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Moraine

2024-10-03T22:20:26Z

JavaRogers: Added Template:Lang and language links

{{Short description|Glacially formed accumulation of debris}}
{{About|geological phenomena|other uses|Moraine (disambiguation)}}
{{distinguish|text=[[Murrain]], an antiquated term for various infectious diseases affecting cattle and sheep}}
[[File:Manang site (54).JPG|thumb|right|250px|The snow-free debris hills around the lagoon are lateral and terminal moraines of a [[valley glacier]] in [[Manang]], Nepal.]]

A '''moraine''' is any accumulation of unconsolidated debris ([[regolith]] and [[Rock (geology)|rock]]), sometimes referred to as [[glacial till]], that occurs in both currently and formerly glaciated regions, and that has been previously carried along by a glacier or ice sheet. It may consist of partly rounded particles ranging in size from boulders (in which case it is often referred to as boulder clay) down to gravel and sand, in a groundmass of finely-divided clayey material sometimes called [[glacial flour]]. Lateral moraines are those formed at the side of the ice flow, and [[terminal moraine]]s are those formed at the foot, marking the maximum advance of the glacier. Other types of moraine include ground moraines ([[till]]-covered areas forming sheets on flat or irregular [[topography]]) and medial moraines (moraines formed where two glaciers meet).

==Etymology==
The word ''moraine'' is borrowed from [[French language|French]] {{lang|fr|moraine}} {{IPA|fr|mɔ.ʁɛn|}}, which in turn is derived from the [[Savoyard dialect|Savoyard Italian]] {{lang|it|morena}} ('mound of earth'). {{lang|it|Morena}} in this case was derived from [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]] {{lang|oci|morre}} ('snout'), itself from [[Vulgar Latin]] {{lang|lat|*murrum}} ('rounded object').<ref>{{oed|moraine}}</ref> The term was introduced into geology by [[Horace Bénédict de Saussure]] in 1779.<ref name=Jackson1997>{{cite book |editor1-last=Jackson |editor1-first=Julia A. |title=Glossary of geology. |date=1997 |publisher=American Geological Institute |location=Alexandria, Virginia |isbn=0922152349 |edition=Fourth |chapter=moraine [glac geol]}}</ref>

== Characteristics ==
Moraines are [[landforms]] composed of [[glacial till]] deposited primarily by glacial ice.<ref name=Jackson1997/> Glacial till, in turn, is [[Stratum|unstratified]] and [[Sorting (geology)|unsorted]] debris ranging in size from [[silt]]-sized [[Rock flour|glacial flour]] to large boulders.{{sfn|Jackson|1997|loc="till"}} The individual rock fragments are typically sub-angular to rounded in shape.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boggs |first1=Sam |title=Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy |date=2006 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |isbn=0131547283 |edition=4th |page=281}}</ref> Moraines may be found on the glacier's surface or deposited as piles or sheets of debris where the glacier has melted.{{sfn|Boggs|2006|pp=278-279}}

=== Formation ===
Moraines may form through a number of processes, depending on the characteristics of sediment, the dynamics on the ice, and the location on the glacier in which the moraine is formed.<ref name="Benn & Evans">{{cite book |last1=Benn |first1=Douglas I. |last2=Evans |first2=David J.A. |title=Glaciers & glaciation |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0340905791 |edition=Second}}</ref> Moraine forming processes may be loosely divided into ''passive'' and ''active''.<ref name="Moller2010">{{cite journal |last1=Möller |first1=Per |title=Melt-out till and ribbed moraine formation, a case study from south Sweden |journal=Sedimentary Geology |date=December 2010 |volume=232 |issue=3–4 |pages=161–180 |doi=10.1016/j.sedgeo.2009.11.003|bibcode=2010SedG..232..161M }}</ref>

''Passive'' processes involve the placing of chaotic supraglacial sediments onto the landscape with limited reworking, typically forming [[hummock]]y moraines.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kjær|first1=Kurt H.|last2=Krüger|first2=Johannes|date=2001-10-21|title=The final phase of dead-ice moraine development: processes and sediment architecture, Kötlujökull, Iceland|journal=Sedimentology|language=en|volume=48|issue=5|pages=935–952|doi=10.1046/j.1365-3091.2001.00402.x|issn=1365-3091|bibcode=2001Sedim..48..935K|s2cid=129374153 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Janowski |first1=Lukasz |last2=Tylmann |first2=Karol |last3=Trzcinska |first3=Karolina |last4=Rudowski |first4=Stanislaw |last5=Tegowski |first5=Jaroslaw |title=Exploration of Glacial Landforms by Object-Based Image Analysis and Spectral Parameters of Digital Elevation Model |journal=IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing |date=2021 |volume=60 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1109/TGRS.2021.3091771| issn=0196-2892|doi-access=free }}</ref> These moraines are composed of supraglacial sediments from the ice surface.<ref name="Moller2010"/>

''Active'' processes form or rework moraine sediment directly by the movement of ice, known as glaciotectonism. These form push moraines and thrust-block moraines, which are often composed of [[till]] and reworked proglacial sediment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bennett|first=Matthew R.|date=2001-04-01|title=The morphology, structural evolution and significance of push moraines|journal=[[Earth-Science Reviews]]|volume=53|issue=3–4|pages=197–236|doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(00)00039-8|bibcode=2001ESRv...53..197B}}</ref>

Moraine may also form by the accumulation of sand and gravel deposits from glacial streams emanating from the ice margin. These fan deposits may coalesce to form a long moraine bank marking the ice margin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Boulton|first=G. S.|date=1986-10-01|title=Push-moraines and glacier-contact fans in marine and terrestrial environments|journal=Sedimentology|language=en|volume=33|issue=5|pages=677–698|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3091.1986.tb01969.x|issn=1365-3091|bibcode=1986Sedim..33..677B}}</ref> Several processes may combine to form and rework a single moraine, and most moraines record a continuum of processes. Reworking of moraines may lead to the formation of [[placer deposit]]s of [[gold]] as is the case of [[Magallanes Region|southernmost Chile]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Potential mineral resources of the Chilean offshore: an overview|journal=[[Andean Geology]]|url=http://www.andeangeology.cl/index.php/revista1/article/view/V47n1-3260/html|last1=García|first1=Marcelo|volume=47|pages=1–13|last2=Correa|first2=Jorge|issue=1|year=2020|last3=Maksaev|first3=Víctor|last4=Townley|first4=Brian|doi=10.5027/andgeoV47n1-3260|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<gallery widths="200" heights="160">
File:Ansel Adams - National Archives 79-AA-M02.jpg|Moraine in [[Rocky Mountain National Park]], taken by [[Ansel Adams]] in 1941.
File:Icy-lake.jpg|Moraines around the Icy lake (2709 m), just below [[Musala]] peak (2925 m) in [[Rila|Rila Mountain]], [[Bulgaria]].
File:Moraines Surlej.jpg|Lateral moraines of a retreating [[glacier]] in [[Engadin]].
File:Colline moreniche del Lago Garda.JPG|Moraine of [[Lake Garda]].
</gallery>

==Types of moraines==
{{See also|List of glacial moraines}}
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2021}}

Moraines can be classified either by origin, location with respect to a glacier or former glacier, or by shape.<ref name="Dreimanis1989">{{cite book |last1=Dreimanis |first1=Aleksis |editor1-last=Goldthwait |editor2-last=Matsch |title=Genetic classification of glacigenic deposits : final report of the Commission on Genesis and Lithology of Glacial Quaternary Deposits of the International Union for Quaternary Research (INQUA) |date=1989 |publisher=Balkema |location=Rotterdam |isbn=9061916941 |pages=17–83 |chapter=Tills: Their genetic terminology and classification}}</ref> {{cn span|date=November 2021|The first approach is suitable for moraines associated with contemporary glaciers—but more difficult to apply to [[old moraine]]s, which are defined by their particular morphology, since their origin is debated. Some moraine types are known only from ancient glaciers, while medial moraines of valley glaciers are poorly preserved and difficult to distinguish after the retreat or melting of the glacier.}}

===Lateral moraines===
[[File:MorainesLakeLouise.JPG|thumb|Lateral moraines above Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada.]]

Lateral moraines are parallel ridges of debris deposited along the sides of a glacier. The unconsolidated debris can be deposited on top of the glacier by [[frost shattering]] of the valley walls or from tributary streams flowing into the valley,<ref>{{Cite web|date=May 5, 2011|title=Lateral Moraine|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/moraine/|access-date=June 18, 2020|website=National Geographic Encyclopedia}}</ref> or may be subglacial debris carried to the surface of the glacier, melted out, and transported to the glacier margin.<ref name=LukasEtal2012>{{cite journal |last1=Lukas |first1=Sven |last2=Graf |first2=Andreas |last3=Coray |first3=Sandro |last4=Schlüchter |first4=Christian |title=Genesis, stability and preservation potential of large lateral moraines of Alpine valley glaciers – towards a unifying theory based on Findelengletscher, Switzerland |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=March 2012 |volume=38 |pages=27–48 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.01.022|bibcode=2012QSRv...38...27L }}</ref>

[[File:Glacier.zermatt.arp.750pix.jpg|left|thumb|Moraines clearly seen on a side glacier of the [[Gorner Glacier]], [[Zermatt]], [[Switzerland]]. The '''lateral moraine''' is the high snow-free bank of debris in the top left hand quarter of the picture. The '''medial moraine''' is the double line of debris running down the centre-line of the glacier.]]

Lateral moraines can rise up to {{convert|140|m||sp=us}} over the valley floor, can be up to {{convert|3|km||sp=us}} long, and are steeper close to the glacier margin (up to 80 degrees) than further away (where slopes are typically 29 to 36 degrees.<ref name=LukasEtal2012/>

===Ground moraines===
[[File:Ground moraine 9004.jpg|thumb|Ground moraines create irregular, rolling topography.]]

Ground moraines are till-covered areas with irregular topography and no ridges, often forming gently rolling hills or plains,{{sfn|Jackson|1997|loc="ground moraine"}} with relief of less than {{convert|10|m||sp=us}}. Ground moraine is accumulated at the base of the ice as [[Till#Types of till|lodgment till]] with a thin and discontinuous upper layer of supraglacial till deposited as the glacier retreats. It typically is found in the areas between end moraines.<ref name=HiltJohnsonMenzies2002>{{cite journal |last1=Hilt Johnson |first1=W. |last2=Menzies |first2=John |title=Supraglacial and ice-marginal deposits and landforms |journal=Modern and Past Glacial Environments |date=2002 |pages=317–333 |doi=10.1016/B978-075064226-2/50013-1|isbn=9780750642262 }}</ref>

====Rogen moraines====
{{Main|Rogen moraine}}

Rogen moraines or ribbed moraines are a type of basal moraines that form a series of ribs perpendicular to the ice flow in an [[ice sheet]]. The depressions between the ribs are sometimes filled with water, making the Rogen moraines look like [[tigerstripe]]s on [[aerial photograph]]s. Rogen moraines are named after [[Lake Rogen]]<ref name=Moller>Möller, P., 2006. Rogen moraine: an example of glacial reshaping of preexisting landforms. ''[[Quaternary Science Reviews]]'', '''25''':362–389</ref> in [[Härjedalen]], [[Sweden]], the landform's type locality.

====de Geer moraines====
Closely related to Rogen moraines, de Geer moraines are till ridges up to 5m high and 10–50m wide running perpendicular to the ice flow. They occur in large groups in low-lying areas.<ref name = "nominate">{{cite report |title = The Kvarken Archipelago |url = http://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/898bis.pdf |author = Metsähallitus (Forest and Park Services) |date = 16 July 2006 |access-date = 3 October 2021}}</ref> Named for [[Gerard De Geer]], who first described them in 1889, these moraines may have developed from crevasses underneath the ice sheet.<ref name = "nominate"/> The [[Kvarken Archipelago|Kvarken]] has a very high density of de Geer moraines.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kotilainen |first1=Aarno T. |last2=Kaskela |first2=Anu M. |last3=Bäck |first3=Saara |last4=Leinikki |first4=Jouni |title=Submarine De Geer Moraines in the Kvarken Archipelago, the Baltic Sea |journal=Seafloor Geomorphology as Benthic Habitat |date=2012 |pages=289–298 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-385140-6.00017-7|isbn=9780123851406 }}</ref>

===End or terminal moraines===
{{Main|Terminal moraine}}
[[Image:Erratics-Cascades-PB110028.JPG|thumb|left|Multiple erratics on the terminal moraine of the Okanogan Lobe. Cascade mountains in the background.]]

End moraines, or [[terminal moraine]]s, are ridges of unconsolidated debris deposited at the snout or end of the glacier. They usually reflect the shape of the [[Glacier terminus|glacier's terminus]]. Glaciers act much like a conveyor belt, carrying debris from the top of the glacier to the bottom where it deposits it in end moraines. End moraine size and shape are determined by whether the glacier is advancing, receding or at equilibrium. The longer the terminus of the glacier stays in one place, the more debris accumulate in the moraine. There are two types of end moraines: terminal and recessional. Terminal moraines mark the maximum advance of the glacier. Recessional moraines are small ridges left as a glacier pauses during its retreat. After a glacier retreats, the end moraine may be destroyed by postglacial erosion.<ref name="ReineckSingh2012">{{cite book|author1=H.-E. Reineck|author2=I. B. Singh|title=Depositional Sedimentary Environments: With Reference to Terrigenous Clastics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UcjuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|date=6 December 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-96291-2|pages=170–}}</ref>

===Recessional moraine===
Recessional moraines are often observed as a series of transverse ridges running across a valley behind a terminal moraine. They form perpendicular to the lateral moraines that they reside between and are composed of unconsolidated debris deposited by the glacier. They are created during temporary halts in a glacier's retreat.<ref name="Benn & Evans"/><ref>"Moraine". ''Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia'', 6th Edition (2009): 1. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 6 Oct. 2010.</ref>

===Arctic push moraines===
[[File:Ellesmere Island 04.jpg|thumb|Arctic push moraine in northern [[Ellesmere Island]], Grant Land]]

In permafrost areas an advancing glacier may push up thick layers of frozen sediments at its front. An arctic push moraine will then be formed.

===Medial moraine===
[[File:Nuussuaq-peninsula-moraines.jpg|thumb|Medial moraines, [[Nuussuaq Peninsula]], [[Greenland]].]]

A medial moraine is a ridge of moraine that runs down the center of a valley floor. It forms when two glaciers meet and the debris on the edges of the adjacent valley sides join and are carried on top of the enlarged glacier. As the glacier melts or retreats, the debris is deposited and a ridge down the middle of the valley floor is created. The [[Kaskawulsh Glacier]] in the [[Kluane National Park]], [[Yukon]], has a ridge of medial moraine 1 km wide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loomis |first1=S.R. |year=1970 |title=Morphology and structure of an ice-cored medial moraine, Kaskawulsh Glacier, Yukon |journal=Arctic Institute of North America Research Paper |volume=57 |pages=1–65}}</ref>

{{wide image|Bruggen-PioXI FaceCompleteCroppedIMG5642.jpg|600px|align-cap=center|The prominent dark streak at the left quarter is forming a medial moraine. This is seen as a mudflat at the water's surface. ([[Brüggen Glacier]], [[Patagonia]]).}}

===Supraglacial moraines===
Supraglacial moraines are created by debris accumulated on top of glacial ice. This debris can accumulate due to ice flow toward the surface in the [[ablation zone]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boulton |first1=G. S. |title=The Development of a Complex Supraglacial Moraine at the Margin of Sørbreen, Ny Friesland, Vestspitsbergen |journal=Journal of Glaciology |date=1967 |volume=6 |issue=47 |pages=717–735 |doi=10.3189/S0022143000019961|s2cid=127729549 |doi-access=free }}</ref> melting of surface ice<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fyffe |first1=Catriona L. |last2=Woodget |first2=Amy S. |last3=Kirkbride |first3=Martin P. |last4=Deline |first4=Philip |last5=Westoby |first5=Matthew J. |last6=Brock |first6=Ben W. |title=Processes at the margins of supraglacial debris cover: Quantifying dirty ice ablation and debris redistribution |journal=Earth Surface Processes and Landforms |date=August 2020 |volume=45 |issue=10 |pages=2272–2290 |doi=10.1002/esp.4879|bibcode=2020ESPL...45.2272F |s2cid=218998898 |doi-access=free }}</ref> or from debris that falls onto the glacier from valley sidewalls.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nakawo |first1=M. |last2=Iwata |first2=S. |last3=Watanabe |first3=O. |last4=Yoshida |first4=M. |title=Processes which Distribute Supraglacial Debris on the Khumbu Glacier, Nepal Himalaya |journal=Annals of Glaciology |date=1986 |volume=8 |pages=129–131 |doi=10.3189/S0260305500001294|bibcode=1986AnGla...8..129N |s2cid=246062157 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Washboard moraines===
[[Washboard moraine]]s, also known as '''minor''' or '''corrugated moraines''', are low-amplitude geomorphic features caused by glaciers. They consist of low-relief ridges, {{convert|1 to 2|m||sp=us}} in height and around {{convert|100|m||sp=us}} apart, accumulated at the base of the ice as [[Till#Types of till|lodgment till]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stewart |first1=Robert A. |last2=Bryant |first2=Deborah |last3=Sweat |first3=Michael J. |title=Nature and origin of corrugated ground moraine of the Des Moines lobe, Story County, Iowa |journal=Geomorphology |date=March 1988 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=111–130 |doi=10.1016/0169-555X(88)90010-4|bibcode=1988Geomo...1..111S }}</ref> The name "washboard moraine" refers to the fact that, from the air, it resembles a [[washboard (laundry)|washboard]].''

===Veiki moraine===
{{Main|Veiki moraine}}

A Veiki moraine is a kind of hummocky moraine that forms irregular landscapes of ponds and plateaus surrounded by banks. It forms from the irregular melting of ice covered with a thick layer of debris. Veiki moraine is common in northern [[Sweden]] and parts of [[Canada]].

==See also==
{{see also|List of glacial moraines}}
; Geologic features related to moraines
:* {{annotated link|Glacial landform}}
:* {{annotated link|Drumlin}}
:* {{annotated link|Esker}}
:* {{annotated link|Moraine-dammed lake}}
:* {{annotated link|Terminal moraine}}
:* {{annotated link|Rogen moraine}}
:* [[Kame]]
; Moraine examples
:* {{annotated link|Dogger Bank}}
:* {{annotated link|Kettle Moraine}}
:* {{annotated link|Long Island}}
:* {{annotated link|Oak Ridges Moraine}}
:* {{annotated link|Valparaiso Moraine}}
:* {{annotated link|Cypress Hills (Canada)}}
:* {{annotated link|Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{refbegin}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation|last=Easterbrook |first=D. J. |year=1999 |title=Surface processes and landforms |edition=Second |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |publisher=Prentice Hall|isbn=9780138609580}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Moraines}}
{{wiktionary|moraine}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160426164815/http://www.pantagraph.com/news/local/glacial-moraines-unmistakable-vestige-of-last-ice-age/article_78058029-8591-58f3-9bc6-9e5592cc3404.html "Glacial moraines unmistakable vestige of last ice age" – ''Pantagraph''] (Bloomington, Illinois newspaper)

{{glaciers}}
{{sediment transport}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[Category:Sediments]]
[[Category:Moraines| ]]
[[Category:Geographical terminology in mountaineering]]
[[Category:Geomorphology]]
[[Category:Glacial landforms]]

Kame

2024-10-03T20:54:21Z

JavaRogers: Added Template:lang

{{short description|Mound formed on a retreating glacier and deposited on land}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:Kame below Wester Pearsie - geograph.org.uk - 605724.jpg|thumb|A kame near [[Kirriemuir]], Scotland]]
[[File:Dude Hill - Glacial Kame - Yellowstone USA.jpg|thumb|A kame in [[Yellowstone National Park]], Wyoming]]
[[File:Glacial-Drift-PB110031.JPG|thumb|A kame among the [[glacial drift]] on the [[terminal moraine]] of the [[Okanagan Lobe]] of the [[Cordilleran Ice Sheet]] on the [[Waterville Plateau]] of the [[Columbia Plateau]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington]]]]
A '''kame''', or ''knob'', is a [[glacial landform]], an irregularly shaped [[hill]] or [[mound]] composed of [[sand]], [[gravel]] and [[till]] that accumulates in a depression on a retreating [[glacier]], and is then deposited on the land surface with further melting of the glacier. Kames are often associated with [[kettle (landform)|kettle]]s, and this is referred to as ''kame and kettle'' or ''knob and kettle''<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.encyclopedia.com/earth-and-environment/ecology-and-environmentalism/environmental-studies/knob-and-kettle| title = Knob And Kettle {{!}} Encyclopedia.com}}</ref> [[topography]]. The word ''kame'' is a variant of ''comb'' ({{lang|sco|kame}}, or {{lang|sco|kaim}} is the [[Early Scots|Old Scottish]] word meaning 'comb'), which has the meaning "crest" among others.<ref>{{Cite OED|kame}}</ref> The geological term was introduced by [[Thomas Jamieson]] in 1874.<ref>{{cite book|editor=Goudie, Andrew|title=Encyclopedia of Geomorphology|volume=2|year=2004|chapter=''Kame'' by Eric A. Colhoun|pages=581–582|isbn=9780415327381|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UHRU_6nUSR4C&pg=PA581}}</ref>

According to White, "kames were formed by meltwater which deposited more or less washed material at irregular places in and along melting ice. At places the material is very well washed and stratified; at others it is more poorly washed, with inclusions of till masses that fell from ice but were covered before they were completely washed. Kame gravels thus tend to be variable and range from fine to coarse grained and even to cobbly and boulder."<ref name=White/>

With the melting of the glacier, streams carry [[sediment]] to glacial [[lake]]s, building kame [[river delta|delta]]s on top of the [[ice]]. However, with the continuous [[melting]] of the glacier, the kame delta eventually collapses onto the land surface, furthering the "kame and kettle" topography.

Kame terraces are frequently found along the side of a glacial [[valley]] and are stratified deposits of [[meltwater]] [[stream]]s flowing between the ice and the adjacent valley side.<ref name="White">{{cite book|last1=White|first1=George|title=Glacial Geology of Northeastern Ohio, Ohio Geological Survey|date=1982|publisher=State of Ohio|location=Columbus|pages=18–19}}</ref> These kame terraces tend to look like long, flat benches, with many pits on the surface made by kettles. They tend to slope downvalley with [[slope|gradients]] similar to the glacier surface along which they formed, and can sometimes be found paired on opposite sides of a valley.

Kames are sometimes compared to [[drumlin]]s, but their formation is distinctively different. A drumlin is not originally shaped by meltwater, but by the ice itself and has a quite regular shape. It occurs in fine-grained material, such as [[clay]] or [[shale]], not in sands and gravels. And drumlins usually have concentric layers of material, as the ice successively plasters new layers in its movement.

==Examples==
{{Globalize|section|date=October 2016}}
[[File:Kame internal structure.jpg|thumb|Kame internal structure as sketched by Newberry in 1874]]
Kames are not normally located in proximity to one another, however in [[Edmonton]], Alberta, numerous kames are found nearby, forming the [[Prosser Archaeological Site]]. The [[Fonthill Kame]] in southern [[Ontario]] is in a densely populated area. Examples can also be found in [[Wisconsin]] and at the [[Sims Corner Eskers and Kames|Sims Corner Eskers and Kames National Natural Landscape]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. They are also located in [[Mendon Ponds Park]], southeast of Rochester, New York. This park is on the National Registry of Natural Landmarks due to geological history and presence of significant kames, eskers and kettles.

In Ontario, there are two [[provincial park]]s, both designated as [[World Conservation Union|IUCN]] [[nature reserve]]s, which were created to protect important and undisturbed kame features. They are [[Minnitaki Kames Provincial Park]] and [[Bonheur River Kame Provincial Park]].

==See also==
* [[Drumlin]]
* [[Esker]]
* [[Glacial Kame culture]]
* [[Glacial landforms]]
* [[Moraine]]
* [[Outwash fan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{cite book
| last = Easterbrook
| first = Don J.
| author-link = Don Easterbrook
| title = Surface Processes and Landforms
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| date = 1999
| location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
| pages = 352–357
| isbn = 0-13-860958-6 }}
* {{cite book
| last = Tarbuck
| first = Edward J.
| author2 = Frederick K. Lutgens
| title = Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geography
| publisher = Prentice Hall
| date = 2002
| location = Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
| pages = [https://archive.org/details/earthintroductio00tarb_0/page/351 351]
| url = https://archive.org/details/earthintroductio00tarb_0/page/351
| isbn = 0-13-092025-8
| url-access = registration
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Trenhaile
| first = Alan
| title = Geomorphology: A Canadian Perspective
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| date = 2007
| location = Don Mills, Ontario
| pages = [https://archive.org/details/geomorphologycan0000tren/page/187 187–8]
| url = https://archive.org/details/geomorphologycan0000tren/page/187
| isbn = 978-0-19-542474-4
}}

{{glaciers}}
{{Continental Glaciations}}

[[Category:Glaciology]]
[[Category:Kames| ]]

Rock dove

2024-06-18T03:14:30Z

JavaRogers: Some changes to linked words in the lead

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Redirect|Rock pigeon}}
{{EngvarB|date = May 2016}}
{{Speciesbox
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn | author = BirdLife International | title = ''Columba livia'' | page = e.T22690066A155493121 | year = 2019 | amends = 2016 | doi = 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22690066A155493121.en | access-date = 19 February 2022 }}</ref>
| image = Columba livia Baltasound Shetland 1.jpg
| image_caption = Group of wild birds in [[Shetland]], [[Scotland]]
| genus = Columba
| species = livia
| authority = [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin, JF]], 1789<ref>{{ITIS| taxon =''Columba livia'' | id=177071 | access-date =2008-02-23 }}</ref>
| range_map = Columba livia distribution map.png
| range_map_caption = {{leftlegend|#7E0308|approximate native range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#FD8182|introduced non-native populations|outline=gray}}
}}

The '''rock dove''', '''rock pigeon''', or '''common pigeon''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|dʒ|.|ə|n}} also {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|dʒ|.|ɪ|n}}; '''''Columba livia''''') is a member of the bird family [[Columbidae]] (doves and pigeons).<ref name = "Gibbs">{{cite book| last =Gibbs | first =David |author2=Eustace Barnes |author3=John Cox | title =Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World | publisher =Pica Press | location =United Kingdom | url =https://books.google.com/books?id=r__Tx8QKQfMC | isbn =978-1-873403-60-0 | date =2010-06-30 }}</ref>{{rp|624}} In common usage, it is often simply referred to as the "pigeon", although this is the [[wildlife|wild]] form of the bird; the pigeons most familiar to people are the [[domesticated]] form of the wild rock dove.

The [[domestic pigeon]] (''Columba livia domestica'', which includes about [[List of pigeon breeds|1,000 different breeds]]) descended from this species. Escaped domestic pigeons have increased the populations of [[feral pigeon]]s around the world.<ref name = "Blechman">{{cite book| last =Blechman | first =Andrew | title =Pigeons-The fascinating saga of the world's most revered and reviled bird. | publisher =University of Queensland Press | year =2007 | location =St Lucia, Queensland | url= http://andrewblechman.com/pigeons/learn_more.html |isbn =978-0-7022-3641-9 }}</ref>

Wild rock doves are pale grey with two black bars on each wing, whereas domestic and [[feral]] pigeons vary in the colour and pattern of their [[plumage]]. Few differences are seen between males and females; [[i.e]] they are not strongly [[sexually dimorphic]].<ref name="Cornell"/> The species is generally [[Monogamous pairing in animals|monogamous]], with two squabs (young) per [[Offspring|brood]]. Both parents care for the young for a time.<ref name = "Levi">{{cite book |last=Levi |first=Wendell |title= The Pigeon|year= 1977|publisher= Levi Publishing Co, Inc.|location= Sumter, S.C.|isbn=0-85390-013-2 }}</ref>

[[Habitat]]s include various open and semi-open environments where they are able to [[forage]] on the ground. [[Cliff]]s and rock ledges are used for [[roosting]] and [[Reproduction|breeding]] in the wild. Originating in [[Southern Europe]], [[North Africa]], and [[Western Asia]], pigeons have become established in cities around the world. The species is abundant, with an estimated [[population]] of 17 to 28 million feral and wild birds in Europe alone and up to 120 million worldwide.<ref name=IUCN/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/Rock_Pigeon/lifehistory|title=Rock Pigeon Life History, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology|website=www.allaboutbirds.org|language=en|access-date=2019-12-24}}</ref>

== Taxonomy and systematics ==
[[File:Kabootar Kordestan.jpg|thumb|In Iran, reflecting its adaptation to cliff-like perches]]
[[File:Rock Pigeon Columba livia.jpg|thumb|In India]]
The official common name is '''rock dove''', as given by the [[International Ornithological Congress]].<ref>{{Cite report|date=2020|editor-last=Gill|editor-first=F.|title=IOC World Bird List v10.2|url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/ioc-lists/crossref|language=en|publisher=[[International Ornithological Committee]]|doi=10.14344/ioc.ml.10.2|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The rock dove was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1789 by the German naturalist [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin]] in his revised and expanded edition of ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' written by [[Carl Linnaeus]]. He placed it with all the other doves and pigeons in the genus ''[[Columba (bird)|Columba]]'' and coined the [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]] ''Columba livia''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Gmelin | first=Johann Friedrich | author-link=Johann Friedrich Gmelin| year=1789 | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae : secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | edition=13th | volume=1, Part 2 | language=Latin | location=Lipsiae [Leipzig] | publisher=Georg. Emanuel. Beer | page= | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2656264 }}</ref> The genus name ''Columba'' is the [[Latin]] word meaning "pigeon, dove",<ref>James A. Jobling. ''Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names''. Bloomsbury Publishing p. 114 {{ISBN|1408125013}}</ref> whose older etymology comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] κόλυμβος (''kolumbos''), "a diver", from ''κολυμβάω'' (kolumbao), "dive, plunge headlong, swim".<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{cite book | author = Liddell, Henry George | author-link = Henry George Liddell | author2 = Robert Scott | author2-link = Robert Scott (philologist) | name-list-style = amp | year = 1980 | title = A Greek-English Lexicon | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = United Kingdom | isbn = 0-19-910207-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/lexicon00lidd | edition = Abridged }}</ref> [[Aristophanes]] (Birds, 304) and others use the word κολυμβίς (''kolumbis''), "diver", for the name of the bird, because of its swimming motion in the air.<ref>{{cite book | last = Simpson | first = D.P. | title = Cassell's Latin Dictionary | publisher = Cassell Ltd. | year = 1979 | edition = 5th | location = London | page = 883 | isbn = 0-304-52257-0}}</ref> The [[specific epithet]] ''livia'' is a [[medieval Latin]] variant of ''livida'', "livid, bluish-grey"; this was [[Theodorus Gaza]]'s translation of Greek ''peleia'', "dove", itself thought to be derived from ''pellos'', "dark-coloured".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jobling|first=J.|url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/988d/fc3214992239564844cc8fa92d4ff5d7ddd6.pdf|title=Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names|publisher=[[Christopher Helm]]|year=2010|isbn=978-1-408-12501-4|location=London|access-date=August 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190815182030/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/988d/fc3214992239564844cc8fa92d4ff5d7ddd6.pdf|archive-date=August 15, 2019|url-status=dead|s2cid=82496461}}</ref>{{Rp|228}} Its closest relative in the genus ''Columba'' is the [[hill pigeon]], followed by the other rock pigeons: the [[snow pigeon|snow]], [[speckled pigeon|speckled]], and [[white-collared pigeon]]s.<ref name= Gibbs/> Pigeon chicks are called "squabs".<ref name="Levi" />
Note that members of the lesser known pigeon genus ''[[Petrophassa]]'' and the [[speckled pigeon]] (''Columba guinea''), also have the [[common name]] “[[Rock pigeon (disambiguation)|rock pigeon]]”.
The rock dove was first described by German naturalist [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Johann Gmelin]] in 1789.<ref>In J.F. Gmelin's edition of Linné's ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' appeared in Leipzig, 1788-93.</ref> The rock dove was central to [[Charles Darwin]]'s discovery of [[evolution]], and featured in four of his works from 1859 to 1872. Darwin posited that, despite wide-ranging morphological differences, the many hundreds of breeds of domestic pigeon could all be traced back to the wild rock dove; in essence human selection of pigeon breeds was analogous to [[natural selection]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Baptista|first=L.|date=2009|title=Darwin's pigeons and the evolution of the columbiforms: recapitulation of ancient genes|url=https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/575/57512077023.pdf|journal=Acta Zoológica Mexicana |series=Nueva Serie|volume=25|issue=3|pages=719–741|doi=10.21829/azm.2009.253674 }}</ref>

=== Subspecies ===
Nine subspecies are recognised:<ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela Rasmussen | date=January 2023 | title=Pigeons | work=IOC World Bird List Version 13.1 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/pigeons/ | publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=10 June 2023 }}</ref>

* ''C. l. livia'' [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin, JF]], 1789 – west, central Europe, north Africa to central Asia
* ''C. l. gymnocycla'' [[George Robert Gray|Gray, GR]], 1856 – Mauritania and Senegal to south Mali and Ghana
* ''C. l. targia'' Geyr von Schweppenburg, 1916 – north Mali and south Algeria to central Sudan
* ''C. l. dakhlae'' [[Richard Meinertzhagen|Meinertzhagen, R]], 1928 – west Egypt
* ''C. l. schimperi'' [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1854 – east Egypt, south Sudan and Eritrea
* ''C. l. palaestinae'' [[Otto Eduard Graf von Zedlitz und Trützschler|Zedlitz]], 1912 – [[Sinai Peninsula]] (Egypt) to Syria and west, south [[Arabian Peninsula]]
* ''C. l. gaddi'' [[Nikolai Alekseyvich Zarudny|Zarudny]] & [[Harald von Loudon|Loudon]], 1906 – east Turkey to [[Uzbekistan]] and west, north Afghanistan
* ''C. l. neglecta'' [[Allan Octavian Hume|Hume]], 1873 – west Pakistan and east Afghanistan to the Himalayas
* ''C. l. intermedia'' [[Hugh Edwin Strickland|Strickland]], 1844 – south India and Sri Lanka

== Description ==
[[File:Pigeon portrait 4861.jpg|thumb|upright|right|A distinctive [[operculum (bird)|operculum]] is located on top of the beak.]]
Centuries of [[domestication]] have greatly altered the rock dove. Feral pigeons, which have escaped domestication throughout history, have significant variations in plumage.<ref name="Sibley-2014" /> When not specified, descriptions are for assumed [[wild type]], though the wild type may be on the verge of extinction or already extinct.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Gilbert|first=Thomas|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2|chapter=Pigeons, Domestication of|date=2014|title=Encyclopedia of Global Archaeology|publisher=Springer New York|isbn=978-1-4419-0426-3|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Claire|location=New York, NY|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-1-4419-0465-2|s2cid=220616743 }}</ref>

The adult of the nominate subspecies of the rock dove is {{convert|29|to|37|cm|in|abbr=on}} long with a {{convert|62|to|72|cm|in|abbr=on}} wingspan.<ref name="Jahan">{{cite web|last=Jahan |first=Shah |title=Feral Pigeon |publisher=The Birds I Saw |url=http://www.birdsisaw.com/bis/bird.aspx?q=15 |access-date=2008-02-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629210950/http://www.birdsisaw.com/bis/bird.aspx?q=15 |archive-date=June 29, 2008 }}</ref> Weight for wild or feral rock doves ranges from {{Convert|238|-|380|g|abbr = on}}, though overfed domestic and semidomestic individuals can exceed normal weights.<ref name="Gibbs" /><ref name="Cornell" /> It has a dark bluish-grey head, neck, and chest with glossy yellowish, greenish, and reddish-purple [[iridescence]] along its neck and wing feathers. The iris is orange, red, or golden with a paler inner ring, and the bare skin round the eye is bluish-grey. The bill is grey-black with a conspicuous off-white cere, and the feet are purplish-red. Among standard measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is typically around {{convert|22.3|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[tail]] is {{convert|9.5|to|11|cm|in|abbr=on}}, the [[Beak|bill]] is around {{convert|1.8|cm|in|abbr=on}}, and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{convert|2.6|to|3.5|cm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Gibbs" />

[[File:Doves fighting.JPG|left|alt=Group of doves|thumb|A medium sized flock forages]]
The adult female is almost identical in outward appearance to the male, but the iridescence on her neck is less intense and more restricted to the rear and sides, whereas that on the breast is often very obscure.<ref name = Gibbs/>

The white lower back of the pure rock dove is its best identification characteristic; the two black bars on its pale grey wings are also distinctive. The tail has a black band on the end, and the outer web of the tail feathers are margined with white. It is strong and quick on the wing, dashing out from sea caves, flying low over the water, its lighter grey rump showing well from above.<ref name = "White">{{cite web| last=White |first=Helen |title=Rock Pigeons |publisher=Helen White |url=http://www.diamonddove.info/bird14%20Rock%20Dove.htm |website=www.diamonddove.info |access-date=2008-02-18}}{{self published inline|date=July 2019}}</ref>{{self published inline|date=July 2019}}

Young birds show little lustre and are duller. Eye colour of the pigeon is generally orange, but a few pigeons may have white-grey eyes. The eyelids are orange and encapsulated in a grey-white eye ring. The feet are red to pink.<ref name="Levi"/>

[[File:WHITEDOVE.jpg|alt=dove in Jordan|thumb|White rock pigeon caught in [[Al-Maghtas]], [[Jordan]].]]
The subspecies ''gymnocycla'' is smaller and very much darker than the [[nominate subspecies]]. It is almost blackish on the head, rump and underparts with a white back and the iridescence of the nape extending onto the head. Subspecies ''targia'' is slightly smaller than the nominate, with similar plumage, but the back is concolorous with the mantle instead of white. Subspecies ''dakhlae'' is smaller and much paler than the nominate. Subspecies ''schimperi'' closely resembles ''targia'', but has a distinctly paler mantle. Subspecies ''palaestinae'' is slightly larger than ''schimperi'' and has darker plumage. Subspecies ''gaddi'' is larger and paler than ''palaestinae,'' with which it [[intergrade]]s in the west. Subspecies ''neglecta'' it is similar to the nominate in size but darker, with a stronger and more extensive iridescent sheen on the neck. It intergrades with ''gaddi'' in the south. Subspecies ''intermedia'' is similar to ''neglecta'' but darker, with a less contrasting back.<ref name="Gibbs"/>{{rp|176–179}}

There have been numerous skeletal descriptions of the rock dove and the associated muscles including those of the eye, jaw, neck, and throat.<ref name="Jonesetal2019">{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/s40851-019-0129-z|last2=Button|first2=David J.|last3=Barrett, P.M.|first3=Paul M|first4=Laura|last4=Porro B.|title=Digital dissection of the head of the rock dove (''Columba livia'') using contrast-enhanced computed tomography|journal=Zoological Letters|volume=5|pages=1–31|year=2019|last1=Jones|first1=Marc. E. H.|pmid=31205748 |pmc=6558907 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The skull is dominated by the rostrum, eye socket, and braincase.<ref name="Jonesetal2019"/> The quadrate bone is relatively small and mobile and connects the rest of the cranium to the lower jaw.<ref name="Jonesetal2019"/> The latter has an angled shape in side view because the long-axis of the front half of the lower jaw is at a 30° angle to the back half.<ref name="Jonesetal2019"/> Beneath the skull, the hyoid skeleton involves three mid-line structures and a pair of elongate structures that stem from between the junction of the back two structures.<ref name="Jonesetal2019"/> The anterior structure (the paraglossum or entoglossum) is unpaired and shaped like an arrowhead.<ref name="Jonesetal2019"/>

[[File:Rock dove - natures pics.jpg|alt=In flight|thumb|In flight, [[British Columbia]], [[Canada]]]]
When circling overhead, the white underwing of the bird becomes conspicuous. In its flight, behaviour, and voice, which is more of a dovecot ''coo'' than the phrase of the [[common wood pigeon|wood pigeon]], it is a typical pigeon. Although it is a relatively strong flier, it also glides frequently, holding its wings in a very pronounced V shape as it does.<ref name = "Wright">{{cite web | last =Wright | first =Mike | title =Wildlife Profiles: Pigeon | publisher =Arkansas Urban Wildlife | url =http://www.arkansasurbanwildlife.com/wildlife/pigeon.aspx | access-date =2008-02-18 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20080610011112/http://www.arkansasurbanwildlife.com/wildlife/pigeon.aspx | archive-date =2008-06-10 | url-status =dead }}</ref> As prey birds, they must keep their vigilance, and when disturbed a pigeon within a flock will take off with a noisy clapping sound that cues for other pigeons to take to flight. The noise of the take-off increases the faster a pigeon beats its wings, thus advertising the magnitude of a perceived threat to its flockmates.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/0003-3472(75)90136-0|title=Socially induced flight reactions in pigeons|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=23|pages=597–601|year=1975|last1=Davis|first1=J.Michael|s2cid=53171567}}</ref>

Feral pigeons are essentially the same size and shape as the original wild rock dove, but often display far greater variation in colour and pattern compared to their wild ancestors. The blue-barred pattern which the original wild rock dove displays is generally less common in more urban areas. Urban pigeons tend to have darker plumage than those in more rural areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haag-Wackernagel|first1=Daniel|last2=Heeb|first2=Philipp|last3=Leiss|first3=Andreas|date=2006|title=Phenotype-dependent selection of juvenile urban Feral Pigeons Columba livia|journal=Bird Study|volume=53|issue=2|page=169|doi=10.1080/00063650609461429|s2cid=84205070|doi-access=free|bibcode=2006BirdS..53..163H }}</ref>

[[File:Pigeon take off.webm|thumb|Slow motion, demonstrating the wing movements|alt=A pigeon in flight in slow motion, demonstrating the wing movements|right]]
Pigeons feathers have two types of [[melanin]] (pigment) – [[eumelanin]] and [[pheomelanin]]. A study of melanin in the feathers of both wild rock and domestic pigeons, of different coloration types and known genetic background, measured the concentration, distribution and proportions of eumelanin and pheomelanin and found that gene mutations affecting the distribution, amounts and proportions of pigments accounted for the greater variation of coloration in domesticated birds than in their wild relations. Eumelanin generally causes grey or black coloration, while pheomelanin results in a reddish-brown colour. Other shades of brown may be produced through different combinations and concentrations of the two colours.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Haase|first1=E|last2=Ito|first2=S|last3=Sell|first3=A|last4=Wakamatsu|first4=K|date=1992|title=Melanin Concentrations in Feathers from Wild and Domestic Pigeons|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279259559|journal=Journal of Heredity|volume=83|pages=64–67|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111160}}</ref> As in other animals, white pigeons have little to no pigment.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}} Darker birds may be better able to store trace metals in their feathers due to their higher concentrations of melanin, which may help mitigate the negative effects of the metals, the concentrations of which are typically higher in urban areas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chatelain|first1=Marion|last2=Gasparini|first2=Julien|last3=Frantz|first3=A|date=2015|title=Do trace metals select for darker birds in urban areas? An experimental exposure to lead and zinc.|url=https://hal.sorbonne-universite.fr/hal-01311602/document|journal=Global Change Biology |volume=22|issue=7|pages=2380–91|doi=10.1111/gcb.13170|pmid=27282322|s2cid=27962528 }}</ref> Pigeons, especially [[homing pigeon|homing]] or [[carrier pigeon|carrier]] breeds, are well known for their ability to find their way home from long distances. Despite these demonstrated abilities, wild rock doves are sedentary and rarely leave their local areas. It is hypothesized that in their natural, arid habitat, they rely on this sense to navigate back home after foraging as deserts rarely possess navigational landmarks that may be used.<ref name = "Cornell">{{cite web | title =Rock Pigeon | publisher =Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology | url =http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Rock_Pigeon_dtl.html|work=All About Birds| access-date =2008-02-19 }}</ref>

A rock pigeon's lifespan ranges from 3–5 years in the wild to 15 years in captivity, though longer-lived specimens have been reported.<ref name = "BBC">{{cite web| title =Columba livia (domest.) | publisher =BBC Science & Nature | url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/3030.shtml | access-date =2008-02-19 }}</ref> The main causes of mortality in the wild are predators and persecution by humans.{{citation needed|date= June 2013}} Some sources state the species was first introduced to [[North America]] in 1606 at [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]], [[Nova Scotia]].<ref name="White"/> Although other sources cite [[Plymouth, Massachusetts|Plymouth]] and [[Jamestown, Virginia|Jamestown]] settlements in the early 17th century as the first place for species introduction in North America.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rock Dove Facts - NatureMapping|url=http://naturemappingfoundation.org/natmap/facts/rock_dove_712.html|access-date=2021-06-30|website=naturemappingfoundation.org}}</ref>
[[File:Rock pigeon in Chandigarh.jpg|thumb|In [[Chandigarh]], [[India]], showing that the iridescence wraps around the whole neck]]

=== Vocalizations ===
The call is a soft, slightly wavering, coo. Ornithologist [[David Allen Sibley|David Sibley]] describes the display call as a ''whoo, hoo-witoo-hoo'',<ref name="Sibley-2014">{{Cite book|last=Sibley, D.|title=The Sibley Guide to Birds|publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]]|year=2014|isbn=978-0-307-95790-0|edition=2nd|location=New York|page=201|oclc=869807502|author-link=David Allen Sibley}}</ref> whereas the [[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]] describes it as a ''Coo, roo-c'too-coo''. Variations include an alarm call, a nest call, and noises made by juveniles.<ref name="Lowther-2020">{{Cite journal|last1=Lowther|first1=Peter E.|last2=Johnston|first2=Richard F.|editor1-first=Shawn M|editor1-last=Billerman|date=March 2020|title=Rock Pigeon (Columba livia)|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/rocpig/cur/introduction|journal=Birds of the World|language=en|publisher=[[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]]|doi=10.2173/bow.rocpig.01|s2cid=216428981|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Sibley describes the nest call as a repeated ''hu-hu-hurrr''.<ref name="Sibley-2014" /> When displaying, songs are partly sexual, partly threatening. They are accompanied by an inflated throat, tail fanning, strutting, and bowing. The alarm call, given at sight of predators, is a grunt-like ''oorhh''.<ref name="Lowther-2020" />

Non-vocal sounds include a loud flapping noise at take-off, feet stomping, hisses, and beak snapping. Wings may also be clapped during flights, usually during display fights or after copulation. Juveniles particularly snap their bills, usually to respond to nest invasion. The foot stomping appears deliberate, though for what purpose is unclear. Foot stomping is done with a certain foot first, showing that rock doves have "footedness", similar to human [[handedness]].<ref name="Lowther-2020" />

=== Osmoregulation ===
{{main article|Osmoregulation in rock doves}}

== Distribution and habitat ==
[[File:Rock pigeons on cliffs.jpg|thumb|[[Feral pigeon|Ferals]], [[Norfolk]]|alt=[[Feral pigeon|Ferals]] perching on sea cliffs, [[Norfolk]], England]]

Before the [[Columbian Exchange]], rock doves were restricted to a natural resident range in western and southern [[Europe]], [[North Africa]], and extending into [[South Asia]]. They were carried into the [[New World]] aboard European ships between 1603 and 1607.<ref name="Lowther-2020" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schorger|first=A. W.|date=October 1952|title=Introduction of the Domestic Pigeon|journal=The Auk|volume=69|issue=4|pages=462–463|doi=10.2307/4081033|jstor=4081033|issn=0004-8038|doi-access=free}}</ref> The species (including ferals) has a large range, with an estimated global extent of occurrence of {{Convert|10000000|km2|abbr= on}}. It has a large global population, including an estimated 17 to 28 million individuals in Europe.<ref name=IUCN/> [[Fossil]] evidence suggests the rock dove originated in southern Asia, and skeletal remains, unearthed in [[Israel]], confirm its existence there for at least 300,000 years.<ref name="Blechman"/> However, this species has such a long history with humans that it is impossible to identify its original range exactly.<ref name="Cornell"/>

Wild pigeons reside in rock formations and cliff faces, settling in crevices to nest. They nest communally, often forming large colonies of many hundreds of individuals.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kaufman|first=Kenn|date=November 2014|title=Guide to North American Birds: Rock Pigeon|url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/rock-pigeon|access-date=2021-10-16|website=Audubon|publisher=[[National Audubon society]]|language=en}}</ref> Wild nesting sites include caves, canyons, and sea cliffs. They will even live in the [[Sahara]] so long as an area has rocks, water, and some plant matter. They prefer to avoid dense vegetation.<ref name="Lowther-2020" />

Rock doves have a [[Commensalism|commensal]] relationship with humans, gaining both ample access to food and nesting spots in civilized areas. Human structures provide an excellent imitation of cliff structures, making rock doves very common around human habitation. Skyscrapers, highway overpasses, farm buildings, abandoned buildings, and other human structures with ample crevices are conducive to rock dove nesting. Thus the modern range of the rock dove is due in large part to humans.<ref name="Lowther-2020" /> Agricultural settlements are favoured over forested ones.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hetmański|first1=Tomasz|last2=Bocheński|first2=Marcin|last3=Tryjanowski|first3=Piotr|last4=Skórka|first4=Piotr|date=2011-06-01|title=The effect of habitat and number of inhabitants on the population sizes of feral pigeons around towns in northern Poland|journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research|language=en|volume=57|issue=3|pages=421–428|doi=10.1007/s10344-010-0448-z|s2cid=20351031|issn=1439-0574|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ideal human nesting attributes combine areas with tall buildings, green spaces, ample access to human food, and schools. Conversely, suburban areas which are far from city centers and have high street density are the least conducive to pigeons.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Przybylska|first1=Katarzyna|last2=Haidt|first2=Andżelika|last3=Myczko|first3=Łukasz|last4=Ekner-Grzyb|first4=Anna|last5=Rosin|first5=Zuzanna M.|last6=Kwieciński|first6=Zbigniew|last7=Tryjanowski|first7=Piotr|last8=Suchodolska|first8=Joanna|last9=Takacs|first9=Viktoria|last10=Jankowiak|first10=Łukasz|last11=Tobółka|first11=Marcin|date=2012-06-30|title=Local and landscape-level factors affecting the density and distribution of the Feral Pigeon Columba livia var. domestica in an urban environment|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/miiz/actao/2012/00000047/00000001/art00004|journal=Acta Ornithologica|volume=47|issue=1|pages=37–45|doi=10.3161/000164512X653908|s2cid=56390450}}</ref> Their versatility among human structures is evidenced by a population living inside a deep well in Tunisia.<ref name="Lowther-2020" />

Feral pigeons are usually unable to find these accommodations, so they must nest on building ledges, walls or statues. They may damage these structures via their faeces; starving birds can only excrete urates, which over time corrodes masonry and metal. In contrast, a well-fed bird passes mostly solid faeces, containing only small amounts of uric acid.{{Citation needed|date=October 2021}}

== Behaviour and ecology ==
Pigeons are often found in pairs in the breeding season, but are usually gregarious.<ref name="Gibbs" />

=== Breeding ===
[[File:Young pigeon 1.jpg|thumb|Two squabs, a few days old]]
[[File:Pigeon incubating egg 1.jpg|alt=A pigeon incubating its eggs|thumb|Incubating an egg, showing their relatively flimsy nests]]
[[File:Pigeondance.ogv|thumb|Courtship display]]
The rock dove breeds at any time of the year, but peak times are spring and summer. Nesting sites are along coastal cliff faces, as well as the artificial cliff faces created by apartment buildings with accessible ledges or roof spaces.<ref>{{cite web|title=Columba livia |publisher=Australian Museum Online |url=http://www.amonline.net.au/factSheets/rock_dove.htm |access-date=2008-02-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080213123913/http://www.amonline.net.au/factSheets/rock_dove.htm |archive-date=February 13, 2008 }}</ref> Pigeons can compete with native birds for nest sites.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Forero|first1=M.G.|last2=Tella|first2=J.L.|last3=Donázar|first3=J.A.|last4=Hiraldo|first4=F.|date=1996-12-01|title=Can interspecific competition and nest site availability explain the decrease of lesser kestrel Falco naumanni populations?|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006320796000110|journal=Biological Conservation|language=en|volume=78|issue=3|pages=289–293|doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00011-0|bibcode=1996BCons..78..289F |issn=0006-3207|hdl-access=free|hdl=10261/57592}}</ref> For some avian species, such as seabirds, it could be a conservation issue.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rodríguez|first1=Beneharo|last2=Rodríguez|first2=Airam|last3=Siverio|first3=Felipe|last4=Martínez|first4=Juan Manuel|last5=Sacramento|first5=Enrique|last6=Acosta|first6=Yarci|date= |title=Feral pigeons as a nest competitor for a small seabird|doi=10.1007/s10530-022-02746-1|journal = Biological Invasions|s2cid=247095691 |doi-access=free|hdl=10486/703009|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Current evidence suggests that wild, domestic and feral pigeons mate for life, although their long-term bonds are not unbreakable.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Marchesan|first1=M.|year=2002|title=Operational sex ratio and breeding strategies in the Feral Pigeon Columba livia.|url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=13995403|journal=Ardea|volume=90|issue=2|pages=249–57}}</ref> They are socially monogamous, but extra-pair matings do occur, often initiated by males.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lovell-Mansbridge|first1=C.|last2=Birkhead|first2=T.R.|year=1998|title=Do female pigeons trade pair copulations for protection?|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=56|issue=1|pages=249–57|doi=10.1006/anbe.1998.0774|pmid=9710482|s2cid=901466}}</ref> Due to their ability to produce [[crop milk]], pigeons can breed at any time of year. Pigeons breed when the food supply is abundant enough to support embryonic egg development, which in cities, can be any time of the year. Laying of eggs can take place up to six times per year.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

Pigeons are often found in pairs during the breeding season, but usually the pigeons are [[gregarious]], living in flocks of 50 to 500 birds (dependent on the food supply).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gibbs|first1=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aeZXAAAACAAJ&q=Pigeons+and+Doves:+A+Guide+to+the+Pigeons+and+Doves+of+the+World|title=Pigeons and Doves: A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World|last2=Barnes|first2=Eustace|last3=Cox|first3=John|publisher=Pica Press|year=2001|isbn=978-1-873403-60-0|location=United Kingdom|page=624}}</ref>

[[Courtship display|Courtship]] rituals can be observed in urban parks at any time of the year. The male on the ground or rooftops puffs up the feathers on his neck to appear larger and thereby impress or attract attention. He approaches the female at a rapid walking pace while emitting repetitive quiet notes, often bowing and turning as he comes closer.<ref name="Riddle-1971">{{Cite journal|last=Riddle|first=Gordon|date=Summer 1971|title=The breeding season in a rural colony of Feral Pigeons|url=https://www.the-soc.org.uk/files/docs/about-us/publications/scottish-birds/sb-vol06-no06.pdf#page=37|journal=The Journal of the Scottish Ornithologist's Club|volume=6|page=323}}</ref> At first, the female invariably walks or flies a short distance away and the male follows her until she stops. At this point, he continues the bowing motion and very often makes full- or half-[[pirouette]]s in front of the female.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Whitman|first=C. O.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tt1RAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR3|title=Posthumous Works: The behaviour of pigeons, ed. by Harvey A. Carr|publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington|year=1919|location=Washington|page=10}}</ref> The male then proceeds to feed the female by regurgitating food, as they do when feeding the young.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019}} The male then mounts the female, rearing backwards to be able to join their [[cloaca]]e. The mating is very brief, with the male flapping his wings to maintain balance on top of the female.<ref name="Riddle-1971" />

The nest is a flimsy platform of straw and sticks, laid on a ledge, under cover, often on the window ledges of buildings.<ref name="Cornell"/> Two white eggs are laid; incubation, shared by both parents, lasts 17 to 19 days.<ref name="Levi"/> The newly hatched squab (nestling) has pale yellow down and a flesh-coloured bill with a dark band. For the first few days, the baby squabs are tended and fed (through regurgitation) exclusively on "[[crop milk]]" (also called "pigeon milk" or "pigeon's milk"). The pigeon milk is produced in the crops of both parents in all species of pigeon and dove. Pigeons are [[altricial]] and their [[Fledge|fledging]] period is about 30 days.<ref name="Jahan"/>

=== Feeding ===
[[File:A pet pigeon eating rice grains.jpg|thumb|150px|A rock dove eating grains]]
Rock doves are omnivorous, but prefer plant matter: chiefly fruits and grains.<ref name=":BOTW">{{Cite journal|last1=Lowther|first1=P.|last2=Johnston|first2=R.|date=2020|editor-last=Billerman|editor-first=S.|title=Rock pigeon (Columba livia), version 1.0|url=https://birdsoftheworld.org/bow/species/rocpig/cur/introduction|publisher=[[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]]|doi=10.2173/bow.rocpig.01|url-access=subscription|access-date=August 6, 2020|journal=Birds of the World|s2cid=216428981}}</ref>

Studies of pigeons in a semi-rural part of [[Kansas]] found that their diet includes the following: 92% [[maize]], 3.2% [[oat]]s, 3.7% [[cherry]], along with small amounts of [[knotweed]], [[elm]], [[poison ivy]] and [[barley]].<ref name="animaldiversity1">{{cite web|last=Roof |first=Jennifer |url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Columba_livia/ |title=ADW: Columba livia: INFORMATION |publisher=Animaldiversity.org |date=2001-05-08 |accessdate=2022-08-05}}</ref> Feral pigeons can be seen eating grass [[seed]]s and [[berries]] in parks and gardens in the spring, but plentiful sources exist throughout the year from scavenging (e.g., food remnants left inside of dropped fast food cartons, in the form of [[popcorn]], [[cake]], [[peanut]]s, [[bread]] and [[Zante currant|currant]]s)<ref name="animaldiversity1"/> and they also eat [[insect]]s and [[spider]]s. Additional food is also usually available from waste bins, tourists or residents who feed bird seed to pigeons for reasons such as empathy, fun, tradition and as a means for social interaction.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haag-Wackernagel|first=D.|date=1997|title=Die soziokulturellen Ursachen des Taubenproblems|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/14061594|journal=Deutsche Tierärztliche|volume=104|pages=52–57}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cabalceta|first1=A.|last2=Barrientos|first2=Z.|date=2019|title=Tradición: una nueva razón para alimentar las palomas urbanas (Columba livia; Columbiformes: Columbidae), y cómo controlarlas de manera sostenible.|journal=UNED Research Journal|volume=11|issue=3|doi=10.22458/urj.v11i3.2216|doi-access=free}}</ref> Pigeons tend to congregate in large, often thick flocks when feeding on discarded food, and may be observed flying skillfully around trees, buildings, telephone poles and cables and even through moving traffic just to reach a food source.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

Pigeons feed on the ground in flocks or individually. Pigeons are naturally granivorous, eating seeds that fit down their gullet. They may sometimes consume small invertebrates such as worms or insect larvae as a protein supplement. As they do not possess an enlarged cecum as in European wood pigeons, they cannot digest adult plant tissue; the various seeds they eat contain the appropriate nutrients they require.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Murton|first1=R.K.|last2=Westwood|first2=N.J.|year=1966|title=The foods of the Rock Dove and Feral Pigeon|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00063656609476116\?|journal=Bird Study|volume=13|issue=2|pages=130–146|doi=10.1080/00063656609476116|bibcode=1966BirdS..13..130M }}</ref><ref name="audubon.org">{{cite web|date=13 November 2014|title=Rock Pigeon|url=https://www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/rock-pigeon}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v107n01/p0093-p0121.pdf|journal=Wilson Bull.|volume=107(l)|date=1995|pages=93–121|title=THE AVIAN CECUM: A REVIEW|author1=MARY H. CLENCH|author2=JOHN R. MATHIAS|access-date=13 March 2022}}</ref> While most birds take small sips and tilt their heads backwards when drinking, pigeons are able to dip their bills into the water and drink continuously, without having to tilt their heads back. In cities they typically resort to scavenging human garbage, as unprocessed grain may be impossible to find. Pigeon groups typically consist of producers, which locate and obtain food, and scroungers, which feed on food obtained by the producers. Generally, groups of pigeons contain a greater proportion of scroungers than producers.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Dugatkin|first1=Lee Alan|title=Principles of Animal Behavior|date=2014|publisher=W. W. Norton Company|isbn=9780393920451|edition=3rd|location=New York|pages=373–376}}</ref>

=== Preening ===
Pigeons primarily use [[Down feather#Powder down|powder down feathers]] for preening, which gives a soft and silky feel to their plumage. They have no preen gland or at times have very rudimentary preen glands, so oil is not used for preening. Rather, powder down feathers are spread across the body. These have a tendency to disintegrate, and the powder, akin to talcum powder, helps maintain the plumage.<ref name="Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia">{{cite web|title=Columbiformes (Pigeons, Doves, and Dodos)|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/columbiformes-pigeons-doves-and-dodos|access-date=26 April 2017|website=Encyclopedia.com|publisher=Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia COPYRIGHT 2004 The Gale Group Inc.}}</ref> Some varieties of domestic pigeon have modified feathers called "fat quills". These feathers contain yellow, oil-like fat that derives from the same cells as powder down. This is used while preening and helps reduce bacterial degradation of feathers by feather bacilli.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Peters|first1=Anne|last2=Klonczinski|first2=Eva|last3=Delhey|first3=Kaspar|title=Fat quill secretion in pigeons: Could it function as a cosmetic?|journal= Animal Biology|volume=60|pages=69–78|date=March 2010|doi=10.1163/157075610X12610595764219|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233572565}}</ref>

=== Survival ===

==== Predators ====
With only their flying abilities protecting them from predation, rock pigeons are a favourite almost around the world for a wide range of [[Birds of Prey|raptors]]. In fact, with feral pigeons existing in almost every city in the world, they may form the majority of prey for several raptor species that live in urban areas. [[Peregrine falcon]]s and [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]]s are natural predators of pigeons and quite adept at catching and feeding upon this species. Up to 80% of the diet of peregrine falcons in several cities that have breeding falcons is composed of feral pigeons.<ref>{{cite web|author=White, Clayton M.|author2=Nancy J. Clum|author3=Tom J. Cade|author4=W. Grainger Hunt|name-list-style=amp|title=Peregrine Falcon|url=http://bna.birds.cornell.edu/bna/species/660/articles/foodhabits|access-date=2011-08-30|work=Birds of North America Online}}</ref> Some common predators of feral pigeons in North America are [[raccoon]]s, [[opossum]]s, [[red-tailed hawk]]s, [[great horned owl]]s, [[eastern screech owl]]s, and [[accipiter]]s. The birds that prey on pigeons in North America can range in size from [[American kestrel]]s to [[golden eagle]]s<ref name="Roof">{{cite web|last=Roof|first=Jennifer|year=2001|title=Columba livia common pigeon|url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Columba_livia.html|access-date=2008-02-20|publisher=Animal Diversity Web University of Michigan}}</ref> and may even include [[crow]]s, [[gull]]s and [[raven]]s.{{Citation needed|date=August 2019}} On the ground the adults, their young and their eggs are at risk from feral and domestic [[cat]]s.<ref name="Levi" /> Doves and pigeons are considered to be [[Game (food)|game birds]], since many species are hunted and used for food in many of the countries in which they are native.<ref>{{cite web|last=Butler|first=Krissy Anne|title=Keeping & Breeding Doves & Pigeons|url=http://www.gamebird.com/dove.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228062340/http://www.gamebird.com/dove.html|archive-date=2008-02-28|access-date=2008-02-23|publisher=Game Bird Gazette Magazine}}</ref>

The body feathers have dense, fluffy bases and are loosely attached to the skin, hence they drop out easily. When a predator catches a pigeon large numbers of feathers come out in the attacker's mouth and the pigeon may use this temporary distraction to make an escape.<ref name="Grzimek's Animal Life Encyclopedia" /> It also tends to drop the tail feathers when preyed upon or under traumatic conditions, probably as a distraction mechanism.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Naish|first1=Darren|title=The detachable tails of pigeons|url=http://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/09/18/detachable-tails-of-pigeons/|access-date=18 September 2008|website=Scienceblogs.com|publisher=2006-2017 ScienceBlogs LLC}}</ref>

==== Parasites ====
{| class="wikitable" style="margin: auto 2em auto 2em; float: right; width: 200px"
|- valign="top"
|style="border-bottom-style: hidden"| [[File:Tinaminyssus melloi female.jpg|100px]]
|style="border-bottom-style: hidden"| [[File:Fly June 2008-2.jpg|100px]]
|-
| ''[[Tinaminyssus]] melloi'', a nasal mite.
| Pigeon louse fly (''[[Pseudolynchia canariensis]]''), a blood-sucking [[ectoparasite]].
|}
Pigeons may harbour a diverse parasite fauna.<ref>{{cite journal|author= Rózsa L | title=The ectoparasite fauna of feral pigeon populations in Hungary| journal= Parasitologia Hungarica| year=1990| volume=23|pages= 115–119| url=http://www.zoologia.hu/list/pigeon.pdf}}</ref>
They often host the [[Parasitic worm|intestinal helminths]] ''Capillaria columbae'' and ''Ascaridia columbae''. Their ectoparasites include the [[ischnocera]]n lice ''[[Columbicola columbae]]'', ''Campanulotes bidentatus compar'', the [[amblycera]]n lice ''Bonomiella columbae'', ''Hohorstiella lata'', ''Colpocephalum turbinatum'', the [[mites]] ''Tinaminyssus melloi'', ''Dermanyssus gallinae'', ''Dermoglyphus columbae'', ''Falculifer rostratus'' and ''Diplaegidia columbae''. The [[Hippoboscidae|hippoboscid]] fly ''[[Pseudolynchia canariensis]]'' is a typical blood-sucking ectoparasite of pigeons in tropical and subtropical regions.

== Relationship to humans ==

=== Domestication ===
[[File:Pigeon Revivim 2.jpg|thumb|right|Domestic pigeons]]
{{main|Domestic pigeon}}
Rock doves have been domesticated for several thousand years, giving rise to the [[domestic pigeon]] (''Columba livia domestica'').<ref name="Levi"/> They may have been domesticated as long as 5,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Johnston|first=Richard F.|date=1992-07-01|title=Evolution in the Rock Dove: Skeletal Morphology|url=https://academic.oup.com/auk/article/109/3/530/5172583|journal=The Auk|language=en|volume=109|issue=3|pages=530–542|doi=10.1093/auk/109.3.530|doi-broken-date=31 January 2024|issn=0004-8038}}</ref> Numerous [[breed]]s of [[fancy pigeon]]s of all sizes, colours, and types have been bred.<ref>{{cite book |last=McClary |first=Douglas |title= Pigeons for Everyone|year= 1999|publisher= Winckley Press|location= Great Britain|isbn=0-907769-28-4 }}</ref> Domesticated pigeons are used as [[homing pigeons]] as well as food and pets. They were in the past also used as [[carrier pigeons]].

==== War pigeons ====
{{main|War pigeon}}
So-called [[war pigeons]] have played significant roles during wartime, and many [[War pigeon#Decorated war pigeons|
pigeons have received awards]] and medals for their services in saving hundreds of human lives.

====Medical uses====
Pigeons have notably been "employed" as medical imaging data sorters. They have been successfully trained under research conditions to examine data on a screen for the purposes of detecting breast cancer. They appear to use their innate visual navigation skills to do so.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141357|title=Pigeons (Columba livia) as Trainable Observers of Pathology and Radiology Breast Cancer Images|year=2015|last1=Levenson|first1=Richard M.|last2=Krupinski|first2=Elizabeth A.|last3=Navarro|first3=Victor M.|last4=Wasserman|first4=Edward A.|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=10|issue=11|pages=e0141357|pmid=26581091|pmc=4651348|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1041357L|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Feral pigeon ====
{{main|Feral pigeon}}
[[File:Feralpigeon.jpg|thumb|right|A feral in [[Nanjing]], China]]
Many domestic birds have got lost, escaped or been released over the years and have given rise to feral pigeons. These show a variety of plumages, although many have the blue-barred pattern as does the pure rock dove. Feral pigeons are found in cities and towns all over the world.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why study pigeons? To understand why there are so many colors of feral pigeons |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/programs/urbanbirds/about/ubs_PIWWhyStudyEN.html |access-date=2008-02-20 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612135033/http://www.birds.cornell.edu/programs/urbanbirds/about/ubs_PIWWhyStudyEN.html |archive-date=June 12, 2008 }}</ref> The scarcity of the pure wild species is partly due to interbreeding with feral birds.<ref name="Wright"/>

=== Human health ===
Contact with pigeon droppings poses a minor risk of contracting [[histoplasmosis]], [[cryptococcosis]] and [[psittacosis]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Facts about pigeon-related diseases|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/epi/epi-pigeon.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304203356/http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/epi/epi-pigeon.shtml|archive-date=March 4, 2009|access-date=2009-03-05|publisher=The New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene}}</ref> and long-term exposure to both droppings and feathers can induce an allergy known as [[bird fancier's lung]].
Pigeons are not a major concern in the spread of [[West Nile virus]]: though they can contract it, they apparently do not [[Vector (epidemiology)|transmit]] it.<ref>{{cite web|last=Chalmers|first=Dr Gordon A|title=West Nile Virus and Pigeons|url=http://www.geocities.com/panoramalofts/gchf08.html|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://archive.today/20091026041101/http://www.geocities.com/panoramalofts/gchf08.html|archive-date=October 26, 2009|access-date=2008-02-18|publisher=Panorama lofts}}</ref>

Some contagions are transmitted by pigeons; for example, the bacteria ''[[Chlamydophila psittaci]]'' is endemic among pigeons<ref name="Chlamydia">{{Cite journal|last1=Geigenfeind|first1=Ila|last2=Vanrompay|first2=Daisy|last3=Haag-Wackernagel|first3=Daniel|date=February 2012|title=Prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci in the feral pigeon population of Basel, Switzerland|journal=[[Journal of Medical Microbiology]]|volume=61|issue=Pt 2|pages=261–265|doi=10.1099/jmm.0.034025-0|pmid=21921110|doi-access=free}}</ref> and causes [[psittacosis]] in humans. It is generally transmitted from handling pigeons or their droppings (more commonly the latter). Psittacosis is a serious disease but rarely fatal (less than 1%). Pigeons are also important vectors for various species of the bacteria ''[[Salmonella]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gargiulo|first1=Antonio|author-link1=Antonio Gargiulo|last2=Russo|first2=Tamara Pasqualina|last3=Schettini|first3=Rita|last4=Mallardo|first4=Karina|last5=Calabria|first5=Mariarosaria|last6=Menna|first6=Lucia Francesca|last7=Raia|first7=Pasquale|last8=Pagnini|first8=Ugo|last9=Caputo|first9=Vincenzo|last10=Fioretti|first10=Alessandro|last11=Dipineto|first11=Ludovico|display-authors=4|date=April 2014|title=Occurrence of enteropathogenic bacteria in urban pigeons (Columba livia) in Italy|journal=Vector Borne and Zoonotic Diseases|volume=14|issue=4|pages=251–255|doi=10.1089/vbz.2011.0943|pmid=24661012|place=Larchmont, New York}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Osman|first1=Kamelia M.|last2=Mehrez|first2=Mona|last3=Erfan|first3=Ahmed M.|last4=Al Atfeehy|first4=Nayerah|date=May 2013|title=Salmonella enterica isolated from pigeon (Columba livia) in Egypt|journal=Foodborne Pathogens and Disease|volume=10|issue=5|pages=481–483|doi=10.1089/fpd.2012.1347|pmid=23531124}}</ref> which causes diseases such as [[salmonellosis]] and [[paratyphoid]] fever.

Pigeons are also known to host avian mites, which can infest human habitation and bite humans, a condition known as [[gamasoidosis]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Regan|first=Anne Marie|date=1 December 1987|title=Nosocomial Dermatitis and Pruritus Caused by Pigeon Mite Infestation|journal=Archives of Internal Medicine|language=en|volume=147|issue=12|pages=2185–7|doi=10.1001/archinte.1987.00370120121021|issn=0003-9926|pmid=3689070}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pezzi|first1=Marco|last2=Leis|first2=Marilena|last3=Chicca|first3=Milvia|last4=Roy|first4=Lise|date=1 October 2017|title=Gamasoidosis caused by the special lineage L1 of Dermanyssus gallinae (Acarina: Dermanyssidae): A case of heavy infestation in a public place in Italy|journal=Parasitology International|language=en|volume=66|issue=5|pages=666–670|doi=10.1016/j.parint.2017.05.001|issn=1383-5769|pmid=28483708}}</ref> However, infesting mammals is relatively rare.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=George|first1=David R|last2=Finn|first2=Robert D|last3=Graham|first3=Kirsty M|last4=Mul|first4=Monique F|last5=Maurer|first5=Veronika|last6=Moro|first6=Claire Valiente|last7=Sparagano|first7=Olivier AE|date=25 March 2015|title=Should the poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae be of wider concern for veterinary and medical science?|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/81903437.pdf|journal=Parasites & Vectors|volume=8|page=178|doi=10.1186/s13071-015-0768-7|pmc=4377040|pmid=25884317|access-date=10 February 2021|number=178 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Avian influenza ===
Pigeons may, however, carry and spread [[avian influenza]]. One study has shown that adult pigeons are not clinically susceptible to the most dangerous strain of avian influenza, [[H5N1]], and that they do not transmit the virus to poultry.<ref name="pmid17994324">{{cite journal|vauthors=Liu Y, Zhou J, Yang H, etal|year=2007|title=Susceptibility and transmissibility of pigeons to Asian lineage highly pathogenic avian influenza virus subtype H5N1|journal=Avian Pathol.|volume=36|issue=6|pages=461–5|doi=10.1080/03079450701639335|pmid=17994324|s2cid=13181639}}</ref> Other studies have presented evidence of clinical signs and neurological lesions resulting from infection but found that the pigeons did not transmit the disease to poultry reared in direct contact with them.<ref name="pmid16846988">{{cite journal|vauthors=Klopfleisch R, Werner O, Mundt E, Harder T, Teifke JP|year=2006|title=Neurotropism of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/chicken/Indonesia/2003 (H5N1) in experimentally infected pigeons (Columbia livia f. domestica)|journal=Vet. Pathol.|volume=43|issue=4|pages=463–70|doi=10.1354/vp.43-4-463|pmid=16846988|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="pmid17947534">{{cite journal|vauthors=Werner O, Starick E, Teifke J, etal|year=2007|title=Minute excretion of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus A/chicken/Indonesia/2003 (H5N1) from experimentally infected domestic pigeons (Columbia livia) and lack of transmission to sentinel chickens|journal=J. Gen. Virol.|volume=88|issue=Pt 11|pages=3089–93|doi=10.1099/vir.0.83105-0|pmid=17947534|doi-access=free}}</ref> Pigeons were found to be "resistant or minimally susceptible" to other strains of avian influenza, such as the [[H7N7]].<ref name="pmid8883790">{{cite journal|vauthors=Panigrahy B, Senne DA, Pedersen JC, Shafer AL, Pearson JE|year=1996|title=Susceptibility of pigeons to avian influenza|journal=Avian Dis.|volume=40|issue=3|pages=600–4|doi=10.2307/1592270|jstor=1592270|pmid=8883790}}</ref>

Research into whether pigeons play a part in spreading [[Avian influenza|bird flu]] have shown pigeons do not carry the deadly [[H5N1]] strain.<ref name="NYCHealth">{{cite web|title=Facts about pigeon-related diseases|url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/epi/epi-pigeon.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113103719/http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/epi/epi-pigeon.shtml|archive-date=13 January 2008|access-date=4 January 2008|publisher=The New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene|format=Web article}}</ref> Three studies have been done since the late 1990s by the US Agriculture Department's Southeast Poultry Research Laboratory in Athens, Georgia, according to the center's director, David Swayne. The lab has been working on bird flu since the 1970s. In one experiment, researchers squirted into pigeons' mouths liquid drops that contained the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus from a Hong Kong sample. The birds received 100 to 1,000 times the concentration that wild birds would encounter in nature. "We couldn't infect the pigeons", Swayne said. "So that's good news."<ref>{{cite web|last=Turner|first=Brad|title=Avian flu virus H5N1 and pigeons: the facts.|url=http://www.purebredpigeon.com/avianflu.htm|access-date=4 January 2008|work=Purebred Pigeon}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Panigrahy|first1=B.|last2=Senne|first2=D.A.|last3=Pedersen|first3=J.C.|last4=Shafer|first4=A.L.|last5=Pearson|first5=J.E.|year=1996|title=Susceptibility of pigeons to avian influenza|journal=Avian Dis.|volume=40|issue=3|pages=600–04|doi=10.2307/1592270|jstor=1592270|pmid=8883790}}</ref>

== Stages of lifecycle ==
<gallery mode="packed" widths="200px">
Columba livia MHNT.ZOO.2010.11.73.7.jpg|alt=Two eggs in the collection of the Muséum de Toulouse|[[MHNT]]
File:Rock dove egg.jpeg|alt=Egg, measured in centimetres
File:Columba livia nest 2 eggs.jpg|alt=Nest with two eggs
File:Columba livia 1 day old.jpg|Nestlings, one day
File:Stadttaube kueken.jpeg|Nestling, five days
File:Feral Rock Dove nest with chicks.jpg|Nestlings, about 10 days
File:Rock dove 18 days old in its nest and one egg.jpg|18 days old|alt=18 days old in its nest and one egg
File:Columba livia 22 days old.jpg|Young bird, 22 days
File:Pigeons courting (71062).jpg|Feral pigeons in courtship
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist|33em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Columba livia}}
{{Wikispecies|Columba livia}}
* {{InternetBirdCollection|rock-dove-columba-livia|Rock Dove}}
* {{VIREO|Rock+Pigeon|Rock Pigeon}}
* Rock dove - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/348.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
*[https://www.malibusurfsidenews.com/f/news/california-wildlife-center-cautions-about-backyard-invaders California Wildlife Center cautions about backyard invaders]
*[https://jeb.biologists.org/content/49/3/527.short Power Requirements for Horizontal Flight in the Pigeon ''Columba livia'' -C. J. PENNYCUICK]

{{Pigeons}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q42326}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Columba (genus)|rock dove]]
[[Category:Domesticated birds]]
[[Category:Cosmopolitan birds]]
[[Category:Birds of Eurasia]]
[[Category:Birds of North Africa]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1789|rock dove]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Johann Friedrich Gmelin|rock dove]]

Xenotime

2024-06-13T18:45:46Z

JavaRogers: /* Etymology */Enclosed Greek-language terms in lang templates; transliterated these, enclosing the Greek-script terms in parentheses

{{Short description|Phosphate mineral}}
{{Infobox mineral
| name = Xenotime
| category = [[Phosphate minerals]]
| boxwidth =
| image = Xenotime with Rutile-08-2-78ab.jpg
| imagesize = 260px
| caption = Xenotime with [[rutile]]
| formula = YPO4
| IMAsymbol = Xtm<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warr|first=L.N.|date=2021|title=IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols|journal=Mineralogical Magazine|volume=85|issue=3|pages=291–320|doi=10.1180/mgm.2021.43|bibcode=2021MinM...85..291W|s2cid=235729616|doi-access=free}}</ref>
| strunz = 8.AD.35
| color = Brown, brownish yellow, gray
| habit = Prismatic, radial aggregates, granular
| system = [[Tetragonal]]
| class = Dipyramidal (4/mmm) [[H-M symbol]]: (4/m)
| symmetry = ''I''41/a
| cleavage = Perfect [100]
| fracture = Uneven to splintery
| mohs = 4.5
| luster = Vitreous to resinous
| refractive = 1.720–1.815
| birefringence = δ = 0.096
| pleochroism = Dichroic
| streak = Pale brown, yellowish or reddish, to white
| gravity = 4.4–5.1
| melt =
| solubility =
| diaphaneity = Translucent to opaque
| other = Not radioactive or luminescent
| references = <ref name=Lost>{{cite book|ref=Fontani|last1=Fontani|first1=Marco| author-link= Marco Fontani|last2=Costa|first2=Mariagrazia|last3=Orna|first3=Virginia|title=The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|page=73|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck9jBAAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0199383-344}}</ref><ref name=Mindat>[http://www.mindat.org/min-4333.html Mindat database].</ref><ref name=Webmineral>[http://www.webmineral.com/data/Xenotime-%28Y%29.shtml Webmineral].</ref><ref name=Handbook>[http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/xenotimey.pdf Handbook of Mineralogy].</ref>
}}

'''Xenotime''' is a [[rare-earth]] [[phosphate mineral]], the major component of which is [[yttrium]] orthophosphate ([[yttrium|Y]][[phosphorus|P]][[oxygen|O]]4). It forms a solid solution series with [[chernovite-(Y)]] ([[yttrium|Y]][[arsenic|As]][[oxygen|O]]4) and therefore may contain trace [[impurities]] of [[arsenic]], as well as [[silicon dioxide]] and [[calcium]]. The [[rare-earth elements]] [[dysprosium]], [[erbium]], [[terbium]] and [[ytterbium]], as well as metal elements such as [[thorium]] and [[uranium]] (all replacing yttrium) are the expressive secondary components of xenotime. Due to uranium and thorium impurities, some xenotime specimens may be weakly to strongly [[radioactive]]. [[Lithiophyllite]], [[monazite]] and [[purpurite]] are sometimes grouped with xenotime in the informal "anhydrous phosphates" group. Xenotime is used chiefly as a source of yttrium and heavy [[lanthanide]] metals (dysprosium, ytterbium, erbium and gadolinium). Occasionally, [[gemstone]]s are also cut from the finest xenotime crystals.

== Etymology ==
The name ''xenotime'' is from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words {{Transl|grc|kenós}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|κενός}}) 'vain' and {{Transl|grc|timē}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|τιμή}}) 'honor', akin to 'vainglory'. It was coined by French mineralogist [[François Sulpice Beudant]] as a rebuke of another scientist, Swedish chemist [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]], for the latter's premature claim to have found in the mineral a new [[chemical element]] (later understood to be previously discovered yttrium). The criticism was blunted, as over time ''kenotime'' was misread and misprinted ''xenotime''<ref name=Lost/><ref name=Mindat/><ref name=Handbook/> with the error suggesting the etymology {{transl|grc|xénos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|ξένος}}) + {{transl|grc|timē}} ({{lang|grc|τιμή}}) as 'different honor'. Xenotime was first described for an occurrence in [[Vest-Agder]], [[Norway]] in 1824.<ref name=Mindat/>

== Properties ==
Crystallising in the [[tetragonal]] (I41/amd) [[crystal system]], xenotime is typically translucent to opaque (rarely transparent) in shades of brown to brownish yellow (most common) but also reddish to greenish brown and gray. Xenotime has a variable [[crystal habit|habit]]: It may be prismatic (stubby or slender and elongate) with dipyramidal terminations, in radial or granular aggregates, or rosettes. A soft mineral ([[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|Mohs hardness]] 4.5), xenotime is—in comparison to most other translucent minerals—fairly dense, with a [[specific gravity]] between 4.4–5.1. Its [[Lustre (mineralogy)|lustre]], which may be vitreous to resinous, together with its crystal system, may lead to a confusion with [[zircon]] (ZrSiO4), the latter having a similar crystal structure and with which xenotime may sometimes occur.

Xenotime has two directions of perfect prismatic [[Cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]] and its [[fracture]] is uneven to irregular (sometimes splintery). It is considered brittle and its [[Streak (mineralogy)|streak]] is white. The [[refractive index]] of xenotime is 1.720–1.815 with a [[birefringence]] of 0.095 (uniaxial positive). Xenotime is [[pleochroism|dichroic]] with pink, yellow or yellowish brown seen in the extraordinary ray and brownish yellow, grayish brown or greenish brown seen in the ordinary ray. There is no reaction under [[ultraviolet]] light. While xenotime may contain significant amounts of thorium or uranium, the mineral does not undergo [[metamictization]] like [[sphene]] or zircon would.

== Occurrence ==
Occurring as a minor accessory mineral, xenotime is found in [[pegmatite]]s and other [[igneous rock]]s, as well as [[gneiss]]es rich in [[mica]] and [[quartz]]. Associated minerals include [[biotite]] and other micas, [[chlorite group]] minerals, quartz, zircon, certain [[feldspar]]s, [[analcime]], [[anatase]], [[brookite]], [[rutile]], [[siderite]] and [[apatite]]. Xenotime is also known to be [[diagenesis|diagenetic]]: It may form as minute grains or as extremely thin (less than 10 [[micrometre|μ]]) coatings on detrital zircon grains in siliciclastic [[sedimentary rock]]s. The importance of these diagenetic xenotime deposits in the [[radiometric dating]] of sedimentary rocks is only beginning to be realised.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geoconferences.org/grant_reports/2002_GAC/vallini.html |title=Geoconferences (WA) Inc |access-date=January 8, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061214120750/http://www.geoconferences.org/grant_reports/2002_GAC/vallini.html |archive-date=December 14, 2006 }} Daniela Vallini</ref>

Discovered in 1824, xenotime's type locality is [[Hidra (island)|Hidra]] (Hitterø), [[Flekkefjord]], [[Vest-Agder]], [[Norway]]. Other notable localities include: [[Arendal]] and [[Tvedestrand]], Norway; [[Novo Horizonte, São Paulo]], [[Novo Horizonte, Bahia]] and [[Minas Gerais]], [[Brazil]]; [[Madagascar]] and [[California]], [[Colorado]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[North Carolina]] and [[New Hampshire]], [[United States]]. A new discovery of gemmy, colour change (brownish to yellow) xenotime has been reported from [[Afghanistan]] and been found in [[Pakistan]]. North of [[Mount Funabuse]] in [[Gifu Prefecture]], [[Japan]], a notable [[basalt]]ic [[rock (geology)|rock]] is quarried at a hill called Maru-Yama: crystals of xenotime and zircon arranged in a radiating, flower-like pattern are visible in polished slices of the rock, which is known as ''[[chrysanthemum]] stone'' (translated from the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] 菊石 ''kiku-ishi''). This stone is widely appreciated in Japan for its ornamental value.

Small tonnages of xenotime sand are recovered in association with Malaysian [[tin mining]], etc. and are processed commercially. The lanthanide content is typical of "yttrium earth" minerals and runs about two-thirds yttrium, with the remainder being mostly the heavy lanthanides, where the even-numbered lanthanides (such as Gd, Dy, Er, or Yb) each being present at about the 5% level, and the odd-numbered lanthanides (such as Tb, Ho, Tm, Lu) each being present at about the 1% level. Dysprosium is usually the most abundant of the even-numbered heavies, and holmium is the most abundant of the odd-numbered heavies. The lightest lanthanides are generally better represented in monazite while the heaviest lanthanides are in xenotime.

== See also ==
*[[List of minerals]]
*[[Rare-earth mineral]]
*[[Wakefieldite]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Webster, R. (2000). ''Gems: Their sources, descriptions and identification'' (5th ed.), p. 182. Butterworth-Heinemann, Great Britain. ISBN

==External links==
{{commonscat-inline|Xenotime}}

{{Phosphate minerals}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Yttrium minerals]]
[[Category:Phosphate minerals]]
[[Category:Tetragonal minerals]]
[[Category:Minerals in space group 88]]
[[Category:Gemstones]]

Second (disambiguation)

2024-03-04T21:58:43Z

JavaRogers: /* Mathematics */Removed redundant entry

{{redirect|2nd|policy about secondary source|WP:2ND}}
{{wiktionary|second|seconds|2nd}}

A '''[[second]]''' is the base unit of time in the International System of Units (SI).

'''Second''', '''Seconds''', '''The Second''', or ('''The''') '''2nd''' may also refer to:
{{TOC right}}

== Mathematics ==
* [[2 (number)]], as an ordinal (also written as ''2nd'' or ''2d'')
* [[Minute and second of arc|Second of arc]], an angular measurement unit, {{sfrac|1|{{val|3,600}}}} of a degree

== Music ==
=== Notes and intervals ===
* [[Augmented second]], an interval in classical music
* [[Diminished second]], unison
* [[Major second]], a whole tone
* [[Minor second]], semitone
* [[Neutral second]] one-and-a-half semitones

===Albums===
* ''[[The Second]]'', second studio album by rock band Steppenwolf
* [[The 2nd (album)]], a 2006 album by Hater
* [[Seconds (The Dogs D'Amour album)|''Seconds'' (The Dogs D'Amour album)]], released in 2000
* [[Seconds (Kate Rogers album)|''Seconds'' (Kate Rogers album)]], released in 2005
* [[Seconds (Tim Berne album)|''Seconds'' (Tim Berne album)]], released in 2007
===EPs===
* [[2nd (The Rasmus EP)|''2nd'' (The Rasmus EP)]], 1996
* [[Second (Baroness EP)|''Second'' (Baroness EP)]], 2005
* [[Second (Raye EP)|''Second'' (Raye EP)]], 2014
=== Songs ===

* "Second", a 2019 song by [[Erika Costell]]
* "Second", a 2020 song by [[Hope D]]
* "Second", a song from Sleaford Mods' 2020 compilation album ''[[All That Glue]]''
* [[Second (song)|"Second" (song)]], a 2021 song by Hyoyeon
* "Seconds", from The Human League's 1981 album ''[[Dare (album)|Dare]]''
* [[Seconds (song)|"Seconds" (song)]], from U2's 1983 album ''War''
* "Seconds", from Le Tigre's 2004 album [[This Island (Le Tigre album)|''This Island'']]

== Film and television==
* [[The 2nd (film)|''The 2nd'' (film)]], an American 2020 film starring Ryan Phillippe
* [[The Second (film)|''The Second'' (film)]], a 2018 Australian film directed by Mairi Cameron, winner of the [[AACTA Award for Best Indie Film#2018| 2018 AACTA Award for Best Indie Film]]
* [[Seconds (1966 film)|''Seconds'' (1966 film)]], a US thriller directed by John Frankenheimer
* [[Seconds (2014 film)|''Seconds'' (2014 film)]], an Indian Malayalam-language thriller film by Aneesh Upasana
* [[Seconds (The Batman)|"Seconds" (''The Batman'')]], an episode in the American animated TV series
* "Seconds", an episode of the American TV series [[Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman (season 3)#ep60|''Lois & Clark: The New Adventures of Superman'']]

==Publications==
* [[George Petros#Seconds|''Seconds'']], an interview magazine published from 1987–2000.
* [[Seconds (comics)|''Seconds'' (comics)]], a 2014 graphic novel by Bryan Lee O'Malley

== Science ==
* Second of [[right ascension]], in astronomy
* [[Specific Impulse]] (rocket engine)

== Sports, games, and dueling ==
* Second in a [[duel]], the agent of the participant
* Second, the [[cornerman]] in combative sports such as boxing
* [[Second (chess)]], assistant to a chess player
* [[Second (climbing)]], the climber who belays the lead climber in lead climbing
* [[Second (curling)]], delivers the second set of stones in curling
* [[Second dealing]], a way of cheating in card games

== Other uses==
* [[Albéric Second]], a French journalist and writer
* [[Factory second]], a new product sold for a discount because of minor imperfections
* [[Second (parliamentary procedure)]], to formally support a motion or resolution
* [[Second hand]] or used goods, items that have been used before being resold
* [[Second-class degree]], a class of academic degree in countries based on the British system of education
* [[Second-in-command]], a deputy commander in British and Commonwealth armies

== See also ==
* [[Secondment]], a transfer of an employee, usually within an organization
* [[Segundo (disambiguation)]]
* [[SND (disambiguation)]]
* [[Secondary (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation}}

Capocollo

2023-09-10T23:44:39Z

JavaRogers: /* Terminology */Applied lang templates

{{Short description|Italian and Swiss pork cold cut}}
{{redirect|Gabagool|the comic book|Gabagool!}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Capocollo
| image = Coppa di Parma.jpg
| caption =
| alternate_name = Coppa Gabagool
| country = [[Italy]]
| region = Emilia-Romagna Puglia Calabria Basilicata Lazio Toscana Umbria Marche Campania Molise Abruzzo Veneto Sardegna
| national_cuisine = [[Italian cuisine|Italian]]
| creator = 
| year =
| mintime =
| maxtime =
| type =
| course = [[Antipasto]]
| served =
| main_ingredient =
| minor_ingredient =
| variations =
| serving_size =
| calories =
| protein =
| fat =
| carbohydrate =
| glycemic_index =
| similar_dish =
| other =
}}
'''Capocollo''',<ref>Gillian Riley. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-HStec87HdcC&pg=PT126 "Capocollo."] ''The Oxford Companion to Italian Food''. Oxford University Press, 2007. p. 100. {{ISBN|9780198606178}}</ref> or '''capicola'''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=capicola|title=The American Heritage Dictionary of The English language|last1=Collins|first1=Harper|website=ahdictionary.com|access-date=11 March 2023}}</ref> ({{IPA-it|kapoˈkɔllo}})<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dipionline.it/dizionario/ricerca?lemma=capocollo|title=Dizionario di pronuncia italiana online|last1=Canepari|first1=Luciano|website=dipionline.it|access-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> or '''coppa''' ({{IPA-it|ˈkɔppa|}})<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dipionline.it/dizionario/ricerca?lemma=coppa|title=Dizionario di pronuncia italiana online|last1=Canepari|first1=Luciano|website=dipionline.it|access-date=22 September 2019}}</ref> is a traditional [[Cuisine of Italy|Italian]] and [[Swiss sausages and cured meats|Swiss]] pork [[cold cut]] (''[[salumi|salume]]'') made from the [[Curing (food preservation)|dry-cured]] muscle running from the neck to the fourth or fifth rib of the [[pork]] shoulder or neck. It is a whole-muscle [[salumi|salume]], dry cured, and typically sliced very thin. It is similar to the more widely known cured [[ham]] or [[prosciutto]], because they are both pork-derived cold cuts used in similar dishes. It is not brined as ham typically is.

==Terminology==
This cut is typically called {{lang|it|capocollo}} or {{lang|it|coppa}} in much of Italy and southern Switzerland ([[Ticino]] and the [[Grisons]]).<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.patrimoineculinaire.ch/Prodotti?text=coppa#20 | title=Coppa | publisher=[[Culinary Heritage of Switzerland]] | accessdate=10 March 2023}}</ref> This name is a compound of the words {{lang|it|capo}} ('head') and {{lang|it|collo}} ('neck'). Regional terms include {{lang|it|capicollo}} ([[Campania]] and [[Calabria]]) and {{lang|it|capicollu}} ([[Corsica]]).

Outside of Europe, terms include ''[[Bondiola sandwich]]'' or {{lang|es|bondiola curada}} in [[Argentina]], [[Paraguay]], and [[Uruguay]], and ''capicola'' or ''capicolla'' in North America.<ref>''Canadian Oxford Dictionary'' 2nd ed., 2004.</ref> The pronunciation "'''gabagool'''" has been used by [[Italian Americans in New York City|some Italian Americans in the New York City area]] and elsewhere in the [[Northeastern United States|Northeast US]], based on the [[Neapolitan language]] word {{lang|nap|capecuollo}} ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] /kapəˈkwol.lə/) in working-class strata of 19th- and early 20th-century immigrants.<ref>Dan Nosowitz. [http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-capicola-became-gabagool-the-italian-new-jersey-accent-explained "How Capicola Became Gabagool: The Italian New Jersey Accent, Explained."] Atlas Obscura. 5 November 2015. Retrieved 20 September 2016.</ref> It was notably used in the television series ''[[The Sopranos]]'', and its use has become a well-known [[stereotype]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Hs6Q2TVAOMC&pg=PA126|title=The Goomba Diet: Living Large and Loving It|last1=Schirripa|first1=Steven R.|last2=Fleming|first2=Charles|date=2007-04-24|publisher=Crown Publishing Group|isbn=9780307353030|pages=126|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BwTtDQAAQBAJ&q=gabagool&pg=PT144|title=The Portable Italian Mamma: Guilt, Pasta, and When Are You Giving Me Grandchildren?|last1=Mosiello|first1=Laura|last2=Reynolds|first2=Susan|date=2009-02-18|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=9781440520396|pages=144|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eater.com/2013/6/20/6417383/watch-james-gandolfinis-food-scenes-from-the-sopranos|title=Watch James Gandolfini's Food Scenes from The Sopranos|last=Dixler|first=Hillary|date=2013-06-20|website=Eater|access-date=2017-03-02}}</ref>

==Manufacture and use==
In its production, capocollo is first lightly seasoned often with red and sometimes white [[wine]], [[garlic]], and a variety of [[herbs]] and [[spices]] that differs depending on region. The meat is then [[Salt-cured meat|salted]] (and was traditionally massaged), stuffed into a [[Casing (sausage)|natural casing]], and hung for up to six months to cure. Sometimes the exterior is rubbed with hot [[paprika]] before being hung and cured. Capocollo is essentially the pork counterpart of the air-dried, cured beef ''[[bresaola]]''. It is widely available wherever significant Italian communities occur, due to commercially produced varieties. The slow-roasted [[Piedmont]]ese version is called ''coppa cotta''.

Capocollo is esteemed for its delicate flavour and tender, fatty texture, and is often more expensive than most other ''[[salumi]]''. In many countries, it is sold as a [[gourmet]] food item. It is usually sliced thin for use in [[antipasto|antipasti]] or sandwiches such as [[muffuletta]]s, [[Submarine sandwich|Italian grinders and subs]], and [[Panini (sandwich)|panini]], as well as some traditional Italian [[pizza]].

==Varieties and official status==
[[File:Sweetcapicola.JPG|thumb|A piece of ''Coppa Spécialité Corse'' (Corsica): A balanced quantity of white fat is important for flavor and tenderness.]]
Two particular varieties, ''Coppa [[Piacenza|Piacentina]]'' and ''Capocollo di [[Calabria]]'', have [[Protected Designation of Origin]] status under the [[Common Agricultural Policy]] of [[European Union]] law, which ensures that only products genuinely originating in those regions are allowed in commerce as such.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coppa Piacentina DOP|url=http://www.academiabarilla.com/the-italian-food-academy/meats-charcuterie/coppa-piacentina.aspx|website=www.academiabarilla.com|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Capocollo di Calabria DOP|url=http://www.academiabarilla.com/the-italian-food-academy/meats-charcuterie/capocollo-calabria.aspx|website=www.academiabarilla.com|publisher=Academia Barilla|access-date=28 May 2015}}</ref>

Five additional Italian regions produce capocollo, and are not covered under European law, but are designated as "[[Prodotto agroalimentare tradizionale]]" by the Italian [[Ministry of Agricultural, Food and Forestry Policies (Italy)|Ministry of Agricultural, Food, and Forestry Policies]]:
[[File:Capocollo di martina.jpg|thumb|Slices of Capocollo di [[Martina Franca]] served with figs]]

* ''Capocollo della [[Basilicata]]'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ssabasilicata.it/CANALI_TEMATICI/Educazione_alimentare/Menu3/Prodotti.html|title=Elenco delle Schede dei Prodotti Agroalimentari Tipici e Tradizionali della Basilicata|language=it}}</ref>
* ''Capocollo del [[Lazio]]'';<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arsial.it/portalearsial/prd_tipici/Default.asp|title=Schede prodotti tipici Lazio|language=it|access-date=2015-05-28|archive-date=2007-10-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071029135140/http://www.arsial.it/portalearsial/prd_tipici/Default.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*''Capocollo di [[Martina Franca]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pugliaandculture.com/prodotto-tipico-della-puglia/carne-e-salumi/capocollo-di-martina-franca|title=Il Capocollo di Martina Franca preparato con maiale allevato intorno a Martina|website=www.pugliaandculture.com|language=it|access-date=2018-07-30}}</ref> is a traditional ''capocollo'' of Apulia. It is smoked with laurel leaves, thyme, almonds, Mediterranean herbs and pieces of bark of [[Quercus trojana|Macedonian oak]] (called ''fragno'' in Italian), a tree typical of Southeastern Italy, the Balkans and Western Turkey. Usually it is served with figs or [[Burrata]];
*'' Capocollo tipico senese '' or ''finocchiata'', from [[Tuscany]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://germoplasma.arsia.toscana.it/Prodotti_tipici/Home1.htm |title=Elenco prodotti Toscana, con schede |language=it |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112152552/http://germoplasma.arsia.toscana.it/Prodotti_tipici/Home1.htm |archive-date=2012-11-12 }}</ref>
* ''Capocollo dell'[[Umbria]]'';<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.agriforeste.regione.umbria.it/canale.asp?id=725 |title=Elenco delle Schede dei Prodotti Agroalimentari Tradizionali dell'Umbria |language=it |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070819134636/http://www.agriforeste.regione.umbria.it/canale.asp?id=725 |archive-date=2007-08-19 }}</ref>

Outside Europe, capocollo was introduced to Argentina by Italian immigrants, under the names ''[[:es:bondiola|bondiola]]'' or ''[[:es:bondiola curada|bondiola curada]]''.

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}

* [[List of dried foods]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Wiktionary}}
*{{cite book
| last=Schapira
| first= Christiane
| title=La bonne cuisine corse
| publisher=Solar
| location = Paris
| year=1994
| language=fr
| isbn=2263001778
}}

{{Cuisine of Italy}}

[[Category:Lunch meat]]
[[Category:Dried meat]]
[[Category:Italian cuisine]]
[[Category:Italian products with protected designation of origin]]
[[Category:Pork]]
[[Category:Salumi]]

Flag of Sardinia

2023-09-10T01:54:20Z

JavaRogers: /* Legendary origin */lang → wikt-lang

{{Short description|Flag of the island of Sardinia}}
{{multiple issues|
{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=August 2022}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2016}}
}}
{{Infobox flag
| Name = Sardinia
| Nickname = The four Moors
| Article =
| Image = {{Switcher
| [[File:Flag of Sardinia, Italy.svg|border|250px]] | The Sardinian flag.
| [[File:Bandera nacionalista sarda.svg|border|250px]] | The pre-1999 version of the Sardinian flag showing the Moors' heads blindfolded and facing to the left.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cagliari.italiani.it/scopricitta/i-quattro-mori-la-storia-della-bandiera-sarda/ | title=I Quattro Mori: La storia della bandiera sarda | date=4 June 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://ricerca.gelocal.it/lanuovasardegna/archivio/lanuovasardegna/1999/03/04/SK100.html | title=I 4 mori perdono la benda la Regione modifica la bandiera sarda - la Nuova Sardegna }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www3.consregsardegna.it/XVlegislatura/mozioni/115 | title=15 Legislatura - Mozioni | date=11 August 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.comuni24ore.it/2019/05/04/nel-1999-i-quattro-mori-diventano-bandiera-ufficiale-della-regione-sardegna/ | title=Nel 1999 i Quattro Mori diventano bandiera ufficiale della Regione Sardegna | date=4 May 2019 }}</ref><ref>https://www.consregsardegna.it/xilegislatura/resoconti/376/</ref>
}}
| Use = 110000
| Symbol = {{FIAV|normal}}
| Proportion = 3:5 or 2:3
| Adoption = Used since 1281; current version adopted on 15 April 1999
| Image2 =
| Imagetext2 =
| Design = Four moors head in St. George's cross
| Designer =
| Type =
}}

The '''flag of Sardinia''' ({{lang-sc|bandera de sa Sardigna}}, {{lang|sc|bandera sarda}}, {{lang|sc|Sa pandhela de sa Sarđhinna}}), called the '''flag of the Four Moors''' or simply the '''Four Moors''' ({{lang-it|I quattro mori}}; {{lang-sc|Sos bator moros}} and ''Is cuatru morus''), represents and symbolizes the island of [[Sardinia]] ([[Italy]]) and [[Sardinian people|its people]]. It was also the historical flag and coat of arms of the [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragonese]], then [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]], and later [[House of Savoy|Savoyard]] [[Kingdom of Sardinia]]. It was first officially adopted by the [[Regions of Italy#Autonomous regions with special statute|autonomous region]] in 1950 with a revision in 1999, describing it as a "white field with a red cross and a bandaged [[Maure|Moor's head]] facing away from the hoist (the edge close to the mast) in each quarter" (Regional Law 15 April 1999, n. 10, Art. 1).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.regione.sardegna.it/j/v/86?v=9&c=72&s=1&file=1999010|title=Legge Regionale 15 aprile 1999, n. 10 - Regione Autonoma della Sardegna|website=www.regione.sardegna.it}}</ref>

The flag is composed of the [[St George's Cross]] and four heads of [[Moors]], which in the past may not have been forehead bandaged but blindfolded and turned towards the hoist. But already well-preserved pictures from the 16th century clearly show a forehead bandage (see gallery below). The most accepted hypothesis is that the heads represented the heads of Moorish princes defeated by the [[Crown of Aragon|Aragonese]], as for the first time they appeared in the 13th-century seals of the Crown of Aragon – although with a beard and no bandage, contrary to the Moors of the Sardinian flag, which appeared for the first time in a manuscript of the second half of the 14th century.

==History==
[[File:Gelre Folio 62r.jpg|thumb|First testimony of the flag of Sardinia. Manuscript of Gelre, the second half of the fourteenth century, Folio 62r]]
[[File:Regni di Carlo V.jpg|thumb|Charles V and his Kingdoms' coats of arms]]
[[File:Stemma del Regno di Sardegna metà del XVI secolo.JPG|thumb|16th-century flag, from ''Procession and Funeral of Charles V'']]
[[File:Apoteosis Heraldica 1681 Museo de Historia de la Ciudad,Barcelona, i 4 mori sardi sono nettamente distinti iconograficamente dai 4 mori d'Aragona.JPG|thumb|Apoteosis Heraldica 1681 [[Museum of the History of Barcelona]]. Sardinia's depiction of the Four Moors is different from those of Aragon: the former has only the bandage on his forehead, and the latter is crowned and bearded.]]

The oldest certified heraldic symbol of the cross of Saint George with four Moors in each quarter, known as the [[Cross of Alcoraz]], dates back to 1281 and was used by the Royal Chancellery of [[Peter III of Aragon]] as the king's coat of arms upon seals. In the 13th century, the Moors' heads had no head bandages and were bearded; the coat of arms of Sardinia never appeared in such a way.

After the kingdom of Sardinia was founded in 1326, it became part of the Crown of Aragon; {{Clarify span|date=September 2020|text=these seals will come to closing documents of [[James II of Aragon|King James II]] (1326), [[Alfonso IV of Aragon|Alfonso Benigno]] (1327–1336) and [[Peter IV of Aragon|Peter]] I (1336–1387). Some specimens are preserved in the Historical Archive of the city of [[Cagliari]]. The late 14th century [[Gelre Armorial]] attributes the Four Moors to the Kingdom of Sardinia in the states of the [[Crown of Aragon]]. It is found in another Armorial perhaps from the Lorraine area (preserved in the National Library of France) and of uncertain date but certainly in the 15th century. In 1509, in another Portuguese Armorial Book (Livro do Armeiro-mor), Sardinia is represented only with the cross of St. George.}}

The Four Moors begin to be used consistently as a symbol of the Kingdom of Sardinia during the time of the [[Catholic Monarchs]], and especially from the time of the [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]]. In Sardinia, the first safe attestation of the coat of arms is on the cover of the Acts of the military arm of the Sardinian Parliament, the ''Capitols de Cort del Stament Militar de Serdenya'' printed in Cagliari in 1591. Throughout the period of the Iberian monarchies, the original design of the bandages on his forehead was respected.

The design with blindfolded Moors facing the left first appeared in 1800, after Sardinia passed to the [[House of Savoy]]. It was either due to a mistake of a copyist or, similarly to the [[flag of Corsica]] during the earlier period of French rule, a deliberate protest against the mainland rulers. It became the official flag of the region under a decree of 5 July 1952. In 1999, a special regional law changed the flag from the version adopted under Savoy rule to the original one.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ricerca.gelocal.it/lanuovasardegna/archivio/lanuovasardegna/1999/04/14/SK104.html|title=Sì ai quattro mori sbendati Il governo approva la nuova bandiera sarda - La Nuova Sardegna|website=Archivio - La Nuova Sardegna}}</ref>

==Legendary origin==
[[File:QUATTRO MORI.jpg|thumb|20th-century coat of arms adopted by the [[Brigata Sassari]], the Sardinian soldier brigade during [[World War I]]]]

There are separate Spanish and Sardinian traditions to explain the origin of the flag and there is no consensus among scholars as to which is correct. According to the Spanish tradition, it was a creation of [[Peter I of Aragon and Navarre|King Peter I of Aragon]], celebrating his victory at the [[Battle of Alcoraz]] in 1096. It was said that [[St. George]] miraculously appeared on the field of battle and there were four severed heads of [[Saracen]] kings at the end; thus the red cross and white background of the [[St George's Cross]] and the heads of four Moors.<ref name="Zurita1668">{{cite book|author=Jerónimo Zurita|title=Anales de la Corona de Aragon|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_SnH23x2alDUC|access-date=28 March 2013|year=1668|publisher=Dormer|at=p.32 paragraph XCVI}}</ref> The Sardinian-[[Pisa]]n tradition attributes the arms to a banner given by [[Pope Benedict VIII]] to the Pisans in aid of the [[Sardinians]] in a conflict with the Saracens of Musetto who were trying to conquer the Italian peninsula and Sardinia. This flag, however, has inverted colors and no heads on it.<ref>Ranieri Sardo, Cronaca di Pisa, (Manuscript Magliabecchi XXV-491, 1440-1450) a cura di Ottavio Banti, Istituto Italiano per il medioevo, 1963</ref>

Before the Kingdom of Sardinia was founded, the rulers of the island were known as [[archon]]s ({{wikt-lang|grc|ἄρχοντες}} in Greek) or judges ({{wikt-lang|la|iudices}} in Latin, ''{{wikt-lang|sc|judikes}}'' in Sardinian, {{wikt-lang|it|giudici}} in Italian). The island was organized into one {{lang|la|iudicatus}} from the 9th century on (see [[List of monarchs of Sardinia]]). After the [[Muslim conquest of Sicily]] in the 9th century, the Byzantines, who previously ruled Sardinia, couldn't manage to defend their far west province. Probably, a local noble family acceded to power, still identifying themselves as a vassal of the Byzantines, but independent "de facto", as communications with Constantinople were very difficult. At the beginning of the 11th century, an attempt to conquer the island was made by Spanish Muslims. We have very little record of that war, only by Pisa and Genoa chronicles. Christians won, but after that, the previous Sardinian kingdom was totally undermined and divided into four more little judicial: Cagliari, Arborea, Gallura, and Torres or Logudoro; each one developed its own coat of arms. When, with the appointment of the King of Aragon as King of Sardinia, the island again became one united kingdom, only the Judicatus of Arborea survived and fought for a century against the Kingdom of Sardinia for supremacy.

According to some, the flag derives from Alcoraz's victory of 1096, is linked to the Crown of Aragon, and represents the [[Spanish Reconquista]] against the Moors who occupied most of the Iberian Peninsula. It is composed of the cross of St. George, also a symbol of the Crusaders fighting at the same time in the Holy Land, and the four severed heads, representing four major victories in Spain by the Aragonese: the reconquest of Zaragoza, Valencia, Murcia, and the Balearic Islands. According to others (Mario Valdes y Cocom),<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/secret/famous/ssecretum1.html|title=SIGILLUM SECRETUM | FRONTLINE | PBS|website=www.pbs.org}}</ref> the Moors represent the Egyptian [[Saint Maurice]], martyred under [[Diocletian]], and are shown in this manner, with the heads bandaged, in countless coats of arms in the Franco-German area. Even [[Saint Victor of Marseilles]], who was from the same Theban Legion commanded by Maurice and escaped the decimation, is represented by a blackamoor with a bandage on his forehead, as in the High Altar of [[St. Nicholas' Church of Tallinn]],<ref>Estonia, oil on wood, St. George, St. Nicholas and St. Victor of Marseilles, 1481 by Rode, Hermen (c.1468-1504)</ref> now in the Art Museum of Estonia, Tallinn. The common tradition which links the stories of the two saints suggests that the symbol was designed between the [[St. Maurice's Abbey|St. Maurice Abbey]] [[Valais|Canton of Valais]] (Switzerland) and the [[Abbey of Saint Victor, Marseille|Abbey of St. Victor in Marseilles]]; each was built in the place of martyrdom of the respective saint. Between 1112 and 1166 the [[County of Provence]] was under the direct control of the kings of Aragon, and until 1245 ruled by descendants of the same dynasty. The abbey of St. Victor of Marseilles had extensive property and political influence in Sardinia, especially in the [[Giudicato of Cagliari|Judicatus (kingdom) of Cagliari]], from the 11th to the 13th century. There are [[hagiography|hagiographies]] of many "Saint Victors" related to the [[Theban Legion]], such as [[Viktor of Xanten]] or [[Victor of Solothurn]] and to the persecutions of [[Diocletian]] and [[Maximinus II]] as [[Victor Maurus]] of [[Milan]], [[Vincent, Orontius, and Victor|Victor]] of [[Puigcerdà]], [[Spain]], probably inspired by the same martyr.

The four Moors became the symbol of the Kingdom of Sardinia at its foundation, with the Corsican flag dating back to the same era, and became in time the flag of the island and its people. In any case, the meaning of the symbols, either two holy warriors or Moor's heads cut off, makes it an emblem of warring Christianity, ''[[crusade]]r'' in the broad sense of the term, originated in a historical period of bitter conflict between Islam and Christianity, in which Sardinia was fully involved.

==Modern use==
[[File:Sardegna-Stemma.svg|thumb|Coat of arms of the Autonomous Region of Sardinia, with eye-blinded bandage.]]
The symbol was adopted as the regional coat of arms already in 1950, with a decree of the President of the Republic.
The flag, instead, became official only in 1999, by means of Regional Law n. 10.

==Chronological gallery==

'''Crown of Aragon'''

The four moors already represent the Kingdom of Sardinia but no trace is found on the island.

<gallery>
Gelre Folio 62r.jpg|Gelre Armorial, Folio 62r

1450 CIRCA ARMORIALE DI AREA LORENESE.jpg|Armorial from Lorraine region (France), 1450
</gallery>

'''Imperial ideology of Charles V, Habsburg House, A little kingdom within an enormous empire'''

The four moors appear more frequently in prints, paintings, and artifacts both in Sardinia and in all publications heraldic vintage.

<gallery>
I 4 mori..... senza mori nel portoghese Livro do armeiro-mor, Lisbona, 1509.jpg|1509, Portuguese armorial "Livro do armeiro-mor", Lisbon

1515 DURER MAXIMILIAN TRIUNPHAL ARCH.jpg|1515 from the emperor Maximilian I Triumphal Arch by Albrecht Durer

Regni di Carlo V.jpg|Emperor Charles V and his Kingdoms' coats of arms

Aquila imperiale bicefala di Carlo V.jpg|Imperial eagle of Charles V

1555 - Innsbruck, il Pavone degli Asburgo, con gli stemmi di ogni possedimento della famiglia. In particolare lo stemma della Sardegna, della Corsica e dell'Algarve (tre mori).jpg|1555 - Innsbruck, the peacock of the Habsburg dynasty

1555 SOLIS 6.jpg|1555 Virgil Solis

Bandiera del Regno di Sardegna nel corte funebre dell'Imperatore Carlo V.jpg|1559 H. Cock-J. Doetichum-L. Doetichum, “La magnifique et somptueuse pompe funebre faite aus obseques et funerailles du tres grande et tres victorieus empereur Charles cinquieme”, Plantin, Anvers, The funeral cortège of Charles V in a printed book.

Stemma del Regno di Sardegna metà del XVI secolo.JPG|detail

Robert Peril, The Genealogical Tree of the House of Hapsburg, 1540.jpg|The Genealogical Tree of the House of Habsburg, Robert Peril, 1540
</gallery>

'''Habsburg House (Spanish branch)'''

<gallery>
Capitols de cort 2.jpg|1590 F. Guarnerio, Capitols de cort del Stament Militar de Sardenya, Cagliari, first recorded use in Sardinia.

Stemma di Filippo II.jpg|16th century, Sassari (Sardinia), Palazzo Ducale, coat of arms of Philip II of Spain

Mainoldi Galerati 2.jpg|1573 I. Mainoldi Galerati, De titulis Philippi Austrii Regis Cattolici Liber, Bononia

QUATTRO MORI - LIVRE DES ARMOIRES.jpg|H. De Bara, Le Blason des Armoires, Lyon

AGOSTINO CARRACCI 1585 2.jpg|1585, portrait of Philipo II of Spain by Agostino Carracci

Logo unica col GIF (2).jpg|1607, coat of arms of the University of Cagliari

SK-A-112.jpg|Frans Franken II (1581-1642), Abdication of the emperor Charles V, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam

Frans Franken, Abdicazione di Carlo V, particolare.jpg|detail

4 mori 1640.jpg|1640 from a geographic map

CASTELVI 23.jpg|1700, Descripciones de todos los reyes de España, Josè Delitala y Castelvì, conde de Villasalto

Portada de los Anales de la Corona de Aragón.jpg|Portada de los Anales de la Corona de Aragón. The four moors became the coat of arms of Aragon as well, crowned and bearded.

Apoteosis Heraldica 1681 Museo de Historia de la Ciudad,Barcelona, i 4 mori sardi sono nettamente distinti iconograficamente dai 4 mori d'Aragona.JPG|Apoteosis Heraldica 1681 Museo de Historia de la Ciudad,Barcelona; the iconography of the 4 Sardinian Moors are clearly from the 4 Moors of Aragon, crowned and bearded.
</gallery>

''' Out of the island, the artists run wild'''

<gallery>
Stemma del Regno di Sardegna a colori invertiti nel Libro de armas y blasones de diversos linajes y retratos.png|16th century, "Libro de armas y blasones de diversos linajes y retratos", with inverted colours.

1635 Palazzo del Buen Retiro, Madrid.jpg|1635, Zurbaran and Velasquez, Buen Retiro Palace, Madrid, again inverted colors

EL TRIUNFO DEL EMPERADOR MAXIMILIANO I.jpg|"El Triunfo del Emperador Maximiliano I", 17th century ? the four moors became three in a printed book from the Austrian area.
</gallery>

'''Savoy House'''

As the title of King of Sardinia was the only one who gave the ruling dynasty the coveted title, the coat of arms is enhanced and developed and overlaid with emblems of the other states ruled by the Savoy House

<gallery>
File:Pharmacopoea sardoa.jpg|1773, I. G. Palietti, Pharmacopoea sardoa, Tipografia Regia, Cagliari
File: Civil Flag and Civil Ensign of the Kingdom of Sardinia (1816-1848).svg|Civil Flag and Civil Ensign of the Kingdom of Sardinia (1816-1848)
File:Flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia.svg|Variant flag used as naval ensign in the late 18th or early 19th century<ref>[http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Italy_states2.htm#Sardina-Piedmont Italian states to 1861 - History of the flag and chronology]</ref>
</gallery>'''Modern Region'''<gallery>
File: Flag of Sardinia (1995).svg|'' de facto'' flag of 1995
</gallery>

==See also==
{{portal|Italy|Heraldry}}
* [[Flag of Corsica]]
* [[Maure]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*Giovanni Battista Fara,'' De Rebus Sardois'', Cagliari, 1580
*Geronimo Zurita,'' Anales de la Corona de Aragon'', Zaragoza, 1610
*Ferran De Sagarra, ''Sigillografia Catalana, inventari, descripciò i estudi dels segells de Catalunya'', Barcelona, 1915
*Martì De Riquer, ''Heràldica catalana des de l'Any 1150 al 1550'', Barcelona, 1983
*Salvatorangelo Palmerio Spanu, ''Origine dell'Arme di Sardegna'', ESHA
*Barbara Fois, ''Lo stemma dei quattro mori: breve storia dell'emblema dei sardi'', Sassari, Carlo Delfino Editore, 1990
*Franciscu Sedda,'' La vera storia della bandiera dei sardi'', Cagliari, Edizioni Condaghes, 2007
*Mauro Podda, ''Quattro mori a Bruxelles'', L'Unione Sarda, 12 aprile 2008, Cagliari

==External links==
{{commons category-inline}}

{{Sardinia}}
{{Italian flags}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Flag of Sardinia}}
[[Category:Black people in art]]
[[Category:Flags of regions of Italy|Sardinia]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Sardinia]]
[[Category:Flags with crosses|Sardinia]]
[[Category:Sardinian culture]]
[[Category:Flags of indigenous peoples|Sardinia]]
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Caliche

2023-07-21T01:26:32Z

JavaRogers:

{{short description|Calcium carbonate based concretion of sediment}}
[[Image:San-miguel-island-caliche.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Caliche Forest on [[San Miguel Island]].]]
'''Caliche''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|l|iː|tʃ|iː}}) is a [[sedimentary rock]], a hardened natural [[cement]] of [[calcium carbonate]] that binds other materials—such as gravel, sand, clay, and silt. It occurs worldwide, in [[aridisol]] and [[mollisol]] soil orders—generally in [[arid]] or [[semiarid]] regions, including in central and western [[Australia]], in the [[Kalahari Desert]], in the [[High Plains (United States)|High Plains]] of the western [[United States]], in the [[Sonoran Desert]], [[Chihuahuan Desert]] and [[Mojave Desert]] of North America, and in eastern Saudi Arabia at [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]]. Caliche is also known as '''calcrete''' or '''kankar''' (in India). It belongs to the [[duricrust]]s. The term {{wikt-lang|en|caliche}} is borrowed from Spanish and is originally from the Latin word {{wikt-lang|la|calx}}, meaning [[Lime (mineral)|lime]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breazeale |first1=J.F. |last2=Smith |first2=H.V. |title=Caliche in Arizona |publisher=University of Arizona |journal=Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin |volume=131 |date=15 April 1930 |page=419}}</ref>

Caliche is generally light-colored, but can range from white to light pink to reddish-brown, depending on the impurities present. It generally occurs on or near the surface, but can be found in deeper subsoil deposits, as well. Layers vary from a few inches to feet thick, and multiple layers can exist in a single location. A caliche layer in a [[soil profile]] is sometimes called a K horizon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gile |first1=L. H. |last2=Peterson |first2=F. F. |last3=Grossman |first3=R. B. |title=The K Horizon |journal=Soil Science |date=February 1965 |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=74–82 |doi=10.1097/00010694-196502000-00002|bibcode=1965SoilS..99...74G |s2cid=129247211 }}</ref><ref name="allaby-2013">{{cite book |editor1-last=Allaby |editor1-first=Michael |title=A dictionary of geology and earth sciences |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199653065 |edition=Fourth |chapter=Caliche}}</ref>

In northern [[Chile]] and [[Peru]], ''caliche'' also refers to mineral deposits that include [[nitrate]] salts.<ref>Chong ''et al''. 2007, p. 211.</ref><ref>A Most Damnable Invention: Dynamite, Nitrates, and the Making of the Modern World, Stephen R. Bown, Macmillan, 2005, {{ISBN|0-312-32913-X}}, p. 157.</ref>  Caliche can also refer to various claylike deposits in [[Mexico]] and [[Colombia]]. In addition, it has been used to describe some forms of [[quartzite]], [[bauxite]], [[kaolinite]], [[laterite]], [[chalcedony]], [[opal]], and [[soda niter]].

A similar material, composed of [[calcium sulfate]] rather than [[calcium carbonate]], is called [[gypcrust]].

==Formation==
Caliche  forms where annual precipitation is less than {{convert|65|cm|in|sp=us}} per year and the mean annual temperature exceeds {{convert|5|C|F|sp=us}}. Higher rainfall leaches excess calcium completely from the soil, while in very arid climates, rainfall is inadequate to leach calcium at all and only thin surface layers of [[calcite]] are formed. Plant roots play an important role in caliche formation, by releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the [[A horizon]] of the soil. Carbon dioxide levels here can exceed 15 times normal atmospheric values. This allows calcium carbonate to dissolve as bicarbonate. Where rainfall is adequate but not excessive, the calcium bicarbonate is carried down into the [[B horizon]]. Here there is less biological activity, the carbon dioxide level is much lower, and the bicarbonate reverts to insoluble carbonate. A mixture of calcium carbonate and clay particles accumulates, first forming grains, then small clumps, then a discernible layer, and finally, a thicker, solid bed.<ref name="blatt-middleton-murray-273-275">{{cite book |last1=Blatt |first1=Harvey |last2=Middleton |first2=Gerard |last3=Murray |first3=Raymond |title=Origin of sedimentary rocks |date=1980 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |isbn=0136427103 |pages=273–275 |edition=2d}}</ref>

However, caliche also forms in other ways. It can form when water rises through [[capillary action]]. In an arid region, rainwater sinks into the ground very quickly. Later, as the surface dries out, the water below the surface rises, carrying up dissolved minerals from lower layers. These precipitate as water evaporates and carbon dioxide is lost. This water movement forms a caliche that is close to the surface.{{sfn|Blatt|Middleton|Murray|1980|pp=274-275}} Caliche can also form on outcrops of [[porous]] rocks or in rock fissures where water is trapped and evaporates.{{sfn|Breazeale|Smith|1930|pp=420, 428-429}} In general, caliche deposition is a slow process, requiring several thousand years.<ref name="allaby-2013"/>

The depth of the caliche layer is sensitive to mean annual rainfall. When rainfall is around {{convert|35|cm|in|sp=us}} per year, the caliche layer will be as shallow as {{convert|25|cm|in|sp=us}}. When rainfall is around {{convert|75|cm|in|sp=us}} per year, the caliche layer will be at a depth of around {{convert|125|cm|in|sp=us}}. The caliche layer disappears complete in temperate climates if annual rainfall exceeds {{convert|100|cm|in|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Blatt|Middleton|Murray|1980|p=274}}

The source of the calcium in caliche may be the underlying bedrock, but caliche can form even over bedrock that is not rich in calcium. This is attributed to calcium brought in as [[aeolian dust]].<ref name="Schlesigner1985"/><ref name="FernandezEtal2022">{{cite journal |last1=Valera Fernández |first1=Daisy |last2=Solleiro Rebolledo |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Sedov |first3=Sergey |last4=Pustovoitov |first4=Konstantin |title=Provenance, and environment context of pedogenic carbonates formation from MIS 3 to MIS 1 in the Teotihuacan Valley, Mexico |journal=Quaternary International |date=April 2022 |volume=618 |pages=52–69 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2021.03.019|s2cid=233857091 }}</ref>

==Examples of natural occurrence==
[[File:Caliche - Sedimentary Rock Ridgecrest Kern County California.jpg|thumb|Caliche — sedimentary rock, Ridgecrest, Kern County, California]]
[[File:Limestone rubble wall with brick quoins.jpg|thumb|Calcrete rubble was widely used for building construction in [[South Australia]] during the 19th century.]]

While the formation of other caliches is relatively well understood, the origin of Chilean caliche is not clearly known. One possibility is that the deposits were formed when a [[prehistoric]] inland sea evaporated. Another theory is that it was deposited due to weathering of the [[Andes]].

One of the world's largest deposits of calcrete is in the [[Makgadikgadi Pans]] in [[Botswana]], where surface calcretes occur at the location of a now-desiccated prehistoric lake.<ref>C. Michael Hogan (2008) ''Makgadikgadi'', The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=22373&mode=&order=0]</ref>

Highly indurated caliche is known as calcrete, and it gives rise to characteristic [[landforms]] in arid environments. Calcrete is found throughout the geologic record, forming a record of past climate. Examples include [[Mississippian (geology)|Mississippian]] calcretes in [[South Wales]] and [[Pliocene]] to [[Pleistocene]] caprock of the [[Llano Estacado]] of [[Texas]], US, and [[Mormon Mesa]], [[Nevada]], US.<ref name="Schlesigner1985">{{cite journal |last1=Schlesinger |first1=William H. |title=The formation of caliche in soils of the Mojave Desert, California |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |date=January 1985 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=57–66 |doi=10.1016/0016-7037(85)90191-7}}</ref>

Caliches can store significant amounts of carbon, making them of significance to the overall global [[carbon cycle]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlesinger |first1=William H. |title=Carbon storage in the caliche of arid soils |journal= Soil Science |date=April 1982 |volume=133 |issue=4 |pages=247–255 |doi=10.1097/00010694-198204000-00008 |s2cid=97632160 |url=https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Abstract/1982/04000/Carbon_Storage_in_the_Caliche_of_Arid_Soils__A.8.aspx |access-date=25 March 2022}}</ref>

In Jurassic geological settings, the caliche is often indicator of warm climate with well marked wet-dry seasonality <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mateus |first1=O. |last2=Dinis |first2=J. |last3=Cunha |first3=P. P. |date=2017-09-28 |title=The Lourinhã Formation: the Upper Jurassic to lower most Cretaceous of the Lusitanian Basin, Portugal – landscapes where dinosaurs walked |url=https://cienciasdaterra.novaidfct.pt/index.php/ct-esj/article/view/355 |journal=Ciências da Terra / Earth Sciences Journal |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=75–97 |doi=10.21695/cterra/esj.v19i1.355 |issn=2183-4431}}</ref> that could indicate seasonal monsoons.

==Economic uses==

===Building applications===
Caliche is used in construction worldwide. Its reserves in the [[Llano Estacado]] in [[Texas]] can be used in the manufacture of [[Portland cement]]; the caliche meets the chemical composition requirements and has been used as a principal raw material in Portland cement production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reeves |first1=C.C. Jr. |last2=Suggs |first2=J.D. |year=1964 |title=Caliche of central and southern Llano Estacado, Texas |journal=Journal of Sedimentary Research |volume=34 |number=3 |pages=669–672 |doi=10.1306/74D71131-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/sepm/journals/v33-37/data/034/034003/0669.htm |access-date=25 March 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Caliche-5731.jpg|thumb|left|Caliche [[berm]] surrounding a [[stock tank]] in [[Central Texas]]]]
The Great House at [[Casa Grande Ruins National Monument]], [[Arizona]], US, was built with walls of caliche.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matero |first1=Frank |title=Lessons from the Great House: Condition and treatment history as prologue to site conservation and management at Casa Grande Ruins National Monument |journal=Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites |date=January 1999 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=203–224 |doi=10.1179/135050399793138482|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=hp_papers }}</ref> Caliche was also used in mortars used in of the [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] buildings in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] in [[Mexico]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Straulino Mainou |first1=Luisa |last2=Sedov |first2=Sergey |last3=Soler Arechalde |first3=Ana |last4=Pi Puig |first4=Teresa |last5=Villa |first5=Gerardo |last6=Balanzario Granados |first6=Sandra |last7=Doménech-Carbó |first7=María-Teresa |last8=Osete-Cortina |first8=Laura |last9=Leonard |first9=Daniel |title=Maya Lime Mortars—Relationship between Archaeomagnetic Dating, Manufacturing Technique, and Architectural Function—The Dzibanché Case |journal=Geosciences |date=4 November 2016 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=49 |doi=10.3390/geosciences6040049|doi-access=free }}</ref> A dormitory in [[Ingram, Texas]], and a demonstration building in [[Carrizo Springs, Texas]], for the [[United States Department of Energy]] were also built using caliche as part of studies by the [[Center for Maximum Potential Building Systems]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fisk |first1=Pliny |editor1-last=Neuman |editor1-first=M. |editor2-last=Zonneveld |editor2-first=W. |title=The Routledge handbook of regional design |date=2021 |location=Abingdon |isbn=9781000366549 |chapter=Bioregional design: The design science of the future}}</ref>

In many areas, caliche is also used for road construction, either as a surfacing material, or more commonly, as base material. It is one of the most common road materials used in [[Southern Africa]]. Caliche is widely used as a base material when it is locally available and cheap. However, it does not hold up to moisture (rain), and is never used if a hard-rock base material, such as limestone, is available.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Netterberg |first1=F. |editor1-last=Demars |editor1-first=K.R. |title=Geotechnical Properties, Behavior, and Performance of Calcareous Soils. |date=January 1982 |publisher=American Society for Testing & Materials |location=West Conshohocken |isbn=9780803107878 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9o7RROEGdzgC&dq=caliche+road+base,+SOUTH+AFRICA&pg=PA296 |access-date=26 March 2022 |chapter=Geotechnical properties and behavior of calcretes in South and South West Africa}}</ref>

===Sugar refining===
A nearly pure source of calcium carbonate is necessary to refine [[sugar]]. It must contain at least 95% calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and have a low magnesium content. In addition, the material must meet certain physical requirements so it does not break down when burned. Although caliche does not generally meet all of the requirements for sugar refining, it is used in areas where another source of calcium carbonate, such as limestone, is not present. While caliche requires [[beneficiation]] to meet the requirements, its use can still be significantly cheaper than shipping in limestone.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Velmayil |first1=Perumal |last2=Venu |first2=Udayanapillai Alagaiah |title=Micromorphology and major element geochemistry of calcretes in the Thoppukulam mine section, Sathankulam region, Southern Tamil Nadu, India: implications on depositional environment |journal=Arabian Journal of Geosciences |date=June 2019 |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=385 |doi=10.1007/s12517-019-4544-4|s2cid=195225634 }}</ref>

===Chilean caliche===
{{see also|Paradas method}}

In the [[Atacama Desert]] in northern [[Chile]], vast deposits of a mixture, also referred to as ''caliche'', are composed of [[gypsum]], [[sodium chloride]] and other salts, and sand, associated to ''[[Nitratine|salitre]]'' ("Chile saltpeter"). ''Salitre'', in turn, is a composite of [[sodium nitrate]] (NaNO3) and [[potassium nitrate]] (KNO3). ''Salitre'' was an important source of export revenue for Chile until World War I, when Europe began to produce both nitrates [[Haber Process|industrially]] in large quantities.<ref name="WisniakGarces2001">{{cite journal |last1=Wisniak |first1=Jaime |last2=Garces |first2=Ingrid |title=The rise and fall of the salitre (sodium nitrate) industry |journal=Indian Journal of Chemical Technology |date=September 2001 |volume=8 |pages=427–438 |url=http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/22940/1/IJCT%208%285%29%20427-438.pdf |access-date=26 March 2022}}</ref>

The deposits contain an average of 7.5% sodium nitrate, as well as sodium sulfate (18.87%), sodium chloride (4.8%), and smaller amounts of potassium, calcium, magnesium, [[borate]], iodine, and [[perchlorate]]. About two-thirds of the deposits are insoluble [[gangue]] minerals. The caliche beds are from 2 cm to several meters thick in alluvial deposits, where the soluble minerals form a cement in unconsolidated [[regolith]]. Nitrate-bearing caliche is also found impregnating bedrock to form bedrock deposits.<ref name="WisniakGarces2001"/>

==Caliche and agriculture==

===Problems caused by caliche===
Caliche beds can cause problems for agriculture. First, an impermeable caliche layer prevents water from draining properly, which can keep roots from getting enough oxygen. Salts can also build up in the soil due to the lack of drainage. Both of these situations are detrimental to plant growth. Second, the impermeable nature of caliche beds prevents plant roots from penetrating the bed, which limits the supply of nutrients, water, and space so they cannot develop normally. Third, caliche beds can also cause the surrounding soil to be [[basic (chemistry)|basic]]. The basic soil, along with calcium carbonate from the caliche, can prevent plants from getting enough nutrients, especially [[iron]]. An [[iron deficiency (plant disorder)|iron deficiency]] makes the youngest leaves turn yellow. Soil [[water content|saturation]] above the caliche bed can make the condition worse.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kelly |first1=Jack |last2=Walworth |first2=Jim |title=Managing caliche in the home yard |url=https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/144769/az1281-2002.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |website=Cooperative Extension, The University of Arizona |publisher=College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona |access-date=26 March 2022 |date=March 2002}}</ref> Its hardness can also make digging for projects such as canals more difficult.

==See also==

* [[Coquina]]
* [[Travertine]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Price, William Armstrong. ''Reynosa Problem of Southern Texas, and Origin of Caliche.'' Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 17.5 (1933): 488–522.
* Reeves, C.C., Jr. ''Caliche: Origin, Classification, Morphology and Uses.'' Lubbock, Texas: Estacado Books, 1976.
* Reeves, C.C., Jr. and J.D. Suggs. ''Caliche of Central and Southern Llano Estacado, Texas: Notes.'' Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 34.3 (1964): 669–672.
*{{cite book |last1=Chong Diaz |first1=Guillermo|last2=Gajardo Cubillos |first2=Aníbal |last3=Hartley|first3=Adrian J. |last4=Moreno |first4=Teresa|author-link=Guillermo Chong|editor-last=Moreno |editor-first=Teresa |editor-last2=Gibbons |editor-first2=Wes |title=Geology of Chile |publisher=Geological Society of London |date=2006 |pages=21–114 |chapter=7. Industrial minerals and rocks |isbn=9781862392199}}

==External links==
{{wiktionary|caliche}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Caliche}}
* [http://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/caliche.html Conquering Home Yard Caliche]

[[Category:Carbonates]]
[[Category:Carbonate minerals]]
[[Category:Inorganic carbon compounds]]
[[Category:Limestone]]
[[Category:Pedology]]
[[Category:Salts]]
[[Category:Soil in Chile]]

Caliche

2023-07-21T01:25:31Z

JavaRogers: Etymology -- changed link from Latin language to the word's Wiktionary entry

{{short description|Calcium carbonate based concretion of sediment}}
[[Image:San-miguel-island-caliche.jpg|right|275px|thumb|Caliche Forest on [[San Miguel Island]].]]
'''Caliche''' ({{IPAc-en|k|ə|ˈ|l|iː|tʃ|iː}}) is a [[sedimentary rock]], a hardened natural [[cement]] of [[calcium carbonate]] that binds other materials—such as gravel, sand, clay, and silt. It occurs worldwide, in [[aridisol]] and [[mollisol]] soil orders—generally in [[arid]] or [[semiarid]] regions, including in central and western [[Australia]], in the [[Kalahari Desert]], in the [[High Plains (United States)|High Plains]] of the western [[United States]], in the [[Sonoran Desert]], [[Chihuahuan Desert]] and [[Mojave Desert]] of North America, and in eastern Saudi Arabia at [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|Al-Hasa]]. Caliche is also known as '''calcrete''' or '''kankar''' (in India). It belongs to the [[duricrust]]s. The term ''caliche'' is borrowed from Spanish and is originally from the Latin word {{wikt-lang|la|calx}}, meaning [[Lime (mineral)|lime]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Breazeale |first1=J.F. |last2=Smith |first2=H.V. |title=Caliche in Arizona |publisher=University of Arizona |journal=Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin |volume=131 |date=15 April 1930 |page=419}}</ref>

Caliche is generally light-colored, but can range from white to light pink to reddish-brown, depending on the impurities present. It generally occurs on or near the surface, but can be found in deeper subsoil deposits, as well. Layers vary from a few inches to feet thick, and multiple layers can exist in a single location. A caliche layer in a [[soil profile]] is sometimes called a K horizon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gile |first1=L. H. |last2=Peterson |first2=F. F. |last3=Grossman |first3=R. B. |title=The K Horizon |journal=Soil Science |date=February 1965 |volume=99 |issue=2 |pages=74–82 |doi=10.1097/00010694-196502000-00002|bibcode=1965SoilS..99...74G |s2cid=129247211 }}</ref><ref name="allaby-2013">{{cite book |editor1-last=Allaby |editor1-first=Michael |title=A dictionary of geology and earth sciences |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199653065 |edition=Fourth |chapter=Caliche}}</ref>

In northern [[Chile]] and [[Peru]], ''caliche'' also refers to mineral deposits that include [[nitrate]] salts.<ref>Chong ''et al''. 2007, p. 211.</ref><ref>A Most Damnable Invention: Dynamite, Nitrates, and the Making of the Modern World, Stephen R. Bown, Macmillan, 2005, {{ISBN|0-312-32913-X}}, p. 157.</ref>  Caliche can also refer to various claylike deposits in [[Mexico]] and [[Colombia]]. In addition, it has been used to describe some forms of [[quartzite]], [[bauxite]], [[kaolinite]], [[laterite]], [[chalcedony]], [[opal]], and [[soda niter]].

A similar material, composed of [[calcium sulfate]] rather than [[calcium carbonate]], is called [[gypcrust]].

==Formation==
Caliche  forms where annual precipitation is less than {{convert|65|cm|in|sp=us}} per year and the mean annual temperature exceeds {{convert|5|C|F|sp=us}}. Higher rainfall leaches excess calcium completely from the soil, while in very arid climates, rainfall is inadequate to leach calcium at all and only thin surface layers of [[calcite]] are formed. Plant roots play an important role in caliche formation, by releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide into the [[A horizon]] of the soil. Carbon dioxide levels here can exceed 15 times normal atmospheric values. This allows calcium carbonate to dissolve as bicarbonate. Where rainfall is adequate but not excessive, the calcium bicarbonate is carried down into the [[B horizon]]. Here there is less biological activity, the carbon dioxide level is much lower, and the bicarbonate reverts to insoluble carbonate. A mixture of calcium carbonate and clay particles accumulates, first forming grains, then small clumps, then a discernible layer, and finally, a thicker, solid bed.<ref name="blatt-middleton-murray-273-275">{{cite book |last1=Blatt |first1=Harvey |last2=Middleton |first2=Gerard |last3=Murray |first3=Raymond |title=Origin of sedimentary rocks |date=1980 |publisher=Prentice-Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J. |isbn=0136427103 |pages=273–275 |edition=2d}}</ref>

However, caliche also forms in other ways. It can form when water rises through [[capillary action]]. In an arid region, rainwater sinks into the ground very quickly. Later, as the surface dries out, the water below the surface rises, carrying up dissolved minerals from lower layers. These precipitate as water evaporates and carbon dioxide is lost. This water movement forms a caliche that is close to the surface.{{sfn|Blatt|Middleton|Murray|1980|pp=274-275}} Caliche can also form on outcrops of [[porous]] rocks or in rock fissures where water is trapped and evaporates.{{sfn|Breazeale|Smith|1930|pp=420, 428-429}} In general, caliche deposition is a slow process, requiring several thousand years.<ref name="allaby-2013"/>

The depth of the caliche layer is sensitive to mean annual rainfall. When rainfall is around {{convert|35|cm|in|sp=us}} per year, the caliche layer will be as shallow as {{convert|25|cm|in|sp=us}}. When rainfall is around {{convert|75|cm|in|sp=us}} per year, the caliche layer will be at a depth of around {{convert|125|cm|in|sp=us}}. The caliche layer disappears complete in temperate climates if annual rainfall exceeds {{convert|100|cm|in|sp=us}}.{{sfn|Blatt|Middleton|Murray|1980|p=274}}

The source of the calcium in caliche may be the underlying bedrock, but caliche can form even over bedrock that is not rich in calcium. This is attributed to calcium brought in as [[aeolian dust]].<ref name="Schlesigner1985"/><ref name="FernandezEtal2022">{{cite journal |last1=Valera Fernández |first1=Daisy |last2=Solleiro Rebolledo |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Sedov |first3=Sergey |last4=Pustovoitov |first4=Konstantin |title=Provenance, and environment context of pedogenic carbonates formation from MIS 3 to MIS 1 in the Teotihuacan Valley, Mexico |journal=Quaternary International |date=April 2022 |volume=618 |pages=52–69 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2021.03.019|s2cid=233857091 }}</ref>

==Examples of natural occurrence==
[[File:Caliche - Sedimentary Rock Ridgecrest Kern County California.jpg|thumb|Caliche — sedimentary rock, Ridgecrest, Kern County, California]]
[[File:Limestone rubble wall with brick quoins.jpg|thumb|Calcrete rubble was widely used for building construction in [[South Australia]] during the 19th century.]]

While the formation of other caliches is relatively well understood, the origin of Chilean caliche is not clearly known. One possibility is that the deposits were formed when a [[prehistoric]] inland sea evaporated. Another theory is that it was deposited due to weathering of the [[Andes]].

One of the world's largest deposits of calcrete is in the [[Makgadikgadi Pans]] in [[Botswana]], where surface calcretes occur at the location of a now-desiccated prehistoric lake.<ref>C. Michael Hogan (2008) ''Makgadikgadi'', The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=22373&mode=&order=0]</ref>

Highly indurated caliche is known as calcrete, and it gives rise to characteristic [[landforms]] in arid environments. Calcrete is found throughout the geologic record, forming a record of past climate. Examples include [[Mississippian (geology)|Mississippian]] calcretes in [[South Wales]] and [[Pliocene]] to [[Pleistocene]] caprock of the [[Llano Estacado]] of [[Texas]], US, and [[Mormon Mesa]], [[Nevada]], US.<ref name="Schlesigner1985">{{cite journal |last1=Schlesinger |first1=William H. |title=The formation of caliche in soils of the Mojave Desert, California |journal=Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta |date=January 1985 |volume=49 |issue=1 |pages=57–66 |doi=10.1016/0016-7037(85)90191-7}}</ref>

Caliches can store significant amounts of carbon, making them of significance to the overall global [[carbon cycle]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlesinger |first1=William H. |title=Carbon storage in the caliche of arid soils |journal= Soil Science |date=April 1982 |volume=133 |issue=4 |pages=247–255 |doi=10.1097/00010694-198204000-00008 |s2cid=97632160 |url=https://journals.lww.com/soilsci/Abstract/1982/04000/Carbon_Storage_in_the_Caliche_of_Arid_Soils__A.8.aspx |access-date=25 March 2022}}</ref>

In Jurassic geological settings, the caliche is often indicator of warm climate with well marked wet-dry seasonality <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mateus |first1=O. |last2=Dinis |first2=J. |last3=Cunha |first3=P. P. |date=2017-09-28 |title=The Lourinhã Formation: the Upper Jurassic to lower most Cretaceous of the Lusitanian Basin, Portugal – landscapes where dinosaurs walked |url=https://cienciasdaterra.novaidfct.pt/index.php/ct-esj/article/view/355 |journal=Ciências da Terra / Earth Sciences Journal |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=75–97 |doi=10.21695/cterra/esj.v19i1.355 |issn=2183-4431}}</ref> that could indicate seasonal monsoons.

==Economic uses==

===Building applications===
Caliche is used in construction worldwide. Its reserves in the [[Llano Estacado]] in [[Texas]] can be used in the manufacture of [[Portland cement]]; the caliche meets the chemical composition requirements and has been used as a principal raw material in Portland cement production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reeves |first1=C.C. Jr. |last2=Suggs |first2=J.D. |year=1964 |title=Caliche of central and southern Llano Estacado, Texas |journal=Journal of Sedimentary Research |volume=34 |number=3 |pages=669–672 |doi=10.1306/74D71131-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D |url=https://archives.datapages.com/data/sepm/journals/v33-37/data/034/034003/0669.htm |access-date=25 March 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Caliche-5731.jpg|thumb|left|Caliche [[berm]] surrounding a [[stock tank]] in [[Central Texas]]]]
The Great House at [[Casa Grande Ruins National Monument]], [[Arizona]], US, was built with walls of caliche.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Matero |first1=Frank |title=Lessons from the Great House: Condition and treatment history as prologue to site conservation and management at Casa Grande Ruins National Monument |journal=Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites |date=January 1999 |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=203–224 |doi=10.1179/135050399793138482|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=hp_papers }}</ref> Caliche was also used in mortars used in of the [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] buildings in the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] in [[Mexico]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Straulino Mainou |first1=Luisa |last2=Sedov |first2=Sergey |last3=Soler Arechalde |first3=Ana |last4=Pi Puig |first4=Teresa |last5=Villa |first5=Gerardo |last6=Balanzario Granados |first6=Sandra |last7=Doménech-Carbó |first7=María-Teresa |last8=Osete-Cortina |first8=Laura |last9=Leonard |first9=Daniel |title=Maya Lime Mortars—Relationship between Archaeomagnetic Dating, Manufacturing Technique, and Architectural Function—The Dzibanché Case |journal=Geosciences |date=4 November 2016 |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=49 |doi=10.3390/geosciences6040049|doi-access=free }}</ref> A dormitory in [[Ingram, Texas]], and a demonstration building in [[Carrizo Springs, Texas]], for the [[United States Department of Energy]] were also built using caliche as part of studies by the [[Center for Maximum Potential Building Systems]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Fisk |first1=Pliny |editor1-last=Neuman |editor1-first=M. |editor2-last=Zonneveld |editor2-first=W. |title=The Routledge handbook of regional design |date=2021 |location=Abingdon |isbn=9781000366549 |chapter=Bioregional design: The design science of the future}}</ref>

In many areas, caliche is also used for road construction, either as a surfacing material, or more commonly, as base material. It is one of the most common road materials used in [[Southern Africa]]. Caliche is widely used as a base material when it is locally available and cheap. However, it does not hold up to moisture (rain), and is never used if a hard-rock base material, such as limestone, is available.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Netterberg |first1=F. |editor1-last=Demars |editor1-first=K.R. |title=Geotechnical Properties, Behavior, and Performance of Calcareous Soils. |date=January 1982 |publisher=American Society for Testing & Materials |location=West Conshohocken |isbn=9780803107878 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9o7RROEGdzgC&dq=caliche+road+base,+SOUTH+AFRICA&pg=PA296 |access-date=26 March 2022 |chapter=Geotechnical properties and behavior of calcretes in South and South West Africa}}</ref>

===Sugar refining===
A nearly pure source of calcium carbonate is necessary to refine [[sugar]]. It must contain at least 95% calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and have a low magnesium content. In addition, the material must meet certain physical requirements so it does not break down when burned. Although caliche does not generally meet all of the requirements for sugar refining, it is used in areas where another source of calcium carbonate, such as limestone, is not present. While caliche requires [[beneficiation]] to meet the requirements, its use can still be significantly cheaper than shipping in limestone.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Velmayil |first1=Perumal |last2=Venu |first2=Udayanapillai Alagaiah |title=Micromorphology and major element geochemistry of calcretes in the Thoppukulam mine section, Sathankulam region, Southern Tamil Nadu, India: implications on depositional environment |journal=Arabian Journal of Geosciences |date=June 2019 |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=385 |doi=10.1007/s12517-019-4544-4|s2cid=195225634 }}</ref>

===Chilean caliche===
{{see also|Paradas method}}

In the [[Atacama Desert]] in northern [[Chile]], vast deposits of a mixture, also referred to as ''caliche'', are composed of [[gypsum]], [[sodium chloride]] and other salts, and sand, associated to ''[[Nitratine|salitre]]'' ("Chile saltpeter"). ''Salitre'', in turn, is a composite of [[sodium nitrate]] (NaNO3) and [[potassium nitrate]] (KNO3). ''Salitre'' was an important source of export revenue for Chile until World War I, when Europe began to produce both nitrates [[Haber Process|industrially]] in large quantities.<ref name="WisniakGarces2001">{{cite journal |last1=Wisniak |first1=Jaime |last2=Garces |first2=Ingrid |title=The rise and fall of the salitre (sodium nitrate) industry |journal=Indian Journal of Chemical Technology |date=September 2001 |volume=8 |pages=427–438 |url=http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/22940/1/IJCT%208%285%29%20427-438.pdf |access-date=26 March 2022}}</ref>

The deposits contain an average of 7.5% sodium nitrate, as well as sodium sulfate (18.87%), sodium chloride (4.8%), and smaller amounts of potassium, calcium, magnesium, [[borate]], iodine, and [[perchlorate]]. About two-thirds of the deposits are insoluble [[gangue]] minerals. The caliche beds are from 2 cm to several meters thick in alluvial deposits, where the soluble minerals form a cement in unconsolidated [[regolith]]. Nitrate-bearing caliche is also found impregnating bedrock to form bedrock deposits.<ref name="WisniakGarces2001"/>

==Caliche and agriculture==

===Problems caused by caliche===
Caliche beds can cause problems for agriculture. First, an impermeable caliche layer prevents water from draining properly, which can keep roots from getting enough oxygen. Salts can also build up in the soil due to the lack of drainage. Both of these situations are detrimental to plant growth. Second, the impermeable nature of caliche beds prevents plant roots from penetrating the bed, which limits the supply of nutrients, water, and space so they cannot develop normally. Third, caliche beds can also cause the surrounding soil to be [[basic (chemistry)|basic]]. The basic soil, along with calcium carbonate from the caliche, can prevent plants from getting enough nutrients, especially [[iron]]. An [[iron deficiency (plant disorder)|iron deficiency]] makes the youngest leaves turn yellow. Soil [[water content|saturation]] above the caliche bed can make the condition worse.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kelly |first1=Jack |last2=Walworth |first2=Jim |title=Managing caliche in the home yard |url=https://repository.arizona.edu/bitstream/handle/10150/144769/az1281-2002.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |website=Cooperative Extension, The University of Arizona |publisher=College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona |access-date=26 March 2022 |date=March 2002}}</ref> Its hardness can also make digging for projects such as canals more difficult.

==See also==

* [[Coquina]]
* [[Travertine]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Price, William Armstrong. ''Reynosa Problem of Southern Texas, and Origin of Caliche.'' Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists 17.5 (1933): 488–522.
* Reeves, C.C., Jr. ''Caliche: Origin, Classification, Morphology and Uses.'' Lubbock, Texas: Estacado Books, 1976.
* Reeves, C.C., Jr. and J.D. Suggs. ''Caliche of Central and Southern Llano Estacado, Texas: Notes.'' Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 34.3 (1964): 669–672.
*{{cite book |last1=Chong Diaz |first1=Guillermo|last2=Gajardo Cubillos |first2=Aníbal |last3=Hartley|first3=Adrian J. |last4=Moreno |first4=Teresa|author-link=Guillermo Chong|editor-last=Moreno |editor-first=Teresa |editor-last2=Gibbons |editor-first2=Wes |title=Geology of Chile |publisher=Geological Society of London |date=2006 |pages=21–114 |chapter=7. Industrial minerals and rocks |isbn=9781862392199}}

==External links==
{{wiktionary|caliche}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Caliche}}
* [http://cals.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/soils/caliche.html Conquering Home Yard Caliche]

[[Category:Carbonates]]
[[Category:Carbonate minerals]]
[[Category:Inorganic carbon compounds]]
[[Category:Limestone]]
[[Category:Pedology]]
[[Category:Salts]]
[[Category:Soil in Chile]]

Sole (fish)

2023-04-23T02:02:31Z

JavaRogers: /* Etymology of the word */Same for Chinese word

{{Short description|Fish name belonging to several families}}
[[File:Solea solea 1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[common sole]] (or Dover sole) is a species of marine flatfish widely found around the coasts of Europe]]
[[File:Lined sole.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[American sole]]s are a family of flatfish found in both freshwater and marine environments of the Americas]]

'''Sole''' is a [[fish]] belonging to several families. Generally speaking, they are members of the family [[Soleidae]], but, outside Europe, the name ''sole'' is also applied to various other similar [[flatfish]], especially other members of the sole suborder Soleoidei as well as members of the [[Pleuronectidae|flounder family]]. In European cookery, there are several species which may be considered ''true soles'', but the common or Dover sole ''[[Solea solea]]'', often simply called ''the sole'', is the most esteemed and most widely available.<ref>Davidson, 1979.</ref>

==Etymology of the word==
The word ''sole'' in English, French, and Italian comes from its resemblance to a sandal, Latin {{wikt-lang|la|solea}}.<ref>Sole, in Skeat WM. A concise etymological dictionary of the English language. Harper & Brothers, 1896, P. 449 [https://books.google.com/books?id=HKsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449 read online or download]</ref><ref>Sogliola (IT) [http://www.etimo.it/?term=sogliola etymology from www.etimo.it]</ref> In other languages, it is named for the tongue, e.g. Greek {{transl|el|glóssa}} ({{wikt-lang|el|γλώσσα}}), German {{wikt-lang|de|Seezunge}}, Dutch {{wikt-lang|nl|zeetong}} or {{wikt-lang|nl|tong}}, Hungarian {{wikt-lang|hu|nyelvhal}}, Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|lenguado}}, Chinese {{transl|zh|lung lei}} ({{wikt-lang|zh|龍脷}}, 'dragon tongue'), Arabic {{transl|ar|lisan Ath-thawr}} ({{wikt-lang|ar|لسان الثور}}) (for the common sole) meaning 'the tongue of ox' in Qosbawi accent.

A partial list of common names for species referred to as sole include:

*In the ''sole'' suborder Soleoidei:
** The ''[[true sole]]s'', [[Soleidae]], including the [[common sole|common or Dover sole]], ''Solea solea''. These are the only fishes called ''soles'' in Europe.
** The ''[[American sole]]s'', [[Achiridae]], sometimes classified among the Soleidae.
** The ''[[tonguefish]]es'' or ''tongue soles'', [[Cynoglossidae]], whose common names usually include the word 'tongue'.
* Several species of righteye flounder in the family [[Pleuronectidae]], including the [[lemon sole]], the [[Microstomus pacificus|Pacific Dover sole]], and the [[petrale sole]].

==Threats==
The true sole, ''Solea solea'', is sufficiently distributed that it is not considered a threatened [[species]]; however, [[overfishing]] in Europe has produced severely diminished populations, with declining catches in many regions. For example, the western [[English Channel]] and [[Irish Sea]] sole fisheries face potential collapse according to data in the UK [[Biodiversity Action Plan]].

Sole, along with the other major bottom-feeding fish in the [[North Sea]] such as [[cod]], [[monkfish]], and [[plaice]], is listed by the [[International Council for the Exploration of the Sea|ICES]] as "outside safe biological limits." Moreover, they are growing less quickly now and are rarely older than six years, although they can reach forty. World stocks of large predatory fish and large ground fish such as sole and [[flounder]] were estimated in 2003 to be only about 10% of pre-industrial levels.<ref>Clover, Charles. 2004. ''The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat''. Ebury Press, London. {{ISBN|0-09-189780-7}}</ref><ref>Myers, Ransom A. and Worm, Boris. "Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities." ''Nature'' '''423''', 280-283 (15 May 2003).</ref><ref>Dalton, Rex. 2006. "Save the big fish: Targeting of larger fish makes populations prone to collapse." Published online [http://www.nature.com/news/2006/061016/full/061016-8.html]</ref> According to the [[World Wildlife Fund]] in 2006, "of the nine sole stocks, seven are overfished with the status of the remaining two unknown."

In 2010, [[Greenpeace International]] has added the [[common sole]] to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in [[supermarkets]] around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."<ref>[https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/oceans/sustainable-seafood/red-list-fish/ Greenpeace International Seafood Red list]</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*[[Alan Davidson (food writer)|Alan Davidson]], ''North Atlantic Seafood'', 1979. {{ISBN|0-670-51524-8}}.
*[[Alan Davidson (food writer)|Alan Davidson]], ''Mediterranean Seafood'', 1972. {{ISBN|1-58008-451-6}}.

==External links==
* {{YouTube|yutM30Zd3lA|Video of a fresh water sole}}

{{flatfish|state=expanded}}
{{commercial fish topics}}

[[Category:Fish of Europe]]
[[Category:Commercial fish]]
[[Category:Fish common names]]

Sole (fish)

2023-04-23T02:01:16Z

JavaRogers: /* Etymology of the word */Swapped links to languages for links to Wiktionary entries of specific words. Parenthesized words that aren't in the Latin script. (Most readers of the English Wikipedia cannot read these.)

{{Short description|Fish name belonging to several families}}
[[File:Solea solea 1.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[common sole]] (or Dover sole) is a species of marine flatfish widely found around the coasts of Europe]]
[[File:Lined sole.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[American sole]]s are a family of flatfish found in both freshwater and marine environments of the Americas]]

'''Sole''' is a [[fish]] belonging to several families. Generally speaking, they are members of the family [[Soleidae]], but, outside Europe, the name ''sole'' is also applied to various other similar [[flatfish]], especially other members of the sole suborder Soleoidei as well as members of the [[Pleuronectidae|flounder family]]. In European cookery, there are several species which may be considered ''true soles'', but the common or Dover sole ''[[Solea solea]]'', often simply called ''the sole'', is the most esteemed and most widely available.<ref>Davidson, 1979.</ref>

==Etymology of the word==
The word ''sole'' in English, French, and Italian comes from its resemblance to a sandal, Latin {{wikt-lang|la|solea}}.<ref>Sole, in Skeat WM. A concise etymological dictionary of the English language. Harper & Brothers, 1896, P. 449 [https://books.google.com/books?id=HKsVAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA449 read online or download]</ref><ref>Sogliola (IT) [http://www.etimo.it/?term=sogliola etymology from www.etimo.it]</ref> In other languages, it is named for the tongue, e.g. Greek {{transl|el|glóssa}} ({{wikt-lang|el|γλώσσα}}), German {{wikt-lang|de|Seezunge}}, Dutch {{wikt-lang|nl|zeetong}} or {{wikt-lang|nl|tong}}, Hungarian {{wikt-lang|hu|nyelvhal}}, Spanish {{wikt-lang|es|lenguado}}, Converse {{wikt-lang|zh|龍脷}} ('dragon tongue'), Arabic {{transl|ar|lisan Ath-thawr}} ({{wikt-lang|ar|لسان الثور}}) (for the common sole) meaning 'the tongue of ox' in Qosbawi accent.

A partial list of common names for species referred to as sole include:

*In the ''sole'' suborder Soleoidei:
** The ''[[true sole]]s'', [[Soleidae]], including the [[common sole|common or Dover sole]], ''Solea solea''. These are the only fishes called ''soles'' in Europe.
** The ''[[American sole]]s'', [[Achiridae]], sometimes classified among the Soleidae.
** The ''[[tonguefish]]es'' or ''tongue soles'', [[Cynoglossidae]], whose common names usually include the word 'tongue'.
* Several species of righteye flounder in the family [[Pleuronectidae]], including the [[lemon sole]], the [[Microstomus pacificus|Pacific Dover sole]], and the [[petrale sole]].

==Threats==
The true sole, ''Solea solea'', is sufficiently distributed that it is not considered a threatened [[species]]; however, [[overfishing]] in Europe has produced severely diminished populations, with declining catches in many regions. For example, the western [[English Channel]] and [[Irish Sea]] sole fisheries face potential collapse according to data in the UK [[Biodiversity Action Plan]].

Sole, along with the other major bottom-feeding fish in the [[North Sea]] such as [[cod]], [[monkfish]], and [[plaice]], is listed by the [[International Council for the Exploration of the Sea|ICES]] as "outside safe biological limits." Moreover, they are growing less quickly now and are rarely older than six years, although they can reach forty. World stocks of large predatory fish and large ground fish such as sole and [[flounder]] were estimated in 2003 to be only about 10% of pre-industrial levels.<ref>Clover, Charles. 2004. ''The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat''. Ebury Press, London. {{ISBN|0-09-189780-7}}</ref><ref>Myers, Ransom A. and Worm, Boris. "Rapid worldwide depletion of predatory fish communities." ''Nature'' '''423''', 280-283 (15 May 2003).</ref><ref>Dalton, Rex. 2006. "Save the big fish: Targeting of larger fish makes populations prone to collapse." Published online [http://www.nature.com/news/2006/061016/full/061016-8.html]</ref> According to the [[World Wildlife Fund]] in 2006, "of the nine sole stocks, seven are overfished with the status of the remaining two unknown."

In 2010, [[Greenpeace International]] has added the [[common sole]] to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in [[supermarkets]] around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries."<ref>[https://www.greenpeace.org/usa/oceans/sustainable-seafood/red-list-fish/ Greenpeace International Seafood Red list]</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*[[Alan Davidson (food writer)|Alan Davidson]], ''North Atlantic Seafood'', 1979. {{ISBN|0-670-51524-8}}.
*[[Alan Davidson (food writer)|Alan Davidson]], ''Mediterranean Seafood'', 1972. {{ISBN|1-58008-451-6}}.

==External links==
* {{YouTube|yutM30Zd3lA|Video of a fresh water sole}}

{{flatfish|state=expanded}}
{{commercial fish topics}}

[[Category:Fish of Europe]]
[[Category:Commercial fish]]
[[Category:Fish common names]]

Beltane

2023-03-29T04:21:47Z

JavaRogers: Implemented lang template in places

{{short description|Gaelic May Day festival}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2018}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name = Beltane
| type = default
| longtype = Cultural, Pagan ([[Celtic neopaganism]], [[Wicca]])
| image = Beltain 2019 Wickerman burning Butser Ancient Farm photo by Eleanor Sopwith.jpg
| caption = A [[wicker man]] [[bonfire]] for Beltane at [[Butser Ancient Farm]]
| nickname = {{native name|ga|Lá Bealtaine}} {{native name|gd|Latha Bealltainn}} {{native name|gv|Laa Boaltinn/Boaldyn}}<ref>Celtic myths and legends by Charles Squire {{ISBN|1-84204-015-4}}</ref> Beltain; Beltine; Beltany<ref name="firefestival">{{Cite web |url=https://www.newgrange.com/beltane.htm |title=Beltane – The Fire Festival |website=[[Newgrange]] |access-date=30 April 2019 |archive-date=30 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430142824/https://www.newgrange.com/beltane.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Chadwick">Chadwick, Nora (1970) ''The Celts'' London, Penguin. {{ISBN|0-14-021211-6}} p. 181</ref>
| observedby = Historically: [[Gaels]] Today: [[Irish people]], [[Scottish people]], [[Manx people]], [[Modern Paganism|Modern Pagans]]
| significance = Beginning of summer
| date = 1 May<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.independent.ie/regionals/kerryman/lifestyle/origins-of-bealtaine-festival-29218522.html |title=Origins of Bealtaine festival |date=24 April 2013 |work=Irish Independent |access-date=30 April 2019 |archive-date=30 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430142513/https://www.independent.ie/regionals/kerryman/lifestyle/origins-of-bealtaine-festival-29218522.html |url-status=live }}</ref> (or 1 November in the [[Southern Hemisphere]])
| celebrations = lighting bonfires, decorating homes with May flowers, making May bushes, visiting holy wells, feasting
| relatedto = May Day, {{lang|cy|[[Calan Mai]]}}, [[Walpurgis Night]]
| frequency = annual
| duration = 1 day
| alt = A burning bonfire of a towering 30 foot wickerman holding a sword. A crowd watches from below.
| official_name =
| litcolor =
| begins =
| ends =
| weekday =
| month =
| scheduling =
| firsttime =
| startedby =
}}

'''Beltane''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|b|j|ɑː|l|.|t|ɪ|n|ə}})<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Beltane?s=t |title=Beltane |publisher=[[Dictionary.com]] |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-date=2 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502001117/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Beltane?s=t |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/beltane |title=Beltane |website=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-date=2 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502032300/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/beltane |url-status=live }}</ref> is the [[Gaels|Gaelic]] [[May Day]] festival. Commonly observed on the first of May, the festival falls midway between the [[March equinox|spring equinox]] and [[summer solstice]] in the [[northern hemisphere]]. The festival name is synonymous with the month marking the start of summer in Ireland, May being {{lang|ga|Mí na Bealtaine}}. Historically, it was widely observed throughout [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], and the [[Isle of Man]]. In [[Irish language|Irish]] the name for the festival day is {{lang|ga|Lá Bealtaine}} ({{IPA-ga|l̪ˠaː ˈbʲal̪ˠt̪ˠənʲə|}}), in [[Scottish Gaelic]] {{lang|gd|Latha Bealltainn}} ({{IPA-gd|l̪ˠaː ˈpjaul̪ˠt̪ɪɲ|}}), and in [[Manx language|Manx Gaelic]] {{lang|gv|Laa Boaltinn}}/{{lang|gv|Boaldyn}}. Beltane is one of [[Quarter days|the principal four]] Gaelic seasonal festivals—along with [[Samhain]], [[Imbolc]], and [[Lughnasadh]]—and is similar to the Welsh {{lang|cy|[[Calan Mai]]}}.

Bealtaine is mentioned in the [[Early Irish literature|earliest Irish literature]] and is associated with important events in [[Irish mythology]]. Also known as {{lang|ga|Cétshamhain}} ('first of summer'), it marked the beginning of [[summer]] and was when cattle were [[Transhumance|driven out]] to the summer pastures. Rituals were performed to protect cattle, people and crops, and to encourage growth. Special [[bonfire]]s were kindled, whose flames, smoke and ashes were deemed to have protective powers. The people and their cattle would walk around or between bonfires, and sometimes leap over the flames or embers. All household fires would be doused and then re-lit from the Bealtaine bonfire. These gatherings would be accompanied by a feast, and some of the food and drink would be offered to the {{lang|ga|[[aos sí]]}}. Doors, windows, byres and livestock would be decorated with yellow May flowers, perhaps because they evoked fire. In parts of Ireland, people would make a May Bush: typically a thorn bush or branch decorated with flowers, ribbons, bright shells and rushlights. [[Holy well]]s were also visited, while Bealtaine [[dew]] was thought to bring beauty and maintain youthfulness. Many of these customs were part of May Day or Midsummer festivals in parts of Great Britain and Europe.

Public celebrations of Beltane fell out of popularity, though some customs continue to be revived as local cultural events. Since the late 20th century, [[Celtic neopaganism|Celtic neopagans]] and [[Wicca]]ns have observed a festival based on Beltane as a religious holiday. Some neopagans in the Southern Hemisphere celebrate Beltane on or around 1 November.{{cn|date=November 2022}}

==Historic customs==
Beltane was one of four Gaelic seasonal festivals: [[Samhain]] (1 November), [[Imbolc]] (1 February), Beltane (1 May), and [[Lughnasadh]] (1 August). Beltane marked the beginning of the pastoral summer season, when livestock were [[Transhumance|driven out to the summer pastures]].<ref name="hutton">Hutton, Ronald. ''The Stations of the Sun: A History of the Ritual Year in Britain''. Oxford University Press, 1996. pp. 218–225</ref><ref name="koch">Koch, John T. ''Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia''. 2006. p. 202</ref> Rituals were held at that time to protect them from harm, both natural and supernatural, and this mainly involved the "symbolic use of fire".<ref name=hutton/> There were also rituals to protect crops, dairy products and people, and to encourage growth. The {{lang|ga|[[aos sí]]}} (often referred to as spirits or fairies) were thought to be especially active at Beltane (as at Samhain)<ref name=hutton/> and the goal of many Beltane rituals was to appease them. Most scholars see the {{lang|ga|aos sí}} as remnants of the pagan gods and nature spirits.<ref>Santino, Jack. ''The Hallowed Eve: Dimensions of Culture in a Calendar Festival of Northern Ireland''. University Press of Kentucky, 1998. p. 105</ref> Beltane was a "spring time festival of optimism" during which "fertility ritual again was important, perhaps connecting with the waxing power of the sun".<ref name="Chadwick" />

===Ancient and medieval===
Beltane (the beginning of summer) and Samhain (the beginning of winter) are thought to have been the most important of the four Gaelic festivals. [[Sir James George Frazer]] wrote in ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]'' that the times of Beltane and Samhain are of little importance to European crop-growers, but of great importance to herdsmen. Thus, he suggests that halving the year at 1 May and 1 November dates from a time when the Celts were mainly a pastoral people, dependent on their herds.<ref>[[James George Frazer|Frazer, Sir James George]]. ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]''. Forgotten Books, 2008. p. 644</ref>

The earliest mention of Beltane is in [[Old Irish literature]] from [[Gaelic Ireland]]. According to the early medieval texts {{lang|mga|[[Sanas Cormaic]]}} (written by [[Cormac mac Cuilennáin]]) and {{lang|mga|[[Tochmarc Emire]]}}, Beltane was held on 1 May and marked the beginning of summer. The texts say that, to protect cattle from disease, [[druid]]s would make two fires "with great incantations" and drive the cattle between them.<ref>Stokes, Whitley (ed.) and John O'Donovan (tr.). ''Sanas Cormaic: Cormac's Glossary''. Irish Archaeological and Celtic Society. Calcutta: O.T. Cutter, 1868.</ref><ref>[http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T301021/index.html ''The Wooing of Emer by Cú Chulainn'' – Translated by Kuno Meyer] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214050615/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T301021/index.html |date=14 February 2013 }}. CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Beltane {{!}} ancient Celtic festival|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Beltane|access-date=2021-03-08|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=14 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210214060935/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Beltane|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to 17th-century historian [[Geoffrey Keating]], there was a great gathering at the hill of [[Uisneach]] each Beltane in medieval Ireland, where a sacrifice was made to a god named [[Belenus|Beil]]. Keating wrote that two bonfires would be lit in every district of Ireland, and cattle would be driven between them to protect them from disease.<ref>Keating, Geoffrey. [http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100054/index.html ''The History of Ireland'' – Translated by David Comyn and Patrick S. Dinneen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130222033517/http://www.ucc.ie/celt/published/T100054/index.html |date=22 February 2013 }}. CELT: Corpus of Electronic Texts.</ref> There is no reference to such a gathering in [[Irish annals|the annals]], but the medieval ''[[Dindsenchas]]'' (lore of places) includes a tale of a hero lighting a holy fire on Uisneach that blazed for seven years. Ronald Hutton writes that this may "preserve a tradition of Beltane ceremonies there", but adds "Keating or his source may simply have conflated this legend with the information in ''Sanas Chormaic'' to produce a piece of pseudo-history".<ref name=hutton/> Nevertheless, excavations at Uisneach in the 20th century found evidence of large fires and charred bones, and showed it to have been a place of ritual since ancient times.<ref name=hutton/><ref name="patterson2">Patterson, Nerys. ''Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland''. University of Notre Dame Press, 1994. p. 139</ref><ref name="mackillop">MacKillop, James. ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''. Oxford University Press, 1998. pp. 39, 400–402, 421</ref> Evidence suggests it was "a sanctuary-site, in which fire was kept burning perpetually, or kindled at frequent intervals", where [[animal sacrifice]]s were offered.<ref>Schot, Roseanne (2006). "[https://www.academia.edu/12163521/Uisneach_Midi_a_med%C3%B3n_%C3%89renn_a_prehistoric_cult_centre_and_royal_site_in_Co._Westmeath Uisneach Midi a medón Érenn: a prehistoric cult centre and royal site in Co. Westmeath]". ''Journal of Irish Archaeology'', issue 15. pp.47-66</ref>

Beltane is also mentioned in medieval Scottish literature.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dsl.ac.uk/entry/dost/beltane |title=Dictionary of the Scots Language :: DOST :: Beltane n. |website=www.dsl.ac.uk |access-date=1 May 2019 |archive-date=1 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501184654/https://www.dsl.ac.uk/entry/dost/beltane |url-status=live }}</ref> An early reference is found in the poem 'Peblis to the Play', contained in the [[Maitland Manuscripts]] of 15th- and 16th-century Scots poetry, which describes the celebration in the town of [[Peebles]].<ref name="tracscotland.org">{{Cite web |url=http://www.tracscotland.org/sites/default/files/May%20Songs%20and%20Rhymes_0.pdf |title=The Songs and Rhymes of May |website=Traditional Arts & Culture Scotland |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215143738/http://www.tracscotland.org/sites/default/files/May%20Songs%20and%20Rhymes_0.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2018 |access-date=2018-02-15}}</ref>

===Modern era===
From the late 18th century to the mid 20th century, many accounts of Beltane customs were recorded by [[folkloristics|folklorists]] and other writers. For example [[John Jamieson]], in his ''Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language'' (1808), describes some of the Beltane customs which persisted in the 18th and early 19th centuries in parts of Scotland, which he noted were beginning to die out.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.scotsdictionary.com/ |title=Jamieson's Dictionary Online |website=www.scotsdictionary.com |access-date=1 May 2019 |archive-date=5 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190405045905/http://www.scotsdictionary.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the 19th century, folklorist [[Alexander Carmichael]] (1832–1912), collected the [[Scottish Gaelic]] song {{lang|gd|Am Beannachadh Bealltain}} ('The Beltane Blessing') in his ''[[Carmina Gadelica]]'', which he heard from a [[Crofting|crofter]] in [[South Uist]].<ref name="tracscotland.org" /> The first two verses were sung as follows:

<blockquote><poem>{{lang|gd|Beannaich, a Thrianailt fhioir nach gann,}} (Bless, O Threefold true and bountiful,)
{{lang|gd|Mi fein, mo cheile agus mo chlann,}} (Myself, my spouse and my children,)
{{lang|gd|Mo chlann mhaoth's am mathair chaomh 'n an ceann,}} (My tender children and their beloved mother at their head,)
{{lang|gd|Air chlar chubhr nan raon, air airidh chaon nam beann,}} (On the fragrant plain, at the gay mountain sheiling,)
{{lang|gd|Air chlar chubhr nan raon, air airidh chaon nam beann.}} (On the fragrant plain, at the gay mountain sheiling.)

{{lang|gd|Gach ni na m' fhardaich, no ta 'na m' shealbh,}} (Everything within my dwelling or in my possession,)
{{lang|gd|Gach buar is barr, gach tan is tealbh,}} (All kine and crops, all flocks and corn,)
{{lang|gd|Bho Oidhche Shamhna chon Oidhche Bheallt,}} (From Hallow Eve to Beltane Eve,)
{{lang|gd|Piseach maith, agus beannachd mallt,}} (With goodly progress and gentle blessing,)
{{lang|gd|Bho mhuir, gu muir, agus bun gach allt,}} (From sea to sea, and every river mouth,)
{{lang|gd|Bho thonn gu tonn, agus bonn gach steallt.}} (From wave to wave, and base of waterfall.)<ref name="tracscotland.org" /></poem></blockquote>

====Bonfires====
[[File:Beltain Wickerman Bonfire with Drummers.jpg|thumb|Drummers perform in front of the remains of a Beltane [[Wicker man]] at [[Butser Ancient Farm]] in [[Hampshire]], UK]]
Bonfires continued to be a key part of the festival in the modern era. All hearth fires and candles would be doused before the bonfire was lit, generally on a mountain or hill.<ref name="Chadwick" /><ref name="Danaher">Danaher, Kevin (1972) ''The Year in Ireland: Irish Calendar Customs'' Dublin, Mercier. {{ISBN|1-85635-093-2}} pp. 86–127</ref> [[Ronald Hutton]] writes that "To increase the potency of the holy flames, in Britain at least they were often kindled by the most primitive of all means, of friction between wood."<ref name=hutton/> This is known as a [[need-fire]] or [[force-fire]]. In the 19th century, John Ramsay described Scottish Highlanders kindling such a fire at Beltane, which was deemed sacred.<ref name=hutton/> In the 19th century, the ritual of driving cattle between two fires—as described in ''Sanas Cormaic'' almost 1000 years before—was still practised across most of Ireland and in parts of Scotland.<ref name=hutton/> Sometimes the cattle would be driven around a bonfire or be made to leap over flames or embers. The people themselves would do likewise.<ref name=hutton/> On the Isle of Man, people ensured that the smoke blew over them and their cattle.<ref name=koch/> When the bonfire had died down, people would daub themselves with its ashes and sprinkle it over their crops and livestock.<ref name=hutton/> Burning torches from the bonfire would be taken home, carried around the house or boundary of the farmstead,<ref>Evans, ''Irish Folk Ways'', pp. 274–275</ref> and used to re-light the hearth.<ref name=hutton/> From these rituals, it is clear that the fire was seen as having [[Apotropaic magic|protective powers]].<ref name=hutton/> Similar rituals were part of May Day or Midsummer customs in other parts of the British Isles and mainland Europe.<ref>[[James George Frazer|Frazer, James George]] (1922). ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]''. [https://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb06208.htm Chapter 62, Section 8: The Need-fire]. [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]].</ref> Frazer believed the fire rituals are a kind of [[sympathetic magic|imitative or sympathetic magic]]. He suggests they were meant to mimic the Sun and "ensure a needful supply of sunshine for men, animals, and plants", as well as to symbolically "burn up and destroy all harmful influences".<ref>Frazer, James George (1922). ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb06301.htm Chapter 63, Part 1: On the Fire-festivals in general] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012203326/http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb06301.htm |date=12 October 2013 }}.</ref>

[[File:Beltane Fire Dragon.jpg|thumb|A Beltane bonfire at WEHEC 2015]]
Food was also cooked at the bonfire and there were rituals involving it. In the Scottish Highlands, [[Alexander Carmichael]] recorded that there was a feast featuring lamb, and that formerly this lamb was [[Animal sacrifice|sacrificed]].<ref>Carmichael, ''[[Carmina Gadelica]] Volume 1'', p. 191</ref> In 1769, [[Thomas Pennant]] wrote of bonfires in [[Perthshire]], where a [[caudle]] made from eggs, butter, oatmeal and milk was cooked. Some of the mixture was poured on the ground as a [[libation]]. Everyone present would then take an oatmeal cake, called the {{lang|ga|bannoch Bealltainn}} or 'Beltane [[Bannock (food)|bannock]]'. A bit was offered to the spirits to protect their livestock (one to protect the horses, one to protect the sheep, and so forth) and a bit offered to each of the predators that might harm their livestock (one to the fox, one to the eagle, and so forth). Afterwards, they would drink the caudle.<ref name=hutton/>

According to 18th century writers, in parts of Scotland there was another ritual involving the oatmeal cake. The cake would be cut and one of the slices marked with charcoal. The slices would then be put in a [[bonnet (headgear)|bonnet]] and everyone would take one out while blindfolded. According to one writer, whoever got the marked piece had to leap through the fire three times. According to another, those present pretended to throw the person into the fire and, for some time afterwards, would speak of them as if they were dead. This "may embody a memory of actual [[human sacrifice]]", or it may have always been symbolic.<ref name=hutton/> A similar ritual (i.e. of pretending to burn someone in the fire) was part of spring and summer bonfire festivals in other parts of Europe.<ref>Frazer, James George (1922). ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb06402.htm Chapter 64, Part 2: The Burning of Men and Animals in the Fires] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509185559/http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb06402.htm |date=9 May 2013 }}.</ref>

====Flowers and May Bushes====
[[File:Hawthorn in flower on Smeardon Down.jpg|thumb|left|A flowering hawthorn]]
Yellow and white flowers such as [[Primula vulgaris|primrose]], [[rowan]], [[Crataegus monogyna|hawthorn]], [[gorse]], [[hazel]], and [[Caltha palustris|marsh marigold]] were traditionally placed at doorways and windows; this is documented in 19th century Ireland, Scotland and Mann. Sometimes loose flowers were strewn at doors and windows and sometimes they were made into [[flower bouquet|bouquets]], [[garland]]s or crosses and fastened to them. They would also be fastened to cows and equipment for milking and butter making. It is likely that such flowers were used because they evoked fire.<ref name=hutton/> Similar May Day customs are found across Europe.

The May Bush or May Bough was popular in parts of Ireland until the late 19th century.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Uachtar Árd {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4613696/4609620|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref> This was a small tree or branch—typically hawthorn, rowan, holly or sycamore—decorated with bright flowers, ribbons, painted shells or eggshells from Easter Sunday, and so forth. The tree would either be decorated where it stood, or branches would be decorated and placed inside or outside the house (particularly above windows and doors, on the roof, and on barns).<ref name=":1" /> It was generally the responsibility of the oldest person of the house to decorate the May Bush, and the tree would remain up until May 31st.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uachtar Árd {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4613696/4609616|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web|title=Uachtar Árd {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4613696/4609619|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref> The tree would also be decorated with candles or [[rushlight]]s.<ref name="Danaher" /> Sometimes a May Bush would be paraded through the town. In parts of southern Ireland, gold and silver [[Sliotar|hurling balls]] known as May Balls would be hung on these May Bushes and handed out to children or given to the winners of a [[hurling]] match.<ref name="Danaher" /> In [[Dublin]] and [[Belfast]], May Bushes were brought into town from the countryside and decorated by the whole neighbourhood.<ref name="Danaher" /> Each neighbourhood vied for the most handsome tree and, sometimes, residents of one would try to steal the May Bush of another. This led to the May Bush being outlawed in [[Victorian era|Victorian times]].<ref name="Danaher" /> In some places, it was customary to sing and dance around the May Bush, and at the end of the festivities it may be burnt in the bonfire.<ref name=":7" /> In some areas the May Bush or Bough has also been called the "May Pole", but it is the bush or tree described above, and not the more commonly-known European [[maypole]].<ref name=":1"/>

Thorn trees are traditionally seen as special trees, associated with the {{lang|ga|[[aos sí]]}}. Frazer believed the customs of decorating trees or poles in springtime are a relic of [[tree worship]] and wrote: "The intention of these customs is to bring home to the village, and to each house, the blessings which the [[List of tree deities|tree-spirit]] has in its power to bestow."<ref>Frazer, James George (1922). ''[[The Golden Bough|The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion]]''. [http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb01000.htm Chapter 10: Relics of Tree Worship in Modern Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509182027/http://www.sacred-texts.com/pag/frazer/gb01000.htm |date=9 May 2013 }}.</ref> [[Emyr Estyn Evans]] suggests that the May Bush custom may have come to Ireland from England, because it seemed to be found in areas with strong English influence and because the Irish saw it as unlucky to damage certain thorn trees.<ref name="folkways">[[Emyr Estyn Evans|Evans, Emyr Estyn]]. ''Irish Folk Ways''. Routledge, 1957. pp. 272–274</ref> However, "lucky" and "unlucky" trees varied by region, and it has been suggested that Beltane was the only time when cutting thorn trees was allowed.<ref name="watts">Watts, D C. ''Dictionary of Plant Lore''. Academic Press, 2007. p. 246</ref> The practice of bedecking a May Bush with flowers, ribbons, garlands and bright shells is found among the Gaelic diaspora, most notably in [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]], and in some Easter traditions on the [[East Coast of the United States]].<ref name="Danaher" />

==== Appeasing the fairies ====
Many Beltane practices were designed to ward off or appease the [[Aos Sí|fairies]] and prevent them from stealing dairy products. For example, three black coals were placed under a butter churn to ensure the fairies did not steal the butter, and May Boughs were tied to milk pails, the tails of cattle or hung in the barns to ensure the cattle's milk was not stolen.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Uachtar Árd {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4613696/4609617|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> Flowers were also used to decorate the horns of cattle, which was believed to bring good fortune.<ref>{{Cite web|title=May Day and May Eve|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4427955/4361147/4465007|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref> Food was left or milk poured at the doorstep or places associated with the {{lang|ga|aos sí}}, such as 'fairy trees', as an offering.<ref name="Evans, p. 272">Evans, ''Irish Folk Ways'', p. 272</ref><ref>Danaher, ''The Year in Ireland'', p. 121</ref> However, milk was never given to a neighbor on May Day because it was feared that the milk would be transferred to the neighbor's cow.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Druim an t-Seagail {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4602710/4597558|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref> In Ireland, cattle would be brought to '[[fairy fort]]s', where a small amount of their blood would be collected. The owners would then pour it into the earth with prayers for the herd's safety. Sometimes the blood would be left to dry and then be burnt.<ref name="Evans, p. 272" /> It was thought that dairy products were especially at risk from harmful spirits.<ref name="Danaher" /><ref name="McNeill2">McNeill (1959) Vol. 2. p. 63</ref><ref name="Campbell">[[John Gregorson Campbell|Campbell, John Gregorson]] (1900, 1902, 2005) ''The Gaelic Otherworld''. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh, Birlinn Ltd. {{ISBN|1-84158-207-7}} pp. 552–554</ref> To protect farm produce and encourage fertility, farmers would lead a procession around the boundaries of their farm. They would "carry with them seeds of grain, implements of husbandry, the first well water, and the herb [[Verbena|vervain]] (or rowan as a substitute). The procession generally stopped at the four cardinal points of the compass, beginning in the east, and rituals were performed in each of the four directions".<ref>Danaher, ''The Year in Ireland'', pp. 116–117</ref> People made the sign of the cross with milk for good luck on Beltane, and the sign of the cross was also made on the backsides of cattle.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|title=Baile an Daingin (C.) {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4427840/4349345|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Baile an Daingin (C.) {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4427840/4349346|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref>

====Other customs====
[[Holy well]]s were often visited at Beltane, and at the other Gaelic festivals of Imbolc and Lughnasadh. Visitors to holy wells would pray for health while walking [[sunwise]] (moving from east to west) around the well. They would then leave offerings; typically coins or [[clootie]]s (see [[clootie well]]).<ref name="Danaher" /> The first water drawn from a well on Beltane was thought to be especially potent, and would bring good luck to the person who drew it. Beltane morning [[dew]] was also thought to bring good luck and health. At dawn or before sunrise on Beltane, maidens would roll in the dew or wash their faces with it.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Baile an Churraigh {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4591100/4591003|access-date=2021-12-25|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref> The dew was collected in a jar, left in sunlight, then filtered. The dew was thought to increase sexual attractiveness, maintain youthfulness, protect from sun damage (particularly freckles and sunburn) and help with skin ailments for the ensuing year.<ref name=koch/><ref name="Danaher" /><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|title=Baile an Daingin (C.) {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4427840/4349344|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref> It was also thought that a man who washed his face with soap and water on Beltane will grow long whiskers on his face.<ref name=":1" />

It was widely believed that no one should light a fire on May Day morning until they saw smoke rising from a neighbor's house.<ref name=":2" /> It was also believed to be bad luck to put out ashes or clothes on May Day, and to give away coal or ashes would cause the giver difficulty in lighting fires for the next year.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|title=Druim an t-Seagail {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4602710/4597559|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" /> Also, if the family owned a white horse, it should remain in the barn all day, and if any other horse was owned, a red rag should be tied to its tail.<ref name=":1" /> Any foal born on May Day was fated to kill a man, and any cow that calved on May Day would die.<ref name=":3" /> Any birth or marriage on May Day was generally believed to be ill-fated.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|title=Baile an Daingin (C.) {{!}} The Schools' Collection|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/4427840/4349343|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web|title=Festivals of the Year - May Day|url=https://www.duchas.ie/en/cbes/5044699/5032924/5146080|access-date=2022-02-12|website=dúchas.ie|language=en}}</ref> On May Night a cake and a jug were left on the table, because it was believed that the Irish who had died abroad would return on May Day to their ancestral homes, and it was also believed that the dead returned on May Day to visit their friends.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /> A [[European robin|robin]] that flew into the house on Beltane was believed to portend the death of a household member.<ref name=":7" />

The festival persisted widely up until the 1950s, and in some places the celebration of Beltane continues today.<ref name=mackillop/><ref name="McNeill2" /><ref name="Campbell" />

==Revival==

As a festival, Beltane had largely died out by the mid-20th century, although some of its customs continued and in some places it has been revived as a cultural event. In Ireland, Beltane fires were common until the mid-20th century,<ref name="Danaher" /> but the custom seems to have lasted to the present day only in [[County Limerick]] (especially in [[Limerick]] itself) and in [[Arklow]], [[County Wicklow]].<ref>[http://www.wicklowpeople.ie/news/council-faces-cleanup-bill-after-maybush-fires-1021379.html Council faces clean-up after maybush fires.] Wicklow People, 5 May 2005.</ref> The lighting of a community Beltane fire from which each hearth fire is then relit is observed today in some parts of the [[Gaelic diaspora]], though in most of these cases it is a cultural revival rather than an unbroken survival of the ancient tradition.<ref name="Danaher" /><ref name="Dames">Dames, Michael (1992) ''Mythic Ireland''. London, Thames & Hudson {{ISBN|0-500-27872-5}}. pp. 206–210</ref><ref name="McNeill">McNeill, F. Marian (1959) ''The Silver Bough'', Vol. 2. William MacLellan, Glasgow {{ISBN|0-85335-162-7}} p. 56</ref> In parts of Newfoundland, the custom of decorating the May Bush also survives.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.heritage.nf.ca/society/custom_may_bush.html |title=The May Bush in Newfoundland: Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage |publisher=Heritage.nf.ca |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-date=27 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227082523/http://www.heritage.nf.ca/society/custom_may_bush.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The town of [[Peebles]] in the [[Scottish Borders]] holds a traditional week-long Beltane Fair every year in June, when a local girl is crowned Beltane Queen on the steps of the parish church. Like other Borders festivals, it incorporates a [[Common Riding]].<ref name="tracscotland.org" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.peeblesbeltanefestival.co.uk |title=Home |publisher=Peeblesbeltanefestival.co.uk |access-date=1 May 2014 |archive-date=2 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140502013450/http://www.peeblesbeltanefestival.co.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Edinburgh Beltane Fire Festival 2012 - Red Beastie Drummers.JPG|thumb|[[Beltane Fire Festival]] dancers, 2012]]
Since 1988, a [[Beltane Fire Festival]] has been held every year on the night of 30 April on [[Calton Hill, Edinburgh|Calton Hill]] in Edinburgh, Scotland. While inspired by traditional Beltane, it is a modern celebration of summer's beginning which draws on many influences.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Beltane Fire Festival |date=11 February 2013 |url=https://beltane.org/about-beltane/ |publisher=[[Beltane Fire Society]] |access-date=1 May 2022}}</ref> The [[performance art]] event involves [[fire dance]]s and a procession by costumed performers, led by the May Queen and the Green Man, culminating in the lighting of a bonfire.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Melis |first1=Claudia |title=City on fire: Deterritorialisation and becoming at Edinburgh's Beltane Fire Festival |encyclopedia=Tourism, Cultural Heritage and Urban Regeneration |editor=Nicholas Wise |date=2020 |publisher=Springer |pages=113–114}}</ref>

Butser Ancient Farm, an open-air archaeology museum in Hampshire, UK, has also held a Beltane festival since the 1980s. The festival mixes historical reenactment with folk influences, and features a May Queen and Green Man, living history displays, reenactor battles, demonstrations of traditional crafts, performances of folk music, and Celtic storytelling. The festival ends with the burning of a 30-40ft wickerman, with a new historical or folk-inspired design each year.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beltain Celtic Fire Festival |url=https://www.butserancientfarm.co.uk/beltain-celtic-fire-festival |access-date=2022-11-25 |website=Butser Ancient Farm |language=en-US}}</ref>

A similar Bealtaine Festival has been held each year since 2009 at [[Uisneach]] in Ireland.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bealtaine |url=https://uisneach.ie/bealtaine/ |website=Uisneach.ie |access-date=1 May 2022}}</ref> It culminates in a torchlit procession by participants in costume, some on horseback, and the lighting of a large bonfire at dusk.<ref>{{cite news |title=Festival of fire reignites pagan passions |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/festival-of-fire-reignites-pagan-passions-1.660641 |newspaper=[[The Irish Times]] |date=4 May 2010}}</ref> In 2017, the ceremonial fire was lit by the [[President of Ireland]], [[Michael D Higgins]].<ref>{{cite news |title=President lights Hill of Uisneach fire |url=https://www.meathchronicle.ie/2017/05/08/president-lights-hill-of-uisneach-fire/ |work=[[Meath Chronicle]] |date=8 May 2017}}</ref>

The 1970 recording '[[Ride a White Swan]]', written and performed by [[Marc Bolan]] and his band [[T. Rex (band)|T.Rex]], contains the line "Ride a white Swan like the people of the Beltane".<ref>Dicks,Ted & Platz,Paul; 'Marc Bolan: A Tribute'. Wise Publications,1992. ISBN 0711929955, 9780711929951, et al.</ref>

===Neopaganism===
{{Also|Wheel of the Year}}
Beltane and Beltane-based festivals are held by some [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]]. As there are many kinds of Neopaganism, their Beltane celebrations can be very different despite the shared name. Some try to emulate the historic festival as much as possible.<ref name="Gallagher">{{Cite book |last1=Gallagher |first1=Eugene V. |title=Introduction to new and alternative religions in America |last2=Ashcraft |first2=W. Michael |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-275-98713-2 |location=Westport, Conn. |page=178}}</ref> Other Neopagans base their celebrations on many sources, the Gaelic festival being only one of them.<ref name="Adler1">Adler, Margot (1979) ''Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today''. Boston, Beacon Press {{ISBN|0-8070-3237-9}}. p. 397 – Excerpts from Manhattan Pagan Way Beltane ritual script, 1978</ref><ref name="McColman1">McColman, Carl (2003) ''Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom''. Alpha Press {{ISBN|0-02-864417-4}}. p. 51</ref>

Neopagans usually celebrate Beltane on 30 April – 1 May in the Northern Hemisphere and 31 October – 1 November in the Southern Hemisphere, beginning and ending at sunset.<ref name="SpiralDance" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Nevill Drury |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rwzttsI9-NwC |title=Handbook of Contemporary Paganism |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |year=2009 |isbn=9789004163737 |editor-last=Pizza |editor-first=Murphy |location=[[Leiden]], Netherlands |pages=63–67 |chapter=The Modern Magical Revival: Esbats and Sabbats |editor-last2=Lewis |editor-first2=James R |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=26 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126083911/https://books.google.com/books?id=rwzttsI9-NwC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hume |first=Lynne |title=Witchcraft and Paganism in Australia |publisher=Melbourne University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0522847826 |location=Melbourne}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Vos |first=Donna |title=Dancing Under an African Moon: Paganism and Wicca in South Africa |publisher=Zebra Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-1868726530 |location=Cape Town |pages=79–86}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Bodsworth |first=Roxanne T |title=Sunwyse: Celebrating the Sacred Wheel of the Year in Australia |publisher=Hihorse Publishing |year=2003 |isbn=978-0909223038 |location=Victoria, Australia}}</ref> Some Neopagans celebrate it at the astronomical midpoint between the spring [[equinox]] and [[summer solstice]] (or the full moon nearest this point). In the Northern Hemisphere, this midpoint is when the ecliptic longitude of the Sun reaches 45 degrees.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.archaeoastronomy.com/seasons.html |title=Equinoxes, Solstice, Cross Quarters shown as seasonal cusps, worshipped by pagans and later religious holidays |publisher=Archaeoastronomy.com |access-date=5 March 2013 |archive-date=23 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123062729/http://www.archaeoastronomy.com/seasons.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2014, this was on 5 May.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.archaeoastronomy.com/2014.html |title=Chart of 2013 equinox, solstice and cross quarter dates and times, worldwide from |publisher=archaeoastronomy.com |access-date=5 March 2013 |archive-date=4 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130304164723/http://www.archaeoastronomy.com/2014.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Celtic Reconstructionist====
[[Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism|Celtic Reconstructionists]] strive to reconstruct [[ancient Celtic religion]]. Their religious practices are based on research and historical accounts,<ref name="Gallagher" /><ref name="McColman2">McColman (2003) pp. 12, 51</ref> but modified to suit modern life. They avoid [[syncretism]] and eclecticism (i.e. combining practises from unrelated cultures).<ref name="CRFAQ1">NicDhàna, Kathryn et al. (2007) ''The CR FAQ: An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism''. River House Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-615-15800-6}} pp. 53–56, 64, 130–131</ref>

Celtic Reconstructionists usually celebrate Beltane when the local [[Common Hawthorn|hawthorn]] trees are in bloom. Many observe the traditional bonfire rites, to whatever extent this is feasible where they live. This may involve passing themselves and their pets or livestock between two bonfires, and bringing home a candle lit from the bonfire. If they are unable to make a bonfire or attend a bonfire ceremony, candles may be used instead. They may decorate their homes with a May Bush, branches from blooming thorn trees, or equal-armed rowan crosses. Holy wells may be visited and offerings made to the spirits or deities of the wells. Traditional festival foods may also be prepared.<ref name="CRFAQ2">NicDhàna (2007) pp. 100–103</ref><ref name="Healy">Healy, Elizabeth (2001) ''In Search of Ireland's Holy Wells''. Dublin, Wolfhound Press {{ISBN|0-86327-865-5}} p. 27</ref>

====Wicca====
[[Wicca]]ns use the name ''Beltane'' or ''Beltain'' for their May Day celebrations. It is one of the yearly Sabbats of their [[Wheel of the Year]], following [[Ostara]] and preceding [[Midsummer]]. Unlike Celtic Reconstructionism, Wicca is syncretic and melds practices from many different cultures. In general, the Wiccan Beltane is more akin to the Germanic/English May Day festival, both in its significance (focusing on fertility) and its rituals (such as [[maypole]] dancing). Some Wiccans enact a ritual union of the [[Horned God|May Lord]] and [[Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)|May Lady]].<ref name="SpiralDance">[[Starhawk]] (1979, 1989) ''[[The Spiral Dance|The Spiral Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess]]''. New York, Harper and Row {{ISBN|0-06-250814-8}} pp. 181 196 (revised edition)</ref>

==Name==
In Irish, the festival is usually called {{lang|ga|Lá Bealtaine}} ('day of Beltane') while the month of May is {{lang|ga|Mí Bhealtaine}} ("month of Beltane"). In [[Scottish Gaelic]], the festival is {{lang|gd|Latha Bealltainn}} and the month is {{lang|gd|An Cèitean}} or {{lang|gd|a' Mhàigh}}. Sometimes the older Scottish Gaelic spelling {{lang|gd|Bealltuinn}} is used. The word {{lang|ga|Céitean}} comes from {{lang|ga|Cétshamain}} ('first of summer'), an old alternative name for the festival.<ref>''Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium'', Volume 23. Harvard University Press, 2003. p. 258</ref><ref>Green, Miranda. ''The Celtic World''. Routledge, 2012. p. 437</ref> The term {{lang|gd|Latha Buidhe Bealltainn}} (Scottish) or {{lang|ga|Lá Buidhe Bealtaine}} (Irish), 'the bright or yellow day of Beltane', means the first of May. In Ireland it is referred to in a common folk tale as {{lang|ga|Luan Lae Bealtaine}}; the first day of the week (Monday/{{lang|ga|Luan}}) is added to highlight the first day of summer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ó Crualaoich |first=Gearóid |date=1 January 1994 |title=Non-Sovereignty Queen Aspects of the Otherworld Female in Irish Hag Legends: The Case of Cailleach Bhéarra |journal=Béaloideas |volume=62/63 |pages=147–162 |doi=10.2307/20522445 |jstor=20522445}}</ref>

The name is anglicized as Beltane, Beltain, Beltaine, Beltine and Beltany.<ref name="firefestival" />

===Etymology===
Two modern etymologies have been proposed. Beltaine could derive from a [[Common Celtic]] {{lang|cel-x-proto|*belo-te(p)niâ}}, meaning 'bright fire'. The element {{lang|cel-x-proto|*belo-}} might be cognate with the English word ''bale'' (as in {{wikt-lang|en|balefire|bale-fire}}) meaning 'white', 'bright' or 'shining'. Alternatively, Beltaine might stem from a Common Celtic form reconstructed as {{lang|cel-x-proto|*Beltiniyā}}, which would be [[cognate]] with the name of the Lithuanian goddess of death {{lang|lt|[[Giltinė]]}}, both from an earlier *''gʷel-tiōn-'', formed with the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root *''{{PIE|gʷelH-}}'' ('suffering, death'). The absence of [[Syncope (phonology)|syncope]] (Irish [[sound laws]] rather predict a **''Beltne'' form) can be explained by the popular belief that Beltaine was a [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] of the word for 'fire', ''tene''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schrijver|first=Peter|author-link=Peter Schrijver|year=1999|title=On Henbane and Early European Narcotics|journal=Zeitschrift für celtische Philologie|volume=51|issue=1|pages=34–35|doi=10.1515/zcph.1999.51.1.17|s2cid=162678252|issn=1865-889X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Delamarre|first=Xavier|title=Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental|publisher=Errance|year=2003|isbn=9782877723695|author-link=Xavier Delamarre|pages=70–71}}</ref>

In [[Patrick S. Dinneen|Ó Duinnín]]'s Irish dictionary (1904), Beltane is referred to as {{lang|ga|Céadamh(ain)}} which it explains is short for {{lang|ga|Céad-shamh(ain)}} meaning 'first (of) summer'. The dictionary also states that {{lang|ga|Dia Céadamhan}} is May Day and {{lang|ga|Mí Céadamhan}} is the month of May.

===Toponymy===
[[File:Beltany stone circle.jpg|thumb|[[Beltany stone circle]] in Ireland]]
There are [[place names in Ireland]] containing the word {{lang|ga|Bealtaine}}, indicating places where Bealtaine festivities were once held. It is often anglicised as ''Beltany''. There are three Beltanys in [[County Donegal]], including the [[Beltany stone circle]], and two in [[County Tyrone]]. In [[County Armagh]] there is a place called [[Laurelvale|Tamnaghvelton]]/{{lang|ga|Tamhnach Bhealtaine}} ('the Beltane field'). Lisbalting/{{lang|ga|Lios Bealtaine}} ('the Beltane [[ringfort]]') is in [[County Tipperary]], while Glasheennabaultina/{{lang|ga|Glaisín na Bealtaine}} ('the Beltane stream') is the name of a stream joining the River Galey in [[County Limerick]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://archive.org/stream/irishnamesofplac01joycuoft/irishnamesofplac01joycuoft_djvu.txt |title=The Origin And History of Irish Names of Places by Patrick Weston Joyce |date=1875 |access-date=8 October 2017}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Holidays|Ireland|Scotland}}

* [[Samhain]]
* [[Celtic calendar]]
* [[Calan Mai]]
* [[Walpurgis Night]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Carmichael, Alexander (1992). ''[[Carmina Gadelica]]''. Lindisfarne Press. {{ISBN|0-940262-50-9}}
* Chadwick, Nora (1970) ''The Celts''. London, Penguin {{ISBN|0-14-021211-6}}
* [[Kevin Danaher|Danaher, Kevin]] (1972) ''The Year in Ireland''. Dublin, Mercier {{ISBN|1-85635-093-2}}
* [[W. Y. Evans-Wentz|Evans-Wentz, W. Y.]] (1966, 1990) ''The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries''. New York, Citadel {{ISBN|0-8065-1160-5}}
* MacKillop, James (1998). ''Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''. Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-280120-1}}
* [[F. Marian McNeill|McNeill, F. Marian]] (1959) ''The Silver Bough'', Vol. 1–4. William MacLellan, Glasgow
* [[Eve Blantyre Simpson|Simpson, Eve Blantyre]] (1908), ''Folk Lore in Lowland Scotland'', London: [[J.M. Dent]].

==External links==
* [http://www.beltane.org/ Edinburgh's Beltane Fire Society]
* [http://www.bartleby.com/196/155.html Extract on The Beltane Fires from Sir James George Frazer's book The Golden Bough – 1922]; from ''bartleby.com''

{{Celts|state=collapsed}}
{{Celtic mythology topics}}
{{Wheel of the Year}}
{{Contemporary_witchcraft}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:April observances]]
[[Category:Cross-quarter days]]
[[Category:Gaelic culture]]
[[Category:Holidays in Scotland]]
[[Category:Irish culture]]
[[Category:Irish folklore]]
[[Category:Irish mythology]]
[[Category:Irish words and phrases]]
[[Category:Galician culture]]
[[Category:Manx culture]]
[[Category:May observances]]
[[Category:Modern pagan holidays]]
[[Category:November observances]]
[[Category:Scottish culture]]
[[Category:Scottish folklore]]
[[Category:Scottish mythology]]

Talk:Mexico

2023-03-06T01:50:57Z

JavaRogers: /* Image caption appears outdated or is wrong */ new section

{{Vital article|topic=Geography|level=3|class=B}}
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{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject Mexico |class=B |importance=top}}
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{{Outline of knowledge coverage|Mexico}}
{{To do}}
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{{Translated page|es|México}}

== POTD ==

{{POTD/2018-09-16}}

== Gini coefficient ==

I would like to update the Gini coefficient of Mexico to the one published by the government. According to the source, it's 0.680 {{Cite web|url=https://www.evalua.cdmx.gob.mx/storage/app/uploads/public/5d5/2ec/2c2/5d52ec2c25120396624625.pdf|title=Consejo de Evaluación del Desarrollo Social de la Ciudad de MéxicoEvolución del Coeficiente de Gini del ingreso ajustado a CN, Ciudad de México y Nacional|language=es}}

== Official name correction ==

Please change Nahuatl official name of Mexico to ''Mexika Sentik Wexteyowalko'', as it is the real extended name of Mexico according to government sources. https://www.inali.gob.mx/bicen/pdf/GLOSARIO_nahuatl_huasteca_potosina.pdf

Also, I suggest the Maya official name ''U Múuchꞌ Péetluꞌumiloꞌob Meejiko'' to be added too. https://www.inali.gob.mx/bicen/pdf/CPEUM_maya.pdf [[User:Languaeditor|Languae]] ([[User talk:Languaeditor|talk]]) 00:57, 30 November 2022 (UTC)

== President of Senate, Chamber of Deputies and Chief Justice ==

Hello! I'd like to ask for an edition regarding the infobox.

*The President of the Senate isn't Olga Sanchez Cordero as of today. Since 01 Sep 2022, its holder is '''Alejandro Armenta Mier''' by the party MORENA. (https://www.senado.gob.mx/64/mesa_directiva/) 
*The President of the Chamber of Deputies isn't Sergio Gutiérrez Luna as of today. Since 01 Sep 2022, its holder is '''[[Santiago Creel Miranda]]''' by the party PAN. (https://web.diputados.gob.mx/inicio/tusDiputados/organosGobierno?Tipo=mesaDirectiva) 
*The Chief Justice isn't Arturo Zaldívar as of today. Since 02 Jan 2023, its holder is '''[[Norma Lucía Piña Hernández|Norma Piña Hernández]]'''. (https://www.proceso.com.mx/nacional/2023/1/2/norma-lucia-pina-hernandez-es-la-nueva-presidenta-de-la-corte-299581.html)

Thanks for the attention, greetings. [[User:HugoASZ|HugoASZ]] ([[User talk:HugoASZ|talk]]) 06:24, 31 December 2022 (UTC) 
Updated --[[User:HugoASZ|HugoASZ]] ([[User talk:HugoASZ|talk]]) 04:21, 3 January 2023 (UTC)

== Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 3 January 2023 ==

{{edit extended-protected|Mexico|answered=y}}
[[User:Jejimcas|Jejimcas]] ([[User talk:Jejimcas|talk]]) 17:53, 3 January 2023 (UTC)
I would like to ask a change of names. The heads of the Senate, Deputies and Supreme Court has changed. The first two since September 2022 and the last since 2 January 2023.

Alejandro Armenta Mier is the president of the Senate.
Santiago Creel Miranda is the president of the Deputies.
Norma Lucía Piña Hernández is the president of the Supreme Court.
:[[File:Red information icon with gradient background.svg|20px|link=|alt=]] '''Not done:''' please provide [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable sources]] that support the change you want to be made. [[User:1AmNobody24|1AmNobody24]] ([[User talk:1AmNobody24|talk]]) 12:59, 4 January 2023 (UTC)

:Just wow. The sources are just up there, right before this section, published by me days ago, asking for an edition in a section that nobody seems to read, in an article that is listed as a level-3 vital article.
:@[[User:1AmNobody24|1AmNobody24]]
:*The President of the Senate isn't Olga Sanchez Cordero as of today. Since 01 Sep 2022, its holder is '''Alejandro Armenta Mier''' by the party MORENA. (https://www.senado.gob.mx/64/mesa_directiva/)
:*The President of the Chamber of Deputies isn't Sergio Gutiérrez Luna as of today. Since 01 Sep 2022, its holder is '''[[Santiago Creel|Santiago Creel Miranda]]''' by the party PAN. (https://web.diputados.gob.mx/inicio/tusDiputados/organosGobierno?Tipo=mesaDirectiva)
:*The Chief Justice isn't Arturo Zaldívar as of today. Since 02 Jan 2023, its holder is '''[[Norma Lucía Piña Hernández|Norma Piña Hernández]]'''. (https://www.scjn.gob.mx/presidencia)
:Best regards, [[User:HugoASZ|HugoASZ]] ([[User talk:HugoASZ|talk]]) 05:12, 5 January 2023 (UTC)
::{{done}}
::We don't appear to have an article on Alejandro Armenta Mier, at least under any of the variations I could think of. I'm unfamiliar with Mexican government; is this a major enough office/person that we should? [[User:3mi1y|ℰ''mi1y'']]⧼[[User talk:3mi1y|T]]·[[Special:Contributions/3mi1y|C]]⧽ 08:11, 5 January 2023 (UTC)

== Question ==

In Wikipedia, I know you need to back up whatever you write (that isn't obvious to a glance or [[WP:NOR|original research]]) with a reliable source, but my question is does the source need to be in English? I want to add information, but the article is only available in Spanish with no option to translate (but it comes from the federal government of Mexico). Thanks in advance. [[User:LostKlaus|LostKlaus]] ([[User talk:LostKlaus|talk]]) 06:15, 8 January 2023 (UTC)
:See [[WP:NONENG]]. Sources don't need to be in English. Given the availability of an acceptable source in English, it's preferable to use that over one that isn't in English, but non-English sources are fine. [[User:Largoplazo|Largoplazo]] ([[User talk:Largoplazo|talk]]) 14:40, 8 January 2023 (UTC)

== Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 25 February 2023 ==

{{edit extended-protected|Mexico|answered=yes}}
Lots of grammatical errors in this paragraph. I made some corrections:

Throughout the 19th century, the population of Mexico had barely doubled. This trend continued during the first two decades of the 20th century. The 1921 census reported a loss of about 1 million inhabitants. The Mexican Revolution greatly impacted population increases. The growth rate increased dramatically between the 1930s and the 1980s, when the country registered growth rates of over 3% (1950–1980). The Mexican population doubled in twenty years, and at that rate it was expected that by 2000 there would be 120 million people living in Mexican. Life expectancy increased from 36 years (in 1895) to 72 years (in the year 2000). [[Special:Contributions/2806:2F0:8100:1D33:F8C2:E81E:BBF9:9DA8|2806:2F0:8100:1D33:F8C2:E81E:BBF9:9DA8]] ([[User talk:2806:2F0:8100:1D33:F8C2:E81E:BBF9:9DA8|talk]]) 09:35, 25 February 2023 (UTC)
:{{done}} though your version had it's own errors, e.g. "people living in mexican" [[User:SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|small jars]] <code>[[User talk:SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|t]][[special:contributions/SmallJarsWithGreenLabels|c]]</code> 15:06, 26 February 2023 (UTC)

== Image caption appears outdated or is wrong ==

The caption reads "New Spain was essential to the Spanish global trading system. White represents the route of the Spanish Manila Galleons in the Pacific and the Spanish convoys in the Atlantic (blue represents Portuguese routes)." The image has no white or blue routes marked, nor does any version in the file history. I suspect the caption used to belong to an image of another name.——[[User:JavaRogers|JavaRogers]] ([[User talk:JavaRogers|talk]]) 01:50, 6 March 2023 (UTC)

Mount Diablo

2022-12-05T16:47:05Z

JavaRogers: Tagged citations needed

{{short description|Mountain in California, USA}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2017}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Mount Diablo
| native_name = {{plain list|
* {{native name|cst|tuyshtak}}
* {{native name|nsq|oj·ompil·e}}
* {{native name|csm|supemenenu}}
* {{native name|nsz|sukkú jaman}}
}}
| other_name = {{lang|es|Cerro Alto de los Bolbones}}
| photo = View of Mount Diablo and CA highway 24 from Lafayette Hights.jpg
| photo_caption = West face of Mount Diablo and [[California State Route 24|Hwy 24]]
| elevation_ft = 3849
| elevation_ref = {{NAVD88}}<ref name="ngs">
{{cite ngs
| id = HS5120
| designation = Mount Diablo
| access-date = June 28, 2009 }}</ref>
| prominence_ft = 3109
| prominence_ref = <ref name="pb"/>
| range = [[Diablo Range]]
| parent_peak =
| listing = [[List of highest points in California by county|California county high points]] 45th
| location = [[Contra Costa County, California]], U.S.
| map = USA California#USA
| map_caption = none
| map_size = 220
| coordinates = {{coord|37.881697781|N|121.914154997|W|type:mountain_region:US-CA_scale:100000_source:ngs|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="ngs"/>
| topo = [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] Clayton
| type = [[Sedimentary rock|Sedimentary]]
| age = [[Cretaceous]], [[Jurassic]]
| easiest_route = Paved road
| embedded = {{designation list | embed = yes
| designation1 = NNL
| designation1_date = 1982
}}
{{Designation list|embed=yes|designation1=California|designation1_number=905<ref name=CHL>{{cite ohp|905|Mount Diablo|2012-10-06}}</ref>}}
}}

[[File:Mount Diablo California from Concord.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Los Medanos foothills and Mount Diablo from over Suisun Bay at [[Concord, California]]]]

'''Mount Diablo''' is a mountain of the [[Diablo Range]], in [[Contra Costa County, California|Contra Costa County]] of the eastern [[San Francisco Bay Area]] in [[Northern California]]. It is south of [[Clayton, California|Clayton]] and northeast of [[Danville, California|Danville]]. It is an isolated upthrust peak of {{convert|3849|ft|m|0|abbr=off|sp=us}}, visible from most of the San Francisco Bay Area. Mount Diablo appears from many angles to be a double pyramid and has many subsidiary peaks. The largest and closest is North Peak, the other half of the double pyramid, which is nearly as high in elevation at {{convert|3557|ft|m|0}}, and is about {{convert|1|mile|spell=in|abbr=off|sp=us}} northeast of the main summit.

The mountain is within the boundaries of '''Mount Diablo State Park''', which is administered by [[California State Parks]].

==Geography==

The summit is accessible by foot, bicycle, or motor vehicle. Road access is via North Gate Road or South Gate Road. Also you can hike in various places in Mount Diablo.

=== Mount Diablo State Park ===

The peak is in Mount Diablo State Park, a [[state park]] of about {{convert|20000|acres|sigfig=1|abbr=off|sp=us}}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mercurynews.com/2019/05/12/state-parks-standstill-why-california-hasnt-opened-a-new-state-park-in-10-years/|title=State parks standstill: Why California hasn't opened a new state park in 10 years|last=Rogers|first=Paul|date=2019-05-12|website=The Mercury News|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-12|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The state park was the first public [[Open space reserve|open space]] established on or near the peak. According to the non-profit Save Mount Diablo, there are now varied types of protected lands on and around Mount Diablo that total more than {{convert|90000|acres|sigfig=2}}. These include 38 preserves, such as nearby city open spaces, regional parks, and [[drainage basin|watershed]]s, which are buffered in some areas with private lands that have been protected by conservation [[easement]]s.

The day use fee per vehicle for the park varies according to the entrance: $6 via Macedo Ranch (Alamo) or Mitchell Canyon (Clayton), and $10 via South Gate Rd. (Danville) & North Gate Rd. (Walnut Creek) leading up Mount Diablo. --><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/737/files/current_web_day%20use.pdf |title=Day Use Fees |publisher=California State Parks |access-date=January 24, 2015}}</ref>

===Viewshed===

On a clear day, the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] range is plainly visible from the summit. The best views are after a winter storm; a snowy Sierra shows up better, and summer days are likely to be hazy. [[Lassen Peak]], {{convert|181|mi|km|abbr=off|sp=us}} away, is occasionally just visible over the curve of the earth.<ref name=HeyWhatsThatViewShed>{{cite web|title=Mt Diablo Viewshed|url=http://www.heywhatsthat.com/?view=BPMSFOEL|website=HeyWhatsThat.com|access-date=July 4, 2014}}</ref><ref name=PeakFinderMtDiabloView>{{cite web|title=Computer Generated View from Mt Diablo|url=http://www.peakfinder.org/?lat=37.8821&lng=-121.915&ele=1160&name=Mount%20Diablo&zoom=7&dir=9|website=www.peakfinder.org}}</ref> [[Sentinel Dome]] in [[Yosemite National Park]] is visible,<ref name=SentinelDomeViewAtPeakfinder>{{cite web|title=Synthetic View from Sentinel Dome to Mt Diablo|url=http://www.peakfinder.org/?lat=37.7238&lng=-119.585&ele=2475&name=Sentinel%20Dome&zoom=7&dir=275|website=www.peakfinder.org|access-date=July 5, 2014}}</ref> but [[Half Dome]] is hidden by the 8000-foot ridge at 37.755N 119.6657W. Eight bridges are visible, from left to right (southwest to northeast): [[San Mateo Bridge|San Mateo]], [[San Francisco Bay Bridge|Bay]], [[Golden Gate Bridge|Golden Gate]], [[San Rafael Bridge|San Rafael]], [[Carquinez Bridge|Carquinez]], [[Benicia Bridge|Benicia]], [[Antioch Bridge|Antioch]], and [[Rio Vista Bridge|Rio Vista]].

Claims that the mountain's [[viewshed]] is the largest in the world{{nsmdns}}or second largest after [[Mount Kilimanjaro]]{{nsmdns}}are ill-founded.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ehsanipour |first1=Asal |title=Does Mount Diablo Have the Biggest View in the World? |url=https://www.kqed.org/news/11808501/does-mount-diablo-have-the-biggest-view-in-the-world |website=Bay Curious |publisher=KQED |access-date=16 August 2020}}</ref> It does boast one of the largest viewsheds in the Western United States and played a key role in California history.

Countless peaks in the state are taller, but Mount Diablo has a remarkable [[topographical prominence|visual prominence]] for a mountain of such low elevation. Its looming presence over much of the [[San Francisco Bay Area|Bay Area]], [[Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta|delta]], and [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]], and good visibility even from the [[Mother lode#California Mother Lode|Mother Lode]], all key regions during the [[California Gold Rush|gold rush]] and early [[List of U.S. states by date of statehood|statehood]], made it an important landmark for mapping and navigation. The summit is used as the reference datum for land surveying in much of northern California and Nevada.

[[File:Mount Diablo Panoramic From Newhall.jpg|thumb|center|800px|View of Mount Diablo from [[Concord, California|Concord]]: north peak (left), Mount Zion (center), and main peak (right), ]]

==Cultural history==
[[File:Mount Diablo Summit.JPG|right|thumb|The summit of Mount Diablo]]
Mount Diablo is sacred to many California [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] peoples. According to [[Miwok mythology]] and [[Ohlone mythology]], it was the point of creation. The local peoples of the area traditionally had a variety of creation narratives associated with the mountain. In one surviving narrative fragment, Mount Diablo and Reed's Peak ([[Mount Tamalpais]]) were surrounded by water; from these two islands the creator Coyote and his assistant Eagle-man made Native American people and the world.<ref name="MDIA"/> In another, Molok the Condor brought forth his grandson Wek-Wek the Falcon Hero, from within the mountain.<ref>{{cite book |last=Merriam |first=C. Hart |year=1910 |title=The Dawn of the World: Myths and Weird Tales Told by the Mewan Indians of California |url=https://archive.org/details/dawnworldmythsa00merrgoog |location=Cleveland |publisher=Arthur H. Clark |oclc=2581152}}</ref>

===Earliest names===

[[File:Mt diablo north peak.jpg|thumb|View of Mount Diablo's North Peak from the main peak]]
About 25 independent tribal groups with well-defined territories lived in the East Bay countryside surrounding the mountain. Their members spoke dialects of three distinct languages: [[Ohlone language|Ohlone]], [[Bay Miwok language|Bay Miwok]], and [[Northern Valley Yokuts]].<ref>Milliken, Randall, (2008) ''Native Americans at Mission San Jose'', 2008, Malki-Ballena Press.</ref> The [[Chochenyo language|Chochenyo]]-speaking Ohlone from [[Mission San José (California)|Mission San Jose]] and the East Bay area, called the mountain {{lang|cst|Tuyshtak}}, meaning "at the dawn of time". Further inland, the [[Nisenan]] of the Sacramento Valley called it {{lang|nsz|Sukkú Jaman}}, "dog mountain"; because, as Nisenan elder Dalbert Castro once explained, it's "the place where dogs came from in trade".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.savemountdiablo.org/AboutMountDiablo.htm |title=About Mount Diablo |publisher=SaveMountDiablo.org |access-date=November 15, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100212222122/http://www.savemountdiablo.org/AboutMountDiablo.htm |archive-date=February 12, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}http://www.savemountdiablo.org/why_mtdiablohistory.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304223657/http://www.savemountdiablo.org/why_mtdiablohistory.html |date=March 4, 2016 }}</ref><ref name="ortiz"/> A Southern Sierra Miwok name for the mountain was {{lang|csm|Supemenenu}}, and a Northern Sierra Miwok name was {{lang|nsq|Oj·ompil·e}}.<ref name="ortiz"/>

It has also been suggested that another early Native American name for the mountain was {{lang|und|Kawukum}} or {{lang|und|Kahwookum}}, but there is no evidence to confirm the assertion. According to Indian historian Bev Ortiz and Save Mount Diablo:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.savemountdiablo.org/News_Press_Release/mount_kawukum.htm |title=Mount Kawukum? Save Mt. Diablo's Name |publisher=SaveMountDiablo.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070624211340/http://www.savemountdiablo.org/News_Press_Release/mount_kawukum.htm |archive-date=June 24, 2007 |access-date=November 15, 2015}}</ref> "The name {{lang|und|Kahwookum}} was made up in 1866 — with no real Native American connection — referred to the California Legislature's Committee on Public Morals, and tabled. It resurfaced as a real estate gimmick in 1916 with a supposed new translation, "Laughing Mountain", attributed without documentation to Diablo area Volvon Indians.<ref name="ortiz">{{cite journal |last=Ortiz |first=Bev |title=Mount Diablo as Myth and Reality: An Indian History Convoluted |journal=American Indian Quarterly |date=Autumn 1989 |volume=13 |issue=4 |pages=457–470 |doi=10.2307/1184528 |jstor=1184528 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1184528 |url-access=subscription }} explains the mountain's naming and debunks the name "Kahwookum" as fictitious.</ref>

Most of Mount Diablo, including its peak, was within the homeland of the early [[Bay Miwok|Volvon]] (sometimes spelled Wolwon, Bolbon or Bolgon), a [[Bay Miwok language|Bay Miwok]]–speaking tribe. As early as 1811, Spanish colonists referred to the mountain as {{lang|es|Cerro Alto de los Bolbones}} ("High Hill of the Volvon") or sometimes {{lang|es|Sierra de los Bolgones}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://johnmarshhouse.com/park/native-americans/ |title=John Marsh Historic Trust}}</ref> This name persisted for awhile but was replaced in 1850 by the Americans.

===Current name===

The conventional view is that the peak derives its name from the reaction of Spanish soldiers to the 1805 escape of several [[Bay Miwok|Chupcan]] Native Americans in a willow thicket some 7 miles north of the mountain. One story tells that their nighttime escape through the thicket was aided by mysterious lights.<ref name="hulaniski-3">{{cite book
|last=Hulaniski
|first=F.J.
|date=1917
|title=The History of Contra Costa County California
|location=Berkeley
|publisher=Elm Publishing
|chapter=3 |url=http://genealogytrails.com/cal/costa/books/history_of_cc_chapter3.html
}}</ref> An 1850 report by General [[Mariano G. Vallejo]] tells of a strange dancing spirit turning the battle in favor of the Chupcan. Vallejo interpreted the natives' word for the personage, {{lang|und|puy}}, to mean "devil" in the Anglo-American language.<ref name="hulaniski-14">{{cite book
|last=Hulaniski
|first=F.J.
|date=1917
|title=The History of Contra Costa County California
|location=Berkeley
|publisher=Elm Publishing
|chapter=14
|url=http://genealogytrails.com/cal/costa/books/history_of_cc_chapter3.html
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last =Cunningham
| first =Mark
| title =The Green Age of Asher Witherow
| url =https://archive.org/details/greenageofasherw00cunn
| url-access =registration
| publisher =Unbridled Books
| year =2004
| page =288
| isbn =1-932961-13-5
}}; for one interpretation of the context of the Spanish attack on the Chupcan, see Milliken, Randall, (1995) ''A Time of Little Choice: The Disintegration of Tribal Culture in the San Francisco Bay Area, 1769-1810'', Menlo Park, California: Ballena Press, pp.184-185, 241
</ref> Vallejo's report could be interpreted to align with Edward G. Gudde's history of place names. (Kyle, and Ortiz)<ref name="MDIA"/><ref>{{cite book |last=Gudde |first=Edward G. |title=One Thousand California Place Names: The Story Behind the Naming of Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, Capes, Bays, Counties and Cities |edition=3rd |publisher=University of California Press |year=1969 |isbn=0-520-01432-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/1000californiapl00gudd }}</ref>

By 1824, the region north of the mountain came to be known as ''Monte del Diablo'' ("devil's thicket"; in this case ''monte'' should be translated as thicket or dense woods). It was shown on maps near present-day [[Concord, California|Concord]] (formerly known as [[Pacheco, California|Pacheco]]).<ref>''Plano topografico de la Misión de San José''</ref> Later, U.S. settlers understood "Monte" to refer directly to the mountain, and it was recorded with varying degrees of certainty until "Mount Diablo" became official in 1850.<ref name="ortiz"/>

In May 1862, California Geological Survey field director William H. Brewer named the northeast peak of Mount Diablo "Mount King," after Rev. [[Thomas Starr King]], a Unitarian clergyman, abolitionist, Republican, Yosemite advocate, cultural Unionist, and California's leading intellectual. Today it is known simply as North Peak.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Browning |first1=Peter |title=Yosemite Place Names |date=1988 |publisher=Great West Books |location=Lafayette, Calif. |isbn=0-944220-00-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/yosemiteplacenam00brow/page/137 137] |url=https://archive.org/details/yosemiteplacenam00brow/page/137 }}</ref>

===Mount Diablo ===

[[File:Mount Diablo in with San Francisco Bay and Richmond–San Rafael Bridge.JPG|thumb|Mount Diablo with the [[San Francisco Bay]] and [[Richmond–San Rafael Bridge]] in the foreground]]
In 2005 Arthur Mijares, from the neighboring town of [[Oakley, California|Oakley]], petitioned the federal government to change the name of the mountain,<ref>'' Contra Costa Times'', October 14, 2005, "Board Decides Mount Diablo Will Keep Name", accessed 06-10-17</ref> claiming it offended his Christian beliefs. Additionally, he claimed that Diablo is a living person, and so is banned under federal law.<ref name="DiablotoReagan">{{cite news
| title = Man Petitions to Change Name of Mount Diablo to Mount Ronald Reagan
| first = Matthias
| last = Gafni
| url = http://www.contracostatimes.com/news/ci_14284156?nclick_check=1
| newspaper = Contra Costa Times
| date = January 27, 2010
| access-date = January 28, 2010
}}</ref> He suggested renaming the mountain Mount Kawukum, and later, Mount [[Yahweh]]. Suggestions by other individuals included Mount [[Miwok]] and Mount [[Ohlone]], after local Indian tribes. Finally Mijares proposed Mount [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]],<ref name="DiablotoReagan"/> but the board rejected it on the grounds that a person must be deceased for five years to have a geographic landmark named after them. Eventually, the [[U.S. Board on Geographic Names]] rejected the petitions, saying there was no compelling reason to change the name.

In 2009 Mijares again proposed the name Mount Reagan to the United States Board of Geographic Names because the late president was by then eligible.<ref name="DiablotoReagan"/> The board gave the Contra Costa County Supervisor's Committee until March 31 to file an opinion. Individual members of the committee have responded that although they respect Reagan, Mount Reagan is not an appropriate name for the historic mountain.<ref name="DiablotoReagan"/> Later, the board unanimously voted against renaming the mountain, citing its historical significance.<ref name="2010renamefails">{{cite news|url=http://www.aolnews.com/nation/article/devil-trumps-reagan-in-duel-over-mount-diablos-name/19371355|title=Devil Trumps Reagan in Duel Over Landmark|last=Paddock|first=Richard|date=February 24, 2010|publisher=[[AOL News]]|access-date=March 2, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100227182245/http://www.aolnews.com/nation/article/devil-trumps-reagan-in-duel-over-mount-diablos-name/19371355|archive-date=February 27, 2010|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Early uses===

In 1851 the south peak of the mountain was selected by Colonel [[Leander Ransom]] as the [[datum (geodesy)|initial point]]—where the Mount Diablo Base and [[Mount Diablo Meridian]] lines intersect—for [[cadastral]] surveys of a large area. Subsequent surveys in much of [[California]], [[Nevada]] and [[Oregon]] were located with reference to this point.

[[Toll road]]s up the mountain were created in 1874 by Joseph Seavey Hall and William Camron (sometimes "Cameron"); Hall's Mount Diablo Summit Road was officially opened on May 2, 1874. Camron's "Green Valley" road opened later. Hall also built the 16-room Mountain House Hotel near the junction of the two roads, a mile below the summit (2,500 foot elevation. (It operated through the 1880s, was abandoned in 1895, and burned c. 1901). As far north as Meridian Road, on the outskirts of [[Chico, California]], the summit was used as a reference point. The road is colinear with the summit, and is named for the meridian which intersects it.

An aerial [[navigation]] beacon, the Standard Diablo tower, was erected by [[Standard Oil]] at the summit in 1928.<ref name=save_md/> The 10-million-candlepower beacon<ref>A Standard ad (''Aviation Week'', October 30, 1961, p14) depicts a focused beam, unlike the present light.</ref> became known as the "Eye of Diablo" and was visible for a hundred miles.<ref name="MDIA"/>

===Protection of the area===
[[File:MountDiablo.JPG|thumb|left|Mount Diablo from the Berkeley–Oakland hills]]
After initial legislation in 1921, the state of California acquired enough land in 1931 to create a small state park around the peak. Many improvements were carried out in the 1930s by the [[Civilian Conservation Corps]], but park expansion slowed in the 1940s through the 1960s.

Significantly, botanist [[Mary Bowerman|Mary Leolin Bowerman]] (1908–2005), founder of the Save Mount Diablo non-profit in 1971, published her Ph.D. dissertation in 1936 at the [[University of California, Berkeley]]. In 1944 she published her book, ''The Flowering Plants and Ferns of Mount Diablo, California''. Her study boundaries became the basis for the state park's first map and for the park's eventual expansion. Her work also became the origin of many of the park's place names.<ref name="MDIA"/>

Mount Diablo was used for broadcasting purposes in the 1950s by radio station KSBR-FM and television station [[KOVR]] (channel 13). The Mount Diablo site gave KOVR, which was based in [[Stockton, California|Stockton]], regional coverage that also included San Francisco and [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]. However, it also forced the station to pay San Francisco rates for movies and impeded any attempt at obtaining network affiliation. In 1957, the station relocated to Butte Mountain in [[Jackson, California|Jackson]] in order to become an [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] affiliate and remove its signal from the Bay Area.

This state park has been greatly expanded over the decades. Soon after Earth Day in 1971, the nonprofit organization "Save Mount Diablo"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.savemountdiablo.org |title=Save Mount Diablo |publisher=SaveMountdiablo.org}}</ref> was created by co-founders Mary Bowerman and Art Bonwell, barely ahead of real estate developers. At the time, the state park included just {{convert|6788|acres}} and was the only park in the vicinity of the mountain. In 2007 the state park totaled almost {{convert|20,000|acres}}, and with 38 parks and preserves on and around the mountain, Diablo's public lands total more than {{convert|90000|acres}}. According to Save Mount Diablo, there are 50 individual preserves on and around Mount Diablo, some of which are conservation easements covering a single parcel, others are expected to eventually be absorbed into larger nearby parks. As of December 2007, the organization recognizes 38 specific Diablo parks and preserves.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}

The State Park adjoins park lands of the [[East Bay Regional Park District]], including [[Morgan Territory Regional Preserve]], [[Brushy Peak Regional Preserve]], [[Vasco Caves Regional Preserve]], and [[Round Valley Regional Preserve]]. It also adjoins protected areas owned or controlled by local cities such as the [[Old Borges Ranch|Borges Ranch Historic Farm]], the [[Concord Naval Weapons Station]] (now in the process of being converted to non military use), Indian Valley, [[Shell Ridge Open Space]] and [[Lime Ridge Open Space]]s near [[Walnut Creek, California|city of Walnut Creek]], and east to the [[Los Vaqueros Reservoir]] watershed. The new [[Marsh Creek State Park]]{{efn|formerly known as Cowell Ranch State Park.}} and [[Black Diamond Mines Regional Preserve]] are among the open spaces stretching to the north. In this way the open spaces controlled by cities, the East Bay Regional Park District, Mount Diablo State Park, and various regional preserves now adjoin and protect much of the elevated regions of the mountain. There are unprotected areas in Arroyo del Cerro, Curry Canyon, the Marsh creek region, and on the northern slopes of North Peak, and in a number of inholdings surrounded by preserve land.

[[File:Franks Tract in Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta with Mount Diablo in background.JPG|right|thumb|Mount Diablo as seen from [[Franks Tract State Recreation Area|Franks Tract]] in the [[Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta]]]]

Park expansion continues on all sides of the mountain although its western boundaries are largely complete. Extensive development continues in the southwestern foothills and Tassajara region, such as the upscale development of [[Blackhawk, California|Blackhawk]] and individual estates overlooking the Livermore Valley on Morgan Territory Road. Other large projects are proposed in the northern Black Diamond Mines and Los Medanos foothills, at the Concord Naval Weapons Station, and near Cowell Ranch State Park. Large-scale development of other private parcels is restricted by city and county urban limit lines, by lack of water, excessive slope, and sensitive resources including rare species. Development of smaller ranchette subdivisions continue to fragment and threaten many parcels and large areas of habitat.

===Map of protected lands===
In 2007 Save Mount Diablo published ''Mount Diablo, Los Vaqueros & Surrounding Parks, Featuring the Diablo Trail'', the most accurate and up-to-date map of Mount Diablo's more than {{convert|90000|acres}} of protected lands. It includes 100 access points, {{convert|520|mi}} of trail, and {{convert|400|mi}} of private fire roads. Updated acreages and trail mileages were discussed in accompanying press materials and news articles.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.savemountdiablo.org/DiabloTrailMAPHomepage.htm |title=Mount Diablo, Los Vaqueros & Surrounding Parks, Featuring the Diablo Trail |publisher=SaveMountDiablo.org |access-date=November 15, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602214220/http://www.savemountdiablo.org/DiabloTrailMAPHomepage.htm |archive-date=June 2, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}http://www.savemountdiablo.org/lands_map.html</ref>

==Natural history==

===Geology===
{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}
Mount Diablo is a geologic anomaly about {{convert|30|mi|-1}} east of San Francisco. The mountain is the result of geologic compression and uplift caused by the [[Plate tectonics|movements of the Earth's plates]]. The mountain lies between converging [[earthquake]] faults and continues to grow slowly. While the principal faults in the region are of the [[Strike-slip tectonics|strike-slip]] type, a significant thrust fault (with no surface trace) is found on the mountain's southwest flank. The uplift and subsequent weathering and erosion have exposed ancient oceanic [[Jurassic]] and [[Cretaceous]] age rocks that now form the summit. The mountain grows from three to five millimeters each year.

The upper portion of the mountain is made up of volcanic and sedimentary deposits of what once was one or more island arcs of the [[Farallon Plate]] dating back to the [[Jurassic]] and [[Cretaceous]] periods, between 90 and 190 million years ago. During this time, the [[Farallon Plate]] was subducting beneath the North American continent. These deposits were scraped off the top and accreted onto the [[North American Plate]]. This resulted in the highly distorted and fractured basalt and serpentine of the Mount Diablo Ophiolite and metasediments of the [[Franciscan Complex]] around the summit. East of the subduction zone, a basin was filling with sediment from the ancestral Sierra further to the east. Up to 60,000 feet (18,000 m) of sandstone, mudstone, and limestone of the [[Great Valley Sequence]] were deposited from 66 to 150 million years ago. These deposits are now found faulted against the Ophiolite and Franciscan deposits.

[[File:Fossilized seashells at the summit of Mt. Diablo, CA.jpg|thumb|left|Fossilized sea shells in the sandstone at the summit of Mt. Diablo (about 3,800' [[mean sea level|MSL]])]]Over the past 20 million years continental deposits have been periodically laid down and subsequently jostled around by the newly formed [[San Andreas Fault]] system, forming the Coast Ranges. Within the last four million years, local faulting has resulted in compression, folding, buckling, and erosion, bringing the various formations into their current juxtaposition. This faulting action continues to change the shape of Mount Diablo, along with the rest of the Coast Ranges.

The summit area of Mount Diablo is made up of deposits of gray [[sandstone]], [[graywacke]], [[chert]], oceanic volcanic [[basalts]] (greenstone) and a minor amount of [[shale]]. The hard red Franciscan chert is [[sedimentary]] in origin and rich in microscopic [[radiolaria]] [[fossil]]s. In the western foothills of the mountain there are large deposits of younger sandstone rocks also rich in seashells, severely tilted and in places forming dramatic ridgelines. Mount Diablo forms a double pyramid which gives the appearance of a volcano although in fact it is formed of ancient sea floor rock being uplifted by relatively recent tectonic forces.

Deposits of glassmaking-grade sand and lower-quality [[coal]] north of the mountain were mined in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but are now open to visitors as the [[Black Diamond Mines Regional Preserve]]. Guided tours of the sand mines and coal field are provided.

===Vegetation===
{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}
The park's vegetation is mixed [[oak]] woodland and savannah and open grassland with extensive areas of [[chaparral]] and a number of [[Endemism|endemic]] plant species, such as the [[Arctostaphylos auriculata|Mount Diablo manzanita]] (''Arctostaphylos auriculata''), [[Calochortus pulchellus|Mount Diablo fairy-lantern]] (''Calochortus pulchellus''), [[Campanula exigua|chaparral bellflower]] (''Campanula exigua''), [[Cordylanthus nidularius|Mount Diablo bird's beak]] (''Cordylanthus nidularius''), and [[Helianthella castanea|Mount Diablo sunflower]] (''Helianthella castanea''). The park includes substantial thickets, isolated examples, and mixed ground cover of [[Toxicodendron diversilobum|western poison oak]]. (It is best to learn the characteristics of this shrub and its toxin before hiking on narrow trails through brush and to be aware that it can be bare of leaves (but toxic to contact) in the winter.)

At higher altitudes and on north slopes is the widely distributed [[Pinus sabiniana|foothill pine]] (''Pinus sabiniana''). [[Pinus attenuata|Knobcone pine]] (''Pinus attenuata'') may be found along Knobcone Pine Road in the southern part of the park. The park and nearby [[Black Diamond Mines Regional Preserve]] mark the northern extreme of the range of [[Coulter pine]] (''Pinus coulteri''). This species may be seen along the Coulter Pine Trail near the north (Mitchell Canyon) entrance.

In 2005 the [[endangered species]] [[Mount Diablo buckwheat]] (''Eriogonum truncatum''), thought to be extinct since last seen in 1936, was rediscovered in a remote area of the mountain.
<gallery>
File:Pinus sabineana 00057.JPG|This ''[[Pinus sabiniana]]'' (foothill pine), the most common tree species in the park, is dwarfed by harsh conditions near the summit of Mount Diablo.
File:Pedicularis densiflora mt. diablo.JPG|''[[Pedicularis densiflora]]''
File:ARctostaphylos auriculata at Mt. Diablo - Flickr - theforestprimeval (15).jpg|''[[Arctostaphylos auriculata]]''
File:Juniperus californica Mount Diablo.jpg|''[[Juniperus californica]]''
File:Western wallflower.jpg|''[[Erysimum capitatum]]''
File:Valley Oak Mount Diablo.jpg|''[[Quercus lobata]]''
File:Delphinium nudicaule.jpg|''[[Delphinium nudicaule]]''
</gallery>

===Wildlife===
{{Citation needed|date=December 2022}}
All vegetation, minerals and wildlife within the park are protected and it is illegal to remove such items or to harass any wildlife.

Commonly seen animals include [[coyote]], [[bobcat]], [[black-tailed deer]], [[California ground squirrel]]s, [[fox squirrel]]s and [[grey fox]]es; many other mammals including [[mountain lion]]s are present. It is a chief remaining refuge for the [[threatened]] [[Alameda whipsnake]], [[California red-legged frog]]. Less common wildlife species include the reintroduced [[peregrine falcon]], [[ringtail cat]]s, and to the east [[American badger]]s, [[kit fox#Subspecies|San Joaquin kit fox]], [[roadrunners]], [[California tiger salamander]], and [[burrowing owl]]s. There are also exotic (non-native) animals such as the [[red fox]] and [[opossum]], the latter being North America's only [[marsupial]].

In September and October male [[tarantula]] spiders can be seen (''[[Aphonopelma iodius]]'') as they seek a mate. These spiders are harmless unless severely provoked, and their bite is only as bad as a bee sting. More dangerous are [[Latrodectus|black widow spiders]], far less likely to be encountered in the open.

In the wintertime, between November and February, [[bald eagle]]s and [[golden eagle]]s are present. These birds are less easily seen than many raptors; golden eagles, particularly, fly at high elevations. Mount Diablo is part of the Altamont Area/Diablo Range, which enjoys the largest concentration of golden eagles anywhere. In recent years there have been credible sightings of California condors, which have been reintroduced at Pinnacles National Park, located to the south in the Gilroy-Hollister area.

Of special note as potential hazards are [[Crotalus oreganus|Northern Pacific rattlesnake]]. While generally shy and non-threatening, one should be observant and cautious of where one steps to avoid accidentally disturbing one. They are often found warming themselves in the open (as on trails and ledges) on cool, sunny days. Other wildlife to avoid include fleas, ticks and mosquitoes.

There has also been an increase in the mountain lion population in the larger region and one should know how to respond if these animals are encountered. Please see the [[Cougar#Attacks on humans|''mountain lion safety tips'']] in the [[Cougar|mountain lion]] article.
<gallery>
File:Elanus leucurus 3.jpg|[[White-tailed kite]]
File:AWonder Pacific Chorus Frog 001.jpg|[[Pacific tree frog]]
File:Diadophis punctatus 3.jpg|[[Ring-necked snake]]
File:Aspidoscelis tigris munda.jpg|[[Western whiptail|Western whiptail lizard]]
</gallery>

==Facilities==

[[File:Mtdiablo01.jpg|thumb|right|Summit-building roof promenade and beacon tower, Mount Diablo, constructed by [[Civilian Conservation Corps]], 1939-42]]
Entrance stations are located at the end of Northgate Road (in [[Walnut Creek, California|Walnut Creek]]) and Diablo Road (in [[Danville, California|Danville]]). The Danville entrance is also known as Southgate. If the entrance stations are not operating, park fees may be paid at the junction ranger station, where the two roads join.

From here the road reaches the summit of the mountain, where there is a visitors center housing an observation deck and natural history exhibits. From the elevation of the lower lot the Mary Bowerman Trail is a level wheelchair-accessible path and boardwalk with interpretive stations that extends part way around the mountain; a regular single track trail completes the loop.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.savemountdiablo.org/DiabloWatch/2007SpringDiabloWatch.pdf |title=Mary Bowerman Trail |publisher=SaveMountDiablo.org |page=3 |newspaper=Diablo Watch |date=Spring 2007 |access-date=November 15, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704165453/http://www.savemountdiablo.org/DiabloWatch/2007SpringDiabloWatch.pdf |archive-date=July 4, 2008 |df=mdy-all }}http://www.savemountdiablo.org/downloads/about_founder_Interview_of_Mary_Bowerman.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117020345/http://www.savemountdiablo.org/downloads/about_founder_Interview_of_Mary_Bowerman.pdf |date=November 17, 2015 }}</ref> There are {{convert|520|mi|km}} of [[hiking]] and equestrian trails, some available for [[mountain biking]].

[[Camping]] facilities are available within the park. There are numerous picnic sites. Pets are restricted and require proper documentation for rabies (not just a tag). Daytime visitors must exit the park by sunset except for special events. Some picnic spots may be reserved but most are available without reservation.

Alcohol is strictly forbidden in the park. Fires are allowed only during the wet season (generally December through April), and only in sanctioned fire pits. The park may be closed on windy days during the dry season due to extremely hazardous fire conditions.

Two additional entrances with parking for hikers are provided on the northwest side of the park at Mitchell Canyon and Donner Canyon. Mitchell Canyon provides easy access to Black Point and Eagle Peak. Donner Canyon provides hikers access to Eagle Peak, Mount Olympia, North Peak, and the popular Falls Trail, which features several seasonal waterfalls.

==Climate==
[[File:Snow on Mt Diablo.jpg|thumb|center|740px|{{center|Snow on the peaks of Mount Diablo, as seen from [[Walnut Creek, California|Walnut Creek]]}}]]
The [[National Weather Service]] maintains a weather station at Mount Diablo Junction, 2,170 feet (661 m) above sea level. The warmest month at the station is July with an average high of 85.2 °F (29.5 °C) and an average low of 59.6 °F (15.3 °C). The coolest month is January with an average high of 55.6 °F (13.1 °C) and an average low of 39.3° (4.1 °C). The highest temperature recorded there was 111 °F (43.9 °C) on July 15, 1972. The lowest temperature on record was 14 °F (-10 °C) on February 6, 1989, and on December 14, 1990. (The ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' reported that the temperature dropped to 10 °F (-12.2 °C) at the summit on January 21, 1962.) Temperatures reach 90 °F (32.2 °C) or higher on an average of 36.0 days each year and 100 °F (37.8 °C) or higher on 3.3 days each year. Lows of 32 °F (0 °C) or lower occur on an average of 15.4 days annually.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
Annual precipitation averages {{convert|23.96|in}}. The most precipitation recorded in a month was {{convert|13.54|in}} in February 1998. The greatest 24-hour precipitation was {{convert|5.02|in}} on January 21, 1972. The average annual days with measurable precipitation is 65.3 days.

Snowfall at Mount Diablo Junction averages {{convert|1.2|in}} each year. Prior to 2009, the most snowfall observed in a month was {{convert|17.0|in}} in April 1975; that same month saw {{convert|6.0|in}} in one day (April 4, 1975). The greatest snow depth was {{convert|3.0|in}} on January 27, 1972. Measurable snowfall does not occur every year, so the annual average days with measurable snowfall is only .5 days. Snow is more common in the upper reaches of the mountain. On December 7, 2009 Mount Diablo received a rare snow event of {{convert|18.0|in}}, receiving more in one day than what it normally receives in one year.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/12/08/MNMB1B0B19.DTL|title=Rare dusting of snow at low elevations |work=San Francisco Chronicle |date=December 8, 2009 |access-date=December 11, 2009 | first=Kevin | last=Fagan}}</ref>

===Data-collecting note===

The Mt. Diablo Junction weather station is positioned at only about 55 percent of the mountain's height. Temperatures and snow levels are notably different than at the upper reaches of the mountain, where lower temperatures and greater snowfall may have occurred, but simply have not been recorded. Nearby Bay Area mountains, like [[Mount Hamilton (California)|Mount Hamilton]], have their weather stations at or near the summit. This is why recorded snow levels on Mount Hamilton are much higher than the ones recorded at Mount Diablo Junction, even though the difference in height of Mount Hamilton and Mount Diablo is only about {{convert|400|ft|-1}}.

Three conditions are measured at the actual summit, however: wind speed, wind direction and temperature; and are available by an automatic telephone voice response system. Recorded information concerning gate open times, road and pet restrictions, and events is available at another number. These numbers are posted at the park website.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=517 |title=Mount Diablo State Park|publisher=California State Parks|access-date=November 15, 2015}}</ref>

{{weather box|
|location = Mt. Diablo (near summit), elevation: {{convert|3,337|ft|m|abbr=on|0}}
|single line = yes
|collapsed=yes
|width = 80%
|Jan high F = 51.2 |Jan low F = 37.1 |Jan precipitation inch = 5.49
|Feb high F = 50.6 |Feb low F = 37.2 |Feb precipitation inch = 5.80
|Mar high F = 54.9 |Mar low F = 38.4 |Mar precipitation inch = 3.88
|Apr high F = 57.6 |Apr low F = 40.0 |Apr precipitation inch = 1.57
|May high F = 66.0 |May low F = 45.9 |May precipitation inch = 0.97
|Jun high F = 74.2 |Jun low F = 52.0 |Jun precipitation inch = 0.22
|Jul high F = 80.9 |Jul low F = 63.5 |Jul precipitation inch = 0.07
|Aug high F = 80.8 |Aug low F = 59.1 |Aug precipitation inch = 0.07
|Sep high F = 78.1 |Sep low F = 56.3 |Sep precipitation inch = 0.30
|Oct high F = 67.2 |Oct low F = 49.3 |Oct precipitation inch = 1.67
|Nov high F = 56.3 |Nov low F = 41.4 |Nov precipitation inch = 3.72
|Dec high F = 50.7 |Dec low F = 36.9 |Dec precipitation inch = 4.96
|year high F = 64.0 |year low F = 46.4 |year precipitation inch = 28.72
|source=<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.prism.oregonstate.edu/explorer/
|publisher=Oregon State University
|title=PRISM Climate Group
|access-date=April 18, 2020
}} Input coordinates: 37.8858 N, 121.9154 W.</ref>
}}
{{weather box
|location = Mt. Diablo Junction, elevation: {{convert|2,170|ft|m|abbr=on|0}}
|single line = yes
|collapsed=yes
|width = 80%
|Jan high F = 55.5 |Jan low F = 40.0 |Jan precipitation inch = 4.77 |Jan snow inch = 0.5
|Feb high F = 56.6 |Feb low F = 40.3 |Feb precipitation inch = 4.62 |Feb snow inch = 0.2
|Mar high F = 59.8 |Mar low F = 41.8 |Mar precipitation inch = 3.52 |Mar snow inch = 0.3
|Apr high F = 64.4 |Apr low F = 43.7 |Apr precipitation inch = 1.63 |Apr snow inch = 0.4
|May high F = 70.5 |May low F = 48.9 |May precipitation inch = 1.06 |May snow inch = 0
|Jun high F = 77.6 |Jun low F = 54.3 |Jun precipitation inch = 0.19 |Jun snow inch = 0
|Jul high F = 84.7 |Jul low F = 60.3 |Jul precipitation inch = 0.01 |Jul snow inch = 0
|Aug high F = 84.7 |Aug low F = 59.7 |Aug precipitation inch = 0.04 |Aug snow inch = 0
|Sep high F = 81.7 |Sep low F = 57.8 |Sep precipitation inch = 0.28 |Sep snow inch = 0
|Oct high F = 73.5 |Oct low F = 51.6 |Oct precipitation inch = 1.42 |Oct snow inch = 0
|Nov high F = 61.8 |Nov low F = 44.5 |Nov precipitation inch = 3.11 |Nov snow inch = 0
|Dec high F = 55.2 |Dec low F = 39.8 |Dec precipitation inch = 4.39 |Dec snow inch = 0.1
|year high F = 68.9 |year low F = 48.6 |year precipitation inch = 25.04 |year snow inch = 1.5
|source = <ref>{{Cite web
|url = https://wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?ca5915
|access-date = April 17, 2020
|title = MT DIABLO JUNCTION, CALIFORNIA - CLIMATE SUMMARY
|publisher = [[Western Regional Climate Center]]
}}</ref>
}}

==Art and literature==
[[File:William Keith - Sunset on Mount Diablo (Marin Sunset) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|Sunset on Mount Diablo by [[William Keith (artist)|William Keith]], 1877.]]
Mount Diablo has inspired many artists and writers. Early work centered on exploration, surveying and was related to the rise and popularization of tourism in the Pacific west. Themes were suggested and heightened by early tourism promoters, the beginnings of the area's preservation and the rise of the environmental movement. The focus was accelerated by artists associated with the [[University of California, Berkeley]], the California College of Arts, the actions of the organizations Save Mount Diablo and the Mount Diablo Interpretive Association, and area art centers, galleries, and museums. In modern times Mount Diablo art has been most strongly represented in plein aire painting, especially the group Artists for Action, and photography.

Representative work includes books and articles by classical writers such as William Brewer, [[Richard Henry Dana, Jr.]], [[Alexandre Dumas, père]], [[Bret Harte]], and the Reverend [[Thomas Starr King]], and modern ones such as Mark Allen Cunningham. Poets whose work features the mountain include [[Philip Lamantia]], Andrew Schelling, and Helen Pinkerton.

Early painters include Thomas Almond Ayres, Eugene Camerer, W. H. Dougal, Eduard Hildebrandt, Charles Hittell, [[Edward Jump]], William Keith, [[John Ross Key]], Charles Koppel, Edward Lehman, Pascal Loomis, Henry Miller, Joseph Warren Revere, through Clarkson Dye and others, to modern painters such as Robert Becker, Frank J. Bette, Ruth Breve, Betty Boggess Lathrap, Paul Carey, Bob Chapla, Mary Lou Correia, Ellen Curtis, Pam Della, Susan Dennis, Warren Dreher, John Finger, Pam Glover, JoAnn Hanna, Peg Humphreys, Don Irwin, Jeanne Kapp, Geri Keary, Chris Kent, Paul Kratter, Eunice Kritscher, Fred Martin, Cathy Moloney, Shirley Nootbaar, Charlotte Panton, Greg Piatt, Kenneth Potter, Robin Purcell, Ocean Quigley, Don Reich, Mary Silverwood, Barbara Stanton, Bruce Stangeland, Marty Stanley, and even the recognized comic book painter [[Dan Brereton]].

Photographers include [[Ansel Adams]], Cleet Carlton, Alfred A. Hart, Scott Hein, Stephen Joseph, Don Paulson, Brad Perks, Robert Picker, Richard Rollins, David Sanger, Michael Sewell and Bob Walker.

The mountain has inspired musical artists ranging from the [[Kronos Quartet]] to commissioned works by the [[California Symphony]]. The pop-punk band [[The Story So Far (band)|The Story So Far]], who are from the area, have a song titled Mt. Diablo.

The mountain's name is the source for the "Devils" part of the name of the [[Blue Devils Drum and Bugle Corps]], a 17 time Drum Corps International world champion corps, founded and based in Concord, California since 1957.

[[David Brevik]], head of [[Blizzard North]], got the idea for the name of the [[Diablo (series)|Diablo game franchise]] from Mt. Diablo while living nearby.<ref name="Penny Arcade Expo">"To Hell and Back Again:How the Game Industry Has Changed Since Diablo," talk given by David Brevik at Penny Arcade Expo East on March 12, 2011.</ref>

In Marvel Comics, the Black Celestial named Tiamut was imprisoned under Mt Diablo for his crimes against the other Celestials. Arishem and the others sealed him away beneath the Diablo Mountain Range in California. See Fantastic Four Vol 1 #339 and #340.

==Events==
[[File:Mt Diablo Summit Visitor Center.JPG|thumb|right|Aerial view of the summit visitor center showing the renewed aircraft beacon]]
Each Fall the male tarantulas of Mt. Diablo emerge from their burrows to seek mates. The Mt. Diablo Interpretive Association offers guided hikes to observe the migration.<ref name=mdia_tt/> The "March of the Tarantulas" can begin as early as August and last through October.<ref name=ktvu2014/>

Every year since 1964, the Pearl Harbor survivors and their families have memorialized Pearl Harbor Day by relighting the historic Beacon atop Mount Diablo's summit. A ceremony memorializing the [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] on December 7, 1941 is held at the Cal State East Bay Concord Campus, with some of the few remaining survivors who are present. (In 2020, the ceremony was virtual.) This ceremony is made possible due to the support of Mount Diablo State Park, California State University - East Bay: Concord Campus, Save Mount Diablo, CCTV, Vietnam Helicopters Museum, and the Sons and Daughters of Pearl Harbor Survivors.

Under cloudless conditions, more interesting than the sunset itself is the view of the progression of the mountain's shadow across the [[California Central Valley]] from the south to the distant [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] to the north, finally appearing for a few moments above the horizon as a shadow in the post-sunset sky glow.

In April 1946, an Army C-45 transport plane crashed on the north side of the mountain, killing the pilot and co-pilot.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/Diablo_C-45F_crash_site.htm |title=The Crash of the C-45F on Mt. Diablo |publisher=Check-Six.com |access-date=November 15, 2015}}</ref>

''Save Mount Diablo'' sponsors many spring and fall schedules of events on the mountain, Spring on Diablo and Autumn on Diablo, as well as many other special events, including its anniversary event, Moonlight on the Mountain; Four Days Diablo, a trip on the Diablo Trail; the Mount Diablo Challenge, an annual [[Hill climbing (cycling)|hill climb]] to the summit with more than 1,100 cyclists each October; and the Mount Diablo Trail Adventure, combined 10k and half-marathon hikes and runs.

The park is popular in winter, when Bay Area residents can enjoy the rare experience of snowfall on the mountain. Snow occurs from the lower reaches of the park all the way to the peak, as was the case in February 2001 and February and March 2006. On Friday, March 10, 2006, an extremely cold storm moved into the region from the [[Gulf of Alaska]], and noticeable amounts of snow fell in all regions of the Bay Area above 500 feet (152 m). The summit of the mountain received around six inches (15 cm) of snow at its peak, and the access roads were closed to automobiles at the 3,000 feet (914 m) mark due to the hazardous icy conditions above.

Occasionally there will be public access to astronomical observations made by a local astronomy club. This club was allocated a small parcel on the mountain and developed a permanent observatory at this location. The observatory has a computer-controlled telescope with a CCD camera.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.mdas.net/mdoa/mdoa.htm | access-date = August 4, 2013 | title = Mount Diablo Observatory Association, M.D.O.A.}}</ref>

===Mount Diablo Challenge bicycle race===
{{Infobox cycling hill climb
| name = Mount Diablo
| image = Mount Diablo Cyclist.jpg
| image_size =
| image_alt =
| caption = A cyclist riding up Mount Diablo
| location =
| start =
| end =
| altitude_m =
| altitude_ft = 3249
| length_km =
| length_mi = 10.8
| max_elevation_m =
| max_elevation_ft = 3849
| gradient = 5.7
| maxgradient = 13
| website =
| url =
}}
The Mount Diablo Challenge is a bicycle race held annually on the first Sunday in October and benefiting non-profit, Save Mount Diablo's land preservation programs. The race begins at the Athenian School at the base of the mountain and climbs {{convert|3249|ft|1}} in {{convert|10.8|mi|1}}. The race typically draws between 800 and 1,100 riders each year who compete in a mass-start format. Bicycle riders of every age and ability are represented in the field, from weekend enthusiasts to top professionals. Prizes are typically awarded to the top overall male and female finishers, along with several age-specific categories. The most coveted prize is the special "One-Hour" T-shirts, awarded to those who finish the climb in less than one hour.

===Course record===

The course record for the Mount Diablo climb currently stands at 43 minutes, 33 seconds, set on October 5, 2008, by Nate English (ZteaM) 4 days after breaking his thumb in a bike accident.<ref name="2008DiabloChallenge">{{cite web |url=http://results.active.com/pages/displayNonGru.jsp?orgID=218713&rsID=70768 |title=2008 Mount Diablo Bike Challenge, Overall Results |publisher=Active.com |access-date=October 6, 2008}}</ref> He broke the 44 minutes, 58 seconds record, set in 2004 by former professional cyclist Greg Drake (Webcor Cycling Team) of Redwood City, California.<ref name="2004DiabloChallenge">{{cite web |url=http://www.doitsports.com/newresults3/client/75181_88473_2004.html |title=2004 Mount Diablo Bike Challenge, Overall Results |access-date=October 8, 2007 |publisher=DoItSports.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225050514/http://www.doitsports.com/newresults3/client/75181_88473_2004.html |archive-date=December 25, 2007 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The previous course record was set by former professional cyclist Mike Engleman (Coors Light Pro Cycling Team) in 1990 with a time of 45 minutes, 20 seconds.

The fastest woman's time recorded at the Mount Diablo climb was set in 2012 by Flavia Oliveira (48 minutes, 13 seconds). In 2016, Flavia competed at the [[Cycling at the 2016 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]]<ref>{{cite news|title= Brasil define equipe do ciclismo de estrada para os Jogos do Rio 2016|language=pt|url=http://globoesporte.globo.com/olimpiadas/noticia/2016/06/brasil-define-equipe-do-ciclismo-de-estrada-para-os-jogos-do-rio-2016.html|publisher=Globoesporte.com|date=9 June 2016|access-date=10 June 2016}}</ref> where she finished in seventh place.

Outside of the actual Mt Diablo Challenge each October, the climb is one of the more popular uploaded to [[Strava]], with over 11000 attempts recorded as of mid 2014. The top 10 times listed there are all from the [[Tour of California]], which has used Mt Diablo as a stage several times. The fastest time (40:49) as of January 2021 is held by professional cyclist [[Lawson Craddock]] set in May 2013.<ref name=strava/>

== In popular culture ==
In ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]'' a mountain range known as ''Mount Chiliad'' was based on Mount Diablo. It reappears in [[Grand Theft Auto V]].

The silhouette of the mountain was used for the cover art of PIHKAL and TIHKAL by ''[[Alexander Shulgin]]''.

In the book ''[[The Lost Hero]]'' by ''[[Rick Riordan]]'', Piper McLean's father is captured and help captive on the summit of Mount Diablo by the giant ''[[Enceladus]]''.

[[Diablo (video game)]] was named after this mountain by [[David Brevik]].<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/VscdPA6sUkc Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160804060710/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VscdPA6sUkc&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web| url = http://youtube.com/watch?v=VscdPA6sUkc&t=120| title = Diablo: A Classic Game Postmortem | website=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The pop-punk band [[The Story So Far (band)|The Story So Far]] have a song named after the mountain on their [[Under Soil and Dirt|debut record]].

[[File:Mount Diablo - California - Memorial Marker.jpg|thumb|Mount Diablo Memorial Marker inside summit visitor center]]

== Famous residents ==

[[James "Grizzly" Adams]] was a frequent visitor and resident on Mount Diablo in the mid-1850s.<ref name=cchs />

[[Bob Jones (third baseman)|Robert Walter "Bob" Jones]], the first professional baseball player from Contra Costa County, was born in the "Jones House" in Irish Canyon in 1889, a current acquisition project of Save Mount Diablo.

The Mount Diablo Ranch, or Diablo Ranch, was successively owned by Robert Noble Burgess (b. 1878 - d. 1965), who founded the community of Diablo and built the mountain's first auto roads, and millionaire Walter Paul Frick (aka W. P. Frick, b. 1875 - d. 1937), who lived in Diablo and was important in the creation of the State Park in 1931, including sale of six of the first seven parcels for the new park.

Jazz pianist [[Dave Brubeck]] grew up on Brubeck Ranch near the park's North Gate entrance.

The area for the {{convert|6500|acre|0|adj=on}} Blackhawk Farm, including the mountain's southern Black Hills, was acquired from Burgess and created by Ansel Mills Easton, the namesake uncle of photographer Ansel Adams. Eventually nearly two-thirds of the farm was added to Mount Diablo State Park. The remainder was developed as the community of [[Blackhawk, California|Blackhawk]] by resident developer [[Ken Behring]] and his partner [[Ken Hofmann]].

==Legends and folklore==

Mount Diablo has long been the site of numerous reports pertaining to [[cryptozoology]], [[ghost|hauntings]], [[Will-o'-the-wisp|mysterious lights]], and various other [[Forteana#Fortean phenomena|Fortean phenomena]] (it is rumored that the name "''Mount Diablo''" is derived from the propensity for such weird events to be alleged at, or in the immediate vicinity of, the mountain). [[Phantom cat|Phantom]] black "[[Black panther|panthers]]" are seen with unusual frequency on the slopes of the mountain, as well as at the "''Devil's Hole''" region of the [[Las Trampas Regional Wilderness]].{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} As early as 1806, [[General officer|General]] [[Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo]] (July 4, 1807 – January 18, 1890) reported an encounter with a flying, spectral apparition, while engaged in military operations against the ''Bolgones'' band of the [[Bay Miwok]] tribe.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} In 1873, a live [[frog]] was said to be found within a slab of [[limestone]] at a [[mining|mine]] on Mount Diablo.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mysterious America |first=Loren |last=Coleman |author-link=Loren Coleman |year=2007 |publisher=[[Pocket Books]] |page=25 |isbn=978-1-4165-2736-7}}</ref>

==See also==

* [[Diablo Range]]
* [[Diablo, California]]
* [[List of highest points in California by county]]
* [[List of summits of the San Francisco Bay Area]]
{{clear}}
{{stack|float=left|
{{Portal|Biology|Ecology|Geology|San Francisco Bay Area}}}}
{{clear}}
{{stack|float=left|
{{PoI start}}
{{PoI|Mount Diablo|37.881697781|-121.914154997|US| }}
{{PoI|High Sierra mountain peak|37.755|-119.6657|US|Blocks view of [[Half Dome]]}}
{{PoI end}}}}
{{clear}}
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{{GeoGroup}}}}
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
* {{cite web |url=http://www.parks.ca.gov/pages/517/files/mtDiabloBrochure.pdf |title=Mount Diablo State Park Brochure |publisher=California State Parks |year=2000 |access-date=November 15, 2015}}

{{Reflist|2|refs=
<ref name=cchs>
{{cite web | url=http://www.cocohistory.com/essays-grizadams.html |title=The Strange Mountain Man of Mount Diablo
| last = Mero | first = William
| publisher=Contra Costa Historical Society | access-date=July 18, 2014}}</ref>
<ref name=ktvu2014>
{{cite news |title=March of tarantulas gets early start at Mt. Diablo
| url=http://www.ktvu.com/news/news/local/march-tarantulas-gets-early-start-mt-diablo/ngxqG/ | access-date=September 25, 2014
| last1=Pritchett|first1=Ken | work=2KTVU.com|publisher=KTVU|date=August 7, 2014
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812042520/http://www.ktvu.com/news/news/local/march-tarantulas-gets-early-start-mt-diablo/ngxqG
| archive-date=August 12, 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="MDIA">
{{cite web | url=http://www.mdia.org/mtdiablohistory.htm |last=Adams |first=Seth
| title=History of Mount Diablo | publisher=Mount Diablo Interpretive Association. Reprinted from: Mount Diablo Review
| date=Fall 2000 | access-date=July 4, 2010
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011041930/http://www.mdia.org/mtdiablohistory.htm | archive-date=October 11, 2007}}</ref>
<ref name=mdia_tt>
{{cite web|last1=Lavin|first1=Ken|title=Tarantula Time
| url=http://www.mdia.org/site/tarantulas-insects/tarantula-time
| publisher=Mount Diablo Interpretive Association|access-date=September 25, 2014}}</ref>
<ref name="pb">
{{cite peakbagger | pid = 1211 | name = Mount Diablo, California | access-date = June 28, 2009 }}</ref>
<ref name=save_md>
{{cite journal | url=http://www.savemountdiablo.org/downloads/DiabloWatchFall2003.pdf
| title=The "Eye of Diablo" and the Standard Diablo Tower | year=2003 | issue=36
| publisher=SaveMountDiablo.org |journal=Diablo Watch | access-date = July 18, 2014}}</ref>
<ref name=strava>
{{cite web | url=http://www.strava.com/segments/5704921 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20140707023715/http://www.strava.com/segments/5704921 | url-status=dead | archive-date=July 7, 2014 | title=Mt. Diablo: Diablo Challenge | publisher=strava.com | access-date=July 4, 2014 }}https://www.strava.com/activities/1834292</ref>
}}

==External links==

{{wikimedia|collapsible=true|wikt=no|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Mount Diablo State Park}}

* {{cite web |url=http://www.parks.ca.gov/default.asp?page_id=517 |title=Mount Diablo |publisher=California State Parks}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.mdia.org |title=Mount Diablo Interpretative Association}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.check-six.com/Crash_Sites/Diablo_C-45F_crash_site.htm |title= Story of the 1946 Crash of an Army C-45F on the northern face of Mount Diablo |publisher=Check-Six.com |access-date=November 15, 2015}}
* [http://home.mchsi.com/~lookout_vistas/Diablo.htm Mount Diablo] and [http://home.mchsi.com/~lookout_vistas/Diablo2.htm Mount Diablo 2]. Panoramic views from the summit of Mount Diablo. Mediacom.

{{Protected areas of California|SP}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Diablo, Mount}}
[[Category:Mount Diablo| ]]
[[Category:Diablo Range]]
[[Category:Mountains of Contra Costa County, California]]
[[Category:State parks of California]]
[[Category:Parks in Contra Costa County, California]]
[[Category:National Natural Landmarks in California]]
[[Category:Native American mythology of California]]
[[Category:Religious places of the indigenous peoples of North America]]
[[Category:California Historical Landmarks]]
[[Category:Civilian Conservation Corps in California]]
[[Category:Climbs in cycle racing in the United States]]
[[Category:Gliding in the United States]]
[[Category:Hang gliding sites]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1931]]
[[Category:1931 establishments in California]]
[[Category:Landmarks in the San Francisco Bay Area]]
[[Category:Mountains of Northern California]]
[[Category:Mountains of the San Francisco Bay Area]]
[[Category:Parks in the San Francisco Bay Area]]
[[Category:Locations in Native American mythology]]

User talk:JavaRogers

2022-12-05T16:43:32Z

JavaRogers: Cleanup

== November 2022 ==

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I'm [[User:DarkAudit|DarkAudit]]. I wanted to let you know that I reverted one of [[Special:Contributions/JavaRogers|your recent contributions]]—specifically [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celtic%20reconstructionism&diff=1119966449 this edit] to [[:Celtic reconstructionism]]—because it did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. If you have any questions, you can ask for assistance at the [[Wikipedia:Teahouse|Teahouse]] or the [[Wikipedia:Help desk|Help desk]]. Thanks. [[User:DarkAudit|DarkAudit]] ([[User talk:DarkAudit|talk]]) 11:01, 4 November 2022 (UTC)

:Hello, DarkAudit. Your reversion created an inconsistency with how names are dropped in the article (mixed use of their first names), so I completed that edit in a way I think you want.——[[User:JavaRogers|JavaRogers]] ([[User talk:JavaRogers#top|talk]]) 16:42, 5 December 2022 (UTC)

User talk:JavaRogers

2022-12-05T16:42:23Z

JavaRogers: /* November 2022 */ Reply

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== November 2022 ==

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hello, I'm [[User:DarkAudit|DarkAudit]]. I wanted to let you know that I reverted one of [[Special:Contributions/JavaRogers|your recent contributions]]—specifically [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Celtic%20reconstructionism&diff=1119966449 this edit] to [[:Celtic reconstructionism]]—because it did not appear constructive. If you would like to experiment, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. If you have any questions, you can ask for assistance at the [[Wikipedia:Teahouse|Teahouse]] or the [[Wikipedia:Help desk|Help desk]]. Thanks. [[User:DarkAudit|DarkAudit]] ([[User talk:DarkAudit|talk]]) 11:01, 4 November 2022 (UTC)

:Hello, DarkAudit. Your reversion created an inconsistency with how names are dropped in the article (mixed use of their first names), so I completed that edit in a way I think you want.——[[User:JavaRogers|JavaRogers]] ([[User talk:JavaRogers#top|talk]]) 16:42, 5 December 2022 (UTC)

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Celtic reconstructionism

2022-12-05T16:38:12Z

JavaRogers: Completed DarkAudit's edit.

{{Short description|Polytheistic reconstructionist approach to Ancient Celtic religion}}
{{Infobox religion
| name = Celtic reconstructionism
| image = File:Triskele-Symbol1.svg
| imagewidth = 200
| alt =
| caption = The [[triple spiral]] is one of the main symbols<ref name="Bonewits132-4">Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}}. p.132: [Among Celtic Reconstructionists] "...''An Thríbhís Mhòr'' (the great triple spiral) came into common use to refer to the three realms." Also p. 134: [On CRs] "Using Celtic symbols such as [[triskele]]s and [[triple spiral|spirals]]"</ref>
| abbreviation = CR
| type = [[Ethnic religion]]
| main_classification = [[Modern Paganism]]
| orientation = [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|
Reconstructionist]]
| scripture = non-scripture-centric
| theology = [[Ancient Celtic religion|Celtic polytheism]]
| polity =
| governance =
| structure =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| fellowships =
| associations = [[European Congress of Ethnic Religions]]
| area = [[Celts|Celtic]] areas
| headquarters =
| founder =
| founded_date = mid-1980s
| founded_place =
| separated_from =
| parent =
| congregations =
| members =
| ministers =
| website =
}}

'''Celtic reconstructionism''' or '''CR''' (also '''Celtic reconstructionist paganism''') is a [[polytheistic reconstructionist]] approach to [[Ancient Celtic religion]], emphasising historical accuracy over eclecticism such as is found in most forms of [[Celtic neopaganism]] such as [[Neo-druidism]]. It is an effort to reconstruct and revive, in a [[Modern Celts|modern Celtic]] cultural context, pre-Christian [[Celtic polytheism|Celtic religions]].

Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism originated in discussions among amateur scholars and [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] in the mid-1980s, and evolved into an independent tradition by the early 1990s. "Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism" (CR) is an umbrella term, with a number of recognized sub-traditions or denominations.<ref name="Bonewits137quote">Bonewits (2006) p.137: "There are, by the way, groups of people who call themselves "Gaelic Traditionalists" who have a great deal in common with the Celtic Recons. Some of these GTs started off as CRs, but consider themselves different for some reason or another (usually political). Others are Catholics looking to restore old (but Christian) Gaelic customs. ... The key with understanding these terms, or others such as Celtic Restorationism, Neo-Celtism, ''Senistrognata'', ''Seandagnatha,'' ''Ildiachas/Iol-Diadhachas'', etc. is to find out what each person using them intends them to mean."</ref>

==Origins==

As [[Neopaganism|modern paganism]] grew in scope and cultural visibility, some [[Euro-American]]s saw the pre-Christian religions of their ancestors as being worthy of revival, and the study of mythology and folklore as a way to accomplish this.<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Adler | first1 = Margot | title = Drawing down the moon: witches, Druids, goddess-worshippers, and other pagans in America today | year = 1986 | publisher = Beacon Press | location = Boston | isbn = 0-8070-3253-0 | pages = 233 }}</ref> While most [[Neo-druidism|Neodruid]] groups of the period were primarily interested in "revitalizing the spirit of what they believe was the religious practice of pre-Roman Britain", the Celtic Reconstructionists (CRs) focused on only "reconstructing what can be known from the extant historical record."<ref name=Gallagher>{{Cite book | last1 = Gallagher | first1 = Eugene V. | last2 = Ashcraft | first2 = W. Michael | title = Introduction to new and alternative religions in America | url = https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00gall | url-access = limited | year = 2006 | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Conn. | isbn = 0-275-98713-2 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00gall/page/n194 178] }}</ref>

Many of the people who eventually established CR were involved in modern pagan groups in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="CRFAQ1"/> Much dialogue in the 1980s took place at workshops and discussions at pagan festivals and gatherings, as well as in the pages of pagan publications.<ref name="CRFAQ1">{{cite book |last= NicDhàna |first= Kathryn Price |author2=Erynn Rowan Laurie|author3=C. Lee Vermeers|author4=Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann|title= The CR FAQ — An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism |edition= first |publisher= River House Publishing |isbn= 978-0-615-15800-6 |pages= 19–20 |date=August 2007 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> This period, and these groups, are referred to in retrospect as "Proto-CR".<ref name="CRFAQ1"/><ref name="Varn">{{cite web | last = Varn | first =C. Derick | title = An Interview with Kathryn Price NicDhàna: Celtic Reconstructionism | publisher = The Green Triangle |date=December 2006 | url = http://www.thegreentriangle.com/Dec%2006/Interview%20with%20Kathryn%20Price%20NicDhana.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080121111204/http://www.thegreentriangle.com/Dec%2006/Interview%20with%20Kathryn%20Price%20NicDhana.htm | archive-date = 2008-01-21 | access-date = 2009-10-01 }}</ref> Later, with the establishment of the Internet in the late 1980s and early 1990s, many of these groups and individuals came together online. This began a period of increased communication, and led to the growth of the movement.<ref name="CRFAQ1"/><ref name="Bonewits131">Bonewits (2006) p.131, "The Celtic Reconstructionist (CR) movement among neopagans began in the 1980s, with discussions among amateur scholars in the pages of neopagan publications or on the [[computer bulletin board system]]s of the pre-Internet days. In the early 1990s, the term began to be used for those interested in seriously researching and recreating authentic Celtic beliefs and practices for modern Pagans."</ref>

The first appearance in print of the term "Celtic Reconstructionist", used to describe a specific religious movement and not just a style of [[Celtic studies]], was by Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann in the Spring, 1992 issue of [[Harvest Magazine]].<ref name="Harvest1">Lambert, Kym [K.L. ní Dhoireann] (1992) "Celtic God/Goddess Names", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 4, Spring Equinox 1992, pp. 11-12. First use of "Celtic Reconstructionist" as tradition name.</ref><ref>Lambert, Kym [K.L. ní Dhoireann] (1992) Book Reviews, Bio Blurbs, ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 5, Beltane 1992, pp. 6,8. Continued use of "Celtic Reconstructionist" and "Celtic Reconstructionism". Use of term continued in succeeding issues for full publication run of magazine.</ref> Ní Dhoireann credits Kathryn Price NicDhàna with originating the term “Celtic Reconstructionist”;<ref name="Varn2">{{cite web | last = Varn | first =C. D. | title = An Interview with Kym Lambert | publisher = The Green Triangle |date=February 2007 | url = http://www.thegreentriangle.com/2007_01/Interview_Lambert.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080121111159/http://www.thegreentriangle.com/2007_01/Interview_Lambert.html | archive-date = 2008-01-21 | access-date = 2009-10-01}}</ref> however, NicDhàna credits her early use of the term to a simple extrapolation of [[Margot Adler]]'s use of the term "[[Pagan reconstructionism|Pagan reconstructionists]]" in the original, 1979 edition of ''[[Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today|Drawing Down the Moon]]''.<ref name="Harvest2">Theatana, Kathryn [K.P. NicDhàna] (1992) "More on Names", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 3, Imbolc 1992, pp. 11-12. On need to reconstruct traditions of ancestral [Celtic] deities and avoid [[cultural appropriation]].</ref> Though Adler devotes space to a handful of Reconstructionist traditions, none of those mentioned are specifically Celtic.<ref name="Adler1">[[Margot Adler|Adler, Margot]] (1979) ''[[Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today]]''. Boston, Beacon Press {{ISBN|0-8070-3237-9}}. Chapter 9: Religions from the Past—The Pagan Reconstructionists.</ref> In chapter eleven, while describing his [[Neo-druidism|Neo-druidic]] group, New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA), [[Isaac Bonewits]] uses the phrase "Eclectic Reconstructionist."<ref>Adler (1979) Chapter 11: Religions of Paradox and Play, p.303, Bonewits on New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA) as "Eclectic Reconstructionist".</ref> Eventually, this pairing of terms became [[oxymoron]]ic; in the pagan/polytheist communities, ''reconstructionist'' had now come to mean traditions that specifically exclude eclecticism.<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Varn2"/><ref name=McColman1>McColman (2003) p.51: "Such reconstructionists are attempting, through both spiritual and scholarly means, to create as purely Celtic a spirituality as possible."</ref><ref>NicDhàna et al. [August 2007] pp.20</ref>

With the growth of the Internet during the 1990s, hundreds of individuals and groups gradually joined the discussions online and in print, and the movement became more of an umbrella group, with a number of recognized sub-traditions.<ref name="Bonewits131"/>

==Practices==
While the ancient Celtic religions were largely subsumed by Christianity,<ref>{{cite book |last=Sjoestedt |first=Marie-Louise |title=Celtic Gods and Heroes |orig-year=1949 |year=2000 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-486-41441-8 |pages=3}}</ref> many religious traditions have survived in the form of folklore, mythology, songs, and prayers.<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Danaher">{{Cite book |last1=Danaher |first1=Kevin |title=The Year in Ireland |year=1972 |publisher=Mercier Press |location=Dublin, Ireland |isbn=1-85635-093-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/yearinireland00kevi/page/11 11, 12] |url=https://archive.org/details/yearinireland00kevi/page/11 }}</ref><ref name="the_wisdom_of_the_outlaw">{{Cite book |last1=Nagy |first1=Joseph Falaky |title=The wisdom of the outlaw: The boyhood deeds of Finn in Gaelic narrative tradition |year=1985 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-05284-6 |page=2}}</ref> Many folkloric practices never completely died out, and some Celtic Reconstructionists (CRs) claim to have survivals of Irish, Scottish or Welsh folkloric customs in their families of origin.<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Danaher"/><ref name="the_wisdom_of_the_outlaw"/>

[[Celtic languages|Language]] study and preservation, and participation in other cultural activities such as [[Celtic music]], dance and [[martial arts]] forms, are seen as a core part of the tradition.<ref name="Varn"/><ref>McColman (2003) p.51: "Many Celtic reconstructionists stress the importance of learning a Celtic language, like Irish or Welsh,"</ref> Participation in the living Celtic cultures<ref name="livingcelticcultures">NicDhàna ''et al.'' (August 2007) pp.21-23, 27, 28</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kirkey |first=Jason |title=The Salmon in the Spring: The Ecology of Celtic Spirituality |year=2009 |publisher=Hiraeth Press |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-9799246-6-8 |page=20}}</ref> – the cultures that exist in the "areas in which Celtic languages are actually spoken and in which Celtic traditions have been most faithfully handed down to the present day"<ref name=Kennedy>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Michael |title=Gaelic Nova Scotia: An Economic, Cultural, and Social Impact Study |date=November 2002 |publisher=Nova Scotia Museum Publications |location=Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada |isbn=0-88871-774-1 |pages=12, 13 |quote=In developing their own concept of Druidry, no reference was made by the [romantic] revivalists to the native spiritual and intellectual traditions of living Celtic communities – particularly to bards and priests who would have been the closest modern inheritors of any modern druidic tradition, slight as it may have been. ... Although the [romantic "druidic" revival] movement has continued to grow ... it is still almost entirely absent from areas in which Celtic languages are actually spoken and in which Celtic traditions have been most faithfully handed down to the present day. As Prof. Donald Meek has pointed out, this process of romanticism and cultural redefinition is actually greatly assisted by ignorance of the minority group’s language. ... The major reason that they tend to offer such a confused and contradictory picture of the “inherent” nature of Celts or Celtic culture is that they generally make no reference to existing Celtic communities, to living Celtic cultures, or to the best available Celtic scholarship. In fact, attempts to suggest that these should be the first sources of authority for the interpretation and representation of Celtic culture are often met with skepticism and even open hostility.}}</ref> – is a vital part of their cultural work and spiritual practice.<ref name="livingcelticcultures" /> The protection of Celtic archaeological and sacred sites is important to Celtic Reconstructionists.<ref name="IrishVoice">{{Cite journal |last=Nusca |first=Andrew |title =Reconstructing Ireland at Home |journal=[[Irish Voice]] |volume=22 |issue=11 |page=S23 |date=12–18 March 2008}}</ref> When construction of the [[N3 road (Ireland)|N3 motorway]] in Ireland threatened to destroy archaeological sites around the [[Hill of Tara]], Celtic Reconstructionists (among others) organized protests and a coordinated ritual of protection.<ref name="IrishVoice"/><ref name="paganacht1">{{cite web |last1=NicDhàna |first1=Kathryn |first2=Raven |last2=nic Rhóisín |title=I Stand with Tara: A Celtic Reconstructionist (Págánacht) ritual for the protection of the sacred center: The Tara-Skryne Valley in Ireland |publisher=paganachd.com & paganacht.com |date=October 2007 |url=http://www.paganachd.com/tara |access-date=2007-10-26 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Like many other modern pagan traditions, Celtic Reconstructionism has no sacred texts and so personal research is stressed.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bittarello, Maria Beatrice |article=Reading Texts, Watching Texts: Mythopoesis on Neopagan Websites |editor1=Llewellyn, Dawn |editor2=Sawyer, Deborah F. |year=2008 |title=Reading Spiritualities: Constructing and Representing the Sacred |location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-6329-4 |page=191 |quote=Among traditions that recognise themselves as {{sic|hide=y|reason=Don't "correct" this.|Neopagan or Pagans are (Neo) Druids, (Neo) Shamans, Wiccans, Odinists (also called Heathenists or Asatru), Hellenic, Roman and Celtic Reconstructionists}}. Such complex phenomenon is characterized by the absence of normative sacred texts and a hierarchy that controls authoritative sources and by a stress on personal research and choice.}}</ref> In order to more fully reconstruct pre-Christian Celtic religions, many CRs study [[archaeology]], historical manuscripts, and comparative religion, primarily of Celtic cultures, but sometimes other European cultures, as well.<ref>{{cite book |author=McColman, Carl |year=2003 |title=Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom |publisher=Alpha Press |isbn=0-02-864417-4 |page=12 |quote=Some groups have gone even further, trying to use archaeology, religious history, [[comparative mythology]], and even the study of non-Celtic [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] religions in an effort to create a well-researched and scholarly "reconstruction" of the ancient Celts.}}</ref> Celtic Reconstructionists are not pan-Celtic in practice,<ref>{{cite book |author=Davy, Barbara Jane |year=2007 |title=Introduction to Pagan Studies |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0818-9 |page=97 |quote=Some pagans embrace the idea of a pan-European Celtic culture, but some practice regionally specific reconstructionist traditions.}}</ref> but rather immerse themselves in a particular Celtic culture, such as [[Gaels|Gaelic]], [[Culture of Wales|Welsh]] or [[Gaul]]ish.<ref>NicDhàna et al. (August 2007) pp. 65, 84</ref> According to NicDhàna, CRs believe that while it is helpful to study a wide variety of Celtic cultures as an aid to religious reconstruction, and to have a broad understanding of religion in general, in practice these cultures are not lumped together.<ref name="Varn"/> In addition to cultural preservation and scholarly research Celtic Reconstructionists believe that [[mysticism|mystical]], ecstatic practices are a necessary balance to scholarship, and that this balance is a vital component of any Celtic Reconstructionist tradition.<ref name="Telesco">{{cite book |first1=Erynn Rowan |last1=Laurie |first2=Aedh Rua |last2=O'Morrighu |first3=John |last3=Machate |first4=Kathryn |last4=Price Theatana |first5=Kym |last5=Lambert ní Dhoireann |article=Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism |editor=Telesco, Patricia |year=2005 |title=Which Witch is Which? |location=Franklin Lakes, New Jersey |publisher=New Page Books / The Career Press |isbn=1-56414-754-1 |pages=85–89}}</ref>

While CRs strive to revive the religious practices of historical Celtic peoples as accurately as possible,<ref name=Gallagher /><ref>{{cite book |author=Bowman, Marion |article=Cardiac Celts: Images of the Celts in Paganism |editor1=Harvey, Graham |editor2=Hardman, Charlotte |year=1996 |title=Paganism Today |location=London, U.K. |publisher=Thorsons |isbn=0-7225-3233-4 |page=244 |quote=There are differences in and outlooks between reconstructors, whose priority is to piece together as exact a picture of the Celtic past as possible, and revivalists, whose main concern is not so much to replicate as to reinvigorate.}}</ref> they acknowledge that some aspects of their religious practice are reconstructions.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rekindling an ancient faith |first=Christine |last=Littlefield |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2005/nov/08/rekindling-an-ancient-faith/ |newspaper=Las Vegas Sun |location=Las Vegas |date=November 8, 2005 |access-date=2010-05-17 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Celtic Reconstructionists state that their practices are based on cultural survivals, augmented with the study of early Celtic beliefs found in texts and the work of [[Celtic Studies|scholars]] and archaeologists. Feedback from scholars and experienced practitioners is sought before a new practice is accepted as a valid part of a reconstructed tradition.<ref name="Bonewits132">Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}}. p.132</ref>

Celtic Reconstructionists believe it is important to lay aside elements of ancient Celtic cultures which they consider inappropriate practices in a modern society.<ref>NicDhàna et al. (August 2007) p. 52</ref> CRs attempt to find ethical ways of integrating historical findings and research with the activities of daily life.<ref name="Bonewits132"/> Many CRs view each act of daily life as a form of ritual, accompanying daily acts of purification and protection with traditional prayers and songs from sources such as the [[Scottish Gaelic]] ''[[Carmina Gadelica]]'' or manuscript collections of ancient [[Irish poetry|Irish]] or [[Welsh poetry]].<ref name="Telesco"/> Celebratory, community rituals are usually based on community festivals as recorded in folklore collections by authors such as [[F. Marian McNeill]], [[Kevin Danaher]] or [[John Gregorson Campbell]]. These celebrations often involve bonfires, dances, songs, divination and children's games.<ref name="Varn"/> More formal or mystical rituals are often based on traditional techniques of interacting with the [[Otherworld]],<ref>NicDhàna et al. (August 2007) p. 118</ref> such as the act of making offerings of food, drink and art to the spirits of the land, ancestral spirits, and the [[List of Celtic deities|Celtic deities]]. CRs give offerings to the spirits throughout the year, but at [[Samhain]], more elaborate offerings are made to specific deities and ancestors.<ref>{{cite news |title=A to Z of Halloween |url=http://www.limerickleader.ie/features/A-to-Z-of-Halloween.5779425.jp |newspaper=Limerick Leader |location=Limerick, Ireland |date=October 29, 2009 |access-date=2009-11-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102012547/http://www.limerickleader.ie/features/A-to-Z-of-Halloween.5779425.jp |archive-date=November 2, 2009 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The ancient Irish swore their oaths by the "Three Realms" – Land, Sea, and Sky.<ref name="Mac Mathúna">{{cite journal |last=Mac Mathúna |first=Liam |year=1999 |url=http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c23/c23-174.pdf |title=Irish perceptions of the Cosmos |journal=Celtica |volume=23 |pages=174–187 |access-date=2007-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204063722/http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c23/c23-174.pdf |archive-date=2007-02-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Based on this precedent, reconstructed Gaelic ritual structures acknowledge the Land, Sea and Sky, with the fire of inspiration as a central force that unites the realms.<ref name="Telesco"/> Many Celtic Reconstructionists maintain [[altar]]s and [[shrine]]s to their patron spirits and deities, often choosing to place them at outdoor, natural locations such as [[Clootie well|wells]], streams, and special trees.<ref>NicDhàna et al. (August 2007) pp. 84–87, 96, 137</ref> Some CRs practice [[divination]]; [[ogham]] is a favored method, as are folkloric customs such as the taking of omens from the shapes of clouds or the behavior of birds and animals.<ref name="Telesco"/>

==Movement's labels==

===Overall tradition===
NicDhàna and ní Dhoireann have stated that they coined the term "Celtic Reconstructionist / Celtic Reconstructionism (CR)" specifically to distinguish their practices and beliefs from those of [[Eclecticism|eclectic]] traditions like [[Wicca]] and [[Neo-druidism]].<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Varn2"/><ref>McColman (2003) p.51: "While Celtic shamanism and [[Celtic Wicca]] are popular, not all people interested in finding a nature-based expression of Celtic spirituality feel comfortable with these multicultural forms of spirituality. A small but dedicated group of people, mostly neopagans, have formed a vibrant community in recent years devoted to reconstructing ancient Celtic pagan spirituality for the modern world."</ref> With ní Dhoireann's popularization of Celtic Reconstructionism in the neopagan press and then the use of the term by these individuals and others on the Internet, “Celtic Reconstructionism” began to be adopted as the name for this developing spiritual tradition.<ref name="Harvest3">Darcie (1992) "Book Review", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 5, Beltane 1992, p. 8. Use of term by another writer: "I showed the Appendix to a Celtic reconstructionist friend..."</ref><ref name="Harvest4">Hinds, Kathryn (1992) "Letters", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 6, Summer 1992, p. 11. Use of term by a letter writer: "I am very curious about Kym Lambert's experiences, and I hope she will write more about her path of Celtic reconstructionism."</ref><ref name="Harvest5">Lambert, Kym [K.L. ní Dhoireann] (1992) "Reviewers' Biographies", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 8, Fall/Autumn Equinox 1992, p. 10. Use of term in bio blurb: "Kym Lambert is...now practicing Celtic Reconstructionism..."</ref>

====Gaelic traditionalism====

Some groups that take a Celtic Reconstructionist approach to [[Gaels|ancient Gaelic]] polytheism call themselves "Gaelic Traditionalists".<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/> Preservation of the living traditions in modern [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]] (and other [[Modern Celts|modern Celtic]]) communities has always been a priority in Celtic Reconstructionism.<ref name="GT">{{cite book |last= NicDhàna |first= Kathryn Price |author2=Erynn Rowan Laurie|author3=C. Lee Vermeers|author4=Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann|title= The CR FAQ — An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism |orig-year= 2007 |edition= first |publisher= River House Publishing |isbn= 978-0-615-15800-6 |pages= 134–6 |date=August 2007|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, according to ''The CR FAQ'' there has been some controversy around the use of the term "Gaelic Traditionalists" by groups outside of the [[Gaeltacht]] and [[Gàidhealtachd]] areas of Ireland, Scotland and Nova Scotia.<ref name="GT" /> In the opinion of Isaac Bonewits this is partly because "Gaelic Traditionalists" is a term used almost exclusively by Celtic Christians.<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/> As ní Dhoireann put it, "Gaelic Traditionalists" means "those living and raised in the living cultures and [who] are keeping their culture, language and music alive, not any of the American polytheistic groups that have been using it lately."<ref name="Varn2"/> ''The CR FAQ'' states that due to those in the Gaelic-speaking areas having a prior claim to the term, most Reconstructionists have been uncomfortable with the choice of other Reconstructionists to call themselves "Traditionalists",<ref name="GT"/> a sentiment which Bonewits echoes.<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/> According to the authors of ''The CR FAQ'', while the disagreement over terminology has at times led to heated discussion, the polytheistic “traditionalists” and “reconstructionists” are taking the same approach to their religion, and there are generally good relations between the founders of both movements.<ref name="GT"/>

===Sub-traditions===
While Celtic Reconstructionism was the earliest term in use and still remains the most widespread, as the movement progressed other names for a Celtic Reconstructionist approach were also popularized, with varying degrees of success.<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/> Some CR groups have looked to the individual Celtic languages for a more culturally specific name for the tradition, or for their branch of the tradition.<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/>

====Pàganachd/Págánacht====

Some [[Gaels|Gaelic-oriented]] groups have used the [[Scottish Gaelic]], ''{{lang|sg|Pàganachd}}'' ('Paganism, Heathenism')<ref name="Telesco"/> or the [[Irish language|Irish]] version, ''{{lang|ga|Págánacht}}''.<ref name="paganacht1"/><ref name="Paganachd-Paganacht">{{cite web |title=Pàganachd/Págánacht |work=Paganacht.com / Paganachd.com |date=2006 |url= http://paganacht.com |access-date=2007-10-26 }}</ref> One Gaelic Polytheist group on the East Coast of the US has used a modification of the Gaelic term as ''{{lang|gd|Pàganachd Bhandia}}'' ('Paganism of Goddesses').<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Telesco"/>

===={{anchor|IMBAS}}Senistrognata====

In 2000, IMBAS, A Celtic Reconstructionist organisation based in [[Seattle]] active during the late 1990s to early 2000s, adopted the name ''Senistrognata'', a constructed "[[Old Celtic]]" term intended as translating to "[[Nomos (sociology)|ancestral customs]]". {{lang|sga|Imbas}} {{IPA-sga|ˈimbas|}} is an [[Old Irish]] word meaning 'poetic inspiration'. The organization "promotes the spiritual path of Senistrognata, the ancestral customs of the Celtic peoples. It is a path open to Pagans, Christians, and Ag[n]ostics alike. This organization is currently inactive."<ref name="SenistrognataImbas">{{cite web|title=Imbas |publisher=imbas.org |year=2004 |url=http://imbas.org/imbas/index.html |access-date=2004-06-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616120534/http://imbas.org/imbas/index.html |archive-date=June 16, 2004 }} In an [[alt.* hierarchy|alt.]]pagan post, "[https://groups.google.com/forum/#!search/Senistrognata/alt.pagan/bPqByAY5gK8/QiJasDqBb7oJ Senistrognata]", dated 18 March 2000, Danielle Ni Dhighe announced that "Senistrognata [...] is the term which our membership have democratically chosen to
replace Celtic Reconstructionism/Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism",
stating that the word is reconstructed "Old Celtic" with a meaning of "ancestral
customs" (c.f. [[forn sed]] as a parallel term used in Germanic neopaganism).
</ref><ref name="Bonewits137">Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}}. p.137</ref>

===Others===

*The [[Irish language|Irish]] word for 'polytheism', ''{{lang|ga|ildiachas}}'', is in use by at least one group on the West Coast of the US as ''{{lang|ga|Ildiachas Atógtha}}'' ('Reconstructed Polytheism').<ref name="Bonewits137"/><ref name="Ildiachas">NicDhàna ''et al.'' [August 2007] p.177</ref>

==Celtic Reconstructionism and Neo-druidism==
Though there has been cross-pollination between [[Neo-druidism|Neo-druid]] and Celtic Reconstructionist groups, and there is significant crossover of membership between the two movements, the two have largely differing goals and methodologies in their approach to Celtic religious forms.<ref name=Gallagher /> Reconstructionists tend to place high priority on historical authenticity and traditional practice. Some Neo-druids tend to prefer a modern Pagan, eclectic approach, focusing on "the spirit of what they believe was the religious practice of pre-Roman Britain".

However, some Neo-druid groups (notably, {{lang|ga|[[Ár nDraíocht Féin]]}} (ADF), the [[Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids]] (OBOD), and the [[Henge of Keltria]]) adopted similar methodologies of reconstruction, at least some of the time. ADF, in particular, has long used reconstructionist techniques, but the group has been criticized for their pan-Indo-European scope, which may result in non-Celtic combinations such as "[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] druids" and "[[Roman mythology|Roman]] druids".<ref>Bonewits (2006) Chapter 9, "Solitary Druids and Celtic Reconstructionists" pp.128-140.</ref>

Terminological differences exist as well, especially in terms of what ''druid'' means. Some Neo-druid groups call anyone with an interest in Celtic spirituality a "druid", and refer to the practice of any Celtic-inspired spirituality as "druidry", while reconstructionist groups usually use{{citation needed|date=October 2015|reason=MacKillop, cited below, does not say that CR use the older defnition.}} the older<ref name="a_dictionary_of_celtic_mythology">{{Cite book |last1=MacKillop |first1=James |title=Dictionary of Celtic mythology |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-280120-1 |page=151 }}</ref> definition, seeing "druid" as a culturally-specific office that requires decades of training and experience, which is only attained by a small number of practitioners, and which must be conferred and confirmed by the community the druid serves.<ref>Bonewits (2006) p.135: "But because the word druid is used by so many people for so many different purposes, Celtic Recons, even those who get called druids by their own communities, are reluctant to use the title for fear that others will equate them with folks they consider flakes, frauds or fools."</ref><ref name="Greer1">Greer, John Michael (2003) ''The New Encyclopedia of the Occult''. St. Paul, Llewellyn Worldwide. {{ISBN|1-56718-336-0}}, pp. 139, 140, 410.</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Ancient Celtic religion]]
*[[Celt]]
*[[Celtic mythology]]
*[[Modern Celts]]
*[[Polytheistic reconstructionism]]
{{colend}}
'''Festivals'''
{{colbegin|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Imbolc]]
*[[Beltane]]
*[[Lughnasadh]]
*[[Samhain]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==

===Celtic Reconstructionism===
*Adler, Margot (1979) ''Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today''
*[[Isaac Bonewits|Bonewits, Isaac]] (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}} Chapter 9: "Celtic Reconstructionists and other Nondruidic Druids"
*Fairgrove, Rowan (1994) ''What we don't know about the ancient Celts''. Originally printed in ''The Pomegranate'', '''2'''. Now [http://www.conjure.com/whocelts.html available online]
*[[Alexei Kondratiev|Kondratiev, Alexei]] (1998) ''The Apple Branch: A Path to Celtic Ritual''. San Francisco, Collins. {{ISBN|1-898256-42-X}} (1st edition), {{ISBN|0-8065-2502-9}} (2nd edition). (Also reprinted without revision under the title ''Celtic Rituals''.)
*Laurie, Erynn Rowan (1995) ''A Circle of Stones: Journeys and Meditations for Modern Celts''. Chicago, Eschaton. {{ISBN|1-57353-106-5}}
*Laurie, Erynn Rowan (2007) ''Ogam: Weaving Word Wisdom''. Megalithica Books. {{ISBN|1-905713-02-9}}
*McColman, Carl (2003) ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom.'' Alpha Press {{ISBN|0-02-864417-4}}
*NicDhàna, Kathryn Price; Erynn Rowan Laurie, C. Lee Vermeers, Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann, ''et al.'' (2007) ''The CR FAQ — An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism''. River House Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-615-15800-6}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Nusca | first = Andrew | title = Reconstructing Ireland at Home | journal = [[Irish Voice]] | volume = 22 | issue = 11 | pages = S23 | date = March 12–18, 2008 }}
*Telesco, Patricia [editor] (2005) ''Which Witch is Which?'' Franklin Lakes, NJ, New Page Books / The Career Press {{ISBN|1-56414-754-1}}, p. 85-9: "Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism"

===Celtic polytheism and folklore===
{{Further|Celtic polytheism|Irish mythology|Scottish mythology|Welsh mythology}}

Celtic Reconstructionists rely on primary mythological texts, as well as surviving folklore, for the basis of their religious practices. No list can completely cover all the recommended works, but this is a small sample of sources used.

'''General Celtic'''
{{refbegin|25em}}
*[[W. Y. Evans-Wentz|Evans Wentz, W. Y.]] (1966, 1990) ''The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries''. Gerrards Cross, Colin Smythe Humanities Press {{ISBN|0-901072-51-6}}
*MacCana, Proinsias (1970) ''Celtic Mythology''. Middlesex, Hamlyn. {{ISBN|0-600-00647-6}}
*MacKillop, James (1998) ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''. Oxford, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-280120-1}}
*[[Alwyn D. Rees|Rees, Alwyn]] and [[Brinley Rees|Rees, Brinley]] (1961) ''Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales''. New York, Thames and Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-27039-2}}
*[[Marie-Louise Sjoestedt|Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise]] (1982) ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. Translated by Myles Dillon, Berkeley, CA, Turtle Island Foundation. {{ISBN|0-913666-52-1}}
{{refend}}
'''Gaelic (Irish and Scottish)'''
{{refbegin|25em}}
*Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) ''The Gaelic Otherworld''. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh, Birlinn Ltd. {{ISBN|1-84158-207-7}}
*Carmichael, Alexander (1992) ''Carmina Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations (with illustrative notes on wards, rites, and customs dying and obsolete/ orally collected in the highlands and islands of Scotland by Alexander Carmichael)''. Hudson, NY, Lindisfarne. {{ISBN|0-940262-50-9}}
*Clark, Rosalind (1991) ''The Great Queens: Irish Goddesses from the Morrigan to Cathleen ni Houlihan''. Savage, MD, Barnes and Noble Books. {{ISBN|0-389-20928-7}}
*[[Kevin Danaher|Danaher, Kevin]] (1972) ''The Year in Ireland''. Dublin, Mercier. {{ISBN|1-85635-093-2}}
*Dillon, Myles (1994) ''Early Irish Literature''. Dublin, Four Courts Press. {{ISBN|1-85182-177-5}}
*Gray, Elizabeth A (1982) ''Cath Maige Tuired: The 2nd Battle of Mag Tuired''. Dublin, Irish Texts Society
*[[F. Marian McNeill|McNeill, F. Marian]] (1959). ''The Silver Bough, Vol. 1-4''. Glasgow, William MacLellan
*Nagy, Joseph Falaky (1985) ''The Wisdom of the Outlaw: The Boyhood Deeds of Finn in Gaelic Narrative Tradition''. Berkeley, University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-05284-6}}
*Patterson, Nerys Thomas (1994) ''Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland''. Notre Dame, IN, University of Notre Dame Press (2nd edition) {{ISBN|0-268-00800-0}}
*Power, Patrick C. (1976) ''Sex and Marriage in Ancient Ireland''. Dublin, Mercier
*Smyth, Daragh (1988, 1996) ''A Guide to Irish Mythology''. Dublin, Irish Academic Press
{{refend}}
'''Comparative European'''
{{refbegin|25em}}
*Davidson, H.R. Ellis (1988) ''Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions''. Syracuse, Syracuse University Press. {{ISBN|0-8156-2441-7}}
*Epstein, Angelique Gulermovich (1998) ''War Goddess: The Morrígan and Her Germano-Celtic Counterparts''. Los Angeles, University of California
*Lincoln, Bruce (1991) ''Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology and Practice''. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-48200-6}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.paganachd.com/faq/ The CR FAQ - An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism]: Written by a collective of long-term members of the CR community and representatives of diverse CR sub-traditions — including some of the founders of the tradition — the FAQ is only the second document to present a consensus view that speaks for more than one group's vision.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080418025755/http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usma&c=trads&id=6645 Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism]: The much-briefer consensus tradition statement from 2003. Contains unclear bits that were later cleared up in the FAQ, but a much quicker read than the FAQ.
*[http://www.imbas.org/imbas/what_we_mean.html What we mean by Celtic Reconstructionism]: Statement from Imbas
*[http://community.livejournal.com/thecrfaq_br/ FAQ RC – Uma Introdução ao Paganismo Reconstrucionista Celta]{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} - Portuguese translation of ''The CR FAQ''.
*[http://www.tairis.co.uk/ Tairis] - Collection of articles on Celtic Reconstructionism with a focus on Gaelic Polytheism
*[http://homepage.eircom.net/~shae/index.htm Land, Sea & Sky], edited by Shae Clancy and Francine Nicholson. Online anthology generally centered around Celtic mythology and Celtic Reconstructionism

'''Online portals'''
* [http://bandia.net/caorann/ CAORANN]: Celts Against Oppression, Racism and Neo-Nazism
* [http://www.paganachd.com/ Pàganachd / Págánacht]: Home of the CR FAQ and other CR resources
* [http://www.gaolnaofa.com/ Gaol Naofa:] A Gaelic Polytheist organisation
* [https://archive.today/20130722200224/http://celtoi.org/cms/index.php?id=2 Celtoi:] A CR organisation based in Germany

{{Celts|state=collapsed}}
{{Celtic mythology topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Neopaganism}}

[[Category:Polytheistic reconstructionism]]
[[Category:Celtic neopaganism]]
[[Category:1990s in modern paganism]]

Talk:Mount Diablo

2022-12-05T16:28:46Z

JavaRogers: /* Natural History section has no sources */ new section

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==Assessment==

this article probably qualifies as GA, but needs to go through the nom process. [[User:Anlace|Anlace]] 04:43, 25 October 2006 (UTC)

==Viewshed==

On talk page I can loosen my tongue a bit. The claim that there is more viewable area from Diablo than anywhere else except Kilimanjaro is commercially motivated. [[User:Viewfinder|Viewfinder]] 18:13, 12 November 2005 (UTC)

According to [http://www.savemountdiablo.org/AboutMountDiablo.htm this link] it states that "on a clear day, views from its 3849 foot summit stretch more than 200 miles, Mount Diablo has one of the largest viewsheds in the Western United States" and "Brewer estimated that the view embraced 80,000 square miles, 40,000 in tolerably plain view – over 300 miles from north to south, and 260 to 280 miles from east to west".

While it is true that the viewshed is impressive, and the longest views stretch to 200 miles, the view over the flat plains and the sea does not. This distance can be calculated, in kilometers, by multiplying the square root of the elevation, in meters, by 3.85. This converts 1172m (3845ft) to 132km (82 miles). Within 82 miles, the maximum viewshed is 21,000 square miles, and much of that is cut off by local features. Beyond that distance, only the tops of ridges are visible, and then only on the sides that face the viewpoint, so the surface area viewable is quite small and probably increases the total viewshed to about 22,000 square miles. So the above mentioned estimate that the "view embraced 80,000 square miles" was not scientific and was probably motivated by the desire to create a sensation. Unfortunately it has created a myth that is still widely believed, and even, I am told, taught in schools. [[User:Viewfinder|Viewfinder]] 19:08, 23 November 2005 (UTC)

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Be sure to note that there is a phenomenon in which the view is extended because of the atmosphere bending light which allows a view of Mt. Shasta on the horison. [[user:voodoom|Voodoom]] 4:31pm GMT, 19 January 2006

:: I am aware of atmospheric refraction and take it into account. Under normal atmospheric conditions [[Mount Shasta]] is not visible from [[Mount Diablo]]. But if there is a major atmospheric temperature inversion, the effect of refraction can increase, and this may, just possibly, allow Mount Shasta to be seen. But its distance is 242 miles, so the atmosphere would also have to be exceptionally clear. [[User:Viewfinder|Viewfinder]] 05:55, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

You Offer no citation for anything. Do so or remove your claim. [[User:76.21.84.191|76.21.84.191]] 04:10, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

See the links to the computer generated panoramas in the external links section. The claims were posted more than 12 months ago. By the way, I removed a sentence from your user page which breached [[WP:NPA]] and [[WP:CIV]]. [[User:Viewfinder|Viewfinder]] 16:36, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

I have myself seem from the Farallon islands to Half Dome. Those 2 are 305km away. That's way past the "70 something" km the article claims
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From personal experience: The viewshed from Newberry Caldera's Paulina Peak in Oregon must be substantially larger than Mount Diablo's as it stretches from Mt. Shasta, California in the south to Mt. Adams, Washington in the north, the Cascade range between them, and as well as the Oregon lands to the northeast, east and southeast. I have no proof for this other than having been there and verifying the points listed, nor do I have a computation, although the distance between Shasta and Adams is at least 400 miles. It could be interesting to determine this area. The Wikipedia article on this feature concentrates on the associated and interesting vulcanism.[[Special:Contributions/72.224.90.78|72.224.90.78]] ([[User talk:72.224.90.78|talk]]) 03:03, 9 June 2014 (UTC)

==Redirect==
The page needs a redirect from "Mount Diabolo" since many people believe that is how it is spelled. [[User:169.230.94.22|169.230.94.22]] 00:51, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

* Done. -- [[User:Doopokko|Doopokko]] 04:57, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

==GA==

I have failed the GA request. For one, there is a severe lack of inline citations, which is an absolute must. Second, there has to be significant cleanup regarding the links and prose, especially in the areas where it's just paragraphs of names and species. I suggest cleaning this article up significantly and attempting a [[WP:PR|peer review]] before nominating it again. Good luck! --[[User:Badlydrawnjeff|badlydrawnjeff]] [[User_talk:Badlydrawnjeff|talk]] 18:41, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

== Requested move ==
<div class="boilerplate" style="background-color: #efe; margin: 2em 0 0 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px dotted #aaa;">
:''The following discussion is an archived debate of the {{{type|proposal}}}. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section. ''

{{{result|The result of the debate was}}} '''PAGE MOVED''' per discussion below. It appears that the article is about the mountain, and that the park is part of the mountain's history and current situation. -[[User:GTBacchus|GTBacchus]]([[User talk:GTBacchus|talk]]) 03:19, 30 January 2007 (UTC)
<hr/>
[[Mount Diablo State Park]] → [[Mount Diablo]] — I don't think this will be controversial, but just in case, I'm putting it here. The article is about all aspects of Mount Diablo, so article title should reflect the broader subject. The article even has a mountain infobox rather than a park infobox. I was ready to simply move it myself, but because "Mount Diablo" exists as a redirect page, its not allowing me to make the move. [[User:Peter G Werner|Peter G Werner]] 09:52, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

===Survey===
:''Add  <tt><big><nowiki># '''Support'''</nowiki></big></tt>  or  <tt><big><nowiki># '''Oppose'''</nowiki></big></tt>  on a new line in the appropriate section followed by a brief explanation, then sign your opinion using <nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>. Please remember that this survey is [[Wikipedia:Polling is not a substitute for discussion|not a vote]], and please provide an explanation for your recommendation.''

====Survey - in support of the move====
# '''Support''', as per the reasons I gave in my proposal. [[User:Peter G Werner|Peter G Werner]] 09:53, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

====Survey - in opposition to the move====
#

===Discussion===
:''Add any additional comments:''
*This sounds more like a split and not a rename. Which article is the broader? I would think it is the park one since it covers more area, right? [[User:Vegaswikian|Vegaswikian]] 03:29, 25 January 2007 (UTC)

: *No, the park doesn't cover more area – it pretty much exists entirely on Mount Diablo, though it covers most of the area of the mountain. And by "broader", I mean the article covers the broader historic and geographic aspects of Mount Diablo, predating its existance as a state park. Check out the articles on [[Mount Tamalpais]] and [[San Bruno Mountain]] versus the articles on their respecitve State Parks. The articles on the mountains themselves are clearly longer and more general. Mount Diablo should be consistant with these. [[User:Peter G Werner|Peter G Werner]] 03:58, 25 January 2007 (UTC)
:''The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.''</div>

== High point ==

The Peakbagger citation states that the summit of Mount Diablo is the highest point in Contra Costa County. It's late and I couldn't see and easy place to fit this in. --[[User:Droll|'''droll''']] [[User talk:Droll|'''[chat]''']] 07:40, 29 June 2009 (UTC)

== Signage ==

In the "Claims on viewable area" section, it says:

<blockquote>According to a sign at the summit, it is possible to view the second greatest surface area seen from any peak in the world.</blockquote>

I was at the visitor center earlier today and although unfortunately I didn't study all the signage carefully or take a photo of the main sign that discusses this, I am almost certain it did not make this claim. I can believe it once did, but given the thorough debunking this claim has been given, I can also believe that the sign would now be changed to soften this claim.

Can someone say definitively that A) there ''used'' to be such a sign, and that B) there no longer is? Thanks, [[User:NapoliRoma|NapoliRoma]] ([[User talk:NapoliRoma|talk]]) 08:34, 1 January 2010 (UTC)

== Snowfall ==

The snowfall numbers are very confusing. Is the maximum snowfall on the mountain 3 (1972) or 6 (1975) or 18 (2009) inches? If one or more of these numbers is for the maximum depth on the ground (even though more may have fallen and melted) this should be stated more clearly. Much of the climage information could be deleted or at least summarized down to be smaller. [[User:Sanpitch|Sanpitch]] ([[User talk:Sanpitch|talk]]) 23:56, 24 September 2011 (UTC)

== Course Record ==

To clarify, realizing it is '''outside''' of the MDC see [http://www.strava.com/segments/5704921 Strava]. While it shows Mr English at #5, it shows that the Tour of California had several riders besting that time. The fastest shown is by pro racer Marc de Maar on May 18 2013. The top 10 fastest shown are all from the Tour of California stage race.--[[User:Billymac00|Billymac00]] ([[User talk:Billymac00|talk]]) 13:33, 4 July 2014 (UTC)

== Painters ==

Okay, so a lot of people go and paint Mount Diablo. But do we really need to include ALL these unknowns? "Early painters include Thomas Almond Ayres, Eugene Camerer, W. H. Dougal, Eduard Hildebrandt, Charles Hittell, Edward Jump, William Keith, John Ross Key, Charles Koppel, Edward Lehman, Pascal Loomis, Henry Miller, Joseph Warren Revere, through Clarkson Dye and others, to modern painters such as Robert Becker, Frank J. Bette, Ruth Breve, Betty Boggess Lathrap, Paul Carey, Bob Chapla, Mary Lou Correia, Ellen Curtis, Pam Della, Susan Dennis, Warren Dreher, John Finger, Pam Glover, JoAnn Hanna, Peg Humphreys, Don Irwin, Jeanne Kapp, Geri Keary, Chris Kent, Paul Kratter, Eunice Kritscher, Fred Martin, Cathy Moloney, Shirley Nootbaar, Charlotte Panton, Greg Piatt, Kenneth Potter, Robin Purcell, Ocean Quigley, Don Reich, Mary Silverwood, Barbara Stanton, Bruce Stangeland, Marty Stanley, and even the recognized comic book painter Dan Brereton.
Photographers include Ansel Adams, Cleet Carlton, Alfred A. Hart, Scott Hein, Stephen Joseph, Don Paulson, Brad Perks, Robert Picker, Richard Rollins, David Sanger, Michael Sewell and Bob Walker."
;Surely those who are actually 'known' can stay, the others must go. Or else I am going to also add my aunt's name. [[User:Rui Gabriel Correia|Rui ''Gabriel'' Correia]] ([[User talk:Rui Gabriel Correia|talk]]) 09:44, 8 August 2014 (UTC)

== Legends and Folklore ==

I'm citing:
http://cowellhistoricalsociety.org/html/devil.html
: One of the more interesting legends about the mountain is that told by General Mariano Vallejo in his April 16, 1850 report to the California Legislature. He gave the following report on the origin of Mount Diablo’s name in its Spanish form:
::In 1806 a military expedition from San Francisco marched against the tribe “Bolgones,” who were encamped at the foot of the mount; the Indians were prepared to receive the expedition, and a hot engagement ensued in the large hollow fronting the western side of the mount; as the victory was about to be decided in favor of the Indians, an unknown personages decorated with the most extraordinary plumage, and making divers movements, suddenly appeared near the combatants. The Indians were victorious, and the incognito (puy) departed toward the mount. The defeated soldiers, on ascertaining that the spirit went through the same ceremony daily and at all hours, named the mount “Diablo”, in allusion to its mysterious inhabitant, that continued thus to make his appearance until the tribe was subdued by troops in the command of Lieutenant Gabriel Moraga, in a second campaign of the same year. In the aboriginal tongue “puy” signifies “evil spirit,” in Spanish it means “diablo” and doubtless it signifies “devil” in the Anglo-American language.

Note that there is no report here of any "flying, spectral apparition" as mentioned in the current Wiki text.
[[User:Kortoso|Kortoso]] ([[User talk:Kortoso|talk]]) 17:02, 22 July 2015 (UTC)
==An inselberg or monadnock ?==
Is this an [[inselberg]] or [[monadnock]] ?
[[User:Xb2u7Zjzc32|Xb2u7Zjzc32]] ([[User talk:Xb2u7Zjzc32|talk]]) 19:48, 13 August 2016 (UTC)

== Sunrise/sunset? ==

The article states, "...more interesting than the sunset itself is the view of the progression of the mountain's shadow across the California Central Valley to the distant Sierra Nevada..."
My recollection is that the sun sets in the west, hence the shadow of the mountain would be towards the east: San Francisco Bay, the Santa Cruz mountains, and the Pacific Ocean. (Is the Pacific visible from the summit?) The shadow of the mountain would fall to the west during sunrise; perhaps that's what the writer meant. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/2601:646:8B82:FEB3:843F:157D:FAFE:4E06|2601:646:8B82:FEB3:843F:157D:FAFE:4E06]] ([[User talk:2601:646:8B82:FEB3:843F:157D:FAFE:4E06#top|talk]]) 04:19, 28 August 2017 (UTC) 

:The text as written is correct. The shadow falls in the opposite direction of the light source. The Sun sets in the west. Therefore the shadows fall to the east. Mount Diablo is east of the San Francisco Bay, the Santa Cruz mountains, and the Pacific Ocean, so the shadow cannot fall on them - as they are to the west. [[User:Anastrophe|Anastrophe]] ([[User talk:Anastrophe|talk]]) 05:18, 28 August 2017 (UTC)

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== Monte ==

The sources for the claim that Monte del Diablo meant a 'thicket' some miles away are not available to confirm this. Therefore the claim in the article that there was a misidentification by English speakers is dubious imo. Especially because Monte primarily means mountain in Spanish, going directly back to the Latin. It does also mean uncultivated and difficult to navigate land, however this is not interchangeable with thicket and seems unlikely the actual mountain would be ignored in this Spanish naming. In any case, readable sources would be helpful, or perhaps a less definitive and more historically nuanced translation of Monte should be included in the article? [[User:Hesperian Nguyen|Hesperian Nguyen]] ([[User talk:Hesperian Nguyen|talk]]) 15:10, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

The existing text and reference seem [[WP:RS|reliable]]. Everything is not available on the internet. This account has been accepted and repeated by several newspaper writers and their editors. See the last two references under Renaming section of the article. [[User:Fettlemap|Fettlemap]] ([[User talk:Fettlemap|talk]]) 15:27, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

:But do you understand the problem with simply and definitively translating Monte del Diablo as 'thicket of the devil' and also then attributing it to a misunderstanding? It would at the least need some type of qualification, especially as thicket is not by a long shot the primary translation of Monte. Reading up on it and it looks to be a commonly accepted story, but not one with easily verifiable sources. Taking this all on board, suggesting a rewording of below. Will give it a think [[User:Hesperian Nguyen|Hesperian Nguyen]] ([[User talk:Hesperian Nguyen|talk]]) 15:38, 28 November 2020 (UTC)

::"Whatever the story, the region north of the mountain came to be known as Monte del Diablo ("thicket of the devil") by 1824, appearing on maps near present-day Concord (Pacheco). Later, U.S. settlers misunderstood the name to refer to the mountain, and it was recorded with varying degrees of certainty until "Mount Diablo" became official in 1850."

:::Suggestion:
:::"By 1824, the region north of the mountain came to be known as Monte del Diablo ("devil's thicket", in this case monte should be translated as thicket or dense woods), appearing on maps near present-day Concord (Pacheco). Later, U.S. settlers understood "Monte" to refer directly to the mountain, and it was recorded with varying degrees of certainty until "Mount Diablo" became official in 1850."
:::[[User:Hesperian Nguyen|Hesperian Nguyen]] ([[User talk:Hesperian Nguyen|talk]]) 13:57, 1 December 2020 (UTC)

== Natural History section has no sources ==

Came for some further geological reading. Found that the whole "Natural History" section is without sources.——[[User:JavaRogers|JavaRogers]] ([[User talk:JavaRogers|talk]]) 16:28, 5 December 2022 (UTC)

Celtic reconstructionism

2022-11-04T11:00:15Z

JavaRogers: /* Overall tradition */

{{Short description|Polytheistic reconstructionist approach to Ancient Celtic religion}}
{{Infobox religion
| name = Celtic reconstructionism
| image = File:Triskele-Symbol1.svg
| imagewidth = 200
| alt =
| caption = The [[triple spiral]] is one of the main symbols<ref name="Bonewits132-4">Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}}. p.132: [Among Celtic Reconstructionists] "...''An Thríbhís Mhòr'' (the great triple spiral) came into common use to refer to the three realms." Also p. 134: [On CRs] "Using Celtic symbols such as [[triskele]]s and [[triple spiral|spirals]]"</ref>
| abbreviation = CR
| type = [[Ethnic religion]]
| main_classification = [[Modern Paganism]]
| orientation = [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|
Reconstructionist]]
| scripture = non-scripture-centric
| theology = [[Ancient Celtic religion|Celtic polytheism]]
| polity =
| governance =
| structure =
| leader_title =
| leader_name =
| fellowships =
| associations = [[European Congress of Ethnic Religions]]
| area = [[Celts|Celtic]] areas
| headquarters =
| founder =
| founded_date = mid-1980s
| founded_place =
| separated_from =
| parent =
| congregations =
| members =
| ministers =
| website =
}}

'''Celtic reconstructionism''' or '''CR''' (also '''Celtic reconstructionist paganism''') is a [[polytheistic reconstructionist]] approach to [[Ancient Celtic religion]], emphasising historical accuracy over eclecticism such as is found in most forms of [[Celtic neopaganism]] such as [[Neo-druidism]]. It is an effort to reconstruct and revive, in a [[Modern Celts|modern Celtic]] cultural context, pre-Christian [[Celtic polytheism|Celtic religions]].

Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism originated in discussions among amateur scholars and [[Neopaganism|Neopagans]] in the mid-1980s, and evolved into an independent tradition by the early 1990s. "Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism" (CR) is an umbrella term, with a number of recognized sub-traditions or denominations.<ref name="Bonewits137quote">Bonewits (2006) p.137: "There are, by the way, groups of people who call themselves "Gaelic Traditionalists" who have a great deal in common with the Celtic Recons. Some of these GTs started off as CRs, but consider themselves different for some reason or another (usually political). Others are Catholics looking to restore old (but Christian) Gaelic customs. ... The key with understanding these terms, or others such as Celtic Restorationism, Neo-Celtism, ''Senistrognata'', ''Seandagnatha,'' ''Ildiachas/Iol-Diadhachas'', etc. is to find out what each person using them intends them to mean."</ref>

==Origins==

As [[Neopaganism|modern paganism]] grew in scope and cultural visibility, some [[Euro-American]]s saw the pre-Christian religions of their ancestors as being worthy of revival, and the study of mythology and folklore as a way to accomplish this.<ref>{{Cite book | last1 = Adler | first1 = Margot | title = Drawing down the moon: witches, Druids, goddess-worshippers, and other pagans in America today | year = 1986 | publisher = Beacon Press | location = Boston | isbn = 0-8070-3253-0 | pages = 233 }}</ref> While most [[Neo-druidism|Neodruid]] groups of the period were primarily interested in "revitalizing the spirit of what they believe was the religious practice of pre-Roman Britain", the Celtic Reconstructionists (CRs) focused on only "reconstructing what can be known from the extant historical record."<ref name=Gallagher>{{Cite book | last1 = Gallagher | first1 = Eugene V. | last2 = Ashcraft | first2 = W. Michael | title = Introduction to new and alternative religions in America | url = https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00gall | url-access = limited | year = 2006 | publisher = Greenwood Press | location = Westport, Conn. | isbn = 0-275-98713-2 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00gall/page/n194 178] }}</ref>

Many of the people who eventually established CR were involved in modern pagan groups in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="CRFAQ1"/> Much dialogue in the 1980s took place at workshops and discussions at pagan festivals and gatherings, as well as in the pages of pagan publications.<ref name="CRFAQ1">{{cite book |last= NicDhàna |first= Kathryn Price |author2=Erynn Rowan Laurie|author3=C. Lee Vermeers|author4=Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann|title= The CR FAQ — An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism |edition= first |publisher= River House Publishing |isbn= 978-0-615-15800-6 |pages= 19–20 |date=August 2007 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> This period, and these groups, are referred to in retrospect as "Proto-CR".<ref name="CRFAQ1"/><ref name="Varn">{{cite web | last = Varn | first =C. Derick | title = An Interview with Kathryn Price NicDhàna: Celtic Reconstructionism | publisher = The Green Triangle |date=December 2006 | url = http://www.thegreentriangle.com/Dec%2006/Interview%20with%20Kathryn%20Price%20NicDhana.htm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080121111204/http://www.thegreentriangle.com/Dec%2006/Interview%20with%20Kathryn%20Price%20NicDhana.htm | archive-date = 2008-01-21 | access-date = 2009-10-01 }}</ref> Later, with the establishment of the Internet in the late 1980s and early 1990s, many of these groups and individuals came together online. This began a period of increased communication, and led to the growth of the movement.<ref name="CRFAQ1"/><ref name="Bonewits131">Bonewits (2006) p.131, "The Celtic Reconstructionist (CR) movement among neopagans began in the 1980s, with discussions among amateur scholars in the pages of neopagan publications or on the [[computer bulletin board system]]s of the pre-Internet days. In the early 1990s, the term began to be used for those interested in seriously researching and recreating authentic Celtic beliefs and practices for modern Pagans."</ref>

The first appearance in print of the term "Celtic Reconstructionist", used to describe a specific religious movement and not just a style of [[Celtic studies]], was by Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann in the Spring, 1992 issue of [[Harvest Magazine]].<ref name="Harvest1">Lambert, Kym [K.L. ní Dhoireann] (1992) "Celtic God/Goddess Names", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 4, Spring Equinox 1992, pp. 11-12. First use of "Celtic Reconstructionist" as tradition name.</ref><ref>Lambert, Kym [K.L. ní Dhoireann] (1992) Book Reviews, Bio Blurbs, ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 5, Beltane 1992, pp. 6,8. Continued use of "Celtic Reconstructionist" and "Celtic Reconstructionism". Use of term continued in succeeding issues for full publication run of magazine.</ref> Ní Dhoireann credits Kathryn Price NicDhàna with originating the term “Celtic Reconstructionist”;<ref name="Varn2">{{cite web | last = Varn | first =C. D. | title = An Interview with Kym Lambert | publisher = The Green Triangle |date=February 2007 | url = http://www.thegreentriangle.com/2007_01/Interview_Lambert.html | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080121111159/http://www.thegreentriangle.com/2007_01/Interview_Lambert.html | archive-date = 2008-01-21 | access-date = 2009-10-01}}</ref> however, NicDhàna credits her early use of the term to a simple extrapolation of [[Margot Adler]]'s use of the term "[[Pagan reconstructionism|Pagan reconstructionists]]" in the original, 1979 edition of ''[[Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today|Drawing Down the Moon]]''.<ref name="Harvest2">Theatana, Kathryn [K.P. NicDhàna] (1992) "More on Names", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 3, Imbolc 1992, pp. 11-12. On need to reconstruct traditions of ancestral [Celtic] deities and avoid [[cultural appropriation]].</ref> Though Adler devotes space to a handful of Reconstructionist traditions, none of those mentioned are specifically Celtic.<ref name="Adler1">[[Margot Adler|Adler, Margot]] (1979) ''[[Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today]]''. Boston, Beacon Press {{ISBN|0-8070-3237-9}}. Chapter 9: Religions from the Past—The Pagan Reconstructionists.</ref> In chapter eleven, while describing his [[Neo-druidism|Neo-druidic]] group, New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA), [[Isaac Bonewits]] uses the phrase "Eclectic Reconstructionist."<ref>Adler (1979) Chapter 11: Religions of Paradox and Play, p.303, Bonewits on New Reformed Druids of North America (NRDNA) as "Eclectic Reconstructionist".</ref> Eventually, this pairing of terms became [[oxymoron]]ic; in the pagan/polytheist communities, ''reconstructionist'' had now come to mean traditions that specifically exclude eclecticism.<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Varn2"/><ref name=McColman1>McColman (2003) p.51: "Such reconstructionists are attempting, through both spiritual and scholarly means, to create as purely Celtic a spirituality as possible."</ref><ref>NicDhàna et al. [August 2007] pp.20</ref>

With the growth of the Internet during the 1990s, hundreds of individuals and groups gradually joined the discussions online and in print, and the movement became more of an umbrella group, with a number of recognized sub-traditions.<ref name="Bonewits131"/>

==Practices==
While the ancient Celtic religions were largely subsumed by Christianity,<ref>{{cite book |last=Sjoestedt |first=Marie-Louise |title=Celtic Gods and Heroes |orig-year=1949 |year=2000 |publisher=Dover Publications |isbn=0-486-41441-8 |pages=3}}</ref> many religious traditions have survived in the form of folklore, mythology, songs, and prayers.<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Danaher">{{Cite book |last1=Danaher |first1=Kevin |title=The Year in Ireland |year=1972 |publisher=Mercier Press |location=Dublin, Ireland |isbn=1-85635-093-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/yearinireland00kevi/page/11 11, 12] |url=https://archive.org/details/yearinireland00kevi/page/11 }}</ref><ref name="the_wisdom_of_the_outlaw">{{Cite book |last1=Nagy |first1=Joseph Falaky |title=The wisdom of the outlaw: The boyhood deeds of Finn in Gaelic narrative tradition |year=1985 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=0-520-05284-6 |page=2}}</ref> Many folkloric practices never completely died out, and some Celtic Reconstructionists (CRs) claim to have survivals of Irish, Scottish or Welsh folkloric customs in their families of origin.<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Danaher"/><ref name="the_wisdom_of_the_outlaw"/>

[[Celtic languages|Language]] study and preservation, and participation in other cultural activities such as [[Celtic music]], dance and [[martial arts]] forms, are seen as a core part of the tradition.<ref name="Varn"/><ref>McColman (2003) p.51: "Many Celtic reconstructionists stress the importance of learning a Celtic language, like Irish or Welsh,"</ref> Participation in the living Celtic cultures<ref name="livingcelticcultures">NicDhàna ''et al.'' (August 2007) pp.21-23, 27, 28</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kirkey |first=Jason |title=The Salmon in the Spring: The Ecology of Celtic Spirituality |year=2009 |publisher=Hiraeth Press |location=San Francisco |isbn=978-0-9799246-6-8 |page=20}}</ref> – the cultures that exist in the "areas in which Celtic languages are actually spoken and in which Celtic traditions have been most faithfully handed down to the present day"<ref name=Kennedy>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Michael |title=Gaelic Nova Scotia: An Economic, Cultural, and Social Impact Study |date=November 2002 |publisher=Nova Scotia Museum Publications |location=Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada |isbn=0-88871-774-1 |pages=12, 13 |quote=In developing their own concept of Druidry, no reference was made by the [romantic] revivalists to the native spiritual and intellectual traditions of living Celtic communities – particularly to bards and priests who would have been the closest modern inheritors of any modern druidic tradition, slight as it may have been. ... Although the [romantic "druidic" revival] movement has continued to grow ... it is still almost entirely absent from areas in which Celtic languages are actually spoken and in which Celtic traditions have been most faithfully handed down to the present day. As Prof. Donald Meek has pointed out, this process of romanticism and cultural redefinition is actually greatly assisted by ignorance of the minority group’s language. ... The major reason that they tend to offer such a confused and contradictory picture of the “inherent” nature of Celts or Celtic culture is that they generally make no reference to existing Celtic communities, to living Celtic cultures, or to the best available Celtic scholarship. In fact, attempts to suggest that these should be the first sources of authority for the interpretation and representation of Celtic culture are often met with skepticism and even open hostility.}}</ref> – is a vital part of their cultural work and spiritual practice.<ref name="livingcelticcultures" /> The protection of Celtic archaeological and sacred sites is important to Celtic Reconstructionists.<ref name="IrishVoice">{{Cite journal |last=Nusca |first=Andrew |title =Reconstructing Ireland at Home |journal=[[Irish Voice]] |volume=22 |issue=11 |page=S23 |date=12–18 March 2008}}</ref> When construction of the [[N3 road (Ireland)|N3 motorway]] in Ireland threatened to destroy archaeological sites around the [[Hill of Tara]], Celtic Reconstructionists (among others) organized protests and a coordinated ritual of protection.<ref name="IrishVoice"/><ref name="paganacht1">{{cite web |last1=NicDhàna |first1=Kathryn |first2=Raven |last2=nic Rhóisín |title=I Stand with Tara: A Celtic Reconstructionist (Págánacht) ritual for the protection of the sacred center: The Tara-Skryne Valley in Ireland |publisher=paganachd.com & paganacht.com |date=October 2007 |url=http://www.paganachd.com/tara |access-date=2007-10-26 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Like many other modern pagan traditions, Celtic Reconstructionism has no sacred texts and so personal research is stressed.<ref>{{cite book |author=Bittarello, Maria Beatrice |article=Reading Texts, Watching Texts: Mythopoesis on Neopagan Websites |editor1=Llewellyn, Dawn |editor2=Sawyer, Deborah F. |year=2008 |title=Reading Spiritualities: Constructing and Representing the Sacred |location=Aldershot |publisher=Ashgate |isbn=978-0-7546-6329-4 |page=191 |quote=Among traditions that recognise themselves as {{sic|hide=y|reason=Don't "correct" this.|Neopagan or Pagans are (Neo) Druids, (Neo) Shamans, Wiccans, Odinists (also called Heathenists or Asatru), Hellenic, Roman and Celtic Reconstructionists}}. Such complex phenomenon is characterized by the absence of normative sacred texts and a hierarchy that controls authoritative sources and by a stress on personal research and choice.}}</ref> In order to more fully reconstruct pre-Christian Celtic religions, many CRs study [[archaeology]], historical manuscripts, and comparative religion, primarily of Celtic cultures, but sometimes other European cultures, as well.<ref>{{cite book |author=McColman, Carl |year=2003 |title=Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom |publisher=Alpha Press |isbn=0-02-864417-4 |page=12 |quote=Some groups have gone even further, trying to use archaeology, religious history, [[comparative mythology]], and even the study of non-Celtic [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] religions in an effort to create a well-researched and scholarly "reconstruction" of the ancient Celts.}}</ref> Celtic Reconstructionists are not pan-Celtic in practice,<ref>{{cite book |author=Davy, Barbara Jane |year=2007 |title=Introduction to Pagan Studies |publisher=Rowman Altamira |isbn=978-0-7591-0818-9 |page=97 |quote=Some pagans embrace the idea of a pan-European Celtic culture, but some practice regionally specific reconstructionist traditions.}}</ref> but rather immerse themselves in a particular Celtic culture, such as [[Gaels|Gaelic]], [[Culture of Wales|Welsh]] or [[Gaul]]ish.<ref>NicDhàna et al. (August 2007) pp. 65, 84</ref> According to Kathryn Price NicDhàna, CRs believe that while it is helpful to study a wide variety of Celtic cultures as an aid to religious reconstruction, and to have a broad understanding of religion in general, in practice these cultures are not lumped together.<ref name="Varn"/> In addition to cultural preservation and scholarly research Celtic Reconstructionists believe that [[mysticism|mystical]], ecstatic practices are a necessary balance to scholarship, and that this balance is a vital component of any Celtic Reconstructionist tradition.<ref name="Telesco">{{cite book |first1=Erynn Rowan |last1=Laurie |first2=Aedh Rua |last2=O'Morrighu |first3=John |last3=Machate |first4=Kathryn |last4=Price Theatana |first5=Kym |last5=Lambert ní Dhoireann |article=Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism |editor=Telesco, Patricia |year=2005 |title=Which Witch is Which? |location=Franklin Lakes, New Jersey |publisher=New Page Books / The Career Press |isbn=1-56414-754-1 |pages=85–89}}</ref>

While CRs strive to revive the religious practices of historical Celtic peoples as accurately as possible,<ref name=Gallagher /><ref>{{cite book |author=Bowman, Marion |article=Cardiac Celts: Images of the Celts in Paganism |editor1=Harvey, Graham |editor2=Hardman, Charlotte |year=1996 |title=Paganism Today |location=London, U.K. |publisher=Thorsons |isbn=0-7225-3233-4 |page=244 |quote=There are differences in and outlooks between reconstructors, whose priority is to piece together as exact a picture of the Celtic past as possible, and revivalists, whose main concern is not so much to replicate as to reinvigorate.}}</ref> they acknowledge that some aspects of their religious practice are reconstructions.<ref>{{cite news |title=Rekindling an ancient faith |first=Christine |last=Littlefield |url=http://www.lasvegassun.com/news/2005/nov/08/rekindling-an-ancient-faith/ |newspaper=Las Vegas Sun |location=Las Vegas |date=November 8, 2005 |access-date=2010-05-17 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Celtic Reconstructionists state that their practices are based on cultural survivals, augmented with the study of early Celtic beliefs found in texts and the work of [[Celtic Studies|scholars]] and archaeologists. Feedback from scholars and experienced practitioners is sought before a new practice is accepted as a valid part of a reconstructed tradition.<ref name="Bonewits132">Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}}. p.132</ref>

Celtic Reconstructionists believe it is important to lay aside elements of ancient Celtic cultures which they consider inappropriate practices in a modern society.<ref>NicDhàna et al. (August 2007) p. 52</ref> CRs attempt to find ethical ways of integrating historical findings and research with the activities of daily life.<ref name="Bonewits132"/> Many CRs view each act of daily life as a form of ritual, accompanying daily acts of purification and protection with traditional prayers and songs from sources such as the [[Scottish Gaelic]] ''[[Carmina Gadelica]]'' or manuscript collections of ancient [[Irish poetry|Irish]] or [[Welsh poetry]].<ref name="Telesco"/> Celebratory, community rituals are usually based on community festivals as recorded in folklore collections by authors such as [[F. Marian McNeill]], [[Kevin Danaher]] or [[John Gregorson Campbell]]. These celebrations often involve bonfires, dances, songs, divination and children's games.<ref name="Varn"/> More formal or mystical rituals are often based on traditional techniques of interacting with the [[Otherworld]],<ref>NicDhàna et al. (August 2007) p. 118</ref> such as the act of making offerings of food, drink and art to the spirits of the land, ancestral spirits, and the [[List of Celtic deities|Celtic deities]]. CRs give offerings to the spirits throughout the year, but at [[Samhain]], more elaborate offerings are made to specific deities and ancestors.<ref>{{cite news |title=A to Z of Halloween |url=http://www.limerickleader.ie/features/A-to-Z-of-Halloween.5779425.jp |newspaper=Limerick Leader |location=Limerick, Ireland |date=October 29, 2009 |access-date=2009-11-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102012547/http://www.limerickleader.ie/features/A-to-Z-of-Halloween.5779425.jp |archive-date=November 2, 2009 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The ancient Irish swore their oaths by the "Three Realms" – Land, Sea, and Sky.<ref name="Mac Mathúna">{{cite journal |last=Mac Mathúna |first=Liam |year=1999 |url=http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c23/c23-174.pdf |title=Irish perceptions of the Cosmos |journal=Celtica |volume=23 |pages=174–187 |access-date=2007-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070204063722/http://www.celt.dias.ie/publications/celtica/c23/c23-174.pdf |archive-date=2007-02-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Based on this precedent, reconstructed Gaelic ritual structures acknowledge the Land, Sea and Sky, with the fire of inspiration as a central force that unites the realms.<ref name="Telesco"/> Many Celtic Reconstructionists maintain [[altar]]s and [[shrine]]s to their patron spirits and deities, often choosing to place them at outdoor, natural locations such as [[Clootie well|wells]], streams, and special trees.<ref>NicDhàna et al. (August 2007) pp. 84–87, 96, 137</ref> Some CRs practice [[divination]]; [[ogham]] is a favored method, as are folkloric customs such as the taking of omens from the shapes of clouds or the behavior of birds and animals.<ref name="Telesco"/>

==Movement's labels==

===Overall tradition===
Kathryn Price NicDhàna and Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann have stated that they coined the term "Celtic Reconstructionist / Celtic Reconstructionism (CR)" specifically to distinguish their practices and beliefs from those of [[Eclecticism|eclectic]] traditions like [[Wicca]] and [[Neo-druidism]].<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Varn2"/><ref>McColman (2003) p.51: "While Celtic shamanism and [[Celtic Wicca]] are popular, not all people interested in finding a nature-based expression of Celtic spirituality feel comfortable with these multicultural forms of spirituality. A small but dedicated group of people, mostly neopagans, have formed a vibrant community in recent years devoted to reconstructing ancient Celtic pagan spirituality for the modern world."</ref> With ní Dhoireann's popularization of Celtic Reconstructionism in the neopagan press and then the use of the term by these individuals and others on the Internet, “Celtic Reconstructionism” began to be adopted as the name for this developing spiritual tradition.<ref name="Harvest3">Darcie (1992) "Book Review", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 5, Beltane 1992, p. 8. Use of term by another writer: "I showed the Appendix to a Celtic reconstructionist friend..."</ref><ref name="Harvest4">Hinds, Kathryn (1992) "Letters", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 6, Summer 1992, p. 11. Use of term by a letter writer: "I am very curious about Kym Lambert's experiences, and I hope she will write more about her path of Celtic reconstructionism."</ref><ref name="Harvest5">Lambert, Kym [K.L. ní Dhoireann] (1992) "Reviewers' Biographies", ''Harvest'', Southboro, MA, Vol. 12, No. 8, Fall/Autumn Equinox 1992, p. 10. Use of term in bio blurb: "Kym Lambert is...now practicing Celtic Reconstructionism..."</ref>

====Gaelic traditionalism====

Some groups that take a Celtic Reconstructionist approach to [[Gaels|ancient Gaelic]] polytheism call themselves "Gaelic Traditionalists".<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/> Preservation of the living traditions in modern [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]] (and other [[Modern Celts|modern Celtic]]) communities has always been a priority in Celtic Reconstructionism.<ref name="GT">{{cite book |last= NicDhàna |first= Kathryn Price |author2=Erynn Rowan Laurie|author3=C. Lee Vermeers|author4=Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann|title= The CR FAQ — An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism |orig-year= 2007 |edition= first |publisher= River House Publishing |isbn= 978-0-615-15800-6 |pages= 134–6 |date=August 2007|display-authors=etal}}</ref> However, according to ''The CR FAQ'' there has been some controversy around the use of the term "Gaelic Traditionalists" by groups outside of the [[Gaeltacht]] and [[Gàidhealtachd]] areas of Ireland, Scotland and Nova Scotia.<ref name="GT" /> In the opinion of Isaac Bonewits this is partly because "Gaelic Traditionalists" is a term used almost exclusively by Celtic Christians.<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/> As Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann put it, "Gaelic Traditionalists" means "those living and raised in the living cultures and [who] are keeping their culture, language and music alive, not any of the American polytheistic groups that have been using it lately."<ref name="Varn2"/> ''The CR FAQ'' states that due to those in the Gaelic-speaking areas having a prior claim to the term, most Reconstructionists have been uncomfortable with the choice of other Reconstructionists to call themselves "Traditionalists",<ref name="GT"/> a sentiment which Bonewits echoes.<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/> According to the authors of ''The CR FAQ'', while the disagreement over terminology has at times led to heated discussion, the polytheistic “traditionalists” and “reconstructionists” are taking the same approach to their religion, and there are generally good relations between the founders of both movements.<ref name="GT"/>

===Sub-traditions===
While Celtic Reconstructionism was the earliest term in use and still remains the most widespread, as the movement progressed other names for a Celtic Reconstructionist approach were also popularized, with varying degrees of success.<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/> Some CR groups have looked to the individual Celtic languages for a more culturally specific name for the tradition, or for their branch of the tradition.<ref name="Bonewits137quote"/>

====Pàganachd/Págánacht====

Some [[Gaels|Gaelic-oriented]] groups have used the [[Scottish Gaelic]], ''{{lang|sg|Pàganachd}}'' ('Paganism, Heathenism')<ref name="Telesco"/> or the [[Irish language|Irish]] version, ''{{lang|ga|Págánacht}}''.<ref name="paganacht1"/><ref name="Paganachd-Paganacht">{{cite web |title=Pàganachd/Págánacht |work=Paganacht.com / Paganachd.com |date=2006 |url= http://paganacht.com |access-date=2007-10-26 }}</ref> One Gaelic Polytheist group on the East Coast of the US has used a modification of the Gaelic term as ''{{lang|gd|Pàganachd Bhandia}}'' ('Paganism of Goddesses').<ref name="Varn"/><ref name="Telesco"/>

===={{anchor|IMBAS}}Senistrognata====

In 2000, IMBAS, A Celtic Reconstructionist organisation based in [[Seattle]] active during the late 1990s to early 2000s, adopted the name ''Senistrognata'', a constructed "[[Old Celtic]]" term intended as translating to "[[Nomos (sociology)|ancestral customs]]". {{lang|sga|Imbas}} {{IPA-sga|ˈimbas|}} is an [[Old Irish]] word meaning 'poetic inspiration'. The organization "promotes the spiritual path of Senistrognata, the ancestral customs of the Celtic peoples. It is a path open to Pagans, Christians, and Ag[n]ostics alike. This organization is currently inactive."<ref name="SenistrognataImbas">{{cite web|title=Imbas |publisher=imbas.org |year=2004 |url=http://imbas.org/imbas/index.html |access-date=2004-06-16 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040616120534/http://imbas.org/imbas/index.html |archive-date=June 16, 2004 }} In an [[alt.* hierarchy|alt.]]pagan post, "[https://groups.google.com/forum/#!search/Senistrognata/alt.pagan/bPqByAY5gK8/QiJasDqBb7oJ Senistrognata]", dated 18 March 2000, Danielle Ni Dhighe announced that "Senistrognata [...] is the term which our membership have democratically chosen to
replace Celtic Reconstructionism/Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism",
stating that the word is reconstructed "Old Celtic" with a meaning of "ancestral
customs" (c.f. [[forn sed]] as a parallel term used in Germanic neopaganism).
</ref><ref name="Bonewits137">Bonewits, Isaac (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}}. p.137</ref>

===Others===

*The [[Irish language|Irish]] word for 'polytheism', ''{{lang|ga|ildiachas}}'', is in use by at least one group on the West Coast of the US as ''{{lang|ga|Ildiachas Atógtha}}'' ('Reconstructed Polytheism').<ref name="Bonewits137"/><ref name="Ildiachas">NicDhàna ''et al.'' [August 2007] p.177</ref>

==Celtic Reconstructionism and Neo-druidism==
Though there has been cross-pollination between [[Neo-druidism|Neo-druid]] and Celtic Reconstructionist groups, and there is significant crossover of membership between the two movements, the two have largely differing goals and methodologies in their approach to Celtic religious forms.<ref name=Gallagher /> Reconstructionists tend to place high priority on historical authenticity and traditional practice. Some Neo-druids tend to prefer a modern Pagan, eclectic approach, focusing on "the spirit of what they believe was the religious practice of pre-Roman Britain".

However, some Neo-druid groups (notably, {{lang|ga|[[Ár nDraíocht Féin]]}} (ADF), the [[Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids]] (OBOD), and the [[Henge of Keltria]]) adopted similar methodologies of reconstruction, at least some of the time. ADF, in particular, has long used reconstructionist techniques, but the group has been criticized for their pan-Indo-European scope, which may result in non-Celtic combinations such as "[[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic]] druids" and "[[Roman mythology|Roman]] druids".<ref>Bonewits (2006) Chapter 9, "Solitary Druids and Celtic Reconstructionists" pp.128-140.</ref>

Terminological differences exist as well, especially in terms of what ''druid'' means. Some Neo-druid groups call anyone with an interest in Celtic spirituality a "druid", and refer to the practice of any Celtic-inspired spirituality as "druidry", while reconstructionist groups usually use{{citation needed|date=October 2015|reason=MacKillop, cited below, does not say that CR use the older defnition.}} the older<ref name="a_dictionary_of_celtic_mythology">{{Cite book |last1=MacKillop |first1=James |title=Dictionary of Celtic mythology |date=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-280120-1 |page=151 }}</ref> definition, seeing "druid" as a culturally-specific office that requires decades of training and experience, which is only attained by a small number of practitioners, and which must be conferred and confirmed by the community the druid serves.<ref>Bonewits (2006) p.135: "But because the word druid is used by so many people for so many different purposes, Celtic Recons, even those who get called druids by their own communities, are reluctant to use the title for fear that others will equate them with folks they consider flakes, frauds or fools."</ref><ref name="Greer1">Greer, John Michael (2003) ''The New Encyclopedia of the Occult''. St. Paul, Llewellyn Worldwide. {{ISBN|1-56718-336-0}}, pp. 139, 140, 410.</ref>

==See also==
{{colbegin|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Ancient Celtic religion]]
*[[Celt]]
*[[Celtic mythology]]
*[[Modern Celts]]
*[[Polytheistic reconstructionism]]
{{colend}}
'''Festivals'''
{{colbegin|colwidth=25em}}
*[[Imbolc]]
*[[Beltane]]
*[[Lughnasadh]]
*[[Samhain]]
{{colend}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==

===Celtic Reconstructionism===
*Adler, Margot (1979) ''Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other Pagans in America Today''
*[[Isaac Bonewits|Bonewits, Isaac]] (2006) ''Bonewits's Essential Guide to Druidism''. New York, Kensington Publishing Group {{ISBN|0-8065-2710-2}} Chapter 9: "Celtic Reconstructionists and other Nondruidic Druids"
*Fairgrove, Rowan (1994) ''What we don't know about the ancient Celts''. Originally printed in ''The Pomegranate'', '''2'''. Now [http://www.conjure.com/whocelts.html available online]
*[[Alexei Kondratiev|Kondratiev, Alexei]] (1998) ''The Apple Branch: A Path to Celtic Ritual''. San Francisco, Collins. {{ISBN|1-898256-42-X}} (1st edition), {{ISBN|0-8065-2502-9}} (2nd edition). (Also reprinted without revision under the title ''Celtic Rituals''.)
*Laurie, Erynn Rowan (1995) ''A Circle of Stones: Journeys and Meditations for Modern Celts''. Chicago, Eschaton. {{ISBN|1-57353-106-5}}
*Laurie, Erynn Rowan (2007) ''Ogam: Weaving Word Wisdom''. Megalithica Books. {{ISBN|1-905713-02-9}}
*McColman, Carl (2003) ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Celtic Wisdom.'' Alpha Press {{ISBN|0-02-864417-4}}
*NicDhàna, Kathryn Price; Erynn Rowan Laurie, C. Lee Vermeers, Kym Lambert ní Dhoireann, ''et al.'' (2007) ''The CR FAQ — An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism''. River House Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-615-15800-6}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Nusca | first = Andrew | title = Reconstructing Ireland at Home | journal = [[Irish Voice]] | volume = 22 | issue = 11 | pages = S23 | date = March 12–18, 2008 }}
*Telesco, Patricia [editor] (2005) ''Which Witch is Which?'' Franklin Lakes, NJ, New Page Books / The Career Press {{ISBN|1-56414-754-1}}, p. 85-9: "Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism"

===Celtic polytheism and folklore===
{{Further|Celtic polytheism|Irish mythology|Scottish mythology|Welsh mythology}}

Celtic Reconstructionists rely on primary mythological texts, as well as surviving folklore, for the basis of their religious practices. No list can completely cover all the recommended works, but this is a small sample of sources used.

'''General Celtic'''
{{refbegin|25em}}
*[[W. Y. Evans-Wentz|Evans Wentz, W. Y.]] (1966, 1990) ''The Fairy-Faith in Celtic Countries''. Gerrards Cross, Colin Smythe Humanities Press {{ISBN|0-901072-51-6}}
*MacCana, Proinsias (1970) ''Celtic Mythology''. Middlesex, Hamlyn. {{ISBN|0-600-00647-6}}
*MacKillop, James (1998) ''A Dictionary of Celtic Mythology''. Oxford, Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-280120-1}}
*[[Alwyn D. Rees|Rees, Alwyn]] and [[Brinley Rees|Rees, Brinley]] (1961) ''Celtic Heritage: Ancient Tradition in Ireland and Wales''. New York, Thames and Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-27039-2}}
*[[Marie-Louise Sjoestedt|Sjoestedt, Marie-Louise]] (1982) ''Gods and Heroes of the Celts''. Translated by Myles Dillon, Berkeley, CA, Turtle Island Foundation. {{ISBN|0-913666-52-1}}
{{refend}}
'''Gaelic (Irish and Scottish)'''
{{refbegin|25em}}
*Campbell, John Gregorson (1900, 1902, 2005) ''The Gaelic Otherworld''. Edited by Ronald Black. Edinburgh, Birlinn Ltd. {{ISBN|1-84158-207-7}}
*Carmichael, Alexander (1992) ''Carmina Gadelica: Hymns and Incantations (with illustrative notes on wards, rites, and customs dying and obsolete/ orally collected in the highlands and islands of Scotland by Alexander Carmichael)''. Hudson, NY, Lindisfarne. {{ISBN|0-940262-50-9}}
*Clark, Rosalind (1991) ''The Great Queens: Irish Goddesses from the Morrigan to Cathleen ni Houlihan''. Savage, MD, Barnes and Noble Books. {{ISBN|0-389-20928-7}}
*[[Kevin Danaher|Danaher, Kevin]] (1972) ''The Year in Ireland''. Dublin, Mercier. {{ISBN|1-85635-093-2}}
*Dillon, Myles (1994) ''Early Irish Literature''. Dublin, Four Courts Press. {{ISBN|1-85182-177-5}}
*Gray, Elizabeth A (1982) ''Cath Maige Tuired: The 2nd Battle of Mag Tuired''. Dublin, Irish Texts Society
*[[F. Marian McNeill|McNeill, F. Marian]] (1959). ''The Silver Bough, Vol. 1-4''. Glasgow, William MacLellan
*Nagy, Joseph Falaky (1985) ''The Wisdom of the Outlaw: The Boyhood Deeds of Finn in Gaelic Narrative Tradition''. Berkeley, University of California Press. {{ISBN|0-520-05284-6}}
*Patterson, Nerys Thomas (1994) ''Cattle Lords and Clansmen: The Social Structure of Early Ireland''. Notre Dame, IN, University of Notre Dame Press (2nd edition) {{ISBN|0-268-00800-0}}
*Power, Patrick C. (1976) ''Sex and Marriage in Ancient Ireland''. Dublin, Mercier
*Smyth, Daragh (1988, 1996) ''A Guide to Irish Mythology''. Dublin, Irish Academic Press
{{refend}}
'''Comparative European'''
{{refbegin|25em}}
*Davidson, H.R. Ellis (1988) ''Myths and Symbols in Pagan Europe: Early Scandinavian and Celtic Religions''. Syracuse, Syracuse University Press. {{ISBN|0-8156-2441-7}}
*Epstein, Angelique Gulermovich (1998) ''War Goddess: The Morrígan and Her Germano-Celtic Counterparts''. Los Angeles, University of California
*Lincoln, Bruce (1991) ''Death, War, and Sacrifice: Studies in Ideology and Practice''. Chicago, University of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0-226-48200-6}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.paganachd.com/faq/ The CR FAQ - An Introduction to Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism]: Written by a collective of long-term members of the CR community and representatives of diverse CR sub-traditions — including some of the founders of the tradition — the FAQ is only the second document to present a consensus view that speaks for more than one group's vision.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080418025755/http://www.witchvox.com/va/dt_va.html?a=usma&c=trads&id=6645 Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism]: The much-briefer consensus tradition statement from 2003. Contains unclear bits that were later cleared up in the FAQ, but a much quicker read than the FAQ.
*[http://www.imbas.org/imbas/what_we_mean.html What we mean by Celtic Reconstructionism]: Statement from Imbas
*[http://community.livejournal.com/thecrfaq_br/ FAQ RC – Uma Introdução ao Paganismo Reconstrucionista Celta]{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} - Portuguese translation of ''The CR FAQ''.
*[http://www.tairis.co.uk/ Tairis] - Collection of articles on Celtic Reconstructionism with a focus on Gaelic Polytheism
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Maar

2022-03-28T05:58:48Z

JavaRogers: removed 2 unnecessary links

{{Short description|Low-relief volcanic crater}}
{{Other uses}}
{{wikt | maar}}
[[File:Maar USGS.jpg|thumb| [[Ukinrek Maars]] as a result of the [[Phreatomagmatic eruption|phreatomagmatic activity]]]]
[[File:Devil Mountain Lakes.jpg|thumb|The [[Devil Mountain Lakes]], located on the Seward Peninsula in western Alaska – the largest maar-based lakes in the world.]]

A '''maar''' is a broad, low-[[Terrain|relief]] [[volcanic crater]] caused by a [[phreatomagmatic eruption]] (an explosion which occurs when [[groundwater]] comes into contact with hot [[lava]] or [[magma]]). A maar characteristically fills with water to form a relatively shallow [[Volcanic crater lake|crater lake]] which may also be called a maar.<ref>David S.G. Thomas and Andrew Goudie (eds.), ''The Dictionary of Physical Geography'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 2000), 301. {{ISBN|0-631-20473-3}}.</ref> The name comes from a [[Moselle Franconian language|Moselle Franconian]] dialect word used for the circular lakes of the [[Daun (Germany)|Daun]] area of Germany.<ref>
Notes:
* According to German Wikipedia's [[:de:Maar#Namensherkunft|''"Maar"'']] article, in 1544 in his book [[Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)|''Cosmographia'']], [[Sebastian Münster]] (1488–1552) first applied the word "maar" (as ''Marh'') to the [[:de:Ulmener Maar|Ulmener Maar]] and the [[Laacher See]].{{Unreliable source?|sure=y|reason=[[WP:CIRCULAR]]|date=December 2021}} See: Sebastian Münster, ''Cosmographia'' (Basel, Switzerland: Heinrich Petri, 1544), [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_G3JOAAAAcAAJ p. 341.] From p. 341: ''"Item zwen namhafftiger seen seind in der Eyfel / einer bey de schloß Ulmen / und ein ander bey dem Closter züm Laich / die seind sere tieff / habe kein ynflüß aber vil außflüß / die nennet man Marh unnd seind fischreich."'' (Also two noteworthy lakes are in the Eifel, one by the Ulmen castle, and another by the monastery at Laich ; they are very deep ; [they] have no streams flowing in but many flowing out ; one calls them "maars" and [they] are rich in fish.)
* In 1819, [[:de:Johannes Steininger|Johann Steininger]] (1794–1874), a secondary-school teacher from Trier, coined the term "maar" in its modern sense. See: Steininger, J., ''Geognostische Studien am Mittelrhein'' [Geological studies on the middle Rhein] (Mainz, (Germany): Kupferberg, 1819).
* In 1825, [[George Julius Poulett Scrope]] (1797–1876) introduced the term "maar" into English. See: Scrope, G.P., ''Considerations on Volcanoes'' (London, England: Philipps, 1825), [https://archive.org/details/considerationso00scrogoog/page/n201 p. 166.]
* Prof. Horst Noll, a geologist at the University of Köln (Cologne), Germany, said that the local term ''maar'' might even have derived from the Latin word ''mare'' (i.e. sea) and been introduced into local language during the Roman occupation of the West Eifel. See: Noll, H. (1967) "Maare und Maar-ähnliche Explosionskrater in Island. Ein Vergleich mit dem Maar-Vulkanismus der Eifel" (Maars and maar-like explosion craters in Iceland. A comparison with the maar-volcanism of the Eifel.), Special publication of the Geological Institute of the University of Köln, p. 1.
* Wilhelm Meyer, ''Geologie der Eifel'' [Geology of the Eifel] (Stuttgart, Germany: Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1986), p. 311.
* Herbert Lutz and Volker Lorenz (2013) [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00445-013-0743-0/fulltext.html "Early volcanological research in the Vulkaneifel, Germany, the classic region of maar–diatreme volcanoes: the years 1774–1865."] On-line publication of Springer International Publishing, Berlin, Germany.
* [https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=maar The American Heritage Dictionary] states that the word "maar" derives from the Latin ''mare'' (sea), as does the German language [http://universal_lexikon.deacademic.com/102150/Maar Universal Lexikon].
</ref>

Maars are shallow, flat-floored craters that scientists interpret as having formed above [[diatreme]]s as a result of a violent expansion of magmatic gas or steam; deep erosion of a maar presumably would expose a diatreme. Maars range in size from {{convert|60|to|8000|m|abbr= on|lk=on}} across and from {{convert|10|to|200|m|abbr= on}} deep; most maars commonly fill with water to form natural lakes. Most maars have low rims composed of a mixture of loose fragments of [[volcanic rock]]s and rocks torn from the walls of the diatreme.

== Maar lakes and dry maars ==
''Maar lakes'', also referred to simply as ''maars'', occur when [[groundwater]] or [[precipitation]] fills the funnel-shaped and usually round hollow of the maar depression formed by volcanic explosions. Examples of these types of maar are the three maars at Daun in the [[Eifel]] mountains of [[Germany]].

A ''dry maar'' results when a maar lake dries out, becomes [[Aggradation|aggraded]] or [[silted up]]. An example of the latter is the [[Eckfelder Maar]]. Near [[Steffeln]] is the [[Eichholzmaar]] (also called the ''Gussweiher'') which has dried out during the last century and is being renaturalised into a maar. In some cases the underlying rock is so porous that maar lakes are unable to form. After winters of heavy snow and rainfall many dry maars fill partially and temporarily with water; others contain small [[Bog|bogs]] or often artificial ponds that, however, only occupy part of the hollow.

== Examples ==
The largest known maars are found at [[Cape Espenberg|Espenberg]] on the [[Seward Peninsula]] in northwest Alaska. These maars range in size from {{convert|4000|to|8000|m|ft|abbr=on}} in diameter and a depth up to {{convert|300|m|ft|abbr=on}}. These eruptions occurred in a period of about 100,000 years, with the youngest (the Devil Mountain Maar) occurring about 17,500 years ago. Their large size is due to the explosive reaction that occurs when [[magma]] comes into contact with [[permafrost]]. Hydromagmatic eruptions are increasingly explosive when the ratio of water to magma is low. Since permafrost melts slowly, it provides a steady source of water to the eruption while keeping the water to magma ratio low. This produces the prolonged, explosive eruptions that created these large maars. Examples of the Seward Peninsula maars include North Killeak Maar, South Killeak Maar, Devil Mountain Maar and Whitefish Maar.<ref>{{Citation
| last1 = Begét
| first1 = James E.
| last2 = Hopkins
| first2 = David M.
| last3 = Charron
| first3 = Steven D.
| title = The Largest Known Maars on Earth, Seward Peninsula, Northwest Alaska
| journal = Arctic
| volume = 49
| issue = 1
| pages = 62–69
| date = March 1996
| url = http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic49-1-62.pdf
| doi=10.14430/arctic1184}}
</ref>

Maars occur in western North America, [[Patagonia]] in South America, the [[Eifel]] region of [[Germany]] (where they were originally described), and in other geologically young volcanic regions of Earth. Elsewhere in Europe, [[La Vestide du Pal]] in the [[Ardèche]] department of France provides a spectacular example of a maar easily visible from the ground or air. [[Kilbourne Hole]] and [[Hunt's Hole]], in southern [[New Mexico]] near [[El Paso, Texas]], are maars. The [[Crocodile Lake (Philippines)|Crocodile Lake]] in [[Los Baños, Laguna|Los Baños]] in the Philippines was originally thought of as a volcanic crater is also a maar. The notorious, [[carbon dioxide]]-saturated [[Lake Nyos]] in Africa is another example. An excellent example of a maar is [[Zuñi Salt Lake]] in [[New Mexico]], a shallow [[saline lake]] that occupies a flat-floored crater about {{convert|6500|ft|abbr=on}} across and {{convert|400|ft|abbr=on}} deep. Its low rim is composed of loose pieces of [[basalt]]ic lava and [[wall rock]]s ([[sandstone]], [[shale]], [[limestone]]) of the underlying [[diatreme]], as well as random chunks of ancient [[crystalline]] rocks blasted upward from great depths. Maars in [[Canada]] are found in the [[Wells Gray-Clearwater volcanic field]] of east-central [[British Columbia]] and in [[kimberlite]] fields throughout Canada. A notable field of maars is found in the [[Pali-Aike Volcanic Field]] in [[Patagonia]], South America.<ref>C. Michael Hogan (2008) ''Pali Aike'', The Megalithic Portal, ed. A. Burnham [http://www.megalithic.co.uk/article.php?sid=18657]</ref> and in the Sudanese [[Bayuda Volcanic Field]]. The [[Auckland volcanic field]] in the urban area of [[Auckland]], New Zealand has several maars, including the readily accessible [[Lake Pupuke]] in the North Shore suburb of [[Takapuna]].

One of the most notable craters misidentified as a maar is [[Arizona]]'s [[Meteor Crater]]; for many years this was thought to be of volcanic rather than meteoric origin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.barringercrater.com/science/ |title=The Science: What is the Barringer Meteorite Crater? |access-date=2008-09-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719102623/http://www.barringercrater.com/science/ |archive-date=2008-07-19 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Germany ===
==== Eifel maars ====
[[File:maare.jpg|thumb|The three maars at Daun (from front to rear): the Gemündener, Weinfelder and Schalkenmehrener Maar]]
[[File:WeinfelderMaar.jpg|thumb|Weinfelder Maar]]
[[File:SchalkenmehrenerMaar.jpg|thumb|Schalkenmehrener Maar]]
In the [[Volcanic Eifel]] there are about 75 maars. These include water-filled maar lakes, but the great majority are dry maars. Both types, lake-filled maars and dry maars, are typical of the Volcanic Eifel. The last eruptions took place at least 11,000 years ago and many maars in the Eifel are clearly older. For this reason many are very heavily [[eroded]] and their shapes and volcanic features are not as obvious as those of more recent or even active maars elsewhere in the early. Nevertheless, the maars of the Eifel are well preserved.<ref name="WMeyer1">{{cite book| first= Wilhelm |last=Meyer|title= Geologie der Eifel| volume= 1|publisher= Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung| location= Stuttgart| year= 1986| pages=311ff| isbn= 978-3-510-65127-6}}</ref>

===== Water-filled maars of the Eifel =====

{| class="wikitable sortable toptextcells"
|- style="vertical-align:top; "
! Name [[Geographical coordinates|Geo-coordinates]]
! Location near/between
! Area in [[hectare|ha]]
! Depth<ref name="mWs" /> in [[metre|m]]
! class="unsortable" | Remarks
|-
| [[Eichholzmaar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/16/19/N|EW=6/33/54/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Eichholzmaar}}) || [[Duppach]], [[Steffeln]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|1.1}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|3.2}} || Smallest permanent Eifel maar lake
|-
| [[Gemündener Maar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/10/39/N|EW=6/50/11/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Gemündener Maar}}) || [[Gemünden (Daun)|Gemünden]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|7.2}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|39.0}} ||
|-
| [[Holzmaar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/7/9/N|EW=6/52/43/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Holzmaar}}) || [[Eckfeld]], [[Gillenfeld]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|6.8}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|21.0}} || Crossed by a stream
|-
| [[Immerather Maar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/7/19/N|EW=6/57/31/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Immerather Maar}})
| [[Immerath, Rhineland-Palatinate|Immerath]], [[Strotzbüsch]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|6.0}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|2.9}} || Shallowest of all Eifel maar lakes
|-
| [[Meerfelder Maar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/6/2/N|EW=6/45/23/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Meerfelder Maar}}) || [[Deudesfeld]], [[Meerfeld]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|24.0}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|17.0}} ||
|-
| [[Pulvermaar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/7/52/N|EW=6/55/34/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Pulvermaar}}) || [[Gillenfeld]], [[Immerath, Rhineland-Palatinate|Immerath]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|38.48}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|72.0}} || Deepest and largest maar lake in Germany
|-
| [[Schalkenmehrener Maar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/10/10/N|EW=6/51/29/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Schalkenmehrener Maar}}) || [[Gemünden (Daun)|Gemünden]], [[Schalkenmehren]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|21.6}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|21.0}} ||
|-
| [[Ulmener Maar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/12/36/N|EW=6/58/59/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Ulmener Maar}}) || [[Ulmen (Eifel)|Ulmen]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|6.0}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|37.0}} || Most recent maar in the Eifel
|-
| [[Weinfelder Maar]] ({{Coordinate|text=⊙|NS=50/10/35/N|EW=6/51/1/E|type=landmark|region=DE-RP|name=Weinfelder Maar}}) || [[Gemünden (Daun)|Gemünden]], [[Schalkenmehren]] || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|16.8}} || style="text-align:right" | {{Nts|51.0}} || Also called the ''Totenmaar''
|}

===== Dry maars of the Eifel =====
[[File:20170521 02 Schalkenmehrener Maar 04.jpg|thumb|Schalkenmehrener "dry" Maar]]
[[File:20170522 14 Trockenmaar am hohen List 1.jpg|thumb|The Trockenmaar on the Hohe List (1 km SW of Schalkenmehren)]]
In the Eifel and Volcanic Eifel there are numerous dry maars:
* [[Mosbrucher Weiher]] (4 km SE of [[Kelberg]])
* [[Booser Doppelmaar]] (W of [[Boos (Eifel)|Boos]]; near Kelberg)
* [[Dreiser Weiher]] (W of [[Dreis-Brück]], N of [[Daun]])
* [[Dürres Maar]] (SW of [[Gillenfeld]])
* Duppacher Weiher (near [[Duppach]], NW of [[Gerolstein]])
* Geeser Maar (E of [[Gerolstein]], N of Gees)
* [[Eckfelder Maar]] (near [[Eckfeld]])
* Eigelbacher Maar (near Kopp, county of [[Daun]]; maar basin: c. 1200 m × 1200 m)
* [[Hitsche Maar]] (NW of the Dürre Maar, smallest Eifel maar; [[Diameter|Ø]] = 60 m)
* Immerather Risch ([[Middle Low German]]: ''risch'' = reed bed; N of the Immerather Maar)
* Gerolsteiner Maar (NE of [[Gerolstein]])
* [[Schalkenmehrener Maar]] E (of [[Schalkenmehren]])
* Schönfelder Maar (SW of [[Stadtkyll]]-Schönfeld)
* Steffelner Laach or "Laach Maar" (near [[Steffeln]])
* Dehner Maar (near [[Reuth (Eifel)|Reuth]])
* Walsdorfer Maar ("Schilierwiese"; S of [[Walsdorf (Eifel)|Walsdorf]]; maar basin: c. 1150 m × 1000 m)
* Wollmerather Maar (near [[Wollmerath]])

===== Broader use of the term ''maar'' =====
The following volcanic features are often colloquially referred to as a "maar" or "maar lake", although they are not, strictly speaking, maars:
* [[Windsborn Crater Lake]] and [[Hinkelsmaar]] in the Manderscheid Volcano Group near [[Bettenfeld]], crater lakes of the [[Mosenberg (Eifel)|Mosenberg]]
* [[Laacher See]] near [[Maria Laach Abbey|Maria Laach]], lake in a [[caldera]] of the Laacher See volcano
* [[Strohner Märchen]] (south of the [[Pulvermaar]]), [[volcanic pipe]] which has become a maar
* [[Papenkaule]], a [[volcanic crater]], and the associated eruption site of the Hagelskaule
* [[Elfenmaar]] near [[Bad Bertrich]], an almost entirely eroded [[stratovolcano]]
* [[Rodder Maar]] near [[Niederdürenbach]], the origin of which is unclear <ref name="WMeyer2" />

==== Maars outside the Eifel ====
In Germany there are also several maars outside of the Eifel. A well-known example is the [[Messel pit]], a former maar lake near [[Messel]] in the county of [[Darmstadt-Dieburg]] and which is known for its well preserved [[fossil]]s. In addition in the [[Swabian Jura]] and the [[Albvorland]] (the Swabian Volcano) there are maar-forming volcanoes. Because the over 350 eruption points were only active in the Upper [[Miocene]] 17 to 11 million years ago, all the maars, apart from the dry maar, [[Randecker Maar]] and the Molach, are only detectable geologically. In the [[Ore Mountains]] near [[Hammerunterwiesenthal]], the Hammerunterwiesenthal Maar formed about 30 million years ago during the Oligocene; the maar measures 2 kilometres from east to west and 1.4 kilometres from north to south.

===Rest of Europe===
[[File:Gour de Tazenat.JPG|thumb|[[Gour de Tazenat]], [[Chaîne des Puys]], France]]
[[File:BVFMuweilihCrater.jpg|thumb|Dry maar in the [[Bayuda]] volcano field]]
The [[Chaîne des Puys]] in France contains numerous maars; [[Lake Albano]] in the [[Alban Mountains]] is a complex maar, and there is also a maar ([[Kolumbo]]) near [[Santorini]] in Greece. The [[Campo de Calatrava Volcanic Field]] in Spain contains numerous maars; a typical example being the maar of Hoya del Mortero at Poblete in the [[Province of Ciudad Real]]. Active maars were commonplace in [[Fife]] and [[Lothian]], Scotland during the [[Carboniferous]] era.<ref name="vms">{{cite book |last1=Upton |first1=B. G. J. |title=Volcanoes and the Making of Scotland |date=2015 |publisher=Dunedin Academic Press Ltd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fVxwDwAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1780465418 |access-date=14 August 2019}}</ref>

===Americas===
Active maar volcanoes are mainly known outside Europe.

In the US there are numerous maar areas, such as Alaska ([[Ukinrek Maars]], [[Nunivak]] in the [[Bering Sea]]), in [[Washington (state)|Washington]] ([[Battle Ground Lake]]), in [[Oregon]] ([[Fort Rock Basin]] with the maars of [[Big Hole (Oregon)|Big Hole]], [[Hole-in-the-Ground]], [[Fort Rock Basin#Table Rock|Table Rock]]), in [[Death Valley National Park]], [[California]] ([[Ubehebe Crater]]), in [[Nevada]] ([[Soda Lakes]]) as well as the maars of the [[White Rock Canyon]], [[Mount Taylor (New Mexico)|Mount Taylor]] and [[Potrillo volcanic field|Potrillo]] volcanic fields, [[Zuñi Salt Lake]] Crater and [[Kilbourne Hole]] Crater in New Mexico.

In Central Mexico, the Tarascan volcanic field contains several maars in the states of [[Michoacán]] and [[Guanajuato (state)|Guanajuato]]. In Nicaragua is the maar of Laguna de Xiloa, part of the [[Apoyeque]] volcano. From South America, there are known maars in [[Chile]] (e.g. [[Cerro Overo]] and [[Cerro Tujle]] in northern Chile). [[Jayu Quta (Ladislao Cabrera)|Jayu Khota]] is a maar in [[Bolivia]].

===Middle East and Africa===
The maar of [[Birket Ram]]<ref name="Neumann" /> lies on the [[Golan Heights]]; further south maars occur in Africa ([[Bilate Volcanic Field]] and [[Haro Maja]] in the [[Butajiri]]-[[Silti]]-Volcanic Field, Ethiopia, the [[Bayuda]] Volcanic Field in the Sudan and [[Lake Nyos]] in the [[Oku Volcanic Field]] in Cameroon). In [[Saudi Arabia]] the [[Al Wahbah crater]] formed as a result of a maar eruption.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grainger |first1=David J. |title=Al Wahbah volcanic explosion crater, Saudi Arabia |journal=Geology Today |date=January 1996 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=27–30 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2451.1996.00006.x}}</ref>

===Asia and Oceania===
In [[Siberia]] there are the [[Kinenin Maar]] and the maar of Lake [[Dal'ny]] among the volcanoes of the [[Kamchatka Peninsula]]. In Japan there are maars in the [[Kirishima, Kagoshima|Kirishima]]-[[Yakushima|Yaku]] Volcanic Field in the [[Kirishima-Yaku National Park]] on [[Kyushu]] (Kagamiike Pond) as well as many on the volcanic island of [[Miyake-jima]], [[Izu Islands]] (Furumio, Mi'ike, Mizutamari, Shinmio).

Koranga Maar and Numundo Maar are in [[Papua New Guinea]]. Kawah Masemo maar is a landform on [[Mount Sempu]] volcano in Indonesia. The San Pablo Volcanic Field in the [[Province of Laguna]] on the island of [[Luzon]] in the Philippines contains maars.

The [[Newer Volcanics Province]] in the States of [[South Australia]] and [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], Australia, is home to numerous maars, such as [[Mount Gambier (volcano)|Mount Gambier]], [[Mount Schank]] and [[Tower Hill (volcano)|Tower Hill]], whose complex system of nested maars is enclosed by one of the largest maars in the world.<ref name=hh>{{cite web | title=History & Heritage | website=Tower Hill (Worn Gundidj Corporation)| url=http://www.towerhill.org.au/index.php/about-reserve/history | access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref><ref name=vro>{{cite web|url=http://vro.agriculture.vic.gov.au/dpi/vro/glenregn.nsf/pages/eruption_points_tower_hill|website=Victorian Resources Online|title=Tower Hill|access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref>

[[Foulden Maar]] is found in [[Otago]], [[New Zealand]].<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsroom.co.nz/2019/05/10/577063?slug=dunedins-pompeii-to-be-mined-for-pig-food|title=Dunedin's 'Pompeii' to be mined to make pig food|last=Hancock|first=Farah|date=2019-05-10|website=Newsroom|language=en-AU|access-date=2019-05-10}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="150px" heights="120px">
Image:Totenmaar weinfelder maar eifel.jpg|[[Weinfelder Maar]], one of the three maars originally described
Image:Maar Israel.JPG|The maar at [[Birkat Ram]], the [[Golan Heights]]
Image:Zengena Hayq.JPG|[[Zengena Lake]], a maar in [[Amhara Region]], [[Ethiopia]]
Image:Pinacate_volcanic_field.jpg|[[El Elegante Crater]], in [[Sonoran Desert]], [[México]]
Image:BVFMuweilihCrater.jpg|El Muweilih Crater in [[Sudan]]: Natron-rich clay on the crater floor
File:Kilbourn hole aerial 1.jpg|Kilbourne Hole maar in the [[Potrillo volcanic field]] of New Mexico
File:Kluft-photo-SodaLake-rim-2018-11.jpg|[[Soda Lakes|Big Soda Lake]] in Nevada
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Tuff ring]]
* [[Tuff cone]]

== References ==
<references>

<ref name="mWs">Seetiefe der Maare bei mittlerem Wasserstand</ref>

<ref name="WMeyer2">{{cite web|title=Die Geologie|periodical=Heimatjahrbuch 2006|publisher=Kreis Ahrweiler|url=http://www.kreis.aw-online.de/ausdruckR.php?id=172|access-date=2016-01-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160525224711/http://www.kreis.aw-online.de/ausdruckR.php?id=172|archive-date=2016-05-25|last=Wilhelm Meyer|language=de}} zu ''Ungeklärte Herkunft des Rodder Maars''</ref>

<ref name="Neumann">{{cite journal|title=Holocene vegetation and climate history of the northern Golan heights (Near East)|volume=16|issue=4|journal=Vegetation History and Archaeobotany|first1=F.|last1=Neumann|first2=C.|last2=Schölzel|first3=T.|last3=Litt|first4=A.|last4=Hense|first5=M.|last5=Stein|date=2007|pages=329–346|doi=10.1007/s00334-006-0046-x|s2cid=129220670}}</ref>
</references>

== Literature ==
* [http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/maar.php USGS photo glossary: Maar]
* [http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/Maars/description_maars.html USGS: Maars and tuff cones]

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Maars}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080307121308/http://www.volcanodb.com/volcanoes/Maar/ List of Maar Volcanoes]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721024821/http://www.volterev.fr/la-vestide-du-pal La Vestide du Pal]

{{Volcanoes}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Depressions (geology)]]
[[Category:Maars| ]]
[[Category:Volcanic landforms]]

Aromaticity

2022-02-19T18:45:04Z

JavaRogers: 1st sentence -- called them "molecular" structures

{{short description|Phenomenon providing chemical stability in resonating hybrids of cyclic organic compounds}}
{{Redirect|Aromatic|meanings related to odor|aroma compound}}
[[Image:Benzene resonance structures.png|right|thumb|Two different [[Resonance (chemistry)|resonance]] forms of benzene (top) combine to produce an average structure (bottom)]]

In [[chemistry]], '''aromaticity''' is a property of [[cyclic compound|cyclic]] ([[ring (chemistry)|ring-shaped]]), ''typically'' [[plane (geometry)|planar]] (flat) molecular structures with [[pi bond]]s in [[Resonance (chemistry)|resonance]] (those containing [[delocalized electron]]s) that gives increased stability compared to other geometric or connective arrangements with the same set of atoms. Aromatic rings are very stable and do not break apart easily. [[Organic compound]]s that are not aromatic are classified as [[aliphatic compound]]s—they might be [[alicyclic compound|cyclic]], but only aromatic rings have enhanced stability.

Since the most common [[aromatic compound]]s are derivatives of [[benzene]] (an aromatic [[hydrocarbon]] common in [[petroleum]] and [[petrochemical|its distillates]]), the word ''aromatic'' occasionally refers informally to benzene derivatives, and so it was first defined. Nevertheless, many non-benzene aromatic compounds exist. In living organisms, for example, the most common aromatic rings are the double-ringed bases in [[RNA]] and [[DNA]]. An aromatic [[functional group]] or other [[substituent]] is called an [[aryl]] group.

The earliest use of the term ''aromatic'' was in an article by [[August Wilhelm Hofmann]] in 1855.<ref name="Hofmann1855">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1098/rspl.1856.0002 | first = A. W. | last = Hofmann | author-link = August Wilhelm Hofmann | title = On Insolinic Acid | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society | volume = 8 | year = 1855 | pages = 1–3| doi-access = free }}</ref> Hofmann used the term for a class of benzene compounds, many of which have [[odor]]s (aromas), unlike pure saturated hydrocarbons. Aromaticity as a chemical property bears no general relationship with the [[olfaction|olfactory]] properties of such compounds (how they smell), although in 1855, before the structure of benzene or organic compounds was understood, chemists like Hofmann were beginning to understand that odiferous molecules from [[plant]]s, such as [[terpene]]s, had chemical properties that we recognize today are similar to unsaturated petroleum hydrocarbons like benzene.

In terms of the electronic nature of the molecule, aromaticity describes a [[conjugated system]] often made of alternating single and double bonds in a ring. This configuration allows for the electrons in the molecule's pi system to be delocalized around the ring, increasing the molecule's stability. The molecule cannot be represented by one structure, but rather a resonance hybrid of different structures, such as with the two resonance structures of benzene. These molecules cannot be found in either one of these representations, with the longer single bonds in one location and the shorter double bond in another (see [[#Theory|Theory]] below). Rather, the molecule exhibits bond lengths in between those of single and double bonds. This commonly seen model of aromatic rings, namely the idea that [[benzene]] was formed from a six-membered carbon ring with alternating single and double bonds (cyclohexatriene), was developed by [[Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz|August Kekulé]] (see [[#History|History]] below). The model for benzene consists of two resonance forms, which corresponds to the double and single bonds superimposing to produce six one-and-a-half bonds. Benzene is a more stable molecule than would be expected without accounting for charge delocalization.

==Theory==
[[Image:Benzene-6H-delocalized.svg|right|100px|Modern depiction of benzene]]
As it is a standard for resonance diagrams, the use of a double-headed arrow indicates that two structures are not distinct entities but merely hypothetical possibilities. Neither is an accurate representation of the ''actual'' compound, which is best represented by a hybrid (average) of these structures. A C=C bond is shorter than a C−C bond. Benzene is a [[regular hexagon]]—it is planar and all six carbon–carbon bonds have the same [[bond length|length]], which is intermediate between that of a [[single bond|single]] and that of a [[double bond]].

In a cyclic molecule with three alternating double bonds, cyclohexatriene, the bond length of the single bond would be 1.54 [[Ångström|Å]] and that of the double bond would be 1.34 Å. However, in a molecule of benzene, the length of each of the bonds is 1.40 Å, indicating it to be the average of single and double bond.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Bonding in benzene – the Kekulé structure|url = http://www.chemguide.co.uk/basicorg/bonding/benzene1.html|website = www.chemguide.co.uk|access-date = 2015-12-25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Chemical Reactivity|url = https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/VirtTxtJml/react3.htm|website = www2.chemistry.msu.edu|access-date = 2015-12-25}}</ref>

A better representation is that of the circular [[pi bond|π-bond]] (Armstrong's ''inner cycle''), in which the electron density is evenly distributed through a π-bond above and below the ring. This model more correctly represents the location of electron density within the aromatic ring.

The single bonds are formed from overlap of hybridized [[Atomic orbital|atomic sp2-orbitals]] in line between the carbon nuclei—these are called [[sigma bond|σ-bonds]]. Double bonds consist of a σ-bond and a π-bond. The π-bonds are formed from overlap of [[Atomic orbital|atomic p-orbitals]] above and below the plane of the ring. The following diagram shows the positions of these p-orbitals:

:[[Image:Benzene-orbitals.png|330px|Benzene electron orbitals]]

Since they are out of the plane of the atoms, these orbitals can interact with each other freely, and become delocalized. This means that, instead of being tied to one atom of carbon, each electron is shared by all six in the ring. Thus, there are not enough electrons to form double bonds on all the carbon atoms, but the "extra" electrons strengthen all of the bonds on the ring equally. The resulting [[molecular orbital]] is considered to have ''π symmetry''.

:[[Image:Benzene Orbitals.svg|330px|Benzene orbital delocalization]]

==History==

===The term "aromatic"===
The first known use of the word "aromatic" as a ''chemical'' term—namely, to apply to compounds that contain the [[phenyl]] group—occurs in an article by [[August Wilhelm Hofmann]] in 1855.<ref name="Hofmann1855" /><ref name=rocke>{{cite journal|last=Rocke |first=A. J. |date=2015 |title=It Began with a Daydream: The 150th Anniversary of the Kekulé Benzene Structure |journal=[[Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.]] |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=46–50 |doi=10.1002/anie.201408034|pmid=25257125 }}</ref> If this is indeed the earliest introduction of the term, it is curious that Hofmann says nothing about why he introduced an adjective indicating [[olfactory]] character to apply to a group of chemical substances, of which only some have notable aromas. Also, many of the most odoriferous organic substances known are [[terpenes]], which are not aromatic in the chemical sense. Terpenes and benzenoid substances do have a chemical characteristic in common, namely higher [[Unsaturated compound|unsaturation]] than many [[aliphatic compound]]s, and Hofmann may not have been making a distinction between the two categories. Many of the earliest-known examples of aromatic compounds, such as benzene and toluene, have distinctive pleasant smells. This property led to the term "aromatic" for this class of compounds, and hence the term "aromaticity" for the eventually discovered electronic property.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Organic Chemistry |url = https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00mcmu_961 |url-access = limited |edition=7th |last = McMurry|first = John|publisher = Brooks-Cole|year = 2007|isbn = 978-0-495-11258-7|pages = [https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00mcmu_961/page/n538 515]}}</ref>

===The structure of the benzene ring===
[[File:Historic Benzene Formulae Kekulé (original).png|thumb|300px|Historic benzene formulae as proposed by August Kekulé in 1865.<ref name="August Kekulé">{{cite journal|first=F. A.|last=Kekulé|author-link=Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz|title=Ueber einige Condensationsproducte des Aldehyds|journal=[[Liebigs Annalen|Liebigs Ann. Chem.]] |year=1872|volume=162|issue=1|pages= 77–124|doi=10.1002/jlac.18721620110|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1427307}}</ref>]]
[[File:Ouroboros-benzene.svg|thumb|200px|The [[ouroboros]], Kekulé's inspiration for the structure of benzene.]]
In the 19th century, chemists found it puzzling that benzene could be so unreactive toward addition reactions, given its presumed high degree of unsaturation. The cyclohexatriene structure for [[benzene]] was first proposed by [[August Kekulé]] in 1865.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kekulé|first=F. A. |title= Sur la constitution des substances aromatiques|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bFsSAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA98|journal=Bulletin de la Société Chimique de Paris|volume=3|year=1865|pages= 98–110|author-link= Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author-link=Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz|last=Kekulé |first=F. A. |date=1866 |title=Untersuchungen über aromatische Verbindungen Ueber die Constitution der aromatischen Verbindungen. I. Ueber die Constitution der aromatischen Verbindungen |journal=[[Liebigs Annalen|Liebigs Ann. Chem.]] |volume=137 |issue=2 |pages=129–196 |doi= 10.1002/jlac.18661370202|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1427249 }}</ref> Most chemists were quick to accept this structure, since it accounted for most of the known isomeric relationships of aromatic chemistry. The hexagonal structure explains why only one isomer of benzene exists and why disubstituted compounds have three isomers.<ref name="rocke" />

Between 1897 and 1906, [[J. J. Thomson]], the discoverer of the electron, proposed three equivalent electrons between each pair of carbon atoms in benzene. An explanation for the exceptional stability of benzene is conventionally attributed to [[Robert Robinson (organic chemist)|Sir Robert Robinson]], who was apparently the first (in 1925)<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Armit | first1 = James Wilson | last2 = Robinson | first2 = Robert | title = CCXI. Polynuclear heterocyclic aromatic types. Part II. Some anhydronium bases | journal = [[J. Chem. Soc. Trans.]] | volume = 127 | pages = 1604–1618 | year = 1925 | doi = 10.1039/CT9252701604 }}</ref> to coin the term ''aromatic sextet'' as a group of six electrons that resists disruption.

In fact, this concept can be traced further back, via Ernest Crocker in 1922,<ref>{{cite journal | title = Application Of The Octet Theory To Single-Ring Aromatic Compounds | first = Ernest C. | last = Crocker | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | year = 1922 | volume = 44 | issue = 8 | pages = 1618–1630 | doi = 10.1021/ja01429a002| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1428796 }}</ref> to [[Henry Edward Armstrong]], who in 1890 wrote "the [six] centric affinities act within a cycle … benzene may be represented by a double ring … and when an additive compound is formed, the inner cycle of affinity suffers disruption, the contiguous carbon-atoms to which nothing has been attached of necessity acquire the ethylenic condition".<ref>{{cite journal | title = The structure of cycloid hydrocarbon | author-link = Henry Edward Armstrong |last=Armstrong|first=Henry Edward | journal = Proceedings of the Chemical Society | volume = 6 | issue = 85 | pages = 101–105 | year = 1890 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pst.000052368141&view=1up&seq=319 | doi = 10.1039/PL8900600095 }} See p. 102.</ref>

Here, Armstrong is describing at least four modern concepts.{{verification needed|date=October 2014}} First, his "affinity" is better known nowadays as the [[electron]], which was to be discovered only seven years later by J. J. Thomson. Second, he is describing [[electrophilic aromatic substitution]], proceeding (third) through a [[Wheland intermediate]], in which (fourth) the [[Conjugated system|conjugation]] of the ring is broken. He introduced the symbol '''C''' centered on the ring as a shorthand for the ''inner cycle'', thus anticipating [[Erich Clar]]'s notation. It is argued{{By whom|date=February 2022}} that he also anticipated the nature of [[Wave|wave mechanics]], since he recognized that his affinities had direction, not merely being point particles, and collectively having a distribution that could be altered by introducing substituents onto the benzene ring (much as the distribution of the electric charge in a body is altered by bringing it near to another body).

The [[quantum mechanical]] origins of this stability, or aromaticity, were first modelled by [[Erich Huckel|Hückel]] in 1931. He was the first to separate the bonding electrons into sigma and pi electrons.

Aromaticity of an arbitrary aromatic compound can be measured quantitatively by the [[nucleus-independent chemical shift]] (NICS) [[computational chemistry|computational method]]<ref name=Schleyer>{{cite journal|title=Nucleus-Independent Chemical Shifts: A Simple and Efficient Aromaticity Probe |first1=Paul von Ragué |last1=Schleyer |first2=Christoph |last2=Maerker |first3=Alk |last3=Dransfeld |first4=Haijun |last4=Jiao |first5=Nicolaas J. R. |last5=Van Eikema Hommes |journal=[[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] |date=1996 |volume=118|issue=26 |pages=6317–6318|doi=10.1021/ja960582d|pmid=28872872 }}</ref> and aromaticity percentage<ref>{{cite journal | title = A Quantitative Scale for the Degree of Aromaticity and Antiaromaticity | first1= Z. |last1=Mucsi |first2=B. |last2=Viskolcz |first3=I. G. |last3=Csizmadia | journal = [[J. Phys. Chem. A]] | year = 2007| volume = 111| issue= 6 | pages = 1123–1132 | doi = 10.1021/jp0657686| pmid= 17286363 |bibcode=2007JPCA..111.1123M }}</ref> methods.

== Characteristics of aromatic systems ==
An aromatic (or [[aryl]]) ring contains a set of [[covalent bond|covalently bound]] atoms with specific characteristics:

# A [[Delocalized electron|delocalized]] conjugated [[pi electron|π]] system, most commonly an arrangement of alternating single and double [[Covalent bond|bonds]]
# [[Coplanar]] structure, with all the contributing atoms in the same plane
# Contributing atoms arranged in one or more rings
# A number of π delocalized electrons that is [[singly even|even, but not a multiple of 4]]. That is, 4''n'' + 2 π-electrons, where ''n'' = 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on. This is known as [[Hückel's rule]].

According to Hückel's rule, if a molecule has 4''n'' + 2 π-electrons, it is aromatic, but if it has 4''n'' π-electrons and has characteristics 1–3 above, the molecule is said to be [[antiaromaticity|antiaromatic]]. Whereas benzene is aromatic (6 electrons, from 3 double bonds), [[cyclobutadiene]] is antiaromatic, since the number of π delocalized electrons is 4, which of course is a multiple of 4. The cyclobutadienide(2−) ion, however, is aromatic (6 electrons). An atom in an aromatic system can have other electrons that are not part of the system, and are therefore ignored for the 4''n'' + 2 rule. In [[furan]], the oxygen atom is sp2 hybridized. One lone pair is in the π system and the other in the plane of the ring (analogous to the C–H bond in the other positions). There are 6 π-electrons, so furan is aromatic.

Aromatic molecules typically display enhanced chemical stability, compared to similar non-aromatic molecules. A molecule that can be aromatic will tend to change toward aromaticity, and the added stability changes the chemistry of the molecule. Aromatic compounds undergo [[electrophilic aromatic substitution]] and [[nucleophilic aromatic substitution]] reactions, but not [[electrophilic addition]] reactions as happens with carbon–carbon double bonds.

In the presence of a magnetic field, the circulating π-electrons in an aromatic molecule produce an [[aromatic ring current]] that induces an additional magnetic field, an important effect in [[nuclear magnetic resonance]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Merino | first1 = Gabriel | last2 = Heine | first2 = Thomas | last3 = Seifert | first3 = Gotthard | title = The Induced Magnetic Field in Cyclic Molecules | journal = Chemistry: A European Journal | volume = 10 | pages = 4367–71 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1002/chem.200400457 | pmid = 15352120 | issue = 17}}</ref> The NMR signal of protons in the plane of an aromatic ring are shifted substantially further down-field than those on non-aromatic sp2 carbons. This is an important way of detecting aromaticity. By the same mechanism, the signals of protons located near the ring axis are shifted upfield.

Aromatic molecules are able to interact with each other in so-called [[Aromatic interaction|π–π stacking]]: The π systems form two parallel rings overlap in a "face-to-face" orientation. Aromatic molecules are also able to interact with each other in an "edge-to-face" orientation: The slight positive charge of the substituents on the ring atoms of one molecule are attracted to the slight negative charge of the aromatic system on another molecule.

Planar monocyclic molecules containing 4''n'' π-electrons are called [[Möbius–Hückel concept|antiaromatic]] and are, in general, unstable. Molecules that could be [[antiaromatic]] will tend to change from this electronic or conformation, thereby becoming non-aromatic. For example, [[cyclooctatetraene]] (COT) distorts out of planarity, breaking π overlap between adjacent double bonds. Recent studies have determined that [[cyclobutadiene]] adopts an asymmetric, rectangular configuration in which single and double bonds indeed alternate, with no resonance; the single bonds are markedly longer than the double bonds, reducing unfavorable p-orbital overlap. This reduction of symmetry lifts the degeneracy of the two formerly non-bonding molecular orbitals, which by [[Hund's rule]] forces the two unpaired electrons into a new, weakly bonding orbital (and also creates a weakly antibonding orbital). Hence, cyclobutadiene is non-aromatic; the strain of the asymmetric configuration outweighs the anti-aromatic destabilization that would afflict the symmetric, square configuration.

Hückel's rule of aromaticity treats molecules in their singlet ground states (S0). The stability trends of the compounds described here are found to be reversed in the lowest lying triplet and singlet excited states (T1 and S1), according to [[Baird's rule]]. This means that compounds like benzene, with 4''n'' + 2 π-electrons and aromatic properties in the ground state, become antiaromatic and often adopt less symmetric structures in the excited state.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rosenberg|first1=Martin|last2=Dahlstrand|first2=Christian|last3=Kilså|first3=Kristine|last4=Ottosson|first4=Henrik|date=2014-05-28|title=Excited State Aromaticity and Antiaromaticity: Opportunities for Photophysical and Photochemical Rationalizations|journal=Chemical Reviews|volume=114|issue=10|pages=5379–5425|doi=10.1021/cr300471v|pmid=24712859|issn=0009-2665}}</ref>

== Aromatic compounds ==
{{main|Aromatic compound}}

===Importance===
Aromatic compounds play key roles in the biochemistry of all living things. The four aromatic [[amino acids]] [[histidine]], [[phenylalanine]], [[tryptophan]], and [[tyrosine]] each serve as one of the 20 basic building-blocks of proteins. Further, all 5 [[nucleotide]]s ([[adenine]], [[thymine]], [[cytosine]], [[guanine]], and [[uracil]]) that make up the sequence of the genetic code in DNA and RNA are aromatic [[purines]] or [[pyrimidines]]. The molecule [[heme]] contains an aromatic system with 22 π-electrons. [[Chlorophyll]] also has a similar aromatic system.

Aromatic compounds are important in industry. Key aromatic hydrocarbons of commercial interest are [[benzene]], [[toluene]], [[xylene|''ortho''-xylene]] and [[xylene|''para''-xylene]]. About 35 million tonnes are produced worldwide every year. They are extracted from complex mixtures obtained by the refining of oil or by distillation of coal tar, and are used to produce a range of important chemicals and polymers, including [[styrene]], [[phenol]], [[aniline]], [[polyester]] and [[nylon]].

=== Neutral homocyclics ===
[[Benzene]], as well as most other [[annulene]]s (with the exception of [[cyclodecapentaene]], because it is non-planar) with the formula C4''n''+2H4''n''+2 where ''n'' is a natural number, such as [[cyclotetradecaheptaene]] (''n''=3).

=== Heterocyclics ===
In [[Heterocyclic compound|heterocyclic]] aromatics (heteroaromatics), one or more of the atoms in the aromatic ring is of an element other than carbon. This can lessen the ring's aromaticity, and thus (as in the case of [[furan]]) increase its reactivity. Other examples include [[pyridine]], [[pyrazine]], [[pyrrole]], [[imidazole]], [[pyrazole]], [[oxazole]], [[thiophene]], and their [[benzannulated]] analogs ([[benzimidazole]], for example). In all these examples, the number of π-electrons is 6, due to the π-electrons from the double bonds as well as the two electrons from any lone pair that is in the p-orbital that is in the plane of the aromatic π system. For example, in pyridine, the five sp2-hybridized carbons each have a p-orbital that is perpendicular to the plane of the ring, and each of these p-orbitals contains one π-electron. Additionally, the nitrogen atom is also sp2-hybridized and has one electron in a p-orbital, which adds up to 6 p-electrons, thus making pyridine aromatic. The lone pair on the nitrogen is not part of the aromatic π system. Pyrrole and imidazole are both five membered aromatic rings that contain heteroatoms. In pyrrole, each of the four sp2-hybridized carbons contributes one π-electron, and the nitrogen atom is also sp2-hybridized and contributes two π-electrons from its lone pair, which occupies a p-orbital. In imidazole, both nitrogens are sp2-hybridized; the one in the double bond contributes one electron and the one which is not in the double bond and is in a lone pair contributes two electrons to the π system.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Organic Chemistry |url = https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00mcmu_677 |url-access = limited |edition=8th |last = McMurry|first = John|publisher = Brooks-Cole|year =2011 |isbn = 978-0-8400-5444-9|pages = [https://archive.org/details/organicchemistry00mcmu_677/page/n573 544]}}</ref>

=== Fused aromatics and polycyclics ===
[[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon]]s are molecules containing two or more simple aromatic rings fused together by sharing two neighboring carbon atoms (see also [[simple aromatic ring]]s). Examples are [[naphthalene]], [[anthracene]], and [[phenanthrene]]. In fused aromatics, not all carbon–carbon bonds are necessarily equivalent, as the electrons are not delocalized over the entire molecule. The aromaticity of these molecules can be explained using their orbital picture. Like benzene and other monocyclic aromatic molecules, polycyclics have a cyclic conjugated pi system with p-orbital overlap above and below the plane of the ring.<ref name=":0" />

=== Substituted aromatics ===
Many [[chemical compound]]s are aromatic rings with other [[functional group]]s attached. Examples include [[trinitrotoluene]] (TNT), [[aspirin|acetylsalicylic acid]] (aspirin), [[paracetamol]], and the nucleotides of [[DNA]].

=== Aromatic ions ===
{{expand section|date=April 2015}}
{{more science citations needed|date=April 2015}}

Aromatic molecules need not be neutral molecules. Ions that satisfy Huckel's rule of 4''n'' + 2 π-electrons in a planar, cyclic, conjugated molecule are considered to be aromatic ions. For example, the [[cyclopentadienyl]] anion and the [[Tropylium|cycloheptatrienylium]] cation are both considered to be aromatic ions, and the [[azulene]] molecule can be approximated as a combination of both.

In order to convert the atom from sp3 to sp2, a [[carbocation]], [[carbanion]], or carbon [[free radical|radical]] must be formed. These leave sp2-hybridized carbons that can partake in the π system of an aromatic molecule. Like neutral aromatic compounds, these compounds are stable and form easily. The cyclopentadienyl anion is formed very easily and thus 1,3-cyclopentadiene is a very acidic hydrocarbon with a [[Acid dissociation constant|p''K''a]] of 16.<ref name=":0" /> Other examples of aromatic ions include the [[cyclopropenium]] cation (2 π-electrons) and cyclooctatetraenyl dianion (10 π electrons).

=== Atypical aromatic compounds ===
Aromaticity also occurs in compounds that are not carbocyclic or heterocyclic; inorganic six-membered-ring compounds analogous to benzene have been synthesized. For example, [[borazine]] is a six-membered ring composed of alternating boron and nitrogen atoms, each with one hydrogen attached. It has a delocalized π system and undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions appropriate to aromatic rings rather than reactions expected of non-aromatic molecules.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Structural Chemistry |year= 2007 |volume= 18 |issue= 6 |pages= 833–839 |title= Borazine: to be or not to be aromatic |doi= 10.1007/s11224-007-9229-z |last1= Islas |first1= Rafael |last2= Chamorro |first2= Eduardo |last3= Robles |first3= Juvencio |last4= Heine |first4= Thomas |last5= Santos |first5= Juan C. |last6= Merino |first6= Gabriel |s2cid= 95098134 }}</ref>

Quite recently, the aromaticity of planar {{chem|Si|5|6−}} rings occurring in the [[Zintl phase]] Li12Si7 was experimentally evinced by Li solid-state NMR.<ref>{{cite journal | title = Li NMR Spectroscopy on Crystalline Li12Si7: Experimental Evidence for the Aromaticity of the Planar Cyclopentadienyl-Analogous {{chem|Si|5|6−}} Rings | first1= Alexander |last1=Kuhn |first2=Puravankara |last2=Sreeraj |first3=Rainer |last3=Pöttgen |first4=Hans-Dieter |last4=Wiemhöfer |first5=Martin |last5=Wilkening|first6=Paul|last6= Heitjans | journal = [[Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.]] | year = 2011 | volume = 50 | issue = 50 | pages = 12099–102 | doi = 10.1002/anie.201105081| pmid= 22025292 }}</ref>{{primary source inline|date=April 2015}} [[Metal aromaticity]] is believed to exist in certain clusters of aluminium and gallium, specifically Ga32- and Al42-, for example.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Krämer |first1=Katrina |title=The search for the grand unification of aromaticity |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/features/the-search-for-the-grand-unification-of-aromaticity/4013915.article |website=Chemistry World}}</ref>

[[Homoaromaticity]] is the state of systems where conjugation is interrupted by a single sp{{sup|3}} [[orbital hybridisation|hybridized]] carbon atom.<ref>{{GoldBookRef|title=Homoaromatic|file=H02839}}</ref>

Y-aromaticity is used to describe a Y-shaped, [[plane (geometry)|planar]] (flat) [[molecule]] with [[Resonance (chemistry)|resonance]] bonds. The concept was developed to explain the extraordinary stability and high basicity of the [[Guanidine|guanidinium]] cation. Guanidinium is not a ring molecule, and is [[cross-conjugation|cross-conjugated]] rather than a π system of consecutively attached atoms, but is reported to have its six π-electrons delocalized over the whole molecule. The concept is controversial and some authors emphasize different effects.<ref>{{cite journal | first1= Alberto |last1=Gobbi |first2=Gernot |last2=Frenking | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | year = 1993 | volume = 115 |issue=6 | pages = 2362–2372 | doi = 10.1021/ja00059a035 | title = Y-Conjugated compounds: the equilibrium geometries and electronic structures of guanidine, guanidinium cation, urea, and 1,1-diaminoethylene }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first= Kenneth B. |last=Wiberg | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | year = 1990 | volume = 112 |issue=11 | pages = 4177–4182 | doi = 10.1021/ja00167a011 | title = Resonance interactions in acyclic systems. 2. Y-Conjugated anions and cations }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | first1= R.|last1= Caminiti|first2= A. |last2=Pieretti |first3=L. |last3=Bencivenni |first4=F.|last4= Ramondo |first5=N. |last5=Sanna | journal = [[J. Phys. Chem.]] | year = 1996 | volume = 100 |issue= 26| pages = 10928–10935 | doi = 10.1021/jp960311p | title = Amidine N−C(N)−N Skeleton: Its Structure in Isolated and Hydrogen-Bonded Guanidines from ab Initio Calculations }}</ref> This has also been suggested as the reason that the [[trimethylenemethane]] [[dication]] is more stable than the [[butadiene|butadienyl]] dication.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Amy |last1=Dworkin |first2=Rachel |last2=Naumann |first3=Christopher |last3=Seigfredi |first4=Joel M. |last4=Karty |first5=Yirong |last5=Mo |journal=[[J. Org. Chem.]] |year=2005 |volume=70 |issue=19 |pages=7605–7616 |doi=10.1021/jo0508090 |pmid=16149789 |title=Y-aromaticity: Why is the trimethylenemethane dication more stable than the butadienyl dication? }}</ref>

σ-aromaticity refers to stabilization arising from the delocalization of [[sigma bond]]s. It is often invoked in [[cluster chemistry]] and is closely related to [[Wade's Rule]]. Furthermore, in 2021 a σ-aromatic Th3 complex was reported, indicating that the concept of σ-aromaticity remains relevant for orbitals with principle quantum number 6.<ref>{{cite journal | first1=Josef T.| last1=Boronski | first2=John A. | last2=Seed | first3=David | last3=Hunger | first4=Adam W. | last4=Woodward | first5=Joris| last5=van Slagren | first6=Ashley J.| last6=Wooles | first7=Louise S.| last7=Natrajan | first8=Nikolas| last8=Kaltsoyannis | first9=Stephen T.| last9=Liddle | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2021 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-021-03888-3 | title = A Crystalline Tri-thorium Cluster with σ-Aromatic Metal-Metal Bonding | volume=598 | issue=7879 | pages=72–75 | pmid=34425584 | s2cid=237281580 }}</ref>

== Other symmetries ==
{{see also|Antiaromaticity}}
{| class="wikitable"
! Type
! Cyclic symmetry
! Electron rule
! Occurrence
|-
! [[Hückel's rule|Hückel aromaticity]]
| Cylindrical
| 4''n'' + 2
| Aromatic rings
|-
! [[Möbius aromaticity]]
| Möbius
| 4''n''
| ''Trans'' aromatic rings
|-
! [[Spherical aromaticity]]
| Spherical
| 2(''n''+1)2
| Fullerenes
|}

[[Möbius aromaticity]] occurs when a cyclic system of molecular orbitals, formed from pπ [[atomic orbitals]] and populated in a [[closed shell]] by 4''n'' (''n'' is an integer) electrons, is given a single half-twist to form a [[Möbius strip]]. A π system with 4''n'' electrons in a flat (non-twisted) ring would be antiaromatic, and therefore highly unstable, due to the symmetry of the combinations of p atomic orbitals. By twisting the ring, the symmetry of the system changes and becomes allowed (see also [[Möbius–Hückel concept]] for details). Because the twist can be [[left-handed]] or [[right-handed]], the resulting Möbius aromatics are ''dissymmetric'' or [[Chirality (chemistry)|chiral]]. But as of 2012, no Möbius aromatic molecules had been synthesized.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nature02224 | title = Synthesis of a Möbius aromatic hydrocarbon | first1= D.|last1= Ajami|first2= O. |last2=Oeckler |first3=A. |last3=Simon |first4=R. |last4=Herges | journal = [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] | year = 2003 | volume = 426 | issue = 6968 | pages = 819–21 | pmid = 14685233|bibcode=2003Natur.426..819A | s2cid = 4383956 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title = Investigation of a Putative Möbius Aromatic Hydrocarbon. The Effect of Benzannulation on Möbius [4''n'']Annulene Aromaticity | first1= Claire|last1= Castro |first2=Zhongfang |last2=Chen |first3=Chaitanya S. |last3=Wannere |first4=Haijun |last4=Jiao |first5=William L. |last5=Karney |first6=Michael |last6=Mauksch |first7=Ralph |last7=Puchta |first8=Nico J. R. |last8=Van Eikema Hommes |author9-link=Paul von Ragué Schleyer|first9=Paul von R. |last9=Schleyer | journal = [[J. Am. Chem. Soc.]] | year = 2005 | volume = 127 | issue = 8 | pages = 2425–2432 | doi = 10.1021/ja0458165 | pmid= 15724997}}</ref> Aromatics with two half-twists corresponding to the [[paradromic]] topologies were first suggested by [[Johann Benedict Listing|Johann Listing]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rzepa | first1 = Henry S. | title = A Double-Twist Möbius-Aromatic Conformation of [14]Annulene | journal = Organic Letters | volume = 7 | issue = 21 | pages = 4637–9 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16209498 | doi = 10.1021/ol0518333 }}</ref> In one form of [[carbo-benzene]], the ring is expanded and contains [[alkyne]] and [[allene]] groups.

[[Spherical aromaticity]] is aromaticity that occurs in fullerenes. In 2000, Andreas Hirsch and coworkers in [[Erlangen]], [[Germany]], formulated a rule to determine when a [[fullerene]] would be aromatic. They found that if there were 2(''n'' + 1)2 π-[[electrons]], then the fullerene would display aromatic properties. This follows from the fact that an aromatic fullerene must have full [[icosahedral]] (or other appropriate) symmetry, so the molecular orbitals must be entirely filled. This is possible only if there are exactly 2(''n'' + 1)2 electrons, where ''n'' is a nonnegative integer.

==See also==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [[Aromatization]]
* [[Aromatic amine]]
* [[List of benzo compounds]]
* [[Simple aromatic ring]]
* [[Pi interaction]]
* [[Avoided crossing]]
* [[Aromatic ring current]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Chemical bonds}}
{{Organic chemistry}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Aromatic compounds| ]]
[[Category:Physical organic chemistry]]

Aromatic compound

2022-02-19T18:42:11Z

JavaRogers: Multiple links

{{short description|Compound containing rings with delocalized pi electrons}}
{{Redirect|Arene}}

'''Aromatic compounds''' are those [[chemical compound]]s (most commonly [[organic compound|organic]]) that contain one or more [[ring (chemistry)|ring]]s with [[pi electron]]s delocalized all the way around them. In contrast to compounds that exhibit [[aromaticity]], [[aliphatic compound]]s lack this delocalization. The term "aromatic" was assigned before the physical mechanism determining aromaticity was discovered, and referred simply to the fact that many such compounds have a sweet or pleasant odour; however, not all aromatic compounds have a sweet odour, and not all compounds with a sweet odour are aromatic compounds. '''Aromatic hydrocarbons''', or '''arenes''', are aromatic organic compounds containing solely carbon and hydrogen atoms. The configuration of six carbon atoms in aromatic compounds is called a "benzene ring", after the simple aromatic compound [[benzene]], or a [[phenyl]] group when part of a larger compound.

Not all aromatic compounds are benzene-based; aromaticity can also manifest in '''heteroarenes''', which follow [[Hückel's rule]] (for monocyclic rings: when the number of its π electrons equals 4''n'' + 2, where ''n'' = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...). In these compounds, at least one carbon atom is replaced by one of the [[heteroatom]]s [[oxygen]], [[nitrogen]], or [[sulfur]]. Examples of non-benzene compounds with aromatic properties are [[furan]], a heterocyclic compound with a five-membered ring that includes a single oxygen atom, and [[pyridine]], a heterocyclic compound with a six-membered ring containing one nitrogen atom.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-aromatic.html HighBeam Encyclopedia: aromatic compound]</ref>

== Benzene ring model ==
[[File:Benzene circle.svg|100px|right|thumb| [[Benzene]] ]]
{{main|Aromaticity}}
[[Benzene]], <chem>C6H6</chem>, is the least complex aromatic hydrocarbon, and it was the first one named as such. The nature of its bonding was first recognized by [[August Kekulé]] in the 19th century. Each carbon atom in the hexagonal cycle has four electrons to share. One goes to the hydrogen atom, and one to each of the two neighbouring carbons. This leaves one electron to share with one of the two neighbouring carbon atoms, thus creating a double bond with one carbon and leaving a single bond with the other, which is why some representations of the benzene molecule portray it as a hexagon with alternating single and double bonds.

Other depictions of the structure portray the hexagon with a circle inside it, to indicate that the six electrons are floating around in delocalized molecular orbitals the size of the ring itself. This represents the equivalent nature of the six carbon–carbon bonds all of [[bond order]] 1.5; the equivalency is explained by [[Resonance (chemistry)|resonance form]]s. The electrons are visualized as floating above and below the ring, with the electromagnetic fields they generate acting to keep the ring flat.

General properties of aromatic hydrocarbons:

# They display [[aromaticity]]
# The carbon–hydrogen ratio is high
# They burn with a strong sooty yellow flame because of the high carbon–hydrogen ratio
# They undergo [[electrophilic substitution reaction]]s and [[nucleophilic aromatic substitution]]s

The circle symbol for aromaticity was introduced by [[Robert Robinson (organic chemist)|Sir Robert Robinson]] and his student James Armit in 1925<ref>{{cite journal|first1=James Wilkins |last1=Armit |first2=Robert |last2=Robinson|author2-link=Robert Robinson (organic chemist) |date=1925 |title=Polynuclear heterocyclic aromatic types. Part II. Some anhydronium bases |journal=[[J. Chem. Soc. Trans.]] |volume=127 |pages=1604–1618}}</ref> and popularized starting in 1959 by the Morrison & Boyd textbook on organic chemistry. The proper use of the symbol is debated: some publications use it to ''any'' cyclic π system, while others use it only for those π systems that obey [[Hückel's rule]]. Jensen<ref>{{cite journal|first=William B. |last=Jensen|author1-link=William B. Jensen |date=April 2009 |url=http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/157.%20Aromaticity%20Circle.pdf |title=The circle symbol for aromaticity |journal=[[J. Chem. Educ.]] |volume=86|issue=4 |pages=423–424|bibcode=2009JChEd..86..423J |doi=10.1021/ed086p423 }}</ref> argues that, in line with Robinson's original proposal, the use of the circle symbol should be limited to monocyclic 6 π-electron systems. In this way the circle symbol for a six-center six-electron bond can be compared to the Y symbol for a [[three-center two-electron bond]].

==Arene synthesis==
A reaction that forms an arene compound from an unsaturated or partially unsaturated cyclic precursor is simply called [[aromatization]]. Many laboratory methods exist for the [[organic synthesis]] of arenes from non-arene precursors. Many methods rely on [[cycloaddition]] reactions. [[Alkyne trimerization]] describes the [2+2+2] cyclization of three alkynes, in the [[Dötz reaction]] an alkyne, carbon monoxide and a chromium carbene complex are the reactants. [[Diels–Alder reaction]]s of [[alkyne]]s with [[pyrone]] or [[cyclopentadienone]] with expulsion of [[carbon dioxide]] or carbon monoxide also form arene compounds. In [[Bergman cyclization]] the reactants are an [[enyne]] plus a hydrogen donor.

Another set of methods is the aromatization of [[cyclohexane]]s and other aliphatic rings: reagents are catalysts used in [[hydrogenation]] such as platinum, palladium and nickel (reverse hydrogenation), [[quinone]]s and the elements [[sulfur]] and [[selenium]].<ref>{{March3rd}}</ref>

==Reactions==
Aromatic ring systems participate in many organic reactions.

===Aromatic substitution===
In aromatic [[substitution reaction|substitution]] one [[substituent]] on the arene ring, usually hydrogen, is replaced by another substituent. The two main types are [[electrophilic aromatic substitution]] when the active reagent is an electrophile and [[nucleophilic aromatic substitution]] when the reagent is a nucleophile. In [[radical-nucleophilic aromatic substitution]] the active reagent is a radical. An example of electrophilic aromatic substitution is the nitration of [[salicylic acid]]:<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/0040-4039(95)00281-G
| title = A mild oxidation of aromatic amines
| year = 1995
| last2 = Seneviratne | first2 = V.
| last1 = Webb | first1 = K.
| journal = Tetrahedron Letters
| volume = 36
| issue = 14
| pages = 2377–2378
}}</ref>
:[[File:Synthesis 5-Nitrosalicylic acid.svg|400px|Nitration of salicylic acid]]

===Coupling reactions===
In [[coupling reaction]]s a metal catalyses a coupling between two formal radical fragments. Common coupling reactions with arenes result in the formation of new [[carbon–carbon bond]]s e.g., alkylarenes, vinyl arenes, biraryls, new [[carbon–nitrogen bond]]s (anilines) or new [[carbon–oxygen bond]]s (aryloxy compounds). An example is the direct arylation of [[perfluorobenzenes]]<ref>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1021/ja062509l
| pmid = 16819868
| year = 2006
| last1 = Lafrance | first1 = M.
| last2 = Rowley | first2 = C.
| last3 = Woo | first3 = T.
| last4 = Fagnou | first4 = K.
| title = Catalytic intermolecular direct arylation of perfluorobenzenes.
| volume = 128
| issue = 27
| pages = 8754–8756
| journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society
| citeseerx = 10.1.1.631.607}}</ref>
:[[File:Fagnou fluoroarene coupling2.svg|600px|Coupling reaction]]

===Hydrogenation===
[[Hydrogenation]] of arenes create saturated rings. The compound [[1-naphthol]] is completely reduced to a mixture of [[decalin]]-ol [[isomer]]s.<ref>{{OrgSynth|title=1-Naphthol |last1=Meyers |first1=A. I. |last2=Beverung |first2=W. N. |last3=Gault|first3=R. |collvol=6 |collvolpage=371 |volume=51 |page=103 |date=1971 |prep=CV6P0371}}</ref>
:[[Image:NaphtolHydrogenation.svg|500px|1-naphthol hydrogenation]]
The compound [[resorcinol]], hydrogenated with [[Raney nickel]] in presence of aqueous [[sodium hydroxide]] forms an [[enolate]] which is alkylated with [[methyl iodide]] to 2-methyl-1,3-cyclohexandione:<ref>{{OrgSynth|title=Ethyl Indole-2-carboxylate |last1=Noland |first1=Wayland E. |last2=Baude |first2=Frederic J. |collvol=5 |collvolpage=743 |volume=41 |page=56 |date=1961 |prep=CV5P0567}}</ref>
:[[Image:ResorcinolHydrogenation.svg|600px|Resorcinol hydrogenation]]

===Cycloadditions===
[[Cycloaddition]] reactions are not common. Unusual thermal Diels–Alder reactivity of arenes can be found in the [[Wagner-Jauregg reaction]]. Other photochemical cycloaddition reactions with alkenes occur through [[excimer]]s.

===Dearomatization===
In [[dearomatization reaction]]s the aromaticity of the reactant is permanently lost.

== Benzene and derivatives of benzene ==
Benzene derivatives have from one to six [[substituent]]s attached to the central benzene core. Examples of benzene compounds with just one substituent are [[phenol]], which carries a [[hydroxyl]] group, and [[toluene]] with a [[methyl]] group. When there is more than one substituent present on the ring, their spatial relationship becomes important for which the [[arene substitution patterns]] ''ortho'', ''meta'', and ''para'' are devised. For example, three [[isomer]]s exist for [[cresol]] because the methyl group and the hydroxyl group can be placed next to each other (''ortho''), one position removed from each other (''meta''), or two positions removed from each other (''para''). [[Xylenol]] has two methyl groups in addition to the hydroxyl group, and, for this structure, 6 isomers exist.

<gallery caption="Representative arene compounds" perrow="5">
File:toluene.svg|[[Toluene]]
File:Ethylbenzene-2D-skeletal.png|[[Ethylbenzene]]
File:Para-Xylol - para-xylene.svg|[[Xylene|''p''-Xylene]]
File:Meta-Xylol_-_meta-xylene_2.svg|[[Xylene|''m''-Xylene]]
File:1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene.svg| [[Mesitylene]]
File:Durene.png| [[Durene]]
File:2-phenyl-hexane.png| [[2-Phenylhexane]]
File:Bifenyl.svg| [[Biphenyl]]
File:Phenol-2D-skeletal.png|[[Phenol]]
File:Aniline.svg|[[Aniline]]
File:Nitrobenzol.svg|[[Nitrobenzene]]
File:Benzoic acid.svg|[[Benzoic acid]]
File:Aspirin-skeletal.svg|[[Aspirin]]
File:Paracetamol-skeletal.svg|[[Paracetamol]]
File:Pikrinsäure.svg|[[Picric acid]]

</gallery>

The arene ring has an ability to stabilize charges. This is seen in, for example, phenol (C6H5–OH), which is [[acidic]] at the hydroxyl (OH), since a charge on this oxygen (alkoxide –O−) is partially delocalized into the benzene ring.

=== Other monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ===
Other monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon include [[Cyclotetradecaheptaene]] or [[Cyclooctadecanonaene]].

==Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons==
[[Image:Hexabenzocoronene-3D-balls.png|thumb|[[Hexabenzocoronene]] is a large polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon.]]
{{main|Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon}}

[[Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbon]]s (PAHs) are aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused [[aromatic]] [[simple aromatic ring|rings]] and do not contain [[heteroatom]]s or carry [[substituent]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Fetzer |first = J. C. |title = The Chemistry and Analysis of the Large Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons |year = 2000 |doi=10.1080/10406630701268255 |isbn = 0-471-36354-5|publisher = Wiley |location = New York |journal = Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds |volume = 27 |issue = 2 |pages = 143}}</ref> [[Naphthalene]] is the simplest example of a PAH. PAHs occur in [[oil]], [[coal]], and [[tar]] deposits, and are produced as byproducts of fuel burning (whether fossil fuel or biomass). As pollutants, they are of concern because some compounds have been identified as [[carcinogen]]ic, [[mutagen]]ic, and [[teratogen]]ic. PAHs are also found in cooked foods. Studies have shown that high levels of PAHs are found, for example, in meat cooked at high temperatures such as grilling or barbecuing, and in smoked fish.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/scf/out154_en.pdf |title=Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons – Occurrence in foods, dietary exposure and health effects |publisher=European Commission, Scientific Committee on Food|date=December 4, 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Larsson |first=B. K. |year=1983 |title=Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in grilled food |journal=J. Agric. Food Chem. |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=867–873 |pmid=6352775 |doi=10.1021/jf00118a049 |last2=Sahlberg |first2=GP |last3=Eriksson |first3=AT |last4=Busk |first4=LA}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaqs/tf.asp?id=121&tid=25 |title=Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) |year=1996 |publisher=Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry}}</ref>

They are also found in the [[interstellar medium]], in [[comet]]s, and in [[meteorite]]s and are a [[PAH world hypothesis|candidate molecule to act as a basis for the earliest forms of life]]. In [[graphene]] the PAH motif is extended to large 2D sheets.

== See also ==
* Aromatic substituents: [[Aryl]], [[Aryloxy]] and [[Arenediyl]]
* [[Asphaltene]]
* [[Hydrodealkylation]]
* [[Simple aromatic rings]]
* [[Rhodium-platinum oxide]], a catalyst used to hydrogenate aromatic compounds.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Aromatics}}

{{Hydrocarbons}}
{{Aryl hydrocarbon receptor modulators}}
{{Hallucinogens}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Aromatic Hydrocarbon}}
[[Category:Aromatic compounds| ]]

North-Central American English

2022-02-15T01:50:05Z

JavaRogers: /* Vowels */Italicising WAW

{{Short description|English dialect of the American Midwest}}{{Infobox language
| name = North-Central American English
| region = [[Upper Midwest]]
| speakers = ?
| date =
| ref =
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[North Sea Germanic|Ingvaeonic]]
|fam5=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo–Frisian]]
|fam6=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
|fam7=[[English language|English]]
|fam8=[[North American English]]
|fam9=[[American English]]
|fam10=[[Northern American English]]
|ancestor=[[Old English]]
|ancestor2=[[Middle English]]
|ancestor3=[[Early Modern English]]
| isoexception = dialect
| glotto = none
}}

'''North-Central American English''' (in the [[United States]], also known as the '''Upper Midwestern''' or '''North-Central dialect''' and stereotypically recognized as a '''Minnesota''' or '''Wisconsin accent''') is an [[American English]] [[dialect]] native to the [[Upper Midwest|Upper Midwestern United States]], an area that somewhat overlaps with speakers of the separate [[Inland North|Inland North dialect]] centered more around the eastern [[Great Lakes region]].<ref name=Allen/> The North-Central dialect is considered to have developed in a residual dialect region from the neighboring distinct dialect regions of the [[Western United States]], Inland North, and [[Canadian English|Canada]].<ref name=Labov>{{Cite book| last = Labov | first = William |author2=Sharon Ash |author3=Charles Boberg | title = The Atlas of North American English | publisher = Mouton de Gruyter | year = 2006 | location = Berlin | isbn = 3-11-016746-8 }}</ref>

If a strict [[cot–caught merger|''cot–caught'' merger]] is used to define the North-Central regional dialect, it covers the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]], the northern border of [[Wisconsin]], the whole northern half of [[Minnesota]], some of northern [[South Dakota]], and most of [[North Dakota]];<ref>{{Harvp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=148}}</ref> otherwise, the dialect may be considered to extend to all of Minnesota, North Dakota, most of South Dakota, northern [[Iowa]], and all of Wisconsin outside of the [[eastern ridges and lowlands]].<ref>[https://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/maps/MapsNC/Map1NC.html "Map: North Central Region"]. Telsur Project. University of Pennsylvania.</ref>

==History and geography==
[[File:Census Bureau 2000, Scandinavians in the United States.png|thumb|400px|Percentage of the [[United States Census, 2000|U.S. in 2000]], by county, with Scandinavian heritage; note Minnesota.]]
[[File:Pct_finnish4.png|thumb|400px|Percentage of the U.S. in 2000, by county, with Finnish heritage; note the upper regions of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.]]
The appearance of [[monophthong]]s in this region is sometimes attributed to the high degree of [[Scandinavia]]n and [[Germans|German]] immigration to these northern states in the late 19th century. Linguist Erik R. Thomas argues that these monophthongs are the product of language contact and notes that other areas where they occur are places where speakers of other languages have had an influence such as the [[Pennsylvania Dutch English|Pennsylvania "Dutch" region]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Thomas |first= Erik R. |year= 2001 |title= An Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Variation in New World English |series= Publication of the American Dialect Society |page= [https://archive.org/details/acousticanalysis0000thom/page/85 85] |location= Durham |publisher= Duke University Press |isbn= 0-8223-6494-8 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/acousticanalysis0000thom/page/85 }}</ref> An alternative account posits that these monophthongal variants represent historical retentions, since [[diphthong]]ization of the mid vowels seems to have been a relatively recent phenomenon in the history of the English language, appearing within the last few centuries, and did not affect all dialects in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] The monophthongs heard in this region may stem from the influence of [[Mid Ulster English|Scots-Irish]] or other British dialects that maintain such forms. The fact that the monophthongs also appear in [[Canadian English]] may lend support to this account since Scots-Irish speech is known as an important influence in Canada.

People living in the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]] (whose [[demonym]], and sometimes sub-dialect, is known as "Yooper," deriving from the [[acronym]] "U.P." for "Upper Peninsula"), many northern areas of the [[Lower Peninsula of Michigan]], and in Northern [[Wisconsin]] are largely of [[Finnish Americans|Finnish]], French Canadian, Cornish, [[Scandinavian Americans|Scandinavian]], [[German Americans|German]], and/or Native American descent. The North-Central dialect is so strongly influenced by these areas' languages and Canada that speakers from other areas may have difficulty understanding it. Almost half the Finnish immigrants to the U.S. settled in the Upper Peninsula, some joining Scandinavians who moved on to Minnesota. Another sub-dialect is spoken in [[Southcentral Alaska]]'s [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]], because it was settled in the 1930s (during the [[Great Depression]]) by immigrants from the North-Central dialect region.<ref name="Purnell"/><ref name="Pinker">{{cite news |last= Pinker |first= Steven |date= October 4, 2008 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/opinion/04pinker.html?_r=0 |title= Everything You Heard is Wrong |work= The New York Times |page= A19}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice|section}}
Not all of these characteristics are unique to the North-Central region.

===Vowels===
*{{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/oʊ/}} are "[[conservative (language)|conservative]]" in this region, meaning they do not undergo the [[Fronting (phonetics)|fronting]] that is common in some other regions of the United States. In addition to being conservative, {{IPA|/oʊ/}} may be [[monophthong]]al {{IPA|[o]}}. The same is true for {{IPA|/eɪ/}}, which can be realized as {{IPA|[e]}}, though data suggests that monophthongal variants are more common for {{IPA|/oʊ/}} than for {{IPA|/eɪ/}}, and also that they are more common in ''coat'' than in ''ago'' or ''road'', which may indicate [[Phonology|phonological]] conditioning. Regionally, monophthongal mid vowels are more common in the northern tier of states, occurring more frequently in Minnesota and the Dakotas but much rarer in [[Iowa]] and [[Nebraska]].<ref name=Allen>{{Cite book| last = Allen | first = Harold B. | title = The Linguistic Atlas of the Upper Midwest | publisher = University of Minnesota Press | year = 1973 | location = Minneapolis | isbn = 0-8166-0686-2 }}</ref> The appearance of monophthongs in this region is sometimes explained due to the high degree of [[Scandinavia]]n and [[Germans|German]] immigration to these northern states in the late nineteenth century. Erik R. Thomas argues that these monophthongs are the product of language contact and notes that other areas where they occur are places where speakers of other languages have had an influence such as the [[Pennsylvania Dutch English|Pennsylvania "Dutch" region]].<ref>Thomas, Erik R. (2001). ''An Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Variation in New World English''. Publication of the American Dialect Society 85. Durham: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|0-8223-6494-8}}</ref> An alternative account posits that these monophthongal variants represent historical retentions. [[Diphthong]]ization of the mid vowels seems to have been a relatively recent phenomenon, appearing within the last few centuries, and did not affect all dialects in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. The monophthongs heard in this region may stem from the influence of [[Mid Ulster English|Scots-Irish]] or other British dialects that maintain such forms.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} The fact that the monophthongs also appear in [[Canadian English]] may lend support to this account since Scots-Irish speech is known as an important influence in Canada.
* Some or partial evidence of the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, which normally defines neighboring [[Inland Northern American English]], exists in North-Central American English. For example, {{IPA|/æ/}} may be generally raised and {{IPA|/ɑ/}} generally fronted in comparison to other American English accents.<ref>Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:204)</ref>
* Some speakers exhibit extreme raising of {{IPA|/æ/}} before voiced velars ({{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/ŋ/}}), with an up-glide, so that ''bag'' sounds close to ''beg'' or even as raised as the first syllable of ''bagel''. Other examples of where this applies include the word ''flag'' and ''agriculture''.<ref name=Labov />
* Raising of {{IPA|/aɪ/}} is found in this region. It occurs before some voiced consonants. For example, many speakers pronounce ''fire'', ''tiger'', and ''spider'' with the raised vowel.<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Vance | first = Timothy J. | title = "Canadian Raising" in Some Dialects of the Northern United States | journal = American Speech | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–210 | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham, NC | year = 1987 | doi = 10.2307/454805| jstor = 454805}}</ref> Some speakers in this region raise {{IPA|/aʊ/}} as well.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Kurath | first = Hans | author2 = Raven I. McDavid | title = The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States | publisher = University of Michigan Press | year = 1961 | location = Ann Arbor | isbn = 0-8173-0129-1}}</ref>
* The onset of {{IPA|/aʊ/}} when not subject to raising is often quite far back, resulting in pronunciations like {{IPA|[ɑʊ]}}.
* The [[cot–caught merger|''cot–caught'' merger]] is common throughout the region,<ref name=Labov /> and the vowel can be quite forward: {{IPA|[ä]}}.
* The words ''roof'' and ''root'' may be variously pronounced with either {{IPA|/ʊ/}} or {{IPA|/u/}}; that is, with the vowel of ''foot'' or ''boot'', respectively. This is highly variable, however, and these words are pronounced both ways in other parts of the country.
* The North-Central accent shows certain [[General American]] features, such as [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhoticity]] and the [[Mary–marry–merry merger|''Mary-marry-merry'' merger]], as well as a lack of the [[Pin–pen merger|''pen–pin'' merger]] of the American South or the [[Canadian shift]].<ref name=Labov />

===Consonants===
Word-initial [[th-stopping]] is possible among speakers of working-class backgrounds, especially with pronouns ('deez' for ''these'', 'doze' for ''those'', 'dem' for ''them'', etc.). In addition, traces of a [[pitch accent]] as in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] can persist in some areas of heavy Norwegian or Swedish settlement, and among people who grew up in those areas (some of whom are not of Scandinavian descent).

===Phonemic incidence===
Certain vowel phonemes appear in particular words, setting the North-Central dialect apart from some other American English:<ref name="Jøhndal">Jøhndal, Marius et al. (2018) [2004-2006]. "[https://dialectsurvey.wordpress.com/ The UWM Dialect Survey]". Cambridge University.</ref>
*''absurd'' often uses {{IPA|/z/}} (rather than {{IPA|/s/}})
*''across'' may end with a final {{IPA|/st/}}, rhyming with ''cost'', particularly in Wisconsin
*''anti'' often uses {{IPA|/aɪ/}} (rather than {{IPA|/i/}})
*''aunt'' often uses {{IPA|/ɑ/}} (rather than {{IPA|/æ/}})
*''turbine'' often uses {{IPA|/ən/}} (rather than {{IPA|/aɪn/}}): the same pronunciation as ''turban''
*Words spelled with ''ag'', such as '' bag'' or ''ragged'', use {{IPA|/eɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (rather than {{IPA|/æ/}})

==Grammar==
In this dialect, the [[preposition and postposition|preposition]] ''with'' is used without an object as an [[adverb]] in phrases like ''[[wikt:come with|come with]]'', as in ''Do you want to come with?'' for standard ''Do you want to come with me?'' or ''with us?''. In standard English, other prepositions can be used as adverbs, like ''go down'' (''down'' as adverb) for ''go down the stairs'' (''down'' as preposition). ''With'' is not typically used in this way in standard English (particularly in [[British English|British]] and [[irish English|Irish]] English), and this feature likely came from languages spoken by some immigrants, such as Scandinavian (Danish, Swedish, Norwegian), German, or Dutch and [[Luxembourgers|Luxembourgish]], all of which have this construction, like Swedish {{Lang|sv|kom med}}.<ref>{{Cite thesis |type= Ph.D. thesis |title=Do you want to come with?: A cross-dialectal, multi-field, variationist investigation of with as particle selected by motion verbs in the Minnesota dialect of English |url=https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI3344140/ |last=Spartz |first=John M |year=2008 |publisher=Purdue University}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What's with 'come with'? Investigating the origins (and proper use) of this and other Midwesternisms |first= Heidi |last= Stevens |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/tribu/ct-tribu-words-work-midwest-20101208,0,2295075.story |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=December 8, 2010 |access-date= September 14, 2013}}</ref>

The word ''yet'' can be used in a phrase such as "I need to clean this room yet" to mean 'still', particularly around Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula. "Shut the lights" can mean "shut off the lights", particularly in that same region.<ref name="Jøhndal"/>

==Vocabulary==
* ''boulevard'', a grassy [[median strip]]<ref name="Vaux"/>
* ''berm, boulevard,'' or ''terrace'', a grassy [[road verge]]<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''bubbler'', a drinking fountain
* ''breezeway'' or ''skyway'', a hallway-bridge connecting two buildings<ref name="DARE">Cassidy, Frederic Gomes, and Joan Houston Hall (eds). (2002) ''Dictionary of American Regional English''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref>
* ''[[eh]]?'', a [[question tag]] (particularly used in the northern sections of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Upper Michigan)
* ''[[frontage road]]'', a service or access road<ref name="Vaux">Vaux, Bert, Scott A. Golder, Rebecca Starr, and Britt Bolen. (2000-2005) ''[http://www4.uwm.edu//FLL/linguistics/dialect/index.html The Dialect Survey]''. Survey and maps.</ref>
* ''[[hotdish]]'', a simple entree (main) cooked in a single dish, like a [[casserole]]<ref>Mohr, Howard. (1987) ''How to Talk Minnesotan: A Visitor's Guide''. New York: Penguin.</ref>
* ''pop'' or ''soda pop'', a sweet carbonated soft drink<ref name="DARE"/>
* ''rummage sale'', a yard or [[garage sale]]<ref name="Vaux"/>
* ''sliver'', a [[splinter]]<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''spendy'', expensive or high-priced<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''stocking cap'', a knit wool hat<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''supposably'' (for ''supposedly''), particularly in Wisconsin<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''troll'', a person from the [[Lower Peninsula of Michigan]]
* ''Yooper'', a person from the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Binder|first=David|date=14 September 1995|title=Upper Peninsula Journal: Yes, They're Yoopers, and Proud of it|newspaper=New York Times|page=A16|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/14/us/upper-peninsula-journal-yes-they-re-yoopers-and-proud-of-it.html}}</ref>

==Sub-varieties==
A North-Central "[[language island|dialect island]]" exists in [[southcentral Alaska]]'s [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]], since, in the 1930s, it absorbed large numbers of settlers from Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.<ref name="Purnell">{{cite journal |last1=Purnell |first1=T. |last2=Raimy |first2=E. |last3=Salmons |first3=J. |title=Defining Dialect, Perceiving Dialect, and New Dialect Formation: Sarah Palin's Speech |journal=Journal of English Linguistics |date=2009 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=331–355 [346, 349]|doi=10.1177/0075424209348685|s2cid=144147617 }}</ref> "Yooper" English spoken in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and Iron Range English spoken in Minnesota's [[Mesabi Iron Range]] are strong sub-varieties of the North-Central dialect, largely influenced by [[Fenno-Scandinavia]]n immigration to those areas around the beginning of the twentieth century. Iron Range English is sometimes called "Rayncher" English (an [[eye dialect|eye spelling]] of "Ranger").<ref>Kalibabky, Mike (1996). ''Hawdaw Talk rayncher, and Iron range Words of Wisdom''. Chisolm, Minnesota: Moonlight Press.</ref>

===Upper Peninsula English===
English of the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]],<ref name="Rankinen">{{cite journal|last=Rankinen |first=Wil |title=The Michigan Upper Peninsula English Vowel System in Finnish American Communities in Marquette County |url=http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/content/89/3/312.abstract |journal=American Speech |volume=89 |issue=3 |date=Fall 2014 |pages=312–347 |doi=10.1215/00031283-2848989 |issn=0003-1283 |eissn=1527-2133 |access-date=October 25, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228163526/http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/content/89/3/312.abstract |archive-date=December 28, 2016 }}</ref> plus some bordering areas of northeast Wisconsin,<ref>{{cite news|last=Jenkins |first=Richard |date=May 21, 2015 |url=http://www.yourdailyglobe.com/story/2015/05/21/news/linguistics-professor-provides-insight-into-yooper-accent-trends/4842.html |title=Linguistics Professor Provides Insight into 'Yooper' Accent Trends |work=The Daily Globe |location=Ironwood, MI |access-date=November 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015641/http://www.yourdailyglobe.com/story/2015/05/21/news/linguistics-professor-provides-insight-into-yooper-accent-trends/4842.html |archive-date=November 17, 2015 }}</ref> colloquially known as U.P. or "Yooper" English,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Remlinger |first1= Kathryn |first2= Joseph |last2= Salmons |first3= Luanna |last3= von Schneidemesser |name-list-style= amp |title= Revised Perceptions: Changing Dialect Perceptions in Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula |url= http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/content/84/2/176.abstract |journal= American Speech |volume= 84 |issue= 2 |date= Summer 2009 |pages= 176–191 |doi= 10.1215/00031283-2009-014 |issn= 0003-1283 |eissn= 1527-2133 |access-date= November 13, 2015}}</ref> or Yoopanese,<ref>{{cite book |first= Karla |last= Zimmerman |chapter= Great Lakes: Lake Lovers' Trail |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Nmdg8m3rlrsC&pg=PA350 |editor1-first= Sara |editor1-last= Benson |editor2-first= Amy |editor2-last= Balfour |title= USA's Best Trips: 99 Themed Itineraries Across America |location= Oakland |publisher= Lonely Planet |year= 2010 |isbn= 9781741797350 |oclc= 668112230 |page= 350 |access-date= January 30, 2016 |via= [[Google Books]] }} {{cite news|first=Ted |last=Kleine |date=June 18, 1998 |title=Turning Yoopanese |url=http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/turning-yoopanese/Content?oid=896617 |work=Chicago Reader |access-date=January 30, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205123851/http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/turning-yoopanese/Content?oid=896617 |archive-date=February 5, 2016 }}</ref> is a North-Central sub-variety with some additional influences from [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking immigrants to the region. However, younger speakers may be starting to align closer to nearby [[Standard Canadian English]], according to a recent study of [[Marquette County, Michigan|Marquette County]].<ref name="Rankinen"/>

The traditional Yooper accent is associated with certain features: the alveolar stops {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} in place of the English dental [[fricatives]] {{IPA|/ð/}} and {{IPA|/θ/}} (like in "then" and "thigh", so that ''then'' ({{IPA|/ðɛn/}}) becomes ''den'' ({{IPA|/dɛn/}}), etc.); the German/Scandinavian affirmative ''ja'' {{IPA|[jä]}} to mean 'yeah' or 'yes' (often Anglicized in spelling to ''ya''); the [[Filler (linguistics)|filler]] or [[question tag]] ''eh'' or ''hey'' at the ends of sentences, as in Canadian English; notably raised nuclei in the vowels {{IPA|/aʊ/}} and {{IPA|/aɪ/}}; the word ''youse'' as a second-personal plural noun, like ''you guys'' in neighboring dialects; and a marked deletion of ''to the'' (e.g., "I'm going store," "We went mall," and "We'll go [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]]"), influenced by Finnish, which does not have any articles corresponding to ''a'', ''an'', or ''the''.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

==In popular culture==
{{unsourced section|date=December 2021}}
The Upper Midwestern accent is made conspicuous, often to the point of [[parody]] or near-parody, in the film ''[[Fargo (1996 film)|Fargo]]'' (especially as displayed by [[Frances McDormand]]'s character [[Marge Gunderson]]) and the radio program ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]'' (as displayed by many minor characters, especially those voiced by [[Sue Scott (actress)|Sue Scott]], with whom lead characters, most frequently male roles voiced by [[Garrison Keillor]]). It is also evident in the film ''[[New in Town]]''.

==Notable lifelong native speakers==

*[[Steven Avery]] — "recognizably thick Wisconsin accent"<ref>Smith, Candace (2016). "[http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/seth-meyers-forced-back-work-hilarious-making-murde-article-1.2486303 Seth Meyers forced back to work in hilarious ‘Making a Murderer’ spoof]." ''New York Daily News''. NYDailyNews.com</ref>
*[[Michele Bachmann]] — "that calming, matzoh-flat Minnesota accent"<ref>Weigel, David (2011). "[https://www.gq.com/story/michelle-bachman-presidential-candidate-gq-july-2011 Michele Bachmann for President!]" ''[[GQ]]''. [[Condé Nast]].</ref>
*[[Charlie Berens]]
*[[Tippi Hedren]]
*[[Jan Kuehnemund]]
*[[Brock Lesnar]]
*[[Don Ness]] — "You'll find that Ms. Palin and Duluth Mayor Don Ness don't sound all that different."<ref>"[https://www.economist.com/blogs/gulliver/2011/01/american_accents What Americans sound like". ''The Economist''. The Economist Newspaper Limited 2011.]</ref>
*[[Julianne Ortman]]
*[[Sarah Palin]]<ref name="Purnell"/> — "Listeners who hear the [[Norwegian Americans|Minnewegian]] sounds of the characters from ''[[Fargo (1996 film)|Fargo]]'' when they listen to Ms. Palin are on to something: the [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]] in Alaska, where she grew up, was settled by farmers from Minnesota"<ref name="Pinker"/>

==See also==
*[[Inland Northern American English]]
*[[North American English regional phonology]]
*[[Regional vocabularies of American English]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last1= Kortmand |first1= Bernd |last2= Schneider |first2= Edgar W. |year= 2004 |title= A Handbook of Varieties of English |publisher= [[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn= 978-3-11-017532-5}}
* {{cite book |last1= Labov |first1= William |author-link= William Labov |last2= Ash |first2= Sharon |last3= Boberg |first3= Charles |year= 2006 |title= The Atlas of North American English |location= Berlin |publisher= Mouton-de Gruyter |pages= 187–208 |isbn= 3-11-016746-8 }}

{{English dialects by continent}}
{{Languages of the United States}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:North-Central American English}}
[[Category:American English]]
[[Category:Iowa culture]]
[[Category:Michigan culture]]
[[Category:Languages of Minnesota]]
[[Category:Languages of Montana]]
[[Category:North Dakota culture]]
[[Category:South Dakota culture]]
[[Category:Wisconsin culture]]
[[Category:Culture of the Midwestern United States]]
[[Category:Montana culture]]

North-Central American English

2022-02-15T01:47:46Z

JavaRogers: /* Vowels */Italics for WAW

{{Short description|English dialect of the American Midwest}}{{Infobox language
| name = North-Central American English
| region = [[Upper Midwest]]
| speakers = ?
| date =
| ref =
|familycolor=Indo-European
|fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|fam4=[[North Sea Germanic|Ingvaeonic]]
|fam5=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo–Frisian]]
|fam6=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
|fam7=[[English language|English]]
|fam8=[[North American English]]
|fam9=[[American English]]
|fam10=[[Northern American English]]
|ancestor=[[Old English]]
|ancestor2=[[Middle English]]
|ancestor3=[[Early Modern English]]
| isoexception = dialect
| glotto = none
}}

'''North-Central American English''' (in the [[United States]], also known as the '''Upper Midwestern''' or '''North-Central dialect''' and stereotypically recognized as a '''Minnesota''' or '''Wisconsin accent''') is an [[American English]] [[dialect]] native to the [[Upper Midwest|Upper Midwestern United States]], an area that somewhat overlaps with speakers of the separate [[Inland North|Inland North dialect]] centered more around the eastern [[Great Lakes region]].<ref name=Allen/> The North-Central dialect is considered to have developed in a residual dialect region from the neighboring distinct dialect regions of the [[Western United States]], Inland North, and [[Canadian English|Canada]].<ref name=Labov>{{Cite book| last = Labov | first = William |author2=Sharon Ash |author3=Charles Boberg | title = The Atlas of North American English | publisher = Mouton de Gruyter | year = 2006 | location = Berlin | isbn = 3-11-016746-8 }}</ref>

If a strict [[cot–caught merger|''cot–caught'' merger]] is used to define the North-Central regional dialect, it covers the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]], the northern border of [[Wisconsin]], the whole northern half of [[Minnesota]], some of northern [[South Dakota]], and most of [[North Dakota]];<ref>{{Harvp|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=148}}</ref> otherwise, the dialect may be considered to extend to all of Minnesota, North Dakota, most of South Dakota, northern [[Iowa]], and all of Wisconsin outside of the [[eastern ridges and lowlands]].<ref>[https://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/maps/MapsNC/Map1NC.html "Map: North Central Region"]. Telsur Project. University of Pennsylvania.</ref>

==History and geography==
[[File:Census Bureau 2000, Scandinavians in the United States.png|thumb|400px|Percentage of the [[United States Census, 2000|U.S. in 2000]], by county, with Scandinavian heritage; note Minnesota.]]
[[File:Pct_finnish4.png|thumb|400px|Percentage of the U.S. in 2000, by county, with Finnish heritage; note the upper regions of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan.]]
The appearance of [[monophthong]]s in this region is sometimes attributed to the high degree of [[Scandinavia]]n and [[Germans|German]] immigration to these northern states in the late 19th century. Linguist Erik R. Thomas argues that these monophthongs are the product of language contact and notes that other areas where they occur are places where speakers of other languages have had an influence such as the [[Pennsylvania Dutch English|Pennsylvania "Dutch" region]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Thomas |first= Erik R. |year= 2001 |title= An Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Variation in New World English |series= Publication of the American Dialect Society |page= [https://archive.org/details/acousticanalysis0000thom/page/85 85] |location= Durham |publisher= Duke University Press |isbn= 0-8223-6494-8 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/acousticanalysis0000thom/page/85 }}</ref> An alternative account posits that these monophthongal variants represent historical retentions, since [[diphthong]]ization of the mid vowels seems to have been a relatively recent phenomenon in the history of the English language, appearing within the last few centuries, and did not affect all dialects in the [[United Kingdom|U.K.]] The monophthongs heard in this region may stem from the influence of [[Mid Ulster English|Scots-Irish]] or other British dialects that maintain such forms. The fact that the monophthongs also appear in [[Canadian English]] may lend support to this account since Scots-Irish speech is known as an important influence in Canada.

People living in the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]] (whose [[demonym]], and sometimes sub-dialect, is known as "Yooper," deriving from the [[acronym]] "U.P." for "Upper Peninsula"), many northern areas of the [[Lower Peninsula of Michigan]], and in Northern [[Wisconsin]] are largely of [[Finnish Americans|Finnish]], French Canadian, Cornish, [[Scandinavian Americans|Scandinavian]], [[German Americans|German]], and/or Native American descent. The North-Central dialect is so strongly influenced by these areas' languages and Canada that speakers from other areas may have difficulty understanding it. Almost half the Finnish immigrants to the U.S. settled in the Upper Peninsula, some joining Scandinavians who moved on to Minnesota. Another sub-dialect is spoken in [[Southcentral Alaska]]'s [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]], because it was settled in the 1930s (during the [[Great Depression]]) by immigrants from the North-Central dialect region.<ref name="Purnell"/><ref name="Pinker">{{cite news |last= Pinker |first= Steven |date= October 4, 2008 |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/opinion/04pinker.html?_r=0 |title= Everything You Heard is Wrong |work= The New York Times |page= A19}}</ref>

==Phonology==
{{IPA notice|section}}
Not all of these characteristics are unique to the North-Central region.

===Vowels===
*{{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/oʊ/}} are "[[conservative (language)|conservative]]" in this region, meaning they do not undergo the [[Fronting (phonetics)|fronting]] that is common in some other regions of the United States. In addition to being conservative, {{IPA|/oʊ/}} may be [[monophthong]]al {{IPA|[o]}}. The same is true for {{IPA|/eɪ/}}, which can be realized as {{IPA|[e]}}, though data suggests that monophthongal variants are more common for {{IPA|/oʊ/}} than for {{IPA|/eɪ/}}, and also that they are more common in ''coat'' than in ''ago'' or ''road'', which may indicate [[Phonology|phonological]] conditioning. Regionally, monophthongal mid vowels are more common in the northern tier of states, occurring more frequently in Minnesota and the Dakotas but much rarer in [[Iowa]] and [[Nebraska]].<ref name=Allen>{{Cite book| last = Allen | first = Harold B. | title = The Linguistic Atlas of the Upper Midwest | publisher = University of Minnesota Press | year = 1973 | location = Minneapolis | isbn = 0-8166-0686-2 }}</ref> The appearance of monophthongs in this region is sometimes explained due to the high degree of [[Scandinavia]]n and [[Germans|German]] immigration to these northern states in the late nineteenth century. Erik R. Thomas argues that these monophthongs are the product of language contact and notes that other areas where they occur are places where speakers of other languages have had an influence such as the [[Pennsylvania Dutch English|Pennsylvania "Dutch" region]].<ref>Thomas, Erik R. (2001). ''An Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Variation in New World English''. Publication of the American Dialect Society 85. Durham: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|0-8223-6494-8}}</ref> An alternative account posits that these monophthongal variants represent historical retentions. [[Diphthong]]ization of the mid vowels seems to have been a relatively recent phenomenon, appearing within the last few centuries, and did not affect all dialects in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. The monophthongs heard in this region may stem from the influence of [[Mid Ulster English|Scots-Irish]] or other British dialects that maintain such forms.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} The fact that the monophthongs also appear in [[Canadian English]] may lend support to this account since Scots-Irish speech is known as an important influence in Canada.
* Some or partial evidence of the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, which normally defines neighboring [[Inland Northern American English]], exists in North-Central American English. For example, {{IPA|/æ/}} may be generally raised and {{IPA|/ɑ/}} generally fronted in comparison to other American English accents.<ref>Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006:204)</ref>
* Some speakers exhibit extreme raising of {{IPA|/æ/}} before voiced velars ({{IPA|/ɡ/}} and {{IPA|/ŋ/}}), with an up-glide, so that ''bag'' sounds close to ''beg'' or even as raised as the first syllable of ''bagel''. Other examples of where this applies include the word ''flag'' and ''agriculture''.<ref name=Labov />
* Raising of {{IPA|/aɪ/}} is found in this region. It occurs before some voiced consonants. For example, many speakers pronounce ''fire'', ''tiger'', and ''spider'' with the raised vowel.<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Vance | first = Timothy J. | title = "Canadian Raising" in Some Dialects of the Northern United States | journal = American Speech | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 195–210 | publisher = Duke University Press | location = Durham, NC | year = 1987 | doi = 10.2307/454805| jstor = 454805}}</ref> Some speakers in this region raise {{IPA|/aʊ/}} as well.<ref>{{Cite book| last = Kurath | first = Hans | author2 = Raven I. McDavid | title = The Pronunciation of English in the Atlantic States | publisher = University of Michigan Press | year = 1961 | location = Ann Arbor | isbn = 0-8173-0129-1}}</ref>
* The onset of {{IPA|/aʊ/}} when not subject to raising is often quite far back, resulting in pronunciations like {{IPA|[ɑʊ]}}.
* The [[cot–caught merger|''cot–caught'' merger]] is common throughout the region,<ref name=Labov /> and the vowel can be quite forward: {{IPA|[ä]}}.
* The words ''roof'' and ''root'' may be variously pronounced with either {{IPA|/ʊ/}} or {{IPA|/u/}}; that is, with the vowel of ''foot'' or ''boot'', respectively. This is highly variable, however, and these words are pronounced both ways in other parts of the country.
* The North-Central accent shows certain [[General American]] features, such as [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents|rhoticity]] and the [[Mary–marry–merry merger|''Mary-marry-merry'' merger]], as well as a lack of the [[Pin–pen merger|pen–pin merger]] of the American South or the [[Canadian shift]].<ref name=Labov />

===Consonants===
Word-initial [[th-stopping]] is possible among speakers of working-class backgrounds, especially with pronouns ('deez' for ''these'', 'doze' for ''those'', 'dem' for ''them'', etc.). In addition, traces of a [[pitch accent]] as in [[Swedish language|Swedish]] and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] can persist in some areas of heavy Norwegian or Swedish settlement, and among people who grew up in those areas (some of whom are not of Scandinavian descent).

===Phonemic incidence===
Certain vowel phonemes appear in particular words, setting the North-Central dialect apart from some other American English:<ref name="Jøhndal">Jøhndal, Marius et al. (2018) [2004-2006]. "[https://dialectsurvey.wordpress.com/ The UWM Dialect Survey]". Cambridge University.</ref>
*''absurd'' often uses {{IPA|/z/}} (rather than {{IPA|/s/}})
*''across'' may end with a final {{IPA|/st/}}, rhyming with ''cost'', particularly in Wisconsin
*''anti'' often uses {{IPA|/aɪ/}} (rather than {{IPA|/i/}})
*''aunt'' often uses {{IPA|/ɑ/}} (rather than {{IPA|/æ/}})
*''turbine'' often uses {{IPA|/ən/}} (rather than {{IPA|/aɪn/}}): the same pronunciation as ''turban''
*Words spelled with ''ag'', such as '' bag'' or ''ragged'', use {{IPA|/eɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ɛ/}} (rather than {{IPA|/æ/}})

==Grammar==
In this dialect, the [[preposition and postposition|preposition]] ''with'' is used without an object as an [[adverb]] in phrases like ''[[wikt:come with|come with]]'', as in ''Do you want to come with?'' for standard ''Do you want to come with me?'' or ''with us?''. In standard English, other prepositions can be used as adverbs, like ''go down'' (''down'' as adverb) for ''go down the stairs'' (''down'' as preposition). ''With'' is not typically used in this way in standard English (particularly in [[British English|British]] and [[irish English|Irish]] English), and this feature likely came from languages spoken by some immigrants, such as Scandinavian (Danish, Swedish, Norwegian), German, or Dutch and [[Luxembourgers|Luxembourgish]], all of which have this construction, like Swedish {{Lang|sv|kom med}}.<ref>{{Cite thesis |type= Ph.D. thesis |title=Do you want to come with?: A cross-dialectal, multi-field, variationist investigation of with as particle selected by motion verbs in the Minnesota dialect of English |url=https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/dissertations/AAI3344140/ |last=Spartz |first=John M |year=2008 |publisher=Purdue University}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=What's with 'come with'? Investigating the origins (and proper use) of this and other Midwesternisms |first= Heidi |last= Stevens |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/features/tribu/ct-tribu-words-work-midwest-20101208,0,2295075.story |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=December 8, 2010 |access-date= September 14, 2013}}</ref>

The word ''yet'' can be used in a phrase such as "I need to clean this room yet" to mean 'still', particularly around Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula. "Shut the lights" can mean "shut off the lights", particularly in that same region.<ref name="Jøhndal"/>

==Vocabulary==
* ''boulevard'', a grassy [[median strip]]<ref name="Vaux"/>
* ''berm, boulevard,'' or ''terrace'', a grassy [[road verge]]<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''bubbler'', a drinking fountain
* ''breezeway'' or ''skyway'', a hallway-bridge connecting two buildings<ref name="DARE">Cassidy, Frederic Gomes, and Joan Houston Hall (eds). (2002) ''Dictionary of American Regional English''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref>
* ''[[eh]]?'', a [[question tag]] (particularly used in the northern sections of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Upper Michigan)
* ''[[frontage road]]'', a service or access road<ref name="Vaux">Vaux, Bert, Scott A. Golder, Rebecca Starr, and Britt Bolen. (2000-2005) ''[http://www4.uwm.edu//FLL/linguistics/dialect/index.html The Dialect Survey]''. Survey and maps.</ref>
* ''[[hotdish]]'', a simple entree (main) cooked in a single dish, like a [[casserole]]<ref>Mohr, Howard. (1987) ''How to Talk Minnesotan: A Visitor's Guide''. New York: Penguin.</ref>
* ''pop'' or ''soda pop'', a sweet carbonated soft drink<ref name="DARE"/>
* ''rummage sale'', a yard or [[garage sale]]<ref name="Vaux"/>
* ''sliver'', a [[splinter]]<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''spendy'', expensive or high-priced<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''stocking cap'', a knit wool hat<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''supposably'' (for ''supposedly''), particularly in Wisconsin<ref name="Jøhndal"/>
* ''troll'', a person from the [[Lower Peninsula of Michigan]]
* ''Yooper'', a person from the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Binder|first=David|date=14 September 1995|title=Upper Peninsula Journal: Yes, They're Yoopers, and Proud of it|newspaper=New York Times|page=A16|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/09/14/us/upper-peninsula-journal-yes-they-re-yoopers-and-proud-of-it.html}}</ref>

==Sub-varieties==
A North-Central "[[language island|dialect island]]" exists in [[southcentral Alaska]]'s [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]], since, in the 1930s, it absorbed large numbers of settlers from Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin.<ref name="Purnell">{{cite journal |last1=Purnell |first1=T. |last2=Raimy |first2=E. |last3=Salmons |first3=J. |title=Defining Dialect, Perceiving Dialect, and New Dialect Formation: Sarah Palin's Speech |journal=Journal of English Linguistics |date=2009 |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=331–355 [346, 349]|doi=10.1177/0075424209348685|s2cid=144147617 }}</ref> "Yooper" English spoken in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and Iron Range English spoken in Minnesota's [[Mesabi Iron Range]] are strong sub-varieties of the North-Central dialect, largely influenced by [[Fenno-Scandinavia]]n immigration to those areas around the beginning of the twentieth century. Iron Range English is sometimes called "Rayncher" English (an [[eye dialect|eye spelling]] of "Ranger").<ref>Kalibabky, Mike (1996). ''Hawdaw Talk rayncher, and Iron range Words of Wisdom''. Chisolm, Minnesota: Moonlight Press.</ref>

===Upper Peninsula English===
English of the [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan]],<ref name="Rankinen">{{cite journal|last=Rankinen |first=Wil |title=The Michigan Upper Peninsula English Vowel System in Finnish American Communities in Marquette County |url=http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/content/89/3/312.abstract |journal=American Speech |volume=89 |issue=3 |date=Fall 2014 |pages=312–347 |doi=10.1215/00031283-2848989 |issn=0003-1283 |eissn=1527-2133 |access-date=October 25, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161228163526/http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/content/89/3/312.abstract |archive-date=December 28, 2016 }}</ref> plus some bordering areas of northeast Wisconsin,<ref>{{cite news|last=Jenkins |first=Richard |date=May 21, 2015 |url=http://www.yourdailyglobe.com/story/2015/05/21/news/linguistics-professor-provides-insight-into-yooper-accent-trends/4842.html |title=Linguistics Professor Provides Insight into 'Yooper' Accent Trends |work=The Daily Globe |location=Ironwood, MI |access-date=November 13, 2015 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117015641/http://www.yourdailyglobe.com/story/2015/05/21/news/linguistics-professor-provides-insight-into-yooper-accent-trends/4842.html |archive-date=November 17, 2015 }}</ref> colloquially known as U.P. or "Yooper" English,<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Remlinger |first1= Kathryn |first2= Joseph |last2= Salmons |first3= Luanna |last3= von Schneidemesser |name-list-style= amp |title= Revised Perceptions: Changing Dialect Perceptions in Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper Peninsula |url= http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/content/84/2/176.abstract |journal= American Speech |volume= 84 |issue= 2 |date= Summer 2009 |pages= 176–191 |doi= 10.1215/00031283-2009-014 |issn= 0003-1283 |eissn= 1527-2133 |access-date= November 13, 2015}}</ref> or Yoopanese,<ref>{{cite book |first= Karla |last= Zimmerman |chapter= Great Lakes: Lake Lovers' Trail |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Nmdg8m3rlrsC&pg=PA350 |editor1-first= Sara |editor1-last= Benson |editor2-first= Amy |editor2-last= Balfour |title= USA's Best Trips: 99 Themed Itineraries Across America |location= Oakland |publisher= Lonely Planet |year= 2010 |isbn= 9781741797350 |oclc= 668112230 |page= 350 |access-date= January 30, 2016 |via= [[Google Books]] }} {{cite news|first=Ted |last=Kleine |date=June 18, 1998 |title=Turning Yoopanese |url=http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/turning-yoopanese/Content?oid=896617 |work=Chicago Reader |access-date=January 30, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160205123851/http://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/turning-yoopanese/Content?oid=896617 |archive-date=February 5, 2016 }}</ref> is a North-Central sub-variety with some additional influences from [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking immigrants to the region. However, younger speakers may be starting to align closer to nearby [[Standard Canadian English]], according to a recent study of [[Marquette County, Michigan|Marquette County]].<ref name="Rankinen"/>

The traditional Yooper accent is associated with certain features: the alveolar stops {{IPA|/d/}} and {{IPA|/t/}} in place of the English dental [[fricatives]] {{IPA|/ð/}} and {{IPA|/θ/}} (like in "then" and "thigh", so that ''then'' ({{IPA|/ðɛn/}}) becomes ''den'' ({{IPA|/dɛn/}}), etc.); the German/Scandinavian affirmative ''ja'' {{IPA|[jä]}} to mean 'yeah' or 'yes' (often Anglicized in spelling to ''ya''); the [[Filler (linguistics)|filler]] or [[question tag]] ''eh'' or ''hey'' at the ends of sentences, as in Canadian English; notably raised nuclei in the vowels {{IPA|/aʊ/}} and {{IPA|/aɪ/}}; the word ''youse'' as a second-personal plural noun, like ''you guys'' in neighboring dialects; and a marked deletion of ''to the'' (e.g., "I'm going store," "We went mall," and "We'll go [[Green Bay, Wisconsin|Green Bay]]"), influenced by Finnish, which does not have any articles corresponding to ''a'', ''an'', or ''the''.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

==In popular culture==
{{unsourced section|date=December 2021}}
The Upper Midwestern accent is made conspicuous, often to the point of [[parody]] or near-parody, in the film ''[[Fargo (1996 film)|Fargo]]'' (especially as displayed by [[Frances McDormand]]'s character [[Marge Gunderson]]) and the radio program ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]'' (as displayed by many minor characters, especially those voiced by [[Sue Scott (actress)|Sue Scott]], with whom lead characters, most frequently male roles voiced by [[Garrison Keillor]]). It is also evident in the film ''[[New in Town]]''.

==Notable lifelong native speakers==

*[[Steven Avery]] — "recognizably thick Wisconsin accent"<ref>Smith, Candace (2016). "[http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/seth-meyers-forced-back-work-hilarious-making-murde-article-1.2486303 Seth Meyers forced back to work in hilarious ‘Making a Murderer’ spoof]." ''New York Daily News''. NYDailyNews.com</ref>
*[[Michele Bachmann]] — "that calming, matzoh-flat Minnesota accent"<ref>Weigel, David (2011). "[https://www.gq.com/story/michelle-bachman-presidential-candidate-gq-july-2011 Michele Bachmann for President!]" ''[[GQ]]''. [[Condé Nast]].</ref>
*[[Charlie Berens]]
*[[Tippi Hedren]]
*[[Jan Kuehnemund]]
*[[Brock Lesnar]]
*[[Don Ness]] — "You'll find that Ms. Palin and Duluth Mayor Don Ness don't sound all that different."<ref>"[https://www.economist.com/blogs/gulliver/2011/01/american_accents What Americans sound like". ''The Economist''. The Economist Newspaper Limited 2011.]</ref>
*[[Julianne Ortman]]
*[[Sarah Palin]]<ref name="Purnell"/> — "Listeners who hear the [[Norwegian Americans|Minnewegian]] sounds of the characters from ''[[Fargo (1996 film)|Fargo]]'' when they listen to Ms. Palin are on to something: the [[Matanuska-Susitna Valley]] in Alaska, where she grew up, was settled by farmers from Minnesota"<ref name="Pinker"/>

==See also==
*[[Inland Northern American English]]
*[[North American English regional phonology]]
*[[Regional vocabularies of American English]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last1= Kortmand |first1= Bernd |last2= Schneider |first2= Edgar W. |year= 2004 |title= A Handbook of Varieties of English |publisher= [[Walter de Gruyter]] |isbn= 978-3-11-017532-5}}
* {{cite book |last1= Labov |first1= William |author-link= William Labov |last2= Ash |first2= Sharon |last3= Boberg |first3= Charles |year= 2006 |title= The Atlas of North American English |location= Berlin |publisher= Mouton-de Gruyter |pages= 187–208 |isbn= 3-11-016746-8 }}

{{English dialects by continent}}
{{Languages of the United States}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:North-Central American English}}
[[Category:American English]]
[[Category:Iowa culture]]
[[Category:Michigan culture]]
[[Category:Languages of Minnesota]]
[[Category:Languages of Montana]]
[[Category:North Dakota culture]]
[[Category:South Dakota culture]]
[[Category:Wisconsin culture]]
[[Category:Culture of the Midwestern United States]]
[[Category:Montana culture]]

California English

2022-02-15T01:14:56Z

JavaRogers: /* Rural inland variety */Sorted an ambiguous phrase + Italicised some words as words

{{short description|Dialect of English spoken in California}}
{{Infobox language
| name = California English
| nativename =
| region = [[United States|United States of America]] ([[California]])
| speakers = ?
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3 = [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4 = [[North Sea Germanic|Ingvaeonic]]
| fam5 = [[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo–Frisian]]
| fam6 = [[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| fam7 = [[English language|English]]
| fam8 = [[North American English]]
| fam9 = [[American English]]
| fam10 = [[Western American English]]
| ancestor = [[Old English]]
| ancestor2 = [[Middle English]]
| ancestor3 = [[Early Modern English]]
| isoexception = dialect
| ietf = en-u-sd-usca
| glotto = none
| notice = IPA
}}

'''California English''' (or '''Californian English''') collectively refers to varieties of [[American English]] native to [[California]]. A distinctive [[vowel shift]] was only first noted by linguists in the 1980s in [[Southern California]] and the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] of [[Northern California]],<ref name="de Gruyter">Gordon, Matthew J. (2004). "The West and Midwest: phonology." Kortmann, Bernd, Kate Burridge, Rajend Mesthrie, Edgar W. Schneider and Clive Upton (eds). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=mtd3a-56ysUC& A Handbook of Varieties of English].'' Volume 1: Phonology, Volume 2: Morphology and Syntax. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 347.</ref> helping to define an accent emerging primarily among youthful, white, urban, coastal speakers, and popularly associated with the [[Valley girl]] and [[surfing|surfer dude]] [[youth subculture]]s.<ref>Podesva, Robert J., Annette D'Onofrio, Janneke Van Hofwegen, and Seung Kyung Kim (2015). "Country ideology and the California Vowel Shift." ''Language Variation and Change'' 48: 28-45. Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref name="Do You">"[https://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/americanvarieties/californian/# California English]." ''Do You Speak American?'' [[PBS]]. Macneil/Lehrer Productions. 2005.</ref> The possibility that this is, in fact, an age-specific variety of English is one hypothesis;<ref>{{harvcoltxt|Ward|2003|p=41}}: "fronted features in the young speakers seems to indicate a nascent chain shift in progress, [but] the lack of a true generational age range in the study precludes too strong of a conclusion. Alternatively Hinton et al. also suggest that possibility that the age-specific pattern could also be a function of age-grading, where the faddish speech style of California adolescents is adopted for its prestige value, only to be abandoned as adolescence wanes."</ref> however, certain features of the variety are intensifying and spreading geographically.

Other documented California English includes a "country" accent associated with rural and inland white Californians, an older accent once spoken by [[Irish Americans]] in [[San Francisco]], and distinctly Californian varieties of [[Chicano English]] associated with [[Mexican Americans]]. Research has shown that Californians themselves perceive a linguistic boundary between Northern and Southern California,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bucholtz|first1=Mary <nowiki>et al</nowiki>|title=Hella Nor Cal or Totally So Cal|journal= Journal of English Linguistics|language=en|doi=10.1177/0075424207307780|s2cid=64542514|page=337|year=2007|volume=35|issue=4|url = http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/6492j904}}</ref> particularly regarding the Northern use of ''[[hella]]'' and Southern (but now nationally widespread) use of ''[[dude]]'', ''[[Bro culture|bro]]'', and ''[[Like#As a discourse particle, filler or hedge|like]]''.<ref>Bucholtz et al., 2007, 343.</ref>

As California became [[Demographics of California|one of the most ethnically diverse U.S. states]], English speakers from a wide variety of backgrounds began to pick up different linguistic elements from one another and also develop new ones; the result is both divergence and convergence within Californian English.<ref name=PBS>{{cite web | url=https://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/americanvarieties/californian/ | title=Do you speak American? - California English | publisher=PBS | access-date=October 28, 2013}}</ref> However, linguists who studied English before and immediately after World War II tended to find few, if any, patterns unique to California,<ref name="wolfram">{{cite book |editor=Walt Wolfram and Ben Ward|year=2006 |title=American Voices: How Dialects Differ from Coast to Coast |url=https://archive.org/details/americanvoicesho00wolf |url-access=limited |pages=[https://archive.org/details/americanvoicesho00wolf/page/n153 140], 234–236 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-1-4051-2108-8}}</ref><ref name="Do You"/> and even today most California English still basically aligns to a [[General American|General]] or [[Western American English|Western American accent]].

==Urban coastal variety==
The variety of English most popularly associated with California largely correlates with the major urban areas along the coast. Notable is the absence of {{IPA|/ɔ/}} (the vowel sound of ''caught, stalk, clawed,'' etc.), which has completely [[cot–caught merger|merged]] with {{IPA|/ɑ/}} (the vowel sound of ''cot, stock, clod,'' etc.), as in most of the Western United States.
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Vowels of California English
! rowspan="3" |
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | [[Front vowel|Front]]
! colspan="4" | [[Central vowel|Central]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! colspan="2" | {{small|[[Roundedness|unrounded]]}}
! colspan="2" | {{small|[[Roundedness|rounded]]}}
|-
! {{small|lax}}
! {{small|tense}}
! {{small|lax}}
! {{small|tense}}
! {{small|lax}}
! {{small|tense}}
! {{small|tense}}
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
|
| {{IPA link|i}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|ʉ|u}}
|
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| {{IPA link|ɪ}}
| {{IPA link|e|eɪ}}
| {{IPA link|ə}}, {{IPA link|ʌ}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɵ̞|ʊ}}
| {{IPA link|ɵ|oʊ}}
|
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| {{IPA link|æ|ɛ}}
|
| colspan="2" | {{IPA link|ä|æ}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɑ}}
|-
! [[Diphthong]]s
| colspan="6" | {{IPA|aɪ}}   {{IPA|ɔɪ}}   {{IPA|aʊ}}
|}

A few [[phonology|phonological]] processes have been identified as being particular to California English. However, these vowel changes are by no means universal in Californian speech, and any single Californian's speech may only have some or none of the changes identified below. These sounds might also be found in the speech of some people from areas outside of California.<ref name="Conn">Conn, Jeff (2002). "An investigation into the western dialect of Portland Oregon." Paper presented at NWAV31. San Diego, CA.</ref>
* [[Front vowel]]s are raised before {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, so that the traditional "short ''a''" {{IPA|/æ/}} and "short ''i''" {{IPA|/ɪ/}} sounds are [[Raising (phonology)|raised]] to the "long ''a''" {{IPA|[e]}} and "long ''ee''" {{IPA|[i]}} sounds, respectively, when before the ''ng'' sound {{IPA|/ŋ/}}.<ref name="eckert"/> In other contexts, {{IPA|/ɪ/}} (as in ''bit, rich, quick,'' etc.) has a fairly open pronunciation, as indicated in the vowel chart here. Similarly, a word like ''rang'' {{IPA|/reɪŋ/}} will often have the same vowel as ''rain'' {{IPA|/reɪn/}} in California English, rather than the same vowel as ''ran'' {{IPA|/ræn/}} (phonetically articulated as {{IPA|[ɹɛən]}}; see below). In addition, ''king'' is pronounced more like {{IPA|/kiŋ/}} ''keeng'', whereas ''bullying'' features two consecutive {{sc2|FLEECE}} vowels: {{IPA|/ˈbʊliiŋ/}} ''bull-ee-eeng'' (cf. GenAm {{IPA|/ˈbʊliɪŋ/}}, with {{sc2|FLEECE}} followed by {{sc2|KIT}}). As all vowels preceding {{IPA|/ŋ/}} are historically short, this does not lead to a loss of phonemic contrast.
* Before {{IPA|/n/}} or {{IPA|/m/}} (as in ''ran'' or ''ram''), {{IPA|/æ/}} is raised and diphthongized to {{IPA|[ɛə]}} or {{IPA|[eə]}} (a widespread shift throughout most of American English). Elsewhere, {{IPA|/æ/}} is lowered and backed in the direction of {{IPA|[ä]}} (something like the open ''a'' sound in Spanish or Italian), as a result of the California vowel shift (see below).
* Most California speakers do not distinguish between {{IPA|/ɔ/}} and {{IPA|/ɑ/}} (the vowel sounds in ''caught'' versus ''cot''), characteristic of the [[Phonological history of the low back vowels#Cot–caught merger|cot–caught merger]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/dept/linguistics/VoCal/dialectology.html|title=The Voices of California Project|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref>
* The rise of [[uptalk]]<ref>{{Cite conference|doi=10.1121/1.4863274|title = The use of high rise terminals in Southern Californian English|pages = 060001|series = Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics|year = 2014|last1 = Ritchart|first1 = Amanda|last2 = Arvaniti|first2 = Amalia|doi-access = free}}</ref> in Southern Californian English.
*Variable pronunciation of certain words in San Francisco Bay Area (such as ''pajamas'', ''crayon'', ''aunt'', ''sure'', ''tour'', etc.). It usually varies between "short ''a''" /ɛə/ and "''ah''" /{{IPA link|ɑ}}/ sounds, so that ''pajamas'' is either pronounced as /pə'dʒɛəməz/ ''pa-JAM-as,'' or /pə'dʒɑməz/ ''pa-JAHM-as. Crayon'' starts to rhyme with ''ran'', and ''aunt'' is either pronounced /ɛənt/ ''ant'' or /ɑnt/ ''ahnt'' for some speakers. Tour is either pronounced like /toɹ/ ''tore'' or /tuɚ/ ''too-er.''
*Notable use of "long ''a''" ( /eɪ/~/e/) before the "hard ''g''" sound in words such as ''egg, leg, beg''. Words became pronounced as /eɪg/ ''ayg,'' /beɪg/ ''bayg,'' /leɪg/ ''layg.''
*In Southern Californian English, the tensed {{IPAblink|i}} pronunciation is present even when the ''g'' is dropped, so that ''thinking'' is pronounced {{IPA|[ˈθiŋkin]}} ('theenkeen'), rather than {{IPA|[ˈθiŋkiŋ]}}.

===California vowel shift===
{{see also|Canadian shift}}

[[File:California vowel shift.png|thumb|The California vowel shift. The phoneme transcribed with {{angbr IPA|o}} is represented in this article as {{angbr IPA|oʊ}}.<ref name="eckert">Eckert, Penelope. "[http://www.stanford.edu/~eckert/vowels.html Vowel Shifts in California and the Detroit Suburbs]". Stanford University.</ref>]]
One topic that has begun to receive much attention from scholars in recent decades has been the emergence of a vowel-based [[chain shift]] in California. This image on the right illustrates the California vowel shift. The vowel space of the image is a cross-section (as if looking at the interior of a mouth from a side profile perspective); it is a rough approximation of the space in a human mouth where the tongue is located in [[Place of articulation|articulating]] certain vowel sounds (the left is the front of the mouth closer to the teeth, the right side of the chart being the back of the mouth). As with other vowel shifts, several vowels may be seen moving in a chain shift around the mouth. As one vowel encroaches upon the space of another, the adjacent vowel in turn experiences a movement in order to maximize [[phonemic differentiation]].

For convenience, California English will be compared with a "typical" [[General American English]], abbreviated "GA". {{IPA|/ɛ/}} is pulled towards {{IPA|[æ]}} (''wreck'' and ''kettle'' are sounding more like ''rack'' and ''cattle'' in other dialects), {{IPA|/æ/}} is pulled towards {{IPA|[ä]}}, and {{IPA|/ɑ/}} and {{IPA|/ɔ/}} merge (''cot'' and ''stock'' are sounding more like ''caught'' and ''stalk''): the [[cot-caught merger]].

Other vowel changes, whose relation with the shift is uncertain, are also emerging: {{IPA|/u/}} moving through {{IPA|[ʉ]}} towards {{IPA|[y]}} (''rude'' and ''true'' are almost approaching ''reed'' and ''tree'', but with rounded lips), and {{IPA|/oʊ/}} moving beyond {{IPA|[əʊ]}}. {{IPA|/ʊ/}} is moving towards {{IPA|[ʌ]}} (so that, for example, ''book'' and ''could'' in the California dialect start to sound, to a GA speaker, more like ''buck'' and ''cud''), {{IPA|/ʌ/}} is moving through {{IPA|[ɜ]}}, sometimes approaching {{IPA|[ɛ]}} (''duck, crust, what,'' etc. are sounding like how U.S. Southerners pronounce them, or like how other Americans might pronounce ''deck, crest, wet,'' etc,).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stanford.edu/~eckert/vowels.html |title=Professor Penelope Eckert's webpage |publisher=Stanford.edu |access-date=2011-12-30}}</ref>

New vowel characteristics of the California Shift are increasingly found among younger speakers. As with many vowel shifts, these significant changes occurring in the spoken language are rarely noticed by average speakers.{{Citation needed|date=December 2014}} For example, while some characteristics such as the [[close central rounded vowel]] {{IPA|[ʉ]}} or [[close back unrounded vowel]] {{IPA|[ɯ]}} for {{IPA|/u/}} are widespread in Californian speech, the same high degree of fronting for {{IPA|/oʊ/}} is found predominantly among young speakers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/dept/linguistics/VoCal/sounds.html|title=The Voices of California Project|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=2019-03-14}}</ref>

==Rural inland variety==
One dialect of English, mostly reported in California's rural interior, inland from the major coastal cities,<ref name="Podesva">{{cite book |last1=Podesva |first1=Robert J. |title=Country ideology and the California Vowel Shift Language Variation and Change |date=2015 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> has been popularly described as a "country," "hillbilly," or "twang" variety.<ref name="Ornelas"/><ref>Geenberg, Katherine (2014). "[https://purl.stanford.edu/vn017qw5012 The Other California: Marginalization and Sociolinguistic Variation in Trinity County]". Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University. p. iv.</ref> This California English variety is reminiscent of and presumably related to [[Southern American English|Southern or South Midland U.S. accents]],<ref name="Fractal">{{cite book |last1=Podesva |first1=Robert J. |title=The California Vowel Shift and Fractal Recursivity in an Inland, Non-Urban Community |date=September 2014 |publisher=Stanford University |url=https://stanford.edu/class/linguist159/restricted/readings/Podesva_etal_2014}}</ref> mostly correlated with white, outdoors-oriented speakers of the [[Central Valley of California|Central Valley]]. It has been studied even as far north as [[Trinity County, California|Trinity County]] but could possibly extend farther,<ref name=Trinity /><ref name="Ornelas">Ornelas, Cris (2012). "[http://www.turnto23.com/news/local-news/kern-county-accent-studied Kern County Accent Studied] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610180055/http://www.turnto23.com/news/local-news/kern-county-accent-studied |date=2016-06-10 }}." 23 [[ABC News]]. [[E. W. Scripps Company]].</ref> and as far south as Kern County (metropolitan Bakersfield). Similar to the [[nonstandard dialect|nonstandard accents]] of the South Midland and Southern United States, speakers of such towns as [[Redding, California|Redding]] and [[Merced, California|Merced]] have been found to use the word [[positive anymore|''anymore'' in a positive sense]] and the verb ''was'' in place of the standard English plural verb ''were''.<ref>King, Ed (2012). "[https://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/august/california-dialect-linguistics-080612.html Stanford linguists seek to identify the elusive California accent]". ''Stanford Report''. Stanford University.</ref> Related other features of note include the [[pin–pen merger|''pin–pen'' merger]],<ref name=Fractal /><ref name=Trinity /><ref name=Geenberg /><ref name="Labov">{{Harvcoltxt|Labov|Ash|Boberg|2006|p=279}}</ref> [[fill–feel merger|''fill–feel'' merger]], and [[full–fool merger|''full–fool'' merger]].<ref name="Ornelas"/>

The [[Great Depression]]'s westward [[Dust Bowl]] migrations of settlers into California from the Southern United States, namely from [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]], [[Missouri]], and [[Arkansas]],<ref name="Trinity">{{cite book |last1=Geenberg |first1=Katherine |title=The Other California: Marginalization and Sociolinguistic Variation in Trinity County |date=August 2014 |publisher=Stanford University |url=https://stacks.stanford.edu/file/druid:vn017qw5012/THE%20OTHER%20CALIFORNIA-augmented.pdf}}</ref> is the presumable cause of this rural white accent's presence in California's [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]].<ref name=Fractal /><ref>Geenberg, Katherine (2014). "[https://purl.stanford.edu/vn017qw5012 The Other California: Marginalization and Sociolinguistic Variation in Trinity County]". Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University. pp. 4, 14.</ref> Rural Northern California was also settled by Oklahomans and Arkansans, though perhaps more recently in the 1970s and 1980s, due to the region's [[Logging in the Sierra Nevada|timber industry boom]].<ref>Geenberg, Katherine (2014). "[https://purl.stanford.edu/vn017qw5012 The Other California: Marginalization and Sociolinguistic Variation in Trinity County]". Doctoral Dissertation, Stanford University. pp. 182-3.</ref> However, even in a single town, any given individual's identification with working and playing outdoors versus indoors appears to be a greater determiner of this accent than the authenticity of the individual's Southern heritage.<ref name="Geenberg">{{cite book |last1=Geenberg |first1=Katherine |title=What it means to be Norcal Country: Variation and marginalization in rural California |date=2014 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref> For example, this correlates with less educated rural men of Northern California documented as raising {{IPA|/ɛ/}} in a style similar to the [[Southern drawl]].<ref name=Trinity /> Overall, among those who orient toward a more town lifestyle, features of the California Vowel Shift are more prominent, but not to the same extent as in urban coastal communities such as [[San Jose, California|San Jose]].<ref name=Podesva /> By contrast, among those who orient toward a more country lifestyle, the Southern features are more prominent, but some aspects of the California Vowel Shift remain present as well.<ref name=Fractal /><ref name=Geenberg />

==Mission brogue (San Francisco)==
{{anchor|Mission brogue}}
The Mission brogue is a disappearing accent spoken within [[San Francisco]], mostly during the 20th century in the [[Mission District, San Francisco|Mission District]]. It sounds distinctly like [[New York accent|New York]] and possibly [[Boston accent]]s, due to a large number of [[Irish Americans]] migrating from those two East Coast cities to the Mission District in the late 19th century.<ref name="DeCamp">{{cite book|title=The Pronunciation of English in San Francisco|last1=DeCamp|first1=David|date=1953|publisher=University of California, Berkeley|pages=549–569}}</ref> It is today spoken only by some of the oldest [[Irish-Americans|Irish-American]] and possibly Jewish residents of the city. From before the 1870s to the 1890s, Irish Americans were the largest share of migrants coming to San Francisco,<ref name=DeCamp /> the majority arriving by way of Northeastern U.S. cities like [[New York City|New York]] and [[Boston]],<ref name="Hall-Lew SF variation">{{cite book |last1=Hall-Lew |first1=Lauren |title=Ethnicity and Phonetic Variation in a San Francisco Neighborhood |date=September 2009 |publisher=Stanford University}}</ref><ref name="SF Myth">{{cite news |last1=Veltman |first1=Chloe |title=Why the Myth of the 'San Francisco Accent' Persists |url=https://www.kqed.org/news/11719871/why-the-myth-of-the-san-francisco-accent-persists |access-date=27 November 2019 |work=KQED News}}</ref><ref name=DeCamp /> thus bringing those cities' ways of speaking with them.<ref name="SF Myth"/> In San Francisco, the Mission District quickly became a predominantly [[Irish Catholics|Irish Catholic]] neighborhood,<ref name="Back East">{{cite book |last1=Hall-Lew |first1=Lauren |title="I went to school back East... in Berkeley"1:San Francisco English and San Francisco Identity |date=2008 |url=https://www.academia.edu/2807255}}</ref><ref name="SF Myth"/> and its local dialect became associated with all of San Francisco as a way to contrast it with the rest of California.<ref name="Back East"/> Sounding like a "real San Franciscan" therefore once meant sounding "like a New Yorker",<ref name="Back East"/> the speakers said to "talk like Brooklynites".<ref name=DeCamp /> Other names included the "south of the Slot" (referring to the cable car track running down Market Street)<ref name="Back East"/> or "south of Market" accent.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Nolte |first1=Carl |title=How to Talk Like a San Franciscan |url=https://www.sfgate.com/entertainment/article/How-to-Talk-Like-a-San-Franciscan-3371767.php |access-date=27 November 2019 |work=SFGATE |date=28 February 2012}}</ref>

Pronunciation features of this accent included:
* [[Th-stopping]]<ref name=DeCamp /><ref name="Back East"/>
* No [[cot-caught merger|cot–caught merger]], with /ɔ/ being raised and accompanied with an inglide, so as to produce a vowel sound approximating [oə]<ref name=DeCamp /><ref name="Back East"/>
* [[Rhoticity in English|Non-rhoticity]]<ref name=DeCamp /><ref name="Back East"/>
** The use of /əɪ/ rather than /ər/ before unvoiced consonants such that {{sc2|NURSE}} would have the same vowel sound as "choice"<ref name=DeCamp /><ref name="Back East"/>
* [[Glottalization|Glottal stop]], [ʔ], instead of /t/ before syllabic /l/ such as in "bottle";<ref name=DeCamp /> this and all the above features were reminiscent of a New York accent
* Possible [[trap-bath split|{{sc2|TRAP–BATH}} split]], reminiscent of older Boston English<ref name=DeCamp /><ref name="Back East"/>

Overall, starting in the later half of the 20th century, San Francisco has been undergoing dialect levelling towards the broader regional [[Western American English]],<ref name="Hall-Lew SF variation"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Graff |first1=Amy |title=Is there a San Francisco accent? The answer may have changed over the years |url=https://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/San-Francisco-accent-California-speech-dialect-sf-12966260.php |access-date=27 November 2019 |work=SFGATE |date=June 7, 2018}}</ref> for example: younger Mission District speakers now exhibit a full cot–caught merger, show the vowel shift of urban coastal Californians, and front the {{sc2|GOOSE}} and {{sc2|GOAT}} vowels.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hall-Lew |first1=Lauren |title=San Francisco English and the California Vowel Shift |date=August 2015 |publisher=The University of Edinburgh |url=https://www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/21806704/Hall_Lew_etal_2015_ICPhS_paper.pdf |access-date=27 November 2019}}</ref>

==Other varieties==
Certain varieties of [[Chicano English]] are also native to California, sometimes even being spoken by non-Latino Californians.<ref>Take Two (2013). "[http://www.scpr.org/programs/take-two/2013/01/17/30118/do-californians-have-an-accent/ Map: Do Californians have an accent? Listen to some examples and add your own]." Southern California Public Radio.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Guerrero Jr | first1 = Armando | year = 2014 | title = 'You Speak Good English for Being Mexican' East Los Angeles Chicano/a English: Language & Identity | url = http://escholarship.org/uc/item/94v4c08k | journal = Voices | volume = 2 | issue = 1| pages = 56–7 }}</ref> One example is East Los Angeles Chicano English, which has been influenced by both Californian and [[African American Vernacular English]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Guerrero Jr | first1 = Armando | year = 2014 | title = 'You Speak Good English for Being Mexican' East Los Angeles Chicano/a English: Language & Identity | url = http://escholarship.org/uc/item/94v4c08k | journal = Voices | volume = 2 | issue = 1| page = 4 }}</ref>

The coastal urban accent of California traces many of its features back to [[Valleyspeak]]: a social dialect arising in the 1980s among a particular white youthful demographic in the [[San Fernando Valley]], including [[Los Angeles]].

[[Boontling]] is a [[jargon]] or [[argot]] spoken in [[Boonville, California]], with only about 100 speakers today.<ref>Rawles, Myrtle R. (1966); "'Boontling': Esoteric Language of Boonville, California." In ''Western Folklore,'' Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 93–103. California Folklore Society [Western States Folklore Society].</ref>

==Lexical overview==
The popular image of a typical Southern California speaker often conjures up images of the so-called [[Valley girl]]s popularized by the [[Valley Girl (song)|1982 hit song]] by [[Frank Zappa|Frank]] and [[Moon Zappa]], or "[[surf culture|surfer-dude]]" speech made famous by movies such as ''[[Fast Times at Ridgemont High]]''. While many phrases found in these extreme versions of California English from the 1980s may now be considered passé, certain words such as ''awesome'', ''totally'', ''for sure'', ''harsh'', ''gnarly'', and ''[[dude]]'' have remained popular in California and have spread to a national, even international, level.

A common example of a Northern Californian<ref>"However, science isn't all that sets Northern California apart from the rest of the world," Sendek wrote. "The area is also notorious for the creation and widespread usage of the English slang 'hella', which typically means 'very', or can refer to a large quantity (e.g. 'there are hella stars out tonight')." [http://www.foxnews.com/scitech/2010/03/02/mega-giga-tera-hella]</ref> colloquialism is ''[[Hella (word)|hella]]'' (from "(a) hell of a (lot of)", and the euphemistic alternative ''hecka'') to mean "many", "much", "so" or "very".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ling.ucsc.edu/Jorge/waksler.html |title=Jorge Hankamer WebFest |publisher=Ling.ucsc.edu |access-date=2011-12-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051031034539/http://ling.ucsc.edu/Jorge/waksler.html |archive-date=2005-10-31 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It can be used with both count and mass nouns. For example: "I haven't seen you in ''hella'' long"; "There were ''hella'' people there"; or "This guacamole is ''hella'' good". The word can be casually used multiple times in multiple ways within a single sentence. Pop culture references to "hella" are common, as in the song "[[Hella Good]]" by the band [[No Doubt]], which hails from Southern California, and "Hella" by the band Skull Stomp, who come from Northern California.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.songmeanings.net/songs/view/3530822107858843024/ |title=Lyrics | Skull Stomp - Hella |publisher=SongMeanings |date=2008-11-02 |access-date=2011-12-30}}</ref>

California, like other [[Southwest United States|Southwestern]] states, has borrowed many words from [[Spanish language|Spanish]], especially for [[place name]]s, food, and other cultural items, reflecting the linguistic heritage of the [[Californio]]s as well as more recent immigration from Mexico and elsewhere in Latin America. High concentrations of various ethnic groups throughout the state have contributed to general familiarity with words describing (especially cultural) phenomena. For example, a high concentration of [[Asian American]]s from various cultural backgrounds, especially in urban and suburban metropolitan areas in California, has led to the adoption of the word ''[[hapa]]'' (itself originally a Hawaiian borrowing of English "half"<ref>Mary Kawena Pukui, Samuel H. Elbert & Esther T. Mookini, ''The Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1983)</ref>) to mean someone of mixed European/Islander or Asian/Islander heritage.

In 1958, essayist [[Clifton Fadiman]] pointed out that Northern California is the only place (besides [[England]] and the area surrounding [[Ontario]] and the [[Canadian Prairies]]) where the word ''chesterfield'' is used as a synonym for ''sofa'' or ''couch''.<ref>Fadiman, Clifton ''Any Number Can Play'' 1958</ref>

===Freeways===
{{Multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 250
|align=right
|image1=LA freeway 2009.jpg
|image2=Interstate80westernend.jpg
|footer = Signage along northbound [[U.S. Route 101 in California|U.S. Route 101]], reflecting the different lexicon usage between Southern and Northern California. Top: signage at the [[Interstate 110 and State Route 110 (California)|110 Freeway]] interchange in [[Los Angeles]], with the leftmost sign for the 101 freeway north listing both its name, the [[Hollywood Freeway]], as well as its destination, [[Ventura, California|Ventura]]. Bottom: signage at the [[Interstate 80 in California|Interstate 80]] interchange in San Francisco, with the leftmost sign for US 101 north only listing its destination, the [[Golden Gate Bridge]].
}}
Southern Californians sometimes refer to the lanes of a multi-lane divided highway by number, "the number 1 lane" (also referred to as "the fast lane") is the lane farthest to the left (not counting the carpool lane), with the lane numbers going up sequentially to the right until the far right lane,<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=http://www.dmv.ca.gov/pubs/dl600.pdf | publisher = California Department of Motor Vehicles | title = California Driver Handbook | year=2010 | chapter = Choosing a Lane | page=33}}</ref> which is usually referred to as "the slow lane".

In the [[Los Angeles metropolitan area]], [[Inland Empire]], [[Coachella Valley]] and [[San Diego]], freeways are often referred to either by name or by route number but with the addition of the [[definite article]] "the", such as "the 405 North", "the 99" or "the 605 (Freeway)". This usage has been parodied in the recurring ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' sketch "[[Recurring Saturday Night Live characters and sketches introduced 2011–2012#The Californians|The Californians]]".<ref>{{ cite news | url = http://blog.oregonlive.com/commuting/2012/04/saturday_night_lives_the_calif.html | title = Saturday Night Live's 'The Californians': Traffic's one big soap opera (video) | last = Rose | first = Joseph | newspaper = [[The Oregonian]] | location = [[Portland, Oregon]] | date = April 16, 2012 | access-date = December 3, 2013 }}</ref> In contrast, typical Northern California usage omits the definite article.<ref>{{cite news |first=Mark |last=Simon |title='The' Madness Must Stop Right Now |url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/The-Madness-Must-Stop-Right-Now-2714960.php |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |date=2000-06-30 |access-date=2012-11-19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Mark |last=Simon |title=Local Lingo Keeps 'The' Off Road |url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/Local-Lingo-Keeps-The-Off-Road-Readers-gladly-2714567.php |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |date=2000-07-04 |access-date=2012-11-19 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Mark |last=Simon |title=S.F. Wants Power, Not The Noise / Brown rejects docking floating plant off city |url=http://www.sfgate.com/bayarea/article/S-F-Wants-Power-Not-The-Noise-Brown-rejects-2746508.php |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]] |date=July 29, 2000 |access-date=June 13, 2017 }}</ref> When [[Southern California freeways]] were built in the 1940s and early 1950s, local common usage was primarily the freeway name preceded by the definite article, such as "the Hollywood Freeway".<ref name="Geyer"/> It took several decades for Southern California locals to start to commonly refer to the freeways with the numerical designations, but usage of the definite article persisted. For example, it evolved to "the 605 Freeway" and then shortened to "the 605".<ref name="Geyer">{{cite journal | journal=American Speech | volume=76 |date=Summer 2001 | pages=221–224 | first =Grant | last=Geyer | title='The' Freeway in Southern California | issue=2 | doi=10.1215/00031283-76-2-221| s2cid=144010897 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|California}}
* [[North American English regional phonology]]
* [[Western American English]]
* [[Boontling]]
* [[Chain shift]]
* [[Chicano English]]
* [[African-American Vernacular English]]
* [[Hyphy]]
* [[Sociolect]]
* [[Sociolinguistics]]
* [[Spanglish]]
* [[Valspeak]]
* [[Vowel shift]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation
|last1=Labov
|first1=William
|author1-link=William Labov
|last2=Ash
|first2=Sharon
|last3=Boberg
|first3=Charles
|year=2006
|title = The Atlas of North American English
|location=Berlin
|publisher=Mouton-de Gruyter
|pages=187–208
|isbn=3-11-016746-8
}}
* {{citation |last=Ward|first=Michael |chapter = The California Movement, etc. |title = Portland Dialect Study: The Fronting of /ow, u, uw/ in Portland, Oregon |publisher=Portland State University |year=2003|pages=39–45 |chapter-url = http://www.pds.pdx.edu/Publications/Ward.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070729111520/http://www.pds.pdx.edu/Publications/Ward.pdf |archive-date=2007-07-29 }}
{{refend}}

==Bibliography==
* ''Vowels and Consonants: An Introduction to the Sounds of Languages''. Peter Ladefoged, 2003. Blackwell Publishing.
* ''Language in Society: An Introduction to Sociolinguistics''. [[Suzanne Romaine]], 2000. Oxford University Press.
* ''How We Talk: American Regional English Today''. Allan Metcalf, 2000. Houghton Mifflin.

==External links==
* [https://www.pbs.org/speak/seatosea/americanvarieties/californian/ PBS.org: "Do you speak American? − ''California English"]
* [http://www.stanford.edu/~eckert/vowels.html Stanford.edu: Penelope Eckert Bolg − Vowel Shifts]
* [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/phono_atlas/home.html Phonological Atlas of North America]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051031034539/http://ling.ucsc.edu/Jorge/waksler.html USC.edu: "A ''hella'' new specifier"] — ''by Rachelle Waksler, discussing usage of "hella".''
* [http://language-culture.binghamton.edu/symposia/7/index.html Binghamton.edu: "Word Up: Social Meanings of Slang in California Youth Culture"] — ''by Mary Bucholtz Ph.D., UC Santa Barbara Department of Linguistics, includes discussion of "hella".''

{{English dialects by continent}}
{{Languages of California}}
{{Languages of the United States}}

[[Category:American English]]
[[Category:California culture]]
[[Category:History of California]]
[[Category:Northern California]]
[[Category:Southern California]]
[[Category:Vowel shifts]]
[[Category:Languages of California]]

Glauconite

2021-12-13T20:56:47Z

JavaRogers: Corrected wiktionary link

{{Short description|Iron potassium phyllosilicate (mica group) mineral of green color formed in situ under reducing conditions}}
{{Infobox mineral
| name = '''Glauconite'''
| category = [[Phyllosilicate]]
| boxwidth =
| boxbgcolor =
| image = Mineraly.sk - glaukonit.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =
| formula = {{chem2|(K,Na)(Fe^{3+},Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2}}
| system = [[Monoclinic]]
| class = Prismatic (2/m) (same [[H-M symbol]])
| symmetry = ''C2/m''
| unit cell = a = 5.234 Å, b = 9.066 Å, c = 10.16 Å; β = 100.5°; Z = 2
| color = Blue green, green, yellow green
| habit = Elastic platy/micaceous, or as rounded pellets/aggregates
| twinning =
| cleavage = Perfect [001]
| fracture =
| mohs = 2
| luster = Dull - earthy
| refractive = nα = 1.590 - 1.612 nβ = 1.609 - 1.643 nγ = 1.610 - 1.644
| opticalprop = Biaxial (-)
| birefringence = δ = 0.020 - 0.032
| pleochroism = X = yellow-green, green; Y = Z = deeper yellow, bluish green
| streak = Light green
| gravity = 2.4 - 2.95
| density =
| melt =
| fusibility =
| diagnostic =
| solubility =
| diaphaneity = Translucent to nearly opaque.
| other = loosely bound aggregates, crumbles radioactivity: barely detectable
| references = <ref>[http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/glauconite.pdf Handbook of Mineralogy]</ref><ref>[http://webmineral.com/data/Glauconite.shtml Webmineral]</ref><ref>[http://www.mindat.org/min-1710.html Mindat]</ref>
}}

'''Glauconite''' is an [[iron]] [[potassium]] [[Silicate minerals|phyllosilicate]] ([[mica]] group) [[mineral]] of characteristic green color which is very [[friable]]<ref>Odin, G.S. (ed., 1988). Green marine clays. Development in sedimentology, 45. Elsevier, Amsterdam.</ref> and has very low weathering resistance.

It [[crystallize]]s with a [[monoclinic]] geometry. Its name is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc-latn|glaucos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|γλαυκός}}) meaning 'blue', referring to the common blue-green color of the mineral; its sheen ([[mica]] glimmer) and blue-green color. Its color ranges from olive green, black green to bluish green, and yellowish on exposed surfaces due to oxidation. In the [[Mohs scale]] it has hardness of 2. The relative [[specific gravity]] range is 2.4 - 2.95. It is normally found in dark green rounded brittle pellets, and with the dimension of a [[sand]] grain size. It can be confused with [[chlorite group|chlorite]] (also of green color) or with a [[clay mineral]]. Glauconite has the chemical formula {{chem2|(K,Na)(Fe^{3+},Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2}}.

Glauconite particles are one of the main components of [[greensand]], glauconitic [[siltstone]] and [[glauconitic sandstone]]. Glauconite has been called a [[marl]] in an old and broad [[word sense|sense]] of that word. Thus references to "greensand marl" sometimes refer specifically to glauconite. The [[Glauconitic Marl]] formation is named after it, and there is a glauconitic sandstone formation in the [[Mannville Group]] of [[Western Canada]].

{{anchor|Environment of formation}}

== Occurrence ==
At the broadest level, glauconite is an [[authigenic]] mineral and forms exclusively in marine settings.<ref>Smith, S. A., and Hiscott, R. N. (1987). Latest Precambrian to Early Cambrian basin evolution, Fortune Bay, Newfoundland fault–bounded basin to platform. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 21:1379–1392.</ref> It is commonly associated with low-oxygen conditions.<ref>Hiscott, R. N. (1982). Tidal deposits of the Lower Cambrian Random Formation, eastern Newfoundland; facies and paleoenvironments. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 19:2028–2042.</ref>

Normally, glauconite is considered a diagnostic mineral indicative of [[continental shelf]] marine [[Sedimentary depositional environment|depositional environments]] with slow rates of accumulation and gradational boundaries. For instance, it appears in [[Jurassic]]/lower [[Cretaceous]] deposits of [[greensand (geology)|greensand]], so-called after the coloration caused by glauconite, its presence gradually lessening further landward. It can also be found in sand or clay formations, or in impure [[limestone]]s and in [[chalk]]. It develops as a consequence of [[diagenesis|diagenetic]] alteration of sedimentary deposits, bio-chemical reduction and subsequent mineralogical changes affecting iron-bearing micas such as [[biotite]], and is also influenced by the decaying process of organic matter degraded by bacteria in marine animal shells. Glauconite forms under reducing conditions in sediments and such deposits are commonly found in nearshore sands, open oceans and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Glauconite remains absent in fresh-water lakes, but is noted in shelf sediments of the western [[Black Sea]].<ref>Suttill H. (2009). Sedimentological evolution of the Emine & Kamchia basins, eastern Bulgaria. Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy. Available from: [http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/4919 the University of Edinburgh]</ref> The wide distribution of these sandy deposits was first made known by naturalists on board the fifth [[HMS Challenger|HMS ''Challenger'']], in the expedition of 1872–1876.

==Uses==
Glauconite has long been used in Europe as a green [[pigment]] for artistic oil paint under the name [[green earth]].<ref>Grissom, C.A. Green Earth, in Artists’ Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1, L. Feller, (Ed), Cambridge University Press, London 1986, pp. 141 – 167</ref><ref>[http://colourlex.com/project/green-earth/ Green earth] Colourlex</ref> One example is its use in Russian "[[icon]] paintings", another widespread use was for underpainting of human flesh in medieval painting.<ref>Grissom, C.A. Green Earth, in Artists’ Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1, L. Feller, (Ed), Cambridge University Press, London 1986, p. 143</ref> It is also found as mineral pigment in wall paintings from the ancient [[Roman Gaul]].<ref>Eastaugh, N "Pigment Compendium: A Dictionary of Historical Pigments", page 169. Elsevier, 2004</ref>

=== Fertilizers ===
Glauconite, a major component of [[greensand]], is a common source of [[potassium]] (K+) in plant [[fertilizer]]s and is also used to adjust [[soil pH]]. It is used for [[soil conditioner|soil conditioning]] in both [[organic farming|organic]] and non-organic farming, whether as an [[raw material|unprocessed material]] (mixed in adequate proportions) or as a [[Raw material|feedstock]] in the [[chemical synthesis|synthesis]] of commercial fertilizer powders. In [[Brazil]], greensand refers to a fertilizer produced from glauconitic [[siltstone]], unit belonging to the [[Serra da Saudade]] Formation, [[Bambuí]] Group, of [[Neoproterozoic]]/[[Ediacaran]] age. The outcrops occur<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Silvano Moreira|first=Débora|date=2016|title=Estratigrafia, petrografia e mineralização de potássio em siltitos verdes do Grupo Bambuí na Região de São Gotardo, Minas Gerais|url=http://www.revistageociencias.com.br/geociencias-arquivos/35/volume35_2_files/35-2-artigo-01.pdf|journal=Revista Geociências|volume=35|pages=157–171|via=UNESP}}</ref> in the [[Serra da Saudade]] ridge, in the [[Alto Parnaíba|Alto Paranaíba]] region, [[Minas Gerais]] state. It is a silty-clayed sedimentary rock, laminated, bluish-green, composed of glauconite (40-80%), potassium [[feldspar]] (10-15%), [[quartz]] (10-60%), [[muscovite]] (5%) and minor quantities of [[biotite]] (2%), [[goethite]] (<1%), [[titanium]] and [[manganese]] oxides (<1%), barium phosphate and [[rare-earth element]] phosphates (<1%).

Enriched levels of potash have [[Potassium oxide|K2O]] grades between 8 and 12%, thickness up to 50 m and are associated to the glauconitic levels, dark-green in color. Glauconite is [[Authigenesis|authigenic]] and highly [[Maturity (sedimentology)|mature]]. The high concentration of this mineral is related to a depositional environment with a low sedimentation rate. The glauconitic siltstone has resulted from a high-level flooding event in the Bambuí Basin. The sedimentary [[Wikt:provenance|provenance]] is from [[Supracrustal rock|supracrustal]] [[felsic]] elements on [[continental margin]] environment with acid [[Magmatism|magmatic arc]] ([[foreland basin]]).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Phyllosilicates}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Potassium minerals]]
[[Category:Sodium minerals]]
[[Category:Magnesium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Iron(III) minerals]]
[[Category:Mica group]]
[[Category:Monoclinic minerals]]
[[Category:Minerals in space group 12]]
[[Category:Inorganic pigments]]

Glauconite

2021-12-13T05:01:05Z

JavaRogers: lang template

{{Short description|Iron potassium phyllosilicate (mica group) mineral of green color formed in situ under reducing conditions}}
{{Infobox mineral
| name = '''Glauconite'''
| category = [[Phyllosilicate]]
| boxwidth =
| boxbgcolor =
| image = Mineraly.sk - glaukonit.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =
| formula = {{chem2|(K,Na)(Fe^{3+},Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2}}
| system = [[Monoclinic]]
| class = Prismatic (2/m) (same [[H-M symbol]])
| symmetry = ''C2/m''
| unit cell = a = 5.234 Å, b = 9.066 Å, c = 10.16 Å; β = 100.5°; Z = 2
| color = Blue green, green, yellow green
| habit = Elastic platy/micaceous, or as rounded pellets/aggregates
| twinning =
| cleavage = Perfect [001]
| fracture =
| mohs = 2
| luster = Dull - earthy
| refractive = nα = 1.590 - 1.612 nβ = 1.609 - 1.643 nγ = 1.610 - 1.644
| opticalprop = Biaxial (-)
| birefringence = δ = 0.020 - 0.032
| pleochroism = X = yellow-green, green; Y = Z = deeper yellow, bluish green
| streak = Light green
| gravity = 2.4 - 2.95
| density =
| melt =
| fusibility =
| diagnostic =
| solubility =
| diaphaneity = Translucent to nearly opaque.
| other = loosely bound aggregates, crumbles radioactivity: barely detectable
| references = <ref>[http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/glauconite.pdf Handbook of Mineralogy]</ref><ref>[http://webmineral.com/data/Glauconite.shtml Webmineral]</ref><ref>[http://www.mindat.org/min-1710.html Mindat]</ref>
}}

'''Glauconite''' is an [[iron]] [[potassium]] [[Silicate minerals|phyllosilicate]] ([[mica]] group) [[mineral]] of characteristic green color which is very [[friable]]<ref>Odin, G.S. (ed., 1988). Green marine clays. Development in sedimentology, 45. Elsevier, Amsterdam.</ref> and has very low weathering resistance.

It [[crystallize]]s with a [[monoclinic]] geometry. Its name is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc-latn|glaucos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|γλαυκος}}) meaning 'blue', referring to the common blue-green color of the mineral; its sheen ([[mica]] glimmer) and blue-green color. Its color ranges from olive green, black green to bluish green, and yellowish on exposed surfaces due to oxidation. In the [[Mohs scale]] it has hardness of 2. The relative [[specific gravity]] range is 2.4 - 2.95. It is normally found in dark green rounded brittle pellets, and with the dimension of a [[sand]] grain size. It can be confused with [[chlorite group|chlorite]] (also of green color) or with a [[clay mineral]]. Glauconite has the chemical formula {{chem2|(K,Na)(Fe^{3+},Al,Mg)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2}}.

Glauconite particles are one of the main components of [[greensand]], glauconitic [[siltstone]] and [[glauconitic sandstone]]. Glauconite has been called a [[marl]] in an old and broad [[word sense|sense]] of that word. Thus references to "greensand marl" sometimes refer specifically to glauconite. The [[Glauconitic Marl]] formation is named after it, and there is a glauconitic sandstone formation in the [[Mannville Group]] of [[Western Canada]].

{{anchor|Environment of formation}}

== Occurrence ==
At the broadest level, glauconite is an [[authigenic]] mineral and forms exclusively in marine settings.<ref>Smith, S. A., and Hiscott, R. N. (1987). Latest Precambrian to Early Cambrian basin evolution, Fortune Bay, Newfoundland fault–bounded basin to platform. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 21:1379–1392.</ref> It is commonly associated with low-oxygen conditions.<ref>Hiscott, R. N. (1982). Tidal deposits of the Lower Cambrian Random Formation, eastern Newfoundland; facies and paleoenvironments. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 19:2028–2042.</ref>

Normally, glauconite is considered a diagnostic mineral indicative of [[continental shelf]] marine [[Sedimentary depositional environment|depositional environments]] with slow rates of accumulation and gradational boundaries. For instance, it appears in [[Jurassic]]/lower [[Cretaceous]] deposits of [[greensand (geology)|greensand]], so-called after the coloration caused by glauconite, its presence gradually lessening further landward. It can also be found in sand or clay formations, or in impure [[limestone]]s and in [[chalk]]. It develops as a consequence of [[diagenesis|diagenetic]] alteration of sedimentary deposits, bio-chemical reduction and subsequent mineralogical changes affecting iron-bearing micas such as [[biotite]], and is also influenced by the decaying process of organic matter degraded by bacteria in marine animal shells. Glauconite forms under reducing conditions in sediments and such deposits are commonly found in nearshore sands, open oceans and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Glauconite remains absent in fresh-water lakes, but is noted in shelf sediments of the western [[Black Sea]].<ref>Suttill H. (2009). Sedimentological evolution of the Emine & Kamchia basins, eastern Bulgaria. Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy. Available from: [http://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/4919 the University of Edinburgh]</ref> The wide distribution of these sandy deposits was first made known by naturalists on board the fifth [[HMS Challenger|HMS ''Challenger'']], in the expedition of 1872–1876.

==Uses==
Glauconite has long been used in Europe as a green [[pigment]] for artistic oil paint under the name [[green earth]].<ref>Grissom, C.A. Green Earth, in Artists’ Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1, L. Feller, (Ed), Cambridge University Press, London 1986, pp. 141 – 167</ref><ref>[http://colourlex.com/project/green-earth/ Green earth] Colourlex</ref> One example is its use in Russian "[[icon]] paintings", another widespread use was for underpainting of human flesh in medieval painting.<ref>Grissom, C.A. Green Earth, in Artists’ Pigments. A Handbook of Their History and Characteristics, Vol. 1, L. Feller, (Ed), Cambridge University Press, London 1986, p. 143</ref> It is also found as mineral pigment in wall paintings from the ancient [[Roman Gaul]].<ref>Eastaugh, N "Pigment Compendium: A Dictionary of Historical Pigments", page 169. Elsevier, 2004</ref>

=== Fertilizers ===
Glauconite, a major component of [[greensand]], is a common source of [[potassium]] (K+) in plant [[fertilizer]]s and is also used to adjust [[soil pH]]. It is used for [[soil conditioner|soil conditioning]] in both [[organic farming|organic]] and non-organic farming, whether as an [[raw material|unprocessed material]] (mixed in adequate proportions) or as a [[Raw material|feedstock]] in the [[chemical synthesis|synthesis]] of commercial fertilizer powders. In [[Brazil]], greensand refers to a fertilizer produced from glauconitic [[siltstone]], unit belonging to the [[Serra da Saudade]] Formation, [[Bambuí]] Group, of [[Neoproterozoic]]/[[Ediacaran]] age. The outcrops occur<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Silvano Moreira|first=Débora|date=2016|title=Estratigrafia, petrografia e mineralização de potássio em siltitos verdes do Grupo Bambuí na Região de São Gotardo, Minas Gerais|url=http://www.revistageociencias.com.br/geociencias-arquivos/35/volume35_2_files/35-2-artigo-01.pdf|journal=Revista Geociências|volume=35|pages=157–171|via=UNESP}}</ref> in the [[Serra da Saudade]] ridge, in the [[Alto Parnaíba|Alto Paranaíba]] region, [[Minas Gerais]] state. It is a silty-clayed sedimentary rock, laminated, bluish-green, composed of glauconite (40-80%), potassium [[feldspar]] (10-15%), [[quartz]] (10-60%), [[muscovite]] (5%) and minor quantities of [[biotite]] (2%), [[goethite]] (<1%), [[titanium]] and [[manganese]] oxides (<1%), barium phosphate and [[rare-earth element]] phosphates (<1%).

Enriched levels of potash have [[Potassium oxide|K2O]] grades between 8 and 12%, thickness up to 50 m and are associated to the glauconitic levels, dark-green in color. Glauconite is [[Authigenesis|authigenic]] and highly [[Maturity (sedimentology)|mature]]. The high concentration of this mineral is related to a depositional environment with a low sedimentation rate. The glauconitic siltstone has resulted from a high-level flooding event in the Bambuí Basin. The sedimentary [[Wikt:provenance|provenance]] is from [[Supracrustal rock|supracrustal]] [[felsic]] elements on [[continental margin]] environment with acid [[Magmatism|magmatic arc]] ([[foreland basin]]).

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Phyllosilicates}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Potassium minerals]]
[[Category:Sodium minerals]]
[[Category:Magnesium minerals]]
[[Category:Aluminium minerals]]
[[Category:Iron(III) minerals]]
[[Category:Mica group]]
[[Category:Monoclinic minerals]]
[[Category:Minerals in space group 12]]
[[Category:Inorganic pigments]]

Helictite

2021-11-16T03:56:52Z

JavaRogers: changed "limestone caves" from two links to one

{{short description|Seemingly space-set speleothems}}
{{For |the Australian caving journal |Helictite (journal){{!}}''Helictite'' (journal)}}
[[Image:FishtailHelictites.jpg|thumb|Rare "fishtail" helictites in the [[Caverns of Sonora]] near [[Sonora, Texas]]]]
[[Image:Helictite at Treak Cavern (close up).JPG|thumb|A helictite at [[Treak Cliff Cavern]] in [[Derbyshire]]]]
{{No footnotes|article|date=February 2011}}
A '''helictite''' is a [[speleothem]] (cave-formed mineral) found in a [[Solution cave|limestone cave]] that changes its axis from the vertical at one or more stages during its growth. Helictites have a curving or angular form that looks as if they were grown in [[zero gravity]]. They are most likely the result of [[Capillary action|capillary forces]] acting on tiny water droplets, a force often strong enough at this scale to defy gravity.

Helictites are, perhaps, the most delicate of cave formations. They are usually made of needle-form [[calcite]] and [[aragonite]]. Helictite forms have been described in several types: ribbon helictites, saws, rods, butterflies, "hands", curly-fries, and "clumps of worms". They typically have [[symmetry (biology)#Radial symmetry|radial symmetry]]. They can be easily crushed or broken by the slightest touch. Because of this, helictites are rarely seen within arm's reach in [[Tourism|tourist]] caves.

[[Timpanogos Cave National Monument]] in Utah has one of the largest collections of these formations in the world. Large numbers are also in the [[Jenolan Caves]] in Australia and in the [[Pozalagua Cave]] in [[Karrantza]], Spain. A remarkable suite of helictites also occurs in Asperge Cave, France.
Can also be found in Black Chasm Cavern in California, USA.

== Formation ==
{{Original research|section|date=December 2015}}
[[File:Tropfsteine.svg|right|thumb|Diagram of dripstone cave structures (helictites are labeled H)]]
The growth of helictites is still quite enigmatic. To this day, there has been no satisfactory explanation for how they are formed. Currently, formation by capillary forces is the most likely hypothesis, but another hypothesis based on wind formation is also viable.

=== Capillary forces ===
The most likely hypothesis explains helictites as a result of capillary forces. If the helictite has a very thin central tube where the water flows as it does in straws, capillary forces would be able to transport water against gravity. This idea was inspired by some hollow helictites. However, the majority of helictites are not hollow. Despite this, droplets can be drawn to the tips of existing structures and deposit their calcite load almost anywhere thereon. This can lead to the wandering and curling structures seen in many helictites.

===Wind===
Another hypothesis names the wind in the cave as the main reason for the strange appearance. Drops hanging on a [[stalactite]] are blown to one side, so the dripstone grows in that direction. If the wind changes, the direction of growth changes too. However, this hypothesis is very problematic, because wind directions change very often. The wind in caves depends on air pressure changes outside, which in turn depend on the weather. The wind direction changes as often as the weather conditions outside change. But the dripstones grow very slowly – several centimeters in 100 years – meaning that the wind direction would have to stay steady for long periods of time, changing for every fragment of a millimeter of growth. A second problem with this idea is that many caves with helictites have no natural entrance where wind could enter.

===Piezoelectric forces===
Another hypothesis that has been proposed is that slowly changing geological pressure causing stresses on the crystals at the base alters the piezo electrostatic potential and causes particle deposition to be oriented in some relationship to the prevailing pressure orientation.

===Bacterial===
A recent hypothesis, which is supported by observation, is that a prokaryotic bacterial film provides a nucleation site for mineralization process.<ref>Tisato, N. et al., [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4625141/pdf/srep15525.pdf “Microbial mediation of complex subterranean mineral structures”], Sci. Rep. 5, 15525; doi: 10.1038/srep15525 (2015) </ref>

==Helictite growth==
[[File:Helictites at Jenolan Caves.jpg|thumb|Helictites at [[Jenolan Caves]] in [[Australia]]]]

A helictite starts its growth as a tiny stalactite. The direction of the end of the straw may wander, twist like a corkscrew, or the main part may form normally while small helictites pop out of its side like rootlets or fishhooks. In some caves, helictites cluster together and form bushes as large as six feet tall. These bushes grow from the floor of the cave. When helictites are found on cave floors, they are referred to as heligmites, though there is debate as to whether this is a genuine subcategory.

For an unknown reason, when the chemical composition of the water is slightly altered, the single crystal structure can change from a cylindrical shape to a conical one. In some of these cases, each crystal fits into the prior one like an inverted stack of ice cream cones.
[[Image:Wyandotte cave8.jpg|thumb|right|Helictite formations in [[Wyandotte Caves]], [[Indiana]], United States]]

==See also==
*[[Anthodite]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/283349945_Microbial_mediation_of_complex_subterranean_mineral_structures The Virtual Cave: Helictites Microbial mediation of complex subterranean mineral structures]
* [http://www.goodearthgraphics.com/virtcave/helictit/helictit.html The Virtual Cave: Helictites]
* [http://www.showcaves.com/english/explain/Speleothem/Helictite.html Helictite or Eccentric?]
* [http://cmug.com/chintimp/splitting.htm Does crystal splitting play a part in the curvature of helictites? (Abstract)] By George W. Moore, ''Journal of Cave and Karst Studies'', v. 62, p. 37 (2000).

[[Category:Speleothems]]

Manganoan calcite

2021-11-10T23:15:21Z

JavaRogers: Modified "Naica, Chihuahua, Mexico" to link only to the Naica article.

[[Image:Calcite-60733.jpg|thumb|Manganocalcite]]

'''Manganoan calcite''' or '''manganocalcite''' is a variety of [[calcite]] rich in [[manganese]], which gives the mineral a pink color.<ref name=Mindat>[http://www.mindat.org/min-2526.html Manganoan Calcite] at Mindat</ref> Its chemical formula is {{chem2|(Ca,Mn)CO3}}. It was first reported from the [[Banská Štiavnica]] Mining District, [[Slovak Republic]],<ref name=Mindat/> but is widely distributed around the world, notably in the [[Cave of Swords]] at [[Naica, Chihuahua|Naica, Chihuahua, Mexico]] as well as in [[Bulgaria]].

Manganoan calcite is sometimes confused with [[rhodochrosite]]. The amount of manganese in manganoan calcite varies at different localities, and the mineral forms a [[solid solution]] series between calcite and rhodochrosite, with the color becoming redder with a higher proportion of manganese.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.museums.udel.edu/mineral/mineral_site/displaycollection/Carbonates/Calcite/9999-0800-2679.html Photo of Manganoan Calcite] at the [[University of Delaware]]
*[http://www.mindat.org/gallery.php?min=2526 Manganoan Calcite Gallery]

{{Manganese minerals}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Manganoan Calcite}}
[[Category:Carbonate minerals]]
[[Category:Calcium minerals]]
[[Category:Manganese(II) minerals]]

{{Carbonate-mineral-stub}}

Deccan Traps

2021-11-10T04:33:48Z

JavaRogers: Italicising words as words and foreign terms (using Lang template)

{{Short description|A large igneous province located on the Deccan Plateau}}
{{Use Indian English|date=January 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}

[[File:Western-Ghats-Matheran.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Western Ghats]] at [[Matheran]] in Maharashtra]]
[[File:Deccan Traps Maharashtra India 22Mar2018 SkySat.jpg|thumb|right|Oblique satellite view of the Deccan Traps]]

The '''Deccan Traps''' are a [[large igneous province]] of west-central [[India]] (17–24°N, 73–74°E). They are one of the largest [[volcanic]] features on Earth. They consist of numerous layers of solidified [[flood basalt]] that together are more than about {{convert|2000|m|ft|sigfig=2}} thick, cover an area of about {{Convert|500000|km2|sigfig=1}},<ref name="Singh_and_Gupta94">{{cite journal |title=Workshop yields new insight into volcanism at Deccan Traps, India |first1=R. N. |last1=Singh |first2=K. R. |last2=Gupta |journal=Eos |year=1994 |volume=75 |issue= 31 |pages=356 |doi=10.1029/94EO01005 |bibcode=1994EOSTr..75..356S}}</ref> and have a volume of about {{Convert|1000000|km3|sigfig=1}}.<ref name="Dessert2001">{{cite journal |title=Erosion of Deccan Traps determined by river geochemistry: impact on the global climate and the 87Sr/86Sr ratio of seawater |first1=Céline |last1=Dessert |first2=Bernard |last2=Dupréa |first3=Louis M. |last3=Françoisa |first4=Jacques |last4=Schotta |first5=Jérôme |last5=Gaillardet |first6=Govind |last6=Chakrapani |first7=Sujit |last7=Bajpai |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |year=2001 |volume=188 |issue=3–4 |pages=459–474 |doi=10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00317-X |bibcode=2001E&PSL.188..459D}}</ref> Originally, the Deccan Traps may have covered about {{Convert|1500000|km2|sigfig=1}},<ref name="MIT-Chu2014">[https://news.mit.edu/2014/volcanic-eruption-dinosaur-extinction-1211 "What really killed the dinosaurs?"] Jennifer Chu, MIT News Office, 11 December 2014</ref> with a correspondingly larger original volume.

==Etymology==
The term ''[[Trap rock|trap]]'' has been used in [[geology]] since 1785–1795 for such [[rock formation]]s. It is derived from the Swedish word for stairs ({{lang|sv|trapp}}) and refers to the step-like hills forming the landscape of the region.<ref>[https://www.dictionary.com/browse/trap Trap] at dictionary.reference.com</ref>

==History==
[[File:Ajanta caves 1.JPG|thumb|Deccan Traps at [[Ajanta Caves]]]]
{{see also | Gondwana#Opening_of_western_Indian_Ocean | l1= Gondwana and opening of western Indian Ocean | Geology of India}}

The Deccan Traps began forming 66.25 [[geologic timescale|million years ago]],<ref name="MIT-Chu2014"/> at the end of the [[Cretaceous]] period. The bulk of the volcanic eruption occurred at the [[Western Ghats]] some 66 million years ago. This series of eruptions may have lasted for less than 30,000 years.<ref>"[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/08/050810130729.htm India's Smoking Gun: Dino-killing Eruptions]." ''ScienceDaily,'' 10 August 2005.</ref>

The original area covered by the [[lava flow]]s is estimated to have been as large as {{convert|1.5|e6km2||abbr=unit||}}, approximately half the size of modern [[India]]. The Deccan Traps region was reduced to its current size by [[erosion]] and plate tectonics; the present area of directly observable lava flows is around {{convert|500000|km2|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.

==Effect on mass extinctions and climate==
The release of [[volcanic gas]]es, particularly [[sulfur dioxide]], during the formation of the traps may have contributed to [[Climate variability and change|climate change]]. Data points to an average drop in temperature of about {{convert|2|C-change|F-change}} in this period.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Royer, D. L.|author2=Berner, R. A.|author3=Montañez, I. P.|author4=Tabor, N. J.|author5=Beerling, D. J. |author5-link=David Beerling |year=2004 |title=CO2 as a primary driver of Phanerozoic climate|journal=GSA Today|volume=14|issue=3|pages=4–10|issn=1052-5173|doi=10.1130/1052-5173(2004)014<4:CAAPDO>2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Because of its magnitude, scientists have speculated that the gases released during the formation of the Deccan Traps played a major role in the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event|Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) extinction event]] (also known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary or K–T extinction).<ref>{{cite journal|title= A Volcanic Eruption|last= Courtillot|first= Vincent|date= 1990|journal= Scientific American|doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican1090-85|pmid= 11536474|issue= 4|volume= 263|pages= 85–92|bibcode= 1990SciAm.263d..85C}}</ref> It has been theorized that sudden cooling due to sulfurous volcanic gases released by the formation of the traps and toxic gas emissions may have contributed significantly to the K–Pg, as well as other, mass extinctions.<ref>{{cite journal|title= Star-Struck?|last= Beardsley|first= Tim|date= 1988|journal= Scientific American|doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0488-37b|volume= 258|issue= 4|pages= 37–40|bibcode= 1988SciAm.258d..37B}}</ref> However, the current consensus among the scientific community is that the extinction was primarily triggered by the [[Chicxulub crater|Chicxulub impact event]] in North America, which would have produced a sunlight-blocking dust cloud that killed much of the plant life and reduced global temperature (this cooling is called an [[impact winter]]).<ref name="science">{{cite journal|last=Schulte|first=Peter|date=5 March 2010|title=The Chicxulub Asteroid Impact and Mass Extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleogene Boundary|journal=Science|volume=327|issue=5970|pages=1214–1218|issn=1095-9203 |doi=10.1126/science.1177265|pmid=20203042|bibcode=2010Sci...327.1214S|s2cid=2659741|display-authors=etal|url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/210367/files/PAL_E4389.pdf}}</ref>

Work published in 2014 by geologist [[Gerta Keller]] and others on the timing of the Deccan volcanism suggests the extinction may have been caused by both the volcanism and the impact event.<ref>Keller, G., ''Deccan volcanism, the Chicxulub impact, and the end-Cretaceous mass extinction: Coincidence? Cause and effect?,'' in ''Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects,'' GSA Special Paper 505, pp. 29–55, 2014 [http://specialpapers.gsapubs.org/content/early/2014/06/10/2014.2505_03.1.abstract abstract] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618024315/http://specialpapers.gsapubs.org/content/early/2014/06/10/2014.2505_03.1.abstract |date=18 June 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schoene |first1=B. |last2=Samperton |first2=K. M. |last3=Eddy |first3=M. P. |last4=Keller |first4=G. |last5=Adatte |first5=T. |last6=Bowring |first6=S. A. |last7=Khadri |first7=S. F. R. |last8=Gertsch |first8=B. |title=U-Pb geochronology of the Deccan Traps and relation to the end-Cretaceous mass extinction |journal=Science |date=11 December 2014 |volume=347 |issue=6218 |pages=182–184 |doi=10.1126/science.aaa0118 |bibcode=2015Sci...347..182S |pmid=25502315|s2cid=206632431 }}</ref> This was followed by a similar study in 2015, both of which consider the hypothesis that the impact exacerbated or induced the Deccan volcanism, since the events occur at [[antipodes]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=State shift in Deccan volcanism at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, possibly induced by impact |date=2 October 2015 |journal=Science |volume=350 |issue=6256 |pages=76–78 |doi=10.1126/science.aac7549 |pmid=26430116 |last1=Renne |first1=P. R. |last2=Sprain |first2=C. J. |last3=Richards |first3=M. A. |last4=Self |first4=S. |last5=Vanderkluysen |first5=L. |last6=Pande |first6=K. |bibcode=2015Sci...350...76R|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Asteroid that killed dinosaurs also intensified volcanic eruptions - study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/oct/01/asteroid-that-killed-dinosaurs-also-intensified-volcanic-eruptions-study |date=2 October 2015 |work=The Guardian |access-date=2 October 2015}}</ref>

However, the impact theory is still the best supported and has been determined by various reviews to be the consensus view.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-51150001|title=Dinosaur extinction: 'Asteroid strike was real culprit'|work=BBC NEWS|date=17 January 2020}}</ref>

==Petrology==
[[File:World geologic provinces.jpg|thumb|right|The Deccan Traps shown as a dark purple spot on the geologic map of India]]
[[File:Epistilbite-Calcite-170550.jpg|thumb|Crystals of [[epistilbite]] and [[calcite]] in a [[vug]] in Deccan Traps basalt lava from Jalgaon District, Maharashtra]]Within the Deccan Traps at least 95% of the lavas are [[tholeiitic basalt]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Aramaki|first1=S.|last2=Fukuoka|first2=T.|last3=Deshmukh|first3=S. S.|last4=Fujii|first4=T.|last5=Sano|first5=T.|date=2001-12-01|title=Differentiation Processes of Deccan Trap Basalts: Contribution from Geochemistry and Experimental Petrology|journal=Journal of Petrology|language=en|volume=42|issue=12|pages=2175–2195|doi=10.1093/petrology/42.12.2175|issn=0022-3530|doi-access=free}}</ref> Other rock types present include: [[alkali basalt]], [[nephelinite]], [[lamprophyre]], and [[carbonatite]].

Mantle [[xenolith]]s have been described from [[Kachchh]] (northwestern India) and elsewhere in the western Deccan.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Dessai|first1=A.G.|last2=Vaselli|first2=O.|date=October 1999|title=Petrology and geochemistry of xenoliths in lamprophyres from the Deccan Traps: implications for the nature of the deep crust boundary in western India|url=https://rruff.info/doclib/MinMag/Volume_63/63-5-703.pdf|journal=Mineralogical Magazine|volume=63|issue=5|pages=703–722|doi=10.1180/minmag.1999.063.5.08|bibcode=1999MinM...63..703D}}</ref>

==Fossils==
The Deccan Traps are famous for the beds of fossils that have been found between layers of lava. Particularly well known species include the frog ''[[Oxyglossus]] pusillus'' (Owen) of the [[Eocene]] of [[India]] and the toothed frog ''[[Indobatrachus]]'', an early lineage of modern frogs, which is now placed in the Australian family [[Myobatrachidae]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Noble |first1= Gladwyn Kingsley |author-link= Gladwyn Kingsley Noble |year= 1930 |title= The Fossil Frogs of the Intertrappean Beds of Bombay, India |journal= American Museum of Natural History |volume= 401 |page= 1930 |hdl= 2246/3061}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://tolweb.org/Myobatrachinae/16946 |title=Myobatrachinae}}</ref> The [[Infratrappean Beds]] (Lameta Formation) and [[Intertrappean Beds]] also contain fossil freshwater [[molluscs]].<ref>Hartman, J.H., Mohabey, D.M., Bingle, M., Scholz, H., Bajpai, S., and Sharma, R., 2006, Initial survivorship of nonmarine molluscan faunas in end-Cretaceous Deccan intertrappean strata, India: Geological Society of America (annual meeting, Philadelphia) Abstracts with Programs, v. 38, no. 7, p. 143.</ref>

==Theories of formation==
It is postulated that the Deccan Traps eruption was associated with a deep [[mantle plume]]. The area of long-term eruption (the [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]]), known as the [[Réunion hotspot]], is suspected of both causing the Deccan Traps eruption and opening the [[rift]] that once separated the [[Mascarene Plateau|Seychelles plateau]] from India. [[Seafloor spreading]] at the boundary between the Indian and [[African Plate]]s subsequently pushed India north over the plume, which now lies under [[Réunion]] island in the [[Indian Ocean]], southwest of India. The mantle plume model has, however, been challenged.<ref name="mantleplumes">Sheth, Hetu C. "[http://www.mantleplumes.org/Deccan.html The Deccan Beyond the Plume Hypothesis]." ''MantlePlumes.org,'' 2006.</ref>

Data continues to emerge that support the plume model. The motion of the Indian tectonic plate and the eruptive history of the Deccan traps show strong correlations. Based on data from marine magnetic profiles, a pulse of unusually rapid plate motion began at the same time as the first pulse of Deccan flood basalts, which is dated at 67 million years ago. The spreading rate rapidly increased and reached a maximum at the same time as the peak basaltic eruptions. The spreading rate then dropped off, with the decrease occurring around 63 million years ago, by which time the main phase of Deccan volcanism ended. This correlation is seen as driven by plume dynamics.<ref name=Cande>{{cite journal | last1 = Cande | first1 = S.C. | last2 = Stegman | first2 = D.R. | year = 2011| title = Indian and African plate motions driven by the push force of the Réunion plume head | journal = Nature | volume = 475 | issue = 7354| pages = 47–52 | doi = 10.1038/nature10174 | pmid = 21734702 | bibcode = 2011Natur.475...47C | s2cid = 205225348 }}</ref>

The motions of the Indian and African plates have also been shown to be coupled, the common element being the position of these plates relative to the location of the Réunion plume head. The onset of accelerated motion of India coincides with a large slowing of the rate of counterclockwise rotation of Africa. The close correlations between the plate motions suggest that they were both driven by the force of the Réunion plume.<ref name=Cande/>

==Suggested link to impact events==

===Chicxulub crater===
There is some evidence to link the Deccan Traps eruption to the contemporaneous asteroid impact that created the nearly [[Antipodes|antipodal]] [[Chicxulub crater]] in the Mexican state of [[Yucatán]]. Although the Deccan Traps began erupting well before the impact, [[argon–argon dating]] suggests that the impact may have caused an increase in permeability that allowed magma to reach the surface and produced the most voluminous flows, accounting for around 70% of the volume.<ref name=Richards2015>{{cite journal |last1=Richards|first1=Mark A. |last2=Alvarez|first2=Walter |last3=Self|first3=Stephen |last4=Karlstrom|first4=Leif |last5=Renne|first5=Paul R. |last6=Manga|first6=Michael |last7=Sprain|first7=Courtney J. |last8=Smit|first8=Jan |last9=Vanderkluysen|first9=Loÿc |last10=Gibson|first10=Sally A. |author-link2=Walter Alvarez |author-link5=Paul Renne |author-link6=Michael Manga |title=Triggering of the largest Deccan eruptions by the Chicxulub impact|journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=127|issue=11–12|pages=1507–1520 |doi=10.1130/B31167.1 |year=2015|bibcode=2015GSAB..127.1507R |url= http://eprints.esc.cam.ac.uk/3289/1/Gibson%20bul%20gsa.pdf}}</ref> The combination of the asteroid impact and the resulting increase in eruptive volume may have been responsible for the mass extinctions that occurred at the time that separates the Cretaceous and [[Paleogene]] periods, known as the [[K–Pg boundary]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=State shift in Deccan volcanism at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary, possibly induced by impact |last1=Renne |first1=P. R. |display-authors=etal |date=2015 |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.aac7549 |pmid= 26430116|volume=350 |issue=6256 |pages=76–78|bibcode=2015Sci...350...76R|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sprain |first1=Courtney J. |last2=Renne |first2=Paul R. |last3=Vanderkluysen |first3=Loÿc |last4=Pande |first4=Kanchan |last5=Self |first5=Stephen |last6=Mittal |first6=Tushar |title=The eruptive tempo of Deccan volcanism in relation to the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary |journal=Science |date=21 February 2019 |volume=363 |issue=6429 |pages=866–870 |doi=10.1126/science.aav1446 |pmid=30792301 |bibcode=2019Sci...363..866S|s2cid=67876911 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

A more recent discovery appears to demonstrate the scope of the destruction from the impact alone, however. In a March 2019 article in the [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]], an international team of twelve scientists revealed the contents of the [[Tanis (fossil site)|Tanis fossil site]] discovered near [[Bowman, North Dakota]], that appeared to show a devastating mass destruction of an ancient lake and its inhabitants at the time of the Chicxulub impact. In the paper, the group reports that the geology of the site is strewn with [[fossil]]ized trees and remains of fish and other animals. The lead researcher, Robert A. DePalma of the [[University of Kansas]], was quoted in the New York Times as stating that "You would be blind to miss the carcasses sticking out... It is impossible to miss when you see the outcrop". Evidence correlating this find to the Chicxulub impact included [[tektites]] bearing "the unique chemical signature of other tektites associated with the Chicxulub event" found in the gills of fish fossils and embedded in [[amber]], an [[iridium]]-rich top layer that is considered another signature of the event, and an atypical lack of evidence for scavenging perhaps suggesting that there were few survivors. The exact mechanism of the site's destruction has been debated as either an impact-caused [[tsunami]] or lake and river [[seiche]] activity triggered by post-impact earthquakes, though there has yet been no firm conclusion upon which researchers have settled.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.ku.edu/2019/03/29/stunning-discovery-offers-glimpse-minutes-following-%E2%80%98dinosaur-killer%E2%80%99-chicxulub-impact|title=Stunning discovery offers glimpse of minutes following 'dinosaur-killer' Chicxulub impact|date=29 March 2019|access-date=10 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/29/science/dinosaurs-extinction-asteroid.html|title=Fossil Site Reveals Day That Meteor Hit Earth and, Maybe, Wiped Out Dinosaurs|date=29 March 2019|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Broad|first1=William J.|last2=Chang|first2=Kenneth}}</ref>

===Shiva crater===
A geological structure that exists in the sea floor off the west coast of India has been suggested as a possible impact crater, in this context called the [[Shiva crater]]. It has also been dated at approximately 66 million years ago, potentially matching the Deccan traps. The researchers claiming that this feature is an impact crater suggest that the impact may have been the triggering event for the Deccan Traps as well as contributing to the acceleration of the Indian plate in the early [[Paleogene]].<ref>[[Sankar Chatterjee|Chatterjee, Sankar]]. "[https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm The Shiva Crater: Implications for Deccan Volcanism, India-Seychelles Rifting, Dinosaur Extinction, and Petroleum Entrapment at the KT Boundary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202220808/https://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2003AM/finalprogram/abstract_58126.htm |date=2 December 2016 }}." Paper No. 60-8, Seattle Annual Meeting, November 2003.</ref> However, the current consensus in the Earth science community is that this feature is unlikely to be an actual impact crater.<ref name="Leslie2008a">{{cite web|author=Mullen, Leslie|date=2 November 2004|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-04r.html|title=Shiva: Another K–Pg Impact?|work=Spacedaily.com|access-date=20 February 2008}} - original article at [http://www.astrobio.net/news/article1281.html source]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/091018-dinosaur-crater.html |title=New Dino-destroying Theory Fuels Hot Debate |first=Clara |last=Moskowitz |publisher=space.com |date=18 October 2009}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Columbia River Basalt Group]]
*[[Emeishan Traps]]
*[[Geology of India]]
*[[Krishna Godavari Basin]]
*[[Lameta Formation]]
*[[List of flood basalt provinces]]
*[[List of volcanoes in India]]
*[[Siberian Traps]]
*[[Verneshot]]
*[[Late Devonian extinction#Magmatism|Viluy Traps]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.geodynamics.no/indexOld.htm |title=Animated simulation by the Geodynamics group at the Geological Survey of Norway illustrating the Indian plate moving through the Indian Ocean |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723122146/http://www.geodynamics.no/indexOld.htm |archive-date=23 July 2011}}
*[http://www.nbcnews.com/id/50119631/ns/technology_and_science-science/ Scientist argues that volcanoes, not meteorite, killed dinosaurs]
*[https://hoopermuseum.carleton.ca/saleem/volcanism.htm The Deccan Traps/Volcanism Theory]

{{coord|18|51|N|73|43|E|region:IN_type:landmark_scale:2500000|display=title}}
{{Large igneous provinces}}

[[Category:Cretaceous paleontological sites of Asia]]
[[Category:Cretaceous volcanism]]
[[Category:Events that forced the climate]]
[[Category:Geology of India]]
[[Category:Geology of Maharashtra]]
[[Category:Large igneous provinces]]
[[Category:Paleocene volcanism]]
[[Category:Plate tectonics]]
[[Category:Volcanism of India]]

Museum label

2021-11-10T03:01:35Z

JavaRogers: hyphen→endash

{{globalize|date=July 2018}}
[[File:Wayne-Thiebaud---De-Young-1 label.jpg|thumb|A basic object label at the [[de Young Museum]]]]
A '''museum label''', also referred to as a '''caption''' or '''tombstone''',<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tfaoi.com/aa/5aa/5aa24.htm|title=Museums Explained: Definitions|last=|first=|date=|website=Traditional Fine Arts Organization website|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-10-15}}</ref> is a [[label]] describing an object exhibited in a [[museum]] or one introducing a room or area.<ref Name="objectlabels">[http://www.museumprofessionals.org/forum/member-articles/2424-writing-exhibit-labels.html Writing Exhibit Labels / object labels] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110430212508/http://www.museumprofessionals.org/forum/member-articles/2424-writing-exhibit-labels.html |date=2011-04-30 }}</ref><ref Name="EnduringLabel">[http://www.archimuse.com/mw2007/papers/parry/parry.html The Enduring Label — How Shall We Label Our Exhibit Today? Applying the Principles of On-Line Publishing to an On-Site Exhibition]</ref> Museum labels tend to list the [[artist]]'s name, the [[artwork]]'s name, the year the art was completed, and the materials used. They may also include a summary, description, the years the artist lived, and the dimensions of the work. When such labels are used in an [[art gallery]] setting they often also include the price of the artwork.

Increasingly, labels in non-English-speaking countries have labels in English as well as the main local language, and in some parts of the world, labels in three or more languages are common.{{cn|date=May 2021}}

==History==
[[File:Belshalti-nannar's museum label.jpg|thumb|upright|The first known museum label]]
The first known museum labels are from the [[Ennigaldi-Nanna's museum]] originally dating to circa [[530 BCE]].<ref>Woolley, ''Excavations at Ur: a record of twelve years' work.'', p. 238 ''The room was a museum of local antiquities maintained by the princess Belshalti-Nannar, and in the collection was this clay drum, the earliest museum label known...''</ref><ref Name="Casey">Casey, p. "First Public Museum" ''Around 530 B.C.E. in Ur, an educational museum containing a collection of labeled antiquities was founded by Ennigaldi-Nannathe, daughter of Nabonidus, the last king of Babylonia.''</ref>

The museum labels of the 20th century and 21st century BCE items found in Ennigaldi's museum were labeled in three different languages on clay cylinders as to what the centuries-old objects were.<ref>[http://www.uv.es/EBRIT/macro/macro_5004_43_1.html THE PRECURSORS OF MUSEUMS]{{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>Leon, p. 36 ''When archaeologists excavated certain parts of the palace and temple complex at Ur, they were puzzled to find dozens of artifacts, neatly arranged side by side whose ages varied by hundreds of years. Then clay drums with labels in three languages showed up — the first known museum labels.''</ref><ref Name="Woolley">Woolley, ''Ur of the Chaldees'' pp. 252–259</ref>

Some of these artifacts were:
* a [[kudurru]], Kassite boundary marker (carved with a snake and emblems of various gods).
* part of a statue of King [[Shulgi]].
* clay cone that was part of a building at [[Larsa]].<ref Name="Casey"/>

Museum-like behavior occurred as early as the 19th-century BCE which gave indications of steps of labeling and cataloging antiquities.<ref Name="Woolley236">Woolley, Excavations at Ur: a record of twelve years' work., p. 236</ref><ref>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001410/141067e.pdf The Role of Museums and the Professional Code of Ethics], p. 1</ref>
A "museum label" cylinder tablet describing 100-year-old antiquity objects of circa 2000 BCE read,{{Quote|These are copies from bricks found in the ruins of Ur, the work of [[Bur-Sin]] of Ur, which while searching for the groundplan (of the temple) the Governor of Ur found, and I saw and wrote out for the marvel of the beholder.<ref Name="Woolley236"/><ref>[http://www.nyu.edu/alumni.magazine/issue14/14_feature_montebello.html Former Met director—and first-time professor—Philippe de Montebello takes the podium to explain how collectors have anointed "art" through the ages] '' An excavation at the ancient Sumerian city of Ur, in modern-day Iraq, found what is considered the oldest museum label: a 19th-century BCE tablet describing an object, then 100 years old, presented, as it read, "...for the marvel of the beholder."''</ref>
}}

By the end of the 19th century, object labels, usually with less information than modern examples, had become standard in Western museums.

==Label types==
[[File:Introduction label NMW.jpg|thumb|Introduction label, from a museum in Poland (but in English)]]
===Introduction labels===
Introduction labels are typically large, placed on a wall, and intended to give a broad summary of the contents of one or more galleries. They have large font sizes that can be read from many paces away.

Kim Kenney, curator of the [[William McKinley Presidential Library and Museum]] says that the first label a visitor should see should explain the exhibit display in general. The introduction label should be a "teaser" and talk about the main sections of the exhibit to encourage people to explore the rest. If there is something significant or special within the main exhibit, it should be introduced here. At this point, the visitor should have a general sense for what the museum is about. Visitors should understand immediately what they are going to see and they should be motivated to see the entire exhibit. Perhaps a brochure would accompany the introduction explaining the main museum, the price, and the hours.<ref Name="objectlabels"/>

=== Section labels ===
A section label is a small introduction consisting of sub-topics in a museum exhibition. Kenney says they should represent the "meat" of the museum. If the section is large, perhaps more than one section label is in order. The description should consist of approximately 100–200 words. The visitor should not be strained to read all the labels, so they should be on the short side if anything.<ref Name="objectlabels"/>

===Object labels===
[[File:Nürnberg — GNM 2013-09-07 Mattes (74) (cropped).JPG|thumb|Bilingual "side-by-side" type from Germany.]]
Object labels are the smallest of the museum labels. Their scope is limited to the individual objects they are displayed next to. Typically, the title of the work or a descriptive title phrase is given, followed by the name and often, the dates of the artist, and the date and place the object was created. The artist may precede the title. The materials or technique of the object are normally given, either before or after any short passage describing or interpreting the object. Increasingly, object labels may include a brief description or commentary.

If the object is included in an [[audio guide]] or some other form of tour, there may be a symbol indicating this. Kenney says she prefers object labels contain a one word title followed by a 25–50 word description for a museum label. She explains that people want specific aspects of the object they might not notice at first glance or might not have already known (i.e. something unusual, material made of, date of artifact, who made). Most people want to know specifics like when it was made, why it was made, usage and when it became part of the museum.<ref Name="objectlabels"/>

The lowest part of the label, after a gap, usually has other information in note form, often in a smaller font size. An accession number is often given, and often the accession date. Practice varies as to whether accession dates and donor information are included. Some donations, especially from government organizations, may specify a credit on the label. Loaned objects are usually specified in some way. It is the opinion of Kenney that donor information clutters up the object label. She believes it is better to give a list of donors on a general credit panel,<ref Name="objectlabels"/> but this does not seem very common, at least for expensive objects like some paintings.

A different approach to layout is to put all the main "data", usually on the left, and then beside it the description or commentary. When a number of small objects are displayed together, they are normally given small numbers beside them, which tie in to a group label.

==Use of digital technologies==
[[File:Thomas Cole NHS 34.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A modern decorative museum label, at the [[Thomas Cole National Historic Site]]]]
There are studies recently{{When|date=October 2019}} done that demonstrate the feasibility of a wireless Web-based tool for an in-gallery paperless digital label system, perhaps in the form of "Digital Label Towers" or wall mounted digital displays. Some concepts that could be used then is changing configurations of the museum labels, digitally updating the electronic museum label, usability on various display systems, and integrate third party content.<ref Name="EnduringLabel"/>

Some museums use [[barcode]]s<ref>[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001410/141067e.pdf Running a Museum: A Practical Handbook], p. 30 describes bar codes in "museum labels".</ref> or [[QR code|QR codes]] on their labels (such as for [[QRpedia]]).

==References==

{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*Casey, Wilson, ''Firsts: Origins of Everyday Things That Changed the World'', Penguin, 2009, {{ISBN|1-59257-924-8}}.
*León, Vicki, ''Uppity women of ancient times'', Conari Press, 1995, {{ISBN|1-57324-010-9}}.
*Woolley, Leonard, ''Ur "of the Chaldees": the final account, Excavations at Ur'', Herbert Press, 1982, {{ISBN|0-906969-21-2}}.
*Woolley, Leonard, ''Excavations at Ur — A Record of Twelve Years Work by Sir Leonard Woolley'', Ernest Benn Limited, 1955, printed in Great Britain.

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Museum labels}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Museum label}}

[[Category:Museum education|Label]]
[[Category:Museology]]

Talk:Rutile

2021-09-19T00:24:16Z

JavaRogers: /* What is this "Rutile output" map showing? What are its units? */ new section

{{WikiProject Rocks and minerals |class=C |importance=high}}

== Rutile main image ==

Hello, the hematite picture from Cavradi is completely misleading. There is probably only very minor rutile on that specimen. This is a typical hematite specimen.

Moreover, this image comes originally from a mineral dealer, via mindat.org, therefore I see potential problems with copyright. And it may be considered as a commercial advertisement for that dealer on wikipedia. so long, Christian
[[User:Ipmb-uni-hd|Ipmb-uni-hd]] ([[User talk:Ipmb-uni-hd|talk]]) 13:32, 27 June 2018 (UTC)

== Rutile ==

Both [[Ilmenite]] and this are linked to from [[titanium ore]] as the two most common forms of Titanium ore. Should the opening line of both mention that this is a titanium ore? [[User:Scottkeir|Scottkeir]] 04:26, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

what does ''composted'' mean? please try to explain for a german. -- Anon, Jan 2003

: Typo. Fixed. Danke. --[[User:Menchi|Menchi]] 10:07 20 Jun 2003 (UTC)

== Rutile ==

This article ends in mid sentence.

== Image dropped ==
[[Image:gem.rutile.600pix.jpg|thumb|right|Rutilated quartz pendant.]]
This image was removed in my dit because the article had too many images and it was hard to make it look readable with it in. I've put it here so that it can be put back in, perhaps when the article is fleshed out more. The table may need fixing too.

== Titania ==

Titania is not an "old-fashioned" chemical name; among Materials engineers, it is the term used almost exclusively when referring to TiO2, unless there is need to specificy which phases is meant.

== Questionable Point ==

The statement "(Rutile) is primarily extracted for use in refractory manufacture or use as a base for paints. Rarely is it extracted as an ore of titanium" is questionable. TIMET - a global leader in Titanium based metal production for aerospace and other industries (as well as Russian and other manufacturers) chlorinate rutile ores as a first step in producing titanium tetrachloride, the intermediary in the production of titanium sponge - the raw material for titanium metal products.

Rutile also i used i welding-electrodes. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/87.50.124.146|87.50.124.146]] ([[User talk:87.50.124.146|talk]]) 10:48, 11 October 2008 (UTC) 

:I agree, its a very questionable point. Rutile is mined for the purpose of .... selling rutile. What the processor does with it, is up to them. It is not mined for some specific purpose. So I have reworded the sentence.[[User:Eregli bob|Eregli bob]] ([[User talk:Eregli bob|talk]]) 03:02, 4 November 2008 (UTC)

== Rutile Figure ==

Doesn't the figure for the structure have the aspect ratio flipped? The rutile unit cell has two long axes and one short axis, so that it's shaped more like a pizza box than a bread box, right? --[[User:SarahLawrence Scott|SarahLawrence Scott]] ([[User talk:SarahLawrence Scott|talk]]) 20:00, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

== External links modified ==

Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Rutile]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&oldid=678234018 my edit]. If necessary, add {{tlx|cbignore}} after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add {{tlx|nobots|deny{{=}}InternetArchiveBot}} to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
*Added archive https://web.archive.org/20080531160020/http://www.titaniumresources.com:80/site/en-GB/Page_26.aspx to http://www.titaniumresources.com/site/en-GB/Page_26.aspx

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' to let others know.

{{sourcecheck|checked=false}}

Cheers. —[[User:Cyberbot II|cyberbot II]][[User talk:Cyberbot II|Talk to my owner]]:Online 04:05, 28 August 2015 (UTC)

== 19 ==

I am not sure how the 19 years are arrived at. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/81.141.102.104|81.141.102.104]] ([[User talk:81.141.102.104|talk]]) 14:10, 3 September 2015 (UTC) 

== Rutile occurrence map missing Sierra Leone ==

The current occurrence map does not indicate any amount for Sierra Leone, despite it being stated as a major producer (30% world-wide) later in the article. [[User:MartinWilson|MartinWilson]] ([[User talk:MartinWilson|talk]]) 09:38, 16 December 2019 (UTC)

== What is this "Rutile output" map showing? What are its units? ==

[[Image:2005rutile.PNG|thumb|left|Rutile output in 2005]]

What is this map showing? What are its units? ——[[User:JavaRogers|JavaRogers]] ([[User talk:JavaRogers|talk]]) 00:24, 19 September 2021 (UTC)

Rutile

2021-09-19T00:15:00Z

JavaRogers: Implemented wikt-lang template. Also adjusted some linking.

{{Infobox mineral
| name = Rutile
| category = [[Oxide minerals]]
| boxwidth =
| boxbgcolor =#5e5044
| image = Hematite-Rutile-57088.jpg
| imagesize = 260px
| caption =
| formula = [[Titanium|Ti]][[Oxygen|O]]2
| molweight =
| strunz = 4.DB.05
| system = [[Tetragonal crystal system|Tetragonal]]
| class = Ditetragonal dipyramidal (4/mmm) [[H-M symbol]]: (4/m 2/m 2/m)
| symmetry = ''P''42/mnm
| unit cell = ''a'' = 4.5937 Å, ''c'' = 2.9587 Å; ''Z'' = 2
| color = Brown, reddish brown, blood red, red, brownish yellow, pale yellow, yellow, pale blue, violet, rarely grass-green, grayish black; black if high in Nb–Ta
| habit = Acicular to [[prism (geometry)|Prismatic]] crystals, elongated and striated parallel to [001]
| twinning = Common on {011}, or {031}; as contact twins with two, six, or eight individuals, cyclic, polysynthetic
| cleavage = {110} good, {100} moderate, parting on {092} and {011}
| fracture = [[Fracture (mineralogy)#Uneven fracture|Uneven]] to sub-[[Conchoidal fracture|conchoidal]]
| mohs = 6.0–6.5
| luster = [[Lustre (mineralogy)#Adamantine lustre|Adamantine]] to submetallic
| refractive = ''n''ω = 2.613, ''n''ε = 2.909 (589 nm)
| opticalprop = Uniaxial (+)
| birefringence = 0.296 (589 nm)
| pleochroism = Weak to distinct brownish red-green-yellow
| dispersion = Strong
| other = Strongly anisotropic
| streak = Bright red to dark red
| gravity = 4.23 increasing with Nb–Ta content
| density =
| melt =
| fusibility = Fusible in alkali carbonates
| diagnostic =
| solubility = Insoluble in [[acid]]s
| diaphaneity = Opaque, transparent in thin fragments
| impurities = Fe, Nb, Ta
| references = <ref name=Handbook>[http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/rutile.pdf Handbook of Mineralogy].</ref><ref name=Webmin>[http://webmineral.com/data/Rutile.shtml Webmineral data].</ref><ref name=Mindat>[http://www.mindat.org/min-3486.html Mindat.org].</ref><ref name=Klein>Klein, Cornelis and Cornelius S. Hurlbut, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 304–05, {{ISBN|0-471-80580-7}}.</ref>
}}

'''Rutile''' is an [[oxide mineral]] composed primarily of [[titanium dioxide]] (TiO2), the most common natural form of TiO2. Rarer [[Polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphs]] of TiO2 are known, including [[anatase]], [[akaogiite]], and [[brookite]].

Rutile has one of the highest [[refractive index|refractive indices]] at [[visible wavelength]]s of any known crystal and also exhibits a particularly large [[birefringence]] and high [[dispersion (optics)|dispersion]]. Owing to these properties, it is useful for the manufacture of certain optical elements, especially [[Polarization (waves)|polarization]] optics, for longer [[light|visible]] and [[infrared|infrared wavelengths]] up to about 4.5 micrometres. Natural rutile may contain up to 10% [[iron]] and significant amounts of [[niobium]] and [[tantalum]].

Rutile derives its name from the Latin {{wikt-lang|la|rutilus}} ('red'), in reference to the deep red color observed in some specimens when viewed by transmitted light. Rutile was first described in 1803 by [[Abraham Gottlob Werner]].

==Occurrence==
[[Image:2005rutile.PNG|thumb|left|Rutile output in 2005]]
Rutile is a common accessory mineral in high-temperature and high-pressure [[metamorphic rock]]s and in [[igneous rock]]s.

[[Thermodynamic]]ally, rutile is the most stable polymorph of TiO2 at all temperatures, exhibiting lower total [[Thermodynamic free energy|free energy]] than [[metastable]] phases of anatase or brookite.<ref>
{{cite journal
| last1=Hanaor
| first1=D. A. H.
| last2=Assadi
| first2=M. H. N.
| last3=Li
| first3=S.
| last4=Yu
| first4=A.
| last5=Sorrell
| first5=C. C.
| title= Ab initio study of phase stability in doped TiO2
| journal= Computational Mechanics
| year=2012
| volume=50
| issue=2
| pages=185–94
| doi=10.1007/s00466-012-0728-4| arxiv=1210.7555
| bibcode=2012CompM..50..185H
| s2cid=95958719
}}</ref> Consequently, the transformation of the metastable TiO2 polymorphs to rutile is irreversible. As it has the lowest [[Van der Waals surface|molecular volume]] of the three main polymorphs, it is generally the primary titanium-bearing phase in most high-pressure metamorphic rocks, chiefly [[eclogite]]s.

[[File:[email protected]|thumb|left|[[Rutilated quartz|Rutile in quartz]]]]
Within the igneous environment, rutile is a common accessory mineral in [[Intrusive rock|plutonic igneous rocks]], though it is also found occasionally in [[Extrusive rock|extrusive igneous rocks]], particularly those such as [[kimberlite]]s and [[lamproite]]s that have deep mantle sources. Anatase and brookite are found in the igneous environment particularly as products of [[autogenic alteration]] during the cooling of plutonic rocks; anatase is also found in [[placer deposit]]s sourced from primary rutile.

The occurrence of large specimen crystals is most common in [[pegmatite]]s, [[skarn]]s, and [[granite]] [[greisen]]s. Rutile is found as an accessory mineral in some [[metasomatism|altered igneous rocks]], and in certain [[gneiss]]es and [[schist]]s. In groups of acicular [[crystal]]s it is frequently seen penetrating [[quartz]] as in the {{lang|fr|fléches d'amour}} from [[Graubünden]], [[Switzerland]]. In 2005 the Republic of [[Sierra Leone]] in [[West Africa]] had a production capacity of 23% of the world's annual rutile supply, which rose to approximately 30% in 2008.

==Crystal structure==
[[Image:Rutile-unit-cell-3D-balls.png|thumb|left|The [[Crystal structure#Unit cell|unit cell]] of rutile. Ti atoms are gray; O atoms are red.]]
[[File:Rutile crystal structure.png|alt=A ball-and-stick chemical model of a rutile crystal|left|thumb|Extended crystal structure of rutile]]
Rutile has a [[Tetragonal crystal system|tetragonal]] [[Crystal structure#Unit cell|unit cell]], with unit cell parameters ''a'' = ''b'' = 4.584 Å, and ''c'' = 2.953 Å.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.surface.tulane.edu/pdf/SurfSciRep.pdf |first=Ulrike |last=Diebold |title=The surface science of titanium dioxide |journal=[[Surface Science Reports]] |volume=48 |issue=5–8 |year=2003 |pages=53–229 |doi=10.1016/S0167-5729(02)00100-0 |bibcode=2003SurSR..48...53D |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612153219/http://www.surface.tulane.edu/pdf/SurfSciRep.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-12 }}</ref> The titanium cations have a coordination number of 6, meaning they are surrounded by an octahedron of 6 oxygen atoms. The oxygen anions have a coordination number of 3, resulting in a trigonal planar coordination. Rutile also shows a screw axis when its octahedra are viewed sequentially.<ref>[http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/Petrology/Rutile%20Structure.HTM "Rutile Structure"], Steven Dutch, Natural and Applied Sciences, University of Wisconsin – Green Bay.</ref>

Rutile crystals are most commonly observed to exhibit a prismatic or acicular [[Crystal habit|growth habit]] with preferential orientation along their ''c'' axis, the [001] [[Miller index|direction]]. This growth habit is favored as the {110} facets of rutile exhibit the lowest [[Surface energy|surface free energy]] and are therefore thermodynamically most stable.<ref>{{cite journal | journal=Journal of Crystal Growth| volume=359|pages= 83–91|year=2012|title=Abnormal grain growth of rutile TiO2 induced by ZrSiO4|doi=10.1016/j.jcrysgro.2012.08.015|arxiv=1303.2761|bibcode=2012JCrGr.359...83H| last1=Hanaor| first1=Dorian A.H.| last2=Xu| first2=Wanqiang| last3=Ferry| first3=Michael| last4=Sorrell| first4=Charles C.| last5=Sorrell| first5=Charles C.| s2cid=94096447}}</ref> The ''c''-axis oriented growth of rutile appears clearly in [[nanorods]], [[nanowires]] and [[abnormal grain growth]] phenomena of this phase.

==Uses and economic importance==
[[File:Rutile needles.jpg|thumb|Acicular crystals of rutile protruding from a [[quartz]] crystal]]
In large enough quantities in beach sands, rutile forms an important constituent of [[heavy mineral]]s and [[ore deposit]]s. Miners extract and separate the valuable minerals – e.g., rutile, [[zircon]], and [[ilmenite]]. The main uses for rutile are the manufacture of [[refractory|refractory ceramic]], as a [[pigment]], and for the production of titanium metal.

Finely powdered rutile is a brilliant white pigment and is used in [[paint]]s, [[plastic]]s, [[paper]], foods, and other applications that call for a bright white color. Titanium dioxide pigment is the single greatest use of titanium worldwide. [[Nanoparticle|Nanoscale particles]] of rutile are transparent to [[Visible spectrum|visible light]] but are highly effective in the [[Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)|absorption]] of [[ultraviolet]] radiation. The UV absorption of nano-sized rutile particles is blue-shifted compared to bulk rutile, so that higher-energy UV light is absorbed by the nanoparticles. Hence, they are used in [[sunscreen]]s to protect against UV-induced skin damage.

Small rutile needles present in [[gemstone|gems]] are responsible for an [[optical phenomenon]] known as [[asterism (gemmology)|asterism]]. Asteriated gems are known as "star" gems. Star [[sapphire]]s, star [[ruby|rubies]], and other star gems are highly sought after and are generally more valuable than their normal counterparts.

Rutile is widely used as a [[Shielded metal arc welding|welding electrode covering]]. It is also used as a part of the [[ZTR index]], which classifies highly weathered sediments.

Rutile, as a large band-gap [[semiconductor]], has in recent decades been the subject of significant research towards applications as a functional oxide for applications in [[photocatalysis]] and [[Magnetic semiconductor|dilute magnetism]].<ref> [https://arxiv.org/abs/1304.1854 Magnetism in titanium dioxide polymorphs] J. Applied Physics </ref> Research efforts typically utilize small quantities of synthetic rutile rather than mineral-deposit derived materials.

==Synthetic rutile==
Synthetic rutile was first produced in 1948 and is sold under a variety of names. It can be produced from the titanium ore [[ilmenite]] through the [[Becher process]]. Very pure synthetic rutile is [[Transparency (optics)|transparent]] and almost colorless, being slightly yellow, in large pieces. Synthetic rutile can be made in a variety of colors by doping. The high [[refractive index]] gives an [[Lustre (mineralogy)#Adamantine lustre|adamantine]] [[lustre (mineralogy)|luster]] and strong refraction that leads to a [[diamond]]-like appearance. The near-colorless [[diamond simulant|diamond substitute]] is sold as "Titania", which is the old-fashioned chemical name for this oxide. However, rutile is seldom used in [[jewellery]] because it is not very [[Hardness|hard]] (scratch-resistant), measuring only about 6 on the [[Mohs hardness scale]].

As the result of growing research interest in the [[Photocatalysis|photocatalytic]] activity of titanium dioxide, in both anatase and rutile phases (as well as biphasic mixtures of the two phases), rutile TiO2 in powder and thin film form is frequently fabricated in laboratory conditions through solution based routes using inorganic precursors (typically [[Titanium tetrachloride|TiCl4]]) or organometallic precursors (typically alkoxides such as [[titanium isopropoxide]], also known as TTIP). Depending on synthesis conditions, the first phase to crystallize may be the metastable [[anatase]] phase, which can then be converted to the equilibrium rutile phase through thermal treatment. The physical properties of rutile are often modified using [[dopants]] to impart improved photocatalytic activity through improved photo-generated charge carrier separation, altered electronic band structures and improved surface reactivity.

==See also==
* [[List of minerals]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Rutile}}
* {{Cite Americana|short=1|wstitle=Rutile}}

{{Titanium minerals}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Titanium minerals]]
[[Category:Oxide minerals]]
[[Category:Rutile group]]
[[Category:Tetragonal minerals]]
[[Category:Minerals in space group 136]]

Silicate mineral

2021-09-18T23:35:31Z

JavaRogers: Implemented transl & wikt-lang templates.

{{Short description|Rock-forming minerals with predominantly silicate anions}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2019}}
[[File:Chrysocolla.jpg|thumb|right|Copper silicate mineral [[chrysocolla]]]]

'''Silicate minerals''' are rock-forming [[mineral]]s made up of [[silicate]] groups. They are the largest and most important class of minerals and make up approximately 90 percent of [[Earth's crust]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/mineral-chemical-compound/Silicates|title=Mineral - Silicates|website=britannica.com|access-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025133427/https://www.britannica.com/science/mineral-chemical-compound/Silicates|archive-date=25 October 2017}}</ref><ref name=deer>{{Cite book| last = Deer| first = W.A.|author2=Howie, R.A.|author3=Zussman, J. | year = 1992| title = [[An introduction to the rock-forming minerals]]| publisher = Longman| location = London| edition = 2nd| isbn = 0-582-30094-0}}</ref><ref name=hurlbut>{{Cite book| last = Hurlbut| first = Cornelius S.| author2 = Klein, Cornelis| year = 1985| title = Manual of Mineralogy| edition = 20th| publisher = Wiley| isbn = 0-47180580-7| url = https://archive.org/details/manualofmineralo00klei}}</ref>

In [[mineralogy]], [[silica]] (silicon dioxide) {{chem2|SiO2}} is usually considered a silicate mineral. Silica is found in nature as the mineral [[quartz]], and its [[polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphs]].

On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that have been forming and re-working the crust for billions of years. These processes include partial [[melting]], [[crystallization]], [[fractionation]], [[metamorphism]], [[weathering]], and [[diagenesis]].

[[File:Diatomaceous Earth BrightField.jpg|thumb|right|Diatomaceous earth, a biogenic form of silica as viewed under a microscope. The imaged region measures approximately 1.13 by 0.69 mm.]]
Living organisms also contribute to this [[carbonate–silicate cycle|geologic cycle]]. For example, a type of [[plankton]] known as [[diatom]]s construct their [[exoskeleton]]s ("frustules") from silica extracted from [[seawater]]. The frustules of dead diatoms are a major constituent of [[deep ocean]] [[sediment]], and of [[diatomaceous earth]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2019}}

==General structure==
A silicate mineral is generally an [[ionic compound]] whose [[anion]]s consist predominantly of [[silicon]] and [[oxygen]] atoms.

In most minerals in the Earth's crust, each silicon atom is the center of an ideal tetrahedron, whose corners are four oxygen atoms [[covalent]]ly bound to it. Two adjacent tetrahedra may share a vertex, meaning that the oxygen atom is a bridge connecting the two silicon atoms. An unpaired vertex represents an ionized oxygen atom, covalently bound to a single silicon atom, that contributes one unit of negative charge to the anion.

Some silicon centers may be replaced by atoms of other elements, still bound to the four corner oxygen corners. If the substituted atom is not normally tetravalent, it usually contributes extra charge to the anion, which then requires extra [[cation]]s. For example, in the mineral [[orthoclase]] {{chem|[|{{chem|K|AlSi|3|O|8}}|]|''n''}}, the anion is a tridimensional network of tetrahedra in which all oxygen corners are shared. If all tetrahedra had silicon centers, the anion would be just neutral silica {{chem|[|{{chem|SiO|2}}|]|''n''}}. Replacement of one in every four silicon atoms by an [[aluminum]] atom results in the anion {{chem|[|{{chem|AlSi|3|O|8|−}}|]|''n''}}, whose charge is neutralized by the [[potassium]] cations {{chem|K|+}}.

==Main groups==
In [[mineralogy]], [[silicate minerals]] are classified into seven major groups according to the structure of their silicate anion:<ref>Deer, W.A.; Howie, R.A., & Zussman, J. (1992). ''An introduction to the rock forming minerals'' (2nd edition ed.). London: Longman {{ISBN|0-582-30094-0}}</ref><ref>Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis ||1985). ''Manual of Mineralogy'', Wiley, (20th edition ed.). {{ISBN|0-471-80580-7}}</ref>
{| class=wikitable
! Major group !! Structure !! Chemical formula !! Example
|-
| [[Nesosilicate]]s ||isolated silicon tetrahedra || [SiO4]4− || [[olivine]], [[garnet]], [[zircon]]...
|-
| [[Sorosilicate]]s ||double tetrahedra || [Si2O7]6− || [[epidote]], [[melilite]] group
|-
| [[Cyclosilicate]]s ||rings || [Si''n''O3''n'']2''n''− || [[beryl]] group, [[tourmaline]] group
|-
| [[Inosilicate]]s ||single chain || [Si''n''O3''n'']2''n''− || [[pyroxene]] group
|-
| [[Inosilicate]]s ||double chain || [Si4''n''O11''n'']6''n''− || [[amphibole]] group
|-
| [[Silicate_minerals#Phyllosilicates|Phyllosilicate]]s ||sheets || [Si2''n''O5''n'']2''n''− || [[mica]]s and [[clay]]s
|-
| [[Tectosilicate]]s ||3D framework || [Al''x''Si''y''O(2''x''+2''y'')]''x''− || [[quartz]], [[feldspar]]s, [[zeolite]]s
|}
Note that tectosilicates can only have additional cations if some of the silicon is replaced by an atom of lower valence such as aluminium. Al for Si substitution is common.

==Nesosilicates or orthosilicates==
[[File:Silicate-tetrahedron-3D-balls.png|thumb|Orthosilicate anion {{chem|SiO|4|4-}}. The grey ball represents the silicon atom, and the red balls are the oxygen atoms.]]
[[File:Nesosilicates exhibit, Museum of Geology, South Dakota.jpg|thumb|Nesosilicate specimens at the Museum of Geology in South Dakota]]
{{maincat|Nesosilicates}}
Nesosilicates (from Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|νῆσος}} {{transl|grc|nēsos}} 'island'), or orthosilicates, have the [[Orthosilicate (ion)|orthosilicate ion]], which constitute isolated (insular) {{chem2|[SiO4](4−)}} [[Tetrahedral molecular geometry|tetrahedra]] that are connected only by interstitial [[cation]]s. The [[Nickel–Strunz classification]] is 09.A –examples include:

*Phenakite group
**[[Phenakite]] – {{chem2|Be2SiO4}}
**[[Willemite]] – {{chem2|Zn2SiO4}}
*[[Olivine]] group
**[[Forsterite]] – {{chem2|Mg2SiO4}}
**[[Fayalite]] – {{chem2|Fe2SiO4}}
**[[Tephroite]] – {{chem2|Mn2SiO4}}
*[[Garnet]] group
**[[Pyrope]] – {{chem2|Mg3Al2(SiO4)3}}
**[[Almandine]] – {{chem2|Fe3Al2(SiO4)3}}
**[[Spessartine]] – {{chem2|Mn3Al2(SiO4)3}}
**[[Grossular]] – {{chem2|Ca3Al2(SiO4)3}}
**[[Andradite]] – {{chem2|Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3}}
**[[Uvarovite]] – {{chem2|Ca3Cr2(SiO4)3}}
**[[Hydrogrossular]] – {{chem|Ca|3|Al|2|Si|2|O|8|(SiO|4|)|3-''m''|(OH)|4''m''|}}
*Zircon group
**[[Zircon]] – {{chem2|ZrSiO4}}
**[[Thorite]] – {{chem2|(Th,U)SiO4}}
**[[Hafnon]] – {{chem2|(Hf,Zr)SiO4}}
[[Image:Kyanite crystals.jpg|thumb|[[Kyanite]] crystals (unknown scale)]]
*{{chem2|Al2SiO5}} group
**[[Andalusite]] – {{chem2|Al2SiO5}}
**[[Kyanite]] – {{chem2|Al2SiO5}}
**[[Sillimanite]] – {{chem2|Al2SiO5}}
**[[Dumortierite]] – {{chem|Al|6.5–7|BO|3|(SiO|4|)|3|(O,OH)|3}}
**[[Topaz]] – {{chem2|Al2SiO4(F,OH)2}}
**[[Staurolite]] – {{chem2|Fe2Al9(SiO4)4(O,OH)2}}
*[[Humite]] group – {{chem2|(Mg,Fe)7(SiO4)3(F,OH)2}}
**[[Norbergite]] – {{chem2|Mg3(SiO4)(F,OH)2}}
**[[Chondrodite]] – {{chem2|Mg5(SiO4)2(F,OH)2}}
**[[Humite]] – {{chem2|Mg7(SiO4)3(F,OH)2}}
**[[Clinohumite]] – {{chem2|Mg9(SiO4)4(F,OH)2}}
*[[Datolite]] – {{chem2|CaBSiO4(OH)}}
*[[Titanite]] – {{chem2|CaTiSiO5}}
*[[Chloritoid]] – {{chem2|(Fe,Mg,Mn)2Al4Si2O10(OH)4}}
*[[Mullite]] (aka Porcelainite) – {{chem2|Al6Si2O13}}

==Sorosilicates==
[[File:Silicate-double-tetrahedra-3D-balls.png|thumb|Pyrosilicate anion {{chem|Si|2|O|7|6-}}.]]
[[File:Sorosilicates exhibit, Museum of Geology, South Dakota.jpg|thumb|Sorosilicate exhibit at Museum of Geology in South Dakota]]
{{maincat|Sorosilicates}}
Sorosilicates (from Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|σωρός}} {{transl|grc|sōros}} 'heap, mound') have isolated [[pyrosilicate]] anions {{chem|Si|2|O|7|6-}}, consisting of double tetrahedra with a shared oxygen vertex—a silicon:oxygen ratio of 2:7. The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.B. Examples include:

*[[Hemimorphite]] ([[Calamine (mineral)|calamine]]) – {{chem2|Zn4(Si2O7)(OH)2*H2O}}
*[[Lawsonite]] – {{chem2|CaAl2(Si2O7)(OH)2*H2O}}
*[[Axinite]] – {{chem2|(Ca,Fe,Mn)3Al2(BO3)(Si4O12)(OH)}}
*[[Ilvaite]] – {{chem2|CaFe^{II}2Fe^{III}O(Si2O7)(OH)}}
*Epidote group (has both {{chem2|(SiO4)(4−)}} and {{chem2|(Si2O7)(6−)}} groups}
**[[Epidote]] – {{chem2|Ca2(Al,Fe)3O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)}}
**[[Zoisite]] – {{chem2|Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)}}
***[[Tanzanite]] – {{chem2|Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)}}
**[[Clinozoisite]] – {{chem2|Ca2Al3O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)}}
**[[Allanite]] – {{chem2|Ca(Ce,La,Y,Ca)Al2(Fe^{II},Fe^{III})O(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)}}
**[[Dollaseite-(Ce)]] – {{chem2|CaCeMg2AlSi3O11F(OH)}}
*[[Vesuvianite]] ([[Vesuvianite|idocrase]]) – {{chem2|Ca10(Mg,Fe)2Al4(SiO4)5(Si2O7)2(OH)4}}

==Cyclosilicates==

{{maincat|Cyclosilicates}}
[[File:Cyclosilicate exhibit, Museum of Geology, South Dakota.jpg|thumb|Cyclosilicate specimens at the Museum of Geology, South Dakota]]
[[File:Pezzottaite-256889.jpg|thumb|[[Pezzottaite]]]]
[[File:Bazzite - Fibbia Ticino Switzerland.jpg|thumb|[[Bazzite]].]]

Cyclosilicates (from Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|κύκλος}} {{transl|grc|kýklos}} 'circle'), or ring silicates, have three or more tetrahedra linked in a ring. The general formula is (Si''x''O3''x'')2''x''−, where one or more silicon atoms can be replaced by other 4-coordinated atom(s). The silicon:oxygen ratio is 1:3. Double rings have the formula (Si2''x''O5''x'')2''x''− or a 2:5 ratio. The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.C. Possible ring sizes include:

<gallery>
File:Beryll.ring.combined.png|6 units {{chem2|[Si6O18]}}, [[beryl]] (red: Si, blue: O)
File:Benitoid.2200.png|3 units {{chem2|[Si3O9]}}, [[benitoite]]
File:Papagoite.2200.png|4 units {{chem2|[Si4O12]}}, [[papagoite]]
File:Eudialyte.2200.png|9 units {{chem2|[Si9O27]}}, [[eudialyte]]
File:Milarite.png|6 units, double ring {{chem2|[Si6O15]}}, [[milarite]]
</gallery>

Some example minerals are:
* 3-member single ring
** [[Benitoite]] – {{chem2|BaTi(Si3O9)}}
* 4-member single ring
** [[Papagoite]] – {{chem|CaCuAlSi|2|O|6|(OH)|3}}.
* 6-member single ring
**[[Beryl]] – {{chem2|Be3Al2(Si6O18)}}
**[[Bazzite]] – {{chem2|Be3Sc2(Si6O18)}}
**[[Sugilite]] – {{chem2|KNa(Fe,Mn,Al)2Li3Si12O30}}
**[[Tourmaline]] – {{chem|(Na,Ca)(Al,Li,Mg)|3–|(Al,Fe,Mn)|6|(Si|6|O|18|)(BO|3|)|3|(OH)|4|}}
**[[Pezzottaite]] – {{chem2|Cs(Be2Li)Al2Si6O18}}
**[[Osumilite]] – {{chem2|(K,Na)(Fe,Mg)2(Al,Fe)3(Si,Al)12O30}}
**[[Cordierite]] – {{chem2|(Mg,Fe)2Al4Si5O18}}
**[[Sekaninaite]] – {{chem2|(Fe^{+2},Mg)2Al4Si5O18}}
* 9-member single ring
** [[Eudialyte]] – {{chem|Na|15|Ca|6|(Fe,Mn)|3|Zr|3|SiO|(O,OH,H|2|O)|3|(Si|3|O|9|)|2}}{{chem|(Si|9|O|27|)|2|(OH,Cl)|2}}
* 6-member double ring
**[[Milarite]] – {{chem2|K2Ca4Al2Be4(Si>24O60)H2O}}

Note that the ring in [[axinite]] contains two B and four Si tetrahedra and is highly distorted compared to the other 6-member ring cyclosilicates.

==Inosilicates==
{{maincat|Inosilicates}}
Inosilicates (from Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|ἴς}} {{transl|grc|is}} [genitive: {{wikt-lang|grc|ἰνός}} {{transl|grc|inos}}] 'fibre'), or chain silicates, have interlocking chains of [[silicon|silicate]] [[tetrahedra]] with either {{chem2|SiO3}}, 1:3 ratio, for single chains or {{chem2|Si4O11}}, 4:11 ratio, for double chains. The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.D – examples include:

===Single chain inosilicates===
*[[Pyroxene]] group
**Enstatite – orthoferrosilite series
***[[Enstatite]] – {{chem2|MgSiO3}}
***[[Ferrosilite]] – {{chem2|FeSiO3}}
**[[Pigeonite]] – {{chem2|Ca0.25(Mg,Fe)1.75Si2O6}}
**Diopside – hedenbergite series
***[[Diopside]] – {{chem2|CaMgSi2O6}}
***[[Hedenbergite]] – {{chem2|CaFeSi2O6}}
***[[Augite]] – {{chem2|(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6}}
**Sodium pyroxene series
***[[Jadeite]] – {{chem2|NaAlSi2O6}}
***[[Aegirine]] (or acmite) – {{chem2|NaFe^{III}Si2O6}}
**[[Spodumene]] – {{chem2|LiAlSi2O6}}
**[[Pyroxferroite]] - {{chem2|(Fe,Ca)SiO3}}
*Pyroxenoid group
**[[Wollastonite]] – {{chem2|CaSiO3}}
**[[Rhodonite]] – {{chem2|MnSiO3}}
**[[Pectolite]] – {{chem2|NaCa2(Si3O8)(OH)}}

===Double chain inosilicates===
*[[Amphibole]] group
**[[Anthophyllite]] – {{chem2|(Mg,Fe)7Si8O22(OH)2}}
**Cummingtonite series
***[[Cummingtonite]] – {{chem2|Fe2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2}}
***[[Grunerite]] – {{chem2|Fe7Si8O22(OH)2}}
**Tremolite series
***[[Tremolite]] – {{chem2|Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2}}
***[[Actinolite]] – {{chem2|Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2}}
**[[Hornblende]] – {{chem|(Ca,Na)|2–3|(Mg,Fe,Al)|5|Si|6|(Al,Si)|2|O|22|(OH)|2|}}
**Sodium amphibole group
***[[Glaucophane]] – {{chem2|Na2Mg3Al2Si8O22(OH)2}}
***[[Riebeckite]] ([[asbestos]]) – {{chem2|Na2Fe^{II}3Fe^{III}2Si8O22(OH)2}}
***[[Arfvedsonite]] – {{chem2|Na3(Fe,Mg)4FeSi8O22(OH)2}}

<gallery>
File:Pyroxen-chain.png|Inosilicate, pyroxene family, with 2-periodic single chain {{chem2|(Si2O6)}}, [[diopside]]
File:Tremolite-chain.png|Inosilicate, clinoamphibole, with 2-periodic double chains {{chem2|(Si4O11)}}, [[tremolite]]
File:Wollastonite-chain.png|Inosilicate, unbranched 3-periodic single chain of [[wollastonite]]
File:Rhodonite-chain.png|Inosilicate with 5-periodic single chain, [[rhodonite]]
File:Pellyite-chain.png|Inosilicate with cyclic branched 8-periodic chain, [[pellyite]]
</gallery>

==Phyllosilicates==
{{maincat|Phyllosilicates}}
Phyllosilicates (from Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|φύλλον}} {{transl|grc|phýllon}} 'leaf'), or sheet silicates, form parallel sheets of silicate tetrahedra with {{chem2|Si2O5}} or a 2:5 ratio. The Nickel–Strunz classification is 09.E. All phyllosilicate minerals are [[hydrate]]d, with either [[water]] or [[hydroxyl]] groups attached.
[[Image:KaolinUSGOV.jpg|thumb|Kaolinite]]
Examples include:
*[[Serpentine subgroup]]
**[[Antigorite]] – {{chem2|Mg3Si2O5(OH)4}}
**[[Chrysotile]] – {{chem2|Mg3Si2O5(OH)4}}
**[[Lizardite]] – {{chem2|Mg3Si2O5(OH)4}}
*[[Clay minerals]] group
**1:1 clay minerals (TO)
***[[Halloysite]] – {{chem2|Al2Si2O5(OH)4}}
***[[Kaolinite]] – {{chem2|Al2Si2O5(OH)4}}
**2:1 clay minerals (TOT)
***[[Pyrophyllite]] – {{chem2|Al2Si4O10(OH)2}}
***[[Talc]] – {{chem2|Mg3Si4O10(OH)2}}
***[[Illite]] – {{chem2|(K,H3O)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10[(OH)2,(H2O)]}}
***[[Montmorillonite]] (smectite) – {{chem2|(Na,Ca)0.33(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2*''n''H2O}}
***[[Chlorite group|Chlorite]] – {{chem2|(Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2*(Mg,Fe)3(OH)6}}
***[[Vermiculite]] – {{chem2|(Mg,Fe,Al)3(Al,Si)4O10(OH)2*4H2O}}
**Other clay minerals
***[[Sepiolite]] – {{chem2|Mg4Si6O15(OH)2*6H2O}}
***[[Palygorskite]] (or attapulgite) – (Mg,Al)2Si4O10(OH)*4(H2O)}}
*[[Mica]] group
**[[Biotite]] – {{chem2|K(Mg,Fe)3(AlSi3)O10(OH)2}}
**[[Fuchsite]] – {{chem2|K(Al,Cr)2(AlSi3)O10(OH)2}}
**[[Muscovite]] – {{chem2|KAl2(AlSi3)O10(OH)2}}
**[[Phlogopite]] – {{chem2|KMg3(AlSi3)O10(OH)2}}
**[[Lepidolite]] – {{chem|K(Li,Al)|2–3|(AlSi|3|)O|10|(OH)|2|}}
**[[Margarite]] – {{chem2|CaAl2(Al2Si2)O10(OH)2}}
**[[Glauconite]] – {{chem2|(K,Na)(Al,Mg,Fe)2(Si,Al)4O10(OH)2}}

<gallery>
File:Muskovite.sheet.png|Phyllosilicate, mica group, [[muscovite]] (red: Si, blue: O)
File:Apophyllite.sheet.png|Phyllosilicate, single net of tetrahedra with 4-membered rings, [[apophyllite]]-(KF)-apophyllite-(KOH) series
File:Pyrosmalite.sheet.png|Phyllosilicate, single tetrahedral nets of 6-membered rings, [[pyrosmalite]]-(Fe)-pyrosmalite-(Mn) series
File:Zeophyllite.sheet.png|Phyllosilicate, single tetrahedral nets of 6-membered rings, [[zeophyllite]]
File:Carletonite.sheet.png|Phyllosilicate, double nets with 4- and 6-membered rings, [[carletonite]]
</gallery>

== Tectosilicates ==
{{maincat|Tectosilicates}}
[[File:Beta-quartz-CM-2D-balls.png|thumb|Silica family {{chem2|(SiO2}} 3D network), β-[[quartz]].]]
[[File:Zeolite-ZSM-5-vdW.png|thumb|The 3D aluminosilicate anion of synthetic [[zeolite]] ZSM-5.]]
[[Image:Quartz oisan.jpg|thumb|[[Quartz]]]]
[[Image:Lunar Ferroan Anorthosite (60025).jpg|thumb|[[Moon|Lunar]] ferroan [[anorthosite]] ([[plagioclase]] feldspar) collected by [[Apollo 16]] astronauts from the [[Geology of the Moon#Highlands and craters|Lunar Highlands]] near [[Descartes (crater)|Descartes Crater]]]]
Tectosilicates, or "framework silicates," have a three-dimensional framework of silicate [[tetrahedra]] with {{chem2|SiO2}} in a 1:2 ratio. This group comprises nearly 75% of the [[crust (geology)|crust]] of the [[Earth]].<ref name=deer4B>{{Cite book| last = Deer| first = W.A. |author2=Howie, R.A. |author3=Wise, W.S. |author4=Zussman, J.| year = 2004| title = Rock-forming minerals. Volume 4B. Framework silicates: silica minerals. Feldspathoids and the zeolites| edition = 2nd| publisher = Geological Society of London| location = London| page = 982 pp}}</ref> Tectosilicates, with the exception of the quartz group, are [[aluminosilicate]]s. The Nickel–Strunz classifications are 09.F and 09.G, 04.DA (Quartz/ silica family). Examples include:
*3D-Silicates, quartz family
**[[Quartz]] – {{chem2|SiO2}}
**[[Tridymite]] – {{chem2|SiO2}}
**[[Cristobalite]] – {{chem2|SiO2}}
**[[Coesite]] – {{chem2|SiO2}}
**[[Stishovite]] – {{chem2|SiO2}}
**[[Moganite]] – {{chem2|SiO2}}
**[[Chalcedony]] – {{chem2|SiO2}}
*Tectosilicates, [[feldspar]] group
**Alkali feldspars (potassium feldspars)
***[[Microcline]] – {{chem2|KAlSi3O8}}
***[[Orthoclase]] – {{chem2|KAlSi3O8}}
***[[Anorthoclase]] – {{chem2|(Na,K)AlSi3O8}}
***[[Sanidine]] – {{chem2|KAlSi3O8}}
**[[Plagioclase]] feldspars
***[[Albite]] – {{chem2|NaAlSi3O8}}
***[[Oligoclase]] – {{chem2|(Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8}}     (Na:Ca 4:1)
***[[Andesine]] – {{chem2|(Na,Ca)(Si,Al)4O8}}     (Na:Ca 3:2)
***[[Labradorite]] – {{chem2|(Ca,Na)(Si,Al)4O8}}     (Na:Ca 2:3)
***[[Bytownite]] – {{chem2|(Ca,Na)(Si,Al)4O8}}     (Na:Ca 1:4)
***[[Anorthite]] – {{chem2|CaAl2Si2O8}}
*Tectosilicates, [[feldspathoid]] family
**[[Nosean]] – {{chem2|Na8Al6Si6O24(SO4)}}
**[[Cancrinite]] –{{chem2| Na6Ca2(CO3,Al6Si6O24)}}{{Hydrate|2}}
**[[Leucite]] – {{chem2|KAlSi2O6}}
**[[Nepheline]] – {{chem2|(Na,K)AlSiO4}}
**[[Sodalite]] – {{chem2|Na8(AlSiO4)6Cl2}}
**[[Hauyne]] – {{chem|(Na,Ca)|4–8|Al|6|Si|6|(O,S)24(SO|4|,Cl)|1–2|}}
***[[Lazurite]] – {{chem2|(Na,Ca)8(AlSiO4)6(SO4,S,Cl)2}}
*Tectosilicates, [[scapolite]] group
**[[Marialite]] – {{chem2|Na4(AlSi3O8)3(Cl2,CO3,SO4)}}
**[[Meionite]] – {{chem2|Ca4(Al2Si2O8)3(Cl2CO3,SO4)}}
*Tectosilicates, [[zeolite]] family
**[[Natrolite]] – {{chem2|Na2Al2Si3O10*2H2O}}
**[[Erionite]] – {{chem2|(Na2,K2,Ca)2Al4Si14O36*15H2O}}
**[[Chabazite]] – {{chem2|CaAl2Si4O12*6H2O}}
**[[Heulandite]] – {{chem2|CaAl2Si7O18*6H2O}}
**[[Stilbite]] – {{chem2|NaCa2Al5Si13O36*17H2O}}
**[[Scolecite]] – {{chem2|CaAl2Si3O10*3H2O}}
**[[Mordenite]] – {{chem2|(Ca,Na2,K2)Al2Si10O24*7H2O}}
**[[Analcime]] – {{chem2|NaAlSi2O6*H2O}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Earth sciences}}
* {{annotated link|Classification of non-silicate minerals}}
* {{annotated link|Classification of silicate minerals}}
* {{annotated link|Silicate mineral paint}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Historical Geology|Silicate minerals}}
{{Commonscat|Silicate minerals}}
* [http://www.mindat.org/dana.php Mindat.org, Dana classification]
* [http://webmineral.com/dana/8_Silicates.shtml Webmineral : Dana's New Silicate Classification]

{{Strunz}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Silicate minerals| ]]

[[ja:ケイ酸塩鉱物]]
[[pl:Krzemiany]]

Pyroxene

2021-09-18T22:14:01Z

JavaRogers: Implemented transl & wikt-lang templates.

{{Short description|Group of inosilicate minerals with single chains of silica tetrahedra}}
[[File:Diopside-172005.jpg|thumb|Pyroxene ([[diopside]]) crystals from [[Afghanistan]]]]The '''pyroxenes''' (commonly abbreviated to ''Px'') are a group of important rock-forming [[Silicate minerals#Inosilicates|inosilicate]] [[mineral]]s found in many [[Igneous rock|igneous]] and [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] [[rock (geology)|rocks]]. Pyroxenes have the general formula {{chem2|XY(Si,Al)2O6}}, where X represents [[calcium]] (Ca), [[sodium]] (Na), [[iron]] (Fe II) or [[magnesium]] (Mg) and more rarely [[zinc]], [[manganese]] or [[lithium]], and Y represents ions of smaller size, such as [[chromium]] (Cr), [[aluminium]] (Al), iron (Fe III), [[magnesium]] (Mg), [[cobalt]] (Co), [[manganese]] (Mn), [[scandium]] (Sc), [[titanium]] (Ti), [[vanadium]] (V) or even iron (Fe II). Although aluminium substitutes extensively for silicon in silicates such as [[feldspar]]s and [[amphibole]]s, the substitution occurs only to a limited extent in most pyroxenes. They share a common structure consisting of single chains of silica [[tetrahedra]]. Pyroxenes that crystallize in the [[monoclinic]] system are known as '''clinopyroxenes''' and those that crystallize in the [[orthorhombic]] system are known as '''orthopyroxenes'''.

The name ''pyroxene'' is derived from the Ancient Greek words for 'fire' ({{transl|grc|pyr}} {{wikt-lang|grc|πυρ}}) and 'stranger' ({{transl|grc|ksénos}} {{wikt-lang|grc|ξένος}}). Pyroxenes were so named because of their presence in volcanic lavas, where they are sometimes found as crystals embedded in volcanic [[glass]]; it was assumed they were impurities in the glass, hence the name meaning 'fire-strangers'. However, they are simply early-forming minerals that crystallized before the lava erupted.

The [[upper mantle (Earth)|upper mantle]] of Earth is composed mainly of [[olivine]] and pyroxene minerals. Pyroxene and [[feldspar]] are the major minerals in [[basalt]], [[andesite]], and [[gabbro]] rocks.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deegan|first=Frances M.|last2=Whitehouse|first2=Martin J.|last3=Troll|first3=Valentin R.|last4=Budd|first4=David A.|last5=Harris|first5=Chris|last6=Geiger|first6=Harri|last7=Hålenius|first7=Ulf|date=2016-12-30|title=Pyroxene standards for SIMS oxygen isotope analysis and their application to Merapi volcano, Sunda arc, Indonesia|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009254116305496|journal=Chemical Geology|language=en|volume=447|pages=1–10|doi=10.1016/j.chemgeo.2016.10.018|issn=0009-2541}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=O’Driscoll|first=Brian|last2=Stevenson|first2=Carl T. E.|last3=Troll|first3=Valentin R.|date=2008-05-15|title=Mineral Lamination Development in Layered Gabbros of the British Palaeogene Igneous Province: A Combined Anisotropy of Magnetic Susceptibility, Quantitative Textural and Mineral Chemistry Study|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egn022|journal=Journal of Petrology|volume=49|issue=6|pages=1187–1221|doi=10.1093/petrology/egn022|issn=1460-2415}}</ref>

==Chemistry and nomenclature of the pyroxenes==
The chain silicate structure of the pyroxenes offers much flexibility in the incorporation of various [[cations]] and the names of the pyroxene minerals are primarily defined by their chemical composition.
Pyroxene minerals are named according to the chemical species occupying the X (or M2) site, the Y (or M1) site, and the tetrahedral T site. Cations in Y (M1) site are closely bound to 6 oxygens in octahedral coordination. Cations in the X (M2) site can be coordinated with 6 to 8 oxygen atoms, depending on the cation size. Twenty mineral names are recognised by the International Mineralogical Association's Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names and 105 previously used names have been discarded (Morimoto ''et al.'', 1989).

{{Multiple image
| align =
| direction =
| total_width = 500
| image1 = Pyrox names.svg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Pyroxene quadrilateral nomenclature of the calcium, magnesium, iron pyroxenes
| image2 = Na pyrox trig.svg
| caption2 = Pyroxene triangle nomenclature of the sodium pyroxenes
| header = Pyroxene nomenclature
}}

A typical pyroxene has mostly silicon in the tetrahedral site and predominately ions with a charge of +2 in both the X and Y sites, giving the approximate formula {{chem2|XYT2O6}}. The names of the common calcium{{ndash}}iron{{ndash}}magnesium pyroxenes are defined in the 'pyroxene quadrilateral'. The [[enstatite|enstatite-ferrosilite]] series ({{chem2|[Mg,Fe]SiO3}}) includes the common rock-forming mineral [[Hypersthene]], contains up to 5 mol.% calcium and exists in three polymorphs, [[orthorhombic]] orthoenstatite and protoenstatite and [[monoclinic]] clinoenstatite (and the ferrosilite equivalents). Increasing the calcium content prevents the formation of the orthorhombic phases and [[pigeonite]] ({{chem2|[Mg,Fe,Ca][Mg,Fe]Si2O6}}) only crystallises in the monoclinic system. There is not complete solid solution in calcium content and Mg-Fe-Ca pyroxenes with calcium contents between about 15 and 25 mol.% are not stable with respect to a pair of exolved crystals. This leads to a [[miscibility gap]] between pigeonite and [[augite]] compositions. There is an arbitrary separation between augite and the [[diopside|diopside-hedenbergite]] ({{chem2|CaMgSi2O6{{snd}}CaFeSi2O6}}) solid solution. The divide is taken at >45 mol.% Ca. As the calcium ion cannot occupy the Y site, pyroxenes with more than 50 mol.% calcium are not possible. A related mineral [[wollastonite]] has the formula of the hypothetical calcium end member but important structural differences mean that it is instead classified as a pyroxenoid.

Magnesium, calcium and iron are by no means the only cations that can occupy the X and Y sites in the pyroxene structure. A second important series of pyroxene minerals are the sodium-rich pyroxenes, corresponding to the 'pyroxene triangle' nomenclature. The inclusion of sodium, which has a charge of +1, into the pyroxene implies the need for a mechanism to make up the "missing" positive charge. In [[jadeite]] and [[aegirine]] this is added by the inclusion of a +3 cation (aluminium and iron(III) respectively) on the Y site. Sodium pyroxenes with more than 20 mol.% calcium, magnesium or iron(II) components are known as [[omphacite]] and [[aegirine-augite]], with 80% or more of these components the pyroxene falls in the quadrilateral.[[File:PIA16217-MarsCuriosityRover-1stXRayView-20121017.jpg|thumb|200px|right|First [[X-ray crystallography#Mineralogy and metallurgy|X-ray diffraction view]] of [[Martian soil]] – [[CheMin|CheMin analysis]] reveals [[feldspar]], pyroxenes, [[olivine]] and more ([[Curiosity rover]] at "[[Rocknest (Mars)|Rocknest]]")<ref name="NASA-20121030">{{cite web |last=Brown |first=Dwayne |title=NASA Rover's First Soil Studies Help Fingerprint Martian Minerals |url=http://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2012/oct/HQ_12-383_Curiosity_CheMin.html |date=October 30, 2012 |publisher=[[NASA]] |access-date=October 31, 2012}}</ref>]]

A wide range of other cations that can be accommodated in the different sites of pyroxene structures.

{|
|+'''Order of cation occupation in the pyroxenes'''
|-
|'''T'''
|
|Si
|Al
|Fe3+
|-
|'''Y'''
|
|
|Al
|Fe3+
|Ti4+
|Cr
|V
|Ti3+
|Zr
|Sc
|Zn
|Mg
|Fe2+
|Mn
|-
|'''X'''
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|Mg
|Fe2+
|Mn
|Li
|Ca
|Na
|}In assigning ions to sites, the basic rule is to work from left to right in this table, first assigning all silicon to the T site and then filling the site with the remaining aluminium and finally iron(III); extra aluminium or iron can be accommodated in the Y site and bulkier ions on the X site.

Not all the resulting mechanisms to achieve charge neutrality follow the sodium example above, and there are several alternative schemes:
#[[Coupled substitution]]s of 1+ and 3+ ions on the X and Y sites respectively. For example, Na and Al give the jadeite {{chem2|(NaAlSi2O6}}) composition.
# Coupled substitution of a 1+ ion on the X site and a mixture of equal numbers of 2+ and 4+ ions on the Y site. This leads to ''e.g.,'' {{chem2|NaFe(2+)0.5Ti(4+)0.5Si2O6}}.
# The Tschermak substitution where a 3+ ion occupies the Y site and a T site leading to ''e.g.,'' {{chem2|CaAlAlSiO6}}.
In nature, more than one substitution may be found in the same mineral.

==Pyroxene minerals==
[[File:Microscopic image Pyroxene.jpg|thumb|A [[thin section]] of green pyroxene]]
[[Image:Peridot in basalt.jpg|thumb|[[Mantle (geology)|Mantle]]-[[peridotite]] [[xenolith]] from San Carlos Indian Reservation, Gila Co., Arizona, USA. The xenolith is dominated by green peridot [[olivine]], together with black orthopyroxene and [[spinel]] crystals, and rare grass-green diopside grains. The fine-grained gray rock in this image is the host basalt.(unknown scale).]]

[[File:Orthopyroxenite (ALH84001).gif|thumb|A sample of [[pyroxenite]] (meteorite [[ALH84001]] from Mars), a rock consisting mostly of pyroxene minerals]]

*Clinopyroxenes (monoclinic)
**[[Aegirine]], {{chem2|NaFe(3+)Si2O6}}
** [[Augite]], {{chem2|(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6}}
** [[Clinoenstatite]], {{chem2|MgSiO3}}
** [[Diopside]], {{chem2|CaMgSi2O6}}
** [[Esseneite]], {{chem2|CaFe(3+)[AlSiO6]}}
** [[Hedenbergite]], {{chem2|CaFe(2+)Si2O6}}
** [[Jadeite]], {{chem2|Na(Al,Fe(3+))Si2O6}}
** Jervisite, {{chem2|(Na,Ca,Fe(2+))(Sc,Mg,Fe(2+))Si2O6}}
** Johannsenite, {{chem2|CaMn(2+)Si2O6}}
** [[Kanoite]], {{chem2|Mn(2+)(Mg,Mn(2+))Si2O6}}
** [[Kosmochlor]], {{chem2|NaCrSi2O6}}
** Namansilite, {{chem2|NaMn(3+)Si2O6}}
** Natalyite, {{chem2|NaV(3+)Si2O6}}
** [[Omphacite]], {{chem2|(Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe(2+),Al)Si2O6}}
** Petedunnite, {{chem2|Ca(Zn,Mn(2+),Mg,Fe(2+))Si2O6}}
** [[Pigeonite]], {{chem2|(Ca,Mg,Fe)(Mg,Fe)Si2O6}}
** [[Spodumene]], {{chem2|LiAl(SiO3)2}}
*Orthopyroxenes ([[orthorhombic]])
** [[Enstatite]], {{chem2|Mg2Si2O6}}
** [[Bronzite]], intermediate between enstatite and hypersthene
** [[Hypersthene]], {{chem2|(Mg,Fe)SiO3}}
** Eulite, intermediate between hypersthene and ferrosilite
** [[Ferrosilite]], {{chem2|Fe2Si2O6}}
** Donpeacorite, {{chem2|(MgMn)MgSi2O6}}
** Nchwaningite, {{chem2|Mn(2+)2SiO3(OH)2*(H2O)}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Minerals}}
* [[Clinopyroxene thermobarometry]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* C. Michael Hogan (2010). [http://www.eoearth.org/article/Calcium?topic=49557 ''Calcium''. eds. A. Jorgensen, C. Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth]. National Council for Science and the Environment.
* N. Morimoto, J. Fabries, A. K. Ferguson, I. V. Ginzburg, M. Ross, F. A. Seifeit and J. Zussman (1989). "Nomenclature of pyroxenes". Canadian Mineralogist, Vol.27, pp. 143–156. https://web.archive.org/web/20080309160117/http://www.mineralogicalassociation.ca/doc/abstracts/ima98/ima98(12).pdf

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080212014138/http://mineral.galleries.com/minerals/silicate/pyroxene.htm Mineral Galleries]
*''Video Section'': Lunar Explorers [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FGYC0u566gs (link to youtube: The Lunar Crust)]

{{Minerals}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Inosilicates]]
[[Category:Pyroxene group|*]]

Petroleum

2021-09-16T01:34:42Z

JavaRogers: /* Etymology */

{{Redirect|Crude oil|the 2008 film|Crude Oil (film)|the fuel|Gasoline{{!}}Petrol|other uses|Petroleum (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}
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{{Short description|Naturally occurring hydrocarbon liquid found underground}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2014}}
{{multiple image
| caption_align = center
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| image1 = Petroleum sample.jpg
| caption1 = A sample of petroleum.
| image2 = Oil well.jpg
| caption2 = [[Pumpjack]] pumping an oil well near [[Lubbock, Texas]].
| image3 = Photo lg kuwait.jpg
| caption3 = An oil refinery in [[Mina Al Ahmadi]], [[Kuwait]].
}}

'''Petroleum''' ({{IPAc-en|p|ə|ˈ|t|r|oʊ|l|i|ə|m}}), also known as '''crude oil''' and '''oil''', is a [[#Latent heat of vaporization|naturally occurring]], yellowish-black [[liquid]] found in [[geological formation]]s beneath the [[Earth|Earth's]] surface. It is commonly refined into various types of [[fuel]]s. Components of petroleum are separated using a technique called [[fractional distillation]], i.e., separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing in boiling point by means of distillation, typically using a [[fractionating column]]. It consists of naturally occurring [[hydrocarbon]]s of various molecular weights and may contain miscellaneous [[organic compound]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.gov/KIDS/energy.cfm?page=oil_home-basics-k.cfm|title=EIA Energy Kids – Oil (petroleum)|website=www.eia.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707183134/https://www.eia.gov/KIDS/energy.cfm?page=oil_home-basics-k.cfm|archive-date=July 7, 2017|url-status=live|access-date=2018-03-18|df=mdy-all}}</ref> The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oil and [[petroleum product]]s that are made up of refined crude oil. A [[fossil fuel]], petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, mostly [[zooplankton]] and [[algae]], are buried underneath [[sedimentary rock]] and subjected to both intense heat and pressure.

Petroleum has mostly been recovered by [[oil drilling]]. Drilling is carried out after studies of structural geology, sedimentary basin analysis, and reservoir characterisation. Recent improvements to technologies have also led to exploitation of other unconventional reserves such as [[oil sands]] and [[oil shale]]. Once extracted, oil is refined and separated, most easily by [[Continuous distillation#Continuous distillation of crude oil|distillation]], into numerous products for direct use or use in manufacturing, such as [[gasoline]] (petrol), [[diesel fuel|diesel]] and [[kerosene]] to [[asphalt]] and chemical [[reagent]]s used to make [[plastic]]s, [[pesticide]]s and [[pharmaceuticals]]. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials,<ref name="Dixie State College 2">{{cite news | url=http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/01/stories/2011030155921100.htm | location=Chennai, India | title=Libyan tremors threaten to rattle the oil world | date=March 1, 2011 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110306154842/http://www.hindu.com/2011/03/01/stories/2011030155921100.htm | archive-date=March 6, 2011 | work=[[The Hindu]] | df=mdy-all }}</ref> and it is estimated that the world consumes about 100 million [[Barrel (unit)|barrels]] each day. Petroleum production can be extremely profitable and was important for economic development in the 20th century, with some countries, so called "[[oil states]]", gaining significant economic and international power because of their control of oil production.

Petroleum exploitation has significant negative environmental and social consequences. Most significantly, [[Extraction of petroleum|extraction]], [[Petroleum industry|refining]] and [[Combustion|burning]] of petroleum fuels all release large quantities of [[greenhouse gas]]es, so petroleum is one of the [[Attribution of recent climate change|major contributors to climate change]]. Furthermore, parts of the [[ExxonMobil climate change controversy|petroleum industry actively suppressed science and policy]] that aimed to prevent the [[climate crisis]]. Other [[Environmental impact of the petroleum industry|negative environmental effects]] include the environmental impacts of exploration and exploitation of petroleum reserves, such as [[oil spill]]s, and air and water pollution at the sites of utilization. All of these environmental impacts have direct health consequences for humans. Additionally, oil has also been a source of conflict leading to both [[Oil war|state-led-wars]] and other kinds of conflicts (for example, [[Oil production and smuggling in ISIL|oil revenue funded]] the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]]). Production of petroleum is expected to reach [[peak oil]] before 2040 as global economies reduce dependencies on petroleum as part of [[climate change mitigation]] and a transition towards [[renewable energy]] and [[electrification]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=R|first1=Tom|last2=all|last3=Warren|first3=Hayley|title=Peak Oil Is Already Here|language=en|work=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2020-peak-oil-era-is-suddenly-upon-us/|access-date=2020-12-31}}</ref> This is expected to have significant economic impacts that stakeholders argue need to be anticipated by a [[Just Transition|just transition]] and addressing the [[stranded asset]]s of the petroleum industry.

==Etymology==
[[File:Fractional distillation apparatus.jpg|thumb|Fractional distillation apparatus.]]
The word ''petroleum'' comes from Medieval Latin {{wikt-lang|la|petroleum}} (literally 'rock oil'), which comes from Latin [[wikt:petra#Latin|petra]] 'rock' (from Greek {{transl|grc|pétra}} {{wikt-lang|grc|πέτρα}}) and [[wikt:oleum#Latin|oleum]] 'oil' (from Greek {{transl|grc|élaion}} {{wikt-lang|grc|ἔλαιον}}).<ref>[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=petroleum "petroleum"], in the American Heritage Dictionary</ref><ref>Medieval Latin: literally, rock oil = Latin petr(a) rock (< Greek pétra) + oleum oil ''http://www.thefreedictionary.com/petroleum''</ref><ref>[https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=petroleum "petroleum"], in the American Heritage Dictionary</ref><ref>Medieval Latin: literally, rock oil = Latin petr(a) rock (< Greek pétra) + oleum oil ''http://www.thefreedictionary.com/petroleum''</ref>

The term was used in the treatise ''[[De Natura Fossilium]]'', published in 1546 by the German mineralogist [[Georg Bauer]], also known as Georgius Agricola.<ref>Bauer (1546)</ref> In the 19th century, the term ''petroleum'' was often used to refer to [[mineral oil]]s produced by distillation from mined organic solids such as [[cannel coal]] (and later [[oil shale]]) and refined oils produced from them; in the United Kingdom, storage (and later transport) of these oils were regulated by a series of Petroleum Acts, from the ''Petroleum Act 1863'' onwards.

==History==
{{Main|History of the petroleum industry}}

===Early===
[[File:Gusher Okemah OK 1922.jpg|thumb|upright|Oil derrick in [[Okemah, Oklahoma]], 1922.]]
Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. The rise in importance was due to the invention of the [[internal combustion engine]], the rise in [[commercial aviation]], and the importance of petroleum to industrial organic chemistry, particularly the synthesis of plastics, fertilisers, solvents, adhesives and pesticides.

More than 4000 years ago, according to [[Herodotus]] and [[Diodorus Siculus]], [[asphalt]] was used in the construction of the walls and towers of [[Babylon]]; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on [[Zacynthus]].<ref name=EB1911>{{EB1911|wstitle=Petroleum |volume=21 |page=316 |first=Boverton |last=Redwood |inline=1}}</ref> Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river [[Issus (river)|Issus]], one of the tributaries of the [[Euphrates]]. Ancient [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] [[Persepolis Administrative Archives|tablets]] indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society.

The use of petroleum in ancient China dates back to more than 2000 years ago. The ''[[I Ching]]'', one of the earliest Chinese writings, cites that oil in its raw state, without refining, was first discovered, extracted, and used in China in the first century BCE. In addition, the Chinese were the first to record the use of petroleum as fuel as early as the fourth century BCE.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Environmental regulation of oil and gas|last=Zhiguo|first=Gao|date=1998|publisher=Kluwer Law International|isbn=978-90-411-0726-8|location=London|page=8|oclc=39313498}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Ancient Chinese Inventions |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000deng |url-access=registration |last=Deng |first=Yinke |year=2011 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientchinesein0000deng/page/40 40] |isbn=978-0-521-18692-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Nanotechnology: The Business |last=Burke |first=Michael |year=2008 |page=3 |isbn=978-1-4200-5399-9}}</ref> By 347 CE, oil was produced from bamboo-drilled wells in China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astm.org/COMMIT/D02/to1899_index.html|title=ASTM International – Standards Worldwide|last=Totten|first=George E.|website=www.astm.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706232229/https://www.astm.org/COMMIT/D02/to1899_index.html|archive-date=July 6, 2017|url-status=live|access-date=2018-03-18|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Fundamentals of Oil & Gas Industry for Beginners |last=Dalvi |first=Samir |year=2015 |isbn=978-93-5206-419-9}}</ref>

[[Crude oil]] was often distilled by [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Persian chemists]], with clear descriptions given in Arabic handbooks such as those of [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi]] (Rhazes).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Forbes |first1=Robert James |title=Studies in Early Petroleum History |date=1958 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers]] |page=149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eckUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA149}}</ref> The streets of [[Baghdad]] were paved with [[tar]], derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, [[oil field]]s were exploited in the area around modern [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan]]. These fields were described by the [[Islamic geography|Arab geographer]] [[Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī]] in the 10th century, and by [[Marco Polo]] in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads.<ref>{{Cite book|contribution=1000 Years of Missing Industrial History|author=Salim Al-Hassani|title=A shared legacy: Islamic science East and West|editor=Emilia Calvo Labarta |editor2=Mercè Comes Maymo |editor3=Roser Puig Aguilar |editor4=Mònica Rius Pinies|publisher=[[University of Barcelona|Edicions Universitat Barcelona]]|year=2008|isbn=978-84-475-3285-8|pages=57–82 [63]|author-link=Salim Al-Hassani}}</ref> [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|Arab and Persian chemists]] also distilled crude oil in order to produce [[Flammability|flammable]] products for military purposes. Through [[Al-Andalus|Islamic Spain]], distillation became available in [[Western Europe]] by the 12th century.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=petroleum|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|author1=Joseph P. Riva Jr. |author2=Gordon I. Atwater |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/454269/petroleum|access-date=2008-06-30}}</ref> It has also been present in Romania since the 13th century, being recorded as păcură.<ref>Istoria Romaniei, Vol II, p. 300, 1960</ref>

Sophisticated oil pits, 15 to 20 feet deep, were dug by the [[Seneca people|Seneca People]] and other [[Iroquois]] in [[Western Pennsylvania]] as early as 1415-1450. The French General [[Louis-Joseph de Montcalm]] encountered Seneca using petroleum for ceremonial fires and as a healing lotion during a visit to Fort Duquesne in 1750.<ref>{{cite book| isbn=978-0816053674 | page=199| title=American Indian Contributions to the World: 15,000 Years of Inventions and Innovations| last1=Keoke| first1=Emory Dean| last2=Porterfield| first2=Kay Marie| year=2003}}</ref>

Early British explorers to [[Myanmar]] documented a flourishing oil extraction industry based in [[Yenangyaung]] that, in 1795, had hundreds of hand-dug wells under production.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Oil in Burma : the extraction of "earth-oil" to 1914|last=Longmuir|first=Marilyn V.|date=2001|publisher=White Lotus Press|isbn=978-974-7534-60-3|location=Bangkok|page=329|oclc=48517638}}</ref>

[[Merkwiller-Pechelbronn|Pechelbronn]] (Pitch fountain) is said to be the first European site where petroleum has been explored and used. The still active Erdpechquelle, a spring where petroleum appears mixed with water has been used since 1498, notably for medical purposes. Oil sands have been mined since the 18th century.<ref>{{cite news |newspaper=New York Times |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1880/02/23/98888884.pdf |title=The oil wells of Alsace; a discovery made more than a century ago. What a Pennsylvania operator saw abroad – primitive methods of obtaining oil – the process similar to that used in coal mining |date=23 February 1880}}</ref>

In [[Wietze]] in lower Saxony, natural asphalt/bitumen has been explored since the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Erdöl in Wietze|date=1994|publisher=Geiger|isbn=978-3-89264-910-6|edition=1. Aufl|location=Horb am Neckar|oclc=75489983}}</ref> Both in Pechelbronn as in Wietze, the coal industry dominated the petroleum technologies.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Faktor Öl : die Mineralölwirtschaft in Deutschland 1859–1974|last1=Karlsch|first1=Rainer|last2=Stokes|first2=Raymond G.|date=2003|publisher=C.H. Beck|others=Stokes, Raymond G.|isbn=978-3-406-50276-7|location=Munich|oclc=52134361}}</ref>

===Modern===
[[File:Oil Reserves.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Proven world [[oil reserves]], 2013. Unconventional reservoirs such as natural heavy oil and [[oil sands]] are included.]]
Chemist [[James Young (chemist)|James Young]] noticed a natural petroleum seepage in the [[Riddings]] [[colliery]] at [[Alfreton]], [[Derbyshire]] from which he distilled a light thin oil suitable for use as lamp oil, at the same time obtaining a more viscous oil suitable for lubricating machinery. In 1848, Young set up a small business refining the crude oil.<ref name="russell" />

Young eventually succeeded, by distilling [[cannel coal]] at a low heat, in creating a fluid resembling petroleum, which when treated in the same way as the seep oil gave similar products. Young found that by slow distillation he could obtain a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named "paraffine oil" because at low temperatures it congealed into a substance resembling paraffin wax.<ref name=russell>{{cite book | last = Russell | first = Loris S. | title = A Heritage of Light: Lamps and Lighting in the Early Canadian Home | publisher = University of Toronto Press | year = 2003 | isbn = 978-0-8020-3765-7}}</ref>

The production of these oils and solid [[paraffin wax]] from coal formed the subject of his patent dated 17 October 1850. In 1850 Young & Meldrum and Edward William Binney entered into partnership under the title of E.W. Binney & Co. at [[Bathgate]] in [[West Lothian]] and E. Meldrum & Co. at Glasgow; their works at Bathgate were completed in 1851 and became the first truly commercial oil-works in the world with the first modern oil refinery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/y/jamesyoung.html|title=James Young: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland|[email protected]|first=Undiscovered Scotland|website=www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629094925/https://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/y/jamesyoung.html|archive-date=2017-06-29|url-status=live|access-date=2018-03-18}}</ref>
[[File:West Lothian shale bing, Scotland.JPG|thumb|Shale bings near [[Broxburn, West Lothian|Broxburn]], 3 of a total of 19 in [[West Lothian]].]]

The world's first oil refinery was built in 1856 by [[Ignacy Łukasiewicz]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Frank, Alison Fleig|title=Oil Empire: Visions of Prosperity in Austrian Galicia (Harvard Historical Studies)|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-674-01887-7}}</ref> His achievements also included the discovery of how to distill kerosene from seep oil, the invention of the modern kerosene lamp (1853), the introduction of the first modern street lamp in Europe (1853), and the construction of the world's first modern oil well (1854).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geo.uw.edu.pl/BOBRKA/DATY/daty.htm|title=Skansen Przemysłu Naftowego w Bóbrce / Museum of Oil Industry at Bobrka|date=2007-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070519031720/http://www.geo.uw.edu.pl/BOBRKA/DATY/daty.htm|archive-date=2007-05-19|access-date=2018-03-18}}</ref>

The demand for petroleum as a fuel for lighting in North America and around the world quickly grew.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The age of oil : the mythology, history, and future of the world's most controversial resource|last=Maugeri|first=Leonardo|date=2005|publisher=Lyons Press|isbn=978-1-59921-118-3|edition=1st Lyons Press|location=Guilford, CN|page=[https://archive.org/details/ageofoilmytholog0000maug/page/3 3]|oclc=212226551|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofoilmytholog0000maug/page/3}}</ref> [[Edwin Drake]]'s [[Drake Well|1859 well]] near Titusville, Pennsylvania, is popularly considered the first modern well. Already 1858 Georg Christian Konrad Hunäus had found a significant amount of petroleum while drilling for [[lignite]] 1858 in [[Wietze]], Germany. Wietze later provided about 80% of the German consumption in the Wilhelminian Era.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.faz.net/1.812092|title=Deutsche Erdölförderung: Klein-Texas in der Lüneburger Heide|last=Lucius|first=Robert von|date=2009-06-23|work=FAZ.NET|access-date=2018-03-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126111737/https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/deutsche-erdoelfoerderung-klein-texas-in-der-lueneburger-heide-1812092.html|archive-date=2017-01-26|url-status=live|language=de|issn=0174-4909}}</ref> The production stopped in 1963, but Wietze has hosted a Petroleum Museum since 1970.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.erdoelmuseum.de/|title=Deutsches Erdölmuseum Wietze|website=www.erdoelmuseum.de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014171832/http://www.erdoelmuseum.de/|archive-date=2017-10-14|url-status=live|access-date=2018-03-18}}</ref>

Drake's well is probably singled out because it was drilled, not dug; because it used a steam engine; because there was a company associated with it; and because it touched off a major boom.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Historical dictionary of the petroleum industry, 2nd Edition|last=Vassiliou|first=Marius S.|date=2018|publisher=Rowman and Littlefield|isbn=978-1-5381-1159-8|location=Lanham, MD|page=621|oclc=315479839}}</ref> However, there was considerable activity before Drake in various parts of the world in the mid-19th century. A group directed by Major Alexeyev of the Bakinskii Corps of Mining Engineers hand-drilled a well in the Baku region of Bibi-Heybat in 1846.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Matveichuk|first=Alexander A|date=2004|title=Intersection of Oil Parallels: Historical Essays|journal=Russian Oil and Gas Institute}}</ref> There were engine-drilled wells in West Virginia in the same year as Drake's well.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Where It All Began: The Story of the People and Places Where the Oil Industry Began – West Virginia and South-eastern Ohio|last1=McKain|first1=David L.|last2=Bernard|first2=L. Allen|publisher=D.L. McKain|year=1994|location=Parkersburg, WV|asin=B0006P93DY}}</ref> An early commercial well was hand dug in [[Poland]] in 1853, and another in nearby [[Romania]] in 1857. At around the same time the world's first, small, oil refinery was opened at [[Jasło]] in Poland, with a larger one opened at [[Ploiești]] in Romania shortly after. Romania is the first country in the world to have had its annual crude oil output officially recorded in international statistics: 275 tonnes for 1857.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rri.ro/arh-art.shtml?lang=1&sec=9&art=3596|title=The History Of Romanian Oil Industry|website=rri.ro|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603102058/http://www.rri.ro/arh-art.shtml?lang=1&sec=9&art=3596|archive-date=2009-06-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/eakins/we_1844.htm|author=Thomas Eakins |title=Scenes from Modern Life: World Events: 1844–1856|work=pbs.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705142847/https://www.pbs.org/eakins/we_1844.htm|archive-date=2017-07-05|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[History of the petroleum industry in Canada#Early origins|first commercial oil well]] in Canada became operational in 1858 at [[Oil Springs, Ontario]] (then [[Canada West]]).<ref name="lclmg.org">[http://www.lclmg.org/lclmg/Museums/OilMuseumofCanada/BlackGold2/OilHeritage/OilSprings/tabid/208/Default.aspx Oil Museum of Canada, Black Gold: Canada's Oil Heritage, Oil Springs: Boom & Bust] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729191500/http://www.lclmg.org/lclmg/Museums/OilMuseumofCanada/BlackGold2/OilHeritage/OilSprings/tabid/208/Default.aspx |date=July 29, 2013 }}</ref> Businessman [[James Miller Williams]] dug several wells between 1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of oil four metres below ground.<ref>Turnbull Elford, Jean. "Canada West's Last Frontier". Lambton County Historical Society, 1982, p. 110</ref>{{Specify|reason=Unlear citation style.|date=December 2018}} Williams extracted 1.5 million litres of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into kerosene lamp oil. Williams's well became commercially viable a year before Drake's Pennsylvania operation and could be argued to be the first commercial oil well in North America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lclmg.org/lclmg/Museums/OilMuseumofCanada/BlackGold2/OilHeritage/OilSprings/tabid/208/Default.aspx|title=Oil Museum of Canada, Black Gold: Canada's Oil Heritage|website=lclmg.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729191500/http://www.lclmg.org/lclmg/Museums/OilMuseumofCanada/BlackGold2/OilHeritage/OilSprings/tabid/208/Default.aspx|archive-date=2013-07-29}}</ref> The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an [[oil boom]] which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Advances in drilling continued into 1862 when local driller Shaw reached a depth of 62 metres using the spring-pole drilling method.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hard oiler! : the story of Canadiansʼ quest for oil at home and abroad|last=May|first=Gary|date=1998|publisher=Dundurn Press|isbn=978-1-55002-316-9|location=Toronto|page=43|oclc=278980961}}</ref> On January 16, 1862, after an explosion of [[natural gas]] Canada's first oil gusher came into production, shooting into the air at a recorded rate of 3,000 barrels per day.<ref>{{Cite book|title=History of the Chemical Industry in Lambton County|last=Ford|first=R.W. A|year=1988|page=5}}</ref> By the end of the 19th century the Russian Empire, particularly the [[Branobel]] company in [[Azerbaijan]], had taken the lead in production.<ref name = "Akiner">Akiner(2004), p. 5</ref>
[[File:Ride with hitler.jpg|thumb|upright|This wartime propaganda poster promoted [[carpooling]] as a way to ration vital gasoline during [[World War II]].]]
Access to oil was and still is a major factor in several military conflicts of the twentieth century, including [[World War II]], during which oil facilities were a major strategic asset and were [[Oil Campaign chronology of World War II|extensively bombed]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oil150.com/essays/article?article_id=91|title=Oil Strategy in World War II|last=Baldwin|first=Hanson|website=oil150.com|publisher=American Petroleum Institute Quarterly – Centennial Issue|pages=10–11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815114446/http://www.oil150.com/essays/2007/08/oil-strategy-in-world-war-ii|archive-date=2009-08-15|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Operation Barbarossa|German invasion of the Soviet Union]] included the goal to capture the [[Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan|Baku oilfields]], as it would provide much needed oil-supplies for the German military which was suffering from blockades.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_overview_alakbarov.html|title=10.2 An Overview – Baku: City that Oil Built |last=Alakbarov|first=Farid|website=azer.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213083150/http://azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/ai102_folder/102_articles/102_overview_alakbarov.html|archive-date=2010-12-13|url-status=dead|access-date=2018-03-18}}</ref> Oil exploration in North America during the early 20th century later led to the US's becoming the leading producer by mid-century. As petroleum production in the US peaked during the 1960s, however, the United States was surpassed by Saudi Arabia and the Soviet Union.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Times|first=Chrisopher S. Wren Special to The New York|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1974/11/13/archives/soviet-moves-ahead-of-us-in-oil-output-minister-sees-mondale.html|title=Soviet Moves Ahead of U.S. in oil output.|date=1974-11-13|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-04-04|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Business/2018/0712/US-expected-to-surpass-Saudi-Arabia-Russia-as-world-s-top-oil-producer|title=US expected to surpass Saudi Arabia, Russia as world's top oil producer|date=2018-07-12|work=Christian Science Monitor|access-date=2020-04-05|issn=0882-7729}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zKEe6yC-IQcC&q=Annual+Energy+Review+1987&pg=PA252|title=Annual Energy Review|date=1990|publisher=The Administration|pages=252|language=en}}</ref>

In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other [[Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries|Arab nations]] imposed an [[oil embargo]] against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan and other Western nations which supported [[Israel]] in the [[Yom Kippur War]] of October 1973.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Arab Oil Threat |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/23/archives/the-arab-oil-threat.html |work=The New York Times |date=November 23, 1973}}</ref> The embargo caused an [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis]] with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/oil/|title=The price of oil – in context|date=April 18, 2006 | work=CBC News| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070609145246/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/oil/| archive-date= June 9, 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>

Today, about 90 percent of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40 percent of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 1 percent of electricity generation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.cfm?t=epmt_1_1|title=EIA – Electricity Data|website=www.eia.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710095902/https://www.eia.gov/electricity/monthly/epm_table_grapher.php?t=epmt_1_1|archive-date=2017-07-10|url-status=live|access-date=2017-04-18}}</ref> Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important [[commodity|commodities]].

The top three oil producing countries are [[Russia]], [[Saudi Arabia]] and the [[United States]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.infoplease.com/science-health/energy/top-oil-producers-and-consumers-2|title=Top Oil Producers and Consumers|website=InfoPlease|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170425001032/https://www.infoplease.com/science-health/energy/top-oil-producers-and-consumers-2|archive-date=2017-04-25|access-date=2018-03-18}}</ref> In 2018, due in part to developments in [[hydraulic fracturing]] and [[directional drilling|horizontal drilling]], the United States became the world's largest producer.<ref>{{cite web |title=US soon to leapfrog Saudis, Russia as top oil producer |url=https://www.abqjournal.com/1195285/us-soon-to-leapfrog-saudis-russia-as-top-oil-producer.html |website=www.abqjournal.com |publisher=The Associated Press |access-date=6 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="U.S. Energy Information Administration">{{cite web |title=The United States is now the largest global crude oil producer |publisher= Today in Energy – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=37053 |website=www.eia.gov |access-date=6 October 2018 }}</ref>
About 80 percent of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5 percent coming from the Arab 5: [[Saudi Arabia]], [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Iraq]], [[Qatar]] and [[Kuwait]]. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as [[bitumen]] in [[Athabasca oil sands]] and [[extra heavy oil]] in the [[Orinoco Belt]]. While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, as oil extraction requires large amounts of heat and water, making its net energy content quite low relative to conventional crude oil. Thus, Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-canada-oilsands-economics-analysis-idUSKBN1CN0FD|title=Canada's oil sands survive, but can't thrive in a $50 oil world|date=2017-10-18|work=Reuters|access-date=2020-04-05|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.capp.ca/resources/crude-oil-forecast/|title=Crude Oil Forecast {{!}} Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers|website=CAPP|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.greencarcongress.com/2019/06/20190606-oilsands.html|title=IHS Markit: Canadian oil sands production to be ~1M barrels higher by 2030 but with lower annual growth; boosted by deterioration in Venezuela|website=Green Car Congress|access-date=2020-04-05}}</ref>

==Composition==
Petroleum includes not only crude oil, but all liquid, gaseous and solid [[hydrocarbon]]s. Under surface [[standard conditions for temperature and pressure|pressure and temperature conditions]], lighter hydrocarbons [[methane]], [[ethane]], [[propane]] and [[butane]] exist as gases, while [[pentane]] and heavier hydrocarbons are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground [[oil reservoir]] the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the [[phase diagram]] of the petroleum mixture.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Nontechnical guide to petroleum geology, exploration, drilling, and production|last=Norman|first=J. Hyne|date=2001|publisher=Penn Well Corp|isbn=978-0-87814-823-3|edition=2nd|location=Tulsa, OK|pages=1–4|oclc=49853640}}</ref>

An [[oil well]] produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas [[solubility|dissolved]] in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of [[Solution (chemistry)|solution]] and be recovered (or burned) as ''associated gas'' or ''solution gas''. A [[gas well]] produces predominantly [[natural gas]]. However, because the underground temperature is higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, [[hexane]], and [[heptane]] in the [[gaseous state]]. At surface conditions these will [[Condensation|condense]] out of the gas to form "[[natural-gas condensate]]", often shortened to ''condensate.'' Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some [[volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] [[light crude oil]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Speight|first=James G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uG-KDwAAQBAJ&q=Condensate+resembles+gasoline&pg=PA13|title=Heavy Oil Recovery and Upgrading|year=2019|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-813025-4|pages=13|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hilyard|first=Joseph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F91w410iRLsC&q=Condensate+resembles+gasoline+in+appearance+and+is+similar+in+composition+to+some+volatile+light+crude+oils.&pg=PA31|title=The Oil & Gas Industry: A Nontechnical Guide|date=2012|publisher=PennWell Books|isbn=978-1-59370-254-0|pages=31|language=en}}</ref>

The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different [[oil fields]], ranging from as much as 97 percent by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50 percent in the heavier oils and [[bitumen]]s.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}

The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly [[alkane]]s, [[cycloalkane]]s and various [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, while the other organic compounds contain [[nitrogen]], [[oxygen]] and [[sulfur]], and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and [[vanadium]]. Many oil reservoirs contain live bacteria.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Petroleum Microbiology|last1=Ollivier|first1=Bernard|last2=Magot|first2=Michel|date=2005|publisher=American Society of Microbiology|isbn=978-1-55581-758-9|location=Washington, DC|doi=10.1128/9781555817589}}</ref> The exact molecular composition of crude oil varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of [[chemical element]]s varies over fairly narrow limits as follows:<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The chemistry and technology of petroleum|last=G.|first=Speight, J.|date=1999|publisher=Marcel Dekker|isbn=978-0-8247-0217-5|edition=3rd ed., rev. and expanded|location=New York|pages=215–216, 543|oclc=44958948}}</ref>

{| class = "wikitable"
|+ Composition by weight
|-
! Element !! Percent range
|-
|[[Carbon]] || 83 to 85%
|-
|[[Hydrogen]] || 10 to 14%
|-
|[[Nitrogen]] || 0.1 to 2%
|-
|[[Oxygen]] || 0.05 to 1.5%
|-
|[[Sulfur]] || 0.05 to 6.0%
|-
|[[Metal]]s || < 0.1%
|}

Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.<ref name=":2" />

{| class = "wikitable"
|+ Composition by weight
|-
! Hydrocarbon !! Average !! Range
|-
|[[Alkane]]s (paraffins)|| 30% || 15 to 60%
|-
|[[Naphthene]]s || 49% || 30 to 60%
|-
|[[Aromatic]]s || 15% || 3 to 30%
|-
|[[Asphaltene|Asphaltics]] || 6% || remainder
|}

[[File:Total World Oil Reserves Conventional Unconventional.png|thumb|Unconventional resources are much larger than conventional ones.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Alboudwarej|title = Highlighting Heavy Oil|publisher = Oilfield Review|date = Summer 2006|url = http://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/ors06/sum06/heavy_oil.ashx|format = PDF|access-date = July 4, 2012|display-authors = etal|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120411145144/http://www.slb.com/~/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/ors06/sum06/heavy_oil.ashx|archive-date = April 11, 2012|df = mdy-all}}</ref>]]

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish, reddish, or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a "gas cap" over the petroleum, and [[saline water]] which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in a semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the [[Athabasca oil sands]] in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude [[bitumen]]. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, black, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow.<ref>{{cite web|title=Oil Sands – Glossary |work=Mines and Minerals Act |publisher=Government of Alberta |year=2007 |url=http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071101112113/http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp |archive-date=November 1, 2007 |access-date=October 2, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the [[Orinoco oil sands]], although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called [[extra heavy oil]]. These oil sands resources are called [[unconventional oil]] to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and [[Venezuela]] contain an estimated {{convert|3.6|Toilbbl}} of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.<ref>{{cite web|title = Oil Sands in Canada and Venezuela|publisher = Infomine Inc.|year = 2008|url = http://oilsands.infomine.com/countries/|access-date = October 2, 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081219113841/http://oilsands.infomine.com/countries/|archive-date = December 19, 2008|df = mdy-all}}</ref>

Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for refining into [[fuel oil]] and gasoline, both important ''"[[primary energy]]"'' sources. 84 percent by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and [[liquefied petroleum gas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-renewable/oil.html#Howused|title=Crude oil is made into different fuels|publisher=Eia.doe.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823080443/http://www.eia.doe.gov/kids/energyfacts/sources/non-renewable/oil.html|archive-date=2009-08-23|url-status=live|access-date=August 29, 2010}}</ref> The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, [[Oil refinery|oil refineries]] are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using [[fluid catalytic cracking]] to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}

Due to its high [[energy density]], easy transportability and [[oil reserves|relative abundance]], oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many [[chemical]] products, including [[pharmaceutical]]s, [[solvent]]s, [[fertilizer]]s, [[pesticide]]s, and plastics; the 16 percent not used for energy production is converted into these other materials. Petroleum is found in [[porosity|porous]] [[rock formations]] in the upper [[stratum|strata]] of some areas of the [[Earth's crust]]. There is also petroleum in [[tar sands|oil sands (tar sands)]]. Known [[oil reserves]] are typically estimated at around 190 km3 (1.2 [[1000000000000 (number)|trillion]] [[long and short scales|(short scale)]] [[barrel (unit)|barrels]]) without oil sands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html|title=EIA reserves estimates|publisher=Eia.doe.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830033649/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/reserves.html|archive-date=2010-08-30|access-date=August 29, 2010}}</ref> or 595 km3 (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cera.com/aspx/cda/public1/news/pressReleases/pressReleaseDetails.aspx?CID=8444|title=CERA report on total world oil|date=November 14, 2006|publisher=Cera.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125004643/http://www.cera.com/aspx/cda/public1/news/pressReleases/pressReleaseDetails.aspx?CID=8444|archive-date=2010-11-25|access-date=August 29, 2010}}</ref> Consumption is currently around {{convert|84|Moilbbl}} per day, or 4.9 km3 per year, yielding a remaining oil supply of only about 120 years, if current demand remains static.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oilandgasmiddleeast.com/article-8400-peak-oil-does-it-really-matter|title=Peak oil: Does it really matter?|website=Oil & Gas Middle East|language=en|access-date=2020-04-06}}</ref> More recent studies, however, put the number at around 50 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://studies.aljazeera.net/en/dossiers/2015/03/201533183514675179.html|title=Energy Alternatives and the Future of Oil and Gas in the Gulf|website=Al Jazeera Center for Studies|language=en|access-date=2020-04-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/Energy-Voices/2014/0714/How-long-will-world-s-oil-reserves-last-53-years-says-BP|title=How long will world's oil reserves last? 53 years, says BP|date=2014-07-14|work=Christian Science Monitor|access-date=2020-04-06|issn=0882-7729}}</ref>

==Chemistry==
[[File:Octane molecule 3D model.png|thumb|[[Octane]], a [[hydrocarbon]] found in petroleum. Lines represent [[single bond]]s; black spheres represent [[carbon]]; white spheres represent [[hydrogen]].]]

Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different [[hydrocarbon]]s; the most commonly found molecules are [[alkane]]s (paraffins), [[cycloalkane]]s ([[naphthene]]s), [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, or more complicated chemicals like [[asphaltene]]s. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of [[molecule]]s, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and [[viscosity]].

The ''alkanes'', also known as ''paraffins'', are [[Saturated and unsaturated compounds|saturated]] hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only [[carbon]] and [[hydrogen]] and have the general formula CnH2n+2. They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture.

The alkanes from [[pentane]] (C5H12) to [[octane]] (C8H18) are [[oil refinery|refined]] into gasoline, the ones from [[nonane]] (C9H20) to [[hexadecane]] (C16H34) into [[diesel fuel]], [[kerosene]] and [[jet fuel]]. Alkanes with more than 16 carbon atoms can be refined into [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. At the heavier end of the range, [[paraffin wax]] is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while [[asphalt]] has 35 and up, although these are usually [[Fluid catalytic cracking|cracked]] by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either [[flare stack|flared off]], sold as [[liquefied petroleum gas]] under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, butane (C4H10), is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates, because its high vapour pressure assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.

The ''cycloalkanes'', also known as ''naphthenes'', are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.

The ''aromatic hydrocarbons'' are [[degree of unsaturation|unsaturated hydrocarbons]] which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called [[benzene ring]]s, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula CnH2n-6. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are [[carcinogenic]].

These different molecules are separated by [[fractional distillation]] at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example, [[2,2,4-Trimethylpentane|2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (isooctane), widely used in [[gasoline]], has a chemical formula of C8H18 and it reacts with oxygen [[exothermic]]ally:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webmo.net/curriculum/heat_of_combustion/heat_of_combustion_key.html|title=Heat of Combustion of Fuels|publisher=Webmo.net|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708085748/https://www.webmo.net/curriculum/heat_of_combustion/heat_of_combustion_key.html|archive-date=2017-07-08|url-status=live|access-date=August 29, 2010}}</ref>

:2 {{chem|C|8|H|18}}(''l'') + 25 {{chem|O|2}}(''g'') → 16 {{chem|CO|2}}(''g'') + 18 {{chem|H|2|O}}(''g'') (ΔH = −5.51 MJ/mol of octane)

The number of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined by laboratory analysis. The molecules are typically extracted in a [[solvent]], then separated in a [[gas chromatograph]], and finally determined with a suitable [[detector]], such as a [[flame ionization detector]] or a [[mass spectrometer]].<ref>[http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227052412/http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf |date=February 27, 2008 }}. TemaNord 2003:516.</ref> Due to the large number of co-eluted hydrocarbons within oil, many cannot be resolved by traditional gas chromatography and typically appear as a hump in the chromatogram. This [[unresolved complex mixture|Unresolved Complex Mixture]] (UCM) of hydrocarbons is particularly apparent when analysing weathered oils and extracts from tissues of organisms exposed to oil. Some of the components of oil will mix with water: the [[water associated fraction]] of the oil.

Incomplete combustion of petroleum or gasoline results in production of toxic byproducts. Too little oxygen during combustion results in the formation of [[carbon monoxide]]. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from gasoline combustion in car engines usually include [[nitrogen oxide]]s which are responsible for creation of [[photochemical smog]].

==Empirical equations for thermal properties==

===Heat of combustion===
At a constant volume, the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can be approximated as follows:

:<math>Q_v = 12{,}400 - 2{,}100d^2</math>,

where <math>Q_v</math> is measured in calories per gram and <math>d</math> is the [[specific gravity]] at {{convert|60|°F|°C|abbr=on}}.

===Thermal conductivity===
The [[thermal conductivity]] of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as follows:<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.osti.gov/scitech/servlets/purl/446318|title=SciTech Connect: Hot oiling spreadsheet|author=Mansure, A.J.|location= Albuquerque, NM|publisher=Sandia National Labs, Geothermal Research Dept.|journal=Osti.gov|year=1996|doi=10.2172/446318|osti=446318}}</ref>

:<math>K = \frac{1.62}{API}[1-0.0003(t-32)]</math>

where <math>K</math> is measured in BTU{{middot}}°F−1hr−1ft−1 , <math>t</math> is measured in °F and <math>API</math> is degrees API gravity.

===Specific heat===
The specific heat of petroleum oils can be modeled as follows:<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hydroprocessing of heavy oils and residua|date=2007|publisher=CRC Press|others=Speight, James G., Ancheyta Juárez, Jorge|isbn=978-0-8493-7419-7|location=Boca Raton, FL|page=25|oclc=76828908}}</ref>

:<math>c = \frac{1}{d} [0.388+0.00046t]</math>,

where <math>c</math> is measured in BTU/(lb °F), <math>t</math> is the temperature in Fahrenheit and <math>d</math> is the specific gravity at {{convert|60|°F|°C|abbr=on}}.

In units of kcal/(kg·°C), the formula is:

:<math>c = \frac{1}{d} [0.4024+0.00081t]</math>,

where the temperature <math>t</math> is in Celsius and <math>d</math> is the specific gravity at 15 °C.

===Latent heat of vaporization===
The latent heat of vaporization can be modeled under atmospheric conditions as follows:

:<math>L = \frac{1}{d}[110.9 - 0.09t]</math>,

where <math>L</math> is measured in BTU/lb, <math>t</math> is measured in °F and <math>d</math> is the specific gravity at {{convert|60|°F|°C|abbr=on}}.

In units of kcal/kg, the formula is:

:<math>L = \frac{1}{d}[194.4 - 0.162t]</math>,

where the temperature <math>t</math> is in Celsius and <math>d</math> is the specific gravity at 15 °C.<ref>United States Bureau of Standards, "Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products". Miscellaneous Publication No. 97, November 9, 1929.</ref>

==Formation==
=== Fossil petroleum ===
[[File:Treibs&Chlorophyll.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Structure of a vanadium [[porphyrin]] compound (left) extracted from petroleum by [[Alfred E. Treibs]], father of [[organic geochemistry]]. Treibs noted the close structural similarity of this molecule and [[chlorophyll a]] (right).<ref>{{cite journal | author = Treibs, A.E. | title = Chlorophyll- und Häminderivate in organischen Mineralstoffen | journal = Angew. Chem. | year = 1936 | volume = 49 | pages = 682–686 | doi = 10.1002/ange.19360493803 | issue = 38}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Kvenvolden, K.A. | title = Organic geochemistry – A retrospective of its first 70 years | journal = Org. Geochem. | year = 2006 | volume = 37 | pages = 1–11 | doi = 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2005.09.001| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1000677 }}</ref>]]

Petroleum is a [[fossil fuel]] derived from ancient [[fossilized]] [[organic material]]s, such as [[zooplankton]] and [[algae]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2005.09.001|title=Organic geochemistry – A retrospective of its first 70 years|year=2006|last1=Kvenvolden|first1=Keith A.|journal=Organic Geochemistry|volume=37|pages=1–11|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1000677}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Chemistry of fossil fuels and biofuels|last=Schobert|first=Harold H.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-521-11400-4|location=Cambridge|pages=103–130|oclc=795763460}}</ref> Vast amounts of these remains settled to sea or lake bottoms where they were covered in [[Water stagnation|stagnant water]] (water with no dissolved [[oxygen]]) or [[sediment]]s such as [[mud]] and [[silt]] faster than they could [[Decomposition#Anaerobic vs Aerobic|decompose aerobically]]. Approximately 1 [[Metre|m]] below this sediment, water oxygen concentration was low, below 0.1 mg/l, and [[Anoxic waters|anoxic conditions]] existed. Temperatures also remained constant.<ref name=":0" />

As further layers settled to the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions. This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as [[kerogen]], found in various [[oil shale]]s around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous [[hydrocarbon]]s via a process known as [[Catagenesis (geology)|catagenesis]]. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon [[pyrolysis]] in a variety of mainly [[Endothermic process|endothermic]] reactions at high temperature or pressure, or both.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> These phases are described in detail below.

;Anaerobic decay:
In the absence of plentiful oxygen, [[Aerobic organism|''aerobic'' bacteria]] were prevented from decaying the organic matter after it was buried under a layer of sediment or water. However, [[Anaerobic organism|''anaerobic'' bacteria]] were able to reduce [[sulfate]]s and [[nitrate]]s among the matter to [[Hydrogen sulfide|H2S]] and [[Nitrogen|N2]] respectively by using the matter as a source for other reactants. Due to such anaerobic bacteria, at first this matter began to break apart mostly via [[hydrolysis]]: [[polysaccharide]]s and [[protein]]s were hydrolyzed to [[Monosaccharide|simple sugars]] and [[amino acid]]s respectively. These were further anaerobically [[Redox|oxidized]] at an accelerated rate by the [[enzyme]]s of the bacteria: e.g., amino acids went through [[oxidative deamination]] to [[imino acid]]s, which in turn reacted further to [[ammonia]] and [[Keto acid|α-keto acids]]. [[Monosaccharide]]s in turn ultimately decayed to [[Carbon dioxide|CO2]] and [[methane]]. The anaerobic decay products of amino acids, monosaccharides, [[phenols]] and [[aldehyde]]s combined to [[fulvic acid]]s. [[Fat]]s and [[wax]]es were not extensively hydrolyzed under these mild conditions.<ref name=":0" />

;Kerogen formation:
Some phenolic compounds produced from previous reactions worked as [[bactericide]]s and the [[actinomycetales]] order of bacteria also produced antibiotic compounds (e.g., [[streptomycin]]). Thus the action of anaerobic bacteria ceased at about 10 m below the water or sediment. The mixture at this depth contained fulvic acids, unreacted and partially reacted fats and waxes, slightly modified [[lignin]], resins and other hydrocarbons.<ref name=":0" /> As more layers of organic matter settled to the sea or lake bed, intense heat and pressure built up in the lower regions.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Braun|first1=R.L.|last2=Burnham|first2=A.K.|date=June 1993|title=Chemical reaction model for oil and gas generation from type 1 and type 2 kerogen|url=http://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/10169154-cT5xip/|publisher=Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory|doi=10.2172/10169154}}</ref> As a consequence, compounds of this mixture began to combine in poorly understood ways to [[kerogen]]. Combination happened in a similar fashion as [[phenol]] and [[formaldehyde]] molecules react to [[Urea-formaldehyde|urea-formaldehyde resins]], but kerogen formation occurred in a more complex manner due to a bigger variety of reactants. The total process of kerogen formation from the beginning of anaerobic decay is called '''diagenesis''', a word that means a transformation of materials by dissolution and recombination of their constituents.<ref name=":0" />

;Transformation of kerogen into fossil fuels:
Kerogen formation continued to the depth of about 1 [[Kilometre|km]] from the Earth's surface where temperatures may reach around 50 [[Celsius|°C]]. Kerogen formation represents a halfway point between organic matter and fossil fuels: kerogen can be exposed to oxygen, oxidize and thus be lost, or it could be buried deeper inside the [[Crust (geology)|Earth's crust]] and be subjected to conditions which allow it to slowly transform into fossil fuels like petroleum. The latter happened through '''catagenesis''' in which the reactions were mostly [[Radical (chemistry)|radical]] [[Rearrangement reaction|rearrangements]] of kerogen. These reactions took thousands to millions of years and no external reactants were involved. Due to radical nature of these reactions, kerogen reacted towards two classes of products: those with low H/C ratio ([[anthracene]] or products similar to it) and those with high H/C ratio ([[methane]] or products similar to it); i.e., carbon-rich or hydrogen-rich products. Because catagenesis was closed off from external reactants, the resulting composition of the fuel mixture was dependent on the composition of the kerogen via reaction [[stoichiometry]]. 3 main types of kerogen exist: type I (algal), II (liptinic) and III (humic), which were formed mainly from [[algae]], [[plankton]] and [[woody plant]]s (this term includes [[tree]]s, [[shrub]]s and [[liana]]s) respectively.<ref name=":0" />

Catagenesis was [[Pyrolysis|pyrolytic]] despite the fact that it happened at relatively low temperatures (when compared to commercial pyrolysis plants) of 60 to several hundred °C. Pyrolysis was possible because of the long reaction times involved. Heat for catagenesis came from the decomposition of [[Radioactive decay|radioactive]] materials of the crust, especially [[Potassium-40|40K]], [[Thorium-232|232Th]], [[Uranium-235|235U]] and [[Uranium-238|238U]]. The heat varied with [[geothermal gradient]] and was typically 10-30 °C per km of depth from the Earth's surface. Unusual [[magma]] intrusions, however, could have created greater localized heating.<ref name=":0" />

Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an "oil window".<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xwLHnC9qMsgC&pg=PA104 |title=Polar Prospects:A minerals treaty for Antarctica |publisher=United States, Office of Technology Assessment |year=1989 |page=104 |isbn=978-1-4289-2232-7}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Below the minimum temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen. Above the maximum temperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process of [[thermal cracking]]. Sometimes, oil formed at extreme depths may migrate and become trapped at a much shallower level. The [[Athabasca Oil Sands]] are one example of this.<ref name=":0" />

=== Abiogenic petroleum ===
An alternative mechanism to the one described above was proposed by Russian scientists in the mid-1850s, the hypothesis of [[abiogenic petroleum origin]] (petroleum formed by inorganic means), but this is contradicted by geological and [[Geochemistry|geochemical]] evidence.<ref name="glasby2006">{{cite journal |last=Glasby |first=Geoffrey P |date=2006 |title=Abiogenic origin of hydrocarbons: an historical overview |journal=Resource Geology |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=85–98 |url=http://static.scribd.com/docs/j79lhbgbjbqrb.pdf |access-date=2008-01-29 |doi=10.1111/j.1751-3928.2006.tb00271.x |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Abiogenic sources of oil have been found, but never in commercially profitable amounts. "The controversy isn't over whether abiogenic oil reserves exist," said Larry Nation of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. "The controversy is over how much they contribute to Earth's overall reserves and how much time and effort geologists should devote to seeking them out."<ref>{{cite journal |journal=Live Science |title=The Mysterious Origin and Supply of Oil |url=http://www.livescience.com/9404-mysterious-origin-supply-oil.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160127095201/http://www.livescience.com/9404-mysterious-origin-supply-oil.html |archive-date=January 27, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

==Reservoirs==
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2016}}
[[File:Structural Trap (Anticlinal).svg|thumb|A hydrocarbon trap consists of a reservoir rock (yellow) where oil (red) can accumulate, and a caprock (green) that prevents it from egressing.]]
Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form:
* a [[source rock]] rich in [[hydrocarbon]] material buried deeply enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil,
* a [[porous]] and [[permeability (fluid)|permeable]] reservoir rock where it can accumulate,
* a [[caprock]] (seal) or other mechanism to prevent the oil from escaping to the surface. Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves like a three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas above it, although the different layers vary in size between reservoirs. Because most hydrocarbons are less dense than rock or [[water]], they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as [[oil reservoir|reservoirs]]) by impermeable rocks above. However, the process is influenced by underground water flows, causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances downward before becoming trapped in a reservoir. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an [[oil field]] forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by [[drill]]ing and [[pump]]ing.

The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in [[petrochemical]] plants and [[Oil refinery|oil refineries]].

Petroleum has mostly been recovered by [[oil drilling]] (natural petroleum springs are rare). Drilling is carried out after studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary basin analysis, and reservoir characterisation (mainly in terms of the [[porosity]] and [[Permeability (earth sciences)|permeability]] of geologic reservoir structures).<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Guerriero V, etal|year=2012|title=A permeability model for naturally fractured carbonate reservoirs|journal=[[Marine and Petroleum Geology]]|volume=40|pages=115–134|doi=10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2012.11.002}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Guerriero V, etal|year=2011|title=Improved statistical multi-scale analysis of fractures in carbonate reservoir analogues|journal=[[Tectonophysics (journal)|Tectonophysics]]|volume=504|issue=1|pages=14–24|bibcode=2011Tectp.504...14G|doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2011.01.003}}</ref> Recent improvements to technologies have also led to exploitation of other unconventional reserves such as [[oil sands]] and [[oil shale]]. Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil. "Natural lift" production methods that rely on the natural reservoir pressure to force the oil to the surface are usually sufficient for a while after reservoirs are first tapped. In some reservoirs, such as in the Middle East, the natural pressure is sufficient over a long time. The natural pressure in most reservoirs, however, eventually dissipates. Then the oil must be extracted using "[[artificial lift]]" means. Over time, these "primary" methods become less effective and "secondary" production methods may be used. A common secondary method is [[Water injection (oil production)|"waterflood"]] or injection of water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil to the drilled shaft or "wellbore." Eventually "tertiary" or "enhanced" oil recovery methods may be used to increase the oil's flow characteristics by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and other gases or chemicals into the reservoir. In the United States, primary production methods account for less than 40 percent of the oil produced on a daily basis, secondary methods account for about half, and tertiary recovery the remaining 10 percent. Extracting oil (or "bitumen") from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires mining the sand or shale and heating it in a vessel or retort, or using "in-situ" methods of injecting heated liquids into the deposit and then pumping the liquid back out saturated with oil.

===Unconventional oil reservoirs===
{{See also|Unconventional oil|Oil sands|Oil shale reserves}}
Oil-eating bacteria [[biodegradation|biodegrade]] oil that has escaped to the surface. [[Oil sands]] are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in [[Venezuela]]. These two countries have the world's largest deposits of oil sands.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}

On the other hand, [[oil shales]] are source rocks that have not been exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert their trapped hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically speaking, oil shales are not always shales and do not contain oil, but are fined-grain sedimentary rocks containing an insoluble organic solid called [[kerogen]]. The kerogen in the rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes. The method has been known for centuries and was patented in 1694 under British Crown Patent No. 330 covering, "A way to extract and make great quantities of pitch, tar, and oil out of a sort of stone." Although oil shales are found in many countries, the United States has the world's largest deposits.<ref name="Lambertson">{{cite news|url=http://www.cegltd.com/story.asp?story=10092|title=Oil Shale: Ready to Unlock the Rock|last=Lambertson|first=Giles|date=February 16, 2008|access-date=May 21, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711112037/http://www.constructionequipmentguide.com/redirect/10092?story=10092|archive-date=2017-07-11|url-status=live|publisher=Construction Equipment Guide}}</ref>

==Classification==
[[File:Crudes.PNG|thumb|upright=1.6|Some [[Benchmark (crude oil)|marker crudes]] with their [[sulfur]] content (horizontal) and [[API gravity]] (vertical) and relative production quantity.{{citation needed|date=March 2020|reason=Brent shown as sweeter than WTI, yet most sources claim the opposite. That and other claims in image probably need checking and sourcing. Example: http://www.petroleum.co.uk/benchmarks}}]]
{{See also|Benchmark (crude oil)}}
The [[petroleum industry]] generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g., [[West Texas Intermediate]], [[Brent oilfield|Brent]], or [[DME Oman Crude Oil Futures Contract|Oman]]), its [[API gravity]] (an oil industry measure of density), and its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered ''[[Light crude oil|light]]'' if it has low density, ''[[Heavy crude oil|heavy]]'' if it has high density, or ''medium'' if it has a density between that of ''light'' and ''heavy''.<ref>{{cite web
| title = Glossary
| publisher = Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers
| date = 2009
| url = http://www.capp.ca/library/glossary/Pages/default.aspx#l
| access-date = 2020-11-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090827031218/http://www.capp.ca/library/glossary/Pages/default.aspx#l
| archive-date = 2009-08-27
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> Additionally, it may be referred to as ''[[sweet crude oil|sweet]]'' if it contains relatively little sulfur or ''[[sour crude oil|sour]]'' if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commodity-trading-today.com/sour-crude-oil.html|title=Heavy Sour Crude Oil, A Challenge For Refiners|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121001856/http://www.commodity-trading-today.com/sour-crude-oil.html|archive-date=2008-11-21|access-date = 2020-11-29}}</ref>

The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. ''Light'' crude oil is more desirable than ''heavy'' oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while ''sweet'' oil commands a higher price than ''sour'' oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are revealed by the use of [[Crude oil assay]] analysis in petroleum laboratories.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.3184/003685008X395201|title=The Oil Question: Nature and Prognosis|year=2008|last1=Rhodes|first1=Christopher J.|journal=Science Progress|volume=91|issue=4|pages=317–375|pmid=19192735|s2cid=31407897}}</ref>

[[barrel (unit)|Barrels]] from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing [[Benchmark (crude oil)|references]] throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}
* [[West Texas Intermediate]] (WTI), a very high-quality, sweet, light oil delivered at [[Cushing, Oklahoma]] for North American oil
* [[Brent Crude|Brent Blend]], consisting of 15 oils from fields in the [[Brent oilfield|Brent]] and [[Ninian Central Platform|Ninian]] systems in the [[East Shetland Basin]] of the [[North Sea]]. The oil is landed at [[Sullom Voe]] terminal in [[Shetland]]. Oil production from Europe, Africa and Middle Eastern oil flowing West tends to be priced off this oil, which forms a [[Benchmark (crude oil)|benchmark]]
* [[Dubai Crude|Dubai-Oman]], used as benchmark for Middle East sour crude oil flowing to the Asia-Pacific region
* [[Tapis crude|Tapis]] (from [[Malaysia]], used as a reference for light Far East oil)
* Minas (from [[Indonesia]], used as a reference for heavy Far East oil)
* The [[OPEC Reference Basket]], a weighted average of oil blends from various [[OPEC]] (The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) countries
* [[Midway-Sunset Oil Field|Midway Sunset]] Heavy, by which heavy oil in California is priced<ref>{{cite web |url=http://crudemarketing.chevron.com/posted_pricing_daily_california.asp |title=Chevron Crude Oil Marketing – North America Posted Pricing – California |publisher=Crudemarketing.chevron.com |date=May 1, 2007 |access-date=August 29, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607035625/http://crudemarketing.chevron.com/posted_pricing_daily_california.asp |archive-date=June 7, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>{{Not in refs|date=March 2018}}
* [[Western Canadian Select]] the benchmark crude oil for emerging heavy, high TAN (acidic) crudes.<ref name=NRCPetroleumProducts>{{cite report|author=Natural Resources Canada |publisher=Government of Canada |date=May 2011 |isbn=978-1100164366 |title=Canadian Crude Oil, Natural Gas and Petroleum Products: Review of 2009 & Outlook to 2030 |page=9 |url=http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca.energy/files/pdf/eneene/sources/crubru/revrev/pdf/revrev-09-eng.pdf |location=Ottawa |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131003093310/http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/sites/www.nrcan.gc.ca.energy/files/pdf/eneene/sources/crubru/revrev/pdf/revrev-09-eng.pdf |archive-date=October 3, 2013 }}</ref>

There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil—Western Canadian Select—delivered at [[Hardisty, Alberta|Hardisty]], [[Alberta]], and for a Brent Blend delivered at Shetland, it may be a discounted Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of [[Primorsk, Leningrad Oblast|Primorsk]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Light Sweet Crude Oil |work=About the Exchange |publisher=New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) |year=2006 |url=http://www.nymex.com/lsco_fut_descri.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080314074204/http://www.nymex.com/lsco_fut_descri.aspx |archive-date=March 14, 2008 |access-date=April 21, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Once extracted, oil is refined and separated, most easily by [[Continuous distillation#Continuous distillation of crude oil|distillation]], into numerous products for direct use or use in manufacturing, such as [[gasoline]] (petrol), [[diesel fuel|diesel]] and [[kerosene]] to [[asphalt]] and chemical [[reagent]]s ([[ethylene]], [[Propene|propylene]], [[butene]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Suzuki|first1=Takashi|last2=Komatsu|first2=Hidekazu|last3=Tajima|first3=So|last4=Onda|first4=Kouki|last5=Ushiki|first5=Ryuji|last6=Tsukamoto|first6=Sayuri|last7=Kuroiwa|first7=Hiroki|date=2020-06-01|title=Preferential formation of 1-butene as a precursor of 2-butene in the induction period of ethene homologation reaction on reduced MoO3/SiO2 catalyst|journal=Reaction Kinetics, Mechanisms and Catalysis|language=en|volume=130|issue=1|pages=257–272|doi=10.1007/s11144-020-01773-0|issn=1878-5204|s2cid=218513557}}</ref> [[acrylic acid]],<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Naumann d'Alnoncourt|first1=Raoul|last2=Csepei|first2=Lénárd-István|last3=Hävecker|first3=Michael|last4=Girgsdies|first4=Frank|last5=Schuster|first5=Manfred E.|last6=Schlögl|first6=Robert|last7=Trunschke|first7=Annette|year=2014|title=The reaction network in propane oxidation over phase-pure MoVTeNb M1 oxide catalysts|url=https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_1896844_6/component/file_1896843/content|journal=Journal of Catalysis|volume=311|pages=369–385|doi=10.1016/j.jcat.2013.12.008|hdl-access=free|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0014-F434-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hävecker|first1=Michael|last2=Wrabetz|first2=Sabine|last3=Kröhnert|first3=Jutta|last4=Csepei|first4=Lenard-Istvan|last5=Naumann d'Alnoncourt|first5=Raoul|last6=Kolen'Ko|first6=Yury V.|last7=Girgsdies|first7=Frank|last8=Schlögl|first8=Robert|last9=Trunschke|first9=Annette|year=2012|title=Surface chemistry of phase-pure M1 MoVTeNb oxide during operation in selective oxidation of propane to acrylic acid|url=https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_1108560_8/component/file_1402724/content|journal=Journal of Catalysis|volume=285|pages=48–60|doi=10.1016/j.jcat.2011.09.012|hdl-access=free|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0012-1BEB-F}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_1199619_5/component/file_1199618/content|title=Kinetic studies of propane oxidation on Mo and V based mixed oxide catalysts|year=2011}}</ref> [[P-Xylene|para-xylene]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Guixian|last2=Wu|first2=Chao|last3=Ji|first3=Dong|last4=Dong|first4=Peng|last5=Zhang|first5=Yongfu|last6=Yang|first6=Yong|date=2020-04-01|title=Acidity and catalyst performance of two shape-selective HZSM-5 catalysts for alkylation of toluene with methanol|journal=Reaction Kinetics, Mechanisms and Catalysis|language=en|volume=129|issue=2|pages=963–974|doi=10.1007/s11144-020-01732-9|issn=1878-5204|s2cid=213601465}}</ref>) used to make [[plastic]]s, [[pesticide]]s and [[pharmaceuticals]].<ref name="Dixie State College">{{cite web|title=Organic Hydrocarbons: Compounds made from carbon and hydrogen|url=http://cactus.dixie.edu/smblack/chem1010/lecture_notes/2B.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719184614/http://cactus.dixie.edu/smblack/chem1010/lecture_notes/2B.htm|archive-date=July 19, 2011}}</ref>

==Industry==
{{Excerpt|oil industry}}

===Transport===
{{Main|Petroleum transport}}
In the 1950s, shipping costs made up 33 percent of the price of oil transported from the [[Persian Gulf]] to the United States,<ref name="economist.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.economist.com/node/21558456 |title=A liquid market: Thanks to LNG, spare gas can now be sold the world over |date=14 July 2012 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=6 January 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140614054033/http://www.economist.com/node/21558456 |archive-date=June 14, 2014 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> but due to the development of [[supertankers]] in the 1970s, the cost of shipping dropped to only 5 percent of the price of Persian oil in the US.<ref name="economist.com"/> Due to the increase of the value of the crude oil during the last 30 years, the share of the shipping cost on the final cost of the delivered commodity was less than 3% in 2010.

===Price===
[[File:Crude oil prices since 1861.png|thumb|Nominal and inflation-adjusted US dollar price of crude oil, 1861–2015.]]{{Excerpt|oil prices}}

==Uses==
{{Further|Petroleum product}}

The chemical structure of petroleum is [[Heterogeneity|heterogeneous]], composed of hydrocarbon chains of different lengths. Because of this, petroleum may be taken to [[oil refinery|oil refineries]] and the hydrocarbon chemicals separated by [[distillation]] and treated by other [[chemical process]]es, to be used for a variety of purposes. The total cost per plant is about 9 billion dollars.

===Fuels===
The most common [[Fractional distillation|distillation fractions]] of petroleum are [[fuel]]s. Fuels include (by increasing boiling temperature range):<ref name=":3" />

{| class = "wikitable"
|+ Common fractions of petroleum as fuels
|-
! Fraction !! Boiling range °C
|-
|[[Liquefied petroleum gas]] (LPG) || −40
|-
|[[Butane]] || −12 to −1
|-
|[[Gasoline]]/Petrol || −1 to 110
|-
|[[Jet fuel]] || 150 to 205
|-
|[[Kerosene]] || 205 to 260
|-
|[[Fuel oil]] || 205 to 290
|-
|[[Diesel fuel]] || 260 to 315
|}

Petroleum classification according to chemical composition.<ref name="Table 1.2">{{cite book|last1=Simanzhenkov|first1=Vasily|last2=Idem|first2=Raphael|title=Crude Oil Chemistry|date=2003|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-203-01404-2|page=33|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=om8pgoU-KiMC|access-date=10 November 2014}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:186px;" rowspan="2"| Class of petroleum
! colspan="5" | Composition of 250–300 °C fraction, wt. %
|-
! Par.
! Napth
! Arom.
! Wax
! Asph.
|-
| Paraffinic || 46–61 || 22–32 || 12–25 || 1.5–10 || 0–6
|-
| Paraffinic-naphtenic || 42–45 || 38–39 || 16–20 || 1–6 || 0–6
|-
| Naphthenic || 15–26 || 61–76 || 8–13 || Trace || 0–6
|-
| Paraffinic-naphtenic-aromatic || 27–35 || 36–47 || 26–33 || 0.5–1 || 0–10
|-
| Aromatic || 0–8 || 57–78 || 20–25 || 0–0.5 || 0–20
|}

===Other derivatives===
Certain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products:
* [[Alkenes]] (olefins), which can be manufactured into plastics or other compounds
* [[Lubricant]]s (produces light machine oils, [[motor oil]]s, and [[Grease (lubricant)|greases]], adding [[viscosity]] stabilizers as required)
* [[Wax]], used in the packaging of [[frozen food]]s, among others
* [[Sulfur]] or [[sulfuric acid]]. These are useful industrial materials. Sulfuric acid is usually prepared as the acid precursor [[oleum]], a byproduct of [[Hydrodesulfurization|sulfur removal]] from fuels.
* Bulk [[tar]]
* [[Asphalt]]
* [[Petroleum coke]], used in speciality carbon products or as solid fuel
* [[Paraffin wax]]
* [[Aromatic]] [[petrochemical]]s to be used as precursors in other [[chemical]] production

==Use by country==


===Consumption statistics===
<gallery widths="160" heights="140">
File:Global Carbon Emissions.svg|Global fossil carbon emissions, an indicator of consumption, from 1800. {{legend|black|Total}}{{legend|blue|Oil}}
File:World energy consumption.svg|Rate of world energy usage per year from 1970.<ref name="BP-Report-2012">BP: [http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle800.do?categoryId=9037130&contentId=7068669 Statistical Review of World Energy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516003736/http://www.bp.com/sectiongenericarticle800.do?categoryId=9037130&contentId=7068669 |date=May 16, 2013 }}, Workbook (xlsx), London, 2012</ref>
File:Oil consumption per day by region from 1980 to 2006.svg|Daily oil consumption from 1980 to 2006.
File:Oil consumption per day by region from 1980 to 2006 solid3.svg|Oil consumption by percentage of total per region from 1980 to 2006: {{legend|red|US}}{{legend|blue|[[Europe]]}}{{legend|#D1D117|[[Asia]] and [[Oceania]]}}.
File:World oil consumption 1980 to 2007 by region.svg|Oil consumption 1980 to 2007 by region.
</gallery>

===Consumption===
According to the US Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimate for 2017, the world consumes 98.8 million barrels of oil each day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/oil-and-petroleum-products/use-of-oil.php#:~:text=In%202019%2C%20U.S.%20petroleum%20consumption,million%20b%2Fd%20of%20biofuels.&text=The%20transportation%20sector%20accounts%20for%20the%20largest%20share%20of%20U.S.%20petroleum%20consumption.|title = Use of oil - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)}}</ref>
[[File:OilConsumptionpercapita.png|thumb|center|upright=3.4|Oil consumption per capita (darker colors represent more consumption, gray represents no data) ''(source: see file description)''.
{| style="width: 100%; font-size: 1em;"
|-
| valign=top |
{{legend2|#800000| > 0.07}} 
{{legend2|#a52a2a|0.07–0.05}} 
{{legend2|#ff0000|0.05–0.035}} 
{{legend2|#fa8072|0.035–0.025}} 
{{legend2|#f08080|0.025–0.02}}
| valign=top |
{{legend2|#ffb6c1|0.02–0.015}} 
{{legend2|#ffebda|0.015–0.01}} 
{{legend2|#ffebcf|0.01–0.005}} 
{{legend2|#fff8dc|0.005–0.0015}} 
{{legend2|#e6e6fa| < 0.0015}}
|}
]]

This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2011 in thousand [[Barrel (unit)|barrels]] (1000 bbl) per day and in thousand cubic metres (1000 m3) per day:<ref>U.S. Energy Information Administration. [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls Excel file] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006235221/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls |date=October 6, 2008 }} from [http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htm this] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081110134954/http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htm |date=November 10, 2008 }} web page. Table Posted: March 1, 2010</ref><ref>From DSW-Datareport 2008 ("Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevölkerung")</ref>
{| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!Consuming nation 2011
!(1000 bbl/ day)
!(1000 m3/ day)
!Population in millions
!bbl/year per capita
!m3/year per capita
!National production/ consumption
|-
|{{rh}}|[[United States]] 1 || {{convert|18835.5|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 314
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*18835.5/314658)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.51
|-
|{{rh}}|[[People's Republic of China|China]] || {{convert|9790.0|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 1345
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*9790.0/1345750)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.41
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Japan]] 2 || {{convert|4464.1|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 127
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*4464.1/127156)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.03
|-
|{{rh}}|[[India]] 2 || {{convert|3292.2|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 1198
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*3292.2/1198003)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.26
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Russia]] 1 || {{convert|3145.1|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 140
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*3145.1/140873)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 3.35
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Saudi Arabia]] ([[OPEC]]) || {{convert|2817.5|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 27
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2817.5/25720)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 3.64
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Brazil]] || {{convert|2594.2|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 193
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2594.2/193733)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.99
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Germany]] 2 || {{convert|2400.1|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 82
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2400.1/82166)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.06
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Canada]] || {{convert|2259.1|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 33
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2259.1/33573)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 1.54
|-
|{{rh}}|[[South Korea]] 2 || {{convert|2230.2|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 48
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2230.2/48332)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.02
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Mexico]] 1 || {{convert|2132.7|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 109
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*2132.7/109610)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 1.39
|-
|{{rh}}|[[France]] 2|| {{convert|1791.5|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 62
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*1791.5/62342)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.03
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Iran]] ([[OPEC]])|| {{convert|1694.4|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 74
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*1694.4/74195)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 2.54
|-
|{{rh}}|[[United Kingdom]] 1 || {{convert|1607.9|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 61
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*1607.9/61565)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.93
|-
|{{rh}}|[[Italy]] 2|| {{convert|1453.6|oilbbl|m3|1|disp=table}} || 60
|{{convert|{{#expr:(365*1453.6/59870)round1}}|oilbbl|m3|disp=table}} || 0.10
|}
Source: [http://www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=5&pid=5&aid=2 US Energy Information Administration]

Population Data:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/paisesat/main.php |title=IBGE |access-date=August 29, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100904063203/http://www.ibge.gov.br/paisesat/main.php |archive-date=September 4, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

1 [[Peak oil|peak production of oil]] already passed in this state

2 This country is not a major oil producer

===Production===
{{For|oil production by country|List of countries by oil production}}
{{For|oil reserves by country|List of countries by proven oil reserves}}
{{Image frame
| caption=Top oil-producing countries<ref name=EIA2>{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/data/world/petroleum-and-other-liquids/annual-petroleum-and-other-liquids-production?pd=5&p=00000000000000000000000000000000002&u=0&f=A&v=mapbubble&a=-&i=none&vo=value&t=C&g=00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001&l=249-ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1vrvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvvvvvvs&s=63072000000&e=1514764800000&ev=false& |title=Crude oil including lease condensate production (Mb/d) |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |access-date=2020-04-14}}</ref>
| align=center
| content ={{Graph:Chart
| width=400
| height=150
| xAxisTitle=Year
| yAxisTitle=Crude Oil (Mbbl/d)
| yAxisMin = 0
| yAxisMax = 12000
| legend=
| y1Title=Canada
| y2Title=China
| y3Title=Iran
| y4Title=Russia
| y5Title=Saudi Arabia
| y6Title=United States
| type=line
| x=1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016,2017,2018
| y1=1798,1551,1430,1314,1321,1316,1500,1435.202186,1284.728767,1271.150685,1356.230137,1437.622951,1471.052055,1474.219178,1534.928767,1616.23224,1560.09589,1552.999671,1547.980644,1605.225025,1679.0784,1746.194521,1805.271233,1836.674863,1922.394521,1981.084932,1906.635616,1976.893443,2029.172603,2170.6,2305.726027,2398.420765,2368.877597,2525.397101,2628.124781,2579.308861,2579.479849,2740.756164,2900.646575,3137.838798,3325.128767,3613.224658,3677.126027,3679.046448,3976.665753,4343.361644
| y2=1090,1315,1490,1670,1874,2082,2122,2113.852459,2012.438356,2045,2119.60274,2295.669399,2505.164384,2620.287671,2690,2730.319672,2756.791781,2773.999159,2835.00043,2844.663106,2889.801184,2939.287671,2990.049315,3131.338798,3200.342466,3198.178082,3194.994521,3248.762295,3300.004,3389.652055,3408.871233,3485.314208,3608.621918,3672.735068,3735.971233,3790.181967,3795.95863,4078.360274,4052.055616,4074.074317,4163.816712,4208.254795,4277.693151,3983.480874,3821.230137,3772.876712
|
y3=5861,6021.6,5350.1,5882.9,5662.8,5241.7,3168,1661.967213,1379.956164,2213.838356,2439.756164,2174.31694,2250.474183,2034.986301,2298.057534,2240.030055,2809.873973,3087.998989,3311.999723,3429.098361,3539.864232,3618.054795,3643.219178,3685.710383,3664.178082,3633.767123,3557.164384,3696.3,3723.70137,3444.30137,3742.794973,4001.434426,4138.575342,4027.808219,3911.890411,4050.273224,4037.038348,4080.418951,4054,3386.849727,3113.29863,3239.068493,3293.189041,4151.166667,4468.69589,4254.827397
|
y4=,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,7631.937156,6730.008721,6135.084932,5995.221918,5849.874317,5920.084932,5853.882192,6078.983562,6479.202,6917,7408.173,8132.198795,8804.70765,9043.082192,9247.205479,9437.063449,9356.783607,9495.364932,9694.114466,9773.517808,9921.60929,10053.84384,10107.08767,10252.85479,10551.49727,10580.19178,10758.66027
|
y5=7596,8480,7075,8577,9245,8301,9532,9900.15847,9814.947945,6482.991781,5085.89589,4663.202186,3387.821918,4870.016438,4264.991781,5085.95082,5064.156164,6410.003595,8114.995863,8332.19425,8198.232877,8119.873973,8231.232877,8218.117486,8362.175342,8388.90411,7833.391781,8403.79918,8031.09589,7634.39589,8775,9100.819672,9550.136986,9152.328767,8721.506849,9261.25097,8250.112447,8900,9458.356164,9832.322404,9693.150685,9735.342466,10168.24658,10460.71038,10133.75342,10425.13699
|
y6=9207.953,8774.205,8374.737,8131.639,8244.562,8707.441,8551.534,8596.625757,8571.572515,8648.534345,8687.668397,8878.950702,8971.377997,8680.14249,8348.978025,8139.688511,7613.07671,7355.307356,7416.545101,7171.124525,6846.664918,6661.627397,6559.589041,6464.557377,6451.435616,6251.909589,5881.460274,5821.601095,5801.402738,5744.076712,5649.238356,5440.915301,5183.712329,5085.865786,5073.898375,4999.669254,5356.695871,5484.267945,5666.619277,6518.316888,7492.879452,8786.865679,9438.734255,8839.297746,9351.830356,10990.46488
}} }}
[[File:Oil producing countries map.png|thumb|center|upright=3.4|{{center|World map with [[List of countries by oil production|countries by oil production]] (information from 2006–2012).}}]]

In petroleum industry parlance, ''production'' refers to the quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal creation of the product.

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
!
! Country
! Oil Production ([[Barrel (unit)|bbl]]/day, 2016)<ref name=EIA>{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/data/browser/#/?pa=00000000000000000000000000000000002&c=ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1vrvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvvvvuvo&ct=0&tl_id=5-A&vs=INTL.57-1-AFG-TBPD.A&vo=0&v=H&start=2014&end=2016 |title=Production of Crude Oil including Lease Condensate 2016 |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |format=CVS download |access-date=May 30, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150522001611/http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/data/browser/#/?pa=00000000000000000000000000000000002&c=ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1vrvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvvvvuvo&ct=0&tl_id=5-A&vs=INTL.57-1-AFG-TBPD.A&vo=0&v=H&start=2014&end=2016 |archive-date=May 22, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
|-
| 1|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Russia}}|| 10,551,497
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 2|| style="text-align:left;" |{{flag|Saudi Arabia}} ([[OPEC]])|| 10,460,710
|-
| 3|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|United States}}|| 8,875,817
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 4|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Iraq}} ([[OPEC]])|| 4,451,516
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 5|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Iran}} ([[OPEC]])|| 3,990,956
|-
| 6|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|China||name=China, People's Republic of}}|| 3,980,650
|-
| 7|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Canada}}|| 3,662,694
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 8|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|United Arab Emirates}} ([[OPEC]])|| 3,106,077
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 9|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Kuwait}} ([[OPEC]])|| 2,923,825
|-
| 10|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Brazil}}|| 2,515,459
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 11|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Venezuela}} ([[OPEC]])|| 2,276,967
|-
| 12|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Mexico}}|| 2,186,877
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 13|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Nigeria}} ([[OPEC]])|| 1,999,885
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 14|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Angola}} ([[OPEC]])|| 1,769,615
|-
| 15|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Norway}}|| 1,647,975
|-
| 16|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Kazakhstan}}|| 1,595,199
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 17|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Qatar}} ([[OPEC]])|| 1,522,902
|- style="background:#c0d9d9;"
| 18|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Algeria}} ([[OPEC]])|| 1,348,361
|-
| 19|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|Oman}}|| 1,006,841
|-
| 20|| style="text-align:left;"|{{flag|United Kingdom}}|| 939,760
|}

===Exportation===
{{See also|Fossil fuel exporters|OPEC}}
[[File:2014 Petroleum Countries Export Treemap.png|thumb|center|upright=2.75|{{center|Petroleum Exports by Country (2014) from [http://atlas.cid.harvard.edu/explore/tree_map/export/show/all/2709/2014/ Harvard Atlas of Economic Complexity].}}]]
[[File:Oil exports.PNG|thumb|center|upright=3.4|{{center|Oil exports by country (barrels per day, 2006).}}]]

In order of net exports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand [[Barrel (unit)|bbl]]/[[Day|d]] and thousand m3/d:
{| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!#
!Exporting nation
!103bbl/d (2011)
!103m3/d (2011)
!103bbl/d (2009)
!103m3/d (2009)
!103bbl/d (2006)
!103m3/d (2006)
|-
|1
|{{rh}}|[[Saudi Arabia]] (OPEC)
|8,336
|1,325
|7,322
|1,164
|8,651
|1,376
|-
|2
|{{rh}}|[[Russia]] 1
|7,083
|1,126
|7,194
|1,144
|6,565
|1,044
|-
|3
|{{rh}}|[[Iran]] (OPEC)
|2,540
|403
|2,486
|395
|2,519
|401
|-
|4
|{{rh}}|[[United Arab Emirates]] (OPEC)
|2,524
|401
|2,303
|366
|2,515
|400
|-
|5
|{{rh}}|[[Kuwait]] (OPEC)
|2,343
|373
|2,124
|338
|2,150
|342
|-
|6
|{{rh}}|[[Nigeria]] (OPEC)
|2,257
|359
|1,939
|308
|2,146
|341
|-
|7
|{{rh}}|[[Iraq]] (OPEC)
|1,915
|304
|1,764
|280
|1,438
|229
|-
|8
|{{rh}}|[[Angola]] (OPEC)
|1,760
|280
|1,878
|299
|1,363
|217
|-
|9
|{{rh}}|[[Norway]] 1
|1,752
|279
|2,132
|339
|2,542
|404
|-
|10
|{{rh}}|[[Venezuela]] (OPEC) 1
|1,715
|273
|1,748
|278
|2,203
|350
|-
|11
|{{rh}}|[[Algeria]] (OPEC) 1
|1,568
|249
|1,767
|281
|1,847
|297
|-
|12
|{{rh}}|[[Qatar]] (OPEC)
|1,468
|233
|1,066
|169
| –
| –
|-
|13
|{{rh}}|[[Canada]] 2
|1,405
|223
|1,168
|187
|1,071
|170
|-
|14
|{{rh}}|[[Kazakhstan]]
|1,396
|222
|1,299
|207
|1,114
|177
|-
|15
|{{rh}}|[[Azerbaijan]] 1
|836
|133
|912
|145
|532
|85
|-
|16
|{{rh}}|[[Trinidad and Tobago]] 1
|177
|112
|167
|160
|155
|199
|}
Source: [http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?topL=exp US Energy Information Administration]

1 [[Peak oil|peak production]] already passed in this state

2 Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging {{convert|2500000|oilbbl/d|abbr=on}} in August 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m.htm |title=U.S. Imports by Country of Origin |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |access-date=21 February 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180103234600/https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/pet_move_impcus_a2_nus_ep00_im0_mbblpd_m.htm |archive-date=January 3, 2018 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately {{convert|84|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}}.

===Importation===
[[File:Oil imports.PNG|thumb|center|upright=3.4|{{center|Oil imports by country (barrels per day, 2006).}}]]

In order of net imports in 2011, 2009 and 2006 in thousand [[Barrel (unit)|bbl]]/[[Day|d]] and thousand m3/d:
{| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!#
!Importing nation
!103bbl/day (2011)
!103m3/day (2011)
!103bbl/day (2009)
!103m3/day (2009)
!103bbl/day (2006)
!103m3/day (2006)
|-
|1
|{{rh}}|United States 1
|8,728
|1,388
|9,631
|1,531
|12,220
|1,943
|-
|2
|{{rh}}|China
|5,487
|872
|4,328
|688
|3,438
|547
|-
|3
|{{rh}}|Japan
|4,329
|688
|4,235
|673
|5,097
|810
|-
|4
|{{rh}}|India
|2,349
|373
|2,233
|355
|1,687
|268
|-
|5
|{{rh}}|Germany
|2,235
|355
|2,323
|369
|2,483
|395
|-
|6
|{{rh}}|South Korea
|2,170
|345
|2,139
|340
|2,150
|342
|-
|7
|{{rh}}|France
|1,697
|270
|1,749
|278
|1,893
|301
|-
|8
|{{rh}}|Spain
|1,346
|214
|1,439
|229
|1,555
|247
|-
|9
|{{rh}}|Italy
|1,292
|205
|1,381
|220
|1,558
|248
|-
|10
|{{rh}}|Singapore
|1,172
|186
|916
|146
|787
|125
|-
|11
|{{rh}}|Republic of China (Taiwan)
|1,009
|160
|944
|150
|942
|150
|-
|12
|{{rh}}|Netherlands
|948
|151
|973
|155
|936
|149
|-
|13
|{{rh}}|Turkey
|650
|103
|650
|103
|576
|92
|-
|14
|{{rh}}|Belgium
|634
|101
|597
|95
|546
|87
|-
|15
|{{rh}}|Thailand
|592
|94
|538
|86
|606
|96
|}
Source: [http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?topL=imp US Energy Information Administration]

{{smalldiv|1=
1 [[Peak oil|peak production of oil]] expected in 2020<ref name=eia2014er>"[http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/early_production.cfm AEO2014 Early Release Overview] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220215802/http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/early_production.cfm |date=December 20, 2013 }}" [http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/pdf/0383er(2014).pdf Early report] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220211420/http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/aeo/er/pdf/0383er(2014).pdf |date=December 20, 2013 }} ''[[US Energy Information Administration]]'', December 2013. Accessed: December 2013. Quote:"Domestic production of crude oil .. increases sharply .. is expected to level off and then slowly decline after 2020"</ref>
}}

===Non-producing consumers===
Countries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption.

{| style="text-align:right;" class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!#
!Consuming nation
!(bbl/day)
!(m3/day)
|-
|1
|{{rh}}|Japan
|5,578,000
|886,831
|-
|2
|{{rh}}|Germany
|2,677,000
|425,609
|-
|3
|{{rh}}|South Korea
|2,061,000
|327,673
|-
|4
|{{rh}}|France
|2,060,000
|327,514
|-
|5
|{{rh}}|Italy
|1,874,000
|297,942
|-
|6
|{{rh}}|Spain
|1,537,000
|244,363
|-
|7
|{{rh}}|Netherlands
|946,700
|150,513
|-
|8
|{{rh}}|Turkey
|575,011
|91,663
|}
Source: [https://web.archive.org/web/20120127201212/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2175rank.html CIA World Factbook]{{Failed verification|date=July 2010|reason=maybe factbook changed? suggest clarify this table by using a factbook snapshot of a specific year}}

==Environmental effects==

{{Main|Environmental impact of the petroleum industry}}
[[File:Dieselrainbow.jpg|thumb|Diesel fuel spill on a road.]]

Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment need not be the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities ([[seismology|seismic]] exploration, [[Boring (earth)|drilling]], extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such as [[petroleum seep|seeps]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2010-05-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820012319/http://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/ |archive-date=August 20, 2008 |df=mdy-all }} Natural Oil and Gas Seeps in California</ref> and [[tar pit]]s are examples of areas that petroleum affects without man's involvement.

===Climate change===
{{As of|2018}}, about a quarter of annual global [[greenhouse gas emissions]] is the carbon dioxide from burning petroleum (plus methane leaks from the industry).<ref>{{Cite web|title=CO2 emissions by fuel|url=https://ourworldindata.org/emissions-by-fuel|access-date=2021-01-22|website=Our World in Data}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Methane Tracker 2020 – Analysis|url=https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-tracker-2020|access-date=2021-01-22|website=IEA|language=en-GB}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|12.4 gigatonnes petroleum(and about 1Gt CO2eq from methane)/50 gigatonnes total}} Along with the burning of coal, petroleum combustion is the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO2.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marland|first1=Gregg|last2=Houghton|first2=R. A.|last3=Gillett|first3=Nathan P.|last4=Conway|first4=Thomas J.|last5=Ciais|first5=Philippe|last6=Buitenhuis|first6=Erik T.|last7=Field|first7=Christopher B.|last8=Raupach|first8=Michael R.|last9=Quéré|first9=Corinne Le|date=2007-11-20|title=Contributions to accelerating atmospheric CO2 growth from economic activity, carbon intensity, and efficiency of natural sinks|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=104|issue=47|pages=18866–18870|doi=10.1073/pnas.0702737104|issn=0027-8424|pmc=2141868|pmid=17962418|bibcode=2007PNAS..10418866C|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zheng|first1=Bo|last2=Zaehle|first2=Sönke|last3=Wright|first3=Rebecca|last4=Wiltshire|first4=Andrew J.|last5=Walker|first5=Anthony P.|last6=Viovy|first6=Nicolas|last7=Werf|first7=Guido R. van der|last8=Laan-Luijkx|first8=Ingrid T. van der|last9=Tubiello|first9=Francesco N.|date=2018-12-05|title=Global Carbon Budget 2018|journal=Earth System Science Data|language=en|volume=10|issue=4|pages=2141–2194|doi=10.5194/essd-10-2141-2018|bibcode=2018ESSD...10.2141L|issn=1866-3508|doi-access=free}}</ref> Atmospheric CO2 has risen over the last 150 years to current levels of over 415 [[Parts-per notation|ppmv]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Monitoring Laboratory – Carbon Cycle Greenhouse Gases|url=https://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/|last=US Department of Commerce|first=NOAA|website=www.esrl.noaa.gov|language=EN-US|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref> from the [[Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere#Past concentration|180–300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years]].<ref>[http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/historical-trends-in-carbon-dioxide-concentrations-and-temperature-on-a-geological-and-recent-time-scale Historical trends in carbon dioxide concentrations and temperature, on a geological and recent time scale] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724175732/http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/historical-trends-in-carbon-dioxide-concentrations-and-temperature-on-a-geological-and-recent-time-scale |date=July 24, 2011 }}. (June 2007). In UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5314592.stm Deep ice tells long climate story] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070830193909/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5314592.stm |date=August 30, 2007 }}. Retrieved 19:14, February 19, 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Mitchell, John F.B. |year= 1989 |title= The "Greenhouse" Effect and Climate Change |journal= Reviews of Geophysics |volume= 27 |issue= 1 |pages= 115–139 |doi= 10.1029/RG027i001p00115 |bibcode= 1989RvGeo..27..115M |url= http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/envs501/downloads/Mitchell |archive-url= http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20080904222649/http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/envs501/downloads/Mitchell |url-status=dead |archive-date= 2008-09-04 |citeseerx= 10.1.1.459.471 }}</ref> The rise in Arctic temperature has reduced the minimum [[Arctic ice pack]] to {{convert|4320000|km2|abbr=on|}}, a loss of almost half since satellite measurements started in 1979.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Arctic Sea Ice Minimum |url=https://climate.nasa.gov/vital-signs/arctic-sea-ice|last=Change|first=NASA Global Climate|website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=McKibben |first1=Bill |title=Eaarth : making a life on a tough new planet |date=2010 |publisher=Times Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-312-54119-4 |edition=1st}}</ref>

[[File:Carbonate system of seawater.svg|thumb|Seawater acidification.]]
[[Ocean acidification]] is the increase in the acidity of the Earth's oceans caused by the uptake of [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}) from the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]]. This increase in acidity inhibits all marine life—having a greater impact on smaller organisms as well as shelled organisms (see [[scallops]]).<ref>{{cite news|date=February 26, 2014|title=Acidic ocean deadly for Vancouver Island scallop industry|work=cbc.ca|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/acidic-ocean-deadly-for-vancouver-island-scallop-industry-1.2551662|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427195837/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/acidic-ocean-deadly-for-vancouver-island-scallop-industry-1.2551662|archive-date=April 27, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Extraction===
Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). Oil is often recovered as a water-in-oil emulsion, and [[specialty chemicals]] called [[demulsifiers]] are used to separate the oil from water. Oil extraction is costly and often environmentally damaging. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturb the surrounding marine environment.<ref>[http://www.offshore-environment.com/discharges.html Waste discharges during the offshore oil and gas activity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926140659/http://www.offshore-environment.com/discharges.html |date=September 26, 2009 }} by Stanislave Patin, tr. Elena Cascio</ref>

===Oil spills===
{{Further|Oil spill|List of oil spills}}
{{multiple image
| align = left
| direction = vertical
| width = 230
| image1 = Oil-spill.jpg
| caption1 = Kelp after an oil spill.
| image2 = Oil Slick in the Timor Sea September-2009.jpg
| caption2 = Oil slick from the [[Montara oil spill]] in the Timor Sea, September, 2009.
| image3 = PrestigeVolunteersInGaliciaCoast.jpg
| caption3 = Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the [[Prestige oil spill]].
}}
Crude oil and refined fuel [[Oil spill|spills]] from [[tanker (ship)|tanker ship]] accidents have damaged natural [[ecosystem]]s and human livelihoods in [[Alaska]], the [[Gulf of Mexico]], the [[Galápagos Islands]], France and many [[List of oil spills|other places]].

The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]], [[SS Atlantic Empress]], [[Amoco Cadiz]]). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the [[Exxon Valdez oil spill|''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill]].

Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin [[oil slick]] which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly [[bulldozed]] around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower. The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the {{SS|Torrey Canyon}} wreck produced poor results;<ref>[[Torrey Canyon oil spill|Torrey Canyon bombing by the Navy and RAF]]</ref> modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the [[Prestige oil spill|''Prestige'' oil spill]] or the [[MV Erika|''Erika'']] oil spill.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.total.com/en/group/news/special_report_erika/erika_measures_total/erika_pumping_cargo_11379.htm |title=Pumping of the Erika cargo |publisher=Total.com |access-date=August 29, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119225756/http://www.total.com/en/group/news/special_report_erika/erika_measures_total/erika_pumping_cargo_11379.htm |archive-date=November 19, 2008 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen heterocyclic compounds, such as [[pyridine]], [[picoline]], and [[quinoline]] are reported as contaminants associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been found at legacy [[creosote|wood treatment]] sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such as ''[[Micrococcus]]'', ''[[Arthrobacter]]'', and ''[[Rhodococcus]]'' have been shown to degrade these contaminants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Sims |first1=Gerald K. |last2= O'Loughlin |first2= Edward J. |last3= Crawford |first3= Ronald L. |year= 1989 |title= Degradation of pyridines in the environment |journal= Critical Reviews in Environmental Control |volume= 19 |issue= 4 |pages= 309–340 |doi= 10.1080/10643388909388372 }}</ref>

===Tarballs===
A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused with [[tar]], which is a man-made product derived from pine trees or refined from petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are an aquatic [[pollutant]] in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example in the Santa Barbara Channel of California<ref name="itah">{{cite journal |authors=Itah A.Y. and Essien J.P. |date=Oct 2005 |title=Growth Profile and Hydrocarbonoclastic Potential of Microorganisms Isolated from Tarballs in the Bight of Bonny, Nigeria |journal=World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=21 |issue=6–7 |pages=1317–1322 |doi=10.1007/s11274-004-6694-z |s2cid=84888286 }}</ref><ref name="hostettler">{{cite journal |last1=Hostettler |first1=Frances D. |last2=Rosenbauer |first2=Robert J. |last3=Lorenson |first3=Thomas D. |last4=Dougherty |first4=Jennifer |year=2004 |title=Geochemical characterization of tarballs on beaches along the California coast. Part I – Shallow seepage impacting the Santa Barbara Channel Islands, Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa and San Miguel |journal=Organic Geochemistry |volume=35 |issue=6 |pages=725–746 |doi=10.1016/j.orggeochem.2004.01.022}}</ref> or in the Gulf of Mexico off Texas.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/texas-primer-tar-ball |author=Drew Jubera |date=August 1987 |title=Texas Primer: The Tar Ball |magazine=Texas Monthly |access-date=2014-10-20 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707102758/http://www.texasmonthly.com/story/texas-primer-tar-ball |archive-date=July 7, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Their concentration and features have been used to assess the extent of [[oil spills]]. Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin,<ref>{{cite journal |authors= Knap Anthony H, Burns Kathryn A, Dawson Rodger, Ehrhardt Manfred, and Palmork Karsten H |date=December 1984 |title=Dissolved/dispersed hydrocarbons, tarballs and the surface microlayer: Experiences from an IOC/UNEP Workshop in Bermuda |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |volume=17 |issue=7 |pages=313–319 |doi=10.1016/0025-326X(86)90217-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhendi |last2=Fingas |first2=Merv |last3=Landriault |first3=Michael |last4=Sigouin |first4=Lise |last5=Castle |first5=Bill |last6=Hostetter |first6=David |last7=Zhang |first7=Dachung |last8=Spencer |first8=Brad |date=July 1998 |title=Identification and Linkage of Tarballs from the Coasts of Vancouver Island and Northern California Using GC/MS and Isotopic Techniques |journal=Journal of High Resolution Chromatography |volume=21 |issue=7 |pages=383–395 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-4168(19980701)21:7<383::AID-JHRC383>3.0.CO;2-3}}</ref> and tarballs themselves may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents.<ref name="hostettler" /> They are slowly decomposed by bacteria, including ''[[Chromobacterium violaceum]]'', ''[[Cladosporium resinae]]'', ''[[Bacillus submarinus]]'', ''[[Micrococcus varians]]'', ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'', ''[[Candida marina]]'' and ''[[Saccharomyces estuari]]''.<ref name="itah" />

===Whales===
James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from [[extinction]] by providing an inexpensive substitute for [[whale oil]], thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat [[whaling]].<ref>[http://newscotland1398.ca/99/gesner-whales.html How Capitalism Saved the Whales] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120315153109/http://newscotland1398.ca/99/gesner-whales.html |date=March 15, 2012 }} by James S. Robbins, ''The Freeman'', August, 1992.</ref>

==Alternatives==
{{Further|Renewable energy}}

In the United States in 2007 about 70 percent of petroleum was used for transportation (e.g. gasoline, diesel, jet fuel), 24 percent by industry (e.g. production of plastics), 5 percent for residential and commercial uses, and 2 percent for electricity production.<ref>[http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pecss_diagram.html "U.S. Primary Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100506022627/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pecss_diagram.html |date=May 6, 2010 }}. Energy Information Administration</ref> Outside of the US, a higher proportion of petroleum tends to be used for electricity.<ref>{{cite web| title=Power Sector Development and Environmental Emissions in Selected South Asian Countries| last=Shrestha| first=Ram M.| date=13 September 2006| url=http://www.rrcap.ait.ac.th/male/Meeting%20Document/RSC3_2-5_Power%20Sector%20.pdf}}</ref>

===Vehicle fuels===
{{Main|Alternative fuel vehicle|Hydrogen economy|Green vehicle}}Petroleum-based vehicle fuels can be replaced by either alternative fuels, or other methods of propulsion such as [[Electric motor|electric]] or [[Nuclear power|nuclear]].[[File:Piracicaba 10 2008 151 Gast station selling four fuels.jpg|right|thumb|[[Brazil]]ian fuel station with four [[alternative fuel]]s for sale: [[diesel fuel|diesel]] (B3), [[gasohol]] ([[Gasohol#E20, E25|E25]]), [[ethanol fuel|neat ethanol]] ([[gasohol#E100|E100]]), and [[compressed natural gas]] (CNG).]]

Alternative fuel vehicles refers to both:
* Vehicles that use [[alternative fuel]]s used in standard or modified [[internal combustion engine]]s such as [[natural gas vehicle]]s, [[neat ethanol vehicle]]s, [[flexible-fuel vehicle]]s, [[biodiesel]]-powered vehicles, propane autogas, and [[Hydrogen internal combustion engine vehicle|hydrogen vehicles]].
* Vehicles with advanced propulsion systems that reduce or substitute petroleum use such as [[battery electric vehicle]]s, [[plug-in hybrid electric vehicle]]s, [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s, and [[hydrogen vehicle|hydrogen]] [[fuel cell vehicle]]s.

===Industrial oils===
Biological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as [[Bioplastic]] production.<ref>[http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2003646852_bioprocessing02.html Bioprocessing] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080723232638/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/businesstechnology/2003646852_bioprocessing02.html |date=July 23, 2008 }} ''Seattle Times'' (2003)</ref>

===Electricity===
{{Main|Alternative energy|Nuclear power|Renewable energy}}
In oil producing countries with little refinery capacity, oil is sometimes burned to produce electricity.

== International relations ==
Control of petroleum production has been a significant driver of international relations during much of the 20th and 21st centuries.<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|date=2020-09-17|title=Is it the end of the oil age?|work=The Economist|url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2020/09/17/is-it-the-end-of-the-oil-age|access-date=2020-12-31|issn=0013-0613}}</ref> Organizations like OPEC have played an outsized role in international politics. Some historians and commentators have called this the "[[Age of Oil]]"<ref name=":4" /> With the rise of [[renewable energy]] and addressing [[climate change]] some commentators expect a realignment of international power away from [[petrostate]]s.

=== Conflict ===
{{Main|oil war|Petro-aggression}}
Petroleum production is tightly linked with conflict:<ref>{{Cite web|title=Linking Oil and War: Review of 'Petro-Aggression'|url=https://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2013/11/linking-oil-war-review-petro-aggression/|access-date=2020-12-31|website=New Security Beat|language=en-US}}</ref> whether through direct aggression such as the U.S. invasion of Iraq, trade wars such as [[2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war|the 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war]], or by fueling conflict in regions such as funding [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] in the [[Syrian civil war]].

=== OPEC ===
{{Excerpt|OPEC}}

==Future production==
[[File:US Crude Oil Production and Imports.svg|right|thumb|US oil production and imports, 1910–2012.]]{{Update section|date=February 2021}}
[[Consumption function|Consumption]] in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries has been abundantly pushed by automobile sector growth. The [[1980s oil glut|1985–2003 oil glut]] even fueled the sales of low fuel economy vehicles in [[OECD]] countries. The 2008 economic crisis seems to have had some impact on the sales of such vehicles; still, in 2008 oil consumption showed a small increase.

In 2016 Goldman Sachs predicted lower demand for oil due to emerging economies concerns, especially China.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ft.com/content/e178653e-e517-11e5-bc31-138df2ae9ee6|title=Goldman Sachs says commodity rally is unlikely to last|last=Hume|first=Neil|date=2016-03-08|newspaper=Financial Times|issn=0307-1766|access-date=2016-03-08}}</ref> The [[BRICS]] (Brasil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) countries might also kick in, as China briefly had the largest automobile market in December 2009.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7879372.stm |title= China's car industry overtakes US |author= Chris Hogg |date= February 10, 2009 |work= BBC News |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111019234900/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7879372.stm |archive-date= October 19, 2011 |df= mdy-all }}</ref> In the long term, uncertainties linger; the [[OPEC]] believes that the OECD countries will push low consumption policies at some point in the future; when that happens, it will definitely curb oil sales, and both OPEC and the [[Energy Information Administration]] (EIA) kept lowering their 2020 consumption estimates during the past five years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.opec.org/library/World%20Oil%20Outlook/pdf/WOO2008.pdf |title=World Oil Outlook 2008 |author=OPEC Secretariat |year=2008 |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407091227/http://www.opec.org/library/World%20Oil%20Outlook/pdf/WOO2008.pdf |archive-date=April 7, 2009 }}</ref> A detailed review of [[International Energy Agency]] oil projections have revealed that revisions of world oil production, price and investments have been motivated by a combination of demand and supply factors.<ref name="Wachtmeister2018">{{cite journal|last1=Wachtmeister|first1=Henrik|last2=Henke|first2=Petter|last3=Höök|first3=Mikael|title=Oil projections in retrospect: Revisions, accuracy and current uncertainty|journal=Applied Energy|date=2018|volume=220|pages=138–153|doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.03.013|doi-access=free}}</ref> All together, Non-OPEC conventional projections have been fairly stable the last 15 years, while downward revisions were mainly allocated to OPEC. Recent upward revisions are primarily a result of US [[tight oil]].

Production will also face an increasingly complex situation; while OPEC countries still have large reserves at low production prices, newly found reservoirs often lead to higher prices; offshore giants such as [[Tupi oil field|Tupi]], Guara and [[Tiber oilfield|Tiber]] demand high investments and ever-increasing technological abilities. Subsalt reservoirs such as Tupi were unknown in the twentieth century, mainly because the industry was unable to probe them. [[Enhanced Oil Recovery]] (EOR) techniques (example: [[Daqing Field|DaQing]], China<ref>{{cite web |url= http://en.ce.cn/Insight/200610/16/t20061016_8980162.shtml |title= Daqing Oilfield rejuvenated by virtue of technology |author= Ni Weiling |date= October 16, 2006 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111212081616/http://en.ce.cn/Insight/200610/16/t20061016_8980162.shtml |archive-date= December 12, 2011 |df= mdy-all }}</ref>) will continue to play a major role in increasing the world's recoverable oil.

The expected availability of petroleum resources has always been around 35 years or even less since the start of the modern exploration. The [[oil constant]], an insider pun in the German industry, refers to that effect.<ref>Samuel Schubert, Peter Slominski UTB, 2010: Die Energiepolitik der EU Johannes Pollak, 235 Seiten, p. 20</ref>

A growing number of divestment campaigns from major funds pushed by newer generations who question the sustainability of petroleum may hinder the financing of future oil prospection and production.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-01-27|title=Rating agency S&P warns 13 oil and gas companies they risk downgrades as renewables pick up steam|url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2021/jan/27/rating-agency-sp-warns-13-oil-and-gas-companies-they-risk-downgrades-as-renewables-pick-up-steam|access-date=2021-01-27|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

===Peak oil===
{{Main|Peak oil}}
[[File:GlobalPeakOilForecast.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Global peak oil forecast.]]
Peak oil is a term applied to the projection that future petroleum production (whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production) will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted. The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://energycrisis.org/de/lecture.html |title= Peak Oil Presentation at the Technical University of Clausthal |author= Campbell CJ |date= December 2000 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070705152332/http://energycrisis.org/de/lecture.html |archive-date= July 5, 2007 |df= mdy-all }}</ref> However, this does not mean that potential oil production has surpassed oil demand.

It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in accounting of global oil reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iags.org/n0331043.htm |title=New study raises doubts about Saudi oil reserves |publisher=Iags.org |date=March 31, 2004 |access-date=August 29, 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529211546/http://www.iags.org/n0331043.htm |archive-date=May 29, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Based on available production data, proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world to be in years 1989, 1995, or 1995–2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s, and the consequent reduction in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized after the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly drops off.<ref>[http://www.oildecline.com/ Peak Oil Info and Strategies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617184210/http://www.oildecline.com/ |date=June 17, 2012 }} "The only uncertainty about peak oil is the time scale, which is difficult to predict accurately."</ref> The peak is also a moving target as it is now measured as "liquids", which includes synthetic fuels, instead of just conventional oil.<ref>[http://www.peakoil.net/files/Peak_Oil_the_eventual_end.pdf "Peak Oil": The Eventual End of the Oil Age] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120526132411/http://www.peakoil.net/files/Peak_Oil_the_eventual_end.pdf |date=May 26, 2012 }} p. 12</ref>

In 2020, according to [[BP#Climate policy|BP's Energy Outlook 2020]], peak oil had been reached, due to the changing energy landscape coupled with the [[Financial market impact of the COVID-19 pandemic#Oil prices|economic toll of the COVID-19 pandemic]].

While there has been much focus historically on peak oil supply, focus is increasingly shifting to peak demand as more countries seek to transition to renewable energy. The GeGaLo index of geopolitical gains and losses assesses how the geopolitical position of 156 countries may change if the world fully transitions to renewable energy resources. Former oil exporters are expected to lose power, while the positions of former oil importers and countries rich in renewable energy resources is expected to strengthen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Overland|first1=Indra|last2=Bazilian|first2=Morgan|last3=Ilimbek Uulu|first3=Talgat|last4=Vakulchuk|first4=Roman|last5=Westphal|first5=Kirsten|date=2019|title=The GeGaLo index: Geopolitical gains and losses after energy transition|journal=Energy Strategy Reviews|language=en|volume=26|pages=100406|doi=10.1016/j.esr.2019.100406|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Unconventional oil===
Unconventional oil is petroleum produced or extracted using techniques other than the conventional methods. The calculus for peak oil has changed with the introduction of unconventional production methods. In particular, the combination of [[directional drilling|horizontal drilling]] and [[hydraulic fracturing]] has resulted in a significant increase in production from previously uneconomic plays.<ref>{{Citation | date = 28 May 2015 | title = U.S. Crude Oil Production Forecast – Analysis of Crude Types | publisher = U.S. Energy Information Administration | place = Washington, DC | url = http://www.eia.gov/analysis/petroleum/crudetypes/pdf/crudetypes.pdf | access-date = 13 September 2018 | quote = U.S. oil production has grown rapidly in recent years. U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) data, which reflect combined production of crude oil and lease condensate, show a rise from 5.6 million barrels per day (bbl/d) in 2011 to 7.5 million bbl/d in 2013, and a record 1.2 million bbl/d increase to 8.7 million bbl/d in 2014. Increasing production of light crude oil in low-permeability or tight resource formations in regions like the Bakken, Permian Basin, and Eagle Ford (often referred to as light tight oil) account for nearly all the net growth in U.S. crude oil production. EIA’s latest Short-Term Energy Outlook, issued in May 2015, reflects continued production growth in 2015 and 2016, albeit at a slower pace than in 2013 and 2014, with U.S. crude oil production in 2016 forecast to reach 9.2 million bbl/d. Beyond 2016, the Annual Energy Outlook 2015 (AEO2015) projects further production growth, although its pace and duration remains highly uncertain. | df = mdy-all }}</ref> Analysts expected that $150 billion would be spent on further developing North American tight oil fields in 2015. The large increase in tight oil production is one of the reasons behind the price drop in late 2014.<ref>{{cite web |author=Ovale, Peder |url=http://www.tu.no/petroleum/2014/12/11/her-ser-du-hvorfor-oljeprisen-faller |title=Her ser du hvorfor oljeprisen faller |date=December 11, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213105654/http://www.tu.no/petroleum/2014/12/11/her-ser-du-hvorfor-oljeprisen-faller |archive-date=December 13, 2014 }} [https://translate.google.dk/translate?sl=da&tl=en&js=y&prev=_t&hl=da&ie=UTF-8&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tu.no%2Fpetroleum%2F2014%2F12%2F11%2Fher-ser-du-hvorfor-oljeprisen-faller&edit-text= In English] ''[[Teknisk Ukeblad]]'', 11 December 2014. Accessed: 11 December 2014.</ref> Certain rock [[strata]] contain hydrocarbons but have low permeability and are not thick from a vertical perspective. Conventional vertical wells would be unable to economically retrieve these hydrocarbons. Horizontal drilling, extending horizontally through the strata, permits the well to access a much greater volume of the strata. Hydraulic fracturing creates greater permeability and increases hydrocarbon flow to the wellbore.

== In fiction ==
{{Excerpt|Petrofiction}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
{{div col|colwidth=14em}}
* [[Barrel of oil equivalent]]
* [[Filling station]]
* [[Gas oil ratio]]
* [[List of oil exploration and production companies]]
* [[List of oil fields]]
* [[Manure-derived synthetic crude oil]]
* [[Oil burden]]
* [[Petroleum geology]]
* [[Petroleum politics]]
* [[Petrocurrency]]
* [[Thermal depolymerization]]
* [[Total petroleum hydrocarbon]]
* [[Waste oil]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

== Footnotes ==
{{Reflist|group="note"}}
{{Notelist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |editor1=Akiner, Shirin |editor2=Aldis, Anne |title=The Caspian: Politics, Energy and Security |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7007-0501-6}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Georg Bauer |author=Bauer Georg, Bandy Mark Chance (tr.), Bandy Jean A. (tr.) |title=De Natura Fossilium |language=la |work=vi |year=1546}} translated 1955
* {{cite book |last=Hyne |first=Norman J. |title=Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production |year=2001 |publisher=PennWell Corporation |isbn=978-0-87814-823-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mabro |first1=Robert |author2=Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries |title=Oil in the 21st century: issues, challenges and opportunities |publisher=Oxford Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-920738-1}}
* {{cite book |title=The Age of Oil: What They Don't Want You to Know About the World's Most Controversial Resource |page=15 |author=Maugeri, Leonardo |year=2005 |publisher=Globe Pequot |location=Guilford, CT |isbn=978-1-59921-118-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mzHt5hYeXlIC}}
* {{cite book |last=Speight |first=James G. |title=The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum |year=1999 |publisher=Marcel Dekker |isbn=978-0-8247-0217-5}}
* {{cite book |editor1=Speight, James G |editor2=Ancheyta, Jorge |title=Hydroprocessing of Heavy Oils and Residua |year=2007 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-8493-7419-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Vassiliou |first=Marius |title=Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry, 2nd Edition |year=2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-5381-1159-8}}
* Mirbabayev M.F.(2017).Brief history of the first drilled oil well;and the people involved.-"Oil-Industry History"(US),vol.18,#1, p. 25-34.

==Further reading==
* [[Antonia Juhasz|Juhasz, Antonia]], "The End of OIL?: The [[COVID-19 pandemic|pandemic]] has battered an already struggling oil industry. Whether it survives is up to us", ''[[Sierra Magazine]]'', vol. 105, no. 5 (September / October 2020), pp. 36–40, 51.
* {{cite journal|author=Kenney, J., Kutcherov, V., Bendeliani, N. and Alekseev, V.|title= The evolution of multicomponent systems at high pressures: VI. The thermodynamic stability of the hydrogen–carbon system: The genesis of hydrocarbons and the origin of petroleum|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=99|year=2002|pages=10976–10981|doi= 10.1073/pnas.172376899|pmid= 12177438|issue=17|pmc=123195|arxiv = physics/0505003 |bibcode = 2002PNAS...9910976K |doi-access= free}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Petroleum}}
{{NIE Poster|Petroleum}}
* [http://ggon.org/fossil-tracker/ Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker]
* [http://www.api.org/ API – the trade association of the US oil industry.] ([[American Petroleum Institute]])
* [http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html U.S. Energy Information Administration]
** [http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/contents.html U.S. Department of Energy EIA – World supply and consumption]
* [https://www.jodidata.org/ Joint Organisations Data Initiative | Oil and Gas Data Transparency]
* [http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@na+@rel+Crude+oil U.S. National Library of Medicine: Hazardous Substances Databank – Crude Oil]
* {{Cite AmCyc|wstitle=Petroleum|short=x}}
*"[https://books.google.com/books?id=p4o9AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false A Short History of Petroleum]", [[Scientific American]], 10 August 1878, p. 85

{{Petroleum industry}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Petroleum| ]]
[[Category:Chemical mixtures]]
[[Category:Glassforming liquids and melts]]
[[Category:Causes of war]]

Andosol

2021-09-08T07:25:24Z

JavaRogers:

{{Short description|Soils formed in volcanic ash and containing glass and amorphous colloidal materials}}
{{Infobox soil
|name=Andosol
|alternative_name=
|image=Andisol profile.jpg
|image_size=250px
|image_caption=an Andosol profile
|classification_system=[[World Reference Base for Soil Resources|WRB]]
|profile=ABwC
|code=AN
|parent_material=[[tephra]]
|climate=various
}}

'''Andosols''' are [[soils]] found in [[volcano|volcanic]] areas formed in [[tephra|volcanic tephra]]. In some cases can Andosols also be found outside active volcanic areas.<ref>''Andosols'' by Olafur Arnalds in ''Encyclopedia of Soil Science'', pp. 39–26.</ref> Andosols cover an estimated 1–2% of earth's ice-free land surface. Andosols are a Reference Soil Group of the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB). They are closely related to other types of soils such as Vitrosols, Vitrandosols, Vitrons and Pumice Soils that are used in different soil classification systems. Poorly developed Andosols are often rich in vitreous materials and are therefore also called Vitric Andosols. The name comes from Japanese {{transl|ja|an}} ({{wikt-lang|ja|暗}} 'dark') and {{transl|ja|do}} ({{wikt-lang|ja|土}} 'soil'), synonymous with {{transl|ja|kuroboku}} ({{wikt-lang|ja|黒}}{{wikt-lang|ja|ぼく}}).<ref name="Pavel2009">{{cite book|author=Pavel Vladimirovich Krasilʹnikov|title=A Handbook of Soil Terminology, Correlation and Classification|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pL0GNDLy0bEC&pg=376|access-date=30 August 2013|year=2009|publisher=Earthscan|isbn=978-1-84977-435-2|page=376}}</ref>

Andosols are usually defined as soils containing high proportions of [[glass]] and amorphous [[colloid]]al materials, including [[allophane]], [[imogolite]] and [[ferrihydrite]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/orders/andisols.html| title= Andisols| work= National Resource Conservation Service| publisher= [[United States Department of Agriculture]]| access-date= 2006-05-14| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060509223324/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/orders/andisols.html| archive-date= 9 May 2006| url-status= dead}}</ref> In the [[USDA soil taxonomy]], Andosols are known as [[Andisol]]s.<ref>[https://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/major_soils_of_the_world/set3/an/andosol.pdf Major Soils of the World. ISRIC Wageningen, The Netherlands. 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023025429/http://www.isric.org/isric/webdocs/docs//major_soils_of_the_world/set3/an/andosol.pdf |date=2014-10-23 }}</ref>

Because they are generally quite young, Andosols typically are very fertile except in cases where [[phosphorus]] is easily fixed (this sometimes occurs in the tropics). They can usually support intensive cropping, with areas used for wet [[rice]] in [[Java]] supporting some of the densest populations in the world. Other Andosol areas support crops of [[fruit]], [[maize]], [[tea]], [[coffee]] or [[tobacco]]. In the Pacific Northwest USA, Andosols support very productive [[forest]]s.

Andosols occupy ~1% of global ice-free land area. Most occur around the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]], with the largest areas found in central [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], [[Mexico]], the [[Pacific Northwest]] [[United States|US]], Japan, [[Java]] and [[New Zealand]]'s [[North Island]]. Other areas occur in the [[East African Rift]], [[Italy]], [[Iceland]] and [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]. They are the most common type of soil in the [[Azores]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Caracterização e Diagnóstico da Ilha do Pico |url=https://servicos-sraa.azores.gov.pt/grastore/DRA/PGRH/PGRH-A_RT_cap2_vol6_pico.pdf |website=servicos-sraa.azores.gov.pt |access-date=7 May 2021 |page=62}}</ref>

[[Fossil]] Andosols are known from areas far from present-day volcanic activity and have in some cases been dated as far back as the [[Precambrian]] 1.5 billion years ago.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://grunwald.ifas.ufl.edu/Nat_resources/soil_orders/andisols.htm |first=Sabine |last=Grunwald |title=Andisols |work=Soil & Water Sciences |publisher=[[University of Florida]] | access-date =2006-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/andisols.htm |title=Andisols |work=Soil and Land Sciences Division |publisher=[[University of Idaho]] |access-date=2006-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309093838/http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/andisols.htm |archive-date=2009-03-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Pedogenesis]]
*[[Pedology (soil study)]]
*[[Soil classification]]
*[[Trumao]]

== References ==
* IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, Update 2015. World Soil Resources Reports 106, FAO, Rome 2015. {{ISBN|978-92-5-108369-7}}. ([http://www.fao.org/3/i3794en/I3794en.pdf PDF] 2,3 MB).
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://boku.wzw.tum.de/index.php?id=wrb-pictures profile photos (with classification)] WRB homepage
* [https://www.iuss.org/index.php?article_id=73|title=IUSS profile photos (with classification)] IUSS World of Soils

{{Soil type}}

[[Category:Pedology]]
[[Category:Types of soil]]
[[Category:Volcanic soils]]

Andosol

2021-09-08T07:21:56Z

JavaRogers: Implemented transl & wikt-lang templates. Moved etymology to end of lead paragraph

{{Short description|Soils formed in volcanic ash and containing glass and amorphous colloidal materials}}
{{Infobox soil
|name=Andosol
|alternative_name=
|image=Andisol profile.jpg
|image_size=250px
|image_caption=an Andosol profile
|classification_system=[[World Reference Base for Soil Resources|WRB]]
|profile=ABwC
|code=AN
|parent_material=[[tephra]]
|climate=various
}}

'''Andosols''' are [[soils]] found in [[volcano|volcanic]] areas formed in [[tephra|volcanic tephra]]. In some cases can Andosols also be found outside active volcanic areas.<ref>''Andosols'' by Olafur Arnalds in ''Encyclopedia of Soil Science'', pp. 39–26.</ref> Andosols cover an estimated 1–2% of earth's ice-free land surface. Andosols are a Reference Soil Group of the [[World Reference Base for Soil Resources]] (WRB). They are closely related to other types of soils such as Vitrosols, Vitrandosols, Vitrons and Pumice Soils that are used in different soil classification systems. Poorly developed Andosols are often rich in vitreous materials and are therefore also called Vitric Andosols. The name comes from Japanese {{transl|ja|an}} ({{wikt-lang|ja|アン}} 'dark') and {{transl|ja|do}} ({{wikt-lang|ja|土}} 'soil'), synonymous with {{transl|ja|kuroboku}} ({{wikt-lang|ja|黒}}{{wikt-lang|ja|ぼく}}).<ref name="Pavel2009">{{cite book|author=Pavel Vladimirovich Krasilʹnikov|title=A Handbook of Soil Terminology, Correlation and Classification|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pL0GNDLy0bEC&pg=376|access-date=30 August 2013|year=2009|publisher=Earthscan|isbn=978-1-84977-435-2|page=376}}</ref>

Andosols are usually defined as soils containing high proportions of [[glass]] and amorphous [[colloid]]al materials, including [[allophane]], [[imogolite]] and [[ferrihydrite]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/orders/andisols.html| title= Andisols| work= National Resource Conservation Service| publisher= [[United States Department of Agriculture]]| access-date= 2006-05-14| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060509223324/http://soils.usda.gov/technical/classification/orders/andisols.html| archive-date= 9 May 2006| url-status= dead}}</ref> In the [[USDA soil taxonomy]], Andosols are known as [[Andisol]]s.<ref>[https://www.isric.org/sites/default/files/major_soils_of_the_world/set3/an/andosol.pdf Major Soils of the World. ISRIC Wageningen, The Netherlands. 2001] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023025429/http://www.isric.org/isric/webdocs/docs//major_soils_of_the_world/set3/an/andosol.pdf |date=2014-10-23 }}</ref>

Because they are generally quite young, Andosols typically are very fertile except in cases where [[phosphorus]] is easily fixed (this sometimes occurs in the tropics). They can usually support intensive cropping, with areas used for wet [[rice]] in [[Java]] supporting some of the densest populations in the world. Other Andosol areas support crops of [[fruit]], [[maize]], [[tea]], [[coffee]] or [[tobacco]]. In the Pacific Northwest USA, Andosols support very productive [[forest]]s.

Andosols occupy ~1% of global ice-free land area. Most occur around the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]], with the largest areas found in central [[Chile]], [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], [[Mexico]], the [[Pacific Northwest]] [[United States|US]], Japan, [[Java]] and [[New Zealand]]'s [[North Island]]. Other areas occur in the [[East African Rift]], [[Italy]], [[Iceland]] and [[Hawaii|Hawai{{okina}}i]]. They are the most common type of soil in the [[Azores]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Caracterização e Diagnóstico da Ilha do Pico |url=https://servicos-sraa.azores.gov.pt/grastore/DRA/PGRH/PGRH-A_RT_cap2_vol6_pico.pdf |website=servicos-sraa.azores.gov.pt |access-date=7 May 2021 |page=62}}</ref>

[[Fossil]] Andosols are known from areas far from present-day volcanic activity and have in some cases been dated as far back as the [[Precambrian]] 1.5 billion years ago.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://grunwald.ifas.ufl.edu/Nat_resources/soil_orders/andisols.htm |first=Sabine |last=Grunwald |title=Andisols |work=Soil & Water Sciences |publisher=[[University of Florida]] | access-date =2006-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/andisols.htm |title=Andisols |work=Soil and Land Sciences Division |publisher=[[University of Idaho]] |access-date=2006-05-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309093838/http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/andisols.htm |archive-date=2009-03-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Pedogenesis]]
*[[Pedology (soil study)]]
*[[Soil classification]]
*[[Trumao]]

== References ==
* IUSS Working Group WRB: World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014, Update 2015. World Soil Resources Reports 106, FAO, Rome 2015. {{ISBN|978-92-5-108369-7}}. ([http://www.fao.org/3/i3794en/I3794en.pdf PDF] 2,3 MB).
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://boku.wzw.tum.de/index.php?id=wrb-pictures profile photos (with classification)] WRB homepage
* [https://www.iuss.org/index.php?article_id=73|title=IUSS profile photos (with classification)] IUSS World of Soils

{{Soil type}}

[[Category:Pedology]]
[[Category:Types of soil]]
[[Category:Volcanic soils]]

Little Chico Creek

2021-09-08T06:16:48Z

JavaRogers:

{{Coord|39|36|59|N|121|56|19|W|region:US-CA_type:stream:GNIS|display=title|notes=<ref name=GNIS>{{Cite GNIS|262566|Little Chico Creek}}</ref>}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Little Chico Creek
| image = Little_Chico_Creek.jpg
| image_caption = Little Chico Creek as viewed from the bridge on Chestnut Street looking westward
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[United States]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[U.S. state|State]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[California]]
| source1_location = [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]]
| mouth_location = [[Butte Creek (Butte County, California)|Butte Creek]]
| length =
| source1_elevation =
| discharge1_avg =
| basin_size =
| tributaries_right = Dead Horse Slough
}}

'''Little Chico Creek'''<ref name=NHD>U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map] {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/66gupqQDM?url=http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ |date=2012-04-05 }}, accessed May 3, 2012</ref> is a [[perennial stream]] in [[Butte County, California|Butte County]], [[California]]. It descends the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] foothills from a spring off Headwaters Road in Forest Ranch, CA, flowing westward into the Parrot Grant which is just south of Ord Ferry Road and west of Seven Mile Lane where it just disappears.

The creek flows through the city [[Chico, California|Chico]], where it bounds the downtown area on its south side. It can be seen in Chico from [[California State Highway 99|Highway 99]] just south of the Chester/Orland exit; from the Park Avenue bridge just south of downtown; and from where Dayton Road begins. There is a [[Greenway (landscape)|greenway]] adjacent to the creek with a path that follows Humboldt Road. This path provides access to a footbridge over the creek that goes into a residential area. In the area just west of [[Southern Pacific Railroad|the town's railroad tracks]] its flow becomes seasonal, with most or all of its water [[Infiltration (hydrology)|infiltrating]] into the ground by [[summer]].

Dead Horse Slough is a tributary of Little Chico Creek.

== See also ==
* [[Big Chico Creek]]

== References ==
* United States Geological Survey. 1981. {{gnis|262566|USGS Survey Detail Report: Little Chico Creek}}

== End notes ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Rivers of Butte County, California]]
[[Category:Geography of Chico, California]]
[[Category:Geography of the Sacramento Valley]]
[[Category:Rivers of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.)]]
[[Category:Rivers of Northern California]]
[[Category:Rivers of the Sierra Nevada in California]]

{{ButteCountyCA-geo-stub}}
{{California-river-stub}}

Little Chico Creek

2021-09-08T06:15:17Z

JavaRogers:

{{Coord|39|36|59|N|121|56|19|W|region:US-CA_type:stream:GNIS|display=title|notes=<ref name=GNIS>{{Cite GNIS|262566|Little Chico Creek}}</ref>}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Little Chico Creek
| image = Little_Chico_Creek.jpg
| image_caption = Little Chico Creek as viewed from the bridge on Chestnut Street looking westward
| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[United States]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[U.S. state|State]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[California]]
| source1_location = [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]]
| mouth_location = [[Butte Creek (Butte County, California)|Butte Creek]]
| length =
| source1_elevation =
| discharge1_avg =
| basin_size =
| tributaries_right = Dead Horse Slough
}}

'''Little Chico Creek'''<ref name=NHD>U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map] {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/66gupqQDM?url=http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ |date=2012-04-05 }}, accessed May 3, 2012</ref> is a [[perennial stream]] in [[Butte County, California|Butte County]], [[California]]. It descends the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]] foothills from a spring off Headwaters Road in Forest Ranch, CA, flowing westward into the Parrot Grant which is just south of Ord Ferry Road and west of Seven Mile Lane where it just disappears.

The creek flows through the city [[Chico, California|Chico]], where it bounds the downtown area on its south side. It can be seen in Chico from [[California State Highway 99|Highway 99]] just south of the Chester/Orland exit; from the Park Avenue bridge just south of downtown; and from where Dayton Road begins. There is a [[Greenway (landscape)|greenway]] adjacent to the creek with a path that follows Humboldt Road. This path provides access to a footbridge over the creek that goes into a residential area. In the area just west of the [[Southern Pacific Railroad|railroad tracks]] its flow becomes seasonal, with most or all of its water [[Infiltration (hydrology)|infiltrating]] into the ground by [[summer]].

Dead Horse Slough is a tributary of Little Chico Creek.

== See also ==
* [[Big Chico Creek]]

== References ==
* United States Geological Survey. 1981. {{gnis|262566|USGS Survey Detail Report: Little Chico Creek}}

== End notes ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Rivers of Butte County, California]]
[[Category:Geography of Chico, California]]
[[Category:Geography of the Sacramento Valley]]
[[Category:Rivers of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.)]]
[[Category:Rivers of Northern California]]
[[Category:Rivers of the Sierra Nevada in California]]

{{ButteCountyCA-geo-stub}}
{{California-river-stub}}

Rancho Llano Seco

2021-09-08T06:08:45Z

JavaRogers: Removed page hatnote -- The other article redirects here

[[File:Llano Seco Rancho 1877 drawing.jpg|400px|thumb|Drawing of John Parrott's ranch, Rancho Llano Seco]]
'''Rancho Llano Seco''' was a {{convert|17767|acre|km2|sing=on}} [[Ranchos of California|Mexican land grant]] in present-day [[Butte County, California]], given in 1845 by Mexican Governor [[Pio Pico]] to Sebastian Keyser (Kayser).<ref>Ogden Hoffman, 1862, ''Reports of Land Cases Determined in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California'', Numa Hubert, San Francisco</ref> {{lang|es|Llano seco}} means 'dry plains' in Spanish. The grant extended along the east bank of the [[Sacramento River]] south of present-day [[Chico, California|Chico]].<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb796nb480/?&brand=oac Diseño del Rancho Llano Seco]</ref>

==History==
The four–square league grant, provisionally made in 1844 by Governor [[Manuel Micheltorena]], was confirmed in 1845 by Governor Pico. Keyser, born in Austria, was a trapper who had accompanied [[John Sutter]] in 1838 from Missouri, through New Mexico to California. Keyser went to Oregon but returned in 1841 to work for Sutter at his [[Rancho New Helvetia]]. In 1845, Keyser became owner of a half interest in [[Rancho Johnson]]. He settled on the [[Bear River (Feather River tributary)|Bear River]] and married Elizabeth Rhoads, later selling his interest in the ranch over to [[Charles James Brenham]] in 1849. Keyser then operated a ferry on the [[Cosumnes River]], where he drowned in 1850.<ref>[http://www.utahcrossroads.org/DonnerParty/Rescuers.htm#Keyser Sebastian Keyser] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114000356/http://www.utahcrossroads.org/DonnerParty/Rescuers.htm |date=2012-01-14 }} The Donner Party:Rescuers and Others</ref><ref>[http://www.cacmp.org/cmpcap/Fort%20Sutter/pdf/Sutter's%20Fort%20-%20Biographies.pdf Biographies] Sutter's Fort State Historic Park</ref>

With the [[Mexican Cession|cession of California]] to the United States following the [[Mexican-American War]], the 1848 [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the [[Land Act of 1851]], a claim for Rancho Llano Seco was filed with the [[Public Land Commission]] in 1852,<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb109nb422&chunk.id=dsc-1.3.6&brand=oac United States. District Court (California : Northern District) Land Case 398 ND]</ref> and the grant was [[Land patent|patented]] to Brenham in 1860.<ref>[http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf Report of the Surveyor General 1844 - 1886] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320000647/http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf |date=2013-03-20 }}</ref>

Between 1860 and 1875, John Parrott acquired all of Rancho Llano Seco. John Parrott (-1884), a native of Tennessee, joined his brother's mercantile and importing business in Mexico. He was appointed United States Consul at [[Mazatlán]] from 1837 to 1846, getting reappointed to the position in 1848 following the [[Mexican–American War]] until his resignation and move to San Francisco in 1850. Parrot and Company, of San Francisco was a major landholder and banking firm. In 1852, he built one of San Francisco's first large buildings, the Parrott Block. In 1853, he married Abbie Eastman Meagher (1829–1917). In 1862, he bought part of [[Rancho de las Pulgas]], and six years later he built his Baywood residence and estate.<ref>J. Roger Jobson, ''John Parrott: Portrait of a Pioneer'', The Nob Hill Gazette, May 1982</ref><ref>Barbara Donohoe Jostes, 1972, ''John Parrott 1811-1884'', Alfred Kennedy, San Francisco, California"</ref><ref>Jourdan George Myers, 1987, ''Tiburcio Parrott 1840 - 1894. The Man Who Built Miravalle - Falcon Crest'', Deer Park, California</ref> Rancho Llano Seco is still owned by the descendants of John and Abbie Parrott.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord |39.630|-121.940|region:US-CA_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{California history}}

[[Category:California ranchos|Llano Seco]]
[[Category:Ranchos of Butte County, California]]

Big Chico Creek

2021-09-08T06:06:23Z

JavaRogers: Implemented infobox + other edits

{{About|the creek in California|the river in Colorado|Chico Creek}}
{{See also|Little Chico Creek}}
{{refimprove|date=December 2008}}
{{coord|39.707661|N|121.935256|W|type:stream|display=title}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Chico Creek<ref name=GNIS>{{cite gnis|id= 193750 |name=Chico Creek|accessdate= 2011-02-08}}</ref>
| image = Big Chico Creek in Upper Bidwell Park.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| image_alt =
| image_caption = Big Chico Creek in Upper Bidwell Park
| map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =

| subdivision_type1 = Country
| subdivision_name1 = [[United States]]
| subdivision_type2 = State
| subdivision_name2 = [[California]]
| subdivision_name3 = Region
| subdivision_name3 = [[Butte County, California|Butte County]], [[Tehama County, California|Tehama County]]
| subdivision_type5 = Cities
| subdivision_name5 = [[Chico, California|Chico]]


| source1_location = Near Colby Mountain, in [[Lassen National Park]]
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|40|07|25|N|121|30|32|W}}
| mouth_location = Confluence with [[Sacramento River]], in the [[Sacramento Valley]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|39|42|28|N|121|56|07|W|display=inline,title}}
| progression =
| length = {{convert|46|mi|abbr=on}}
| source1_elevation = {{convert|5000|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| mouth_elevation = {{convert|120|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_avg =
| basin_size =
| river_system = [[Sacramento River|Sacramento River Basin]]
| tributaries_left = [[Little Chico Creek]]
| tributaries_right =
}}

'''Big Chico Creek''' is a creek in northeastern [[California]] that originates near Colby Mountain in [[Lassen National Park]]. It flows {{convert|46|mi}}<ref name=NHD>U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map] {{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/66gupqQDM?url=http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ |date=2012-04-05 }}, accessed March 10, 2011</ref> to its confluence with the [[Sacramento River]] in [[Butte County, California|Butte County]]. The creek's elevation declines from {{convert|5000|ft}} above sea level at its head to {{convert|120|ft}} where it joins the Sacramento River, as shown on the Ord Ferry USGS quadrangle. Big Chico Creek forms part of the demarcation between the [[Sierra Nevada]] and the [[Cascade Range]].<ref>{{cite web | url =https://www.becnet.org/watershed-program/education/local-watersheds| title =Local Watersheds: Watersheds of Butte County | last = | first = | date = | website =Butte Environmental Council | publisher = | access-date = July 21, 2021| quote =Big Chico Creek begins its 45 mile journey from a series of springs on Colby Mountain, at the interface between the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the Cascade Mountains.}}</ref>

A portion of Big Chico Creek flows through the city of [[Chico, California|Chico's]] [[Bidwell Park]] and [[California State University, Chico]].

==Natural history==
There are numerous plant and animal species in the [[riparian]] zone and entire watershed of Big Chico Creek. A threatened species of [[Chinook Salmon]] make annual spawning runs up Big Chico Creek to the area of Higgin's Hole. Among the wildflowers documented in the watershed is the yellow mariposa lily, ''[[Calochortus luteus]]''.<ref>C. Michael Hogan. 2009</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Little Chico Creek]]

==References==
* C. Michael Hogan. 2009. [https://web.archive.org/web/20111004094242/http://www.globaltwitcher.com/artspec_information.asp?thingid=97686 ''Yellow Mariposa Lily: Calochortus luteus'', GlobalTwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg]
* United States Geological Survey. 1981. {{gnis|266445|USGS Survey Detail Report: Big Chico Creek}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{Central Valley Rivers}}

[[Category:Tributaries of the Sacramento River]]
[[Category:Rivers of Butte County, California]]
[[Category:Rivers of Tehama County, California]]
[[Category:Geography of Chico, California]]
[[Category:Geography of the Sacramento Valley]]
[[Category:Rivers of Northern California]]

{{ButteCountyCA-geo-stub}}
{{California-river-stub}}

Rancho Llano Seco

2021-09-08T06:03:56Z

JavaRogers:

{{about|the land grant|the community of Rancho Llano Seco|Rancho Llano Seco, California}}
[[File:Llano Seco Rancho 1877 drawing.jpg|400px|thumb|Drawing of John Parrott's ranch, Rancho Llano Seco]]
'''Rancho Llano Seco''' was a {{convert|17767|acre|km2|sing=on}} [[Ranchos of California|Mexican land grant]] in present-day [[Butte County, California]], given in 1845 by Mexican Governor [[Pio Pico]] to Sebastian Keyser (Kayser).<ref>Ogden Hoffman, 1862, ''Reports of Land Cases Determined in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California'', Numa Hubert, San Francisco</ref> {{lang|es|Llano seco}} means 'dry plains' in Spanish. The grant extended along the east bank of the [[Sacramento River]] south of present-day [[Chico, California|Chico]].<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb796nb480/?&brand=oac Diseño del Rancho Llano Seco]</ref>

==History==
The four–square league grant, provisionally made in 1844 by Governor [[Manuel Micheltorena]], was confirmed in 1845 by Governor Pico. Keyser, born in Austria, was a trapper who had accompanied [[John Sutter]] in 1838 from Missouri, through New Mexico to California. Keyser went to Oregon but returned in 1841 to work for Sutter at his [[Rancho New Helvetia]]. In 1845, Keyser became owner of a half interest in [[Rancho Johnson]]. He settled on the [[Bear River (Feather River tributary)|Bear River]] and married Elizabeth Rhoads, later selling his interest in the ranch over to [[Charles James Brenham]] in 1849. Keyser then operated a ferry on the [[Cosumnes River]], where he drowned in 1850.<ref>[http://www.utahcrossroads.org/DonnerParty/Rescuers.htm#Keyser Sebastian Keyser] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114000356/http://www.utahcrossroads.org/DonnerParty/Rescuers.htm |date=2012-01-14 }} The Donner Party:Rescuers and Others</ref><ref>[http://www.cacmp.org/cmpcap/Fort%20Sutter/pdf/Sutter's%20Fort%20-%20Biographies.pdf Biographies] Sutter's Fort State Historic Park</ref>

With the [[Mexican Cession|cession of California]] to the United States following the [[Mexican-American War]], the 1848 [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the [[Land Act of 1851]], a claim for Rancho Llano Seco was filed with the [[Public Land Commission]] in 1852,<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb109nb422&chunk.id=dsc-1.3.6&brand=oac United States. District Court (California : Northern District) Land Case 398 ND]</ref> and the grant was [[Land patent|patented]] to Brenham in 1860.<ref>[http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf Report of the Surveyor General 1844 - 1886] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320000647/http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf |date=2013-03-20 }}</ref>

Between 1860 and 1875, John Parrott acquired all of Rancho Llano Seco. John Parrott (-1884), a native of Tennessee, joined his brother's mercantile and importing business in Mexico. He was appointed United States Consul at [[Mazatlán]] from 1837 to 1846, getting reappointed to the position in 1848 following the [[Mexican–American War]] until his resignation and move to San Francisco in 1850. Parrot and Company, of San Francisco was a major landholder and banking firm. In 1852, he built one of San Francisco's first large buildings, the Parrott Block. In 1853, he married Abbie Eastman Meagher (1829–1917). In 1862, he bought part of [[Rancho de las Pulgas]], and six years later he built his Baywood residence and estate.<ref>J. Roger Jobson, ''John Parrott: Portrait of a Pioneer'', The Nob Hill Gazette, May 1982</ref><ref>Barbara Donohoe Jostes, 1972, ''John Parrott 1811-1884'', Alfred Kennedy, San Francisco, California"</ref><ref>Jourdan George Myers, 1987, ''Tiburcio Parrott 1840 - 1894. The Man Who Built Miravalle - Falcon Crest'', Deer Park, California</ref> Rancho Llano Seco is still owned by the descendants of John and Abbie Parrott.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord |39.630|-121.940|region:US-CA_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{California history}}

[[Category:California ranchos|Llano Seco]]
[[Category:Ranchos of Butte County, California]]

Rancho del Arroyo Chico

2021-09-08T05:51:09Z

JavaRogers: /* History */

[[File:Diseño del Rancho del Arroyo Chico.png|400px|thumb|right]]
'''Rancho del Arroyo Chico''' was a {{convert|22214|acre|km2|sing=on}} [[Ranchos of California|Mexican land grant]] in present-day [[Butte County, California]] that ultimately laid the foundation for the city of [[Chico, California|Chico]]. The name {{lang|es|Arroyo Chico}} means 'little stream' and refers to [[Big Chico Creek]]. The grant was located along the north bank of Big Chico Creek, east of the [[Sacramento River]] and it encompassed present-day [[Chico, California|Chico]].<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb1x0nb05k/?&brand=oac Diseño del Rancho Arroyo Chico]</ref><ref>{{gnis| id = 233431| name = Rancho Arroyo Chico}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|Ranchos of California#Mexican Alta California (1821–1846)}}
With [[Alta California]] under the control of the Mexican government, Governor [[Manuel Micheltorena]] granted Rancho del Arroyo Chico to William Dickey in 1844.<ref>Ogden Hoffman, 1862, ''Reports of Land Cases Determined in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California'', Numa Hubert, San Francisco</ref> Within a decade, ownership of the land transferred hands a number of times and settled in [[John Bidwell]]'s (1819–1900) possession. Dickey, Bidwell, and George McKinstry, Jr. (1810–1882) had all worked at one time for [[John Sutter]] and were also partners in various mining ventures.

McKinstry came to California in 1846, worked for Sutter as clerk and as sheriff of Northern California District, and assisted in the rescue of the [[Donner Party]]. Dickey, wanting to return to his eastern home, sold Rancho Arroyo Chico to McKinstry in 1849. Within a few years, the rancho ended up under Bidwell's ownership. Eight years after selling the rancho, McKinstry moved to San Diego and practised as a physician there until his death.

Bidwell had been in the California scene for several years, having led the [[[Bartleson-Bidwell Party]] in 1841. He soon found employment as Sutter's business manager, and within a few years he obtained a couple of Mexican land grants, including [[Rancho Los Ulpinos]] and [[Rancho Colus]]. In 1848, Bidwell discovered gold in [[Feather River]], at a place now call [[Bidwell's Bar, California|Bidwell's Bar]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoover |first=Mildred B. |last2=Rensch |first2=Hero |last3=Rensch |first3=Ethel |last4=Abeloe |first4=William N. |title=Historic Spots in California |year=1966 |publisher=Stanford University Press | url=https://archive.org/details/historicspotsinc00rens|url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-8047-4482-9}}</ref> Bidwell sold Rancho Colus, then acquired Rancho Arroyo Chico in two separate purchases.

In 1849, McKinstry sold to Bidwell an undivided half of the rancho. The following year he sold the other half interest to his brother-in-law [[Justus McKinstry]],<ref>John K. Driscoll, 2005, ''Rogue: a biography of Civil War General Justus McKinstry'', McFarland & Company {{ISBN|978-0-7864-2385-9}}</ref> who sold it over to Bidwell in 1851.<ref>Rockwell Dennis Hunt,1942,''John Bidwell, prince of California pioneers'', pp. 247-249, The Caxton Printers, Ltd</ref>

With the [[Mexican Cession|cession of California]] to the United States following the [[Mexican-American War]], the 1848 [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the [[Land Act of 1851]], a claim for Rancho Arroyo Chico was filed with the [[Public Land Commission]] in 1852,<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb109nb422&chunk.id=dsc-1.3.6&brand=oac United States. District Court (California : Northern District) Land Case 38 ND]</ref> and the grant was [[Land patent|patented]] to John Bidwell in 1860.<ref>[http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf Report of the Surveyor General 1844 - 1886] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320000647/http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf |date=2013-03-20 }}</ref>

Bidwell founded the city of Chico in 1860, laying out the community on the land of his Rancho Arroyo Chico on the north side of Chico Creek, as well as on part of [[Rancho Farwell]] on the south side of Chico Creek.

==Historic sites of the Rancho==
* [[Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park]]. John Bidwell began construction of the mansion in 1865.

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{coord |39.760|-121.840|region:US-CA_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{California history}}
[[Category:California ranchos]]
[[Category:Ranchos of Butte County, California]]
[[Category:Chico, California]]

Rancho del Arroyo Chico

2021-09-08T05:49:23Z

JavaRogers: /* History */ Edited to keep the telling on track. Juggled paragraphs, added writing, etc.

[[File:Diseño del Rancho del Arroyo Chico.png|400px|thumb|right]]
'''Rancho del Arroyo Chico''' was a {{convert|22214|acre|km2|sing=on}} [[Ranchos of California|Mexican land grant]] in present-day [[Butte County, California]] that ultimately laid the foundation for the city of [[Chico, California|Chico]]. The name {{lang|es|Arroyo Chico}} means 'little stream' and refers to [[Big Chico Creek]]. The grant was located along the north bank of Big Chico Creek, east of the [[Sacramento River]] and it encompassed present-day [[Chico, California|Chico]].<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/hb1x0nb05k/?&brand=oac Diseño del Rancho Arroyo Chico]</ref><ref>{{gnis| id = 233431| name = Rancho Arroyo Chico}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|Ranchos of California#Mexican Alta California (1821–1846)}}
With [[Alta California]] under the control of the Mexican government, Governor [[Manuel Micheltorena]] granted Rancho del Arroyo Chico to William Dickey in 1844.<ref>Ogden Hoffman, 1862, ''Reports of Land Cases Determined in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California'', Numa Hubert, San Francisco</ref> Within a decade, ownership of the land transferred hands a number of times and settled in [[John Bidwell]]'s (1819–1900) possession. Dickey, Bidwell, and George McKinstry, Jr. (1810–1882) had all worked at one time for [[John Sutter]] and were also partners in various mining ventures.

McKinstry came to California in 1846, worked for Sutter as clerk and as sheriff of Northern California District, and assisted in the rescue of the [[Donner Party]]. Dickey, wanting to return to his eastern home, sold Rancho Arroyo Chico to McKinstry in 1849. Within a few years, the rancho ended up under Bidwell's ownership. Eight years after selling the rancho, McKinstry moved to San Diego and practised as a physician there until his death. Bidwell sold Rancho Colus, then acquired Rancho Arroyo Chico in two separate purchases.

Bidwell had been in the California scene for several years, having led the [[[Bartleson-Bidwell Party]] in 1841. He soon found employment as Sutter's business manager, and within a few years he obtained a couple of Mexican land grants, including [[Rancho Los Ulpinos]] and [[Rancho Colus]]. In 1848, Bidwell discovered gold in [[Feather River]], at a place now call [[Bidwell's Bar, California|Bidwell's Bar]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Hoover |first=Mildred B. |last2=Rensch |first2=Hero |last3=Rensch |first3=Ethel |last4=Abeloe |first4=William N. |title=Historic Spots in California |year=1966 |publisher=Stanford University Press | url=https://archive.org/details/historicspotsinc00rens|url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-8047-4482-9}}</ref>

In 1849, McKinstry sold to Bidwell an undivided half of the rancho. The following year he sold the other half interest to his brother-in-law [[Justus McKinstry]],<ref>John K. Driscoll, 2005, ''Rogue: a biography of Civil War General Justus McKinstry'', McFarland & Company {{ISBN|978-0-7864-2385-9}}</ref> who sold it over to Bidwell in 1851.<ref>Rockwell Dennis Hunt,1942,''John Bidwell, prince of California pioneers'', pp. 247-249, The Caxton Printers, Ltd</ref>

With the [[Mexican Cession|cession of California]] to the United States following the [[Mexican-American War]], the 1848 [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the [[Land Act of 1851]], a claim for Rancho Arroyo Chico was filed with the [[Public Land Commission]] in 1852,<ref>[http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=hb109nb422&chunk.id=dsc-1.3.6&brand=oac United States. District Court (California : Northern District) Land Case 38 ND]</ref> and the grant was [[Land patent|patented]] to John Bidwell in 1860.<ref>[http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf Report of the Surveyor General 1844 - 1886] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320000647/http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf |date=2013-03-20 }}</ref>

Bidwell founded the city of Chico in 1860, laying out the community on the land of his Rancho Arroyo Chico on the north side of Chico Creek, as well as on part of [[Rancho Farwell]] on the south side of Chico Creek.

==Historic sites of the Rancho==
* [[Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park]]. John Bidwell began construction of the mansion in 1865.

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{coord |39.760|-121.840|region:US-CA_type:landmark|display=title}}
{{California history}}
[[Category:California ranchos]]
[[Category:Ranchos of Butte County, California]]
[[Category:Chico, California]]

John Bidwell

2021-09-08T05:19:44Z

JavaRogers: Removed a lot of links. (See MOS:OVERLINKING.)

{{short description|American politician}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = John Bidwell
| image = Hon. John A. Bidwell.jpg
| state = [[California]]
| district = {{ushr|CA|3|3rd}}
| term_start = March 4, 1865
| term_end = March 3, 1867
| predecessor = Constituency established
| successor = [[James A. Johnson (California politician)|James Johnson]]
| state_senate1 = California
| district1 = [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]]
| term_start1 = 1849
| term_end1 = 1851
| predecessor1 = Constituency established
| successor1 = [[Alonzo W. Adams]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1819|8|5}}
| birth_place = [[Chautauqua County, New York|Chautauqua County]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|1900|4|4|1819|8|5}}
| death_place = [[Chico, California|Chico]], [[California]]
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] {{small|(Before 1864)}} [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] {{small|(1864–1875)}} [[Anti-Monopoly Party|Anti-Monopoly]] {{small|(1875–1888)}} [[Prohibition Party|Prohibition]] {{small|(1888–1900)}}
| spouse = [[Annie Bidwell|Annie Kennedy]]
| residence = [[Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park|Bidwell Mansion]]
| allegiance = {{flag|United States}} [[California Republic]]
| rank = [[File:Union Army brigadier general rank insignia.svg|35px]] [[Brigadier general (United States)|Brigadier General]]
| unit = [[California Battalion]]
| battles = [[Mexican–American War]] [[California Republic|Bear Flag Revolt]]
}}
'''John Bidwell''' (August 5, 1819 – April 4, 1900) was known throughout [[California]] and nationally as a pioneer, farmer, soldier, statesman, politician, prohibitionist, and philanthropist. He was active in the Democratic and then Republican parties, and was elected to Congress as a Republican in 1864, serving one term.

He is noted for having led one of the first emigrant parties, known as the [[Bartleson–Bidwell Party]], along the [[California Trail]], and for founding the city of [[Chico, California]]. He obtained a number of Mexican land grants after becoming a Mexican citizen before the [[Mexican–American War]], and became a wealthy rancher.

==Biography==
Bidwell was born in 1819 in [[Chautauqua County, New York]]. His Bidwell ancestors immigrated to North America in the colonial era.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y202AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA17 |title=Genealogy to the Seventh Generation of the Bidwell Family in America |last=Bidwell |first=Edwin M. |year=1884}}</ref> His family moved to [[Erie, Pennsylvania]], in 1829, and then to [[Ashtabula County, Ohio]], in 1831.<ref name="spartacus">{{Cite news |url=http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WWbidwell.htm |title=John Bidwell-Biography |access-date=2006-12-11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101084424/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/WWbidwell.htm |archive-date=2007-01-01 |publisher=Spartacus Education |year=2006}}</ref> At age 17, he attended and shortly thereafter became principal of [[Kingsville Academy]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://content.cdlib.org/view;jsessionid=M26TnTDzEgebUxcf?docId=tf958006gq&doc.view=entire_text |title=Guide to the John Bidwell Papers |website=content.cdlib.org |access-date=2017-02-27}}</ref>

In 1841, at the age of 22, Bidwell became one of the first emigrants on the California Trail.<ref>Michael J. Gillis and Michael F. Magliari, ''John Bidwell and California: The Life and Writings of a Pioneer, 1841-1900'', {{ISBN|0-87062-332-X}}, p. 31–</ref> [[John Sutter]] employed Bidwell as his business manager shortly after the younger man reached California. In October 1844, Bidwell went with Sutter to Monterey, where the two learned of an insurrection by leader [[José Castro]] and ex-governor [[Juan Bautista Alvarado]].<ref name="boyle">{{Cite book |last=Boyle |first=C. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-wkD_Z889wC&pg=PA42 |title=Addresses, Reminiscences, Etc. of General John Bidwell |year=1906 |pages=42}}</ref> In 1845, Bidwell and Sutter joined Governor [[Manuel Micheltorena]] and a group of Americans and Indians to fight the insurrectionists, pursuing them to [[Cahuenga Pass|Cahuenga]].<ref name=boyle/> Micheltorena, Sutter, and Bidwell were imprisoned, and the latter two were shortly thereafter released.<ref name=boyle/>

Upon release, Bidwell headed north through [[Rancho San Francisco#Los Angeles area gold find|Placerita Canyon]], saw the mining operations, and was determined to search for gold on his way to [[Sutter's Fort]], where he met [[James W. Marshall]].<ref name="coinage">{{Cite news |last=Worden |first=Leon |url=http://www.scvhistory.com/scvhistory/signal/coins/worden-coinage1005.htm |title=California's REAL First Gold |date=October 2005 |work=COINage magazine |access-date=April 16, 2007}}</ref> Shortly after Marshall's discovery of gold at [[Sutter's Mill]], Bidwell also discovered gold on the [[Feather River]], establishing a productive claim at Bidwell Bar in advance of the [[California Gold Rush]]. Bidwell obtained the four square-league [[Rancho Los Ulpinos]] land grant after being naturalized as a Mexican citizen in 1844, and the two square-league [[Rancho Colus]] grant on the [[Sacramento River]] in 1845. He later sold the latter grant and bought [[Rancho Arroyo Chico]] on Chico Creek to establish a ranch and farm.

Bidwell obtained the rank of major while fighting in the [[Mexican–American War]]. He was elected to the [[California State Senate|California Senate]] in 1849. He supervised conducting the federal census of California in 1850 and 1860, under national direction by [[Joseph C. G. Kennedy]].
Bidwell served as a delegate to the 1860 national convention of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|U.S. Democratic Party]]. He was appointed brigadier general of the [[California Militia]] in 1863.<ref name="spartacus" /> After switching parties, he was a delegate to the national convention of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] in 1864. That year he was elected to the [[U.S. House of Representatives]], serving as a Republican representative for California from 1865 to 1867.

In 1865, General Bidwell backed a petition from settlers at [[Red Bluff, California]] to protect Red Bluff’s trail to the [[Owyhee River#History|Owyhee Mines]] of [[Idaho]]. The [[United States Army]] commissioned seven forts for this purpose. One site was near [[Fandango Pass]] at the base of the [[Warner Mountains]], in the north end of [[Surprise Valley, Modoc County|Surprise Valley]]. On June 10, 1865, what was named [[Fort Bidwell, California|Fort Bidwell]] was ordered to be built there.<ref name="Pease">{{Cite book |last=Pease |first=Robert W. |title=Modoc County; University of California Publications in Geography, Volume 17 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1965 |location=Berkeley and Los Angeles |pages=75–78, 97}}</ref><ref name="War of the Rebellion">{{Cite book |last1=War Department |first1=United States |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jb89AAAAYAAJ&q=%22Camp+Bidwell%22 |title=The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies |last2=John Sheldon Moody |last3=Calvin Duvall Cowles |last4=Frederick Caryton Ainsworth |last5=Robert N. Scott |last6=Henry Martyn Lazelle |last7=George Breckenridge Davis |last8=Leslie J. Perry |last9=Joseph William Kirkley |publisher=Government Printing Office |year=1897 |series=I |volume=L |location=Washington |pages=593–594, 1125, 1214–1215 |author-link=United States War Department}}</ref> The fort was built amid escalating fighting with the [[Snake Indians]] of eastern Oregon and southern Idaho.<ref name="CGN">{{California's Geographic Names|378}}</ref> It was a base for US Army operations in the [[Snake War]], that lasted until 1868, and the later [[Modoc War]]. Although traffic dwindled on the Red Bluff route once the [[Central Pacific Railroad]] extended into Nevada in 1868, the Army staffed Fort Bidwell until 1890 to quell various uprisings and disturbances.<ref name="Pease" /> A [[Northern Paiute|Paiute]] reservation and small community maintain the name Fort Bidwell.
[[File:FortBidwell1877.jpg|thumb|right|Fort Bidwell in 1877]]
[[Image:Annie and John Bidwell.GIF|right|frame|Annie and John Bidwell]]
In 1868 Bidwell was about 49 when he married [[Annie Bidwell|Annie Kennedy]], whom he had courted for years. She was 20 years younger and a daughter of [[Joseph C. G. Kennedy]]. Her father was socially prominent, a high-ranking [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]] official who supervised the [[U.S. Census Bureau]]. Bidwell had met him while working on the California census. The senior Kennedy was active in the [[Whig Party (United States)|U.S. Whig party]]. Annie Kennedy was deeply religious, joining the Presbyterian Church, and committed to a number of moral and social causes. Kennedy Bidwell was very active in the [[suffrage]] and [[prohibition]] movements.<ref name="spartacus" />

The couple married April 16, 1868 in Washington, D.C. with [[President of the United States|President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] and future president [[Ulysses S. Grant]] among the guests. After he returned with her to Chico, the Bidwells used their mansion extensively for entertainment of friends and official guests. Among them were President [[Rutherford B. Hayes]], General [[William Tecumseh Sherman|William T. Sherman]], [[Susan B. Anthony]], [[Frances Willard (suffragist)|Frances Willard]], Governor [[Leland Stanford]], [[John Muir]], [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], and [[Asa Gray]].

In 1875, Bidwell ran for [[Governor of California]] on the [[Anti-Monopoly Party]] ticket.<ref name="spartacus" /> As a strong advocate of the [[temperance movement]], he was the Prohibition candidate for governor in 1880 and presided over the [[United States Prohibition Party|Prohibition Party]] state convention in 1888.<ref name="spartacus" /> In the [[1892 United States presidential election|1892 presidential election]], Bidwell was the candidate from Prohibition Party.<ref name="spartacus" /> The Bidwell/Cranfill ticket came in fourth place nationwide, receiving 271,058 votes, or 2.3%. It was the largest total vote and highest percentage of the vote received by any Prohibition Party national ticket.

John Bidwell’s autobiography, ''Echoes of the Past'', was published in 1900. The Bidwell Family Papers are held at the [[Bancroft Library]]. That same year, Bidwell died of natural causes on April 4, at the age of 80.

The actor Howard Negley (1898-1983) played Bidwell in the 1953 episode, "The Lady with the Blue Silk Umbrella" on the [[Television syndication|syndicated]] television anthology series, ''[[Death Valley Days]],'' hosted by [[Stanley Andrews]]. In the story line, Helen Crosby ([[Kathleen Case]]) carries official California statehood papers in her umbrella to shield them from ruffians who want to destroy the documents. [[Rick Vallin]] played Lieutenant Bob Hastings.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0556822/?ref_=ttep_ep4 |title=The Lady with the Blue Silk Umbrella on ''Death Valley Days'' |publisher=[[Internet Movie Database]] |access-date=July 3, 2019}}</ref>

==Fraternal allegiance==
* Bidwell was a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]] for a time but left the group. He said that allegiance to the fraternity "was pointless" in an October 17, 1867 letter to [[Annie Bidwell|Annie Kennedy]], whom he had been courting. His signature appears in the Book of By-Laws of the Chico-Leland Stanford Lodge #111 in Chico, California.<ref>Michael J. Gillis and Michael F. Magliari, ''John Bidwell and California: The Life and Writings of a Pioneer, 1841-1900'', {{ISBN|0-87062-332-X}}, p. 223-224</ref>

==See also==
* [[Bartleson–Bidwell Party]]
* [[Bear Flag Revolt|California Republic]]
* [[Bidwell Mansion State Historic Park]]
* [[California Trail]]
* [[Michael Gillis]]
* [[Temperance movement]]

==Bibliography==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* Bigler Family collection, 1852-1918. Collection guide, California State Library, California History Room.
* [http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-cgi?notisid=ABP2287-0041-23 "The First Emigrant Train to California"] by John Bidwell
*[http://www.scienceviews.com/bidwell/bidwelltrailguide.html "Bidwell-Bartleson Trail Guide"] by Roy D. Tea
*[http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/ark:/13030/kt1t1nc4sz/ ''Autobiography and Reminiscence of John Bidwell, San Francisco, 1904''] [Transcription]. The Society of California Pioneers, via Calisphere.
*[http://www.oac.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5x0nb1gz;query=;style=oac4;view=admin Guide to the Bidwell Family Papers] at [[The Bancroft Library]]
{{CongBio|B000447}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|us-ca-sen}}
{{s-new|constituency}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[California State Senate|California Senate]] from the [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] district|years=1849–1851}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Alonzo W. Adams]]}}
|-
{{s-par|us-hs}}
{{s-new|constituency}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of the [[List of United States Representatives from California|U.S. House of Representatives]] from [[California's 3rd congressional district]]|years=1865–1867}}
{{s-aft|after=[[James A. Johnson (California politician)|James Johnson]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Brutus J. Clay]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Chair of the [[United States House Committee on Agriculture|House Agriculture Committee]]|years=1865–1867}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Rowland E. Trowbridge]]}}
|-
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Clinton B. Fisk]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prohibition Party|Prohibition]] nominee for [[President of the United States]]|years=[[1892 United States presidential election|1892]]}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Charles Eugene Bentley|Charles Bentley]] [[Joshua Levering]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{US House Agriculture chairs}}
{{Prohibition Party presidential nominees}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bidwell, John}}
[[Category:1819 births]]
[[Category:1900 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century American politicians]]
[[Category:Activists from California]]
[[Category:Activists from New York (state)]]
[[Category:American city founders]]
[[Category:American conservationists]]
[[Category:American environmentalists]]
[[Category:American explorers]]
[[Category:American geologists]]
[[Category:American gold prospectors]]
[[Category:American hunters]]
[[Category:19th-century American inventors]]
[[Category:American male writers]]
[[Category:American military personnel of the Mexican–American War]]
[[Category:American mountain climbers]]
[[Category:American naturalists]]
[[Category:American people of the Bear Flag Revolt]]
[[Category:American temperance activists]]
[[Category:Anti-Monopoly Party politicians]]
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[[Category:California Republicans]]
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[[Category:Explorers of California]]
[[Category:History of the Sierra Nevada (U.S.)]]
[[Category:Land owners from California]]
[[Category:Members of the United States House of Representatives from California]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of Mexican California]]
[[Category:People from Chico, California]]
[[Category:People from Chautauqua County, New York]]
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[[Category:Prohibition Party (United States) presidential nominees]]
[[Category:Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives]]
[[Category:Candidates in the 1892 United States presidential election]]
[[Category:Writers from California]]
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[[Category:19th-century American businesspeople]]

William D. Dickey

2021-09-08T05:04:41Z

JavaRogers: hyphendash

{{Infobox military person
|name=William D. Dickey
|birth_date={{Birth date|1845|1|11}}
|death_date={{Death date and age|1924|5|14|1845|1|11}}
|placeofburial=
|placeofburial_label=Place of burial
|image=William D. Dickey.jpg
|caption=
|nickname=
|birth_place= [[Newburgh, New York|Newburgh]], [[New York (state)|New York]]
|death_place= [[New York City]], New York
|allegiance= [[United States|United States of America]]
|branch= [[United States Army]] [[Union Army]]
|rank= [[Major (United States)|Major]] [[Brevet (military)|Brevet]] [[Colonel (United States)|Colonel]]
|serviceyears=1862 - 1863, 1864 - 1865
|unit= {{Flagicon|New York}} 15th New York Heavy Artillery Regiment
|battles= [[Second Battle of Petersburg]]
|awards= {{Flagicon image|Medal of Honor ribbon.svg}} [[Medal of Honor]]
}}
'''William Donaldson Dickey''' (January 11, 1845 – May 14, 1924) was an [[United States|American]] soldier who received the [[Medal of Honor]] for valor during the [[American Civil War]].

==Biography==
Dickey was commissioned as a [[1st Lieutenant#U.S. Army.2C U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Air Force|1st lieutenant]] in November 1862, and assigned to the [[168th New York Volunteer Infantry]].<ref>[http://dmna.ny.gov/historic/reghist/civil/rosters/Infantry/168th_Infantry_CW_Roster.pdf Regimental roster]</ref> He mustered out with the regiment in October 1863, and joined the 15th New York Heavy Artillery as a [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]] in February 1864. He was promoted to [[Major (United States)|major]] in May 1865, and mustered out with the 15th New York Heavy Artillery in August 1865.<ref>[http://dmna.ny.gov/historic/reghist/civil/rosters/Artillery/15thArtCW_Roster.pdf Regimental roster]</ref> Dickey received the Medal of Honor on June 10, 1896, for his actions at the [[Second Battle of Petersburg]].

==Medal of Honor citation==
'''Citation:'''

<blockquote> Refused to leave the field, remaining in command after being wounded by a piece of shell, and led his command in the assault on the enemy's works on the following day.<ref>[http://www.cmohs.org/recipient-detail/358/dickey-william-d.php Congressional Medal of Honor Society]</ref></blockquote>

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|American Civil War}}
*[[List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A-F]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
[https://books.google.com/books?id=bKNjox0pc0EC&lpg=PA22&dq=%22Thomas+Barton%22+Navy+%22of+Honor%22&pg=PA22&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=%22Thomas%20Barton%22%20Navy%20%22of%20Honor%22&f=false]

==External links==
*[http://projects.militarytimes.com/citations-medals-awards/recipient.php?recipientid=3239 Military Times]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dickey, William D.}}
[[Category:1845 births]]
[[Category:1924 deaths]]
[[Category:Union Army officers]]
[[Category:United States Army Medal of Honor recipients]]
[[Category:People of New York (state) in the American Civil War]]
[[Category:American Civil War recipients of the Medal of Honor]]

Ranchos of California

2021-09-08T04:55:41Z

JavaRogers: /* Mexican era */ corrected link anchor

{{redirect|Rancheros|the singular|ranchero (disambiguation)|the operating system|RancherOS}}
{{Short description|Land concessions by Spain and land grants by Mexico in the 18th and 19th centuries in California}}

The [[Viceroyalty of New Spain|Spanish]] and [[History of Mexico|Mexican]] governments made [[List of ranchos of California|many concessions and land grants]] in [[Alta California]] (now known as [[California]]) and [[Baja California]] from 1785 to 1846. The Spanish Concessions of land were made to retired soldiers as an inducement for them to remain in the frontier. These Concessions reverted to the Spanish crown upon the death of the recipient. The [[History of Mexico|Mexican]] government later encouraged settlement by issuing much larger [[land grants]] to both native-born and naturalized Mexican citizens. The grants were usually two or more square [[league (unit)|leagues]], or {{convert|35|km2|mi2}} in size. Unlike Spanish Concessions, Mexican land grants provided permanent, unencumbered ownership rights. Most ranchos granted by Mexico were located along the California coast around San Francisco Bay, inland along the Sacramento River, and within the San Joaquin Valley.

When the government secularized the Mission churches in 1833, they required that land be set aside for each Neophyte family. But the Native Americans were quickly brushed aside by Californios who, with the help of those in power, acquired the church lands as grants. The [[indigenous peoples of the Americas]] ("Indians") instead became virtual slaves of the rancheros.

Spain made about 30 concessions between 1784 and 1821, and Mexico issued about 270 land grants between 1833 and 1846. The ranchos established permanent land-use patterns. The rancho boundaries became the basis for California's land survey system, and are found on modern maps and land titles. The "rancheros" (rancho owners) patterned themselves after the landed gentry of New Spain, and were primarily devoted to raising cattle and sheep. Their workers included [[Mission Indians|Native Americans]] who had learned Spanish while living at one of the former [[Spanish Missions in California|Missions]].
The ranchos were often based on access to the resources necessary for raising cattle, such as grazing lands and water. [[Land development]] from that time forward has often followed the boundaries of the ranchos, and many of their names are still in use. For example, [[Rancho San Diego]] is now an unincorporated "rural-burb" east of [[San Diego]], and [[Rancho Bernardo]] is a suburb in San Diego.

==Spanish era==

{{main|List of ranchos of California}}

During [[History of California before 1900#Spanish colonization and governance (1697–1821)|Spanish rule]] (1769–1821), the ranchos were concessions from the [[Crown of Castile|Spanish crown]], permitting settlement and granting grazing rights on specific tracts of land, while the crown retained the title. Settlement on the ranchos outside [[Spanish missions in California#Military districts|presidio]], mission, and [[Cabildo (council)|pueblo]] boundaries began in 1784, when Juan José Domínguez received permission from [[List of pre-statehood governors of California|Spanish Governor]] [[Pedro Fages]] to graze his cattle on the {{convert|48000|acre|km2|adj=on}} [[Rancho San Pedro]].<ref name=Robinson>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=William Wilcox |title=Land in California|year=1979 |publisher=Ayer Co. |isbn=978-0-405-11352-9 }}</ref> The land concessions were usually measured in [[League (unit)|leagues]]. A league of land would encompass a square that is one Spanish league on each side – approximately {{convert|4428|acre|ha|0}}.

==Mexican era==
{{main| Mexican secularization act of 1833}}
[[File:Scott Tract Burbank.png|right|250px|thumb|Sketch map or ''diseño'' of Rancho Providencia, 1840s]]
During the [[History of California before 1900#Mexican Alta California (1821–1846)|Mexican era]] (1821–1846), grantees received legal title to the land. In 1821, Mexico achieved its [[Mexican War of Independence|independence]] from Spain, and California came under control of the Mexican government. The 1824 Mexican Colony Law established rules for petitioning for land grants in California; and by 1828,<ref name="blakely">{{cite book|last1=Blakely|first1=Jim|first2=Karen|last2=Barnette|title=Historical Overview: Los Padres National Forest|date=July 1985|url=http://lpfw.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/19850700_Blakley_HistoricalOverviewLPNF.pdf|access-date=2016-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160207165451/http://lpfw.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/19850700_Blakley_HistoricalOverviewLPNF.pdf|archive-date=2016-02-07|url-status=live}}</ref> the rules for establishing land grants were codified in the Mexican Reglamento (Regulation). The Acts sought to break the land monopoly of the missions and also paved the way for luring additional settlers to California by making land grants easier to obtain. The [[List of pre-statehood governors of California#Mexican Governors of Alta California, 1822-1847|Mexican Governors of Alta California]] gained the power to grant state lands, and many of the Spanish concessions were subsequently patented under Mexican law—frequently to local "friends" of the governor.
[[File:John Marsh House ca. 1856. Contra Costa County, California.jpg|left|250px|thumb|The [[John Marsh (pioneer)|John Marsh]] stone house on his [[Rancho Los Meganos]] near Brentwood, California was built in 1856. The house, which replaced the original adobe on the rancho, still stands and is now part of [[Marsh Creek State Park (California)]].]]

=== Secularization===
Soldiers, rancheros, farmers, and those in power coveted the rich coastal lands that the missions controlled. The Mexican government was also fearful about the missions which remained loyal to the Pope and the [[Catholic Church in Spain]]. In August 1833, the government [[Mexican secularization act of 1833|secularized]] all of the [[Spanish missions in California|missions]] and their valuable lands, about {{convert|1000000|acre|ha}} per mission. The Mexican government allowed the padres to keep only the church, priest's quarters, and priest's garden. The army troops guarding each Mission were dismissed.<ref name="started"/>

The government stipulated that one half the mission lands and property was to be given to [[Religious conversion|neophytes]] in grants of {{convert|33|acre}} of arable land along with land "in common" sufficient "to pasture their stock." A board of magistrates was to oversee the mission's crops and herds, while the land was to be divided into communal pasture, a town plot, and individual plots intended for each Indian family. In addition, one half of the herds were to be divided proportionately among the neophyte families.<ref name=Dúran>{{Cite web|url=http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook_print.cfm?smtid=3&psid=540|title=Display Content Printable Version|website=digitalhistory.uh.edu|access-date=2019-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327022037/http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook_print.cfm?smtid=3&psid=540|archive-date=2016-03-27|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=sandiego>{{Cite web|url=https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1969/october/struggle/|title=The Struggle Over Secularization of the Missions on the Alta California Frontier|access-date=2019-12-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217081523/https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/1969/october/struggle/|archive-date=2019-12-17|url-status=live}}</ref>

But this purpose was never accomplished. In truth, only a very few Indians of Alta California were educationally or culturally equipped to accept the offering. Instead, they were further exploited by the rancheros and in many cases became virtual slaves.<ref name=sandiego/> Most mission property was bought by government officials or their wealthy friends, local [[Californio]]s, individuals of Mexican or Spanish descent who had been born in Alta California.<ref name="started">{{cite web|title=How it all Started|url=http://mission-carmel-isheeta.weebly.com/history.html|website=Carmel Mission|access-date=16 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191027154732/http://mission-carmel-isheeta.weebly.com/history.html|archive-date=27 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://travel.yodelout.com/california-missions-secularization-of-the-missions/|title=California Missions – Secularization Of The Missions|website=travel.yodelout.com|access-date=2019-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525030859/http://travel.yodelout.com/california-missions-secularization-of-the-missions/|archive-date=2017-05-25|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Davis, William Heath. (1929) ''[http://www.sfgenealogy.com/sf/history/hb75yap5.htm Seventy-five Years in San Francisco – Missions and their Wealth; Hacendados and Their Property] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207045144/http://www.sfgenealogy.com/sf/history/hb75yap5.htm |date=2008-12-07 }}''</ref>

=== Ownership===

The number of Mexican land grants greatly increased after [[secularization]]. The former Mission Indians, freed from forced labor on the missions, but without land of their own, and their former way of life destroyed, often had few choices. Some lived with Indian tribes in the interior or sought work on the new ranchos along with the troops formerly assigned to each mission. They sometimes congregated at rancherías (living areas near a hacienda) were an indigenous Spanish and mestizo culture developed.<ref name=Dúran/>

By 1846, the mission lands and its cattle had passed into the hands of 800 private landowners called rancheros. They collectively owned {{convert|800,000,000|acre}} of land, about one-eighth of the future state, in units ranging in size from {{convert| 4,500|acre}} to {{convert| 50,000|acre}}. They primarily produced hides for the world leather market and largely relied on Indian labor. Bound to the rancho by [[peon]]age, the Native Americans were treated as slaves. The Native Americans who worked on the ranchos died at twice the rate that of southern slaves.<ref name=Dúran/>

The boundaries of the Mexican ranchos were provisional. The new owner was required to complete a legal survey that established and marked the boundaries. Even if completed, the resulting 'diseño', a rough, hand-drawn relief map, often only vaguely defined the boundary lines.<ref>Cleland, Robert, 1975, ''The Cattle on a Thousand Hills: Southern California, 1850–1880'', The Huntington Library, San Marino, CA.</ref>

The grantee could not initially subdivide or rent the land. It had to be used for grazing or cultivation. A residence had to be built within a year—most were initially simple adobe-walled cabins. Public roads crossing through the property must remain open.{{citation needed|date=December 2019}}

The survey and residence requirements could not be enforced. The poorly funded and relatively unorganized government had little interest in land that brought in no taxes. The government instead collected revenue from tariffs assessed on cargo arriving at [[Monterey, California]].{{citation needed|date=December 2019}}

==American era==
The [[Mexican–American War]] began on May 13, 1846 with a [[declaration of war]] by the [[United States of America]]. Action in California began with the [[Bear Flag Revolt]] on June 15, 1846. On July 7, 1846, US forces took possession of Monterey, the capital of California, and terminated the authority and jurisdiction of Mexican officials that day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/127/70/|title=More v. Steinbach, 127 U.S. 70 (1888)|website=Justia Law|access-date=2019-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525031114/https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/127/70/|archive-date=2017-05-25|url-status=live}}</ref> Armed resistance ended in California with the [[Treaty of Cahuenga]] signed on January 13, 1847. The [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]], ending the war, was signed February 2, 1848 and California became a Territory of the United States. Between 1847 and 1849, California was run by the U.S. military. A [[1849 California Constitutional Convention|constitutional convention]] met in Monterey in September 1849, and set up a state government. It operated for 10 months before California was admitted to the [[United States of America|Union]] as the 31st State by the [[United States Congress]], as part of the [[Compromise of 1850]], enacted on September 9, 1850.

===Gold Rush===
While the end of the 1840s saw the close of Mexican control over Alta California, this period also marked the beginning of the rancheros’ greatest prosperity. Cattle had been raised primarily for their hides and tallow, as there was no market for large quantities of beef, especially in the days prior to refrigeration, railroads or ice production. Demand dramatically changed with the onset of the [[Gold Rush]], as thousands of miners and other fortune seekers flooded into northern California. These newcomers needed meat, and cattle prices soared with demand. The rancheros enjoyed the halcyon days of Hispanic California.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mchsmuseum.com/cattle.html|title=Monterey County Historical Society, Local History Pages--The California Cattle Boom, 1849-1862|website=mchsmuseum.com|access-date=2009-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081025000631/http://www.mchsmuseum.com/cattle.html|archive-date=2008-10-25|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Land claims===
The [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]] provided that the Mexican land grants would be honored. To investigate and confirm titles in California, American officials acquired the provincial records of the Spanish and Mexican governments in Monterey.<ref>Beck, Warren A. and Ynez D. Haase, ''Historical Atlas of California'', first edition, p.24</ref><ref>[http://www.sos.ca.gov/archives/collections/ussg/grant-list.htm "Spanish and Mexican Land Grant Maps, 1855–1875"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108073057/http://www.sos.ca.gov/archives/collections/ussg/grant-list.htm |date=2012-01-08 }}, California State Archives</ref>

The new state's leaders soon discovered that the Mexican government had given a number of grants just before the Americans gained control. The Mexican governors had rewarded faithful supporters, and hoped to prevent the new immigrants from gaining control of the land. Sponsored by California Senator [[William M. Gwin]], in 1851 Congress passed "An Act to Ascertain and Settle Private Land Claims in the State of California".<ref name="blakely" /> The Act required all holders of Spanish and Mexican [[land grant]]s to present their titles for confirmation before the [[Public Land Commission|Board of California Land Commissioners]].<ref>[[Paul Wallace Gates|Paul W. Gates]], 1971, ''The California Land Act of 1851'', California Historical Society, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Dec., 1971), pp. 395–430</ref> Contrary to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, this Act placed the burden of proof of title on landholders.<ref>[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/rancho.html "Ranchos of California"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090202213123/http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/rancho.html |date=2009-02-02 }}: Extracts from Cris Perez, ''Grants of Land in California Made by Spanish or Mexican Authorities''</ref> Grantees were required to prove the validity of the grants they had received and establish their exact boundaries. The diseños (maps) available were often hand-drawn and imprecise. Land had until the gold rush been of little value and boundary locations were often quite vague, referring to an oak tree, a cow skull on a pile of rocks, a creek, and in some cases a mountain range.<ref name="blakely"/> The 588 grants made by Spanish and Mexican authorities in California between 1769 and 1846 encompassed more than {{convert|8,850,000 |acre}}, or nearly {{convert|14,000|sqmi}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/microfilm-catalogs/fed-courts/part-04.html|title=FEDERAL COURT RECORDS:Part 04|date=August 15, 2016|website=National Archives|access-date=June 4, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181110080441/https://www.archives.gov/publications/microfilm-catalogs/fed-courts/part-04.html|archive-date=November 10, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

The settlement of land titles was frequently complicated and lengthy. Even in cases where the boundaries were more specific, many markers had been destroyed before accurate surveys could be made. Aside from indefinite survey lines, the Land Commission had to determine whether the grantees had fulfilled the requirements of the Mexican colonization laws. Mexican officials often did not keep adequate records and sometimes did not provide grantees with any documentation of the grant. Many grants required additional approvals before they were legal. Conditions of the grant required the grantee to live on the land. All of these requirements were rarely fulfilled.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dr. Hart's Mansion - Pacific Grove, California |url=http://hartmansion.com/puntadelospinos.html |website=hartmansion.com |access-date=6 January 2021}}</ref>

While the Land Commission confirmed 604 of the 813 claims it reviewed, most decisions were appealed to [[US District Court]] and some to the [[US Supreme Court|Supreme Court]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130320000647/http://www.slc.ca.gov/Misc_Pages/Historical/Surveyors_General/reports/Willey_1884_1886.pdf|url-status=dead|title=''Report of the Surveyor General 1844–1886''|archive-date=March 20, 2013}}</ref> The confirmation process required lawyers, translators, and surveyors, and took an average of 17 years (including the [[American Civil War|Civil War]], 1861–1865) to resolve. It proved expensive for landholders to defend their titles through the court system. In many cases, they had to sell or give title to a portion of their land to pay for defense fees or gave attorneys land in lieu of payment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/hb109nb422/|title=Finding Aid to the Documents Pertaining to the Adjudication of Private Land Claims in California, circa 1852-1892|website=oac.cdlib.org|access-date=2019-12-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618005304/https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/hb109nb422/|archive-date=2019-06-18|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.upress.pitt.edu/htmlSourceFiles/pdfs/9780822959397exr.pdf|title=''Ranchos and the Politics of Land Claims''|access-date=2010-05-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160129061402/http://www.upress.pitt.edu/htmlSourceFiles/pdfs/9780822959397exr.pdf|archive-date=2016-01-29|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Rejected Spanish and Mexican land claims resulted in conflicting claims by the grantees, squatters, and settlers seeking the same land. This resulted in pressure on Congress to change the rules. Under the [[Preemption Act of 1841]], squatters were able to [[Pre-emption right|pre-empt]] others' claims to portions of the land and acquire clear title by paying $1.25 an acre for up to a maximum of {{convert|160|acre|km2|2}}. Land from titles rejected by the courts became part of the public domain and available to homesteaders after the first federal [[Homestead Acts|Homestead Act of 1862]] was passed, allowing anyone to claim up to {{convert|160|acre|km2|2}}. This resulted in additional pressure on Congress, and beginning with [[Rancho Suscol]] in 1863, it passed special acts that allowed certain claimants to pre-empt their land without regard to acreage. By 1866 this privilege was extended to all owners of rejected claims.<ref>[[Paul Wallace Gates|Paul W. Gates]], 2002, ''Land and Law in California: Essays on Land Policies'', Purdue University Press, {{ISBN|978-1-55753-273-2}}</ref><ref>Gordon Morris Bakken, 2000, ''Law in the western United States'', University of Oklahoma Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8061-3215-0}}</ref>

A number of ranchos remained in whole or in part in the sliver of territory of Alta California left to Mexico by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which then became part of [[Baja California]]. [[Rancho Tía Juana]] (partially in San Diego County, California) lost its claim to title to its land in San Diego County but the balance of the rancho was confirmed by the Mexican government in the 1880s. [[Rancho El Rosario]], [[Rancho Cueros de Venado]] and [[Rancho Tecate]] were each granted to citizens of San Diego in the 1820s or 1830s and lay wholly in what is now Baja California as was the [[Rancho San Antonio Abad]], whose origin and title is more obscure. Their titles were never subjected to dispute in U.S. courts.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=QOsNAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s History of California, Volume 20] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120191016/https://books.google.com/books?id=QOsNAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s |date=2016-01-20 }} Hubert Howe Bancroft, Henry Lebbeus Oak, Frances Fuller Victor, William Nemos, History Company, Chicago, 1886, pp. 611-612 n.7</ref>

===Disintegration===
The rancheros became land-rich and cash-poor, and the burden of attempting to defend their claims was often financially overwhelming. Grantees lost their lands as a result of mortgage default, payment of attorney fees, or payment of other personal debts. Land was also lost as a result of fraud. A sharp decline in cattle prices, the [[Great Flood of 1862|floods of 1861–1862]], and droughts of 1863–1864 also forced many of the overextended rancheros to sell their properties to Americans. They often quickly subdivided the land and sold it to new settlers, who began farming individual plots.<ref>{{cite book |first=Leonard |last=Pitt |first2=Ramon A. |last2=Gutierrez |year=1999 |title=Decline of the Californios: A Social History of the Spanish-Speaking Californias, 1846–1890 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-21958-9 }}</ref>

A shift in the economic dominance of grain farming over cattle raising was marked by the passage of the California "No-Fence Law" of 1874. This repealed the Trespass Act of 1850, which had required farmers to protect their planted fields from free-ranging cattle. The repeal of the Trespass Act required that ranchers fence stock in, rather than farmers fencing cattle out. The ranchers were faced with either the high expense of fencing large grazing tracts or selling their cattle at ruinous prices.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ludeke |first=John |title=The No Fence Law of 1874: Victory for San Joaquin Valley Farmers |journal=California History |volume=59 |issue=2 |year=1980 |pages=98–115 |doi=10.2307/25157972 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/65january/cattle.htm |title=Decimation of the Herds, 1870–1912 |journal=San Diego History Journal |date=January 1965 |access-date=2009-07-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012104754/http://www.sandiegohistory.org/journal/65january/cattle.htm |archive-date=2008-10-12 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Legacy===
The ranchos established land-use patterns that are still recognizable in contemporary California.<ref>David Hornbeck, "Land tenure and rancho expansion in Alta California, 1784–1846", ''Journal of Historical Geography,'' Volume 4, Issue 4, October 1978, pp. 371–390</ref> Many communities still retain their Spanish rancho name. For example, [[Rancho Peñasquitos]], the first land grant by the Spanish in today's San Diego County, is now a suburb within the city of San Diego. Modern communities often follow the original boundaries of the rancho, based on geographic features and abstract straight lines. Today, most of the original rancho land grants have been dismantled and sold off to become suburbs and rural-burbs. A very small number of ranchos are still owned by descendants of the original owners, retain their original size, or remain undeveloped.

[[Rancho Guejito]] in [[San Diego County]] is considered the last of the San Diego Ranchos to be undeveloped. Only a few historic structures and an {{convert|8,000|ft2}} ranch house, built in the 1970s, occupy the {{convert|13,300|acre}}. Benjamin Coates purchased the land in the 1970s after Governor [[Jerry Brown]] vetoed a purchase that would have made Guejito a [[state park]]. Coates purchased an additional {{convert|8700|acre}} of surrounding land between the 1970s and his death in 2004. Coates and his wife Nancy both expressed their wishes that the Rancho remain undeveloped. After her death in 2006, ownership of the land passed to their daughter, Theodate Coates, an artist from New York City. Despite her parents' wishes that development be kept off of the Rancho, she has taken steps to remove Rancho Guejito's status as an agricultural preserve and eventually develop the land into [[tract housing]].{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*Avina, Rose H. (1976). ''Spanish and Mexican Land Grants in California'', Arno Press, New York.
*Baker, Charles C. (1914). ''Mexican Land Grants in California'', Historical Society of Southern California, Vol IX, pp. 236–243
*{{cite book |last=Beck |first=Warren A. |author2=Ynez D. Haase |title= Historical Atlas of California|year=1974 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press | url=https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000beck|url-access=registration |isbn=0-8061-1212-3 }}
*Becker, Robert H. (1969). ''Designs on the land : disenos of California ranchos and their makers''. San Francisco, Book Club of California.
*{{cite book |last=Beers |first=Henry Putney |title=Spanish & Mexican records of the American Southwest : a bibliographical guide to archive and manuscript sources |year=1979 |publisher=University of Arizona Press, Tucson }}
*{{cite book |last=Cowan |first=Robert G. |title= Ranchos of California |year=1956 |publisher=Academy Library Guild, Fresno, Calif.}}
*{{cite book |last=Perez |first=Cris |author2=California State Lands Commission |title=Grants of Land in California Made by Spanish Or Mexican Authorities |publisher=California State Lands Commission | url=http://www.californiacentralvalleysurveyors.org/chapter_library/library/Grants_of_Land_in_California_Made_by_Spanish_or_Mexican_Authorities_State_Lands_Commission.pdf }}
*{{cite book |last=Perez |first=Crisostomo N. |title= Land Grants in Alta California |year=1996 |publisher=Landmark Enterprises |isbn=978-0-910845-55-7}}
*{{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Derek |title=Historical Atlas of California |publisher=University of California Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-520-25258-5 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalatlaso0000haye }}

==External links==
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/AlamedaRanchos.html Alameda County Mexican Land Grants]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/ContraCostaRanchos.html Contra Costa County Mexican Land Grants]
*[https://www.californiafrontier.net/land-grants-in-alta-california Land Grants in Alta California]
*[http://digarc.usc.edu/assetserver/controller/view/search/CHS-13060 Los Angeles County Spanish and Mexican ranchos]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/MarinRanchos.html Marin County Mexican Land Grants]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081114181514/http://www.co.marin.ca.us/depts/lb/main/crm/maps/MarinRanchosMap.swf Marin County's Original Ranchos]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/MontereyRanchos.html Monterey County Mexican Land Grants]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/NapaRanchos.html Napa County Mexican Land Grants]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110726003947/http://egov.ocgov.com/vgnfiles/ocgov/Clerk-Recorder/Docs/Archives/Spanish_and_Mexican_Ranchos.pdf Orange County Spanish and Mexican Ranchos]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/SanBenitoRanchos.html San Benito County Mexican Land Grants]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/SanFranciscoRanchos.html San Francisco County Mexican Land Grants]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/SanMateoRanchos.html San Mateo County Mexican Land Grants]
*[http://surveyor.countyofsb.org/downloads/Land_Grants_and_Townships.pdf Santa Barbara County Rancho Map]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/SantaClaraRanchos.html Santa Clara County Mexican Land Grants]
*[http://www.cagenweb.com/santaclara/landgrants.html Santa Clara Ranchos, Grants, Patents and Maps]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/SantaCruzRanchos.html Santa Cruz CountyMexican Land Grants]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/SonomaRanchos.html Sonoma County Mexican Land Grants]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20081121200039/http://www.sonomacountyhistory.org/grants.htm Sonoma County Mexican Land Grants]
*[http://tcghsoc.org/MexicanLandGrantsTC.pdf Tehama County Mexican Land Grants]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080828182002/http://www.venturacogensoc.org/SpanGrants.htm Ventura County Spanish and Mexican Land Grants]

{{California history}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ranchos Of California}}
[[Category:California ranchos| ]]
[[Category:Baja California Ranchos]]
[[Category:Ranches in California|*]]
[[Category:The Californias]]
[[Category:Mexican California]]
[[Category:History of California]]
[[Category:Pre-statehood history of California]]
[[Category:Cultural landscapes]]
[[Category:Land law]]

John Sutter

2021-09-08T04:14:10Z

JavaRogers: /* Beginnings of Sutter's Fort */ ndash

{{short description|Swiss pioneer of California}}
{{For|his son|John Augustus Sutter Jr.}}

{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{Infobox person
| name = John Sutter
| image = John Augustus Sutter c1850.jpg
| caption = John Sutter, c. 1850
| birth_name = Johann August Sutter
| birth_date = {{birth date|1803|02|23}}
| birth_place = [[Kandern]], [[Margraviate of Baden]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1880|06|18|1803|02|15}}
| death_place = [[Washington D.C.]], United States
| spouse = Annette D'beld
| children = 5, including [[John Augustus Sutter Jr.]]
| education =
| occupation =
}}

'''John Augustus Sutter''' (February 23, 1803<ref name="HLS">[http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/d/D29855.php Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz]</ref> – June 18, 1880), born '''Johann August Sutter''' and known in Spanish as '''Don Juan Sutter''',<ref>[https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&sid=95e3f6e828e116b80d4cccd93c806bc1&view=text&rgn=main&idno=AJC3556.0001.001 University of Michigan - Supreme court of the United States. No. 135. The United States, appellants, vs. John A. Sutter. Appeal from the District court U.S. for the Northern district of California.]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.pt/books?id=YiIz6UACeDIC&pg=PA62&lpg=PA62&dq=%22don+juan+sutter%22&source=bl&ots=wjF7yui80B&sig=ACfU3U3eXBhLnDj4HWg_M7os7u0h-qzteQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjP3rbJ79HtAhXSesAKHXPNBAcQ6AEwD3oECBIQAg#v=onepage&q=%22don%20juan%20sutter%22&f=false The Sutter Family and the Origins of Gold-Rush Sacramento]</ref> was a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] immigrant of Mexican and American citizenship, known for establishing [[Sutter's Fort]] in the area that would eventually become [[Sacramento, California]], the [[U.S. state|state's]] capital. Although he became famous following the discovery of gold by his employee [[James W. Marshall]] and the mill-making team at [[Sutter's Mill]], Sutter saw his own business ventures fail during the [[California Gold Rush]]. Those of his elder son, [[John Augustus Sutter Jr.]], were more successful.<ref name="jrbio">Sutter, John A. Jr. & Ottley, Allan R. (Ed.). ''Statement: Regarding Early California Experiences''. Sacramento Book Collectors Club. 1943.</ref>

==Earlier Years==
[[Image:Sutter Birthplace.jpg|thumb|left|upright|The birthplace of John Sutter in [[Kandern]], [[Baden]], Germany.]]
Johann August Sutter was born<ref name="hds">{{HDS|29855|Sutter, John (General Sutter)|author= Bernard Degen|date= June 7, 2012}}</ref> on February 23, 1803, in [[Kandern]],<ref>Eric Howard, ''John Sutter,'' '''California and Californians''', Vol. 4.[database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: The Generations Network, Inc., 1998. Original data: Hunt, Rockwell D., ed. California and Californians. Vol. IV. Chicago, IL, USA: Lewis Publishing, 1932. pp. 36, 37.</ref> [[Margraviate of Baden|Baden]] (present-day Germany). His father came from the nearby town of [[Rünenberg]] in the [[Canton of Basel]] in [[Switzerland]].

Johann went to school in [[Neuchâtel]], Switzerland. At age 21, he married<ref name="owens">
{{cite book
| last1= Owens |first1= Kenneth N.
| last2= Sutter |first2= John Augustus
| title= John Sutter and a Wider West
| publisher= University of Nebraska Press
| date= November 1, 2002 |orig-year= 1st. Pub. 1994 |page= 78
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=F_Z268r2QOkC&pg=PA78
| isbn= 0-8032-8618-X
}}
</ref>
the daughter of a rich widow. He operated a store but showed more interest in spending money than in earning it. Because of family circumstances and mounting debts, Johann faced charges that would have him placed in jail and so he decided to dodge trial and fled to America. He styled his name as Captain John Augustus Sutter.

In May 1834, he left his wife and five children behind in [[Burgdorf, Switzerland]], and with a French [[passport]], he boarded the ship ''Sully'', which travelled from [[Le Havre, France]], to New York City, where it arrived on July 14, 1834.

==The New World==

In North America, John August Sutter (as he would call himself for the rest of his life) undertook extensive travels. Before he went to the [[United States]], he had learned [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[English language|English]] in addition to Swiss French. He and 35 [[Germany|Germans]] moved from the [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]] area to [[Santa Fe, New Mexico|Santa Fe]], New Mexico, then a province of [[Mexico]], then moved to the town of Westport, now the site of [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]]. On April 1, 1838, he joined a group of [[missionaries]], led by the [[List of mountain men|fur trapper Andrew Drips]], and traveled the [[Oregon Trail]] to [[Fort Vancouver]] in [[Oregon Territory]], which they reached in October. Sutter originally planned to cross the [[Siskiyou Mountains]] during the winter, but acting chief factor [[James Douglas (governor)|James Douglas]] convinced him that such an attempt would be perilous.<ref name=Dillion1>Dillion, Richard. ''Fool's Gold, the Decline and Fall of Captain John Sutter of California.'' New York City: Coward-McCann. 1967, p. 66.</ref> Douglas charged Sutter [[pound sterling|£]]21 to arrange transportation on the British bark ''Columbia'' for himself and his eight followers.<ref name=Dillion1/>

The Columbia departed Fort Vancouver on November 11 and sailed to the [[Kingdom of Hawaii]], reaching [[Honolulu]] on December 9. Sutter had missed the only ship outbound for [[Alta California]], and had to remain in the Kingdom for four months.<ref name=Dillion2>Dillion (1967), p. 70.</ref> Over the months Sutter gained friendly relations with the Euro-American community, dining with the [[Consul (representative)|Consuls]] of the United States of America and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], [[John Coffin Jones]] and [[Richard Charlton]], along with merchants such as American [[Faxon Atherton]].<ref name=Dillion2/> The brig ''Clementine'' was eventually hired by Sutter to take freight provisions and general merchandise for [[Sitka, Alaska|New Archangel]] (now known as Sitka), the capital of the [[Russian-American Company]] colonies in [[Russian America]]. Joining the crew as unpaid [[supercargo]], Sutter, 10 [[Native Hawaiians|Native Hawaiian]] laborers, and several other followers embarked on April 20, 1839.<ref name=Dillion3>Dillion (1967), pp. 72-73.</ref> Staying at New Archangel for a month, Sutter joined several [[Ball (dance)|balls]] hosted by Governor [[Ivan Kupreyanov|Kupreyanov]], who likely gave help in determining the course of the [[Sacramento River]].<ref name=Dillion3/> The ''Clementine'' then sailed for Alta California, arriving on July 1, 1839, at [[Yerba Buena, California|Yerba Buena]] (now [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]]), which at that time was only a small seaport town.

===Beginnings of Sutter's Fort===
{{Main|New Helvetia}}
[[File:JohannAugustSutter.jpg|thumb|John Sutter, 1866]]
At the time of Sutter's arrival, Alta California was a province of [[Mexico]] and had a population of only about 1,000 Europeans{{citation needed|date=April 2013}} and an estimated 100,000–700,000 [[Population of Native California|Native Americans]]. Sutter had to go to the capital at [[Monterey, California|Monterey]] to obtain permission from the [[List of pre-statehood governors of California|governor]], [[Juan Bautista Alvarado]], to settle in the territory. Alvarado saw Sutter's plan of establishing a colony in [[Central Valley (California)|Central Valley]] as useful in "buttressing the frontier which he was trying to maintain against Indians, Russians, Americans and British."<ref name=Dillion4>Dillion (1967), pp. 76–77.</ref> Sutter persuaded Governor Alvarado to grant him 48,400 acres of land for the sake of curtailing American encroachment on the Mexican territory of California. This stretch of land was called New Helvetia and Sutter was given the right to “represent in the Establishment of New Helvetia all the laws of the country, to function as political authority and dispenser of justice, in order to prevent the robberies committed by adventurers from the United States, to stop the invasion of savage Indians, and the hunting and trading by companies from the Columbia (river).”<ref name="historynet.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.historynet.com/john-sutter-and-californias-indians.htm|title=John Sutter and California's Indians|date=June 12, 2006}}</ref>

The governor stipulated however that for Sutter to qualify for [[land grant|land ownership]], he had to reside in the territory for a year and become a Mexican citizen, which he did to assuage the governor on August 29, 1840.<ref name=Dillion4/> However, shortly after his land tract was granted and his fort was erected, Sutter quickly reneged on his agreement to discourage European trespass. On the contrary, Sutter aided the migration of whites to California. “I gave passports to those entering the country… and this (Bautista) did not like it… I encouraged immigration, while they discouraged it. I sympathized with the Americans while they hated them.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dev.historynet.com/john-sutter-and-californias-indians.htm|title = John Sutter and California's Indians|date = June 12, 2006}}</ref>

Construction was begun in August 1839 on a fortified settlement which Sutter named [[New Helvetia]], or "New Switzerland," after his homeland. In order to elevate his social standing, Sutter impersonated a Swiss guard officer who had been displaced by the French Revolution and identified himself accordingly as 'Captain Sutter of the Swiss Guard'. When the settlement was completed in 1841, on June 18, he received title to {{convert|48827|acre|km2}} on the [[Sacramento River]]. The site is now part of the California state capital of [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]].

[[File:Sutter's Fort - A tour of duty 1849.jpg|thumb|left|Contemporaneous illustration of Sutter's Fort]]

A [[Francophile]], Sutter threatened to raise the French flag over California and place New Helvetia under French protection,<ref>{{cite journal | first=Claudine | last=Chalmers | title=The French in Early California |url=http://www.ancestry.myfamily.com/learn/library/article.aspx?article=808 | journal=Ancestry Magazine | volume= 16 | issue= 2 |date=March–April 1998 | access-date=October 8, 2007}}</ref> but in 1846 California was occupied by the United States in the [[Mexican–American War]]. Sutter at first supported the establishment of an independent [[California Republic]] but when United States troops under [[John C. Frémont]] briefly seized control of his fort, Sutter did not resist because he was outnumbered.

===Relationship with Native Americans===
Sutter had to make peace with the local native [[Maidu]] people. Over time, the Maidu and Sutter became friends, and they helped Sutter and his Kanakas build a fortified settlement. Sutter's Fort had a central building made of adobe bricks, surrounded by a high wall with protection on opposite corners to guard against attack. It also had workshops and stores that produced all goods necessary for the New Helvetia settlement.

Sutter employed or enslaved Native Americans of the [[Miwok]] and Maidu tribes, the Hawaiians (Kanakas) he had brought, and also employed some Europeans at his compound. He envisioned creating an agricultural [[utopia]], and for a time the settlement was in fact quite large and prosperous. Prior to the Gold Rush, it was the destination for most immigrants entering California via the high passes of the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], including the ill-fated [[Donner Party]] of 1846, for whose rescue Sutter contributed supplies.

In order to build his fort and develop a large ranching/farming network in the area, Sutter relied on Indian labor. Some Native Americans worked voluntarily for Sutter (e.g. [[Nisenan]]s, Miwoks, [[Ohatchecama|Ochecames]]), but others were subjected to varying degrees of coercion that resembled [[slavery]] or [[serfdom]].<ref name="jstor.org">{{cite journal|last1=Hurtado|first1=Albert|title=California Indians and the Workaday West: Labor, Assimilation, and Survival|journal=California History|date=Spring 1990|volume=69|issue=1|page=5|doi=10.2307/25177303|jstor=25177303}}</ref> Sutter believed that Native Americans had to be kept "strictly under fear" in order to serve white landowners.<ref name="jstor.org"/> Housing and working conditions at the fort were very poor, and have been described as "enslavement", with uncooperative Indians being "whipped, jailed, and executed." Sutter's Native American "employees" slept on bare floors in locked rooms without sanitation, and ate from troughs made from hollowed tree trunks.<ref>{{cite web|title=John Sutter and California's Indians|url=http://www.historynet.com/john-sutter-and-californias-indians.htm|website=Historynet.com|date=June 12, 2006|publisher=Wild West Magazine|access-date=December 25, 2014}}</ref> Housing conditions for workers living in nearby villages and [[ranchería]]s was described as being more favorable.<ref>Hurtado (1988), p. 57-59</ref><ref name = "nps">{{Cite web| title = Five Views: An Ethnic Historic Site Survey for California (American Indians)
| access-date = 2013-10-17| url = http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/5views/5views1h90.htm}}</ref> Pierson Reading, Sutter’s fort manager, wrote in a letter to a relative that “the Indians of California make as obedient and humble slaves as the Negro in the South".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://goldcountrymedia.com/news/101146/dark-history-spurs-name-debate/|title=Dark history spurs name debate}}</ref> If Indians refused to work for him, Sutter responded with violence. Observers accused him of using "kidnapping, food privation, and slavery" in order to force Indians to work for him, and generally stated that Sutter held the Indians under inhumane conditions.{{sfn|Wild West Magazine|2006}}{{sfn|Hurtado|1990|p=5}} Theodor Cordua, a German immigrant who leased land from Sutter, wrote:

<blockquote>“When Sutter established himself in 1839 in the Sacramento Valley, new misfortune came upon these peaceful natives of the country. Their services were demanded immediately. Those who did not want to work were considered as enemies. With other tribes the field was taken against the hostile Indian. Declaration of war was not made. The villages were attacked usually before daybreak when everybody was still asleep. Neither old nor young was spared by the enemy, and often the Sacramento River was colored red by the blood of the innocent Indians, for these villages usually were situated at the banks of the rivers. During a campaign one section of the attackers fell upon the village by way of land. All the Indians of the attacked village naturally fled to find protection on the other bank of the river. But there they were awaited by the other half of the enemy and thus the unhappy people were shot and killed with rifles from both sides of the river. Seldom an Indian escaped such an attack, and those who were not murdered were captured. All children from six to fifteen years of age were usually taken by the greedy white people. The village was burned down and the few Indians who had escaped with their lives were left to their fate.”{{sfn|Cordua|1933|p=24}}</blockquote>

[[Heinrich Lienhard]], a Swiss immigrant that served as Sutter's [[majordomo]], wrote of the treatment of the enslaved once captured: <blockquote>“As the room had neither beds nor straw, the inmates were forced to sleep on the bare floor. When I opened the door for them in the morning, the odor that greeted me was overwhelming, for no sanitary arrangements had been provided. What these rooms were like after ten days or two weeks can be imagined, and the fact that nocturnal confinement was not agreeable to the Indians was obvious. Large numbers deserted during the daytime, or remained outside the fort when the gates were locked.”<ref name="historynet.com"/></blockquote>

Lienhard also claimed that Sutter was known to rape his Indian captives, even girls as young as 12 years old. Despite the procurement of fertile agriculture, Sutter fed his Native American work force in pig troughs, where they would eat gruel with their hands in the sun on their knees. Numerous visitors to Sutter’s Fort noted the shock of this sight in their diaries, alongside their discontent for his kidnapping of Indian children who were sold into bondage to repay Sutter's debts or given as gifts. American explorer and [[mountain man]] [[James Clyman]] reported in 1846 that:

<blockquote>“The Capt. [Sutter] keeps 600 to 800 Indians in a complete state of Slavery and as I had the mortification of seeing them dine I may give a short description. 10 or 15 Troughs 3 or 4 feet long were brought out of the cook room and seated in the Broiling sun. All the Labourers grate [sic] and small ran to the troughs like so many pigs and fed themselves with their hands as long as the troughs contained even a moisture.”{{sfn|Clyman|1871|p=116}}</blockquote>

Dr. Waseurtz af Sandels, a Swedish explorer who visited California in 1842-1843, also wrote about Sutter's brutal treatment of Indian slaves in 1842:

<blockquote>“I could not reconcile my feelings to see these fellows being driven, as it were, around some narrow troughs of hollow tree trunks, out of which, crouched on their haunches, they fed more like beasts than human beings, using their hands in hurried manner to convey to their mouths the thin porage [sic] which was served to them. Soon they filed off to the fields after having, I fancy, half satisfied their physical wants.”<ref name="historynet.com"/></blockquote>

These concerns were even shared by [[Juan Bautista Alvarado]], then Governor of Alta California, who deplored Sutter's ill-treatment of indigenous Californians in 1845:

<blockquote>“The public can see how inhuman were the operations of Sutter who had no scruples about depriving Indian mothers of their children. Sutter has sent these little Indian children as gifts to people who live far from the place of their birth, without demanding of them any promises that in their homes the Indians should be treated with kindness.”<ref>https://www.davisvanguard.org/2017/01/the-lesser-known-history-of-john-a-sutter/</ref></blockquote>

Despite his promises to the Mexican government, Sutter was hospitable to American settlers entering the region, and provided an impetus for many of them to settle there. The hundreds of thousands of acres which these men took from the Native Americans had been an important source of food and resources. As the White settlers were ranching two million head of livestock, shooting wild game in enormous numbers, and replacing wilderness with wheat fields, available food for Indians in the region diminished. In response, some Indians took to raiding the cattle of White ranchers. In August 1846, an article in ''[[The Californian (1840s newspaper)|The Californian]]'' declared that in respect to California Indians, "The only effectual means of stopping inroads upon the property of the country, will be to attack them in their villages."{{sfn|The Californian|1846|p=}} On February 28, 1847 Sutter ordered the [[Kern and Sutter massacres]] in retaliation.

Much of Sutter's labor practices were illegal under Mexican law. However, in April 22, 1850, following the annexation of California by the United States, the California state legislature passed the "Act for the Government and Protection of Indians," legalizing the kidnapping and forced servitude of Indians by White settlers.{{sfn |Statutes of California|1850|p=408-410}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Carranco|1981|p=40,109}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Hurtado|1988|pp=129–131}}</ref> In 1851, the civilian governor of California declared, "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged ... until the Indian race becomes extinct, must be expected."{{sfn |Journals of the Legislature of the State of California|1851|p=15}} This expectation soon found its way into law. An 1851 legislative measure not only gave settlers the right to organize lynch mobs to kill Indians, but allowed them to submit their expenses to the government. By 1852 the state had authorized over a million dollars in such claims.{{sfn|Comptroller of the State of California |1851-1859|p=16,19}}

In 1856, a ''San Francisco Bulletin'' editorial stated, "Extermination is the quickest and cheapest remedy, and effectually prevents all other difficulties when an outbreak [of Indian violence] occurs."{{sfn|San Francisco Bulletin|1856}} In 1860 the legislature passed a law expanding the age and condition of Indians available for forced slavery. A ''Sacramento Daily Union'' article of the time accused high-pressure lobbyists interested in profiting off enslaved Indians of pushing the law through, gave examples of how wealthy individuals had abused the law to acquire Indian slaves from the reservations, and stated, "The Act authorizes as complete a system of slavery, without any of the checks and wholesome restraints of slavery, as ever was devised."{{sfn |Sacramento Union|1861}}

===Involvement in California revolt===

In 1844–45, there was a revolt of the Mexican colony of California against the army of the mother country.<ref name="Salomon, Carlos Manuel pp. 73-5">Salomon, Carlos Manuel. ''Pio Pico: The Last Governor of Mexican California,'' pp. 73-5, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-8061-4090-2}}.</ref><ref name="Engstrand pp. 59-61">Engstrand, Iris and Owens, Ken. ''John Sutter: Sutter’s Fort and the California Gold Rush,'' pp. 59-61, Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., New York, New York, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8239-6630-5}}.</ref>

Two years earlier, in 1842, Mexico had removed California Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado, and sent Brigadier General [[Manuel Micheltorena]] to replace him. It also sent an army.<ref>Salomon, Carlos Manuel. ''Pio Pico: The Last Governor of Mexican California,'' pp. 70-1, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-8061-4090-2}}.</ref>

The army had been recruited from Mexico’s worst jails, and the soldiers soon began stealing Californian’s chickens and other property. Micheltorena’s army was described as descending on California “like a plague of locusts, stripping the countryside bare.” Californians complained that the army was committing robberies, beatings and rapes.<ref name="Salomon, Carlos Manuel pp. 73-5"/><ref name="Engstrand pp. 59-61"/>

In late 1844, the Californios revolted against Micheltorena. Micheltorena had appointed Sutter as ''commandante militar.'' Sutter, in turn, recruited men, one of whom was [[John Marsh (pioneer)|John Marsh]], a medical doctor and owner of the large [[Marsh Creek State Park (California)|Rancho los Meganos]]. Marsh, who sided with the Californios, wanted no part of this effort. However, Sutter gave Marsh a choice: either join the army or be arrested and put in jail.<ref>Lyman, George D. ''John Marsh, Pioneer: The Life Story of a Trail-blazer on Six Frontiers,'' pp. 252-4, Chautauqua Press, Chautauqua, New York, 1931.</ref>

In 1845, Sutter’s forces met the Californio forces at the [[Battle of Providencia]] (also known as the Second Battle of Cahuenga Pass). The battle consisted primarily of an artillery exchange, and during the battle Marsh secretly went over to parley with the other side. There was a large number of Americans fighting on both sides. Marsh met with them and convinced the Americans on both sides that there was no reason for Americans to be fighting each other.<ref name="Lyman, George D. pp. 254-61">Lyman, George D. ''John Marsh, Pioneer: The Life Story of a Trail-blazer on Six Frontiers,'' pp. 254-61, Chautauqua Press, Chautauqua, New York, 1931.</ref>

The Americans agreed and quit the fight, and as a result, Sutter’s forces lost the battle. The defeated Micheltorena took his army back to Mexico, and Californian [[Pio Pico]] became governor.<ref name="Lyman, George D. pp. 254-61"/><ref>Salomon, Carlos Manuel. ''Pio Pico: The Last Governor of Mexican California,'' pp. 75-6, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-8061-4090-2}}.</ref><ref>Engstrand, Iris and Owens, Ken. ''John Sutter: Sutter’s Fort and the California Gold Rush,'' pp. 60-61, Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., New York, New York, 2004. {{ISBN|0-8239-6630-5}}.</ref>

===Beginning of the Gold Rush===
{{main|California Gold Rush}}
[[Image:Sutters Mill.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Sutter's Mill in 1850.]]
In 1848, gold was discovered in the area. Initially, one of Sutter's most trusted employees, [[James W. Marshall]], found gold at Sutter's Mill. It started when Sutter hired Marshall, a [[New Jersey]] native who had served with [[John C. Frémont]] in the [[California Republic|Bear Flag revolt]], to build a [[Sutters Mill|water-driven sawmill]] in [[Coloma, California|Coloma]], along the [[American River]]. Sutter was intent on building a city on his property (not yet named {{lang|es|Sacramento}}), including housing and a wharf on the [[Sacramento River]], and needed lumber for the construction. One morning, as Marshall inspected the tailrace for silt and debris, he noticed some gold nuggets and brought them to Sutter's attention. Together, they read an encyclopedia entry on gold and performed primitive tests to confirm whether it was precious metal. Sutter concluded that it was, in fact, gold, but he was very anxious that the discovery not disrupt his plans for construction and farming. At the same time, he set about gaining legitimate title to as much land near the discovery as possible.

Sutter's attempt at keeping the gold discovery quiet failed when merchant and newspaper publisher [[Samuel Brannan]] returned from Sutter's Mill to San Francisco with gold he had acquired there and began publicizing the find. Large crowds of people overran the land and destroyed nearly everything Sutter had worked for. To avoid losing everything, Sutter deeded his remaining land to his son [[John Augustus Sutter Jr.]]

When Sutter's oldest son arrived from Switzerland, Sutter Sr. asked his fellow Swiss majordomo Heinrich Lienhard to lend him his half of the gold he had mined, so that Sutter could impress his son with a large amount of the precious metal. However, when Lienhard later went to the Fort, [[John Augustus Sutter, Jr.|Sutter, Jr.]], having taken charge of his father's debt-ridden business, was unable to return his share of the gold to him. Lienhard finally accepted Sutter's flock of sheep as payment.

The younger Sutter, who had come from Switzerland and joined his father in September 1848, saw the commercial possibilities of the land and promptly started plans for building a new town he named [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]], after the [[Sacramento River]]. The elder Sutter deeply resented this; he had wanted the town named Sutterville (for them) and for it to be built near New Helvetia.

Sutter gave up New Helvetia to pay the last of his debts. He rejoined his family and lived in [[Sutter Hock Farm|Hock Farm]] (in California along the [[Feather River]]).

===Land grant challenge===
[[Image:Camp Sutterville plaque historical marker 666 with pillar in background.jpg|thumb|left|Camp Union, Sutterville (State Historical marker and fort pillar)]]
[[Image:Camp Sutterville plaque historical marker 666.jpg|thumb|Camp Union, Sutterville (State Historical marker)]]
Sutter's El Sobrante (Spanish for leftover) land grant was challenged by the Squatter's Association, and in 1858 the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] denied its validity.

Sutter got a letter of introduction to the Congress of the United States from the governor of California. He moved to Washington D.C. at the end of 1865, after Hock Farm was destroyed by fire in June 1865.

Sutter sought reimbursement of his losses associated with the Gold Rush. He received a pension of US$250 a month as a reimbursement of taxes paid on the Sobrante grant at the time Sutter considered it his own. He and wife Annette moved to [[Lititz, Pennsylvania]] in 1871. The proximity to Washington, D.C. along with the reputed healing qualities of Lititz Springs appealed to the aging Sutter. He also wanted three of his grandchildren (he had grandchildren in [[Acapulco]], Mexico, as well) to have the benefits of the fine private [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] Schools. After having prospectors destroy his crops and slaughter cows leaving everything but his own gold, John Sutter spent the rest of his life trying to get the government to pay him for his losses, but he never had any luck.

Sutter built his home across from the Lititz Springs Hotel (renamed in 1930 to be the General Sutter Inn and subsequently renamed to be the Lititz Springs Inn & Spa). For more than fifteen years, Sutter petitioned Congress for restitution but little was done. On June 16, 1880, Congress adjourned, once again, without action on a bill which would have given Sutter US$50,000. Two days later, on June 18, 1880, Sutter died in the Made's Hotel in Washington D.C. He was returned to Lititz and is buried adjacent to [[God's Acre]], the [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] Graveyard; Anna Sutter died the following January and is buried with him.

===Legacy to the region===
[[Image:General sutter grave.jpg|thumb|upright|General Sutter grave in [[Lititz]], PA [[Moravian Church|Moravian]] Cemetery]]
There are numerous California landmarks bearing the name of Sutter. Sutter Street in San Francisco is named for John A. Sutter. Sutter's Landing, Sutterville Road, Sutter Middle School, Sutter's Mill School, and Sutterville Elementary School in [[Sacramento, California|Sacramento]] are all named after him. The Sutterville Bend of the [[Sacramento River]] is named for Sutter, as is [http://www.sutterhealth.org Sutter Health], a non-profit health care system in Northern California. The City of [[Sutter Creek, California]] is also named after him. In [[Acapulco]], Mexico, the property that used to belong to [[John Augustus Sutter Jr.]] became the Hotel Sutter, which is still in service. The [[Sutter Buttes]], a mountain range near [[Yuba City, California]], and [[Sutter County, California]] (of which Yuba City is the seat) are named after him as well.

The [[Johann Agust Sutter House]] in [[Lititz, Pennsylvania]] was listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]] in 1982.<ref name="nris">{{NRISref|version=2010a|dateform=mdy}}</ref>

The 'Sutter's Gold' rose, an orange blend [[hybrid tea rose]] bred by Herbert C. Swim, was named after him.<ref>[http://www.helpmefind.com/rose/l.php?l=2.6139 'Sutter's Gold' Rose]</ref>

Gov. [[Jerry Brown]], elected to a third term in 2010, had a Welsh corgi named [[Sutter Brown]], affectionately referred to as the First Dog of California. Sutter died in late 2016 from cancer.

On June 15, 2020, amid the Black Lives Matter protests and the removal of many statues deemed to be racist, the statue of John Sutter outside the [[Sutter Medical Center]] in [[Sacramento, CA]], was removed, "out of respect for some community members' viewpoints, and in the interest of public safety for patients and staff."<ref>[https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020-06-16/statue-of-colonizer-john-sutter-removed-after-being-defaced-in-sacramento Statue of colonizer John Sutter removed after being defaced in Sacramento]</ref>

==Pop culture==

===Scholarly studies===
* Albert L. Hurtado, ''John Sutter: A Life on the North American Frontier'' (2006) University of Oklahoma Press, 416 pp. {{ISBN|0-8061-3772-X}}.

===Films===
*''[[Days of '49]]'' (1924, serial), with [[Charles Brinley]] as Sutter
*''[[California in '49]]'' (1924), with [[Charles Brinley]] as Sutter
*''[[The Kaiser of California]]'' (1936), with [[Luis Trenker]] as Sutter
*''[[Sutter's Gold]]'' (1936), with [[Edward Arnold (actor)|Edward Arnold]] as Sutter
*''[[Kit Carson (1940 film)|Kit Carson]]'' (1940), with [[Edwin Maxwell (actor)|Edwin Maxwell]] as Sutter
*"[[The Pathfinder (The Great Adventure episode)|The Pathfinder]]" (''[[The Great Adventure (U.S. TV series)|The Great Adventure]]'', 1964), with [[Carroll O'Connor]] as Sutter
*''{{Interlanguage link multi|Fortune (TV series)|fr|3=Fortune (série télévisée)|lt=Fortune}}'' (1969), with [[Pierre Michael]] as Sutter
*''[[Donner Pass: The Road to Survival]]'' (1978), with [[Royal Dano]] as Sutter
*''[[The Chisholms]]'', [[Columbia Broadcasting System|CBS]] [[miniseries]], role of Sutter played by [[Ben Piazza]] (1980)
*''[[California Gold Rush (1981 film)|California Gold Rush]]'' (1981), with [[John Dehner]] as Sutter
*''[[Dream West]]'' (1986), with [[Jerry Orbach]] as Sutter
*''[[General Sutter]]'' (1999), with [[Hannes Schmidhauser]] as Sutter

===Comics===
*''[[Tex Willer Special#9: La Valle del Terrore]]'' (1996) by [[Claudio Nizzi]] and [[Roberto Raviola|Magnus]]

===Music===
*"Sutter's Mill", a song by [[Dan Fogelberg]] (1985)

===Literature===
*"''L'Or",'' a novel by [[Blaise Cendrars]] (1925). A character sketch, it portrays his life as more tragic than it really was.
*[[Stefan Zweig]] narrates Sutter's story in one of his ''[[Decisive Moments in History|Sternstunden der Menschheit]]'' (1927) called ''Die Entdeckung Eldorados'' (The Discovery of Eldorado).
*[[Luis Trenker]] ''Der Kaiser von Kalifornien'', 1961 novelization of his 1936 screenplay, in turn based on ''L'Or''
*"John Sutter", a poem by [[Yvor Winters]] (1960)<ref>Yvor Winters, “John Sutter” from The Selected Poems of Yvor Winters, edited by R. L. Barth. Used by permission of Ohio University Press, Athens, Ohio. [https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems-and-poets/poems/detail/47782]</ref>
*"Tex Willer: La valle del terrore", comic book written by Claudio Nizzi, drawings by Magnus

==See also==
{{commons category|John Sutter}}
*[[Kern and Sutter massacres]]
*[[Fort Ross, California]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.sfmuseum.org/hist2/gold.html His account of the discovery of gold]
*[http://www.calisphere.universityofcalifornia.edu/ark:/13030/tf1w1007b7/ Captain Sutter's account of the first discovery of the gold (illustrated lithograph)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20130430064740/http://www.familytales.org/results.php?tla=jas Collection of John Sutter Journal Entries]
*[http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf0c60018q/ Guide to the John Augustus Sutter Papers] at [[The Bancroft Library]]
*[http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf038n97gm/admin/?query=Sutter%20Link%20Family Finding Aid to the Sutter/Link Family Papers, 1849-1992 (bulk 1849-1964)], [[The Bancroft Library]]
*[http://www.sfgenealogy.com/sf/history/hgstr.htm Street names in San Francisco] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306225108/http://www.sfgenealogy.com/sf/history/hgstr.htm |date=March 6, 2018 }}
*[https://archive.today/20130118185002/http://www.calandmarks.com/counties/500-599/593.html Sutterville, California State Historic Landmark]
*[http://www.calandmarks.com/counties/500-599/525.html Sutter's Fort, California State Historic Landmark]{{Dead link|date=February 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070825033244/http://www.generalsutterinn.com/generalsutterpage.html General Sutter Inn Lititz, PA]
*[http://www.hmdb.org/marker.asp?marker=12388 John A. Sutter Jr. Marker. Spanish (Acapulco) / English (Sacramento)]
*{{Cite Appletons'|wstitle=Sutter, John Augustus|year=1889 |short=x |notaref=x}}
*[[Scientific American]], "[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ok9AQAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false Gen. John A. Sutton]", 1880-07-10, pp.21

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sutter, John}}
[[Category:John Sutter| ]]
[[Category:California pioneers]]
[[Category:Land owners from California]]
[[Category:People of the California Gold Rush]]
[[Category:1803 births]]
[[Category:1880 deaths]]
[[Category:American city founders]]
[[Category:American people of the Bear Flag Revolt]]
[[Category:Military personnel from California]]
[[Category:German explorers of North America]]
[[Category:Explorers of California]]
[[Category:History of Sacramento County, California]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of Mexican California]]
[[Category:People of the Conquest of California]]
[[Category:People from Kandern]]
[[Category:People from Lititz, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:People from the Margraviate of Baden]]
[[Category:Namesakes of San Francisco streets]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Sacramento, California]]
[[Category:American people of Swiss-German descent]]
[[Category:German emigrants to Mexico]]
[[Category:Swiss emigrants to Mexico]]
[[Category:German people of Swiss descent]]
[[Category:German emigrants to Switzerland]]
[[Category:People from Neuchâtel]]
[[Category:American slave owners]]

Chico Creek

2021-09-08T03:46:25Z

JavaRogers: Added about tag, to link to Big Chico Creek

{{About|the creek in Colorado|the creek in Northern California|Big Chico Creek}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Chico Creek<ref name=GNIS>{{cite gnis|id= 193750 |name=Chico Creek|accessdate= 2011-02-08}}</ref>
| image =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| source1_location =
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|38|45|50|N|104|33|14|W}}
| mouth_location = Confluence with [[Arkansas River|Arkansas]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|38|14|33|N|104|21|57|W|display=inline,title}}
| progression = [[Arkansas River|Arkansas]]—[[Mississippi River|Mississippi]]
| length =
| source1_elevation =
| mouth_elevation = {{convert|4505|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_avg =
| basin_size = {{convert|747|sqmi|km2|abbr=on}}
| river_system =
| tributaries_left =
| tributaries_right =
}}

'''Chico Creek''' is a {{convert|53.9|mi|km|adj=mid|-long}}<ref name=NHD>U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline data. [http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ The National Map] {{webarchive |url=https://www.webcitation.org/66gupqQDM?url=http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/ |date=2012-04-05 }}, accessed March 31, 2011</ref> [[tributary]] of the [[Arkansas River]] that flows from a source in [[El Paso County, Colorado]]. It joins the Arkansas in [[Pueblo County, Colorado|Pueblo County]] just west of the town of [[Avondale, Colorado|Avondale]].

==See also==
*[[List of rivers of Colorado]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Rivers of Colorado]]
[[Category:Tributaries of the Arkansas River]]
[[Category:Rivers of El Paso County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Rivers of Pueblo County, Colorado]]

{{Colorado-river-stub}}