Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

All the Day Holiday

2010-06-18T17:50:59Z

Mathnerd314: /* The Thing's We've Grown To Love */ removed an unnecessary apostrophe

{{Infobox Musical artist
| Name = All the Day Holiday
| Img =
| Img_capt = All the Day Holiday
| Landscape = no
| Background = group_or_band
| Origin = [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]], [[United States|USA]]
| Genre = [[Indie rock]], [[Alternative rock]], [[Ambient rock]]
| Years_active = Since 2007
| Label = [[Linc Star Records]]
| URL = [http://www.myspace.com/allthedayholiday/ myspace.com/allthedayholiday]
| Current_members = Daniel Simmons Mark Ventura David Roller Nathan Frisch
|}}

'''All the Day Holiday''' is an American [[indie rock]] band based out of [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]], formed in 2007.

Rolling Stone named All the Day Holiday one of six breakout bands to watch for at the 2009 Bamboozle Festival.<ref>http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2009/05/04/bamboozle-2009-six-breakout-bands-to-watch/</ref>

==History==
===Formation===
All the Day Holiday formed from the dust of an experimental screamo/ambient act from Cincinnati. Two original members from Against the Nations (Mark Ventura and Daniel Simmons) slowly turned the band into All the Day Holiday with a name change, and a replacement of 2 members over time (Nathan Frisch and David Roller).
To date the band has released one EP and one full length studio album.
They are currently under artist development by [[Linc Star Records]], and are on roster at High Road Touring ([[Wilco]], [[Broken Social Scene]], [[Bloc Party]], [[Feist (singer)|Feist]], [[The Fiery Furnaces]], [[Girls (band)|Girls]]).

===''We'll Be Walking On Air''===
''[[We'll Be Walking On Air]]'' is an EP self-released by All the Day Holiday on May 5, 2007.

===''The Things We've Grown To Love''===
''[[The Things We've Grown To Love]]'' is All The Day Holiday's debut album, released on August 4, 2009 and produced by [[Matt Malpass]]. The album was included on AbsolutePunk's list of top thirty albums of 2009.<ref>http://www.absolutepunk.net/showthread.php?t=1469401</ref>

==Discography==
===Albums===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Title
! Label
|-
|2009
|''[[The Things We've Grown To Love]]''
|[[Linc Star Records]]
|}

===EPs===
{| class="wikitable"
! Year
! Title
! Label
|-
|2007
|''[[We'll Be Walking On Air]]''
|[[Independent record label|Independent]]
|}

===Singles===
{| class="wikitable"
! width="35"| Year
! width="220"| Title
! width="180"| Album
|-
| 2009
| "Autumn"
| "[[The Things We've Grown To Love]]"
|}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.lincstarrecords.com/artists.php?artist=allthedayholiday/ All the Day Holiday] at [[Linc Star Records]]
*[http://www.purevolume.com/AlltheDayHoliday/ PureVolume]
*[http://www.thisisatdh.blogspot.com/ Blogspot]
*[http://www.myspace.com/allthedayholiday/ MySpace]
*[http://www.facebook.com/AllTheDayHoliday?ref=pymk/ Facebook]
*[http://twitter.com/ATDH/ Twitter]

[[Category:2000s music groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Ohio]]
[[Category:American indie rock groups]]

Jazz piano

2010-05-12T10:10:52Z

Mathnerd314: typo

[[Image:Thelonious Monk 1967.jpg|thumb|[[Thelonious Monk]] in 1967.]]

'''Jazz piano''' is a collective term for the techniques pianists use when playing [[jazz]]. By extension the word can refer to the same techniques on any keyboard instrument. The piano has been an integral part of the jazz idiom since its inception, in both solo and ensemble settings. Its role is one of the most multifaceted, largely due to the instrument's combined melodic and harmonic nature. For this reason it is also an important tool in the understanding of jazz theory and arranging for jazz musicians and composers. Along with the [[jazz guitar|guitar]], [[vibraphone]], and other keyboard instruments, the piano is one of the few instruments in a jazz combo which can play [[chord (music)|chord]]s, rather than only single notes (as with the [[saxophone]] or [[trumpet]]).

==Technique==
Jazz chord voicings are one of the building blocks of learning jazz piano. Jazz piano playing uses all of the same chords found in Western art music, such as major, minor, augmented, diminished, seventh, diminished seventh, sixth, minor seventh, major seventh, sus 4, and so on. The second skill of importance is learning how to play with a swing rhythm. The next step is improvisation - making something up on the spot; this takes tremendous skill and one has to know one's way around the piano.
Piano as an instrument offers soloists an exhaustive number of choices. One could use the bass register to play an [[ostinato]] pattern, such as those found in [[boogie-woogie]], or a melodic counterline emulating the walking of an upright bass. In a style known as [[Stride piano]] the left hand alternates positions rapidly playing notes in the bass register and chords in the tenor register. This is also done in more syncopated variants. The right hand will often play melodic lines, but might also play harmonic content, chordally or in octaves, sometimes in lockstep with the Left Hand using a technique called "Lock Hand" voicing, which was often used by George Shearing.

===Solo performance===

One of the most important things in jazz piano is keeping good time, and knowing the form of a tune so well that it becomes second nature.
But solo jazz piano presents another basic problem. The pianist has to accomplish three basic objectives. These three elements contribute to the compliment sometimes paid to a very good solo pianist, that he "sounds like two or more cats (musicians) playing together." This is a general impression, however, that has different forms, for example, in the sound of [[Dave McKenna]] it is known as "three-handed swing":

1) Provide a clear, swinging pulse. This might be attempted by striking a beat with the right hand just after a weaker beat with the left hand. The aim of this is to imitate a [[ride cymbal]], or a walking bass, or both.

While many jazz players do this habitually with two hands, it can also be accomplished in the left hand alone, by imitating the weaker note of a bass player just before he strikes some of the notes of the bassline. That is to say, in the bass a pianist can play the main notes of the line almost all with the thumb, while using the other fingers for the shorter or "flagged" note. The swing bass line, then, may be considered merely a series of quarter notes, but with the in-between notes included it is a dotted or triplet rhythm.
It is almost never written down this way, however, perhaps because the in-between notes are not constant on a bass, but are "ghosted." This is where the solo pianists' imitation of the ride cymbal becomes somewhat ambiguous. In order to outline the entire rhythm, he may need to play more in-between bass notes than an actual bass player would. This may blur the line between what stands for ride cymbal and bass, and contributes to the cascade of swing that characterizes solo jazz piano (and the guitar as well).

Playing the bass line this way reveals that the left hand is ideally shaped for its role.

At faster tempos, the weaker notes may not be present in the bassline, while still being constantly played by the drummer's ride cymbal.

2) State the harmony or "guide tones" of the chord changes.

3) Play the melody or melodic solo material with the right hand.

It is challenging but possible to meet all these demands simultaneously, and in addition there can be brief intervals where they are not quite being met ([[Art Tatum]] for example did not stride as constantly as he could have). For example, tasks 2) and 3) often merge into one where the guide tones (the third and seventh of each change) are played in the right hand, in a harmonized melody or solo line.

One commonly used method for solving the tripartite problem is to hold the hands together in a shape like a "fork," with the fingers nearest the thumbs joining the thumbs to form a central group, while the fourth and fifth fingers spread outward to form branches on either side. Many jazz pianists play by placing this shape on the keyboard, and using the left branch to play bass notes, the middle to attend to guide tones and the right branch for upper lines.

If this method does not prove feasible, however, it is also possible, and simpler, to elaborate the bassline, while taking over all the guide-tone and melodic tasks with the right hand alone. [[Barry Harris]] may favor this method, as he speaks against playing chords with the left hand as an oversimplified habit, preferring to state harmonies with the right hand often. Usually when you play solo you will play chords or a walking bass with your left hand and improvise with your right.

===Ensemble role===
The role of the piano in the context of ensemble accompaniment has gradually changed from a time-keeping role consisting of repetitive left-hand figures to a more flexible one where the pianist is free to choose to interact with the soloist using both short and sustained chordal and melodic fragments. This form of accompaniment is known as comping.

The piano has always been a leading part in jazz. In the very beginning, black jazz musicians played ragtime on the piano. As the genre of jazz progressed, the piano was featured in what is known as the rhythm section of the jazz band. The rhythm section often includes a piano, guitar, bass, drums, and other instruments (such as the vibraphone). Popular jazz pianists such as Duke Ellington, who became famous during the Harlem Renaissance at the Cotton Club, were responsible for comping. Comping is the process by which a pianist plays an accompanying part made up primarily of chords so that other instrumentalists can solo. Jazz piano moved away from playing a leading melody to providing a foundation for a song. However, jazz pianists were also given the chance to solo. In the 1940s and 1950s, a number of great piano players emerged. Pianists like Thelonious Monk and Bud Powell helped create the music of [[bebop]]. Wynton Kelly, Red Garland, and Herbie Hancock were three exceptional pianists who played with Miles Davis. Tommy Flanagan was also featured by John Coltrane on his hit album ''Giant Steps''.

===Circle of Fifths===

The [[circle of fifths]] (or Cycle of Fifths) is very important in jazz piano as it provides harmonic diversity through a harmonic movement in fifths (or fourths). Usually during the last four bars of a jazz melody or melodic section, the [[chord progression]] is "III, VI, II, V, I." 3, 6, 2, and 5 as scale degrees correspond to the last four steps in the cycle leading to the tonic.

To any listener, a well-placed transitional harmony sounds correct, whereas a skilled piano player recognizes it as a step in the circle of fifths. In jazz music often there is one chord change per bar. In the simplest example, two bars of the same tonic chord would be played instead as "I - V / I." This same back-and-forth example is often applied, where a pause or shift of direction is evident in the tune. Further use of the circle is a matter of counting several steps ahead, or backwards from the tonic chord as a goal, perhaps like a runner counting steps toward a long jump. After some practice it becomes second nature.

Another advantage of the circle of fifths is that it enhances the ability to transpose a song, for which not all pianists have an equal natural gift. In chord "planing" or shifting a chord, often voiced in fourths, up the scale, there is often a repeated harmonic pattern of one-five-one-five (tonic-dominant-tonic-dominant).

One can use the circle of fifths to harmonize a tune, such as "[[Autumn Leaves (song)|Autumn Leaves]]" or "[[Summertime (song)|Summertime]]", tunes without complex melodic lines or lines having a few repeated shapes. This does not mean arranging new chords according to the circle for the entire tune. Rather, it means the insertion periodically of one-five progressions that are fragments of the circle of fifths, where it makes an appropriate transition, or for several bars. In many jazz standards, this technique can be applied more continuously and makes for excellent reharmonization. In tunes such as Stella By Starlight, the circle of fifths is at least useful between most changes.

==Performers==
{{main|List of jazz pianists}}

==See also==
*[[Swing (jazz performance style)]], a term of praise for playing that has a strong rhythmic [[groove (music)| "groove"]] or drive

==Sources==
*''The Jazz Piano Book'' by [[Mark Levine]]: A "how to" book on the subject.
*''Metaphors For The Musician'' by [[Randy Halberstadt]]: Insights into almost every aspect of jazz piano.
*''Stylistic II/V7/I Voicings For Keyboardists'' by [[Luke Gillespie]]: Covers all styles of comping, from basic and fundamental approaches to modern.
*''Forward Motion'' by [[Hal Galper]]: An approach to Jazz Phrasing.
*''Jazz Piano: The Left Hand'' by [[Riccardo Scivales]] (Bedford Hills, New York, Ekay Music, 2005): A method covering all the left hand techniques used in jazz piano (and also a study of the history of the Left Hand in Jazz Piano), with hundreds of musical examples.
*"The Jazz Musician's Guide to Creative Practicing" by [[David Berkman]]: Covers the problems of jazz improvisational practice with a focus on the piano, but for all instruments. (Also, it's entertaining and humorous).

==External links==
{{wikiversity|Jazz Piano I}}
*[http://www.jazzonpiano.com/ Jazz on Piano] - A portal and blog on Jazz Piano tips and tricks
*[http://www.weeklypiano.com/ Weekly Piano] - Weekly Piano Improvisations
*[http://www.npr.org/programs/pianojazz/ Piano Jazz] - [[Marian McPartland]]'s program on [[National Public Radio]]
*[http://www.learnjazzpiano.com/ Learn Jazz Piano] - LearnJazzPiano.com Scot Ranney's site on jazz piano
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w5fKEOAWsaI How to Improvise Around the Circle of Fifths] Video explaining the circle of fifths and how to use it to improvise Jazz piano with
*[http://www.dailyimprov.net/ DailyImprov.net - solo piano improvisation] Examples of jazz piano improvisation using a wide range of techniques described above.
{{jazzfooter}}

[[Category:Jazz instruments]]
[[Category:Piano]]
[[Category:Accompaniment]]

[[de:Jazz-Piano]]
[[es:Jazz piano]]
[[eo:Ĵazpianado]]
[[it:Jazz piano]]
[[la:Clavile jazz]]
[[ja:ジャズピアノ]]
[[pt:Jazz piano]]
[[ru:Джазовое фортепиано]]
[[simple:Jazz piano]]
[[fi:Jazzpiano]]
[[sv:Jazzpiano]]
[[zh:爵士鋼琴]]

From Yesterday

2010-05-10T12:53:16Z

Mathnerd314: clarified the part about it being the first music video shot in china

{{Infobox Single
| Name = From Yesterday
| Type = Single
| Cover = From_yesterday_art_1.jpg
| Artist = [[30 Seconds to Mars]]
| from Album = [[A Beautiful Lie]]
| Released = {{start date|2007|1}} (See [[#Release history|release history]])
| Recorded = 2005
| Genre =[[Hard rock]]<ref name=thetimes>{{cite web | title = 30 Seconds to Mars at Brixton Academy| publisher = [[The Times]]| date = 2007-09-19| url = http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/live_reviews/article2482314.ece | author= Lisa Verrico| accessdate = 2009-04-10 | location=London}}</ref>
| Length = 4:08 (album version) 3:52 (radio edit)
| Writer = [[Jared Leto]], [[Shannon Leto]], [[Matt Wachter]], [[Tomo Miličević]]
| Label = [[Immortal Records|Immortal]] [[Virgin Records|Virgin]]
| Producer = [[Josh Abraham]]
| Misc = {{Extra album cover 2
| Upper caption = Alternate cover
| Lower caption =
| Type = Single
| Cover =fromyesterdaysingleart.jpg
|Chart position =
* #1 ([[US]] [[Modern Rock Tracks]], [[Portugal]])
* #4 ([[Latin America]])
* #6 ([[Mexico]])
* #11 ([[US]] [[Mainstream Rock Tracks]])
* #13 ([[New Zealand]])
* #34 ([[Australia]])
* #45 ([[Italy]])
* #50 ([[Argentina]])
* #76 ([[US Hot 100]])
}}{{Extra musicsample |filename=From_Yesterday_-_30_Seconds_To_Mars.ogg |format=[[Ogg]] |title=From Yesterday |Type=single}}
| Last single = "[[The Kill|The Kill (Bury Me)]]" (2005)
| This single = "'''From Yesterday'''" (2006)
| Next single = "[[A Beautiful Lie (song)|A Beautiful Lie]]" (2007)
}}

"'''From Yesterday'''" is a song by American [[rock music|rock]] band [[30 Seconds to Mars]], and the third single released from their second album ''[[A Beautiful Lie]]''. The music video for the song is believed to be the first ever American music video shot in the [[People's Republic of China]] in its entirety.<ref>http://www.ultimate-guitar.com/interviews/interviews/30_seconds_to_mars_weve_always_been_open_and_engaged_with_our_listeners.html</ref>

==Music video==
"From Yesterday" was filmed using 400 Chinese soldiers (they are seen holding flags at the beginning of the video)and 20 horses. The film starts with a young boy, presumably the Emperor [[Puyi]], being asked what he would like for his birthday. He simply states "The Sound of Tomorrow." The action then cuts to a plain white room with the band members, clad in white outfits similar to those worn in [[fencing]], each doing their own thing in preparation for a show. A woman enters and tells them that it is time. She leads them out into the hall and disappears. They walk down to the end of the hall where they attempt to open the door. They are unable to. The lights start to flicker and they go out, leaving the band puzzled.

It then opens to another scene where the band is walking through giant gates into the row of Chinese soldiers. As they are all walking down, Jared notices a woman wearing a white mask walking on the exterior of the row, unnoticed by the others.

The band are then taken to the hall where the Emperor is situated, and are given scrolls. [[Jared Leto|Jared]] then says to his brother, [[Shannon Leto]] (the band's drummer): "This is a gift?"

Each band member is then led to a different part of the kingdom, encountering various [[Culture of China|Chinese traditions]]. Matt Wachter encounters the butler whipping himself; Tomo Milicevic finds a dead woman lying on her bed, and someone proceeds to put a small black ball (A ball of mercury, which is a Chinese custom) into her mouth; Shannon sees a grown man being breast-fed by his mother or wife; and Jared accidentally walks in on a group of men sacrificing three young women.

The band is then shown putting on traditional Chinese armor before meeting in an alleyway for a battle against four others, dressed in identical armor. This scene is mixed with scenes of the band walking through the palace, encountering many peculiarities such as the tradition of leaving the dead in the bed for prolong periods and beheading of criminals. In the end, [[30 Seconds to Mars]] are shown performing in the courtyard, with fireworks in the background.

At the end of the video, the band members end up fighting each other and four warriors. They wear masks, and thus cannot see who is who. The warriors are slain, and the 30 Seconds to Mars wind up in a [[stalemate]]. They slowly remove their masks, revealing to each other that they are all alive. The video then samples "A Beautiful Lie" released as the band's next single.

For a very brief period of time during the butler's whipping scene, an image of some sort of false rabbit appears (it appears to either be a person in a rabbit suit or a rabbit puppet). It does not seem that this image has anything to do with the story.

==Track listing==
*'''Standard version'''
#"From Yesterday" (radio edit) – 3:52
#"[[The Story (song)|The Story]]" – 3:59 (Live @ [[AOL Sessions Undercover (30 Seconds to Mars EP)|AOL Sessions Undercover]])

*'''US (CD)'''
#"From Yesterday" – 4:07
#"[[The Story (song)|The Story]]" – 3:59 (Live @ [[AOL Sessions Undercover (30 Seconds to Mars EP)|AOL Sessions Undercover]])

*'''UK (CD)'''
#"From Yesterday" (radio edit) – 3:52
#"[[Stronger (Kanye West song)|Stronger]]" – 6:01 ([[Radio 1's Live Lounge – Volume 2|Radio 1's Live Lounge 2]])
#"From Yesterday" – 13:40 full director's cut video (enhanced CD)

*'''UK (7" vinyl 1)'''
This limited edition vinyl is clear, and comes in a gatefold case
#"From Yesterday" – 4:14 (Chris Lord-Alge Mix)
#"[[The Kill|The Kill (Bury Me)]]" – 3:47 (Radio 1 Live)

*'''UK (7" vinyl 2)'''
This is also limited edition, but is red, and has the band members' signatures etched into the back
#"From Yesterday" – 4:07

*'''US (7" vinyl 1)'''
#"From Yesterday" – 4:07
#"[[The Kill|The Kill (Bury Me)]]" – 3:51

==Release history==
{|class="wikitable"
!Country
!Release Date
!Version
|-
|[[United States]]
|{{start date|2006|11|7}}
|rowspan="5"|Original
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]
|{{start date|2007|1|16}}
|-
|[[Australia]]
|rowspan="2"|{{start date|2007|4|20}}
|-
|[[Italy]]
|-
|[[Latvia]]
|rowspan="2"|{{start date|2008|2|4}}
|-
|[[United Kingdom]]
|Re-release
|}

==Chart positions==
*"From Yesterday" reached #1 on [[Billboard (magazine)|''Billboard'']]'s [[Alternative Songs|Modern Rock Tracks]] chart, making it [[30 Seconds to Mars]]' first #1 on any ''Billboard'' chart. "From Yesterday" is considered to be even more successful than "[[The Kill]]", a song considered to be the band's breakthrough single (although "The Kill" did better on the Hot 100 and was slightly behind "From Yesterday"'s Modern Rock Tracks chart position).

{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Chart
!Peak position
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]]<ref>[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/esearch/chart_display.jsp?cfi=396&cfgn=Singles&cfn=Pop+100&ci=3082364&cdi=9195694&cid=02%2F24%2F2007]. Issue Date: February 24, 2007. Retrieved on June 10, 2008.</ref>
|align="center"|75
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Alternative Songs|Modern Rock Tracks]]
|align="center"|1
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' [[Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks|Mainstream Rock Tracks]]<ref>[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/esearch/chart_display.jsp?cfi=376&cfgn=Singles&cfn=Hot+Mainstream+Rock+Tracks&ci=3083465&cdi=9236799&cid=04%2F28%2F2007]. Issue Date: April 28, 2007. Retrieved on June 11, 2008.</ref>
|align="center"|11
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' 2007 Year-End Chart: Hot Modern Rock Songs<ref>[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/esearch/chart_display.jsp?cfi=482&cfgn=Year-end+Singles&cfn=Hot+Modern+Rock+Songs&ci=3089663&cdi=9578380&cid=12%2F31%2F2007]. Issue Date: December 31, 2007. Retrieved on June 10, 2008.</ref>
|align="center"|7
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot Videoclip Tracks<ref>[http://www.billboard.com/bbcom/esearch/chart_display.jsp?cfi=405&cfgn=Singles&cfn=Hot+Videoclip+Tracks&ci=3082268&cdi=9191914&cid=02%2F17%2F2007]. Issue Date: February 17, 2007. Retrieved on June 10, 2008.</ref>
|align="center"|25
|-
|[[ARIA Charts|Australian Singles Chart]]<ref name="acharts.us">[http://acharts.us/song/11889]. Issue Date: ??, 2007. Retrieved on June 11, 2008.</ref>
|align="center"|33
|-
|[[Recording Industry Association of New Zealand|New Zealand Singles Chart]]<ref name="acharts.us"/>
|align="center"|13
|-
|[[Media Control Charts|German Singles Chart]]<ref name="acharts.us"/>
|align="center"|72
|-
|[[Ö3 Austria Top 40|Austrian Singles Chart]]<ref name="acharts.us"/>
|align="center"|53
|-
|[[Federation of the Italian Music Industry|Italian Singles Chart]]<ref name="acharts.us"/>
|align="center"|36
|-
|Netherlands Singles Chart
|align="center"|8
|-
|[[Canadian Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|2
|-
|[[UK Singles Chart]] (re-release)<ref>[http://acharts.us/song/11889]. Issue Date: ??, 2008. Retrieved on June 11, 2008.</ref>
|align="center"|37
|-
|}

==In popular culture==
*Portions of the song were featured in the promo for [[Fox Broadcasting Company|FOX]]'s Fall 2007 series ''[[New Amsterdam (TV series)|New Amsterdam]]''.
*The song was played at [[Shea Stadium]] when [[New York Mets]]' pitcher [[Scott Schoeneweis]] came in to pitch.
*The song is also available as downloadable content for ''[[Guitar Hero 5]]'' as of February 4, 2010.<ref name="February DLC">{{cite web |url = http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/guitar-herors-february-downloadable-content-lineup-packs-a-powerful-punch-with-fresh-music-from-top-bands-82887347.html | title = Guitar Guitar Hero(R)'s February Downloadable Content Lineup Packs a Powerful Punch With Fresh Music From Top Bands | first = | last = | date = 2010-01-28 | accessdate = 2009-01-28 | publisher = [[Activision]]}}</ref>

==Personnel==
* [[Jared Leto]] – [[Singing|vocals]], [[guitar]]
* [[Tomo Miličević]] – guitar, [[Programming (music)|programming]]
* [[Shannon Leto]] – [[Drum kit|drums]]
* [[Matt Wachter]] – [[bass guitar]], [[keyboard instrument|keyboard]], [[synthesizer]]s
* Oliver Goldstein  – additional synthesizers

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Pain (Three Days Grace song)|Pain]]" by [[Three Days Grace]]
| title = [[Modern Rock Tracks|''Billboard'' Modern Rock Tracks]] [[List of number-one modern rock hits (United States)|number-one single]]
| years = March 19, 2007 - April 7, 2007
| after = "[[Survivalism (song)|Survivalism]]" by [[Nine Inch Nails]]
}}
{{end box}}

{{30 Seconds to Mars}}

[[Category:30 Seconds to Mars songs]]
[[Category:2006 singles]]
[[Category:Billboard Alternative Songs number-one singles]]
[[Category:Songs written by Jared Leto]]

[[ca:From Yesterday]]
[[es:From Yesterday]]
[[fr:From Yesterday]]
[[gl:From Yesterday]]
[[it:From Yesterday]]
[[nah:From Yesterday]]
[[nl:From Yesterday]]
[[pl:From Yesterday]]
[[pt:From Yesterday]]
[[ru:From Yesterday]]
[[fi:From Yesterday]]

Laurence Yep

2009-10-17T14:21:59Z

Mathnerd314:

{{Infobox Writer
| name = Laurence Michael Yep
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| pseudonym =
| birthname =
| birthdate = [[June 14]], [[1948]]
| birthplace = [[San Francisco, California]]
| deathdate =
| deathplace =
| occupation =
| nationality = [[United States|American]]
| ethnicity =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater = [[University of California, Santa Cruz]], [[State University of New York at Buffalo]]
| period =
| genre = [[Historical fiction]], [[speculative fiction]]
| subject =
| movement =
| notableworks =
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| relatives =
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards = [[Newbery Honor]], [[Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal]]
| signature =
| website =
| portaldisp =
}}

'''Laurence Michael Yep''' ({{zh-cp|c=葉祥添|p=Yè Xiángtiān}}; born [[June 14]], [[1948]]) is a prolific, award-winning [[Chinese-American]] modern [[author]]. Born in [[San Francisco, California]], he is the son of Yep Gim Lew (Thomas) and Franche and is the youngest child of his family. He was named by his older brother, Thomas, who had studied a particular saint that had died from a gruesome death (Yep, 1991). Growing up outside of Chinatown, Yep and his family lived above their family owned grocery store, La Conquista, in a multicultural neighborhood that consisted of mostly African Americans. Growing up, he often felt torn between both [[United States|American]] and Chinese [[culture]], and expressed this in many of his books. A great deal of his work involves characters feeling alienated or not fitting into their surroundings and environment, something Yep has struggled with since childhood. Most of his life, he has had the feeling of being out of place, whether because he is the non athlete in his athletic family or because he is Chinese and once lived in Chinatown but does not speak the language. As it says in his autobiography, "I was too American to fit into Chinatown, and too Chinese to fit in anywhere else." As a boy, Yep attended a bilingual school in Chinatown. Just like Casey Young, a character in ''Child of the Owl'', Yep was placed in the lower level Chinese class where he was able to pass without learning how to speak the language. He later entered a Catholic high school in San Francisco where he continued his interest in chemistry and became equally intrigued with writing. His first writing was done in [[high school]], for a [[science fiction]] [[magazine]]. His teacher, a [[priest]], told him and a couple of his friends that to get an A, they had to get a piece of writing accepted by a magazine, and that's when he started to realize that a career in writing was meant to be.

Yep attended [[Marquette University]] and graduated from the [[University of California, Santa Cruz]]. He earned a [[Doctor of Philosophy|Ph.D]] in [[literature|English]] at the [[State University of New York at Buffalo]].<ref>[http://www.harpercollinschildrens.com/HarperChildrens/Kids/AuthorsAndIllustrators/ContributorDetail.aspx?CId=12929 Harper Collins, Laurence Yep Biography], accessed [[September 16]], [[2007]]</ref>

While working in his family’s store, he “learned early on how to observe and listen to people, how to relate to others. It was good training for a writer” (Marcus, 2000). However, as a child, he thought of himself as a scientist and he “was going to be a chemist. Like my father, I was fascinated by machines” (Marcus, 2000). His decision to become a writer did not come until the time he entered college at Marquette.

The most notable of his books is a series called the ''Golden Mountain Chronicles'', which documents the story of the fictional Young family from 1849, in [[China]], to 1995, in America. He has received the [[Newbery Honor]] for two books in the series, ''Dragon's Gate'' and ''[[Dragonwings]]''. The latter has been adapted into a play. With winning the Newbery Honor in 1976 for ''Dragonwings'' and then winning it again in 1994 for ''Dragon's Gate'', Yep shows longevity as a writer. Other notable books are the ''Dragon'' series and ''The Chinatown Mysteries.'' In addition, ''Child of the Owl'' won the Boston Globe/Horn Book award in 1977 and ''The Rainbow People'', Yep’s collection of short stories based on Chinese folktales and legends, received the same award in 1989. He was awarded the [[Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal]] in 2005 for his contributions to children's literature.

Regardless of the ethnicity of his characters, Yep’s writing is for everyone. It reaches out and speaks to all those individuals who have felt alone and as if they did not belong in their surroundings. Many of his characters, through their journeys, are able to find who they are and where they belong, which can be reassuring to young readers in need of finding themselves.

During his time at Marquette University, he met and became friends with the literary magazine editor, Joanne Ryder. She introduced him to children’s literature and later asked him to write a book for children while she was working at Harper & Row. The result was his first science fiction novel, Sweetwater. According to Yep, his relationship with Joanne began as friends and progressed into love (Yep, 1991). Yep and Ryder are married and live in [[Pacific Grove, California]].

A live-action/CGI TV movie of ‘’The Tiger’s Apprentice’’, adapted by ‘’[[Finding Neverland]]’’ writer [[David Magee]], is currently being developed by [[Cartoon Network]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zap2it.com/tv/news/zap-tigersapprenticecartoonnetwork,0,1443644.story |title=Cartoon Network Mentors 'Tiger's Apprentice' |accessdate=2008-12-24 |last=Nguyen |first=Hanh |coauthors= |date=2008-10-09 |work=Zap2it |publisher=Tribune Media Services}}</ref>

==Bibliography==

'''''Golden Mountain Chronicles''''', in chronological order (parentheses indicate the year in which the story is set)
# ''The Serpent's Children'' (1849)
# ''Mountain Light'' (1855)
# ''Dragon's Gate'' (1867) (Newbery Honor)
# ''The Traitor'' (1885)
# ''Dragonwings'' (1903) (Newbery Honor)
# ''Dragon Road'' (1939) (originally titled ''The Red Warrior'')
# ''Child of the Owl'' (1960)
# ''Sea Glass'' (1970)
# ''Thief of Hearts'' (1995)

'''''[[Dragon (fantasy series)|Dragon]]'''''
# ''[[Dragon of the Lost Sea]]''
# ''[[Dragon Steel]]''
# ''[[Dragon Cauldron]]''
# ''[[Dragon War]]''

'''''Chinatown Mysteries'''''
# ''The Case of the Goblin Pearls''
# ''The Case of the Lion Dance''
# ''The Case of the Firecrackers''

'''''The Tiger's Apprentice'''''
# ''The Tiger's Apprentice: Book One''
# ''Tiger's Blood: Book Two''
# ''Tiger Magic: Book Three''

'''''Ribbons (untitled group of books)'''
# ''Ribbons''
# ''The Cook's Family''
# ''The Amah''
# ''Angelfish''

'''''Later, Gator (untitled group of books)'''''
# ''Later, Gator''
# ''Cockroach Cooties''
# ''Skunk Scout''

'''''Nonfiction'''''
# ''American Dragons: Twenty-five Asian American Voices'' (editor)
# ''The Lost Garden'' (autobiography, part of the ''In my own Words'' series)

'''''Picture Books'''''
# ''The Magic Paintbrush''
# ''The Dragon Prince: A Chinese Beauty and the Beast Tale''
# ''The Butterfly Boy''
# ''The Shell Woman and the King: a Chinese folktale''
# ''The Khan's Daughter: a Mongolian folktale''
# ''When the Circus Came to Town''
# ''The Ghost Fox''
# ''The Boy Who Swallowed Snakes''
# ''The Man who Tricked a Ghost''

'''''Other books'''''
# ''Tongues of Jade''
# ''The Rainbow People''
# ''Sweetwater''
# ''The Star Fisher''
# ''Dream Soul'' (sequel to ''The Star Fisher'')
# ''Hiroshima: A Novella''
# ''The Earth Dragon Awakes: the San Francisco Earthquake of 1906''
# ''Lady of Ch'iao Kuo: Warrior of the South'' (part of [[The Royal Diaries]] series)
# ''The Journal of Wong Ming-Chung: A Chinese Miner'' (part of the ''I Am America'' series)
# ''Spring Pearl: The Last Flower'' (part of the ''Girls of Many Lands'' series)
# ''The Imp that Ate My Homework''
# ''Kind Hearts and Gentle Monsters''
# ''The Mark Twain Murders''
# ''The Tom Sawyer Fires''
# ''[[Shadow Lord (novel)|Shadow Lord]]'' (a ''[[Star Trek]]'' novel)
# ''Mia''
# ''Bravo, Mia!''

'''''Plays'''''
# ''The Age of Wonders''
# ''Dragonwings''
# ''Pay the Chinaman'' (one-act)
# ''Fairy Bones'' (one-act)

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.soentpiet.com/Baghban%20interview.pdf The Dragon Lode: "Conversations with Yep and Soentpiet - Negotiation Between Cultures"]
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-79556}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yep, Laurence}}
[[Category:1948 births]]
[[Category:Laura Ingalls Wilder Medal winners]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Chinese American writers]]
[[Category:Children's writers]]
[[Category:Asian American writers]]
[[Category:Asian American dramatists and playwrights]]

[[ja:ローレンス・イェップ]]

Alkane

2009-10-17T09:30:04Z

Mathnerd314: typo

[[Image:Methane-2D-stereo.svg|right|thumb|Chemical structure of [[methane]], the simplest alkane]]
'''Alkanes''', also known as [[paraffin]]s, are [[chemical compound]]s that consist only of the elements [[carbon]] (C) and [[hydrogen]] (H) (i.e., [[hydrocarbon]]s), wherein these atoms are linked together exclusively by [[single bond]]s (i.e., they are [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated compounds]]) without any cyclic structure (i.e. loops). Alkanes belong to a [[homologous series]] of organic compounds in which the members differ by a constant relative molecular mass of 14.

Each carbon atom must have 4 bonds (either [[C-H bond|C-H]] or [[C-C bond]]s), and each hydrogen atom must be joined to a carbon atom (H-C bonds). A series of linked carbon atoms is known as the [[skeletal formula|carbon skeleton]] or carbon backbone. In general, the number of carbon atoms is often used to define the size of the alkane (e.g., C2-alkane).

An [[alkyl]] group is NOT a [[functional group]] and does not show any characteristic reactions since it consists solely of strong and non-polar carbon-carbon single and carbon-hydrogen single bonds. It is important to note that free radical substitution is NOT a characteristic reaction of alkanes and alkyl groups.

Saturated hydrocarbons can be linear (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n'' + 2}}) wherein the carbon atoms are joined in a snake-like structure, [[Branching (chemistry)|branched]] (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n'' + 2}}, ''n'' > 3) wherein the carbon backbone splits off in one or more directions, or [[Cyclic compound|cyclic]] (general formula {{chem|C|''n''|H|2''n''}}, ''n'' > 2) wherein the carbon backbone is linked so as to form a loop. According to the definition by [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry|IUPAC]], the former two are alkanes, whereas the third group is called [[cycloalkane]]s.<ref>{{GoldBookRef | title=alkanes | file = A00222 | date = 1995}}</ref> Saturated hydrocarbons can also combine any of the linear, cyclic (e.g., polycyclic) and branching structures, and they are still alkanes (no general formula) as long as they are [[acyclic]] (i.e., having no loops).

The simplest possible alkane (the parent molecule) is [[methane]], CH4. There is no limit to the number of carbon atoms that can be linked together, the only limitation being that the molecule is acyclic, is [[Saturation (chemistry)|saturated]], and is a [[hydrocarbon]]. Saturated [[oils]] and [[waxes]] are examples of larger alkanes where the number of carbons in the carbon backbone tends to be greater than 10.

Alkanes are not very reactive and have little [[biological activity]]. Alkanes can be viewed as a molecular [[scaffold]] upon which can be hung the interesting biologically-active/reactive portions ([[functional groups]]) of the molecule.

==Isomerism==
[[Image:Saturated C4 hydrocarbons ball-and-stick.png|thumb|right| Different C4-alkanes and -cycloalkanes (left to right): [[n-butane|''n''-butane]] and [[isobutane]] are the two C4H10 isomers; [[cyclobutane]] and [[methylcyclopropane]] are the two C4H8 isomers; bicyclo[1.1.0]butane is the only C4H6 isomer; [[tetrahedrane]] (not shown) is the only C4H4 isomer.]]
Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms can be arranged in numerous different ways, forming different [[structural isomer]]s. An isomer is like a chemical [[anagram]], in which the atoms of a [[chemical compound]] are arranged or joined together in a different order. The simplest isomer of an alkane is the one in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a single chain with no branches. This isomer is sometimes called the ''n''-isomer (''n'' for "normal", although it is not necessarily the most common). However the chain of carbon atoms may also be branched at one or more points. The number of possible isomers increases rapidly with the number of carbon atoms {{OEIS|id=A000602}}. For example:
* C1: 1 isomer—[[methane]]
* C2: 1 isomer—[[ethane]]
* C3: 1 isomer—[[propane]]
* C4: 2 isomers—[[n-butane|''n''-butane]], [[isobutane]]
* C5: 3 isomers
* C6: 5 isomers
* C12: 355 isomers
* C32: 27,711,253,769 isomers
* C60: 22,158,734,535,770,411,074,184 isomers, many of which are not stable.

Branched alkanes can be chiral: [[3-Methylhexane]] and its higher [[Homology (chemistry)|homologues]] are [[Chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] due to their [[stereogenic center]] at carbon atom number 3. Chiral alkanes are of certain importance in biochemistry, as they occur as sidechains in [[chlorophyll]] and [[tocopherol]] ([[vitamin E]]). Chiral alkanes can be resolved into their [[enantiomers]] by enantioselective [[chromatography]].<ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.springer.com/chemistry/organic/book/978-3-540-76885-2 | accessdate = 2008-10-18 | author = [[Uwe Meierhenrich|Meierhenrich, U.]] | title = Amino Acids and the Asymmetry of Life | year = 2008 | publisher = Springer | isbn = 978-3-540-76885-2}}</ref>

In addition to these isomers, the chain of carbon atoms may form one or more loops. Such compounds are called [[cycloalkane]]s.

==Nomenclature==
{{main|IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry}}
The [[IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry#Alkanes|IUPAC nomenclature]] (systematic way of naming compounds) for alkanes is based on identifying hydrocarbon chains. Unbranched, saturated hydrocarbon chains are named systematically with a Greek numerical prefix denoting the number of carbons and the suffix "-ane".<ref>{{cite book | url = http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/93/r93_184.htm | accessdate = 2007-02-12 | chapter = R-2.2.1: Hydrocarbons | author = IUPAC, Commission on Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry | title = A Guide to IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Compounds (Recommendations 1993) | year = 1993 | publisher = Blackwell Scientific}}</ref>

[[August Wilhelm von Hofmann]] suggested systematizing nomenclature by using the whole sequence of vowels a, e, i, o and u to create suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine (or -yne), -one, -une, for the [[hydrocarbons]]. The first three name hydrocarbons with single, double and triple bonds; "-one" represents a [[ketone]]; "-ol" represents an alcohol or OH group; "-oxy-" means an [[ether]] and refers to oxygen between two carbons, so that methoxy-methane is the IUPAC name for dimethyl ether.

It is difficult or impossible to find compounds with more than one IUPAC name. This is because shorter chains attached to longer chains are prefixes and the convention includes brackets. Numbers in the name, referring to which carbon a group is attached to, should be as low as possible, so that 1- is implied and usually omitted from names of organic compounds with only one side-group; "1-" is implied in Nitro-octane. Symmetric compounds will have two ways of arriving at the same name.

===Linear alkanes===
Straight-chain alkanes are sometimes indicated by the prefix ''n-'' (for ''normal'') where a non-linear [[isomer]] exists. Although this is not strictly necessary, the usage is still common in cases where there is an important difference in properties between the straight-chain and branched-chain isomers, e.g., [[hexane|''n''-hexane]] or 2- or 3-methylpentane.

The members of the series (in terms of number of carbon atoms) are named as follows:
:[[methane]], CH4 - one carbon and four hydrogen
:[[ethane]], C2H6 - two carbon and six hydrogen
:[[propane]], C3H8 - three carbon and 8 hydrogen
:[[butane]], C4H10 - four carbon and 10 hydrogen
:[[pentane]], C5H12 - five carbon and 12 hydrogen
:[[hexane]], C6H14 - six carbon and 14 hydrogen

These names were [[back-formation|derived]] from [[methanol]], [[diethyl ether|ether]], [[propionic acid]] and [[butyric acid]], respectively. Alkanes with five or more carbon atoms are named by adding the [[Affix|suffix]] '''-ane''' to the appropriate [[IUPAC numerical multiplier|numerical multiplier]] prefix<ref name = reusch-nom>{{cite web | author = William Reusch | work = Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry | title = Nomenclature - Alkanes | url = http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/nomen1.htm}}</ref>
with elision of any terminal vowel (''-a'' or ''-o'') from the basic numerical term. Hence, [[pentane]], C5H12; [[hexane]], C6H14; [[heptane]], C7H16; [[octane]], C8H18; etc. The prefix is generally [[Greek language|Greek]], with the exceptions of nonane which has a [[Latin language|Latin]] prefix, and undecane and tridecane which have mixed-language prefixes. For a more complete list, see [[List of alkanes]].

===Branched alkanes===
[[Image:Isopentane-numbered-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|[[Ball-and-stick model]] of [[isopentane]] (common name) or 2-methylbutane (IUPAC systematic name)]]
Simple branched alkanes often have a common name using a prefix to distinguish them from linear alkanes, for example [[pentane|''n''-pentane]], [[isopentane]], and [[neopentane]].

IUPAC naming conventions can be used to produce a systematic name.

The key steps in the naming of more complicated branched alkanes are as follows:<ref>{{cite web | author = William Reusch | work = Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry | title = Examples of the IUPAC Rules in Practice | url = http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/nomexmp1.htm}}</ref>
* Identify the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms
* Name this longest root chain using standard naming rules
* Name each side chain by changing the suffix of the name of the alkane from "-ane" to "-yl"
* Number the root chain so that sum of the numbers assigned to each side group will be as low as possible
* Number and name the side chains before the name of the root chain
* If there are multiple side chains of the same type, use prefixes such as "di-" and "tri-" to indicate it as such, and number each one.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Comparison of nomenclatures for three isomers of C5H12
|-
! Common name
! ''n''-pentane || isopentane || neopentane
|-
! IUPAC name
! pentane || 2-methylbutane || 2,2-dimethylpropane
|-
! Structure
| [[Image:Pentane-2D-Skeletal.svg|120px]] || [[Image:Isopentane-2D-skeletal.png|90px]] || [[Image:Neopentane-2D-skeletal.png|70px]]
|}

===Cyclic alkanes===
{{main|Cycloalkane}}

So-called cyclic alkanes are, in the technical sense, ''not'' alkanes, but cycloalkanes. They are hydrocarbons just like alkanes, but contain one or more rings.

Simple cycloalkanes have a prefix "cyclo-" to distinguish them from alkanes. Cycloalkanes are named as per their acyclic counterparts with respect to the number of carbon atoms, e.g., [[cyclopentane]] (C5H10) is a cycloalkane with 5 carbon atoms just like [[pentane]] (C5H12), but they are joined up in a five-membered ring. In a similar manner, [[propane]] and [[cyclopropane]], [[butane]] and [[cyclobutane]], etc.

Substituted cycloalkanes are named similar to substituted alkanes — the cycloalkane ring is stated, and the substituents are according to their position on the ring, with the numbering decided by [[Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules]].<ref name=reusch-nom/>

===Trivial names===
The trivial (non-[[IUPAC nomenclature|systematic]]) name for alkanes is "[[paraffin]]s." Together, alkanes are known as the ''paraffin series''. Trivial names for compounds are usually historical artifacts. They were coined before the development of systematic names, and have been retained due to familiar usage in industry. Cycloalkanes are also called naphthenes.

It is almost certain that the term [[paraffin]] stems from the petrochemical industry. Branched-chain alkanes are called ''[[isoparaffins]]''. The use of the term "paraffin" is a general term and often does not distinguish between a pure compounds and mixtures of [[isomers]] with the same [[chemical formula]] (i.e., like a chemical [[anagram]]), e.g., [[pentane]] and [[isopentane]].

;Examples
The following trivial names are retained in the IUPAC system:
* [[isobutane]] for 2-methylpropane
* [[isopentane]] for 2-methylbutane
* [[neopentane]] for 2,2-dimethylpropane

==Occurrence==
===Occurrence of alkanes in the Universe===
[[Image:Jupiter.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methane]] and [[ethane]] make up a tiny proportion of [[Jupiter]]'s atmosphere]]
[[Image:Oil well.jpg|thumb|right|Extraction of oil, which contains many different [[hydrocarbon]]s including alkanes]]

Alkanes form a small portion of the [[Celestial body atmosphere|atmospheres]] of the outer gas planets such as [[Jupiter]] (0.1% methane, 0.0002% ethane), [[Saturn]] (0.2% methane, 0.0005% ethane), [[Uranus]] (1.99% methane, 0.00025% ethane) and [[Neptune]] (1.5% methane, 1.5 ppm ethane). [[Titan (moon)|Titan]] (1.6% methane), a satellite of Saturn, was examined by the ''Huygens'' probe, which indicate that Titan's atmosphere periodically rains liquid methane onto the moon's surface.<ref>[http://www.planetary.org/news/2005/huygens_science-results_0121.html Titan: Arizona in an Icebox?], Emily Lakdawalla, {{date|2004-01-21}}, verified {{date|2005-03-28}}</ref> Also on Titan, a methane-spewing volcano was spotted and this volcanism is believed to be a significant source of the methane in the atmosphere. There also appear to be Methane/Ethane lakes near the north polar regions of Titan, as discovered by Cassini's radar imaging. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] have also been detected in the tail of the comet [[Hyakutake]]. Chemical analysis showed that the abundances of ethane and methane were roughly equal, which is thought to imply that its ices formed in interstellar space, away from the Sun, which would have evaporated these volatile molecules.<ref name="science">{{cite journal | author=Mumma, M.J. | co-authors = Disanti, M.A., dello Russo, N., Fomenkova, M., Magee-Sauer, K., Kaminski, C.D., and D.X. Xie | title=Detection of Abundant Ethane and Methane, Along with Carbon Monoxide and Water, in Comet C/1996 B2 Hyakutake: Evidence for Interstellar Origin | journal=Science | year=1996 | volume=272 | page=1310 | doi=10.1126/science.272.5266.1310 | pmid=8650540 }}</ref> Alkanes have also been detected in [[meteorite]]s such as [[carbonaceous chondrite]]s.

===Occurrence of alkanes on Earth===
Traces of methane gas (about 0.0001% or 1 ppm) occur in the Earth's atmosphere, produced primarily by organisms such as [[Archaea]], found for example in the gut of cows.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

The most important commercial sources for alkanes are [[natural gas]] and [[Petroleum|oil]].<ref name=m&b/> Natural gas contains primarily methane and ethane, with some [[propane]] and [[butane]]: oil is a mixture of liquid alkanes and other [[hydrocarbons]]. These hydrocarbons were formed when dead marine animals and plants (zooplankton and phytoplankton) died and sank to the bottom of ancient seas and were covered with sediments in an [[wikt:anoxic|anoxic]] environment and converted over many millions of years at high temperatures and high pressure to their current form. Natural gas resulted thereby for example from the following reaction:
:C6H12O6 → 3CH4 + 3CO2

These hydrocarbons collected in porous rocks, located beneath an impermeable cap rock and so are trapped. Unlike methane, which is constantly reformed in large quantities, higher alkanes (alkanes with 9 or more carbon atoms) rarely develop to a considerable extent in nature.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} These deposits, e.g., [[oil fields]], have formed over millions of years and once exhausted cannot be readily replaced. The depletion of these hydrocarbons is the basis for what is known as the [[energy crisis]].

Solid alkanes are known as [[tar]]s and are formed when more volatile alkanes such as gases and oil [[evaporation|evaporate]] from hydrocarbon deposits. One of the largest natural deposits of solid alkanes is in the [[asphalt]] lake known as the [[Pitch Lake]] in [[Trinidad and Tobago]].

Methane is also present in what is called [[biogas]], produced by animals and decaying matter, which is a possible [[renewable energy source]].

Alkanes have a low solubility in water, so the content in the oceans is negligible; however, at high pressures and low temperatures (such as at the bottom of the oceans), methane can co-crystallize with water to form a solid [[methane hydrate]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}} Although this cannot be commercially exploited at the present time, the amount of combustible energy of the known methane hydrate fields exceeds the energy content of all the natural gas and oil deposits put together{{Fact|date=February 2007}};methane extracted from methane hydrate is considered therefore a candidate for future fuels.

===Biological occurrence===
Although alkanes occur in nature in various way, they do not rank biologically among the essential materials. Cycloalkanes with 14 to 18 carbon atoms occur in [[musk]], extracted from [[deer]] of the family [[Moschidae]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}} All further information refers to (acyclic) alkanes.

;Bacteria and archaea
[[Image:Rotbuntes Rind.jpg|thumb|right|[[Methanogen]]ic [[archaea]] in the gut of this cow are responsible for some of the [[methane]] in Earth's atmosphere.]]
Certain types of [[bacteria]] can metabolise alkanes: they prefer even-numbered carbon chains as they are easier to degrade than odd-numbered chains.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

On the other hand, certain [[archaea]], the [[methanogen]]s, produce large quantities of [[methane]] by the metabolism of [[carbon dioxide]] or other [[oxidation|oxidised]] organic compounds. The energy is released by the oxidation of [[hydrogen]]:
:CO2 + 4H2 → CH4 + 2H2O

Methanogens are also the producers of [[marsh gas]] in [[wetlands]], and release about two billion tonnes of methane per year{{Fact|date=April 2007}}—the atmospheric content of this gas is produced nearly exclusively by them. The methane output of [[cattle]] and other [[herbivore]]s, which can release up to 150 litres per day,{{Fact|date=April 2007}} and of [[termite]]s,{{Fact|date=April 2007}} is also due to methanogens. They also produce this simplest of all alkanes in the [[intestine]]s of humans. Methanogenic archaea are, hence, at the end of the [[carbon cycle]], with carbon being released back into the atmosphere after having been fixed by [[photosynthesis]]. It is probable that our current deposits of [[natural gas]] were formed in a similar way.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

;Fungi and plants 
Alkanes also play a role, if a minor role, in the biology of the three [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] groups of organisms: [[Fungus|fungi]], plants and animals. Some specialised yeasts, e.g., ''Candida tropicale'', ''[[Pichia]]'' sp., ''[[Rhodotorula]]'' sp., can use alkanes as a source of carbon and/or energy. The fungus ''[[Amorphotheca resinae]]'' prefers the longer-chain alkanes in [[aviation fuel]], and can cause serious problems for aircraft in tropical regions.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

In plants, the solid long-chain alkanes are found in the [[plant cuticle]] and [[epicuticular wax]] of many species, but are only rarely major constituents.<ref name=Baker1982>EA Baker (1982) Chemistry and morphology of plant epicuticular waxes. pp139-165. In "The Plant Cuticle". edited by DF Cutler, KL Alvin and CE Price. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0 12 199920 3</ref> They protect the plant against water loss, prevent the [[leaching]] of important minerals by the rain, and protect against bacteria, fungi, and harmful insects. The carbon chains in plant alkanes are usually odd-numbered, between twenty-seven and thirty-three carbon atoms in length<ref name=Baker1982/> and are made by the plants by [[decarboxylation]] of even-numbered [[fatty acid]]s. The exact composition of the layer of wax is not only species-dependent, but changes also with the season and such environmental factors as lighting conditions, temperature or humidity.{{fact|date=March 2009}}

;Animals 
Alkanes are found in animal products, although they are less important than unsaturated hydrocarbons. One example is the shark liver oil, which is approximately 14% [[pristane]] (2,6,10,14-tetramethylpentadecane, C19H40).{{Fact|date=April 2007}} Their occurrence is more important in [[pheromone]]s, chemical messenger materials, on which above all insects are dependent for communication. With some kinds, as the support beetle ''[[Xylotrechus colonus]]'', primarily [[pentacosane]] (C25H52), 3-methylpentaicosane (C26H54) and 9-methylpentaicosane (C26H54), they are transferred by body contact. With others like the [[tsetse fly]] ''Glossina morsitans morsitans'', the pheromone contains the four alkanes 2-methylheptadecane (C18H38), 17,21-dimethylheptatriacontane (C39H80), 15,19-dimethylheptatriacontane (C39H80) and 15,19,23-trimethylheptatriacontane (C40H82), and acts by smell over longer distances, a useful characteristic for [[pest control]].{{Fact|date=April 2007}} [[waggle dance|Waggle-dancing]] [[honeybees]] produce and release two alkanes, tricosane and pentacosane.<ref>Thom et al. (21 August 2007) The Scent of the Waggle Dance. PLoS Biology. Vol. 5, No. 9, e228 doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050228[http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?SESSID=d90be2bec6c40a2881c3b91547db7e22&request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0050228]</ref>

===Ecological relations===
[[Image:Ophrys sphegodes flower.jpg|thumb|right|Early spider orchid (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]'')]]
One example, in which both plant and animal alkanes play a role, is the ecological relationship between the [[sand bee]] (''[[Andrena nigroaenea]]'') and the [[early spider orchid]] (''[[Ophrys sphegodes]]''); the latter is dependent for [[pollination]] on the former. Sand bees use pheromones in order to identify a mate; in the case of ''A. nigroaenea'', the females emit a mixture of [[tricosane]] (C23H48), [[pentacosane]] (C25H52) and [[heptacosane]] (C27H56) in the ratio 3:3:1, and males are attracted by specifically this odour. The orchid takes advantage of this mating arrangement to get the male bee to collect and disseminate its pollen; parts of its flower not only resemble the appearance of sand bees, but also produce large quantities of the three alkanes in the same ratio as female sand bees. As a result numerous males are lured to the blooms and attempt to copulate with their imaginary partner: although this endeavour is not crowned with success for the bee, it allows the orchid to transfer its pollen,
which will be dispersed after the departure of the frustrated male to different blooms.

==Production==
===Petroleum refining===
[[Image:ShellMartinez-refi.jpg|thumb|right|An [[oil refinery]] at [[Martinez]], [[California]].]]
As stated earlier, the most important source of alkanes is [[natural gas]] and [[crude oil]].<ref name=m&b/> Alkanes are separated in an [[oil refinery]] by [[fractional distillation]] and processed into many different products.

===Fischer-Tropsch===
The [[Fischer-Tropsch process]] is a method to synthesize liquid hydrocarbons, including alkanes, from [[carbon monoxide]] and hydrogen. This method is used to produce substitutes for [[petroleum distillates]].

===Laboratory preparation===
There is usually little need for alkanes to be synthesized in the laboratory, since they are usually commercially available. Also, alkanes are generally non-reactive chemically or biologically, and do not undergo [[functional group interconversion]]s cleanly. When alkanes are produced in the laboratory, it is often a side-product of a reaction. For example, the use of [[N-Butyllithium|''n''-butyllithium]] as a strong [[base (chemistry)|base]] gives the conjugate acid, n-butane as a side-product:

: C4H9Li + H2O → C4H10 + [[lithium hydroxide|LiOH]]

However, at times it may be desirable to make a portion of a molecule into an alkane like functionality ([[alkyl]] group) using the above or similar methods. For example, an [[ethyl group]] is an alkyl group; when this is attached to a [[hydroxy]] group, it gives [[ethanol]], which is not an alkane. To do so, the best-known methods are [[hydrogenation]] of [[alkene]]s:

:RCH=CH2 + H2 → RCH2CH3 (R = [[alkyl]])

Alkanes or alkyl groups can also be prepared directly from [[alkyl halide]]s in the [[Corey-House-Posner-Whitesides reaction]]. The [[Barton-McCombie deoxygenation]]<ref>[[Derek Harold Richard Barton|Barton, D. H. R.]]; McCombie, S. W. ''J. Chem. Soc., Perkin Trans. 1'' 1975, ''16'', 1574-1585</ref><ref>Crich, D.; Quintero, L. ''[[Chem. Rev.]]'' 1989, ''89'', 1413-1432.</ref> removes hydroxyl groups from alcohols e.g.
:[[Image:Barton-McCombie Deoxygenation Scheme.svg|600px|[[Barton-McCombie deoxygenation]] scheme]]

and the [[Clemmensen reduction]]<ref>Martin, E. L. ''Org. React.'' 1942, ''1'', 155. (Review)</ref><ref>Buchanan, J. G. St. C.; Woodgate, P. D. ''Quart. Rev.'' 1969, ''23'', 522. (Review)</ref><ref>Vedejs, E. ''Org. React.'' 1975, ''22'', 401. (Review)</ref><ref>Yamamura, S.; Nishiyama, S. ''Comp. Org. Syn.'' 1991, ''8'', 309-313.(Review)</ref> removes carbonyl groups from aldehydes and ketones to form alkanes or alkyl-substituted compounds e.g.:
:[[Image:Clemmensen Reduction Scheme.png|250px|[[Clemmensen Reduction]]]]

==Applications==
The applications of a certain alkane can be determined quite well according to the number of carbon atoms. The first four alkanes are used mainly for heating and cooking purposes, and in some countries for electricity generation. [[Methane]] and [[ethane]] are the main components of natural gas; they are normally stored as gases under pressure. It is, however, easier to transport them as liquids: This requires both compression and cooling of the gas.

[[Propane]] and [[butane]] can be liquefied at fairly low pressures, and are well known as [[liquified petroleum gas]] (LPG). Propane, for example, is used in the propane gas burner, butane in disposable cigarette lighters. The two alkanes are used as propellants in [[aerosol spray]]s.

From [[pentane]] to [[octane]] the alkanes are reasonably volatile liquids. They are used as fuels in [[internal combustion engine]]s, as they vaporise easily on entry into the combustion chamber without forming droplets, which would impair the uniformity of the combustion. Branched-chain alkanes are preferred as they are much less prone to premature ignition, which causes [[Engine knocking|knocking]], than their straight-chain homologues. This propensity to premature ignition is measured by the [[octane rating]] of the fuel, where [[2,2,4-trimethylpentane]] (''isooctane'') has an arbitrary value of 100, and [[heptane]] has a value of zero. Apart from their use as fuels, the middle alkanes are also good [[solvent]]s for nonpolar substances.

Alkanes from [[nonane]] to, for instance, [[hexadecane]] (an alkane with sixteen carbon atoms) are liquids of higher [[viscosity]], less and less suitable for use in gasoline. They form instead the major part of [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] and [[aviation fuel]]. Diesel fuels are characterised by their [[cetane number]], cetane being an old name for hexadecane. However, the higher melting points of these alkanes can cause problems at low temperatures and in polar regions, where the fuel becomes too thick to flow correctly.

Alkanes from hexadecane upwards form the most important components of [[fuel oil]] and [[lubricating oil]]. In latter function, they work at the same time as anti-corrosive agents, as their hydrophobic nature means that water cannot reach the metal surface. Many solid alkanes find use as [[paraffin wax]], for example, in [[candle]]s. This should not be confused however with true [[wax]], which consists primarily of [[ester]]s.

Alkanes with a chain length of approximately 35 or more carbon atoms are found in [[bitumen]], used, for example, in road surfacing. However, the higher alkanes have little value and are usually split into lower alkanes by [[Cracking (chemistry)|cracking]].

Some synthetic [[polymers]] such as [[polyethylene]] and [[polypropylene]] are alkanes with chains containing hundreds of thousands of carbon atoms. These materials are used in innumerable applications, and billions of kilograms of these materials are made and used each year.

==Physical properties==
====Boiling point====
[[Image:Alkanschmelzundsiedepunkt.png|right|thumb|300px|Melting (blue) and boiling (pink) points of the first 14 ''n''-alkanes in °C.]]

Alkanes experience inter-molecular [[van der Waals force]]s. Stronger inter-molecular van der Waals forces give rise to greater boiling points of alkanes.<ref name=m&b>{{cite book|title = Organic Chemistry | author = R. T. Morrison, R. N. Boyd | isbn = 0-13-643669-2 | publisher = Prentice Hall | location = New Jersey | edition = 6th|year = 1992}}</ref>

There are two determinants for the strength of the van der Waals forces:
* the number of electrons surrounding the molecule, which increases with the alkane's molecular weight
* the surface area of the molecule

Under [[standard conditions]], from CH4 to C4H10 alkanes are gaseous; from C5H12 to C17H36 they are liquids; and after C18H38 they are solids. As the boiling point of alkanes is primarily determined by weight, it should not be a surprise that the boiling point has almost a linear relationship with the size ([[molecular weight]]) of the molecule. As a rule of thumb, the boiling point rises 20 - 30 °C for each carbon added to the chain; this rule applies to other homologous series.<ref name = m&b/>

A straight-chain alkane will have a boiling point higher than a branched-chain alkane due to the greater surface area in contact, thus the greater van der Waals forces, between adjacent molecules. For example, compare [[isobutane]] and [[n-butane]], which boil at -12 and 0 °C, and 2,2-dimethylbutane and 2,3-dimethylbutane which boil at 50 and 58 °C, respectively.<ref name = m&b/> For the latter case, two molecules 2,3-dimethylbutane can "lock" into each other better than the cross-shaped 2,2-dimethylbutane, hence the greater van der Waals forces.

On the other hand, cycloalkanes tend to have higher boiling points than their linear counterparts due to the locked conformations of the molecules, which give a plane of intermolecular contact.{{Fact|date=April 2007}}

====Melting point====
The [[melting point]]s of the alkanes follow a similar trend to [[boiling points]] for the same reason as outlined above. That is, (all other things being equal) the larger the molecule the higher the melting point. There is one significant difference between boiling points and melting points. Solids have more rigid and fixed structure than liquids. This rigid structure requires energy to break down. Thus the stronger better put together solid structures will require more energy to break apart. For alkanes, this can be seen from the graph above (i.e., the blue line). The odd-numbered alkanes have a lower trend in melting points than even numbered alkanes. This is because even numbered alkanes pack well in the solid phase, forming a well-organised structure, which requires more energy to break apart. The odd-number alkanes pack less well and so the "looser" organised solid packing structure requires less energy to break apart.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Boese R, Weiss HC, Blaser D | title= The melting point alternation in the short-chain n-alkanes: Single-crystal X-ray analyses of propane at 30 K and of n-butane to n-nonane at 90 K | journal= Angew Chemie Int Ed | year=1999 | volume=38 | pages=988–992 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1521-3773(19990401)38:7<988::AID-ANIE988>3.3.CO;2-S}}</ref>

The melting points of branched-chain alkanes can be either higher or lower than those of the corresponding straight-chain alkanes, again depending on the ability of the alkane in question to packing well in the solid phase: This is particularly true for isoalkanes (2-methyl isomers), which often have melting points higher than those of the linear analogues.

====Conductivity====
Alkanes do not conduct [[electricity]], nor are they substantially [[Polarization|polarized]] by an [[electric field]]. For this reason they do not form [[hydrogen bond]]s and are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. Since the hydrogen bonds between individual water molecules are aligned away from an alkane molecule, the coexistence of an alkane and water leads to an increase in molecular order (a reduction in [[entropy]]). As there is no significant bonding between water molecules and alkane molecules, the [[second law of thermodynamics]] suggests that this reduction in entropy should be minimised by minimising the contact between alkane and water: Alkanes are said to be [[hydrophobic]] in that they repel water.

Their solubility in nonpolar solvents is relatively good, a property that is called [[lipophilicity]]. Different alkanes are, for example, miscible in all proportions among themselves.

The density of the alkanes usually increases with increasing number of carbon atoms, but remains less than that of water. Hence, alkanes form the upper layer in an alkane-water mixture.

===Molecular geometry===
[[Image:Ch4 hybridization.svg|thumb|right|sp3-hybridisation in [[methane]].]]
The molecular structure of the alkanes directly affects their physical and chemical characteristics. It is derived from the [[electron configuration]] of [[carbon]], which has four [[valence electron]]s. The carbon atoms in alkanes are always [[Orbital hybridisation|sp3 hybridised]], that is to say that the valence electrons are said to be in four equivalent orbitals derived from the combination of the 2s orbital and the three 2p orbitals. These orbitals, which have identical energies, are arranged spatially in the form of a tetrahedron, the angle of cos−1(−⅓) ≈ 109.47° between them.

===Bond lengths and bond angles===
An alkane molecule has only C – H and C – C single bonds. The former result from the overlap of a sp³-orbital of carbon with the 1s-orbital of a hydrogen; the latter by the overlap of two sp³-orbitals on different carbon atoms. The [[bond length]]s amount to 1.09×10−10 m for a C – H bond and 1.54×10−10 m for a C – C bond.
[[Image:Ch4-structure.png|thumb|right|The tetrahedral structure of methane.]]

The spatial arrangement of the bonds is similar to that of the four sp³-orbitals—they are tetrahedrally arranged, with an angle of 109.47° between them. Structural formulae that represent the bonds as being at right angles to one another, while both common and useful, do not correspond with the reality.

===Conformation===
{{Main|Alkane stereochemistry}}

The structural formula and the [[bond angle]]s are not usually sufficient to completely describe the geometry of a molecule. There is a further [[degrees of freedom (physics and chemistry)|degree of freedom]] for each carbon – carbon bond: the [[torsion angle]] between the atoms or groups bound to the atoms at each end of the bond. The spatial arrangement described by the torsion angles of the molecule is known as its [[conformation]].
[[Image:Newman projection ethane.png|thumb|right|200px|Newman projections of the two conformations of ethane: eclipsed on the left, staggered on the right.]]
[[Image:Ethane-rotamers-3D-balls.png|thumb|right|200px|[[Ball-and-stick model]]s of the two rotamers of ethane]]

[[Ethane]] forms the simplest case for studying the conformation of alkanes, as there is only one C – C bond. If one looks down the axis of the C – C bond, one will see the so-called [[Newman projection]]. The hydrogen atoms on both the front and rear carbon atoms have an angle of 120° between them, resulting from the projection of the base of the tetrahedron onto a flat plane. However, the torsion angle between a given hydrogen atom attached to the front carbon and a given hydrogen atom attached to the rear carbon can vary freely between 0° and 360°. This is a consequence of the free rotation about a carbon – carbon single bond. Despite this apparent freedom, only two limiting conformations are important: [[eclipsed]] conformation and [[staggered]] conformation.

The two conformations, also known as [[rotamer]]s, differ in energy: The staggered conformation is 12.6 kJ/mol lower in energy (more stable) than the eclipsed conformation (the least stable).

This difference in energy between the two conformations, known as the [[torsion energy]], is low compared to the thermal energy of an ethane molecule at ambient temperature. There is constant rotation about the C-C bond. The time taken for an ethane molecule to pass from one staggered conformation to the next, equivalent to the rotation of one CH3-group by 120° relative to the other, is of the order of 10−11 seconds.

The case of [[higher alkanes]] is more complex but based on similar principles, with the antiperiplanar conformation always being the most favoured around each carbon-carbon bond. For this reason, alkanes are usually shown in a zigzag arrangement in diagrams or in models. The actual structure will always differ somewhat from these idealised forms, as the differences in energy between the conformations are small compared to the thermal energy of the molecules: Alkane molecules have no fixed structural form, whatever the models may suggest.

{| class="wikitable"
|'''NAME'''
|'''Formula'''
|'''B.P./oC'''
|'''M.P./oC'''
|'''Density/g cm -3(20oC''')
|-
|Methane
|CH4
| -162
| -183
| gas
|-
|Ethane
|C2H6
| -89
| -172
| gas
|-
|Propane
|C3H8
| -42
| -188
| gas
|-
|Butane
|C4H10
| -0.5
| -135
| gas
|-
|Pentane
|C5H12
| 36
| -130
| 0.626
|-
|Hexane
|C6H14
| 69
| -95
| 0.659
|-
|Heptane
|C7H16
| 98
| -91
| 0.684
|-
|Octane
|C8H18
| 126
| -57
| 0.703
|-
|Nonane
|C9H20
| 151
| -54
| 0.718
|-
|Decane
|C10H22
| 174
| -30
| 0.730
|-
|Undecane
|C11H24
| 196
| -26
| 0.740
|-
|Dodecane
|C12H26
| 216
| -10
| 0.749
|-
|Triacontane
|C30H62
| 343
| 37
| solid
|}

===Spectroscopic properties===
Virtually all organic compounds contain carbon – carbon and carbon – hydrogen bonds, and so show some of the features of alkanes in their spectra. Alkanes are notable for having no other groups, and therefore for the ''absence'' of other characteristic spectroscopic features.

====Infrared spectroscopy====
The carbon–hydrogen stretching mode gives a strong absorption between 2850 and 2960 [[Wavenumber|cm−1]], while the carbon–carbon stretching mode absorbs between 800 and 1300 cm−1. The carbon–hydrogen bending modes depend on the nature of the group: methyl groups show bands at 1450 cm−1 and 1375 cm−1, while methylene groups show bands at 1465 cm−1 and 1450 cm−1. Carbon chains with more than four carbon atoms show a weak absorption at around 725 cm−1.

====NMR spectroscopy====
The proton resonances of alkanes are usually found at [[chemical shift|δH]] = 0.5 – 1.5. The carbon-13 resonances depend on the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon: δC = 8 – 30 (primary, methyl, -CH3), 15 – 55 (secondary, methylene, -CH2-), 20 – 60 (tertiary, methyne, C-H) and quaternary. The carbon-13 resonance of quaternary carbon atoms is characteristically weak, due to the lack of [[Nuclear Overhauser effect]] and the long [[relaxation time]], and can be missed in weak samples, or sample that have not been run for a sufficiently long time.

====Mass spectrometry====
Alkanes have a high [[ionisation energy]], and the molecular ion is usually weak. The fragmentation pattern can be difficult to interpret, but, in the case of branched chain alkanes, the carbon chain is preferentially cleaved at tertiary or quaternary carbons due to the relative stability of the resulting [[free radical]]s. The fragment resulting from the loss of a single methyl group (M−15) is often absent, and other fragment are often spaced by intervals of fourteen mass units, corresponding to sequential loss of CH2-groups.

==Chemical properties==
In general, alkanes show a relatively low reactivity, because their C bonds are relatively stable and cannot be easily broken. Unlike most other organic compounds, they possess no [[functional group]]s.

They react only very poorly with ionic or other polar substances. The [[acid dissociation constant]] (pKa) values of all alkanes are above 60, hence they are practically inert to acids and bases (see: [[carbon acid]]s). This inertness is the source of the term ''paraffins'' (with the meaning here of "lacking affinity"). In [[crude oil]] the alkane molecules have remained chemically unchanged for millions of years.

However redox reactions of alkanes, in particular with oxygen and the halogens, are possible as the carbon atoms are in a strongly-reduced condition; in the case of methane, the lowest possible oxidation state for carbon (−4) is reached. Reaction with oxygen leads to combustion without any smoke;{{clarify me|date=June 2009|reason=contradicts reaction below - which if any is correct? Under what conditions?}} with halogens, [[substitution (chemistry)|substitution]]. In addition, alkanes have been shown to interact with, and bind to, certain transition metal complexes in (See: [[carbon-hydrogen bond activation]]).

[[Free radical]]s, molecules with unpaired electrons, play a large role in most reactions of alkanes, such as cracking and reformation where long-chain alkanes are converted into shorter-chain alkanes and straight-chain alkanes into branched-chain isomers.

In highly-branched alkanes, the bond angle may differ significantly from the optimal value (109.5°) in order to allow the different groups sufficient space. This causes a tension in the molecule, known as [[steric hindrance]], and can substantially increase the reactivity.

===Reactions with oxygen (combustion reaction)===
All alkanes react with [[oxygen]] in a [[combustion]] reaction, although they become increasingly difficult to ignite as the number of carbon atoms increases. The general equation for complete combustion is:
:C''n''H2''n''+2 + (1.5''n''+0.5)O2 → (''n''+1)H2O + ''n''CO2
In the absence of sufficient oxygen, [[carbon monoxide]] or even [[soot]] can be formed, as shown below:

:CnH(2n+2) + ½ n[[oxygen|O2]] → (n+1)[[hydrogen|H2]] + n[[carbon monoxide|CO]]

for example [[methane]]:
:2CH4 + 3O2 → 2CO + 4H2O
:CH4 + O2 → C + 2H2O{{clarify me|date=June 2009|reason=contradicts smokeless claim above - which if any is correct? Under what conditions?}}

See the [[Standard enthalpy change of formation (data table)#Alkanes|alkane heat of formation table]] for detailed data.
The [[standard enthalpy change of combustion]], Δc''H''<s>o</s>, for alkanes increases by about 650 kJ/mol per CH2 group. Branched-chain alkanes have lower values of Δc''H''<s>o</s> than straight-chain alkanes of the same number of carbon atoms, and so can be seen to be somewhat more stable.

===Reactions with halogens===
{{Main article|Free radical halogenation}}
Alkanes react with [[halogen]]s in a so-called ''free radical halogenation'' reaction. The hydrogen atoms of the alkane are progressively replaced by halogen atoms. [[Free-radical]]s are the reactive species that participate in the reaction, which usually leads to a mixture of products. The reaction is highly [[exothermic reaction|exothermic]], and can lead to an explosion.

These reactions are an important industrial route to halogenated hydrocarbons. There are three steps:
* '''Initiation''' the halogen radicals form by [[homolysis]]. Usually, energy in the form of heat or light is required.
* '''Chain reaction''' or '''Propagation''' then takes place—the halogen radical abstracts a hydrogen from the alkane to give an alkyl radical. This reacts further.
* '''Chain termination''' where step the radicals recombine.

Experiments have shown that all halogenation produces a mixture of all possible isomers, indicating that all hydrogen atoms are susceptible to reaction. The mixture produced, however, is not a statistical mixture: Secondary and tertiary hydrogen atoms are preferentially replaced due to the greater stability of secondary and tertiary free-radicals. An example can be seen in the monobromination of propane:<ref name = m&b/>
[[Image:Monobromination of propane.png|500px|center|Monobromination of [[propane]]]]

===Cracking===
{{main|Cracking (chemistry)}}
Cracking breaks larger molecules into smaller ones. This can be done with a thermal or catalytic method. The thermal cracking process follows a [[homolytic cleavage|homolytic]] mechanism with formation of [[free-radical]]s. The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of [[acid]] [[catalyst]]s (usually solid acids such as [[silica-alumina]] and [[zeolite]]s), which promote a [[heterolytic cleavage|heterolytic]] (asymmetric) breakage of bonds yielding pairs of [[ion]]s of opposite charges, usually a carbo[[cation]] and the very unstable [[hydride]] [[anion]]. Carbon-localized free-radicals and cations are both highly unstable and undergo processes of chain rearrangement, C-C scission in position [[beta scission|beta]] (i.e., cracking) and [[intramolecular|intra-]] and [[intermolecular]] hydrogen transfer or [[hydride]] transfer. In both types of processes, the corresponding [[reactive intermediate]]s (radicals, ions) are permanently regenerated, and thus they proceed by a self-propagating chain mechanism. The chain of reactions is eventually terminated by radical or ion recombination.

===Isomerization and reformation===
Isomerization and reformation are processes in which straight-chain alkanes are heated in the presence of a [[platinum]] catalyst. In isomerization, the alkanes become branched-chain isomers. In reformation, the alkanes become [[cycloalkane]]s or [[aromatic hydrocarbon]]s, giving off hydrogen as a by-product. Both of these processes raise the [[octane number]] of the substance.

===Other reactions===
Alkanes will react with [[steam]] in the presence of a [[nickel]] [[catalyst]] to give [[hydrogen]]. Alkanes can be [[Chlorosulfonation|chlorosulfonated]] and [[nitration|nitrated]], although both reactions require special conditions. The [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] of alkanes to [[carboxylic acid]]s is of some technical importance. In the [[Reed reaction]], [[sulfur dioxide]], [[chlorine]] and [[photochemistry|light]] convert hydrocarbons to [[Sulfonic acid|sulfonyl chlorides]].

==Hazards==
Methane is explosive when mixed with air (1 – 8% CH4) and is a strong [[greenhouse gas]]: Other lower alkanes can also form explosive mixtures with air. The lighter liquid alkanes are highly flammable, although this risk decreases with the length of the carbon chain. Pentane, hexane, heptane, and octane are classed as ''dangerous for the environment'' and ''harmful''. The straight-chain isomer of hexane is a [[neurotoxin]]. Halogen-rich alkanes, like [[chloroform]], can be carcinogenic as well.

==See also==
{{Commons|Homologous series of alkanes|{{PAGENAME}}}}
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Alkene]]
* [[Alkyne]]
* [[Basketane]]
* [[Cracking (chemistry)]]
* [[Cycloalkane]]
* [[Functional group]]
* [[Higher alkanes]]
* [[List of alkanes|List of n-alkanes]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* [http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/intro1.htm Virtual Textbook of Organic Chemistry]

{{Hydrocarbons}}
{{Alkanes}}
{{Functional Groups}}
{{BranchesofChemistry}}

[[Category:Hydrocarbons]]
[[Category:Alkanes| ]]

{{Link FA|de}}
{{Link FA|sl}}

[[ar:ألكان]]
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[[el:Αλκάνια]]
[[es:Alcano]]
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[[fo:Alkan]]
[[fr:Alcane]]
[[ko:알케인]]
[[hi:अल्केन]]
[[hr:Alkani]]
[[id:Alkana]]
[[is:Alkanar]]
[[it:Alcani]]
[[he:אלקאן]]
[[ka:ალკანი]]
[[ku:Alkan]]
[[la:Alcanum]]
[[lv:Alkāni]]
[[lt:Alkanas]]
[[lmo:Alcan]]
[[hu:Alkánok]]
[[mk:Алкан]]
[[ml:ആല്‍ക്കെയ്ന്‍]]
[[ms:Alkana]]
[[nl:Alkaan]]
[[ja:アルカン]]
[[no:Alkaner]]
[[nn:Alkan]]
[[nrm:Alcane]]
[[pms:Parafin-a]]
[[pl:Alkany]]
[[pt:Alcano]]
[[ro:Alcan]]
[[ru:Алканы]]
[[sq:Alkanet]]
[[simple:Alkane]]
[[sk:Alkán]]
[[sl:Alkan]]
[[sr:Алкан]]
[[sh:Alkani]]
[[su:Alkana]]
[[fi:Alkaani]]
[[sv:Alkan]]
[[ta:ஆல்க்கேன்]]
[[th:อัลเคน]]
[[tr:Alkan]]
[[uk:Алкани]]
[[vi:Ankan]]
[[zh:烷烃]]

Three (novel)

2009-09-05T06:13:18Z

Mathnerd314: who's Congressman? haha

{{infobox Book | 
| name = THR3E
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:TedDekker Thr3e.jpg|200px|First edition cover]]
| image_caption = First edition cover
| author = [[Ted Dekker]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = [[United States of America]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Suspense]], [[Thriller (genre)|Thriller]]
| publisher = [[Thomas Nelson (publisher)|WestBow Press]]
| release_date = June 2003
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 400 pp (first edition, hardback)
| isbn = ISBN 0-8499-4372-8 (first edition, hardback)
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}

{{For|the [[film adaptation]] of this [[novel]]|Thr3e (film)}}

'''''THR3E''''' is a 2003 suspense novel written by [[thriller (genre)|thriller]] author [[Ted Dekker]].

==Plot introduction==
Kevin Parson, a twenty-eight year old seminary student, one day receives a call on his cell phone while driving. The man on the other end, Richard Slater, tells Kevin that he has three minutes to confess his sin to the world or else. What follows is a cat and mouse game with Kevin, his childhood friend Samantha Sheer, and [[FBI]] agent Jennifer Peters struggling to keep up with the clues Slater sends their way; clues that lead to the most horrific events. Throughout all of this, Kevin, Slater, and Samantha find that they are connected more closely than any of them would have thought possible through science and technology today.

==Major Themes==
The major theme is the number three and its significance in Christianity. Christianity commonly uses three as a symbol, as in the Trinity: God the Father, God the Son, and God the Spirit. There are also the three main kingdoms: the Kingdom of Heaven, the Kingdom of Earth, and the Kingdom of Hell. This is used to portray the Multiple Personalities that Kevin Parson has. Samantha Sheer would be a representative of the Kingdom of Heaven, as she is pure at heart. Kevin would represent the Kingdom of Earth, as he is a sinner by nature, but feels the need to try to achieve Samantha's state. Slater would be the exact opposite of Samantha; he would represent the Kingdom of Hell, possibly even represent Lucifer himself. The riddles that display opposites,which is the means of communication for Slater, is representative of the conflict within Kevin. The happy ending is a commonality of Dekker books, and it most likely represents the fact that Christians believe they have their own happy ending: eternal life after death. Another theme is battle that takes place inside each one of us the battle between good and evil. This is theme for the paper that Kevin writes titled ''The True Natures of a Man.''
{{TedDekker}}

[[Category:2003 novels]]
[[Category:Thriller novels]]
[[Category:Novels by Ted Dekker]]

Lobster

2009-06-20T14:35:24Z

Mathnerd314: /* Lobsters in culture */ removing POV ("the finest the sea has to offer"? seriously?)

''For the British magazine see'' [[Lobster (magazine)|Lobster]]
{{Taxobox
| name = Lobster
| image = Lobster NSRW.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[American lobster]], ''Homarus americanus''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Arthropod]]a
| subphylum = [[Crustacean|Crustacea]]
| classis = [[Malacostraca]]
| ordo = [[Decapoda]]
| infraordo = [[Astacidea]]
| familia = '''Nephropidae'''
| familia_authority = [[James Dwight Dana|Dana]], 1852
| subdivision_ranks = [[Family (biology)|Subfamilies]] and [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision =
* [[Neophoberinae]]
** ''[[Acanthacaris]]''
* [[Thymopinae]]
** ''[[Nephropsis]]''
** ''[[Nephropides]]''
** ''[[Thymops]]''
** ''[[Thymopsis]]''
* [[Nephropinae]]
** ''[[Homarus]]''
** ''[[Norway lobster|Nephrops]]''
** ''[[Cape lobster|Homarinus]]''
** ''[[Metanephrops]]''
** ''[[Eunephrops]]''
** ''[[Thymopides]]''
}}

Clawed '''lobsters''' compose a [[family (biology)|family]] ('''Nephropidae''', sometimes also '''Homaridae''') of large marine [[crustacean]]s. Lobsters are economically important as [[seafood]], forming the basis of a global industry that nets [[United States dollar|US$]]31.8 billion in trade annually.{{Fact|date=April 2008}}

Though several different groups of crustaceans are known as "lobsters," the clawed lobsters are most often associated with the name. Clawed lobsters are not closely related to [[spiny lobster]]s or [[slipper lobster]]s, which have no claws (''[[Claw#Arthropods|chelae]]''), or [[squat lobster]]s. The closest relatives of clawed lobsters are the [[reef lobster]] ''Enoplometopus'' and the three families of freshwater [[crayfish]].

== Biology ==

Lobsters are [[invertebrate]]s and are found all over the world. They have a hard protective [[exoskeleton]]. Like most [[arthropod]]s, lobsters must [[ecdysis|molt]] in order to grow, leaving them vulnerable during this time. During the molting process, several species may experience a change in color. Lobsters have 10 legs, with the front ones adapted to claws.

Lobsters live on rocky, sandy, or muddy bottoms from the shoreline to beyond the edge of the [[continental shelf]]. They generally live singly in crevices or in burrows under rocks.

Lobsters typically eat live food, consisting of fish, mollusks, other crustaceans, worms, and some plant life. Occasionally, they will scavenge if necessary, and may resort to [[cannibalism]] in captivity; however, this has not been observed in the wild. Although lobster skin has been found in the stomachs of lobsters, this is because lobsters will eat their shed skin after [[ecdysis|molting]].<ref name="marinebio">{{cite web |url=http://marinebio.org/species.asp?id=533 |title=''Homarus americanus'', Atlantic lobster |accessdate=2006-12-27 |publisher=MarineBio.org}}</ref> Lobsters grow throughout their lives and it is not unusual for a lobster to live for more than 100 years.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Consider the Lobster|Consider the Lobster and Other Essays]] |author=[[David Foster Wallace]] |publisher=[[Little, Brown & Company]] |year=2005 |isbn=0-31-615611-6}}</ref> In fact, lobsters may exhibit [[Senescence#Theories of aging|"negligible senescence"]], in that they can effectively live indefinitely, barring injury, disease, capture, etc.<ref>''Emerging Area of Aging Research: Long-Lived Animals with "Negligible Senescence"'', John C. Guerin. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1019 (1) , 518–520. ([http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1196/annals.1297.096 abstract])</ref> They can thus reach impressive sizes. According to the [[Guinness World Records]], the largest lobster was caught in [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]], and weighed 20.15 kg (44.4 lb).

Although clawed lobsters, like most other arthropods, are largely bilaterally symmetrical, they often possess unequal, specialized claws, like the [[king crab]]. A freshly caught lobster will have a claw which is full and fleshy, not atrophied. The anatomy of the lobster includes the [[cephalothorax]] which is the head fused with the [[thorax]], both of which are covered by the [[carapace]], of [[chitin]]ous composition, and the abdomen. The lobster's head consists of [[Antenna (biology)|antennae]], antennules, [[Mandible (arthropod)|mandibles]], the first and second [[Maxilla (arthropod)|maxillae]], and the first, second, and third [[Decapod anatomy#Thorax / Pereon|maxillipeds]]. Because a lobster lives in a murky environment at the bottom of the ocean, its vision is poor and it mostly uses its antennae as sensors. Studies have shown that the lobster eye is formed with a reflective structure atop a convex retina. In contrast, most complex eyes use refractive ray concentrators (lenses) and a concave retina.<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |last= Land |first=M. F. |title=Superposition images are formed by reflection in the eyes of some oceanic decapod Crustacea |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=1976 |volume=263 |pages=764–765 |doi=10.1038/263764a0 }}</ref> The abdomen of the lobster includes [[decapod anatomy|swimmerets]] and its tail is composed of [[Decapod anatomy#Abdomen / Pleon|uropods]] and the [[telson]].

Lobsters, like snails and spiders, have blue blood due to the presence of [[haemocyanin]], which contains [[copper]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/cda/11-14/biology/copch31pg1.html |title=Copper for life - Vital copper |publisher=[[ASE]]}}</ref> (In contrast, mammals and many other animals, have red blood due to the presence of [[haemoglobin]], which contains [[iron]].) Inside lobsters is a green goopy substance called [[tomalley]], which serves as the [[hepatopancreas]], fulfilling the functions of both liver and pancreas.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=b314101b&JournalCode=JA |doi=10.1039/b314101b |title=Arsenic speciation in marine certified reference materials |year=2004 |author=Mcsheehy, Shona |journal=Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry |volume=19 |pages=373}}</ref>

In general, lobsters are 25 cm to 50 cm long ( 10 to 20 inches ) and move slowly by walking on the bottom of the sea floor. However, when they flee, they swim backwards quickly by curling and uncurling their [[abdomen]]. A speed of five [[metre per second|meters per second]] (about 11 mph) has been recorded.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.osl.gc.ca/homard/en/faq.html |title=The American lobster — frequently asked questions |publisher=[[St. Lawrence Observatory]], [[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]] |date=2005-10-19}}</ref> This is known as the [[caridoid escape reaction]].

=== ''Symbion'' ===

The genus ''[[Symbion]]'', the only member of the animal phylum Cycliophora, has only been found on the [[gill]]s and mouthparts of lobsters.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=M. Obst, P. Funch & G. Giribet |year=2005 |title= Hidden diversity and host specificity in cycliophorans: a phylogeographic analysis along my ta tas the North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=14 |pages=4427–4440 |url=http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02752.x |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2005.02752.x}}</ref>

== Gastronomy ==
{{nutritionalvalue | name=Lobster | kJ=410| protein=20.5 g | fat=0.59 g | satfat=0.107 g | monofat=0.091 g | polyfat=0.16 g | carbs=0 g | fibre=0 g | | sugars=0 g | iron_mg=2 | calcium_mg=6 | magnesium_mg=8 | phosphorus_mg=15 | potassium_mg=0 | zinc_mg=15 | vitC_mg=0 | pantothenic_mg=2 | vitB6_mg=4 | folate_ug=2 | thiamin_mg=0 | riboflavin_mg=4 | niacin_mg=4 | right=1 | source_usda=1 }}

[[File:Homar1.jpg|thumb|240px|left|A 3 kg [[European lobster]]]]
[[File:Homar3 (js0.jpg|thumb|240px|left|A dish including a [[European lobster]], Dubrovnik]]
[[File:Lobster served in Japan in creamy butter sauce.jpg|thumb|240px|left|[[Metanephrops japonicus|Japanese lobster]] served in creamy butter sauce]]

Lobster recipes include [[Lobster Newberg]] and [[Lobster Thermidor]]. Lobsters are sold with claws banded to prevent them from injuring each other or people. Lobsters cannot open claws when banded, which causes the claws to [[atrophy]]. Recently banded lobsters will not show this, and the claws will be full.

Lobsters may be prepared and cooked while alive (removing claws may not kill lobsters). Cooks place the live lobster in boiling water or steam. Lobsters are also served fried, grilled, or baked. [[Freezing]] the lobster may toughen the meat. A common misconception is that a lobster screams when boiled; this is due to steam escaping the shell, creating a whistling.

When boiling, the lobster is simmered for seven minutes for the first pound and three minutes for each additional pound.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atwoodlobster.com/site/cookinglobster.asp |title=Cooking lobsters |publisher=Atwood Lobster Company |accessdate=2007-06-30}}</ref>

The majority of the meat is in the tail and the two front claws, but smaller quantities are in the legs and [[torso]]. Lobster is used variously, for example in soup, [[bisque (food)|bisque]] or lobster rolls. Lobster meat is maybe dipped in [[clarified butter]], resulting in a sweetened flavor. As with all [[shellfish]], lobster is not [[kosher]].

=== History ===
The European wild lobster, including the royal blue lobster of [[Audresselles]], is more expensive and rare than the American lobster. It was consumed chiefly by the royal and aristocratic families of [[France]] and the [[Netherlands]]. Such scenes were depicted in Dutch paintings of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

In North America, the American lobster did not become a popular food until the mid-19th century, when New Yorkers and Bostonians developed a taste; not until the invention of a special vessel, the lobster smack, did a commercial fishery flourish.<ref>Woodard, Colin. [http://www.colinwoodard.com/lobstercoast ''The Lobster Coast'']. New York. Viking/Penguin, ISBN 0-670-03324-3, 2004, pp. 170-180</ref> Prior to this time, eating lobster was considered a mark of poverty or as a food for indentured servants or lower members of society in [[Maine]], [[Massachusetts]] and the Canadian [[Maritimes]]. Prior to the [[American Revolutionary War]], dock workers in [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] went on strike, protesting having to eat lobster more than three times a week {{fact|date=January 2009}}. Lobsters were used as a fertilizer for farms.{{Fact|date=October 2008}} In Canada, outside of the rural outposts lobster was sold canned; New England's fresh lobster trade extended to [[Philadelphia]].

The market for lobster changed with the transportation industry allowing live lobsters to be shipped from the ports to urban centres. Fresh lobster became a [[Luxury good|luxury]] food and a tourist attraction for the Maritime provinces and an export to Europe and [[Japan]] where it is especially expensive.

The high price of lobster led to creating "faux lobster". It is often made from [[pollock]] or other [[whitefish (fisheries term)|whitefish]] altered to look and taste similar to lobster. A few restaurants sell "[[langostino]] lobster". Langostino translates into [[prawn]]; the actual animal may be crab. The spiny lobster is also called [[Spiny lobster|langouste]].

=== Catching ===
{{commercial crustacean topics}}
Lobsters are caught using baited, one-way traps with a color-coded marker buoy to mark cages. Lobster is fished in water between 1 and 500 fathoms, although some lobsters live at 2,000 fathoms. Cages are of plastic-coated galvanized steel or wood. A lobster fisher may tend between 10 and 2,000 traps. Around the year 2000, due to overfishing of some species and high demand [[lobster farming]] became more prevalent.<ref>http://articles.uwphoto.no/articles_folder/lobster_farming_in_Norway.htm </ref> As of 2008, no lobster farming operation has achieved commercial success.

== Capacity for pain ==
{{seealso|Pain#In other species}}
Due to the ambiguous nature of [[suffering]], the issue of lobster pain may be approached using an argument by analogy — that lobsters are similar to human biology or that behavior warrants assumptions that lobsters can feel pain.<ref name="afa">{{cite book|title=Cephalopods and decapod crustaceans: their capacity to experience pain and suffering |publisher=Advocates for Animals |year=2005 |url=http://www.advocatesforanimals.org.uk/pdf/crustreport.pdf}}</ref>

The Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety tentatively concluded that "it is unlikely that [lobsters] can feel pain," though they note that "there is apparently a paucity of exact knowledge on sentience in crustaceans, and more research is needed." This conclusion is based on the lobster's simple nervous system. The report assumes that the violent reaction of lobsters to boiling water is a reflex to noxious stimuli.<ref name="somme">{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=L. Sømme |year=2005 |title=Sentience and pain in invertebrates: Report to Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety |journal=[[Norwegian University of Life Sciences]], [[Oslo]]}}</ref>

However, review by the Scottish [[animal rights]] group [[Advocate for Animals]] released in the same year reported that "scientific evidence ... strongly suggests that there is a potential for [lobsters] to experience pain and suffering," primarily because lobsters (and other decapod crustaceans) "have opioid receptors and respond to opioids (analgesics such as morphine) in a similar way to vertebrates," indicating that lobsters' reaction to injury changes when painkillers are applied. The similarities in lobsters' and vertebrates' stress systems and behavioral responses to noxious stimuli were given as additional evidence for their capacity for pain.<ref name="afa" />

A 2007 study at Queen's University, Belfast, suggested that crustaceans do feel pain.<ref name="elwood2007">{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=Stuart Barr, Peter R. Laming, Jaimie T. A. Dick, Robert W. Elwood |year=2007 |title=Nociception or pain in a decapod crustacean? |journal=Animal Behavior |url=http://www.cecm.usp.br/~rend/Papers/InvertebratePain.pdf}}</ref> In the experiment, when the antennae of prawns were rubbed with sodium hydroxide or acetic acid, the animals showed increased grooming of the afflicted area and rubbed it more against the side of the tank. Moreover, this reaction was inhibited by a local anesthetic, even though control prawns treated with only anesthetic did not show reduced activity. Professor Robert Elwood, who headed the study, argues that sensing pain is crucial to prawn survival, because it encourages them to avoid damaging behaviors. Some scientists responded, saying the rubbing may reflect an attempt to clean the affected area.<ref>Sample, Ian. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2007/nov/08/animalrights.sciencenews "Blow for fans of boiled lobster: crustaceans feel pain, study says"], ''The Guardian'', Nov 8, 2007.</ref>

In a subsequent 2009 study, Prof. Elwood and Mirjam Appel showed that hermit crabs make motivational tradeoffs between shocks and the quality of the shells they inhabit.<ref name="elwood2009">{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=Robert W. Elwood, Mirjam Appel |year=2009 |title=Pain experience in hermit crabs? |journal=Animal Behavior}}</ref> In particular, as crabs are shocked more intensely, they become increasingly willing to leave their current shells for new shells, and they spend less time deciding whether to enter those new shells. Moreover, because the researchers did not offer the new shells until after the electrical stimulation had ended, the change in motivational behavior was the result of memory of the noxious event, not an immediate reflex.

=== Opioids ===
[[File:Mochelobster.jpg|thumb|[[Moche]] lobster, 200 A.D., [[Larco Museum|Larco Museum Collection]] Lima, Peru]]
[[File:Shediac Lobster.jpg|thumb|left|World's largest lobster sculpture in [[Shediac, New Brunswick]].]]
In vertebrates, endogenous [[opioid]]s are neurochemicals that moderate pain by interacting with opiate receptors. Opioid peptides and opiate receptors occur naturally in crustaceans, and although “at present no certain conclusion can be drawn,”<ref name="somme" /> some have interpreted their presence as an indication that lobsters may be able to experience pain.<ref name="somme" /><ref name="afa" /> The aforementioned Scottish paper holds that lobsters' opioids may "mediate pain in the same way" as in vertebrates.<ref name="afa" />

[[Morphine]], an analgesic, and [[naloxone]], an opioid receptor antagonist, may affect a related species of crustacean (''[[Chasmagnathus granulatus]]'') in much the same way they affect vertebrates: injections of morphine into crabs produced a dose-dependent reduction of their defensive response to an electric shock.<ref>{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=M. Lozada, A. Romano & H. Maldonado |year=1988 |title=Effect of morphine and naloxone on a defensive response of the crab ''Chasmagnathus granulatus'' |journal=[[Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior]] |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=635–640 |doi=10.1016/0091-3057(88)90076-7}}</ref> (However, the attenuated defensive response could originate from either the analgesic or sedative properties of morphine, or both)<ref name="dyak">{{cite journal |quotes=no |author=V. E. Dyakonova |year=2001 |title=Role of opioid peptides in behavior of invertebrates |journal=[[Journal of Evolutionary Biochemistry and Physiology]] |volume=37 |pages=335–347 |url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/maik/joey/2001/00000037/00000004/00366536 |doi=10.1023/A:1012910525424}}</ref> These findings have been replicated for other invertebrate species,<ref name="dyak" /> but similar data is not yet available for lobsters.

=== Animal welfare issues ===
The most common way of killing a lobster is by placing it, live, in boiling water, or by splitting: severing the body in half, lengthwise.

The boiling method (also used to kill crabs, crayfish and shrimp) is controversial because some believe that the lobster suffers. The practice is illegal in some places, such as in [[Reggio Emilia]], Italy, where offenders face fines of up to [[Euro|€]]495.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2004/03/07/wlob07.xml&sSheet=/news/2004/03/07/ixworld.html |title=Italian animal rights law puts lobster off the menu |author=Bruce Johnston |date=2004-03-06 |publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph|Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref> The Norwegian study states that the lobster may be de-sensitized by placing it in a salt solution 15 minutes before killing it.

In 2006, British inventor Simon Buckhaven invented the ''[[Crustastun|CrustaStun]]'', which electrocutes lobsters with a 110 V [[electric shock]], killing them in five seconds. This ensures a quicker death for the lobster. Seafood wholesalers in Britain use a commercial version. A home version was available about 2006.

== Lobsters in culture ==

The [[Moche]] people of ancient [[Peru]] worshipped the sea and its animals. Lobsters were often depicted in their art.<ref>Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. ''The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the [[Larco Museum|Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera]].'' New York: [[Thames and Hudson]], 1997</ref>

[[Red Lobster]] is a chain of seafood restaurants, founded in 1968.

[[Lobster (magazine)]] is a twice yearly British magazine (June and December) focusing on [[parapolitics]].

Lobsters dance a "Lobster Quadrille" in the eponymous chapter of [[Lewis Carroll]]'s famous book ''[[Alice in Wonderland]]''. It and the related lobster poems can be read [http://www.hoboes.com/html/FireBlade/Carroll/Alice/Wonder/alice10.html here]: ''"Will you, won’t you, will you, won’t you, won’t you join the dance?"'' and ''"Tis the voice of the Lobster; I heard him declare."
''<ref>[http://www.hoboes.com/html/FireBlade/Carroll/Alice/Wonder/alice10.html Chapter X], ''Alice in Wonderland'', Lewis Carroll</ref>

== List of clawed lobster species ==
This list contains all known species in the family Nephropidae:<ref>{{cite journal | quotes=no |author=Tshudy, D |year=2003 |title=Clawed lobster (Nephropidae) diversity through time |journal=[[Journal of Crustacean Biology]] |volume=23 |pages=178–186 |url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&issn=0278-0372&volume=023&issue=01&page=0178 |doi=10.1651/0278-0372(2003)023[0178:CLNDTT]2.0.CO;2}}</ref>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* ''[[Acanthacaris|Acanthacaris caeca]]''
* ''[[Acanthacaris|Acanthacaris tenuimana]]''
* ''[[Eunephrops bairdii]]''
* ''[[Eunephrops cadenasi]]''
* ''[[Eunephrops luckhursti]]''
* ''[[Eunephrops manningi]]''
* ''[[Cape lobster|Homarinus capensis]]'' — Cape lobster
* ''[[American lobster|Homarus americanus]]'' — American lobster
* ''[[European lobster|Homarus gammarus]]'' — European lobster
* ''[[Metanephrops andamanicus]]'' — Andaman lobster
* ''[[Metanephrops arafurensis]]''
* ''[[Metanephrops|Metanephrops armatus]]''
* ''[[Australian scampi|Metanephrops australiensis]]'' — Australian scampi
* ''[[Metanephrops binghami]]'' — Caribbean lobster
* ''[[Bight lobster|Metanephrops boschmai]]'' — bight lobster
* ''[[Metanephrops challengeri]]'' — New Zealand scampi
* ''[[Metanephrops formosanus]]''
* ''[[Metanephrops japonicus]]'' — Japanese lobster
* ''[[Metanephrops mozambicus]]''
* ''[[Metanephrops neptunus]]''
* ''[[Metanephrops rubellus]]''
* ''[[Metanephrops sagamiensis]]''
* ''[[Metanephrops sibogae]]''
* ''[[Metanephrops sinensis]]'' — China lobster
{{col-break}}
* ''[[Metanephrops thomsoni]]''
* ''[[Metanephrops velutinus]]''
* ''[[Nephropides caribaeus]]''
* ''[[Norway lobster|Nephrops norvegicus]]'' — Norway lobster
* ''[[Nephropsis acanthura]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis aculeata]]'' — Florida lobsterette
* ''[[Nephropsis agassizii]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis atlantica]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis carpenteri]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis ensirostris]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis hamadai]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis holthuisii]]''
* ''[[Nephrops macphersoni]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis malhaensis]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis neglecta]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis occidentalis]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis rosea]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis serrata]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis stewarti]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis suhmi]]''
* ''[[Nephropsis sulcata]]''
* ''[[Thymopides grobovi]]''
* ''[[Thymops birsteini]]''
* ''[[Thymopsis nilenta]]''
{{col-end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons|Homarus}}
* {{Cite book |year=1991 |url=http://nlbif.eti.uva.nl/bis/lobsters.php?menuentry=inleiding |title=Marine Lobsters of the World |author=[[Lipke Holthuis]] |publisher = [[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}
* [http://www.lobsterscience.ca/ Atlantic Veterinary College Lobster Science Centre]
* [http://www.lobsterhelp.com Lobster Recipes & Cooking Lobster Guides]

[[Category:True lobsters]]
[[Category:Edible crustaceans]]
[[Category:Seafood]]
[[Category:Commercial crustaceans]]
[[Category:Animal welfare]]

[[ang:Loppestre]]
[[ar:جراد البحر]]
[[ca:Nefròpid]]
[[cs:Humrovití]]
[[de:Hummerartige]]
[[el:Αστακός (μαλακόστρακο)]]
[[eo:Omaro]]
[[fr:Nephropidae]]
[[hak:Liùng-hâ]]
[[id:Lobster]]
[[is:Humrar]]
[[it:Nephropidae]]
[[he:לובסטר]]
[[la:Locusta marina]]
[[lt:Omaras]]
[[ml:കൊഞ്ച്]]
[[nl:Zeekreeften]]
[[no:Hummere]]
[[nn:Hummarfamilien]]
[[pl:Homary]]
[[pt:Lavagante]]
[[ru:Омары]]
[[simple:Lobster]]
[[fi:Hummerit]]
[[sv:Hummer]]
[[tl:Ulang]]
[[te:ఎండ్రకాయ]]
[[tr:Istakoz]]
[[uk:Омар]]
[[ur:کَر کند]]
[[wuu:龙虾]]
[[zh:海螯蝦]]

List of people from Columbia, Missouri

2009-06-13T12:26:42Z

Mathnerd314:

This is a list of the people born in, residents of, or otherwise closely associated with the city of [[Columbia, Missouri]] and its surrounding metropolitan area

==Attending College In Columbia==
Many people come to Columbia just for college, none of these are included in this list. For lists of people who attended college in Columbia see:
*[[List of University of Missouri-Columbia alumni|University of Missouri Alumni]]
*[[Stephens College#Alumnae|Stephens College Alumni]]
*[[Columbia College of Missouri|Columbia College Alumni]]

{{compactTOC}}__NOTOC__

==A==
*[[James William Abert]]
*[[Thomas M. Allen]]
*[[Gary Anderson (running back)|Gary Anderson]]

==B==
*[[Judy Baker]]
*[[Matt Bartle]]
*[[Rob Benedict]]
*[[William Duane Benton]]
*[[Philemon Bliss]]
*[[John William Boone]]
*[[Stratton D. Brooks]]

==C==
*[[Jessica Capshaw]]
*[[Russ Carnahan]]

==D==
*[[Deke Dickerson|Derek "Deke" Dickerson]]

==E==
*[[Carl Edwards]]
*[[Sara Evans]]

==F==
*[[Jane Froman]]

==G==
*[[Chuck Graham]]
*[[Ken Griffin]]

==H==
*[[Eugene Jerome Hainer]]
*[[Tyler Hansbrough]]
*[[Jeff Harris (Missouri)]]
*[[Peter Hessler]]
*[[Darwin Hindman]]

==I==

==J==
*[[Brett James]]
*[[Tyler Johnson]]
*[[Daniel Webster Jones (Mormon)|Daniel Webster Jones]]

==K==
*[[Kraig Kann]]
*[[E. Stanley Kroenke]]

==L==
*[[Ken Lay]]
*[[Grace Lee]]

==M==
*[[Jeff Maggert]]
*[[William Rainey Marshall]]

==N==
*[[William L. Nelson]]
*[[John Neihardt]]

==O==
*[[Michael Paul Oman-Reagan]]

==P==

==Q==

==R==
*[[Jason Ridgway]]
*[[James S. Rollins]]
*[[Jesse M. Roper]]
*[[Charles Griffith Ross]]
*[[John Keckley Rentschler]]

==S==
*[[Felix Sabates]]
*[[Therese Sander]]
*[[Jon Scott]]
*[[John F. Shafroth]]
*[[Michael J. Skiff (Click Your Opinion.com)]]
*[[William Smith (actor)]]
*[[William J. Stone]]

==T==
*[[Nischelle Turner]]
*[[Zbylut Twardowski]]

==U==

==V==
*[[Charlie Van Dyke]]

==W==
*[[James "Bud" Walton]]
*[[Sam Walton]]
*[[Edwin Moss Watson]]
*[[Norbert Wiener]]
*[[Lisa Wilcox]]
*[[Roger B. Wilson]]
*[ [Isaiah Warrem] ]

==X==

==Y==

==Z==
[[Category: Columbia, Missouri]]

AP Chinese Language and Culture

2009-04-28T02:41:43Z

Mathnerd314: Undid revision 286156698 by 67.127.246.171 (talk)

{{Unreferenced|date=May 2007}}
{{Advanced Placement}}

'''Advanced Placement Chinese Language and Culture''' (commonly known as '''AP Chinese Language and Culture''' or '''AP Chinese''') is a course offered by the [[College Board]] as a part of the [[Advanced Placement Program]]. Designed to be comparable to a fourth semester or equivalent [[college]]/[[university]] [[course (education)|courses]] in [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese Chinese]] and [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin Chinese]], these college courses deepen the [[student]]s’ immersion into the [[language]] and [[culture]] of the Chinese-speaking world. Coursework within this course reflects the proficiencies exhibited throughout the Intermediate range as described in the [[ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines|American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) Proficiency Guidelines]].

The AP course prepares students to demonstrate their level of Chinese proficiency across the three communicative modes (interpersonal, interpretive, and presentational) and the five goal areas (communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities) as outlined in the Standards for ''Foreign Language Learning in the 21st Century''. Its aim is to provide students with ongoing and varied opportunities to further develop their proficiencies across the full range of language skills within a cultural frame of reference reflective of the richness of Chinese language and culture. Since the course interweaves language and culture learning, this exploration occurs mostly in Chinese. Most people who take these tests are native speakers and do not rely on a course or class.

== The exam ==
The first AP Chinese test was administered on May 9, 2007. The test encountered many technical difficulties (''ie'' unable to convert from simplified to traditional Chinese, inability to type) and as a result many students could not complete the test.

==Grade distribution==
In the 2007 administration, 3,261 students took the exam from 433 schools. The mean score was a 4.69.

The grade distribution for 2007 was:
{|class="wikitable"
!Score
!Percent
|-
|5
|80.9%
|-
|4
|11.8%
|-
|3
|4.5%
|-
|2
|1.1%
|-
|1
|1.5%
|}

==See also==
* [[Western study of the Chinese language]]

==External links==
* [http://www.collegeboard.com/student/testing/ap/sub_chineselang.html AP Chinese Language and Culture at CollegeBoard.com]

[[Category:Chinese language tests]]
[[Category:Educational programs]]

Happy Valley Beijing

2009-04-08T14:30:08Z

Mathnerd314: whoops, wrong template. i'm kinda new here -_-

{{advert}}

'''Happy Valley Beijing''' is an amusement park in [[Beijing]] built and operated by Beijing OTC, which is part of the [[Shenzhen OCT Holding Group]]. The park, which is located in the east of Beijing, opened in [[2006]].
THE FOLLOWING IS JUST AN AD IGNORE IT

Being tired after making a long journey, you may wonder where else you can have entertainment. Beijing Happy Valley can fully satisfy your desire. Located in the southeast corner of Sifang Bridge, on the fourth ring road, in Chaoyang District in Beijing, it is your happy theme park, another Disneyland in Mainland China. Covering an area of more than 75 acres (386,102 square meters), it has been open to tourists since 2006 and attracted a lot of visitors from home and abroad.

Thematic Landscapes

Beijing Happy Valley is composed of six theme parks, including Firth Forest, Atlantis, Aegean Sea, Lost Maya, Shangri-La and Ant Kingdom. More than 50 scenic sights of culture and ecology are scattered in all direction, to offer you a rare opportunity to experience the charm of various civilizations regardless of the distance of space and time. The full extent of the valley is compared to a beautiful artistic picture where you can see tree houses, docks, bridges, towns, ancient towers, lakes, forests and other amazing scenic spots beyond your imagination. After going through the famous 'ecological forest' in Firth Forest, the first sight you will see is the high-rising Crystal City. There you can have a close contact with those figures of ancient Greek myths in Aegean Sea. Recall the glorious Maya and their scattered huge stone pillars. Enjoy the happiness of simple life in dreamy Shangri-la. Wake up the child within you, and love for nature in Ant Kingdom. Beijing Happy Valley will fully satisfy your desire and curiosity.

Thematic Leisure Activities

Pop Music Festival: The super band is creating a grand music ceremony for you. Surrender to those deafening rhythms, marvelous sounds and hot dances that can easily arouse your excitement.

Maximal Exercise Festival: Your eyes will be feasted on all sorts of performance. It's a most exciting and healthy festival of praising youth. Don't hesitate to take part in the latest crazes from skateboards to bicycle riding. It's up to you!

Chinese Spring Festival: You will be attracted by every splendid program in this riotous atmosphere. Performances with strong ethnic flavor will bring a fantastic visionary taste.

Water-Splashing Festival: Water symbolizes luck and wealth. On Water-Splashing Festival, people sprinkle water onto each other as a unique way to express their good wish. Come here and enjoy the cool and happy moment.

International Magic Day: Magicians of the first rank from all over the world present distinct magic tricks for you. Keep your eyes on this magical world full of suspension.

Thematic Park

Thematic Park is composed of six parts: Firth Forest, Atlantis, Aegean Sea, Lost Maya, Shangri-La and Ant Kingdom. Each of them has its own feature, but all of them can fully satisfy your desire of seeking happiness.

Tips:

To make your journey more convenient and comfortable, you can take a trainset, wecker, or electric power cart in the park.

Price of trainset\wecker: CNY 20. Children under 1.2 meters (4 feet) are ticket-free, between 1.2 (4 feet) to 1.4 meters (4 feet 7 inches) pay half price.

Price of single electric power cart: deposit: CNY 300, you need pay CNY 30 for half an hour journey and CNY 60 for one hour journey.

You can take bus No.52 at Tiananmen Square and get off at East Jinsongqiao Station to take bus No.41 and get off at South Houfengqiao Station. Or you can take a subway and get off at Dawang Road Station to change bus No.31 and get off at South Houfengqiao Station.

Please consult the day's notice for changes and the Beijing Happy Valley Performance Time.

Admission Fee: (All Inclusive Ticket) CNY 160 (Apr.1-Nov.14)
CNY 120 (Nov.15-Mar.31)
Opening Hours: 09:00-19:30 (weekday)
08:30-19:30 (weekend)
Ticket-Selling Hours: 09:30-16:00

Firth Forest

Firth Forest is the first theme park to welcome you after the entrance to the main gate. Here, fashion and nature are perfectly combined. Breathe that fresh forest air and listen to the babble of the rippling stream; you are invited to join in a cool natural experience. All is to your liking – the modern architectural design, the fashion of glass buildings and the simple lines and colors. A sense of illusion will fill your heart. In order to have a bird's eye-view of the whole park, tourists are encouraged to take a train to make a circular journey. The train is designed to imitate the double-tracked trains in America and Europe in the late 18th century. It can hold 128 tourists at one time. Opening hours: 9:00-18:00 (weekdays); 8:30-18:00 (weekends)

Atlantis

As the core part of the park, Atlantis recreates the life pictures of this lost empire. You can sense the mysterious culture in the distant past by the flying tracks, transparent balls, steel framework and huge mountains. All starts from the means by which Atlantis people produced and used crystals. You will gain a real recognition of and appreciation for these legendary people. There are several interesting outdoor play areas, such as Crystal Wing, Water Play, and Magic Theater.

Crystal Wing is the only flying roller coaster in Asia. In the world, there are only five, so you should not miss it. Be ready to fly while sitting on its special turning chair. As the wing lifts, your vision will become broadened. You could even touch the Saint Crystal City below, the holy place for which Atlantis people always yearned, but before you stretch your hands out to touch the city, the magical crystal will scream down to the floor. You cry from fear, but you cannot stop the crazy fast roller coaster. Opening hours: 10:30 - 17:30 (weekdays); 9:00-17:00 (weekends)

Aegean Sea

The Aegean Sea is made up of three parts: a deserted town destroyed by volcano, a new gulf, and cultural relics.

The old Greek story 'Trojan Horse' depicted in 'Homer's Iliad' is well known to everybody. Now in our happy kingdom, the huge wooden horse will tell you the secret hidden in its stomach. Sitting on the rolling chairs, ready to invade the city, you will feel the world rotate. It's really a breathtaking adventure. Don't be afraid. Just think of the spirit of our great heroes, you will become more courageous and daring. Opening hours: 11:00- 8:00 (weekdays); 10:00-18:00 (weekends)

Lost Maya

Though the Mayan civilization has been dying out for centuries, the mysterious culture still attracts many people who seek its vague tracks in history. The Lost Maya can satisfy your curiosity under the background of archeology, agriculture, and ecology, as well as education. You can immerse yourself in the wonderful culture of Central America and enjoy the beautiful South American pictures at the same time.

The outdoor play equipment in this area includes the Chariot of Sun, Jungle Flying Train, Norman Big Dig, Brave Soldiers, Water Fight, Sound from Crypt and Red Soil Workshop.

Anyone who sits on the Jungle Flying Train will join Dr. Norman in the adventure of researching the origin of Mayan Civilization. The train flies on the broken tracks. Grasp the armrest tightly in case you are thrown off by the wild shaking. Tunnels are so narrow that your arms rub against the cliff and your head almost touches the roof of the cliff. You cannot help but scream and pray. This super exciting experience is worth your visit. You will not forget it your whole life. Opening hours: 10:00-17:00 (weekdays); 9:30-17:30 (weekends)

Shangri-La

Shangri-La is a beautiful and peaceful land far away from the hustle and bustle of the world. In our happy valley, it is divided into three parts: dreamy Shangri-La, town of Tibetan flavor, and quiet tea garden. This section of the park reminds us of the fun to be had in enjoying simple pleasures.

The Garden Draft is a romantic trip. Take a little boat and float from Wild Bee Ferry. The river is narrow and water runs slowly. Pieces of the forest embrace the river. Chrysanthemums, peach blossoms, trees, brooks and all kinds of buildings depict a fairyland whose beauty is beyond description. Lying in the boat, you need do nothing but relax in the beautiful sunshine and fresh air. Opening hours: 9:30-18:00 (weekdays); 9:00-18:00 (weekends)

Ant Kingdom

Ant Kingdom is a paradise specially designed for children. Little ants are eager to tell their friends about where and how they live. Under their vivid instruction, kids will become familiar with and interested in nature, ecology and biology. In order to build a dreamy garden for kids, designers fully used their imaginations to connect the wild world with human life. The tiny ant kingdom is magnified with super-huge ant holes, deep wheel prints and 10-meter (33 feet) tall grasses. In this colorful world, every kid is granted an opportunity to experience an ant's life. There are many outdoor entertainments with which you can choose to have fun. All of those are related to the life of ants, such as Harvest Time, Party of Insects, Troops of Flying Ants, and Mini Shuttle.

{{Amusement-park-stub}}

[[fr:Happy Valley (Pékin)]]

Happy Valley Beijing

2009-04-08T14:29:15Z

Mathnerd314:

{{cleanup-spam}}

'''Happy Valley Beijing''' is an amusement park in [[Beijing]] built and operated by Beijing OTC, which is part of the [[Shenzhen OCT Holding Group]]. The park, which is located in the east of Beijing, opened in [[2006]].
THE FOLLOWING IS JUST AN AD IGNORE IT

Being tired after making a long journey, you may wonder where else you can have entertainment. Beijing Happy Valley can fully satisfy your desire. Located in the southeast corner of Sifang Bridge, on the fourth ring road, in Chaoyang District in Beijing, it is your happy theme park, another Disneyland in Mainland China. Covering an area of more than 75 acres (386,102 square meters), it has been open to tourists since 2006 and attracted a lot of visitors from home and abroad.

Thematic Landscapes

Beijing Happy Valley is composed of six theme parks, including Firth Forest, Atlantis, Aegean Sea, Lost Maya, Shangri-La and Ant Kingdom. More than 50 scenic sights of culture and ecology are scattered in all direction, to offer you a rare opportunity to experience the charm of various civilizations regardless of the distance of space and time. The full extent of the valley is compared to a beautiful artistic picture where you can see tree houses, docks, bridges, towns, ancient towers, lakes, forests and other amazing scenic spots beyond your imagination. After going through the famous 'ecological forest' in Firth Forest, the first sight you will see is the high-rising Crystal City. There you can have a close contact with those figures of ancient Greek myths in Aegean Sea. Recall the glorious Maya and their scattered huge stone pillars. Enjoy the happiness of simple life in dreamy Shangri-la. Wake up the child within you, and love for nature in Ant Kingdom. Beijing Happy Valley will fully satisfy your desire and curiosity.

Thematic Leisure Activities

Pop Music Festival: The super band is creating a grand music ceremony for you. Surrender to those deafening rhythms, marvelous sounds and hot dances that can easily arouse your excitement.

Maximal Exercise Festival: Your eyes will be feasted on all sorts of performance. It's a most exciting and healthy festival of praising youth. Don't hesitate to take part in the latest crazes from skateboards to bicycle riding. It's up to you!

Chinese Spring Festival: You will be attracted by every splendid program in this riotous atmosphere. Performances with strong ethnic flavor will bring a fantastic visionary taste.

Water-Splashing Festival: Water symbolizes luck and wealth. On Water-Splashing Festival, people sprinkle water onto each other as a unique way to express their good wish. Come here and enjoy the cool and happy moment.

International Magic Day: Magicians of the first rank from all over the world present distinct magic tricks for you. Keep your eyes on this magical world full of suspension.

Thematic Park

Thematic Park is composed of six parts: Firth Forest, Atlantis, Aegean Sea, Lost Maya, Shangri-La and Ant Kingdom. Each of them has its own feature, but all of them can fully satisfy your desire of seeking happiness.

Tips:

To make your journey more convenient and comfortable, you can take a trainset, wecker, or electric power cart in the park.

Price of trainset\wecker: CNY 20. Children under 1.2 meters (4 feet) are ticket-free, between 1.2 (4 feet) to 1.4 meters (4 feet 7 inches) pay half price.

Price of single electric power cart: deposit: CNY 300, you need pay CNY 30 for half an hour journey and CNY 60 for one hour journey.

You can take bus No.52 at Tiananmen Square and get off at East Jinsongqiao Station to take bus No.41 and get off at South Houfengqiao Station. Or you can take a subway and get off at Dawang Road Station to change bus No.31 and get off at South Houfengqiao Station.

Please consult the day's notice for changes and the Beijing Happy Valley Performance Time.

Admission Fee: (All Inclusive Ticket) CNY 160 (Apr.1-Nov.14)
CNY 120 (Nov.15-Mar.31)
Opening Hours: 09:00-19:30 (weekday)
08:30-19:30 (weekend)
Ticket-Selling Hours: 09:30-16:00

Firth Forest

Firth Forest is the first theme park to welcome you after the entrance to the main gate. Here, fashion and nature are perfectly combined. Breathe that fresh forest air and listen to the babble of the rippling stream; you are invited to join in a cool natural experience. All is to your liking – the modern architectural design, the fashion of glass buildings and the simple lines and colors. A sense of illusion will fill your heart. In order to have a bird's eye-view of the whole park, tourists are encouraged to take a train to make a circular journey. The train is designed to imitate the double-tracked trains in America and Europe in the late 18th century. It can hold 128 tourists at one time. Opening hours: 9:00-18:00 (weekdays); 8:30-18:00 (weekends)

Atlantis

As the core part of the park, Atlantis recreates the life pictures of this lost empire. You can sense the mysterious culture in the distant past by the flying tracks, transparent balls, steel framework and huge mountains. All starts from the means by which Atlantis people produced and used crystals. You will gain a real recognition of and appreciation for these legendary people. There are several interesting outdoor play areas, such as Crystal Wing, Water Play, and Magic Theater.

Crystal Wing is the only flying roller coaster in Asia. In the world, there are only five, so you should not miss it. Be ready to fly while sitting on its special turning chair. As the wing lifts, your vision will become broadened. You could even touch the Saint Crystal City below, the holy place for which Atlantis people always yearned, but before you stretch your hands out to touch the city, the magical crystal will scream down to the floor. You cry from fear, but you cannot stop the crazy fast roller coaster. Opening hours: 10:30 - 17:30 (weekdays); 9:00-17:00 (weekends)

Aegean Sea

The Aegean Sea is made up of three parts: a deserted town destroyed by volcano, a new gulf, and cultural relics.

The old Greek story 'Trojan Horse' depicted in 'Homer's Iliad' is well known to everybody. Now in our happy kingdom, the huge wooden horse will tell you the secret hidden in its stomach. Sitting on the rolling chairs, ready to invade the city, you will feel the world rotate. It's really a breathtaking adventure. Don't be afraid. Just think of the spirit of our great heroes, you will become more courageous and daring. Opening hours: 11:00- 8:00 (weekdays); 10:00-18:00 (weekends)

Lost Maya

Though the Mayan civilization has been dying out for centuries, the mysterious culture still attracts many people who seek its vague tracks in history. The Lost Maya can satisfy your curiosity under the background of archeology, agriculture, and ecology, as well as education. You can immerse yourself in the wonderful culture of Central America and enjoy the beautiful South American pictures at the same time.

The outdoor play equipment in this area includes the Chariot of Sun, Jungle Flying Train, Norman Big Dig, Brave Soldiers, Water Fight, Sound from Crypt and Red Soil Workshop.

Anyone who sits on the Jungle Flying Train will join Dr. Norman in the adventure of researching the origin of Mayan Civilization. The train flies on the broken tracks. Grasp the armrest tightly in case you are thrown off by the wild shaking. Tunnels are so narrow that your arms rub against the cliff and your head almost touches the roof of the cliff. You cannot help but scream and pray. This super exciting experience is worth your visit. You will not forget it your whole life. Opening hours: 10:00-17:00 (weekdays); 9:30-17:30 (weekends)

Shangri-La

Shangri-La is a beautiful and peaceful land far away from the hustle and bustle of the world. In our happy valley, it is divided into three parts: dreamy Shangri-La, town of Tibetan flavor, and quiet tea garden. This section of the park reminds us of the fun to be had in enjoying simple pleasures.

The Garden Draft is a romantic trip. Take a little boat and float from Wild Bee Ferry. The river is narrow and water runs slowly. Pieces of the forest embrace the river. Chrysanthemums, peach blossoms, trees, brooks and all kinds of buildings depict a fairyland whose beauty is beyond description. Lying in the boat, you need do nothing but relax in the beautiful sunshine and fresh air. Opening hours: 9:30-18:00 (weekdays); 9:00-18:00 (weekends)

Ant Kingdom

Ant Kingdom is a paradise specially designed for children. Little ants are eager to tell their friends about where and how they live. Under their vivid instruction, kids will become familiar with and interested in nature, ecology and biology. In order to build a dreamy garden for kids, designers fully used their imaginations to connect the wild world with human life. The tiny ant kingdom is magnified with super-huge ant holes, deep wheel prints and 10-meter (33 feet) tall grasses. In this colorful world, every kid is granted an opportunity to experience an ant's life. There are many outdoor entertainments with which you can choose to have fun. All of those are related to the life of ants, such as Harvest Time, Party of Insects, Troops of Flying Ants, and Mini Shuttle.

{{Amusement-park-stub}}

[[fr:Happy Valley (Pékin)]]

Talk:Happy Valley Beijing

2009-04-08T14:18:10Z

Mathnerd314:

{{AmusementParkProject|class=stub}}
{{WPCHINA}}
'''''This article is just promotion!!!''''' —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/60.206.24.54|60.206.24.54]] ([[User talk:60.206.24.54|talk]]) 07:53, 7 October 2008 (UTC) 
:I agree... flagging it as spam. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] ([[User talk:Mathnerd314|talk]]) 14:18, 8 April 2009 (UTC)

Richard Stallman

2009-03-19T09:04:00Z

Mathnerd314: /* Early years */

{{infobox person
| name = Richard Matthew Stallman
| other_names = rms
| image = Rms_ifi_large.jpg
| caption = Richard Stallman in [[Oslo]], [[Norway]] 2009
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1953|03|16}}
| birth_place = [[New York City]], [[New York]]
| Nationality = [[American]]
| movement = [[Free software movement]]
| occupation = President of the Free Software Foundation
| website = [http://www.stallman.org www.stallman.org]
<ref name=OpenSources/>
}}

'''Richard Matthew Stallman''' (born March 16, 1953), often abbreviated "'''rms'''",<ref name="initials">{{cite web
|url=http://www.stallman.org/
|title=Richard Stallman's 1983 biography
|quote= ''"'Richard Stallman' is just my mundane name; you can call me 'rms'"''
|last= Stallman
|first= Richard
|date= N.D.
|work=Richard Stallman's homepage
|publisher=(Published in the first edition of "The Hacker's Dictionary")
|accessdate=20 November 2008
}}</ref> is an [[United States|American]] [[Free software|software freedom]] [[activism|activist]], [[hacker (free and open source software)|hacker]],<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.stallman.org/articles/on-hacking.html
|title=On Hacking |accessdate=20 November 2008 |last=Stallman |first=Richard |date=N.D |publisher=}}
</ref> and [[software developer]].
In September 1983, he launched the [[GNU Project]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.gnu.org/gnu/initial-announcement.html
|title=Initial GNU announcement
|date=1983-09-27
|accessdate=20 November 2008
|last= Stallman
|first= Richard
}}</ref> to create a free [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]], and has been the project's lead architect and organizer. With the launch of the GNU Project, he started the [[free software movement]] and, in October 1985, set up the [[Free Software Foundation]].

Stallman pioneered the concept of [[copyleft]] and is the main author of several copyleft licenses including the [[GNU General Public License]], the most widely used [[free software license]].<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.dwheeler.com/essays/gpl-compatible.html
|title=Make Your Open Source Software GPL-Compatible. Or Else.
|accessdate=20 November 2008
|last= Wheeler
|first= David A.
|date= 2002-05-06/2008-10-03
|work=(See the list in section 2)
}}</ref> Since the mid-1990s, Stallman has spent most of his time advocating for [[free software]], as well as campaigning against both [[software patent]]s and what he sees as excessive extension of [[copyright]] laws. Stallman has also developed a number of pieces of widely-used software, including the original [[Emacs]], the [[GNU Compiler Collection]], and the [[GNU Debugger]]. He co-founded the [[League for Programming Freedom]] in 1989.

==Early years==
Stallman was born to Daniel Stallman and Alice Lippman in 1953 in [[New York City]], [[New York]]. Hired by the [[IBM New York Scientific Center]], Stallman spent the summer after his high-school graduation writing his first program, a [[preprocessor]] for the [[PL/I]] [[programming language]] on the [[IBM System/360]]. Stallman scored 1597 on the [[SAT]] (800 Math, 797 Verbal).{{fact|reason=is this even a possible score?}}

During this time, Stallman was also a volunteer laboratory assistant in the [[Biology]] Department at [[Rockefeller University]]. Although he was already moving toward a career in [[mathematics]] or [[physics]], his teaching professor at Rockefeller thought he would have a future as a biologist.<ref name=freeasinfreedom-chap3>{{cite book|author=Williams, Sampoydne|title=[[Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software]]|publisher=O'Reilly Media|year=2002|isbn=0-596-00287-4}} Chapter 3. Available under the [[GFDL]] in both the initial [http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/freedom/ch03.html O'Reilly edition] (accessed on 27 October 2006) and the updated [http://www.faifzilla.org/ch03.html FAIFzilla edition] (accessed on 27 October 2006)</ref>

In June 1971, as a first year student at [[Harvard University]], Stallman was known for his strong performance in [[Math 55]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Sam|title=Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software|publisher=O'Reilly|date=2002|pages=41|isbn=0596002874}}</ref> and became a programmer at the [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|AI Laboratory]] of [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]]. There he became a regular in the hacker community, where he was usually known by his initials, "rms" (which was the name of his computer accounts). In the first edition of the ''[[Hacker's Dictionary]]'', he wrote, "'Richard Stallman' is just my mundane name; you can call me 'rms'."<ref name="initials" /> Stallman graduated from Harvard ''[[wikt:magna cum laude|magna cum laude]]'' earning a BA in Physics in 1974.

Stallman then enrolled as a graduate student in physics at MIT, but abandoned his graduate studies while remaining a programmer at the MIT AI Laboratory. At the end of his first year in the graduate program, Stallman suffered a knee injury that ended <ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Sam |title=Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman’s Crusade for Free Software |publisher=O’Reilly Media |date=2002-03-15 |isbn=0-596-00287-4 |chapter=The Emacs Commune |chapterurl=http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/freedom/ch06.html |accessdate=2006-11-26}} "Near the end of that first year at MIT, however, disaster struck. A knee injury forced Stallman to drop out of the troupe."</ref> his participation in international folk dancing.<ref>{{cite book |last=Williams |first=Sam |title=Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman’s Crusade for Free Software |publisher=O’Reilly Media |date=2002-03-15 |isbn=0-596-00287-4 |chapter=Impeach God |chapterurl=http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/freedom/ch04.html |accessdate=2006-11-26}} "During the middle of his sophomore year at Harvard, Stallman had joined up with a dance troupe that specialized in folk dances. What began as a simple attempt to meet women and expand his social horizons soon expanded into yet another passion alongside hacking."</ref> Stallman abandoned his pursuit of a doctorate in physics in favor of programming. However, Stallman has since been awarded fifteen honorary doctorates and two honorary professorships ([[#Recognition|see list below]]).

While a graduate student at MIT, Stallman published a paper on an AI [[truth maintenance system]] called ''dependency-directed backtracking'' with [[Gerald Jay Sussman]].<ref>{{ cite web | last = Stallman | first = Richard M | coauthors = Sussman, Gerald J | year = 1977 | title = Forward Reasoning and Dependency-Directed Backtracking In a System for Computer-Aided Circuit analysis | publisher = Artificial Intelligence 9 | pages = 135–196 | url = http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/mcallester90truth.html }}</ref> This paper was an early work on the problem of intelligent backtracking in [[constraint satisfaction problem]]s. As of 2003, the technique Stallman and Sussman introduced is still the most general and powerful form of intelligent backtracking.<ref name=russell>{{cite book | title = Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach | year = 2003 | last = Russell | first = Stuart | coauthors = Norvig, Peter | page = 157}}</ref> The technique of [[Constraint learning|constraint recording]], wherein partial results of a search are recorded for later reuse, was also introduced in this paper.<ref name=russell />

As a hacker in MIT's AI laboratory, Stallman worked on software projects like [[Text Editor and Corrector|TECO]], [[Emacs]], and the [[Lisp Machine]] Operating System. He would become an ardent critic of restricted computer access in the lab. When [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT's]] [[Project MAC|Laboratory for Computer Science]] (LCS) installed a password control system in 1977, Stallman found a way to decrypt the passwords and sent users messages containing their decoded password, with a suggestion to change it to the empty string (that is, no password) instead, to re-enable anonymous access to the systems. Around 20% of the users followed his advice at the time, although passwords ultimately prevailed. Stallman boasted of the success of his campaign for many years afterward.<ref>Levy,S: ''Hackers'', page 417. Penguin USA, 1984</ref>

==MIT's hacker culture declines==
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the [[Hacker (computing)|hacker culture]] that Stallman thrived in began to fragment. To prevent software from being used on their competitors' computers, most manufacturers stopped distributing [[source code]] and began using copyright and restrictive software licenses to limit or prohibit copying and redistribution. Such [[proprietary software]] had existed before, and it became apparent that it would become the norm. This shift in the legal characteristics of software can be regarded as a consequence triggered by the U.S. [[Copyright Act of 1976]], as stated by Stallman's MIT fellow [[Brewster Kahle]].<ref>Robert X. [http://www.pbs.org/cringely/nerdtv/shows/#4 Cringely's interview with Brewster Kahle], around the 46th minute</ref>

When [[Brian Reid (computer scientist)|Brian Reid]] in 1979 placed "[[Time bomb (Software)|time bombs]]" in [[Scribe (word processing)|Scribe]] to restrict unlicensed access to the software, Stallman proclaimed it "a crime against humanity."<ref name=freeasinfreedom-Chap6>{{cite book|author=Williams, Sam|title=Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software|publisher=O'Reilly Media|year=2002|isbn=0-596-00287-4}} Chapter 6. Available under the [[GFDL]] in both the initial [http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/freedom/ch06.html O'Reilly edition] (accessed on 27 October 2006) and the updated [http://www.faifzilla.org/ch06.html FAIFzilla edition] (accessed on 27 October 2006)</ref> He clarified, years later, that it is blocking the user's freedom that he believes is a "crime", not the issue of charging for the software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://itmanagement.earthweb.com/osrc/article.php/12068_3737586_3|title=Richard Stallman, Live and Unplugged|quote= Q: You once said "the prospect of charging money for software was a crime against humanity." Do you still believe this? A: Well, I was not distinguishing the two meanings of free.}}</ref>

In 1980, Stallman and some other hackers at the AI Lab were refused access to the source code for the software of the first [[laser printer]], the [[Xerox]] 9700. Stallman had modified the software on an older printer (the XGP, Xerographic Printer), so it electronically messaged a user when the person's job was printed, and would message all logged-in users when a printer was jammed. Not being able to add this feature to the Dover printer was a major inconvenience, as the printer was on a different floor from most of the users. This one experience convinced Stallman of people's need to be free to modify the software they use.<ref name=freeasinfreedom-Chap1>{{cite book|author=Williams, Sam|title=Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software|publisher=O'Reilly Media|year=2002|isbn=0-596-00287-4}} Chapter 1. Available under the [[GFDL]] in both the initial [http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/freedom/ch01.html O'Reilly edition] (accessed on 27 October 2006) and the updated [http://www.faifzilla.org/ch01.html FAIFzilla edition] (accessed on 27 October 2006)</ref>

In 1980, [[Richard Greenblatt (programmer)|Richard Greenblatt]], a fellow AI Lab hacker, founded [[Lisp Machines|Lisp Machines, Inc.]] (LMI) to market [[Lisp machine]]s, which he and [[Tom Knight (scientist)|Tom Knight]] designed at the lab. Greenblatt rejected outside investment, believing that the proceeds from the construction and sale of a few machines could be profitably reinvested in the growth of the company. In contrast, the other hackers felt that the [[venture capital]]-funded approach was better. As no agreement could be reached, hackers from the latter camp founded [[Symbolics]], with the aid of [[Russ Noftsker]], an AI Lab administrator. Symbolics recruited most of the remaining hackers including notable hacker [[Bill Gosper]], who then left the AI Lab. Symbolics forced Greenblatt to also resign by citing MIT policies. While both companies delivered [[proprietary software]], Stallman believed that LMI, unlike Symbolics, had tried to avoid hurting the lab's community. For two years, from 1982 to the end of 1983, Stallman worked by himself to clone the output of the Symbolics programmers, with the aim of preventing them from gaining a monopoly on the lab's computers.<ref>Levy,S: ''Hackers''. Penguin USA, 1984</ref>

Stallman argues that software users should have the freedom to "share with their neighbor" and to be able to study and make changes to the software that they use. He maintains that attempts by proprietary software vendors to prohibit these acts are "antisocial" and "unethical".<ref name=OpenSources/> The phrase "software wants to be free" is often incorrectly attributed to him, and Stallman argues that this is a misstatement of his philosophy.<ref>[http://www.groklaw.net/article.php?story=20050513135545766 The Daemon, the GNU and the Penguin] by Peter H. Salus, accessed on 18 February 2005.</ref> He argues that freedom is vital for the sake of users and society as a moral ''value,'' and not merely for pragmatic reasons such as possibly developing technically superior software.

In January 1984, Stallman quit his job at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] to work full-time on the [[GNU project]], which he had announced in September 1983.

==GNU project==
[[Image:Richard Matthew Stallman.jpeg|thumb|Cover picture for [[O'Reilly Media]]'s book ''[[Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software|Free as in Freedom]]'']]
{{main|GNU project}}
Stallman announced the plan for the [[GNU operating system]] in September 1983 on several [[ARPANET]] mailing lists and [[USENET]].<ref>[http://groups.google.co.uk/group/net.unix-wizards/msg/4dadd63a976019d7?dmode=source new UNIX implementation]</ref>

In 1985, Stallman published the [[GNU Manifesto]], which outlined his motivation for creating a free operating system called GNU, which would be compatible with [[Unix]]. The name GNU is a [[recursive acronym]] for GNU's Not Unix. Soon after, he started a [[non-profit]] corporation called the [[Free Software Foundation]] to employ free software programmers and provide a legal infrastructure for the [[free software movement]]. Stallman is the nonsalaried president of the FSF, which is a [[501(c)#501(c)(3)|501(c)(3)]] non-profit organization founded in [[Massachusetts]].

In 1985, Stallman popularized the concept of ''[[copyleft]]'', a legal mechanism to protect the modification and redistribution rights for [[free software]]. It was first implemented in the GNU Emacs General Public License, and in 1989 the first program-independent [[GNU General Public License]] (GPL) was released. By then, much of the GNU system had been completed. Stallman was responsible for contributing many necessary tools, including a [[text editor]], [[compiler]], [[debugger]], and a [[build automation|build automator]]. The notable exception was a [[Kernel (computer science)|kernel]]. In 1990, members of the GNU project began a kernel called [[GNU Hurd]], which has yet to achieve the maturity level required for widespread usage.

In 1991, [[Linus Torvalds]], a [[Finland|Finnish]] student, used the GNU development tools to produce the [[Linux kernel]]. The existing programs from the GNU project were readily ported to run on the resultant platform; most sources use the name "[[Linux]]" to refer to the general-purpose operating system thus formed. This has been a longstanding [[GNU/Linux naming controversy|naming controversy]] in the [[free software community]]. Stallman argues that not using "GNU" in the name of the operating system unfairly disparages the value of the [[GNU project]] and harms the sustainability of the free software movement by breaking the link between the software and the free software philosophy of the GNU project.

Stallman's influences on hacker culture include the name [[POSIX]]<ref name="PE">{{cite web| date = [[2006-02-02]]| title = POSIX 1003.1 FAQ Version 1.12
| url = http://www.opengroup.org/austin/papers/posix_faq.html| accessdate = 2006-07-16}}</ref> and the [[Emacs]] editor. On [[Unix|UNIX]] systems, [[GNU Emacs]]'s popularity rivaled that of another editor [[vi]], spawning an [[editor war]]. Stallman's take on this was to jokingly canonize himself as "St. IGNUcius" of the [[Church of Emacs]]<ref>[http://www.melbourne.indymedia.org/news/2004/10/80957.php "Richard Stallman: GNU/Linux and a free society" article by Takver Sunday [[October 10]], [[2004]] at 08:06 AM on ''Melbourne Indymedia'' web site.]</ref><ref>[http://www.stallman.org/saint.html St IGNUcius web page at www.stallman.org]</ref> and acknowledge that "[[vi]] vi vi is the [[Number of the Beast|editor of the beast]]," while "using a free version of vi is not a [[sin]]; it is a [[penance]]."<ref name="faif"/>

A number of developers view Stallman as being difficult to work with from a political, interpersonal, or technical standpoint. Around 1992, developers at [[Lucid Inc.]] doing their own work on Emacs clashed with Stallman and ultimately [[fork (software engineering)|forked]] the software. Their fork later became [[XEmacs]]. An email archive published by [[Jamie Zawinski]] documents their criticisms and Stallman's responses.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.jwz.org/doc/lemacs.html | title = The Lemacs/FSFmacs Schism | accessdate = 2006-07-16 }}</ref> [[Ulrich Drepper]], whom Stallman had appointed to work on [[GNU C Library|GNU libc]] for the GNU Project, published complaints against Stallman in the release notes for glibc 2.2.4.<ref>{{cite web| title = glibc 2.2.4 release notes| author = [[Ulrich Drepper|Drepper, Ulrich]]| accessdate = 2006-07-16| publisher = [email protected] mailing list| date = [[2001-08-15]]| url = http://sources.redhat.com/ml/libc-announce/2001/msg00000.html}}</ref> Drepper accuses Stallman of attempting a "hostile takeover" of the project, referring to him as a "control freak and raging maniac." [[Eric S. Raymond]], who sometimes claims to speak for parts of the [[open source]] movement, has written many pieces laying out that movement's disagreement with Stallman and the [[free software movement]], often in terms sharply critical of Stallman.<ref>{{cite web| author [[Eric S. Raymond|Raymond, Eric S.]]| url = http://www.linuxtoday.com/news_story.php3?ltsn=2001-08-17-016-20-OP-CY| date = [[2001-08-17]]| title = Freedom, Power, or Confusion?| publisher = Linux Today| accessdate = 2006-07-16}}</ref>

==Activism==
[[Image:Wikimania stallman keynote2.jpg|thumb|right|197px|Richard Stallman giving a speech about ''Copyright and Community'' at [[Wikimania]] (2005)]]
[[Image:051118-WSIS.2005-Richard.Stallman.ogg|thumb|right|200px|Richard Stallman giving a [[speech]] at [[World_Summit_on_the_Information_Society#At_Tunis.2C_2005|WSIS-2005]]]]
[[Image:Richard Stallman 00 .jpg|thumb|right|200px|Richard Stallman at the opening ceremony of NIXAL at [[Netaji Subhash Engineering College]], Calcutta, India]]

Stallman has written many essays on software freedom and since the early 1990s has been an outspoken [[political campaigner]] for the [[free software movement]]. The speeches he has regularly given are titled ''The GNU project and the Free Software movement'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fsfeurope.org/documents/rms-fs-2006-03-09.en.html |title=Transcript of Richard Stallman on the Free Software movement, Zagreb; 2006-03-09 |accessdate=2008-01-17 |work=[[FSFE]]}}</ref> ''The Dangers of Software Patents'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifso.ie/documents/rms-2004-05-24.html |title=IFSO: Richard Stallman: The Dangers of Software Patents; 2004-05-24 (transcript) |accessdate=2008-01-17}}</ref> and ''Copyright and Community in the age of computer networks''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/copyright-and-globalization.html |title=Copyright and Globalization in the Age of Computer Networks - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF) |accessdate=2008-01-17}}</ref> His uncompromising attitude on ethical issues concerning computers and software has caused some people to label him as radical and extremist.<ref>[http://www.forbes.com/2006/08/31/stallman-linux-opensource_cz_dl_0831stallman.html Forbes.com] The Problem With St. Ignucius</ref> In 2006 and 2007, during the eighteen month public consultation for the drafting of version 3 of the [[GNU General Public License]], he added a fourth topic explaining the proposed changes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fsfeurope.org/projects/gplv3/#transcripts |title=GPLv3 - GNU General Public License, version 3 |accessdate=2008-01-17 |work=[[FSFE]]}}</ref>

Stallman's staunch advocacy for free software inspired "Virtual Richard M. Stallman" ([[vrms]]), software that analyzes the packages currently installed on a [[Debian]] GNU/Linux system, and report those that are from the non-free tree.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vrms.alioth.debian.org/ |title=The Virtual Richard M. Stallman package |accessdate=2008-01-17 |work=[[Debian]]}}</ref> Stallman would disagree with parts of Debian's definition of free software.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bugs.debian.org/cgi-bin/bugreport.cgi?bug=221807|title=Debian Bug report logs - #221807: "vrms and RMS disagree sometimes...}}</ref>

In 1999, Stallman called for development of a free on-line encyclopedia through the means of inviting the public to contribute articles. See [[GNUPedia]].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.gnu.org/encyclopedia/free-encyclopedia.html|accessdate = 2006-10-15|title = The Free Universal Encyclopedia and Learning Resource|author = Richard Stallman}}</ref>

In [[Venezuela]], Stallman has delivered public speeches and promoted the adoption of free software in the state's oil company ([[PDVSA]]), in municipal government, and in the nation's military. Although generally supportive of [[Hugo Chávez]], Stallman has criticised some policies on television broadcasting, free speech rights, and privacy in meetings with Chávez and in public speeches in Venezuela.<ref>Stallman, Richard. [http://www.fsf.org/blogs/rms/entry-20041206 "Encounter with President Chavez (2004-12-01 to 2004-12-06)"]. ''Richard Stallman Travel and Free Software Activities Journal''.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stallman.org/archives/2007-may-aug.html#27%20July%202007%20(Chavez%20threatens%20dignitaries)|title=Chavez threatens dignitaries}}</ref> Stallman is on the Advisory Council of [[teleSUR]], a [[Latin America]]n [[television station]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/international/story/0,3604,1535981,00.html|title=Chavez TV beams into South America}}</ref>

In August 2006 at his meetings with the government of the [[India]]n State of [[Kerala]], he persuaded officials to discard proprietary software, such as Microsoft's, at state-run schools. This has resulted in a landmark decision to switch all school computers in 12,500 high schools from [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] to a free software operating system.<ref>[http://www.financialexpress.com/fe_full_story.php?content_id=138464 The Financial Express: Kerala logs Microsoft out]</ref>

After personal meetings, Stallman has obtained positive statements about the free software movement from the then-President of India, Dr. A.P.J. [[Abdul Kalam]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gnu.org.in/node/25|title=Richard Stallman Meets the President of India}}</ref> French 2007 presidential candidate [[Ségolène Royal]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsf.org/news/stallman-royal.html|title=Meeting between Ségolène Royal and Richard Stallman}}</ref> and the president of Ecuador [[Rafael Correa]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rudd-o.com/archives/2006/12/13/%c2%a1success-for-free-software-in-latin-america/|title=Success for free software in Latin America!}}</ref>

Stallman has participated in protests about software patents,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wien.kpoe.at/news/article.php/20050803081612703|title=Protest in Brussels against software patents}}</ref> DRM,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mccullagh.org/image/d30-23/richard-stallman-and-flag.html|title=Protest outside and inside MPAA meeting on DRM}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://stopdrm.info/index.php?2006/06/11/89-on-remet-ca-paris|title=Protest in France against DRM}}</ref> and [[proprietary software]].

Protesting against proprietary software in April 2006, Stallman held a "Don't buy from [[ATI Technologies|ATI]], enemy of your freedom" placard at a speech by an ATI representative in the building where Stallman works, resulting in the police being called.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fsf.org/blogs/community/rms-ati-protest.html |title=Protest against ATI nearly led to the arrest of RMS| publisher=Free Software Foundation page}}</ref> ATI has since merged with [[AMD]] Corporation and has taken small steps to make their hardware documentation available for use by the [[free software community]] {{Fact|date=September 2008}} <ref>{{cite web |url=http://itknowledgeexchange.techtarget.com/enterprise-linux/amd-will-deliver-open-graphics-drivers/|title=AMD will deliver open graphics drivers}}</ref>.

Stallman has also helped and supported the [[International Music Score Library Project]] in getting back online, after it had been taken down on [[October 19]], [[2007]] following a [[cease and desist]] letter from [[Universal Edition]].<ref>[http://imslp.wikidot.com/ Temporary main page of the IMSLP], accessed on May 2, 2008</ref>

==Terminology==
Stallman places great importance on the words and labels people use to talk about the world, including the relationship between software and freedom. He untiringly asks people to say "free software" and "GNU/Linux", and to avoid the terms "[[intellectual property]]" and "piracy" (in relation to copyright). His requests that people use certain terms, and his ongoing efforts to convince people of the importance of terminology are a source of regular misunderstanding and friction with parts of the [[free software community|free and open source software community]].

One of his criteria for giving an interview to a journalist is that the journalist agree to use his terminology throughout their article.<ref>[http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/11.11/linus_pr.html Leader of the Free World], ''Wired'' Magazine, Issue 11.11, November 2003.</ref> Sometimes he has even required journalists to read parts of the GNU philosophy before an interview, for "efficiency's sake".<ref>[http://www.apcmag.com/apc/v3.nsf/0/19E0B3D9F6981357CA256D44001ACA0A Interview] with Josh Mehlman, Australian Personal Computer, accessed on 18 February 2005</ref> He has been known to turn down speaking requests over some terminology issues.<ref name="linux gnu">[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/linux-gnu-freedom.html Linux, GNU, Freedom] by Richard M. Stallman, accessed on 18 February 2005</ref>

Stallman rejects a common [[Alternative terms for free software|alternative term]] "open-source software" because it does not call to mind what Stallman sees as the value of the software: [[Freedom (political)|freedom]].<ref> [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html Why "Free Software" is better than "Open Source"], accessed on 18 February 2005</ref> Thus it will not inform people of the freedom issues, and will not lead to people valuing and defending their freedom.<ref>[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/shouldbefree.html Why Software Should Be Free]. April 24, 1992.</ref> Two alternatives which Stallman does accept are "software libre" and "unfettered software", but "free software" is the term he asks people to use in English. For similar reasons, he argues for the term "[[proprietary software]]" rather than "closed source software", when referring to software that is not free software.

Stallman [[GNU/Linux naming controversy|repeatedly asks]] that the term "GNU/Linux", which he pronounces "GNU slash Linux", be used to refer to the operating system created by combining the GNU system and the Linux kernel. Stallman refers to this operating system as "a variant of GNU, and the GNU Project is its principal developer."<ref name="linux gnu"/> He claims that the connection between the GNU project's philosophy and its software is broken when people refer to the combination as merely "Linux".<ref>[http://www.gnu.org/gnu/why-gnu-linux.html What's in a name?] by Richard Stallman, accessed on 18 February 2005</ref> Starting around 2003, he began also using the term "GNU+Linux", which he pronounces "GNU plus Linux".

Stallman argues that the term "intellectual property" is designed to confuse people, and is used to prevent intelligent discussion on the specifics of copyright, patent, trademark and other laws by lumping together areas of law that are more dissimilar than similar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsfeurope.org/projects/gplv3/torino-rms-transcript.en.html#note-on-ip|title=Transcript of Richard Stallman speaking on GPLv3 in Torino|date=18 March 2006|quote=Everyone who uses the term "intellectual property" is either confused himself or trying to confuse you.}}</ref> He also argues that by referring to these laws as "property" laws, the term biases the discussion when thinking about how to treat these issues.

{{quote|These laws originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues. Copyright law was designed to promote authorship and art, and covers the details of a work of authorship or art. Patent law was intended to encourage publication of ideas, at the price of finite monopolies over these ideas—a price that may be worth paying in some fields and not in others. Trademark law was not intended to promote any business activity, but simply to enable buyers to know what they are buying.<ref>[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/not-ipr.xhtml Did You Say "Intellectual Property"? It's a Seductive Mirage] by Richard M. Stallman, accessed on 18 February 2005</ref>}}

An example of cautioning others to avoid other terminology while also offering suggestions for possible alternatives, is this sentence of an email by Stallman to a public mailing list:
{{quote|I think it is ok for authors (please let's not call them "creators", they are not gods) to ask for money for copies of their works (please let's not devalue these works by calling them "content") in order to gain income (the term "compensation" falsely implies it is a matter of making up for some kind of damages).<ref>[http://mail.fsfeurope.org/pipermail/wsis-pct/2006-April/001115.html Email "IP Justice Comment on Top Policy Issues for Athens"]</ref>}}

== Criticism of the idea of intellectual property ==
Stallman not only seeks to reject intellectual property as a term, but also as an idea. The idea of intellectual property says that all products of the human mind should be treated essentially as the property of the one who made them, so that he has the same power over them as he would have over physical property. Instead, Stallman calls for distinctions to be made, and puts works into three categories: Functional works that are used to do a practical job, like software, encyclopedias or textbooks should be free in the sense that all freedoms are available that free software grants. However, according to Stallman, works of opinion do not need that much freedom. Instead, he introduces the weaker criterion of shareability for them: The freedom to non-commercially redistribute exact copies. For commercial use, he thinks that the current copyright system is tolerable, but demands the copyright period to be shortened to roughly ten years after publication. Works of art and entertainment should be shareable, too, but, in addition, Stallman criticizes the system of distributors as too obtrusive and unjust and demands a different system that ensures that all artists get money for their work, not only the superstars. For works that contain both art and software (such as computer games) Stallman says that they should be separated and both parts be licensed accordingly. On the other hand, Stallman does not see any meaningful way in which the principles of free software could be applied to physical objects, such as hardware or cars; as there are no machines available for copying them, and users already have the other rights (using the object, modifying and studying it, selling it).

==Personal life==
Stallman has devoted the bulk of his life’s energies to political and software activism.<ref name="stallman-personal-ad">{{cite web |last=Stallman |first=Richard |title=My Personal Ad |url=http://www.stallman.org/extra/personal.html |accessdate=2006-11-26 | quote = My 23-year-old child, the Free Software Movement, occupies most of my life, leaving no room for more children, but I still have room to love a sweetheart.}}</ref> Professing to care little for material wealth, he explains that "I've always lived cheaply … like a student, basically. And I like that, because it means that money is not telling me what to do."<ref name="nyu-2001-05-29">{{cite web |last=Stallman |first=Richard |title=Transcript of Richard M. Stallman’s speech |publisher=Free Software Foundation |date=2001-05-29 |url=http://www.gnu.org/events/rms-nyu-2001-transcript.txt |accessdate=2006-11-26}}</ref>

For many years, Stallman maintained no permanent residence outside his office at [[MIT]]'s [[MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|CSAIL Lab]],<ref name="iw-glimpse">{{cite web |last=Jones |first=K.C. |title=A Rare Glimpse into Richard Stallman's World |publisher=InformationWeek |url=http://www.informationweek.com/story/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=175802222}}</ref> describing himself as a "[[squatter]]" on campus.<ref name="thetech-macarthur">{{cite web |last=Lerner |first=Reuven M |title=Stallman wins $240,000 in MacArthur award |publisher=The Tech |date=1990-07-18 |url=http://www-tech.mit.edu/V110/N30/rms.30n.html |accessdate = 2006-11-26}}</ref> His "research affiliate" position at MIT is unpaid.<ref name="mit-takeda-2001-10-17">{{cite web |title = Stallman shares Takeda award of nearly $1M | publisher = MIT | date = 2001-10-17 | url = http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2001/stallman-1017.html | accessdate = 2006-11-26}}</ref>

In a footnote to an article he wrote in 1999, he says "As an atheist, I don't follow any religious leaders, but I sometimes find I admire something one of them has said."<ref name=OpenSources>{{cite book|author=Various|title=Open Sources: Voices from the Open Source Revolution|publisher=O'Reilly Media|year=1999|isbn=1-56592-582-3|chapter=Stallman chapter|chapterurl=http://www.oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/stallman.html|accessdate=2006-12-09}}</ref>
Stallman chooses not to celebrate [[Christmas]], instead celebrating on December 25 a holiday of his own invention, "Grav-mass". The name and date are references to [[Isaac Newton]], whose birthday falls on that day.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stallman.org/grav-mass.html |title=Celebrate Grav-mass |accessdate=2008-01-17 |work=stallman.org}}</ref>

When asked about his influences, he replied that he admires [[Mahatma Gandhi]], [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]], [[Nelson Mandela]], [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], [[Ralph Nader]], and [[Dennis Kucinich]], and commented as well: "I admire [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Winston Churchill]], even though I criticize some of the things that they did."<ref>{{cite web |title=FSF India: A Q & A session with Richard M. Stallman |publisher=Free Software Foundation of India |url=http://www.gnu.org.in/node/68 |accessdate=2006-11-26 }}</ref> Stallman is a [[Green Party (United States)|Green Party]] supporter,<ref name ="initials"/> and a supporter of the [[National Initiative]] proposal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stallman.org|title=Richard Stallman's Personal Page|quote=Long Term Action Items: Support the National Initiative for Democracy}}</ref>

Stallman recommends not owning a [[mobile phone]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fsfeurope.org/projects/gplv3/barcelona-rms-transcript.ca.html#draft2-preview | title = Transcript of Richard Stallman at the 3nd international GPLv3 conference; 22nd June 2006}}</ref> as he believes the [[Mobile phone tracking|tracking of cell phones]] creates harmful privacy issues.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.informationweek.com/software/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=175802222&pgno=4 | title = A Rare Glimpse Into Richard Stallman's World}}</ref> Also, Stallman avoids use of a key card to enter the building where his office is.{{Fact|date=January 2009}} Such a system would track doors entered and times.

In a lecture in [[Manchester]], England on [[May 1]], [[2008]], Stallman advocated paper voting over machine voting, insisting that there was a much better chance of being able to do a "recount" dutifully if there was a paper copy of the ballots.

Stallman enjoys a wide range of musical styles from [[Conlon Nancarrow]]<ref>{{cite web | url = http://slashdot.org/interviews/99/10/08/1147217.shtml | title = Bruce Sterling interview }}</ref> to [[folk music|folk]];<ref>{{cite web | url = http://stallman.org/#humorousbio | title = Humorous bio}}</ref> the [[Free Software Song]] takes the form of alternative words for the Bulgarian folk dance [[Sadi Moma]]. More recently he wrote a take-off on the Cuban folk song [[Guantanamera]], about a prisoner in the [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base]], and recorded it in Cuba with Cuban musicians.<ref>{{cite web | last = Stallman | first = Richard M | title = Guantanamero | url = http://stallman.org/guantanamero.html | accessdate = 2007-05-04}}</ref> He does, from time to time, enjoy more mainstream music as well (including the song "Tell 'Em" by [[Soulja Boy Tell 'Em]]<ref>{{cite web | title = Richard Stallman dances to Soulja Boy Tell 'Em | url = http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pube5Aynsls}}</ref>).

Stallman is a fan of [[science fiction]], including works by the author [[Greg Egan]]. He occasionally goes to [[science fiction convention]]s<ref name="faif">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Sam|title=Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman"s Crusade for Free Software|publisher=O'Reilly Media|date=2002-03-15|isbn=0-596-00287-4|url=http://www.oreilly.com/openbook/freedom/|accessdate=2006-11-26}}</ref> and wrote the Free Software Song while awaiting his turn to sing at a convention. He has written two science fiction stories, ''[[The Right to Read]]'' and ''[http://www.stallman.org/articles/jinnetic.html Jinnetic Engineering]''.

Stallman was the basis for the fictional character [[Henry Gupta]] in the [[1997]] [[James Bond]] film ''[[Tomorrow Never Dies]]''.{{Fact|date=February 2009}}

Along with his native [[English language|English]], Stallman is sufficiently fluent in [[French language|French]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] to deliver his two-hour speeches in those languages, and claims a "somewhat flawed" command of [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]].<ref>{{cite web | title = WGIG nominees - Richard Stallman | url = http://www.net-gov.org/wgig/stallman.php | accessdate=2006-11-26}}</ref>

==Recognition==
Stallman has received the following recognition for his work:
* 1986: Honorary lifetime membership of the [[Chalmers University of Technology]] Computer Society
* 1990: Exceptional merit award [[MacArthur Fellowship]]
* 1990: The [[Association for Computing Machinery]]'s [[Grace Murray Hopper Award]] "For pioneering work in the development of the extensible editor EMACS (Editing Macros)."<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://awards.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=9380313&srt=alpha&alpha=S&aw=145&ao=GMHOPPER
|title=Grace Murry Hopper award citation
}}</ref>
* 1996: [[Honorary doctorate]] from [[Sweden]]'s [[Royal Institute of Technology]]
* 1998: [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]'s [[EFF Pioneer Award|Pioneer award]]
* 1999: [[Yuri Rubinsky Memorial Award]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.ahref.com/guides/industry/199907/0727piou2.html
|title=Richard Stallman Wins Microsoft's Money
}}</ref>
* 2001: [[Takeda Awards|The Takeda Techno-Entrepreneurship Award for Social/Economic Well-Being]] ({{lang|ja|武田研究奨励賞}})
* 2001: Honorary doctorate, from the [[University of Glasgow]]
* 2002: [[United States National Academy of Engineering]] membership
* 2003: Honorary doctorate, from the [[Vrije Universiteit Brussel]]
* 2004: Honorary doctorate, from the [[Universidad Nacional de Salta]].<ref>[http://bo.unsa.edu.ar/cs/R2004/R-CS-2004-0204.html RESOLUCIÓN CS N° 204/04.]</ref>
* 2004: Honorary professorship, from the [[National University of Engineering|Universidad Nacional de Ingeniería del Perú]].
* 2007: Honorary professorship, from the [http://www.uigv.edu.pe/ Universidad Inca Garcilaso de la Vega].
* 2007: Honorary doctorate, from the [http://www.uladech.edu.pe/ Universidad de Los Angeles de Chimbote].
* 2007: Honorary doctorate, from the [[University of Pavia]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.unipv.eu/on-line/Home/Ateneo/Organidigoverno/Rettore/articolo1229.html
|title=Laurea in Ingegneria Informatica a Richard Stallman.
}}</ref>

==Print publications==
Stallman has written and been the subject of several books:
* {{ cite book | last = Stallman | first = Richard M | coauthors = Sussman, Gerald J | month = November | year = 1975 | title = Heuristic Techniques in Computer-Aided Circuit Analysis | publisher = IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems | volume = CAS-22 (11) }}
* {{ cite book | last = Stallman | first = Richard M | coauthors = Sussman, Gerald J | year = 1977 | title = Forward Reasoning and Dependency-Directed Backtracking In a System for Computer-Aided Circuit analysis | publisher = Artificial Intelligence 9 | pages = 135–196 }}
* {{ cite book | last = Stallman | first = Richard M | year = 1981 | title = EMACS: The Extensible, Customizable, Self-Documenting Display Editor | location = Cambridge Massachusetts: MIT | publisher = MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory publication | id = AIM-519A }}
* {{ cite book | last = Stallman | first = Richard M | year = 2002 | url = http://www.gnupress.org/emacs15.html | title = GNU Emacs Manual: Fifteenth edition for GNU Emacs Version 21 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | publisher = GNU Press | isbn = 1-882114-85-X }}
* {{ cite book | last = Gay | first = Joshua | year = 2002 | url = http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/fsfs/rms-essays.pdf | title = Free Software, Free Society: Selected Essays of Richard M. Stallman | location = Boston, Massachusetts | publisher = GNU Press | isbn = 1-882114-98-1 }}
* {{ cite book | last = Williams | first = Sam | year = 2002 | title = [[Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman's Crusade for Free Software]] | isbn = 0-596-00287-4 }}
* {{ cite book | last = Stallman | first = Richard M | coauthors = McGrath, Roland; & Smith, Paul D | year = 2004 | url = http://www.gnupress.org/book8.html | title = GNU Make: A Program for Directed Compilation | location = Boston, Massachusetts | publisher = GNU Press | isbn = 1-882114-83-3 }}
{{sisterlinks}}
Stallman has four topics that he has spoken on often:
* [http://fsfeurope.org/documents/rms-fs-2006-03-09.en.html The GNU project and the free software movement], March 3 2006
* [http://www.ifso.ie/documents/rms-2004-05-24.html The Dangers of Software Patents], May 24 2004
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/copyright-and-globalization.html Copyright vs. Community in the Age of Computer Networks], April 19 2001
* [http://fsfeurope.org/projects/gplv3/brussels-rms-transcript The GNU GPL, and GPLv3], April 1 2007

==See also==
* [[Hacker ethic]]
* [[History of free software]]
* [[Lisp Machine Lisp]]
* [[Software hoarding]]
* ''[[Revolution OS]]''
* [[9882 Stallman]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{portal|Free software|Free Software Portal Logo.svg}}
* [http://www.stallman.org Personal home page]
* [http://www.fsf.org/blogs/rms/ Stallman's blog]
* [http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/ Essays on the GNU philosophy pages], mostly by Stallman
* [http://web.mit.edu/echemi/www/stallman.html Richard Stallman Playlist] Appearance on WMBR's ''[http://web.mit.edu/echemi/www/index.html Dinnertime Sampler]'' radio show March 23, 2005
* [http://web.mit.edu/echemi/www/040324.html Richard Stallman Playlist] Appearance on WMBR's ''[http://web.mit.edu/echemi/www/index.html Dinnertime Sampler]'' radio show March 24, 2004
* [http://bostonreview.net/BR33.6/stallman.php Not Free at Any Price] - Stallman on his opposition to the One Laptop Per Child program in the ''[[Boston Review]]''

{{FOSS celeb}}
{{GNU}}
{{Linux}}

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[[Category:Free software programmers]]
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[[Category:GNU people]]
[[Category:Emacs]]
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[[Category:Grace Murray Hopper Award laureates]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:Computer pioneers]]
[[Category:Artificial intelligence researchers]]
[[Category:Programming language designers]]
[[Category:Lisp programming language]]
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Talk:Richard Stallman

2009-03-19T09:01:41Z

Mathnerd314: /* SAT score? */ new section

{{skiptotoctalk}}
{{talkheader}}
{{bounty|Marudubshinki|$10 USD|section=GNU/FSF/EFF articles|condition=articles related to [[GNU Project]], [[Free Software Foundation]] and [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] are improved to featured status}}
{{Notable Wikipedian|Rmstallman|Stallman, Richard|editedhere=yes}}
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== Todo out of date ==
Many parts are ''ancient'' and it generally isn't a useful guideline to current tasks imo. Anyone really mind if I wipe this and let it grow from scratch again? [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 10:43, 19 September 2007 (UTC)
:<s>Many parts of ''what'' are ancient? The article or the talk page?</s> --[[User:W2bh|W2bh]] ([[User talk:W2bh|talk]]) 12:18, 14 February 2008 (UTC)
::Sorry, misread the message title. --[[User:W2bh|W2bh]] ([[User talk:W2bh|talk]]) 12:19, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

::: I've removed all the well-meaning but ultimately directionless calls to scan the article for various policy issues. These can be brought up in reviews, but aren't useful in the todo box. [[user:thumperward|Chris Cunningham (not at work)]] - [[user talk:thumperward|talk]] 16:18, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

== Technical Inaccuracy ==
Re:
<blockquote>When MIT's Laboratory for Computer Science (LCS) installed a password control system in 1977, Stallman found a way to decrypt the passwords and sent users messages containing their decoded password (to demonstrate that they were not increasing security, but only hindering free access to each other's software and discouraging sharing it), with a suggestion to change it to the empty string (that is, no password) instead, to restore this free access</blockquote>

I see this has made it to Wikipedia...

He didn't actually do exactly this, though I've seen him on video describing it thus. I'm the guy who wrote the password control system! The passwords are hashed in a way that loses information. (Not actually encrypted). I've always figured he did one of two things -- either did things the (slightly) hard way, and searched for a password that would hash to the same thing, or simply recorded the unhashed password the user entered. He'd made it print out on the system console at one point.

To be fair, searching for the password would stand a good chance of finding the actual password the user gave.

This was never intended to be security -- no such thing on ITS anyway. The only reason for hashing them at all was so that snoopy people wouldn't discover what people used for their passwords, which often tend to be personal! So this hack was not a breakdown in security, but a rather juvenile (IMHO) mass (but small) invasion of privacy.

Note that null passwords WERE allowed, even after this hack. Lots of people just logged in as RMS...

Stahlman has publicly attributed this password facility to the "evil administrators" seeking control, and pressuring the hackers, etc... Nothing could be further from the truth. At the time, we were deluged with a huge influx of users from the network -- "unauthorized" users for lack of a better word, but they weren't unwelcome, overall, and accounts were given out freely. But there were a few people who were unwilling to be good citizens -- playing games, for example, when the system was already extremely overloaded with people trying to complete their thesis, etc. Or deleting other people's files. Remember, the system was wide open, and fragile, dependent entirely on the good behavior of all participants.

Things finally reached a point where keeping things from melting down was taking entirely too much time from many of us, myself included, and people's work was being seriously impeded. This was the minimum step we could take that would keep things from degenerating into chaos.

The password system simply allowed us to encourage people to not be anonymous (which helped to encourage more of a sense of community), and to impede (but not block) people intent on causing harm. We gave out accounts to just about all comers, including numerous kids, people just wanting to learn, etc. Some people, after having their accounts revoked for behaving badly, came back later with new identities and better behavior, which was fine with us.

RMS viewed all this through his own set of filters and his own unique set of moral absolutes, leading to major rage. Somehow people for whom the machines were being provided being able to use them didn't fit on his radar, but anybody should be allowed to connect anonymously from anywhere, and do whatever they wanted, no matter the impact on others. And anybody who disagreed was evil, to be opposed by any means at hand.

By the way, a point about copying all the features that we at Symbolics did into the MIT sources. I'd say it's more or less true. But the way the article is written makes it sound like either a superhuman feat (and thus unbelievable), or that we were a bunch of slackers at Symbolics!

Neither was true. He had several advantages -- he could take a lot of shortcuts, for example -- less complete functionality, less testing. Notably, he didn't have to spend the time thinking out how things should work! He could just copy functionality. He didn't have to discuss and agree with anyone either. That, and being both skilled and driven, he could move pretty fast. He even improved on our approach in a number of cases.

It'd be nice if the article were worded in a way that was more clear that the attempt was simultaneously quite real, somewhat imperfect, and yet impressive.

Note that one could question whether these comments quite fit the talk page guidelines, but I hope it's worthwhile communicating it to the editors. Feel free to delete my comments when they serve no useful purpose, or possibly move them to the article on ITS if they serve a purpose there...

[[User:BobKerns|Bob Kerns]] ([[User talk:BobKerns|talk]]) 07:41, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

: I've made some simple changes to the sections in question to take these concerns into account. [[user:thumperward|Chris Cunningham (not at work)]] - [[user talk:thumperward|talk]] 22:38, 30 March 2008 (UTC)

== Speeches ==
This is what Wikiquote is for, and it's bad form to have subsections in extlinks. Can they all be moved across? [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 11:43, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

:After 20 years of public speaking, Stallman there are only four topics that he's spoken repeatedly on. So those four links are as concise as possible a summary of his whole software freedom philosophy. On Wikiquote, there are tens or more than a hundred links, which is quite different. The subsection header can be deleted, but I don't see why. --[[User:Gronky|Gronky]] 11:55, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

:: Here's a better idea: turn the "terminology" section into "public speaking", and restructure it around the speeches. Better to use them as references than just tack them on as external links. [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 12:07, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

:::Except that in this case they are not references to prove some particular point, they are whole documents that explain concepts too large to describe completely in the article. --[[User:Gronky|Gronky]] 12:13, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

:::: Then give them articles. That's how encyclopedias work. I dare say that they already ''have'' articles. A well-written article should not simply punt important works to some external website to explain. [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 13:13, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

:::::The concepts probably do have articles, but this is about Stallman's personal take on the issues. His examples, his reasons, his logic, his methods. Actually, when something is relevant but is too long to go into an article, that's exactly what external links are for. --[[User:Gronky|Gronky]] 13:22, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

:::::: This is lazy. I can't believe we've got three paragraphs about the tragic early end to his folk dancing career, but we can't actually write about the four things which actually define him as an advocate. I'm gladly nuke large parts of the article to incorporate that kind of thing. [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 15:26, 20 September 2007 (UTC)

:::::I agree that the speeches, if they are needed, should be included as references rather than external links. This is the type of thing that would most likely be flagged if the article ever went to Featured Article review. The article already has a rambling and anecdotal flavor, and this makes it worse. We don't need to record every single incident that happened in any of his policy-related activities. ''His examples, his reasons, his logic, his methods'' are things that people can use Google for. His speech on the issue of GPLv3, if it is needed at all, might be linked from [[GNU General Public License]], where his arguments in favor of version 3 are discussed in the text of the article. [[User:EdJohnston|EdJohnston]] 19:24, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

== Direct links to speeches: is everyone following the issue? ==
There is a small-scale edit war about some direct external links to Stallman speeches. Can someone who regularly follows this page explain things from scratch? I don't see the need for the links, personally, but a better explanation might slow down the reverting by various parties. [[User:EdJohnston|EdJohnston]] 17:38, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

: It's hardly an "edit war" as such: [[User:Gronky]], as is his wont, [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Stallman&diff=158702630&oldid=158702168 occasionally] [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richard_Stallman&diff=160097175&oldid=160089708 restores] sections of previously-prepared text with little apparent consideration for article history, or indeed whether the content he's adding is [[Richard Stallman#Output|already included on the page in exactly the same format]]. When this happens, I remove the duplicate section and leave a descriptive edit comment. In this case, however, [[User:ViolentCrime]] has apparently decided that this is a content dispute. No, I don't know why either.
: I expect this has already died down. [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 17:54, 26 September 2007 (UTC)
::What exactly is the problem with having a seperate section for the speeches? Why are you edit warring over this? If the duplication bbothers you, remove it from the Output section, where iti is buried. [[User:ViolentCrime|ViolentCrime]] 18:20, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

::: Mayhaps, having asked ''me'' to come to the talk page, you could [[#Speeches|participate in it]] yourself. Nobody's edit warring; a couple of editors made good-faith reverts without bothering to check the full picture, is all. [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 18:24, 26 September 2007 (UTC)
:::: What is it that you are responding to, if not my participation? You have made 5 reverts to the same section in a little over 24 hours, so you are clearly edit warring over this. In addition, you are more than a bit uncivil in your tone. If it is the duplication that bothers you, why can't we have a seprate section for the speeches, and remove the same copy in the output section? [[User:ViolentCrime|ViolentCrime]] 18:47, 26 September 2007 (UTC)

:I haven't followed this in a while. My recollection is that I argued that with four links, the article could give readers access to the most concise summary of Stallman's whole software freedom philosophy. FWIW, I still think they should be there, in the external links section, not buried. --[[User:Gronky|Gronky]] 00:30, 16 November 2007 (UTC)

== Contributions to ghostscript ==

"The Halloween Documents", Microsoft Confidential (Vinod Valloppillil, Aug 11, 1998) cites Stallman as the creator of GhostScript. The 3 major applications threatening Microsoft. according to Microsoft, were Emacs, GCC, and GhostScript. GhostScript is a key element, if not at least predecessor to CUPS. I think it is worth adding to the Emacs, GCC, and Gnu Debugger "list" in the opening paragraphs.

[[User:199.80.154.88|199.80.154.88]] 17:34, 26 October 2007 (UTC)

:I think they may just be wrong about that. The Ghostscript article and various hits[http://lwn.net/Articles/33130/][http://osdir.com/ml/emulators.wine.license/2002-06/msg00100.html] seem to suggest that Deutsch wrote/writes it, and Stallman merely convinced him to release all future versions under the GPL. --[[User talk:Gwern |Gwern]] [[Special:Contributions/Gwern | (contribs)]] 18:16 [[26 October]] [[2007]] (GMT)

: [[Ghostscript#History]]. [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 18:42, 26 October 2007 (UTC)

== Excised section ==

The following section was removed because it is badly written, unverifiable, and reiterates points already in the article.

:However, he was the last of his generation of hackers at the lab. He rejected a future where he would have to sign [[non-disclosure agreement]]s not to share [[source code]] or technical information with other software developers and perform other actions he considered betrayals of his principles. He chose instead to share his work with others in what he regarded as a classical spirit of collaboration. While Stallman did not participate in the 1960s era [[counterculture]], he was inspired by its rejection of the pursuit of wealth as the primary goal of living.

I think quotes illustrating the content of this paragraph would be a welcome addition. [[Special:Contributions/66.117.135.137|66.117.135.137]] ([[User talk:66.117.135.137|talk]]) 07:02, 15 July 2008 (UTC)

== James Bond ==

I think I saw this guy in a James Bond movie as a hacker. It was the one about Rupert Murdoch taking over the world by making China go to war with the UK. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Peacekeep|Peacekeep]] ([[User talk:Peacekeep|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Peacekeep|contribs]]) 02:07, 17 July 2008 (UTC) 

: Nope, that was [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0419633/ Ricky Jay], playing the character of [http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0000369/ Henry Gupta] in [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0120347/ Tomorrow Never Dies]. Though they do share some superficial similarity. // [[User:Meneth|Meneth]] ([[User talk:Meneth|talk]]) 00:03, 16 December 2008 (UTC)

== Dr. Dobb's editor ==

The article [[Free software]] says that Richard Stallman was an "editor of the computer hobbyist magazine Dr. Dobb's Journal" and it is marked as "citation needed".

I believe that an old issue of the journal with Stallman's name in the staff list would be a good enough citation, but i don't have a copy myself.

Does anyone have access to such a thing?

Thanks in advance. --[[User:Amire80|Amir E. Aharoni]] ([[User talk:Amire80|talk]]) 07:08, 23 July 2008 (UTC)

== jewish ==

i suprised there is no mention of his jewish ancestry —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/209.32.159.25|209.32.159.25]] ([[User talk:209.32.159.25|talk]]) 19:59, 27 July 2008 (UTC) 

:It's not really a defining characteristic. He doesn't practice the religion, define himself by that ancestry, or socially focus on jewish culture. [[User:Gronky|Gronky]] ([[User talk:Gronky|talk]]) 02:19, 15 October 2008 (UTC)

== Anarchist? ==

Stallman is included in [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:American_anarchists American anarchists] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Living_anarchists Living anarchists]. However, I have never seen a source where Stallman described himself as an anarchist. The main text of the article makes no mention of it. I saw no discussion of it in the archives. Indeed, many things he's professed on his personal website (e.g., support for Nader, the Green Party, the Liberal Democrats) do not seem to support that Stallman is an anarchist. If there's a credible source for this, fine; otherwise, I think Stallman should be removed from those categories. --[[User:Creativename|creativename]] ([[User talk:Creativename|talk]]) 02:29, 24 August 2008 (UTC)

== A native American English speaker ==

This obviously needs rewriting.
* An English speaker that is a [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|native American]]?
* A native speaker of [[American English]]?
* A native speaker of English that is an American?
The latter two both seem plausible, which was intended? [[Special:Contributions/78.110.162.163|78.110.162.163]] ([[User talk:78.110.162.163|talk]]) 11:37, 11 October 2008 (UTC)

: I'm just going to remove it. The exact dialect of English he uses is hardly important, and is trivially inferrable from his homeland. [[user:thumperward|Chris Cunningham (not at work)]] - [[user talk:thumperward|talk]] 11:42, 11 October 2008 (UTC)

== rms? ==

The article begins with : Richard Matthew Stallman (born March 16, 1953), '''often abbreviated "rms"''', and uses his homepage at [http://www.stallman.org/ stallman.org] as a reference where he mentions : "Richard Stallman" is just my mundane name; you can call me "rms". Just because he refers to himself as "rms" does not mean it should be included, I think hes just trying to be friendly to visitors of his website. If publications or other reliable sources refer to hims as "rms" then I agree it should be mentioned. --[[User:GateKeeperX|GateKeeperX]] ([[User talk:GateKeeperX|talk]]) 08:24, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

: It's well known among the Free Software community. Just do a Google search [http://www.google.com/search?&q=rms+stallman]. --[[User:Angrykeyboarder|angrykeyboarder (a/k/a:Scott)]] ([[User talk:Angrykeyboarder|talk]]) 03:21, 14 November 2008 (UTC)

: His abbreviated name is heavily used in correspondence. I can't imagine it would be difficult to find a reliable source which pointed out that it was the form predominantly used within the community. [[user:thumperward|Chris Cunningham (not at work)]] - [[user talk:thumperward|talk]] 11:38, 13 November 2008 (UTC)

== Infobox ==

Hello,

I have a question for the maintainers/administrators of this article. Is the infobox protected? 
--[[User:Grandscribe|Grandscribe]] ([[User talk:Grandscribe|talk]]) 12:43, 29 December 2008 (UTC)

== SAT score? ==

"Stallman scored 1597 on the SAT (800 Math, 797 Verbal)."

Is 797 even a possible score? I thought it was in increments of 10. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] ([[User talk:Mathnerd314|talk]]) 09:01, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

Patriotism

2009-02-21T10:02:21Z

Mathnerd314: deleted a repeated sentence

{{worldwide}}
'''Patriotism''' is commonly defined as love of and/or devotion to one's country. The word comes from the [[Latin language|Latin]], ''[[patria]]'', and [[Greek language|Greek]] ''[[patritha]].''<ref>[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/patriotism Mirriam Webster"]</ref> However, patriotism has had different meanings over time, and its meaning is highly dependent upon context, geography and philosophy.

Although patriotism is used in certain vernaculars as a [[synonym]] for [[nationalism]], nationalism is not considered an inherent part of patriotism. .<ref name="books.google.com">[http://books.google.com/books?id=5N-wqTXwiU0C&pg=PA313&lpg=PA313&dq=Patriotism+and+the+enlightenment&source=web&ots=085cTPNN3r&sig=X_jzMPlYg5tvovEGkty_SDVYCD8&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment] By Harvey Chisick</ref><ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nationalism/ "Nationalism"] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> Among the ancient Greeks, patriotism consisted of notions concerning language, religious traditions, ethics, law and devotion to the common good, rather than pure identification with a nation-state.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=XvyoMAUCTh8C&oi=fnd&pg=PA34&dq=greek+patriotism&ots=KR9T0YD8Qd&sig=PdqE9aH0OS4bpwLSQVivaseoTGE#PPA53,M1 Greek Popular Morality in the Time of Plato and Aristotle] By [[Kenneth James Dover]]</ref> <ref>[http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0Sj5QAO0NQkC&oi=fnd&pg=PA20&dq=greek+patriotism&ots=iGYa2ZLKc-&sig=z_61sp-0lMxRU8ziC6MpnG8MKzY#PPA73,M1 Five Stages of Greek Religion] by Gilbert Murray</ref> Scholar J. Peter Euben writes that for the Greek philosopher [[Socrates]], "patriotism does not require one to agree with everything that his country does and would actually promote analytical questioning in a quest to make the country the best it possibly can be."<ref>[http://aaup.org/AAUP/CMS_Templates/AcademeTemplates/AcademeArticle.aspx?NRMODE=Published&NRNODEGUID=%7B2EB012FD-8967-4EE9-862B-64B89A82875A%7D&NRORIGINALURL=%2FAAUP%2Fpubsres%2Facademe%2F2002%2FSO%2FFeat%2FEube.htm&NRCACHEHINT=NoModifyGuest "Critical Patriotism"] by J. Peter Euben</ref>

During the 18th century [[Age of Enlightenment]], the notion of patriotism continued to be separate from the notion of nationalism. Instead, patriotism was defined as devotion to humanity and [[beneficence]].<ref name="books.google.com"/> For example, providing charity, criticizing Proxy-Connection: keep-alive
Cache-Control: max-age=0

avery, and denouncing excessive penal laws were all considered patriotic. <ref name="books.google.com"/> In both ancient and [[Age of Enlightenment|modern]] visions of patriotism, individual responsibility to fellow citizens is an inherent component of patriotism.

Many contemporary notions of patriotism are influenced by 19th century ideas about nationalism. During the 19th century, "being patriotic" became increasingly conflated with nationalism, and even [[jingoism]].<ref name="books.google.com"/> However, some notions of contemporary patriotism reject nationalism in favor of a more classic version of the idea of patriotism which includes social responsibility.<ref>[http://www.thenation.com/doc/20020603/dreier Patriotism's Secret History] by Peter Dreier & Dick Flacks in the magazine [[The Nation]]</ref>

== Contemporary notions of patriotism ==
Contemporary scholar of ethics, [[Paul Gomberg]], has compared patriotism to racism. He argues that the primary implication of patriotism in [[ethics|ethical theory]] is that a person has more moral duties to fellow members of the national community, than to non-members. Patriotism is therefore selective in its [[altruism]].<ref>Paul Gomberg, “Patriotism is Like Racism,” in Igor Primoratz, ed., ''Patriotism'', Humanity Books, 2002, pp. 105-112. ISBN 1-57392-955-7.</ref> Gomberg notes the view (in ethics) that moral duties apply equally to all humans is known as [[cosmopolitanism]].

Patriotism implies a value preference for a specific civic or political community. [[Moral universalism|Universalist]] beliefs reject such specific preferences, in favor of an alternative, wider, community. In the [[European Union]], thinkers such as [[Jürgen Habermas|Habermas]], however, have advocated a European-wide patriotism, but patriotism in Europe is usually directed at the [[nation-state]] and often coincides with [[Euroscepticism]].
[[Image:Freedom affirmation poster, USAF · DF-SD-04-09863.JPEG|left|250px|thumb|As this modern patriotic poster suggests patriotism is often closely associated with other perceived national [[mores]], in this case [[freedom]].]]
Some religious believers place their religion above their 'fatherland', often resulting in suspicion and hostility from patriots. Two examples of groups that have experienced this suspicion in the United States are [[Roman Catholic]]s and [[Muslim]]s. In the United States and the United Kingdom, [[Roman Catholic]]s were seen as owing loyalty to the [[Pope]] rather than the nation. As a result, the [[Knights of Columbus]] (referred to as "the strong right arm of the church" by several [[Pope]]s) established the virtue of patriotism as one of their four principle virtues. Muslims are sometimes seen as owing loyalty to the Islamic community ([[Ummah]]) rather than to the nation. Other groups find a conflict between certain patriotic acts and religious beliefs. [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] and [[Mennonite]]s may choose to refuse to engage in certain patriotic acts or to display certain symbols.

Supporters of patriotism in ethics regard it as a [[virtue]]. In his influential article "Is patriotism a virtue?" (1984), the philosopher [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] notes that most contemporary conceptions of morality insist on a blindness to accidental traits like local origin and therefore reject patriotic selectivity. MacIntyre constructs an alternative conception of morality, that he claims would be compatible with patriotism. [[Charles Blattberg]], in his book ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics'' (2000), has developed a similar conception of patriotism.

A problem with treating patriotism as an objective virtue is that patriotisms often conflict. Soldiers of both sides in a war may feel equally patriotic, creating an ethical [[paradox]]. (If patriotism is a virtue, then the enemy is virtuous, so why try to kill them?)

Within nations, politicians may appeal to patriotic emotions in attacking their opponents, implicitly or explicitly accusing them of betraying the country. Minorities may reject a patriotic loyalty and pride, which the majority finds unproblematic. They may feel excluded from the political community, and see no reason to be proud of it. The [[Australia]]n political conflict about the [[Black armband view of history]] is an example. Conservative Prime Minister [[John Howard]], who would undoubtedly describe himself as an Australian patriot, said of it in 1996:

:''The 'black armband' view of our history reflects a belief that most Australian history since 1788 has been little more than a disgraceful story of imperialism, exploitation, racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination.''

In the United States, patriotic history has been criticised for de-emphasising the post-Colombian [[Population history of American indigenous peoples|depopulation]], the [[Atlantic slave trade]], the [[Indian Removal|population expulsions]] and the [[Indian Wars|wars of conquest]] against [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]].

Patriotism is often portrayed as a more positive alternative to nationalism, which sometimes carries negative connotations. Some authors such as [[Morris Janowitz]], [[Daniel Bar-Tal]], or L. Snyder argue that patriotism is distinguished from nationalism by its lack of aggression or hatred for others, its defensiveness, and positive community building. Others, such as [[Michael Billig]] or [[Jean Bethke Elshtain]] argue that the difference is difficult to discern, and relies largely on the attitude of the labeller. <ref> Billig, Michael. ''[[Banal Nationalism]].'' London: Sage Publishers, 1995, p. 56-58.</ref>

=== Patriotism for other countries ===
There are historical examples of individuals who fought for other countries, sometimes for their independence - for example the [[Marquis de Lafayette]], [[Tadeusz Kościuszko]] and [[Kazimierz Pułaski]] in the [[American Revolutionary War]], and the "Philhellenes," western Europeans who fought in the [[Greek War of Independence]], notably [[Lord Byron]]. Was Lafayette an American patriot, or the Philhellenes Greek patriots? Alasdair MacIntyre would claim that they were not; that these and similar cases are instances of [[idealism]], but not of patriotism. Under this view, Lafayette was only devoted to the ideals of political liberty that underlay the American Revolution, but was not specifically patriotic for America. For MacIntyre, patriotism by definition can only be a preference for one's ''own'' country, not a preference for the ideals that a country is believed to stand for. Charles Blattberg's conception of patriotism, however, is more nuanced: to him, a patriot can be critical of his or her country for failing to live up to its ideals.

=== Patriotism by country ===
Several surveys have tried to measure patriotism for various reasons. The [[Correlates of War]] project found some correlation between War propensity and patriotism.

The results from different studies are time dependent. Patriotism in Germany before WWI ranks at or near the top, whereas today it ranks at or near the bottom of surveys.

The Patriotism Score table below is from the [[World Values Survey]] and refers to the average
answer for high income residents of a country to the question: "Are you proud to
be [insert nationality]?" It ranges from 1 (not proud) to 4 (very proud).<ref>Patriotism in Your Portfolio http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=406200 </ref>

First Survey: 1990-1992

{| class="wikitable"
! Country !! Score
|-
| [[Ireland]] || 3.74
|-
| [[USA]] || 3.73
|-
| [[India]] || 3.67
|-
| [[South Africa]] || 3.55
|-
| [[Canada]] || 3.53
|-
| [[Slovenia]] || 3.46
|-
| [[Spain]] || 3.28
|-
| [[Denmark]] || 3.27
|-
| [[Italy]] || 3.25
|-
| [[Sweden]] || 3.22
|-
| [[France]] || 3.18
|-
| [[Finland]] || 3.17
|-
| [[Belgium]] || 3.07
|-
| [[Netherlands]] || 2.93
|-
| [[Germany]] || 2.75
|-
| Average || 3.26
|}

Second Survey: 1995-1997

{| class="wikitable"
! Country !! Score
|-
| [[Venezuela]] || 3.92
|-
| [[South Africa]] || 3.73
|-
| [[USA]] || 3.72
|-
| [[India]] || 3.70
|-
| [[Peru]] || 3.68
|-
| [[Slovenia]] || 3.64
|-
| [[Poland]] || 3.55
|-
| [[Australia]] || 3.54
|-
| [[Spain]] || 3.40
|-
| [[Chile]] || 3.38
|-
| [[Argentina]] || 3.29
|-
| [[Sweden]] || 3.13
|-
| [[Moldova]] || 2.98
|-
| [[Japan]] || 2.85
|-
| [[Russia]] || 2.69
|-
| [[Switzerland]] || 2.59
|-
| [[Lithuania]] || 2.47
|-
| [[Latvia]] || 2.10
|-
| [[Germany]] || 1.37
|-
| Average || 3.12
|}

==See also==
{{Ideology-small}}
* [[Nationalism]] and [[Nation]]
* [[National symbol]] and [[national flag]]
* [[Jingoism]] and [[Chauvinism]]
* [[Politics]]
* [[Communitarianism]]
* [[Cultural identity]]
* [[Identity politics]]
* [[Anti-patriotism]]
* [[Patriot hacking]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources and further reading==
{{wikiquote}}
* [[Alasdair MacIntyre]], 'Is Patriotism a Virtue?', in: R. Beiner (ed.), ''Theorizing Citizenship'', 1995, State University of New York Press, pp. 209 - 228.
* Joshua Cohen and [[Martha C. Nussbaum]], ''For Love of Country: Debating the Limited of Patriotism'', Beacon Press, 1996. ISBN 0-8070-4313-3.
* [[Jürgen Habermas]], “Appendix II: Citizenship and National Identity,” in ''Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy'', trans. William Rehg, MIT Press, 1996.
* Maurizio Viroli, ''For Love of Country: An Essay on Patriotism and Nationalism'', Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-829358-5.
* Daniel Bar-Tal and Ervin Staub, ''Patriotism'', Wadsworth Publishing, 1999. ISBN 0-8304-1410-X.
* [[Charles Blattberg]], ''From Pluralist to Patriotic Politics: Putting Practice First'', Oxford University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-19-829688-6.
* Igor Primoratz, ed., ''Patriotism'', Humanity Books, 2002. ISBN 1-57392-955-7.
* Paul Gomberg, “Patriotism is Like Racism,” in Igor Primoratz, ed., ''Patriotism'', Humanity Books, 2002, pp. 105-112. ISBN 1-57392-955-7.
* Craig Calhoun, ''Is it Time to Be Postnational?'', in ''Ethnicity, Nationalism, and Minority Rights'', (eds.) Stephen May, Tariq Modood and Judith Squires. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004. pp 231-256. Online at [http://www.ssrc.org/programs/calhoun/publications/TimetoBePostnational.pdf www.ssrc.org].
* [[George Orwell]], “[http://whitewolf.newcastle.edu.au/words/authors/O/OrwellGeorge/essay/nationalism.html Notes on Nationalism],” in ''England Your England and Other Essays'', Secker and Warburg, 1953.
* [http://www.americanpatriotparty.cc American Patriot Party] on defined patriotism.


[[Category:Nationalism]]
[[Category:Political terms]]



[[bs:Patriotizam]]
[[bg:Патриотизъм]]
[[cs:Patriotismus]]
[[cy:Gwladgarwch]]
[[da:Patriotisme]]
[[de:Patriotismus]]
[[et:Patriotism]]
[[es:Patriotismo]]
[[eo:Patriotismo]]
[[fa:میهن‌دوستی]]
[[fr:Patriotisme]]
[[ko:애국주의]]
[[id:Patriotisme]]
[[it:Patriottismo]]
[[he:פטריוטיות]]
[[ka:პატრიოტიზმი]]
[[lt:Patriotizmas]]
[[hu:Hazafiság]]
[[mk:Патриотизам]]
[[ms:Patriotisme]]
[[nl:Vaderlandsliefde]]
[[ja:パトリオティズム]]
[[no:Patriotisme]]
[[nn:Patriotisme]]
[[pl:Patriotyzm]]
[[pt:Patriotismo]]
[[ro:Patriotism]]
[[ru:Патриотизм]]
[[simple:Patriotism]]
[[sk:Patriotizmus]]
[[sr:Родољубље]]
[[sh:Patriotizam]]
[[fi:Isänmaallisuus]]
[[sv:Patriotism]]
[[tl:Pagkamakabayan]]
[[te:దేశభక్తి]]
[[vi:Chủ nghĩa yêu nước]]
[[uk:Патріотизм]]
[[zh:愛國主義]]

Languages of China

2009-02-11T08:41:46Z

Mathnerd314: /* Spoken */ reverted vandalism

{{unreferenced|date=November 2008}}
{{For|information on various forms of spoken Han [[Chinese language|Chinese]] languages variants|Chinese spoken languages}}
{{Languages of
| country = China
| image = China linguistic map.jpg
| image size = 300px
| caption = Map of Linguistic Groups showing areas claimed by the [[People's Republic of China]] (including areas governed by the Republic of China)
| official = [[Chinese language|Chinese]]
| unofficial =
| main =
| regional =
| indigenous =
| minority =
| immigrant =
| foreign =
| sign = [[Chinese Sign Language]]
| keyboard =
| keyboard image =
}}
[[List of Chinese ethnic groups|China's many different ethnic groups]] speak many different [[language]]s, collectively called ''Zhōngguó Yǔwén'' (中国语文), literally "'''speech and writing of China'''" which mainly span six linguistic families. Most of them are dissimilar [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphologic]]ally and [[phonetic]]ally and are [[mutually unintelligible]]. ''Zhongguo Yuwen'' includes the many different [[Han Chinese]] language variants (commonly simply called Chinese) as well as non-Han minority languages such as [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] and [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]].

Chinese language policy in [[mainland China]] is heavily influenced by Soviet nationalities policy and officially encourages the development of standard spoken and written languages for each of the [[nationalities of China]]. However, in this schema, [[Han Chinese]] are considered a single nationality, and official policy of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) treats the different varieties of the [[Chinese spoken language]] differently from the different national languages. For example, while official policies in mainland China encourage the development and use of different orthographies for the national languages and their use in educational and academic settings, the same is not true for the different [[Chinese spoken languages]], despite the fact that they are more different from each other than, for example, the [[Romance languages]] of Europe.

[[Putonghua]] or [[Standard Mandarin]] is the official national spoken language (except in Hong Kong and Macau), although [[autonomous regions]] and [[special administrative region]]s have additional official languages. For example, [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] has official status within the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] and [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] has official status within the [[Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region]]. [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] not only have [[English language|English]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] as official languages respectively, [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]] is the legal official spoken Chinese variant, with the use of traditional characters as the official written language.

Unofficially, there are large economic, social and practical incentives to be functional in [[Putonghua]], a standardised form of the [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] group of dialects spoken in northern and southwestern China, which serves as a [[lingua franca]] among the different groups within mainland China. In addition, it is also considered increasingly prestigious and useful to have some ability in [[English language|English]], which is a required subject for persons attending university. During the 1950s and 1960s, [[Russian language|Russian]] had some social status among elites in mainland China as the international language of [[socialism]].

[[The Economist]], issue April 12, 2006 reported that up to one fifth of the population is learning English. [[Gordon Brown]], the British Prime Minister, estimated that the total English-speaking population in China will outnumber the native speakers in the rest of the world in two decades. [http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=6803197]

== Spoken ==
The spoken languages of nationalities that are a part of the [[People's Republic of China]] belong to at least seven families:

*The [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan family]]: 28 nationalities (including the Han, [[Tibetans]], [[Hmong language|Miao (Hmong)]], and [[Yao people|Yao]])
*The [[Altaic languages|Altaic family]]: 17 (including the [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]], [[Mongols]], and [[Manchu]])
*The [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic family]]: 4 (the [[De'ang]], [[Blang]], [[Gin people|Gin (Vietnamese)]], and [[Wa (nationality)|Wa]])
*The [[Kradai languages|Kradai family]]: several languages spoken by the [[Zhuang]], the [[Buyei]], the [[Dai people]], the [[Dong people]], and the [[Li people|Hlai (Li people)]].
*The [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European family]]: 2 (the [[Russians]] and [[Tajiks in China|Tajiks]])
*The [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]]: 1 official nationality (the [[Gaoshan]], who speak many languages), 1 unofficial (the [[Utsul]]s, who speak the [[Tsat language]] but are considered [[Hui]].)
*Language isolate: 1 (the [[Koreans]])

== Written ==
{{main|Written Chinese}}
[[Image:Yonghe Gong sign.jpg|300px|thumb|A sign in Mongol, Tibetan, Chinese, and Manchurian at the [[Yonghe Temple|Yonghe]] monastery in [[Beijing]]]]
The following languages have traditionally had written forms that do not involve [[Chinese character]]s (''hanzi''):

*The [[Mongolians]] - [[Mongolian language]] - [[Mongolian alphabet]]
*The [[Manchus]] - [[Manchu language]] - [[Manchu alphabet]]
*The [[Tibetans]] - [[Tibetan language]] - [[Tibetan script]]
*The [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]] - [[Uyghur language]] - [[Arabic alphabet]]
*The [[Kazakhs]] - [[Kazakh language]] - [[Arabic alphabet]]
*The [[Kyrgyz]] - [[Kyrgyz language]] - [[Arabic alphabet]]
*The [[Koreans]] - [[Korean language]] - [[Hangul]]
*The [[Xibe]] (Sibo) - [[Xibe language]] - [[Manchu alphabet]]
*The [[Dai]] - [[Dai language]]
*The [[Yi people|Yi]] - [[Yi language]] - [[Yi script|Yi syllabary]]
*The [[Naxi]] - [[Dongba script]]

Some formally have used Chinese characters

*The [[Jurchens]](Manchu ancestors) - [[Jurchen language]] - [[Jurchen script]]
*The [[Koreans]] - [[Korean language]] - [[Hanja]]
*The [[Khitans]](Mongol ancestors) - [[Khitan language]] - [[Khitan script]]
*The [[Tanguts]](Sino-tibetan people) - [[Tangut language]] - [[Tangut script]]

Chinese palaces, temples, and coins have traditionally been inscribed in four scripts:
*[[Mongolian alphabet|Mongol]]
*[[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
*Chinese
*[[Manchu alphabet|Manchu]]

[[Image:RMB4-1jiao-B.jpg|300px|thumb|The reverse of a one [[jiao]] note with Chinese (Pinyin) at the top and Mongol, Tibetan, Uyghur, and Zhuang along the bottom.]]
Chinese banknotes contain several scripts in addition to Chinese script. These are:
*[[Mongolian alphabet|Mongol]]
*[[Tibetan script|Tibetan]]
*[[Uyghur language#Writing system|Arabic (for Uyghur)]]
*[[Zhuang language#Writing systems|Latin (for Zhuang)]]

Ten nationalities who never had a written system have, under the [[PRC]]'s encouragement, developed [[phonetic alphabet]]s. According to [http://www.china.org.cn/e-white/20050301/index.htm a government white paper] published in early 2005, "by the end of 2003, 22 ethnic minorities in China used 28 written languages."

== Political controversies ==

Language policy within China is the subject of a number of political controversies mostly having to do with the political status of minority nationalities in China. Some critics of the Beijing government,
such as the [[Tibetan Government-in-Exile]] argue that social pressures and political efforts result in a policy of [[sinicization]] and often term PRC policies [[cultural genocide]]{{Fact|date=June 2008}}. Supporters of Chinese policies argue that both in theory and in practice that Chinese policies are rather supportive of multilingualism and the development of minority languages, and that China has a far better track record in these issues than some other countries.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}.

==Further reading==
*Kane, D. (2006). ''The Chinese language: its history and current usage''. North Clarendon, VT: Tuttle. ISBN 0804838534
*Halliday, M. A. K., & Webster, J. (2005). ''Studies in Chinese language''. London: Continuum. ISBN 0826458742
*Ramsey, S. R. (1987). ''The languages of China''. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691066949
*Hong, B. (1978). ''Chinese language use''. Canberra: Contemporary China Centre, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 0909596298
*Cheng, C. C., & Lehmann, W. P. (1975). ''Language & linguistics in the People's Republic of China''. Austin: University of Texas Press. ISBN 0292746156

== See also ==
{{Portal|China|TempleofHeaven-HallofPrayer.jpg}}
*[[Demographics of the People's Republic of China|Demographics of the People's Republic of China (mainland)]] and [[Demographics of Taiwan|Taiwan]]
*[[ISO 639 macrolanguage#zho]]
*[[Nationalities of China]]

[[Category:Chinese language]]

[[zh:中国语言]]

Stuart Townend (musician)

2009-01-02T08:03:50Z

Mathnerd314: /* External links */ fixed the url

{{distinguish|Stuart Townsend}}
{{Infobox Musical artist
|Img = StuartTownendWK.jpg |
|Img_size = 250 |
| Name = Stuart Townend
| Img_capt = October 2008
| Landscape =
| Background = solo_singer
| Birth_name =
| Alias =
| Born =
| Died =
| Origin = [[West Yorkshire]], [[England]]
| Instrument = [[Vocals]], [[piano]], [[guitar]]
| Voice_type =
| Genre = [[Contemporary Christian music]], [[Hymns]], [[Worship music]]
| Occupation = [[Songwriter]], [[worship leader]], music publishing executive
| Years_active =
| Label = [[Kingsway Music]]
| Associated_acts =
| URL = [http://www.stuarttownend.co.uk/ www.stuarttownend.co.uk]
| Current_members =
| Past_members =
| Notable_instruments =
}}

'''Stuart Townend''' is a British Christian [[worship leader]] and writer of [[hymn]]s and [[contemporary worship music]]. His songs include "In Christ Alone" (2002, cowritten with [[Keith Getty]]<ref name="inchristalone">Debra Akins, ''[http://www.crosswalk.com/faith/worship_center/1275127.html Song Story: "In Christ Alone"]'', www.crosswalk.com, accessed [[1 May]] 2005</ref>), "How Deep The Father's Love For Us", "Beautiful Saviour" and "The King Of Love"<ref name="cr-interview">Tony Cummings, [http://www.crossrhythms.co.uk/articles/music/Confronting_The_Comfort_Zones/14571/p1/ "Confronting The Comfort Zones"], ''Cross Rhythms'' 85, March 28th 2005</ref>.

As of 2008, [[CCLI]] lists the popular ''In Christ Alone'' in its Top 25 CCLI Songs list. In 2005, ''[[Cross Rhythms]]'' magazine described Townend as "one of the most significant songwriters in the whole international Christian music field"<ref name="cr-interview"/>. The Christian website Crosswalk.com commented that, "the uniqueness of Townend’s writing lies partly in its lyrical content. There is both a theological depth and poetic expression that some say is rare in today’s worship writing"<ref name="inchristalone"/>. 

Townend, son of a [[Church of England]] vicar in [[Halifax, West Yorkshire|Halifax]], [[West Yorkshire]], was the youngest of four children<ref name="cr-interview"/>. He studied literature at the [[University of Sussex]]<ref name="cr-interview"/>. Townend started learning to play the piano at age 7<ref name="bbc">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/features/hymn/judges/stuart_townend.shtml "Biography of Stuart Townend"], BBC Religion and Ethics, 2004, accessed [[1 May]] [[2005]]</ref>. At the age of 13, he made a Christian commitment, and began songwriting at age 22<ref name="bbc"/>.

==Discography==
===Audio===
* ''Classical Praise Piano: Come Holy Spirit'' (1995)
* ''Say the Word'' (1997)
* ''Personal Worship'' (2001)
* ''Lord of Every Heart'' (2002)
* ''Monument to Mercy'' (2006)
* ''The Best of Stuart Townend Live'' (2007)
* ''There is a Hope'' (live) (2008)

===Audio - featuring Townend===
* Stoneleigh Bible Week albums, 1994-2001
*''Mandate - O Church Arise''
*''Mandate - See What A Morning''
*''The Power of the Cross''
*''Mission:Worship''

===Video===
*''There is a Hope'' (live) (DVD 2008)

===with Keith Getty===
*''The Apostles Creed''

==Footnotes==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* Debra Akins, [http://www.crosswalk.com/faith/worship_center/1202207.html 10 Questions With Stuart Townend] (Crosswalk.com)
* Stuart Townend, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/music/hymnwriting_3.shtml "Tips for writing a successful hymn"], BBC Religion and Ethics, 2004
* [http://www.christianitymagazine.co.uk/reviews/music/there%20is%20a%20hope.aspx There is a Hope] album review


{{Persondata
|NAME=Townend, Stuart
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=Christian [[songwriter]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[West Yorkshire]], [[England]]
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Townend, Stuart}}
[[Category:Performers of Christian music]]
[[Category:Christian hymnwriters]]
[[Category:English hymnwriters]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Sussex]]
[[Category:Living people]]

Talk:Nice guy

2008-10-02T13:11:15Z

Mathnerd314: /* last paragraph of first section */ new section

{{WPSeduction|class=B}}
{| class="messagebox standard-talk"
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|[[Image:Updated DYK query.png|Did You Know|22px]]
|An entry from '''{{PAGENAME}}''' appeared on Wikipedia's [[Main Page]] in the '''[[:Template:Did you know|Did you know?]]''' column on [[27 November]], [[2006]].
|[[Image:Wikipedia-logo.png|Wikipedia|right|40px]]
|}

== New article ==

I have just created this article mostly from journal articles. There is a lot more research on this subject to summarize, so it's only just a rough start. I will also update it to discuss the book [[No More Mr. Nice Guy (book)|No More Mr. Nice Guy]]. I know that there are a lot of strong opinions on this subject and polemics on the internet from various perspectives, but let's try to keep this article [[WP:V|verifiable]]. If anyone knows about more references to "nice guys" in pop culture, like movies/TV, the page needs more of that stuff because right now it is mostly summarizing academic research. Also, I kept "nice guy" in quotes throughout the entire article. Do people think this is the right way to go? --[[User:SecondSight|SecondSight]] 10:08, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

:*You can get a list of "nice guys" in pop culture from [http://www.amazon.com/ amazon.com] and from [http://imdb.com/find?s=all&q=nice+guy IMDB]. I always like to run through each of [http://www.google.com/intl/en/options/ Google's products] to get more information. I expecially like the [http://books.google.com/books?q=nice+guy&btnG=Search+Books&as_brr=0 Google books] search. As for keeping "nice guy" in quotes, some of the information brought up by [http://www.google.com/search?num=100&hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=nice+guy&btnG=Search google] only quotes it the first time.-- [[User:Jreferee|Jreferee]] 16:46, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

==Categories and other items==
What a great topic. I checked the [[Special:CategoryTree?target=language&mode=categories | language category]], but there does not seem to be much there. [[Special:CategoryTree?target=linguistics&mode=categories | Linguistics]] might have more categories. [[:Category:Popular psychology]] may or may not fit. You may want to check out [[Wikipedia:WikiProject_Linguistics]] as well. The term wise guy may have some relevance in a comparison of such terms. More thougths: You may want to move the word "controversial" from the first sentence to some place else as it seems too defensive. You may want to clarify the first sentence term ''the general public discourse''. Does every culture in the world have a nice guy term or is it more specific to certain cultures? Here is a suggestion for the lead: ''"Nice guy" is a term in the general public discourse and in popular culture for a human male with certain personality traits and behaviors.[1] The term is vague, and means different things to different people, and thus some see the term as controversial.''-- [[User:Jreferee|Jreferee]] 15:17, 24 November 2006 (UTC)
:*You also may want to check out [[Nice guy syndrome]] to ensure that issues in that article are not repeated here. -- [[User:Jreferee|Jreferee]] 16:48, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

Thanks for the suggestions. I removed "controversial," from the first senstence, because it is mentioned later in the paragraph anyway. And I am well aware of the history of the [[Nice guy syndrome]] article ;) --[[User:SecondSight|SecondSight]] 02:38, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

I do no like this article. It has a pro bad boy agenda. It is suggesting every women fancies the same thing. Is wikipedia the right sort of place for this sort of pub bar drivel. Which i actually find offensive. Anyway women who find bad boys attractive are just not very nice people themselves. There does not seem to be any reference to that fact. Many of the books referenced to are not text books, but cheap pub trash, by people with an often nasty agenda. {{unsigned|81.131.2.202}}

:The primary goal of this article is not to be liked, but to discuss [[WP:V|verifiable]] sources on the topic in a [[WP:NPOV|neutral point of view]], and that is what it does. If the research is incomplete, anyone can fix this by adding to the article any research that is left out. All of the sources except one are to peer-reviewed journal articles, which is not cheap pub trash. It summarizes plenty of research which seems to contradict the hypothesis that women go for bad boys, like the Urbaniak & Killman article. As for suggesting that every woman fancies the same thing, all I can say is: have you actually read the article? The Herold & Millhausen study I heavily cited found that women varied in their preferences. As for "pro-bad boy" bias, you will have to be more specific about which passages bother you. If there is any overarching theme to the article, it is that "do nice guys finish last?" is simply a stupid and ambiguous question. If you read my edit summaries, you would have noticed me saying that I will add more studies later, some of which find that women are less likely to go for dominance and masculinity in men. --[[User:SecondSight|SecondSight]] 01:14, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

===Categories again===
I added this to [[:Category:Gender]]. I'm thinking about creating a [[:Category:Masculinity]] or [[:Category:Gender roles]] or [[:Category:Gender identity]], any of which would work well with this article, and any of which will help break up the Gender category. Fishal 05:00, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

== Ambiguity vs. vagueness ==

From the article:
<blockquote>The term is vague, and means different things to different people.[2]</blockquote>
If there are different [[meaning]]s at use, then this would be a case of [[ambiguity]], not [[vagueness]]. I'm not quite willing to change it, though, since doing so might render the statement at odds with the citation. How does the cited article explain it? [[User:Simoes|Simões]] ([[User talk:Simoes|talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/Simoes|contribs]]) 22:02, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

:I think you are right, and [[ambiguity]] captures the author's meaning better (yet I think the term is vague also). I just changed it. --[[User:SecondSight|SecondSight]] 05:30, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

== "Agentic": Relating to an agency? ==

None of the common dictionary sources have a definition for this word. What the heck does it mean, and should it be replaced in the article with a clearer synonym?

[[User:Uriel-238|Uriel-238]] 00:48, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

== [[Green Day]] song and the [[seduction community]] ==

The mention of the [[Green Day]] song [[Nice Guys Finish Last]] and the views of "nice guys" in the [[seduction community]] were removed without explanation; I have added them back in, but to the Appearances in popular culture section because I think they fit better there. --[[User:SecondSight|SecondSight]] 05:28, 28 November 2006 (UTC)

==Jerk==

Why does it link to the derivitive of acceleration instead of the personality type? —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[Special:Contributions/204.52.215.78|204.52.215.78]] ([[User talk:204.52.215.78|talk]]) 04:43, 2 March 2007 (UTC).

==You're a nice guy, but...==
...this article doesn't mention the Internet meme as described in its Chinese counterpart at all. So I wonder why there's a (InterWiki) link between the two? --[[User:Kakurady|Kakurady]] 22:55, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

== Tagging this page ==
I noticed a bunch of tags on this article. So I went to the talk page to find an explanation of them to help me improve the article. However, I found no explanation. Consequently, I'm removing the tags for now; anyone is welcome to re-tag the article with whatever they want if they also include an explanation on the talk page about exactly what the problems with the article are. --[[User:SecondSight|SecondSight]] ([[User talk:SecondSight|talk]]) 00:30, 7 May 2008 (UTC)

==No Difference==
So wikipedia equals Encyclopedia Dramatica now? Theres no difference? Bullshit articles like this are really going to be maintained? Wow. Everyone is right, aren't they, WIKIPEDIA WAS A BAD IDEA and this article among many, many articles IS PROOF.[[User:Sanitycult|Sanitycult]] ([[User talk:Sanitycult|talk]]) 08:26, 19 June 2008 (UTC)

:Could you be a bit more specific on exactly what you think is wrong with the article? --[[User:SecondSight|SecondSight]] ([[User talk:SecondSight|talk]]) 22:47, 29 June 2008 (UTC)

==Ode to a Nice Guy==

Should we finally add it? Its now a well known internet quote and should be able to be sourced quite easily. If anything id look forward to responding to the sad little logical fallacies critics reply to the "Ode" with, it should be quite easy, all they seem to come up with is "oh, a nice guy is really a manipulative ass". [[Special:Contributions/124.178.158.1|124.178.158.1]] ([[User talk:124.178.158.1|talk]]) 09:03, 23 July 2008 (UTC) Forlorn

==Male surplus among the younger generation of males==
This isn't just true in China and India where there are tens of millions of "surplus" young males because they practice sex selection. But also in western countries even thought there this is much less sex selection. Larger numbers of males are born, but they used to die of disease and accident at a greater rate. Now in western countries they survive and by the time the older and larger generation of baby boomer males are finished marrying off younger women, males born after 1980 have a harder time finding women unless they are very socially skilled and/or wealthy. There may be as many as 200,000 surplus male born/surviving/not marrying every year for last 30 or so. This leads to phenomena like [[Black blocs]] that want to destroy capitalism etc. See My blog entry [http://carolmoorereport.blogspot.com/2007/10/surplus-males-riot-in-georgetown.html Surplus Males Riot in Georgetown] and info from [http://carolmoore.net/sfm/#why my Street Fighting Man article]. And other forms of revolution against govt. Another reason govts feel they have to beef up security and/or go to war - to deal with all those angry young surplus males. (It might even be a semi-subconscious phenomena among older males.)

I don't know if you can find an article that actually will tie together the "nice guy" theories here and the male surplus theories. But something to think about. See Valerie M. Hudson and Andrea M. Den Boer's ''Bare Branches: The Security Implications of Asia's Surplus Male Population.'' See recent article [http://www.tnr.com No Country for Young Men]. wiki articles I've been meaning to enter relevant info into, if not already there, include: [[Sex ratio]], [[Population pyramid]] and see also linked from there.

The good news is there is a surplus of females over 50, so if the guys just decide they like older women, No problema! Carol Moore 17:10, 1 August 2008 (UTC)[[User:Carolmooredc|Carolmooredc]] [[User talk:Carolmooredc|{talk}]]

== last paragraph of first section ==

"In reality nice guys are not afraid of being sexual. Nice guys just simply do not want to be rude when they first meet someone. Nice guys do not feel they have to turn off their sexuality, this is just a myth by people who try to play psychologist. The problem is most young females are reluctant to get to know nice guys past the first meeting or first date. This is because of their bizarre pre-conceived notions. They will over analyze everything the nice guy says and draw a conclusion to fit their assumption. The young immature female will take his kindness for weakness or they will even assume he is desperate. A common and popular pre-conceived notion of young females is nice guys are suppose to lack self confidence. They will look at the nice guy's modesty and assume he lacks confidence. Young women will even assume the nice guy will be clingy and needy in a relationship. If they heard that one nice guy did something they will assume all nice guys will do the same thing. This is the main reason for many of the pre-conceived notions. A lot of young females will get their perception of nice guys from television, example Dawson's Creek. Just because the character is uptight about adult sexual situations they will assume every nice guy in the real world feel exactly the same way. There is not a problem in the dating world for "nice girls" because males do not analyze women in that way. Males do not consider a woman being a little too nice as a big deal or something to lose sleep over. A young female will take one aspect of someone and assume a whole paragraph of things about the person. Example: He is nice, which means "he has to be this, this and this". Nice guys usually have to deal with a lot of psychobabble from the general public due to numerous assumptions. Psychobabble means the speaker lacks the experience and understanding necessary for proper use of a given psychological term. In other words the person using pyschobabble is just a "want-to-be" psychologist, who lacks true intelligence. Being insecure, needy clingy and controlling in a relationship are actually traits of many bad boys but many immature young females will slap these negative traits on nice guys to justify their negative opinion of them. This is due to their extreme immaturity."

sounds kinda POV to me. and no citation. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] ([[User talk:Mathnerd314|talk]]) 13:11, 2 October 2008 (UTC)

Protein adulteration in China

2008-09-18T03:34:07Z

Mathnerd314: removing the clause "no evidence of harm to human health..." in light of the recent Sanlu scandal

{{longintro}}
'''Chinese protein export contamination''' was first identified after the wide [[Product recall|recall]] of many brands of [[domestic cat|cat]] and [[domestic dog|dog]] [[Pet food|food]] starting in March 2007 (the [[2007 pet food recalls]]), and eventually involved the human food supply. The recalls in [[North America]], Europe and [[South Africa]] came in response to reports of [[renal failure]] in pets. Initially the recalls were associated with the consumption of mostly wet pet foods made with [[wheat gluten]] from a single [[People's Republic of China|Chinese]] company. In the following weeks, several other companies who received the contaminated wheat gluten also voluntarily recalled dozens of pet food brands. One month after the initial recall, contaminated [[rice]] protein from a different source in China was also identified as being associated with kidney failure in pets in the United States, while contaminated [[corn]] gluten was associated with kidney failure with pets in South Africa.

The [[Chinese government]] was initially slow to respond. Both government officials and manufacturers went so far as to deny that vegetable protein was even exported from China and refused for weeks to allow foreign food safety investigators to enter the country.<ref name=chinacritic/><ref name="durbinletter" /> Ultimately, the Chinese government acknowledged that contamination had occurred and arrested the managers of two protein manufacturers identified so far and took other measures to improve food safety and product quality.<ref name="XinhuaAug31"/>

The first and most easily identified contaminant in the vegetable protein is [[melamine]]. However, melamine is not considered to be especially dangerous to animals or humans, and so investigators have continued to examine the role of other contaminants found to be present in the proteins, including [[cyanuric acid]]. Current research has focused on the combination of melamine and cyanuric acid in causing renal failure. Reports that cyanuric acid may be an independently and potentially widely-used [[adulterant]] in China have heightened concerns for both pet and human health.<ref name="IHTcyan"/>

Both the wheat gluten and rice protein concentrate were found to actually be [[wheat flour]], which contains wheat gluten as a component and is less expensive than separated gluten. Melamine and cyanuric acid were most likely added to fraudulently increase the apparent protein content of the flour to allow them to pass as concentrated vegetable proteins.<ref name=javma>{{cite news
|url=http://www.avma.org/onlnews/javma/jun07/070615m.asp
|title=Ongoing recall investigation unraveling the facts
|author=Katie Burns and Susan Kahler
|date=[[June 15]], [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-06-08
|publisher=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association
}}</ref>

Reports of widespread adulteration of Chinese animal feed with melamine have raised the issue of melamine contamination in the human food supply both in China and abroad.<ref name=NYTfiller>{{cite news |author=David Barboza and Alexei Barrionuevo|title=Filler in Animal Feed Is Open Secret in China |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/30/business/worldbusiness/30food.html?pagewanted=1&hp
|publisher=The New York Times|date=[[April 30]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-30}}</ref> On [[April 27]] US [[FDA]] subjected all vegetable proteins imported from China, intended for human or animal consumption, to detention without physical examination, including: Wheat Gluten, Rice Gluten, Rice Protein, Rice Protein Concentrate, Corn Gluten, Corn Gluten Meal, Corn By-Products, Soy Protein, Soy Gluten, Proteins (includes amino acids and protein hydrosylates), and Mung Bean Protein.<ref name=FDAimp>{{cite web
|title=IMPORT ALERT #99-29, "DETENTION WITHOUT PHYSICAL EXAMINATION OF ALL VEGETABLE PROTEIN PRODUCTS FROM CHINA FOR ANIMAL OR HUMAN FOOD USE DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF MELAMINE AND/OR MELAMINE ANALOGS"
|url=http://www.fda.gov/ora/fiars/ora_import_ia9929.html
|publisher=[[FDA]]
|date=[[April 27]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-01}}</ref> In a teleconference with reporters on [[May 1]], officials from the FDA and [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] said that between 2.5 and 3 million people in the United States had consumed chickens that had consumed feed containing contaminated vegetable protein from China.<ref name="millionseat">{{cite news
|title=Feds: Millions have eaten chickens fed tainted pet food
|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/05/02/pet.food.poultry/index.html
|publisher=CNN
|date=[[May 2]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref> Reports that melamine has been added as a binder in animal feed manufactured in North America also raise the possibility that harmful melamine contamination might not be limited to China.<ref name=IHTusadult/>

There has been widespread public outrage and calls for [[government regulation]] of pet foods, which had previously been self-regulated by pet food manufacturers. The [[United States Senate]] held an oversight hearing on the matter by [[April 12]]. <ref name=CJ >{{cite news |first=Benna |last=Delgado |title= UPDATE: Pet Food Recall Controversy Headed to U. S. Senate |url=http://caribjournal.com/2007/04/09/update-pet-food-recall-controversy-headed-to-u-s-senate/ |publisher=CaribJournal.com |date=[[April 9]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref> The economic impact on the pet food market has been extensive, with Menu Foods losing roughly [[United States Dollar|$]]30 million alone from the recall.

As of [[May 7]], United States food safety officials stated: "There is very low risk to human health from consuming meat from hogs and chickens known to have been fed animal feed supplemented with pet food scraps that contained melamine and melamine-related compounds"<ref name=USDAFDA3/>

In September 2008, [[Sanlu Group]] had to recall [[baby milk]] due to contamination with melamine. 2 babies died and over 1,000 were made ill.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/2963808/China-accused-over-contaminated-baby-milk.html Telegraph]</ref>

__ToC__

==History==

{{main|Timeline of the 2007 pet food recalls}}

The contaminated vegetable proteins were imported from China in 2006 and early 2007 and used as pet food ingredients. The process of identifying and accounting for the source of the contamination and how the contaminant causes sickness is ongoing.<ref name=Sciam>{{cite news |first=Nikhil |last=Swaminathan |title=Special Report: The Poisoning of Our Pets - Scientists and government agencies home in on the cause of more than 100 pet deaths from tainted food |url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa004&articleID=9AA80BDC-E7F2-99DF-325B0C8F34C09E95
|publisher=[[Scientific American]] |date=[[March 28]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref><ref name=AP3>{{cite news |first=Mark Johnson, [[Associated Press]] |title=Lab Gets New Attention in Pet Food Case |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/04/01/AR2007040100720.html |publisher= [[Washington Post]] |date=[[April 1]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref>

The first recalls were announced by Menu Foods late on Friday, [[March 16]], [[2007]] for cat and dog food products in the United States. <ref name=Reuters>{{cite news |first=Alexandria |last=Sage |title=Pet deaths expected to rise despite recall: FDA |url=http://ca.today.reuters.com/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=domesticNews&storyID=2007-03-19T225231Z_01_N19293241_RTRIDST_0_CANADA-PETFOOD-RECALL-COL.XML&archived=False |publisher=[[Reuters]], [[Canada]] |date=2007-03-19 |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref> By [[March 30]] the United States began to ban imports of wheat gluten from China. The Chinese government responded on [[April 4]] by categorically denying any connection to the North American food poisonings refusing to allow inspection of facilities suspected of producing contaminated products.<ref name="durbinletter">{{cite web
|title=DURBIN, DELAURO MEET WITH VON ESCHENBACH; URGE CHINESE GOVERNMENT TO COOPERATE ON PET FOOD CONTAMINATION INVESTIGATION |url=http://www.durbin.senate.gov/record.cfm?id=272635
|date=[[April 18]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-19}}</ref>

However, on [[April 6]], the Chinese government told the [[Associated Press]] they would investigate the source of the wheat gluten. and by [[April 23]] China gave permission to FDA investigators to enter the country.<ref name=NYT3>{{cite news |first=David |last=Barboza |title=China Yields to Inquiry on Pet Food |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/24/business/worldbusiness/24pets.html
|publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=[[April 23]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref> On [[April 25]] Chinese authorities began to shut down and destroy the implicated factories and detain their managers.<ref name=fishfeed/> The following day, China's Foreign Ministry said it has banned the use of [[Melamine#Toxicity|melamine]] in food products, admitting that products containing melamine had cleared customs while continuing to dispute the role of melamine in causing pet deaths. China also vowed to cooperate with U.S. investigators to find the "real cause" of pet deaths.<ref name=NYTAP>{{cite news
|last=AP
|title=China Bans Melamine in Food Products |url=http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/world/AP-China-Pet-Food-Recall.html
|publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=[[April 26]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-26}}</ref>

On [[April 24]], for the first time FDA officials said that melamine had been detected in feed given to animals raised for human consumption within the United States.<ref name="NYT4">{{cite news
|first=Sarah |last=Abruzzese
|title=F.D.A. Says Livestock Were Fed Pet Food With Suspect Chemical
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/25/us/25petfood.html
|publisher=New York Times
|date=[[April 25]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-25}}</ref>

== Investigators search for the source of the melamine contamination ==

As all three pet food ingredients containing melamine have been imported from China, investigators have focused their inquiries there.<ref name=USA>{{cite news
|first=Elizabeth
|last=Weise
|title=Nestlé Purina, Hills join pet food recall
|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2007-03-30-pet-food-recall_N.htm |publisher=[[USA Today]]
|date=[[March 30]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref><ref name="ricetoo">{{cite news
|first=Julie
|last=Schmit
|title=Premium pet food company recalls dry foods
|url=http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/2007-04-17-premium-pet-food-recalled_N.htm
|publisher=USA Today
|date=[[April 17]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-17}}
</ref><ref name="SAimportban"> {{cite news |first = Nicola |last = Mawson |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200704200140.html |title=South Africa: No More Chinese Take-Aways for SA Pets |accessdate=2007-04-20 |publisher=Business Day (Johannesburg) |date = [[April 20]] [[2007]]}}</ref><ref name=SciAm2>{{cite news
|first=Nikhil
|last=Swaminathan
|title=Were Our Pets Deliberately Poisoned?
|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=2B10D1F6-E7F2-99DF-34DAAAC1622FE3CE&chanID=sa007
|publisher=Scientific American
|date=[[April 25]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-26}}</ref> Another concern has been raised by allegations that one contract manufacture of pet food has included contaminated ingredients from China without the knowledge or approval of the pet food marketers.<ref name=NBIrecall>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.naturalbalanceinc.com/press_release4_27_07.html
|title=Natural Balance Pet Foods, Inc. Recalls Products in Response to American Nutrition Inc. Pet Food Recall
|accessdate=2007-04-28}}</ref><ref name=CanineCaviarRecall>
{{cite web
|url=http://caninecaviar.com/
|title=Canine Caviar Pet Food Recall Notice
|accessdate=2007-04-29}}</ref><ref name=diamondrecall>{{cite web
|url=http://www.chickensoupforthepetloverssoul.com/
|title=Diamond Pet Foods has announced it is withdrawing a limited number of canned products manufactured by American Nutrition
|accessdate=2007-04-26}}</ref><ref name=bluebufallegations>{{cite web
|url=http://www.bluebuff.com/company/news_070426.shtml
|title=Blue Buffalo Recalls Can and Biscuit Products Due To Tampering By American Nutrition Inc.
|accessdate=2007-04-26}}</ref><ref name=harmonyrecall>{{cite web
|url=http://harmonypetproducts.com/index.html
|title=Harmony Farms Cans And Biscuits Recalled Due To Product Tampering
|accessdate=2007-04-29}}</ref><ref name=ANIrecall>{{cite web
|url=http://www.americannutritioninc.com
|title=American Nutrition, Inc. Issues Voluntary Recall
|accessdate=2007-04-28}}</ref> Melamine has also been purposely added as a [[binder (material)|binder]] to fish and livestock feed manufactured in the United States and traced to suppliers in Ohio and Colorado, and while this adulteration has not been linked to any illness as yet, it raises another possible route of melamine adulteration in both animal and human foods independent of imported Chinese ingredients.<ref name=FDAMay30>{{cite web
|title="Tembec and Uniscope Voluntary Recall Feed Ingredients, FDA Asks Feed Manufacturers to Avoid Ingredients Containing Melamine"
|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01643.html
|publisher=[[FDA]]
|date=[[May 30]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref><ref name=IHTusadult>{{cite news |author=Andrew Martin |title=Poison used in China is found in U.S.-made animal feed |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/05/31/business/food.1-65273.php
|publisher=The New York Times|date=[[May 31]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-06-01}}</ref>

=== Melamine production and use in China===
[[Melamine#synthesis|Melamine]] is commonly produced from [[urea]], mainly by either [[catalysis|catalyzed]] [[gas|gas-phase]] production or [[high pressure]] [[liquid|liquid-phase]] production, and is soluble in water. Melamine is used combined with [[formaldehyde]] to produce [[melamine resin]], a very durable [[thermosetting plastic]], and [[melamine foam]], a [[polymer]]ic cleaning product. The end products include counter-tops, fabrics, [[glue]]s and [[flame retardant]]s. Occasionally, melamine-formaldehyde resin is added to gluten for non-food purposes, such as adhesives<ref>[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsrchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=2492510.PN.&OS=PN/2492510&RS=PN/2492510 Amino-aldehyde adhesives, Clarence F. Van Epps, US Patent No. 2492510, 1949]</ref> or fabric printing. <ref>[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/75505198/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 Use of Chemically Modified Wheat Gluten to Reduce Formaldehyde Emissions During Curing of Pigment Print Pastes on Fabrics, Starch, volume 52, p420-422, 2000]</ref>

Melamine is also a byproduct of several [[pesticide]]s, including [[cyromazine]].<ref name=MelUses>[http://www.dsm.com/en_US/html/dmm/faq_page.htm Melamine FAQ page] - includes list of industrial uses for melamine.</ref> The [[Food Safety and Inspection Service]] (FSIS) of the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) provides a test method for analyzing cyromazine and melamine in animal tissues in its Chemistry Laboratory Guidebook which "contains test methods used by FSIS Laboratories to support the Agency's inspection program, ensuring that meat, poultry, and egg products are safe, wholesome and accurately labeled."<ref name=FSIScyro>{{cite web
|title=CYROMAZINE AND MELAMINE
|url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/ophs/clg/Cyromazine.pdf
|publisher=[[USDA]] [[FSIS]]
|month=July | year=1991 |accessdate=2007-04-27|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name=FSISCLG>{{cite web
|title=Chemistry Laboratory Guidebook
|url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/science/Chemistry_Lab_Guidebook/index.asp
|publisher=[[USDA]] [[FSIS]]
|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref> In 1999, in a proposed rule published in the [[Federal Register]] regarding cyromazine residue, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) proposed "remov[ing] melamine, a [[metabolite]] of cyromazine from the tolerance expression since it is no longer considered a residue of concern."<ref name=EPACyr>
[http://www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-PEST/1999/September/Day-15/p24047.htm Environmental Protection Agency. Cyromazine; Pesticide Tolerance]</ref>

Melamine production in China has also been reported as using [[coal]] as raw material.<ref name=NYTfiller/> This production has been described as also producing "melamine scrap" which is not "pure melamine but impure melamine scrap that is sold more cheaply as the waste product after melamine is produced by chemical and fertilizer factories here."<ref name="xuzhounonfood"/> Shandong Mingshui Great Chemical Group, the company reported by the New York Times as producing melamine from [[coal]], produces and sells both [[urea]] and [[melamine]] but does not list [[melamine resin]] as a product.<ref name=SMGCGweb>{{cite web |title=Products|url=http://www.sdmingquan.com/template/product_e.htm |publisher=Shandong Mingshui Great Chemical Group|accessdate=2007-04-30}}</ref> Melamine production in China has increased greatly in recent years and was described as in "serious surplus" in 2006 .<ref name=ChinaChemR>{{cite news |first=Wang |last=Ruilin |title=Melamine capacity is serious surplus |url=http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-5152838/Melamine-capacity-is-serious-surplus.html#abstract |publisher=China Chemical Reporter|date=[[January 6]] [[2006]] |accessdate=2007-04-21}}</ref> In the [[United States Geological Survey]] 2004 Minerals Survey Yearbook, in a report on worldwide [[nitrogen]] production, the author stated that "China continued to plan and construct new ammonia and urea plants using [[coal gasification]] technology."<ref name=USGSweb>{{cite web
|first=Deborah
|last=Kramer |title=Nitrogen|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/nitrogen/nitromyb04.pdf|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|year=2005|accessdate=2007-04-30|format=PDF}}</ref>

As per [[melamine#synthesis|melamine synthesis]], the off-gas in production contains large amounts of ammonia. Therefore melamine production is often integrated into urea production which uses ammonia as feedstock. Crystallization and washing of melamine generates a considerable amount of waste water, which is a pollutant if discharged directly into the environment. The waste water may be concentrated into a solid (1.5-5% of the weight) for easier disposal. The solid may contain approximately
70% melamine, 23% oxytriazines ([[ammeline]], [[ammelide]] and [[cyanuric acid]]), 0.7% polycondensates ([[melem]], [[Melam (chemistry)|melam]] and [[Melon (chemistry)|melon]]). <ref name=melsynth>SM Lahalih, M Absi-Halabi, "Recovery of solids from melamine waste effluents and their conversion to useful products", Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, vol.28, 500-504 (1989).</ref>

===Suspicions of widespread intentional contamination in China===
{{Further|[[Food safety in the People's Republic of China]]}}
[[Melamine#Toxicity|Melamine]] manufacturing and the chemical processes in which melamine are used are completely unrelated to the manufacture or processing of food products such as wheat gluten. On [[April 9]] the FDA stated that there is a "distinct possibility" that the food was intentionally contaminated.<ref name=CNNcontamination>{{cite news |title= One possibility: Pet food adulterated on purpose |url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/04/06/pet.deaths/index.html |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=2007-04-06|accessdate=2008-03-22}}</ref> According to Senator Richard J. Durbin, one theory that investigators are exploring is whether melamine was added to fraudulently increase the measured protein content, which determines the value of the product.<ref name=BaltSun>{{cite news |first=Jonathan |last=Rockoff |title=Pet food probe turns to possibility of fraud |url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/nationworld/bal-te.petfood19apr19,0,4141728.story?coll=bal-nationworld-headlines |publisher=The Baltimore Sun |date=[[April 19]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-20}}</ref>
Some [[Chinese protein export scandal#protein testing in the food industry|analysis methods for determining protein content]] actually measure the amount of nitrogen present, on the assumption that only protein in the sample contributes significantly to its nitrogen content. Melamine contains a very high proportion of nitrogen.<ref name=protcont>{{cite web
|url= http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0704/07/smn.01.html
|title = Questions About Pet Food Recall (Transcript)
|publisher=CNN
|date=[[April 7]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-14}}</ref> According to Liu Laiting, a Chinese professor of animal sciences, melamine is also hard to detect in ordinary tests.<ref name=NYT3>{{cite news |first=David |last=Barboza |title=China Yields to Inquiry on Pet Food |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/24/business/worldbusiness/24pets.html
|publisher=The New York Times |date=[[April 23]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-24}}</ref>

Xuzhou Anying Biologic Technology Development Company (徐州安营生物技术开发有限公司), an agricultural products company based in [[Xuzhou]], [[Jiangsu Province|Jiangsu]], China, which U.S. officials believe was the source of the melamine-contaminated gluten, are maintaining innocence and assert that they are cooperating with officials. The general manager for Xuzhou Anying has denied that his company exported goods and says that they are researching who might have exported their product.<ref name="tragic">{{cite web
|url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/04/06/pet.deaths/index.html
|title=Senator calls FDA 'tragically slow' on pet food recall
|accessdate=2007-04-06
| publisher =CNN
| date = [[April 6]] [[2007]]
}}</ref> They note that per Chinese law, all exported wheat gluten is tested and that they were simply a [[middle man]] for local producers.<ref name=CNNVid> [http://www.cnn.com/video/player/player.html?url=/video/us/2007/04/04/vause.china.pet.food.mystery.cnn&wm=9 April 4 CNN Report]</ref> However, a truck driver who has carried goods for Xuzhou Anying contradicted this, saying "they have a factory that makes wheat gluten."<ref name=intentional1>{{cite news |first=David |last=Barboza |title=Some Suspect Chemical Mix in Pet Food |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/12/business/worldbusiness/12gluten.html?em&ex=1176523200&en=ebe64b8eb341ef4b&ei=5087%0A
|publisher=The New York Times |date=[[April 12]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-12}}</ref> Officials in the USDA and FDA believe that Xuzhou Anying labeled its wheat gluten as "nonfood" and exported through a third party, Suzhou Textiles Silk Light & Industrial Products. The nonfood designation would allow the gluten to be shipped without inspection, however a spokesman for Suzhou Textiles has denied that the company exported any wheat gluten.<ref name="xuzhounonfood">{{cite news
|title=Chinese firm dodged inspection of pet food, U.S. says
|first=David
|last=Barboza
|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/05/02/africa/food.php
|date=2007-05-02
|accessdate=2007-04-02}}</ref>

There is evidence that Xuzhou Anying, despite being a food ingredient supplier, has sought out large quantities of melamine in the past. ''[[The New York Times]]'' has reported that as recently as [[March 29]] [[2007]], representatives of Xuzhou Anying wrote, "Our company buys large quantities of melamine scrap" on a message board for the trading of industrial materials. Melamine may have been added to enhance the apparent protein content of the wheat gluten. However, the importer of the wheat gluten, [[ChemNutra]], claims that they received from Xuzhou Anying results of analyses showing "no impurities or contamination."<ref name=intentional1/> It has not yet been determined whether Xuzhou Anying products other than wheat gluten have been shipped to North America.<ref name=chinacritic>{{cite news |first=Karen |last=Roebuck |title=Chinese criticized in pet food probe
|url=http://pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/rss/s_502101.html |publisher=Pittsburgh Tribune-Review |date=[[April 11]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref>

The second Chinese supplier involved in shipping melamine-contaminated food ingredients, Binzhou Futian Biology Technology, has been working with importer Wilbur-Ellis since July 2006 .<ref name="binzhou">{{cite news
|first=Julie
|last=Schmit
|title=FDA: Tainted pet food ingredient came from China
|url=http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/2007-04-19-recall-usat_N.htm
|publisher=USA Today
|date=[[April 19]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-17}}</ref> Binzhou Futian supplies soy, corn and other proteins to the United States, Europe and Southeast Asia.<ref name="xuzhounonfood"/> Binzhou typically ships rice protein concentrate in white bags but on [[April 11]] one bag was pink and had the word "melamine" stenciled on it. Binzhou explained to Wilbur-Ellis that the original bag had broken and a mislabeled, but new, bag had been used.<ref name="binzhou"/> The company only supplies food and feed ingredients.<ref name="binzhouwebpage">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.sdjinhaiwan.com/sdp/122493/4/pl-1088824.html
|title=BINZHOU FUTIAN BIOLOGY TECHNOLOGY CO.,LTD, Product Catalog
|accessdate=2007-04-19}}</ref>

Stephen Sundlof, director of the FDA's Center for Veterinary Medicine, said that [[Melamine#Toxicity|melamine]] turning up in exported Chinese wheat gluten, rice protein concentrate and corn gluten supports theories of intentional adulteration. "That will be one of the theories we will pursue when we get into the plants in China."<ref name=SciAm2/>

On [[April 29]] and [[April 30]], the [[International Herald Tribune]] and [[New York Times]] reported that some animal feed manufacturers in China admit to having used melamine scrap in animal feed for years. Said Ji Denghui, general manager of the Fujian Sanming Dinghui Chemical Company: “Many companies buy melamine scrap to make animal feed, such as fish feed. I don’t know if there’s a regulation on it. Probably not. No law or regulation says ‘don’t do it,’ so everyone’s doing it. The laws in China are like that, aren’t they? If there’s no accident, there won’t be any regulation.” Such use of "melamine scrap", described as leftover from processing of coal into melamine for use in creating plastic and fertilizer, was described as widespread. Melamine is said to have been chosen in order to inflate crude protein content measures and to avoid tests for other common and illegal ingredients, such as [[urea]].<ref name=IHTchin>{{cite news |author=David Barboza and Alexei Barrionuevo|title=Filler in animal feed is open secret in China|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/04/30/business/30food.php
|publisher=The New York Times|date=[[April 29]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-30}}</ref><ref name=NYTfiller/>

As of [[May 2]] officials of the USDA and FDA still do not know who manufactured the contaminated food or where the contamination took place. The Chinese government has said that Xuzhou Anying, for instance, purchased its products from 25 different manufacturers.<ref name="xuzhounonfood"/>

On [[May 8]] [[2007]], The [[International Herald Tribune]] reported that three Chinese chemical makers have said that animal feed producers often purchase, or seek to purchase, the chemical, cyanuric acid, from their factories to blend into animal feed to give the [[Chinese protein export scandal#Protein testing in the food industry|false appearance of a higher level of protein]], suggesting another potentially dangerous way that melamine and cyanuric acid might combine in protein products.<ref name="IHTcyan">{{cite news
|first=David
|last=Barboza
|title=Second chemical eyed in Chinese pet food scandal
|url=http://iht.com/articles/2007/05/08/business/petfood.php
|publisher=New York Times
|date=[[May 8]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-05-08}}</ref>

The same day, FDA officials revealed that the vegetable proteins were not only contaminated, but mislabeled. Both the wheat gluten and rice protein concentrate were actually wheat flour, a much cheaper product from which wheat gluten is extracted. The addition of nitrogen-rich compounds were necessary to make the flour test as if it were protein extract.<ref name=javma/>

==== Non-protein nitrogen as legitimate and illegitimate feed additive ====

[[Ruminant|Ruminant animals]] can obtain protein from at least some forms of nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) through fermentation by their rumen bacteria, hence NPN is often added to their diet to supplement protein.<ref name="NPN for cattle">{{cite web
|url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/Pubs/livestk/01608.html
|author=T.L. Stanton and J. Whittier
|title=Urea and NPN for Cattle and Sheep
|publisher=[[Colorado State University]] Cooperative Extension
|month=March | year=2006
|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref> Nonruminants such as cats, dogs and pigs (and humans) cannot utilize NPN. NPN are given to ruminants in the form of pelleted [[urea]], [[ammonium phosphate]] and/or [[biuret]].<ref name="NPNPoisoning">{{cite web
|url=http://www.merckvetmanual.com/mvm/index.jsp?cfile=htm/bc/212400.htm
|title=Nonprotein Nitrogen Poisoning, Merck Veterinary Manual, 9th ed.
|publisher=[[Merck Co.]]
|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref> Sometimes slightly [[polymer]]ized special [[urea-formaldehyde resin]] or a mixture of urea and [[formaldehyde]] (both are also known as formaldehyde-treated urea) is used in place of urea, because the former provides a better control on the nitrogen release. This practice is carried out in China and other countries, such as Finland <ref>"Untreated and formaldehyde-treated urea as nitrogen sources for young growing bulls", J.Setala, L.Syrjala-Qvist, P.Aspila, Journal of the Scientific Agricultural Society of Finland vol.54, p53-62, 1982</ref>, India<ref>"Evaluation of slow release urea formaldehyde complexes (SRUFC'S) as partial substitutes of protein in crossbred calves", V.K.Sharma, B.N.Gupta, Asian Journal of Dairy Research vol.4, p119-25, 1985</ref> and France.<ref>"Influence of Niacin Supplementation on In Vivo Digestibility and Ruminal Digestion in Dairy Cows" M. Doreau and J. F. Ottou, Journal of Dairy Science, vol.79 (12) 1996</ref>

[[Cyanuric acid]] has also been used as NPN. For example, [[Archer Daniels Midland]] manufactures an NPN supplement for cattle, which contains biuret, [[triuret]], cyanuric acid and urea.<ref name="RoughageBusterPlus">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.admani.com/alliancebeef/RoughageBusterPlus.htm
|title=Roughage Buster Plus: ingredients
|publisher=[[Archer Daniels Midland]]
|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref> FDA permits a certain amount of cyanuric acid to be present in some additives used in animal feed and also drinking water.<ref name="FDAcyan">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfCFR/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=573.220
|title=[CITE: 21CFR573.220]Feed-grade biuret
|date=[[April 1]] [[2006]]
|publisher=[[FDA]]
|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref>

Melamine use as NPN for cattle was described in a 1958 patent.<ref>"Ruminant feed compositions, Robert W. Colby and Robert J. Mesler Jr., U.S. Patent No. 2819968, 1958</ref> In 1978, however, a study concluded that melamine "may not be an acceptable nonprotein N source for ruminants"，because its [[hydrolysis]] in cattle is slower and less complete than other nitrogen sources such as [[cottonseed meal]] and urea.<ref name="MelamineNPN1978">“Melamine as a dietary nitrogen source for ruminants", G.L.Newton and P.R.Utley, Journal of Animal Science, vol.47, p1338-44, 1978, [http://olericulture.org/000/298/000298197.html Abstract]</ref>

In China, it is known that ground [[urea-formaldehyde resin]] is a common adulterant in feed for non-ruminants.<ref>[http://scholar.ilib.cn/abstract.aspx?A=lsyslgy200208022 Distinguishing Ureaformaldehyde Polymer in fish meal, Cereal & Feed Industry, Issue 8, 2002 (in Chinese)]</ref><ref>[http://www.tjchia-tai.com/qaqc/QAQC_3_1.htm Step-by-step demonstration of detecting urea-formaldehyde resin in fish meal (in Chinese)]</ref> Domestically it is often sold under the euphemism "protein essence" (蛋白精) and is described as "one kind of new proteinnitrogen feed additive".<ref>[http://www.gdefair.com/en/biz_enterprise/mode1/product_details.asp?product_id=4785 Product details: Protein essence]</ref> However, urea-formaldehyde resin itself has been suggested as appropriate for use in feed for some non-ruminants in at least one [[UN]] [[FAO]] report, suggesting its use as a binder in feed pellets in aquaculture.<ref name=UNFAO>{{cite web |first=Albert |last=Tacon|title=The nutrition and feeding of farmed fish and shrimp; a training manual |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/003/AB468E/AB468E06.htm
|publisher=[[UN]][[Food and Agriculture Organization]]|month=September | year=1987 |accessdate=2007-04-30}}</ref>

There is at least one report of inexpensively priced rice protein concentrate (feed grade) containing non-protein nitrogen being marketed for use in non-ruminants dating back to 2005 . In a news item on its website, Jiangyin Hetai Industrial Co., Ltd. warned its customers of low-priced "PSEUDO rice protein" for sale in the market by another unnamed supplier, noting that the contaminant could be detected by analyzing the [[isoelectric point]].<ref name="jiangyinwebpage">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.hetai-industry.com/news.html
|title=JIANGYIN HETAI INDUSTRIAL CO.,LTD, Hetai Industry News
|accessdate=2007-04-20}}</ref> It is not clear from that report whether the contaminant in that case was melamine or some other non-protein nitrogen source or whether any contaminated rice protein concentrate made it into the food supply at that time.

On [[Apr 18]], an ad was posted on the trading website [[Alibaba.com]] selling "Esb protein powder" in Xuzhou Anying's name.<ref>[http://www.alibaba.com/manufacturer/14895176/Sell_Esb_Protein_Powder.html Info: Sell Esb Protein Powder]</ref><ref name=LATesb>{{cite news |author=Abigail Goodman and Don Lee|title=Reported pet deaths at 8,500, FDA says |url=http://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-petfood4may04,0,4416256.story?coll=la-home-headlines
|publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=[[May 4]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref> The product is said to be protein in nature and suitable for livestock and poultry feed, yet claims a crude protein content of 160-300%. It also mentions in passing the product makes use of "NPN" which is an acronym for non-protein nitrogen. Similar ads were placed on other websites, some dated as early as [[Oct 31]] 2005.<ref>{{zh icon}} [http://ccne.mofcom.gov.cn/offer/detail.php?t=1&pid=3123 Ministry of Commerce of the P.R.China - China Commodity Net]</ref> Products with similar descriptions were also sold as "EM bacterium active protein forage" by Shandong Binzhou Xinpeng Biosciences Company <ref>[http://72.14.253.104/search?q=cache:mAY-8iy1jEcJ:www.bzxpsw.com/en/+em+protein+shandong+binzhou+xinpeng&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1&gl=us Google image]</ref> and "HP protein powder" by [[Shandong Province|Shandong]] Jinan Together Biologic Technology Development Company. <ref>http://www.china-together.com/e-productxinxi.asp?id=24</ref>

==== Protein testing in the food industry ====

[[Image:Peptide group resonance.png|thumb|300px|left|[[Resonance (chemistry)|Resonance]] structures of the [[peptide bond]] that links individual [[amino acids]] to form a protein [[polymer]].]]
[[Proteins]], unlike most other food components, contain [[nitrogen]], making nitrogen measurement a common surrogate for protein content. The standard tests for crude protein content used in the food industry ([[Kjeldahl method]] and [[Dumas method]] are used for official purposes) measure total nitrogen.<ref name="ProtAnaweb">{{ cite web
|url=http://www-unix.oit.umass.edu/~mcclemen/581Proteins.html
|author=Dr. D. Julian McClements
|title=Analysis of Proteins
|publisher=[[University of Massachusetts]]
|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref>

Accidental [[contamination]] and intentional [[adulteration]] of protein meals with non-protein nitrogen sources that inflate crude protein content measurements have been known to occur in the [[food industry]] for decades, and purchasers of protein meals routinely conduct a number of [[quality control]] tests designed to detect the most common non-protein nitrogen contaminants, such as [[urea]] and [[ammonium nitrate]] in order to ensure [[food quality]].<ref name="ASAweb">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.asasea.com/f45_98.html
|author=Dr. Jowaman Khajarern and Dr. Sarote Khajarern
|title=QUICK QUALITY TESTS FOR PROTEIN MEALS
|publisher=American Soybean Association
|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref><ref name="ALTECAweb">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.alteca.com/aquaculture.htm
|author=Lynn S. Bates, PhD.
|title=AQUACULTURE FEED MICROSCOPY, A PRACTICAL APPROACH TO Quality Control
|publisher=ALTECA, Ltd.
|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref><ref name=USAToday>{{ cite news
|url=http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2007-04-25-melamine-usat_N.htm
|first=Elizabeth
|last=Weise
|title=Food tests promise tough task for FDA
|publisher=[[USA Today]]
|date=[[April 24]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-29}}</ref><ref name="xuzhounonfood"/>

At least one pet food manufacturer not involved in any recalls, The Honest Kitchen, has reacted to the news of melamine contamination by announcing that, effective immediately, it is adding melamine testing to the suite of quality control tests it already conducted on all ingredients it purchases.<ref name="EarTiweb">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/news_press_release,96525.shtml
|author=PRNewswire
|title=Pet Food Recall Sparks New Safety Measures for Prudent Manufacturers
|publisher=EARTHTimes.org
|date=[[April 27]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref>

In at least one other segment of the food industry, the dairy industry, some countries (at least the U.S., Australia, France and Hungary), have adopted "true protein" measurement, as opposed to crude protein measurement, as the standard for payment and testing: "True protein is a measure of only the proteins in milk, whereas crude protein is a measure of all sources of nitrogen and includes nonprotein nitrogen, such as urea, which has no food value to humans. ... Current milk-testing equipment measures [[peptide bonds]], a direct measure of true protein."<ref name="USDAweb">{{ cite web
|url=http://aipl.arsusda.gov/reference/trueprot.htm
|author=P.M. VanRaden and R.L. Powell
|title=Genetic evaluations for true protein
|publisher=[[United States Department of Agriculture]]
|accessdate=2007-04-27}}</ref><ref name="holstein">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.holsteinusa.com/html/trueweb.html
|title=True Protein - General Information
|publisher=Holstein Association, USA
|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref> Measuring peptide bonds in grains has also been put into practice in several countries including Canada, the UK, Australia, Russia and Argentina where near-infrared reflectance (NIR) technology, a type of [[infrared spectroscopy]] is used.<ref name=SciAmProt>{{ cite news
|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=5&articleID=ACB480D7-E7F2-99DF-386D411734605ECC
|first=Alison
|last=Snyder
|title=Protein Pretense: Cheating the standard protein tests is easy, but industry hesitates on alternatives
|publisher=[[Scientific American]]
|date=August 2007
|accessdate=2007-11-09}}</ref> The [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] (FAO) recommends that only amino acid analysis be used to determine protein in, ''inter alia'', foods used as the sole source of nourishment, such as infant formula, but also provides: "When data on amino acids analyses are not available, determination of protein based on total N content by Kjeldahl (AOAC, 2000) or similar method ... is considered acceptable."<ref name="UNFAOprot">{{ cite web
|url=http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/006/Y5022E/y5022e03.htm
|title=Food energy – methods of analysis and conversion factors
|publisher=[[FAO]]
|accessdate=2007-11-09}}</ref>

=== Manufacturers alleged to add protein against the wishes of the brands ===

The [[April 26]] and [[April 27]] recalls by Blue Buffalo, Diamond, Harmony Farms, and Natural Balance are claimed by all 4 brands to be due to unauthorized inclusion of rice protein by American Nutrition, Inc. (ANI), their manufacturer. This adds a new potential source of contamination and distrust, namely non-compliant contract manufacturers, beyond the original problematic Chinese ingredient suppliers. Diamond and Natural Balance refer to this as a "manufacturing deviation" by ANI.<ref name=NBIrecall/><ref name=diamondrecall/> Blue Buffalo and Harmony Farms characterize this as "product tampering" by ANI.<ref name=bluebufallegations/><ref name=harmonyrecall/> ANI's recall notice makes no comment on these allegations.<ref name=ANIrecall/>

=== Intentional adulteration with melamine outside of China ===

On [[May 31]] [[2007]], the [[International Herald Tribune]] reported that melamine has also been purposely added as a [[binder (material)|binder]] to fish and livestock feed manufactured in the United States and traced to suppliers in Ohio and Colorado.<ref name=IHTusadult/>

== Impact on human food supply ==

U.S. officials publicly say that they do not believe [[melamine#toxicity|melamine]] alone to be harmful to humans. However, there is too little data to determine how it reacts with other substances, in particular, the combination of melamine with [[cyanuric acid]], a similar chemical known to be found in the waste product of at least some methods of [[melamine#synthesis|melamine production]]<ref name=melsynth />, and which combination some American and Canadian scientists have suggested may have led to the pet deaths through [[kidney failure]].<ref name=AVMAmay4>{{cite web
|title=Pet Food Recall: Updated Information for Verterinarians
|url=http://www.acvim.org/uploadedFiles/ACVIM_Pet_Recall_Guidelines_May_4.pdf
|publisher=[[AVMA]]
|date=[[May 4]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-12}}</ref><ref name=GuelphCry>{{cite web
|title=Pet Food Recall
|url=http://www.labservices.uoguelph.ca/urgent.cfm#crystals
|publisher=University of Guelph Laboratory Services
|date=[[April 27]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-28}}</ref><ref name=APmay9> {{cite news
|author=[[Associated Press]]
|title=China Zeroes in on Food and Drug Safety
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/world/AP-China-Pet-Food-Recall.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
|date=[[May 9]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-12}}</ref>
On [[May 25]], in a US FDA/CSFAN Interim Melamine and Analogues Safety/Risk Assessment, FDA stated: "While it is entirely possible that the analogues are more or less potent than the parent compound, melamine, we have no information that assesses the relative potency of the three analogues as compared to melamine; therefore, for the purpose of this interim assessment, we have made an assumption of equal potency. It has been hypothesized that melamine may interact synergistically with its three analogues, but no studies have been conducted that specifically test this hypothesis. Very preliminary work suggests that if it does occur, the formation of lattice crystals, particularly between melamine and cyanuric acid, takes place at very high dose levels and is a threshold and concentration dependent phenomenon that would not be relevant to low levels of exposure. Although still under investigation, it now appears that the combination of melamine and cyanuric acid has been linked to the acute renal failure in cats and dogs that have eaten the suspect pet foods...."<ref name=FDAinterim>{{cite web
|title=Interim Melamine and Analogues Safety/Risk Assessment
|url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/melamra.html
|publisher=[[FDA]]
|date=[[May 25]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref>

In the United States, five potential vectors of impact on the human food supply have been identified. The first, which has already been acknowledged to have occurred by US [[FDA]] and [[USDA]] officials, is via contaminated ingredients imported for use in pet foods and sold for use as salvage in animal feed which has been fed to some number of hogs and chickens, the meat from which has been processed and sold to some number of consumers: "There is very low risk to human health" in such cases involving pork and poultry.<ref name=FDAcons>{{cite web
|title=FDA and USDA Investigate Tainted Animal Feed
|url=http://www.fda.gov/consumer/updates/taintedfeed043007.html
|publisher=[[FDA]]
|date=[[April 30]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-02}}</ref><ref name=USDAFDA2/><ref name="ChiTrib"/><ref name=USDAFDA3/> On [[May 1]], the FDA and USDA stated that millions of chickens fed feed tainted with contaminated pet food had been consumed by an estimated 2.5 to 3 million people.<ref name="millionseat"/>

The second potential vector is via contaminated vegetable proteins imported for intended use as animal feed, which has apparently been acknowledged to occur with regard to fish feed in Canada,<ref name=USDAFDAmay8/><ref name=USDAFDAmay10/> while the third possible route is via contaminated vegetable proteins imported for intended use in human food products, and the FDA has issued an import alert subjecting all Chinese vegetable proteins to detention without examination.<ref name=FDAimp /><ref name="USAToday430">[http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/2007-04-30-chinese-imports-usat_N.htm FDA limits Chinese food additive imports], Elizabeth Weise and Julie Schmit, [[April 30]] [[2007]], ''[[USA Today]]'', Accessed: 2007-05-01 </ref>

A fourth potential vector is referred to in the [[May 10]] FDA-USDA press conference, ''viz.'' incorporation of contaminated vegetable proteins into products intended for human use and subsequent importation.<ref name=USDAFDAmay10>{{cite web
|title=TRANSCRIPT OF FDA-USDA UPDATE ON ADULTERATED ANIMAL FEED
|url=http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/!ut/p/_s.7_0_A/7_0_1OB?contentidonly=true&contentid=2007/05/0138.xml
|publisher=[[USDA]] and [[FDA]]
|date=[[May 10]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-11}}</ref>

A fifth vector is acknowledged to have occurred in the [[May 30]] [[2007]] FDA/USDA press conference, whereby U.S. manufacturers of livestock and shrimp/fish feed have acknowledged adding melamine to their products as a [[binder (material)|binder]].<ref name=FDAMay30/><ref name=IHTusadult/>

The original Xuzhou Anying wheat gluten was "human grade," as opposed to "feed grade," meaning that it could have been used to make food for humans such as bread or pasta. At least one contaminated batch was used to make food for humans, but the FDA quarantined it before any was sold. The FDA also notified the Centers For Disease Control and Prevention to watch for new patients admitted to hospitals with renal failure. There have been no observed increases in human illnesses and little human food has tested as contaminated, however the FDA still has not accounted for all of the Xuzhou Anying wheat gluten.<ref name="humanluck">{{ cite news
|title=How Close Was Tainted Wheat To Human Food?|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/04/12/eveningnews/main2678860.shtml
|publisher=CBS News
|date=[[April 12]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-20}}</ref>

Reports of widespread melamine adulteration in Chinese animal feed have raised the possibility of wider melamine contamination in the human food supply in China and abroad.<ref name=NYTfiller/> Despite the widely reported ban on melamine use in vegetable proteins in China, at least some chemical manufacturers continue to report selling it for use in animal feed and in products for human consumption. Said Li Xiuping, a manager at Henan Xinxiang Huaxing Chemical in Henan Province: "Our chemical products are mostly used for additives, not for animal feed. Melamine is mainly used in the chemical industry, but it can also be used in making cakes." <ref name=IHTdetain/>

=== History of events related to impact on human food supply ===

{{main|Timeline of the 2007 pet food recalls#The Human Food Supply}}

[[Image:Hog confinement barn interior.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Whole hogs that had eaten contaminated feed were sold to individuals in California]]

On [[April 3]], the [[Boston Globe]] reported that tainted wheat gluten ended up in factories that produce food for human consumption.<ref name="bostonglobehumanfood">{{ cite news
|title=Was human food tainted too?|url=http://www.boston.com/business/globe/articles/2007/04/03/was_human_food_tainted_too/
|publisher=Boston Globe
|date=[[April 3]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-29}}</ref> Then, on [[April 19]], Federal U.S. officials said that they were investigating reports that Binzhou Futian rice protein had been used in hog feed, but declined to specify where. The California Department of Food and Agriculture placed American Hog Farm in [[Ceres, California]] under quarantine, after [[Melamine#Toxicity|melamine]] was found in the urine of the hogs on the farm. California State Veterinarian Dr. Richard Breitmeyer said "All animals appear healthy," and that "It is unknown if the chemical will be detected in meat." American Hog Farm primarily supplies whole hogs to individuals. Anyone who has purchased a pig from American Hog Farm since [[April 3]] is advised not to eat it.<ref name="hogfarm">{{cite news
|title=Quarantined Ceres Farm Possibly Connected To Pet Food Recall
|url=http://fox40.trb.com/news/ktxl-041907pigfarm,0,6650960.story?coll=ktxl-news-1
|publisher=Fox 40
|date=[[April 19]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-20}}</ref> According to California state officials, approximately 45 state residents consumed pork from hogs that had been fed melamine-contaminated feed.<ref name="ChiTrib">{{cite news
|first=Steven |last=Reinberg
|title=Food safety worries mount
|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/chi-070428food-story,1,7734426.story?coll=chi-news-hed&ctrack=2&cset=true
|publisher=Chicago Tribune
|date=[[April 29]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-28}}</ref>

On [[April 24]], FDA officials said that melamine was in feed given to hogs (and in one case, in Missouri, to chickens) in California, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Utah and possibly Ohio. FDA also said that it was adding testing of imported ingredients and finished products that contain cornmeal, corn gluten, rice bran and soy protein to the tests it is already conducting for melamine in wheat gluten and rice protein concentrate ingredients and products.<ref name="NYT4" />

Dr. David Acheson, assistant FDA commissioner for food protection, announced on [[May 3]] that the FDA had begun to investigate domestic food manufacturers who use protein products to ensure that no contaminated product is being used in foods intended for human use, noting that it has no evidence of this occurring, "but it's prudent to look."<ref name="prudent">{{cite news
|author=Associated Press
|title=FDA Begins Investigating Food Makers
|url=http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2007/05/03/ap3684658.html
|publisher=Forbes
|date=[[May 3]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-03}}</ref><ref name="FDAprot">{{cite web
|title=FY 2007 Protein Surveillance Assignment—DFPG #07-20
|url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/protsurv.html
|publisher=[[FDA]] CFSAN/Office of Compliance
|date=[[May 1]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref>

A Chinese dairy that sold baby milk powder linked to kidney stones in infants and one death knew weeks before it ordered a recall that the product contained a banned chemical, the Health Ministry said Saturday, as the number of sick babies rose to 140.
In August, Sanlu's testing "revealed melamine in the baby milk powder and showed that it was contaminated," a ministry statement said. It was not known when Sanlu alerted authorities about its findings.

The dairy only announced a recall Thursday of 700 tons of formula made before August 6.

=== FDA/USDA acknowledge meat from animals fed contaminated feed to have entered the human food supply ===

On [[April 28]], the [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) and the [[FDA]], in a joint press release acknowledged that pork from hogs fed contaminated feed had entered the human food supply, stating: "Based on information currently available, FDA and USDA believe the likelihood of illness after eating pork from swine fed the contaminated product would be very low."<ref name=USDAFDA>{{cite web
|title=Joint Update: FDA/USDA Update on Tainted Animal Feed
|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01620.html
|publisher=[[USDA]] and [[FDA]]
|date=[[April 28]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-30}}</ref>

On [[April 30]], the USDA and the FDA updated their [[April 28]] food safety position to include poultry, reflecting contaminated feed being fed to chickens in Indiana.<ref name=USDAFDA2>{{cite web
|title=Joint Update: FDA/USDA Trace Adulterated Animal Feed to Poultry
|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01621.html
|publisher=[[USDA]] and [[FDA]]
|date=[[April 30]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-01}}</ref>

Risks to human health from this mode of entering the human food supply have been said to be low according to a number of FDA, [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] and university toxicologists, though it was acknowledged that how melamine had harmed cats and dogs "remains something of a mystery".<ref name=NYTtox>{{cite news
|first=Donald
|last=McNeil
|title=Pet Food Chemical Unlikely to Pose Threat to Humans, Experts Say, as U.S. Continues Inquiry
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/02/washington/02food.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
|publisher=[[New York Times]]
|date=[[May 2]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-06}}</ref>

On [[May 7]], the USDA and the FDA issued a joint press release reflecting the combined judgment of five federal agencies with regard to the risk to humans in consuming meat from animals fed feed contaminated with tainted pet food scraps, concluding: "There is very low risk to human health" in such cases involving pork and poultry. The risk assessment was conducted by scientists from [[FDA]],the [[Food Safety and Inspection Service]] (FSIS) of [[USDA]], [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]], the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA), and [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]]: "In the most extreme risk assessment scenario, when scientists assumed that all the solid food a person consumes in an entire day was contaminated with melamine at the levels observed in animals fed contaminated feed, the potential exposure was about 2,500 times lower than the dose considered safe"<ref name=USDAFDA3>{{cite web
|title=FDA/USDA Joint News Release: Scientists Conclude Very Low Risk to Humans from Food Containing Melamine
|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01629.html
|publisher=[[USDA]] and [[FDA]]
|date=[[May 7]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-07}}</ref> using criteria established prior to current research focusing on the apparent increased toxity related to the interaction of melamine and cyanuric acid ''in vivo''<ref name=NYTcyantox>{{cite news
|first=David
|last=Barboza
|title=Another Chemical Emerges in Pet Food Case
|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/09/business/worldbusiness/09food.html?_r=1&oref=slogin
|publisher=[[New York Times]]
|date=[[May 9]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref> for which there is no established safe dosage. FDA and USDA are in the process of identifying a group of experts to convene a scientific advisory board that would be charged with reviewing the risk assessment and contributing to future scientific analysis related to the risk of melamine and its compounds to humans and animals.<ref name=USDAFDA3/>

On [[May 8]], some fish intended for human consumption was also announced as having consumed feed contaminated with tainted pet food scraps. According to the Assistant Commissioner for Food Safety of the FDA, "We do not believe that there is any significant risk associated with consuming these fish." Though the FDA declined to identify the states involved in the recall, the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife said contaminated fish feed had been found at the Marion Forks Hatchery. They also said that the company that provided the feed, Skretting, had shipped the same lot of feed to six other hatcheries in Oregon.<ref name=fishfeed>{{cite news
|title= Fish meant for humans fed tainted food
|url= http://www.cnn.com/2007/HEALTH/05/08/fish.food/index.html
|publisher= CNN
|date=[[May 8]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-07}}</ref><ref name=USDAFDAmay8>{{cite web
|title=TRANSCRIPT OF MEDIA BRIEFING UPDATE BY FDA AND USDA REGARDING ADULTERATED ANIMAL FEED
|url=http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/!ut/p/_s.7_0_A/7_0_1OB/.cmd/ad/.ar/sa.retrievecontent/.c/6_2_1UH/.ce/7_2_5JM/.p/5_2_4TQ/.d/7/_th/J_2_9D/_s.7_0_A/7_0_1OB?PC_7_2_5JM_contentid=2007%2F05%2F0134.xml&PC_7_2_5JM_parentnav=TRANSCRIPTS_SPEECHES&PC_7_2_5JM_navid=TRANSCRIPT#7_2_5JM
|publisher=[[USDA]] and [[FDA]]
|date=[[May 8]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-12}}</ref>

On [[May 10]], on further inquiry into the risk to animal and human health of ingesting melamine and cyanuric acid in combination, Dr. David Acheson, Assistant Commissioner for Food Protection with the FDA said: "I'm not aware of any published studies on that. I have seen some preliminary data that would indicate that they are [[additive]]. When you put the two together, they are additive rather than [[synergistic]].... The risk assessors also estimated that even if synergism were to occur, it would be unlikely to result in more than a tenfold increase in overall toxicity, and that still gives you a very large margin of safety." No data supporting additivity was produced at this time. No basis for estimating a tenfold increase in risk in the case of synergism was offered.<ref name=USDAFDAmay10/>

On [[May 15]] USDA announced that swine that ate melamine-tainted food have been cleared for human consumption. About 56,000 pigs have been affected in several states. However, no tests have been carried out on the effects of cyanuric acid in pork as well as possible effects of interaction with melamine in the body. While the statement also said that there is no evidence of [[bioaccumulation]] of melamine alone, no mention was made whether bioaccumulation might be affected by the interaction of melamine and cyanuric acid ''in vivo'' particularly in swine kidneys.<ref name=USDAmay15/>

=== FDA subjects Chinese imported ingredients to detention without physical examination ===

On [[April 27]] US [[FDA]] subjected all vegetable proteins imported from China, intended for human or animal consumption, to detention without physical examination, including: Wheat Gluten, Rice Gluten, Rice Protein, Rice Protein Concentrate, Corn Gluten, Corn Gluten Meal, Corn By-Products, Soy Protein, Soy Gluten, Proteins (includes amino acids and protein hydrosylates), and Mung Bean Protein.<ref name=FDAimp />

These ingredients are used in such diverse products as breakfast cereal, pizza dough, baby formula, and protein shakes although there is "no evidence" that any contaminated ingredients have been used to produce human foods, according to Dr. David Acheson, chief medical officer at the FDA's Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition.<ref name="morepigs">{{cite news
|first=Deidtra |last=Henderson
|title=FDA: More animals got tainted food
|url=http://www.boston.com/business/globe/articles/2007/04/25/fda_more_animals_got_tainted_food/
|publisher=The Boston Globe
|date=[[April 25]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-26}}</ref>

=== FDA requests Centers for Disease Control monitoring of human illness ===

In addition to now testing a wide variety of imported food products and ingredients for melamine contamination, FDA has also "asked the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] to use its surveillance network to monitor for signs of human illness, such as increased renal failure, that could indicate contamination of the human food supply."<ref name=FDArenal>{{cite web
|title=Testimony By Stephen F. Sundlof, D.V.M., Ph.D., Director, FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine, Department of Health and Human Services before The Senate Agriculture, Rural Development, and Related Agencies Appropriations Subcommittee
|url=http://www.fda.gov/ola/2007/petfood041207.html
|publisher=[[FDA]]
|date=[[April 12]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-03}}</ref>

On [[May 2]], Bernadette Burden, a CDC spokeswoman, was reported as saying that a CDC survey of poison control centers, veterans’ hospitals and a sample of private hospitals had found no increase in reports of kidney diseases.<ref name=NYTtox/>

=== U.S. federal testing methods for melamine and cyanuric acid ===

The [[Food Safety and Inspection Service]] (FSIS) of the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] (USDA) provides a test method for analyzing cyromazine and melamine in animal tissues in its Chemistry Laboratory Guidebook which "contains test methods used by FSIS Laboratories to support the Agency's inspection program, ensuring that meat, poultry, and egg products are safe, wholesome and accurately labeled."<ref name=FSIScyro /><ref name=FSISCLG />

On [[April 24]], Stephen Sundlof, director of the FDA's Center for Veterinary Medicine, told reporters: "We have found cyanuric acid. It is somewhat related to melamine. Another compound that is very high in nitrogen and we are testing for that compound as well."<ref name=IHTcyan/>

On [[May 7]], the FDA sent a letter to food manufacturers, to remind them "of their legal responsibility to ensure that all ingredients used in their products are safe for human consumption."<ref name=FDAlegal>{{cite web
|title=Letter to Food Manufacturers Regarding Legal Responsibilities for the Safety of Food Ingredients
|url=http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/protltr.html
|publisher=[[FDA]]
|date=[[May 7]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref> The FDA has made available to food manufacturers a procedure providing a general guide for the sample preparation and analysis of wheat gluten and pet food matrices for melamine using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, the same methodology used by the [[FERN]] laboratories.<ref name=FDAgcms>{{cite web
|title=GC-MS Screen for the Presence of Melamine and Cyanuric Acid
|url=http://www.fda.gov/cvm/MelaminePresence.htm
|publisher=[[FDA]]
|date=[[April 25]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-05-09}}</ref>

On [[May 15]], the process for testing meat from swine was validated by USDA's [[Food Safety and Inspection Service]] (FSIS). <ref name=USDAmay15>{{cite web
|title=News Release
|url=http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/!ut/p/_s.7_0_A/7_0_1OB?contentidonly=true&contentid=2007/05/0144.xml
|publisher=[[USDA]]
|date=[[May 15]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-05-15}}</ref>

=== Human food supply outside of U.S. ===

There are no official reports as yet of melamine entering the human food supply outside of the U.S. Newspaper reports have at least raised the possibility that melamine may be widely used as an ingredient in human food products in China.<ref name=IHTdetain/>

====Official EC statements====
On [[June 7]] (updated [[July 4]]), the [[European Food Safety Authority]] (EFSA), in EFSA's Provisional Statement on a Request from the European Commission Related to Melamine and Structurally Related Compounds such as Cyanuric acid in Protein-rich Ingredients Used for Food and Feed, concluded: "EFSA provisionally recommends to apply a TDI of 0.5 mg/kg b.w. for the total of melamine and its analogues .... A source of uncertainty is the combined toxicity of melamine and cyanuric acid and their possible synergistic effects in relation to the recently observed toxicity linked to the acute renal failure and death of pet animals (cats and dogs) in the U.S. This mechanism is currently under investigation."<ref name=EFSAprovisional>{{cite web
|title=EFSA's Provisional Statement on a Request from the European Commission Related to Melamine and Structurally Related Compounds such as Cyanuric acid in Protein-rich Ingredients Used for Food and Feed
|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/EFSA/Statement/efsa_statement_melamine_en_rev1.pdf
|publisher=[[EFSA]]
|date=[[July 4]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-11-21|format=PDF}}</ref>

On [[June 21]] The Health & Consumer Protection Directorate-General of the [[European Commission]] (EC) in reporting the Summary Minutes of the Meeting of the Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health (June 7 & 8) acknowledged that corn gluten contaminated with melamine and rice protein concentrate contaminated with melamine and related compounds, both originating firom China, had been intercepted in Poland and Greece, respectively. The minutes further directed that "in case food producing animals have been fed with feed contaminated with melamine and related compounds, there is for the purpose of protecting human health, taking into account the conclusions of the EFSA statement, no need to take restrictive measures as regards the animals which have been fed with contaminated feed and as regards food of animal origin originating from animals fed with contaminated feed."
<ref name=ECfax>{{cite web
|title=Summary Minutes of the Meeting of the Standing Committee on the Food Chain and Animal Health
|url=http://ec.europa.eu/food/committees/regulatory/scfcah/animalnutrition/summary07062007_en.pdf
|date=[[June 21]], [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-11-25
|format=PDF}}</ref>

==Chinese government reaction==
[[Image:China-Jiangsu.png|thumb|left|The contaminated [[wheat gluten]] came from a company located in the [[Jiangsu Province]] in eastern [[People's Republic of China|China]].]]

Once wheat gluten had been isolated as the source of the problems, federal investigators in the United States began to trace the gluten used in the foods. All of the gluten came from ChemNutra's Kansas City warehouse. ChemNutra said it imported nearly 800 [[metric ton]]s of wheat gluten from the Xuzhou Anying Biologic Technology Development Company of [[Xuzhou]], [[Jiangsu Province|Jiangsu]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] between [[November 29]] and [[March 8]]. ChemNutra says the gluten came directly from China or from China through the [[Netherlands]], and that it received no reports of contamination in the chemical analysis provided by Xuzhou Anying Biologic Technology Development Company. The products were shipped from the company's [[Kansas City, Missouri|Kansas City]]  warehouse to several pet food makers and one distributor of pet food ingredients in the US and Canada, including the companies affected by the recall.<ref name=NYT2>{{cite news |first=David |last=Barboza |title=China Says It Had Nothing to Do With Tainted Pet Foods |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/06/business/worldbusiness/06petfood.html?_r=1&oref=login
|publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=[[April 5]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref><ref name=AP5>{{cite news |first= |last=[[Associated Press]] |title=China Looking Into Tainted Wheat Gluten Claim Over U.S. Pet Deaths |url=http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=alerts_recalls&id=5191150 |publisher=[[ABC News]] |date=[[April 8]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref> Xuzhou Anying also exports carrots, garlic, ginger, corn protein powder, vegetables and feed. <ref name=chinacritic />

On [[April 5]], several days after the United States halted all wheat gluten imports, the [[Chinese government]] categorically denied any connection to the North American food poisonings to the ''[[New York Times]]'', claiming they had no record of exporting any agricultural products that could have tainted the recalled pet foods, including the wheat gluten that has been the focus of the investigation. The general manager of the Xuzhou Anying Biologic Technology Development Company also denied that they had exported any wheat gluten to [[North America]].<ref name=NYT2/>

However, on [[April 6]], the Chinese government told the [[Associated Press]] they would investigate the source of the wheat gluten. Although the government refused to give details on the investigation, the [[Xinhua News Agency]] stated that "sampling and examination" of wheat gluten was under way across China, centering on the presence of melamine. Officials with office of the General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection and Quarantine, said that they will stay in touch with the [[U.S. Embassy]] in [[Beijing]] and that "further measures would be taken based on developments in the United States."<ref name=AP5/>

Starting on [[April 4]], the Chinese government refused US FDA requests to inspect facilities suspected of producing contaminated products.<ref name="durbinletter" /> On [[April 11]], the director of the FDA's field investigations division said he was disappointed with the Chinese response. <ref name=chinacritic/> On [[April 23]], after refusing for nearly a month, China finally gave permission to FDA investigators to enter the country.<ref name=NYT3 />

On [[April 25]], Chinese authorities shut down Binzhou Futian Biology Technology Co. Ltd., and detained the manager, Tian Feng. Feng has denied responsibility, saying that he "didn't do anything wrong," and denying that he even knew what melamine was.<ref name=fishfeed/> The following day, China's Foreign Ministry said it has banned the use of [[Melamine#Toxicity|melamine]] in food products, admitting that products containing melamine had cleared customs while continuing to dispute the role of melamine in causing pet deaths. China also vowed to cooperate with U.S. investigators to find the "real cause" of pet deaths.<ref name=NYTAP /> China provided a transcript of the [[April 26]] press conference indicating that an invitation to FDA investigators had been sent on [[April 23]], but making no mention of banning melamine usage.<ref name=CHINAeng>{{cite web
|title=Foreign Ministry Spokesman Liu Jianchao's Regular Press Conference on 26 April 2007 |url=http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xwfw/s2510/2511/t314940.htm
|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs for the People's Republic of China
|date=[[April 28]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-01}}</ref>

On [[May 3]] Chinese authorities detained Mao Lijun, general manager of the Xuzhou Anying Biologic Technology Development, one of the companies accused of exporting contaminated protein, on unspecified charges, perhaps showing that the Chinese government is taking additional steps in its own investigations and signaling cooperation with US FDA investigators who arrived in China on Monday. <ref name=IHTdetain>{{cite news |first=David |last=Barboza |title=China detains exporter of gluten |url=http://iht.com/articles/2007/05/03/business/food.php?page=1
|publisher=[[New York Times]] |date=[[May 3]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-05-03}}</ref>

On [[May 9]], Chinese authorities took a number of steps to address [[food safety]] concerns.<ref name=APmay9/>

On [[May 29]], in actions not linked directly to the protein export scandal, [[Xinhua]] reported that Mr. [[Zheng Xiaoyu]] (郑筱萸), the former head of China's ministry of food and drug safety, had been convicted of personally approving unproven and unsafe medicines after taking bribes from eight pharmaceutical companies totaling more than 6.49 million [[Renminbi|RMB]], (or a rough equivalent of 850,000 US dollars), which resulted in at least hundreds patient deaths, or perhaps even thousands, and as a result, he was sentenced to death. It was also discovered during his eight year reign as the head of China's ministry of food and drug safety, Mr. Zheng Xiaoyu (郑筱萸) had personally ordered to approval of more than 150,000 new medicines, an average of astonishing 134 times that of USA's FDA, which only approves 140 or so new medicines annually. Not surprisingly, most of those 150,000 medicines were the products of the eight pharmaceutical companies that bribed Mr. Zheng Xiaoyu (郑筱萸), and a single unsafe medication of [[Anhui]] Hua Yuan (华源) Company (since closed with its CEO committed suicide before his arrest) resulted 14 patient deaths and hundreds being permanently disabled. Mr. Zheng Xiaoyu's former deputy was also convicted, for accepting more than two million [[Renminbi|RMB]] (or a rough equivalent of a quarter million US dollars) to help Mr. Zheng Xiaoyu. The former deputy was sentenced to a two year delayed death sentence and a new system for unsafe food recall would be implemented by the end of the year.<ref name=CBSdeath>{{cite news |title=China Ex-Regulator Gets Death Penalty |url=http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/05/29/ap/asia/main2860394.shtml?source=search_story |publisher=[[CBS]] |date=[[May 29]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-05-30}}</ref> However, the general public sentiment in China was that this was only the tip of the iceberg, because in the case of Mr. Zheng Xiaoyu (郑筱萸), the exact amount of bribe is much higher than what has been revealed so far, and this is confirmed by Mr. Zheng Xiaoyu (郑筱萸)'s own confession: in March 2007, Mr. Zheng Xiaoyu (郑筱萸) admitted that the exact amount might never be known for sure because the 6.49 million was only what he accepted, and his wife and son also accepted separate huge amount of bribe which he was not part of, and the investigation on Mr. Zheng Xiaoyu (郑筱萸)'s family is still on-going. The Chinese public also believes that as the investigation deepens, the number of confirmed patient death and diabled would certainly increase.

In August 2007, [[Xinhua]] reported on a number of steps China had recently taken to ensure food safety and product quality, including instituting new product recall and customer notification systems.<ref name=XinhuaAug27>{{cite news
|last=Du
|first=Guodong
|title=China takes measures to enhance product quality, food safety |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-08/27/content_6612823.htm
|publisher=[[Xinhua]] |date=[[August 27]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-11-27}}</ref><ref name=XinhuaAug31>{{cite news
|last=Yao
|first=Siyan
|title=China unveils recall systems for unsafe food, toys |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-08/31/content_6639019.htm
|publisher=[[Xinhua]] |date=[[August 31]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-11-27}}</ref>

==Reaction in the United States==
===Federal government reaction===
All of the food recalls executed by companies in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] were voluntary, i.e. not mandated by any government agency. In the United States, prior to the recall, the Food and Drug Administration did not keep pet foods under the same level of protection and safety ensurance as food intended for human consumption. According to the FDA, the FDA's "regulation of pet food is similar to that for other animal feeds. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) requires that pet foods, like human foods, be pure and wholesome, safe to eat, produced under sanitary conditions, contain no harmful substances, and be truthfully labeled." However, "there is no requirement that pet food products have premarket approval by FDA."<ref name=FDAFAQ>{{cite web |url=http://www.fda.gov/cvm/MenuFoodRecallFAQ.htm |title= FDA Pet Food Recall Frequently Asked Questions|accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref>

Once the recall was announced, the Food and Drug Administration immediately began to mobilize resources to assist in the investigation. The FDA has dedicated each of its 20 district offices and 3 field laboratories to the investigation and more than "400 employees are involved in sample pet food collection, monitoring of recall effectiveness, and preparing consumer complaint reports." The FDA has activated its Emergency Operations Center, making sure the information on the poisoning gets to scientists and inspection teams. The agency "is also working with its regulatory partners in all 50 state agriculture and health agencies to inform them of the status of the investigative and analytical efforts."<ref name=FDAFAQ/> The FDA issued an alert to its field personnel that they should block import of wheat gluten from Xuzhou Anying Biologic Technology Development Company Ltd., and subject wheat gluten from China and the Netherlands to increased scrutiny.<ref>
{{cite web
|title=IA #99-26, IMPORT ALERT #99-26, "DETENTION WITHOUT PHYSICAL EXAMINATION AND INTENSIFIED COVERAGE OF WHEAT GLUTEN DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF MELAMINE"
|url=http://www.fda.gov/ora/fiars/ora_import_ia9926.html
|date=[[March 30]] [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-04-02
|publisher=Food and Drug Administration}}</ref>

As a result of the contamination, consumers and pets' rights groups have called for the FDA to take a more active role in ensuring pet food safety. On [[April 2]], [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] called for the resignation of the FDA’s commissioner, Dr. [[Andrew von Eschenbach]]. [http://www.peta.org/pdfs/IGCFax.pdf]

Possibly in response to growing concern about ensuring the safety of the U.S. food supply, on [[May 1]] the Dr. von Eschenbach announced the creation of an Assistant Commissioner for Food Protection to advise on "strategic and substantive food safety and food defense matters." Dr. David Acheson will fill this roll. According to Dr. von Eschenbach, "The protection of America's food supply and therefore the safety of Americans eating food of domestic or international origin is of utmost importance to me as a physician, and to the mission of this agency."<ref name="newfdajob">{{cite web
|url=http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2007/NEW01622.html
|title=FDA Commissioner Announces New Food Protection Position
|date=[[May 1]], [[2007]]
|accessdate=2007-05-01
|publisher=Food and Drug Administration}}</ref>

====Reaction from the U.S. Congress====
In the aftermath of the recall, there was a call from consumers for an investigation into Menu Foods reaction to the poisonings, and the federal government's stand on pet food safety and quality control and the FDA's response to the recall. On [[April 1]], Senator [[Dick Durbin]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]] - [[Illinois]]) called on the FDA to "account for weak links in the pet food inspection system." Earlier in the week, Representative [[Rosa DeLauro]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]] - [[Connecticut]]) asked for an analysis of the FDA's oversight of pet food manufacturing facilities and a report of actions taken since the recall.<ref name=Durbin>{{cite web |url=http://durbin.senate.gov/record.cfm?id=271715 |title=Press Release: DURBIN PRESSES FDA FOR ANSWERS ON PET FOOD SAFETY AS RECALL WIDENS |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref>

On [[April 6]], Senator Durbin criticized the federal inspection process for both human and pet food and called for the hearings on the matter. According to the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' who interviewed Durbin [[April 8]], Durbin said he would like to see the FDA set national standards and inspection rules for pet food manufacturing facilities, and to see "federal law changed to allow the FDA to order a recall of food intended for human or pet consumption rather than rely on companies to do it voluntarily."<ref name=LAT>{{cite news |first=Chuck |last=Neubauer |title=Senate panel to question FDA response to tainted pet food - Sen. Durbin says the agency should be able to order a recall rather than rely on companies to do so voluntarily. |url=http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/politics/la-na-petfood8apr08,1,4118814.story?ctrack=1&cset=true |publisher=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=[[April 8]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref>

Durbin is working with Senator [[Herb Kohl]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]] - [[Wisconsin]]), the Chairman of the [[United States Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies]]. Senator Kohl initiated hearings in the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee along with Senator Durbin and Senator [[Robert Bennett]] ([[Republican party (United States)|R]] - [[Utah]]). Senator [[Robert Byrd]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]] - [[West Virginia]]), from the [[United States Senate Committee on Appropriations]] was there as well. Witnesses included FDA officials. They looked into several areas: the delay in reporting by Menu Foods, the lack of federal inspections of pet food facilities, and incomplete reporting by the FDA since the start of the recall.<ref name=CJ/><ref name=CT>{{cite news |first=Frank |last=James |title=Durbin announces pet-food hearing line-up |url=http://newsblogs.chicagotribune.com/news_theswamp/2007/04/durbin_announce.html |publisher="The Swamp" at [[Chicago Tribune]] online |date=[[April 9]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-11}}</ref><ref name=NYT12/>

During the hearing Senators Durbin and Byrd criticized the government's response during the recall. Durbin specifically criticized the lack of any regular inspection practices or quality control with regards to pet food safety. Senator Kohl criticized the FDA's communication to the public about recalled foods, noting that volunteer websites had more detailed and easier-to-access information about the extent of the problem and which specific foods are of concern than FDA's online resources which Kohl said was contradictory of itself at times, and which the FDA official giving testimony admitted to being difficult to navigate.<ref name=NYT12>{{cite news |first=Sarah |last=Abruzzese |title=Tainted Pet Food Is Said to Be Still on Shelves |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/13/us/13pets.html |publisher=New York Times |date=[[April 13]], [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-13}}</ref><ref name=ChiTribApril12>{{cite news |first=Karoun |last=Demirjian |title= Senate warns pet owners on recall |url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/chi-070412pets,1,5255599.story?coll=chi-news-hed |publisher=[[Chicago Tribune]] |date=[[April 12]] [[2007]] |accessdate=2007-04-12}}</ref>

On [[April 18]] Senator Durbin and Representative DeLauro met with US FDA Commssioner von Eschenbach to discuss the additional rice protein recalls and learned that the Chinese government was blocking outside attempts to investigate the contamination. In response, they sent a letter to [[Zhou Wenzong]], China's Ambassador to the United States saying in part that "contaminated batches of wheat gluten and rice protein responsible for these events were imported from China" and that "no level of [[Melamine#Toxicity|melamine]] should be found in pet or human food" and asking for visas for inspectors from the United States.<ref name="durbinletter" />

On [[September 11]] fresh reports of massive outbreak of contaminants found in China led to recall of Baby Formula products in China. Some Chinese reports said the manufacturer of the milk products might not have consciously added Melamine to their milk powder, however they could have used a soy protein substitute to lower production costs, and the source of their soy substitute had melamine added to it. Many Chinese babies had developed kidney stones and other acute kidney problems in recent months across China, investigation led to the discovery of this contaminant. Some people were wondering how much melamine has already entered food products designated for adults without discovery. More worrying are claims reported in China that there are now new chemicals that can be added to food to lower production costs, and yet pass the tests for melamine and other related chemicals. Impact of this incident to dairy industry outside China is beginning to unravel. For example, a large NewZealand firm is being queried by media in that country, in regards to its association with the Chinese organisation that sold tainted milk products. See also [[Food_safety_in_the_People's_Republic_of_China]]

====Reaction from the general public====

The protein export scandal inspired a significant amount of US media attention to Chinese food safety concerns, and increased unease about Chinese imports amongst the American public. A July 2007 [[Consumer Reports]] poll found that 92 percent of Americans favored "country of origin" labeling on meat products<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN1036016120070710 Americans support use of meat-origin labeling: poll]. Reuters, July 10, 2007.</ref>, while in a [[USA Today]]/[[Gallup]] poll, 74 percent of US respondents said they were "somewhat concerned" or "very concerned" about the safety of food imported from China.<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2007/LIVING/wayoflife/07/26/china.products/index.html?iref=mpstoryview Avoiding Chinese food products nearly impossible], CNN.com, July 26, 2007.</ref>

==See also==
*[[2007 pet food recalls]]
*[[2007 Chinese export recalls]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{wikinews|US Food and Drug Administration reports melamine found in contaminated pet food}}
*[http://www.fda.gov/oc/opacom/hottopics/petfood.html FDA Food Recall Page]
*[http://www.fda.gov/cvm/MenuFoodRecallFAQ.htm FDA Recall FAQ]
*[http://www.oregonvma.org/news/recallnews.asp Oregon Veterinary Medical Association (OVMA) Pet Food Contamination Page] - News & developments updated regularly
*[http://www.http://freekorea.us/dangerouschineseproducts/ Unsafe Chinese Products Page]. Updated frequently as new reports of recalls are published. Contains links to specific information and photographs of recalled products at the Web site of the [[Consumer Product Safety Commission]], the [[Food and Drug Administration]], and in media reports.
*[http://12.170.145.161/search/basic.asp?ResultStart=1&ResultCount=10&BasicQueryText=pet+food&image1.x=0&image1.y=0&image1=Submit C-SPAN Video] of the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee hearing on the recall.

{{Economy of the People's Republic of China}}

[[Category:Food safety]]
[[Category:Pet foods]]
[[Category:2007 food protein contamination]]

[[ms:Skandal Eksport Protein China]]
[[ja:中国の汚染タンパク質輸出問題]]
[[zh:2007年美国宠物食品污染事件]]

The Spectacles (short story)

2008-06-18T08:50:33Z

Mathnerd314: /* Major themes */ typo

{{Infobox short story | 
| name = The Spectacles
| title_orig =
| translator =
| author = [[Edgar Allan Poe]]
| country = {{flagicon|USA}} [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Comedy]] [[short story]]
| published_in = ''Philadelphia Dollar Newspaper''
| publisher =
| media_type = Print ([[Periodical]])
| pub_date = March [[1844]]
| english_pub_date =
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}
"'''The Spectacles'''" is a [[short story]] by [[Edgar Allan Poe]], published in 1844. It is one of Poe's [[comedy]] tales.

==Plot summary ==
{{Wikisource|The Spectacles}}
The [[narrator]], 22-year old Napoleon Buonaparte, changes his last name from "Froissart" to "Simpson" as a requirement to inherit a large sum from a distant cousin, Adolphus Simpson. At the [[opera]] he sees a beautiful woman in the audience and falls in love instantly. He describes her beauty at length, despite not being able to see her well; he requires [[spectacles]] but, in his [[vanity]], "resolutely refused to employ them." His companion identifies the woman as Madame Eugenie Lalande, a wealthy widow, and promises to introduce the two. He courts her and proposes marriage; she makes him promise that, on their wedding night, he will wear her spectacles.

When he puts on the spectacles, he sees that she is a toothless old woman. He expresses horror at her appearance, and even more so when he learns she is 82 years old. She begins a rant about a very foolish descendant of hers, one Napoleon Bonaparte Froissart. He realizes that she is his great-great-grandmother. Madame Lalande, who is also Mrs. Simpson, had come to America to meet her husband's heir. She was accompanied by a much younger relative, Madame Lalande. Whenever the narrator spoke of "Madame Lalande," everyone assumed he meant the younger woman. When the elder Madame Lalande discovered that he had mistaken her for a young woman because of his eyesight, and that he had been openly courting her instead of being civil to a relative, she decided to play a trick on him. The marriage was a fake. He ends by marrying the younger Madame Lalande and vows to "never be met without SPECTACLES."

==Major themes==
Besides a good warning to obey your eye doctor, Poe seems to be addressing the concept of "love at first sight" - in fact, the first line of the story points out that "it was the fashion to ridicule the idea." Yet, the story is presented to "add another to the already almost innumerable instances of the truth of the position" that love at first sight does exist. The [[irony]] is that the narrator does not have a "first sight" of the woman he falls in love with, due to his lack of spectacles.

Additionally, the story is based around [[vanity]]. The narrator changes his name, with "much [[wikt:repugnance|repugnance]]," from Froissart to Simpson, "a rather usual and [[plebeian]]" name in order to collect inheritance. His original [[patronym]], he says, elicited in him "a very pardonable pride." This same [[pride]] kept him from wearing spectacles. Madame Laland admits that she was teaching him a lesson.

The name of "Napoleon Bonaparte" makes obvious reference to the Corsican general [[Napoleon]].

==Publication history==
"The Spectacles" was first published in the ''[[Philadelphia Dollar Newspaper]]'' in the [[March 27]], [[1844 in literature|1844]] issue<ref>Quinn, Arthur Hobson. ''Edgar Allan Poe: A Critical Biography''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. ISBN 0801857309. p. 400</ref>. Critics suggested that the piece was paid by the word, hence its relatively high length, especially for a work of humor. Upon its reprinting in the ''[[Broadway Journal]]'' in March 1845, Poe himself acknowledged he was "not aware of the great length of "The Spectacles" until too late to remedy the evil."

==Critical response==
The editor of the ''Dollar Newspaper'' printed "The Spectacles" with the comment that "it is one of the best from [Poe's] chaste and able pen and second only to the popular prize production, '[[The Gold-Bug]].'"<ref>Thomas, Dwight & David K. Jackson. ''The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809–1849''. Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1987. ISBN 0816187347. p. 455–456</ref> Editor John Stephenson Du Solle reprinted the story in his daily newspaper ''The Spirit of the Times'' in Philadelphia, saying, "Poe's Story of 'The Spectacles' is alone worth double the price of the paper."<ref>Thomas, Dwight & David K. Jackson. ''The Poe Log: A Documentary Life of Edgar Allan Poe, 1809–1849''. Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1987. ISBN 0816187347. p. 456</ref>

==References==
*{{cite book | title=''Edgar Allan Poe: A to Z. | last=Sova | first=Dawn B. | publisher=Checkmark Books | location= | edition= | date=2001 | id= }}
{{reflist}}

{{Edgar Allan Poe}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Spectacles, The}}
[[Category:1844 short stories]]
[[Category:Short stories by Edgar Allan Poe]]
[[Category:Comic short stories]]

[[es:Los anteojos]]

The Andromeda Strain

2008-06-13T04:53:08Z

Mathnerd314:

{{Otheruses4|the novel|the movie|The Andromeda Strain (film)|2008 miniseries|The Andromeda Strain (2008 miniseries)}}
{{Infobox Book
| name = The Andromeda Strain
| author = [[Michael Crichton]]
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| image = [[Image:Big-andromedastrain.jpg|200px]]
| image_caption = First edition cover
| genre = [[Techno-thriller]]
| publisher = [[Alfred A. Knopf]]
| release_date = [[12 May]] [[1969]]
| media_type = Hardcover Paperback Audio
| pages = 304 pages
| isbn = ISBN 0-394-41525-6
}}

'''''The Andromeda Strain''''' (1969), by [[Michael Crichton]], is a [[techno-thriller]] [[novel]] documenting the efforts of a team of scientists investigating a deadly [[extraterrestrial life|extraterrestrial]] microorganism which rapidly, fatally clots human blood. This novel established Michael Crichton as a best-selling genre author.

== Plot summary ==

A military [[satellite]] returns to Earth, and a military recovery team, in an anonymous van, are dispatched to retrieve it; while on live radio communication with their base, the recovery team die. Aerial surveillance later shows everyone in [[Piedmont, Arizona]], the town near the satellite's landing site, has died. The base commander suspects the satellite returned with an extraterrestrial organism, and recommends the Wildfire team be activated.

The government-sponsored Wildfire team counters [[extraterrestrial]] [[biological infestation]], its five members are (i) Dr. Jeremy Stone, [[molecular biology]] specialist; (ii) Dr. Peter Leavitt, disease [[pathology]]; (iii) Dr. Charles Burton, [[vector (biology)|infection vectors]] specialist; and (iv) Dr. Mark Hall, M.D., Surgeon, [[biochemistry]] and [[pH]] specialist. The fifth member scientist, Dr. Christian Kirke, [[electrolytes]] specialist, was unavailable for duty because of [[appendicitis]].

The scientists think the satellite, designed to capture upper-atmosphere microorganisms for bio-weapon exploitation, returned with an microorganism that kills by [[clotting blood to powder| disseminated intra-vascular coagulation]]. On investigating the town, the team discover residents either die in mid-stride or go "quietly nuts" and commit bizarre suicide. Piedmont's survivors, the sick, [[Sterno]]-addicted, geriatric Peter Jackson, and the crying infant, Jamie Ritter, are biologic opposites who survived Andromeda.

The man, infant, and satellite are taken to the secret [[Wildfire (disambiguation)|Wildfire]] laboratory, in Flatrock, Nevada, sixty miles from Las Vegas. More investigation determines that the bizarre deaths were caused by a sulfur-based, crystal-structured, extraterrestrial microbe on a meteor that crashed with the satellite, then knocked it from orbit. The microbe is composed of the [[chemical elements]] of terrestrial life, but not of [[DNA]], [[RNA]], [[proteins]], and [[amino acid]]s, yet it directly transforms matter to energy and vice versa.

The microbe, named ''Andromeda'', mutates with each growth cycle, changing its biologic properties. The scientists discover that Andromeda grows only in a narrow [[pH]] range; in a too-acid or too-basic growth medium, it will not multiply — Andromeda's pH range is 7.39–7.43, like that of [[human blood]]. Thus, why Jackson and Ritter survived, abnormal blood pH; however, by the time the scientists notice that, Andromeda's current mutation degrades polymer plastic. Meanwhile, trapped in an Andromeda-contaminated laboratory, Dr Burton demands of Stone an injection of Kalocin ("the universal antibiotic"); Stone demurs, arguing it would render him too-vulnerable to infection.

The mutated Andromeda attacks the neoprene door and hatch seals in the Wildfire complex, automatically arming the self-destruction atomic bomb, and triggering its detonation countdown to incinerating all exo-biological diseases. Ironically, given its ability to generate matter directly from energy, Andromeda would feed from an atomic explosion.

To prevent the atomic explosion, Dr. Hall must insert his special key to an emergency substation anywhere in Wildfire. Unfortunately, he is trapped in an unfinished section with no substation. He must run Wildfire's obstacle course of automatic defenses to reach a working substation on another level of the laboratory. He prevents the explosion.

The novel's epilogue reveals that a manned spacecraft, ''Andros V'', was incinerated in atmospheric re-entry, because its polymer heat shield failed. Space flights are discontinued until further notice.

== Odd-Man Hypothesis ==
The ''Odd-Man Hypothesis'' is a fictional [[hypothesis]] articulated in the novel's story and named in the film. In the novel, the Odd-Man explanation is a page in a [[RAND|RAND Corporation]] report of the results of test series wherein different people (married, unmarried men and women) were to make command decisions in a nuclear- and biological wars and chemical crisis. This is in the film: {{Cquote|''Results of special testing confirm the Odd-Man Hypothesis, that an unmarried male should carry out command decisions involving thermonuclear or chem-biol destruct contexts.''}}

The Odd-Man Hypothesis shows that unmarried men are capable of executing the best, most dispassionate decisions in crises. Statistics follow, ''Group: Index of Effectiveness'': 0.343 for married men, 0.946 for single, male scientists, et cetera; then each scientist's command decision effectiveness index: Stone 0.687, Burton 0.543, Kirke 0.614, Leavitt 0.601, and Hall 0.899; thus, Dr Hall, M.D., is given the key to halt (if necessary) the Wildfire Laboratory's automated self-destruction. Moreover, considering Kirke's knowledge of [[electrolytes]], Leavitt admits that the Odd-Man Hypothesis essentially why Hall was drafted to the Wildfire team.

This fabrication of scientific principle with supportive documentation (numbers, charts, etc.) is from the [[false document]] [[literary technique]].

== Main characters ==
; Dr. Jeremy Stone: Professor of bacteriology at University of California, Berkeley; a Nobel Prize winner
; Dr. Charles Burton: Professor of pathology at [[Baylor College of Medicine]]
; Dr. Peter Leavitt : Clinical microbiologist; suffering from [[epilepsy]]
; Dr. Mark Hall: Medical doctor and surgeon

== Quotes ==
* “A man with binoculars. That is how it began: with a man standing by the side of the road, on a crest overlooking a small Arizona town, on a winter night. Lieutenant Roger Shawn must have found the binoculars difficult. The metal would be cold, and he would be clumsy in his fur parka and heavy gloves.“
* “…biology, the retarded child… Even in the time of Newton and Galileo, men knew more about the moon and other heavenly bodies than they did about their own.”
* “…first contact with extraterrestrial life will be determined by the known probablities of speciation… complex organisms are rare on earth… simple organisms flourish in abundance… there are millions of bacteria, thousands of insects but few primates… frequency of speciation goes a corresponding frequency in numbers… human interaction with extra terrestrial will… [be] identical to bacteria or viruses.”
* “…it was equally possible for extra terrestrial to contaminate the earth via space probes.”
* "We've faced up to quite a planning problem here. How to disinfect the human body — one of the dirtiest things in the known universe — without killing the person at the same time."

== Adaptations ==
In 1971, ''The Andromeda Strain'' was the basis for the eponymous [[The Andromeda Strain (film)|film]] directed by [[Robert Wise]] and featuring [[Arthur Hill (actor)|Arthur Hill]] as Stone, [[James Olson (actor)|James Olson]] as Hall, [[Kate Reid]] as Leavitt, and [[David Wayne]] as Dutton, (Burton in the novel).

In September 2004, the [[Sci Fi Channel (United States)|Sci Fi Channel]] announced production of a [[The Andromeda Strain (2008 miniseries)|miniseries]], executively-produced by [[Ridley Scott|Ridley]] and [[Tony Scott]] and [[Frank Darabont]]. On 2 May 2007, the SciFi channel's news website (The SciFi Wire) announced that the miniseries would be broadcast on the [[A&E Network]], also, on 16 August 2007 the cast and crew filmed at the [[Surrey, BC]] campus of [[Simon Fraser University]].[http://www.scifi.com/scifiwire/index.php?category=0&id=41354]. The miniseries premiere was Monday 26 May 2008. [http://www.aetv.com/the-andromeda-strain/]

A [http://www.whatHappenedInPiedmont.com fictional website] has appeared, featuring references to trouble in Piedmont, Utah. It takes on the appearance of a blog, featuring posts and comments. This website is an apparent viral advertisement for the ''Andromeda Strain'' mini-series.

Musically, the novel's wider, cultural influence is evidenced in the [[science fiction]], [[death metal]] band [[Nocturnus]] who sing, inspired by the novel, the ''Andromeda Strain'', on their début album ''[[The Key (album)|The Key]]''; the [[Progressive metal]] band [[Shadow Gallery]] have a song titled ''The Andromeda Strain'', about genetically engineered [[biological weapons]], on their album ''[[Room V]]''; and [[Klaus Schulze]] has a concert recording titled ''Andromeda Strain''.

== References ==
* Crichton, Michael (1969). ''The Andromeda Strain''. ISBN 0-345-37848-2.

{{Michael Crichton}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Andromeda Strain, The}}
[[Category:1969 novels]]
[[Category:Novels by Michael Crichton]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Techno-thriller novels]]

[[de:Andromeda (Roman)]]
[[it:Andromeda (Crichton)]]
[[ja:アンドロメダ病原体]]
[[pt:O Enigma de Andrômeda]]

Aluminium

2008-06-12T10:43:13Z

Mathnerd314: removed vandalism

''Aluminum redirects here. For other uses, see [[Aluminium (disambiguation)]].''
{{Infobox aluminium}}
'''Aluminium''' ({{IPAEng|ˌæljʊˈmɪniəm}}, {{IPA|/ˌæljəˈmɪniəm/}}) or '''aluminum''' ({{IPA|/əˈluːmɪnəm/}}, see ''[[#Present-day spelling|spelling]]'' below) is a silvery white and [[ductile]] member of the [[boron group]] of [[chemical element]]s. It has the symbol '''Al'''; its [[atomic number]] is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances.
Aluminium is the [[element abundance|most abundant metal]] in the [[Earth]]'s [[Crust (geology)|crust]], and the third most abundant element therein, after [[oxygen]] and [[silicon]]. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth’s solid surface. Aluminium is too reactive chemically to occur in nature as the free metal. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different [[mineral]]s.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Science is Fun | author = Bassam Z. Shakhashiri | url = http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/Aluminum/ALUMINUM.html | title = Chemical of the Week: Aluminum | accessdate = 2007-08-28}}</ref> The chief source of aluminium is [[bauxite]] [[ore]].

Aluminium is remarkable for its ability to resist [[corrosion]] (due to the phenomenon of [[passivation]]) and its low density. Structural components made from aluminium and its [[aluminium alloy|alloys]] are vital to the [[aerospace]] industry and very important in other areas of [[transport]]ation and building. Its reactive nature makes it useful as a catalyst or additive in chemical mixtures, including being used in [[ammonium nitrate]] [[explosives]] to enhance blast power.

== Characteristics ==
Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, [[malleable]] [[metal]] with appearance ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. Aluminium is nontoxic, nonmagnetic, and nonsparking. It is also insoluble in alcohol, though it can be soluble in water in certain forms. The [[Yield (engineering)|yield strength]] of pure aluminium is 7–11 [[Pascal (unit)|MPa]], while [[aluminium alloy]]s have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.<ref name=polmear>I. J. Polmear, ''Light Alloys'', Arnold, 1995 </ref> Aluminium has about one-third the [[density]] and [[Elastic modulus|stiffness]] of [[steel]]. It is [[Ductility|ductile]], and easily [[machining|machined]], [[casting|cast]], and [[extrusion|extruded]].

[[Corrosion]] resistance is excellent due to a thin surface layer of [[aluminium oxide]] that forms when the metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further [[oxidation]]. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to [[galvanic cell|galvanic]] reactions with alloyed [[copper]].<ref name=polmear/>

Aluminium atoms are arranged in an [[face-centered cubic]] (FCC) structure. Aluminium has a high [[stacking-fault energy]] of approximately 200 mJ/m².<ref>G. E. Dieter, ''Mechanical Metallurgy'', McGraw-Hill, 1988</ref>

Aluminium is one of the few metals that retain full silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm ([[ultraviolet|UV]]) and the 3000–10000 nm (far [[infrared|IR]]) regions, while in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly outdone by [[tin]] and [[silver]] and in the 700–3000 (near IR) by silver, [[gold]], and copper.{{Fact|date=July 2007}}

Aluminium is a good [[Heat conduction|thermal]] and [[electrical conductor]], by weight better than copper. Aluminium is capable of being a [[superconductor]], with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 [[kelvin]]s and a critical magnetic field of about 100 [[Gauss (unit)|gauss]].<ref>{{cite journal|author= John F. Cochran and D. E. Mapother|title=Superconducting Transition in Aluminum |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.111.132| journal=Physical Review |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=132–142| month=July| year=1958}}</ref>

== Isotopes ==
{{main|isotopes of aluminium}}
Aluminium has nine [[isotope]]s, whose mass numbers range from 23 to 30. Only 27Al ([[stable isotope]]) and 26Al ([[radioactive decay|radioactive]] isotope, [[half life|''t''1/2]] = 7.2 × 105 [[year|y]]) occur naturally; however, 27Al has a natural abundance of 99.9+ %. 26Al is produced from [[argon]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[spallation]] caused by [[cosmic-ray]] [[proton]]s. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating [[ocean|marine]] sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, [[quartz]] in [[Rock (geology)|rock]] exposures, and [[meteorite]]s. The ratio of 26Al to 10[[beryllium|Be]] has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, [[sediment]] storage, burial times, and erosion on 105 to 106 year time scales.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} [[Cosmogenic]] 26Al was first applied in studies of the [[Moon]] and meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite fragments from further 26Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that 26Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteoriticists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of some [[asteroids]] after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.<ref>Robert T. Dodd, ''Thunderstones and Shooting Stars'', pp. 89-90. ISBN 0-674-89137-6.</ref>

== Natural occurrence ==
{{Expand|date=January 2008}}
In the [[Earth's crust]], aluminium is the most abundant (8.13%) metallic element, and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). However, because of its strong affinity to oxygen, it is not found in the elemental state but only in combined forms such as oxides or silicates. [[Feldspar]]s, the most common group of minerals in the earth's crust, are aluminosilicates.

Although aluminium is an extremely common and widespread element, the common aluminium minerals are not economic sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the [[ore]] [[bauxite]]. Bauxite occurs as a [[weathering]] product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.<ref>Guilbert, John M. and Carles F. Park, ''The Geology of Ore Deposits,'' Freeman, 1986, pp. 774-795 ISBN 0-7167-1456-6 </ref>

== Production and refinement ==
Although aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust (believed to be 7.5 to 8.1 percent), it is rare in its free form, occurring in oxygen-deficient environments such as [[volcanic]] mud, and it was once considered a [[precious metal]] more valuable than gold. [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]], emperor of France, is reputed to have given a banquet where the most honoured guests were given aluminium utensils, while the other guests had to make do with gold.<ref>{{cite journal | title = "Silver" from clay | author = S Venetski | journal = [[Metallurgist]] | volume = 13 | issue = 7 | pages = 451–453 |date=July 1969 | doi = 10.1007/BF00741130 | format = translated}}</ref><ref>ChemMatters October 1990 Page 14</ref> The [[Washington Monument]] was completed, with the 100 ounce (2.8 kg) aluminium capstone being put in place on December 6, 1884, in an elaborate dedication ceremony. It was the largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time. At that time, aluminium was more expensive than silver, gold, or platinum. Aluminium has been produced in commercial quantities for just over 100 years.

Aluminium is a strongly reactive metal that forms a high-energy chemical bond with oxygen. Compared to most other metals, it is difficult to extract from ore, such as [[bauxite]], due to the energy required to reduce aluminium oxide (Al2O3). For example, direct reduction with [[carbon]], as is used to produce [[iron]], is not chemically possible, since aluminium is a stronger reducing agent than carbon. Aluminium oxide has a melting point of about 2,000 °C. Therefore, it must be extracted by [[electrolysis]]. In this process, the aluminium oxide is dissolved in molten [[cryolite]] and then reduced to the pure metal. The operational temperature of the reduction cells is around 950 to 980 °C. Cryolite is found as a mineral in [[Greenland]], but in industrial use it has been replaced by a synthetic substance. Cryolite is a chemical compound of aluminium, [[sodium]], and [[calcium]] [[fluoride]]s: (Na3AlF6). The aluminium oxide (a white powder) is obtained by refining bauxite in the [[Bayer process]] of [[Karl Bayer]]. (Previously, the [[Deville process]] was the predominant refining technology.)

The electrolytic process replaced the [[Wöhler process]], which involved the reduction of anhydrous aluminium chloride with [[potassium]]. Both of the [[electrode]]s used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon. Once the ore is in the molten state, its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the [[cathode]] (negative electrode) is
:Al3+ + 3 e− → Al

Here the aluminium ion is being [[redox|reduced]] (electrons are added). The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off.

At the [[anode]] (positive electrode), oxygen is formed:
:2 O2− → O2 + 4 e−

This carbon anode is then oxidized by the oxygen, releasing carbon dioxide.
:O2 + C → CO2
The anodes in a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process.

Unlike the anodes, the cathodes are not oxidized because there is no oxygen present, as the carbon cathodes are protected by the liquid aluminium inside the cells. Nevertheless, cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes. After five to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be rebuilt because of cathode wear.

[[Image:Aluminium - world production trend.svg|thumb|World production trend of aluminium]]
Aluminium electrolysis with the [[Hall-Héroult]] process consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and/or ecologically. The worldwide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 [[kilowatt-hour]]s per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 [[megajoule|MJ]]/kg). The most modern smelters achieve approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this to the [[heat of reaction]], 31 MJ/kg, and the [[Gibbs free energy]] of reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kA; state-of-the-art smelters <ref>{{cite web | publisher = AME Mineral Economics| author = | url = http://www.ame.com.au/smelters/al/smelters.htm| title = Aluminium Smelters| accessdate = 2008-04-17}}</ref> operate at about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.

Recovery of the metal via [[recycling]] has become an important facet of the aluminium industry. Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only five percent of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore. However, a significant part (up to 15% of input material) is lost as [[dross]] (ash-like oxide).<ref>{{cite web | title = Benefits of Recycling | publisher = Ohio Department of Natural Resources | url = http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/benefits.htm}}</ref> Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium [[beverage can]]s brought it to the public consciousness.

Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Smelters tend to be situated where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive, such as [[South Africa]], the [[South Island]] of [[New Zealand]], [[Australia]], the [[People's Republic of China]], the [[Middle East]], [[Russia]], [[Quebec]] and [[British Columbia]] in [[Canada]], and [[Iceland]].
[[Image:Aluminium output2.PNG|thumb|right|Aluminium output in 2005]]
In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of aluminium with almost one-fifth world share, followed by Russia, Canada, and USA, reports the [[British Geological Survey]].

Over the last 50 years, Australia has become a major producer of bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter of alumina.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Australian Aluminium Council | url = http://www.aluminium.org.au/Page.php?s=1005 | title = The Australian Industry | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref> Australia produced 62 million tonnes of bauxite in 2005. The Australian deposits have some refining problems, some being high in silica but have the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Australian Aluminium Council | url = http://www.aluminium.org.au/Page.php?s=1007 | title = Australian Bauxite | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref>

{{seealso|Category:Aluminium minerals}}

== Chemistry ==
=== Oxidation state one ===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2007}}

* AlH is produced when aluminium is heated in an atmosphere of [[hydrogen]].
* Al2O is made by heating the normal oxide, Al2O3, with silicon at 1800 °C in a [[vacuum]].
* Al2S can be made by heating Al2S3 with aluminium shavings at 1300 °C in a vacuum. It quickly [[Disproportionation|disproportionates]] to the starting materials. The selenide is made in a parallel manner.
*AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium.
Aluminium halides usually exist in the form AlX3.
e.g. AlF3, AlCl3, AlBr3, AlI3 etc.

=== Oxidation state two ===
* [[Aluminium monoxide]], AlO, is present when aluminium powder burns in oxygen.

=== Oxidation state three ===
* [[Fajans' rules]] show that the simple trivalent cation Al3+ is not expected to be found in anhydrous salts or binary compounds such as Al2O3. The hydroxide is a weak base and aluminium salts of weak acids, such as carbonate, can't be prepared. The salts of strong acids, such as nitrate, are stable and soluble in water, forming hydrates with at least six molecules of [[water of crystallization]].
* [[Aluminium hydride]], (AlH3)n, can be produced from [[trimethylaluminium]] and an excess of hydrogen. It burns explosively in air. It can also be prepared by the action of aluminium chloride on [[lithium hydride]] in [[ether]] solution, but cannot be isolated free from the solvent.
* [[Aluminium carbide]], Al4C3 is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1000 °C. The pale yellow crystals have a complex lattice structure, and react with water or dilute acids to give [[methane]]. The [[metal acetylide|acetylide]], Al2(C2)3, is made by passing [[acetylene]] over heated aluminium.
* [[Aluminium nitride]], AlN, can be made from the elements at 800 °C. It is hydrolysed by water to form [[ammonia]] and [[aluminium hydroxide]].
* [[Aluminium phosphide]], AlP, is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give [[phosphine]].
* Aluminium oxide, Al2O3, occurs naturally as corundum, and can be made by burning aluminium in oxygen or by heating the hydroxide, nitrate or sulfate. As a gemstone, its hardness is only exceeded by [[diamond]], [[boron nitride]], and [[carborundum]]. It is almost insoluble in water.
* [[Aluminium hydroxide]] may be prepared as a gelatinous precipitate by adding ammonia to an aqueous solution of an aluminium salt. It is [[amphoteric]], being both a very weak acid, and forming aluminates with [[alkali]]s. It exists in various crystalline forms.
* [[Aluminium sulfide]], Al2S3, may be prepared by passing [[hydrogen sulfide]] over aluminium powder. It is [[Polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphic]].
* [[Aluminium iodide]], (AlI3)2, is a [[dimer]] with applications in [[organic synthesis]].
* [[Aluminium fluoride]], AlF3, is made by treating the hydroxide with HF, or can be made from the elements. It consists of a giant molecule which sublimes without melting at 1291 °C. It is very inert. The other trihalides are dimeric, having a bridge-like structure.
* Aluminium fluoride/water complexes: When aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as AlF(H2O)5+2, AlF3(H2O)30, AlF6-3. Of these, AlF6-3 is the most stable. This is explained by the fact that aluminium and fluoride, which are both very compact ions, fit together just right to form the octahedral aluminium hexafluoride complex. When aluminium and fluoride are together in water in a 1:6 molar ratio, AlF6-3 is the most common form, even in rather low concentrations.
* Organo-metallic compounds of empirical formula AlR3 exist and, if not also giant molecules, are at least dimers or trimers. They have some uses in organic synthesis, for instance trimethylaluminium.
* Alumino-hydrides of the most electropositive elements are known, the most useful being [[lithium aluminium hydride]], Li[AlH4]. It decomposes into lithium hydride, aluminium and hydrogen when heated, and is hydrolysed by water. It has many uses in organic chemistry, particularly as a reducing agent. The aluminohalides have a similar structure.
=== Clusters ===
In the journal ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' of [[14 January]] [[2005]] it was reported that clusters of 13 aluminium atoms (Al13) had been made to behave like an [[iodine]] atom; and, 14 aluminium atoms (Al14) behaved like an [[alkaline earth]] atom. The researchers also bound 12 iodine atoms to an Al13 cluster to form a new class of polyiodide. This discovery is reported to give rise to the possibility of a new characterisation of the [[periodic table]]: [[superatom]]s. The research teams were led by Shiv N. Khanna ([[Virginia Commonwealth University]]) and A. Welford Castleman Jr ([[Penn State University]]).<ref>{{cite press release | title = Clusters of Aluminum Atoms Found to Have Properties of Other Elements Reveal a New Form of Chemistry | date = [[13 January]] [[2005]] | publisher = Eberly College of Science | url = http://www.science.psu.edu/alert/Castleman1-2005.htm}}</ref>

== Applications ==
=== General use ===
[[Image:Aluminum Metal coinless.jpg|thumb|left|A piece of aluminium metal.]]
Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year= |title = aluminum | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |publisher= |location= |url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-64454}}</ref> Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except [[iron]] (837.5 million tonnes).<ref>{{cite book | title = World Mineral Production: 2001 - 2005 | author = L E Hetherington, T J Brown, A J Benham, P A J Lusty, N E Idoine | year = 2007 | publisher = British Geological Survey | isbn = 978-0-85272-592-4 | format = available online | url = http://www.mineralsuk.com/britmin/wmp_2001_2005.pdf}}</ref>
Relatively pure aluminium is encountered only when corrosion resistance and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by [[physical vapor deposition]] or (very infrequently) [[chemical vapor deposition]] or other chemical means to form [[optical coating]]s and [[mirror]]s. When so deposited, a fresh, pure aluminium film serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of [[visible light]] and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared.

Pure aluminium has a low [[tensile strength]], but when combined with thermo-mechanical processing, aluminium alloys display a marked improvement in mechanical properties, especially when [[tempering|tempered]]. Aluminium alloys form vital components of [[aircraft]] and [[rocket]]s as a result of their high strength-to-weight ratio. Aluminium readily forms alloys with many elements such as copper, [[zinc]], [[magnesium]], [[manganese]] and [[silicon]] (e.g., [[duralumin]]). Today, almost all bulk metal materials that are referred to loosely as "aluminium," are actually alloys. For example, the common [[aluminium foil]]s are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = How Products are Made | author = L. S. Millberg | url = http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Aluminum-Foil.html | title = Aluminum Foil | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref>

Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:[[Image:aluminumfoil.jpg|thumb|household aluminium foil]]
* Transportation ([[automobile]]s, aircraft, [[truck]]s, [[railway car]]s, marine vessels, [[bicycle]]s etc.)
* Packaging ([[aluminium can|cans]], foil, etc.)
* [[Water purification|Water treatment]]
* Treatment against fish parasites such as ''[[Gyrodactylus salaris]]''.
* Construction ([[window]]s, [[door]]s, [[siding]], building wire, etc.)
* [[Cooking utensil]]s
* [[Electrical transmission line]]s for power distribution
* [[MKM steel]] and [[Alnico]] magnets
* Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and [[compact disc|CDs]].
* [[Heat sink]]s for electronic appliances such as [[transistor]]s and [[Central processing unit|CPUs]].
* Powdered aluminium is used in [[paint]], and in [[pyrotechnic]]s such as [[solid rocket]] fuels and [[thermite]].
* In the blades of [[theatrical property|prop]] [[sword]]s and [[knives]] used in [[stage combat]].
* Aluminium is widely used in watch production as it provides durability and resists tarnishing and corrosion.<ref>[http://watches.infoniac.com/index.php?page=post&id=62 Aluminum in Watchmaking]</ref>

=== Aluminium compounds ===
* Aluminium ammonium sulfate ([Al(NH4)](SO4)2), [[ammonium alum]] is used as a [[mordant]], in water purification and sewage treatment, in [[paper]] production, as a [[food additive]], and in [[leather]] tanning.

* Aluminium acetate is a [[salt]] used in solution as an [[astringent]].

* Aluminium borate (Al2O3 B2O3) is used in the production of [[glass]] and [[ceramic]].

* Aluminium borohydride (Al(BH4)3) is used as an additive to [[jet fuel]].
* [[Aluminium bronze]] (CuAl5)
* [[Aluminium chloride]] (AlCl3) is used: in paint manufacturing, in [[antiperspirant]]s, in [[petroleum]] [[refining]] and in the production of synthetic [[rubber]].

* Aluminium chlorohydride is used as an antiperspirant and in the treatment of [[hyperhidrosis]].

* Aluminium fluorosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3) is used in the production of synthetic [[gemstone]]s, glass and ceramic.

* [[Aluminium hydroxide]] (Al(OH)3) is used: as an [[antacid]], as a mordant, in [[water]] purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of fabrics.

* [[Aluminium oxide]] (Al2O3), alumina, is found naturally as [[corundum]] ([[ruby|rubies]] and [[sapphire]]s), [[emery (mineral)|emery]], and is used in glass making. Synthetic ruby and sapphire are used in [[laser]]s for the production of [[coherent light]].

* [[Aluminium phosphate]] (AlPO4) is used in the manufacture: of glass and ceramic, [[Wood pulp|pulp]] and paper products, [[cosmetics]], paints and [[varnish]]es and in making dental [[cement]].

* [[Aluminium sulfate]] (Al2(SO4)3) is used: in the manufacture of paper, as a mordant, in a [[fire extinguisher]], in water purification and sewage treatment, as a food additive, in fireproofing, and in leather tanning.

* In many vaccines, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune [[Immunologic adjuvant|adjuvant]] (immune response booster) to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.

=== Aluminium alloys in structural applications ===
[[Image:Aluminium foam.jpg|thumb|Aluminium foam]]
{{main|Aluminium alloy}}
Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system ([[American National Standards Institute|ANSI]]) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents ([[DIN]] and [[International Organization of Standardization|ISO]]).

The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation. (See main article)

One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their [[Fatigue (material)|fatigue]] strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined [[fatigue limit]], meaning that fatigue failure will eventually occur under even very small cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess these loads and design for a [[Fatigue (material)#Design against fatigue|fixed life]] rather than an infinite life.

Another important property of aluminium alloys is their sensitivity to heat.
Workshop procedures involving heating are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red. Forming operations where a [[blow torch]] is used therefore requires some expertise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium alloys, like all structural alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following heating operations such as welding and casting. The problem with aluminium alloys in this regard is their low [[melting point]], which make them more susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling -- in effect [[annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]] the stresses.

The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry; even for use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The [[Agena]] upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.

=== Household wiring ===
{{seealso|Aluminium wire}}

Compared to copper, aluminium has about 65% of the conductivity by volume, although 200% by weight. Traditionally copper is used as household wiring material. In the 1960s aluminium was considerably cheaper than copper, and so was introduced for household electrical wiring in the United States, even though many fixtures had not been designed to accept aluminium wire. However, in some cases the greater [[coefficient of thermal expansion]] of aluminium causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the dissimilar metal [[screw]] connection, eventually loosening the connection. Also, pure aluminium has a tendency to ''[[Creep (deformation)|creep]]'' under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature rises), again loosening the connection. Finally, [[Galvanic corrosion]] from the dissimilar metals increased the electrical resistance of the connection.

All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in fires. Builders then became wary of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in very small sizes in new construction. Eventually, newer fixtures were introduced with connections designed to avoid loosening and overheating. At first they were marked "Al/Cu", but they now bear a "CO/ALR" coding. In older assemblies, workers forestall the heating problem using a properly-done [[crimp (metalworking)|crimp]] of the aluminium wire to a short "[[pigtail]]" of copper wire. Today, new alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with aluminium terminations.

== History ==
Ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds; [[alum]] is still used as a [[styptic]]. In 1761 [[Guyton de Morveau]] suggested calling the base alum ''alumine.'' In 1808, [[Humphry Davy]] identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at first termed ''alumium'' and later ''aluminum'' (see [[#Etymology|Etymology]] section, below).

[[Image:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg|thumb|left|The statue of the [[Anteros]] as the Angel of Christian Charity (commonly mistaken for ''Eros'') in [[Piccadilly Circus]] London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues to be cast in aluminium.]]
[[Friedrich Woehler|Friedrich Wöhler]] is generally credited with isolating aluminium ([[Latin]] ''alumen'', alum) in 1827 by mixing [[anhydrous]] [[aluminium chloride]] with [[potassium]]. As the metal had first been produced two years earlier (in an impure form) by [[Denmark|Danish]] physicist and chemist [[Hans Christian Ørsted]], Ørsted can also be listed as its discoverer.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = ChemicalElements.com | title = Periodic Table: Aluminum | url = http://www.chemicalelements.com/elements/al.html | author = Yinon Bentor | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref> Further, [[Pierre Berthier]] discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Today in Science History | title = Pierre Berthier | url = http://www.todayinsci.com/7/7_03.htm#Berthier | accessdate = 2007-08-11}}</ref> Frenchman [[Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville]] improved Wöhler's method in 1846, and described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium.

(Note: The title of Deville's book is "De l'aluminium, ses propriétés, sa fabrication" (Paris, 1859). Deville likely also conceived the idea of the [[electrolysis]] of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite; however, Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult might have developed the more practical process after Deville.)

Before the [[Hall-Héroult process]] was developed, aluminium was exceedingly difficult to extract from its various [[ore]]s. This made pure aluminium more valuable than gold. Bars of aluminium were exhibited alongside the [[France|French]] [[crown jewels]] at the [[Exposition Universelle (1855)|Exposition Universelle of 1855]], and [[Napoleon III of France|Napoleon III]] was said to have reserved a set of aluminium dinner plates for his most honored guests.

Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the apex of the [[Washington Monument]] in 1884, a time when one [[ounce]] (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on the project;<ref>{{cite journal | author = George J. Binczewski | title = The Point of a Monument: A History of the Aluminum Cap of the Washington Monument | journal = JOM | volume = 47 | issue = 11 | pages = 20–25 | year = 1995 | url = http://www.tms.org/pubs/journals/JOM/9511/Binczewski-9511.html}}</ref> aluminium was about the same value as silver.

The [[Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company|Cowles companies]] supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the [[United States]] and [[England]] using [[smelting|smelters]] like the furnace of [[Carl Wilhelm Siemens]] by 1886.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Cowles' Aluminium Alloys|pages=13|date=January 1886|journal=The Manufacturer and Builder|location=New York|volume=18|issue=1|publisher=Western and Company, via Cornell University Library|url=http://moa.cit.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/pageviewer?frames=1&coll=moa&view=50&root=%2Fmoa%2Fmanu%2Fmanu0018%2F&tif=00019.TIF|accessdate=2007-10-27}} and {{cite book|author=McMillan, Walter George|title=A Treatise on Electro-Metallurgy|publisher=Charles Griffin and Company, J.B. Lippincott Company, via Google Books scan of New York Public Library copy|location=London, Philadelphia|date=1891|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DDAKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA302|pages=302-305|accessdate=2007-10-26}} and {{cite book|author=Sackett, William Edgar, John James Scannell and Mary Eleanor Watson|title=New Jersey's First Citizens|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=cNgDAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA103|publisher=J.J. Scannell via Google Books scan of New York Public Library copy|location=New Jersey|date=1917/1918|pages=103-105|accessdate=2007-10-25}}</ref> [[Charles Martin Hall]] of [[Ohio]] in the U.S. and [[Paul Héroult]] of [[France]] independently developed the [[Hall-Heroult process|Hall-Héroult electrolytic process]] that made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper and is now the principal method used worldwide. The Hall-Heroult process cannot produce Super Purity Aluminium directly. Hall's process,<ref name="Hall-patent">{{US patent reference|number = 400664|y = 1889 | m=04|d=02|inventor=[[Charles Martin Hall]]|title=Process of Reducing Aluminium from its Fluoride Salts by Electrolysis}}</ref> in 1888 with the financial backing of [[Alfred E. Hunt]], started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company today known as [[Alcoa]]. Héroult's process was in production by 1889 in [[Switzerland]] at Aluminium Industrie, now [[Alcan]], and at [[British Aluminium]], now [[Luxfer Group]] and Alcoa, by 1896 in [[Scotland]].<ref name=Wallace>{{cite book|author=Donald Holmes Wallace|title=Market Control in the Aluminum Industry|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E-acdJWbo90C&pg=PA6|date=1977|origyear=1937|pages=6|isbn=0-4050-9786-7|publisher=Harvard University Press via Ayer Publishing via Google Books limited view|accessdate=2007-10-27}}</ref>

By 1895 the metal was being used as a building material as far away as [[Sydney]], [[Australia]] in the dome of the Chief Secretary's Building.

Many navies use an aluminium [[superstructure]] for their vessels, however, the 1975 fire aboard [[USS Belknap]] that gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle damage to British ships during the [[Falklands War]], led to many navies switching to all steel superstructures. The [[Arleigh Burke class]] was the first such U.S. ship, being constructed entirely of steel.

In April 2008 the price of aluminium was around $1.35/[[lb]].<ref>[http://www.infomine.com/commodities/aluminum.asp Aluminum prices]</ref>

== Etymology ==
=== Nomenclature history ===
The earliest citation given in the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] for any word used as a name for this element is ''alumium'', which Humphry Davy employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral ''[[alumina]]''. The citation is from his journal ''Philosophical Transactions'': "Had I been so fortunate as..to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, and glucium."<ref>"alumium", ''Oxford English Dictionary''. Ed. J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, second edition Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online Oxford University Press. Accessed [[October 29]] [[2006]]. Citation is listed as "1808 SIR H. DAVY in Phil. Trans. XCVIII. 353". The ellipsis in the quotation is as it appears in the ''OED'' citation. </ref>

By 1812, Davy had settled on ''aluminum,'' which, as other sources note,{{Fact|date=July 2007}} matches its Latin root. He wrote in the journal ''Chemical Philosophy'': "As yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state."<ref>"aluminum", ''ibid''. Citation is listed as "1812 SIR H. DAVY ''Chem. Philos.'' I. 355"</ref> But the same year, an anonymous contributor to the ''[[Quarterly Review]],'' a British political-literary journal, objected to ''aluminum'' and proposed the name ''aluminium'', "for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound."<ref>"aluminium", ''ibid''. Citation is listed as "1812 ''Q. Rev.'' VIII. 72"</ref>

The ''-ium'' suffix had the advantage of conforming to the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and [[strontium]] (all of which Davy had isolated himself). Nevertheless, ''-um'' spellings for elements were not unknown at the time, as for example [[platinum]], known to Europeans since the sixteenth century, [[molybdenum]], discovered in 1778, and [[tantalum]], discovered in 1802.

Americans adopted ''-ium'' to fit the standard form of the periodic table of elements, for most of the nineteenth century, with ''aluminium'' appearing in [[Noah Webster|Webster's]] Dictionary of 1828. In 1892, however, Charles Martin Hall used the ''-um'' spelling in an advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the ''-ium'' spelling in all the patents<ref name="Hall-patent"/> he filed between 1886 and 1903.<ref>{{cite web | author = Peter Meiers | publisher = The History of Fluorine, Fluoride and Fluoridation | title = Manufacture of Aluminum | url =http://www.fluoride-history.de/p-aluminum.htm}}</ref> It has consequently been suggested that the spelling reflects an easier to pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or that the spelling on the flier was a mistake. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling ''aluminum'' became the standard in North America; the ''Webster Unabridged Dictionary'' of 1913, though, continued to use the ''-ium'' version.

In 1926, the [[American Chemical Society]] officially decided to use ''aluminum'' in its publications; American dictionaries typically label the spelling ''aluminium'' as a British variant.

=== Present-day spelling ===
In the UK and other countries using [[American and British English spelling differences|British spelling]], only ''aluminium'' is used. In the United States, the spelling ''aluminium'' is largely unknown, and the spelling ''aluminum'' predominates.<ref>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw}}</ref><ref>John Bremner, ''Words on Words: A Dictionary for Writers and Others Who Care about Words'', page 22–23. ISBN 0-231-04493-3</ref> The [[Canadian Oxford Dictionary]] prefers ''aluminum'', whereas the Australian [[Macquarie Dictionary]] prefers ''aluminium''. The spelling in virtually all other languages is analogous to the ''-ium'' ending.

The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) adopted ''aluminium'' as the standard international name for the element in 1990, but three years later recognized ''aluminum'' as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both, but places ''aluminium'' first.<ref>[http://www.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/index.html IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements]</ref> IUPAC officially prefers the use of ''aluminium'' in its internal publications, although several IUPAC publications use the spelling ''aluminum''.<ref>[http://www.iupac.org/general/search.php?restrict=publications&query=aluminum&submit=Search IUPAC Web site publication search for 'aluminum']</ref>

== Biological role ==
{{Expand|date=January 2008}}

=== Precautions ===
The toxicity of aluminium can be traced to increased deposition in bone and the central nervous system, particularly in the presence of reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium for absorption, increased amounts of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal mineralization (osteopenia) observed in preterm infants and infants with growth retardation. Full-term infants with normal renal function do not seem to be at substantial risk from aluminium toxicity from soy protein-based formulas.
Aluminium can cause [[neurotoxicity]] in very high doses which can alter the function of the [[blood-brain barrier]].<ref>{{cite journal | author = Banks, W.A. | coauthors = Kastin, A.J. | year = 1989 | title = Aluminum-induced neurotoxicity: alterations in membrane function at the blood-brain barrier. | journal = Neurosci Biobehav Rev | volume = 13 | issue = 1 | pages = 47–53 | doi = 10.1016/S0149-7634(89)80051-X}}</ref> It is one of the few abundant elements that have no known function in living cells. A small percentage of people are [[allergy|allergic]] to it — they experience [[contact dermatitis]]: an itchy [[rash]] from using [[styptic]] or [[antiperspirant]] products, [[Digestion|digestive]] disorders and inability to absorb nutrients from eating food cooked in aluminium pans, and [[vomiting]] and other symptoms of [[poisoning]] from ingesting such products as [[Amphojel]], and [[Maalox]] (antacids). Such allergies are extremely rare though, in other people aluminium is not considered as toxic as [[heavy metals]], but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts. The use of aluminium [[cookware]], popular because of its [[corrosion]] resistance and good [[heat conduction]], has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general. Excessive consumption of [[antacid]]s containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants are more likely causes of [[toxicity]]. Aluminium increases [[estrogen]]-related [[gene expression]] in human [[breast cancer]] cells grown in the laboratory.<ref>[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/112438172/ABSTRACT Metalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast] J Appl Toxicol. 2006 May-Jun;26(3):191-7</ref> These salts' estrogen-like effects have led to their classification as a [[metalloestrogen]].

It has been suggested that aluminium is a cause of [[Alzheimer's disease]], as some [[senile plaques|brain plaques]] have been found to contain the metal. Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the Alzheimer's damage, not the cause. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.<ref>{{cite web | publisher = National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences | title = Alzheimer's Disease and Aluminum |date=October 2005 | url = http://www.niehs.nih.gov/external/faq/aluminum.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author = Michael Hopkin | title = Death of Alzheimer victim linked to aluminium pollution| publisher = news @ nature.com | doi = 10.1038/news060417-10 | date = [[21 April]] [[2006]]}}</ref>

[[mercury (element)|Mercury]] applied to the surface of an [[aluminium alloy]] can damage the protective oxide surface film by forming [[Mercury-aluminum amalgam|Mercury-aluminium amalgam]]. This may cause further corrosion and weakening of the structure. For this reason, mercury [[thermometer]]s are not allowed on many [[airliner]]s, as aluminium is used in many aircraft structures.

A mixture of powdered aluminium and [[Iron(III) oxide|Fe2O3]] is known as [[thermite]], and burns with a high energy output to form [[Iron|Fe]] and [[Al2O3|Al2O3]]. Thermite can be produced inadvertently during grinding operations, but the high [[ignition temperature]] makes incidents unlikely in most workshop environments.

=== Aluminium and plants (phytoremediation) ===

Aluminium is primary among the factors that contribute to the loss of plant production on acid soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al3+ [[cation]]s increases and disturbs root growth and function.

[[Wheat]]'s [[adaptation]] to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a release of [[organic compound]]s that bind to the harmful aluminium [[cations]]. [[Sorghum]] is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. A group in the U.S. Department of Agriculture showed that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for wheat. This is not the case in all plants.

== See also ==
*[[Aluminium alloy]]
*[[Aluminium battery]]
*[[Aluminium in Africa]]
*[[Aluminium foil]]
*[[Beverage can]]

*[[:Category:Aluminium alloys]]
*[[:Category:Aluminium compounds]]
*[[:Category:Aluminium companies]]

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Aluminium}}
{{wiktionarypar|aluminium}}
*[http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Al/index.html WebElements.com – Aluminium]
*[http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/minerals/aluminum/aluminum_table12.html World production of primary aluminium, by country]
*[http://www.world-aluminium.org/About+Aluminium/Story+of/In+history History of Aluminium]
*[http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic113.htm Emedicine - Aluminium]
*[http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-a01-al-prod.htm Electrolytic production of aluminium]

{{clear}}
{{compact periodic table}}

[[Category:Aluminium| ]]
[[Category:Recyclable materials]]
[[Category:Rocket fuels|Aluminium]]
[[Category:Electrical conductors]]
[[Category:Pyrotechnic fuels]]
[[Category:Airship technology]]
[[Category:Requests for audio pronunciation (English)]]

{{Link FA|es}}

[[af:Aluminium]]
[[ar:ألومنيوم]]
[[ast:Aluminiu]]
[[az:Alüminium]]
[[bn:অ্যালুমিনিয়াম]]
[[zh-min-nan:Al (goân-sò͘)]]
[[be:Алюміній]]
[[bs:Aluminijum]]
[[br:Aluminiom]]
[[bg:Алуминий]]
[[ca:Alumini]]
[[cv:Алюмини]]
[[cs:Hliník]]
[[co:Alluminiu]]
[[cy:Alwminiwm]]
[[da:Aluminium]]
[[de:Aluminium]]
[[et:Alumiinium]]
[[el:Αργίλιο]]
[[es:Aluminio]]
[[eo:Aluminio]]
[[eu:Aluminio]]
[[fa:آلومینیوم]]
[[fr:Aluminium]]
[[fur:Alumini]]
[[ga:Alúmanam]]
[[gv:Ollymin]]
[[gd:Almain]]
[[gl:Aluminio]]
[[ko:알루미늄]]
[[hy:Ալյումին]]
[[hi:एलुमिनियम]]
[[hr:Aluminij]]
[[io:Aluminio]]
[[id:Aluminium]]
[[is:Ál]]
[[it:Alluminio]]
[[he:אלומיניום]]
[[jv:Alumunium]]
[[pam:Aluminiu]]
[[sw:Alumini]]
[[ht:Aliminyòm]]
[[ku:Bafûn]]
[[la:Aluminium]]
[[lv:Alumīnijs]]
[[lb:Aluminium]]
[[lt:Aliuminis]]
[[jbo:jinmrmalume]]
[[hu:Alumínium]]
[[mk:Алуминиум]]
[[ml:അലൂമിനിയം]]
[[mr:ऍल्युमिनियम]]
[[ms:Aluminium]]
[[mn:Хөнгөн цагаан]]
[[nl:Aluminium]]
[[ja:アルミニウム]]
[[no:Aluminium]]
[[nn:Aluminium]]
[[nov:Aluminie]]
[[oc:Alumini]]
[[uz:Alyuminiy]]
[[nds:Aluminium]]
[[pl:Glin]]
[[pt:Alumínio]]
[[ksh:Allu]]
[[ro:Aluminiu]]
[[qu:Ch'aqu q'illay]]
[[ru:Алюминий]]
[[stq:Aluminium]]
[[scn:Alluminiu]]
[[simple:Aluminium]]
[[sk:Hliník]]
[[sl:Aluminij]]
[[sr:Алуминијум]]
[[sh:Aluminijum]]
[[fi:Alumiini]]
[[sv:Aluminium]]
[[ta:அலுமினியம்]]
[[te:అల్యూమినియం]]
[[th:อะลูมิเนียม]]
[[vi:Nhôm]]
[[tg:Алюминий]]
[[tr:Alüminyum]]
[[uk:Алюміній]]
[[yo:Aluminiọmu]]
[[zh-yue:鋁]]
[[zh:铝]]

Connected Mathematics

2007-06-18T02:00:02Z

Mathnerd314: /* Examples */ whoops

'''Connected Mathematics''' is a comprehensive, problem-centered curriculum designed for all students in grades 6-8 based on the [[NCTM]] standards. Each grade level curriculum is a full-year program, and in each of the three grade levels, topics of number, algebra, geometry/measurement, probability and statistics are covered in an increasingly sophisticated manner. The program seeks to make connections within mathematics, between mathematics and other subject areas, and to the real world. The curriculum is divided into units, each of which contains investigations with major problems that the teacher and students explore in class. Extensive problem sets are included for each investigation to help students practice, apply, connect, and extend these understandings. CM follows the [[TERC]] investigations into junior high and middle school.

As one of many widely adopted, but controversial curricula developed around the [[NCTM]] standards such as TERC, CM has been criticized by advocates of [[traditional mathematics]] as being particularly ineffective and incomplete. In a review by James Milgram, "the program seems to be very incomplete... it is aimed at underachieving students." He observes that "the students should entirely construct their own knowledge.. standard algorithms are never introduced, not even for adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions." <ref>[http://www.nychold.com/cmp.html NYCHold]</ref> After many years after initial trial and adoptions, citizens and legislators in many states and communities are in the process of revising their standards and textbooks to replace or supplement curricula such as CM with more traditional methods due to protests and disssatifaction with standards-based mathematics approaches.

==Examples==

The following exercise is from the first of the sixth grade booklets, which is named "Prime Time", after the prime factorization of whole numbers. It is a typical illustation of a non-traditional teaching approach. The student is asked to write numbers which a student "likes" more than other numbers, there are no "correct" answers.

My Special Number: Choose a whole number between 10 and 100 that you especially like. In your Journal:

* Record your number
* Explain why you chose that number
* List three or four mathematical things about your number
* List three or four connections you can make between your number and your world.

"As you work through the investigations in Prime Time, you will learn lots of things about numbers. Think about how these new ideas apply to your special number, and add any new information about your number to your journal. You may want to designate one or two "special number" pages in your journal, where you can record this information. At the end of the unit, your teacher will ask you to find an interesting way to report to the class about your special number. "

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links and reviews ==

* http://www.math.msu.edu/cmp
* [http://www.nychold.com/cmp.html NYCHold] several reviews of CMP, mostly strongly critical

{{standards based mathematics}}

[[Category:Mathematics education]]

Connected Mathematics

2007-06-18T01:59:13Z

Mathnerd314:

'''Connected Mathematics''' is a comprehensive, problem-centered curriculum designed for all students in grades 6-8 based on the [[NCTM]] standards. Each grade level curriculum is a full-year program, and in each of the three grade levels, topics of number, algebra, geometry/measurement, probability and statistics are covered in an increasingly sophisticated manner. The program seeks to make connections within mathematics, between mathematics and other subject areas, and to the real world. The curriculum is divided into units, each of which contains investigations with major problems that the teacher and students explore in class. Extensive problem sets are included for each investigation to help students practice, apply, connect, and extend these understandings. CM follows the [[TERC]] investigations into junior high and middle school.

As one of many widely adopted, but controversial curricula developed around the [[NCTM]] standards such as TERC, CM has been criticized by advocates of [[traditional mathematics]] as being particularly ineffective and incomplete. In a review by James Milgram, "the program seems to be very incomplete... it is aimed at underachieving students." He observes that "the students should entirely construct their own knowledge.. standard algorithms are never introduced, not even for adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions." <ref>[http://www.nychold.com/cmp.html NYCHold]</ref> After many years after initial trial and adoptions, citizens and legislators in many states and communities are in the process of revising their standards and textbooks to replace or supplement curricula such as CM with more traditional methods due to protests and disssatifaction with standards-based mathematics approaches.

==Examples==

{{pov}}

The following exercise is from the first of the sixth grade booklets, which is named "Prime Time", after the prime factorization of whole numbers. It is a typical illustation of a non-traditional teaching approach. The student is asked to write numbers which a student "likes" more than other numbers, there are no "correct" answers.

My Special Number: Choose a whole number between 10 and 100 that you especially like. In your Journal:

* Record your number
* Explain why you chose that number
* List three or four mathematical things about your number
* List three or four connections you can make between your number and your world.

"As you work through the investigations in Prime Time, you will learn lots of things about numbers. Think about how these new ideas apply to your special number, and add any new information about your number to your journal. You may want to designate one or two "special number" pages in your journal, where you can record this information. At the end of the unit, your teacher will ask you to find an interesting way to report to the class about your special number. "

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links and reviews ==

* http://www.math.msu.edu/cmp
* [http://www.nychold.com/cmp.html NYCHold] several reviews of CMP, mostly strongly critical

{{standards based mathematics}}

[[Category:Mathematics education]]

Talk:Connected Mathematics

2007-06-18T01:58:11Z

Mathnerd314: /* Huh?! */

I have used this book and it teaches you NOTHING about math! The algebra ISN'T algebra. And it is VERY confusing, skipping many elements essential to understanding algebra, geometry, fractions, etc. Try to avoid using this book. Use Saxon Math, it's the greatest math book EVER!

I agree wholeheartedly [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 01:22, 8 June 2007 (UTC)

== Huh?! ==

"...but texts such as CM seek to make all students successful. Instead of only presenting facts and methods, CM seeks to engage the student's interest in numbers..."

Sounds pretty POV to me. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 01:22, 8 June 2007 (UTC)

Revert? [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 23:26, 9 June 2007 (UTC)

Ah, nobody seems to visit this article much. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 01:58, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

The Eyre Affair

2007-06-17T18:35:10Z

Mathnerd314: Spelling

{{Infobox Book |
| name = The Eyre Affair
|image = [[Image:The eyre affair.jpg|200px|centre]]
| image_caption = UK Paperback Cover of The Eyre Affair.
| author = [[Jasper Fforde]]
| cover_artist =
| country = [[United Kingdom]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series = A Thursday Next Novel
| genre = [[Fantasy]]
| publisher = Viking Adult
| release_date = 2001
| media_type = Print
| pages =
| isbn = ISBN 0-340-82576-6
| preceded_by =
| followed_by = [[Lost in a Good Book]]
}}

'''''The Eyre Affair''''', published in [[2001]], is the first novel published by [[Jasper Fforde]]. It is the story of literary detective Thursday Next's pursuit of a master criminal through an alternative [[1985]] and through the pages of [[Charlotte Brontë]]'s ''[[Jane Eyre]]''.

==Plot summary==
In this [[Parallel universe (fiction)|parallel world]], England and Imperial [[Russia]] have fought the [[Crimean War]] for more than a century; England itself is a [[police state]] run by the Goliath Corporation (a powerful weapon-producing company with questionable morals); [[Wales]] is a separate, socialist nation; and literary questions (especially the question of [[Shakespearean authorship]]) are debated in the streets and are the subject of gang wars and murder.
Single, [[Thirty something|thirty-something]], Crimean War veteran and literary detective [[Thursday Next]] lives in [[London]] with her pet [[dodo]], [[Pickwick]]. As the story begins, Thursday is called upon to investigate the theft of the original manuscript of ''Martin Chuzzlewit'' by Charles Dickens.

As part of the investigation, Thursday is temporarily promoted to SpecOps-5 to help them apprehend their suspect, the third most wanted criminal in the world, Acheron Hades. Because he was one of her professors at university she is one of the few people that actually knows what he looks like. Using her prior knowledge of Hades she comes close to capturing him, but is badly injured in the attempt, and is saved only by a copy of ''Jane Eyre'' in her pocket that stops a bullet. Due to a strange blurring of the line between reality and fiction, Edward Rochester supports her until the paramedics arrive, leaving an embroidered handkerchief and jacket behind. This is not Next's first encounter with someone from within the novel: when she was a child she entered the book herself. During this strange [[Flashback (literary technique)|flashback]], she met the romantic lead of the novel, Rochester, just before he meets Jane. Thursday's appearance results in a minor change to the plot of the book that improves it slightly. In this parallel world, Jane Eyre has a different ending than in our world: Jane moves to India with her cousin, St. John Rivers, to become a missionary.

While recovering in the hospital, Thursday encounters her future self, who tells her, "Take the LiteraTec job in [[Swindon]]!" She therefore requests the apparently unexciting transfer to the office in her old home town. Back at home, she catches up with her mother Wednesday, her Uncle Mycroft (the name of [[Sherlock Holmes]]' older, smarter brother), and her Aunt Polly. Mycroft is an inventor of literary technology. He has created bookworms that eat the words of books, translating carbon-paper (you write something in English, and the copy is in any other language you wish, provided that you press hard enough), and most importantly, the Prose Portal. This device allows people to step into the pages of any work of literature. Next also renews an acquaintance with her former fiancé [[Landen Parke-Laine]] (a reference to the British version of the board game [[Monopoly (board game)|Monopoly]]).

Next learns that Hades has kidnapped Mycroft, Polly, and the Prose Portal in order to [[blackmail]] the literary world by changing their favorite novels. Any change in the original manuscript of a novel results in all copies of that novel being changed. In order to demonstrate the power of the Portal, Hades removes Mr. Quaverley, a minor character from the original manuscript of [[Charles Dickens|Dickens]]' ''[[Martin Chuzzlewit]]''; when his demands are not met, he kills him -- altering the text of every copy of the novel. (In reality, there was never any such character in ''[[Martin Chuzzlewit]]''.)

Next and a loathsome Goliath Corporation operative named Jack Schitt trace Hades to the Socialist Republic of [[Wales]]. They rescue Mycroft and the Prose Portal, but find that Polly has disappeared, and Hades has gone into the original text of ''Jane Eyre''. Next decides to pursue Hades into the text, and after much trouble, she succeeds in catching him and finishing him off. In the process however Hades sets fire to [[Thornfield Hall]], Rochester's manor, resulting in its destruction, the death of Rochester's first wife, Bertha, and Rochester being grievously injured. In the aftermath Rochester and Jane get married; accidentally, Next has changed the ending of the book.

Returning to ''her'' own world, Next uses the Prose Portal to release her Aunt Polly from a [[William Wordsworth|Wordsworth]] [[poetry|poem]] and to imprison Jack Schitt in the text of [[Edgar Allan Poe|Poe]]'s ''"[[The Raven (Edgar Allan Poe)|The Raven]]"''. Next and Parke-Laine are reconciled and get married.

At the wedding, Thursday's father turns up. He is a renegade agent from SpecOps-12, the ChronoGuard (see [[Chronology protection conjecture]]). He temporarily stops time in order to dispense some fatherly advice to his daughter. The novel ends with Next facing an uncertain future at work: public reaction to the "new" ending for ''Jane Eyre'' is positive.
The series continues with ''[[Lost in a Good Book]]''.

== References ==
*Hateley, Erica, "The End of The Eyre Affair: Jane Eyre, Parody, and Popular Culture", ''Journal of Popular Culture'', 38:6 (2005 Nov), pp. 1022-36, ISSN 0022-3840
*Horstkotte, Martin, ''The Postmodern Fantastic in Contemporary British Fiction'', Trier: Wissenschaftlicher Verlag Trier, 2004, ISBN 3-88476-679-1
*Horstkotte, Martin, "The Worlds of the Fantastic Other in Postmodern English Fiction", ''Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts'', 14:3 (2003 Fall), pp. 318-32, ISSN 0897-0521
*Lusty, Heather, "Struggling to Remember: War, Trauma, and the Adventures of Thursday Next", ''Popular Culture Review'', 16:2 (2005 Summer), pp. 117-29, ISSN 1060-8125

==External links==
*[http://www.jasperfforde.com/ Fforde Grand Central]
*[http://www.bronte.info/ Website of the Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth, Yorkshire]
*[http://www.bronteparsonage.blogspot.com/ Web news magazine of the Brontë Parsonage Museum]
*[http://www.brontebirthplace.org.uk/ Website of the Brontë Birthplace in Thornton, West Yorkshire]

{{Jasper Fforde Reality}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Eyre Affair, The}}
[[Category:2001 novels]]
[[Category:Debut novels]]
[[Category:Thursday Next series]]

[[de:Der Fall Jane Eyre]]
[[he:פרשת ג'יין אייר]]

Talk:Connected Mathematics

2007-06-09T23:26:07Z

Mathnerd314: /* Huh?! */

Talk:Connected Mathematics

2007-06-08T01:22:54Z

Mathnerd314:

Talk:Connected Mathematics

2007-06-08T01:22:19Z

Mathnerd314: Huh?!

Connected Mathematics

2007-06-08T01:18:44Z

Mathnerd314: /* Examples */

'''Connected Mathematics''' is a comprehensive, problem-centered curriculum designed for all students in grades 6-8 based on the [[NCTM]] standards. Each grade level curriculum is a full-year program, and in each of the three grade levels, topics of number, algebra, geometry/measurement, probability and statistics are covered in an increasingly sophisticated manner. The program seeks to make connections within mathematics, between mathematics and other subject areas, and to the real world. The curriculum is divided into units, each of which contains investigations with major problems that the teacher and students explore in class. Extensive problem sets are included for each investigation to help students practice, apply, connect, and extend these understandings. CM follows the [[TERC]] investigations into junior high and middle school.

As one of many widely adopted, but controversial curricula developed around the [[NCTM]] standards such as TERC, CM has been criticized by advocates of [[traditional mathematics]] as being particularly ineffective and incomplete. In a review by James Milgram, "the program seems to be very incomplete... it is aimed at underachieving students." He observes that "the students should entirely construct their own knowledge.. standard algorithms are never introduced, not even for adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing fractions." <ref>[http://www.nychold.com/cmp.html NYCHold]</ref> After many years after initial trial and adoptions, citizens and legislators in many states and communities are in the process of revising their standards and textbooks to replace or supplement curricula such as CM with more traditional methods due to protests and disssatifaction with standards-based mathematics approaches.

==Examples==

{{pov}}

The following exercise is from the first of the sixth grade booklets, which is named "Prime Time", after the prime factorization of whole numbers. It is a typical illustation of a non-traditional teaching approach. The student is asked to write numbers which a student "likes" more than other numbers, there are no "correct" answers. This particular exercise takes much more time and thought than a few arithmetic exercises, especially for students not yet fluent in English. Previous generations of mathematicians or scientists were never required to master such writing topics in math class, but texts such as CM seek to make all students successful. Instead of only presenting facts and methods, CM seeks to engage the student's interest in numbers. Unlike a traditional mathematics approach, "special number" does not directly instruct the student in any of the basic concepts of prime numbers. This innovative, standards-based approach to teaching basic math skills is used throughout these textbooks.

My Special Number: Choose a whole number between 10 and 100 that you especially like. In your Journal:

* Record your number
* Explain why you chose that number
* List three or four mathematical things about your number
* List three or four connections you can make between your number and your world.

"As you work through the investigations in Prime Time, you will learn lots of things about numbers. Think about how these new ideas apply to your special number, and add any new information about your number to your journal. You may want to designate one or two "special number" pages in your journal, where you can record this information. At the end of the unit, your teacher will ask you to find an interesting way to report to the class about your special number. "

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links and reviews ==

* http://www.math.msu.edu/cmp
* [http://www.nychold.com/cmp.html NYCHold] several reviews of CMP, mostly strongly critical

{{standards based mathematics}}

[[Category:Mathematics education]]

Digital Fortress

2007-03-28T00:29:07Z

Mathnerd314: Removed links that redirect back here

{{infobox Book | 
| name = Digital Fortress
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:digital_fortress.jpg|200px|Digital Fortress book cover]]
| image_caption =
| author = [[Dan Brown]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Science fiction novel|Science fiction]], [[Techno-thriller novel]]
| publisher = [[St. Martin's Press]]
| release_date = 1998
| english_release_date =
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = ISBN 0-312-26312-0
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}


'''''Digital Fortress''''' is a novel by [[United States|American]] author [[Dan Brown]] and published in 1998 by [[St. Martin's Press]] (ISBN 0-312-26312-0).

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
Susan Fletcher, a brilliant [[mathematician]] and head of the [[National Security Agency]]'s [[cryptography]] division, finds herself faced with an unbreakable code resistant to [[brute-force attack]]s by the [[NSA]]'s 3 million processor [[supercomputer]]. The code is written by [[Japan|Japanese]] cryptographer Ensei Tankado, a sacked employee of the NSA, who is displeased with the agency's intrusion into people's privacy. Tankado auctions the algorithm on his website, threatening that his accomplice, "North Dakota (e-mail address being NDakota)", will release the algorithm for free if he dies. Tankado is found dead in [[Seville]], [[Spain]]. Fletcher, along with her fiancé, David Becker, a skilled [[linguist]] with [[eidetic memory]], must find a solution to stop the spread of the code.

==Characters in "Digital Fortress"==
{{spoiler}}
*'''Susan Fletcher''': Mathematician, [[NSA]]'s head cryptographer
*'''David Becker''': Professor of Linguistics at [[Georgetown University]] and Susan's fiancé
*'''Commander Trevor Strathmore''': Deputy Director of the NSA, head of Crypto
*'''Ensei Tankado''': Japanese ex-NSA cryptographer with a birth defect, creator of Digital Fortress
*'''Greg Hale''': NSA cryptographer, former Marine, murdered by Strathmore
*'''Megan''': Teenager who tragically was murdered by Hulohot just after she had given Tankado's ring to David, and gotten the opportunity to flee the nightmarish Sevilla and go home to New York.
*'''Leland Fontaine''': Director of the NSA
*'''Midge Milken''': NSA's Internal security analyst
*'''Hulohot''': An assassin from Portugal hired to hunt down Ensei Tankado and take the ring. After killing Tankado, his new mission was to retrieve the ring before David Becker gets it.
*'''Chad Brinkerhoff''': PA of the NSA Director's Office
*'''Phil Chartrukian''': NSA Sys-sec
*'''Tokugen Numataka''': Japanese businessman, Ensei Tankado's reluctant father
*"'''Jabba'''": Resident Sys-sec Chief, anti-hacker computer expert
*'''Soshi Kuta''': Jabba's assistant

==Code solution==
{{spoiler}}
The code that appears in the end of the book
:128-10-93-85-10-128-98-112-6-6-25-126-39-1-68-78
is decrypted by looking at the first letter of the chapter for each number. For example, chapter 128 starts 'When Susan awoke'. The resulting text is
:WECGEWHYAAIORTNU
Decryption is performed using a columnar [[transposition cipher]], termed a "Caesar Square" cipher in the book (this is unrelated to the [[Caesar cipher]]). The letters are arranged into a square:
:WECG
:EWHY
:AAIO
:RTNU
and read from the top down.
:WEAREWATCHINGYOU
Add spaces and you get the [[plaintext]],
:"We are watching you"
a reference to the NSA's monitoring systems.

==Notes==
*One briefly described character is mentioned to be from Amherst College (same college from which Dan Brown graduated in 1986)

==External links==
* [http://math.cofc.edu/faculty/kasman/MATHFICT/mfview.php?callnumber=mf340 Digital Fortress page at ''Mathematical Fiction''] Alex Kasman's site includes a forum, critique of the math/computing, and his solution to the code.
* [http://victoria.tc.ca/int-grps/books/techrev/bkdgtlft.rvw Rob Slade's review of Digital Fortress] The book is reviewed "on the basis of technology, including the fiction".
* (Spanish) [http://blogs.periodistadigital.com/periodismo.php/2006/02/10/ies_dan_brown_un_mentiroso_compulsivo Criticism in the Spanish-language ''Epoca'' of the book's description of locations in Seville]

{{Dan Brown Books etc}}

[[Category:1998 novels]]
[[Category:Dan Brown]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Cryptography books]]
[[Category:Techno-thriller novels|Digital Fortress]]
[[Category:American novels]]

[[ar:الحصن الرقمي]]
[[bg:Цифрова крепост]]
[[da:Tankados Kode]]
[[de:Diabolus]]
[[es:La fortaleza digital]]
[[fr:Forteresse Digitale]]
[[gl:A Fortaleza Dixital]]
[[it:Crypto]]
[[he:שם הצופן: מבצר דיגיטלי]]
[[lt:Skaitmeninė tvirtovė]]
[[nl:Het Juvenalis Dilemma]]
[[ja:パズル・パレス]]
[[no:Den digitale festning]]
[[pl:Cyfrowa twierdza]]
[[pt:Fortaleza Digital]]
[[ru:Цифровая крепость (роман)]]
[[sk:Digitálna pevnosť]]
[[sv:Gåtornas palats]]
[[tr:Dijital Kale]]
[[zh:數位密碼]]

Digital Fortress

2007-03-28T00:20:07Z

Mathnerd314: Somebody put "Rofl". I reverted it.

{{infobox Book | 
| name = Digital Fortress
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = [[Image:digital_fortress.jpg|200px|Digital Fortress book cover]]
| image_caption =
| author = [[Dan Brown]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
| country = [[United States]]
| language = [[English language|English]]
| series =
| genre = [[Science fiction novel|Science fiction]], [[Techno-thriller novel]]
| publisher = [[St. Martin's Press]]
| release_date = 1998
| english_release_date =
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages =
| isbn = ISBN 0-312-26312-0
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
}}


'''''Digital Fortress''''' is a novel by [[United States|American]] author [[Dan Brown]] and published in 1998 by [[St. Martin's Press]] (ISBN 0-312-26312-0).

==Plot summary==
{{spoiler}}
[[Susan Fletcher]], a brilliant [[mathematician]] and head of the [[National Security Agency]]'s [[cryptography]] division, finds herself faced with an unbreakable code resistant to [[brute-force attack]]s by the [[NSA]]'s 3 million processor [[supercomputer]]. The code is written by [[Japan|Japanese]] cryptographer [[Ensei Tankado]], a sacked employee of the NSA, who is displeased with the agency's intrusion into people's privacy. Tankado auctions the algorithm on his website, threatening that his accomplice, "North Dakota (e-mail address being NDakota)", will release the algorithm for free if he dies. Tankado is found dead in [[Seville]], [[Spain]]. Fletcher, along with her fiancé, David Becker, a skilled [[linguist]] with [[eidetic memory]], must find a solution to stop the spread of the code.

==Characters in "Digital Fortress"==
{{spoiler}}
*'''Susan Fletcher''': Mathematician, [[NSA]]'s head cryptographer
*'''David Becker''': Professor of Linguistics at [[Georgetown University]] and Susan's fiancé
*'''Commander Trevor Strathmore''': Deputy Director of the NSA, head of Crypto
*'''Ensei Tankado''': Japanese ex-NSA cryptographer with a birth defect, creator of Digital Fortress
*'''Greg Hale''': NSA cryptographer, former Marine, murdered by Strathmore
*'''Megan''': Teenager who tragically was murdered by Hulohot just after she had given Tankado's ring to David, and gotten the opportunity to flee the nightmarish Sevilla and go home to New York.
*'''Leland Fontaine''': Director of the NSA
*'''Midge Milken''': NSA's Internal security analyst
*'''Hulohot''': An assassin from Portugal hired to hunt down Ensei Tankado and take the ring. After killing Tankado, his new mission was to retrieve the ring before David Becker gets it.
*'''Chad Brinkerhoff''': PA of the NSA Director's Office
*'''Phil Chartrukian''': NSA Sys-sec
*'''Tokugen Numataka''': Japanese businessman, Ensei Tankado's reluctant father
*"'''Jabba'''": Resident Sys-sec Chief, anti-hacker computer expert
*'''Soshi Kuta''': Jabba's assistant

==Code solution==
{{spoiler}}
The code that appears in the end of the book
:128-10-93-85-10-128-98-112-6-6-25-126-39-1-68-78
is decrypted by looking at the first letter of the chapter for each number. For example, chapter 128 starts 'When Susan awoke'. The resulting text is
:WECGEWHYAAIORTNU
Decryption is performed using a columnar [[transposition cipher]], termed a "Caesar Square" cipher in the book (this is unrelated to the [[Caesar cipher]]). The letters are arranged into a square:
:WECG
:EWHY
:AAIO
:RTNU
and read from the top down.
:WEAREWATCHINGYOU
Add spaces and you get the [[plaintext]],
:"We are watching you"
a reference to the NSA's monitoring systems.

==Notes==
*One briefly described character is mentioned to be from Amherst College (same college from which Dan Brown graduated in 1986)

==External links==
* [http://math.cofc.edu/faculty/kasman/MATHFICT/mfview.php?callnumber=mf340 Digital Fortress page at ''Mathematical Fiction''] Alex Kasman's site includes a forum, critique of the math/computing, and his solution to the code.
* [http://victoria.tc.ca/int-grps/books/techrev/bkdgtlft.rvw Rob Slade's review of Digital Fortress] The book is reviewed "on the basis of technology, including the fiction".
* (Spanish) [http://blogs.periodistadigital.com/periodismo.php/2006/02/10/ies_dan_brown_un_mentiroso_compulsivo Criticism in the Spanish-language ''Epoca'' of the book's description of locations in Seville]

{{Dan Brown Books etc}}

[[Category:1998 novels]]
[[Category:Dan Brown]]
[[Category:Science fiction novels]]
[[Category:Cryptography books]]
[[Category:Techno-thriller novels|Digital Fortress]]
[[Category:American novels]]

[[ar:الحصن الرقمي]]
[[bg:Цифрова крепост]]
[[da:Tankados Kode]]
[[de:Diabolus]]
[[es:La fortaleza digital]]
[[fr:Forteresse Digitale]]
[[gl:A Fortaleza Dixital]]
[[it:Crypto]]
[[he:שם הצופן: מבצר דיגיטלי]]
[[lt:Skaitmeninė tvirtovė]]
[[nl:Het Juvenalis Dilemma]]
[[ja:パズル・パレス]]
[[no:Den digitale festning]]
[[pl:Cyfrowa twierdza]]
[[pt:Fortaleza Digital]]
[[ru:Цифровая крепость (роман)]]
[[sk:Digitálna pevnosť]]
[[sv:Gåtornas palats]]
[[tr:Dijital Kale]]
[[zh:數位密碼]]

Supply and demand

2007-03-12T23:02:26Z

Mathnerd314: /* History */

{{redirect5|Supply and Demand|the [[album]] by [[Amos Lee]]|Supply and Demand (album)}}

[[Image:Supply-and-demand.svg|thumb|right|240px|The price of a product is determined by a balance between production at each price (supply) and the desires of those with [[purchasing power]] at each price (demand). The graph depicts an increase in demand from D1 to D2, along with a consequent increase in price and quantity sold of the product.]]

The '''supply and demand''' [[model (economics)|model]] describes the interaction in the [[market]] for a certain [[good (economics and accounting)|good]] between [[production, costs, and pricing|producer]]s and [[consumer]]s, in relation to the [[price]] and sales of the good. It is the fundamental model of [[microeconomics]], and is used to explain a variety of microeconomic scenarios, as well as as a building block for many other economic models and theories. It was originally described by [[Antoine Augustin Cournot]], and was popularized by [[Alfred Marshall]].

The model predicts that in a [[perfect competition|competitive]] [[free market]], price will function to equalize the quantity demanded by consumers and the quantity supplied by producers, resulting in an [[economic equilibrium]].

== History ==
The phrase "supply and demand" was first used by [[James Denham-Steuart]] in his ''[[Inquiry into the Principles of Political Economy]]'', published in 1767. [[Adam Smith]] used the phrase in his 1776 book ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'', and [[David Ricardo]] titled one chapter of his 1817 work ''[[Principles of Political Economy and Taxation]]'' "On the Influence of Demand and Supply on Price".<ref name="Humphrey">{{cite journal|last=Humphrey|first=Thomas M.|year=1992|month=March/April|title=Marshallian Cross Diagrams and Their Uses before Alfred Marshall: The Origins of Supply and Demand Geometry|journal=Economic Review|publisher=[[Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond]]|url=http://www.richmondfed.org/publications/economic_research/economic_review/pdfs/er780201.pdf|accessdate=2007-02-26}}</ref>

In ''The Wealth of Nations'', Smith generally assumed that the supply price was fixed but that the demand would increase or decrease as the price decreased or increased. Ricardo, in ''Principles of Political Economy and Taxation'', more rigorously laid down the idea of the assumptions that were used to build his ideas of supply and demand. [[Antoine Augustin Cournot]] first developed a mathematical model of supply and demand in his 1838 ''[[Researches on the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth]]''.

During the late 19th century the marginalist school of thought emerged. This field mainly was started by [[William Stanley Jevons|Stanley Jevons]], [[Carl Menger]], and [[Léon Walras]]. The key idea was that the price was set by the most expensive price, that is, the price at the margin. This was a substantial change from Adam Smith's thoughts on determining the supply price.

The model was further developed and popularized by [[Alfred Marshall]] in the 1890 textbook ''[[Principles of Economics]]''.<ref name="Humphrey" /> Along with [[Léon Walras]], Marshall looked at the equilibrium point where the two curves crossed. They also began looking at the effect of markets on each other. Since the late 19th century, the theory of supply and demand has mainly been unchanged. Most of the work has been in examining the exceptions to the model (like oligarchy, transaction costs, non-rationality).

== Fundamental theory ==
[[Image:Price_of_market_balance.svg|thumbnail|200px|right|The intersection of supply and demand determines equilibrium price and quantity.]]

The model asserts that in a [[free market]], the amount of a product supplied by the producer and the amount demanded on the consumer are dependent on the [[market price]] of the product. The '''law of supply''' states that supply is directly proportional to price; the higher the price of the product, the more the producer will supply. The '''law of demand''' states that demand is inversely proportional to price; the higher the price of the product, the less the consumer will demand. Thus, supply and demand both vary with price.

The '''law of supply and demand''' states that the market price of a [[good (economics and accounting)|good]] is the intersection of consumer demand and producer supply. If the price for a good is at a low level where consumers demand more of the good than producers are prepared to supply, there will be a shortage of the good, and consumers will be willing to pay more for it. The producers will increase the price until it reaches the level where consumers would not buy any more if the price was increased. Conversely, if the price for a good is at a high level where the suppliers would like to produce more than the consumers will buy, the producers will be willing to lower the price. The price will fall until it reaches the level where consumers would be willing to pay more for the good.

This point to which prices will move towards is the point of [[economic equilibrium]], where the quantity supplied is equal to the quantity demanded — producers are prepared to sell exactly the same quantity of goods as the consumers want to buy.

== Supply schedule ==
The supply schedule is the relationship between the quantity of goods supplied by the producers of a good and the current market price. It is graphically represented by the supply curve. Since supply is generally directly proportional to price, supply curves are almost always upwards-sloping.<ref name="axes">Note that unlike most [[graph of a function|graph]]s, supply and demand curves are plotted with the independent variable (price) on the vertical axis and the dependent variable (quantity supplied or demanded) on the horizontal axis.</ref> Also, the slope of a supply curve is usually ''increasingly'' upwards-sloping (i.e., the curve is a [[convex function]]) due of the law of [[diminishing returns|diminishing marginal returns]].

The supply curve for a given producer is equal to the producer's [[marginal cost]] curve because of the [[equimarginal principle]]<ref>To learn about the equimarginal principle, see {{cite web|last=Schenk|first=Robert|title=The Equimarginal Principle|url=http://ingrimayne.com/econ/LogicOfChoice/Equimarginal.html|accessdate=2007-02-09}}</ref>. Thus, the supply curve for the entire market can be expressed as the sum of the marginal cost curves of the individual producers.<ref>{{cite web|last=Schenk|first=Robert|title=Efficiency and Markets|url=http://www.ingrimayne.com/econ/optional/effic/EfficiencyMark.html|accessdate=2007-02-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Stonebraker|first=Robert J.|title=Marginal Cost and Supply|publisher=[[Winthrop University]]|url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/stonebrakerr/book/MC.htm|accessdate=2007-02-09}}</ref>

Occasionally, supply curves do not slope upwards. A well known example is the [[backward bending supply curve of labour]]. Generally, as a worker's [[wage]] increases, he is willing to supply a greater amount of labor (working more hours), since the higher wage increases the [[marginal utility]] of working (and increases the [[opportunity cost]] of not working). But when the wage reaches an extremely high amount, the laborer may experience the [[law of diminishing marginal utility]] in relation to his salary. The large amount of money he is making will make further money of little value to him. Thus, he will work less and less as the wage increases, choosing instead to spend his time in leisure.<ref>Note that the backwards bending supply curve of labor only applies to an individual worker's supply schedule. If wages are raised for the entire labor market, the supply of labor will generally increase as workers from lower-paying economic sectors move to the sector with the higher wages. The increased amount of workers will compensate for the fact that each individual worker is producing less.</ref>

Another example of a nontraditional supply curve is the supply curve for [[public utility|utility]] production companies. Because a large portion of their total costs are in the form of fixed costs, the marginal cost (supply curve) for these firms is often depicted as a constant.

Another postulated variant of a supply curve is that for child labor. Supply will increase as wages increase, but at a certain point a child's parents will pull the child from the child labor force due to cultural pressures and a desire to concentrate on education. The supply will not increase as the wage increases, up to a point where the wage is high enough to offset these concerns. For a normal demand curve, this can result in two stable equilibrium points - a high wage and a low wage equilibrium point.<ref name="Basu">Basu, Kaushik. "The Economics of Child Labor", [[Scientific American]], October, 2003.</ref>

== Demand schedule ==
Demand is economic want backed up by purchasing power. The demand schedule, depicted graphically as the demand curve, represents the amount of a good that buyers are willing and able to purchase at various prices, assuming all other non-price factors remain the same. The demand curve is almost always downwards-sloping, meaning that as price increases, consumers will buy less of a good.<ref name="axes" />

Just as the supply curves are equal to marginal cost curves, demand curves are equal to [[marginal utility]] curves.<ref>{{cite web|title=Marginal Utility and Demand|url=http://www.amosweb.com/cgi-bin/awb_nav.pl?s=wpd&c=dsp&k=marginal+utility+and+demand|accessdate=2007-02-09}}</ref>

The main determinants of individual demand are the price of the good, level of income, personal tastes, the price of [[substitute good]]s, and the price of [[complementary good]]s.

The shape of the [[aggregate demand]] curve can be convex or concave, possibly depending on income distribution.

As described above, the demand curve is generally downward sloping. There may be rare examples of goods that have upward sloping demand curves. A good whose demand curve has an upward slope is known as a [[Giffen good]] or [[Veblen good]].

The existence of Giffen goods cannot be explained by [[conspicuous consumption]], since an increase in stature associated with buying an expensive product means that more than just price is variable. In fact the actual existence of a Giffen good is debatable. Examples of conspicuous consumption are clearly subjective, but might include the [[Bugatti Veyron 16.4|Bugatti Veyron]]. The social phenomenon often referred to as '[[Bling]]' can also be thought of in this way.

==Simple supply and demand curves==

Economic theory centers on creating a series of supply and demand relationships, describing them as [[equation]]s, and then adjusting for factors which produce "stickiness" between supply and demand. Analysis is then done to see what "trade offs" are made in the "market", which is the negotiation between sellers and buyers. Analysis is done as to what point the ability of sellers to sell becomes less useful than other opportunities. This is related to "marginal" costs, or the price to produce the last unit that can be sold profitably, versus the chance of using the same effort to engage in some other activity.

[[Image:Supply-demand-equilibrium.svg|thumbnail|200px|right|Supply and demand]]

The slope of the demand curve (downward to the right) indicates that a greater quantity will be demanded when the price is lower. On the other hand, the slope of the supply curve (upward to the right) tells us that as the price goes up, producers are willing to produce more goods. The point at which these curves intersect is the '''[[Economic equilibrium|equilibrium point]]'''. At a price of <tt>P*</tt> producers will be willing to supply <tt>Q*</tt> units per period of time and buyers will demand the same quantity. <tt>P*</tt> in this example, is the equilibrating price that equates supply with demand.

In the figures, straight lines are drawn instead of the more general curves. This is typical in analysis looking at the simplified relationships between supply and demand because the shape of the curve does not change the general relationships and lessons of the supply and demand theory. The shape of the curves far away from the equilibrium point are less likely to be important because they do not affect the market clearing price and will not affect it unless large shifts in the supply or demand occur. So straight lines for supply and demand with the proper slope will convey most of the information the model can offer. In any case, the exact shape of the curve is not easy to determine for a given market. The general shape of the curve, especially its slope near the equilibrium point, does however have an impact on how a market will adjust to changes in demand or supply. (See the below section on [[Supply and demand#Elasticity|elasticity]].)

It should be noted that on supply and demand curves both are drawn as a [[function (mathematics)|function]] of price. Neither is represented as a function of the other. Rather the two functions interact in a manner that is representative of market outcomes. The curves also imply a somewhat neutral means of measuring price. In practice any currency or commodity used to measure price is also the subject of supply and demand.

===Demand curve shifts===
[[Image:Supply-demand-right-shift-demand.svg|thumb|200px|left|An out- or right- shift in demand changes the equilibrium price and quantity]]
When more people want something, the quantity demanded at all prices will tend to increase. This can be referred to as an ''increase in demand''. The increase in demand could also come from changing tastes, where the same consumers desire more of the same good than they previously did. Increased demand can be represented on the graph as the curve being shifted right, because at each price point, a greater quantity is demanded. An example of this would be more people suddenly wanting more coffee. This increase in demand will cause the curve to shift from the initial curve <tt>D1</tt> to the new curve <tt>D2</tt>. This raises the equilibrium price from <tt>P1</tt> to the higher <tt>P2</tt>. This raises the equilibrium quantity from <tt>Q1</tt> to the higher <tt>Q2</tt>. In this situation, we say that there has been an ''increase'' in demand which has caused an ''extension'' in supply.

Conversely, if the demand decreases, the opposite happens. If the demand starts at <tt>D2</tt> and then ''decreases'' to <tt>D1</tt>, the price will decrease and the quantity demanded will decrease—a ''contraction'' in supply. Notice that this is purely an effect of demand changing. The quantity supplied at each price is the same as before the demand shift (at both Q1 and Q2). The reason that the equilibrium quantity and price are different is the demand is different.At each point a greater amount is demanded (when there is a shift from D1 to D2)
 

===Supply curve shifts===
[[Image:Supply-demand-right-shift-supply.svg|thumb|200px|right|An out- or right- shift in supply changes the equilibrium price and quantity]]
When the suppliers' costs change the supply curve will shift. For
example, assume that someone invents a better way of growing [[wheat]] so that the amount of wheat that can be grown for a given cost will increase.
Producers will be willing to supply more wheat at every price and this shifts the supply curve <tt>S1</tt> to the right, to <tt>S2</tt>—an ''increase in supply''. This increase in supply causes the equilibrium price to
decrease from <tt>P1</tt> to <tt>P2</tt>. The equilibrium quantity increases
from <tt>Q1</tt> to <tt>Q2</tt> as the quantity demanded increases at the new lower prices. Notice that in the case of a supply curve shift, the price and the quantity move in opposite directions.

Conversely, if the quantity supplied ''decreases'', the opposite happens. If the supply curve starts at <tt>S2</tt> and then shifts to <tt>S1</tt>, the equilibrium price will increase and the quantity will decrease. Notice that this is purely an effect of supply changing. The quantity demanded at each price is the same as before the supply shift (at both <tt>Q1</tt> and <tt>Q2</tt>). The reason that the equilibrium quantity and price are different is the ''supply'' is different.

There are only 4 possible movements to a demand/supply curve diagram. The demand curve can move to the left and right, and the supply curve can also move only to the left or right. If they do not move at all then they will stay in the middle where they already are.

'''See also:''' [[Induced demand]]
 

==Market clearance==
{{main|Market clearing}}

A market clears at the point where the quantity demanded is equal to the quantity supplied. Markets which do not clear will react in some way, either by a change in price, or in the amount produced, or in the amount demanded. Graphically the situation can be represented by two curves: one showing the price-quantity combinations buyers will pay for, or the [[demand curve]]; and one showing the combinations sellers will sell for, or the [[supply curve]]. The market clears where the two curves intersect. In a [[general equilibrium]] model, all markets in all goods clear simultaneously and the "price" can be described entirely in terms of tradeoffs with other goods. For a century most economists believed in [[Say's Law]], which states that markets, as a whole, would always clear and thus be in balance.

The market clearing price contains no maximization basis. As a result, any disequilibrium (excess demand or excess supply) is just a matter of graphical exercises. Some economists regarded that a demand curve could be represented by a diminishing marginal use value curve (the schedule of a consumer's maximum willing to pay with different quantity endowments). By this framework, people will buy when the market price is low enough, and they will sell when the price is high enough. In market clearing condition, the market price implies that the marginal use value of all participants are equalized. In other words, mutual gain of exchange is exhausted. Here come the basis of maximization for the concept of [[economic equilibrium|market equilibrium]].

==Elasticity==
{{main|Elasticity (economics)}}

An important concept in understanding supply and demand theory is '''elasticity'''. In this context, it refers to how supply and demand change in response to various stimuli. One way of defining elasticity is the percentage change in one variable divided by the percentage change in another variable (known as ''arch elasticity'' because it calculates the elasticity over a range of values, in contrast with ''point elasticity'' that uses differential calculus to determine the elasticity at a specific point). Thus it is a measure of ''relative'' changes.

Often, it is useful to know how the quantity supplied or demanded will change when the price changes. This is known as the '''[[price elasticity of demand]]''' and the '''[[price elasticity of supply]]'''. If a [[monopoly|monopolist]] decides to increase the price of their product, how will this affect their sales revenue? Will the increased unit price offset the likely decrease in sales volume? If a government imposes a [[tax]] on a good, thereby increasing the effective price, how will this affect the quantity demanded?

If you do not wish to calculate elasticity, a simpler technique is to look at the slope of the curve. Unfortunately, this has units of measurement of quantity over monetary unit (for example, [[liter]]s per [[euro]], or [[battleship]]s per million [[yen]]), which is not a convenient measure to use for most purposes. So, for example, if you wanted to compare the effect of a price change of [[gasoline]] in [[Europe]] versus the [[United States]], there is a complicated conversion between [[gallon]]s per [[dollar]] and liters per euro. This is one of the reasons why economists often use relative changes in percentages, or elasticity. Another reason is that elasticity is more than just the slope of the function: It is the slope of a function in a coordinate space, that is, a line with a constant slope will have different elasticity at various points.

Let's do an example calculation. We have said that one way of calculating elasticity is the percentage change in quantity over the percentage change in price. So, if the price moves from $1.00 to $1.05, and the quantity supplied goes from 100 pens to 102 pens, the slope is 2/0.05 or 40 pens per dollar. Since the elasticity depends on the percentages, the quantity of pens increased by 2%, and the price increased by 5%, so the price elasticity of supply is 2/5 or 0.4.

Since the changes are in percentages, changing the unit of measurement or the currency will not affect the elasticity. If the quantity demanded or supplied changes a lot when the price changes a little, it is said to be elastic. If the quantity changes little when the prices changes a lot, it is said to be inelastic. An example of perfectly inelastic supply, or zero elasticity, is represented as a [[Supply and demand#vertical supply curve|vertical supply curve]]. (See that section below)

Elasticity in relation to variables other than price can also be considered. One of the most common to consider is [[income]]. How would the demand for a good change if income increased or decreased? This is known as the '''[[income elasticity of demand]]'''. For example, how much would the demand for a luxury [[automobile|car]] increase if average income increased by 10%? If it is positive, this increase in demand would be represented on a graph by a positive shift in the demand curve, because at all price levels, a greater quantity of luxury cars would be demanded.

Another elasticity that is sometimes considered is the '''[[cross elasticity of demand]]''', which measures the responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good to a change in the price of another good. This is often considered when looking at the relative changes in demand when studying '''[[complement good|complement]]''' and '''[[substitute good]]s'''. Complement goods are goods that are typically utilized together, where if one is consumed, usually the other is also. Substitute goods are those where one can be substituted for the other, and if the price of one good rises, one may purchase less of it and instead purchase its substitute.

Cross elasticity of demand is measured as the percentage change in demand for the first good that occurs in response to a percentage change in price of the second good. For an example with a complement good, if, in response to a 10% increase in the price of fuel, the quantity of new cars demanded decreased by 20%, the cross elasticity of demand would be −20%/10% or, −2.

==Vertical supply curve==
[[Image:Vertical-supply-left-shift-demand.svg|thumb|240px|right|When demand <tt>D1</tt> is in effect, the price will be <tt>P1</tt>. When
<tt>D2</tt> is occurring, the price will be <tt>P2</tt>. Notice
that at both values the quantity is <tt>Q</tt>. Since the supply is fixed, any shifts in demand will only affect price.]]

It is sometimes the case that a supply curve is vertical: that is the quantity supplied is fixed, no matter what the market price. For example, the amount of land in the world can be considered fixed. In this case, no matter how much someone would be willing to pay for a piece of land, the extra cannot be created. Also, even if no one wanted all the land, it still would exist. If land is considered in this way, then it warrants a vertical supply curve, giving it zero elasticity (i.e., no matter how large the change in price, the quantity supplied will not change). On the other hand, the supply of useful land can be increased in response to demand — by irrigation. And land that otherwise would be below sea level can be kept dry by a system of dikes, which might also be regarded as a response to demand. So even in this case, the vertical line is a bit of a simplification.

In the short run near vertical supply curves are more common. For example, if the [[Super Bowl]] is next week, increasing the number of seats in the stadium is almost impossible. The supply of tickets for the game can be considered vertical in this case. If the organizers of this event underestimated demand, then it may very well be the case that the price that they set is below the equilibrium price. In this case there will likely be people who paid the lower price who only value the ticket at that price, and people who could not get tickets, even though they would be willing to pay more. If some of the people who value the tickets less sell them to people who are willing to pay more (i.e., scalp the tickets), then the effective price will rise to the equilibrium price.

[[Supply-side economics]] argues that the aggregate supply function – the total supply function of the entire economy of a country – is relatively vertical. Thus, supply-siders argue against government stimulation of demand, which would only lead to inflation with a vertical supply curve.<ref>http://www.investopedia.com/articles/05/011805.asp</ref>

==Other markets==
The model of supply and demand also applies to various specialty markets.

The model applies to [[wage]]s, which are determined by the market for [[labour (economics)|labor]]. In this instance, the typical roles of supplier and consumer are reversed. The suppliers are individuals, who attempt to sell their labor for the highest price. Conversely, the consumers of labors are businesses, which attempt to buy the type of labor they need at the lowest price. The equilibrium price for a certain type of labor is the wage.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kibbe|first=Matthew B.|title=The Minimum Wage: Washington's Perennial Myth|publisher=[[Cato Institute]]|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa106.html|accessdate=2007-02-09}}</ref>

The model is also held to apply to [[interest#Interest rates in macroeconomics|interest rates]], which are determined by the [[money market]]. In the short term, the [[money supply]] is a vertical supply curve, which the [[central bank]] of a country can control through [[monetary policy]]. The demand for money intersects with the money supply to determine the interest rate.<ref>{{cite web|last=Mead|first=Art|title=Interest rates are prices|publisher=[[University of Rhode Island]]|url=http://www.uri.edu/artsci/newecn/Classes/Art/INT1/Mac/1970s/Money.price1.html|accessdate=2007-02-09}}</ref>

==Other market forms==

In a situation in which there are many buyers but a single '''[[monopoly]]''' supplier that can adjust the supply or price of a good at will, the monopolist will adjust the price so that his profit is maximized given the amount that is demanded at that price. This price will be higher than in a competitive market. A similar analysis using supply and demand can be applied when a good has a single buyer, a '''[[monopsony]]''', but many sellers.

Where there are both few buyers or few sellers, the theory of supply and demand cannot be applied because both decisions of the buyers and sellers are interdependent—changes in supply can affect demand and vice versa. '''[[Game theory]]''' can be used to analyze this kind of situation. (See also '''[[oligopoly]]'''.)

The supply curve does not have to be linear. However, if the supply is
from a profit-maximizing firm, it can be proven that supply curves are not downward sloping (i.e., if the price increases, the quantity supplied will not decrease). Supply curves from profit-maximizing firms can be vertical, horizontal or upward sloping. While it is possible for industry supply curves to be downward sloping, supply curves for individual firms are never downward sloping.

Standard microeconomic assumptions cannot be used to prove that the demand curve is downward sloping. However, despite years of searching, no generally agreed upon example of a good that has an upward-sloping demand curve has been found (also known as a '''[[giffen goods|giffen good]]'''). Non-economists sometimes think that certain goods would have such a curve. For example, some people will buy a luxury car because it is expensive. In this case the good demanded is actually [[prestige (sociology)|prestige]], and not a car, so when the price of the luxury car decreases, it is actually changing the amount of prestige so the demand is not decreasing since it is a different good (see '''[[Veblen good]]'''). Even with downward-sloping demand curves, it is possible that an increase in income may lead to a decrease in demand for a particular good, probably due to the existence of more attractive alternatives which become affordable: a good with this property is known as an '''[[inferior good]]'''.

==An example: Supply and demand in a 6-person economy==

Supply and demand can be thought of in terms of individual people interacting at a market. Suppose the following six people participate in this simplified economy:

* Alice is willing to pay $10 for a sack of potatoes.
* Bob is willing to pay $20 for a sack of potatoes.
* Cathy is willing to pay $30 for a sack of potatoes.

* Dan is willing to sell a sack of potatoes for $5.
* Emily is willing to sell a sack of potatoes for $15.
* Fred is willing to sell a sack of potatoes for $25.

There are many possible trades that would be mutually agreeable to both people, but not all of them will happen. For example, Cathy and Fred would be interested in trading with each other for any price between $25 and $30. If the price is above $30, Cathy is not interested, since the price is too high. If the price is below $25, Fred is not interested, since the price is too low. However, at the market Cathy will discover that there are other sellers willing to sell at well below $25, so she will not trade with Fred at all. In an efficient market, each seller will get as high a price as possible, and each buyer will get as low a price as possible.

Imagine that Cathy and Fred are bartering over the price. Fred offers $25 for a sack of potatoes. Before Cathy can agree, Emily offers a sack of potatoes for $24. Fred is not willing to sell at $24, so he drops out. At this point, Dan offers to sell for $12. Emily won't sell for that amount so it looks like the deal might go through. At this point Bob steps in and offers $14. Now we have two people willing to pay $14 for a sack of potatoes (Cathy and Bob), but only one person (Dan) willing to sell for $14. Cathy notices this and doesn't want to lose a good deal, so she offers Dan $16 for his potatoes. Now Emily also offers to sell for $16, so there are two buyers and two sellers at that price (note that they could have settled on any price between $15 and $20), and the bartering can stop. But what about Fred and Alice? Well, Fred and Alice are not willing to trade with each other, since Alice is only willing to pay $10 and Fred will not sell for any amount under $25. Alice can't outbid Cathy or Bob to purchase from Dan, so Alice will not be able to get a trade with them. Fred can't underbid Dan or Emily, so he will not be able to get a trade with Cathy. In other words, a stable equilibrium has been reached.
[[Image:Discrete-supply-and-demand.svg|thumb|360px|right|Discrete supply and demand curves]]
A supply and demand graph could also be drawn from this. The demand would be:

* One person is willing to pay $30 (Cathy).
* Two people are willing to pay $20 (Cathy and Bob).
* Three people are willing to pay $10 (Cathy, Bob, and Alice).

The supply would be:

* One person is willing to sell for $5 (Dan).
* Two people are willing to sell for $15 (Dan and Emily).
* Three people are willing to sell for $25 (Dan, Emily, and Fred).

Supply and demand match when the quantity traded is two sacks and the price is between $15 and $20. Whether Dan sells to Cathy, and Emily to Bob, or the other way round, and what precisely is the price agreed cannot be determined. This is the only limitation of this simple model. When considering the full assumptions of perfect competition the price would be fully determined, since there would be enough participants to determine the price. For example, if the "last trade" was between someone willing to sell at $15.50 and someone willing to pay $15.51, then the price could be determined to the penny. As more participants enter, the more likely there will be a close bracketing of the equilibrium price.

It is important to note that this example violates the assumption of perfect competition in that there are a limited number of market participants. However, this simplification shows how the equilibrium price and quantity can be determined in an easily understood situation. The results are similar when unlimited market participants and the other assumptions of perfect competition are considered.

==Criticism of Marshall's theory of supply and demand==

Marshall's theory of supply and demand runs counter to the ideas of economists from Adam Smith and David Ricardo through the creation of the marginalist school of thought. Although Marshall's theories are dominant in universities today, other economists have disagreed with it. One theory counter to Marshall is that price is already known in a commodity before it reaches the market, negating his idea that some abstract market is conveying price information. The only thing the market communicates is whether an object is exchangeable or not (in which case it would change from an object to a commodity). This would mean that the producer creates the goods without already having customers — blindly producing, hoping that someone will buy them ("buy" meaning exchange money for the commodities). Modern producers often have market studies prepared well in advance of production decisions; however, misallocation of factors of production can still occur.

[[Keynesian economics]] also runs counter to the theory of supply and demand. In Keynesian theory, prices can become "sticky" or resistant to change, especially in the case of price decreases. This leads to a [[market failure]]. Modern supporters of Keynes, such as [[Paul Krugman]], have noted this in recent history, such as when the [[Boston, Massachusetts|Boston]] housing market dried up in the early 1990s, with neither buyers nor sellers willing to exchange at the price equilibrium.

[[N. Gregory Mankiw|Gregory Mankiw]]'s work on the irrationality of actors in the markets also undermines Marshall's view of the forces involved in supply and demand.

==Empirical estimation==
The demand and supply relations in a market can be statistically estimated from price and quantity [[data]] using the ''[[System of linear equations|simultaneous system]] estimation'' ("structural estimation") method in [[econometrics]]. An alternative to "structural estimation" is [[Reduced form]] estimation. ''[[Identification (parameter)|Parameter identification problem]]'' is a common issue in "structural estimation." Typically, data on [[exogenous]] variables (that is, variables other than price and quantity, both of which are [[Endogeneity (economics)|endogenous]] variables) are needed to perform such an estimation.

==Criticism of supply and demand==
Unlike [[general equilibrium]] models, the supply and demand model represents a [[partial equilibrium]] which is accurate only in the short term, since it ignores the long-term reinforcing relationship between supply and demand.

Objections to [[free market]] principles come primarily from [[Marxists]] and other [[Socialists]]. They would prefer to run an economy so that prices are not permitted to track supply and demand. When shortages occur or demand drops, the price should remain the same, they assert (see [[Command economy]]).

Advocates of free markets object to the practices in command economies, particularly in Communist countries. Long-term shortages of basic goods persist, and sporadic supply spikes result in lengthy queues of people waiting to get whatever is available.

==See also==
{{Wiktionary|supply}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
* [[Aggregate demand]]
* [[Artificial demand]]
* [[Barriers to entry]] - like [[taxi medallion]]s costing as much as a house
* [[Consumer surplus]]
* [[Consumer theory]]
* [[Deadweight loss]]
* [[Economic surplus]]
* [[Effect of taxes and subsidies on price]]
* [[Elasticity (economics)|Elasticity]]
* [[Externality]]
* ''[[Foundations of Economic Analysis]]'' by Paul A. Samuelson
* [[History of economic thought]]
* "[[invisible hand]]" (self-interest stimulates economy)
* [[Labor shortage]]
* [[Microeconomics]]
* [[Producer's surplus]]
* [[Protectionism]] - keeps prices up, despite foreign competition
* [[Profit]]
* [[Rationing]]
* [[Real prices and ideal prices]]
* [[Say's Law]]
* [[Supply shock]]
* ''[[The Wealth of Nations|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations]]'' by Adam Smith
</div>

== External links and references ==
<references />
*[http://www.richmondfed.org/publications/economic_research/economic_review/pdfs/er780201.pdf "Marshallian Cross Diagrams and Their Uses before Alfred Marshall: The Origins of Supply and Demand Geometry"] by Thomas Humphrey (via the Richmond Fed)
*[http://gutenberg.net/1/0/6/1/10612/10612-h/10612-h.htm Supply and Demand] book by [[Hubert Douglas Henderson|Hubert D. Henderson]] at Project Gutenberg.
*Price Theory and Applications by Steven E. Landsburg ISBN 0-538-88206-9
*''An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations'', Adam Smith, 1776 [http://www.gutenberg.net/etext/3300]
*''By what is the price of a commodity determined?'', a brief statement of Karl Marx's rival account [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1847/wage-labour/ch03.htm]
*
{{microeconomics-footer}}

[[Category:Consumer theory]]

[[ar:عرض و طلب]]
[[bg:Търсене и предлагане]]
[[de:Marktgleichgewicht]]
[[eo:Mendado kaj ofertado]]
[[es:Oferta y demanda]]
[[fi:Kysyntä ja tarjonta]]
[[fr:Offre et demande]]
[[he:היצע וביקוש]]
[[hr:Ponuda]]
[[hr:Potražnja]]
[[ja:需要と供給]]
[[nl:Vraag en aanbod]]
[[pl:Popyt]]
[[sk:Ponuka]]
[[sl:Ponudba in povpraševanje]]
[[sv:Utbud och efterfrågan]]
[[th:อุปสงค์และอุปทาน]]
[[uk:Попит]]
[[zh:供给和需求]]

Talk:Akeelah and the Bee

2007-03-07T23:58:30Z

Mathnerd314: /* True story? */

{{FilmsWikiProject|class=B}}

Is "The Starbucks funding raises questions pertinent to today's cinema, such as whether or not the presence of corporate sponsorship decreases the value of the art. However, due to the costs associated with filmmaking, this is a trend that will likely continue, for better or for worse" really NPOV? {{unsigned|Trojan traveler}}

Starbucks signed on to the project after the film was shot and edited. They did not have any creative role in the making of this film. --[[User:Carlothebarlo|Carlothebarlo]]

: Nothing in that paragraph is cited, so it's going...now.--[[User:Planetary|Planetary]] 23:37, 22 August 2006 (UTC)
==Name origin==

is the name ''Akeelah'' invented or from some other culture?

:According to [http://www.ummah.net/family/fem.html this page], "Akilah" is an Arabic name meaning "intelligent, logical, one who reasons". --[[User:Mathew5000|Mathew5000]] 10:23, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

== Was it a boxoffice bomb? ==

seems like it disappeared in a week after all the months of starbuck hype. did it make any money?

The movie cost under 6 million and grossed around 19 before the release of the DVD... hardly a bomb

==True story?==
Nothing in the article says if it is or not, but it certainly sounds like the kind of movie that would be based off of nonfiction.--[[User:SeizureDog|SeizureDog]] 21:07, 22 August 2006 (UTC)
:The movie is fiction. Somebody just made it all up. --[[User:Mathew5000|Mathew5000]] 22:16, 22 August 2006 (UTC)
::It is a made up story that got support after Spell Bound came out. [[User:Timothy Clemans|Timothy Clemans]] 17:50, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::The Scripps National Spelling Bee is factual. However, when Akeelah and Dylan are declared co-champions at the end, that clearly never happened. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 15:25, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

::::Actually, twice in spelling bee history, a co-champion has been declared.

:::::Actually, three times: 1950, 1957, and 1962, according to the 2006 Paideia. However, the movie is clearly set later than 1990, since Akeelah has obtained a list of all the winning words up to then. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 01:55, 27 November 2006 (UTC)
Do you post on AoPS? Also, does anyone have information about the location filming of this movie, because I think it was shot on site in my elementary school (Woodland Hills Elementary)
:Yes, I do, but that's off topic. Look on IMDB for the filming information.[[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 23:58, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

Akeelah and the Bee

2007-03-07T23:56:16Z

Mathnerd314: Corrected spelling of "Pterodactyl"

{{Infobox Film
| name = Akeelah and the Bee
| image = Akeelah and the Bee film.jpg
| caption = Promotional poster For ''Akeelah and the Bee''.
| director = [[Doug Atchison]]
| producer = [[Laurence Fishburne]] [[Sid Ganis]] [[Nancy Hult]] [[Daniel Llewelyn]] [[Michael Romersa]]
| writer = [[Doug Atchison]]
| starring = [[Keke Palmer]] [[Laurence Fishburne]] [[Angela Bassett]] [[Curtis Armstrong]] [[J.R. Villareal]] [[Sean Michael (US actor)|Sean Michael]]
| music = [[Aaron Zigman]]
| cinematography = [[M. David Mullen]]
| editing = [[Glenn Farr]]
| distributor = [[Lions Gate Films]]
| released = [[April 28]] [[2006]]
| runtime = 112 minutes (approx.)
| country = [[United States]]
| awards =
| language = [[English language|English]]
| budget =
| amg_id = 1:321726
| imdb_id = 0437800
}}
'''''Akeelah and the Bee''''' is a [[2006 in film|2006]] [[film]] written and [[film director|directed]] by [[Doug Atchison]]. It tells the story of Akeelah Anderson, portrayed by [[Keke Palmer]], an 11-year-old girl who participates in the [[Scripps National Spelling Bee]], her mother, schoolmates, and also her coach, portrayed by [[Laurence Fishburne]]. It also explores issues of education in the black community.

The film was developed over a period of 10 years by [[Doug Atchison]], the germ of the idea having started after his watching the [[Scripps National Spelling Bee]] of [[1994]] and combined with his experiences spent tutoring disadvantaged students in the area around the [[University of Southern California]], where he attended film school. After four years of trying to secure funding for the film, the documentary film ''[[Spellbound (documentary)|Spellbound]]'' came out in [[2002]] and perhaps, according to one producer, [[Sid Ganis]], facilitated funding. ''Spellbound'' features a black girl, Ashley White, from [[Washington, D.C.]], in rough parallel to the independent idea developed in ''Akeelah and the Bee''.

The film has been heavily promoted by [[Starbucks]] as a result of a partnership between [[Lions Gate Films]], [[2929 Entertainment]], and [[Starbucks Entertainment]]. It became the first [[DVD]] offered for sale at Starbucks. [http://www.videobusiness.com/article/CA6340569.html]

The film earned positive reviews from most critics, getting an 84% from 115 people at ''Rotten Tomatoes''. [http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/akeelah_and_the_bee]

*[[Tagline]]: ''Changing the world... one word at a time''.

==Plot==
{{spoiler}}
Akeelah Anderson is a talented girl at [[Crenshaw]], a predominantly black school. Akeelah Anderson is especially talented at spelling, and never makes an error on her spelling tests. Her teacher recommends her to try out for the [[Crenshaw]] Schoolwide [[Spelling Bee]], which she wins easily. After that, [[Laurence Fishburne|Dr. Joshua Larabee]] tests her with some difficult words, and finds that she has a potential of winning the National Spelling Bee. Upon making a mistake of spelling the word ''Pulchritude'', she is upset because of her unmet expectations of being a "brainiac."

[[Curtis Armstrong|Mr. Welch]], the principal, "makes her" join the spelling bee. He gives Akeelah two choices: detention for her skipped classes or Spelling Bee; Akeelah chooses the spelling bee.

Akeelah's mother, Tanya, is depressed at her husband's death, and does not want Akeelah to participate in the bee. She thinks that homework is on top of everything. Wanting to participate in the bee, Akeelah signs the consent form with her father's name.

When Akeelah requested Dr. Larabee to coach her, she was rejected for being insolent. She memorized many words in the dictionary, and luckily finished in tenth place at the regional spelling bee. Her sister, Kiana, catches one of the contestants cheating at the bee, helping Akeelah to "make the cut". In this bee, she started her friendship with Javier, a [[Mexican-American]] boy, who's age 11. Javier invites her to join the spelling club at [[Woodland Hills]].

When Akeelah goes to Woodland Hills, with an unexpected long bus ride, she meets [[Sean Michael|Dylan Chiu]], a [[Chinese-American]] boy, aged 14. She is criticized by him that she needed a coach. Later, after the spelling club, she was invited to go to Javier's birthday party. Dylan tested Akeelah's word knowledge. Dylan requested Akeelah to spell Xanthosis, but Akeelah cannot. Dylan warned her that Xanthosis begins with an "X".

In the party, Javier kissed her with an impulse, while noticing Dylan playing Scrabble with other invited guests. Akeelah almost defeated Dylan by three points, before Akeelah heard Dylan's father, who demands Dylan to do better, to avoid being "won over by this little black girl."

The time to the state bee come closer. Akeelah memorized all winning words of the past spelling bee, and was accepted to be coached by Dr. Larabee. Not only did Dr. Larabee teach her words, he also taught her lessons about life.

During the state bee, Akeelah was interrupted by her mother. Her mother found out about the bee, and requested her to stop competing in the bee. After being convinced by Larabee, Tanya, Akeelah's mother, allowed her to continue in the bee. Meanwhile, Javier used the word "[[ratatouille]]" to try and stall time before Akeelah comes back from discussion with her mother. Javier requested the judge to repeat, define, use it in a sentence, and even to sing it in a song. Finally, Dylan finished first, Javier finished second, and Akeelah finished third.

Christmas was close. Akeelah went and brought Dr. Larabee a present. However, Dr. Larabee did not want to coach Akeelah anymore because Akeelah made Dr. Larabee think of his deceased daughter, Denise. He made Akeelah four boxes of 5,000 flashcards to study.

Akeelah was depressed. She started to give up spelling. Whenever she came into contact with "spelling-related materials", she sobbed. She tried and chat with her friends to forget her depressing moments. When Tanya notices Akeelah's acts, she approached to Akeelah telling her that there are 50,000 coaches in the world to coach her.

Therefore, Akeelah began to search for her coaches. Everyone from tough kids (Derrick T.) to grocery store managers to restaurant waiters are willing to coach her. She became happier and happier as days went by.

The national spelling bee is coming up. Dr. Larabee is being generous enough to buy tickets for four people, so that Georgia, Akeelah's best friend, and Akeelah's brother could go and watch Akeelah perform.

Akeelah had, so far, been doing well in the spelling bee. She stumbled on only one word. She used her strategy of jumping rope, taught by Dr. Larabee, in order to complete the word. The audience got nervous, and Tanya could not bear to look. Everyone cheered when Akeelah successfully completed her word.

Javier spelled the word "[[Merovingian]]" wrong, finished 5th, and cheered on Akeelah as she and Dylan were competing for the cup.

The finals were here. Akeelah went to wish Dylan good luck, but overheard her father's expectations of Dylan. She heard that Dylan's father wants him to get first place this year, so that he will be in first place in spelling bees for the rest of his life.

The finals began with Akeelah spelling the word "[[xanthosis]]". She knows that Dylan's father expected much from Dylan, so she purposely spelled the word as "zanthosis". Dylan was both surprised and frustrated, thinking if he should proceed and win, or purposely spell the word wrong to give Akeelah a chance. Dylan decided and ending up spelling the word "xanthosis" as "xanthoses".

Dylan had a little chat with Akeelah, and told Akeelah that she has to do her best that year, or he would resign.

Afterwards, Dylan and Akeelah passed all 25 championship words, which had never happened before in Scripps history. Dylan encouraged Akeelah, and vice versa. With Dylan winning the National Spelling Bee with the word "Logorrhea", Akeelah proceeded to the stage, staring at her family and her coach.

The judge began to speak into the microphone, she was requested to spell "Pulchritude", the word she had first stumbled on at [[Crenshaw]] schoolwide spelling bee. She smiled confidently. Akeelah pictured everyone's face, spelling one letter at a time. She spelled it correctly and successfully won the national spelling bee. Everyone cheered, from [[Crenshaw]] to [[Washington D.C.]].

The movie ended with a series of videos where Akeelah is receiving training from Dr. Larabee and her many coaches. Upon the quote,

<big>"</big> You know that feeling where there is joy, and that is love... L-O-V-E. <big>"</big>

{{ end spoiler }}

== Awards/Nominations ==

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Awards
! Category
! Recepient
! Result
|-
| rowspan="13"| 2007
| rowspan="5"| [[Image Awards]]
| Outstanding Motion Picture
| N/A
| Nominated
|-
| Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture
| [[Keke Palmer]]
| Nominated
|-
| Outstanding Actor in a Motion Picture
| [[Laurence Fishburne]]
| Nominated
|-
| Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Motion Picture
| [[Angela Bassett]]
| Nominated
|-
| Outstanding Direction for a Motion Picture
| [[Doug Atchison]]
| Nominated
|-
| rowspan="6"| [[Black Reel Awards]]
| Best Motion Picture
| [[Laurence Fishburne]], [[Sidney Ganis]], [[Nancy Hult]], [[Daniel Llewellyn]], [[Michael Romersa]]
| Nominated
|-
| '''Best Actress'''
| '''[[Keke Palmer]]'''
| '''Winner'''
|-
| Best Supporting Actor
| [[Laurence Fishburne]]
| Nominated
|-
| Best Supporting Actress
| [[Angela Bassett]]
| Nominated
|-
| Best Breakthrough Performance
| [[Keke Palmer]]
| Nominated
|-
| Best Original Score
| [[Aaron Zigman]]
| Nominated
|-
| rowspan="2"| [[Broadcast Film Critics]]
| Best Young Actress
| [[Keke Palmer]]
| rowspan="2"| Nominated
|-
| Best Family Film (Live Action)
| N/A
|-
| rowspan="5"| 2006
| rowspan="4"| [[Black Movie Awards]]
| '''Outstanding Motion Picture'''
| '''[[Laurence Fishburne]], [[Sidney Ganis]], [[Nancy Hult]], [[Daniel Llewellyn]], [[Michael Romersa]]'''
| rowspan="4"| '''Winner'''
|-
| '''Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role'''
| '''[[Keke Palmer]]'''
|-
| '''Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role'''
| '''[[Laurence Fishburne]]'''
|-
| '''Outstanding Performance by an Actress in a Supporting Role'''
|''' [[Angela Bassett]]'''
|-
|[[Chicago Film Critics]]
|[[Most Promising Newcomer]]
|[[Keke Palmer]]
|[[Nominated]]
|}

==Words Spelled in the film==
{{spoiler}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Word
! Meaning
! Significance to the film
|-
| '''Xanthosis'''
| A yellow discolor of skin.
| Akeelah purposely spelled the word wrong, trying to give Dylan a chance to win the [[Scripps National Spelling Bee]]. First mentioned at [[Woodland Hills]] by [[Sean Michael|Dylan Chiu]] to Akeelah.
|-
| '''Pulchritude'''
| A great physical beauty. (Derived from the latin word ''Pulcher''.)
| Akeelah's winning word of the National Spelling Bee. First mentioned when [[Joshua Larabee]] is testing Akeelah's vocabulary at [[Crenshaw]].
|-
| '''Pluviosity'''
| A state of being much rain
| The word Akeelah spelled after a discussion with her mother during the state spelling bee.
|-
| '''[[Ratatouille]]'''
| A vegetable stew
| Javier used this word to try and stall time before Akeelah comes back from discussion with her mother. Javier requested the judge to repeat, define, use it in a sentence, and even to sing it in a song.
|-
| '''[[Merovingian]]'''
| {{main|merovingian}}
| Javier spelled this word wrong in the [[Scripps National Spelling Bee]], finishing in fifth place.
|-
| '''[[Logorrhea]]'''
| Using too many words.
| Winning word for Dylan Chiu.
|-
| '''[[Prestidigitation]]'''
| Sleight of hand
| First word [[Joshua Larabee]] tested Akeelah.
|-
| '''[[Xylem]]'''
| A tube in plants containing dead cells. It is used to transport nutrients and water up to the very top of the plant.
| One of the words Javier spelled in one of the spelling bee.
|-
| '''Doubt'''
| Having uncertainty of something.
| The first word Akeelah spelled in the [[Crenshaw]] [[Spelling Bee]].
|-
| '''Fanciful'''
| Something that is fancy.
| The second to last word spelled in the Crenshaw Spelling Bee, enabling Akeelah to be the Crenshaw Spelling Bee winner.
|-
| '''[[Pterodactyl]]'''
| {{main|Pterodactyl}}
| Used in the [[Crenshaw]] Spelling Bee as a "trick word, because everyone knows it starts with 'P' instead of 'T' " which is stated by Akeelah in the beginning of the movie.
|-
| '''[[Psoriasis]]'''
| {{main|Psoriasis}}
| One of the words posed by Akeelah to Javier and two other members of the Woodland Hills spelling bee study group.
|-
| '''[[Synecdoche]]'''
| {{main|Synecdoche}}
| Word spelled in one of the rounds in the competition.
|}
{{listdev}}

{{ end spoiler }}

== External links ==
* [http://www.akeelahandthebee.com/ Official website]
* {{imdb title|id=0437800|title=Akeelah and the Bee}}
* [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0040328/ Doug Atchison Details]
* [http://www.apple.com/trailers/lions_gate/akeelahandthebee/ Movie trailer at Apple.com]
* [http://www.csrwire.com/article.cgi/5334.html Starbucks Promotional Details]
* [http://www.metacritic.com/video/titles/akeelahandthebee Reviews & Scores] at Metacritic.com
* [http://www.myspace.com/akeelahandthebee Movie Myspace Page]

[[Category:2006 films]]
[[Category:American films]]
[[Category:Drama films]]
[[Category:Lions Gate films]]

Recycle Bin (Windows)

2007-03-05T22:37:35Z

Mathnerd314: reverted vandalism

:''This article is about the '''recycle bin''' in Windows. For a container used for recycling, see [[recycling bin]]. For the [[Sigur Rós]] album commonly known as ''Recycle Bin'', see ''[[Von brigði]].
In the [[Microsoft Windows]] [[operating system]]s, the '''recycle bin''' is a holding area for files that are to be [[file deletion|deleted]] from a storage device.

==General==
[[Image:RecycleBinfull.PNG|right|A full recycle bin in Windows XP]]
[[Image:Recyclebinempty.PNG|right|An empty recycle bin in Windows XP]]

The recycle bin was introduced in [[Windows 95]] as a means of keeping accidentally deleted files, users can then review what is in the recycle bin before removing files permanently. Before, [[undeletion]] was the only way to recover accidentally deleted files. Recycle Bin holds data that not only lists deleted files, but also the date, time and the path of those files. The recycle bin is opened like a regular [[Windows Explorer]] [[folder]] and the files are viewed similarly. Deleted files may be removed from the recycle bin by restoring them with a command.

The recycle bin's icon indicates whether or not something is in the recycle bin. If the icon is empty, there are no files in the recycle bin. If there are objects in the recycle bin on the icon, there are files in the recycle bin.

Prior to Windows Vista, the default configuration of the Recycle Bin was to hold 10% of the total capacity of the host hard disk drive. For example, on a hard drive with a capacity of 20 gigabytes, the recycle bin will hold up to 2 gigabytes. If the recycle bin fills up to maximum capacity, the oldest files will be deleted in order to accommodate the newly deleted files. If a file is too large for the recycle bin, the user will be prompted to permanently delete the file instead. The maximum possible size of the recycle bin is 3.99 gigabytes in all versions of Windows except Vista.

The same feature exists in other operating systems under a different name, for example in [[Apple Inc.|Apple's]] [[Mac OS]] and various [[Linux]] distributions, it is named 'Trash'. It was a feature of the Macintosh OS since the beginning. It is believed that the recycle bin was first invented by [[Xerox PARC]].

{{sect-stub}}

==Physical storage locations==
The actual location of the recycle bin varies depending on the operating system and filesystem. On the older [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] filesystems (typically Windows 98 and prior), it is located in ''Drive:\RECYCLED''. In the [[NTFS]] filesystem (Windows 2000, XP, NT) it can be found in ''Drive:\RECYCLER'', with the exception of Windows Vista which stores it in the ''Drive:\$Recycle.Bin'' folder. [http://blogs.msdn.com/oldnewthing/archive/2006/01/31/520225.aspx]

The recycle bin can be accessed via the desktop (In fact it is the only icon shown by default on the Windows XP desktop) or the Windows Explorer. The recycle bin, when accessed from the desktop, has different options and information than what [[Windows Explorer]] normally would have as seen from the physical location. In an NTFS environment, users cannot see deleted files in the Recycle Bin of other users.

==Deleting files==
Files are moved to the recycle bin in a number of ways:
* By right-clicking on a file and selecting delete from the menu
* Selecting the file and pressing the delete key
* Selecting delete from the side [[menu (computing)|menu]] in Windows XP
* Selecting the file and choosing delete from the File menu (in Windows XP Explorer)
* From a [[context menu]] command or some other function in a software application (usually configurable)
* By dragging and dropping a file into the recycle bin icon

To delete a file bypassing the recycle bin (for immediate deletion), press and hold the SHIFT key while deleting the file. This deletes the file without sending it to the Recycle Bin.

==How the recycle bin works==
Files stored in the Recycle Bin in its physical location are renamed as Dxy.ext where x represents the drive name such as "c", "d" and so on, y a sequential number starting at 1 and ext being the file's original file name extension. The file names are kept as is when viewed from the main recycle bin. A hidden file is created, without an extension, called "info2". This file stores the original files' paths and file names so when the file is removed from the recycle bin and returned to its original directory, the original file name is kept as is.
When the file is "deleted" the space on the disk is designated to be erased over by whatever files then are saved on the disk. For instance, if you have a picture deleted on the recycling bin, it is still physically stored on the disk until other data is written over it.
In other words, what is deleted is the *address* of the file, not the file itself.

See an explanation here: http://www.winguides.com/forums/showflat.php?Cat=&Board=brdNewTweaks&Number=94271&page=1&view=expanded&sb=9

Here is an example of the kind of software that can recover files even when they have been *permanently* deleted (this is for illustration only, there are probably better programs than this example): http://empty-recycle-bin.qarchive.org/

==Known Issues==
While the recycle bin is useful for your fixed disc, it does not recycle files from removable media. For instance, if you have a SD card (or a legacy floppy disc) files that have been deleted do not make it to the recycle bin. Since the drive is not part of the recycle bin process you do not receive a message warning you.

Having a big disk and full recycle bin can considerably slow down deleting files. Right-clicking on recycle bin and selecting "empty recycle bin" resolves the issue easily.

Also, the Recycle Bin icon cannot be deleted from the desktop like other icons. Deleting a registry key from the Windows Registry resolves this issue. The key varies with the version of the operating system.

==See Also==
[[File deletion]]

==Resources==
*[http://support.microsoft.com/kb/136517/EN-US/ Microsoft Knowledge Base article "How the Recycle Bin Stores Files"]
*[http://www.petri.co.il/delete_recycle_bin_icon_from_the_desktop_in_xp_2003.htm How to Delete the Recycle Bin Icon from the desktop in Windows XP or Windows 2003]

[[Category:Graphical user interface]]
[[Category:Windows administration]]

[[fr:Corbeille]]
[[ja:ゴミ箱]]
[[pl:Kosz (folder)]]

Lincoln–Douglas debate format

2007-02-01T21:31:21Z

Mathnerd314: /* Overview */ Rephrasing stuff

{{otheruses4|a style of debate|the historical debates|Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858}}
'''Lincoln-Douglas Debate''', known by some previous debaters as '''value''' debate and for slang sometimes called '''Lincoln-Douglas''', '''LD debate''', or simply, '''LD''', is a style of [[debate]] practiced in [[National Forensic League]] competitions, and widely used in related debate leagues such as the [[National Catholic Forensic League]], [[National Educational Debate Association]], the [[NCFCA|National Christian Forensics and Communication Association]], and their related regional organizations. The Lincoln-Douglas Debate format is named for the [[Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858|1858 Lincoln-Douglas Debates]] between [[Abraham Lincoln]] and [[Stephen A. Douglas]].

==Overview==
Lincoln-Douglas Debate involves the [[philosophical]] analysis and debate of a resolution that has no definite answer. One way that Lincoln-Douglas debate differs from the traditional '''policy''' style debate is that rather than creating a policy to help solve the issue in the resolution, they argue the values of the resolution, making it much more philosophical. In contrast, policy debate utilizes a massive amount of evidence. Also, in Lincoln-Douglas debate, 2 debaters argue in opposition to each other in a round, with one representing the affirmative (AFF) side and the other representing the negative (NEG) side. The affirmative must provide and uphold a case of WHY the resolution is true; the negative must provide and uphold a case that says the resolution is false. Unlike policy, however, there is a burden of proof on both sides, and the negative must show that the resolution is false. Throughout the debate, the debaters must uphold their case and make attacks on their opponents' case. Most debate events recognize two levels of competitors, Open and Novice divisions. Open is divided into two categories, Junior varsity (JV) and Varsity. Whether they are recognized as the same thing or not is up to individual tournament. The only difference between junior varsity and varsity is the level of experience.

==Debate structure==
There are many "unofficial rules" associated with the actual debates themselves. Almost any [[norm (sociology) |norm]] accepted by the community can be (and often is) challenged based on the desire for good debate. Many LD debaters have begun using arguments employed in [[Policy Debate]], such as kritiks (attacks on the assumptions made by the affirmative debater and the attack on the resolution's own logic), and theory (the opponents arguments constitute bad debate). Norms also vary by locale; accepted standards in one state may be different from those in another. Usually local tournaments favor normal arguments based upon acceptance of norms, while national tournaments (the national circuit) favor more open argumentation.

In the standard LD debate structure, each side presents two kinds of speeches. The first is the constructive speech, where each side will present a prepared speech arguing for or against the resolution. The second is the [[rebuttal]] speech, used to refute arguments made by the other side and make a final attempt to gain the judge's vote. Note, however, that because the negative is trying to disprove the affirmative's position, the negative's constructive speech will ordinarily contain elements of rebuttal as well. Additionally, each debater has one opportunity to ask direct questions of the other in the cross-examination period.

The only binding rules are the time limits placed on the debaters for each speech they make. The commonly accepted common time structure is as follows:


{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Segment
! Time
|-
| Affirmative Constructive (1AC)
| 6 minutes
|-
| Cross Examination (CX)
| 3 minutes
|-
| Negative Constructive/First Negative Rebuttal (1NC/1NR)
| 7 minutes
|-
| Cross Examination (CX)
| 3 minutes
|-
| First Affirmative Rebuttal (1AR)
| 4 minutes
|-
| Second Negative Rebuttal (2NR)
| 6 minutes
|-
| Second Affirmative Rebuttal (2AR)
| 3 minutes
|}

Note that the total time for speeches is divided equally between the debaters, but unevenly among the speeches in order to compensate for one side having the first and last word.

Debaters are also given preparation time just prior to each speech. Each debater receives four minutes of total preparation time (or five minutes in the [[Tournament of Champions(debate)|Tournament of Champions]] to divide as they choose before speeches in the round. Some tournaments offer more than three minutes and others may give more time to participants in the Novice and Junior Varsity Divisions, due to their lack of experience. A recent trend among national circuit tournaments has been to allow debaters to combine their cross-examination and preparation time into a 7-minute block called flex-prep. In this time the debater both prepares for the next speech and asks cross-examination questions. (See below under "Alternative Forms of LD")

===Constructive speeches===
In the first two speeches debaters present cases, which are often pre-written speeches in favor of or opposed to the topic. The affirmative debater spends the entire six minutes presenting the constructive since the negative has not yet spoken. The following speech, the negative constructive, is typically split between the presentation of a negative case and a refutation of the affirmative. Although there are no set rules about how a debater must present his or her case, most debaters use the same generic or "stock" structure:

*'''Definitions''' are usually placed at the beginning of the debater's opening speech. These are explanations of key terms that appear in the resolution. The definitions can come from a source such as a dictionary or they can be contextually defined by the case (the usage of the term in the case explains it).

*'''Framework''' is a term used to describe the collection of ''observations'' and ''resolutional analysis'', given near the beginning of a constructive speech. In addition to definitions debaters provide analysis that narrows the debate, makes the debate more clear and perhaps frames the resolution in a manner that improves the debater's chances.

*'''Value and Criterion''' are usually explained next. These are concepts or rules used to evaluate the round. Since both sides will likely make some convincing arguments in the course of the round, standards are used to determine which arguments matter more. Though not exclusively done in this fashion standards usually take the form of two conceptual objects:

:*The "'''value'''", "core value", "highest moral value," or "value premise" represents the over-arching goal for the round and are usually nebulous and somewhat vague "good things." Out of fairness and convention debaters rarely use values which bias one side over the other. Examples of values include, [[democracy]], [[liberty]], societal welfare and [[justice]]. The wording of certain resolutions may implicitly prescribe the best value for the round. For example, the resolution "Democracy is best served by strict [[separation of church and state]]" implicitly suggests a value of "democracy". Since the wording of the resolution guides the selection of values the two debaters may have identical or similar values. In these circumstances focus is usually shifted to the criterion.

:*The "'''criterion'''", or "value criterion", is the mechanism the debater proposes to achieve and weigh the value. Often, the debater will simply talk about the criterion, so it is sometimes referred to as the standard, in and of itself. First and foremost, the criterion is how the debaters achieve the value. Given a value of liberty, for example, debaters might propose a criterion of protecting [[free speech]], reasoning that free speech is the most important aspect of liberty and that possessing it will allow society to criticize government thereby maintaining other types of liberty. A criterion will usually be stated as a [[gerund]] (e.g. upholding a system of [[checks and balances]]), or will be the name of a particular philosophy or term (e.g., [[democratic peace theory]]). The criterion serves several purposes then. First, it links the arguments made in the rest of the speech with the value. Since the value is usually abstract, the criterion is a way to relate the more concrete arguments in the round to this philosophical concept. In addition to this, there are two commonly used variations of criterion. The first is generally classified as "a weighing standard for the round," or a burden that both sides must prove they fit in order to win the round. The other is a "burden criterion," which is placed on the affirmative by either side, and lays out a burden the affirmative must fulfill in order to win. Values and criteria can be debated over which provides for a fairer debate, which one is more relevant, if the burden is fulfillable, etc.

*'''Contentions''' advance the actual arguments of the case. Contentions will usually contain both empirical evidence and [[induction (philosophy)|inductive]] reasoning to prove their points. Subpoints within the contention are sometimes used to break arguments down into their specifics. They can be used to build up arguments to prove the entire contention true or to express points unique from those of the contention itself. Each contention or subpoint begins with a short ''tagline'' that summarizes the argument. A contention or subpoint generally has three parts: a claim (the tagline, an assertion of truth), warrant (logical or emipirical justification), and impact (effect on achieving standards). Debaters include ''cards'', which are excerpts of an argument by someone of authority.

===Cross-examination period (points of clarification)===
Following each debater's constructive speech, the opponent is given a three-minute period to ask questions regarding the constructive that was just given. The time is used by each side to try to either clarify what was said or weaken the other debater's standing. The questioner often will go to specific points in the constructive where there may be an important assumption or other weakness, and ask detailed questions that will force an opponent to admit the weakness. Meanwhile, the questioned debater might try to avoid being forced to concede points by supplying long answers that will serve to (a) expend the questioner's allotted time and (b) expand upon the original constructive.

===Rebuttal speeches===
The rebuttal speeches are the speeches in the latter half of the debate. In this portion, most debaters focus on attacking their opponents' arguments and defending their own in a way that will cement a victory in the round. Toward the end of the final speech, the debaters will usually summarize the most important argumentation which forms the core voting issues, or "voters," in the round, and give reasons why the argumentation ought to be considered in the decision calculus.

A rebuttal argument typically consists of three steps: signpost (indicating which argument the debater is refuting), explain (attacking flaws in the opponent's evidence or logic), and weigh (evaluating the arguments based on the standards).

=='''Alternative Forms of LD'''==
Most debates center around proving the resolution either true or false; however, this is not the only way to handle the debate. The alternative approach, almost exclusively used by negative debaters, is "critiquing" the resolution. A critique (usually spelled "kritik" by debaters) does not abide by the conventional value structure nor does it attempt to prove or disprove the truth of the resolution; instead, it seeks to prove the resolution harmful or impossible to argue, or questions the fundamental assumptions made by the affirmative case (conceptions of justice, good and bad, etc.). This approach is rapidly gaining acceptance.
Another new strategy a debater may use while arguing the negative is straight refutation. In a normal negative constructive the debater outlines a case and refutes the affirmative's points, but when a debater uses direct negation the negative constructive only consists of a refutation of the affirmative's points.

Affirmative debaters have responded to the negative's critique advantage by introducing a new affirmative strategy. Rather than affirm the resolution "as a whole," affirmatives pick a particular aspect of the topic as their case position. For example on the 2005 Nationals topic: "The pursuit of scientific knowledge ought to be constrained by concern for societal good" an affirmative using this strategy would discuss how certain pursuits (such as [[cloning]] or building a [[the Matrix|Matrix]]) ought to be constrained. In these rounds, the affirmative contends that they do not have to defend all aspects of the topic, rather they can "conditionally affirm" by defending just the ones they choose. This strategy is also adopted from Policy Debate, where the affirmative creates a policy plan that does not affirm the whole topic and challenges the negative to prove why the plan itself is bad. This approach is very new; so the debate community has had little discussion over the acceptance of this style. In the past however, conditionally affirming has been frowned upon and disallowed, so it is unlikely that this approach gains acceptance.

Some tournaments, or specific judges, may permit debaters to use what has become known as "flex-prep," which combines a debater's four-minute prep time with their three minutes of cross-examination time into a hybrid time that may be used throughout the debate. Using this form of time management, debaters will forego the normal cross examination period and will instead immediately sit and preparing for their next speech much like prep time, but they may decide to ask questions while doing so. This has not been widely accepted, though, as many debaters feel it changes the only real "rule" in the event, which is the structure of time limits. Some also see it as an erosion of one of the only truly performative aspects of the debate, as well as a gateway to the erosion of other rules. Other debaters view it as a logical extension to the debate, as both preparation and cross examination periods should be used as the debater sees fit, especially if it fosters better debate.

==Judging==
Debate rounds are typically judged by an adult, often a coach or a college student who participated in the event in the past. Some Novice-only tournaments will employ experienced students as judges. Elimination rounds often are judged by a panel of three or more judges, but always an odd number to ensure that a tie cannot exist.

Judging an LD round can be very difficult, especially for inexperienced judges. Not only are the questions intrinsically complex, but the typical debater uses arguments and citations from philosophers and other writers that the judge may not be familiar with. Additionally, LD topics often involve issues where the judge may have a strongly held opinion for or against the resolution. Being neutral and judging on the basis who upheld the round's standard (and not the nature of the argument itself) can be difficult. To avoid this potential problem, resolutions are usually rather abstract and do not touch on "hot button" issues of the day such as abortion or gay marriage.

In some regional or circuit tournaments with multiple divisions, inexperienced judges are most commonly placed in the Novice division, while the Junior Varsity and Varsity divisions enjoy much more experienced judges (often coaches of other teams or college students who debated in high school). Other regional circuits value the difficulty of debating in front of inexperienced judges, and recruit "lay" judges from the community in order to provide the debaters with the experience of attempting to explain complex issues to lay people. These judges are typically friends and relatives of the families of the debaters of the sponsoring school. Some circuits require all LD judges for rounds above the novice level to meet training requirements. Another popular possibility is to make use of lay judges for the rounds, but offer them a brief training or tutorial beforehand to prepare and inform them about the nature of the debate.

==Approaches to academic debate==
Different areas of the country approach debate with different goals. In some states, such as [[Kansas]], [[Maryland]] and [[South Dakota]], high school speech is a for-credit class with a competitive debate element. Inter-school tournaments are held on weekends, but the training for them is often curricular. In other areas, debate may be a school-sponsored team similar to football or basketball which has practice after school, rather than being part of the curriculum, or it may be organized as a club activity with very little involvement on the part of the school.

This distinction often results in a difference among the nation's high schools in their understanding of the purpose of competitive speech. Circuits like Kansas and South Dakota, in which Speech is part of the curriculum, set the goal of participation to be an improvement in the communication skills of the student. These circuits tend to use lay judges in all events to provide the student the chance to develop analysis and speaking styles which increase communication to the "everyday" person. Other circuits, which see the event as essentially competitive (as with sports) rather than curricular, place a higher value on expert judging so that the playing field is fair. This distinction provides endless controversy when students from districts with differing underlying philosophies compete against each other at regional or national tournaments.

==Tournament organization==
In a typical one-day tournament, each debater will debate four rounds, two rounds advocating the affirmative side and two rounds advocating the negative. Longer tournaments typically have five, six, or seven preliminary rounds, in which all debaters participate. The top debaters from the first rounds then advance to a single-elimination tournament to determine the winner of the tournament.

In many tournaments, and especially in smaller tournaments, all debaters present have the potential to "hit," or square off against, all other competitors in the tournament. A debate in which each competitor goes against every other one is called a Round Robin. At other events, generally larger tournaments, less experienced debaters may be separated from more experienced debaters, forming two parallel tournaments.

Some LD tournaments are "power-matched" (also called "power-paired," "power seeded," "high-high," or "low-low"). In this system, after each round, the meetings for the next round are decided on the basis that winners meet winners and losers meet losers. An alternative to power-pairing, which requires less organized tournament-running, is "lag pairing," in which debates are power-paired according to the results of not the last round, but instead the round before that. Other tournaments are "high-low," or "power-protected," meaning meetings for the next round are winner against loser. A combination of the two involves power-matching win-losses and power-protecting speaker points. Still other tournaments use randomized brackets. In "elimination rounds" after the primary four to six preliminary rounds, the top seed will "hit" the lowest "seed." Seeds are determined first by preliminary round records and then by the amount of speaker points awarded by judges in preliminary rounds.

==Competition==
Most high school debaters participate in local tournaments in their city, school district, or state. Hundreds of such tournaments are held each weekend at high schools throughout the United States during the debate season.

A small subset of high school debaters, mostly from elite public and private schools, travel around the country to tournaments on the national circuit. The seven largest and most competitive national circuit tournaments are the Glenbrooks, held at Glenbrook North and Glenbrook South high schools in the Chicago suburbs, the Barkley Forum at Emory University, the Harvard Invitational at Harvard University, the California Invitational at UC Berkeley, the Greenhill Fall Classic in Dallas, the Heart of Texas Invitational at St. Mark's School of Texas, also in Dallas, and the Minneapple at Apple Valley High School in Minnesota.
As the debate season comes to a close, national championship tournaments are held to bring together the best debaters from around the nation to compete against one another. These tournaments tend to be invitation-only, based on success in various qualifying events.

The unofficial national circuit championship is the [[Tournament of Champions (LD)]] (TOC) held at the [[University of Kentucky]]. To be eligible for the TOC, debaters must collect at least two bids at various qualifying tournaments held throughout the year. These tournaments are given a certain number of bids to be awarded to debaters who reach a certain level in the elimination rounds. The amount of bids given depends on the size of the tournament and the relative calculated strength of the debaters who attend. For example, the Southwest Championships held at [[Arizona State University]] is a medium-sized tournament attended by debaters of all experience levels from the surrounding states, and therefore only receives two bids, awarded to the debaters who reach the final round of the tournament. Conversely, the Glenbrooks tournament, considered the most competitive tournament in the country, is attended by approximately 200 experienced debaters and is given 16 bids to hand out to competitors who reach the octofinal round.

For non-national circuit debaters, either the [[National Speech and Debate Tournament]] of the [[National Forensic League]] or the Grand National Tournament of the [[National Catholic Forensic League]] is the national tournament of their sponsoring organization. Competitors qualify to the national tournament by placing in the top spots at local district-level tournaments. The number of competitors in each district determines the number of competitors that will qualify to the national tournament.

== Resolutions ==
Resolutions (topics to be debated) change every two months. They are usually very vague and theoretical to allow for many different arguments and interpretations. Resolutions are chosen by a wording committee. This group releases ten potential topics for the upcoming year at the NFL Nationals Tournament. Past resolutions include:

:Resolved: In the U.S. judicial system, truth seeking ought to take precedence over privileged communication. (September-October 2003)
:Resolved: The United States has a [[moral obligation]] to mitigate international conflict. (November/December 2003)
:Resolved: A government’s obligation to protect the environment ought to take precedence over its obligation to promote [[economic development]]. (January/February 2004)
:Resolved: As a general principle, individuals have an obligation to value the [[common good]] above their own interests. (March-April 2004)
:Resolved: [[Civil disobedience]] is justified in a democracy. (NFL Nationals 2004)
:Resolved: A nation's citizens' rights ought to take precedence over its [[national security|security]]. (NCFL Grand Nationals 2004)
:Resolved: Individual claims of [[privacy]] ought to be valued above conflicting claims of societal welfare. (September-October 2004)
:Resolved: The United States has a [[moral obligation]] to promote democratic ideals in other nations. (November-December 2004)
:Resolved: Democracy is best served by strict [[separation of church and state]]. (January-February 2005)
:Resolved: To better protect [[civil liberties]], community standards ought to take precedence over conflicting national standards. (March-April 2005)
:Resolved: The pursuit of scientific knowledge ought to be constrained by concern for societal good. (NFL Nationals 2005)
:Resolved: The primary purpose of formal [[education]] ought to be to impart knowledge. (NCFL Grand Nationals 2005)
:Resolved: In matters of U.S. [[immigration]] policy, restrictions on the rights of non-citizens are consistent with democratic ideals. (September-October 2005)
:Resolved: [[Judicial activism]] is necessary to protect the rights of American citizens. (November-December 2005)
:Resolved: The use of the state's power of [[eminent domain]] to promote private enterprise is unjust. (January-February 2006)
:Resolved: Juveniles charged with [[violent crime]]s should be tried and punished as adults. (March-April 2006)
:Resolved: When in conflict, an individual's [[freedom of speech]] should be valued over a community's moral standards. (NCFL Grand Nationals 2006)
:Resolved: In matters of collecting [[military intelligence]], the ends justify the means. (NFL Nationals 2006)
:Resolved: A just government should provide [[health care]] to its citizens. (September-October 2006)
:Resolved: A victim's deliberate use of deadly force is a just response to repeated [[domestic violence]]. (November-December 2006)
:'''Resolved: The actions of [[corporations]] ought to be held to the same moral standards as the actions of individuals. (January-February 2007)'''

==External links==
* [http://www.nflonline.org/ National Forensic League website]
* [http://www.ncfl.org/ National Catholic Forensic League website]
* [http://www.lddebate.org LD Debate.org]
* [http://www.lddebate.com LD Debate.com]
* [http://www.lddebate.net The Ultimate LD Debate Website] - Free LD Debate Handbook
* [http://debate.uvm.edu/learnld.html Debate Central] - NFL instructional videos
* [http://www.nationaldebaterankings.com NDR (National Debate Rankings)]
* [http://www.victorybriefsdaily.com/ Victory Briefs Daily] - LD Community Blog
[[Category:Debate types]]
[[Category:Forensics speech and debate|Lincoln Douglas Debate]]

Value debate

2007-02-01T21:28:58Z

Mathnerd314: ←Redirected page to Lincoln-Douglas debate

#REDIRECT [[Lincoln-Douglas debate]]

Talk:Means, motive, and opportunity

2007-02-01T00:05:51Z

Mathnerd314: ←Created page with 'The links to "Means" and "opportunity" redirect right back to this page. ~~~~'

The links to "Means" and "opportunity" redirect right back to this page. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 00:05, 1 February 2007 (UTC)

Virginia declaration of rights

2007-01-25T02:05:32Z

Mathnerd314: ←Redirected page to Virginia Declaration of Rights

#REDIRECT [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]]

American Pie (song)

2007-01-14T21:22:50Z

Mathnerd314: /* Covers and parodies */ "Spooofing"?!

{{otheruses4|the song originally by [[Don McLean]]|the film series and other uses}}

{{citation style}}

{{Infobox Single
| Name = American Pie
| Cover = B00009P1MP.01._SCLZZZZZZZ_.jpg
| Artist = [[Don McLean]]
| from Album = [[American Pie (album)|American Pie]]
| B-side = Empty Chairs (first release) American Pie part 2 (second release)
| Released = October 1971 (first release) November 1971 (second release)
| Format = [[vinyl record]]
| Recorded = May 26, 1971
| Genre = [[Rock music|Rock]]
| Length = 8:27
| Label = [[United Artists Records|United Artists]]
| Writer = [[Don McLean]]
| Producer = Ed Freeman
| Chart position = <ul><li>#1 ([[United States|USA]])</li></ul> <ul><li>#2 ([[United Kingdom|UK]])</li></ul>
| [Reviews =] *
| Last single = —
| This single = "American Pie" (1971)
| Next single = "[[Vincent (song)|Vincent]]" (1972)
}}

"'''American Pie'''" is an eight-and-a-half minute long [[classic rock]] song by [[singer-songwriter]] [[Don McLean]], about "[[The Day the Music Died|the day the music died]]."

Recorded in [[1971]] and released that year on the [[American Pie (album)|album of the same name]], the [[single (music)|single]] was a number-one U.S. hit for four weeks in [[1972 in music|1972]]. The song is an [[allusion|allusive]] history of [[rock and roll]] that starts with the [[death]]s of [[Buddy Holly]], [[Ritchie Valens]] and J. P. Richardson, Jr. ([[The Big Bopper]]) in a plane crash in [[1959]], and ends in [[1970]]. The importance of "American Pie" to America's musical and cultural heritage was recognized by the [[Songs of the Century]] education project which listed the song performed by Don McLean as the number five song of the twentieth century.

The song's lyrics are subject of much debate. Although McLean dedicated the ''American Pie'' album to Buddy Holly, none of the singers in the plane crash are identified by name in the song itself. Music performers are also alluded to with easily decoded identifications, leading to much discussion, encouraged by McLean's canny lifelong refusal to explain the lyrics. Asked what "American Pie" meant, McLean once replied, "It means I never have to work again."[http://www.don-mclean.com/articles/play.asp?p=15] Later, he more seriously stated, "You will find many 'interpretations' of my lyrics but none of them by me [...] Sorry to leave you all on your own like this but long ago I realized that songwriters should make their statements and move on, maintaining a dignified silence."[http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_398b.html]

American pop singer [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] released a [[#Madonna|cover of the song]] in 1999.

==Recording history and release==
"American Pie" was recorded by Don McLean on May 26, 1971, for Mediarts. The 45-rpm [[Single (music)|single]] record was cut for release with "Empty Chairs" on the B-side. On June 26, 1971, months before its release, "American Pie" was first aired on two [[New York City]] radio stations to honor the famous [[Fillmore East]] concert hall which held its final concert the next day (which might have been a reference to the lines "I went down to the Sacred Store...Where I heard the music years before...But the man there said the music wouldn't play) a time the disc jockeys felt was a day that music died in New York. In October 1971, "American Pie" was released by [[United Artists]], the company that bought Mediarts. The next month, the longer, over eight-minute single version was released in two parts on the A- and B-sides. [http://www.don-mclean.com/articles/play.asp?p=15] "American Pie" first appeared on the [[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] charts on November 27, 1971, and rose to the [[List of number-one hits (United States)|top position in the United States]] from January 15 through February 5, 1972.

==Interpretations==
Don McLean's website describes the songwriter's purpose [http://www.americanpie.com/americanpie.asp]:
:''"['American Pie' is] autobiographical and presents an abstract story of Don McLean's life from the mid 1950s until when he wrote the song in the late 1960s. It is almost entirely symbolized by the evolution of popular music over these years and represents a change from the lightness of the 1950s to the darkness of the late 1960s."''

During its initial popularity, guessing the meaning of the song's lyrics was a popular pastime. Many radio stations and [[disc jockey]]s published unofficial interpretations. Over the years, assisted by the collective power of the [[Internet]] and McLean himself, something approaching a "standard interpretation" of the song has emerged. How much of it was actually in McLean's mind, consciously or subconsciously, when he wrote the lyrics, is often debated. The primary interpretation of "American Pie" in this article is based on McLean's stated intent, his other views, particularly regarding religion, war, and his life. These are used to filter alternative interpretations from the four sources (noted within the article as Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann, Levitt) in the Reference section and other well-known events in music and American history. Each Reference section source, except for Kulawiec, was mentioned at one time or another on McLean's website and is in itself a compilation of the viewpoints of many more people as well as other references. Even so, "American Pie" remains somewhat of an enigma given McLean's sparse explanations. Though it is clear he intended multiple meanings for certain parts of his song, it is not clear where he intended to have them. When McLean's autobiographical theme is relaxed or ignored, the numerous allusions have been combined to create some novel impressionistic effects that have led to interpretations he may not have intended.
[[Image:Buddy_Holly.jpg|thumb|210px|right|Don McLean's 1971 album containing "American Pie" was dedicated to the legendary musician, singer, and songwriter, [[Buddy Holly]]. McLean was thirteen years old when Holly perished on "[[the day the music died]]".]]

===Autobiographical theme===
Years after the original recordings, McLean said in 2000:
:''{{cquote|The song starts off with my memories of the death of Buddy Holly. But it moves on to describe America as I was seeing it and how I was fantasizing it might become, so it's part reality and part fantasy but I'm always in the song as a witness or as even the subject sometimes in some of the verses.}}''
He later went on to say, ''"The song was written as my attempt at an epic song about America, and I used the imagery of music and politics to do that."''[http://www.americanpie.com/americanpie.asp]

The autobiographical theme of "American Pie" provides the chronological framework for the song's verses. The first verse describes McLean's memories of the music he loved as a young child and his reaction, at age thirteen, to the deaths of Holly, Valens, and Richardson. The phrase ''Miss American Pie'' suggests a contraction of [[Miss America]] and the old expression "as American as apple pie", both being icons of innocence and idealism; thus the expression "American Pie" likely represents the youthful, popular American culture of the mid- and late-1950s that involved the styles in music, dance, dress, movies, radio, television, and romance that McLean loved as a child and young teenager. The chorus marks the passing of that culture and its values with the accidental deaths of Holly, Valens, and Richardson in 1959.

The second verse describes McLean's perception of American culture during his innocent boyhood and the beginning of the loss of innocence thereafter. McLean personified that perception as Miss American Pie, referring to her as "you" in the lyrics. By imagining that he asks her whether she wrote "the book of love" and whether she has faith in God above, and if the [[Bible]] tells her so, McLean appears to express his belief about how important the moral and spiritual values of the Christian faith were for America at the time. In addition, McLean may have imagined Miss American Pie dancing at a [[sock hop]] with Buddy Holly, symbolizing America's love of 1950s rock and roll. Added to the gloom he experienced by the deaths of Holly, Valens, and Richardson, McLean alluded to "Lonely Teenager", a song by [[Dion and The Belmonts]] released in 1960. (Dion performed with the other three musicians the night before they perished.) McLean has mentioned that 1959 to 1963 marked his acquaintance with "the darker realities of adulthood": his father died in 1961; and in 1963, he dropped out of [[Villanova University]] to become a professional musician, and suffered as [[John F. Kennedy|President Kennedy]] was assassinated. Finally, the verse includes an allusion to being stood up at a [[prom]] by referring to the song "A White Sport Coat (And A Pink Carnation)" (1957) by [[Marty Robbins]] that likely represents McLean's final separation from Miss American Pie. The lines describe the songwriter himself, a native of metropolitan New York City, as a ''broncin' buck with a pink carnation and a pick-up truck'' which likely refers to the rural American roots of many of the musicians he loved so well—Holly and Richardson were native Texans raised in small towns, and Robbins was a popular country and western music star from Arizona.
[[Image:Bob_Dylan_in_November_1963.jpg|thumb|210px|right|[[Bob Dylan]] performs just days after President Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963.
The third verse of "American Pie" is largely about Dylan. (See the Bob Dylan section of this article.)]]

The third verse focuses on the rise of [[Bob Dylan]], and corresponds to McLean's years as a young adult, the songwriter being inspired by [[The Weavers]] to become a professional folk singer at the time Dylan emerged as a powerful and popular musical force. From 1963 to 1969, McLean performed and toured with the likes of [[Pete Seeger]], [[Herbie Mann]], Brownie McGee, [[Sonny Terry]], [[Melanie Safka|Melanie]], [[Steppenwolf (band)|Steppenwolf]], [[Arlo Guthrie]], [[Janis Ian]], [[Josh White]], and [[Ten Wheel Drive]]. McLean's intimate knowledge of Bob Dylan's songs is reflected in multiple verses. As an observer and participant in the 1960s American music scene, McLean traced the rise from obscurity and domination of American music by [[The Beatles]] (1959–1969), starting in the third verse; and highlighted the tribulations of [[The Byrds]] (1966–1967), and the widespread use of illicit drugs by young Americans in the fourth verse.

By 1968, McLean, at age 22, was invited to become "Hudson River Troubadour" by the New York State Council for the Arts. In the song's fifth verse, McLean is at odds with the cultural and musical trends represented by [[Woodstock]], which took place in his native New York in 1969. He also conveys his disgust with [[The Rolling Stones]] (1968–1969) who were at the center of the [[Altamont Free Concert]] in December 1969. While McLean recorded his first album, ''Tapestry'', in 1969, a student riot took place just outside the Berkeley, California studio's door. By the last verse, McLean is saddened by the death of [[Janis Joplin]] (1970), and is dejected by the dissolution of music as an uplifting, spiritual, and moral force in the face of overwhelming violence in America and abroad.

Overall, McLean's musical "evolution" started with Bob Dylan's celebration of expanding liberty, freedom, and individuality in "a voice that came from you and me"; moved through the drug-influenced culture of the mid- and late 1960s of "[[Helter Skelter]]" and "[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]" by The Beatles; and ended with the apparent masochistic violence in "[[Jumpin' Jack Flash]]" by The Rolling Stones and the real violent mayhem at the [[Altamont Speedway]] in 1969.

==Cultural references==
===The Day the Music Died===
[[The Day the Music Died]] is the name McLean gave to [[February 3]], [[1959]], the day an airplane carrying musicians [[Buddy Holly]], [[Ritchie Valens]] and [[The Big Bopper]] crashed, killing all three. But, as he explained on his web site [http://www.don-mclean.com/americanpie.asp], the date has a profound meaning to McLean because it marked a major change in his life:

:"In Don's life the transition from light (the innocence of childhood) to the darker realities of adulthood probably started with the death of Buddy Holly and culminated with the [[John F. Kennedy assassination|assassination]] of [[John F. Kennedy|President Kennedy]] in 1963 and the start of a more difficult time for America."

From the standpoint of about 1970, the twenty-five year old songwriter recalled the effect of six transitions on the day the music died, noted at the end of each verse of "American Pie".
*In the first verse, McLean tries to remember how he felt when Holly, Valens, and The Big Bopper died when he was a thirteen year old boy: ''But February made me shiver with every paper I'd deliver''; and ''I can't remember if I cried when I read about his widowed bride'' (referring to Holly's pregnant wife [[Maria Elena Holly]]). But at the end, all he can say is, ''But something touched me deep inside the day the music died.''
*At the end of the second verse that describes McLean's perceptions of [[middle class]] America during the mid- and late-1950s, McLean believes that events after the day the music died would portend to bad times ahead: ''But I knew I was out of luck the day the music died.''
*At the end of the third verse that focuses on the rise of [[Bob Dylan]], McLean speaks for a generation of songwriters and musicians that misses Holly, Valens, and Richardson: ''And we sang dirges in the dark the day the music died.''
*At the end of the fourth verse, where McLean witnesses the effects of drug use on rock music, he asks if there was some higher meaning related to February 3, 1959: ''Do you recall what was revealed the day the music died?''
*After McLean witnesses a murder and beatings at the Altamont Free Concert in December 1969, in the fifth verse, he says that [[Satan]] was happy on the day the music died: ''I saw Satan laughing with delight the day the music died.''
*Finally, at the conclusion of "American Pie", McLean sees Holly, Valens, and The Big Bopper off to heaven on February 3, 1959: ''And the three men I admire most:/ The Father, Son, and the Holy Ghost, / They caught the last train for the coast the day the music died.''

===The Chevy and the levee===
The chorus contains the line ''Drove my Chevy to the [[levee]] but the levee was dry'' that may have multiple meanings. The first is derived from lines in the 1956, [[General Motors Corporation|General Motors]] [[jingle]], "See the USA in Your [[Chevrolet]]", advertising that brand of vehicles [Fann]:
[[Image:ClassicCar6.JPG|right|thumb|275px|1959 Chevrolet Impala (modified street rod)]]
:''On a highway or road along the levee,''
:''Performance is sweeter, nothing can beat her,
:''Life is completer in a Chevy.''
Since traveling is a common metaphor for making one's way through life, driving a Chevy meant living in a patriotic, middle class lifestyle that the owner could be proud of. A drive on a "road along the levee" beside a river or other body of water represents a scenic, fulfilling sojourn, so, the missing water along the levee implies that the trip, life, became empty. In this interpretation, the loss associated with the departure, passing, or separation from Miss American Pie befits a mournful drinking song:
:''Them good ol' boys were drinking whisky and rye singing
:''This'll be the day that I die
:''This'll be the day that I die
That separation is similar to the one feared by the guy with his gal in the Buddy Holly and The Crickets' song "[[That'll Be The Day]]". [Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann, Levitt]

It is possible that "the levee" also refers to the name of the bar in [[New Rochelle, New York]] (now known as the Beechmont Tavern) where McLean imagined he and his friends mourned the death of Buddy Holly. The next chorus phrase meaning ''whiskey in rye'' rather than ''whiskey and rye'' may refer to the nearby town of [[Rye (city), New York|Rye]] where McLean would often go with his friends after The Levee closed. [alternative of Levitt]

===Miss American Pie===
Some mistakenly believe that "Miss American Pie" is the name of the airplane that crashed. This is an [[urban legend]]: the plane had no name, only a registration number N3794N.[http://www.don-mclean.com/americanpie.asp].

See the Autobiographic theme section for interpretation of the chorus and second verse.

:''This'll be the day that I die''

The part of the refrain saying "This'll be the day that I die, this'll be the day that I die." could refer to Buddy Holly's song "That'll be the Day" where in one verse he states "That'll be the day that I die."

===Religion===
[[Image:La Trinité et tous les saints.jpg|thumb|right|The Trinity is mentioned in "American Pie". Painting: "The Trinity and All the Saints", by Jean Fouquet]]

"American Pie" includes a number of Christian religious elements that includes an allusion to [[Jesus]] wearing his [[Crown of Thorns]] and the [[Trinity]]; and the mentioning of "[[Hells Angels|angels born in hell]]", [[Satan]], and titles of two songs with lyrics that allude to God. In addition, some people believe that "American Pie" alludes to the [[Apocalypse]]. The purpose of these elements probably is not to promote a Christian theme because in December 2005, McLean explained that he is a [[pantheism|pantheist]] but not a [[Christian]].[http://www.don-mclean.com/articles/faninterview.asp]

One purpose of the song's religious elements might be to remind the listener that music can provide spiritual fulfillment. McLean appears to have expressed his belief in this power of music in the two questions asked in the second verse: ''Now do you believe in rock and roll[?]'' and ''can music save your mortal soul[?]''. It also seems that McLean believed the antithesis is true, that music can corrupt the soul since the fifth verse describes a murder while The Rolling Stones performed music with wicked themes at the Altamont Free Concert in December 1969.

====The book of love and the Bible tells you so====
The second verse of "American Pie" opens with a Christian theme: ''Did you write the book of love''. The phrase refers to the title of the 1958 song "The Book of Love" by [[The Monotones]] [Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann, Levitt], that includes the lines:

: ''Tell me, tell me, tell me''
: ''Oh, who wrote the Book Of Love''
: ''I've got to know the answer''
: ''Was it someone from above?''

The second verse also asks ''... and do you have faith in God above? / If the Bible tells you so''. Given McLean's characterization of 1950s American culture in the second verse, the line likely alludes to the title of the 1955 song "The Bible Tells Me So" by [[Don Cornell]] [Kulawiec, Levitt]. The song includes the word "faith" in the refrain:

: ''Have faith, hope and charity''
: ''That's the way to live successfully''
: ''How do I know, the Bible tells me so''

The line might also or alternatively allude to the popular nineteenth century [[hymn]] [[Jesus Loves Me|"Jesus Loves Me"]] [Kulawiec, Levitt] created by William Bradbury in 1862 with words drafted two years earlier by Anna Warner that includes the lines:

: ''Jesus loves me, this I know''
: ''For the Bible tells me so''

====The King and the thorny crown====
The third verse includes the line ''Oh and while the King was looking down, the jester stole his thorny crown''. The Romans had mockingly nicknamed [[Jesus]] "the King of the Jews" in the hours before his death, forcing Jesus to wear a [[crown of thorns]]. However, there is no Biblical account of the crown being stolen. Statues and paintings of Jesus dying on the Cross normally show him still wearing the crown, and looking down to his mother and John. The verse is most likely an allusion to the decline in Elvis's popularity and the rise of Bob Dylan. (See the Bob Dylan section on the thorny crown being a symbol for suffering.)

====The Trinity====
The final verse of "American Pie" includes the lines:

: ''And the three men I admire most: The Father, Son, and the Holy Ghost,''
: ''They caught the last train for the coast the day the music died.''

The three persons are an allusion to the Christian [[Trinity]]. The interpretation that is most consistent with song's events is that the three persons are [[The Big Bopper]], [[Ritchie Valens]], and [[Buddy Holly]], respectively. [Kulawiec, Fann] Specifically, ''The Father'' is The Big Bopper, who was the only father among the three musicians. Indeed, at the time of Richardson's death at age 28, he had been married to Adrian Joy Fryon for over six years, and the couple had a daughter, Deborah, and were expecting a son, Jay Perry. The ''Son'' is Valens, who died as a child at age seventeen. The ''Holy Ghost'' of rock and roll is Buddy Holly because of his pervasive influence on that music. Holly was an original inductee to the [[Rock and Roll Hall of Fame]]. Their travel on "the last train for the coast" is a metaphor for death (a train, in dream symbolism, is traditionally interpreted that way), with the coast representing [[heaven]] as their final destination.

Numerous other trios have been suggested, the most popular being the three American leaders assassinated during the 1960s: President [[John F. Kennedy]] as ''The Father''; his younger brother [[Robert F. Kennedy]] as the ''Son''; and the Reverend Dr. [[Martin Luther King, Jr.]] as the ''Holy Ghost''. [Kulawiec, Fann]

====New Age Religions and The Death of God====
The line in the last verse, ''They caught the last train for the coast the day the music died'', derives the notion of the Christian Trinity's departure, withdrawal or defeat, or abandonment. These may allude to the many [[New Age]] religions that took root in the west coast of the U.S. during the 1960s [one alternative of Kulawiec, Levitt], what some believe is the Christian God's abandonment of the United States [Fann], or the death of God himself (see [[God is dead]]) [Levitt].

[[Image:Duerer-apocalypse.png|175px|right|thumb|An image of the Apocalypse by Albrecht Dürer: "Four horsemen of the Apocalypse"]]

====Apocalypse and nuclear war====
Some people believe that "American Pie" includes an allusion to a battle between Satan and the Christian Trinity in the fifth and sixth verses. The impression is enhanced by the fourth verse's conflict between "players", interpreted as everyday people who want to dance, being prevented from accessing a field already occupied by a "marching band" composed of sergeants, interpreted as a military force. The image of desolation in the song's last lines, ''And in the streets the children screamed, the lovers cried, and the poets dreamed, / But not a word was spoken, the church bells all were broken'', and the Trinity's subsequent departure or retreat, are interpreted as the Trinity's defeat [Fann]. Because the fourth verse mentions a [[fallout shelter]] and what might seem to be a bomb dropped from "Eight miles high", some people perceive that the desolation is the aftermath of a future [[nuclear war]] [Levitt] that a morally-weakened America, though still represented by the Trinity, loses to America's [[Cold War]] adversary, the [[Soviet Union]] that is represented by Satan. For some others, the crises illustrate a [[prophecy]] from the [[Book of Revelation]] that may or may not be realized as a nuclear war.

===Music===
In addition to the cultural references discussed above, there are several other references to events or changes in the world of music throughout "American Pie".

====The decline of dance music====
The fourth verse, which contains music references for 1966 to 1968, seems to mark the decline of [[rock and roll]] dance music where the lyrics reads:
:''... while the sergeants played a marching tune
:''We all got up to dance, oh but we never got the chance
:'''Cause the players tried to take the field, the marching band refused to yield''.
The conflict between the sergeants and players may allude to competition between the newer, now [[classic rock]], music style represented by The Beatles' ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' and the earlier [[rock and roll]] style that invited dancing represented by groups like [[The Beach Boys]]. In "American Pie", the marching music is victorious, meaning McLean thought that the era of rock and roll dance music was over [Dearborn, Kulwiec]. Overall, McLean's football game image corresponds to The Beatles' domination of popular American music during the time as measured in the sheer volume of The Beatles' record sales. Both the June 1967 release of ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' and release of ''[[Magical Mystery Tour]]'' only five months later became U.S. best selling albums for 19 weeks and 8 weeks, respectively. The lines may contain additional or alternative references to the Vietnam War (discussed later), The Beatles' last live performance (see The Beatles section), and competition between The Beatles and The Byrds (see The Byrds section).

====Bob Dylan====
===== The jester, the king, and the queen =====
The third and fourth verses contain references to [[Bob Dylan]]. The third verse includes the lines:

: ''When the jester sang for the king and queen in a coat he borrowed from James Dean''
: ''And a voice that came from you and me''
: '' Oh and while the king was looking down, the jester stole his thorny crown''

A strong case has been made that the jester is [[Bob Dylan]]. [Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann] [[James Dean]] famously wore a red windbreaker in the movie ''[[Rebel Without a Cause]]'', and Dylan was shown in a windbreaker on the cover of one of his albums, ''[[Freewheelin' Bob Dylan]]''. Dylan also described himself as a clown chasing his muse in "[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]" (1965). The fact that the jester sang in a "voice that came from you and me" would refer to the populist origins of American [[folk music]]. Rob Stoner, McLean's bassist on the album and former bassist and bandleader for Dylan, maintains that the 'Jester' reference indeed refers to Dylan.{{reference needed}}

The jester is mentioned again in the fourth verse line ''... with the jester on the sidelines in a cast''. Assuming the jester is Dylan, this refers to his July 29, 1966, motorcycle crash that left him badly injured. [Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann]

In music, "the king" is [[Elvis Presley]] for McLean and much of America. [Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann] "Looking down" refers Presley's reduced success as a recording artist after 1963. The thorny crown, a Christian symbol for suffering, represents the price of fame and power — specifically, Presley's struggle to cope with celebrity. The jester stealing the king's crown probably refers to Dylan overtaking Presley in record sales by the mid-1960s and also suffering the side effects of celebrity. McLean's line, ''The courtroom was adjourned, no verdict was returned'', may refer to America's continued regard for Presley as "The King" even though Dylan was in the limelight. [Kulawiec, Fann].

Also in music, "the queen" of rock and roll in the late 1950s was [[Connie Francis]]. As with Elvis Presley, Francis' music recording successes were used to launch a successful movie career. [one alternative of Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann]

An alternate theory suggests that the "king and queen" are [[Pete Seeger]] and [[Joan Baez]], regarded in the early 1960s as the king and queen of folk music. Seeger, who had strong ties to Dylan's inspiration, [[Woody Guthrie]], was seen in the late 1950s and early '60s as the reigning figure in folk music, a title Dylan would soon steal. Dylan would also take up, both professionally and personally with Baez, the queen of folk. It has been suggested that the line "when the jester sang for the king and queen" could refer to the 1963 [[Newport Folk Festival]], at which Baez and Seeger were in attendance, and which marked Dylan's rise to national fame.{{reference needed}}

===== The rollin' stone=====
Some believe the third verse's second line ''and moss grows fat on a rollin' stone'' is a reference to [[The Rolling Stones]] (see below). However, given that Bob Dylan is the main subject of the third verse, the phrase is more likely taken from the title of Dylan's 1965 hit about himself, "[[Like a Rolling Stone]]". The line is a play on words on the proverb that "[[a rolling stone gathers no moss]]", but McLean says the stone grew moss by 1970 — a criticism of Dylan's relative, post-1966 motorcycle crash inertness, and diminished daring, creative energy, and intensity. From the vantage point of 1970, McLean notes Dylan's decline in the third line: ''But that's not how it used to be.'' The moss that grew fat around Dylan may represent all the musicians who prospered by performing Dylan's 1962-1965 songs like "[[Blowin' in the Wind]]", "[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]", "[[Don't Think Twice, It's All Right]]", "Like a Rolling Stone", and numerous others (see [[Bob Dylan]]), or the royalties Dylan earned from other performers' efforts.

====The Beatles====
[[The Beatles]] are linked to Buddy Holly because, in 1958, [[The Quarry Men]] that included [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], and [[George Harrison]], and two others, produced the pre-Beatles trio's first ever recording — a demo that included an arrangement of "[[That'll Be The Day]]". In addition, The Beatles name was also an imitation of [[The Crickets]] name [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_beatles#History].

===== Lennon and Marx =====
The third verse ends with the following enigmatic lines:

:''And while [[John Lennon|Lennon]] read a book on Marx, the quartet practiced in the park''
:''And we sang dirges in the dark the day the music died."
[[Image:PDjohn_lennon.jpg|right|thumb|180px|John Lennon in 1964.]]
A historically consistent interpretation of the lyrics is that the quartet that practiced separately from the Marx-reading [[John Lennon]] on February 3, 1959, was an obscure band of teenagers known as The Les Stewart Quartet that included [[George Harrison]]. [http://www.beatles-discography.com/index.html?http://www.beatles-discography.com/1959.html] Some versions of the lyric read ''Lenin'' rather than ''Lennon,'' in reference to [[Vladimir Lenin]], the Russian communist revolutionary who died in 1924. In lieu of settling the debate, the [[American Pie (album)|''American Pie'']] liner notes teasingly offer the ambiguous ''Lennin.''

The Les Stewart Quartet practiced to open the Casbah Coffee Club in the summer of 1959. [http://people.whitman.edu/~beanjj/beatles/bios.html] The Casbah was a [[Liverpool]] social club for teenagers, run by [[Mona Best]], the mother of [[Pete Best]]. Harrison joined the Quartet after [[The Quarry Men]] that included founder, John Lennon, and Paul McCartney, broke-up in January 1959. However, The Les Stewart Quartet proved unstable, losing two members (Les Stewart and [[Ken Brown]]) who were replaced by Lennon and McCartney. The Quartet was recomposed as The Quarry Men, and its first performance was at the opening of the Casbah Club on August 29, 1959. ''Groucho and Me'', [[Groucho Marx]]'s humorous autobiography, was published in 1959. McLean may have imagined the eighteen year-old John Lennon reading the book after the break-up of his band in January. The "park" is likely the Casbah, as it was located at 8 Heyman's Green, West Derby, Liverpool.[http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1950s/59.08.29%20casbah/59.08.29casbah.html][http://www.visitliverpool.com/site/casbah-coffee-club-beatles-p76261map]
[[Image:Grouchomarxpromophoto.jpg|thumb|left|180px|[[Groucho Marx]], American comedian. His autobiography was published in 1959. John Lennon lacked a band for over half that year.]][[Image:Karl_Marx.jpg|thumb|right|180px|[[Karl Marx]], German political philosopher, economist. John Lennon had socialist leanings. In 1960, The Beatles performed for several months in Germany, the homeland of Karl Marx.]]

As alternatives, the quartet is often believed to be [[The Beatles]], though, this would be inconsistent with interpreting Lennon reading and the quartet practicing as separate events because The Beatles quartet included [[John Lennon]]. The Beatles, however, did perform as a quintet consisting of Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, Pete Best, and Chas Newby (substituting for [[Stuart Sutcliffe]]) at the Casbah Club in December 1960, after the group (that included Sutcliffe) performed for several months in Hamburg, Germany [http://www.beatles-discography.com/index.html?http://www.beatles-discography.com/1960.html]. In this case, McLean might be alluding to Germany, since Marx could mean [[Karl Marx]], a German, and meaning that Lennon read about [[communism]] [Kulawiec, Fann], creating a pun for the political theory [[Marxist-Leninism]].

Some believe "Lennon read a book on Marx" suggests a reference to Lennon's song ''[[Imagine (song)|Imagine]]'', since many of that song's lyrics parallel Marx's theories on [[communism]]. This is a coincidence, however, since at the time McLean recorded "American Pie" neither the Lennon song, nor the album of the same name had been released.

Also, "park" as a synonym for [[stadium]] could refer to any number Beatles' performances, including the August 15, 1965, show in [[Shea Stadium]] (which is located in Flushing Meadows Corona Park) [http://www.ballparks.com/baseball/national/sheast.htm] [Kulawiec, Levitt], or The Beatles' last public concert at [[Candlestick Park]] in San Francisco, California on August 29, 1966 [Fann]; or to England or Europe where The Beatles "practiced" before first coming to America in 1964.

===== Helter skelter=====
[[Image:Charles_Manson.jpg|right|thumb|125px|Charles Manson]]

The fourth verse begins with ''Helter skelter in a summer swelter''. "[[Helter Skelter]]" is a Beatles song that was released in two versions on two albums. The "summer swelter" may allude to The Beatles' efforts during the summer of 1968 to record different versions of the song: one session to record a single over 27 minutes long and an edited version appearing on the 1996 ''[[The Beatles Anthology]]'', ''Volume III''; [[Helter Skelter#Recording|and another two day long session that included eighteen takes of approximately five minutes each]] to create the ''[[The Beatles (album)|White Album]]'' version. The strain of the second session earned [[Ringo Starr]] blistered and bleeding fingers.

The "summer swelter" may also or alternatively refer to the August 9, 1969, [[Sharon Tate|Tate]]/[[Leno LaBianca|LaBianca]] murders. The mastermind behind the killings, [[Charles Manson]], claimed "[[Helter Skelter]]" inspired the bloodbaths he convinced his followers to commit. [alternative of Kulawiec, Fann] There was a heatwave in Los Angeles at the time of the murders.

===== The sergeants=====
Some people believe the lines in the fourth verse ''... while the sergeants played a marching tune / We all got up to dance, oh but we never got the chance'' refers to The Beatles' (the sergeants) last live concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco on August 29, because their performance lasted for only 35 minutes. The interpretation is inconsistent with [[The Beatles]]' discography because the concert pre-dates the 1967 release of ''[[Sgt Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band|Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Band]]'' and the album's recording sessions which started on November 24, 1966 [http://www.beatles.ws/initial.htm].

Another interpretation of the following verse: "While sergeants played a marching tune, We all got up to dance, Oh, but we never got the chance, 'Cause the players tried to take the field,
The marching band refused to yield" is that the music of the sixties was dominated by The Beatles, and for this reason other artists did not get a chance to shine.
[[Image:Byrds.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The original [[Byrds]]. Shortly after the group's establishment, it recorded a hit arrangement of Bob Dylan's "[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]" in January 1965.]]

====The Byrds====
The fourth verse contains the lines
:''... the birds flew off with a fallout shelter
:''Eight miles high and fallin' fast, it landed foul on the grass''.
"The birds" are likely the American rock group [[The Byrds]]. The fact they "flew off with a fallout shelter" refers to their huge initial success, which they owed to their arrangement of Bob Dylan's "[[Mr. Tambourine Man]]". An American fallout shelter sign appears on Dylan's 1965 ''[[Bringing It All Back Home]]'' album cover containing the song. However, The Byrds' popularity suffered ("falling fast") when their reputation for drug use rubbed off on their 1966 release of "[[Eight Miles High]]". Many radio stations banned the recording when some thought it was about drug consumption ("it landed foul on the grass" - literally, a term from the American game of [[baseball]]). [Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann]

With the fourth verse mentioning the songs "[[Helter Skelter]]" (1968) and "[[Eight Miles High]]" (1966), and 1966 as the "halftime" of the 1960s decade (1961-1970), and alluding to The Beatles' "[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]" (1967), McLean addressed the period, 1966 to early 1969, since the fifth verse alludes to two music concerts that took place in the second half of 1969. The lines, ''The players tried for a forward pass with the jester, on the sidelines in a cast'', probably refers to Dylan's prolonged absence from recording after a serious motorcycle accident. [Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann]

====The Woodstock generation====
McLean described his own generation as being lost to drug use in the opening of the fifth verse:

:''Oh, and there we were all in one place, a generation lost in space''
:''With no time left to start again.''

The generation is represented by the 400,000 to 500,000 mostly young people "all in one place", the [[Woodstock|Woodstock Music and Art Fair]] held at White Lake, New York, August 15-19, 1969. In addition, Woodstock hosted a gamut of some of the generation's greatest music artists. [Kulawiec, Fann]

"Lost in space" may have been an intentional corruption of the title of the 1967 musical "[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]" song "Walking In Space". The song vividly describes a clandestine, hallucinogenic drug experience [http://www.geocities.com/hairpages/lyrics.html]. Alternatively, the term might refer to the state of being "spaced out", i.e., dazed from the intoxicating effects of drugs. Finally, it could alternatively or also refer to the popular, campy American television science fiction series of the time, [[Lost in Space]], about a group of space travelers, that includes a family, who lose their way and are unable find their way back home. [alternatives of Kulawiec, Levitt]

McLean may have felt his generation permanently lost its innocence to drug use since it had "no time left to start again". The loss is represented in the verse's next lines that open a nursery rhyme to which McLean adds a perverted twist:

:''So, come on Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack Flash sat on a candlestick 'cause''
:''Fire is the devil's only friend''

''Jack flash'' is a British slang term for [[heroin]], and its sitting on a candlestick is an image for preparing the drug for injection. [Levitt] In music, Jack Flash is the crazed character in the 1968 [[The Rolling Stones]] song "[[Jumpin' Jack Flash]]" [http://www.keno.org/stones_lyrics/jumping_jack_flash.htm]. McLean's adding "sat on a candlestick" to Jack Flash's list of pleasures may represent [[masochism]]. [Dearborn, Kulwiec, Fann] "Candlestick" may refer to [[Monster Park|Candlestick Park]], a landmark of the [[San Francisco Bay|San Francisco Bay Area]] that includes Livermore, where The Rolling Stones organized and held the [[Altamont Free Concert]] less than four months after Woodstock. (See the next section.)
[[Image:GimmeshelterDVDcover.jpg|thumb|180px|right|The film ''[[Gimme Shelter (documentary)|Gimme Shelter]]'' documented the ill-fated [[Altamont Free Concert]]. Don McLean did not attend the event but could have viewed the film documentary which was released on December 6, 1970, over six months before "American Pie" was recorded.]]

====The Rolling Stones====
===== The Altamont Free Concert =====
The fifth verse is believed to describe the [[December 6]], [[1969]] [[Altamont Free Concert]], organized by [[The Rolling Stones]], at the [[Altamont Speedway]] near [[Livermore, California]], in which the Stones and others performed. The Stones and The Dead are identified by references to their songs, "[[Jumpin' Jack Flash]]" (1968) and "[[Friend of the Devil]]" (1970), respectively: ''So come on Jack be nimble, Jack be quick, Jack Flash sat on a candlestick 'cause / Fire is the devil's only friend'', though the "devil" may rather allude to The Stones' 1968 song, "[[Sympathy for the Devil]]", a more historically consistent interpretation. The concert was captured on film in the 1970 documentary, named after the The Stones' 1969 song, ''[[Gimme Shelter (documentary)|Gimme Shelter]]''. The "devil" is Mick Jagger, who performed "Sympathy for the Devil" that night dressed in black with a red cape before 300,000 people. "Angels born in hell" refers to members of the [[Hells Angels]] gang, who were hired to provide security. That night, gang members beat concert goers and [[Marty Balin]] of the band [[Jefferson Airplane]]. McLean, who did not attend the concert, wrote that he was enraged:

:''Oh, and as I watched him on the stage my hands were clenched in fists of rage''
:''No angel born in hell''
:''Could break that Satan's spell''

McLean imagined the music agitating the Hells Angels into a killing frenzy that resulted in their stabbing to death the armed concert goer [[Meredith Hunter]]: ''And as the flames climbed high into the night to light the sacrificial rite''. The murder, which occurred while the The Rolling Stones performed "[[Under My Thumb]]", was captured on film. Hundreds were injured in the violence. [Dearborn, Kulwiec, Fann] Coincidentally, McLean's album cover was a "thumbs-up" sign.

====Janis Joplin====
The final verse opens with ''I met a girl who sang the blues'', which probably alludes to [[Janis Joplin]], whom many consider to be the greatest white [[blues]] singer of all time. Her death through an accidental heroin overdose in October 1970, is alluded to in the third line: ''But she just smiled and turned away''. [Dearborn, Kulawiec, Fann, Levitt]

===The Vietnam War===
====The draft====
Some people interpret the lines in the fourth verse
:''... while the sergeants played a marching tune
:''We all got up to dance, oh but we never got the chance
:'' 'Cause the players tried to take the field, the marching band refused to yield
as a reference to the [[Vietnam War]], where the conflict is perceived between the U.S. government (represented by the sergeants) administering the [[conscription|draft]] and young people resisting it. [alternatives of Kulawiec, Fann] The players getting up to dance (the opposite of marching) trying to take the field might represent anti-war and anti-draft protesters. The marching band refusing to yield may represent security forces such as police, troops, or national guardsmen, or America's collective refusal to withdraw from Vietnam during the 1960s.
[[Image:Kent State massacre.jpg|thumb|left|280px|[[Mary Ann Vecchio]] over the body of [[Jeffrey Miller]] shot dead by Ohio National Guardsmen at [[Kent State University]], [[Ohio]], May 4, 1970. (Photograph by [[John Filo]].)]]

====The Kent State shootings====
The concluding verse marks the year [[1970]], by referring to death of [[Janis Joplin]], and then contains the lines:

: ''And in the streets the children screamed, the lovers cried and the poets dreamed,''
: ''But not a word was spoken, the church bells all were broken.''

McLean likely wrote the lines in response to the May 4, 1970, Ohio National Guard [[Kent State shooting|shootings at Kent State University]] that killed four and wounded nine unarmed people at the scene of a demonstration against the U.S. military invasion of Cambodia during the Vietnam War. The phrase "not a word was spoken" refers to [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon's]] silence on the matter. [[Stanley Karnow]] noted in his ''Vietnam: A History'' that "The [Nixon] administration initially reacted to this event with wanton insensitivity. Nixon's press secretary, [[Ron Ziegler]], whose statements were carefully programmed, referred to the deaths as a reminder that 'when dissent turns to violence, it invited tragedy.'" While demonstrations against the shootings broke out in hundreds of college campuses across the United States, McLean may have felt that the students were without leadership, as the "church bells" of the time, possibly the [[Chicago Seven]], involved in leading the anti-war protests during the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]], were silenced when five were fined and sentenced to prison on February 20, 1970. (The sentence was reversed on appeal in 1972.) The broken church bells may also refer to [[Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.]] and [[Robert F. Kennedy]] who were opponents of the Vietnam War. Both were assassinated in 1968.

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Brand New Key]]" by [[Melanie Safka|Melanie]]
| title = [[Billboard Hot 100]] [[List of number-one hits (United States)|number one single]] (Don McLean version)
| years = [[January 15]] [[1972]]
| after = "[[Let's Stay Together (song)|Let's Stay Together]]" by [[Al Green]]
}}
{{end box}}

==Covers and parodies==
The epic length and deeply personal nature of the song has made it largely resistant to [[cover version]]s; a few attempts have been made, however, first and most bizarrely by [[The Brady Bunch]] in 1972. [[Ska punk]] band [[Catch 22 (band)|Catch 22]] made a reggae version of the song a staple of their live show and released several recordings of it; [[alternative rock]] band [[Killdozer (band)|Killdozer]] recorded a thrashing, ironic version of the song in 1989. Additionally, several [[disco]] versions have appeared over the years.

In 1999, parodist [["Weird Al" Yankovic]] did a [[Star Wars]]-inspired lyrical adaptation of "American Pie" entitled "[[The Saga Begins]]" in which the lyrics recount the whole plot of ''[[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]]'' through the eyes of [[Obi-Wan Kenobi]]. While McLean gave permission for the parody, he did not make a cameo appearance in its video, despite popular rumour. However, he has stated that at live shows he almost starts singing Yankovic's lyrics, due to his children playing the song so often.

Recently, the [[Harry Potter]] website [http://www.Mugglenet.com Mugglenet] featured a parody of American Pie in their editorial "The U-Bend". ''[[Half-Blood Pie]]'' is a summary of [[Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince]] and can be heard [http://media.mugglenet.com/20060109-halfbloodpie/halfbloodpie.mp3 here].

Singer Lori Lieberman attended a McLean concert; in describing the experience to songwriters Norman Gimbel and Charles Fox, she said he'd "killed her softly." Gimbel and Fox wrote ''[[Killing Me Softly with His Song|Killing Me Softly]]'' about Lieberman's experience, and the song became a huge hit for Roberta Flack, and many years later for the Fugees. This created a unique Grammy situation: in 1973, Flack won Record of the Year, beating out ''American Pie'', a song ''by'' McLean; in 1974, she won the same award for a song ''about'' McLean. Flack and McLean have performed ''Killing Me Softly'' together in concert at least once.

Almost any song parody site is rife with Pie-rodies; it's often the most parodied song on the site. A [http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=539289 particularly clever one] claims that the song is actually about Bill Gates, supposedly a Harvard classmate of McLean's. This is fiction, although a little-known fact is that while McLean was a freshman at Villanova University, a senior befriended him and urged him to pursue his musical dreams. The senior's name was [[Jim Croce]].

On the Web parody site, [[Am I Right]], the American Pie is considered as one of the most difficult songs to parodize, and successfully spoofing the song is a hallmark of a skilled parodist.

{{Infobox Single |
| Name = American Pie
| Cover = American Pie.jpg
| Artist = [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]]
| from Album = [[The Next Best Thing (soundtrack)|The Next Best Thing Soundtrack]] and [[Music (Madonna album)|Music]]
| Released = [[February 28]], [[2000]]
| Format = [[CD single]], [[CD maxi single]], [[Cassette single]], [[7-inch single|7" single]], [[12-inch maxi single|12" maxi single]]
| Recorded = [[1999 in music|1999]]
| Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]]
| Length = 4:32
| Label = [[Maverick Records|Maverick]], [[Warner Brothers Records|Warner Brothers]]
| [Writer =]
| Producer = [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]], [[William Orbit]]
| [Certification =]
| Chart position = <ul><li>#1 ([[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[Germany]], [[Italy]], [[Finland]])</li> <li>#29 ([[United States|U.S.]])</li></ul>
| NoReviews = yes
| Last single = "[[Beautiful Stranger]]" (1999)
| This single = "American Pie" (2000)
| Next single = "[[Music (Madonna song)|Music]]" (2000)
}}
===Madonna===
"American Pie" was covered by American singer [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] for the soundtrack to the film ''[[The Next Best Thing]]''. The cover was co-produced by Madonna and [[William Orbit]], after [[Rupert Everett]] (Madonna's co-star in ''The Next Best Thing'') had convinced her to cover the song for the film's soundtrack. Her version of the song is shorter than the original, and contains influences of [[dance music]].

It was released as the soundtrack's first and only [[single (music)|single]] in February 2000 (see [[2000 in music]]) and was a number-one hit in several countries, including the [[United Kingdom]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]] (her first #1 since [["Vogue"]] in 1990), [[Germany]], [[Italy]] and [[Finland]]. The single was not released commercially in the United States, but it reached number twenty-nine on the [[Billboard Hot 100]] due to strong radio airplay. "American Pie" was included as a bonus track on all non-U.S. editions of Madonna's album ''[[Music (Madonna album)|Music]]'', released later in 2000. According to Madonna, she was talked into adding the song to the album by an executive at [[Warner Brothers Records]].

Remixes of the song were produced by [[Richard Vission|Richard "Humpty" Vission]] and [[Victor Calderone]]. The single's [[music video|video]], directed by [[Philip Stolzl]], features Madonna dancing in front of a large American flag. Shots of interracial families standing together for a family portrait, lesbians embracing, and a gay male couple kissing are shown in between shots of Madonna. Rupert Everett makes a cameo appearance in the video, with Madonna sitting on his lap.

====Official versions====
*Album Version (4:35)
*Richard "Humpty" Vission Visits Madonna (5:43)
*Richard ''Humpty'' Vission Radio Mix (4:26)
*Victor Calderone Extended Vocal Club Mix (10:35)
*Victor Calderone Filter Dub Mix (6:04)
*Victor Calderone Vocal Club Mix (9:05)
*Victor Calderone Vocal Dub Mix (6:17)
*Dan-O-Rama Remix #2 (4:05)
*D.U.I. Extended Soft Vox (10:50) ''(Unreleased)''
*D.U.I. Extended Dub (9:37) ''(Unreleased)''
*D.U.I. Mad Vocalonna Mix (3:51) ''(Unreleased)''
*Thunderpuss Demo Remix (7:01) ''(Unreleased)''

{{Madonna}}

===Hector===
Finnish rock musician [[Hector (musician)|Hector]] (Heikki Harma) made a Finnish cover of the song "American Pie" in 1971, under name ''Suomi-Neito'' (Maid Finland). While the original song covered the American issues, Hector's version was likewise "translated" to deal with the Finnish post-WWII history and loss of innocence in the Finnish popular culture.

==References ==
*[http://www.don-mclean.com The Official Website of Don McLean and American Pie] provides [http://www.don-mclean.com/aboutdon.asp the songwriter's own biography] and [http://www.don-mclean.com/americanpie.asp clues] to the song's meaning. This article correlated McLean's biography with the historic events in the song. In particular, McLean pointed to [http://user.pa.net/~ejjeff/pie.html the February 1972, interpretation of Bob Dearborn], a Chicago, Illinois radio [[disc jockey]] as the partial basis for most mainstream interpretations of "American Pie."
*[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/music/american-pie The Annotated "American Pie"], maintained by Rich Kulawiec was started in 1992 and was essentially completed in 1997.
*[http://library.thinkquest.org/18249/compose/apverse1.html "American Pie — A Rock Epic"] is Rich Kulawiec's multi-media presentation of The Annotated "American Pie".
*[http://understandingamericanpie.com Understanding American Pie] by Jim Fann provides a historically-oriented interpretation of "American Pie". The interpretation was specifically noted on in an [http://www.don-mclean.com/articles/ archived version] of McLean's website page on "American Pie". The material, dated November 2002, includes a recording of [[Dinah Shore]] singing "See The USA In Your Chevrolet", and a photograph of [[Mick Jagger]] in costume at the Altamont Free Concert with a [[Hells Angel]] member in the background.
* [http://www.missamericanpie.co.uk/ The Ultimate American Pie Website] by Saul Levitt was specifically noted on in an [http://www.don-mclean.com/articles/ archived version] of McLean's website page on "American Pie". The material appears to have been completed in 2003.
*[[Stanley Karnow|Karnow, Stanley]], ''Vietnam: A History'' (1983), ISBN 0-670-74604-5.
*[[Henry Kissinger|Kissinger Henry]], ''The White House Years'' (1979), ISBN 0-316-49661-8.
*Johns Hopkins University's Center For Talented Youth Camp's anthem

==External links==
*''[[The Straight Dope]]'' author [[Cecil Adams]] published an interpretation of the lyrics based on a supposed interview of McLean by DJ [[Casey Kasem]] in his May 14 column of 1993. McLean later confirmed the Buddy Holly reference in a letter to Adams but denied ever speaking to Kasem. [http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a3_398b.html]
*[http://www.cfhf.net/lyrics/dinah.htm Full "See the USA in Your Chevrolet" lyrics for Dinah Shore on the "The Dinah Shore Chevy Show" (1956 - 1961).]

[[Category:1970s pop songs]]
[[Category:1971 singles]]
[[Category:2000 singles]]
[[Category:Don McLean songs]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Australia]]
[[Category:Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles]]
[[Category:Billboard Hot Dance Club Play number-one singles]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Canada]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Finland]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Italy]]
[[Category:Madonna songs]]
[[Category:Songs parodied by "Weird Al" Yankovic]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Number-one singles in Germany]]

[[de:American Pie (Lied)]]
[[es:American Pie]]
[[fr:American Pie (chanson)]]
[[id:American Pie (lagu)]]
[[it:American Pie (canzone)]]
[[pl:American Pie (utwór)]]
[[pt:American Pie (música)]]
[[sv:American Pie (låt)]]

Talk:Knowledge Masters

2007-01-14T17:42:23Z

Mathnerd314:

Is this competition different from [[Knowledge Master Open]]? They have the same website, same format, and almost the same name. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 17:42, 14 January 2007 (UTC)

Knowledge Masters

2007-01-13T15:35:59Z

Mathnerd314:

{{merge|Knowledge Master Open}}

'''Knowledge Masters''' is an extracurricular activity in which students from teams from many [[school]]s in both [[United States|America]] and world wide solve questions from 200-question tests composed of questions drawn from eclectic sources. Topics for questions include math, science (physical, life, chemistry, biology), history, art, English, sports, trivia, current events, and other topics. Tests generally have 200 questions.

Contests are different for different grade ranges: There are 5-6th grade contests, 7-8th grade contests, and high school (9-12th grade) contests.

==See also==
*[[Knowledge Master Open]]

==External links==
*[http://www.greatauk.com/ Knowledge Masters website]

[[Category:Competitions]]

{{edu-stub}}

Over the River and Through the Wood

2006-12-22T19:55:51Z

Mathnerd314: I'm doing this from memory--feel free to change as necessary

'''"Over the River and Through the Woods"''' is a songwritten by [[Lydia Maria Child]] in [[1844]]. It celebrates her childhood memories of visiting her [[Grandfather's House]].

== "A Boy's Thanksgiving Day," by Lydia Maria Child ==

This Thanksgiving song originally appeared as a poem written by [[Lydia_Child|Lydia Maria Child]] in ''Flowers for Children'', volume 2, in 1844. Lydia Maria Child was a novelist, journalist, teacher, and wrote extensively about the need to eliminate slavery.

Over the river, and through the wood, 
To Grandfather's house we go; 
The horse knows the way to carry the sleigh 
through the white and drifted snow.

Over the river, and through the wood - 
Oh, how the wind does blow! 
It stings the toes and bites the nose 
As over the ground we go.

Over the river, and through the wood, 
To have a first-rate play. 
Hear the bells ring, "Ting-a-ling-ding", 
Hurrah for Thanksgiving Day!

Over the river, and through the wood 
Trot fast, my dapple-gray! 
Spring over the ground like a hunting-hound, 
For this is Thanksgiving Day.

Over the river, and through the wood - 
And straight through the barnyard gate, 
We seem to go extremely slow, 
It is so hard to wait!

Over the river, and through the wood - 
Now Grandmother's cap I spy! 
Hurrah for the fun! Is the pudding done? 
Hurrah for the pumpkin pie!

[[Category:Thanksgiving]]

Talk:Knowledge Masters

2006-12-07T21:41:17Z

Mathnerd314: ←Created page with 'Is this competition different from the Knowledge Master Open one? ~~~~'

Is this competition different from the [[Knowledge Master Open]] one? [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 21:41, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

Jeopardy!

2006-12-05T23:39:08Z

Mathnerd314: Spelling--it's a "concept", not a "conceit".

{{split-apart}}

{{infobox television |
| show_name = Jeopardy!
| image = [[Image:Hdjeopalexbig.jpg|275px]]
| caption = ''Jeopardy!'' Season 23 logo
| format = [[Game show]]
| rating = {{TV-G}}
| runtime = 30 minutes
| creator = [[Merv Griffin]]
| starring = [[Alex Trebek]] (1984–present) [[Art Fleming]] (1964–1975; 1978–1979)
| country = {{USA}}
| network = [[NBC]] (1964–1975, 1978–1979) [[Television syndication|Syndicated]] (1974–1975; 1984–Present)
| first_aired = [[March 30]],[[1964]]
| last_aired = Present
| num_episodes = 5,000 (as of [[25 September]] [[2006]])
| website = http://www.jeopardy.com/
| imdb_id = 0159881
| tv_com_id = 5409
|}}
'''''Jeopardy!''''' is a popular [[international]] [[television]] quiz [[game show]], originally devised by [[Merv Griffin]], who also created ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]''. The show originated in the [[United States]], where it first ran on [[NBC]] from [[March 30]],[[1964]] until [[January 3]],[[1975]] and again from 1978 to 1979. Its most successful incarnation is the current [[Alex Trebek]]-hosted syndicated version, which has aired continuously since [[September 10]],[[1984]]. ''Jeopardy!'' began its 23rd season in syndication on [[September 11]],[[2006]] with its first broadcast in [[high-definition television|HDTV]].

''Jeopardy!'' is a game of [[trivia]], covering topics such as [[history]], [[literature]], and [[pop culture]]. During the game, three competing contestants select clues from a game board, up to 61 clues per game, each clue in the form of an answer, to which they must supply correct responses, each response in the form of a question. The concept of "questioning answers" is original to ''Jeopardy!'' and, along with its theme music, remains the most enduring and distinctive element of the show.

Since the [[1980s]], the Trebek version has consistently placed weekly among the [[Daytime TV ratings|top-rated]] shows in syndication, and has had a marked effect on American [[pop culture]]. In [[January]] [[2001]], [[TV Guide]] ranked it #2 among the [[TV Guide's 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time|50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time]]. ''[[Esquire (magazine)|Esquire]]'' magazine readers named it their "favorite game show". And in the summer of [[2006]], it was also ranked #2 by [[Game Show Network|GSN]] on their list of the [[50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time (GSN)|50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time]].

[[Image:Alextrebek86.jpg|right|thumb|300px|''Jeopardy!'' presenter Alex Trebek]]
==Broadcast history==
The ''Jeopardy!'' concept was originally created by [[Merv Griffin]], who wanted to take the format of a television [[quiz show]] and make it more enticing by speeding up the game and putting a twist on the format.

The format was created shortly after the major quiz show scandals of the 1950s, when it was discovered producers had given contestants answers to questions being asked on the shows, thereby rigging the quizzes themselves. At the time, quiz shows were out of favour with networks because of the scandals, and the original twist was giving clues in the form of answers (originally with a bend toward comedy) and expecting replies in the form of questions, was originally the central concept of the show, which was pitched under the title ''What's the Question?''. The name "Jeopardy" was coined when, according to Griffin, a skeptical producer rejected the show, claiming "it doesn't have enough jeopardies" (a reasonable complaint, since a winning player could, without the Daily Double betting clues Griffin eventually devised, maintain his or her lead relatively easily by avoiding risk). Griffin thought the "Jeopardy" name sounded perfect, and immediately used it to generate [[pun]]s, like naming the second round of the game Double Jeopardy! (after the [[Double jeopardy|legal concept]]).

[[Art Fleming]] hosted and [[Don Pardo]] served as announcer on the original version, which aired on NBC's daytime schedule from [[March 30]], [[1964]] to [[January 3]], [[1975]] for 2,753 shows in almost 11 seasons. Fleming also hosted a short-lived weekly syndicated version in 1974-75 (approximately 40 shows) and another short-lived NBC revival, ''The All-New Jeopardy!'', from [[October 2]], [[1978]] to [[March 2]], [[1979]] for 105 shows. [[John Harlan (announcer)|John Harlan]] was the announcer for that version of the show as he worked out of [[Los Angeles]] (where the show was taped), whereas Pardo remained in New York and no longer announced game shows by that time.

The original NBC version largely gained its popularity from college students and businesspeople who would watch the show during their lunch breaks, as the program aired for most of its network run (from September 27, [[1965]] to January 4, [[1974]]) at Noon Eastern/11 Central. In fact, the show's [[1975]] cancellation was largely due to the network's relocating the show to two different time slots during the previous year, first at 10:30/9:30 a.m., opposite CBS' ''[[$10,000 Pyramid]]'' and ''[[Gambit (game show)|Gambit]]'', and then finally at 1:30/12:30 p.m., against the high-rated ''[[As the World Turns]]'' on CBS and another game, ''[[Let's Make a Deal]]'' on ABC.

With those moves (which some have said were deliberate on the network's part due to tensions between daytime programmers and Griffin), the show lost most of its traditional followers, and NBC, in exchange to Griffin for the last remaining year on ''Jeopardy's'' contract, permitted him to create a new show in its place, ''[[Wheel of Fortune]]'', which debuted [[January 6]], [[1975]], the Monday after the last ''Jeopardy!'' episode.

The first [[television syndication|syndicated]] version was mainly an attempt by Griffin to keep the show going in the face of its imminent doom on NBC (this had also been attempted the previous season by packagers of two canceled network games, ''[[The Dating Game]]'' and ''[[Sale of the Century]]''). It was noteworthy mainly for two things: at the program's end after Final Jeopardy!, the winning contestant got a chance to select a prize hidden behind the slots on the main game board (numbered 1–30, ''à la'' ''[[Concentration (game show)|Concentration]]''); and host Fleming appeared dressed in a tuxedo with check-patterned jackets, instead of his customary business suit. None of these things helped this seemingly futile effort, and the show ran only one season, from September [[1974]] to September [[1975]]; it is quite likely that most stations dropped the program even earlier than the end of the season, probably not long after the network version's demise.

The show did not sit idle long, however. In [[1977]], Merv Griffin, in an attempt to mend fences with [[CBS]], which had cancelled his late-night talk show six years earlier, produced a pilot of ''Jeopardy!'' for that network. However, that network, because of the success of ''[[The Price is Right]]'' and ''[[Match Game]]'', gave priority to [[Goodson-Todman Productions]] when considering ideas for new games, and let the option lapse. (In [[1998]], CBS purchased the syndicator of the current version, King World.)

Meanwhile, NBC had been experiencing considerable instability on its morning schedule in particular, with ''Wheel'' being the only bright spot by [[1978]]. The network, obviously regretting its actions which led to the demise of the original version nearly four years earlier, decided to bring the show back on daytime.

Harlan's energetic announcing style, every bit as powerful as Pardo's, was especially potent in his emotional cue to Fleming on the first October 1978 episode: After introducing the contestants with the "This is ''Jeopardy!'' Now entering the studio..." lines that would become a ''Jeopardy!'' catch phrase in the following decade, Harlan announced:

:''Now entering the studio for the 2,754th time is the host of ''Jeopardy!'', Art Fleming!''

Fleming came out to a standing ovation from the audience at the NBC Burbank studio.

However, the network apparently stipulated format changes as a condition for airing the show, something Griffin largely refused to make during the original version; this resulted in an elimination format and a different bonus game. Neither of these pleased a disappointed public, which, unlike viewers of other games, preferred an absence of gimmicks from ''Jeopardy!''

Not learning from its mishaps five years before, NBC made scheduling mistakes with both of the show's time slots. From October until January, the show faced the first half-hour of ''The Price is Right'' on CBS (10:30 Eastern/9:30 Central), which had been a solid hit for years by that point. But things got worse on [[January 5]], when NBC dispatched it to what, ten years earlier, had been an impregnable slot for the program. However, by [[1979]], most American daytime viewers chose between ''[[$20,000 Pyramid]]'' on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] and ''[[The Young and the Restless]]'' (ironically, now owned by Sony, like ''Jeopardy!'' currently) on CBS at 12 Noon Eastern/11 Central, ignoring NBC's offerings. Two months later, Fleming gave his final performance as host of the show, and retired to a morning drive-time radio show on [[KMOX]] in [[St. Louis, Missouri|St. Louis]], where he spent the remainder of his career. Fleming, a veteran actor as well as media personality, died in [[1995]].

In [[1983]], Griffin scored the syndication surprise of the year with his night-time version of ''Wheel''. Shown mainly in the [[prime-time]] access local station periods between 7 and 8 p.m. Eastern (6:30-7 p.m. Central), its success influenced him to once again consider trotting out the beloved trivia game. As with ''Wheel'', he sold ''Jeopardy!'' to distributor Mike King's [[King World]] operation. With Fleming no longer available, Trebek, a [[Canadian]]-born host best known for two stints on the 1970s NBC game ''[[High Rollers]]'', won the audition to host, and journeyman announcer [[Johnny Gilbert]] assumed announcer duties. A set sporting glaring neon lights and state-of-the-art video monitors greeted viewers on the show's debut, which took place on [[September 10]], [[1984]].

Despite the skepticism (possibly from the 1979 failure) from station managers, many of whom scheduled the show in unpopular morning or even late-night slots ([[WNBC]] in New York did the latter, and [[KCBS]] in Los Angeles even canceled it after several months, before another L.A. station, [[KCOP]], picked it up [though KCBS would again pick it up for a time in 1989]), the show struck a partly nostalgic, partly fashionable chord with the American public, and, before long, it developed an intense, devoted following, far larger than was ever possible on the two daytime network runs. It took advantage of two pop-culture trends in the mid-[[1980s]]: a fascination with the culture of the early and mid-[[1960s]], and the popularity of games such as "[[Trivial Pursuit]]" and barroom parlor trivia games (later electronic machines).

Trebek produced the show himself for the first three seasons.

The 1964 to 1975 airings originated from the NBC headquarters in New York's [[Rockefeller Center]]; it has been based in Southern California (at various studios) starting with the 1978 revival.

For most of its present run, ''Jeopardy!'' has ranked second to ''Wheel'' in the [[Nielsen ratings]] of [[television syndication|syndicated]] programs. When the [[2006]]-[[2007]] season began (its 23rd), it surpassed ''[[Hee Haw]]'' as television's third-longest-running syndicated show, behind ''Wheel'', which took second place in [[2005]].

In [[2005]], ''Jeopardy!'' won its 10th Daytime Emmy for best game show, surpassing ''[[Pyramid (game show)|Pyramid]]''. It earned its 11th the following year.

The show was the subject of great interest and increased ratings (often beating ''Wheel'') in the second half of [[2004]], as contestant [[Ken Jennings]], taking advantage of newly relaxed appearance rules, remained a champion for seventy-four appearances, winning over [[United States dollar|US$]]2.5 million, and breaking almost every record in TV game show history.


On [[September 11]], [[2006]], ''Jeopardy!'' began broadcasting in the [[HDTV]] format. King World and Sony indicated that as of [[August 10]], [[2006]], some 49 of the 210 stations which carry the show in syndication are prepared for the transition. Because ''Jeopardy!'' is syndicated, it will appear in both the [[1080i]] and [[720p]] formats, depending on the station. [http://www.tvweek.com/news.cms?newsId=10524]

==Gameplay==
===The Jeopardy! Round===
[[Image:Tv_jeopardy_category.jpg|thumb|250px|right|One of the categories on ''Jeopardy!'' on May 25, 2005.]]
[[Image:Tv jeopardy may 25 2005 board.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The answer board (Season 19-22 ''Jeopardy!'' set).]]
[[Image:Tv jeopardy jerome.jpg|right|250px|thumb|Brad Rutter is congratulated for his first place finish by ''Jeopardy!'' host [[Alex Trebek]], at the ''Ultimate Tournament of Champions''.]]
Each day, there are three [[contestant]]s, one of whom is usually the defending champion (and is always introduced last and is at the podium on the viewer's left), who play a three-round game. The first round is simply called the "Jeopardy!" round.

Six categories are announced, each with a column of five trivia 'answers' (i.e., questions written in answer form), ostensibly graded by difficulty. Each category is a topical category, and the categories change on each show; frequently, they contain [[pun]]s or other wordplay. (Column number 6, the one furthest to the right, usually contains the wordplay category.) The names of the six categories are sometimes related in some way (e.g., titles of [[Shakespeare]] plays, although only one may actually concern the famous playwright).

The values of each of the five answers are thus:

*1964–1975: $10, $20, $30, $40, $50
*1978–1979: $25, $50, $75, $100, $125
*1984–2001: $100, $200, $300, $400, $500
*2001–present: $200, $400, $600, $800, $1000 (these values were also used for the 1990 ''Super Jeopardy!'' tournament during the Jeopardy! round.)

The returning champion or the new challenger in the first position (standing at the leftmost lectern from Alex's point of view) begins the game by selecting a category and monetary value ("PRESIDENTS for $200"). The host then reads the 'answer' ("He was the Father of Our Country; he didn't really chop down a cherry tree"), after which any of the three contestants may ring in. The host recognizes that contestant, who must then phrase their response in question form ("''Who was/is'' or ''Who's'' George Washington?").

A correct response wins the dollar value of the clue, and gives the "questioner" the right to select the next clue. If he/she is incorrect or failed to answer in time, that amount is deducted (hence, the dollar amount was always in jeopardy) and his/her opponents may ring in and respond. If all three contestants fail to respond or give wrong questions, the correct response is read, and the player who gave the last correct response chooses the next clue.

The current scores are shown on the front of each player's lectern. In the Art Fleming run, positive scores had plus signs next to them, while negative scores had minus signs next to them; in the Trebek version, no plus sign is used for a positive score, but the minus sign remains. On the current set, scores in the "plus column" are displayed with a blue background, negative scores with a red one.

====Daily Doubles====
In each game, three clues are designated "[[Daily double#Jeopardy!|Daily Doubles]]" (a name taken from [[horse racing]]): one in the Jeopardy! Round and two in the Double Jeopardy! Round. Only the contestant who selects a Daily Double may respond to its clue. The player may wager as much as the maximum amount of a clue on the board (currently $1000 in the Jeopardy! round and $2000 in the Double Jeopardy! round) or as much as he or she has accumulated, whichever is greater, but must wager at least $5. A player may also indicate that they wish to make it a "True Daily Double", meaning that they are risking all the money that they have accumulated up to that point. Daily Doubles are sometimes designated with special tags, such as "Audio Daily Double" (in which a sound clip is played as part of the clue), "Video Daily Double" (in which a video clip is played as part of the clue), "Celebrity Daily Double" (in which a celebrity delivers the clue), ''etc.''; such a tag is displayed as soon as the Daily Double has been selected, and may serve as a hint to aid the contestant in his or her wagering.

====Ringing in====
Before the 1985–1986 season, contestants could ring in anytime after the clue was revealed. Ever since, in order to give all three contestants a fair shot at the clue, players are required to wait until the host finishes reading the clue and the lights surrounding the board are illuminated before they can ring in. Pressing the signaling button too soon locks the player out for one quarter of a [[second]]. For easy clues, ringing in at the right moment is important, as it is presumed that all three contestants will be able to respond correctly. Many ''Jeopardy!'' players comment that "the buzzer was the most important aspect of the game."

====Phrasing====
In the Jeopardy! Round, players are not penalized for forgetting to phrase a response in the form of a question. (Alex will give a reminder should a player not correct him- or herself before his or her time runs out after ringing in.) In the Double Jeopardy! Round, adherence to the phrasing rule is followed more strictly, but players are still often permitted to correct themselves before their time runs out.

On occasion, players have couched their phrasing in languages other than English without penalty:

* In game #4604, aired [[September 16]],[[2004]]: SPEAKING IN TONGUES $800: A 1996 Oakland School Board decision made many aware of this term for African-American English
** [[Ken Jennings]] responded, "What be [[Ebonics]]?"{{fact}}
* In game #4657, aired [[November 30]],[[2004]]: A CATEGORY ABOUT NOTHING $400: En español
**[[Ken Jennings]] responded, "¿Qué es nada?"{{fact}}
* In game #4752, aired [[April 12]],[[2005]]: FROM THE FRENCH $1200 (DD, wager $2,000): It's a hint or trace of something (sounds like of Campbell's)
** Steve Chernicoff responded, "Qu'est-ce que c'est qu'un soupçon?"{{fact}}

On at least one occasion, a contestant has responded with "Is that an..." instead of "What is an..." and was ruled correct{{fact}}. In a regular season game in 2000, contestant Jeremy Bate responded to a question asking for a certain British rock band with "Who?" and was ruled correct.{{fact}} On [[October 24]],[[2006]], contestant John Bowen was ruled correct with a response of "How about architect, now?" after using the aforementioned guess incorrectly earlier in the category.{{fact}}

===The Double Jeopardy! Round===
The second round, Double Jeopardy!, works like the first round, with the following exceptions:
*Six new categories are used.
*The value of each clue is double what it was in the first round (except in the case of the 1990 ''Super Jeopardy!'' tournament):
**1964–1975: $20, $40, $60, $80, $100
**1978–1979: $50, $100, $150, $200, $250
**1984–2001: $200, $400, $600, $800, $1000
**1990 ''Super Jeopardy!'' tournament: 500, 1000, 1500, 2000, 2500
**2001–present: $400, $800, $1200, $1600, $2000
*The contestant with the lowest amount of money at the end of the first round picks first in the second round.
*From [[1985]] to [[1997]], the set would change from blue to red starting with this round. When the show is finished, the set would change back to blue.
*Also, in the 1978–1979 version only, only the two highest-scoring players at the end of Round 1 played Double Jeopardy!; the third-place player was eliminated before the start of the round.
*The response must be phrased in question form. If a correct response is given in improper form, it is treated as an incorrect response; however, the contestant does have the opportunity to rephrase before their clock expires.

====Finishing Double Jeopardy! with $0 (or less)====
Sometimes, contestants will finish Double Jeopardy! with either $0 or a negative score. If that happens, they are automatically eliminated from the game and not allowed to participate in the game's final round, Final Jeopardy! In this case, the contestant(s) receive [[consolation prize]]s, which ([[as of 2002]]) are $1,000 for third place and $2,000 for second place.

Usually, it is only one contestant (if any) that gets eliminated before Final Jeopardy! However, on rare occasions, two contestants have been disqualified from playing, leaving the first-place player to provide a question to the Final Jeopardy! answer alone. The last show where two contestants finished 'in the red' aired on [[February 23]], [[2005]] during the [[Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions|Ultimate Tournament of Champions]] (only Jeff Richmond advanced to Final Jeopardy!)

On the 1984 syndicated version, there has never been an instance where ''all three'' contestants finished Double Jeopardy! with $0 or less, thereby disqualifying everyone from Final Jeopardy! A three-way disqualification from Final Jeopardy! did happen at least once on the 1964 NBC version sometime between 1968 and 1975. During the commercial break between Double Jeopardy! and Final Jeopardy!, an audience member suggested that they could simply replay the game (with different categories) as if the embarrassing result had never happened. But the staff onstage said that this was not permitted by NBC's rules. The time normally used to play Final Jeopardy! was filled with chitchat between Art Fleming and the contestants. 

===The Final Jeopardy! Round===
[[Image:Jeopardy-1337.jpg|thumb|300px|Eventual champion Kermin Fleming's wager of $1337 (a reference to [[leet|leetspeek]]) is revealed in a Final Jeopardy! Round from the 2004 College Championship.]]
In the Final Jeopardy! Round, the host first announces the category, then the show goes into a [[television commercial|commercial]] break (during which the staff comes on stage and advises the contestants while barriers are placed between the players to discourage looking at one another's answers). The contestants then risk as little as $0 or as much money as they have accumulated, by writing it on a card (before 1979) or electronic tablet (since 1984). After the final commercial break, the Final Jeopardy! clue is revealed and read by the host, following which contestants have 30 seconds to write a response on a card/electronic drawing board, again phrased in the form of a question. The [[light pen]] is automatically cut off at the end of the 30 seconds. With rare exception, the "Think!" music is played during this 30-second period.

Other Final Jeopardy! response methods are occasionally used:
* Blind contestants (including 5-time champion [[Eddie Timanus]] and 2005 Teen Tournament quarterfinalist Kerri Regan) utilize a keyboard with [[Braille]] keys. Entered text will be displayed in a typed font rather than the contestant's handwriting.
* In the event of a malfunction of the handwriting input, contestants respond using a marker and paper tablet.

As with the rest of the show, Final Jeopardy! responses must be phrased in the form of a question. During the 1984–1985 season, a few contestants lost their games solely because they had forgotten to do this. As losing a game because of forgetting two words made for bad television, contestants have been instructed to write the question word ("What", "Who", ''etc.'') of their Final Jeopardy! responses during the commercial break after the Double Jeopardy! Round since the beginning of the 1985–1986 season.

===Cash prizes===
The top money-winner at the end of "Final Jeopardy!" is the day's champion and returns to the next show. The value of the theoretical maximum one-day winnings is $566,400 ($28,320 from 1964-1975 and $283,200 from 1984-2001), provided:
* All clues are revealed in both the Jeopardy! Round and the Double Jeopardy! Round
* One player gives the correct response to every clue
* All three Daily Doubles are hidden in the boards' top row (lowest dollar amount)
* The Daily Doubles are the last clues to be uncovered in each round
* Each time a Daily Double is revealed, the player wagers all his or her winnings on it
* The player also wagers all his or her winnings on Final Jeopardy!

During the 1964 NBC and 1974 syndicated versions, all three contestants kept whatever cash they won. On the syndicated once-a-week version which aired from 1974–75, the winner chose one of 30 spaces, each of which concealed a prize such as a vacation, a car, or cash. The top prize was $25,000 in cash.

Starting in 1984, rather than receiving their scores in cash, runners-up were awarded [[consolation prize]]s; typically, a vacation package for the second-place player and merchandise for the third-place player. This changed on [[May 16]],[[2002]]; thereafter, the second-place finisher was awarded $2,000 and the third place finisher was awarded $1,000. Since the show did not provide airfare or lodging for challengers (airfare was provided for returning champions' subsequent flights to L.A.), these cash consolation prizes alleviated the financial burden of appearing on the show.

====Special cases====
* If no contestant finishes Final Jeopardy! with a positive total (i.e., at least $1), then nobody wins and three new contestants appear on the following show; in such cases the three players will participate in a backstage draw to determine player position. The three-way loss has happened three times since 1984, the first occasion being on the second episode; the number of times this occurred during the 1964 NBC version is undetermined.

* If two or more contestants tie for first place, they each win the money and come back, assuming that they each have at least $1. (One contestant in the Trebek era actually won the game with only $1 [then Air Force Lt. Col. Darryl Scott, he won another $13,401 the next day]; there have been few players who have held the co-champ title twice, and there has never been a three-way tie).

* If there is a tie in a tournament episode, a [[tiebreaker]] question is played, but this has only happened on a few occasions. In case of a three-way loss in a tournament, nobody advances, and an additional wild card is added in the tournament. (A wild card is one of the usually four non-winners with the highest scores in the opening round of a tournament to advance. There has been one triple loss in a tournament, and a fifth wild card was added.) Scores coming to "Double Jeopardy!" break ties for a wildcard position.

==Categories==
Some categories have special rules pertaining to them. In each case, contestants and viewers are told the specific format required to get the clue correct.

Common categories are:
* '''"Quotation mark" categories''' - In these categories, a letter or group of letters will be placed inside quotation marks in the category name; correct responses will begin with or contain that letter or group of letters. For example, if the category title is '''THE "EYES" HAVE IT''': This popular fight song talks about the 30 million of these in this, the second most populous state. Correct response: What are "The Eyes of Texas"?
* '''RHYME TIME''' - Two consecutive words in the correct response rhyme with each other (Clue: A chilly swimming basin; Response: What is a cool pool?). Popular variants include '''CELEBRITY RHYME TIME''' and '''BEASTLY RHYME TIME'''.
* '''NAME'S THE SAME''' - The two nouns given share either the first or last word (Clue: Close, Frey; Response: Who is Glenn?, where the category is ''First Name's the Same'').
* '''POTPOURRI''' (sometimes called '''HODGEPODGE''') - A variety of topics inside one category. This category almost always appears in the sixth (rightmost) column on the board. One variant is '''LEFTOVERS''', which are simply clues that went unpicked in previous shows as time ran out.
* '''COMMON BONDS''' - Three items are listed, having something in common. (Clue: Bad habits, footballs, buckets; Response: What are things you kick?)
* '''CROSSWORD CLUES''' - Using the first letter given in the category, and the number of letters given in the answer, the question is the completion of a crossword-style clue (Clue: Late-night hunger pangs (8); Response: What are munchies?, where the category is CROSSWORD CLUES "M"). Previously known as '''STARTS WITH''' a given letter of the alphabet, was a standard Jeopardy! clue and did not give the number of letters in the question.
* '''BEFORE & AFTER''' - Inspired by a ''Wheel of Fortune'' category, the first and second parts of the question join together via a mutual word (Clue: The time it takes an element to lose 50 percent of its radioactivity in a 1979 Monty Python movie; Reponse: What is Half Life of Brian? (half-life, ''Life of Brian'').
* '''STUPID ANSWERS''' - The correct response is contained in the answer, and the contestant has to find it. (Clue: Name of the hotel and office complex where the Watergate break-in occurred; Response: What is Watergate?) The correct response may be hidden discreetly to challenge the contestants.
* '''SPELLING''' (aka '''THE DREADED SPELLING CATEGORY''') - The correct response must be spelled out. Generally, the answer is given, but not shown on the board (Clue: Get hooked on the spelling of... is shown, the word "Phonics" is given; Response: What is P-H-O-N-I-C-S?)
* '''POTENT POTABLES''' - The ingredients of an alcoholic drink are given, and the player must guess the name of the drink.
* '''ADD A LETTER''' - The player must guess which letter has to be added to a certain word to turn it into a new one. (Clue: Add this letter to CRAM and you get a charley horse; Response: What is P? (CRAM + P = CRAMP) )

==Other versions==
===''The All-New Jeopardy!''===
During the short-lived 1978–79 series, the lowest-scoring contestant was eliminated after the Jeopardy! Round; whoever was ahead at the end of the Double Jeopardy! Round became the champion.

Instead of Final Jeopardy!, the winner then got to play a bonus round called Super Jeopardy! (no relation to [[Super Jeopardy!|the special summer 1990 tournament]] of all-time champions as aired on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]). This round featured a new board of five categories with five clues in each, numbered 1–5 (and unlike the main game, not necessarily increasing in difficulty down the column). The object was for the contestant to provide any five correct responses in a straight line in a [[Bingo (US)|Bingo]]-like fashion (horizontally, vertically, or diagonally). Giving an incorrect response, or a pass, earned the player a "strike," and blocked off that space on the board; three strikes ended the round. "Super Jeopardy!" was worth $5,000 to a first-day champion, with the jackpot increasing by $2,500 each day that champion successfully defended his/her title; with the five-day limit in place, that meant a potential total of $50,000 in just "Super Jeopardy!" earnings ($5,000 + $7,500 + $10,000 + $12,500 + $15,000). If a player struck out, he/she still received $100 for each correct response given.

This bonus game proved rather unpopular among long-time fans of the show, and some critics allege that its inclusion, and the gameplay's elimination structure, doomed the revival to failure. Two sound effects from this version carried over to ''Sale of the Century'' in the 1980s: the correct response bell (a high-pitched ding) and the ''Daily Double'' bell, a ''Family Feud''-esque series of dings.

===''Rock & Roll Jeopardy!''===
{{main|Rock & Roll Jeopardy!}}

'''''Rock & Roll Jeopardy!''''' was a music-intensive version of ''Jeopardy!'' that aired on [[VH1]] from 1998 to 2001. Hosted by [[Jeff Probst]] (of ''[[Survivor (TV series)|Survivor]]'' fame), clues on this version of the show highlighted post-1950s popular music trivia. Though the host was somewhat looser with the "phrase in the form of a question" requirement, the gameplay was basically identical to ''Jeopardy!'' The first two seasons awarded $5,000 to the winner; subsequent seasons were played for a $5,000 house minimum.

===''Jep!''===
{{main|Jep!}}

'''''Jep!''''' was the children's version of ''Jeopardy!'', hosted by cartoon voice artist [[Bob Bergen]]. The show aired in 1998 on [[Game Show Network]] (now GSN), and up to late 2004 on [[Discovery Kids]]. The show was not well received by fans or critics, and was canceled after one season.

Starting in 1999, just after ''Jep!'''s cancellation, ''Jeopardy!'' began a "Back-to-School Week," which has easier clues and more accessible material for the younger contestants, but is otherwise identical to the adult version.

==Returning champions==
[[Image:KenJennings.jpg|right|frame|[[Ken Jennings]] holds the record for the longest ''Jeopardy!'' winning streak.]]

For the first six seasons, winning contestants kept all winnings, with a cap of $75,000. Anything won above $75,000 went to the champion's favorite charity. The cap was increased to $100,000 starting in Season 7 after Bob Blake ($82,501) and [[Frank Spangenberg]] ($102,597) exceeded the $75,000 cap. In Seasons 14-19 the cap was raised to $200,000. The cap was eliminated altogether at the beginning of Season 20.

From Season 14 to Season 17, an undefeated champion would also be awarded a choice of [[Chevrolet]] cars or trucks ([[Chevrolet Corvette|Corvette]], [[Chevrolet Tahoe|Tahoe]], or two [[Chevrolet Camaro|Camaro]]s). From Season 18 to Season 19, the winner won a [[Jaguar (car)|Jaguar]] X-Type. Similarly, as part of the deal with [[Ford Motor Company]] for the 2001–02 season, Ford also added a [[Volvo Cars|Volvo]] to the Teen Tournament prize package.

Until Season 20 of the Trebek version of the show, a contestant who won five days in a row would be retired undefeated, with a guaranteed spot in the next Tournament of Champions.

===Rule changes===

To mark the start of the current version's 20th season, in September 2003, the show changed its rules so there is no winnings limit, and champions' reigns became indefinite; a champion keeps coming back as long as (s)he keeps winning (although automobiles were no longer awarded for five wins). This rule change led to the remarkable winning streak of [[Ken Jennings]], who currently holds most of the winning records on the show, including greatest number of appearances and regular season highest total dollar amounts won (excluding tournaments).

==Tournaments==

===The Tournament of Champions===
{{main|Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions}}
Beginning with the 2nd season of the Alex Trebek syndicated version, a '''Tournament of Champions''' ('''ToC''') has been held more or less annually, featuring five-time undefeated champions and other biggest winners to have appeared on the show since the last ToC.

The ToC format was devised by Alex Trebek, and was as follows:

Fifteen players—five-time champions, and, if there are fewer than 15 five-time champions who have not yet played in a ToC, the highest scorers among the other game winners—are invited to participate.

The ToC lasts two weeks (10 shows), in the following manner:

* '''Shows 1–5''': The quarterfinals, with three new contestants participating each day. The five winners advance to the semi-finals. Four "wild card" spots are available to those with the highest score among non-winners; ties broken by the highest score after the Double Jeopardy! Round.

* '''Shows 6–8''': The semifinals. At this point, the game becomes a [[Single-elimination tournament|single-elimination]] affair, with each winner advancing to the finals.

: If at any point in the quarterfinals or semifinals there is a tie for first place, one or more successive Tiebreaker Rounds are played, with the first player to answer correctly advancing to the next round. (Tiebreaker Rounds have appeared on the show only three times, and only twice in tournaments. In the event of more than one Tiebreaker Round being played in a game, only the deciding Tiebreaker Round is aired as part of the show broadcast.)

* '''Shows 9–10''': The two-day finals. Players begin the second final game with their scores reset to $0, and contestants' totals from both days are added together to determine their final scores. The contestant with the highest cumulative score wins the grand prize ($100,000 from 1985-2001; $250,000 since 2002). All non winners—including the second- and third-place players in the finals—receive a guaranteed amount based on their finishing positions. In addition, the runners-up in the finals receive additional cash equal to their score if it exceeds the guaranteed amount.

====The Art Fleming era====

The structure of the annual "best-of-the-best" tournaments during the Fleming era differed from the Tournament of Champions of today. In those matches, the winner won $25,000 and a trophy {{Verify credibility}}. Eleven "Grand Champions" were crowned during the 11-year NBC run.

===The Teen Tournament===
{{main|Jeopardy! Teen Tournament}}

Featuring high school students. The winner receives $75,000 (plus, at various times through the run, a new car). For many years, the winner also participates in the Tournament of Champions. One of the most notable Teen champions was Eric Newhouse, who advanced to the finals of the 1989 ToC, and participated in the "Million Dollar Masters" and "Ultimate Tournament of Champions" tourneys. The first Teen Tournament aired in 1987.

===The College Championship===
{{main|Jeopardy! College Championship}}

Beginning in 1989 and featuring college students, the '''College Championship''' pitted 15 full-time undergraduate students from colleges and universities in the United States against each other in a two-week tournament, identical to the ToC in format. Beginning in 1997, the College Championship has been taped at host college campus using the show's traveling set. The winner earns $100,000, a trophy, and a spot in the next Tournament of Champions. (Tom Cubbage, the very first ''Jeopardy!'' college champion, also won his Tournament of Champions the following season.)

===The Seniors Tournament===
Between 1987 and 1995, the show held 10 '''Seniors Tournament'''s for contestants over the age of 50. This tournament was discontinued after December 1995, purportedly due to advertisers wanting to pull in younger demographics.

==Special non tournament play==

===Celebrity ''Jeopardy!''===
{{main|Celebrity Jeopardy!}}

Every so often (usually once a year), "celebrity weeks" are held in which the contestants are [[celebrity|celebrities]]. Each celebrity chooses a [[Charitable organization|charity]] (or two) to sponsor, and that charity is the recipient of the particular celebrity's winnings. Typically, each charity is guaranteed a certain amount ($20,000, ''e.g.''), with the winner's charity receiving a larger amount ($50,000, ''e.g.''). Contestants ending the Double Jeopardy! Round with a zero or negative score, who in regular play games would be disqualified from playing Final Jeopardy!, are given a nominal score with which to wager ($5,000, ''e.g.''). [[Regis Philbin]] has made the most appearances on Celebrity ''Jeopardy!'', with three appearances.

===Kids Week, Holiday Kids Week, and Back to School Week===
Featuring children ages 10 through 12, usually broadcast from the show's main studio in Culver City, though on one occasion, [http://www.jeopardy.com/mini_sites/archive_header/index.html?/mini_sites/kidsweek_04/contestants.html Kids Week] was filmed in Washington, D.C.'s [http://www.dar.org/ DAR Constitution Hall]. Kids Week features five independent shows, three contestants in each. Unlike the regular ''Jeopardy!'' format, the winner of each game does not go on to play another game. The third place winner receives $1,000, second place receives $2,000, and first place wins the amount of his or her score, with a minimum guarantee of $10,000. Additional prizes for all players, such as computers, gift certificates, and trips to local theme parks have been common in the past.

==Special tournaments==
There have been a number of special tournaments featuring the greatest players during the history of ''Jeopardy!'' These are listed below.

===''Super Jeopardy!''===
{{main|Super Jeopardy!}}

The first of these "all-time best" tournaments, ''Super Jeopardy!'' aired in Summer 1990 on ABC. It featured top players during the first six years of the 1984 syndicated run, plus a notable champion from the original Fleming era. The tournament was similar to the Million Dollar Masters and Ultimate Tournament of Champions (see below), although it was on a much smaller scale than that tournament. The ''Super Jeopardy!'' tournament also featured 4 contestants per game (in the first round of the tournament) as opposed to the standard three, and the games were played for points instead of dollars. Bruce Seymour won the tournament and $250,000.

===Tenth Anniversary Tournament===
The Tenth Anniversary Tournament was a short five-day tournament aired in 1993 following the conclusion of the regular Tournament of Champions. $100,000 Tournament winner Tom Nosek got a free pass into the tournament, the other eight spots were chosen randomly. The winner of each of the last five regular season games drew one name from each of eight bowls representing the second through ninth seasons of Jeopardy!. Contestants who had made it to the semi-final round of that year's tournament were put in the bowl.

Three regular semifinal matches were played, with the winners competing in a two-day final. [[Frank Spangenberg]] won the tournament with a two-game score of $16,800 plus a $25,000 bonus for a total of $41,800. Tom Nosek finished second with $13,600, and Leslie Frates won the $7,500 third place prize, which exceeded her score of $4,499.

The semi-final losers were: Roy Holliday, Steve Rogitz, Mark McDermott, Doug Molitor, Robert Slaven and Lionel Goldbart, who each won $5,000.

===Teen Reunion Tournament===
In November 1998, players from the 1987, 1988, and 1989 Teen Tournaments (including the champions) were invited to Boston to play in a special Teen Reunion Tournament of former players of the event. Eric Newhouse won the tournament and later found himself at two other special tournaments.

===Million Dollar Masters===
{{main|Jeopardy! Million Dollar Masters}}
In May 2002, to commemorate the Trebek version's 4,000th episode, the show invited fifteen champions to play for a $1 million bonus, under a standard tournament format. The tournament was won by [[Brad Rutter]].

===Ultimate Tournament of Champions===
[[Image:Tv_brad_rutter.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Jerome Vered, Ultimate Tournament of Champions finalist, in the second game of the three-day final.]]
{{main|Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions}}
''Jeopardy!'' televised the [[Jeopardy! Ultimate Tournament of Champions|Ultimate Tournament of Champions]] in [[2005]]. This tournament, which was the largest (and longest) in Jeopardy!'s history, pitted 144 former ''Jeopardy!'' champions against each other, with two winners moving on to face [[Ken Jennings]] in a 3-game final.

The final winner was [[Brad Rutter]] ($62,000 for the tournament final), winning $2 million, the largest single-game prize in game show history. Jennings placed second (with $34,599) and took home $500,000. [[Jerome Vered]] finished third ($20,600), collecting $250,000.

As a result, Rutter is the all-time highest winner of any game show with $3,270,102, with Jennings a close second with $3,022,700.

==Auditions==
The ''Jeopardy!'' staff regularly offers auditions for potential contestants. For information on how auditions are conducted for this show, see [[Jeopardy! auditions|''Jeopardy!'' auditions]].

==Theme songs==
The theme song, "Think!" (originally composed as "A Time For Tony" by Griffin as a lullaby for his son), has served the Final Jeopardy! countdown music since the show's inception in 1964 (although it was not used in the 1978–79 version), and is also the melody for the current opening theme. In the United States, it has insinuated itself into everyday communication; the song applies to any situation in which someone is waiting for another to answer a question or make a decision. For example, the theme is often heard at [[baseball]] stadiums when the manager goes to the pitcher's mound to discuss a replacement, or at football games during instant replay reviews, or on the ''[[Jerry Springer]]'' show, a parodied remix is heard when a choice has to be made. A variation of "Think!" was used as a jewelry prize cue, officially called "A Time For Tony," on ''Wheel of Fortune'' in the 1980s.

Griffin has estimated that the ''Jeopardy!'' theme song has earned him somewhere between $70 and $80 million in [[royalties]].{{fact}}

The main theme song to the original 1960s version is called "Take 10" and was composed by Griffin's wife, [[Julann Griffin|Julann]]. On the finale episode with Art Fleming in 1975 however, the theme used was "[[Smile (song)|Smile]]" originally composed by [[Charlie Chaplin]].

The main theme to the 1978–79 revival was called "Frisco Disco" and was composed by Merv Griffin and arranged by Mort Lindsey. "Frisco Disco" would also resurface in 1983 as a prize cue on ''Wheel of Fortune'', and would continue to be used until 1989. The opening theme used was called "January, February, March" also composed by Griffin and arranged by Lindsey, and was also used on the 1st pilot of Jeopardy, with Alex Trebek, in 1983 as the main theme. As a side note, both compositions were composed and released in 1976, two years prior to the revival of ''Jeopardy!'' in 1978.

After a 2nd pilot was made, ''Jeopardy!'', with Alex Trebek, went back on the air. When the current incarnation began in 1984, an electronic version of the "Think!" melody became the main theme, while the original recording was recycled for the Final Jeopardy! round. The main theme was remixed in 1991 to include a [[bongo drum|bongo]] track. In 1997, both the main theme and the "Think!" music were updated, with jazzy orchestral arrangements by [[Steve Kaplan]]. The main theme was updated again in 2000, with an arrangement similar to the previous one, but looser and more upbeat. The theme has gone through some slight re-orchestrations since then. Leading into and out of commercial breaks during College Championships, Teen Tournaments, and Celebrity Jeopardy! episodes when it debut in November 2006, the [[electric guitar]]-based theme from ''Rock & Roll Jeopardy!'' is played (and, during a few of those tournaments, was also played during Final Jeopardy!). Alternate versions of the Final Jeopardy! music have been performed by the UCLA marching band, the Yale [[Whiffenpoofs]], and [[Trent Johnson (organist)|Trent Johnson]] during the final Celebrity ''Jeopardy!'' show at [[Radio City Music Hall]] in 2006. During the show's first trip to New York City, a piano rendition was used.

On at least one occasion, the "Think!" theme was not played at all during Final Jeopardy! Before, during, and after Alex Trebek's reading of the Final Jeopardy! clue for game #3985, aired Friday, [[December 21]],[[2001]], the [[L.A. Spirit Chorale]] sang a live, ''[[a cappella]]'' rendition of "[[Silent Night]]", with Clue Crew member [[Cheryl Farrell]] performing the solo. This appeared to confuse challenger Carly Minner, who looked up from her podium in surprise when it was announced that time had expired.

==The Set==
Like the theme music, the ''Jeopardy!'' set has also changed over the years. The set currently in use is as of September 11, 2006. For a summary of changes to the set, see [[Jeopardy! set evolution]].

==International adaptations==
[[Image:Jeopardy world locations.PNG|thumb|Countries with versions of ''Jeopardy!'']]
* The UK version was hosted by Paul Ross, with Derek Hobson, Chris Donat and Steve Jones before him.
* The short-lived Australian version was presented by former ''[[Sale of the Century]]'' host Tony Barber.
* The [[New Zealand]] version was hosted by Mark Leishman. His brother Philip hosted [[Wheel of Fortune]].
* The [[Sweden|Swedish]] version started in 1991 with [[Magnus Härenstam]] (1991-2005), later [[Adam Alsing]] (2006-).
* In [[Quebec]] (French [[Canada]]) it was hosted by Réal Giguère and aired on [[TVA (television network)|TVA network]] from 1991 to 1993.
* In [[Germany]], between 1990 and 1992 it was hosted by Hans-Jürgen Bäumler on [[RTL]] and named ''Riskant!''. Between 1994 and 1998 it aired on RTL, hosted by Frank Elstner and named ''Jeopardy!''. In 2000-2001, Gerriet Danz presented it on tm3.
* In [[Russia]], from 1994, it was called ''Svoya Igra'', with Pyotr Kuleshov.
* In [[France]] it was presented by Philippe Risoli, who also hosted ''Le Juste Prix'', the French version of ''[[The Price is Right]]''.
* In [[Denmark]] it was hosted by Søren Kaster (from 1995), Lasse Rimmer (from 2000), and Lars Daneskov (from 2003).
* In [[Israel]] with Ronny Yovel.
* In [[Estonia]] it was called ''Kuldvillak'', hosted by Mart Mardisalu, on tv3.
* In [[The Netherlands]] it was called ''Waagstuk'', hosted by Albert Verlinde, on SBS6 in 1995.
* There was an [[Argentine]] version in the works, hosted by Fernando Bravo, the host of the local version of ''The Price is Right'' (''El Precio Justo'').

In addition, the American version of the show is distributed internationally and airs across the world.

==Episode status==

===Fleming era===

====1964-1975====

It is believed that only a small number of episodes from the original version of ''Jeopardy!'' survive, mostly as [[black-and-white]] [[kinescope]]s of the original [[color]] [[videotapes]]. In all likelihood, the original tapes were [[wiping|wiped]] as they were recorded over by NBC with new programming in an era when videotape was an expensive commodity.

* A demonstration episode dated [[March 5]],[[1964]] survives as a black-and-white kinescope. (The first game for broadcast was taped on [[March 18]],[[1964]] and was aired [[March 30]],[[1964]]. From the beginning, the show was recorded and broadcast in color.)
* The [[Museum of Radio and Television]] in [[New York City|New York]] has the 2,000th episode from 1972, a celebrity match featuring [[Mel Brooks]] in character as the [[2000 Year Old Man]]. GSN has aired this episode in its entirety.
* A clip from an early 1960s episode aired in 2004 during an [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] News ''[[Nightline]]'' special on ''Jeopardy!'' on the night Ken Jennings lost.
* A regular play 1974 episode and the 1975 finale exist among private collectors.
* The [[UCLA Film and Television Archive]] has 14 episodes from this era in their collection: episodes from March 8, 16, 24, and April 1 and 9, 1971; March 12, 20, 28, and April 5 and 13, 1973; and April 24, 1974.

Some paper records of these games exist on [[microfilm]] at the [[Library of Congress]].

====1978-1979 revival====

The status of the 1978 version is unknown.

* GSN aired this version's last episode on [[December 31]],[[1999]] as part of a marathon of game show finales.
* GSN also has the first episode from this run ([[October 2]],[[1978]]).

===Trebek era===

The Trebek version is completely intact. GSN—which like ''Jeopardy!'' is an affiliate of Sony Pictures Television—has rerun approximately 8 seasons to date, although they continuously aired the 1997–98 season (14th season) from June, 2001 until [[June 13]],[[2005]]. Since then, GSN has been rerunning episodes from the 2001–02 season (Season 18), including a series of 2001 episodes which aired only on about 50 syndicated stations due to the [[September 11, 2001 attacks]].{{fact}} Interestingly, when ''Jeopardy!'' was named #2 on GSN's ''[[50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time (GSN) | 50 Greatest Game Shows of All Time]]'', no episode was shown.

[[Image:1992-05-19Jeopardy!Season8LeaderCard.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Leader card from a Season 8 broadcast]]
There exists a 66 game disparity between the episode numbers assigned new ''Jeopardy!'' episodes and the actual number of Trebek-era games played. To assist subscribing affiliate stations in airing episodes in the correct order, an episode number is read by announcer Johnny Gilbert just prior to the taping of each game; this number is audible (and visible) on the episodes as received by the affiliates, but is trimmed from the show prior to broadcast. Each new episode receives an integer episode number 1 greater than the previous episode. However, all 65 reruns in Season 1 (1984-1985) were given new episode numbers despite not being new games, and a retrospective clip show that aired [[May 15]],[[2002]] was also given an episode number (#4088). As such, the game with episode number #5000 aired on [[May 12]],[[2006]], but the 5,000th game hosted by Alex Trebek did not air until [[September 25]],[[2006]].

==''Jeopardy!'' in popular culture==
{{main|Jeopardy! in popular culture}}

The show has been portrayed or parodied in numerous television shows, films, and works of literature over the years, frequently with one or more characters participating as contestants, or as a television show the character(s) watch and play along with.

Three cultural references stand out among the most popular, having been referenced, in turn, in categories, clues, or interview segments on ''Jeopardy!'' itself:
* In [[What is...Cliff Clavin?|an episode]] of the series ''[[Cheers]]'', trivia buff [[Cliff Clavin]] ([[John Ratzenberger]]) appeared as a contestant on ''Jeopardy!'' Clavin reached the Final Jeopardy! Round all but assured to win, but lost due to a foolish bet.
* ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'' has [[Celebrity Jeopardy! (Saturday Night Live)|parodied Celebrity ''Jeopardy!'' matches]], frequently with a twisted version of [[Sean Connery]] as a contestant.
* [[Weird Al Yankovic]] based [[I Lost On Jeopardy|one of his song parodies]] on the Fleming version.


==Merchandising==
The ''Jeopardy!'' brand has been used on products in several other formats.
* There have been ''Jeopardy!'' [[Jeopardy! (video game)|video games]] made on most platforms including [[Apple II]], [[Commodore 64]], [[DOS]], [[Nintendo Entertainment System]], [[Game Boy|Nintendo Game Boy]], [[Sega Game Gear]], [[Sega Genesis]], [[Super Nintendo Entertainment System|Super NES]], [[PlayStation]], [[Nintendo 64]], [[game.com]], [[Sega Dreamcast]], [[Apple Macintosh]], [[PlayStation 2]], [[Microsoft Windows]], and [[mobile phones]]. A free version of the game can be found at [http://www.station.com Station.com].
* [[Tiger Electronics]] also marketed a hand-held travel version of the game in the late [[nineties]].
* Several [[board game]] versions of the game have been produced over the years by [[Milton Bradley Company|Milton Bradley]], [[Pressman Toys]] (including a ''[[Simpsons Jeopardy!|Simpsons]]'' version), [[Tyco Toys]] and [[Parker Brothers]].
* For the show's fifteenth season in 1998-1999, a watch was released. The watch plays the famous theme song with the push of a button, and included 25 game cards with the answer-question format.
* Educational toy company Educational Insights (makers of the [[Geosafari]] system) has released a self-contained, programmable ''Jeopardy!'' system that can be hooked up to a normal TV set for both home and school use. The school version is marketed as ''Classroom Jeopardy!'', while the home version is called ''Host Your Own Jeopardy!'' Except for the names, both systems are identical, using a cartridge-based system for the categories and wireless controls for the players and host. The unit itself acts as the scoreboard.
* A ''Jeopardy!'' [[DVD]] was released on [[November 8]], [[2005]].
* Annually, Day-to-Day Calendars releases a daily desktop ''Jeopardy!'' Calendar, featuring 6 full games-worth of clues presented 1 clue per day (with the correct response on the back of each day's sheet).

==See also==
* [[Merv Griffin Productions]]
* [[Wheel of Fortune]]

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
* [http://www.jeopardy.com Official ''Jeopardy!'' Web site]
* [http://boards.sonypictures.com/boards/forumdisplay.php?f=11 Official ''Jeopardy!'' message board]
* [http://www.j-archive.com/ J! Archive]: Clues from all games, starting from Season 21, as well as selected games from the past
* [http://members.aol.com/tdciago/jeoparchive/ Ronnie O'Rourke's JEOPARCHIVE!]: Clues from all Season 20 games
* [http://www.oddchange.com/jdoc/toc.html Jeopardy! Database of Champions]: Tournament of Champions results from Seasons 1–15
*{{imdb title|id=0159881|title=Jeopardy!}}

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[[Category:NBC network shows]]
[[Category:Sony Mobile games]]
[[Category:Syndicated television series]]

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Talk:Akeelah and the Bee

2006-11-27T01:55:17Z

Mathnerd314: /* True story? */

{{FilmsWikiProject|class=Stub}}

Is "The Starbucks funding raises questions pertinent to today's cinema, such as whether or not the presence of corporate sponsorship decreases the value of the art. However, due to the costs associated with filmmaking, this is a trend that will likely continue, for better or for worse" really NPOV? {{unsigned|Trojan traveler}}

Starbucks signed on to the project after the film was shot and edited. They did not have any creative role in the making of this film. --[[User:Carlothebarlo|Carlothebarlo]]

: Nothing in that paragraph is cited, so it's going...now.--[[User:Planetary|Planetary]] 23:37, 22 August 2006 (UTC)
==Name origin==

is the name ''Akeelah'' invented or from some other culture?

:According to [http://www.ummah.net/family/fem.html this page], "Akilah" is an Arabic name meaning "intelligent, logical, one who reasons". --[[User:Mathew5000|Mathew5000]] 10:23, 18 June 2006 (UTC)

== Was it a boxoffice bomb? ==

seems like it disappeared in a week after all the months of starbuck hype. did it make any money?

The movie cost under 6 million and grossed around 19 before the release of the DVD... hardly a bomb

==True story?==
Nothing in the article says if it is or not, but it certainly sounds like the kind of movie that would be based off of nonfiction.--[[User:SeizureDog|SeizureDog]] 21:07, 22 August 2006 (UTC)
:The movie is fiction. Somebody just made it all up. --[[User:Mathew5000|Mathew5000]] 22:16, 22 August 2006 (UTC)
::It is a made up story that got support after Spell Bound came out. [[User:Timothy Clemans|Timothy Clemans]] 17:50, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::The Scripps National Spelling Bee is factual. However, when Akeelah and Dylan are declared co-champions at the end, that clearly never happened. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 15:25, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

::::Actually, twice in spelling bee history, a co-champion has been declared.

:::::Actually, three times: 1950, 1957, and 1962, according to the 2006 Paideia. However, the movie is clearly set later than 1990, since Akeelah has obtained a list of all the winning words up to then. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 01:55, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

Hairstyle

2006-11-27T01:52:43Z

Mathnerd314: POV

:''For the terminology used in finance, see [[haircut (finance)]]. See also [[eponymous hairstyles]].''

[[Image:Street haircut.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Street haircut in [[Harbin]], [[China]]]]
For humans, '''haircut''', '''hairstyle''', or '''hairdo''' normally describe cutting or styling [[head hair]]. Unlike other [[animal]]s, [[human|human beings]] of many cultures cut their [[hair]], rather than letting it grow naturally. Hair styles are often used to signal [[cultural]], [[social]], and [[ethnic]] identity. Men and women naturally have the same hair but generally hairstyles conform to cultural standards of [[gender]]. Hair styles in both men and women also vary with current [[fashion]] trends, and are often used to determine [[social status]].

There is a thriving world market in cut human hair of sufficient length for [[wig]] manufacture and for the production of training materials for student [[hairdresser]]s and [[barber]]s. In less developed countries, selling one's hair can be a significant source of income — depending on length, thickness, condition, and colour, wig makers have been known to pay as much as US$40 for a head of hair. In the [[United States]], cut hair of at least 10 inches (25 cm) length may be donated to a [[Charitable organization|charity]], such as [[Locks of Love]].

==History==
*In the 17th century, [[Manchu]] invaders issued the [[Queue Order]], requiring Chinese, who traditionally did not cut their hair, to shave their heads like Manchus. The Chinese resisted. Tens of thousands of people were killed due to their hairstyle.
* In the 1920s, the [[evangelist]] [[Billy Sunday]] popularized the phrase "long-haired men and short-haired women", a term he meant to encompass his disapproval of [[radical]]s, [[women's liberation|liberated women]], [[homosexuals]], and [[Greenwich Village]] artists.
* Until the Beatles came along, [[classical music]] was called ''longhaired music'', because a longer style was popular among male orchestral artists and conductors.
* In [[2006]], Virginia Senator [[George Allen]] became involved in a political controversy that turned, in part, on the difference between a [[Mullet (haircut)|mullet]] and a [[Mohawk]].

==Types of haircuts==
* [[Afro]], a hairstyle popular with people of [[African]] and [[Melanesian]] descent, it is often considered symbolic of Black racial pride; however the hairstyle can also be worn by non-Blacks who have loosely curled hair
* [[Bangs (hair)|Bangs]]
* [[Bantu]]/Zulu knots, haircut of African origin consisting of many small buns.
* [[Moptop#The_mop-top_haircut|Beatle haircut]] or 'Moptop', a hairstyle influenced after the fashion of the same ones the members of [[The Beatles]] had. It was relatively new to [[United States|Americans]] at the time, but not an uncommon [[United Kingdom|British]] haircut. During the height of "[[Beatlemania]]," "Beatle wigs" were sold.
* [[Beehive (hairstyle)|The Beehive]], a large "[[big hair]]" style popular in the [[1960s]].
* [[Big hair]], various styles denoting a lot of volume.
* [[Bouffant]], another "big hair" style.
* [[Bun (hairstyle)|Bun]]
* [[Blowout]] hair anywhere from a quarter inch to 2 inches taped up with gel. Often worn by Italian [[guido (slang)|guido]]s.
* [[Buzz cut]], also called a butch cut; short all over.
* [[Bob cut|Bob]], a short cut for women, first popular in the [[1920s]], considered a sign of a [[feminism|liberated woman]].
* [[Bowl cut]] or "Moe", after the ''[[Three Stooges]]'' character.
* [[Caesar cut]], a short men's cut with longer bangs, also called a [[Clooney cut]]; widely popular among men from the early [[1990s]] to the present.
* [[Chelsea girl (culture)|Chelsea girl]], shaving the crown and occiput of the head, and leaving the front, back and often the sides as fringes.
* [[Chonmage]], a [[samurai]]'s topknot; the hair on the top of the head was usually shaved, and the rest of the hair gathered together and tied in a topknot; a modified version is still worn by some [[sumo]] wrestlers.
* [[Comb over]], combing hair over a [[bald]] spot.
* [[Cornrows]], raised, continuous [[braids]], woven closely to the scalp; originating in indigenous [[Africa]], they remain a popular [[African American]] hairstyle.
* [[Crew cut]], similar to buzz, originally worn by college [[Sport rowing|rowers]] in the [[1900s]] to distinguish themselves from [[American football|football]] players, who had long hair (to supplement the inadequate helmets of the time).
* [[Crop (hairstyle)|Crop]], a very short woman's cut.
* [[Croydon facelift]],the hair is pulled back tight and tied in a bun or ponytail at the back.
* [[Devilock]], short in back and on sides, long in front.
* [[Dreadlocks]], where hair is divided into many long, matted plaits; well known as a [[Rastafari movement|Rastafarian]] hairstyle.
* [[Duck's Ass]], combed long on sides, parted in back, also called ducktail or southback; the parting in the back caused the hair to stick up, hence the name. Also known as a "D.A.".
* [[Emo hair]]
* [[Fauxhawk]], a fake Mohawk: short on the sides and back, medium length on top pushed up in a Mohawk direction, a [[portmanteau]] of the French 'faux' (false) and '[[Mohawk hairstyle|Mohawk]]'.
* [[Feathered (hair)|Feathered]], the defining features of this style were the Side Parting and the length which varied from just showing the ears to almost shoulder length, this style rose dramatically in popularity during the [[1970s]] but died down in the mid [[1980s]]; it is slowly gaining back popularity; [[Tim Brooke-Taylor]] used to have this hairstyle.
* [[Finger wave]], popular in the [[1920]]s and [[1930]]s.
* [[Flattop]], just as it says, when combined with a D.A., called a "Detroit" because the flat top is not always compatible with a round head, there is often a spot on the top that is buzzed shorter, almost to the point of being shaved; this area is called the ''landing strip''.
* [[Flip (hairstyle)|Flip]], a medium to long cut where the sides are symetrical and curled away from the neck  [http://www.hairboutique.com/tips/tip483.htm] [http://www.hairarchives.com/private/archive2/flip/flip.htm]
* [[Fofa]], short to medium length on the sides and back, with a receding hairline from the forehead back due to a natural baldness; usually found on distinguished gentlemen and derived from the style of the [[monks]].
* [[French braid]] Unlike a regular three-strand braid, a French braid starts with small sections of hair at the crown of a person's head, and intermittently, more hair is added to each section as the braid progresses down the head.
* [[French twist]] A classic "updo" in which long hair is gathered into a [[ponytail]], then twisted together, and finally tucked and pinned together along the length of the roll.
* [[Goatee Connect]]- This is where a thin line is made of the side burns and connects into the beard. Usually done with a shape-up.
* [[High and tight]], cut/buzzed very short (or even shaved) on sides and back up to the crown where the hair is left longer, can be a variation of crew cut or flattop.
* [[Hime cut]], a women's hairstyle consisting of straight cut side bangs and frontal fringe
* [[Hi-top fade]], popular style worn by [[African American]] males in the late [[1980's]] and early [[1990's]]. Popular endorsers included [[Kid 'n Play]] and [[Grace Jones]].
* [[Horseshoe Flattop]], sides are shaved and back is shaved to the top of the head, making the remaining hair looks from above like the top is cut like a horseshoe.
* [[Induction cut]], the very shortest of hairstyles, without actually [[head shaving|shaving]] the head with a razor.
* Ivy League Cut, or "Princeton", cut short and tapered at the back and sides and cut close (about ¼ inch) across the crown of the head, but getting a little longer (up to 1.5 inches) at the front of the head. It provides a little more flexibility in terms of styling while still having a crisp "buzzed" appearance.
* [[Jheri curl]], a [[permanent wave|perm]] that loosens the curls of a person with coarse hair; known more for the oily residue of the chemicals used ("Jheri Curl Juice") than the actual style
* [[Japanese hair straightening]], a process that takes usually wavy or curly hair and breaks the cystine bonds by way of chemicals, then a hot iron reorganizes the structure of the hair leaving it soft, super-straight and healthy looking.
* [[Khokhol]], also spelt 'chochol' and 'chachol', a [[Slavic language|Slavic]] name for a longer tuft of hair left on top or on the front side of the otherwise cleanly shaven or shortly cut man's hair.
* [[Layered hair]], where the top layers of hair are cut shorter than the layers beneath.
* [[Liberty spikes]], the hair is arranged into long, thick, upright spikes.
* [[Low and tight]], cut/buzzed very short (or even shaved) on sides and back up to a line above the ears but below the crown, hair is left longer above this line.
* [[Messed up Hair]], looks like you have just got out of bed, usually for men, created using wax or putty.
* [[Mohawk hairstyle|Mohawk]] or 'Mohican', long hair divided into sections which are then braided and worn down, both sides are shaved or buzzed, long and usually spiked in the middle.
* [[Mullet (haircut)|Mullet]], this Haircut is popular with young men and became popular in the mid-[[1980s|1980's]], the haircut is short in the front and long at the back of the head.
* [[Odango]], a women's hairstyle consisting of two long pigtails emanating from two perfect "[[sphere]]s" of hair on the top of the head; Made famous by [[Sailor Moon]].
* [[Ofuku]], worn by apprentice [[geisha]] in their final two years of apprenticeship; similar to the wareshinobu style; also called a momoware ("split peach") because the bun is split and a red fabric woven in the centre.
* [[Pageboy]], a Womans hairstyle in which the hair is almost shoulder-length except for a fringe in the front.
* [[Permanent wave|Perm]], or "permanent wave," is a chemical-induced curling of naturally straight hair; originally created electrically with an apparatus resembling an [[electric chair]]; among [[African-Americans]], a perm is the straight or large-curled look created by chemical relaxers.
* [[Pigtail]]s, long hair is parted in the middle and tied on the sides, often curled into ringlets (hence the name).
* [[Pixie (haircut)|Pixie]], a very short hair cut for women that almost resemble school boy looks.
* [[Pompadour]], big wave in the front, named for [[Madame de Pompadour]] aristocratic fashion leader of pre-Revolutionary [[France]], mistress of [[Louis XV of France]]; [[Elvis Presley]] had one.
* [[Ponytail]], a hairstyle where most of the wearer's hair is pulled away from the face and gathered at the back.
* [[PushBack]], a hairstyle worn by Si.
* [[Quiff]], a hairstyle where part of the hair is put up high on the top of the head.
* [[Recon (haircut)|Recon]], a radical version of the [[High and Tight]], with the sides and back cleanly shaved very high up the head, intentionally leaving a very extreme contrast between the longer top hair and the shaved sides.
* [[Rattail (haircut)|Rattail]], is a male with all of his hair cut short all over except for a long strip of his hair growing in the back of the middle of his head typically at about ½ inch to an inch wide and can be as long as all the way down his back, but it is mostly found on a boy under 14 years old but some men wear one too. Occasionally females wear a rattail also.
* [[Relaxer]] (chemical) typically done on black women, this is the process of making kinky or course hair staight. Timed applications are required. Read instuctions before application.
* [[Ringlet (haircut)|Ringlet]]:
* [[Ronaldo]] cut: shaved head except for the front thirdish which is buzzed.
* [[Shape-Up]]: This is where the barber cuts around the hairline making it visible
* [[Sidelock]]: Long in front of the ears, short in back. The hair that is directly over the ears is allowed to grow long, but it is combed forward, in front of the ears, where it is sometimes twisted or curled if there isn't a natural curl to start with. The opposite of the [[Tom Hanks]] backward sweep cut, or the [[Duck's Ass]] cut. Compare [[payot]] in [[Book of Numbers|Numbers 6:5]].
* [[Tape-Up]]: Same as shape-up but part of the sides are lightened, in a skin tape-up the part of the sides are cut off.
* [[Taper fade]]
* [[Tonsure]]: This haircut is most identifiable with European monks; having a rim of hair about the head with the top shaved off.
* [[Updo]]: This haircut is where the hair is put up on the top or back of the head and is commonly used for formal events such as weddings and proms
* [[Wings (haircut)|Wings]], a new hairstyle similar to the Beatles cut but with the side and back bangs flipped up, occasionally by the use of a [[ballcap]], usually worm with medium-long haircuts.

==External links==
*[http://www.queensnewyork.com/history/hair.html History of Hairdressing]
*[http://www.beautyriot.com Hairstyles] of Famous People
*[http://www.cosedcenter.com/Cosmetology-History-The-History-of-Hairstyles History of hairstyles]
*[http://www.curatoruk.com Hair collections from the worlds best hair stylists and hairdressers]
[[Category:Hairdressing]]
[[Category:Hairstyles]]

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Talk:Akeelah and the Bee

2006-11-25T15:25:29Z

Mathnerd314: /* True story? */

Talk:Over the River and Through the Wood

2006-11-23T23:54:50Z

Mathnerd314: /* If my English class did me any good... */

{{WikiProjectSongs}}

== If my English class did me any good... ==

If my English class is any good, the correct title is "The New England Boy's Song about Thanksgiving Day" and it's about going to grandfather's house. However, it was later adapted into a Christmas song. I recently had to memorize this poem. [[User:Mathnerd314|Mathnerd314]] 23:54, 23 November 2006 (UTC)