |doi=10.1007/BF00747688}}</ref><ref>American Public Health Association, Framing Health Matters, Waking a Sleeping Giant: The Tobacco Industry’s Response to the Polonium-210 Issue: Monique E. Muggli, MPH, Jon O. Ebbert, MD, Channing Robertson, PhD and Richard D. Hurt, MD [http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/9/1643]</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, The big idea: polonium, radon and cigarettes, Tidd J R Soc Med.2008; 101: 156–157 [http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/cgi/content/full/101/3/156]</ref><ref>The Age Melbourne Australia, Big Tobacco covered up radiation danger, William Birnbauer [http://www.theage.com.au/national/big-tobacco-covered-up-radiation-danger-20080906-4b54.html?page=-1]</ref>

For these reasons, it is recommended that [[nutrient budgeting]], through careful observation and monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application.

=== Atmosphere ===
[[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]]

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers; these emissions contribute greatly to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots ">{{cite journal|last=Bodelier|first=Paul, L.E.|coauthors=Peter Roslev3, Thilo Henckel1 & Peter Frenzel1|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6768/abs/403421a0.html|accessdate=Feb 2, 2009|pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193}}</ref>

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 1 billion tons per year presently<ref>http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7176/fig_tab/nature06592_F1.html An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle Nicolas Gruber & James N. Galloway Nature 451, 293–296(17 January 2008) {{doi|10.1038/nature06592}}</ref> to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N2O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] [[UNESCO]] – [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref>

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some{{Which|date=April 2009}} weather or soil conditions can cause emissions of the potent greenhouse gas—nitrous oxide. [[Ammonia]] gas (NH3) may be emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

The use of fertilizers on a global scale [[Attribution of recent climate change#Livestock and land use|emits significant quantities]] of [[greenhouse gas]] into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of:<ref>[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. retrieved Aug 9, 2007]</ref>

* animal [[manures]] and [[urea]], which release [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]], and [[carbon dioxide]] in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)
* fertilizers that use [[nitric acid]] or [[ammonium bicarbonate]], the production and application of which results in emissions of [[nitrogen oxides]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]] and [[carbon dioxide]] into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on [[anthropogenic climate change]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

=== Other problems ===
==== Increased pest fitness ====
Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain agricultural pests, such as [[aphid]]s (plant lice).<ref name="Jahn2004">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC |year=2004 |title=Effect of soil nutrients on the growth, survival and fecundity of insect pests of rice: an overview and a theory of pest outbreaks with consideration of research approaches. Multitrophic interactions in Soil and Integrated Control |journal=International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) wprs Bulletin |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=115–122}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001a">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Sanchez ER, Cox PG |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management |journal=International Rice Research Institute – Discussion Paper |volume=42 |page=18 |url=http://www.irri.org/publications/discussion/pdfs/DiscPaper42.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001b">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Cox PG, Rubia-Sanchez E, Cohen M |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413–430, |journal=S. Peng and B. Hardy [eds.] "Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation". Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, March 31,  – April 3, 2000, Los Baños, Philippines. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. |page=692}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1603/0046-225X-34.4.938 |author=Jahn GC, Almazan LP, Pacia J |year=2005 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.) |journal=Environmental Entomology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=938–943 |url=http://puck.esa.catchword.org/vl=33435372/cl=21/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/0046225x/v34n4/s26/p938}}</ref><ref name="Preap2001">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ, Jahn GC |year=2001 |title=Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on realized fecundity and survival rates of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål); Generating Outbreaks in Cambodia |journal=Journal of Asia Pacific Entomology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60107-7}}</ref><ref name="Preap2002">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Jahn GC |year=2002 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and host plant variety on fecundity and early instar survival of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål): immediate response |journal=Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Inter-Country Forecasting System and Management for Planthopper in East Asia. November 13–15, 2002. Guilin China. Published by Rural Development Administration (RDA) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) |pages=163–180, 226}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Fertigation]]
* [[History of organic farming]]
* [[Phosphogypsum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fertilizers}}
{{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}

* [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process]
* [http://www.tfi.org/factsandstats/fertilizer.cfm The Fertilizer Institute (TFI)] US Fertilizer Industry Association
* [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)]
* [http://cms.efma.org/ European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association]
* [http://www.agriculturesolutions.com/index.php?option=com_content&Itemid=111&id=87&lang=en&task=view How to read fertilizer tags article]
* [http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization]

{{PlantMineralDeficiency}}

[[Category:Fertilizers| ]]

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Fertilizer

2013-01-03T03:32:49Z

Explodingbrain: Added links to hydrogen production, ammonia production, water, water splitting, electrolysis.

[[File:TVA Results of Fertilizer.gif|thumb|[[Tennessee Valley Authority]]: "Results of Fertilizer" demonstration 1942]]
[[File:Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg|thumb|A large, modern fertilizer spreader]]
[[File:Lite-trac Spreader.jpg|thumb|A [[Lite-Trac]] Agri-Spread lime and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show]]

'''Fertilizer''' (or '''fertiliser''') is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.<ref name="SSSA Glossary of Soil Science Terms">{{cite web|title=Glossary of Soil Science Terms|url=https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary#|publisher=[[Soil Science Society of America]]|accessdate=May 10, 2011}}</ref> Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.<ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=W.M.|last2=Dibb|first2=D.W.|last3=Johnston|first3=A.E.|last4=Smyth|first4=T.J.|year=2005|title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production|journal=Agronomy Journal|volume=97|pages=1–6|doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001}}</ref> European fertilizer market is expected to grow to €15.3 billion by 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/fertilizers |title=Market Study on Fertilizers |publisher= Ceresana.com}}</ref>

Mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for many centuries, whereas chemically synthesized inorganic fertilizers were only widely developed during the [[industrial revolution]]. Increased understanding and use of fertilizers were important parts of the pre-industrial [[British Agricultural Revolution]] and the industrial [[Green Revolution]] of the 20th century.

Inorganic fertilizer use has also significantly supported global [[population growth]] — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erisman|first=Jan Willem|coauthors=MA Sutton, J Galloway, Z Klimont, W Winiwarter|title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|year=2008|page=636|month=October|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|accessdate=October 22, 2010|issue=10}}</ref>

Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:

* six macronutrients: [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), [[potassium]] (K), [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S);
* eight micronutrients: [[boron]] (B), [[chlorine]] (Cl), [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilization|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn) and [[nickel]] (Ni) (1987).

The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (0% moisture) basis (DM). Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts per million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.htm |title=AESL Plant Analysis Handbook – Nutrient Content of Plant |publisher=Aesl.ces.uga.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author=H.A. Mills, J.B. Jones Jr.|year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|isbn=1-878148-05-2}}</ref>

Only three other macronutrients are required by all plants: [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]]. These nutrients are supplied by water and carbon dioxide.

The nitrogen-rich fertilizer [[ammonium nitrate]] is also used as an [[oxidizing agent]] in [[improvised explosive device]]s, sometimes called ''[[fertilizer bomb]]s'', leading to sale regulations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhs.gov/files/laws/ammonium-nitrate-regulations.shtm |title=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |publisher=Dhs.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

== Labeling of chemical fertilizer ==
{{Main|Labeling of fertilizer}}

The labeling of fertilizers varies. In most countries the macronutrients are labeled with an ''[[NPK rating|NPK]]'' analysis (in Australia, "N-P-K-S" adding [[sulfur]]).<ref name="Draft Code of Practice for Fertilier Description and Labeling">{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:CgW191hwEBIJ:www.fifa.asn.au/files/pdf/regulation/Draft%2520Code%2520of%2520Practice%2520for%2520Fertilizer%2520Description%2520%26%2520aaaaaaLabelling.pdf+labeling+of+fertilizer&hl=en&gl=us&sig=AHIEtbSJjp1liw8XbwDLtw2aqua-xK0n1g |title=Draft Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description and Labeling |date=2008-09-15|publisher=Fertilizer Industry Federation Association (FIFA)|accessdate=February 3, 2010}}</ref>

The three numbers on the fertilizer label represent an analysis of the composition by weight. These three numbers correspond to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K) and always appear in that specific order. When a 4th number is included, it indicates the sulfur content (N-P-K-S).

While the number for "N" represents the percentage weight of nitrogen, in some European countries, the other two components are not for the analysis of the element, but rather, the analysis of the "available" or "soluble" form of the element. In traditional chemical analysis, the tests used treated the sample so as to measure the equivalent P2O5 and K2O. For instance, some potassium-bearing rocks do not count as having available potassium.

Similarly the number for "P" in some countries is actually the weight of an equivalent quantity of P2O5 whereas in others (including Australia) it refers to elemental phosphorus. In order to calculate the weight of P in the formulation, the weight of P2O5 can be multiplied by 0.44 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of P2O5, but only 4.4 pounds of P.

Likewise, the number for "K" in Europe can refer to the weight of an equivalent quantity of K2O, whereas in Australia it refers to elemental potassium. In order to calculate the weight of K in the formulation, the weight of K2O can be multiplied by 0.83 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of K2O, but only 8.3 pounds of K.

As an example, the fertilizer ''[[potash]]'' (in modern times, muriate of potash or potassium chloride) is composed of 52% potassium and 48% chlorine by weight; chemical analysis of 100g of potassium chloride ([[KCl]]), would show 63g of equivalent potassium oxide ([[potassium oxide|K2O]]) when done in the manner of fertilizer analysis. The ''percentage yield'' of K2O from the original 100g of fertilizer is the number shown on the label. A potash fertilizer would thus be labeled 0-0-63, and ''not' (except in Australia and some other countries) ' 0-0-52.

== History ==
[[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]]
{{Main|History of fertilizer}}

Management of [[soil fertility]] has been the pre-occupation of farmers for thousands of years. The start of the modern science of plant nutrition dates to the 19th century and the work of [[Justus von Liebig]], among others.

[[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]], with whom he carried on for more than half a century on experiments in raising crops at the [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]].

The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen based fertilizer production. It was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist [[Kristian Birkeland]] along with his business partner [[Sam Eyde]] in 1903, based on a method used by [[Henry Cavendish]] in 1784.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The development of modern chemistry
| author = Aaron John Ihde
| publisher = Courier Dover Publications
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-486-64235-6
| page = 678
}}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N2) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO3-) in the reaction

HNO3 → H+ + NO3-

which may take place in the presence of water or another [[proton acceptor]]. Nitrate is an ion which plants can absorb.

A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway, combined with the building of large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture
| author = G. J. Leigh
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-19-516582-9
| pages = 134–139
}}</ref>

The Birkeland-Eyde process is relatively inefficient in terms of energy consumption. Therefore, in the 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a combination of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from [[methane]] (CH4) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2). The ammonia from the Haber process is then converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950
| author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams
| author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1982
| isbn = 0-19-858159-9
| pages = 134–135
}}</ref>

== Forms ==
Fertilizers come in various forms. The most typical form is solid fertilizer in granulated or powdered forms. The next most common form is liquid fertilizer; some advantages of liquid fertilizer are its immediate effect and wide coverage.

There are also slow-release fertilizers (various forms including fertilizer spikes, tabs, etc.) which reduce the problem of "burning" the plants due to excess nitrogen. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a [http://www.agritab.com 'true time-release'] or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients.

More recently, [[organic fertilizer]] is on the rise as people are resorting to [[environmental friendly]] (or 'green') products. Although organic fertilizers usually contain a lower concentration of nutrients, this lower concentration avoids complication of nitrogen burn harming the plants. In addition, organic fertilizers such as compost and worm castings break down slowly into complex organic structures ([[humus]]) which build the soil's structure and moisture- and nutrient-retaining capabilities.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

== Inorganic commercial fertilizer ==
Fertilizers are broadly divided into '''[[organic compound|organic]] fertilizers''' (composed of organic plant or animal matter), or '''[[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or commercial fertilizers'''. Plants can only absorb their required [[plant nutrition|nutrients]] if they are present in easily dissolved chemical compounds. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers provide the same needed chemical compounds. Organic fertilizers provided other macro and micro plant nutrients and are released as the organic matter decays—this may take months or years. Organic fertilizers nearly always have much lower concentrations of plant nutrients and have the usual problems of economical collection, treatment, transportation and distribution.

Inorganic fertilizers nearly always are readily dissolved and unless added have few other macro and micro plant nutrients. Nearly all nitrogen that plants use is in the form of NH3 or NO3 compounds. The usable phosphorus compounds are usually in the form of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and the potassium (K) is typically in the form of potassium chloride (KCl). In organic fertilizers nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds are released from the complex organic compounds as the animal or plant matter decays. In commercial fertilizers the same required compounds are available in easily dissolved compounds that require no decay—they can be used almost immediately after water is applied. Inorganic fertilizers are usually much more concentrated with up to 64% (18-46-0) of their weight being a given plant nutrient, compared to organic fertilizers that only provide 0.4% or less of their weight as a given [[plant nutrition|plant nutrient]].<ref>NPK ratios of common organic materials [http://permaculture.org.au/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Nitrogen fertilizers are often made using the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]] (invented about 1915) which uses natural gas (CH4+) for the hydrogen and nitrogen gas (N2) from the air at an elevated temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to form [[ammonia]] (NH3) as the end product. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] ([[Nitrogen|N]][[Hydrogen|H]]4[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]3) and [[urea]] ([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]]([[nitrogen|N]][[hydrogen|H]]2)2). These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g. [[UAN]]). Deposits of potassium nitrate (NaNO3) ([[saltpeter]]) are also found the [[Atacama desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen rich inorganic fertilizers used. It is still mined for fertilizer.

In the [[Nitrophosphate process]] or [[Odda Process]] (invented in 1927), [[phosphate rock]] with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) to produce a mixture of [[phosphoric acid]] (H3PO4) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2). This can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with all three N:P:K: plant nutrients in easily dissolved form.

[[Phosphate rock]] can also be processed into water-soluble phosphate (P2O5) with the addition of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to make the phosphoric acid in phosphate fertilizers. Phosphate can also be reduced in an electric furnace to make high purity phosphorus; however, this is more expensive than the acid process.

[[Potash]] can be used to make potassium (K) fertilizers. All commercial potash deposits come originally from marine deposits and are often buried deep in the earth. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl) and are obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. For deep potash deposits hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. [[Amine]] reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for [[plant nutrition]].<ref>Potash KCl fertilizer production [http://www.ipni.net/ipniweb/portal.nsf/0/68907f5d1e5922f8062577ce006ad872/$FILE/K%20Fert%20Prod%20&%20Tech%2011%2016%2010.pdf] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Compound fertilizers often combine N, P and K fertilizers into easily dissolved pellets. The N:P:K ratios quoted on fertilizers give the weight percent of the fertilizer in nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O equivalent)

The use of commercial inorganic fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million tonnes of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal|last=Glass|first=Anthony |date=September 2003|title=Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences|volume=22|issue=5|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/bpts/2003/00000022/00000005/art00003|doi=10.1080/713989757|page=453}}</ref> Without commercial fertilizers it is estimated that about one-third of the food produced now could not be produced.<ref>Commercial fertilizers increase crop yields [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/food-and-soil.php] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per hectare requires 31–50 kg of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied, soybean requires 20–25 kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vance|coauthors=Uhde-Stone & Allan|year=2003|title=Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource|journal=New Phythologist|volume=157|pages=423–447|jstor=1514050|author1=Vance, Carroll P|issue=3|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|doi=10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x}}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105|title=Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=February 18, 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=February 21, 2010}}</ref>

=== Controlled-release types ===
Urea and formaldehyde, reacted together to produce sparingly soluble polymers of various molecular weights, is one of the oldest controlled-nitrogen-release technologies, having been first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.<ref name=SRN>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/
| title=Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen |author=J. B. Sartain, University of Florida
| journal=Grounds Maintenance |date= (c)2011}}</ref> The early product had 60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick release) less than 15%. Methylene ureas were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, having 25 and 60% of the nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the range of 15 to 30%. Isobutylidene diurea, unlike the methylurea polymers, is a single crystalline solid of relatively uniform properties, with about 90% of the nitrogen water-insoluble.

In the 1960s, the [[National Fertilizer Development Center]] began developing Sulfur-coated urea; sulfur was used as the principle coating material because of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.<ref name=SRN/> Usually there is another wax or polymer which seals the sulfur; the slow release properties depend on the degradation of the secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the sulfur. They typically provide 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications. When a hard polymer is used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles and traditional sulfur-coated.

Other coated products use thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce diffusion-controlled release of urea or soluble inorganic fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a paraffin topcoat.

Besides being more efficient in the utilization of the applied nutrients, slow-release technologies also reduce the impact on the environment and the contamination of the subsurface water.<ref name=SRN/>

{| align="right" class="wikitable" style="margin:10px"
|+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options, Table 3.3 retrieved Jun 29, 2009] United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</ref>
|-
! Country
! Total N use
(Mt pa)
! Amt. used for feed/pasture
(Mt pa)
|-
| China
| 18.7
| 3.0
|-
| U.S.
| 9.1
| 4.7
|-
| France
| 2.5
| 1.3
|-
| Germany
| 2.0
| 1.2
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| 1.7
| 0.7
|-
| Canada
| 1.6
| 0.9
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| 1.5
| 0.3
|-
| UK
| 1.3
| 0.9
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| 1.3
| 0.3
|-
| Spain
| 1.2
| 0.5
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| 0.4
| 0.1
|}

=== Application ===
Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

Studies have shown that application of nitrogen fertilizer on off-season [[cover crops]] can increase the biomass (and subsequent [[green manure]] value) of these crops, while having a beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels for the main crop planted during the summer season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/544836/ |title=Nitrogen Applied |publisher=Newswise.com |date=2008-07-19 |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

Nutrients in soil can be thrown out of balance with high concentrations of fertilizers. The interconnectedness and complexity of this [[soil food web|soil ‘food web’]] means any appraisal of soil function must necessarily take into account interactions with the living communities that exist within the soil. Stability of the system is reduced by the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, which cause [[soil acidification]].

Applying excessive amounts of fertilizer has negative environmental effects, and wastes the growers' time and money. To avoid over-application, the nutrient status of crops should be assessed. Nutrient deficiency can be detected by visually assessing the physical symptoms of the crop. [[Nitrogen deficiency]], for example has a distinctive presentation in some species. However, quantitative tests are more reliable for detecting nutrient deficiency before it has significantly affected the crop. Both [[soil test]]s and [[Plant Tissue Test]]s are used in agriculture to fine-tune nutrient management to the crops needs.

=== Problems with inorganic fertilizer ===
See also [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Negative_environmental_effects|Negative environmental effects]]

==== Water pollution ====
The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Nitrates and watercourses|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/}}</ref> In Europe these problems are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within Britain farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/}}</ref>

==== Contamination with impurities ====
Common agricultural grade phosphate fertilizers usually contain impurities such as fluorides, cadmium and uranium, although concentrations of the latter two [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] are dependent on the source of the phosphate and the production process. These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households. These highly water soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. There are also some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers made with high purity ingredients.

Oregon and Washington in U. S. have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=2012-05-23 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ Washington and Oregon links</ref>

The most widely used inorganic fertilizer is super-phosphate and its double and triple strengthed derivatives double super and triple super. Super phosphate was first developed by Lawes at the Rothamstead Agricultural Research Institute in England in the early 19th Century.<ref>http://what-when-how.com/scientists/lawes-sir-john-bennet-1814-1900-english-agriculturist-scientist</ref> Lawes added sulfuric acid to conventional rock phosphate containing the mineral apatite, a calcium fluoro-phosphate. The resulting water soluble phosphorus was able to significantly improve yields on a variety of crops at the Rothamstead Centre and the Superphosphate industry was born.
Unfortunately over decades of subsequent usage - it became clear that the solubilisation of fluorine also occurred in the process and this had the same effect as the other halogen sterilants(chlorine, bromine, iodine) over time - soil sterilization.<ref>[http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf]</ref>

==== Fertilizer dependency ====
Effectively farmers unknowingly became 100% dependent on 'bought in' water soluble, inorganic fertilizers since the sterilization of soil microflora including its mycorrhiza, reduced the availability of other natural and trace minerals within the soil. This to some extent explains the resurgence of interest in organic and particularly 'biodynamic' farming systems since these systems replace the essential soil organisms so essential to converting soil minerals into plant available (but rarely water soluble) nutrients.<ref>[http://204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf 204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf Ahmad Ali Khan, et. al., ''Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria: Occurrence, Mechanisms and their Role in Crop Production,'' J. AGRIC. BIOL. SCI. 1(1):48-58, 2009]</ref> They do this by a variety of processes including chelation whereby essential minerals become plant available - as measured by weak citric acid extraction techniques. Hence the citric acid solubility of phosphate rocks has emerged as a measure of plant availability and enabled so-called 'reactive' phosphate rocks to be used as fertilizer minerals. These should not be confused with high fluorine apatite rocks in which the fluoride content performs a similar function to its role in hardening teeth enamel, i.e. immobilizing phosphorus. This explains the oceanic origins of many of these high fluorine rocks (Christmas Island, Ocean Island) since the fluorine absorbed from the sea has prevented what were originally massive deposits of bird guano - from being leached from the coral based limestone rocks on which they were originally deposited.

==== Soil acidification ====
Also regular use of acidulated fertilizers generally contribute to the accumulation of soil acidity in soils which progressively increases aluminium availability and hence toxicity. The use of such acidulated fertilizers in the tropical and semi-tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia has contributed to soil degradation on a large scale from aluminium toxicity, which can only be countered by applications of limestone or preferably magnesian dolomite, which neutralises acid soil pH and also provides essential magnesium.

==== Trace mineral depletion ====
Many inorganic fertilizers, particularly those based on superphosphate, may not replace [[trace mineral]] elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{cite book | first=Felicity | last=Lawrence | year=2004 | title=Not on the Label | chapter=214 | editor=Kate Barker | page=213 | publisher=Penguin | isbn=0-14-101566-7 }}</ref>
Explanations for this include the early encouragement of so-called "luxury consumption" of trace elements as a result of their acidulation and subsequent dissolution in soil water, by free sulphuric acid sourced from superphosphate. This mechanism has also been identified as a possible causal agent for take-up of the heavy metal cadmium from superphosphate based fertilizers.
In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. Such nutrients are described as 'rate limiting' nutrients. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic fertilizers used in agriculture in this state{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}.

Many soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in plants and humans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc is Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2010-08-25 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

==== Overfertilization ====
{{See also|Fertilizer burn}}
[[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]]

Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as underfertilization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> "Fertilizer burn" can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in drying out of the leaves and damage or even death of the plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.improve-your-garden-soil.com/fertilizer-burn.html |title=Avoiding Fertilizer Burn |publisher=Improve-your-garden-soil.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

==== High energy consumption ====
In the USA in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas was consumed in the industrial [[Ammonia production|production of ammonia]], less than 1.5% of total U.S. annual consumption of natural gas.<ref name="Abram">{{Cite document | title=A Primer on Ammonia, Nitrogen Fertilizers, and Natural Gas Markets | author=Aleksander Abram and D. Lynn Forster | publisher=Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University | year=2005 | page=38}}</ref>
A 2002 report suggested that the [[Ammonia production|production of ammonia]] consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.<ref name="ifa">[http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp IFA – Statistics – Fertilizer Indicators – Details – Raw material reserves, (2002–10)]</ref>

Ammonia is overwhelmingly produced from natural gas, but other energy sources, together with a [[Hydrogen production|hydrogen source]] such as [[water]] (via [[water splitting]] or [[electrolysis]])<ref name=Häussinger>{{cite book|last=Häussinger|first=Peter|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 18|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=249-307|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.o13_o03/abstract|author=Peter Häussinger|authorlink=Hydrogen, 2. Production|coauthors=Reiner Lohmüller, Allan M. Watson}}</ref>, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds suitable for fertilizers.<ref name=Appl>{{cite book|last=Appl|first=Max|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 3|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=139-225|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.o02_o11/abstract|authorlink=Ammonia, 2. Production Processes|accessdate=3 January 2013}}</ref> The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.}}</ref>

==== Contribution to climate change ====
Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous_oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[Nitrous_oxide|nitrous oxide]], a [[Greenhouse_gas|greenhouse gas]].

==== Impacts on mycorrhizas ====
High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. <ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780881926118}}</ref>

==== Lack of long-term sustainability ====
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued indefinitely by definition as the resources used in their production are [[non-renewable]]. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or [[Salt lake|saline lakes]] such as the [[Dead Sea]]) and such resources are limited. However, more effective fertilizer utilization practices may decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of crop production practices can potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the critical need to improve and increase crop yields. Atmospheric (''[[nitrogen fixation|unfixed]]'') nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming over 70% of the [[atmospheric gas]]es), but this is not in a form useful to plants. To make nitrogen accessible to plants requires [[nitrogen fixation]] (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-accessible form).

Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using [[fossil fuel]]s such as natural gas and coal, which are limited resources. In lieu of converting natural gas to [[syngas]] for use in the [[Haber process]], it is also possible to convert renewable [[biomass]] to syngas (or [[wood gas]]) to supply the necessary energy for the process, though the amount of land and resources (ironically often including fertilizer) necessary for such a project may be prohibitive.

== Organic fertilizer ==
{{Main|Organic fertilizer}}
[[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]]
[[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]]

Organic fertilizers include naturally occurring organic materials, (e.g. [[chicken litter]], [[manure]], [[worm castings]], [[compost]], [[seaweed]], [[guano]], [[bone meal]]) or naturally occurring mineral deposits (e.g. [[Sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]). [[Poultry litter]] and cattle manure often create environmental and disposal problems, making their use as fertilizer beneficial. Bones can be processed into phosphate-rich bone meal; however, most are simply buried in landfills.

Even if all bones, human, animal and plant wastes were recovered to the extent practical and used for fertilizer, mineral fertilizers and synthetic nitrogen would still be required to make for losses to leaching, to the atmosphere, runoff and the losses impractical to recover.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

=== Benefits of organic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizers have been known to improve biodiversity ([[soil life]]) and long-term productivity of soil,<ref name="Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization">{{cite journal|last=Enwall|first=Karin|coauthors=Laurent Philippot,2 and Sara Hallin1|date=December 2005|title=Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|publisher=American Society for Microbiology|volume=71|issue=2|pages=8335–8343|url=http://aem.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/71/12/8335|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|pmid=16332820|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.12.8335-8343.2005|pmc=1317341}}</ref><ref name="Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity ">{{cite journal|last=Birkhofera|first=Klaus|coauthors= T. Martijn Bezemerb, c, d, Jaap Bloeme, Michael Bonkowskia, Søren Christensenf, David Duboisg, Fleming Ekelundf, Andreas Fließbachh, Lucie Gunstg, Katarina Hedlundi, Paul Mäderh, Juha Mikolaj, Christophe Robink, Heikki Setäläj, Fabienne Tatin-Frouxk, Wim H. Van der Puttenb, c and Stefan Scheua|date=September 2008|title=Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |publisher=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |volume=40|issue=9|pages=2297–2308 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TC7-4SR67X8-1&_user=10&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1189586172&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=835b56d01da86058b98352b95f68d2d8|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.05.007}}</ref> and may prove a large depository for excess [[carbon dioxide]].<ref name=" Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security">{{cite journal|last=Lal|first=R.|title= Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;304/5677/1623|publisher=[[Science (journal)]]|pmid=15192216|doi=10.1126/science.1097396|year=2004|volume=304|issue=5677|pages=1623–7|journal=Science}}</ref><ref name="Organic farming switch quadruples soil CO2 storage capacity">{{cite web|url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/280491/change_farming_to_cut_co2_emissions_by_25_per_cent.html|title=Change farming to cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent|last=Rees |first=Eifion|date= July 3, 2009|publisher=The Ecologist|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1755-1315/6/24/.../ees9_6_242025.pdf|title=ClimateChange: GlobalRisks,ChallengesandDecisions|last=Fliessbach|first=A.|coauthors=P Maeder(2), A Diop(3), LWM Luttikholt(1), N Scialabba(4), U Niggli(2), Paul Hepperly(3), T LaSalle(3) |year=2009|work=P24.17 Mitigation and adaptation strategies – organic agriculture|publisher=IOP Publishing |accessdate=February 2, 2010|location=IOPConf. Series: EarthandEnvironmentalScience6(2009)242025}}</ref>

Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil organisms by providing organic matter and [[micronutrients]] for organisms such as fungal [[mycorrhiza]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B0573:EEAECO%5D2.0.CO;2|title= Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems |last=PIMENTEL|first=David|coauthors= PAUL HEPPERLY, JAMES HANSON, DAVID DOUDS, and RITA SEIDEL|date=July 2005|publisher=BioScience|pages=ol. 55, No. 7, Pages 573–582 |accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> (which aid plants in absorbing nutrients), and can drastically reduce external inputs of pesticides, energy and fertilizer, at the cost of decreased yield.<ref name="Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming">{{cite journal|last= Mäder|first=Paul|coauthors= Andreas Fliebach,,1 David Dubois,2 Lucie Gunst,2 Padruot Fried,2 Urs Niggli1|date=May 31, 2002|title=Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming|journal=Science|publisher=Science|volume= 296 |issue= 5573 |pages=1694–1697|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5573/1694|accessdate=February 1, 2010|pmid= 12040197|doi= 10.1126/science.1071148}}</ref>

=== Disadvantages of organic fertilizers ===
{{unsourced section|date=January 2013}}
* Organic fertilizers may contain pathogens and other disease causing organisms if not properly composted<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lemunier|first=Mélanie|coauthors=Cédric Francou, Sandrine Rousseaux, Sabine Houot, Philippe Dantigny, Pascal Piveteau, Jean Guzzo|title=Long-Term Survival of Pathogenic and Sanitation Indicator Bacteria in Experimental Biowaste Composts|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|date=October 2005|year=2005|month=October|volume=71|issue=10|pages=5779-5786|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.10.5779-5786.2005|url=http://aem.asm.org/content/71/10/5779|accessdate=2 January 2013}}</ref>
* Nutrient contents are very variable and their release to available forms that the plant can use may not occur at the right plant growth stage
* Organic fertilizers are comparatively voluminous and can be too bulky to deploy the right amount of nutrients that will be beneficial to plants
* More expensive to produce
*Not so handy to apply in the soil.

=== Comparison with inorganic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically all lower than inorganic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=644_20 |title=Acta Horticulturae |publisher=Actahort.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/organic.html |title=AZ Master Gardener Manual: Organic Fetilizers |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>
One study{{Which|date=November 2009}} found that over a 140-day period, after 7 [[Leaching (agriculture)|leachings]]:

* Organic fertilizers had released between 25% and 60% of their nitrogen content
* Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs) had a relatively constant rate of release
* Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching

In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizer are both more dilute and also much less readily available to plants. According to the University of California's integrated pest management program, all ''organic fertilizers'' are classified as 'slow-release' fertilizers, and therefore cannot cause nitrogen burn.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/TOOLS/TURF/SITEPREP/amenfert.html |title=Healthy LawnsFertilizers vs. soil amendments |publisher=Ipm.ucdavis.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

Organic fertilizers from composts and other sources can be quite variable from one batch to the next.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msuorganicfarm.com/Compost.pdf |title=Crazy about Compost |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Without batch testing, amounts of applied nutrient cannot be precisely known. Nevertheless, one or more studies have shown they are at least as effective as chemical fertilizers over longer periods of use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=0002290EN&q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csa.com%2Fpartners%2Fviewrecord.php%3Frequester%3Dgs%26collection%3DTRD%26recid%3D0002290EN&uid=789131166&setcookie=yes |title=CSA |publisher=Md1.csa.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

==== Example of organic fertilizer ====
[[Chicken litter]], which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an organic fertilizer that has been shown to better condition soil for harvest than synthesized fertilizer. Researchers at the [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) studied the effects of using chicken litter, an organic fertilizer, versus synthetic fertilizers on cotton fields, and found that fields fertilized with chicken litter had a 12% increase in cotton yields over fields fertilized with synthetic fertilizer. In addition to higher yields, researchers valued commercially sold chicken litter at a $17/ton premium (to a total valuation of $78/ton) over the traditional valuations of $61/ton due to value added as a [[soil conditioner]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100623.htm|title= Researchers Study Value of Chicken Litter in Cotton Production |date=July 23, 2010}}</ref>

Other ARS studies have found that algae used to capture nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields can not only prevent water contamination of these nutrients, but also can be used as an organic fertilizer. ARS scientists originally developed the "algal turf scrubber" to reduce nutrient runoff and increase quality of water flowing into streams, rivers, and lakes. They found that this nutrient-rich algae, once dried, can be applied to cucumber and corn seedlings and result in growth comparable to that seen using synthetic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm|title= Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine |publisher=USDA Agricultural Research Service|date=May 7, 2010}}</ref>

=== Organic fertilizer sources ===
==== Animal ====
{{see also|Night soil}}
[[File:Hestemøj.jpg|thumb|Decomposing animal manure, an organic fertilizer source]]

Animal-sourced and human [[urea]] are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of urea are not.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecochem.com/t_natfert.html |title=In a natural organic system, nitrate in the soil is derived from the gradual breakdown of humus |publisher=Ecochem.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The common thread that can be seen through these examples is that ''organic'' agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (in contrast to the man-made [[Haber process]]), as well as being naturally occurring or via natural biological processes such as [[composting]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

Besides immediate application of urea to the soil, [[urine]] can also be improved by converting it to [[struvite]] already done with human urine by a Dutch firm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/innovation/2010/0625/1224272921729.html |title=Human urine conversion to struvite |publisher=Irishtimes.com |date=2010-06-06 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> The conversion is performed by adding magnesium to the urine. An added economical advantage of using urine as fertilizer is that it contains a large amount of phosphorus.

Recycled [[sewage sludge]] (aka [[biosolids]]) as soil amendment is only available to less than 1% of US ag{{Clarify|date=August 2011}} land. Industrial pollutants in sewage sludge prevents recycling it as fertilizer. The [[USDA]] prohibits use of [[sewage sludge]] in [[organic agriculture|organic agricultural]] operations in the U.S. due to industrial pollution, pharmaceuticals, hormones, heavy metals, and other factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/torg.html |title=Organic Farming | Agriculture | US EPA |publisher=Epa.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calorganicfarms.com/news/full.php?id=22 |title=CalOrganic Farms News |publisher=Calorganicfarms.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/biosolids/tnsss-overview.cfm |title=Biosolids: Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Report |publisher=EPA.gov |date=2009-01}}</ref> The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic fertilizers sold in the U.S.<ref name="USDA certification of high-nitrogen liquid fertilizer">{{cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_17001.cfm|title=USDA Toughens Oversight of Organic Fertilizer: Organic fertilizers must undergo testing |last=Schrack|first=Don|date=2009-02-23|publisher=The Packer |accessdate=November 19, 2009}}</ref>

==== Plant ====
Leguminous [[cover crop]]s are also grown to enrich soil as a [[green manure]] through [[nitrogen fixation]] from the atmosphere;<ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=373994&pageindex=6#page |title=Isolation and Study of Cultures of Chinese Vetch Nodule Bacteria |publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov |date=2010-07-06 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XO3pio5Opy8C&pg=PA564&lpg=PA564&dq=phosphorus+addition+fava+bean |title=Biological approaches to sustainable ... – Google Books |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2010-08-25|isbn=978-1-57444-583-1|year=2006|author1=Uphoff|first1=Norman Thomas}}</ref> content of [[soil]]s.

==== Mineral ====
Mined powdered [[limestone]],<ref name="google.com">{{cite web|url=http://google.com/search?q=cache:_KrbNzgsjrQJ:extension.agron.iastate.edu/sustag/pubs/Soil_Quality_Brochure.doc+limestone+organic+agriculture&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=opera |title=Organic Agriculture |publisher=Google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> [[rock phosphate]] and [[sodium nitrate]], are [[inorganic]] (not of biologic origins) compounds which are energetically intensive to harvest and are approved for usage in organic agriculture in ''minimal'' amounts.<ref name="google.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extension.org/article/18321/print/ |title=Can I Use This Input on My Organic Farm? |publisher=eXtension |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Alternative Farming Systems Information Center |url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml#resources |title=Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools |publisher=Nal.usda.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

== Negative environmental effects ==
{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle}} and [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Problems_with_inorganic_fertilizer|Problems with inorganic fertilizer]]
[[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]
[[File:EutrophicationEutrophisationEutrophierung.jpg|thumb||An [[algal bloom]] caused by eutrophication]]

=== Water quality ===
==== Eutrophication ====
{{Main|Eutrophication}}

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean ‘Dead Zones’"], NY Times, Aug. 14, 2008</ref> Visually, water may become cloudy and discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red).

About half of all the lakes in the United States are now [[eutrophic]], while the number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines are increasing.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News – Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. If eutrophication ''can'' be reversed, it may take decades{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

==== Blue baby syndrome ====
High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields, combined with the high solubilities of these fertilizers leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into surface water as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|author=C. J. Rosen and B. P. Horgan |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG2923.html |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=2009-01-09 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V94-3VW172B-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a887208bd6509db7ab1557a4fc43c5fa |title=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology - Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |publisher=ScienceDirect.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=2004-02-25 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The use of [[ammonium nitrate]] in ''inorganic'' fertilizers is particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over nitrate ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation) into runoff or groundwater.<ref>[http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Jillesha Services] Annual Review of Plant Biology Vol. 59: 341–363</ref>

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]), leading to [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] (which can lead to coma and death if not treated).<ref>{{cite web|author=Lynda Knobeloch, Barbara Salna, Adam Hogan, Jeffrey Postle, and Henry Anderson |url=http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2000/108p675-678knobeloch/abstract.html |title=Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water |publisher=Ehponline.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

=== Soil ===
==== Soil acidification ====
{{See also|Soil pH}}

Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/324/5928/721-b#R1</ref><ref>http://soil.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/72/1/238</ref> This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]].

==== Persistent organic pollutants ====
{{Main|Persistent organic pollutant}}

Toxic persistent organic pollutants ("POPs"), such as [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|Dioxins]], [[polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin]]s (PCDDs), and [[polychlorinated dibenzofuran]]s (PCDFs) have been detected in agricultural fertilizers and soil amendments<ref>pg 33: http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/recycling/fertiliz/risk/</ref>

==== Heavy metal accumulation ====
The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of [[cadmium]] in [[phosphate minerals]] (for example, minerals from [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal=J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11}}</ref> and the [[Christmas island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title=The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |pages=261–286}}</ref>) increases the contamination of soil with cadmium, for example in New Zealand.<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 |pages=123–126 | doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8}}</ref>

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web|last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |title=Business | Fear In The Fields – How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer – Spreading Heavy Metals On Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe | Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat Of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Concerns have been raised concerning [[fish meal]] mercury content by at least one source in Spain<ref name="Heavy-metal toxicity of catfish fertilizer concern">{{cite web|url=http://www.nowpublic.com/environment/catfish-toxic-suitable-fishmeal-production|title=The catfish 'Toxic' suitable for fishmeal production|date=November 16, 2009|publisher=NowPublic|accessdate=November 23, 2009}}</ref>

==== Radioactive element accumulation ====
[[Uranium]] is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers (at levels from 7 to 100 pCi/g).<ref name="Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/glossary/termuvwxyz.html#uranium|title=Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=March 11, 2009|publisher=US EPA|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and build up in vegetable produce.<ref name=taylor/> Average annual intake of uranium by adults is estimated to be about 0.5 mg (500 μg) from ingestion of food and water and 0.6 μg from breathing air.<ref name="Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs257/en/|title=Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium|date=January 2003|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>

Also, highly [[radioactive]] [[Polonium-210]] contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in its tissues; tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits [[alpha radiation]] estimated to cause about 11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Scholten LC, Timmermans CWM |title=Natural radioactivity in phosphate fertilizers |journal=Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems |year=1992 |volume=43 |pages=103–107 |doi=10.1007/BF00747688}}</ref><ref>American Public Health Association, Framing Health Matters, Waking a Sleeping Giant: The Tobacco Industry’s Response to the Polonium-210 Issue: Monique E. Muggli, MPH, Jon O. Ebbert, MD, Channing Robertson, PhD and Richard D. Hurt, MD [http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/9/1643]</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, The big idea: polonium, radon and cigarettes, Tidd J R Soc Med.2008; 101: 156–157 [http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/cgi/content/full/101/3/156]</ref><ref>The Age Melbourne Australia, Big Tobacco covered up radiation danger, William Birnbauer [http://www.theage.com.au/national/big-tobacco-covered-up-radiation-danger-20080906-4b54.html?page=-1]</ref>

For these reasons, it is recommended that [[nutrient budgeting]], through careful observation and monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application.

=== Atmosphere ===
[[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]]

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers; these emissions contribute greatly to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots ">{{cite journal|last=Bodelier|first=Paul, L.E.|coauthors=Peter Roslev3, Thilo Henckel1 & Peter Frenzel1|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6768/abs/403421a0.html|accessdate=Feb 2, 2009|pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193}}</ref>

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 1 billion tons per year presently<ref>http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7176/fig_tab/nature06592_F1.html An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle Nicolas Gruber & James N. Galloway Nature 451, 293–296(17 January 2008) {{doi|10.1038/nature06592}}</ref> to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N2O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] [[UNESCO]] – [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref>

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some{{Which|date=April 2009}} weather or soil conditions can cause emissions of the potent greenhouse gas—nitrous oxide. [[Ammonia]] gas (NH3) may be emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

The use of fertilizers on a global scale [[Attribution of recent climate change#Livestock and land use|emits significant quantities]] of [[greenhouse gas]] into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of:<ref>[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. retrieved Aug 9, 2007]</ref>

* animal [[manures]] and [[urea]], which release [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]], and [[carbon dioxide]] in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)
* fertilizers that use [[nitric acid]] or [[ammonium bicarbonate]], the production and application of which results in emissions of [[nitrogen oxides]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]] and [[carbon dioxide]] into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on [[anthropogenic climate change]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

=== Other problems ===
==== Increased pest fitness ====
Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain agricultural pests, such as [[aphid]]s (plant lice).<ref name="Jahn2004">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC |year=2004 |title=Effect of soil nutrients on the growth, survival and fecundity of insect pests of rice: an overview and a theory of pest outbreaks with consideration of research approaches. Multitrophic interactions in Soil and Integrated Control |journal=International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) wprs Bulletin |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=115–122}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001a">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Sanchez ER, Cox PG |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management |journal=International Rice Research Institute – Discussion Paper |volume=42 |page=18 |url=http://www.irri.org/publications/discussion/pdfs/DiscPaper42.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001b">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Cox PG, Rubia-Sanchez E, Cohen M |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413–430, |journal=S. Peng and B. Hardy [eds.] "Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation". Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, March 31,  – April 3, 2000, Los Baños, Philippines. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. |page=692}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1603/0046-225X-34.4.938 |author=Jahn GC, Almazan LP, Pacia J |year=2005 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.) |journal=Environmental Entomology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=938–943 |url=http://puck.esa.catchword.org/vl=33435372/cl=21/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/0046225x/v34n4/s26/p938}}</ref><ref name="Preap2001">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ, Jahn GC |year=2001 |title=Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on realized fecundity and survival rates of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål); Generating Outbreaks in Cambodia |journal=Journal of Asia Pacific Entomology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60107-7}}</ref><ref name="Preap2002">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Jahn GC |year=2002 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and host plant variety on fecundity and early instar survival of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål): immediate response |journal=Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Inter-Country Forecasting System and Management for Planthopper in East Asia. November 13–15, 2002. Guilin China. Published by Rural Development Administration (RDA) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) |pages=163–180, 226}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Fertigation]]
* [[History of organic farming]]
* [[Phosphogypsum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fertilizers}}
{{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}

* [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process]
* [http://www.tfi.org/factsandstats/fertilizer.cfm The Fertilizer Institute (TFI)] US Fertilizer Industry Association
* [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)]
* [http://cms.efma.org/ European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association]
* [http://www.agriculturesolutions.com/index.php?option=com_content&Itemid=111&id=87&lang=en&task=view How to read fertilizer tags article]
* [http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization]

{{PlantMineralDeficiency}}

[[Category:Fertilizers| ]]

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Fertilizer

2013-01-03T03:04:22Z

Explodingbrain: Inserted references for hydrogen and ammonia production processes.

[[File:TVA Results of Fertilizer.gif|thumb|[[Tennessee Valley Authority]]: "Results of Fertilizer" demonstration 1942]]
[[File:Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg|thumb|A large, modern fertilizer spreader]]
[[File:Lite-trac Spreader.jpg|thumb|A [[Lite-Trac]] Agri-Spread lime and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show]]

'''Fertilizer''' (or '''fertiliser''') is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.<ref name="SSSA Glossary of Soil Science Terms">{{cite web|title=Glossary of Soil Science Terms|url=https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary#|publisher=[[Soil Science Society of America]]|accessdate=May 10, 2011}}</ref> Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.<ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=W.M.|last2=Dibb|first2=D.W.|last3=Johnston|first3=A.E.|last4=Smyth|first4=T.J.|year=2005|title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production|journal=Agronomy Journal|volume=97|pages=1–6|doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001}}</ref> European fertilizer market is expected to grow to €15.3 billion by 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/fertilizers |title=Market Study on Fertilizers |publisher= Ceresana.com}}</ref>

Mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for many centuries, whereas chemically synthesized inorganic fertilizers were only widely developed during the [[industrial revolution]]. Increased understanding and use of fertilizers were important parts of the pre-industrial [[British Agricultural Revolution]] and the industrial [[Green Revolution]] of the 20th century.

Inorganic fertilizer use has also significantly supported global [[population growth]] — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erisman|first=Jan Willem|coauthors=MA Sutton, J Galloway, Z Klimont, W Winiwarter|title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|year=2008|page=636|month=October|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|accessdate=October 22, 2010|issue=10}}</ref>

Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:

* six macronutrients: [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), [[potassium]] (K), [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S);
* eight micronutrients: [[boron]] (B), [[chlorine]] (Cl), [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilization|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn) and [[nickel]] (Ni) (1987).

The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (0% moisture) basis (DM). Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts per million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.htm |title=AESL Plant Analysis Handbook – Nutrient Content of Plant |publisher=Aesl.ces.uga.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author=H.A. Mills, J.B. Jones Jr.|year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|isbn=1-878148-05-2}}</ref>

Only three other macronutrients are required by all plants: [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]]. These nutrients are supplied by water and carbon dioxide.

The nitrogen-rich fertilizer [[ammonium nitrate]] is also used as an [[oxidizing agent]] in [[improvised explosive device]]s, sometimes called ''[[fertilizer bomb]]s'', leading to sale regulations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhs.gov/files/laws/ammonium-nitrate-regulations.shtm |title=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |publisher=Dhs.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

== Labeling of chemical fertilizer ==
{{Main|Labeling of fertilizer}}

The labeling of fertilizers varies. In most countries the macronutrients are labeled with an ''[[NPK rating|NPK]]'' analysis (in Australia, "N-P-K-S" adding [[sulfur]]).<ref name="Draft Code of Practice for Fertilier Description and Labeling">{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:CgW191hwEBIJ:www.fifa.asn.au/files/pdf/regulation/Draft%2520Code%2520of%2520Practice%2520for%2520Fertilizer%2520Description%2520%26%2520aaaaaaLabelling.pdf+labeling+of+fertilizer&hl=en&gl=us&sig=AHIEtbSJjp1liw8XbwDLtw2aqua-xK0n1g |title=Draft Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description and Labeling |date=2008-09-15|publisher=Fertilizer Industry Federation Association (FIFA)|accessdate=February 3, 2010}}</ref>

The three numbers on the fertilizer label represent an analysis of the composition by weight. These three numbers correspond to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K) and always appear in that specific order. When a 4th number is included, it indicates the sulfur content (N-P-K-S).

While the number for "N" represents the percentage weight of nitrogen, in some European countries, the other two components are not for the analysis of the element, but rather, the analysis of the "available" or "soluble" form of the element. In traditional chemical analysis, the tests used treated the sample so as to measure the equivalent P2O5 and K2O. For instance, some potassium-bearing rocks do not count as having available potassium.

Similarly the number for "P" in some countries is actually the weight of an equivalent quantity of P2O5 whereas in others (including Australia) it refers to elemental phosphorus. In order to calculate the weight of P in the formulation, the weight of P2O5 can be multiplied by 0.44 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of P2O5, but only 4.4 pounds of P.

Likewise, the number for "K" in Europe can refer to the weight of an equivalent quantity of K2O, whereas in Australia it refers to elemental potassium. In order to calculate the weight of K in the formulation, the weight of K2O can be multiplied by 0.83 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of K2O, but only 8.3 pounds of K.

As an example, the fertilizer ''[[potash]]'' (in modern times, muriate of potash or potassium chloride) is composed of 52% potassium and 48% chlorine by weight; chemical analysis of 100g of potassium chloride ([[KCl]]), would show 63g of equivalent potassium oxide ([[potassium oxide|K2O]]) when done in the manner of fertilizer analysis. The ''percentage yield'' of K2O from the original 100g of fertilizer is the number shown on the label. A potash fertilizer would thus be labeled 0-0-63, and ''not' (except in Australia and some other countries) ' 0-0-52.

== History ==
[[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]]
{{Main|History of fertilizer}}

Management of [[soil fertility]] has been the pre-occupation of farmers for thousands of years. The start of the modern science of plant nutrition dates to the 19th century and the work of [[Justus von Liebig]], among others.

[[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]], with whom he carried on for more than half a century on experiments in raising crops at the [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]].

The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen based fertilizer production. It was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist [[Kristian Birkeland]] along with his business partner [[Sam Eyde]] in 1903, based on a method used by [[Henry Cavendish]] in 1784.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The development of modern chemistry
| author = Aaron John Ihde
| publisher = Courier Dover Publications
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-486-64235-6
| page = 678
}}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N2) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO3-) in the reaction

HNO3 → H+ + NO3-

which may take place in the presence of water or another [[proton acceptor]]. Nitrate is an ion which plants can absorb.

A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway, combined with the building of large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture
| author = G. J. Leigh
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-19-516582-9
| pages = 134–139
}}</ref>

The Birkeland-Eyde process is relatively inefficient in terms of energy consumption. Therefore, in the 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a combination of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from [[methane]] (CH4) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2). The ammonia from the Haber process is then converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950
| author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams
| author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1982
| isbn = 0-19-858159-9
| pages = 134–135
}}</ref>

== Forms ==
Fertilizers come in various forms. The most typical form is solid fertilizer in granulated or powdered forms. The next most common form is liquid fertilizer; some advantages of liquid fertilizer are its immediate effect and wide coverage.

There are also slow-release fertilizers (various forms including fertilizer spikes, tabs, etc.) which reduce the problem of "burning" the plants due to excess nitrogen. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a [http://www.agritab.com 'true time-release'] or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients.

More recently, [[organic fertilizer]] is on the rise as people are resorting to [[environmental friendly]] (or 'green') products. Although organic fertilizers usually contain a lower concentration of nutrients, this lower concentration avoids complication of nitrogen burn harming the plants. In addition, organic fertilizers such as compost and worm castings break down slowly into complex organic structures ([[humus]]) which build the soil's structure and moisture- and nutrient-retaining capabilities.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

== Inorganic commercial fertilizer ==
Fertilizers are broadly divided into '''[[organic compound|organic]] fertilizers''' (composed of organic plant or animal matter), or '''[[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or commercial fertilizers'''. Plants can only absorb their required [[plant nutrition|nutrients]] if they are present in easily dissolved chemical compounds. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers provide the same needed chemical compounds. Organic fertilizers provided other macro and micro plant nutrients and are released as the organic matter decays—this may take months or years. Organic fertilizers nearly always have much lower concentrations of plant nutrients and have the usual problems of economical collection, treatment, transportation and distribution.

Inorganic fertilizers nearly always are readily dissolved and unless added have few other macro and micro plant nutrients. Nearly all nitrogen that plants use is in the form of NH3 or NO3 compounds. The usable phosphorus compounds are usually in the form of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and the potassium (K) is typically in the form of potassium chloride (KCl). In organic fertilizers nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds are released from the complex organic compounds as the animal or plant matter decays. In commercial fertilizers the same required compounds are available in easily dissolved compounds that require no decay—they can be used almost immediately after water is applied. Inorganic fertilizers are usually much more concentrated with up to 64% (18-46-0) of their weight being a given plant nutrient, compared to organic fertilizers that only provide 0.4% or less of their weight as a given [[plant nutrition|plant nutrient]].<ref>NPK ratios of common organic materials [http://permaculture.org.au/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Nitrogen fertilizers are often made using the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]] (invented about 1915) which uses natural gas (CH4+) for the hydrogen and nitrogen gas (N2) from the air at an elevated temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to form [[ammonia]] (NH3) as the end product. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] ([[Nitrogen|N]][[Hydrogen|H]]4[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]3) and [[urea]] ([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]]([[nitrogen|N]][[hydrogen|H]]2)2). These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g. [[UAN]]). Deposits of potassium nitrate (NaNO3) ([[saltpeter]]) are also found the [[Atacama desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen rich inorganic fertilizers used. It is still mined for fertilizer.

In the [[Nitrophosphate process]] or [[Odda Process]] (invented in 1927), [[phosphate rock]] with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) to produce a mixture of [[phosphoric acid]] (H3PO4) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2). This can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with all three N:P:K: plant nutrients in easily dissolved form.

[[Phosphate rock]] can also be processed into water-soluble phosphate (P2O5) with the addition of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to make the phosphoric acid in phosphate fertilizers. Phosphate can also be reduced in an electric furnace to make high purity phosphorus; however, this is more expensive than the acid process.

[[Potash]] can be used to make potassium (K) fertilizers. All commercial potash deposits come originally from marine deposits and are often buried deep in the earth. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl) and are obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. For deep potash deposits hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. [[Amine]] reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for [[plant nutrition]].<ref>Potash KCl fertilizer production [http://www.ipni.net/ipniweb/portal.nsf/0/68907f5d1e5922f8062577ce006ad872/$FILE/K%20Fert%20Prod%20&%20Tech%2011%2016%2010.pdf] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Compound fertilizers often combine N, P and K fertilizers into easily dissolved pellets. The N:P:K ratios quoted on fertilizers give the weight percent of the fertilizer in nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O equivalent)

The use of commercial inorganic fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million tonnes of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal|last=Glass|first=Anthony |date=September 2003|title=Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences|volume=22|issue=5|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/bpts/2003/00000022/00000005/art00003|doi=10.1080/713989757|page=453}}</ref> Without commercial fertilizers it is estimated that about one-third of the food produced now could not be produced.<ref>Commercial fertilizers increase crop yields [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/food-and-soil.php] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per hectare requires 31–50 kg of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied, soybean requires 20–25 kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vance|coauthors=Uhde-Stone & Allan|year=2003|title=Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource|journal=New Phythologist|volume=157|pages=423–447|jstor=1514050|author1=Vance, Carroll P|issue=3|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|doi=10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x}}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105|title=Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=February 18, 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=February 21, 2010}}</ref>

=== Controlled-release types ===
Urea and formaldehyde, reacted together to produce sparingly soluble polymers of various molecular weights, is one of the oldest controlled-nitrogen-release technologies, having been first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.<ref name=SRN>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/
| title=Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen |author=J. B. Sartain, University of Florida
| journal=Grounds Maintenance |date= (c)2011}}</ref> The early product had 60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick release) less than 15%. Methylene ureas were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, having 25 and 60% of the nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the range of 15 to 30%. Isobutylidene diurea, unlike the methylurea polymers, is a single crystalline solid of relatively uniform properties, with about 90% of the nitrogen water-insoluble.

In the 1960s, the [[National Fertilizer Development Center]] began developing Sulfur-coated urea; sulfur was used as the principle coating material because of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.<ref name=SRN/> Usually there is another wax or polymer which seals the sulfur; the slow release properties depend on the degradation of the secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the sulfur. They typically provide 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications. When a hard polymer is used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles and traditional sulfur-coated.

Other coated products use thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce diffusion-controlled release of urea or soluble inorganic fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a paraffin topcoat.

Besides being more efficient in the utilization of the applied nutrients, slow-release technologies also reduce the impact on the environment and the contamination of the subsurface water.<ref name=SRN/>

{| align="right" class="wikitable" style="margin:10px"
|+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options, Table 3.3 retrieved Jun 29, 2009] United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</ref>
|-
! Country
! Total N use
(Mt pa)
! Amt. used for feed/pasture
(Mt pa)
|-
| China
| 18.7
| 3.0
|-
| U.S.
| 9.1
| 4.7
|-
| France
| 2.5
| 1.3
|-
| Germany
| 2.0
| 1.2
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| 1.7
| 0.7
|-
| Canada
| 1.6
| 0.9
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| 1.5
| 0.3
|-
| UK
| 1.3
| 0.9
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| 1.3
| 0.3
|-
| Spain
| 1.2
| 0.5
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| 0.4
| 0.1
|}

=== Application ===
Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

Studies have shown that application of nitrogen fertilizer on off-season [[cover crops]] can increase the biomass (and subsequent [[green manure]] value) of these crops, while having a beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels for the main crop planted during the summer season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/544836/ |title=Nitrogen Applied |publisher=Newswise.com |date=2008-07-19 |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

Nutrients in soil can be thrown out of balance with high concentrations of fertilizers. The interconnectedness and complexity of this [[soil food web|soil ‘food web’]] means any appraisal of soil function must necessarily take into account interactions with the living communities that exist within the soil. Stability of the system is reduced by the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, which cause [[soil acidification]].

Applying excessive amounts of fertilizer has negative environmental effects, and wastes the growers' time and money. To avoid over-application, the nutrient status of crops should be assessed. Nutrient deficiency can be detected by visually assessing the physical symptoms of the crop. [[Nitrogen deficiency]], for example has a distinctive presentation in some species. However, quantitative tests are more reliable for detecting nutrient deficiency before it has significantly affected the crop. Both [[soil test]]s and [[Plant Tissue Test]]s are used in agriculture to fine-tune nutrient management to the crops needs.

=== Problems with inorganic fertilizer ===
See also [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Negative_environmental_effects|Negative environmental effects]]

==== Water pollution ====
The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Nitrates and watercourses|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/}}</ref> In Europe these problems are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within Britain farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/}}</ref>

==== Contamination with impurities ====
Common agricultural grade phosphate fertilizers usually contain impurities such as fluorides, cadmium and uranium, although concentrations of the latter two [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] are dependent on the source of the phosphate and the production process. These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households. These highly water soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. There are also some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers made with high purity ingredients.

Oregon and Washington in U. S. have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=2012-05-23 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ Washington and Oregon links</ref>

The most widely used inorganic fertilizer is super-phosphate and its double and triple strengthed derivatives double super and triple super. Super phosphate was first developed by Lawes at the Rothamstead Agricultural Research Institute in England in the early 19th Century.<ref>http://what-when-how.com/scientists/lawes-sir-john-bennet-1814-1900-english-agriculturist-scientist</ref> Lawes added sulfuric acid to conventional rock phosphate containing the mineral apatite, a calcium fluoro-phosphate. The resulting water soluble phosphorus was able to significantly improve yields on a variety of crops at the Rothamstead Centre and the Superphosphate industry was born.
Unfortunately over decades of subsequent usage - it became clear that the solubilisation of fluorine also occurred in the process and this had the same effect as the other halogen sterilants(chlorine, bromine, iodine) over time - soil sterilization.<ref>[http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf]</ref>

==== Fertilizer dependency ====
Effectively farmers unknowingly became 100% dependent on 'bought in' water soluble, inorganic fertilizers since the sterilization of soil microflora including its mycorrhiza, reduced the availability of other natural and trace minerals within the soil. This to some extent explains the resurgence of interest in organic and particularly 'biodynamic' farming systems since these systems replace the essential soil organisms so essential to converting soil minerals into plant available (but rarely water soluble) nutrients.<ref>[http://204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf 204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf Ahmad Ali Khan, et. al., ''Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria: Occurrence, Mechanisms and their Role in Crop Production,'' J. AGRIC. BIOL. SCI. 1(1):48-58, 2009]</ref> They do this by a variety of processes including chelation whereby essential minerals become plant available - as measured by weak citric acid extraction techniques. Hence the citric acid solubility of phosphate rocks has emerged as a measure of plant availability and enabled so-called 'reactive' phosphate rocks to be used as fertilizer minerals. These should not be confused with high fluorine apatite rocks in which the fluoride content performs a similar function to its role in hardening teeth enamel, i.e. immobilizing phosphorus. This explains the oceanic origins of many of these high fluorine rocks (Christmas Island, Ocean Island) since the fluorine absorbed from the sea has prevented what were originally massive deposits of bird guano - from being leached from the coral based limestone rocks on which they were originally deposited.

==== Soil acidification ====
Also regular use of acidulated fertilizers generally contribute to the accumulation of soil acidity in soils which progressively increases aluminium availability and hence toxicity. The use of such acidulated fertilizers in the tropical and semi-tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia has contributed to soil degradation on a large scale from aluminium toxicity, which can only be countered by applications of limestone or preferably magnesian dolomite, which neutralises acid soil pH and also provides essential magnesium.

==== Trace mineral depletion ====
Many inorganic fertilizers, particularly those based on superphosphate, may not replace [[trace mineral]] elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{cite book | first=Felicity | last=Lawrence | year=2004 | title=Not on the Label | chapter=214 | editor=Kate Barker | page=213 | publisher=Penguin | isbn=0-14-101566-7 }}</ref>
Explanations for this include the early encouragement of so-called "luxury consumption" of trace elements as a result of their acidulation and subsequent dissolution in soil water, by free sulphuric acid sourced from superphosphate. This mechanism has also been identified as a possible causal agent for take-up of the heavy metal cadmium from superphosphate based fertilizers.
In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. Such nutrients are described as 'rate limiting' nutrients. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic fertilizers used in agriculture in this state{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}.

Many soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in plants and humans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc is Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2010-08-25 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

==== Overfertilization ====
{{See also|Fertilizer burn}}
[[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]]

Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as underfertilization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> "Fertilizer burn" can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in drying out of the leaves and damage or even death of the plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.improve-your-garden-soil.com/fertilizer-burn.html |title=Avoiding Fertilizer Burn |publisher=Improve-your-garden-soil.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

==== High energy consumption ====
In the USA in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas was consumed in the industrial production of ammonia, less than 1.5% of total U.S. annual consumption of natural gas.<ref name="Abram">{{Cite document | title=A Primer on Ammonia, Nitrogen Fertilizers, and Natural Gas Markets | author=Aleksander Abram and D. Lynn Forster | publisher=Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University | year=2005 | page=38}}</ref>
A 2002 report suggested that the production of ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.<ref name="ifa">[http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp IFA – Statistics – Fertilizer Indicators – Details – Raw material reserves, (2002–10)]</ref>

Ammonia is overwhelmingly produced from natural gas, but other energy sources, together with a hydrogen source such as water (via electrolysis)<ref name=Häussinger>{{cite book|last=Häussinger|first=Peter|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 18|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=249-307|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.o13_o03/abstract|author=Peter Häussinger|authorlink=Hydrogen, 2. Production|coauthors=Reiner Lohmüller, Allan M. Watson}}</ref>, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds suitable for fertilizers.<ref name=Appl>{{cite book|last=Appl|first=Max|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Volume 3|year=2000|publisher=Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA|location=Weinheim, Germany|isbn=9783527306732|pages=139-225|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14356007.o02_o11/abstract|authorlink=Ammonia, 2. Production Processes|accessdate=3 January 2013}}</ref> The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.}}</ref>

==== Contribution to climate change ====
Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous_oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[Nitrous_oxide|nitrous oxide]], a [[Greenhouse_gas|greenhouse gas]].

==== Impacts on mycorrhizas ====
High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. <ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780881926118}}</ref>

==== Lack of long-term sustainability ====
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued indefinitely by definition as the resources used in their production are [[non-renewable]]. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or [[Salt lake|saline lakes]] such as the [[Dead Sea]]) and such resources are limited. However, more effective fertilizer utilization practices may decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of crop production practices can potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the critical need to improve and increase crop yields. Atmospheric (''[[nitrogen fixation|unfixed]]'') nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming over 70% of the [[atmospheric gas]]es), but this is not in a form useful to plants. To make nitrogen accessible to plants requires [[nitrogen fixation]] (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-accessible form).

Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using [[fossil fuel]]s such as natural gas and coal, which are limited resources. In lieu of converting natural gas to [[syngas]] for use in the [[Haber process]], it is also possible to convert renewable [[biomass]] to syngas (or [[wood gas]]) to supply the necessary energy for the process, though the amount of land and resources (ironically often including fertilizer) necessary for such a project may be prohibitive.

== Organic fertilizer ==
{{Main|Organic fertilizer}}
[[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]]
[[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]]

Organic fertilizers include naturally occurring organic materials, (e.g. [[chicken litter]], [[manure]], [[worm castings]], [[compost]], [[seaweed]], [[guano]], [[bone meal]]) or naturally occurring mineral deposits (e.g. [[Sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]). [[Poultry litter]] and cattle manure often create environmental and disposal problems, making their use as fertilizer beneficial. Bones can be processed into phosphate-rich bone meal; however, most are simply buried in landfills.

Even if all bones, human, animal and plant wastes were recovered to the extent practical and used for fertilizer, mineral fertilizers and synthetic nitrogen would still be required to make for losses to leaching, to the atmosphere, runoff and the losses impractical to recover.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

=== Benefits of organic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizers have been known to improve biodiversity ([[soil life]]) and long-term productivity of soil,<ref name="Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization">{{cite journal|last=Enwall|first=Karin|coauthors=Laurent Philippot,2 and Sara Hallin1|date=December 2005|title=Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|publisher=American Society for Microbiology|volume=71|issue=2|pages=8335–8343|url=http://aem.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/71/12/8335|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|pmid=16332820|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.12.8335-8343.2005|pmc=1317341}}</ref><ref name="Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity ">{{cite journal|last=Birkhofera|first=Klaus|coauthors= T. Martijn Bezemerb, c, d, Jaap Bloeme, Michael Bonkowskia, Søren Christensenf, David Duboisg, Fleming Ekelundf, Andreas Fließbachh, Lucie Gunstg, Katarina Hedlundi, Paul Mäderh, Juha Mikolaj, Christophe Robink, Heikki Setäläj, Fabienne Tatin-Frouxk, Wim H. Van der Puttenb, c and Stefan Scheua|date=September 2008|title=Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |publisher=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |volume=40|issue=9|pages=2297–2308 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TC7-4SR67X8-1&_user=10&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1189586172&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=835b56d01da86058b98352b95f68d2d8|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.05.007}}</ref> and may prove a large depository for excess [[carbon dioxide]].<ref name=" Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security">{{cite journal|last=Lal|first=R.|title= Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;304/5677/1623|publisher=[[Science (journal)]]|pmid=15192216|doi=10.1126/science.1097396|year=2004|volume=304|issue=5677|pages=1623–7|journal=Science}}</ref><ref name="Organic farming switch quadruples soil CO2 storage capacity">{{cite web|url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/280491/change_farming_to_cut_co2_emissions_by_25_per_cent.html|title=Change farming to cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent|last=Rees |first=Eifion|date= July 3, 2009|publisher=The Ecologist|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1755-1315/6/24/.../ees9_6_242025.pdf|title=ClimateChange: GlobalRisks,ChallengesandDecisions|last=Fliessbach|first=A.|coauthors=P Maeder(2), A Diop(3), LWM Luttikholt(1), N Scialabba(4), U Niggli(2), Paul Hepperly(3), T LaSalle(3) |year=2009|work=P24.17 Mitigation and adaptation strategies – organic agriculture|publisher=IOP Publishing |accessdate=February 2, 2010|location=IOPConf. Series: EarthandEnvironmentalScience6(2009)242025}}</ref>

Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil organisms by providing organic matter and [[micronutrients]] for organisms such as fungal [[mycorrhiza]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B0573:EEAECO%5D2.0.CO;2|title= Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems |last=PIMENTEL|first=David|coauthors= PAUL HEPPERLY, JAMES HANSON, DAVID DOUDS, and RITA SEIDEL|date=July 2005|publisher=BioScience|pages=ol. 55, No. 7, Pages 573–582 |accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> (which aid plants in absorbing nutrients), and can drastically reduce external inputs of pesticides, energy and fertilizer, at the cost of decreased yield.<ref name="Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming">{{cite journal|last= Mäder|first=Paul|coauthors= Andreas Fliebach,,1 David Dubois,2 Lucie Gunst,2 Padruot Fried,2 Urs Niggli1|date=May 31, 2002|title=Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming|journal=Science|publisher=Science|volume= 296 |issue= 5573 |pages=1694–1697|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5573/1694|accessdate=February 1, 2010|pmid= 12040197|doi= 10.1126/science.1071148}}</ref>

=== Disadvantages of organic fertilizers ===
{{unsourced section|date=January 2013}}
* Organic fertilizers may contain pathogens and other disease causing organisms if not properly composted<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lemunier|first=Mélanie|coauthors=Cédric Francou, Sandrine Rousseaux, Sabine Houot, Philippe Dantigny, Pascal Piveteau, Jean Guzzo|title=Long-Term Survival of Pathogenic and Sanitation Indicator Bacteria in Experimental Biowaste Composts|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|date=October 2005|year=2005|month=October|volume=71|issue=10|pages=5779-5786|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.10.5779-5786.2005|url=http://aem.asm.org/content/71/10/5779|accessdate=2 January 2013}}</ref>
* Nutrient contents are very variable and their release to available forms that the plant can use may not occur at the right plant growth stage
* Organic fertilizers are comparatively voluminous and can be too bulky to deploy the right amount of nutrients that will be beneficial to plants
* More expensive to produce
*Not so handy to apply in the soil.

=== Comparison with inorganic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically all lower than inorganic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=644_20 |title=Acta Horticulturae |publisher=Actahort.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/organic.html |title=AZ Master Gardener Manual: Organic Fetilizers |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>
One study{{Which|date=November 2009}} found that over a 140-day period, after 7 [[Leaching (agriculture)|leachings]]:

* Organic fertilizers had released between 25% and 60% of their nitrogen content
* Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs) had a relatively constant rate of release
* Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching

In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizer are both more dilute and also much less readily available to plants. According to the University of California's integrated pest management program, all ''organic fertilizers'' are classified as 'slow-release' fertilizers, and therefore cannot cause nitrogen burn.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/TOOLS/TURF/SITEPREP/amenfert.html |title=Healthy LawnsFertilizers vs. soil amendments |publisher=Ipm.ucdavis.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

Organic fertilizers from composts and other sources can be quite variable from one batch to the next.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msuorganicfarm.com/Compost.pdf |title=Crazy about Compost |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Without batch testing, amounts of applied nutrient cannot be precisely known. Nevertheless, one or more studies have shown they are at least as effective as chemical fertilizers over longer periods of use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=0002290EN&q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csa.com%2Fpartners%2Fviewrecord.php%3Frequester%3Dgs%26collection%3DTRD%26recid%3D0002290EN&uid=789131166&setcookie=yes |title=CSA |publisher=Md1.csa.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

==== Example of organic fertilizer ====
[[Chicken litter]], which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an organic fertilizer that has been shown to better condition soil for harvest than synthesized fertilizer. Researchers at the [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) studied the effects of using chicken litter, an organic fertilizer, versus synthetic fertilizers on cotton fields, and found that fields fertilized with chicken litter had a 12% increase in cotton yields over fields fertilized with synthetic fertilizer. In addition to higher yields, researchers valued commercially sold chicken litter at a $17/ton premium (to a total valuation of $78/ton) over the traditional valuations of $61/ton due to value added as a [[soil conditioner]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100623.htm|title= Researchers Study Value of Chicken Litter in Cotton Production |date=July 23, 2010}}</ref>

Other ARS studies have found that algae used to capture nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields can not only prevent water contamination of these nutrients, but also can be used as an organic fertilizer. ARS scientists originally developed the "algal turf scrubber" to reduce nutrient runoff and increase quality of water flowing into streams, rivers, and lakes. They found that this nutrient-rich algae, once dried, can be applied to cucumber and corn seedlings and result in growth comparable to that seen using synthetic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm|title= Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine |publisher=USDA Agricultural Research Service|date=May 7, 2010}}</ref>

=== Organic fertilizer sources ===
==== Animal ====
{{see also|Night soil}}
[[File:Hestemøj.jpg|thumb|Decomposing animal manure, an organic fertilizer source]]

Animal-sourced and human [[urea]] are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of urea are not.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecochem.com/t_natfert.html |title=In a natural organic system, nitrate in the soil is derived from the gradual breakdown of humus |publisher=Ecochem.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The common thread that can be seen through these examples is that ''organic'' agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (in contrast to the man-made [[Haber process]]), as well as being naturally occurring or via natural biological processes such as [[composting]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

Besides immediate application of urea to the soil, [[urine]] can also be improved by converting it to [[struvite]] already done with human urine by a Dutch firm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/innovation/2010/0625/1224272921729.html |title=Human urine conversion to struvite |publisher=Irishtimes.com |date=2010-06-06 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> The conversion is performed by adding magnesium to the urine. An added economical advantage of using urine as fertilizer is that it contains a large amount of phosphorus.

Recycled [[sewage sludge]] (aka [[biosolids]]) as soil amendment is only available to less than 1% of US ag{{Clarify|date=August 2011}} land. Industrial pollutants in sewage sludge prevents recycling it as fertilizer. The [[USDA]] prohibits use of [[sewage sludge]] in [[organic agriculture|organic agricultural]] operations in the U.S. due to industrial pollution, pharmaceuticals, hormones, heavy metals, and other factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/torg.html |title=Organic Farming | Agriculture | US EPA |publisher=Epa.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calorganicfarms.com/news/full.php?id=22 |title=CalOrganic Farms News |publisher=Calorganicfarms.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/biosolids/tnsss-overview.cfm |title=Biosolids: Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Report |publisher=EPA.gov |date=2009-01}}</ref> The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic fertilizers sold in the U.S.<ref name="USDA certification of high-nitrogen liquid fertilizer">{{cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_17001.cfm|title=USDA Toughens Oversight of Organic Fertilizer: Organic fertilizers must undergo testing |last=Schrack|first=Don|date=2009-02-23|publisher=The Packer |accessdate=November 19, 2009}}</ref>

==== Plant ====
Leguminous [[cover crop]]s are also grown to enrich soil as a [[green manure]] through [[nitrogen fixation]] from the atmosphere;<ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=373994&pageindex=6#page |title=Isolation and Study of Cultures of Chinese Vetch Nodule Bacteria |publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov |date=2010-07-06 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XO3pio5Opy8C&pg=PA564&lpg=PA564&dq=phosphorus+addition+fava+bean |title=Biological approaches to sustainable ... – Google Books |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2010-08-25|isbn=978-1-57444-583-1|year=2006|author1=Uphoff|first1=Norman Thomas}}</ref> content of [[soil]]s.

==== Mineral ====
Mined powdered [[limestone]],<ref name="google.com">{{cite web|url=http://google.com/search?q=cache:_KrbNzgsjrQJ:extension.agron.iastate.edu/sustag/pubs/Soil_Quality_Brochure.doc+limestone+organic+agriculture&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=opera |title=Organic Agriculture |publisher=Google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> [[rock phosphate]] and [[sodium nitrate]], are [[inorganic]] (not of biologic origins) compounds which are energetically intensive to harvest and are approved for usage in organic agriculture in ''minimal'' amounts.<ref name="google.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extension.org/article/18321/print/ |title=Can I Use This Input on My Organic Farm? |publisher=eXtension |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Alternative Farming Systems Information Center |url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml#resources |title=Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools |publisher=Nal.usda.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

== Negative environmental effects ==
{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle}} and [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Problems_with_inorganic_fertilizer|Problems with inorganic fertilizer]]
[[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]
[[File:EutrophicationEutrophisationEutrophierung.jpg|thumb||An [[algal bloom]] caused by eutrophication]]

=== Water quality ===
==== Eutrophication ====
{{Main|Eutrophication}}

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean ‘Dead Zones’"], NY Times, Aug. 14, 2008</ref> Visually, water may become cloudy and discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red).

About half of all the lakes in the United States are now [[eutrophic]], while the number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines are increasing.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News – Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. If eutrophication ''can'' be reversed, it may take decades{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

==== Blue baby syndrome ====
High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields, combined with the high solubilities of these fertilizers leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into surface water as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|author=C. J. Rosen and B. P. Horgan |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG2923.html |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=2009-01-09 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V94-3VW172B-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a887208bd6509db7ab1557a4fc43c5fa |title=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology - Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |publisher=ScienceDirect.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=2004-02-25 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The use of [[ammonium nitrate]] in ''inorganic'' fertilizers is particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over nitrate ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation) into runoff or groundwater.<ref>[http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Jillesha Services] Annual Review of Plant Biology Vol. 59: 341–363</ref>

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]), leading to [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] (which can lead to coma and death if not treated).<ref>{{cite web|author=Lynda Knobeloch, Barbara Salna, Adam Hogan, Jeffrey Postle, and Henry Anderson |url=http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2000/108p675-678knobeloch/abstract.html |title=Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water |publisher=Ehponline.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

=== Soil ===
==== Soil acidification ====
{{See also|Soil pH}}

Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/324/5928/721-b#R1</ref><ref>http://soil.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/72/1/238</ref> This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]].

==== Persistent organic pollutants ====
{{Main|Persistent organic pollutant}}

Toxic persistent organic pollutants ("POPs"), such as [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|Dioxins]], [[polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin]]s (PCDDs), and [[polychlorinated dibenzofuran]]s (PCDFs) have been detected in agricultural fertilizers and soil amendments<ref>pg 33: http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/recycling/fertiliz/risk/</ref>

==== Heavy metal accumulation ====
The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of [[cadmium]] in [[phosphate minerals]] (for example, minerals from [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal=J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11}}</ref> and the [[Christmas island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title=The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |pages=261–286}}</ref>) increases the contamination of soil with cadmium, for example in New Zealand.<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 |pages=123–126 | doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8}}</ref>

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web|last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |title=Business | Fear In The Fields – How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer – Spreading Heavy Metals On Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe | Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat Of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Concerns have been raised concerning [[fish meal]] mercury content by at least one source in Spain<ref name="Heavy-metal toxicity of catfish fertilizer concern">{{cite web|url=http://www.nowpublic.com/environment/catfish-toxic-suitable-fishmeal-production|title=The catfish 'Toxic' suitable for fishmeal production|date=November 16, 2009|publisher=NowPublic|accessdate=November 23, 2009}}</ref>

==== Radioactive element accumulation ====
[[Uranium]] is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers (at levels from 7 to 100 pCi/g).<ref name="Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/glossary/termuvwxyz.html#uranium|title=Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=March 11, 2009|publisher=US EPA|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and build up in vegetable produce.<ref name=taylor/> Average annual intake of uranium by adults is estimated to be about 0.5 mg (500 μg) from ingestion of food and water and 0.6 μg from breathing air.<ref name="Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs257/en/|title=Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium|date=January 2003|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>

Also, highly [[radioactive]] [[Polonium-210]] contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in its tissues; tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits [[alpha radiation]] estimated to cause about 11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Scholten LC, Timmermans CWM |title=Natural radioactivity in phosphate fertilizers |journal=Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems |year=1992 |volume=43 |pages=103–107 |doi=10.1007/BF00747688}}</ref><ref>American Public Health Association, Framing Health Matters, Waking a Sleeping Giant: The Tobacco Industry’s Response to the Polonium-210 Issue: Monique E. Muggli, MPH, Jon O. Ebbert, MD, Channing Robertson, PhD and Richard D. Hurt, MD [http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/9/1643]</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, The big idea: polonium, radon and cigarettes, Tidd J R Soc Med.2008; 101: 156–157 [http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/cgi/content/full/101/3/156]</ref><ref>The Age Melbourne Australia, Big Tobacco covered up radiation danger, William Birnbauer [http://www.theage.com.au/national/big-tobacco-covered-up-radiation-danger-20080906-4b54.html?page=-1]</ref>

For these reasons, it is recommended that [[nutrient budgeting]], through careful observation and monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application.

=== Atmosphere ===
[[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]]

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers; these emissions contribute greatly to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots ">{{cite journal|last=Bodelier|first=Paul, L.E.|coauthors=Peter Roslev3, Thilo Henckel1 & Peter Frenzel1|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6768/abs/403421a0.html|accessdate=Feb 2, 2009|pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193}}</ref>

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 1 billion tons per year presently<ref>http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7176/fig_tab/nature06592_F1.html An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle Nicolas Gruber & James N. Galloway Nature 451, 293–296(17 January 2008) {{doi|10.1038/nature06592}}</ref> to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N2O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] [[UNESCO]] – [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref>

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some{{Which|date=April 2009}} weather or soil conditions can cause emissions of the potent greenhouse gas—nitrous oxide. [[Ammonia]] gas (NH3) may be emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

The use of fertilizers on a global scale [[Attribution of recent climate change#Livestock and land use|emits significant quantities]] of [[greenhouse gas]] into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of:<ref>[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. retrieved Aug 9, 2007]</ref>

* animal [[manures]] and [[urea]], which release [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]], and [[carbon dioxide]] in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)
* fertilizers that use [[nitric acid]] or [[ammonium bicarbonate]], the production and application of which results in emissions of [[nitrogen oxides]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]] and [[carbon dioxide]] into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on [[anthropogenic climate change]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

=== Other problems ===
==== Increased pest fitness ====
Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain agricultural pests, such as [[aphid]]s (plant lice).<ref name="Jahn2004">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC |year=2004 |title=Effect of soil nutrients on the growth, survival and fecundity of insect pests of rice: an overview and a theory of pest outbreaks with consideration of research approaches. Multitrophic interactions in Soil and Integrated Control |journal=International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) wprs Bulletin |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=115–122}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001a">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Sanchez ER, Cox PG |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management |journal=International Rice Research Institute – Discussion Paper |volume=42 |page=18 |url=http://www.irri.org/publications/discussion/pdfs/DiscPaper42.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001b">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Cox PG, Rubia-Sanchez E, Cohen M |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413–430, |journal=S. Peng and B. Hardy [eds.] "Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation". Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, March 31,  – April 3, 2000, Los Baños, Philippines. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. |page=692}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1603/0046-225X-34.4.938 |author=Jahn GC, Almazan LP, Pacia J |year=2005 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.) |journal=Environmental Entomology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=938–943 |url=http://puck.esa.catchword.org/vl=33435372/cl=21/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/0046225x/v34n4/s26/p938}}</ref><ref name="Preap2001">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ, Jahn GC |year=2001 |title=Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on realized fecundity and survival rates of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål); Generating Outbreaks in Cambodia |journal=Journal of Asia Pacific Entomology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60107-7}}</ref><ref name="Preap2002">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Jahn GC |year=2002 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and host plant variety on fecundity and early instar survival of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål): immediate response |journal=Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Inter-Country Forecasting System and Management for Planthopper in East Asia. November 13–15, 2002. Guilin China. Published by Rural Development Administration (RDA) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) |pages=163–180, 226}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Fertigation]]
* [[History of organic farming]]
* [[Phosphogypsum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fertilizers}}
{{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}

* [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process]
* [http://www.tfi.org/factsandstats/fertilizer.cfm The Fertilizer Institute (TFI)] US Fertilizer Industry Association
* [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)]
* [http://cms.efma.org/ European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association]
* [http://www.agriculturesolutions.com/index.php?option=com_content&Itemid=111&id=87&lang=en&task=view How to read fertilizer tags article]
* [http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization]

{{PlantMineralDeficiency}}

[[Category:Fertilizers| ]]

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User:Explodingbrain

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Explodingbrain: ←Created page with 'Hello world!'

Hello world!

Fertilizer

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Explodingbrain: inserted reference for "Organic fertilizers may contain pathogens and other disease causing organisms if not properly composted"

[[File:TVA Results of Fertilizer.gif|thumb|[[Tennessee Valley Authority]]: "Results of Fertilizer" demonstration 1942]]
[[File:Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg|thumb|A large, modern fertilizer spreader]]
[[File:Lite-trac Spreader.jpg|thumb|A [[Lite-Trac]] Agri-Spread lime and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show]]

'''Fertilizer''' (or '''fertiliser''') is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.<ref name="SSSA Glossary of Soil Science Terms">{{cite web|title=Glossary of Soil Science Terms|url=https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary#|publisher=[[Soil Science Society of America]]|accessdate=May 10, 2011}}</ref> Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.<ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=W.M.|last2=Dibb|first2=D.W.|last3=Johnston|first3=A.E.|last4=Smyth|first4=T.J.|year=2005|title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production|journal=Agronomy Journal|volume=97|pages=1–6|doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001}}</ref> European fertilizer market is expected to grow to €15.3 billion by 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/fertilizers |title=Market Study on Fertilizers |publisher= Ceresana.com}}</ref>

Mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for many centuries, whereas chemically synthesized inorganic fertilizers were only widely developed during the [[industrial revolution]]. Increased understanding and use of fertilizers were important parts of the pre-industrial [[British Agricultural Revolution]] and the industrial [[Green Revolution]] of the 20th century.

Inorganic fertilizer use has also significantly supported global [[population growth]] — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erisman|first=Jan Willem|coauthors=MA Sutton, J Galloway, Z Klimont, W Winiwarter|title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|year=2008|page=636|month=October|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|accessdate=October 22, 2010|issue=10}}</ref>

Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:

* six macronutrients: [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), [[potassium]] (K), [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S);
* eight micronutrients: [[boron]] (B), [[chlorine]] (Cl), [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilization|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn) and [[nickel]] (Ni) (1987).

The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (0% moisture) basis (DM). Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts per million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.htm |title=AESL Plant Analysis Handbook – Nutrient Content of Plant |publisher=Aesl.ces.uga.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author=H.A. Mills, J.B. Jones Jr.|year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|isbn=1-878148-05-2}}</ref>

Only three other macronutrients are required by all plants: [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]]. These nutrients are supplied by water and carbon dioxide.

The nitrogen-rich fertilizer [[ammonium nitrate]] is also used as an [[oxidizing agent]] in [[improvised explosive device]]s, sometimes called ''[[fertilizer bomb]]s'', leading to sale regulations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhs.gov/files/laws/ammonium-nitrate-regulations.shtm |title=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |publisher=Dhs.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

== Labeling of chemical fertilizer ==
{{Main|Labeling of fertilizer}}

The labeling of fertilizers varies. In most countries the macronutrients are labeled with an ''[[NPK rating|NPK]]'' analysis (in Australia, "N-P-K-S" adding [[sulfur]]).<ref name="Draft Code of Practice for Fertilier Description and Labeling">{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:CgW191hwEBIJ:www.fifa.asn.au/files/pdf/regulation/Draft%2520Code%2520of%2520Practice%2520for%2520Fertilizer%2520Description%2520%26%2520aaaaaaLabelling.pdf+labeling+of+fertilizer&hl=en&gl=us&sig=AHIEtbSJjp1liw8XbwDLtw2aqua-xK0n1g |title=Draft Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description and Labeling |date=2008-09-15|publisher=Fertilizer Industry Federation Association (FIFA)|accessdate=February 3, 2010}}</ref>

The three numbers on the fertilizer label represent an analysis of the composition by weight. These three numbers correspond to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K) and always appear in that specific order. When a 4th number is included, it indicates the sulfur content (N-P-K-S).

While the number for "N" represents the percentage weight of nitrogen, in some European countries, the other two components are not for the analysis of the element, but rather, the analysis of the "available" or "soluble" form of the element. In traditional chemical analysis, the tests used treated the sample so as to measure the equivalent P2O5 and K2O. For instance, some potassium-bearing rocks do not count as having available potassium.

Similarly the number for "P" in some countries is actually the weight of an equivalent quantity of P2O5 whereas in others (including Australia) it refers to elemental phosphorus. In order to calculate the weight of P in the formulation, the weight of P2O5 can be multiplied by 0.44 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of P2O5, but only 4.4 pounds of P.

Likewise, the number for "K" in Europe can refer to the weight of an equivalent quantity of K2O, whereas in Australia it refers to elemental potassium. In order to calculate the weight of K in the formulation, the weight of K2O can be multiplied by 0.83 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of K2O, but only 8.3 pounds of K.

As an example, the fertilizer ''[[potash]]'' (in modern times, muriate of potash or potassium chloride) is composed of 52% potassium and 48% chlorine by weight; chemical analysis of 100g of potassium chloride ([[KCl]]), would show 63g of equivalent potassium oxide ([[potassium oxide|K2O]]) when done in the manner of fertilizer analysis. The ''percentage yield'' of K2O from the original 100g of fertilizer is the number shown on the label. A potash fertilizer would thus be labeled 0-0-63, and ''not' (except in Australia and some other countries) ' 0-0-52.

== History ==
[[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]]
{{Main|History of fertilizer}}

Management of [[soil fertility]] has been the pre-occupation of farmers for thousands of years. The start of the modern science of plant nutrition dates to the 19th century and the work of [[Justus von Liebig]], among others.

[[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]], with whom he carried on for more than half a century on experiments in raising crops at the [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]].

The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen based fertilizer production. It was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist [[Kristian Birkeland]] along with his business partner [[Sam Eyde]] in 1903, based on a method used by [[Henry Cavendish]] in 1784.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The development of modern chemistry
| author = Aaron John Ihde
| publisher = Courier Dover Publications
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-486-64235-6
| page = 678
}}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N2) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO3-) in the reaction

HNO3 → H+ + NO3-

which may take place in the presence of water or another [[proton acceptor]]. Nitrate is an ion which plants can absorb.

A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway, combined with the building of large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture
| author = G. J. Leigh
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-19-516582-9
| pages = 134–139
}}</ref>

The Birkeland-Eyde process is relatively inefficient in terms of energy consumption. Therefore, in the 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a combination of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from [[methane]] (CH4) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2). The ammonia from the Haber process is then converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950
| author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams
| author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1982
| isbn = 0-19-858159-9
| pages = 134–135
}}</ref>

== Forms ==
Fertilizers come in various forms. The most typical form is solid fertilizer in granulated or powdered forms. The next most common form is liquid fertilizer; some advantages of liquid fertilizer are its immediate effect and wide coverage.

There are also slow-release fertilizers (various forms including fertilizer spikes, tabs, etc.) which reduce the problem of "burning" the plants due to excess nitrogen. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a [http://www.agritab.com 'true time-release'] or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients.

More recently, [[organic fertilizer]] is on the rise as people are resorting to [[environmental friendly]] (or 'green') products. Although organic fertilizers usually contain a lower concentration of nutrients, this lower concentration avoids complication of nitrogen burn harming the plants. In addition, organic fertilizers such as compost and worm castings break down slowly into complex organic structures ([[humus]]) which build the soil's structure and moisture- and nutrient-retaining capabilities.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

== Inorganic commercial fertilizer ==
Fertilizers are broadly divided into '''[[organic compound|organic]] fertilizers''' (composed of organic plant or animal matter), or '''[[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or commercial fertilizers'''. Plants can only absorb their required [[plant nutrition|nutrients]] if they are present in easily dissolved chemical compounds. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers provide the same needed chemical compounds. Organic fertilizers provided other macro and micro plant nutrients and are released as the organic matter decays—this may take months or years. Organic fertilizers nearly always have much lower concentrations of plant nutrients and have the usual problems of economical collection, treatment, transportation and distribution.

Inorganic fertilizers nearly always are readily dissolved and unless added have few other macro and micro plant nutrients. Nearly all nitrogen that plants use is in the form of NH3 or NO3 compounds. The usable phosphorus compounds are usually in the form of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and the potassium (K) is typically in the form of potassium chloride (KCl). In organic fertilizers nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds are released from the complex organic compounds as the animal or plant matter decays. In commercial fertilizers the same required compounds are available in easily dissolved compounds that require no decay—they can be used almost immediately after water is applied. Inorganic fertilizers are usually much more concentrated with up to 64% (18-46-0) of their weight being a given plant nutrient, compared to organic fertilizers that only provide 0.4% or less of their weight as a given [[plant nutrition|plant nutrient]].<ref>NPK ratios of common organic materials [http://permaculture.org.au/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Nitrogen fertilizers are often made using the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]] (invented about 1915) which uses natural gas (CH4+) for the hydrogen and nitrogen gas (N2) from the air at an elevated temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to form [[ammonia]] (NH3) as the end product. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] ([[Nitrogen|N]][[Hydrogen|H]]4[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]3) and [[urea]] ([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]]([[nitrogen|N]][[hydrogen|H]]2)2). These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g. [[UAN]]). Deposits of potassium nitrate (NaNO3) ([[saltpeter]]) are also found the [[Atacama desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen rich inorganic fertilizers used. It is still mined for fertilizer.

In the [[Nitrophosphate process]] or [[Odda Process]] (invented in 1927), [[phosphate rock]] with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) to produce a mixture of [[phosphoric acid]] (H3PO4) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2). This can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with all three N:P:K: plant nutrients in easily dissolved form.

[[Phosphate rock]] can also be processed into water-soluble phosphate (P2O5) with the addition of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to make the phosphoric acid in phosphate fertilizers. Phosphate can also be reduced in an electric furnace to make high purity phosphorus; however, this is more expensive than the acid process.

[[Potash]] can be used to make potassium (K) fertilizers. All commercial potash deposits come originally from marine deposits and are often buried deep in the earth. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl) and are obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. For deep potash deposits hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. [[Amine]] reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for [[plant nutrition]].<ref>Potash KCl fertilizer production [http://www.ipni.net/ipniweb/portal.nsf/0/68907f5d1e5922f8062577ce006ad872/$FILE/K%20Fert%20Prod%20&%20Tech%2011%2016%2010.pdf] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Compound fertilizers often combine N, P and K fertilizers into easily dissolved pellets. The N:P:K ratios quoted on fertilizers give the weight percent of the fertilizer in nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O equivalent)

The use of commercial inorganic fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million tonnes of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal|last=Glass|first=Anthony |date=September 2003|title=Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences|volume=22|issue=5|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/bpts/2003/00000022/00000005/art00003|doi=10.1080/713989757|page=453}}</ref> Without commercial fertilizers it is estimated that about one-third of the food produced now could not be produced.<ref>Commercial fertilizers increase crop yields [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/food-and-soil.php] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per hectare requires 31–50 kg of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied, soybean requires 20–25 kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vance|coauthors=Uhde-Stone & Allan|year=2003|title=Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource|journal=New Phythologist|volume=157|pages=423–447|jstor=1514050|author1=Vance, Carroll P|issue=3|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|doi=10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x}}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105|title=Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=February 18, 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=February 21, 2010}}</ref>

=== Controlled-release types ===
Urea and formaldehyde, reacted together to produce sparingly soluble polymers of various molecular weights, is one of the oldest controlled-nitrogen-release technologies, having been first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.<ref name=SRN>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/
| title=Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen |author=J. B. Sartain, University of Florida
| journal=Grounds Maintenance |date= (c)2011}}</ref> The early product had 60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick release) less than 15%. Methylene ureas were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, having 25 and 60% of the nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the range of 15 to 30%. Isobutylidene diurea, unlike the methylurea polymers, is a single crystalline solid of relatively uniform properties, with about 90% of the nitrogen water-insoluble.

In the 1960s, the [[National Fertilizer Development Center]] began developing Sulfur-coated urea; sulfur was used as the principle coating material because of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.<ref name=SRN/> Usually there is another wax or polymer which seals the sulfur; the slow release properties depend on the degradation of the secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the sulfur. They typically provide 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications. When a hard polymer is used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles and traditional sulfur-coated.

Other coated products use thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce diffusion-controlled release of urea or soluble inorganic fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a paraffin topcoat.

Besides being more efficient in the utilization of the applied nutrients, slow-release technologies also reduce the impact on the environment and the contamination of the subsurface water.<ref name=SRN/>

{| align="right" class="wikitable" style="margin:10px"
|+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options, Table 3.3 retrieved Jun 29, 2009] United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</ref>
|-
! Country
! Total N use
(Mt pa)
! Amt. used for feed/pasture
(Mt pa)
|-
| China
| 18.7
| 3.0
|-
| U.S.
| 9.1
| 4.7
|-
| France
| 2.5
| 1.3
|-
| Germany
| 2.0
| 1.2
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| 1.7
| 0.7
|-
| Canada
| 1.6
| 0.9
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| 1.5
| 0.3
|-
| UK
| 1.3
| 0.9
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| 1.3
| 0.3
|-
| Spain
| 1.2
| 0.5
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| 0.4
| 0.1
|}

=== Application ===
Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

Studies have shown that application of nitrogen fertilizer on off-season [[cover crops]] can increase the biomass (and subsequent [[green manure]] value) of these crops, while having a beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels for the main crop planted during the summer season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/544836/ |title=Nitrogen Applied |publisher=Newswise.com |date=2008-07-19 |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

Nutrients in soil can be thrown out of balance with high concentrations of fertilizers. The interconnectedness and complexity of this [[soil food web|soil ‘food web’]] means any appraisal of soil function must necessarily take into account interactions with the living communities that exist within the soil. Stability of the system is reduced by the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, which cause [[soil acidification]].

Applying excessive amounts of fertilizer has negative environmental effects, and wastes the growers' time and money. To avoid over-application, the nutrient status of crops should be assessed. Nutrient deficiency can be detected by visually assessing the physical symptoms of the crop. [[Nitrogen deficiency]], for example has a distinctive presentation in some species. However, quantitative tests are more reliable for detecting nutrient deficiency before it has significantly affected the crop. Both [[soil test]]s and [[Plant Tissue Test]]s are used in agriculture to fine-tune nutrient management to the crops needs.

=== Problems with inorganic fertilizer ===
See also [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Negative_environmental_effects|Negative environmental effects]]

==== Water pollution ====
The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Nitrates and watercourses|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/}}</ref> In Europe these problems are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within Britain farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/}}</ref>

==== Contamination with impurities ====
Common agricultural grade phosphate fertilizers usually contain impurities such as fluorides, cadmium and uranium, although concentrations of the latter two [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] are dependent on the source of the phosphate and the production process. These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households. These highly water soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. There are also some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers made with high purity ingredients.

Oregon and Washington in U. S. have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=2012-05-23 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ Washington and Oregon links</ref>

The most widely used inorganic fertilizer is super-phosphate and its double and triple strengthed derivatives double super and triple super. Super phosphate was first developed by Lawes at the Rothamstead Agricultural Research Institute in England in the early 19th Century.<ref>http://what-when-how.com/scientists/lawes-sir-john-bennet-1814-1900-english-agriculturist-scientist</ref> Lawes added sulfuric acid to conventional rock phosphate containing the mineral apatite, a calcium fluoro-phosphate. The resulting water soluble phosphorus was able to significantly improve yields on a variety of crops at the Rothamstead Centre and the Superphosphate industry was born.
Unfortunately over decades of subsequent usage - it became clear that the solubilisation of fluorine also occurred in the process and this had the same effect as the other halogen sterilants(chlorine, bromine, iodine) over time - soil sterilization.<ref>[http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf]</ref>

==== Fertilizer dependency ====
Effectively farmers unknowingly became 100% dependent on 'bought in' water soluble, inorganic fertilizers since the sterilization of soil microflora including its mycorrhiza, reduced the availability of other natural and trace minerals within the soil. This to some extent explains the resurgence of interest in organic and particularly 'biodynamic' farming systems since these systems replace the essential soil organisms so essential to converting soil minerals into plant available (but rarely water soluble) nutrients.<ref>[http://204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf 204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf Ahmad Ali Khan, et. al., ''Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria: Occurrence, Mechanisms and their Role in Crop Production,'' J. AGRIC. BIOL. SCI. 1(1):48-58, 2009]</ref> They do this by a variety of processes including chelation whereby essential minerals become plant available - as measured by weak citric acid extraction techniques. Hence the citric acid solubility of phosphate rocks has emerged as a measure of plant availability and enabled so-called 'reactive' phosphate rocks to be used as fertilizer minerals. These should not be confused with high fluorine apatite rocks in which the fluoride content performs a similar function to its role in hardening teeth enamel, i.e. immobilizing phosphorus. This explains the oceanic origins of many of these high fluorine rocks (Christmas Island, Ocean Island) since the fluorine absorbed from the sea has prevented what were originally massive deposits of bird guano - from being leached from the coral based limestone rocks on which they were originally deposited.

==== Soil acidification ====
Also regular use of acidulated fertilizers generally contribute to the accumulation of soil acidity in soils which progressively increases aluminium availability and hence toxicity. The use of such acidulated fertilizers in the tropical and semi-tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia has contributed to soil degradation on a large scale from aluminium toxicity, which can only be countered by applications of limestone or preferably magnesian dolomite, which neutralises acid soil pH and also provides essential magnesium.

==== Trace mineral depletion ====
Many inorganic fertilizers, particularly those based on superphosphate, may not replace [[trace mineral]] elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{cite book | first=Felicity | last=Lawrence | year=2004 | title=Not on the Label | chapter=214 | editor=Kate Barker | page=213 | publisher=Penguin | isbn=0-14-101566-7 }}</ref>
Explanations for this include the early encouragement of so-called "luxury consumption" of trace elements as a result of their acidulation and subsequent dissolution in soil water, by free sulphuric acid sourced from superphosphate. This mechanism has also been identified as a possible causal agent for take-up of the heavy metal cadmium from superphosphate based fertilizers.
In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. Such nutrients are described as 'rate limiting' nutrients. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic fertilizers used in agriculture in this state{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}.

Many soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in plants and humans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc is Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2010-08-25 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

==== Overfertilization ====
{{See also|Fertilizer burn}}
[[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]]

Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as underfertilization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> "Fertilizer burn" can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in drying out of the leaves and damage or even death of the plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.improve-your-garden-soil.com/fertilizer-burn.html |title=Avoiding Fertilizer Burn |publisher=Improve-your-garden-soil.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

==== High energy consumption ====
In the USA in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas was consumed in the industrial production of ammonia, less than 1.5% of total U.S. annual consumption of natural gas.<ref name="Abram">{{Cite document | title=A Primer on Ammonia, Nitrogen Fertilizers, and Natural Gas Markets | author=Aleksander Abram and D. Lynn Forster | publisher=Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University | year=2005 | page=38}}</ref>
A 2002 report suggested that the production of ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.<ref name="ifa">[http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp IFA – Statistics – Fertilizer Indicators – Details – Raw material reserves, (2002–10)]</ref>

Ammonia is overwhelmingly produced from natural gas, but other energy sources, together with a hydrogen source, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds suitable for fertilizers. The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.}}</ref>

==== Contribution to climate change ====
Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous_oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[Nitrous_oxide|nitrous oxide]], a [[Greenhouse_gas|greenhouse gas]].

==== Impacts on mycorrhizas ====
High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. <ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780881926118}}</ref>

==== Lack of long-term sustainability ====
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued indefinitely by definition as the resources used in their production are [[non-renewable]]. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or [[Salt lake|saline lakes]] such as the [[Dead Sea]]) and such resources are limited. However, more effective fertilizer utilization practices may decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of crop production practices can potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the critical need to improve and increase crop yields. Atmospheric (''[[nitrogen fixation|unfixed]]'') nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming over 70% of the [[atmospheric gas]]es), but this is not in a form useful to plants. To make nitrogen accessible to plants requires [[nitrogen fixation]] (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-accessible form).

Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using [[fossil fuel]]s such as natural gas and coal, which are limited resources. In lieu of converting natural gas to [[syngas]] for use in the [[Haber process]], it is also possible to convert renewable [[biomass]] to syngas (or [[wood gas]]) to supply the necessary energy for the process, though the amount of land and resources (ironically often including fertilizer) necessary for such a project may be prohibitive.

== Organic fertilizer ==
{{Main|Organic fertilizer}}
[[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]]
[[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]]

Organic fertilizers include naturally occurring organic materials, (e.g. [[chicken litter]], [[manure]], [[worm castings]], [[compost]], [[seaweed]], [[guano]], [[bone meal]]) or naturally occurring mineral deposits (e.g. [[Sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]). [[Poultry litter]] and cattle manure often create environmental and disposal problems, making their use as fertilizer beneficial. Bones can be processed into phosphate-rich bone meal; however, most are simply buried in landfills.

Even if all bones, human, animal and plant wastes were recovered to the extent practical and used for fertilizer, mineral fertilizers and synthetic nitrogen would still be required to make for losses to leaching, to the atmosphere, runoff and the losses impractical to recover.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

=== Benefits of organic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizers have been known to improve biodiversity ([[soil life]]) and long-term productivity of soil,<ref name="Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization">{{cite journal|last=Enwall|first=Karin|coauthors=Laurent Philippot,2 and Sara Hallin1|date=December 2005|title=Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|publisher=American Society for Microbiology|volume=71|issue=2|pages=8335–8343|url=http://aem.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/71/12/8335|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|pmid=16332820|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.12.8335-8343.2005|pmc=1317341}}</ref><ref name="Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity ">{{cite journal|last=Birkhofera|first=Klaus|coauthors= T. Martijn Bezemerb, c, d, Jaap Bloeme, Michael Bonkowskia, Søren Christensenf, David Duboisg, Fleming Ekelundf, Andreas Fließbachh, Lucie Gunstg, Katarina Hedlundi, Paul Mäderh, Juha Mikolaj, Christophe Robink, Heikki Setäläj, Fabienne Tatin-Frouxk, Wim H. Van der Puttenb, c and Stefan Scheua|date=September 2008|title=Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |publisher=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |volume=40|issue=9|pages=2297–2308 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TC7-4SR67X8-1&_user=10&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1189586172&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=835b56d01da86058b98352b95f68d2d8|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.05.007}}</ref> and may prove a large depository for excess [[carbon dioxide]].<ref name=" Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security">{{cite journal|last=Lal|first=R.|title= Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;304/5677/1623|publisher=[[Science (journal)]]|pmid=15192216|doi=10.1126/science.1097396|year=2004|volume=304|issue=5677|pages=1623–7|journal=Science}}</ref><ref name="Organic farming switch quadruples soil CO2 storage capacity">{{cite web|url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/280491/change_farming_to_cut_co2_emissions_by_25_per_cent.html|title=Change farming to cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent|last=Rees |first=Eifion|date= July 3, 2009|publisher=The Ecologist|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1755-1315/6/24/.../ees9_6_242025.pdf|title=ClimateChange: GlobalRisks,ChallengesandDecisions|last=Fliessbach|first=A.|coauthors=P Maeder(2), A Diop(3), LWM Luttikholt(1), N Scialabba(4), U Niggli(2), Paul Hepperly(3), T LaSalle(3) |year=2009|work=P24.17 Mitigation and adaptation strategies – organic agriculture|publisher=IOP Publishing |accessdate=February 2, 2010|location=IOPConf. Series: EarthandEnvironmentalScience6(2009)242025}}</ref>

Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil organisms by providing organic matter and [[micronutrients]] for organisms such as fungal [[mycorrhiza]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B0573:EEAECO%5D2.0.CO;2|title= Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems |last=PIMENTEL|first=David|coauthors= PAUL HEPPERLY, JAMES HANSON, DAVID DOUDS, and RITA SEIDEL|date=July 2005|publisher=BioScience|pages=ol. 55, No. 7, Pages 573–582 |accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> (which aid plants in absorbing nutrients), and can drastically reduce external inputs of pesticides, energy and fertilizer, at the cost of decreased yield.<ref name="Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming">{{cite journal|last= Mäder|first=Paul|coauthors= Andreas Fliebach,,1 David Dubois,2 Lucie Gunst,2 Padruot Fried,2 Urs Niggli1|date=May 31, 2002|title=Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming|journal=Science|publisher=Science|volume= 296 |issue= 5573 |pages=1694–1697|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5573/1694|accessdate=February 1, 2010|pmid= 12040197|doi= 10.1126/science.1071148}}</ref>

=== Disadvantages of organic fertilizers ===
{{unsourced section|date=January 2013}}
* Organic fertilizers may contain pathogens and other disease causing organisms if not properly composted<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lemunier|first=Mélanie|coauthors=Cédric Francou, Sandrine Rousseaux, Sabine Houot, Philippe Dantigny, Pascal Piveteau, Jean Guzzo|title=Long-Term Survival of Pathogenic and Sanitation Indicator Bacteria in Experimental Biowaste Composts|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|date=October 2005|year=2005|month=October|volume=71|issue=10|pages=5779-5786|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.10.5779-5786.2005|url=http://aem.asm.org/content/71/10/5779|accessdate=2 January 2013}}</ref>
* Nutrient contents are very variable and their release to available forms that the plant can use may not occur at the right plant growth stage
* Organic fertilizers are comparatively voluminous and can be too bulky to deploy the right amount of nutrients that will be beneficial to plants
* More expensive to produce
*Not so handy to apply in the soil.

=== Comparison with inorganic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically all lower than inorganic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=644_20 |title=Acta Horticulturae |publisher=Actahort.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/organic.html |title=AZ Master Gardener Manual: Organic Fetilizers |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>
One study{{Which|date=November 2009}} found that over a 140-day period, after 7 [[Leaching (agriculture)|leachings]]:

* Organic fertilizers had released between 25% and 60% of their nitrogen content
* Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs) had a relatively constant rate of release
* Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching

In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizer are both more dilute and also much less readily available to plants. According to the University of California's integrated pest management program, all ''organic fertilizers'' are classified as 'slow-release' fertilizers, and therefore cannot cause nitrogen burn.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/TOOLS/TURF/SITEPREP/amenfert.html |title=Healthy LawnsFertilizers vs. soil amendments |publisher=Ipm.ucdavis.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

Organic fertilizers from composts and other sources can be quite variable from one batch to the next.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msuorganicfarm.com/Compost.pdf |title=Crazy about Compost |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Without batch testing, amounts of applied nutrient cannot be precisely known. Nevertheless, one or more studies have shown they are at least as effective as chemical fertilizers over longer periods of use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=0002290EN&q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csa.com%2Fpartners%2Fviewrecord.php%3Frequester%3Dgs%26collection%3DTRD%26recid%3D0002290EN&uid=789131166&setcookie=yes |title=CSA |publisher=Md1.csa.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

==== Example of organic fertilizer ====
[[Chicken litter]], which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an organic fertilizer that has been shown to better condition soil for harvest than synthesized fertilizer. Researchers at the [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) studied the effects of using chicken litter, an organic fertilizer, versus synthetic fertilizers on cotton fields, and found that fields fertilized with chicken litter had a 12% increase in cotton yields over fields fertilized with synthetic fertilizer. In addition to higher yields, researchers valued commercially sold chicken litter at a $17/ton premium (to a total valuation of $78/ton) over the traditional valuations of $61/ton due to value added as a [[soil conditioner]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100623.htm|title= Researchers Study Value of Chicken Litter in Cotton Production |date=July 23, 2010}}</ref>

Other ARS studies have found that algae used to capture nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields can not only prevent water contamination of these nutrients, but also can be used as an organic fertilizer. ARS scientists originally developed the "algal turf scrubber" to reduce nutrient runoff and increase quality of water flowing into streams, rivers, and lakes. They found that this nutrient-rich algae, once dried, can be applied to cucumber and corn seedlings and result in growth comparable to that seen using synthetic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm|title= Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine |publisher=USDA Agricultural Research Service|date=May 7, 2010}}</ref>

=== Organic fertilizer sources ===
==== Animal ====
{{see also|Night soil}}
[[File:Hestemøj.jpg|thumb|Decomposing animal manure, an organic fertilizer source]]

Animal-sourced and human [[urea]] are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of urea are not.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecochem.com/t_natfert.html |title=In a natural organic system, nitrate in the soil is derived from the gradual breakdown of humus |publisher=Ecochem.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The common thread that can be seen through these examples is that ''organic'' agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (in contrast to the man-made [[Haber process]]), as well as being naturally occurring or via natural biological processes such as [[composting]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

Besides immediate application of urea to the soil, [[urine]] can also be improved by converting it to [[struvite]] already done with human urine by a Dutch firm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/innovation/2010/0625/1224272921729.html |title=Human urine conversion to struvite |publisher=Irishtimes.com |date=2010-06-06 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> The conversion is performed by adding magnesium to the urine. An added economical advantage of using urine as fertilizer is that it contains a large amount of phosphorus.

Recycled [[sewage sludge]] (aka [[biosolids]]) as soil amendment is only available to less than 1% of US ag{{Clarify|date=August 2011}} land. Industrial pollutants in sewage sludge prevents recycling it as fertilizer. The [[USDA]] prohibits use of [[sewage sludge]] in [[organic agriculture|organic agricultural]] operations in the U.S. due to industrial pollution, pharmaceuticals, hormones, heavy metals, and other factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/torg.html |title=Organic Farming | Agriculture | US EPA |publisher=Epa.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calorganicfarms.com/news/full.php?id=22 |title=CalOrganic Farms News |publisher=Calorganicfarms.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/biosolids/tnsss-overview.cfm |title=Biosolids: Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Report |publisher=EPA.gov |date=2009-01}}</ref> The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic fertilizers sold in the U.S.<ref name="USDA certification of high-nitrogen liquid fertilizer">{{cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_17001.cfm|title=USDA Toughens Oversight of Organic Fertilizer: Organic fertilizers must undergo testing |last=Schrack|first=Don|date=2009-02-23|publisher=The Packer |accessdate=November 19, 2009}}</ref>

==== Plant ====
Leguminous [[cover crop]]s are also grown to enrich soil as a [[green manure]] through [[nitrogen fixation]] from the atmosphere;<ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=373994&pageindex=6#page |title=Isolation and Study of Cultures of Chinese Vetch Nodule Bacteria |publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov |date=2010-07-06 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XO3pio5Opy8C&pg=PA564&lpg=PA564&dq=phosphorus+addition+fava+bean |title=Biological approaches to sustainable ... – Google Books |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2010-08-25|isbn=978-1-57444-583-1|year=2006|author1=Uphoff|first1=Norman Thomas}}</ref> content of [[soil]]s.

==== Mineral ====
Mined powdered [[limestone]],<ref name="google.com">{{cite web|url=http://google.com/search?q=cache:_KrbNzgsjrQJ:extension.agron.iastate.edu/sustag/pubs/Soil_Quality_Brochure.doc+limestone+organic+agriculture&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=opera |title=Organic Agriculture |publisher=Google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> [[rock phosphate]] and [[sodium nitrate]], are [[inorganic]] (not of biologic origins) compounds which are energetically intensive to harvest and are approved for usage in organic agriculture in ''minimal'' amounts.<ref name="google.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extension.org/article/18321/print/ |title=Can I Use This Input on My Organic Farm? |publisher=eXtension |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Alternative Farming Systems Information Center |url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml#resources |title=Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools |publisher=Nal.usda.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

== Negative environmental effects ==
{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle}} and [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Problems_with_inorganic_fertilizer|Problems with inorganic fertilizer]]
[[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]
[[File:EutrophicationEutrophisationEutrophierung.jpg|thumb||An [[algal bloom]] caused by eutrophication]]

=== Water quality ===
==== Eutrophication ====
{{Main|Eutrophication}}

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean ‘Dead Zones’"], NY Times, Aug. 14, 2008</ref> Visually, water may become cloudy and discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red).

About half of all the lakes in the United States are now [[eutrophic]], while the number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines are increasing.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News – Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. If eutrophication ''can'' be reversed, it may take decades{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

==== Blue baby syndrome ====
High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields, combined with the high solubilities of these fertilizers leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into surface water as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|author=C. J. Rosen and B. P. Horgan |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG2923.html |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=2009-01-09 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V94-3VW172B-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a887208bd6509db7ab1557a4fc43c5fa |title=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology - Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |publisher=ScienceDirect.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=2004-02-25 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The use of [[ammonium nitrate]] in ''inorganic'' fertilizers is particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over nitrate ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation) into runoff or groundwater.<ref>[http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Jillesha Services] Annual Review of Plant Biology Vol. 59: 341–363</ref>

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]), leading to [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] (which can lead to coma and death if not treated).<ref>{{cite web|author=Lynda Knobeloch, Barbara Salna, Adam Hogan, Jeffrey Postle, and Henry Anderson |url=http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2000/108p675-678knobeloch/abstract.html |title=Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water |publisher=Ehponline.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

=== Soil ===
==== Soil acidification ====
{{See also|Soil pH}}

Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/324/5928/721-b#R1</ref><ref>http://soil.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/72/1/238</ref> This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]].

==== Persistent organic pollutants ====
{{Main|Persistent organic pollutant}}

Toxic persistent organic pollutants ("POPs"), such as [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|Dioxins]], [[polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin]]s (PCDDs), and [[polychlorinated dibenzofuran]]s (PCDFs) have been detected in agricultural fertilizers and soil amendments<ref>pg 33: http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/recycling/fertiliz/risk/</ref>

==== Heavy metal accumulation ====
The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of [[cadmium]] in [[phosphate minerals]] (for example, minerals from [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal=J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11}}</ref> and the [[Christmas island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title=The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |pages=261–286}}</ref>) increases the contamination of soil with cadmium, for example in New Zealand.<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 |pages=123–126 | doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8}}</ref>

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web|last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |title=Business | Fear In The Fields – How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer – Spreading Heavy Metals On Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe | Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat Of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Concerns have been raised concerning [[fish meal]] mercury content by at least one source in Spain<ref name="Heavy-metal toxicity of catfish fertilizer concern">{{cite web|url=http://www.nowpublic.com/environment/catfish-toxic-suitable-fishmeal-production|title=The catfish 'Toxic' suitable for fishmeal production|date=November 16, 2009|publisher=NowPublic|accessdate=November 23, 2009}}</ref>

==== Radioactive element accumulation ====
[[Uranium]] is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers (at levels from 7 to 100 pCi/g).<ref name="Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/glossary/termuvwxyz.html#uranium|title=Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=March 11, 2009|publisher=US EPA|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and build up in vegetable produce.<ref name=taylor/> Average annual intake of uranium by adults is estimated to be about 0.5 mg (500 μg) from ingestion of food and water and 0.6 μg from breathing air.<ref name="Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs257/en/|title=Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium|date=January 2003|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>

Also, highly [[radioactive]] [[Polonium-210]] contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in its tissues; tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits [[alpha radiation]] estimated to cause about 11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Scholten LC, Timmermans CWM |title=Natural radioactivity in phosphate fertilizers |journal=Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems |year=1992 |volume=43 |pages=103–107 |doi=10.1007/BF00747688}}</ref><ref>American Public Health Association, Framing Health Matters, Waking a Sleeping Giant: The Tobacco Industry’s Response to the Polonium-210 Issue: Monique E. Muggli, MPH, Jon O. Ebbert, MD, Channing Robertson, PhD and Richard D. Hurt, MD [http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/9/1643]</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, The big idea: polonium, radon and cigarettes, Tidd J R Soc Med.2008; 101: 156–157 [http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/cgi/content/full/101/3/156]</ref><ref>The Age Melbourne Australia, Big Tobacco covered up radiation danger, William Birnbauer [http://www.theage.com.au/national/big-tobacco-covered-up-radiation-danger-20080906-4b54.html?page=-1]</ref>

For these reasons, it is recommended that [[nutrient budgeting]], through careful observation and monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application.

=== Atmosphere ===
[[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]]

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers; these emissions contribute greatly to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots ">{{cite journal|last=Bodelier|first=Paul, L.E.|coauthors=Peter Roslev3, Thilo Henckel1 & Peter Frenzel1|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6768/abs/403421a0.html|accessdate=Feb 2, 2009|pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193}}</ref>

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 1 billion tons per year presently<ref>http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7176/fig_tab/nature06592_F1.html An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle Nicolas Gruber & James N. Galloway Nature 451, 293–296(17 January 2008) {{doi|10.1038/nature06592}}</ref> to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N2O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] [[UNESCO]] – [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref>

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some{{Which|date=April 2009}} weather or soil conditions can cause emissions of the potent greenhouse gas—nitrous oxide. [[Ammonia]] gas (NH3) may be emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

The use of fertilizers on a global scale [[Attribution of recent climate change#Livestock and land use|emits significant quantities]] of [[greenhouse gas]] into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of:<ref>[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. retrieved Aug 9, 2007]</ref>

* animal [[manures]] and [[urea]], which release [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]], and [[carbon dioxide]] in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)
* fertilizers that use [[nitric acid]] or [[ammonium bicarbonate]], the production and application of which results in emissions of [[nitrogen oxides]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]] and [[carbon dioxide]] into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on [[anthropogenic climate change]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

=== Other problems ===
==== Increased pest fitness ====
Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain agricultural pests, such as [[aphid]]s (plant lice).<ref name="Jahn2004">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC |year=2004 |title=Effect of soil nutrients on the growth, survival and fecundity of insect pests of rice: an overview and a theory of pest outbreaks with consideration of research approaches. Multitrophic interactions in Soil and Integrated Control |journal=International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) wprs Bulletin |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=115–122}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001a">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Sanchez ER, Cox PG |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management |journal=International Rice Research Institute – Discussion Paper |volume=42 |page=18 |url=http://www.irri.org/publications/discussion/pdfs/DiscPaper42.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001b">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Cox PG, Rubia-Sanchez E, Cohen M |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413–430, |journal=S. Peng and B. Hardy [eds.] "Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation". Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, March 31,  – April 3, 2000, Los Baños, Philippines. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. |page=692}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1603/0046-225X-34.4.938 |author=Jahn GC, Almazan LP, Pacia J |year=2005 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.) |journal=Environmental Entomology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=938–943 |url=http://puck.esa.catchword.org/vl=33435372/cl=21/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/0046225x/v34n4/s26/p938}}</ref><ref name="Preap2001">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ, Jahn GC |year=2001 |title=Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on realized fecundity and survival rates of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål); Generating Outbreaks in Cambodia |journal=Journal of Asia Pacific Entomology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60107-7}}</ref><ref name="Preap2002">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Jahn GC |year=2002 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and host plant variety on fecundity and early instar survival of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål): immediate response |journal=Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Inter-Country Forecasting System and Management for Planthopper in East Asia. November 13–15, 2002. Guilin China. Published by Rural Development Administration (RDA) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) |pages=163–180, 226}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Fertigation]]
* [[History of organic farming]]
* [[Phosphogypsum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fertilizers}}
{{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}

* [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process]
* [http://www.tfi.org/factsandstats/fertilizer.cfm The Fertilizer Institute (TFI)] US Fertilizer Industry Association
* [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)]
* [http://cms.efma.org/ European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association]
* [http://www.agriculturesolutions.com/index.php?option=com_content&Itemid=111&id=87&lang=en&task=view How to read fertilizer tags article]
* [http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization]

{{PlantMineralDeficiency}}

[[Category:Fertilizers| ]]

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Fertilizer

2013-01-02T07:48:39Z

Explodingbrain: deleted "It is very harmful to the soil". Can't think of any circumstances where this could be true, unless the organic fertilizer in question contains heavy metals.

[[File:TVA Results of Fertilizer.gif|thumb|[[Tennessee Valley Authority]]: "Results of Fertilizer" demonstration 1942]]
[[File:Kunstmestpendelstrooier.jpg|thumb|A large, modern fertilizer spreader]]
[[File:Lite-trac Spreader.jpg|thumb|A [[Lite-Trac]] Agri-Spread lime and fertilizer spreader at an agricultural show]]

'''Fertilizer''' (or '''fertiliser''') is any organic or inorganic material of natural or synthetic origin (other than liming materials) that is added to a soil to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants.<ref name="SSSA Glossary of Soil Science Terms">{{cite web|title=Glossary of Soil Science Terms|url=https://www.soils.org/publications/soils-glossary#|publisher=[[Soil Science Society of America]]|accessdate=May 10, 2011}}</ref> Conservative estimates report 30 to 50% of crop yields are attributed to natural or synthetic commercial fertilizer.<ref name="Stewart et a., 2005">{{Cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=W.M.|last2=Dibb|first2=D.W.|last3=Johnston|first3=A.E.|last4=Smyth|first4=T.J.|year=2005|title=The Contribution of Commercial Fertilizer Nutrients to Food Production|journal=Agronomy Journal|volume=97|pages=1–6|doi=10.2134/agronj2005.0001}}</ref> European fertilizer market is expected to grow to €15.3 billion by 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ceresana.com/en/market-studies/chemicals/fertilizers |title=Market Study on Fertilizers |publisher= Ceresana.com}}</ref>

Mined inorganic fertilizers have been used for many centuries, whereas chemically synthesized inorganic fertilizers were only widely developed during the [[industrial revolution]]. Increased understanding and use of fertilizers were important parts of the pre-industrial [[British Agricultural Revolution]] and the industrial [[Green Revolution]] of the 20th century.

Inorganic fertilizer use has also significantly supported global [[population growth]] — it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Erisman|first=Jan Willem|coauthors=MA Sutton, J Galloway, Z Klimont, W Winiwarter|title=How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world|journal=[[Nature Geoscience]]|year=2008|page=636|month=October|volume=1|doi=10.1038/ngeo325|url=http://www.physics.ohio-state.edu/~wilkins/energy/Resources/Essays/ngeo325.pdf.xpdf|accessdate=October 22, 2010|issue=10}}</ref>

Fertilizers typically provide, in varying [[Proportionality (mathematics)|proportions]]:

* six macronutrients: [[nitrogen]] (N), [[phosphorus]] (P), [[potassium]] (K), [[calcium]] (Ca), [[magnesium]] (Mg), and [[sulfur]] (S);
* eight micronutrients: [[boron]] (B), [[chlorine]] (Cl), [[copper]] (Cu), [[Iron fertilization|iron]] (Fe), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[molybdenum]] (Mo), [[zinc]] (Zn) and [[nickel]] (Ni) (1987).

The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and are present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter (0% moisture) basis (DM). Micronutrients are consumed in smaller quantities and are present in plant tissue on the order of parts per million (ppm), ranging from 0.15 to 400 ppm DM, or less than 0.04% DM.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aesl.ces.uga.edu/publications/plant/Nutrient.htm |title=AESL Plant Analysis Handbook – Nutrient Content of Plant |publisher=Aesl.ces.uga.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref name="Mills and Jones, 1996">{{cite book|author=H.A. Mills, J.B. Jones Jr.|year=1996|title=Plant Analysis Handbook II: A practical Sampling, Preparation, Analysis, and Interpretation Guide|isbn=1-878148-05-2}}</ref>

Only three other macronutrients are required by all plants: [[carbon]], [[hydrogen]], and [[oxygen]]. These nutrients are supplied by water and carbon dioxide.

The nitrogen-rich fertilizer [[ammonium nitrate]] is also used as an [[oxidizing agent]] in [[improvised explosive device]]s, sometimes called ''[[fertilizer bomb]]s'', leading to sale regulations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dhs.gov/files/laws/ammonium-nitrate-regulations.shtm |title=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |publisher=Dhs.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

== Labeling of chemical fertilizer ==
{{Main|Labeling of fertilizer}}

The labeling of fertilizers varies. In most countries the macronutrients are labeled with an ''[[NPK rating|NPK]]'' analysis (in Australia, "N-P-K-S" adding [[sulfur]]).<ref name="Draft Code of Practice for Fertilier Description and Labeling">{{cite web|url=http://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:CgW191hwEBIJ:www.fifa.asn.au/files/pdf/regulation/Draft%2520Code%2520of%2520Practice%2520for%2520Fertilizer%2520Description%2520%26%2520aaaaaaLabelling.pdf+labeling+of+fertilizer&hl=en&gl=us&sig=AHIEtbSJjp1liw8XbwDLtw2aqua-xK0n1g |title=Draft Code of Practice for Fertilizer Description and Labeling |date=2008-09-15|publisher=Fertilizer Industry Federation Association (FIFA)|accessdate=February 3, 2010}}</ref>

The three numbers on the fertilizer label represent an analysis of the composition by weight. These three numbers correspond to nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (N-P-K) and always appear in that specific order. When a 4th number is included, it indicates the sulfur content (N-P-K-S).

While the number for "N" represents the percentage weight of nitrogen, in some European countries, the other two components are not for the analysis of the element, but rather, the analysis of the "available" or "soluble" form of the element. In traditional chemical analysis, the tests used treated the sample so as to measure the equivalent P2O5 and K2O. For instance, some potassium-bearing rocks do not count as having available potassium.

Similarly the number for "P" in some countries is actually the weight of an equivalent quantity of P2O5 whereas in others (including Australia) it refers to elemental phosphorus. In order to calculate the weight of P in the formulation, the weight of P2O5 can be multiplied by 0.44 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of P2O5, but only 4.4 pounds of P.

Likewise, the number for "K" in Europe can refer to the weight of an equivalent quantity of K2O, whereas in Australia it refers to elemental potassium. In order to calculate the weight of K in the formulation, the weight of K2O can be multiplied by 0.83 to compensate for the weight of the oxygen in the molecule. For example, a bag of 10-10-10 has 10 pounds of K2O, but only 8.3 pounds of K.

As an example, the fertilizer ''[[potash]]'' (in modern times, muriate of potash or potassium chloride) is composed of 52% potassium and 48% chlorine by weight; chemical analysis of 100g of potassium chloride ([[KCl]]), would show 63g of equivalent potassium oxide ([[potassium oxide|K2O]]) when done in the manner of fertilizer analysis. The ''percentage yield'' of K2O from the original 100g of fertilizer is the number shown on the label. A potash fertilizer would thus be labeled 0-0-63, and ''not' (except in Australia and some other countries) ' 0-0-52.

== History ==
[[File:Instalaciones MIRAT S.A. Salamanca.JPG|thumb|Founded in 1812, [[Mirat]], producer of [[manure]]s and fertilizers, is claimed to be the oldest industrial business in [[Salamanca]] (Spain).]]
{{Main|History of fertilizer}}

Management of [[soil fertility]] has been the pre-occupation of farmers for thousands of years. The start of the modern science of plant nutrition dates to the 19th century and the work of [[Justus von Liebig]], among others.

[[John Bennet Lawes]], an English [[entrepreneur]], began to experiment on the effects of various manures on plants growing in pots in 1837, and a year or two later the experiments were extended to crops in the field. One immediate consequence was that in 1842 he patented a manure formed by treating phosphates with sulphuric acid, and thus was the first to create the artificial manure industry. In the succeeding year he enlisted the services of [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]], with whom he carried on for more than half a century on experiments in raising crops at the [[Rothamsted Experimental Station]].

The [[Birkeland–Eyde process]] was one of the competing industrial processes in the beginning of nitrogen based fertilizer production. It was developed by Norwegian industrialist and scientist [[Kristian Birkeland]] along with his business partner [[Sam Eyde]] in 1903, based on a method used by [[Henry Cavendish]] in 1784.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The development of modern chemistry
| author = Aaron John Ihde
| publisher = Courier Dover Publications
| year = 1984
| isbn = 0-486-64235-6
| page = 678
}}</ref> This process was used to fix atmospheric [[nitrogen]] (N2) into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3), one of several chemical processes generally referred to as [[nitrogen fixation]]. The resultant nitric acid was then used as a source of [[nitrate]] (NO3-) in the reaction

HNO3 → H+ + NO3-

which may take place in the presence of water or another [[proton acceptor]]. Nitrate is an ion which plants can absorb.

A factory based on the process was built in [[Rjukan]] and [[Notodden]] in Norway, combined with the building of large [[hydroelectric power]] facilities.<ref>{{cite book
| title = The world's greatest fix: a history of nitrogen and agriculture
| author = G. J. Leigh
| publisher = Oxford University Press US
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-19-516582-9
| pages = 134–139
}}</ref>

The Birkeland-Eyde process is relatively inefficient in terms of energy consumption. Therefore, in the 1910s and 1920s, it was gradually replaced in Norway by a combination of the [[Haber process]] and the [[Ostwald process]]. The Haber process produces ammonia (NH3) from [[methane]] (CH4) gas and molecular nitrogen (N2). The ammonia from the Haber process is then converted into [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) in the [[Ostwald process]].<ref>{{cite book
| title = A short history of twentieth-century technology c. 1900-c. 1950
| author1 = Trevor Illtyd Williams
| author2 = Thomas Kingston Derry
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 1982
| isbn = 0-19-858159-9
| pages = 134–135
}}</ref>

== Forms ==
Fertilizers come in various forms. The most typical form is solid fertilizer in granulated or powdered forms. The next most common form is liquid fertilizer; some advantages of liquid fertilizer are its immediate effect and wide coverage.

There are also slow-release fertilizers (various forms including fertilizer spikes, tabs, etc.) which reduce the problem of "burning" the plants due to excess nitrogen. Polymer coating of fertilizer ingredients gives tablets and spikes a [http://www.agritab.com 'true time-release'] or 'staged nutrient release' (SNR) of fertilizer nutrients.

More recently, [[organic fertilizer]] is on the rise as people are resorting to [[environmental friendly]] (or 'green') products. Although organic fertilizers usually contain a lower concentration of nutrients, this lower concentration avoids complication of nitrogen burn harming the plants. In addition, organic fertilizers such as compost and worm castings break down slowly into complex organic structures ([[humus]]) which build the soil's structure and moisture- and nutrient-retaining capabilities.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}

== Inorganic commercial fertilizer ==
Fertilizers are broadly divided into '''[[organic compound|organic]] fertilizers''' (composed of organic plant or animal matter), or '''[[Inorganic compound|inorganic]] or commercial fertilizers'''. Plants can only absorb their required [[plant nutrition|nutrients]] if they are present in easily dissolved chemical compounds. Both organic and inorganic fertilizers provide the same needed chemical compounds. Organic fertilizers provided other macro and micro plant nutrients and are released as the organic matter decays—this may take months or years. Organic fertilizers nearly always have much lower concentrations of plant nutrients and have the usual problems of economical collection, treatment, transportation and distribution.

Inorganic fertilizers nearly always are readily dissolved and unless added have few other macro and micro plant nutrients. Nearly all nitrogen that plants use is in the form of NH3 or NO3 compounds. The usable phosphorus compounds are usually in the form of phosphoric acid (H3PO4) and the potassium (K) is typically in the form of potassium chloride (KCl). In organic fertilizers nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium compounds are released from the complex organic compounds as the animal or plant matter decays. In commercial fertilizers the same required compounds are available in easily dissolved compounds that require no decay—they can be used almost immediately after water is applied. Inorganic fertilizers are usually much more concentrated with up to 64% (18-46-0) of their weight being a given plant nutrient, compared to organic fertilizers that only provide 0.4% or less of their weight as a given [[plant nutrition|plant nutrient]].<ref>NPK ratios of common organic materials [http://permaculture.org.au/2011/11/27/urine-closing-the-npk-loop/] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Nitrogen fertilizers are often made using the [[Haber process|Haber-Bosch process]] (invented about 1915) which uses natural gas (CH4+) for the hydrogen and nitrogen gas (N2) from the air at an elevated temperature and pressure in the presence of a catalyst to form [[ammonia]] (NH3) as the end product. This ammonia is used as a [[feedstock]] for other nitrogen fertilizers, such as [[ammonium nitrate|anhydrous ammonium nitrate]] ([[Nitrogen|N]][[Hydrogen|H]]4[[Nitrogen|N]][[Oxygen|O]]3) and [[urea]] ([[carbon|C]][[oxygen|O]]([[nitrogen|N]][[hydrogen|H]]2)2). These concentrated products may be diluted with water to form a concentrated liquid fertilizer (e.g. [[UAN]]). Deposits of potassium nitrate (NaNO3) ([[saltpeter]]) are also found the [[Atacama desert]] in [[Chile]] and was one of the original (1830) nitrogen rich inorganic fertilizers used. It is still mined for fertilizer.

In the [[Nitrophosphate process]] or [[Odda Process]] (invented in 1927), [[phosphate rock]] with up to a 20% phosphorus (P) content is dissolved with [[nitric acid]] (HNO3) to produce a mixture of [[phosphoric acid]] (H3PO4) and [[calcium nitrate]] (Ca(NO3)2). This can be combined with a potassium fertilizer to produce a ''compound fertilizer'' with all three N:P:K: plant nutrients in easily dissolved form.

[[Phosphate rock]] can also be processed into water-soluble phosphate (P2O5) with the addition of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) to make the phosphoric acid in phosphate fertilizers. Phosphate can also be reduced in an electric furnace to make high purity phosphorus; however, this is more expensive than the acid process.

[[Potash]] can be used to make potassium (K) fertilizers. All commercial potash deposits come originally from marine deposits and are often buried deep in the earth. Potash ores are typically rich in potassium chloride (KCl) and sodium chloride (NaCl) and are obtained by conventional shaft mining with the extracted ore ground into a powder. For deep potash deposits hot water is injected into the potash which is dissolved and then pumped to the surface where it is concentrated by solar induced evaporation. [[Amine]] reagents are then added to either the mined or evaporated solutions. The amine coats the KCl but not NaCl. Air bubbles cling to the amine + KCl and float it to the surface while the NaCl and clay sink to the bottom. The surface is skimmed for the amine + KCl which is then dried and packaged for use as a K rich fertilizer—KCl dissolves readily in water and is available quickly for [[plant nutrition]].<ref>Potash KCl fertilizer production [http://www.ipni.net/ipniweb/portal.nsf/0/68907f5d1e5922f8062577ce006ad872/$FILE/K%20Fert%20Prod%20&%20Tech%2011%2016%2010.pdf] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref>

Compound fertilizers often combine N, P and K fertilizers into easily dissolved pellets. The N:P:K ratios quoted on fertilizers give the weight percent of the fertilizer in nitrogen (N), phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O equivalent)

The use of commercial inorganic fertilizers has increased steadily in the last 50 years, rising almost 20-fold to the current rate of 100 million tonnes of nitrogen per year.<ref name="glass">{{cite journal|last=Glass|first=Anthony |date=September 2003|title=Nitrogen Use Efficiency of Crop Plants: Physiological Constraints upon Nitrogen Absorption |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences|volume=22|issue=5|url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/tandf/bpts/2003/00000022/00000005/art00003|doi=10.1080/713989757|page=453}}</ref> Without commercial fertilizers it is estimated that about one-third of the food produced now could not be produced.<ref>Commercial fertilizers increase crop yields [http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/food-and-soil.php] Accessed 9 Apr 2012</ref> The use of phosphate fertilizers has also increased from 9 million tonnes per year in 1960 to 40 million tonnes per year in 2000. A maize crop yielding 6–9 tonnes of grain per hectare requires 31–50 kg of [[phosphate]] fertilizer to be applied, soybean requires 20–25 kg per hectare.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Vance|coauthors=Uhde-Stone & Allan|year=2003|title=Phosphorus acquisition and use: critical adaptations by plants for securing a non renewable resource|journal=New Phythologist|volume=157|pages=423–447|jstor=1514050|author1=Vance, Carroll P|issue=3|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|doi=10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00695.x}}</ref> [[Yara International]] is the world's largest producer of nitrogen based fertilizers.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/businessfinance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15549105|title=Mergers in the fertiliser industry |date=February 18, 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=February 21, 2010}}</ref>

=== Controlled-release types ===
Urea and formaldehyde, reacted together to produce sparingly soluble polymers of various molecular weights, is one of the oldest controlled-nitrogen-release technologies, having been first produced in 1936 and commercialized in 1955.<ref name=SRN>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.grounds-mag.com/mag/grounds_maintenance_food_turf_slowrelease/
| title=Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen |author=J. B. Sartain, University of Florida
| journal=Grounds Maintenance |date= (c)2011}}</ref> The early product had 60 percent of the total nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and the unreacted (quick release) less than 15%. Methylene ureas were commercialized in the 1960s and 1970s, having 25 and 60% of the nitrogen cold-water-insoluble, and unreacted urea nitrogen in the range of 15 to 30%. Isobutylidene diurea, unlike the methylurea polymers, is a single crystalline solid of relatively uniform properties, with about 90% of the nitrogen water-insoluble.

In the 1960s, the [[National Fertilizer Development Center]] began developing Sulfur-coated urea; sulfur was used as the principle coating material because of its low cost and its value as a secondary nutrient.<ref name=SRN/> Usually there is another wax or polymer which seals the sulfur; the slow release properties depend on the degradation of the secondary sealant by soil microbes as well as mechanical imperfections (cracks, etc.) in the sulfur. They typically provide 6 to 16 weeks of delayed release in turf applications. When a hard polymer is used as the secondary coating, the properties are a cross between diffusion-controlled particles and traditional sulfur-coated.

Other coated products use thermoplastics (and sometimes ethylene-vinyl acetate and surfactants, etc.) to produce diffusion-controlled release of urea or soluble inorganic fertilizers. "Reactive Layer Coating" can produce thinner, hence cheaper, membrane coatings by applying reactive monomers simultaneously to the soluble particles. "Multicote" is a process applying layers of low-cost fatty acid salts with a paraffin topcoat.

Besides being more efficient in the utilization of the applied nutrients, slow-release technologies also reduce the impact on the environment and the contamination of the subsurface water.<ref name=SRN/>

{| align="right" class="wikitable" style="margin:10px"
|+ Top users of nitrogen-based fertilizer<ref>[ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options, Table 3.3 retrieved Jun 29, 2009] United Nations [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]</ref>
|-
! Country
! Total N use
(Mt pa)
! Amt. used for feed/pasture
(Mt pa)
|-
| China
| 18.7
| 3.0
|-
| U.S.
| 9.1
| 4.7
|-
| France
| 2.5
| 1.3
|-
| Germany
| 2.0
| 1.2
|-
| [[Brazil]]
| 1.7
| 0.7
|-
| Canada
| 1.6
| 0.9
|-
| [[Turkey]]
| 1.5
| 0.3
|-
| UK
| 1.3
| 0.9
|-
| [[Mexico]]
| 1.3
| 0.3
|-
| Spain
| 1.2
| 0.5
|-
| [[Argentina]]
| 0.4
| 0.1
|}

=== Application ===
Synthetic fertilizers are commonly used for growing all crops, with application rates depending on the soil fertility, usually as measured by a [[soil test]] and according to the particular crop. Legumes, for example, fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and generally do not require nitrogen fertilizer.

Studies have shown that application of nitrogen fertilizer on off-season [[cover crops]] can increase the biomass (and subsequent [[green manure]] value) of these crops, while having a beneficial effect on soil nitrogen levels for the main crop planted during the summer season.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newswise.com/articles/view/544836/ |title=Nitrogen Applied |publisher=Newswise.com |date=2008-07-19 |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

Nutrients in soil can be thrown out of balance with high concentrations of fertilizers. The interconnectedness and complexity of this [[soil food web|soil ‘food web’]] means any appraisal of soil function must necessarily take into account interactions with the living communities that exist within the soil. Stability of the system is reduced by the use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, which cause [[soil acidification]].

Applying excessive amounts of fertilizer has negative environmental effects, and wastes the growers' time and money. To avoid over-application, the nutrient status of crops should be assessed. Nutrient deficiency can be detected by visually assessing the physical symptoms of the crop. [[Nitrogen deficiency]], for example has a distinctive presentation in some species. However, quantitative tests are more reliable for detecting nutrient deficiency before it has significantly affected the crop. Both [[soil test]]s and [[Plant Tissue Test]]s are used in agriculture to fine-tune nutrient management to the crops needs.

=== Problems with inorganic fertilizer ===
See also [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Negative_environmental_effects|Negative environmental effects]]

==== Water pollution ====
The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for natural habitats and for human health if they are washed off soil into watercourses or leached through soil into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Nitrates and watercourses|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/}}</ref> In Europe these problems are being addressed by the European Union's Nitrates Directive.<ref>{{cite web|last=European Union|title=Nitrates Directive|url=http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-nitrates/index_en.html}}</ref> Within Britain farmers are encouraged to manage their land more sustainably in 'catchment-sensitive farming'.<ref>{{cite web|last=Defra|title=Catchment-Sensitive Farming|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/food-farm/land-manage/nitrates-watercourses/csf/}}</ref>

==== Contamination with impurities ====
Common agricultural grade phosphate fertilizers usually contain impurities such as fluorides, cadmium and uranium, although concentrations of the latter two [[Heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]] are dependent on the source of the phosphate and the production process. These potentially harmful impurities can be removed; however, this significantly increases cost. Highly pure fertilizers are widely available and perhaps best known as the highly water soluble fertilizers containing blue dyes used around households. These highly water soluble fertilizers are used in the plant nursery business and are available in larger packages at significantly less cost than retail quantities. There are also some inexpensive retail granular garden fertilizers made with high purity ingredients.

Oregon and Washington in U. S. have fertilizer registration programs with on-line databases listing chemical analyses of fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agr.wa.gov/PestFert/Fertilizers/ProductDatabase.aspx |title=Washington State Dept. of Agriculture Fertilizer Product Database |publisher=Agr.wa.gov |date=2012-05-23 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>http://www.regulatory-info-sc.com/ Washington and Oregon links</ref>

The most widely used inorganic fertilizer is super-phosphate and its double and triple strengthed derivatives double super and triple super. Super phosphate was first developed by Lawes at the Rothamstead Agricultural Research Institute in England in the early 19th Century.<ref>http://what-when-how.com/scientists/lawes-sir-john-bennet-1814-1900-english-agriculturist-scientist</ref> Lawes added sulfuric acid to conventional rock phosphate containing the mineral apatite, a calcium fluoro-phosphate. The resulting water soluble phosphorus was able to significantly improve yields on a variety of crops at the Rothamstead Centre and the Superphosphate industry was born.
Unfortunately over decades of subsequent usage - it became clear that the solubilisation of fluorine also occurred in the process and this had the same effect as the other halogen sterilants(chlorine, bromine, iodine) over time - soil sterilization.<ref>[http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf www.cfsph.iastate.edu/BRM/resources/.../Disinfection101.pdf]</ref>

==== Fertilizer dependency ====
Effectively farmers unknowingly became 100% dependent on 'bought in' water soluble, inorganic fertilizers since the sterilization of soil microflora including its mycorrhiza, reduced the availability of other natural and trace minerals within the soil. This to some extent explains the resurgence of interest in organic and particularly 'biodynamic' farming systems since these systems replace the essential soil organisms so essential to converting soil minerals into plant available (but rarely water soluble) nutrients.<ref>[http://204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf 204.3.164.213/components/com_journal/files/jabs_1_1_6.pdf Ahmad Ali Khan, et. al., ''Phosphorus Solubilizing Bacteria: Occurrence, Mechanisms and their Role in Crop Production,'' J. AGRIC. BIOL. SCI. 1(1):48-58, 2009]</ref> They do this by a variety of processes including chelation whereby essential minerals become plant available - as measured by weak citric acid extraction techniques. Hence the citric acid solubility of phosphate rocks has emerged as a measure of plant availability and enabled so-called 'reactive' phosphate rocks to be used as fertilizer minerals. These should not be confused with high fluorine apatite rocks in which the fluoride content performs a similar function to its role in hardening teeth enamel, i.e. immobilizing phosphorus. This explains the oceanic origins of many of these high fluorine rocks (Christmas Island, Ocean Island) since the fluorine absorbed from the sea has prevented what were originally massive deposits of bird guano - from being leached from the coral based limestone rocks on which they were originally deposited.

==== Soil acidification ====
Also regular use of acidulated fertilizers generally contribute to the accumulation of soil acidity in soils which progressively increases aluminium availability and hence toxicity. The use of such acidulated fertilizers in the tropical and semi-tropical regions of Indonesia and Malaysia has contributed to soil degradation on a large scale from aluminium toxicity, which can only be countered by applications of limestone or preferably magnesian dolomite, which neutralises acid soil pH and also provides essential magnesium.

==== Trace mineral depletion ====
Many inorganic fertilizers, particularly those based on superphosphate, may not replace [[trace mineral]] elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops. This depletion has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables.<ref>{{cite book | first=Felicity | last=Lawrence | year=2004 | title=Not on the Label | chapter=214 | editor=Kate Barker | page=213 | publisher=Penguin | isbn=0-14-101566-7 }}</ref>
Explanations for this include the early encouragement of so-called "luxury consumption" of trace elements as a result of their acidulation and subsequent dissolution in soil water, by free sulphuric acid sourced from superphosphate. This mechanism has also been identified as a possible causal agent for take-up of the heavy metal cadmium from superphosphate based fertilizers.
In Western Australia deficiencies of [[zinc]], copper, [[manganese]], iron and [[molybdenum]] were identified as limiting the growth of broad-acre crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. Such nutrients are described as 'rate limiting' nutrients. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic fertilizers used in agriculture in this state{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}.

Many soils around the world are deficient in zinc, leading to deficiency in plants and humans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/36383515/Zn-in-Soils-and-Crop-Nutrition-2008 |title=Zinc is Soils and Crop Nutrition |publisher=Scribd.com |date=2010-08-25 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

==== Overfertilization ====
{{See also|Fertilizer burn}}
[[File:Fertilizer-Burn.jpg|upright|thumb|Fertilizer burn]]

Over-fertilization of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as underfertilization.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hubcap.clemson.edu/~blpprt/nitrofer.html |title=Nitrogen Fertilization: General Information |publisher=Hubcap.clemson.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> "Fertilizer burn" can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in drying out of the leaves and damage or even death of the plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.improve-your-garden-soil.com/fertilizer-burn.html |title=Avoiding Fertilizer Burn |publisher=Improve-your-garden-soil.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref>

Fertilizers vary in their tendency to burn roughly in accordance with their salt index.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soils.wisc.edu/extension/wcmc/2008/ppt/Laboski1.pdf |title=Understanding Salt index of fertilizers |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-07-22}}</ref>

==== High energy consumption ====
In the USA in 2004, 317 billion cubic feet of natural gas was consumed in the industrial production of ammonia, less than 1.5% of total U.S. annual consumption of natural gas.<ref name="Abram">{{Cite document | title=A Primer on Ammonia, Nitrogen Fertilizers, and Natural Gas Markets | author=Aleksander Abram and D. Lynn Forster | publisher=Department of Agricultural, Environmental, and Development Economics, Ohio State University | year=2005 | page=38}}</ref>
A 2002 report suggested that the production of ammonia consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production.<ref name="ifa">[http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/statistics/indicators/ind_reserves.asp IFA – Statistics – Fertilizer Indicators – Details – Raw material reserves, (2002–10)]</ref>

Ammonia is overwhelmingly produced from natural gas, but other energy sources, together with a hydrogen source, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds suitable for fertilizers. The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia.<ref name="Sawyer2001">{{cite journal |author=Sawyer JE |title=Natural gas prices affect nitrogen fertilizer costs |journal=IC-486 |volume=1 |page=8 |year=2001 |url=http://www.ipm.iastate.edu/ipm/icm/2001/1-29-2001/natgasfert.html}}</ref> The increase in price of natural gases over the past decade, along with other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/FertilizerUse/|title=Table 8—Fertilizer price indexes, 1960–2007.}}</ref>

==== Contribution to climate change ====
Nitrogen fertilizer can be converted by [[Nitrous_oxide#Soil|soil bacteria]] to [[Nitrous_oxide|nitrous oxide]], a [[Greenhouse_gas|greenhouse gas]].

==== Impacts on mycorrhizas ====
High levels of fertilizer may cause the breakdown of the [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationships between plant roots and [[Mycorrhiza|mycorrhizal]] fungi. <ref>{{cite book|last=Carroll and Salt|first=Steven B. and Steven D.|title=Ecology for Gardeners|year=2004|publisher=Timber Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780881926118}}</ref>

==== Lack of long-term sustainability ====
Inorganic fertilizers are now produced in ways which theoretically cannot be continued indefinitely by definition as the resources used in their production are [[non-renewable]]. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or [[Salt lake|saline lakes]] such as the [[Dead Sea]]) and such resources are limited. However, more effective fertilizer utilization practices may decrease present usage from mines. Improved knowledge of crop production practices can potentially decrease fertilizer usage of P and K without reducing the critical need to improve and increase crop yields. Atmospheric (''[[nitrogen fixation|unfixed]]'') nitrogen is effectively unlimited (forming over 70% of the [[atmospheric gas]]es), but this is not in a form useful to plants. To make nitrogen accessible to plants requires [[nitrogen fixation]] (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a plant-accessible form).

Artificial nitrogen fertilizers are typically synthesized using [[fossil fuel]]s such as natural gas and coal, which are limited resources. In lieu of converting natural gas to [[syngas]] for use in the [[Haber process]], it is also possible to convert renewable [[biomass]] to syngas (or [[wood gas]]) to supply the necessary energy for the process, though the amount of land and resources (ironically often including fertilizer) necessary for such a project may be prohibitive.

== Organic fertilizer ==
{{Main|Organic fertilizer}}
[[File:HomeComposting Roubaix Fr59.JPG|thumb|Compost bin for small-scale production of organic fertilizer]]
[[File:Krechty kompostarna.jpg|thumb|A large commercial compost operation]]

Organic fertilizers include naturally occurring organic materials, (e.g. [[chicken litter]], [[manure]], [[worm castings]], [[compost]], [[seaweed]], [[guano]], [[bone meal]]) or naturally occurring mineral deposits (e.g. [[Sodium nitrate|saltpeter]]). [[Poultry litter]] and cattle manure often create environmental and disposal problems, making their use as fertilizer beneficial. Bones can be processed into phosphate-rich bone meal; however, most are simply buried in landfills.

Even if all bones, human, animal and plant wastes were recovered to the extent practical and used for fertilizer, mineral fertilizers and synthetic nitrogen would still be required to make for losses to leaching, to the atmosphere, runoff and the losses impractical to recover.{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

=== Benefits of organic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizers have been known to improve biodiversity ([[soil life]]) and long-term productivity of soil,<ref name="Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization">{{cite journal|last=Enwall|first=Karin|coauthors=Laurent Philippot,2 and Sara Hallin1|date=December 2005|title=Activity and Composition of the Denitrifying Bacterial Community Respond Differently to Long-Term Fertilization|journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology|publisher=American Society for Microbiology|volume=71|issue=2|pages=8335–8343|url=http://aem.highwire.org/cgi/content/abstract/71/12/8335|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|pmid=16332820|doi=10.1128/AEM.71.12.8335-8343.2005|pmc=1317341}}</ref><ref name="Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity ">{{cite journal|last=Birkhofera|first=Klaus|coauthors= T. Martijn Bezemerb, c, d, Jaap Bloeme, Michael Bonkowskia, Søren Christensenf, David Duboisg, Fleming Ekelundf, Andreas Fließbachh, Lucie Gunstg, Katarina Hedlundi, Paul Mäderh, Juha Mikolaj, Christophe Robink, Heikki Setäläj, Fabienne Tatin-Frouxk, Wim H. Van der Puttenb, c and Stefan Scheua|date=September 2008|title=Long-term organic farming fosters below and aboveground biota: Implications for soil quality, biological control and productivity |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |publisher=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |volume=40|issue=9|pages=2297–2308 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TC7-4SR67X8-1&_user=10&_coverDate=09%2F30%2F2008&_rdoc=1&_fmt=high&_orig=search&_sort=d&_docanchor=&view=c&_searchStrId=1189586172&_rerunOrigin=scholar.google&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=835b56d01da86058b98352b95f68d2d8|accessdate=Feb 1, 2010|doi=10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.05.007}}</ref> and may prove a large depository for excess [[carbon dioxide]].<ref name=" Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security">{{cite journal|last=Lal|first=R.|title= Soil Carbon Sequestration Impacts on Global Climate Change and Food Security|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;304/5677/1623|publisher=[[Science (journal)]]|pmid=15192216|doi=10.1126/science.1097396|year=2004|volume=304|issue=5677|pages=1623–7|journal=Science}}</ref><ref name="Organic farming switch quadruples soil CO2 storage capacity">{{cite web|url=http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/280491/change_farming_to_cut_co2_emissions_by_25_per_cent.html|title=Change farming to cut CO2 emissions by 25 per cent|last=Rees |first=Eifion|date= July 3, 2009|publisher=The Ecologist|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1755-1315/6/24/.../ees9_6_242025.pdf|title=ClimateChange: GlobalRisks,ChallengesandDecisions|last=Fliessbach|first=A.|coauthors=P Maeder(2), A Diop(3), LWM Luttikholt(1), N Scialabba(4), U Niggli(2), Paul Hepperly(3), T LaSalle(3) |year=2009|work=P24.17 Mitigation and adaptation strategies – organic agriculture|publisher=IOP Publishing |accessdate=February 2, 2010|location=IOPConf. Series: EarthandEnvironmentalScience6(2009)242025}}</ref>

Organic nutrients increase the abundance of soil organisms by providing organic matter and [[micronutrients]] for organisms such as fungal [[mycorrhiza]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caliber.ucpress.net/doi/abs/10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055%5B0573:EEAECO%5D2.0.CO;2|title= Environmental, Energetic, and Economic Comparisons of Organic and Conventional Farming Systems |last=PIMENTEL|first=David|coauthors= PAUL HEPPERLY, JAMES HANSON, DAVID DOUDS, and RITA SEIDEL|date=July 2005|publisher=BioScience|pages=ol. 55, No. 7, Pages 573–582 |accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> (which aid plants in absorbing nutrients), and can drastically reduce external inputs of pesticides, energy and fertilizer, at the cost of decreased yield.<ref name="Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming">{{cite journal|last= Mäder|first=Paul|coauthors= Andreas Fliebach,,1 David Dubois,2 Lucie Gunst,2 Padruot Fried,2 Urs Niggli1|date=May 31, 2002|title=Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming|journal=Science|publisher=Science|volume= 296 |issue= 5573 |pages=1694–1697|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/296/5573/1694|accessdate=February 1, 2010|pmid= 12040197|doi= 10.1126/science.1071148}}</ref>

=== Disadvantages of organic fertilizers ===
{{unsourced section|date=January 2013}}
* Organic fertilizers may contain pathogens and other disease causing organisms if not properly composted
* Nutrient contents are very variable and their release to available forms that the plant can use may not occur at the right plant growth stage
* Organic fertilizers are comparatively voluminous and can be too bulky to deploy the right amount of nutrients that will be beneficial to plants
* More expensive to produce
*Not so handy to apply in the soil.

=== Comparison with inorganic fertilizer ===
Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient release rates are typically all lower than inorganic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=644_20 |title=Acta Horticulturae |publisher=Actahort.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/organic.html |title=AZ Master Gardener Manual: Organic Fetilizers |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>
One study{{Which|date=November 2009}} found that over a 140-day period, after 7 [[Leaching (agriculture)|leachings]]:

* Organic fertilizers had released between 25% and 60% of their nitrogen content
* Controlled release fertilizers (CRFs) had a relatively constant rate of release
* Soluble fertilizer released most of its nitrogen content at the first leaching

In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizer are both more dilute and also much less readily available to plants. According to the University of California's integrated pest management program, all ''organic fertilizers'' are classified as 'slow-release' fertilizers, and therefore cannot cause nitrogen burn.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/TOOLS/TURF/SITEPREP/amenfert.html |title=Healthy LawnsFertilizers vs. soil amendments |publisher=Ipm.ucdavis.edu |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

Organic fertilizers from composts and other sources can be quite variable from one batch to the next.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.msuorganicfarm.com/Compost.pdf |title=Crazy about Compost |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Without batch testing, amounts of applied nutrient cannot be precisely known. Nevertheless, one or more studies have shown they are at least as effective as chemical fertilizers over longer periods of use.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=TRD&recid=0002290EN&q=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csa.com%2Fpartners%2Fviewrecord.php%3Frequester%3Dgs%26collection%3DTRD%26recid%3D0002290EN&uid=789131166&setcookie=yes |title=CSA |publisher=Md1.csa.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

==== Example of organic fertilizer ====
[[Chicken litter]], which consists of chicken manure mixed with sawdust, is an organic fertilizer that has been shown to better condition soil for harvest than synthesized fertilizer. Researchers at the [[Agricultural Research Service]] (ARS) studied the effects of using chicken litter, an organic fertilizer, versus synthetic fertilizers on cotton fields, and found that fields fertilized with chicken litter had a 12% increase in cotton yields over fields fertilized with synthetic fertilizer. In addition to higher yields, researchers valued commercially sold chicken litter at a $17/ton premium (to a total valuation of $78/ton) over the traditional valuations of $61/ton due to value added as a [[soil conditioner]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100623.htm|title= Researchers Study Value of Chicken Litter in Cotton Production |date=July 23, 2010}}</ref>

Other ARS studies have found that algae used to capture nitrogen and phosphorus runoff from agricultural fields can not only prevent water contamination of these nutrients, but also can be used as an organic fertilizer. ARS scientists originally developed the "algal turf scrubber" to reduce nutrient runoff and increase quality of water flowing into streams, rivers, and lakes. They found that this nutrient-rich algae, once dried, can be applied to cucumber and corn seedlings and result in growth comparable to that seen using synthetic fertilizers.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/may10/algae0510.htm|title= Algae: A Mean, Green Cleaning Machine |publisher=USDA Agricultural Research Service|date=May 7, 2010}}</ref>

=== Organic fertilizer sources ===
==== Animal ====
{{see also|Night soil}}
[[File:Hestemøj.jpg|thumb|Decomposing animal manure, an organic fertilizer source]]

Animal-sourced and human [[urea]] are suitable for application organic agriculture, while pure synthetic forms of urea are not.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecochem.com/t_natfert.html |title=In a natural organic system, nitrate in the soil is derived from the gradual breakdown of humus |publisher=Ecochem.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The common thread that can be seen through these examples is that ''organic'' agriculture attempts to define itself through minimal processing (in contrast to the man-made [[Haber process]]), as well as being naturally occurring or via natural biological processes such as [[composting]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

Besides immediate application of urea to the soil, [[urine]] can also be improved by converting it to [[struvite]] already done with human urine by a Dutch firm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/newspaper/innovation/2010/0625/1224272921729.html |title=Human urine conversion to struvite |publisher=Irishtimes.com |date=2010-06-06 |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> The conversion is performed by adding magnesium to the urine. An added economical advantage of using urine as fertilizer is that it contains a large amount of phosphorus.

Recycled [[sewage sludge]] (aka [[biosolids]]) as soil amendment is only available to less than 1% of US ag{{Clarify|date=August 2011}} land. Industrial pollutants in sewage sludge prevents recycling it as fertilizer. The [[USDA]] prohibits use of [[sewage sludge]] in [[organic agriculture|organic agricultural]] operations in the U.S. due to industrial pollution, pharmaceuticals, hormones, heavy metals, and other factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/torg.html |title=Organic Farming | Agriculture | US EPA |publisher=Epa.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.calorganicfarms.com/news/full.php?id=22 |title=CalOrganic Farms News |publisher=Calorganicfarms.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/biosolids/tnsss-overview.cfm |title=Biosolids: Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Report |publisher=EPA.gov |date=2009-01}}</ref> The USDA now requires 3rd-party certification of high-nitrogen liquid organic fertilizers sold in the U.S.<ref name="USDA certification of high-nitrogen liquid fertilizer">{{cite web|url=http://www.organicconsumers.org/articles/article_17001.cfm|title=USDA Toughens Oversight of Organic Fertilizer: Organic fertilizers must undergo testing |last=Schrack|first=Don|date=2009-02-23|publisher=The Packer |accessdate=November 19, 2009}}</ref>

==== Plant ====
Leguminous [[cover crop]]s are also grown to enrich soil as a [[green manure]] through [[nitrogen fixation]] from the atmosphere;<ref>{{cite web|author=USA |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=373994&pageindex=6#page |title=Isolation and Study of Cultures of Chinese Vetch Nodule Bacteria |publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov |date=2010-07-06 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> as well as phosphorus (through nutrient mobilization)<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=XO3pio5Opy8C&pg=PA564&lpg=PA564&dq=phosphorus+addition+fava+bean |title=Biological approaches to sustainable ... – Google Books |publisher=|date= |accessdate=2010-08-25|isbn=978-1-57444-583-1|year=2006|author1=Uphoff|first1=Norman Thomas}}</ref> content of [[soil]]s.

==== Mineral ====
Mined powdered [[limestone]],<ref name="google.com">{{cite web|url=http://google.com/search?q=cache:_KrbNzgsjrQJ:extension.agron.iastate.edu/sustag/pubs/Soil_Quality_Brochure.doc+limestone+organic+agriculture&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us&client=opera |title=Organic Agriculture |publisher=Google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref> [[rock phosphate]] and [[sodium nitrate]], are [[inorganic]] (not of biologic origins) compounds which are energetically intensive to harvest and are approved for usage in organic agriculture in ''minimal'' amounts.<ref name="google.com"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extension.org/article/18321/print/ |title=Can I Use This Input on My Organic Farm? |publisher=eXtension |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Alternative Farming Systems Information Center |url=http://www.nal.usda.gov/afsic/pubs/ofp/ofp.shtml#resources |title=Organic Production and Organic Food: Information Access Tools |publisher=Nal.usda.gov |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

== Negative environmental effects ==
{{See also|Environmental impact of agriculture|Human impact on the nitrogen cycle}} and [[Nitrogen_fertilizer#Problems_with_inorganic_fertilizer|Problems with inorganic fertilizer]]
[[File:Runoff of soil & fertilizer.jpg|thumb|right|[[Surface runoff|Runoff]] of [[soil]] and fertilizer during a rain storm]]
[[File:EutrophicationEutrophisationEutrophierung.jpg|thumb||An [[algal bloom]] caused by eutrophication]]

=== Water quality ===
==== Eutrophication ====
{{Main|Eutrophication}}

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer runoff are the primary cause of serious oxygen depletion in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones. The resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic [[fauna]].<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/15/us/15oceans.html "Rapid Growth Found in Oxygen-Starved Ocean ‘Dead Zones’"], NY Times, Aug. 14, 2008</ref> Visually, water may become cloudy and discolored (green, yellow, brown, or red).

About half of all the lakes in the United States are now [[eutrophic]], while the number of oceanic [[Dead zone (ecology)|dead zones]] near inhabited coastlines are increasing.<ref>{{cite web|author=John Heilprin, Associated Press |url=http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2006/10/20/deadzone_pla.html |title=Discovery Channel :: News – Animals :: U.N.: Ocean 'Dead Zones' Growing |publisher=Dsc.discovery.com |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> As of 2006, the application of nitrogen fertilizer is being increasingly controlled in Britain and the United States{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}. If eutrophication ''can'' be reversed, it may take decades{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}} before the accumulated nitrates in groundwater can be broken down by natural processes.

==== Blue baby syndrome ====
High application rates of inorganic nitrogen fertilizers in order to maximize crop yields, combined with the high solubilities of these fertilizers leads to increased [[Surface runoff#Agricultural issues|runoff]] into surface water as well as [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]] into groundwater.<ref>{{cite web|author=C. J. Rosen and B. P. Horgan |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/DG2923.html |title=Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers |publisher=Extension.umn.edu |date=2009-01-09 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V94-3VW172B-1&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=a887208bd6509db7ab1557a4fc43c5fa |title=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology - Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries |publisher=ScienceDirect.com |date= |accessdate=2012-06-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nofa.org/tnf/nitrogen.php |title=NOFA Interstate Council: The Natural Farmer. Ecologically Sound Nitrogen Management. Mark Schonbeck |publisher=Nofa.org |date=2004-02-25 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> The use of [[ammonium nitrate]] in ''inorganic'' fertilizers is particularly damaging, as plants absorb ammonium ions preferentially over nitrate ions, while excess nitrate ions which are not absorbed dissolve (by rain or irrigation) into runoff or groundwater.<ref>[http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Jillesha Services] Annual Review of Plant Biology Vol. 59: 341–363</ref>

Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause '[[blue baby syndrome]]' (acquired [[methemoglobinemia]]), leading to [[hypoxia (medical)|hypoxia]] (which can lead to coma and death if not treated).<ref>{{cite web|author=Lynda Knobeloch, Barbara Salna, Adam Hogan, Jeffrey Postle, and Henry Anderson |url=http://www.ehponline.org/docs/2000/108p675-678knobeloch/abstract.html |title=Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water |publisher=Ehponline.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref>

=== Soil ===
==== Soil acidification ====
{{See also|Soil pH}}

Nitrogen-containing inorganic and organic fertilizers can cause [[soil acidification]] when added.<ref>http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/324/5928/721-b#R1</ref><ref>http://soil.scijournals.org/cgi/content/full/72/1/238</ref> This may lead to decreases in nutrient availability which may be offset by [[liming (soil)|liming]].

==== Persistent organic pollutants ====
{{Main|Persistent organic pollutant}}

Toxic persistent organic pollutants ("POPs"), such as [[Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins|Dioxins]], [[polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxin]]s (PCDDs), and [[polychlorinated dibenzofuran]]s (PCDFs) have been detected in agricultural fertilizers and soil amendments<ref>pg 33: http://www.epa.gov/osw/hazard/recycling/fertiliz/risk/</ref>

==== Heavy metal accumulation ====
The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of [[cadmium]] in [[phosphate minerals]] (for example, minerals from [[Nauru]]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Syers JK, Mackay AD, Brown MW, Currie CD |title=Chemical and physical characteristics of phosphate rock materials of varying reactivity |journal=J Sci Food Agric |year=1986 |volume=37 |pages=1057–1064 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.2740371102 |issue=11}}</ref> and the [[Christmas island]]s<ref>{{cite journal |author= Trueman NA |title=The phosphate, volcanic and carbonate rocks of Christmas Island (Indian Ocean) |journal=J Geol Soc Aust |year=1965 |volume=12 |pages=261–286}}</ref>) increases the contamination of soil with cadmium, for example in New Zealand.<ref name=taylor>{{cite journal | author=Taylor MD | title=Accumulation of Cadmium derived from fertilizers in New Zealand soils |journal=Science of Total Environment |year=1997 |volume=208 |pages=123–126 | doi=10.1016/S0048-9697(97)00273-8}}</ref>

Steel industry wastes, recycled into fertilizers for their high levels of [[zinc]] (essential to plant growth), wastes can include the following toxic metals: lead<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com">{{cite web|last=Wilson |first=Duff |url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19970703&slug=2547772 |title=Business | Fear In The Fields – How Hazardous Wastes Become Fertilizer – Spreading Heavy Metals On Farmland Is Perfectly Legal, But Little Research Has Been Done To Find Out Whether It's Safe | Seattle Times Newspaper |publisher=Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> [[arsenic]], [[cadmium]],<ref name="community.seattletimes.nwsource.com"/> chromium, and nickel. The most common toxic elements in this type of fertilizer are mercury, lead, and arsenic.<ref name="pirg.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.pirg.org/toxics/reports/wastelands/ |title=Waste Lands: The Threat Of Toxic Fertilizer |publisher=Pirg.org |date=1997-07-03 |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=mindfully.org |url=http://www.mindfully.org/Farm/Toxic-Waste-Fertilizers.htm |title=Waste Lands: The Threat of Toxic Fertilizer Released by PIRG Toxic Wastes Found in Fertilizers Cat Lazaroff / ENS 7may01 |publisher=Mindfully.org |date= |accessdate=2010-08-25}}</ref> Concerns have been raised concerning [[fish meal]] mercury content by at least one source in Spain<ref name="Heavy-metal toxicity of catfish fertilizer concern">{{cite web|url=http://www.nowpublic.com/environment/catfish-toxic-suitable-fishmeal-production|title=The catfish 'Toxic' suitable for fishmeal production|date=November 16, 2009|publisher=NowPublic|accessdate=November 23, 2009}}</ref>

==== Radioactive element accumulation ====
[[Uranium]] is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers (at levels from 7 to 100 pCi/g).<ref name="Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes">{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/glossary/termuvwxyz.html#uranium|title=Radiation Protection:Fertilizer and Fertilizer Production Wastes|date=March 11, 2009|publisher=US EPA|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref> Eventually these heavy metals can build up to unacceptable levels and build up in vegetable produce.<ref name=taylor/> Average annual intake of uranium by adults is estimated to be about 0.5 mg (500 μg) from ingestion of food and water and 0.6 μg from breathing air.<ref name="Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium">{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs257/en/|title=Depleted uranium: Intake of depleted uranium|date=January 2003|publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)|accessdate=February 2, 2010}}</ref>

Also, highly [[radioactive]] [[Polonium-210]] contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in its tissues; tobacco derived from plants fertilized by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits [[alpha radiation]] estimated to cause about 11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hussein EM |title=Radioactivity of phosphate ore, superphosphate, and phosphogypsum in Abu-zaabal phosphate |journal=Health Physics |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=280–282 | doi = 10.1097/00004032-199409000-00010 |pmid=8056596 |issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Barisic D, Lulic S, Miletic P |title=Radium and uranium in phosphate fertilizers and their impact on the radioactivity of waters |journal=Water Research |year=1992 |volume=26 |pages=607–611 | doi = 10.1016/0043-1354(92)90234-U |issue=5}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Scholten LC, Timmermans CWM |title=Natural radioactivity in phosphate fertilizers |journal=Nutrient cycling in agroecosystems |year=1992 |volume=43 |pages=103–107 |doi=10.1007/BF00747688}}</ref><ref>American Public Health Association, Framing Health Matters, Waking a Sleeping Giant: The Tobacco Industry’s Response to the Polonium-210 Issue: Monique E. Muggli, MPH, Jon O. Ebbert, MD, Channing Robertson, PhD and Richard D. Hurt, MD [http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/9/1643]</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, The big idea: polonium, radon and cigarettes, Tidd J R Soc Med.2008; 101: 156–157 [http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/cgi/content/full/101/3/156]</ref><ref>The Age Melbourne Australia, Big Tobacco covered up radiation danger, William Birnbauer [http://www.theage.com.au/national/big-tobacco-covered-up-radiation-danger-20080906-4b54.html?page=-1]</ref>

For these reasons, it is recommended that [[nutrient budgeting]], through careful observation and monitoring of crops, take place to mitigate the effects of excess fertilizer application.

=== Atmosphere ===
[[File:AtmosphericMethane.png|thumb|Global [[methane]] concentrations (surface and atmospheric) for 2005; note distinct plumes]]

Methane emissions from crop fields (notably rice [[paddy field]]s) are increased by the application of ammonium-based fertilizers; these emissions contribute greatly to global climate change as methane is a potent greenhouse gas.<ref name="Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots ">{{cite journal|last=Bodelier|first=Paul, L.E.|coauthors=Peter Roslev3, Thilo Henckel1 & Peter Frenzel1|date=November 1999|title=Stimulation by ammonium-based fertilizers of methane oxidation in soil around rice roots |journal=Nature|volume=403|pages=421–424|url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v403/n6768/abs/403421a0.html|accessdate=Feb 2, 2009|pmid=10667792|issue=6768|doi=10.1038/35000193}}</ref>

Through the increasing use of nitrogen fertilizer, which is added at a rate of 1 billion tons per year presently<ref>http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v451/n7176/fig_tab/nature06592_F1.html An Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle Nicolas Gruber & James N. Galloway Nature 451, 293–296(17 January 2008) {{doi|10.1038/nature06592}}</ref> to the already existing amount of reactive nitrogen, [[nitrous oxide]] (N2O) has become the third most important [[greenhouse gas]] after carbon dioxide and methane. It has a global warming potential 296 times larger than an equal mass of carbon dioxide and it also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion.<ref>[http://www.initrogen.org/fileadmin/user_upload/2007_docs/2007-N-joint-policy-brief.pdf "Human alteration of the nitrogen cycle, threats, benefits and opportunities"] [[UNESCO]] – [[Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment|SCOPE]] Policy briefs, April 2007</ref>

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some{{Which|date=April 2009}} weather or soil conditions can cause emissions of the potent greenhouse gas—nitrous oxide. [[Ammonia]] gas (NH3) may be emitted following application of 'inorganic' fertilizers and/or manures and slurries.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

The use of fertilizers on a global scale [[Attribution of recent climate change#Livestock and land use|emits significant quantities]] of [[greenhouse gas]] into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of:<ref>[http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/library/key_pub/longshad/A0701E00.pdf Food and Agricultural Organization of the U.N. retrieved Aug 9, 2007]</ref>

* animal [[manures]] and [[urea]], which release [[methane]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]], and [[carbon dioxide]] in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)
* fertilizers that use [[nitric acid]] or [[ammonium bicarbonate]], the production and application of which results in emissions of [[nitrogen oxides]], [[nitrous oxide]], [[ammonia]] and [[carbon dioxide]] into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on [[anthropogenic climate change]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

=== Other problems ===
==== Increased pest fitness ====
Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain agricultural pests, such as [[aphid]]s (plant lice).<ref name="Jahn2004">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC |year=2004 |title=Effect of soil nutrients on the growth, survival and fecundity of insect pests of rice: an overview and a theory of pest outbreaks with consideration of research approaches. Multitrophic interactions in Soil and Integrated Control |journal=International Organization for Biological Control (IOBC) wprs Bulletin |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=115–122}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001a">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Sanchez ER, Cox PG |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management |journal=International Rice Research Institute – Discussion Paper |volume=42 |page=18 |url=http://www.irri.org/publications/discussion/pdfs/DiscPaper42.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2001b">{{cite journal |author=Jahn GC, Cox PG, Rubia-Sanchez E, Cohen M |year=2001 |title=The quest for connections: developing a research agenda for integrated pest and nutrient management. pp. 413–430, |journal=S. Peng and B. Hardy [eds.] "Rice Research for Food Security and Poverty Alleviation". Proceeding the International Rice Research Conference, March 31,  – April 3, 2000, Los Baños, Philippines. Los Baños (Philippines): International Rice Research Institute. |page=692}}</ref><ref name="Jahn2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1603/0046-225X-34.4.938 |author=Jahn GC, Almazan LP, Pacia J |year=2005 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the intrinsic rate of increase of the rusty plum aphid, ''Hysteroneura setariae'' (Thomas) (Homoptera: Aphididae) on rice (''Oryza sativa'' L.) |journal=Environmental Entomology |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=938–943 |url=http://puck.esa.catchword.org/vl=33435372/cl=21/nw=1/rpsv/cw/esa/0046225x/v34n4/s26/p938}}</ref><ref name="Preap2001">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ, Jahn GC |year=2001 |title=Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on realized fecundity and survival rates of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål); Generating Outbreaks in Cambodia |journal=Journal of Asia Pacific Entomology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–84 |doi=10.1016/S1226-8615(08)60107-7}}</ref><ref name="Preap2002">{{cite journal |author=Preap V, Zalucki MP, Jahn GC |year=2002 |title=Effect of nitrogen fertilizer and host plant variety on fecundity and early instar survival of ''Nilaparvata lugens'' (Stål): immediate response |journal=Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Inter-Country Forecasting System and Management for Planthopper in East Asia. November 13–15, 2002. Guilin China. Published by Rural Development Administration (RDA) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) |pages=163–180, 226}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Fertigation]]
* [[History of organic farming]]
* [[Phosphogypsum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|20em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Fertilizers}}
{{Americana Poster|Fertilizers}}

* [http://shakahara.com/nitrogen.shtml Nitrogen for Feeding Our Food, Its Earthly Origin, Haber Process]
* [http://www.tfi.org/factsandstats/fertilizer.cfm The Fertilizer Institute (TFI)] US Fertilizer Industry Association
* [http://www.fertilizer.org International Fertilizer Industry Association (IFA)]
* [http://cms.efma.org/ European Fertiliser Manufacturers Association]
* [http://www.agriculturesolutions.com/index.php?option=com_content&Itemid=111&id=87&lang=en&task=view How to read fertilizer tags article]
* [http://www.agricultureguide.org/a-complete-guide-to-fertilization-and-choosing-best-fertilizers/ Agriculture Guide, Complete Guide to Fertilizers and Fertilization]

{{PlantMineralDeficiency}}

[[Category:Fertilizers| ]]

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