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George Balabushka

2025-06-03T14:56:42Z

Omcsesz: typo fixed

{{Short description|Russian-born billiards cue maker}}
{{Infobox person
| name = George Balabushka
| image = George Balabushka.jpg
| alt = Color photograph of man leaning against a worktable with his arms crossed, a lathe, carpentry table and various tools visible behind him; he is approximately 55–60 years old with a greying head of hair and half-smile on his face.
| image_size =
| caption = George Balabushka in his garage-based carpentry shop.
| birth_name = Gregori Balabushka
| birth_date = December 9, 1912
| birth_place = Russia
| death_date = {{death date and age|mf=yes|1975|12|5|1912|12|9}}
| death_place = [[Brooklyn]], [[New York City]], [[United States|U.S.]]
}}

'''George Balabushka''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Григорий Антонович Балабушка ''Grigoriy Antonovich Balabushka''; December 9, 1912 – December 5, 1975) was a [[Russia|Russian-born]] [[Cue sports|billiards]] [[Cue stick|cue]] maker, arguably one of the most prominent member of that profession.<ref name="Bachmen">{{cite journal | last = Bachmen | first = Martyne S. | title = Balabushka: One of a Kind | journal = Billiards Digest | pages = 60–63 | issn = 0164-761X |date=April 2004}}</ref> His full name or last name standing alone is often used to refer to a [[cue stick]] made by him.<ref name="Bachmen" /> Arriving in the U.S. in 1924, he worked at various [[carpentry]] and toy and furniture making jobs. He was an avid [[pool (cue sport)|pool]] player and purchased a [[Billiard room|pool room]] with a business partner in 1959 and thereafter started making cues as gifts for friends, which quickly blossomed into a business when others wanted to purchase them.

Balabushka turned out approximately 1,200 handcrafted cues during his 16-year cue-making career, spanning from 1959 to his death in 1975. His cues are highly valued collectors items, made more so after being prominently featured in [[Martin Scorsese|Martin Scorsese's]] 1986 film ''[[The Color of Money]]''. Balabushka cues are generally separated into three distinct classes and time periods related to what {{Cuegloss|Blank|blanks}} Balabushka was using in cue construction: The Titlist blank era (1959–1966), the Burton Spain blank era (1966–1971), and the Gus Szamboti blank era (1971–1975). Original Balabushka cues with verified [[provenance]] may realize tens of thousands of dollars at [[auction]].

==Life and career==

===Early life===
George Balabushka was born in Russia on December 9, 1912, and [[immigration|immigrated]] to the United States in 1924 at 12 years of age.<ref name="Bachmen" /> His family, parents Anton and Natalie and younger sister Mary, settled in [[New York City]].<ref name="Bachmen" /> Although originally named Gregori, according to Balabushka he was given a new first name, George, by immigration officials when he was processed through [[Ellis Island]].<ref name="Bachmen" /> (In reality, immigrants changed their names themselves later, because [[Ellis Island Special|immigration officials never altered names]]. According to Marian L. Smith, senior historian of the U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Service, there is no known case of a name changed at Ellis Island.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ilw.com/articles/2005,0808-smith.shtm#bio|title=American Names: Declaring Independence|author=Marian L. Smith|work=Immigration Daily}}</ref>)

===Employment===
Balabushka's first job was as a wooden [[toy]] designer and maker,<ref name="Bachmen" /> working for the Educational Equipment Company,<ref name="BE">{{Cite book|last1=Stein|first1=Victor|last2=Rubino|first2=Paul|title=The Billiard Encyclopedia: An Illustrated History of the Sport|edition=2nd|year=1996|orig-year=1st ed. 1994|publisher=Blue Book Publications|location=Minneapolis|isbn=1-886768-06-4|pages=315, 321–31, 333–35}}</ref> then located at 71 West 23rd St., in [[Manhattan]],<ref>{{cite book|title=The Film daily year book of motion pictures|editor1=J.W. Alicoate |editor2=Joseph Darmenberg |editor3=M.D. Kann |publisher=J. W. Alicoate|date=1927|page=791|oclc=1569196}}</ref> which made [[Toy block|building blocks]] for nurseries and schools.<ref name="BE" /> Thereafter he built children's [[furniture]] for the Playtime Woodworking Company located on [[Greenwich Village]]'s Jane Street.<ref name="BE" /> While on the job, Balabushka lost his middle finger to a [[band saw]].<ref name="BE" /> Using a wooden mold, he made himself a replacement [[plastic]] finger of such craftsmanship that even his friends did not realize his loss until long after the incident.<ref name="Bachmen" /><ref name="LATimes">{{cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1994-11-26-me-1664-story.html|title=No Matter How You Cue Up, It's Tough to Beat a Legend|last=Kowalick|first=Vince|date=November 26, 1994 |work=Los Angeles Times|access-date=May 2, 2009}}</ref> As Balabushka's carpentry skills deepened he began building [[accordion]]s and other detailed carpentry pieces on his own time.<ref name="Blue">{{cite book|last=Simpson|first=Brad|title=Blue Book of Pool Cues|editor1=Paul Rubino |editor2=Victor Stein|publisher=Blue Book Publications|date=1996|edition=first|pages=103–4, 412, 422|isbn=1-886768-02-1}}</ref> In 1949, Balabushka applied for patent on a folding leg bracket mechanism he invented, which was granted in 1951.<ref>{{US patent|2,553,887}}, May 22, 1951. Retrieved on May 2, 2009.</ref>

===Marriage and children===
While working at Playtime Woodworking he met a woman named Josephine, his future wife, who then lived directly across the street from the toy company.<ref name="BE" /> They were married in 1941, and bought a home in [[Brooklyn]] several years later. Josephine and George had two sons, Gregory and George, both named after their father.<ref name="Bachmen" />

Josephine was not just a source of love and stability but was the rock that allowed Balabushka the ability to hone his craft. According to the writers of ''The Billiard Encyclopedia'', "Josephine's limitless patience and strong sense of independence would afford George the time and solitude necessary that a great artist needs in order to perfect his craft."<ref name="BE" />

===Transition to cuemaker===
Balabushka was an avid billiards player, especially of the game of [[straight pool]], taking part in competitions and spending time with well-known practitioners of the sport.<ref name="Bachmen" /> In 1959, he purchased a [[Brooklyn, New York|Brooklyn]]-based [[pool hall]] with partner, Frank McGown, which was located at 50th Street and 5th Avenue.<ref name="Bachmen" /> While running the room, he began repairing cues as a hobby, and soon the idea was sparked to design and manufacture his own line of pool cues.<ref name="Bachmen" />

By the end of 1959, Balabushka had made a number of cues, most of which were given to friends as Christmas gifts.<ref name="Bachmen" /> As this practice went on, he began receiving orders for his cues.<ref name="Bachmen" /> His first cues were conversions of the popular [[Brunswick Corporation|Brunswick-Balke-Collender Company]] manufactured "Titlist" cues,<ref name="Bachmen" /> which were one-piece cues; that is, they had no {{Cuegloss|Joint|joint}} in the middle that would allow a player to {{Cuegloss|Break down one's cue|break down}} the cue into two sections for ease of transport.<ref name="TIEOB">{{cite book | last = Shamos | first = Michael Ian | year = 1993 | title = The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Billiards | publisher = Lyons & Burford | location = [[New York, NY]] | pages = [https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000sham/page/14 14, 29, 71–2] | isbn = 1-55821-219-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000sham/page/14 }}</ref> At the time he started, there were very few private cuemakers, the industry being dominated by large manufacturers.<ref name="Bachmen" />

===Cuemaking career and death===
Between 1959 and 1962, Balabushka [[handicraft|handcrafted]] between 20 and 30 cues per year on a [[Part-time job|part-time]] basis.<ref name="Bachmen" /> Because of the relative dearth of private cuemakers and the excellence of his product, Balabushka's name quickly became known amongst professional players.<ref name="Bachmen" /> By the end of 1962, Balabushka was receiving more orders than he could fill.<ref name="Bachmen" /> Balabushka sold his interest in the pool room, converted his [[Garage (house)|garage]] into a [[carpentry]] workshop, and by 1964 was building cues full-time, while continuing to hone his cuemaking abilities.<ref name="Bachmen" />

Unlike many of the [[Assembly line|large manufacturers]] of the day, Balabushka's emphasis was on playing ability and fine craftsmanship, reflecting the values he had held during his years in the [[woodworking]] business.<ref name="Bachmen" /> He was an innovator in cue construction, cue [[Varnish|finishes]] and cue design.<ref name="Bachmen" /> Balabushka's cues were not the elaborately decorated attempts at building art that became a mainstay of the cue market starting in the 1980s.<ref name="Bachmen" /> Rather, most Balabushka cues are relatively plain and without grand ornamentation flourishes.<ref name="LATimes" /> Many of his trademark construction techniques have become standard in the industry, such as the use of [[Irish linen]] for wrap material and block style checkered-pattern ringwork above a cue's wrap, commonly employing alternating ebony and ivory, pieces which are eponymously named "Bushka rings."<ref name="Bachmen" /><ref name="Blue" />

George Balabushka died in 1975 at the age of 62. He was posthumously honored as the first inductee into the American Cuemakers Association Hall of Fame in February, 1993.<ref name="acahf">{{cite web|url=http://www.cuemakers.org/hall-of-fame.php|title=ACA Awards, ACA Hall of Fame|publisher=American Cuemakers Association|date=2003|access-date=November 16, 2006}}</ref> In 2004, he was inducted into the Meritorious Service category of the [[Billiard Congress of America]]'s [[BCA Hall of Fame|Hall of Fame]].<ref name="bcahf">{{cite web|url=http://www.bca-pool.com/industry/hof/ind02-06.shtml |title=BCA Hall of Fame Inductees: 2002 – 2006 |publisher=Billiard Congress of America |date=2006 |access-date=November 16, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061019205356/http://www.bca-pool.com/industry/hof/ind02-06.shtml |archive-date=October 19, 2006 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Cue parts.jpg|alt= Photograph of upright pool cue with written labels naming the technical term for each part of the cue and lines drawn from each label to pinpoint the part described.|thumb|A pool cue and its major parts.]]

==Cue details==
There are three distinct classes of cues produced during different time periods related to what {{Cuegloss|Blank|blanks}} Balabushka was using in cue construction: The Titlist blank era (1959–1966), the Burton Spain blank era (1966–1971) and the Gus Szamboti blank era (1971–1975).<ref name="Blue" /> The "blanks" referred to are the bottom ({{Cuegloss|Butt|butt}}) portion of a cue where the splicing of various hardwoods has been completed but the cue has not yet been [[Woodturning|turned]] on a [[lathe]] to produce the final shape, and certain features have not yet been added such as a {{Cuegloss|Wrap|wrap}}, {{Cuegloss|Joint|joint mechanism}}, {{Cuegloss|Butt cap|butt cap}}, {{Cuegloss|Bumper|bumper}} and any [[inlay]]s.<ref name="TIEOB" />

While blank variety is the defining demarcation between one Balabushka cue and another, there are some shared features spanning Balabushka's fleeting 16-year career.<ref name="Blue" /> Cue forearms were characteristically made with straight-[[wood grain|grained]] maple, based on Balabushka's belief that a single-direction maple grain provided superior integrity to that of [[Flame maple|curly maple]] or [[Bird's eye figure|birdseye maple]].<ref name="Blue" /> He used [[stainless steel]] joints and [[Polyoxymethylene plastic|delrin]] butt caps almost exclusively.<ref name="Blue" /> A small number of his cues feature ivory joints and ivory butt caps, making them highly valued collector's items.<ref name="Blue" /> Balabushka used a distinguishing reddish-brown bumper, and employed Cortland Irish [[linen]] for many of his wraps, with the highly sought after leather wrap a rare departure for him and a distinct value enhancer.<ref name="Blue" /> Unless a different length was specified, Balabushka made all his cues to a standard 57½ inches in length.<ref name="Blue" />

In addition to Bushka rings, various other decorative rings were commonly incorporated, including various colored plastics (often [[Marbleizing|marbleized]]), and silver and contrasting wooden rings.<ref name="Blue" /> For decoration, Balabushka often inlaid small [[Nacre|mother-of-pearl]] dots and notched diamonds.<ref name="Blue" /> Series of window-shaped maple pieces commonly adorned Balabushka butt sleeves, with each window usually featuring one [[burl]] for its aesthetic effect.<ref name="Blue" /> Some other features common to many other cuemakers' lines from the same era are notably absent or mostly absent from Balabushka's, including ivory inlays and the signing of his cues.<ref name="Blue" /> A long-standing controversy exists over what [[Wood finishing|finish]] Balabushka used.<ref name="Blue" /> One side argues that he used an oil finish on all his cues, while the other insists that his later cues were coated with a spray [[lacquer]].<ref name="Blue" />

===Titlist era===
When Balabushka first started repairing cues while working at his pool room, he started converting {{Cuegloss|House cue|house cues}} into custom cues.<ref name="Blue" /> Many of these house cues were made by Brunswick.<ref name="Blue" /> When he started building his own cues in 1959, he used blanks purchased from Brunswick for their "Titlist" cue line; the same used in the construction of the house cues he had been converting.<ref name="Blue" /> Many of the fine cuemakers working during the same era as Balabushka did likewise, including Frank Paradise (Paradise cues), Eugene Balner (Palmer cues, named after [[Arnold Palmer]]) and Ernie Gutierrez (Ginacue), all following in the footsteps of earlier cuemaker, Herman Rambow.<ref name="Blue" />

Building a full spliced blank from scratch was an expensive and painstaking process, and the large manufacturing facilities of Brunswick turned out good quality blanks, with beautiful points, veneers and sound construction.<ref name="BE" /><ref name="Blue" /> In Balabushka's case, his entire workshop consisted of a single lathe and other woodworking equipment in the confines of his modest garage, and building his own full-splice butts would have been prohibitively difficult and expensive for him.<ref name="Blue" />

===Burton Spain era===
Balabushka used Titlist blanks until 1966 when he was contacted by Chicagoan Burton Spain.<ref name="Blue" /> Spain had recently begun making handmade spliced blanks and was supplying them to Balabushka's closest rival, Frank Paradise.<ref name="Blue" /> Spain had become fascinated by splicing technology when he came upon a Titlist cue split down the middle in 1965 and set out to perfect and even improve on the Titlist splice.<ref name="Blue" /> Spain's original intent was to be predominantly a cuemaker in his own right using his proprietary spliced blanks. However, by 1966 Spain's superior blanks were in high demand and he instead turned to making blanks for other cuemakers full-time, which he continued until 1970.<ref name="Blue" />

Balabushka took Spain up on his offer after seeing the quality of his splices.<ref name="Blue" /> Buying from Spain also had the advantage that he was able to have Spain customize the blanks to his specifications.<ref name="Blue" /> During this period Balabushka began incorporating more elaborate details into his cues, including the eponymous Bushka rings innovation.<ref name="Blue" /> Many later cuemakers would install Bushka rings both above the wrap and on the butt sleeve below the wrap.<ref name="Blue" /> Balabushka used them only above the wrap, which is believed to have aided him in keeping the {{Cuegloss|Balance point|balance point}} higher on the cue.<ref name="Blue" /> In 1970, Spain sold his cue business to [[tool and die maker]] John Davis, who had been assisting Spain for a number of years.<ref name="Blue" /> Balabushka continued buying blanks from Davis until 1971.<ref name="Blue" />

===Gus Szamboti era===
In 1971, Balabushka met [[Penndel, Pennsylvania]], native Gus Szamboti at a tournament.<ref name="BE" /><ref name="Blue" /> Szamboti had been working for [[RCA]] as a draftsman and designer, but RCA layoffs were common at the time, and he had started designing and selling pool cues as a more stable job path.<ref name="BE" /> Though he too started production with Titlist blanks as well as blanks manufactured by WICO of Chicago, Szamboti later began making his own.<ref name="BE" /> Balabushka was very impressed with Szamboti's blanks and, in addition to the two men becoming fast friends, he became Szamboti's first customer, buying blanks from him for $18 apiece.<ref name="BE" />

Balabushka cues from the Gus Szamboti era are typified by straight grained maple forearms bearing four ebony points, with four veneers included, normally colored black, green, white and mahogany, or sometimes with an orange veneer in place of mahogany.<ref name="Blue" /> Balabushka cues from this era, spanning the last five years of his life, are considered the finest of his career as a class.<ref name="Blue" /> There have been unconfirmed rumors that some few cues made during this period included splices made by Balabushka himself.<ref name="Blue" />

==Prominence==
It is estimated that Balabushka produced between 1,000 and 1,200 cues during his lifetime.<ref name="Bachmen" /> However, by the mid-1960s, [[Art forgery|forged]] Balabushka cues started circulating in the market, as he was already recognized as the premier US cue maker of the era,<ref name="Bachmen" /><ref name="bcahf" /> referred to as "the [[Stradivarius]] of cuemakers".<ref name="Blue" /><ref name="TIEOB" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.billiardsdigest.com/new_news/display_article.php?id=374|title=Laurance, Balabushka Picked for Hall of Fame|last=Staff writers|date=January 29, 2004|publisher=Billiards Digest|access-date=May 8, 2009}}</ref> Balabushka and his cues achieved much wider recognition after being prominently featured in [[Martin Scorsese|Martin Scorsese's]] 1986 film, ''[[The Color of Money]]'' (the sequel to the classic 1961 film ''[[The Hustler]]'').<ref name="Bachmen" />

In the film, [[Tom Cruise]]’s character, Vincent Lauria, is presented with a cue by [[Paul Newman]]'s character, Fast Eddie Felson. Vincent takes the cue, his reverence obvious, and whispers "a Balabushka..."<ref name="Bachmen" /> After this, Balabushka's name became associated by the general public with highly valued and rare cues.<ref name="Bachmen" /> The cue used in the film was, however, not a genuine Balabushka,<ref name="Blue" /> but another cue was made to look like a Balabushka.<ref name="Blue" /><ref>{{cite news|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/72570035.html?dids=72570035:72570035&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Feb+25%2C+1990&author=EVE+ZIBART&pub=The+Washington+Post+(pre-1997+Fulltext)&desc=The+Cadillac+Of+Cue+Sticks&pqatl=google|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724231200/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/72570035.html?dids=72570035:72570035&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Feb+25%2C+1990&author=EVE+ZIBART&pub=The+Washington+Post+(pre-1997+Fulltext)&desc=The+Cadillac+Of+Cue+Sticks&pqatl=google|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 24, 2012|title=The Cadillac Of Cue Sticks|last=Zibart|first=Eve|date=February 25, 1990|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=May 16, 2009}}</ref><ref name="JossCue">[http://www.pooldawg.com/product/joss-n7-the-color-of-money-pool-cue-stick Commercial information about the Joss N7 model pool cue]</ref> The filmmakers feared that any cue used might get damaged during filming; especially in the scene set in a pool room where Cruise's character rapidly whirls the cue around in time to the song ''[[Werewolves of London]]''. An original Balabushka was thus considered too valuable to be risked in the production.<ref name="Blue" />

Original Balabushka cues with verified [[provenance]] may realize tens of thousands of dollars at [[auction]].<ref name="LATimes" /> In 1994, for example, a Balabushka was purchased by a collector for $45,000.<ref name="LATimes" /> In a 1998 ''[[Syracuse Herald-Journal]]'' article a collection of thirty original Balabushkas cues and six Gus Szamboti cues was estimated to be worth 2 million dollars, the cues said to be the equivalent in the cue collecting world of [[Rembrandt]]s and [[Vincent van Gogh|van Gogh]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://newspaperarchive.org/PdfViewerTags.aspx?img=29460386&firstvisit=true&src=search&currentResult=0&currentPage=0&fpo=False|format=fee required|title=Syracuse man will show his sticks in New York City|date=January 12, 1998|work=Syracuse Herald-Journal|page=D7|access-date=February 7, 2010}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> There are, however, many fake Balabushka cues in existence.<ref name="Blue" /> Complicating matters, in the 1980s with the permission and [[license]] of his surviving family, a line of Balabushka replicas began to be manufactured in large quantities by the Adam Custom Cue Company.<ref name="Blue" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20061019205356/http://www.bca-pool.com/industry/hof/ind02-06.shtml ''George Balabuska's'' listing in the BCA Hall of Fame]
*[http://www.cuemakers.org/hall-of-fame.php ''George Balabuska's'' listing in the ACA Hall of Fame]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070312183958/http://www.billiardcue.com/uploads/cues/big/balabushka1963.jpg Example of an early (1963) Balabushka cue]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110708212719/http://www.cueaddicts.com/cuepics/bszam-matt-4-fh.jpg Cue example (Barry Szamboti) showing a 'Bushka ring' just above the wrap]
*[http://www.google.com/patents/download/BALABUSHKA.pdf?id=ukpmAAAAEBAJ&output=pdf&sig=ACfU3U0AQepyUVJjL_yG9yxkwFeVBWxBIQ Balabushka's patent application for a folding leg bracket (1949)]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} ([http://www.google.com/patents?id=ukpmAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&dq=%22george+balabushka%22#PPA1,M1 html version]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}})

{{good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Balabushka, George}}
[[Category:Cuemakers]]
[[Category:Soviet emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:1975 deaths]]

Lajos Steiner

2025-05-25T18:39:58Z

Omcsesz: Fixing of a typo

{{short description|Hungarian-born Australian chess player}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2014}}
{{Use Australian English|date=February 2014}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2013}}
'''Lajos Steiner''' (14 June 1903, in [[Nagyvárad]] ([[Oradea]]) – 22 April 1975, in [[Sydney]]) was a [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]]–born Australian [[chess]] master.

Steiner was one of four children of Bernat Steiner, a mathematics teacher, and his wife Cecilia (née Schwarz). His elder brother was [[Endre Steiner]]. He was educated at the Technical High School in [[Budapest]], and graduated in 1926 with a diploma in [[mechanical engineering]] from the Technikum Mittweida in Germany.

In 1923, he tied for 4-5th in Vienna. In 1925 he took 2nd, behind [[Sándor Takács]], in Budapest. In 1927, he won in [[Schandau]] and tied for 2nd-3rd in [[Kecskemét]]. In 1927/28, he took 2nd. In 1929, he took 2nd in [[Bradley Beach]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.anders.thulin.name/SUBJECTS/CHESS/CTCIndex.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2007-07-04 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704030849/http://www.anders.thulin.name/SUBJECTS/CHESS/CTCIndex.pdf |archivedate= 4 July 2007 }} Name Index to Jeremy Gaige's ''Chess Tournament Crosstables'', An Electronic Edition, Anders Thulin, Malmö</ref> In 1931, he won in Budapest ([[Hungarian Chess Championship|HUN-ch]]), took 5th in Vienna, and tied for 5-6th in Berlin. The event was won by [[Herman Steiner]]. In 1932/33, he tied for 3rd-4th in [[Hastings International Chess Congress|Hastings]] ([[Salo Flohr]] won). In 1933, he tied for 2nd-3rd in Maehrisch-Ostrau ([[Ostrava]]). The event was won by [[Ernst Grünfeld]]. In 1933, he took 4th in Budapest.

In 1934, he tied for 1st-2nd with [[Vasja Pirc]] in [[Maribor]] (Marburg). In 1935, he tied for 1st-2nd with [[Erich Eliskases]] in Vienna (the 18th [[Trebitsch Memorial]]). In 1935, he tied for 5-6th in [[Łódź]] ([[Savielly Tartakower]] won) and took 4th in [[Tatatovaros]] ([[László Szabó (chess player)|László Szabó]] won). In 1936, he won, with [[Miguel Najdorf|Mieczysław Najdorf]], in Budapest (HUN-ch). In 1937, he took 2nd in [[Brno]] (Brunn), and took 3rd in [[Zoppot]] (Sopot). In 1937/38, he won in Vienna (the 20th Trebitsch Memorial). In 1938, he tied for 3rd-4th in [[Ljubljana]] (Laibach). The event was won by [[Borislav Kostić]]. In 1938, he tied for 8-9th in Łódź where Pirc won.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rogerpaige.me.uk |title = Rogerpaige.me.uk —}}</ref>

Lajos Steiner played a few matches. In 1930, he lost (+3 –5 =2) to [[Isaac Kashdan]]. In 1934, he won (+7 –3) against [[Pál Réthy]]. In 1935, he won (+3 –1) vs [[Henri Grob]].

He played for Hungary in four [[Chess Olympiads]]:
* In 1931, he played at second board at [[4th Chess Olympiad]] in [[Prague]] (+10 –3 =4).
* In 1933, he played at second board at [[5th Chess Olympiad]] in [[Folkestone]] (+5 –4 =5).
* In 1935, he played at first board at [[6th Chess Olympiad]] in Warsaw (+7 –4 =7).
* In 1936, he played at second board at [[3rd unofficial Chess Olympiad]] in [[Munich]] (+13 –2 =5).
He won individual bronze medal in Prague, and team gold medal and individual silver medal in Munich.<ref>[http://www.olimpbase.org OlimpBase :: the encyclopaedia of team chess]</ref>

Steiner emigrated to Australia in 1939. He won the [[Australian Chess Championship]] four times in 1945, 1946/47, 1952/53, and 1958/59. He also won nine of his ten attempts at the [[New South Wales]] title (1940–41, 1943, 1944, 1945–46, 1953, 1955, 1958).<ref>[http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A160363b.htm Australian Dictionary of Biography :: Steiner, Lajos]</ref> He took 3rd in [[Karlovy Vary]] – [[Mariánské Lázně]] in 1948. The event was won by [[Jan Foltys]]. He took 19th at the 1st Interzonal Tournament in [[Saltsjöbaden]] in 1948. The event was won by [[David Bronstein]].

He was awarded the [[International Master]] (IM) title in 1950.

==See also==
* [[List of Jewish chess players]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{chessgames player|id=10692}}
*[http://www.adb.online.anu.edu.au/biogs/A160363b.htm ADB bio]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Steiner, Lajos}}
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:Hungarian Jews]]
[[Category:Hungarian emigrants to Australia]]
[[Category:Hungarian chess players]]
[[Category:Australian chess players]]
[[Category:Jewish chess players]]
[[Category:Chess International Masters]]
[[Category:Chess Olympiad competitors]]
[[Category:Hungarian refugees]]
[[Category:Jewish refugees]]
[[Category:Australian Jews]]
[[Category:Australian people of Hungarian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:1975 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century chess players]]

We Close Our Eyes

2025-05-11T13:06:20Z

Omcsesz: /* Critical reception */ Added a missing reference

{{Short description|1985 single by Go West}}
{{Distinguish|text="We Close Our Eyes" on the [[Oingo Boingo]] album [[Boi-ngo]]}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2023}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Infobox song
| name = We Close Our Eyes
| cover = Go-west-we-close-our-eyes-chrysalis-UK-vinyl.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| type = single
| artist = [[Go West (band)|Go West]]
| album = [[Go West (Go West album)|Go West]]
| released = {{Start date|1985|02|11|df=y}}<ref>{{cite magazine|title=New Singles|magazine=[[Music Week]]|page=12|date=9 February 1985}}</ref>
| recorded =
| studio =
|genre = [[Pop music|Pop]]<ref name= "Stanley 2013">{{cite book|first=Bob |last=Stanley|title=Yeah Yeah Yeah: The Story of Modern Pop|chapter= 1985: What the Fuck is Going On?|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9emZAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT7|date=13 September 2013|publisher=[[Faber & Faber]]|isbn=978-0-571-28198-5|page=594}}</ref>
| venue =
| length = 3:50
| label = [[Chrysalis Records|Chrysalis]]
| writer = * [[Peter Cox (musician)|Peter Cox]]
* [[Richard Drummie]]
| producer = Gary Stevenson
| prev_title =
| prev_year =
| next_title = [[Call Me (Go West song)|Call Me]]
| next_year = 1985
| misc = {{External music video|{{YouTube|iKAginGVpVI|"We Close Our Eyes"}}}}
}}
"'''We Close Our Eyes'''" is a song by the English [[Pop music|pop]] duo [[Go West (band)|Go West]], composed by both members [[Peter Cox (musician)|Peter Cox]] and [[Richard Drummie]]. Recognisable by its synthesiser [[hook (music)|hook]], it was released as the [[lead single]] from the duo's [[Go West (Go West album)|self titled debut studio album]], in February 1985. The song charted worldwide, reaching number five on the [[UK singles chart|UK Singles Chart]], number 41 on the US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]], and the top 10 in Australia, Italy, and New Zealand.

== Critical reception ==
In April 1985, the single was discussed by [[Molly Meldrum]] and [[Queen (band)|Queen]]'s lead vocalist [[Freddie Mercury]] on the Australian music show ''[[Countdown (Australian TV program)|Countdown]]''. Mercury was impressed and predicted the band would be "very, very big".<ref>{{Cite web |title=QUEEN - Freddie Mercury interview 1985 Countdown Molly Meldrum|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8ds9MnBMMC8 |access-date=May 11, 2025 |publisher=[[YouTube]] |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Chart performance ==
"We Close Our Eyes" spent 14 weeks on the [[UK Singles Chart]], peaking at number five in April 1985.<ref name="uk"/> In the United States, the single reached 41 on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] and number five on the [[Dance Club Songs|Hot Dance Music/Club Play]] chart.<ref name="usd"/>

== Music video ==
"We Close Our Eyes" was promoted by a [[music video]] directed by [[Godley & Creme]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.myvillage.com/pages/bars%26music-interview-go-west.htm |title=myvillage.com |access-date=12 June 2008 |archive-date=3 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061203035301/http://www.myvillage.com/pages/bars%26music-interview-go-west.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> This video included Cox and Drummie performing the song in front of dancing wooden artist [[mannequin]]s.

== Remixes ==
The "Total Overhang Club Mix" was later included on Go West's 1986 remix compilation ''[[Bangs & Crashes]]''.<ref>[{{AllMusic|class=album|id=r39044|pure_url=yes}} AllMusic]</ref> A further remix of the song appeared on ''[[Aces and Kings – The Best of Go West]]'' in 1993.<ref>[{{AllMusic|class=album|id=r188137|pure_url=yes}} AllMusic]</ref>

== Charts ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

=== Weekly charts ===
{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
! Chart (1985)
! Peak position
|-
! scope="row"| Australia ([[Kent Music Report]])<ref>{{Cite book|title=[[Kent Music Report|Australian Chart Book 1970–1992]] |last=Kent |first=David |author-link=David Kent (historian) |publisher=Australian Chart Book |location=[[St Ives, New South Wales|St Ives, NSW]] |year=1993 |isbn=0-646-11917-6}}</ref>
| 8
|-
{{single chart|Flanders|14|artist=Go West|song=We Close Our Eyes|rowheader=true|access-date=24 June 2023}}
|-
{{single chart|Canadatopsingles|95|chartid=0506|rowheader=true|access-date=24 June 2023}}
|-
! scope="row"| Europe ([[European Hot 100 Singles|European Top 100 Singles]])<ref>{{cite magazine|title=European Top 100 Singles|magazine=[[Music & Media|Eurotipsheet]]|volume=2|issue=18|page=8|date=6 May 1985}}</ref>
|8
|-
{{single chart|Ireland2|11|song=We Close Our Eyes|rowheader=true|access-date=24 June 2023}}
|-
! scope="row"| Italy ([[Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana|FIMI]])<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicaedischi.it/classifiche_archivio.php|title=M&D: Classifiche|work=[[Musica e dischi]]|language=it|access-date=24 June 2023|archive-date=1 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201160637/http://musicaedischi.it/classifiche_archivio.php|url-status=live}} ''Select'' Singoli ''from the Tipo field, enter'' Go-West ''in the Arista field, then select "cerca"''.</ref>
| 6
|-
{{single chart|Dutch40|22|year=1985|week=16|rowheader=true|access-date=24 June 2023}}
|-
{{single chart|Dutch100|22|artist=Go West|song=We Close Our Eyes|rowheader=true|access-date=24 June 2023}}
|-
{{single chart|New Zealand|4|artist=Go West|song=We Close Our Eyes|rowheader=true|access-date=21 July 2013}}
|-
{{single chart|Switzerland|19|artist=Go West|song=We Close Our Eyes|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{single chart|UKsinglesbyname|5|artist=Go West|artistid=22341|rowheader=true|access-date=24 June 2023|refname="uk"}}
|-
! scope="row"| US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]]<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/hot-100/1985-04-27/|title=Billboard Hot 100|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|date=27 April 1985|access-date=24 June 2023|archive-date=24 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624190818/https://www.billboard.com/charts/hot-100/1985-04-27/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 41
|-
! scope="row"| US [[Dance Singles Sales|12-inch Singles Sales]] (''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'')<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/hot-dance-singles-sales/1985-03-30/|title=Dance Singles Sales|magazine=Billboard|date=30 March 1985|url-access=subscription|access-date=24 June 2023|archive-date=30 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930114121/https://www.billboard.com/charts/hot-dance-singles-sales/1985-03-30/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 23
|-
! scope="row"| US [[Hot Dance Club Songs|Dance Club Play]] (''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'')<ref name="usd">{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/dance-club-play-songs/1985-04-20/|title=Dance Club Songs|magazine=Billboard|date=20 April 1985|url-access=subscription|access-date=24 June 2023|archive-date=24 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624190806/https://www.billboard.com/charts/dance-club-play-songs/1985-04-20/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 5
|-
! scope="row"| US ''[[Cashbox (magazine)|Cash Box]]'' Top 100<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cashboxmagazine.com/archives/80s_files/19850427.html |title=CASH BOX Top 100 Singles – Week ending April 27, 1985 |work=[[Cashbox (magazine)|Cash Box]] |access-date=16 June 2018 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001215033/http://cashboxmagazine.com/archives/80s_files/19850427.html |archive-date=1 October 2012}}</ref>
| 33
|-
{{single chart|West Germany|14|artist=Go West|song=We Close Our Eyes|songid=1257|rowheader=true|access-date=19 March 2019}}
|}
{{col-2}}

=== Year-end charts ===
{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
! Chart (1985)
! Rank
|-
! scope="row"| Australia (Kent Music Report)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://i.imgur.com/SN2evHp.jpg|title=Kent Music Report No 599 – 30 December 1985 > National Top 100 Singles for 1985|publisher=[[Kent Music Report]]|via=[[Imgur]]|access-date=23 January 2023|archive-date=19 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519090120/https://i.imgur.com/SN2evHp.jpg|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 54
|-
! scope="row"| New Zealand (Recorded Music NZ)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://aotearoamusiccharts.co.nz/archive/annual-singles/1985-12-31|title=End of Year Charts 1985|publisher=[[Recorded Music NZ]]|access-date=24 June 2023|archive-date=30 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190830021657/https://nztop40.co.nz/chart/index_chart%3Fchart%3D3874|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 18
|-
! scope="row"| UK Singles (OCC)<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Top 100 Singles|magazine=Music Week|page=10|date=18 January 1986}}</ref>
| 40
|}
{{col-end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{discogs master|type=single|81635}}

{{Go West}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:We Close Our Eyes}}
[[Category:1985 songs]]
[[Category:1985 debut singles]]
[[Category:Go West (band) songs]]
[[Category:Chrysalis Records singles]]
[[Category:Music videos directed by Godley and Creme]]
[[Category:Songs written by Peter Cox (musician)]]
[[Category:Songs written by Richard Drummie]]

Yonderboi

2025-04-13T21:50:08Z

Omcsesz: /* Shallow And Profound */ correcting typo

{{Short description|Hungarian composer and music producer}}
{{multiple issues|
{{BLP primary sources|date=July 2014}}
{{essay|date=July 2014}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=August 2014}}
}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Yonderboi
| honorific_suffix =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image = YONDERBOI official press photo.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = László Fogarasi Jr.
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age |1980|09|14}}
| birth_place = [[Kaposvár]], [[Hungary]]
| disappeared_date = 
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| nationality = [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]]
| other_names =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| occupation = [[composer]] / [[music producer]] / [[visual artist]]
| years_active = 1998 - present
| employer =
| organization =
| known_for =
| notable_works = [[Shallow And Profound]], [[Splendid Isolation (album)|Splendid Isolation]], [[Passive Control]]
| style = [[Indie pop]]
| height = 
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| website = {{URL|http://yonderboi.com}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''László Fogarasi Jr.''' (born September 14, 1980), known by his stage name '''Yonderboi''', is a [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] composer, [[music producer]] and [[visual artist]]. His debut album, [[Shallow and Profound]], released in 2000, brought [[Eastern Europe]]an music to the [[Western Europe]]an [[electronic music]] scene, and was met with critical acclaim by producers [[Laurent Garnier]] and [[Gilles Peterson]] on [[Radio Nova (France)|Radio Nova]] and [[BBC Radio 1]] Worldwide respectively, as well as performing at the [[Sziget Festival|Sziget festival]] and the [[Lowlands (festival)|Lowlands festival]] in 2000.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Yonderboi Gigography, Tour History & Past Concerts – Songkick|url=https://www.songkick.com/artists/336173-yonderboi/gigography|access-date=2020-07-08|website=www.songkick.com|language=en}}</ref> His most notable collaboration so far has been an audio-visual show with British film director legend [[Peter Greenaway]] during the [[Berlin Film Festival]] of 2009.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}

He has performed on diverse stages over the years, including festivals such as [[Sónar]], [[Pukkelpop]],<ref>https://www.pukkelpop.be/nl/geschiedenis/2006</ref> Lowlands, [[The Big Chill (music festival)|Big Chill]], [[Sziget Festival|Sziget]], ADE and venues such as [[Razzmatazz (club)|Razzmatazz]] in Barcelona, [[Melkweg]] and [[Paradiso (Amsterdam)]]. Yonderboi's music is often licensed to films, TV and fashion shows or video games, and he has scored movies, theater pieces and he has also composed music for art exhibitions like the Swiss Pavilion of the [[Venice Biennale]] 2001.{{Citation needed|date=July 2020}}

== Biography ==

=== Early years ===
Yonderboi started experimenting with music in his teenage years, and had his first release in 1998 while he was still a [[high-school]] student. The song was called ''Pink Solidism'', which was an instrumental cover of [[Riders on the Storm]] by [[The Doors]]. Later that summer, his first five track [[Extended play|EP]], ''Cinnamon Kisses,'' came out on [[Gramophone record|vinyl]], and Yonderboi struck a [[Recording contract|record deal]] with UCMG Hungary. Some of the songs were licensed to [[Western European]] [[Compilation CD|compilation]]s.

=== Shallow And Profound ===
{{Main article|Shallow And Profound}}
He recorded his first long-player right after [[graduation]], on his own budget, which was almost US$300. This allowed 2 days in a cheap studio to record the acoustic instruments, like [[vibraphone]], [[accordion]], [[Saxophone|sax]] and [[vocals]]. Everything else like keys, synth, guitars, bass, scratches were recorded at home, and the material got produced and mixed on an average home [[Personal computer|PC]]. The album titled ''Shallow and Profound'' came out in 2000 and its success put Yonderboi on the international map of [[electronic music]]. He was amongst the pioneers of [[downtempo]] and [[trip hop]], the youngest member of the movement, and the only one from the former [[Eastern Bloc]]. His music was very much in sync with the global culture of the era, yet it was distinctly different with its [[Eastern European]] charm. The album invoked and melted together the romance of several decades of the 20th century, from 30's [[poetry]] and [[chanson]] throughout 50's/60's [[jazz]] to cinematic [[soundtrack]]s. As the title also suggests the record is divided into two main parts, a more vivid and playful, sometimes cartoonish first part and a rather contemplative, dreamy second part. The most successful song of the album (which came out on single as well), the vibraphone ruled Pabadam - sung by Edina Kutzora, a Hungarian singer - was widely recognized. Even [[Laurent Garnier]] announced and played it on Radio Nova, not to mention that [[Gilles Peterson]] has supported the song on [[BBC Radio 1]] in his program Worldwide. The listeners voted the track up to position 9 in the [[Worldwide Winners]] 2000. Still today Pabadam is a frequent guest on compilations, fashion shows and radio programs. Other notable tracks are Road Movie (also available as video), ''Fairy Of The Lake, Pink Solidism'', ''Ohne Chanteuse''. Yonderboi also started to perform his music live, supported by his temporary band called Yonderboi Quintet. They played various festival stages, amongst many others Sónar, Lowlands, [[Oslo]] and Rotterdam Jazz Festivals and several clubs throughout Europe and Russia, like [[Melkweg]], Supper Club, Razzmatazz, 16tons.

=== Splendid Isolation ===
{{Main article|Splendid Isolation (album)}}
Yonderboi wanted the second album to be substantially different from its predecessor both in content and on the surface. There were more resources available this time, yet his basic approach to recording remained simple, he recorded almost everything at home, from electric guitars through male vocals to cellos and brass. Only one day was spent in a proper studio, to record the children's choir for the opening track ''All We Go To Hell'', which obviously needed a bigger space than Yonderboi's bedroom. The post-production of the material ended up surprisingly in Los Angeles, thanks to the lucky meeting with Dutch producer Tom Holkenborg, who helped Yonderboi to finish up the record. The album was named ''Splendid Isolation'' and came out in 2005. Even though it does have some Eastern European qualities, it is much more melted into Western culture than Shallow and Profound. The record has three main parts, a rather downtempo-ish beginning, then a guitar pop inspired core and a mind bending soundtrack-like closing. Two songs were copied on singles, ''Were You Thinking Of Me?'' and ''People Always Talk About The Weather'', each had a gorgeous cinematic video directed by Yonderboi himself. Both the songs and videos got played by several stations, amongst others [[MTV Europe]], [[KCRW]], Studio Brussels. Several songs of the album got licensed to films, TV shows and video games, probably most often the ultra-dark and cynical ''Before You Snap''. On the Splendid Isolation Tour Yonderboi was supported on stage by his second temporary band [[Kings Of Oblivion]], in which Edina Kutzora sung as well. They visited many festivals all over [[Europe]] like Pukkelpop, 5 Days Off, [[Sziget Festival|Sziget]] and venues like Paradiso, Melkweg, A38 or Uebel and Gefaehrlich.

=== Passive Control ===
{{Main article|Passive Control}}
The goal was to create the female sequel of the quite masculine ''Splendid Isolation''. Yonderboi found the female voice that he was looking for via Myspace, in the person of a previously unreleased young [[German people|German]] singer, Charlotte Brandi. The recordings of the album took place in Yonderboi's home studio again. However this time only a few instruments got captured, like female vocals, [[acoustic guitar]] and a little [[cello]]. The rest of the sounds were played and programmed by Yonder, he also produced and mixed the album all by himself. His intention was to compose a rather coherent sonic universe, where the organic and the artificial creates harmony, and the border between them is almost unrecognizable. The album is difficult to place both geographically and in time, it does not really belong anywhere, however it has a strong European character. Both the soundscape and the artwork is created to be futuristic and outmoded at the same time, the album invokes the utopian art deco vibe of early 20th century, 70's folk and 90's electronic music. The new songs got already recognized and played by amongst others [[Jason Bentley]] on Morning Becomes Eclectic at [[KCRW]]. The German [[Vogue (magazine)]] reviewed the album and had ''Paint Hunting On The Wall'' on its monthly playlist at position 5.

=== Yonderboi In House ===
In 2012, Yonderboi started a remix project called Yonderboi In House, which will be released as an EP series on his own label Yonderland. Until then these tracks can be heard exclusively on his current, similarly titled live act. While creating the show Yonderboi used his DIY skills to design a matching, conceptual stage set: a glowing house frame and a Y-shaped DJ booth. So far the tour included venues like Palác Akropolis in Prague, [[Sziget Festival]] or [[Amsterdam dance event]] 2012. As a consequence he was able to cross off an important line on his childhood bucket list “tweak a real [[Roland TB-303]] on stage”.

==Discography==

===Albums===

*''[[Shallow And Profound]]'' (2000)
*''[[Splendid Isolation (album)|Splendid Isolation]]'' (2005)
*''[[Passive Control]]'' (2011)

===Singles===
*Pabadam (2000)
*Were You Thinking of Me? (2005)
*People Always Talk About The Weather (2006)

===EPs===
*''Cinnamon Kisses'' (1998)

===Videography===
*''Road Movie'' (2001)
*''Were You Thinking of Me?'' (2005)
*''People Always Talk About The Weather'' (2006)

==In popular culture==
*"Badly Broken Butterflies" is featured in ''[[CSI:Miami]]''
*"People Always Talk About The Weather ([[Junkie XL]] Remix)" featured in the videogame ''[[Need for Speed: Carbon]]''
*"Follow Me Home" featured in the videogame ''[[Test Drive Unlimited]]'' (PC version only)
*"Were You Thinking of Me?" featured in the video game by [[EA Sports]], ''[[FIFA 08]]''
*"Motor" (instrumental) featured in the videogame ''[[Tiger Woods PGA Tour 08]]''

==See also==
* [[DJ Krush]]
* [[DJ Shadow]] (sample-based music)

==Sources==
* Review of Passive Control <ref>{{cite web|url=http://soundarkive.wordpress.com/2011/10/10/review-yonderboi-passive-control/|title=Review: Yonderboi: Passive Control|work=Sound Arkive|date=10 October 2011 |access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* Feature on Passive Control <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.electronicbeats.net/en/features/new-album-by-yonderboi-passive-control/|title=New album by Yonderboi: Passive Control|publisher=Electronicbeats.net|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* Concert in St. Petersburg <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.inyourpocket.com/russia/st-petersburg/concerts-culture-events-entertainment/Concerts-in-St-Petersburg/20:00-Yonderboi_118674v|title=20:00 Yonderboi - Culture & Events in St. Petersburg|publisher=Inyourpocket.com|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* Album review of Splendid Isolation <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flyglobalmusic.com/2007/yonderboi-splendid-isolation/ |title=Yonderboi – Splendid Isolation - Fly Global Music |publisher=Flyingglobalmusic.com |access-date=18 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141111004447/http://www.flyglobalmusic.com/2007/yonderboi-splendid-isolation/ |archive-date=November 11, 2014 }}</ref>
* Yonderboi event in Prague <ref>[http://www.last.fm/event/3240459+Yonderboi+at+Pal%C3%A1c+Akropolis+on+24+May+2012] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120827145236/http://www.last.fm/event/3240459+Yonderboi+at+Pal%C3%A1c+Akropolis+on+24+May+2012 |date=August 27, 2012 }}</ref>
* Long lead of Passive Control <ref>{{cite web|url=http://newsflash.bigshotmag.com/reviews/music-reviews/25206/|title=Album Review: Yonderboi / 'Passive Control' (Yonderland)|work=Big Shot Magazine|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* Album stream - Passive Control <ref>[http://www.gigwise.com/news/82304/exclusive-album-stream-yonderboi---passive-control] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130923120424/http://www.gigwise.com/news/82304/exclusive-album-stream-yonderboi---passive-control |date=September 23, 2013 }}</ref>
* Passive Control album announcement <ref>{{cite web|url=http://hangout.altsounds.com/news/159890-yonderboi-announces-album-stream-passive-control.html|title=Yonderboi Announces Album Stream For 'Passive Control'|author=Jack Stovin|work=Altsounds|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* Review of Passive Control <ref>{{cite web|url=http://thesoundofconfusionblog.blogspot.hu/2013/07/yonderboi-passive-control.html|title=The Sound Of Confusion: Yonderboi - Passive Control|date=23 July 2013 |publisher=Thesoundofconfusionblog.blogspot.hu|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>

===Interviews===
* Yonderboi interview <ref>{{cite web|url=http://index.hu/kultur/zene/fesztival/2012/06/30/yonderboi_nem_az_a_partiarc/|title=Index - Kultúr - Yonderboi nem az a partiarc|author=Dankó Gábor|date=30 June 2012 |publisher=Index.hu|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* Interview with Yonderboi <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.music.hu/interjuk/634/uj_arcok_yonderboi_csodagyerek_itthonrol|title=Új arcok: Yonderboi – csodagyerek itthonról?|publisher=Music.hu|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* BalatonSound events <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sziget.hu/dws.php?searchenginerUrl=balatonsound/programok/fellepo/yonderboi.42318.html&language=en|title=Balaton Sound 2014 - Programok|publisher=Sziget.hu|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* Critique on Egyenes Labirintus <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.origo.hu/kultura/20100507-yonderboi-egyenes-labirintus-verses-hangjatek-mix-mp3-a-mixmag.html|title=Yonderboi: A zene csak rzelmileg noszogat|author=ORIGO|work=www.origo.hu/|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>
* Interview regarding Passive Control <ref>{{cite web|url=http://recorder.blog.hu/2011/09/09/atadtam_a_vezetest_a_zenenek_yonderboi_interju|title="Átadtam a vezetést a zenének" – Yonderboi (1. rész)|work=Recorder|access-date=18 November 2014}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|http://yonderboi.com/}}
* {{discogs artist|1784|Yonderboi}}
* {{IMDb name|1284837}}
* [https://soundcloud.com/yonderboi YONDERBOI on Soundcloud]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yonderboi}}
[[Category:Hungarian electronic musicians]]
[[Category:1980 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Love Da Records artists]]

László Rajk

2025-03-13T23:06:25Z

Omcsesz: /* Background */ fixing typo

{{Short description|Hungarian politician (1909–1949)}}
{{more footnotes|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = László Rajk
| image = Rajk László Sr. 1947.jpg
| order = [[Minister of the Interior of Hungary]]
| primeminister = [[Ferenc Nagy]]{{-}}[[Lajos Dinnyés]]
| term_start = 20 March 1946
| term_end = 5 August 1948
| president =
| predecessor = [[Imre Nagy]]
| successor = [[János Kádár]]
| order2 = [[Minister of Foreign Affairs of Hungary]]
| primeminister2 = [[Lajos Dinnyés]]{{-}}[[István Dobi]]
| term_start2 = 5 August 1948
| term_end2 = 11 June 1949
| predecessor2 = [[Erik Molnár]]
| successor2 = [[Gyula Kállai]]
| order3 = Member of the [[High National Council]]
| alongside3 = [[Zoltán Tildy]], [[Ferenc Nagy]], and [[Béla Varga (politician)|Béla Varga]] {{small|(to 8 January 1946)}}
| term_start3 = 7 December 1945
| term_end3 = 1 February 1946
| predecessor3 = [[Béla Miklós]]{{-}}[[Béla Zsedényi]]{{-}}[[Mátyás Rákosi]]
| successor3 = [[Zoltán Tildy]] (as President of the Republic)
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1909|03|08}}
| birth_place = [[Odorheiu Secuiesc|Székelyudvarhely]], [[Udvarhely County]], [[Kingdom of Hungary]], [[Austria-Hungary]] ({{small|now [[Odorheiu Secuiesc]], [[Romania]]}})
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1949|10|15|1909|03|08|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Budapest]], [[People's Republic of Hungary]]
| profession = politician
| spouse = [[Júlia Földi]]
| children = [[László Rajk Jr.|László]]
| party = [[Communist Party of Hungary|KMP]], [[Hungarian Communist Party|MKP]], [[Hungarian Working People's Party|MDP]]
|}}

{{eastern name order|Rajk László}}

'''László Rajk''' (8 March 1909 – 15 October 1949) was a [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Communist]] politician, who served as Minister of Interior and Minister of Foreign Affairs. He was an important organizer of the Hungarian Communists' power (for example, organizing the [[State Protection Authority]] (ÁVH)), but he eventually fell victim to [[Mátyás Rákosi]]'s [[show trial]]s.

==Background==
{{more citations needed section|date=October 2016}}
Born in [[Odorheiu Secuiesc|Székelyudvarhely]], the ninth of eleven children in a family of [[Transylvanian Saxons]], his ties to Communism began at an early age when he became a member of the [[Hungarian Communist Party|Communist Party of Hungary]] (MKP).

Later he was expelled from his university for his political ideas and would become a building worker, until 1936 when he joined the [[Popular Front (Spain)|Popular Front]] in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. He became commissar of the [[Rakosi Battalion]] of [[XIII International Brigade]].<ref>[[Hugh Thomas (writer)|Hugh Thomas]], ''The Spanish Civil War'', 4th Rev. Ed. 2001, p. 927</ref> After the collapse of Republican Spain, he was interned in France until 1941, when he was finally able to return to Hungary, where he became Secretary of the Communist Party Central Committee, an underground Communist movement.

In December 1944 he was arrested by a detachment of the [[Arrow Cross Party]]. He was to be executed, and was transported to the prison of [[Sopronkőhida]], then into Germany; but the intercession of his elder brother, Endre, a fascist under-secretary, saved his life. László Rajk was released on 13 May 1945.

He went home to Hungary and took part in party politics. He became a member of all the leader corporations of the party (MKP) and the Extemporal Parliament. Rajk was a member of the [[High National Council]] from 7 December 1945 to 2 February 1946. On 20 March 1946 he was appointed minister of the Interior. In this post he organized the Hungarian Communist Party's private army and secret police (an organization analogous to the [[KGB]], [[Securitate]], [[Stasi]] and so on), the [[State Protection Authority|ÁVH]] (originally ÁVO), and he became directly responsible for this. Under the cover of "struggle against fascism and reaction" and "defence of the power of proletariat", he prohibited and liquidated several religious, nationalist, and maverick establishments and groups (the number of these was about 1,500), and set up the first [[show trial]]s.

He was reassigned from the Ministry of the Interior to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 5 August 1948 to 30 May 1949. Rákosi, who saw Rajk as a threat to his power, decided to accuse him on false charges and had him arrested on 30 May 1949 on trumped-up charges.<ref name="frucht651"/> Rajk, who was popular among the Communists before, soon became the "chained dog" of [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]], [[Miklós Horthy|Horthy]] and "the imperialist".

==Trial==
László Rajk was accused of being a "[[Titoism|Titoist]] Spy", an agent for western imperialism and one who planned on restoring capitalism and jeopardizing Hungary's independence. During his time in prison, Rajk was tortured and was promised acquittal if he took responsibility for the charges brought against him. Stalin's NKVD emissary coordinated with Hungarian General Secretary [[Mátyás Rákosi]] and his ÁVH to orchestrate Rajk's [[show trial]].<ref name="crampton263">{{Harvnb|Crampton|1997|p=263}}</ref>

At his trial, held between 16 and 24 September 1949,<ref name="frucht651"/> in the large assembly hall of the headquarters of the Metal and Engineering Workers' Trade Union in Budapest, he confessed to all the charges brought against him. After his confession the prosecution decided, against the promise made, to call for the heaviest sentences to be brought down upon him and the other seven men who stood trial with him. Rajk was to be made an example for the beginning of [[Stalin]]'s anti-Titoist purges. Rajk, along with Drs Tibor Szönyi and András Szalai, was sentenced to death. Rajk was executed on 15 October 1949.<ref name="frucht651"/>

==Post-trial/reburial==
The Rajk trial marked the beginning of the anti-Titoist drive movement of Stalin. His trial also marked the beginning of the removal of all political parties in Hungary. The purges, however, left the economy in a truly disastrous state whereby a lack of capital inflow doomed the building projects that were underway. A vast number of the [[intelligentsia]] were then employed on the sort of manual labouring duties usually reserved for skilled professionals. The result left the country with an inadequate infrastructure and unsatisfactorily manufactured goods. The government was also using too many men to search for spies within the country and not enough to perform the productive work to sustain the economy.

Dissatisfaction with Rákosi's rule began to surface. On 28 March 1956, following numerous demonstrations, Rajk was rehabilitated in spite of his responsibility for the excesses of the secret police [[State Protection Authority|ÁVH]] which he had founded in 1946, including initial large purges and executions under his direction. The rehabilitation speech, even though it was not publicized, had vast consequences for Rákosi, who had used the Rajk guilt as an explanation for the other purges that followed. Now that he had to admit that he was, indeed, wrong, it would end up ruining Rákosi's rightful authority. Lászlo Rajk was then reburied, before 100,000 mourners, on 6 October 1956, along with two other men who lost their lives during the purges.<ref name="frucht651">{{Harvnb|Frucht|2003|p=651}}</ref> (This was a precursor to the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]], which began on 23 October.) [[Júlia Rajk]]'s commitment to rehabilitating her late husband's reputation was instrumental to the large turnout for the funeral.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pető|first=Andrea|author-link=Andrea Pető |date=January 2015|title=Hungary in 1956: Júlia Rajk or the Power of Mourning|url=https://www.cairn-int.info/article-E_CLIO1_041_0153--hungary-in-1956-julia-rajk-or-the-power.htm|journal=[[Clio. Women, Gender, History]]|volume=41| issue = 1|pages=153 to 164|via=Cairn International Edition}}</ref>

==List of defendants in the Rajk trial==
*László Rajk (born in 1909), Minister of Foreign Affairs (executed)
*György Pálffy (1909), Lieutenant General (sentence deferred to military court, executed)
*Lazar Brankov (1912), Counsellor, Yugoslav Legation (life imprisonment)
*Dr Tibor Szönyi (1903), Member of the National Assembly (executed)
*András Szalai, (1917), government official (executed)
*Milan Ognjenovich (1916), government official (9 years)
*Béla Korondy (1914), Police Colonel (sentence deferred to military court, executed)
*Pál Justus (1905), member of the National Assembly (life imprisonment)

15 people were executed and 78 others were sentenced to prison in relation to the Rajk case.{{citation needed|date=October 2016}}<ref>See the historian Tibor Zinner's notes on p. 416 of the 1989 Hungarian edition of Béla Szasz's ''Without Any Compulsion'' (1963)</ref>

== Play ==
László Rajk: the events of his political and family life, beginning circa 1945, his trial, execution, reburial, atonement, and ending with the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]] and the USSR's armed invasion of Hungary, are all portrayed in [[Robert Ardrey]]'s 1958 play, ''[[Shadow of Heroes]]''.

== See also ==
{{commons category|László Rajk}}
* [[Júlia Rajk]], his wife; political activist
* [[László Rajk Jr.]], his son; architect and political activist
* [[Milada Horáková]]
* [[Rudolf Slánský]]
* [[Traicho Kostov]]
* [[Slánský trial]]
* [[Koçi Xoxe]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{Citation|last=Crampton|first=R. J.|title=Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after|publisher=Routledge|year=1997|isbn=0-415-16422-2}}
*{{Citation|last=Frucht|first=Richard C. |title=Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism |publisher=Taylor & Francis Group|year=2003|isbn=0-203-80109-1}}

== Bibliography ==
*[http://mek.oszk.hu/10900/10919/index.phtml Koltai, Ferenc: ''László Rajk and his Accomplices before the People's Court'', Budapest 1949] (MEK)
* Litvan, Győrgy ''The Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Reform, Revolt, and Repression 1953–1963'', Longman Publishing Group, 1996.
* Rajk, Laszlo'', Columbia Encyclopedia'', 6th Ed. Columbia University Press, 2001. https://web.archive.org/web/20060509173752/http://www2.bartleby.com/65/ra/Rajk-Las.html (December 1, 2005)
* Stokes, Gale (ed.) ''From Stalinism to Pluralism: a Documentary History of Eastern Europe since 1945'', New York and Oxford University Press, 1991.

==External links==
* {{PM20|FID=pe/005668}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box|title=[[Interior Minister of Hungary|Minister of the Interior]]|before=[[Imre Nagy]]|after=[[János Kádár]]|years=1946–1948}}
{{succession box|title=[[Minister of Foreign Affairs of Hungary|Minister of Foreign Affairs]]|before=[[Erik Molnár]]|after=[[Gyula Kállai]]|years=1948–1949}}
{{s-end}}
{{HungarianInteriorMinisters}}
{{HungarianForeignMinisters}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rajk, Laszlo}}
[[Category:1909 births]]
[[Category:1949 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Odorheiu Secuiesc]]
[[Category:Székely people]]
[[Category:Hungarian Communist Party politicians]]
[[Category:Members of the Hungarian Working People's Party]]
[[Category:Interior ministers of Hungary]]
[[Category:Ministers of foreign affairs of Hungary]]
[[Category:Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (1945–1947)]]
[[Category:Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (1947–1949)]]
[[Category:Members of the National Assembly of Hungary (1949–1953)]]
[[Category:Hungarian people of the Spanish Civil War]]
[[Category:Executed Hungarian people]]
[[Category:20th-century executions by Hungary]]
[[Category:International Brigades personnel]]
[[Category:Executed communists]]

Simple Minds

2025-02-03T21:08:31Z

Omcsesz: /* Initial albums (1979–1980) */

{{Short description|Scottish rock band}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Simple Minds
| background = group_or_band
| image = GreenDayIOW230624 (230 of 367) (53818507958).jpg
| image_size =
| landscape = yes
| caption = Simple Minds performing at the [[Isle of Wight Festival]] 2024
| origin = [[Glasgow]], Scotland
| genre = {{hlist|[[Post-punk]]<ref name="AllMusic">{{cite web | url= http://www.allmusic.com/artist/simple-minds-mn0000049374/biography | title= Artist Biography by Steve Huey | website=[[AllMusic]] | first=Steve | last=Huey | access-date=6 December 2015}}</ref>|[[art rock]]<ref name="AllMusic"/>|[[New wave music|new wave]]<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidchiu/2019/11/25/simple-minds-jim-kerr-40-year-career-dont-you-forget-about-me/?sh=5e35c2f910f6 | title= Simple Minds' Jim Kerr On The Band's 40-Year Career, And The Unlikely Story Of 'Don't You (Forget About Me)' | work=[[Forbes]] | first=David | last=Chiu | date=25 November 2019 | access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref>|[[arena rock]]<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.popmatters.com/jim-kerr-simple-minds-interview-2532717015.html | title= A long walk between worlds: Jim Kerr on Simple Minds' new album and 40-year musical legacy | work=[[PopMatters]] | first=Chris | last=Gerard | date=12 February 2018 | access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref>|[[synth-pop]]<ref>{{cite magazine|title= Simple Minds – Good News from the Next World |magazine= [[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |volume= 107 |issue= 7 |date= 18 February 1995 |page= 66 |issn= 0006-2510 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wgsEAAAAMBAJ&q=%22synth+pop%22&pg=PA66}}</ref>}}
| years_active = 1977–present
| label = {{hlist|[[Virgin Records|Virgin]]|[[Zoom Records (Scotland)|Zoom]]|[[Arista Records|Arista]]|[[Sire Records|Sire]]|[[Chrysalis Records|Chrysalis]]|[[Eagle Rock Entertainment|Eagle]]|[[A&M Records|A&M]]|[[BMG Rights Management|BMG]]}}
| spinoffs = {{hlist|[[Propaganda (band)|Propaganda]]|[[Endgames (band)|Endgames]]|[[Ex-Simple Minds]]}}
| alias = Johnny & the Self-Abusers (1977)
| website = {{Official URL}}
| current_members = * [[Jim Kerr]]
* [[Charlie Burchill]]
* [[Ged Grimes]]
* Sarah Brown
* Mark Taylor
* Gordy Goudie
* [[Cherisse Osei]]
* Erik Ljunggren
| past_members = See [[Simple Minds#Former members|Former members]]
}}
'''Simple Minds''' are a Scottish [[Rock music|rock]] band formed in [[Glasgow]] in 1977, becoming best known internationally for their song "[[Don't You (Forget About Me)]]" (1985), which topped the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]] in the United States. Other commercially successful singles include "[[Promised You a Miracle]]" (1982), "[[Glittering Prize]]" (1982), "[[Someone Somewhere in Summertime]]" (1982), "[[Waterfront (song)|Waterfront]]" (1983), "[[Alive and Kicking (song)|Alive and Kicking]]" (1985), "[[Sanctify Yourself]]" (1986), "[[Let There Be Love (Simple Minds song)|Let There Be Love]]" (1991), "[[She's a River]]" (1995), and the [[List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 1980s|UK number one single]] "[[Belfast Child]]" (1989).

Simple Minds have achieved 24 top 40 singles on the [[UK Singles Chart]], and 23 top 40 albums on the [[UK Albums Chart]],<ref name="oc">{{Cite web |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/28243/simple-minds/ |title=Simple Minds Official Chart History |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]] }}</ref> including five [[Lists of UK Albums Chart number ones|number one]] albums:<ref name="simpleminds.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/history-simple-minds/|title=History Of Simple Minds|website=Simpleminds.com|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> ''[[Sparkle in the Rain]]'' (1984), ''[[Once Upon a Time (Simple Minds album)|Once Upon a Time]]'' (1985), ''[[Live in the City of Light]]'' (1987), ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (1989), and ''[[Glittering Prize 81/92]]'' (1992).<ref name="oc" /> They have sold more than 60 million albums worldwide,<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.hmv.com/music/simple-minds-interview-2018-jim-kerr-walk-between-worlds | title= "When I say that there are a few songs about faith, I don't mean it in a religious sense..." hmv.com talks to Simple Minds frontman Jim Kerr |publisher=HMV | date=1 February 2018 | access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> and were the most commercially successful Scottish band of the 1980s.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=David |editor-last=Roberts |title=British Hit Singles and Albums|year=2006|page=500|publisher=Guinness World Records Limited|isbn=978-1904994107}}</ref> Simple Minds have had chart success in the United States, Australia, Germany, Spain, Italy and New Zealand.<ref name="simpleminds.com"/> Despite various personnel changes, they continue to record and tour.

In 2014, Simple Minds were awarded the [[Q (magazine)|''Q'' Inspiration Award]] for their contribution to the music industry and an [[Ivor Novello Awards|Ivor Novello Award]] in 2016 for Outstanding Song Collection from the [[The Ivors Academy|British Academy of Songwriters, Composers, and Authors]] (BASCA).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2016/05/19/simple-minds-win-ivor-novello-award/|title=Simple Minds Win Ivor Novello Award|website=Simpleminds.com|date=19 May 2016|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> Other notable recognitions include nominations for both the [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction]] and [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Art Direction]] for "Don't You (Forget About Me)" in 1985, nomination for the [[Brit Award for British Group]] in 1986 and for the [[American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group]] in 1987.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/search?q=Pop/Rock+Band/Duo/Group+Video+Artist&stick=H4sIAAAAAAAAAONgFuLUz9U3MDQryzJV4gIxq5JySqrStZSyk630E8sTi1IgZHx5Zl5eapFVXn5uZl5iSWZ-XvEjxnhugZc_7glLhU1ac_IaYwAXEZqE1LjYXPNKMksqhWS4eKUQtmswSHFzIbhWTBpMPItYVQLyC_SD8pOzFZwS81L0XUrz9d2L8ksLFMIyU1LzFRyLSjKLSyawMQIAylDK28kAAAA|title=Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group Video Artist - Google Search|website=Google.com|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> "Belfast Child" was nominated for the [[Brit Award for Song of the Year|Song of the Year]] at the [[Brit Awards 1990]].

Singer [[Jim Kerr]] and guitarist [[Charlie Burchill]] are the two members who have been with the band throughout its whole history, and the only current permanent members and songwriters. As of 2023, the other current members of the live and studio band are bassist [[Ged Grimes]], drummer [[Cherisse Osei]], backing singer Sarah Brown, guitarist and keyboardist Gordy Goudie and keyboardist Erik Ljunggren. Notable former members include keyboardist [[Mick MacNeil]], bassists [[Derek Forbes]] and [[John Giblin]] and drummers [[Brian McGee (drummer)|Brian McGee]] and [[Mel Gaynor]].<ref name="Larkin">{{cite book|title=[[Encyclopedia of Popular Music|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]|editor=[[Colin Larkin (writer)|Colin Larkin]]|publisher=[[Virgin Books]]|date=1997|edition=Concise|isbn=1-85227-745-9|pages=1088/9}}</ref>

==History==
===Early years (1977–1979)===
Simple Minds originated from the [[punk rock|punk]] band Johnny & The Self-Abusers, formed in early 1977 on [[Glasgow#South Side|Glasgow's South Side]],<ref name="Larkin"/> as the brainchild of Alan Cairnduff. Cairnduff left the organisation of the band to John Milarky, suggesting that he enlist two strangers, singer and lyricist [[Jim Kerr]] and guitarist [[Charlie Burchill]]. Kerr and Burchill, who had been acquainted since age eight, roped in their school friends [[Brian McGee (drummer)|Brian McGee]] and Tony Donald to play drums and bass respectively. Milarky served as singer, guitarist and saxophonist, and recruited his friend Allan McNeill to be the band's third guitarist. Kerr doubled on keyboards, and Burchill also played violin.<ref name=sm-genesis>{{cite web |title=Simple Minds Genesis & Formation |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/1977/04/05/simple-minds-genesis-formation/ |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date=23 June 2024}}</ref>

On 11 April 1977, Johnny & The Self-Abusers held their first performance at the Doune Castle pub in Glasgow, following up two weeks later as the opening act for [[Generation X (band)|Generation X]] in Edinburgh. They performed concerts in Glasgow over the ensuing summer, but a split developed in the band, with Milarky and McNeill forming one faction and the other consisting of Kerr, Donald, Burchill and McGee;<ref name=sm-genesis/> {{cns|date=June 2024|at the same time, Milarky's compositions were being edged out in favour of those of Kerr and Burchill.}} In November 1977, Johnny & The Self-Abusers released their only single, "Saints and Sinners", on [[Chiswick Records]] (which was dismissed as being "rank and file" in a ''Melody Maker'' review). The band split on the same day that the single was released, with Milarky and McNeill going on to form The Cuban Heels. Ditching the stage names and the overt punkiness, the remaining members continued together as Simple Minds (naming themselves after a [[David Bowie]] lyric from his song "[[Jean Genie]]"),<ref name=simpleminds.com/> making their very first performance at Glasgow's Satellite City on 17 January 1978.<ref name="simpleminds.com Act Of Love" />

In January 1978, Simple Minds recruited Duncan Barnwell as a second guitarist (allowing for an optional two-guitar line-up while also enabling Burchill to play violin). Meanwhile, Kerr had abandoned keyboards to concentrate entirely on vocals. In March 1978, Kerr, Burchill, Donald, Barnwell and McGee were joined by the [[Isle of Barra|Barra]]-born keyboard player [[Mick MacNeil]]. The band got a residency at the Mars Bar in Glasgow and played various other venues in Scotland<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/search?artist=73d6ba71&query=tour:%281978+Mars+Bar+Residency%29 |title=Simple Minds 1978 Mars Bar residency |publisher=setlist.fm }}</ref> and rapidly established a reputation as an exciting live act (usually performing in full makeup). Tony Donald quit in April 1978 and was replaced by Duncan Barnwell's friend Derek Forbes (formerly the bass player with The Subs). In May 1978 Simple Minds recorded their first [[demo (music)|demo tape]], including "Chelsea Girl" and some other tracks that would appear on their debut album.<ref name="DT">Dave Thomas ''Simple Minds Glittering Prize'' Omnibus Press 1985, p.17-23</ref> The group were turned down by record companies, but gained a management deal with Bruce Findlay, owner of the Bruce's Records chain of record shops and the [[Zoom Records (Scotland)|Zoom Records]] label.<ref name="DT" /> Championed by his journalist friend Brian Hogg, Findlay was persuaded to sign Simple Minds to his Zoom label which had a licensing deal with [[Arista Records]].<ref name="DT" /> In November 1978, Barnwell was ousted from the band.<ref name="DT" />

From 1979 through until 1981, Simple Minds would continue as a quintet of Kerr, Burchill, MacNeil, Forbes and McGee, operating as a tight-knit collective. Subsequent line-up changes would shrink and diminish this core band, with only founder members being considered to be full members of the creative and compositional team.

===Initial albums (1979–1980)===
During late 1978 and early 1979, Simple Minds began rehearsing the set of Kerr/Burchill-written songs which appear on their debut album.<ref name="DT" /> On 27 March 1979 the band made their first television appearance, performing the songs "Chelsea Girl" and "Life in a Day" on BBC's ''[[The Old Grey Whistle Test]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/setlist/simple-minds/1979/the-old-grey-whistle-test-bbc-television-theatre-london-england-63c4beef.html |title=Simple Minds setlist at The Old Grey Whistle Test |publisher=setlist.fm }}</ref> The first Simple Minds album, ''[[Life in a Day (album)|Life in a Day]]'', was produced by [[John Leckie]] and released by Zoom Records in April 1979. The album's title track "Life in a Day" was released as Simple Minds' first single and reached No. 62 in the [[UK Singles Chart]], with the album reaching No. 30 in the [[UK Albums Chart]].<ref name="Larkin"/> In April/May 1979 they made their first UK tour as supporting act for [[Magazine (band)|Magazine]], who were a major influence on them at the time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2009/02/11/the-mighty-magazine/ |title=The Mighty Magazine |first=Jim |last=Kerr |date=11 February 2009 |publisher=simpleminds.com }}</ref>

In June 1979 "Chelsea Girl" was released as the second single from the album, failing to reach the chart, while the band continued to tour the UK on their own.<ref name="sm">{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/timeline/index.htm |title=Timeline |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> In September 1979 Simple Minds recorded their next album, ''[[Real to Real Cacophony]]'' at [[Rockfield Studios]] with producer [[John Leckie]]. The songs were mostly conceived in the studio and was a significant departure from the pop tunes of ''Life in a Day''.<ref name="Larkin"/> German [[Krautrock]] was now the band's main influence, adopting a more experimental electronic sound that drew influences from the motorik, repetitive grooves of bands such as [[Neu!]], [[Kraftwerk]] and [[La Düsseldorf]].<ref name="sa">Sean Albiez, David Pattie ''Kraftwerk: Music Non-Stop'' 2011, page 156</ref>

The band began their "Real to Real Cacophony Tour" in Germany and also made a short visit to New York in October 1979.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/search?artist=73d6ba71&query=tour:%28Real+to+Real+Cacophony+Tour%29 |title=Simple Minds Real to Real Cacophony Tour |work=setlist.fm }}</ref> Their performance of the songs "Premonition", "Factory" and "Changeling" at [[Hurrah (nightclub)|Hurrah]] was filmed for [[The Old Grey Whistle Test]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/setlist/simple-minds/1979/hurrah-new-york-ny-6bc4be96.html |title=Simple Minds setlist Hurrah, New York |publisher=setlist.fm}}</ref>

''Real to Real Cacophony'' was released in November 1979. While the band got little marketing support from their record company Arista, who didn't like the album, it received critical acclaim.<ref name="sm" /> The release was followed by their third UK tour of the year and a BBC session for [[John Peel]] in December.<ref name="sm"/> In January 1980 "Changeling" was released as the only single from ''Real to Real Cacophony'', failing to make an impression on the charts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/rtrc/c1.htm |title=Changeling |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> In March they supported [[Gary Numan]] on a couple of gigs, and continued their Real to Real Cacophony Tour until June 1980 with dates mainly in Germany, France and the Netherlands.<ref>[http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1979-2/index.htm Real to Real Cacophony Tour] Dream Giver Redux</ref> In June 1980 Simple Minds entered the studio to record their next album, again with producer [[John Leckie]] at Rockfield Studios.<ref name="sm"/> The band again had a new approach to their music that differed from the previous album, this time aiming for a more repetitive, dance-orientated sound inspired by [[disco music|disco]] music they had heard in nightclubs while touring Europe.<ref>Dave Thomas ''Simple Minds Glittering Prize'' Omnibus Press 1985, p.47</ref>

''[[Empires and Dance]]'' was released in September 1980.<ref name="Larkin"/> Many of the tracks were minimal and featured a significant use of [[Music sequencer|sequencing]], further exploring their repetitive Krautrock-influences with electronic dance grooves.<ref name="sa" /> McNeil's keyboards and Forbes' bass became the main melodic elements in the band's sound, with Burchill's heavily processed guitar becoming more of a textural element. With this album, Kerr began to experiment with non-narrative lyrics based on observations he had made as the band travelled across Europe on tour. While a modest commercial success, ''Empires and Dance'' received enthusiastic response in the British music press<ref>[http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/reviews/ead/pr1.htm New Musical Express 1980] Dream Giver Redux</ref> Simple Minds had caught the attention of [[Peter Gabriel]] who selected them as the opening act on several dates of his European tour starting in August 1980.<ref name="Tour 1980">[http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1980-1/index.htm Empires and Dance Tour 1980] Dream Giver Redux</ref> The tour as support act for Peter Gabriel gave the band the opportunity to play at bigger venues.<ref name="Tour 1980" />

''Empires and Dance'' peaked at no.41 on the UK Albums Chart and dropped out of the chart after three weeks.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/28243/simple-minds/ |title=Simple Minds |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]}}</ref> The band's manager Bruce Findlay later blamed Arista for poor handling of the album and it not being more commercially successful. Initially Arista only released 7500 copies of the album.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2023/jun/27/a-nuclear-reactor-of-music-the-story-of-simple-minds-classic-album-empires-and-dance |title="A nuclear reactor of music": The Story of Simple Minds Classic Album Empires and Dance |first=Graeme |last=Thompson |date=27 June 2023 |work=The Guardian }}</ref> Furthermore, Arista did not release a single to promote the album. "I Travel" was not released as a single until October to promote the Empires and Dance tour. The single sold poorly and did not reach the UK chart, but the 12" version became popular in the US club scene and (based on import sales only) entered the [[Billboard (magazine)|''Billboard'']] Disco Chart at no.80 in early 1981.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/ead/it1.htm |title=I Travel |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> "I Travel" was subsequently reissued twice in the UK, but again failed to reach the singles chart.

===Commercial breakthrough (1981–1983)===
[[File:Simple Minds, New Gold Dream era.jpeg|thumb|right|Simple Minds during the ''New Gold Dream'' era, c. 1983]]

In early 1981, Simple Minds frustration with poor support and marketing by Arista made them threaten to split up rather than continue working with them. They were released from Arista and instead signed to [[Virgin Records]].<ref name="Larkin"/><ref name="sm" /> After the band had left the label, Arista decided to release "Celebrate" as the second single from ''Empires and Dance'' in February 1981 to promote the album, with the earlier single "Changeling" on the b-side to promote ''Real to Real Cacophony'', but this single too sold poorly and failed to chart.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/ead/c1.htm |title=Celebrate |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The following year, Arista put out a compilation album, ''[[Celebration (Simple Minds album)|Celebration]]'', featuring tracks from the three previous albums which reached No. 45 on the UK albums chart.<ref name="oc" /> Following their change of record company, the band demoed new songs and embarked on a club tour in the US and Canada.<ref name="sm" />

In May 1981, Simple Minds' first release on Virgin, the single "The American" reached No. 59 on the UK singles chart.<ref name="sm" /> The band recorded their next album with producer [[Steve Hillage]] and an abundance of new material under much time pressure.<ref name="sm" /> At the end of the recording sessions drummer Brian McGee decided to leave the band, citing exhaustion at Simple Minds' constant touring schedule,<ref name="Larkin"/> and a desire for more time at home with family.<ref name="sm" /> In an interview shortly after, he also cited disappointment that he was not getting enough credit in the band. McGee joined Glasgow band [[Endgames (band)|Endgames]],<ref>{{cite web | title=''The Beginning of the End (Betty Page makes the first move against Glasgow's Endgames)'', Record Mirror, 5 June 1982 | url =http://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/g8gAAOSwMmBVwIuH/s-l1600.jpg}}</ref> and later [[Propaganda (band)|Propaganda]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spirit-of-rock.com/en/band/Propaganda |title=Propaganda |publisher=Spirit of Rock }}</ref> In August, "[[Love Song (Simple Minds song)|Love Song]]" was released and became their highest charting single to date, peaking at No. 47 on the UK singles chart<ref name="oc" /> and an international hit, reaching the top 20 in Australia and Sweden, and no.38 in Canada.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kent|first=David|author-link=David Kent (historian)|title=Australian Chart Book 1970–1992|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Australian Chart Book|location=St Ives, N.S.W.|year=1993|page=275|isbn=0-646-11917-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://swedishcharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Simple+Minds&titel=Love+Song&cat=s|title=Swedishcharts.com }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/028020/f2/nlc008388.0444.pdf| title=RPM Top 50 Singles - January 16, 1982}}</ref> In September 1981, Virgin released the entirety of Simple Minds recent studio sessions on two albums: ''[[Sons and Fascination]]'' and ''[[Sister Feelings Call]]''.<ref name="Larkin"/><ref name="sm" /> The latter album was initially included as a bonus disc with the first 10,000 vinyl copies of ''Sons and Fascination'', but it was later re-issued as an album in its own right.<ref name="Larkin"/> (For the CD release, it was paired on a single disc with ''Sons and Fascination''{{spnd}}at first with two tracks deleted, but in full on later issues). The album reached No. 11 on the UK albums chart,<ref name="oc" /> and was subsequently placed as No. 18 on [[Sounds (magazine)|Sounds]] "Album of the Year"-chart.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rocklistmusic.co.uk/sounds.html |title=''Sounds'' End of Year Lists |publisher=Rocklist.net }}</ref> The next single "Sweat in Bullet" was a remixed version by [[Peter Walsh (producer)|Peter Walsh]] and included two songs recorded live at [[Hammersmith Odeon]] in September.<ref name="sm" /> During this period, the band's visual aesthetic was established, masterminded by [[Malcolm Garrett]]'s graphic design company Assorted iMaGes. Characterised at first by hard, bold typography and photo-collage, Garrett's designs for the band later incorporated pop-religious iconography in clean, integrated package designs that befitted the band's idealised image as neo-romantic purveyors of European anthemic pop.

To replace McGee as drummer (although not as full band member), Simple Minds hired Kenny Hyslop (ex-[[Skids (band)|Skids]], [[Slik]], Zones) to play on the first leg of the Sons and Fascination tour, which included Simple Minds first visit to Australia, touring with [[Icehouse (band)|Icehouse]].<ref name="Larkin"/><ref name="sm" /> Hyslop also played on the studio recording of "[[Promised You a Miracle]]", a song originating in a riff from a tape of funk music Hyslop played on the tour bus, that would become the band's next single.<ref name="pyam">{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/ngd/pyam1.htm |title=Promised You a Miracle |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> Despite this contribution, Hyslop ultimately "didn't fit in" with the band or their management and was replaced for the second leg of the Sons and Fascination tour<ref>[http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1981-2/index.htm Sons and Fascination tour] Dream Giver Redux</ref> by the [[Kilmarnock]]-born percussionist [[Mike Ogletree]] (the former drummer for [[Café Jacques (band)|Café Jacques]]) in early 1982.<ref name="Larkin"/>

Simple Minds started working on their next album in an old farmhouse in [[Fife]]. In February 1982 the songs "Promised You a Miracle" and "King is White and in the Crowd" were premiered on a BBC session for [[Kid Jensen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/songs/sessions.htm |title=Simple Minds sessions |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The band then moved to [[Townhouse Studios]] for recording sessions with producer [[Peter Walsh (producer)|Peter Walsh]]. The band told Walsh they wanted the album to represent their live sound, so Walsh decided to record it as a live studio album.<ref name="ngd">{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/ngd/ngdlp1.htm |title=New Gold Dream |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> Unsatisfied with Ogletree's drumming style, Walsh introduced them to a [[London]]-born drummer called [[Mel Gaynor]],<ref name="Larkin"/> a 22-year-old session musician with plenty of experience from playing with funk-bands such as [[Beggar and Co]] and [[Light of the World (band)|Light of the World]],<ref>[https://www.simpleminds.com/2016/05/19/new-gold-dream-box-set/ New Gold Dream Box Set] simpleminds.com</ref> who then played drums on the majority of the record, while Ogletree played drums on three tracks.<ref>Dave Thomas ''Simple Minds Glittering Prize'' Omnibus Press 1985, p.71</ref> "[[Promised You a Miracle]]" was released in April 1982 and became Simple Minds first Top 20 single in the UK, peaking at No. 13 and also reaching the Australian Top 10.<ref name="Larkin"/> The song earned the band performances on [[Top of the Pops]] and interviews in teen-orientated pop magazines.<ref name="pyam" /> ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)]]'' was released in September 1982. The album was a commercial breakthrough, spending 53 weeks on the [[UK Albums Chart]], peaking at No. 3 in October 1982.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/albums/simple-minds-new-gold-dream-81828384/ |title=New Gold Dream (81,82,83,84) |publisher=Official charts }}</ref> It generated charting singles including "[[Glittering Prize]]", which also reached the UK Top 20 and Australian Top 10.<ref name="Larkin"/> While some tracks ("[[Promised You a Miracle]]", "Colours Fly and Catherine Wheel") continued the formula perfected on ''Sons and Fascination'', other tracks ("[[Someone Somewhere in Summertime]]", "[[Glittering Prize]]") were pure pop.<ref name="Larkin"/> Jazz keyboardist [[Herbie Hancock]], who recorded in the studio next door, performed a synth solo on the track "Hunter and the Hunted".<ref name="ngd" />

[[File:Simple Minds ticket - Tiffany's Glasgow - 1982-12-20.jpg|thumb|left|Ticket for the band's concert at Tiffany's, Glasgow on 20 December 1982]]

The band embarked on their extensive New Gold tour in September 1982, which included dates in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada.<ref name="NGT">{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1982-2/index.htm |title=New Gold Tour |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> Mike Ogletree played on the first leg of the tour, but was asked to leave the band in November 1982, later joining [[Fiction Factory]].<ref name="NGT" /> Mel Gaynor was recruited for the remaining dates<ref name="NGT" /> and retained afterwards, eventually becoming the band's longest-standing drummer (and longest-standing member other than mainstays Burchill and Kerr) despite thrice leaving and returning in the following decades. The band's late 1982 UK dates included a show at City Hall in Newcastle that was recorded by Virgin and later included on the 2003 ''Seen the Lights'' DVD.<ref name="NGT" /> On these dates the band was supported by [[China Crisis]].<ref name="NGT" />

The second leg of the New Gold Dream tour started in March 1983 and included dates in Europe, USA and Canada. In July they performed at festivals such as [[Roskilde Festival]] in Denmark and [[Rock Werchter]] in Belgium.<ref name="NGT" /> Prior to the tour the band had started working on their next album. In August the new song "[[Waterfront (song)|Waterfront]]" was premiered in a live concert. In September the band recorded a BBC session for David Jensen, including "Waterfront" and the newly written "The Kick Inside of Me". In October their next album was recorded with producer [[Steve Lillywhite]] at [[Townhouse Studios]] in London. In November "Waterfront" was released as a single and the band embarked on their Sparkle in the Rain Tour. The opening show at Barrowlands Ballroom in Glasgow was filmed for the "Waterfront" video.<ref name="sm" /> "Waterfront" became their most successful single to date; hitting No. 1 in New Zealand, No. 5 in Ireland, the Top 20 in Australia and Sweden, and No. 13 on the UK chart.<ref name="oc" />

===Mainstream success and political activism (1984–1987)===
[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Simple Minds wrote the song "[[Mandela Day (song)|Mandela Day]]" as a homage to South African President [[Nelson Mandela]]]]

''[[Sparkle in the Rain]]'' was released in February 1984.<ref name="Larkin"/> It entered the UK albums chart at number one.<ref name="oc" /> It was preceded by the single "[[Speed Your Love to Me]]" which reached No.20 on the singles chart.<ref name="oc" /> A third single from the album, "[[Up on the Catwalk]]", was subsequently released and also reached the Top 30 in the UK.<ref name="oc" /> ''Sparkle in the Rain'' hit the top 20 in several other countries (including Canada, where it reached No. 13).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6325a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=1 September 2011}}</ref> The band spent much of 1984 touring the world, including Australia, Europe, North America and Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1983-1/index.htm |title=Sparkle in the Rain Tour |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> In 1984, Jim Kerr married [[Chrissie Hynde]] of the [[Pretenders (band)|Pretenders]] (who renamed herself Christine Kerr).<ref name="Larkin"/> Simple Minds headlined a North American tour supported by [[China Crisis]] during the Canadian leg and supported the Pretenders in the US while Hynde was pregnant with Kerr's daughter. The marriage lasted until 1990.

Despite the band's new-found popularity in the UK, Europe, Canada and Australia, Simple Minds remained essentially unknown in the US. The band's UK releases on Arista were not picked up by Arista USA who had 'right of first refusal' for their releases. The 1985 film ''[[The Breakfast Club]]'' broke Simple Minds into the US market, when the band achieved their only No. 1 U.S. pop hit in April 1985 with the film's opening track, "[[Don't You (Forget About Me)]]",<ref name="Larkin"/> a song written by [[Keith Forsey]] and Steve Schiff;<ref name="Larkin"/> which had previously been offered to [[Billy Idol]] and [[Bryan Ferry]] before Simple Minds agreed to record it. The song soon became a chart-topper in many other countries around the world.

At around this point, the camaraderie that had fuelled Simple Minds began to unravel, and over the next ten years the band's line-up underwent frequent changes. Jim Kerr subsequently recalled "We were knackered. We were desensitized. The band started to fracture. We were lads who had grown up together, we were meant to grow together, politically, spiritually and artistically. But we were getting tired with each other. There was an element of the chore creeping in. We were coasting and this whole other thing was a challenge."<ref>Interview with Jim Kerr in ''Scottish Sunday Times'', 23 September 2001</ref> The first casualty was bassist Derek Forbes, who was beginning to squabble with Kerr. Forbes began failing to turn up for rehearsals, and was dismissed. Forbes remained in touch with the band (and was soon reunited with another former Simple Minds bandmate, drummer Brian McGee, in [[Propaganda (band)|Propaganda]]).

To replace Forbes, Simple Minds hired former [[Brand X]] bass player [[John Giblin]], who owned the band's rehearsal space and was a session musician who had worked with [[Peter Gabriel]] and [[Kate Bush]]. Giblin made his debut with Simple Minds at [[Live Aid]] in [[Philadelphia]], where the band performed "Don't You (Forget About Me)", a new track called "[[Ghost Dancing (Simple Minds song)|Ghost Dancing]]" and "Promised You a Miracle".<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 July 1985|title=Simple Minds Play Live Aid - 1985|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/1985/07/13/simple-minds-play-live-aid-1985/|access-date=2 December 2020|website=SIMPLEMINDS.COM|language=en-GB}}</ref>

During 1985, Simple Minds were in the studio with former [[Tom Petty]]/[[Stevie Nicks]] producer [[Jimmy Iovine]]. In November, ''[[Once Upon a Time (Simple Minds album)|Once Upon a Time]]'' was released;<ref name="Larkin"/> former [[Chic (band)|Chic]] singer [[Robin Clark]], who performed call-and-response vocals with Kerr throughout the album (effectively becoming a second lead singer), and was heavily featured in Simple Minds music videos of the time. The record reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 10 in the US, despite the fact that their major-league breakthrough single "Don't You (Forget About Me)" was not included.<ref name="Larkin"/> ''Once Upon a Time'' went on to generate four worldwide hit singles: "Alive and Kicking", "Sanctify Yourself", "Ghost Dancing" and "All the Things She Said",<ref name="Larkin"/> the last of which featured a music video directed by [[Zbigniew Rybczyński]] that used techniques developed in music videos for bands such as [[Pet Shop Boys]] and [[Art of Noise]]. The band also toured, with both Robin Clark and percussionist Sue Hadjopoulos added to the live line-up.

Because of Simple Minds' powerful stage presence and lyrics that were now beginning to adopt [[Christian symbolism]], the band was criticised by some in the music press as a lesser version of [[U2]], despite the fact that both bands were now heading in different musical directions.<ref name="Larkin"/> The two groups were well-acquainted with one another, and [[Bono]] joined Simple Minds on-stage at the [[Barrowlands]] in Glasgow in 1985 for a live version of "New Gold Dream". Bono also appeared on stage at Simple Minds Croke Park concert and sang "Sun City" during the "Love Song" medley. Derek Forbes also appeared on stage at the Croke Park concert and performed on several songs during the encore. To document their worldwide ''Once Upon a Time Tour'', Simple Minds released the double-live set ''[[Live in the City of Light]]'' in May 1987,<ref name="Larkin"/> which was recorded primarily over two nights in Paris in August 1986.

===''Street Fighting Years'', ''Real Life'' and hiatus (1988–1993)===
{{Quote box
| quote ="When we first heard the live album I thought, What a great night! What dynamics! But is that it for us – rousing choruses and crashing drums? There didnae seem any room for subtlety, and we always seem at our best when we're not trying to be powerful, but there's an underlying power coming through."
| source =—Jim Kerr reflecting on Simple Minds' change of emphasis in the late 1980s (Q Magazine)<ref>"Do Not Disturb – article by Mat Snow in 'Q' Magazine, June 1989</ref>
| width =30em
| align =right
}}

By 1988, Simple Minds had built their own recording premises — the Bonnie Wee Studio — in Scotland. Following the lengthy period of touring to support ''Once Upon a Time'', the remaining core members (Kerr, Burchill and MacNeil) began new writing sessions in Scotland: Gaynor and Giblin pursued session work elsewhere while waiting to be called in. Initially the band began work on an instrumental project called ''Aurora Borealis'' (mostly written by Burchill and MacNeil). This project was then supplanted by an increase in the band's political activism, something which they had begun to stress in recent years (by giving all of the income from the "Ghostdancing" single to Amnesty International, and playing cover versions of Little Steven's "(Ain't Gonna Play) Sun City" on tour), inspired by [[Peter Gabriel]] with whom they had toured in the early 1980s.

Simple Minds were the first band to sign up for [[Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute|Mandela Day]], a concert held at [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]], London, as an expression of solidarity with the then-imprisoned [[Nelson Mandela]].<ref name="Larkin"/> Bands involved were asked to produce a song especially for the event – Simple Minds were the only act which produced one. This was "[[Mandela Day (song)|Mandela Day]]", which the band played live on the day (alongside cover versions of "Sun City" with Little Steven and a cover version of Peter Gabriel's "Biko" on which Gabriel himself took on lead vocals). "Mandela Day" was released on the ''Ballad of the Streets'' EP, which reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart (the only time the band did so).<ref>[http://www.theofficialcharts.com/search.php "Belfast Child" No. 1 in UK Singles Chart] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070729033254/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/search.php |date=29 July 2007 }}. Retrieved 19 August 2007.</ref> Another EP track, "[[Belfast Child]]", was a rewrite of the [[Celtic music|Celtic folk]] song "[[She Moved Through the Fair]]"<ref name="Larkin"/> (which had been introduced to Kerr by John Giblin) with new lyrics written about the ongoing conflict in Northern Ireland). The single was also an expression by Simple Minds of their support for the campaign for the release of [[Beirut]]-held hostage [[Brian Keenan (writer)|Brian Keenan]], kidnapped by the [[Islamic Jihad Organization|Islamic Jihad]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

The next album ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (produced by [[Trevor Horn]] and [[Stephen Lipson]]) moved away from the American soul and gospel influences of ''Once Upon a Time'' in favour of soundtrack atmospherics and a new incorporation of acoustic and folk music-related ingredients. The lyrics were also more directly political, covering topics including the [[Poll tax (Great Britain)|Poll Tax]], the [[Soweto]] townships, the [[Berlin Wall]] and the stationing of nuclear submarines on the Scottish coast. The band underwent further line-up changes during the recording of ''Street Fighting Years''.<ref name="Larkin"/> Mel Gaynor and John Giblin both contributed to the recording (and, in Giblin's case, to some of the writing) but both had left the band by the time of the album's release, by which time the band was officially listed as a trio of Kerr, Burchill and MacNeil. In a new development for the band, various bass guitar and drum tracks were performed by high-profile guesting session musicians. Gaynor's departure from the band was brief (he was rehired for the following tour).

Released in 1989, the album rose to No. 1 in the UK charts<ref>[http://www.theofficialcharts.com/search.php ''Street Fighting Years'' No. 1 in UK] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070729033254/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/search.php |date=29 July 2007 }}. Retrieved 19 August 2007.</ref> and received a rare five-star review from ''[[Q (magazine)|Q]]'' magazine. It received a less positive review in ''Rolling Stone'' which criticised the band for what the reviewer considered to be political vacuity. "This Is Your Land" was chosen as the lead single for the U.S., and even with guest vocals from [[Lou Reed]], the single failed to make a mark on the pop charts. Reunited with Mel Gaynor, Simple Minds hired Malcolm Foster (ex-[[Pretenders (band)|Pretenders]]) as the new bass player, following a failed attempt to re-recruit Derek Forbes (who declined due to family reasons and a lack of affinity with the new music).<ref>[https://postpunkmonk.com/2023/11/20/simple-minds-bassist-extraordinaire-derek-forbes-unleashes-his-autobiography/ "Simple Minds’ Bassist Extraordinaire Derek Forbes Unleashes His Autobiography"] - review in ''Post Punk Monk'', 20 November 2023</ref><ref>[https://crazyonclassicrock.com/2024/01/05/book-review-a-very-simple-mind-on-tour-by-derek-forbes/ "Book Review: A Very Simple Mind: On Tour by Derek Forbes"] - review in ''Crazy on Classic Rock'' by angiemoonthemod, 5 January 2024</ref> The live band was once again expanded by recruiting three additional touring members: Level 42 backing singer Annie McCaig, percussionist Andy Duncan and violinist [[Lisa Germano]]. Touring began in May 1989, and included the first and only time that the group headlined [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]],<ref>{{cite web |website=WembleyStadium.com|title=Wembley Stadium Concerts history|url=http://www.wembleystadium.com/GloriousPast/greatmemories/stadiumConcerts/stadium+concert+artists.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109022230/http://www.wembleystadium.com/GloriousPast/greatmemories/stadiumConcerts/stadium+concert+artists.htm|archive-date=9 January 2011|access-date=26 September 2011}}</ref> where they were supported by fellow Scottish bands [[The Silencers (band)|The Silencers]], [[Texas (band)|Texas]] and [[Gun (band)|Gun]]. In September, the concert in the Roman amphitheatre [[Verona Arena]] in Italy was recorded for the live video ''Verona'', released by Virgin in 1990, and later included on the ''Seen the Lights'' DVD in 2003.

At the end of the Street Fighting Years tour, Simple Minds laid plans to go to Amsterdam to begin recording a new album. Just before the end of the tour, keyboardist Michael MacNeil announced to the band that he would not be joining them as he needed a break. MacNeil played his last concert with Simple Minds in Brisbane a week later. At the time, MacNeil's departure was put down to health concerns, but he had been gradually suffering disillusionment with the band's lifestyle and touring schedule (as well as what Kerr has referred to as "a number of animated quarrels".<ref name="diary">[https://www.simpleminds.com/2009/12/01/the-spirit-of-macneil/ "The Spirit of MacNeil"] (Jim Kerr online diary entry on Simple Minds website, dated 1 December 2009)</ref>) At around the same time, long-term manager Bruce Findlay was dismissed and over the next few years the band gradually altered to the point where it was a shifting set of musicians around the only remaining core members, Kerr and Burchill.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}} In December 2009, Kerr retrospectively defended the changes in an online diary entry, although he said that MacNeil's departure had been a "colossal fracture". He also paid tribute to his former bandmate and said that MacNeil had been irreplaceable.<ref name="diary" />

Simple Minds continued to record, hiring keyboard players as and where required. The first of these was session keyboard player [[Peter-John Vettese]] who played live with the band at the Nelson Mandela Freedom Concert and on a short German tour. He was subsequently replaced in the live band by Mark Taylor.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

In 1991, Simple Minds returned with ''[[Real Life (Simple Minds album)|Real Life]]''. The album's cover showed a trio of Kerr, Burchill and Gaynor and the writing credits for all songs was Kerr/Burchill.<ref name="Larkin"/> The album reached No. 2 in the UK, where it also spawned four Top 40 singles. In the US, "[[See the Lights]]" was the band's last Top 40 pop single. The band toured to support the release, playing as a basic five-piece (Kerr, Burchill, Gaynor, Foster and Taylor) and cutting down on the extended arrangements of the last few large tours. Mel Gaynor left the band in 1992 to pursue session work and other projects, and for the next two years Simple Minds were on hiatus, releasing the compilation album ''[[Glittering Prize 81/92]]'' in 1992.

===''Good News from the Next World'' and ''Néapolis'' (1994–1999)===
Simple Minds returned to activity later in 1994. By now the band was officially a duo of Kerr and Burchill (with the latter taking on keyboards in the studio, as well as guitar). Hiring Keith Forsey (the writer of "Don't You (Forget About Me)") as producer, they began to put together an album which returned to the uplifting arena rock feel of their ''Once Upon a Time'' days. With Gaynor now out of the picture, the remaining instrumentation was covered by session musicians (although Malcolm Foster was included among the bass players used for recording). ''[[Good News from the Next World]]'' was released in 1995.<ref name="Larkin"/> The album reached No. 2 in the UK and produced the Top 10 hit "[[She's a River]]" and the Top 20 single "Hypnotised". The band toured to promote ''Good News from the Next World'', with Malcolm Foster and Mark Taylor as touring bass and keyboard players and Mark Schulman (who had played on the album) on drums. This was Foster's last work with the band, and Schulman returned to session work at the end of the tour.

After being released from their contract with [[Virgin Records]], Simple Minds made use of the skills of their original rhythm section, Derek Forbes and Brian McGee (returning after respective eleven- and fourteen-year absences). Although McGee was not involved beyond the rehearsal stage, Forbes formally rejoined Simple Minds in July 1996. The band then reunited with Mel Gaynor for a studio session in early 1997. Gaynor was reinstated as a full-time member for the European tour (which once again featured Mark Taylor on keyboards). After the tour, album recording sessions were interrupted by Kerr and Burchill's decision to play live (without Forbes, Taylor or Gaynor) as part of the Proms tour (a series of orchestral concerts featuring a mixture of light classical and pop music). The duo played versions of "Alive And Kicking", "Belfast Child" and "Don't You (Forget About Me)" backed by a full orchestra and were billed as Simple Minds.

The new album, ''[[Néapolis (album)|Néapolis]]'' featured Forbes playing bass guitar on all tracks, and Gaynor on one song, "War Babies". Other drum tracks were recorded by session players Michael Niggs and Jim McDermott, with additional percussion programming by [[Transglobal Underground]]/[[Furniture (band)|Furniture]] drummer Hamilton Lee. It was the only Simple Minds album released by [[Chrysalis Records]], who refused to release the album in the U.S., citing lack of interest. The music video for "Glitterball", the album's lead single, was the first production of any kind to film at the [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim Museum]] in [[Bilbao]], Spain. A European tour followed between March and July 1998, undermined by problems with ill-health and contractual fiascos (including a pull-out from the Fleadh Festival to be replaced by British [[Rock music|rock]] band [[James (band)|James]]).

As Simple Minds' main writing team, Kerr and Burchill had continued to demo and originate material by themselves. For the latest sessions they had shared studio space with a band called Sly Silver Sly who featured Jim Kerr's brother Mark (previously the drummer with [[Gun (band)|Gun]]) and bass guitarist Eddie Duffy, and who were working with American songwriter Kevin Hunter. While in the studio, the two writing and recording projects (including the Hunter co-writes) merged to become the sessions for the next Simple Minds album, ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]''. Once again, Forbes and Gaynor found themselves out of the band: Mark Kerr became the new drummer and Eddie Duffy joined on bass guitar. The new-look Simple Minds made their début with a short set of greatest hits at the Scotland Rocks For Kosovo festival, with Mark Taylor returning on keyboards. The displaced Forbes and Gaynor, having apparently been told that the band was not appearing at the festival, formed a new band of their own to play the same concert.

===''Our Secrets Are the Same'' and ''Cry'' (1999–2005)===

Having delivered ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]'' to Chrysalis, Simple Minds then found themselves caught up in record company politics while Chrysalis, [[EMI]] and other companies attempted to merge with each other. Originally due for release in late 1999, the album remained unreleased after the band mired themselves in lawsuits with Chrysalis. In 2000, the situation became even more complicated when ''Our Secrets Are the Same'' was leaked on the internet. Discouraged with their label's failure to resolve the problems, and with both momentum and potential album sales lost, the band once again went on hiatus. Eddie Duffy, Mark Taylor and Mark Kerr all moved on to other projects. Jim Kerr moved to Sicily and took up a part-time career as a hotelier, although both he and Burchill continued working together on various business interests and kept the idea of the band alive.

In 2001, Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill began working with [[multi-instrumentalist]] Gordon Goudie (ex-[[The Primevals (band)|Primevals]]) on a new Simple Minds album to be called ''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]''. Mark Kerr also contributed to the project (this time as an acoustic guitarist and Burchill's co-writer on several songs) while Kerr brought in various Italian musicians as collaborators, including Planet Funk and Punk Investigation. In parallel to ''Cry'', Simple Minds also recorded an album of covers called ''[[Neon Lights (album)|Neon Lights]]'', featuring Simple Minds versions of songs from artists including [[Patti Smith]], [[Roxy Music]] and [[Kraftwerk]]. ''Neon Lights'' was the first to be completed and released (later in 2001). In the video for the ''Neon Lights'' single "Dancing Barefoot", the band consisted of Jim Kerr, Charlie Burchill, Gordon Goudie and Mark Kerr. A 2-CD compilation, ''[[The Best of Simple Minds]]'', was released soon afterwards.

''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]'' was released in April 2002. Although the album did not sell in great numbers in the U.S., Simple Minds felt confident enough to mount a North American leg of their Floating World tour (named after the instrumental track which closes ''Cry''), their first in seven years. With Goudie opting to remain studio bound (and Mark Kerr leaving the band again), Simple Minds once again recruited Mel Gaynor as tour drummer. The live band was completed by the returning Eddie Duffy on bass guitar and by new keyboard player/programmer Andy Gillespie (of SoundControl). On 28 October 2003, Capitol released ''Seen The Lights – A Visual History'', the first-ever Simple Minds commercial (double) DVD, featuring over four hours and twenty minutes of archive footage. The first disc includes the majority of the band's promotional videos. The second disc is devoted to ''Verona'', the band's first live home video release, which was originally released in VHS format in 1990. It was upmixed to 5.1 surround sound for the DVD, but otherwise remains the same as the original VHS copy.

On 18 October 2004, Simple Minds released a five-CD compilation entitled ''[[Silver Box]]''. This mostly comprised previously unreleased demos, radio and TV sessions and live recordings from 1979 to 1995, but also included the long-delayed ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]''. In July 2005, the band embarked on the "Intimate Tour", a series of low-key European and UK gigs at smaller venues which ended in December 2005. Andy Gillespie was unable to appear at all the gigs, and Mark Taylor returned to cover for him on several occasions. From this point onwards, the two alternated as Simple Minds' live keyboard player, depending on Gillespie's schedule with his other projects.

===''Black & White 050505'' and ''Graffiti Soul'' (2005–2009)===
[[File:Simple Minds.jpg|thumb|left|Frontman Jim Kerr performing with Simple Minds, 2006]]

With the Kerr/Burchill/Duffy/Gaynor lineup, Simple Minds released ''[[Black & White 050505]]'' (their fourteenth studio album), on 12 September 2005. The album's first single, "Home", received airplay on alternative rock radio stations in the US. It reached No. 37 in the UK and was not released in North America. The band spent 2006 touring throughout Europe, the Far East, Australia and New Zealand on the Black And White Tour (with Mark Taylor on keyboards).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2006/index.htm |title=Black and White Tour 2006 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref>

2007 marked the band's 30th anniversary and saw the band embarked on a brief tour of Australia and New Zealand as guests of [[INXS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2007-1/index.htm |title=Simple Minds Australian Tour 2007 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The band continued to release audio and video [[download]] "bundles" through their official website, featuring live music and several short documentary-style videos recorded during their 2006 tour in Edinburgh and [[Brussels]] (including the complete show on 16 February 2006 at the [[Ancienne Belgique]], Brussels, Belgium as "Live Bundles" No. 1 to No. 5 and 6 tracks from the show on 28 August 2006 at the "[[T on the Fringe]]" music festival, Edinburgh, as "Live Bundles" No. 6 & No. 7).{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

On 27 June 2008, Simple Minds played the 90th birthday tribute to [[Nelson Mandela]] in London's Hyde Park.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2008-4/index.htm |title=46664 Concert Honouring Nelson Mandela At 90 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The band then undertook a short tour of the UK to celebrate their 30th anniversary. During these concerts, the band performed the entire ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)]]'' album and songs from their other albums in a two-part concert performance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2008-2/index.htm |title=Celebrate 30 Years Live |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill also played a number of concerts with [[Night of the Proms]] across Europe in spring, followed by further shows in late 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2008-3/index.htm |title=Night of the Proms '08 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref>

In June 2008, Kerr and Burchill briefly reunited with the full original band lineup for the first time in twenty-seven years, when meetings with Derek Forbes, Mick MacNeil and Brian McGee led to a studio rehearsal date.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.side-line.com/news_comments.php?id=32152_0_2_0_C |title=Original line-up Simple Minds to record once again |website=Side-line.com |date=9 June 2011 |access-date=1 September 2011}}</ref> However, the reunion rapidly foundered over disagreements regarding control of the band and equal status for all members.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} Reverting to the Kerr/Burchill/Duffy/Gaynor lineup, Simple Minds released a new studio album entitled ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' on 25 May 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/gs/gslpf1.htm |title=Graffiti Soul |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> On the November/December Graffiti Soul UK tour they were supported by [[Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark]] as special guests.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2009-2/index.htm |title=Graffiti Soul Tour |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> A new record label, W14/Universal label, had purchased the Sanctuary label in early 2009. Former Sanctuary Records A&R head John Williams (who had signed the band to Sanctuary) kept his position with the new label, and exercised the option to pick up the remaining Simple Minds albums owed as part of the previous deal.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

In May 2009, ''Graffiti Soul''{{'}}s first single, "Rockets", was released as a [[Music download|digital download]] single only.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/gs/r1.htm |title=Rockets |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> On 31 May 2009, the album entered the UK Album chart at No. 10, becoming Simple Minds' first album in 14 years to enter the UK Top 10.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/28243/simple-minds/ |title=Simple Minds |publisher=Official Charts }}</ref> The album also entered European Top 100 Album chart at No. 9.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} Interspersed with Simple Minds activity, Jim Kerr recorded and released his first solo album ''[[Lostboy! AKA Jim Kerr]]'' on 17 May 2010 under the name "Lostboy! AKA". Explaining the project name and ethos, he commented "I didn't want to start a new band. I like my band...and I didn't want a point blank Jim Kerr solo album either."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pennyblackmusic.co.uk/MagSitePages/Article/5525/Interviews/Lostboy-AKA--Interview|title=Lostboy! AKA - Interview|website=Pennyblackmusic.co.uk|access-date=3 February 2018}}</ref> A Lostboy! AKA 10-date European tour followed from 18 to 31 May 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/lbaka/tours/t2010-1/index.htm |title=Lostboy AKA Promo Tour |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref>

===Touring (2010–2014)===
[[File:SimpleMindsBern2014.jpg|thumb|left|Lead singer Jim Kerr performing in 2014]]
The band played a mini-concert on 2 October 2010 at the Cash For Kids Ball organised by Radio Clyde at the Hilton in Glasgow, and a full-length concert on 10 December 2010 at the Festhalle in [[Bern]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.downloadhome.co.uk/simpleminds/view_all_news_tours.php?cat=&area=gigs |title=Simple Minds Official Web Site / Live Concerts |website=Downloadhome.co.uk |access-date=1 September 2011}}</ref> In early October 2010, a new line-up of Simple Minds - Burchill, Kerr, Gaynor, Gillespie with new bassist Ged Grimes (ex-[[Danny Wilson (band)|Danny Wilson]] and [[Deacon Blue]]) - completed four weeks at the Sphere Recording Studios in London during which four songs were recorded and mixed for a new compilation album to be called ''Greatest Hits +'' and for the new Simple Minds studio album. The sessions were produced by Andy Wright and engineered and mixed by Gavin Goldberg. The four songs recorded were an eight-minute-long version of "In Every Heaven" (originally recorded in 1982 during the ''New Gold Dream'' sessions) and three new compositions: "Stagefright", "On The Rooftop" and "Broken Glass Park". From 10 June to 3 July 2011, Simple Minds embarked on the Greatest Hits Forest tour, playing a series of seven dates in woodland locations of England, as part of Forestry Commission Live Music.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

From 16 June to 28 August 2011, the Greatest Hits + tour visited European countries: the UK, Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland, Ireland, Gibraltar and Serbia mainly at summer festival venues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.com/sm/view_all_news_tours.php?cat=&area=gigs#nogo |title=Simple Minds Official Web Site / Live Concerts |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date=1 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.com/sm/index.php#nogo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215065538/http://www.simpleminds.com/sm/index.php#nogo |url-status = dead|archive-date=15 December 2010 |title=Simple Minds Official Web Site / Shows in Munich and Tuttlingen, Germany! |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date=1 September 2011 }}</ref> Simple Minds played several free concerts (on 4 July 2011 in Potsdam, Germany, on 4 July 2011 in Florence, Italy for the opening of Florence's Hard Rock Cafe, on 18 August in Belgrade, Serbia before 110,000 people and on 27 August in Bad Harzburg, Germany before 25,000 people). To coincide with the 2012 5X5 Live European tour, [[EMI Music]] released on 20 February 2012 the ''X5'' box set featuring the first five albums over six discs: ''Life in a Day'', ''Real to Real Cacophony'', ''Empires and Dance'', ''Sons and Fascination/Sister Feelings Call'' and ''New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)'' (with ''Sons and Fascination'' and ''Sister Feelings Call'' as separate discs in a gatefold sleeve as well as bonus material on each disc, including B-sides and remixes).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/x5/x5lp1.htm |title=X5 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> After a gig on 30 March 2012 at the Døgnvill Festival in [[Tromsø]], Norway, the band embarked on 23 June 2012 in [[Vienna]], on a 25-date tour of European summer festivals which ended on 22 September 2012 in [[Germersheim]], Germany. In July they played at the [[T in the Park]] festival.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2012-2/index.htm |title=Festival Shows 2012 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref>

[[File:Copenhagen 2014-08-08 (15164233175).jpg|thumb|right|Simple Minds performing in [[Copenhagen]], 2014]]

On 21 April [[Virgin Records]] released the band's first record ever to be released exclusively for [[Record Store Day 2012]]. The 12" single contained two remixes, "Theme For Great Cities" remixed by [[Moby]] on side A and the 2012 remix of "I Travel" remixed by John Leckie (who produced the original version of the song in 1980) on side B. The 12" was limited to 1,000 copies worldwide, of which 100 copies were sold in Sister Ray Records in London, where Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill took part in a record-signing session.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/x5/tfgc1.htm |title=Theme for Great Cities |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> [[EMI]] released on 19 November 2012 a double live album of the tour entitled ''[[5X5 Live (live album)|5X5 Live]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/5x5live/5x5livelp1.htm |title=5x5 Live |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> Simple Minds embarked in late 2012 on an eight-date Australia and New Zealand joint tour with American band [[Devo]] and Australian band The Church starting on 29 November 2012 in Melbourne, and ending on 15 December 2012 in Auckland (the only show played in New Zealand).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2012-3/index.htm |title=Australia 2012 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref>

On 25 March 2013 a new greatest-hits two- and three-disc collection entitled ''Celebrate: The Greatest Hits +'' was released on [[Virgin Records]], including two new tracks, "Blood Diamonds" "Broken Glass Park"; the three-disc version also includes "Stagefright", a track which has never been available in CD format before, and unreleased single mixes of "Jeweller to the Stars" and "Space".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/gh2/ghlp1.htm |title=Celebrate The Greatest Hits + |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The North American version of the album contains only one disc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/gh2/ghlpff1.htm |title=Celebrate The Greatest Hits + US/Canadian edition |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> It was followed by a 30-date Greatest Hits + UK tour, which began with a concert in [[Dublin]] on 25 March and ended in [[Ipswich]] on 4 May 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2013-1/index.htm |title=Greatest Hits+ |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref>

In October 2013 they continued the Greatest Hits + tour in Brazil, United States and Canada,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2013-6/index.htm |title=Americas |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> followed by concerts in South Africa, Europe and the UK in November, including four arena shows in Glasgow, Manchester, Birmingham and London, with guests [[Ultravox]] at all four concerts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2013-4/index.htm |title=South Africa/Europe 2013 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref>

===''Big Music'' and ''Acoustic'' (2014–2017)===
[[File:2017 Simple Minds - by 2eight - DSC4284.jpg|thumb|left|Simple Minds - Acoustic Live Tour 2017 in [[Nuremberg]], [[Germany]]]]
In November 2014 Simple Minds released their first studio album in five years entitled ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]'', which was followed by a Winter/Spring 2015 UK and European tour (from February to May 2015).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.com/sm/New-Album--European-Tour-Announced-b1040#v9FpsqY6zDyQdh3o.97|title=Simple Minds / News / Article "New Album & European Tour Announced"|website=Simpleminds.com|date=26 September 2014|access-date=24 November 2014}}</ref> On 22 October 2014, Simple Minds were presented the ''[[Q (magazine)|Q]]'' Inspiration to Music award by [[Manic Street Preachers]] frontman [[James Dean Bradfield]] and saw the first public outing of new member [[The Anchoress (musician)|Catherine AD]] as part of the lineup. On 2 November 2014, Simple Minds introduced ''Big Music'' with a special acoustic session for Radio Clyde's The Billy Sloan Collection.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.clyde2.com/on-air/billy-sloan/simple-minds-in-session/|title = Radio Clyde|date = 2 November 2014|access-date = 17 November 2014|website = Radio Clyde - Simple Minds In Session}}</ref> Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill co-hosted the show, choosing some of their favourite records – including Jet Boy by [[The New York Dolls]], [[The Velvet Underground]]'s Sweet Jane and The Model by [[Kraftwerk]] – and playing acoustic versions of songs from ''Big Music'', including "Honest Town" and "Let The Day Begin" and [[David Bowie]] cover "[[The Man Who Sold the World (song)|The Man Who Sold the World]]".{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

In December 2014, Simple Minds recorded an acoustic session at [[Absolute Radio]] including live unplugged performances of "Honest Town", "Alive & Kicking", "Let The Day Begin", "[[Don't You (Forget about Me)]]" and [[David Bowie]] cover "The Man Who Sold the World". The band continued to tour throughout 2015.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/apr/03/simple-minds-empire-theatre-liverpool-review-big-music|title=Simple Minds review – still the edgy futurists, beneath the stadium style|last=Simpson|first=Dave|date=3 April 2015|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|access-date=27 November 2016}}</ref> On 14 November 2015, the band self-released a 29-track double-CD live album entitled ''[[Live – Big Music Tour 2015 (Simple Minds live album)|Live – Big Music Tour 2015]]''. It was recorded during the 2015 Big Music live tour and contained a cross-section of the Simple Minds back catalogue.

On 7 April 2016, Simple Minds performed their first unplugged gig at the Zermatt Unplugged Festival in [[Zermatt]], [[Switzerland]], followed by a second unplugged show in [[Zürich]] on 29 October 2016, also at the Zermatt Unplugged Festival. This was the first concert to feature a secondary acoustic live-and-recording line-up of Simple Minds, with Jim Kerr and Sarah Brown on vocals, Burchill on acoustic guitar and accordion, Ged Grimes on bass, Gordy Goudie returning on acoustic guitar and harmonica and new recruit [[Cherisse Osei]] on percussion.<ref name="simpleminds.org Simple Minds simple minds #50">{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tree/sm50.htm |title=Dream Giver Redux > simple minds #50 |date= February 2017 |website=Simpleminds.org |access-date= 11 March 2017}}</ref> In May 2016, they were given an Ivor Novello award where Kerr noted that: "we just wanted to be in a great band and take it round the world. We're very fortunate because we get recognition".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/simple-minds-pick-up-gong-at-ivor-novello-awards-2016-1-4133089|title=Simple Minds pick up gong at Ivor Novello Awards 2016|date=19 May 2016|website=Scotsman.com|access-date=26 November 2016}}</ref>

In October 2016, the band embarked on a promotional tour of the acoustic material, including a live concert on 10 November 2016 at the [[Hackney Empire]], London that was broadcast on BBC Radio 2.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2016/simple-minds|title=BBC - Simple Minds to perform live In Concert for BBC Radio 2 - Media Centre|website=Bbc.co.uk|access-date=27 November 2016}}</ref> Simple Minds released ''[[Acoustic (Simple Minds album)|Acoustic]]'' which was recorded with the new line-up during Summer 2016<ref name="simpleminds.org Simple Minds simple minds #50"/> and which featured acoustic re-recordings of songs spanning their career. On the lead single, 1982's "Promised You A Miracle", the band were joined by fellow Scot [[KT Tunstall]]. The two-disc vinyl version of the album was released on 25 November 2016, including three extra tracks: "Stand By Love", "Speed Your Love To Me" and "Light Travels".<ref name="Simple Minds Official website Acoustic">{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.com/2016/09/28/acoustic-2016/ |title=Acoustic – 2016 |date= 28 September 2016 |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date= 30 September 2016}}</ref> In Spring 2017 they embarked on a two-month (47-date) Acoustic Live '17 UK & European tour.<ref name="simpleminds.com Simple Minds Acoustic Live 2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.com/2016/11/07/simple-minds-announce-acoustic-live-2017/|title=Simple Minds Announce Acoustic Live 2017|date=7 November 2016|website=Simpleminds.com|access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref>

On 16 November 2016, Simple Minds were given the Forth Best Performance Award at the Radio Forth awards ceremony in Edinburgh.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theedinburghreporter.co.uk/2016/11/simple-minds-and-paul-young-winners-at-the-radio-forth-awards/|title=Simple Minds and Paul Young winners at the Radio Forth awards|last=Stephen|first=Phyllis|date=16 November 2016|website=Theedinburghreporter.co.uk|access-date=26 November 2016}}</ref>

===''Walk Between Worlds'' and line-up changes (2017–2019)===
[[File:Simple Minds - 2016330230310 2016-11-25 Night of the Proms - Sven - 1D X - 0854 - DV3P2994 mod.jpg|thumb|left|Performing live at ''Night of the Proms'', Germany]]
Since September 2014, Simple Minds had been working on new material with the electric Kerr/Burchill/Grimes/Gaynor line-up (minus Andy Gillespie), including the songs "Fireball"{{refn|group=nb|About working on the next album, Jim Kerr said in January 2015 during The Real McCoy radio show: "There's this song I'm very excited about – that you introduced to me, a guy called Steve Eddie, a song called "Fireball" – God, I've had that for seven or eight years and I played that this last month and I just know that its time has come."}} and "A Silent Kiss".{{refn|group=nb|About working on the next album, Jim Kerr said on 4 January 2016: "Back to work: Began yesterday and it's all good! Working on a Charlie Burchill tune called "A Silent Kiss". Kind of dark, very romantic, related in style to both "Liaison" and "Bittersweet" from ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]''. Some songs you seemingly have to dig very deep to create. Others seem like they just want to jump out of you - somehow already fully formed. Some come easy, some more elusive. This one feels great already."}}

On 15 November 2017, the new album title and track listing leaked on Amazon UK. Entitled ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'', the album features eight tracks while the Deluxe edition includes three bonus tracks (one live and two studio tracks). On 20 November 2017, a 20-second promo video was released on the band's Facebook page, promoting the album. The video featured a snippet of "Magic", the lead single, as performed by the six-person ''Acoustic'' line-up (now including [[The Anchoress (musician)|Catherine AD]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/simpleminds/|title=Simple Minds Official|website=Facebook.com|access-date=3 February 2018}}</ref> Produced by Simple Minds, Wright and Goldberg, ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'' was released on 2 February 2018 via [[BMG Rights Management|BMG]] and entered at No. 4 - their highest UK album chart position in over 23 years - and No. 2 on the Scottish albums charts, the album's highest chart position in all.

In Spring and Summer 2018, the band extensively toured Europe as part of the Walk Between Worlds tour, promoting the new album. Having performed on three tracks on the album, Cherisse Osei now became the band's full-time drummer, replacing Mel Gaynor; Catherine AD also joined the live band on additional guitar, vocals and keyboards. The band notably performed ''Walk Between Worlds'' in its entirety during the eight Spring concerts that occurred from 13 February at the [[Barrowland Ballroom]], [[Glasgow]], UK to 22 February 2018 in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]. After a unique show in [[Mexico City]] on 20 September 2018, the band extensively toured North America (now minus Catherine AD) from 24 September in [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania|Bethlehem]], [[Pennsylvania]] up to 11 November 2018 in [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]] as part of the Walk Between Worlds tour.

===''Live in the City of Angels'' (2019–2020)===

In 2019, Simple Minds released ''[[Live in the City of Angels]]'', a snapshot from the band's 2018 North American tour, their biggest ever to date. The live album was made available on multiple formats; the standard CD and vinyl versions feature 25 songs, mostly recorded on 24 October 2018 at the [[Orpheum Theatre (Los Angeles)|Orpheum Theatre]], whereas the Deluxe CD and digital formats contain an additional 15 tracks recorded during sound checks and rehearsals, yielding a 40-song collection to mark the band's 40-year career.<ref name="facebook Live In The City Of Angels">{{cite web |url=https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=2373884122691510&id=100317830048162 |title=LIVE IN THE CITY OF ANGELS, out 4th October, is the new album from Simple Minds capturing the band on their biggest ever North American tour. |date= 20 August 2019 |website=[[Facebook]] |access-date= 20 August 2019}}</ref><ref name="simpleminds.com Live In The City Of Angels">{{cite web |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2019/08/20/simple-minds-release-live-in-the-city-of-angels/ |title=20 Aug, 2019 Simple Minds Release: Live In The City Of Angels |date= 20 August 2019 |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date= 20 August 2019}}</ref>

In 2019, Simple Minds also released a new compilation album entitled ''40: The Best Of 1979-2019'', a retrospective of the band's 40-year long recording career. It includes as a new track the band's cover of "[[From Scotland with Love#Track listing|For One Night Only]]" by [[King Creosote]].<ref name="simpleminds.com 40 The Best Of 1979-2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2019/09/30/40-the-best-of-1979-2019-album-announced/ |title=30 Sep, 2019 40: The Best of 1979 – 2019 – Album Announced |date= 30 September 2019 |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date= 5 October 2019}}</ref>

===''Direction of the Heart'' and Everything Is Possible (2020–present)===
[[File:Festival du Bout du Monde 2022 - Simple Minds - 028.jpg|thumb|right|Lead singer Jim Kerr performing with the band, 2022]]

The first Europe & UK (Winter–Spring) leg of the 40 Years Of Hits world tour 2020 kicked off on 28 February 2020 in Stavanger, Norway but was interrupted with the cancellation of the show due to take place on 11 March 2020 in Herning, [[Denmark]] and the cancellation of the rest of the tour due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic|coronavirus pandemic]]. The tour was rescheduled to 2022 with over 80 dates across more than 20 countries in spring/summer 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2020/02/28/40-years-of-hits-tour-2020/ |title=40 Years Of Hits Tour |date=28 February 2020 |publisher=simpleminds.com }}</ref> On 17 January 2022, Simple Minds released the single "Act of Love" to mark the anniversary of the band's first performance on 17 January 1978 at Glasgow's Satellite City. In a statement from the band, the track had ended up shelved in the process of recording Simple Minds' debut album, though it had a lasting life during various live performances. Kerr and other band members still enjoyed the demo recording so much that they vowed to officially release an alternate version eventually.<ref name="simpleminds.com Act Of Love">{{cite web |title=simpleminds.com > 14 Jan, 2022 Out Now – Act Of Love |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2022/01/14/new-single-act-of-love/ |date= 14 January 2022 |website=simpleminds.com |accessdate= 20 January 2022}}</ref>

On 21 October 2022 the band released their studio album ''[[Direction of the Heart]]'' via [[BMG Rights Management|BMG]]. The very same day, they released the lead single "Vision Thing" for free. [[COVID-19]] quarantine restrictions prevented Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill, who both resided in [[Sicily]], from traveling to the UK, so the new album had been recorded in [[Hamburg]], with most tracks written, created and demoed in Sicily.<ref name="simpleminds.com Direction of the Heart release announcement">{{cite web |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2022/06/14/new-album-direction-of-the-heart/ |title=Direction of the Heart – the new album from Simple Minds |date= 14 June 2022 |website=simpleminds.com |accessdate= 15 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="nme.com Direction of the Heart release announcement">{{cite web |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/simple-minds-announce-new-album-direction-of-the-heart-share-single-vision-thing-3247603 |title=Simple Minds announce new album 'Direction Of The Heart' and share single 'Vision Thing' (The follow-up to 2018's 'Walk Between Worlds' is out in October) (by Arusa Qureshi) |date= 14 June 2022 |website=nme.com |accessdate= 16 June 2022}}</ref> On 9 July 2022, Simple Minds released a lyric video for "Vision Thing" on YouTube.<ref name="youtube Simple Minds Vision Thing">{{cite web |url=https://youtube.com/watch?src=Linkfire&lId=4e233531-73c3-42ac-b54d-e101372f4dd5&cId=fb37ec4f-c8e9-4e3f-ac04-f165c53e7ef9&v=bFl8LK3eunk |title= Simple Minds - Vision Thing (Lyric Video) (4:39) |date= 9 July 2022 |via=YouTube |accessdate= 10 July 2022}}</ref> A fourth single from the album, "Solstice Kiss", released in October 2023, became a hit in the UK, reaching No. 2 on the [[UK Vinyl Singles Chart]] and entering the Top 40 on the [[UK Singles Chart]] for one week at No. 31.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/simple-minds-solstice-kiss/ |title=Simple Minds Solstice Kiss |publisher=Official Charts }}</ref> Former member [[John Giblin]] died on 14 May 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/kate-bush-pays-tribute-to-bassist-john-giblin-who-has-died-aged-71-3444421 | title=Kate Bush pays tribute to bassist John Giblin, who has died aged 71 | website=[[NME]] | date=16 May 2023 }}</ref>

On 27 October 2023, Simple Minds released the live album ''New Gold Dream – Live From Paisley Abbey'', a recording of the one-off performance of their 1982 album ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)]]'' for [[Sky Group|Sky TV]]'s Greatest Albums Live series, held at [[Paisley Abbey]].<ref>{{cite web |title=New Gold Dream - Live From Paisley Abbey |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2023/10/27/new-gold-dream-live-from-paisley-abbey-2/ |website=SIMPLEMINDS.COM |date=27 October 2023}}</ref> On 29 December 2023, Charlie Burchill announced that Erik Ljunggren would be joining the group on keyboards for the band's 2024 tour.<ref>[https://www.facebook.com/simpleminds/posts/910030580486546 Simple Minds Facebook Page > post on 29 December 2023]</ref>

On 10 December 2024, Simple Minds released a brand new single entitled "Your Name in Lights" also featured on the soundtrack of the career-spanning documentary ''Everything Is Possible'' also available the same day to stream and download on [[BBC iPlayer]].<ref>[https://www.facebook.com/share/pdXcaBTVe44tG7zq/ Simple Minds Official Facebook page > post "Simple Minds today release a brand new single "Your Name in Lights"!" on 10 December 2024]</ref>

==Concert tours==
{{Main|List of Simple Minds concert tours}}

==Discography==
{{Main|Simple Minds discography}}
{{col div}}
* ''[[Life in a Day (album)|Life in a Day]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Real to Real Cacophony]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Empires and Dance]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Sons and Fascination/Sister Feelings Call]]'' (1981)
* ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)|New Gold Dream (81-82-83-84)]]'' (1982)
* ''[[Sparkle in the Rain]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Once Upon a Time (Simple Minds album)|Once Upon a Time]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Real Life (Simple Minds album)|Real Life]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Good News from the Next World]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Néapolis (album)|Néapolis]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]'' (1999/2004)
* ''[[Neon Lights (album)|Neon Lights]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Black & White 050505]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Acoustic (Simple Minds album)|Acoustic]]'' (2016)
* ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Direction of the Heart]]'' (2022)
{{col div end}}

==Selected videography==
The release dates are the original ones and the formats mentioned are the most recent versions officially available (not necessarily the original release formats).

* 1990: ''Verona'' {{small|(VHS; May 1990; Virgin Music Video VVD 610) (in 2003, this video was remixed in 5:1 surround sound and released as part of the ''Seen The Lights – A Visual History'' double DVD set)}}
* 1992: ''Glittering Prize 81/92'' {{small|(VHS; October 1992; Virgin Music Video VVD 1103)}}
* 2003: ''Seen The Lights – A Visual History'' {{small|(DVD; release dates: 28 October 2003 in some parts of Europe, 1 November 2003 in Russia, 3 November 2003 in UK and some other parts of Europe, 18 November 2003 in Canada; Virgin SMDVD 1) (this is the first-ever Simple Minds commercial (double) DVD, featuring over four hours and twenty minutes of archived footage; the first disc includes the majority of the band's promotional videos; the second disc is devoted to ''Verona'', the band's first video originally released in 1990 in VHS format, up-mixed here to 5.1 surround sound)}}
* 2014: ''Celebrate – Live at the SSE Hydro Glasgow'' {{small|(limited edition Deluxe DVD book set; release date: June 2014; including four discs: one 21-track DVD of the entire concert filmed and recorded on 27 November 2013 at the SSE Hydro, Glasgow, UK; one DVD of exclusive interview footage and photo gallery; two fully mixed audio CDs of the entire concert + a bound book featuring specially-written notes and exclusive live photos from the Celebrate tour + photographic print individually autographed by the band)}}<ref name="www.discogs.com Simple Minds Celebrate Live At The SSE Hydro Glasgow">{{cite web |url=https://www.discogs.com/fr/Simple-Minds-Celebrate-Live-At-The-SSE-Hydro-Glasgow/release/5763815 |title=Simple Minds – Celebrate (Live At The SSE Hydro Glasgow) |date= January 2020 |website=Discogs.com |access-date= 17 January 2020}}</ref>

==Awards and nominations==
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Year !! Awards !! Work !! Category !! Result !! Ref.
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1985
| rowspan="2" | [[MTV Video Music Awards]]
| rowspan="2" | "[[Don't You (Forget About Me)]]"
| Best Art Direction
| {{nom}}
|-
| Best Direction
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1986
| [[American Music Awards]]
| rowspan="4" | Themselves
| Favorite Pop/Rock Video Band/Duo/Group
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Brit Awards]]
| Best British Group
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Pollstar]] Concert Industry Awards
| Next Major Arena Headliner
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Smash Hits Poll Winners Party]]
| Best Group
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan=2|[[ASCAP Pop Music Awards]]
| "[[Don't You (Forget About Me)]]"
| rowspan=2|Most Performed Songs
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT76|title = Billboard|date = 14 June 1986}}</ref>
|-
| 1987
| "[[Alive and Kicking (song)|Alive and Kicking]]"
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/Billboard/80s/1987/Billboard-1987-06-06.pdf#page=24|format=PDF|page=24|title=Billboard|date=6 June 1987|website=Worldradiohistory.com|access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 1989
| [[Music & Media|Music & Media Year-End Awards]]
| Themselves
| Group of the Year
| {{draw|2nd place}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Music-and-Media/80s/1989/M&M-1989-12-23.pdf|title=Music & Media|date=23 December 1989|website=Worldradiohistory.com|access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 1990
| [[Brit Awards]]
| "[[Belfast Child]]"
| Best British Single
| {{nom}}
|-
| 1991
| rowspan="2" | [[Q Awards]]
| rowspan="3" | Themselves
| Best Live Act
| {{won}}
|-
| 2014
| Q Inspiration Award
| {{won}}
|-
| 2016
| [[Ivor Novello Award]]
| Outstanding Song Collection
| {{won}}
|-
| 2018
|[[Best Art Vinyl]]
|''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]''
| Best Art Vinyl
| {{nominated}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://artvinyl.com/award-year/2018/|title=Best Art Vinyl Awards 2018 |website=Artvinyl.com|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2|2019
| rowspan=2|[[Classic Pop (magazine)|Classic Pop Readers' Awards]]
| rowspan=2|Themselves
| Group of the Year
| {{nom}}
| rowspan=2|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.classicpopmag.com/2019/01/2018-reader-awards/|title=There's still time to vote in our 2018 Reader Awards!|website=Classicpopmag.com|date=2 January 2019|access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref>
|-
| Live Act of the Year
| {{nom}}
|}

==Personnel==
===Current members===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" border="1"
! width="75" | Image
! width="140" | Name
! width="90" | Years active
! width="160" | Instruments
! Release contributions
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Simple_Minds_-_2018173230404_2018-06-22_Rock_the_Ring_-_1D_X_MK_II_-_2793_-_AK8I5209.jpg|bSize=425|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=70|oLeft=150}}
| [[Jim Kerr]]
| rowspan="2" | 1977–present
| lead vocals
| rowspan="2" | [[Simple Minds discography|all releases]]
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Simple_Minds_-_2018173230337_2018-06-22_Rock_the_Ring_-_1D_X_MK_II_-_2737_-_AK8I5153.jpg|bSize=350|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=45|oLeft=155}}
| [[Charlie Burchill]]
| {{hlist|electric & acoustic guitars|violin|saxophone|keyboards|occasional backing vocals}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=2017 Simple Minds - Ged Grimes - by 2eight - 8SC5787.jpg|bSize=335|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=35|oLeft=110}}
| [[Ged Grimes]]
| 2010–present
| {{hlist|bass guitar|backing vocals}}
| rowspan="2" | all releases from ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]'' (2014) onwards
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Simple Minds - Live in Ipswich Regent Theatre 4th May 2015 - 17196403920.jpg|bSize=850|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=75|oLeft=185}}
| Sarah Brown
| 2017–present {{small|(live member 2009–2017)}}
| backing vocals
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=2017 Simple Minds - by 2eight - DSC4331.jpg|bSize=325|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=20|oLeft=115}}
| Gordy Goudie
| 2017–present {{small|(session member 2001–2017)}}
| {{hlist|additional guitar|keyboards|harmonica|tambourine|maracas|backing vocals|dancing}}
| {{flatlist|
* ''[[Neon Lights (album)|Neon Lights]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Acoustic (Simple Minds album)|Acoustic]]'' (2016)
* ''[[Acoustic in Concert]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'' (2018)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Cherisse_Osei_by_myb777_photography_(6).jpg|bSize=375|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=35|oLeft=175}}
| [[Cherisse Osei]]
| 2017–present
| drums
| all releases from ''Acoustic in Concert'' (2017) onwards
|}

===Former members===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" border="1"
! width="75" | Image
! width="140" | Name
! width="90" | Years active
! width="160" | Instruments
! Release contributions
|-
|
| [[Brian McGee (drummer)|Brian McGee]]
| {{hlist|1977–1981|1996}}
| {{hlist|drums|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|
* all releases from ''[[Life in a Day (album)|Life in a Day]]'' (1979) to ''[[Themes for Great Cities 79/81]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Celebration (Simple Minds album)|Celebration]]'' (1982)
* ''[[Silver Box]]'' (2004)}}
|-
|
| Tony Donald
| 1977–1978
| bass
| rowspan="4" | none
|-
|
| John Milarky
| rowspan="2" | 1977
| lead guitar
|-
|
| Allan McNeill
| rowspan="2" | rhythm guitar
|-
|
| Duncan Barnwell
| 1978
|-
|
| [[Mick MacNeil]]
| 1978–1990
| {{hlist|composer|keyboards|piano|synthesizers|accordion|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* all releases from ''Life in a Day'' (1979) to ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (1989)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Derek_Forbes_CamGlen_Radio_7_Dec_2018.jpg|bSize=150|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=50|oLeft=30}}
| [[Derek Forbes]]
| {{hlist|1978–1985|1996–1998}}
| {{hlist|bass guitar|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* all releases from ''Life in a Day'' (1979) to ''[[Sparkle in the Rain]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Live in the City of Light]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Néapolis (album)|Néapolis]]'' (1998)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|
| [[Kenny Hyslop]]
| 1981–1982
| drums
| rowspan="2" | {{flatlist|* ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)|New Gold Dream (81-82-83-84)]]'' (1982)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Mike_Ogletree_New_York_2010.jpg|bSize=300|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=35|oLeft=95}}
| [[Mike Ogletree]]
| 1982
| {{hlist|drums|percussion}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Mel Gaynor Simple Minds.jpg|bSize=625|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=138|oLeft=285}}
| [[Mel Gaynor]]
| {{hlist|1982–1991|1997–1998|2002–2016}}
| {{hlist|drums|percussion|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* all releases from ''New Gold Dream (81-82-83-84)'' (1982) to ''[[Real Life (Simple Minds album)|Real Life]]'' (1991)
* ''Néapolis'' (1998)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)
* ''[[Black & White 050505]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'' (2018)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=John Giblin.jpg|bSize=500|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=60|oLeft=255}}
| [[John Giblin]]
| 1985–1989
| rowspan="2" | bass guitar
| {{flatlist|* ''[[Once Upon a Time (Simple Minds album)|Once Upon a Time]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Live in the City of Light]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (1989)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|
| Eddie Duffy
| 1999–2010
| {{flatlist|
* ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]'' (1999/2004)
* ''[[Black & White 050505]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)}}
|-
|
| Andy Gillespie
| {{hlist|2002–2005|2007–2016}}
| {{hlist|keyboards|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)
* ''Big Music'' (2014)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=The Anchoress (52614577849).jpg|bSize=450|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=60|oLeft=250}}
| [[The Anchoress (musician)|Catherine AD]]
| 2014-2018
| {{hlist|keyboards|backing and occasional lead vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* ''Acoustic in Concert'' (2017)
* ''Walk Between Worlds'' (2018)}}
|}

===Live and session musicians===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" border="1"
! width="75" |Image
! width="140" |Name
! width="90" |Years active
! width="160" |Instruments
!Release contributions
|-
|
|Paul Wishart
|1980
|saxophone
|Empires and Dance tour
|-
|
|[[Robin Clark]]
| rowspan="2" |1985–1986
|vocals
| rowspan="2" |{{flatlist|* Once Upon a Time album and tour
* ''Live in the City of Light'' (1987)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=SueHadjopoulosPercussionPromo2020221lighten_9_20_(1).jpg|bSize=700|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=45|oLeft=120}}
|[[Sue Hadjopoulos]]
| rowspan="2" |percussion
|-
|
|Andy Duncan
| rowspan="3" |1989
|{{flatlist|* Street Fighting Years tour
* ''Real Life'' (1991)}}
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Lisa-Germano.jpg|bSize=350|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=20|oLeft=105}}
|[[Lisa Germano]]
|violin
|{{flatlist|* Street Fighting Years tour
* ''Live in the City of Light'' (1987)
* ''Street Fighting Years'' (1989)
* ''Real Life'' (1991)}}
|-
|
|Annie McCaig
|vocals
|Street Fighting Years tour
|-
|
|[[Malcolm Foster]]
|1989–1995
|bass guitar
|{{flatlist|* ''Real Life'' (1991)
* ''[[Good News from the Next World]]'' (1995)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|
|[[Peter-John Vettese]]
|1990
| rowspan="2" |keyboards
|{{flatlist|* ''Real Life'' (1991)
* ''Walk Between Worlds'' (2018)}}
|-
|
|Mark Taylor
|{{Hlist|1991–1999|2005–2007}}
|''Silver Box'' (2004)
|-
|
|Timothy Scott Bennett
|1993<ref>"Don't Forget" – article by Peter Walsh in 'Q' Magazine, April 1997</ref>
| rowspan="2" |drums
|
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Mark Schulman 04.jpg|bSize=750|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=136|oLeft=366}}
|[[Mark Schulman]]
|1994–1995
|{{flatlist|* Good News from the Next World album and tour
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|
|Mark Kerr
|{{Hlist|1999|2002}}
|{{Hlist|drums {{small|(1999)}}|guitar {{small|(2002)}}}}
|{{flatlist|* ''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]'' (2002)
* ''Our Secrets Are the Same'' (1999/2004)}}
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Heaven17 Nocturnal Culture Night 14 2019 04.jpg|bSize=400|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=85|oLeft=150}}
|Berenice Scott
|2020–2023
|{{Hlist|keyboards|backing vocals}}
| rowspan="2" |none
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=A-ha at the MEN Arena, Manchester, 20 November 2010.jpg|bSize=760|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=300|oLeft=595}}
|[[:no:Erik_Ljunggren|Erik Ljunggren]]
|2023–present
|keyboards
|}

====Timeline====
{{#tag:timeline|
ImageSize = width:900 height:auto barincrement:20
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Alignbars = justify
DateFormat = mm/dd/yyyy
Period = from:01/01/1977 till:{{#time:m/d/Y}}
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ScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1977

Colors =
id:Vocals value:red legend:Vocals
id:Guitar value:green legend:Guitar
id:Keyboards value:purple legend:Keyboards
id:Bass value:blue legend:Bass
id:Drums value:orange legend:Drums
id:BVocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals
id:Lines1 value:black legend:Studio_albums
id:Lines2 value:gray(0.85) legend:Recording_of_live_and_video_albums

LineData =
at:03/10/1979 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:11/01/1979 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:09/01/1980 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:09/12/1981 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:09/13/1982 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:02/06/1984 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:10/21/1985 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:05/11/1987 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:05/08/1989 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:04/08/1991 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:02/07/1995 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:03/16/1998 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:05/01/1998 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:10/08/2001 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:04/01/2002 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:09/12/2005 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:04/15/2007 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:04/22/2007 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:05/25/2009 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:07/01/2011 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:11/19/2012 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:06/01/2014 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:10/31/2014 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:01/01/2015 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:11/14/2015 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:02/02/2018 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:10/04/2019 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:10/21/2022 color:Lines1 layer:back

BarData =
bar:Kerr text:"Jim Kerr"
bar:Burchill text:"Charlie Burchill"
bar:Milarky text:"John Milarky"
bar:McNeill text:"Allan McNeill"
bar:Barnwell text:"Duncan Barnwell"
bar:Goudie text:"Gordon Goudie"
bar:Donald text:"Tony Donald"
bar:Forbes text:"Derek Forbes"
bar:Giblin text:"John Giblin"
bar:Duffy text:"Eddy Duffy"
bar:Grimes text:"Ged Grimes"
bar:McGee text:"Brian McGee"
bar:Hyslop text:"Kenny Hyslop"
bar:Ogletree text:"Mike Ogletree"
bar:Gaynor text:"Mel Gaynor"
bar:Osei text:"Cherisse Osei"
bar:MacNeil text:"Mick MacNeil"
bar:Gillespie text:"Andy Gillespie"
bar:Scott text:"Berenice Scott"
bar:Brown text:"Sarah Brown"
bar:AD text:"Catherine AD"

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bar:Kerr from:start till:end color:Vocals
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bar:Burchill from:start till:end color:Guitar
bar:Barnwell from:01/01/1978 till:01/01/1979 color:Guitar
bar:Burchill from:11/30/1989 till:end color:Keyboards width:3
bar:Milarky from:start till:12/01/1977 color:Guitar
bar:McNeill from:start till:12/01/1977 color:Guitar
bar:Goudie from:01/01/2017 till:end color:Guitar
bar:Goudie from:01/01/2017 till:end color:Keyboards width:7
bar:Goudie from:01/01/2017 till:end color:BVocals width:3
bar:Donald from:start till:04/01/1978 color:Bass
bar:Forbes from:04/01/1978 till:06/30/1985 color:Bass
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bar:Forbes from:06/01/1996 till:12/31/1998 color:Bass
bar:Forbes from:06/01/1996 till:12/31/1998 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Giblin from:07/01/1985 till:05/31/1989 color:Bass
bar:Duffy from:01/01/1999 till:06/30/2010 color:Bass
bar:Grimes from:07/01/2010 till:end color:Bass
bar:Grimes from:07/01/2010 till:end color:BVocals width:3
bar:McGee from:start till:06/30/1981 color:Drums
bar:McGee from:start till:06/30/1981 color:BVocals width:3
bar:McGee from:06/01/1996 till:11/30/1996 color:Drums
bar:McGee from:06/01/1996 till:11/30/1996 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Hyslop from:07/01/1981 till:04/30/1982 color:Drums
bar:Ogletree from:05/01/1982 till:08/31/1982 color:Drums
bar:Gaynor from:09/01/1982 till:12/31/1991 color:Drums
bar:Gaynor from:09/01/1982 till:12/31/1991 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Gaynor from:01/01/1997 till:12/31/1998 color:Drums
bar:Gaynor from:01/01/1997 till:12/31/1998 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Gaynor from:01/01/2002 till:12/31/2016 color:Drums
bar:Gaynor from:01/01/2002 till:12/31/2016 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Osei from:01/01/2017 till:end color:Drums
bar:MacNeil from:03/01/1978 till:11/30/1990 color:Keyboards
bar:MacNeil from:03/01/1978 till:11/30/1990 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Gillespie from:02/01/2002 till:12/31/2005 color:Keyboards
bar:Gillespie from:02/01/2002 till:12/31/2005 color:bvocals width:3
bar:Gillespie from:04/01/2007 till:12/31/2016 color:Keyboards
bar:Gillespie from:04/01/2007 till:12/31/2016 color:bvocals width:3
bar:Scott from:01/17/2020 till:12/28/2023 color:Keyboards
bar:Scott from:01/17/2020 till:12/28/2023 color:BVocals width:3
bar:AD from:10/22/2014 till:07/15/2018 color:Keyboards width:3
bar:AD from:10/22/2014 till:07/15/2018 color:BVocals
bar:Brown from:01/01/2009 till:end color:BVocals
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.simpleminds.com/ Simple Minds official web site]
* [http://www.simpleminds.org/home.htm Dream Giver Redux], an unofficial (fan) website devoted to the band
* {{AllMusic|class=artist|id=mn0000049374}}
* {{discogs artist}}
* {{IMDb name|1277477}}

{{Portalbar|United Kingdom|Scotland|Biography|Music|Rock music|Pop music|1970s|1980s|1990s|2000s|2010s}}

{{Simple Minds}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1977 establishments in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:A&M Records artists]]
[[Category:Arena rock musical groups]]
[[Category:Arista Records artists]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]
[[Category:British synth-pop new wave groups]]
[[Category:Chrysalis Records artists]]
[[Category:Eagle Records artists]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1977]]
[[Category:Rock music groups from Glasgow]]
[[Category:Scottish art rock groups]]
[[Category:Scottish new wave musical groups]]
[[Category:Scottish post-punk music groups]]
[[Category:Second British Invasion artists]]
[[Category:Sire Records artists]]
[[Category:Virgin Records artists]]

Simple Minds

2025-02-03T21:07:21Z

Omcsesz: /* Early years (1977–1979) */

{{Short description|Scottish rock band}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Simple Minds
| background = group_or_band
| image = GreenDayIOW230624 (230 of 367) (53818507958).jpg
| image_size =
| landscape = yes
| caption = Simple Minds performing at the [[Isle of Wight Festival]] 2024
| origin = [[Glasgow]], Scotland
| genre = {{hlist|[[Post-punk]]<ref name="AllMusic">{{cite web | url= http://www.allmusic.com/artist/simple-minds-mn0000049374/biography | title= Artist Biography by Steve Huey | website=[[AllMusic]] | first=Steve | last=Huey | access-date=6 December 2015}}</ref>|[[art rock]]<ref name="AllMusic"/>|[[New wave music|new wave]]<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidchiu/2019/11/25/simple-minds-jim-kerr-40-year-career-dont-you-forget-about-me/?sh=5e35c2f910f6 | title= Simple Minds' Jim Kerr On The Band's 40-Year Career, And The Unlikely Story Of 'Don't You (Forget About Me)' | work=[[Forbes]] | first=David | last=Chiu | date=25 November 2019 | access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref>|[[arena rock]]<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.popmatters.com/jim-kerr-simple-minds-interview-2532717015.html | title= A long walk between worlds: Jim Kerr on Simple Minds' new album and 40-year musical legacy | work=[[PopMatters]] | first=Chris | last=Gerard | date=12 February 2018 | access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref>|[[synth-pop]]<ref>{{cite magazine|title= Simple Minds – Good News from the Next World |magazine= [[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]] |volume= 107 |issue= 7 |date= 18 February 1995 |page= 66 |issn= 0006-2510 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=wgsEAAAAMBAJ&q=%22synth+pop%22&pg=PA66}}</ref>}}
| years_active = 1977–present
| label = {{hlist|[[Virgin Records|Virgin]]|[[Zoom Records (Scotland)|Zoom]]|[[Arista Records|Arista]]|[[Sire Records|Sire]]|[[Chrysalis Records|Chrysalis]]|[[Eagle Rock Entertainment|Eagle]]|[[A&M Records|A&M]]|[[BMG Rights Management|BMG]]}}
| spinoffs = {{hlist|[[Propaganda (band)|Propaganda]]|[[Endgames (band)|Endgames]]|[[Ex-Simple Minds]]}}
| alias = Johnny & the Self-Abusers (1977)
| website = {{Official URL}}
| current_members = * [[Jim Kerr]]
* [[Charlie Burchill]]
* [[Ged Grimes]]
* Sarah Brown
* Mark Taylor
* Gordy Goudie
* [[Cherisse Osei]]
* Erik Ljunggren
| past_members = See [[Simple Minds#Former members|Former members]]
}}
'''Simple Minds''' are a Scottish [[Rock music|rock]] band formed in [[Glasgow]] in 1977, becoming best known internationally for their song "[[Don't You (Forget About Me)]]" (1985), which topped the ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]] in the United States. Other commercially successful singles include "[[Promised You a Miracle]]" (1982), "[[Glittering Prize]]" (1982), "[[Someone Somewhere in Summertime]]" (1982), "[[Waterfront (song)|Waterfront]]" (1983), "[[Alive and Kicking (song)|Alive and Kicking]]" (1985), "[[Sanctify Yourself]]" (1986), "[[Let There Be Love (Simple Minds song)|Let There Be Love]]" (1991), "[[She's a River]]" (1995), and the [[List of UK Singles Chart number ones of the 1980s|UK number one single]] "[[Belfast Child]]" (1989).

Simple Minds have achieved 24 top 40 singles on the [[UK Singles Chart]], and 23 top 40 albums on the [[UK Albums Chart]],<ref name="oc">{{Cite web |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/28243/simple-minds/ |title=Simple Minds Official Chart History |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]] }}</ref> including five [[Lists of UK Albums Chart number ones|number one]] albums:<ref name="simpleminds.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/history-simple-minds/|title=History Of Simple Minds|website=Simpleminds.com|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> ''[[Sparkle in the Rain]]'' (1984), ''[[Once Upon a Time (Simple Minds album)|Once Upon a Time]]'' (1985), ''[[Live in the City of Light]]'' (1987), ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (1989), and ''[[Glittering Prize 81/92]]'' (1992).<ref name="oc" /> They have sold more than 60 million albums worldwide,<ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.hmv.com/music/simple-minds-interview-2018-jim-kerr-walk-between-worlds | title= "When I say that there are a few songs about faith, I don't mean it in a religious sense..." hmv.com talks to Simple Minds frontman Jim Kerr |publisher=HMV | date=1 February 2018 | access-date=14 April 2018}}</ref> and were the most commercially successful Scottish band of the 1980s.<ref>{{cite book |editor-first=David |editor-last=Roberts |title=British Hit Singles and Albums|year=2006|page=500|publisher=Guinness World Records Limited|isbn=978-1904994107}}</ref> Simple Minds have had chart success in the United States, Australia, Germany, Spain, Italy and New Zealand.<ref name="simpleminds.com"/> Despite various personnel changes, they continue to record and tour.

In 2014, Simple Minds were awarded the [[Q (magazine)|''Q'' Inspiration Award]] for their contribution to the music industry and an [[Ivor Novello Awards|Ivor Novello Award]] in 2016 for Outstanding Song Collection from the [[The Ivors Academy|British Academy of Songwriters, Composers, and Authors]] (BASCA).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2016/05/19/simple-minds-win-ivor-novello-award/|title=Simple Minds Win Ivor Novello Award|website=Simpleminds.com|date=19 May 2016|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> Other notable recognitions include nominations for both the [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Direction]] and [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Art Direction]] for "Don't You (Forget About Me)" in 1985, nomination for the [[Brit Award for British Group]] in 1986 and for the [[American Music Award for Favorite Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group]] in 1987.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/search?q=Pop/Rock+Band/Duo/Group+Video+Artist&stick=H4sIAAAAAAAAAONgFuLUz9U3MDQryzJV4gIxq5JySqrStZSyk630E8sTi1IgZHx5Zl5eapFVXn5uZl5iSWZ-XvEjxnhugZc_7glLhU1ac_IaYwAXEZqE1LjYXPNKMksqhWS4eKUQtmswSHFzIbhWTBpMPItYVQLyC_SD8pOzFZwS81L0XUrz9d2L8ksLFMIyU1LzFRyLSjKLSyawMQIAylDK28kAAAA|title=Pop/Rock Band/Duo/Group Video Artist - Google Search|website=Google.com|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref> "Belfast Child" was nominated for the [[Brit Award for Song of the Year|Song of the Year]] at the [[Brit Awards 1990]].

Singer [[Jim Kerr]] and guitarist [[Charlie Burchill]] are the two members who have been with the band throughout its whole history, and the only current permanent members and songwriters. As of 2023, the other current members of the live and studio band are bassist [[Ged Grimes]], drummer [[Cherisse Osei]], backing singer Sarah Brown, guitarist and keyboardist Gordy Goudie and keyboardist Erik Ljunggren. Notable former members include keyboardist [[Mick MacNeil]], bassists [[Derek Forbes]] and [[John Giblin]] and drummers [[Brian McGee (drummer)|Brian McGee]] and [[Mel Gaynor]].<ref name="Larkin">{{cite book|title=[[Encyclopedia of Popular Music|The Virgin Encyclopedia of Popular Music]]|editor=[[Colin Larkin (writer)|Colin Larkin]]|publisher=[[Virgin Books]]|date=1997|edition=Concise|isbn=1-85227-745-9|pages=1088/9}}</ref>

==History==
===Early years (1977–1979)===
Simple Minds originated from the [[punk rock|punk]] band Johnny & The Self-Abusers, formed in early 1977 on [[Glasgow#South Side|Glasgow's South Side]],<ref name="Larkin"/> as the brainchild of Alan Cairnduff. Cairnduff left the organisation of the band to John Milarky, suggesting that he enlist two strangers, singer and lyricist [[Jim Kerr]] and guitarist [[Charlie Burchill]]. Kerr and Burchill, who had been acquainted since age eight, roped in their school friends [[Brian McGee (drummer)|Brian McGee]] and Tony Donald to play drums and bass respectively. Milarky served as singer, guitarist and saxophonist, and recruited his friend Allan McNeill to be the band's third guitarist. Kerr doubled on keyboards, and Burchill also played violin.<ref name=sm-genesis>{{cite web |title=Simple Minds Genesis & Formation |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/1977/04/05/simple-minds-genesis-formation/ |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date=23 June 2024}}</ref>

On 11 April 1977, Johnny & The Self-Abusers held their first performance at the Doune Castle pub in Glasgow, following up two weeks later as the opening act for [[Generation X (band)|Generation X]] in Edinburgh. They performed concerts in Glasgow over the ensuing summer, but a split developed in the band, with Milarky and McNeill forming one faction and the other consisting of Kerr, Donald, Burchill and McGee;<ref name=sm-genesis/> {{cns|date=June 2024|at the same time, Milarky's compositions were being edged out in favour of those of Kerr and Burchill.}} In November 1977, Johnny & The Self-Abusers released their only single, "Saints and Sinners", on [[Chiswick Records]] (which was dismissed as being "rank and file" in a ''Melody Maker'' review). The band split on the same day that the single was released, with Milarky and McNeill going on to form The Cuban Heels. Ditching the stage names and the overt punkiness, the remaining members continued together as Simple Minds (naming themselves after a [[David Bowie]] lyric from his song "[[Jean Genie]]"),<ref name=simpleminds.com/> making their very first performance at Glasgow's Satellite City on 17 January 1978.<ref name="simpleminds.com Act Of Love" />

In January 1978, Simple Minds recruited Duncan Barnwell as a second guitarist (allowing for an optional two-guitar line-up while also enabling Burchill to play violin). Meanwhile, Kerr had abandoned keyboards to concentrate entirely on vocals. In March 1978, Kerr, Burchill, Donald, Barnwell and McGee were joined by the [[Isle of Barra|Barra]]-born keyboard player [[Mick MacNeil]]. The band got a residency at the Mars Bar in Glasgow and played various other venues in Scotland<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/search?artist=73d6ba71&query=tour:%281978+Mars+Bar+Residency%29 |title=Simple Minds 1978 Mars Bar residency |publisher=setlist.fm }}</ref> and rapidly established a reputation as an exciting live act (usually performing in full makeup). Tony Donald quit in April 1978 and was replaced by Duncan Barnwell's friend Derek Forbes (formerly the bass player with The Subs). In May 1978 Simple Minds recorded their first [[demo (music)|demo tape]], including "Chelsea Girl" and some other tracks that would appear on their debut album.<ref name="DT">Dave Thomas ''Simple Minds Glittering Prize'' Omnibus Press 1985, p.17-23</ref> The group were turned down by record companies, but gained a management deal with Bruce Findlay, owner of the Bruce's Records chain of record shops and the [[Zoom Records (Scotland)|Zoom Records]] label.<ref name="DT" /> Championed by his journalist friend Brian Hogg, Findlay was persuaded to sign Simple Minds to his Zoom label which had a licensing deal with [[Arista Records]].<ref name="DT" /> In November 1978, Barnwell was ousted from the band.<ref name="DT" />

From 1979 through until 1981, Simple Minds would continue as a quintet of Kerr, Burchill, MacNeil, Forbes and McGee, operating as a tight-knit collective. Subsequent line-up changes would shrink and diminish this core band, with only founder members being considered to be full members of the creative and compositional team.

===Initial albums (1979–1980)===
During late 1978 and early 1979, Simple Minds began rehearsing the set of Kerr/Burchill-written songs which appear on their debut album.<ref name="DT" /> On 27 March 1979 the band made their first television appearance, performing the songs "Chelsea Girl" and "Life in a Day" on BBC's ''[[The Old Grey Whistle Test]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/setlist/simple-minds/1979/the-old-grey-whistle-test-bbc-television-theatre-london-england-63c4beef.html |title=Simple Minds setlist at The Old Grey Whistle Test |publisher=setlist.fm }}</ref> The first Simple Minds album, ''[[Life in a Day (album)|Life in a Day]]'', was produced by [[John Leckie]] and released by Zoom Records in April 1979. The album's title track "Life in a Day" was released as Simple Minds' first single and reached No. 62 in the [[UK Singles Chart]], with the album reaching No. 30 in the [[UK Albums Chart]].<ref name="Larkin"/> In April/May 1979 they made their first UK tour as supporting act for [[Magazine (band)|Magazine]], who were a major influence on them at the time.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2009/02/11/the-mighty-magazine/ |title=The Mighty Magazine |first=Jim |last=Kerr |date=11 February 2009 |publisher=simpleminds.com }}</ref>

In June 1979 "Chelsea Girl" was released as the second single from the album, failing to reach the chart, while the band continued to tour the UK on their own.<ref name="sm">{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/timeline/index.htm |title=Timeline |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> In September 1979 Simple Minds recorded their next album, ''[[Real to Real Cacophony]]'' at [[Rockfield Studios]] with producer [[John Leckie]] . The songs were mostly conceived in the studio and was a significant departure from the pop tunes of ''Life in a Day''.<ref name="Larkin"/> German [[Krautrock]] was now the band's main influence, adopting a more experimental electronic sound that drew influences from the motorik, repetitive grooves of bands such as [[Neu!]], [[Kraftwerk]] and [[La Düsseldorf]].<ref name="sa">Sean Albiez, David Pattie ''Kraftwerk: Music Non-Stop'' 2011, page 156</ref>

The band began their "Real to Real Cacophony Tour" in Germany and also made a short visit to New York in October 1979.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/search?artist=73d6ba71&query=tour:%28Real+to+Real+Cacophony+Tour%29 |title=Simple Minds Real to Real Cacophony Tour |work=setlist.fm }}</ref> Their performance of the songs "Premonition", "Factory" and "Changeling" at [[Hurrah (nightclub)|Hurrah]] was filmed for [[The Old Grey Whistle Test]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/setlist/simple-minds/1979/hurrah-new-york-ny-6bc4be96.html |title=Simple Minds setlist Hurrah, New York |publisher=setlist.fm}}</ref>

''Real to Real Cacophony'' was released in November 1979. While the band got little marketing support from their record company Arista, who didn't like the album, it received critical acclaim.<ref name="sm" /> The release was followed by their third UK tour of the year and a BBC session for [[John Peel]] in December.<ref name="sm"/> In January 1980 "Changeling" was released as the only single from ''Real to Real Cacophony'', failing to make an impression on the charts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/rtrc/c1.htm |title=Changeling |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> In March they supported [[Gary Numan]] on a couple of gigs, and continued their Real to Real Cacophony Tour until June 1980 with dates mainly in Germany, France and the Netherlands.<ref>[http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1979-2/index.htm Real to Real Cacophony Tour] Dream Giver Redux</ref> In June 1980 Simple Minds entered the studio to record their next album, again with producer [[John Leckie]] at Rockfield Studios.<ref name="sm"/> The band again had a new approach to their music that differed from the previous album, this time aiming for a more repetitive, dance-orientated sound inspired by [[disco music|disco]] music they had heard in nightclubs while touring Europe.<ref>Dave Thomas ''Simple Minds Glittering Prize'' Omnibus Press 1985, p.47</ref>

''[[Empires and Dance]]'' was released in September 1980.<ref name="Larkin"/> Many of the tracks were minimal and featured a significant use of [[Music sequencer|sequencing]], further exploring their repetitive Krautrock-influences with electronic dance grooves.<ref name="sa" /> McNeil's keyboards and Forbes' bass became the main melodic elements in the band's sound, with Burchill's heavily processed guitar becoming more of a textural element. With this album, Kerr began to experiment with non-narrative lyrics based on observations he had made as the band travelled across Europe on tour. While a modest commercial success, ''Empires and Dance'' received enthusiastic response in the British music press<ref>[http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/reviews/ead/pr1.htm New Musical Express 1980] Dream Giver Redux</ref> Simple Minds had caught the attention of [[Peter Gabriel]] who selected them as the opening act on several dates of his European tour starting in August 1980.<ref name="Tour 1980">[http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1980-1/index.htm Empires and Dance Tour 1980] Dream Giver Redux</ref> The tour as support act for Peter Gabriel gave the band the opportunity to play at bigger venues.<ref name="Tour 1980" />

''Empires and Dance'' peaked at no.41 on the UK Albums Chart and dropped out of the chart after three weeks.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/28243/simple-minds/ |title=Simple Minds |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]}}</ref> The band's manager Bruce Findlay later blamed Arista for poor handling of the album and it not being more commercially successful. Initially Arista only released 7500 copies of the album.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2023/jun/27/a-nuclear-reactor-of-music-the-story-of-simple-minds-classic-album-empires-and-dance |title="A nuclear reactor of music": The Story of Simple Minds Classic Album Empires and Dance |first=Graeme |last=Thompson |date=27 June 2023 |work=The Guardian }}</ref> Furthermore, Arista did not release a single to promote the album. "I Travel" was not released as a single until October to promote the Empires and Dance tour. The single sold poorly and did not reach the UK chart, but the 12" version became popular in the US club scene and (based on import sales only) entered the [[Billboard (magazine)|''Billboard'']] Disco Chart at no.80 in early 1981.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/ead/it1.htm |title=I Travel |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> "I Travel" was subsequently reissued twice in the UK, but again failed to reach the singles chart.

===Commercial breakthrough (1981–1983)===
[[File:Simple Minds, New Gold Dream era.jpeg|thumb|right|Simple Minds during the ''New Gold Dream'' era, c. 1983]]

In early 1981, Simple Minds frustration with poor support and marketing by Arista made them threaten to split up rather than continue working with them. They were released from Arista and instead signed to [[Virgin Records]].<ref name="Larkin"/><ref name="sm" /> After the band had left the label, Arista decided to release "Celebrate" as the second single from ''Empires and Dance'' in February 1981 to promote the album, with the earlier single "Changeling" on the b-side to promote ''Real to Real Cacophony'', but this single too sold poorly and failed to chart.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/ead/c1.htm |title=Celebrate |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The following year, Arista put out a compilation album, ''[[Celebration (Simple Minds album)|Celebration]]'', featuring tracks from the three previous albums which reached No. 45 on the UK albums chart.<ref name="oc" /> Following their change of record company, the band demoed new songs and embarked on a club tour in the US and Canada.<ref name="sm" />

In May 1981, Simple Minds' first release on Virgin, the single "The American" reached No. 59 on the UK singles chart.<ref name="sm" /> The band recorded their next album with producer [[Steve Hillage]] and an abundance of new material under much time pressure.<ref name="sm" /> At the end of the recording sessions drummer Brian McGee decided to leave the band, citing exhaustion at Simple Minds' constant touring schedule,<ref name="Larkin"/> and a desire for more time at home with family.<ref name="sm" /> In an interview shortly after, he also cited disappointment that he was not getting enough credit in the band. McGee joined Glasgow band [[Endgames (band)|Endgames]],<ref>{{cite web | title=''The Beginning of the End (Betty Page makes the first move against Glasgow's Endgames)'', Record Mirror, 5 June 1982 | url =http://i.ebayimg.com/images/g/g8gAAOSwMmBVwIuH/s-l1600.jpg}}</ref> and later [[Propaganda (band)|Propaganda]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spirit-of-rock.com/en/band/Propaganda |title=Propaganda |publisher=Spirit of Rock }}</ref> In August, "[[Love Song (Simple Minds song)|Love Song]]" was released and became their highest charting single to date, peaking at No. 47 on the UK singles chart<ref name="oc" /> and an international hit, reaching the top 20 in Australia and Sweden, and no.38 in Canada.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kent|first=David|author-link=David Kent (historian)|title=Australian Chart Book 1970–1992|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Australian Chart Book|location=St Ives, N.S.W.|year=1993|page=275|isbn=0-646-11917-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://swedishcharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Simple+Minds&titel=Love+Song&cat=s|title=Swedishcharts.com }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/obj/028020/f2/nlc008388.0444.pdf| title=RPM Top 50 Singles - January 16, 1982}}</ref> In September 1981, Virgin released the entirety of Simple Minds recent studio sessions on two albums: ''[[Sons and Fascination]]'' and ''[[Sister Feelings Call]]''.<ref name="Larkin"/><ref name="sm" /> The latter album was initially included as a bonus disc with the first 10,000 vinyl copies of ''Sons and Fascination'', but it was later re-issued as an album in its own right.<ref name="Larkin"/> (For the CD release, it was paired on a single disc with ''Sons and Fascination''{{spnd}}at first with two tracks deleted, but in full on later issues). The album reached No. 11 on the UK albums chart,<ref name="oc" /> and was subsequently placed as No. 18 on [[Sounds (magazine)|Sounds]] "Album of the Year"-chart.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rocklistmusic.co.uk/sounds.html |title=''Sounds'' End of Year Lists |publisher=Rocklist.net }}</ref> The next single "Sweat in Bullet" was a remixed version by [[Peter Walsh (producer)|Peter Walsh]] and included two songs recorded live at [[Hammersmith Odeon]] in September.<ref name="sm" /> During this period, the band's visual aesthetic was established, masterminded by [[Malcolm Garrett]]'s graphic design company Assorted iMaGes. Characterised at first by hard, bold typography and photo-collage, Garrett's designs for the band later incorporated pop-religious iconography in clean, integrated package designs that befitted the band's idealised image as neo-romantic purveyors of European anthemic pop.

To replace McGee as drummer (although not as full band member), Simple Minds hired Kenny Hyslop (ex-[[Skids (band)|Skids]], [[Slik]], Zones) to play on the first leg of the Sons and Fascination tour, which included Simple Minds first visit to Australia, touring with [[Icehouse (band)|Icehouse]].<ref name="Larkin"/><ref name="sm" /> Hyslop also played on the studio recording of "[[Promised You a Miracle]]", a song originating in a riff from a tape of funk music Hyslop played on the tour bus, that would become the band's next single.<ref name="pyam">{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/ngd/pyam1.htm |title=Promised You a Miracle |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> Despite this contribution, Hyslop ultimately "didn't fit in" with the band or their management and was replaced for the second leg of the Sons and Fascination tour<ref>[http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1981-2/index.htm Sons and Fascination tour] Dream Giver Redux</ref> by the [[Kilmarnock]]-born percussionist [[Mike Ogletree]] (the former drummer for [[Café Jacques (band)|Café Jacques]]) in early 1982.<ref name="Larkin"/>

Simple Minds started working on their next album in an old farmhouse in [[Fife]]. In February 1982 the songs "Promised You a Miracle" and "King is White and in the Crowd" were premiered on a BBC session for [[Kid Jensen]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/songs/sessions.htm |title=Simple Minds sessions |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The band then moved to [[Townhouse Studios]] for recording sessions with producer [[Peter Walsh (producer)|Peter Walsh]]. The band told Walsh they wanted the album to represent their live sound, so Walsh decided to record it as a live studio album.<ref name="ngd">{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/ngd/ngdlp1.htm |title=New Gold Dream |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> Unsatisfied with Ogletree's drumming style, Walsh introduced them to a [[London]]-born drummer called [[Mel Gaynor]],<ref name="Larkin"/> a 22-year-old session musician with plenty of experience from playing with funk-bands such as [[Beggar and Co]] and [[Light of the World (band)|Light of the World]],<ref>[https://www.simpleminds.com/2016/05/19/new-gold-dream-box-set/ New Gold Dream Box Set] simpleminds.com</ref> who then played drums on the majority of the record, while Ogletree played drums on three tracks.<ref>Dave Thomas ''Simple Minds Glittering Prize'' Omnibus Press 1985, p.71</ref> "[[Promised You a Miracle]]" was released in April 1982 and became Simple Minds first Top 20 single in the UK, peaking at No. 13 and also reaching the Australian Top 10.<ref name="Larkin"/> The song earned the band performances on [[Top of the Pops]] and interviews in teen-orientated pop magazines.<ref name="pyam" /> ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)]]'' was released in September 1982. The album was a commercial breakthrough, spending 53 weeks on the [[UK Albums Chart]], peaking at No. 3 in October 1982.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/albums/simple-minds-new-gold-dream-81828384/ |title=New Gold Dream (81,82,83,84) |publisher=Official charts }}</ref> It generated charting singles including "[[Glittering Prize]]", which also reached the UK Top 20 and Australian Top 10.<ref name="Larkin"/> While some tracks ("[[Promised You a Miracle]]", "Colours Fly and Catherine Wheel") continued the formula perfected on ''Sons and Fascination'', other tracks ("[[Someone Somewhere in Summertime]]", "[[Glittering Prize]]") were pure pop.<ref name="Larkin"/> Jazz keyboardist [[Herbie Hancock]], who recorded in the studio next door, performed a synth solo on the track "Hunter and the Hunted".<ref name="ngd" />

[[File:Simple Minds ticket - Tiffany's Glasgow - 1982-12-20.jpg|thumb|left|Ticket for the band's concert at Tiffany's, Glasgow on 20 December 1982]]

The band embarked on their extensive New Gold tour in September 1982, which included dates in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Canada.<ref name="NGT">{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1982-2/index.htm |title=New Gold Tour |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> Mike Ogletree played on the first leg of the tour, but was asked to leave the band in November 1982, later joining [[Fiction Factory]].<ref name="NGT" /> Mel Gaynor was recruited for the remaining dates<ref name="NGT" /> and retained afterwards, eventually becoming the band's longest-standing drummer (and longest-standing member other than mainstays Burchill and Kerr) despite thrice leaving and returning in the following decades. The band's late 1982 UK dates included a show at City Hall in Newcastle that was recorded by Virgin and later included on the 2003 ''Seen the Lights'' DVD.<ref name="NGT" /> On these dates the band was supported by [[China Crisis]].<ref name="NGT" />

The second leg of the New Gold Dream tour started in March 1983 and included dates in Europe, USA and Canada. In July they performed at festivals such as [[Roskilde Festival]] in Denmark and [[Rock Werchter]] in Belgium.<ref name="NGT" /> Prior to the tour the band had started working on their next album. In August the new song "[[Waterfront (song)|Waterfront]]" was premiered in a live concert. In September the band recorded a BBC session for David Jensen, including "Waterfront" and the newly written "The Kick Inside of Me". In October their next album was recorded with producer [[Steve Lillywhite]] at [[Townhouse Studios]] in London. In November "Waterfront" was released as a single and the band embarked on their Sparkle in the Rain Tour. The opening show at Barrowlands Ballroom in Glasgow was filmed for the "Waterfront" video.<ref name="sm" /> "Waterfront" became their most successful single to date; hitting No. 1 in New Zealand, No. 5 in Ireland, the Top 20 in Australia and Sweden, and No. 13 on the UK chart.<ref name="oc" />

===Mainstream success and political activism (1984–1987)===
[[File:Mandela voting in 1994.jpg|thumb|right|190px|Simple Minds wrote the song "[[Mandela Day (song)|Mandela Day]]" as a homage to South African President [[Nelson Mandela]]]]

''[[Sparkle in the Rain]]'' was released in February 1984.<ref name="Larkin"/> It entered the UK albums chart at number one.<ref name="oc" /> It was preceded by the single "[[Speed Your Love to Me]]" which reached No.20 on the singles chart.<ref name="oc" /> A third single from the album, "[[Up on the Catwalk]]", was subsequently released and also reached the Top 30 in the UK.<ref name="oc" /> ''Sparkle in the Rain'' hit the top 20 in several other countries (including Canada, where it reached No. 13).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6325a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=1 September 2011}}</ref> The band spent much of 1984 touring the world, including Australia, Europe, North America and Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t1983-1/index.htm |title=Sparkle in the Rain Tour |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> In 1984, Jim Kerr married [[Chrissie Hynde]] of the [[Pretenders (band)|Pretenders]] (who renamed herself Christine Kerr).<ref name="Larkin"/> Simple Minds headlined a North American tour supported by [[China Crisis]] during the Canadian leg and supported the Pretenders in the US while Hynde was pregnant with Kerr's daughter. The marriage lasted until 1990.

Despite the band's new-found popularity in the UK, Europe, Canada and Australia, Simple Minds remained essentially unknown in the US. The band's UK releases on Arista were not picked up by Arista USA who had 'right of first refusal' for their releases. The 1985 film ''[[The Breakfast Club]]'' broke Simple Minds into the US market, when the band achieved their only No. 1 U.S. pop hit in April 1985 with the film's opening track, "[[Don't You (Forget About Me)]]",<ref name="Larkin"/> a song written by [[Keith Forsey]] and Steve Schiff;<ref name="Larkin"/> which had previously been offered to [[Billy Idol]] and [[Bryan Ferry]] before Simple Minds agreed to record it. The song soon became a chart-topper in many other countries around the world.

At around this point, the camaraderie that had fuelled Simple Minds began to unravel, and over the next ten years the band's line-up underwent frequent changes. Jim Kerr subsequently recalled "We were knackered. We were desensitized. The band started to fracture. We were lads who had grown up together, we were meant to grow together, politically, spiritually and artistically. But we were getting tired with each other. There was an element of the chore creeping in. We were coasting and this whole other thing was a challenge."<ref>Interview with Jim Kerr in ''Scottish Sunday Times'', 23 September 2001</ref> The first casualty was bassist Derek Forbes, who was beginning to squabble with Kerr. Forbes began failing to turn up for rehearsals, and was dismissed. Forbes remained in touch with the band (and was soon reunited with another former Simple Minds bandmate, drummer Brian McGee, in [[Propaganda (band)|Propaganda]]).

To replace Forbes, Simple Minds hired former [[Brand X]] bass player [[John Giblin]], who owned the band's rehearsal space and was a session musician who had worked with [[Peter Gabriel]] and [[Kate Bush]]. Giblin made his debut with Simple Minds at [[Live Aid]] in [[Philadelphia]], where the band performed "Don't You (Forget About Me)", a new track called "[[Ghost Dancing (Simple Minds song)|Ghost Dancing]]" and "Promised You a Miracle".<ref>{{Cite web|date=13 July 1985|title=Simple Minds Play Live Aid - 1985|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/1985/07/13/simple-minds-play-live-aid-1985/|access-date=2 December 2020|website=SIMPLEMINDS.COM|language=en-GB}}</ref>

During 1985, Simple Minds were in the studio with former [[Tom Petty]]/[[Stevie Nicks]] producer [[Jimmy Iovine]]. In November, ''[[Once Upon a Time (Simple Minds album)|Once Upon a Time]]'' was released;<ref name="Larkin"/> former [[Chic (band)|Chic]] singer [[Robin Clark]], who performed call-and-response vocals with Kerr throughout the album (effectively becoming a second lead singer), and was heavily featured in Simple Minds music videos of the time. The record reached No. 1 in the UK and No. 10 in the US, despite the fact that their major-league breakthrough single "Don't You (Forget About Me)" was not included.<ref name="Larkin"/> ''Once Upon a Time'' went on to generate four worldwide hit singles: "Alive and Kicking", "Sanctify Yourself", "Ghost Dancing" and "All the Things She Said",<ref name="Larkin"/> the last of which featured a music video directed by [[Zbigniew Rybczyński]] that used techniques developed in music videos for bands such as [[Pet Shop Boys]] and [[Art of Noise]]. The band also toured, with both Robin Clark and percussionist Sue Hadjopoulos added to the live line-up.

Because of Simple Minds' powerful stage presence and lyrics that were now beginning to adopt [[Christian symbolism]], the band was criticised by some in the music press as a lesser version of [[U2]], despite the fact that both bands were now heading in different musical directions.<ref name="Larkin"/> The two groups were well-acquainted with one another, and [[Bono]] joined Simple Minds on-stage at the [[Barrowlands]] in Glasgow in 1985 for a live version of "New Gold Dream". Bono also appeared on stage at Simple Minds Croke Park concert and sang "Sun City" during the "Love Song" medley. Derek Forbes also appeared on stage at the Croke Park concert and performed on several songs during the encore. To document their worldwide ''Once Upon a Time Tour'', Simple Minds released the double-live set ''[[Live in the City of Light]]'' in May 1987,<ref name="Larkin"/> which was recorded primarily over two nights in Paris in August 1986.

===''Street Fighting Years'', ''Real Life'' and hiatus (1988–1993)===
{{Quote box
| quote ="When we first heard the live album I thought, What a great night! What dynamics! But is that it for us – rousing choruses and crashing drums? There didnae seem any room for subtlety, and we always seem at our best when we're not trying to be powerful, but there's an underlying power coming through."
| source =—Jim Kerr reflecting on Simple Minds' change of emphasis in the late 1980s (Q Magazine)<ref>"Do Not Disturb – article by Mat Snow in 'Q' Magazine, June 1989</ref>
| width =30em
| align =right
}}

By 1988, Simple Minds had built their own recording premises — the Bonnie Wee Studio — in Scotland. Following the lengthy period of touring to support ''Once Upon a Time'', the remaining core members (Kerr, Burchill and MacNeil) began new writing sessions in Scotland: Gaynor and Giblin pursued session work elsewhere while waiting to be called in. Initially the band began work on an instrumental project called ''Aurora Borealis'' (mostly written by Burchill and MacNeil). This project was then supplanted by an increase in the band's political activism, something which they had begun to stress in recent years (by giving all of the income from the "Ghostdancing" single to Amnesty International, and playing cover versions of Little Steven's "(Ain't Gonna Play) Sun City" on tour), inspired by [[Peter Gabriel]] with whom they had toured in the early 1980s.

Simple Minds were the first band to sign up for [[Nelson Mandela 70th Birthday Tribute|Mandela Day]], a concert held at [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]], London, as an expression of solidarity with the then-imprisoned [[Nelson Mandela]].<ref name="Larkin"/> Bands involved were asked to produce a song especially for the event – Simple Minds were the only act which produced one. This was "[[Mandela Day (song)|Mandela Day]]", which the band played live on the day (alongside cover versions of "Sun City" with Little Steven and a cover version of Peter Gabriel's "Biko" on which Gabriel himself took on lead vocals). "Mandela Day" was released on the ''Ballad of the Streets'' EP, which reached No. 1 in the UK Singles Chart (the only time the band did so).<ref>[http://www.theofficialcharts.com/search.php "Belfast Child" No. 1 in UK Singles Chart] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070729033254/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/search.php |date=29 July 2007 }}. Retrieved 19 August 2007.</ref> Another EP track, "[[Belfast Child]]", was a rewrite of the [[Celtic music|Celtic folk]] song "[[She Moved Through the Fair]]"<ref name="Larkin"/> (which had been introduced to Kerr by John Giblin) with new lyrics written about the ongoing conflict in Northern Ireland). The single was also an expression by Simple Minds of their support for the campaign for the release of [[Beirut]]-held hostage [[Brian Keenan (writer)|Brian Keenan]], kidnapped by the [[Islamic Jihad Organization|Islamic Jihad]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}

The next album ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (produced by [[Trevor Horn]] and [[Stephen Lipson]]) moved away from the American soul and gospel influences of ''Once Upon a Time'' in favour of soundtrack atmospherics and a new incorporation of acoustic and folk music-related ingredients. The lyrics were also more directly political, covering topics including the [[Poll tax (Great Britain)|Poll Tax]], the [[Soweto]] townships, the [[Berlin Wall]] and the stationing of nuclear submarines on the Scottish coast. The band underwent further line-up changes during the recording of ''Street Fighting Years''.<ref name="Larkin"/> Mel Gaynor and John Giblin both contributed to the recording (and, in Giblin's case, to some of the writing) but both had left the band by the time of the album's release, by which time the band was officially listed as a trio of Kerr, Burchill and MacNeil. In a new development for the band, various bass guitar and drum tracks were performed by high-profile guesting session musicians. Gaynor's departure from the band was brief (he was rehired for the following tour).

Released in 1989, the album rose to No. 1 in the UK charts<ref>[http://www.theofficialcharts.com/search.php ''Street Fighting Years'' No. 1 in UK] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070729033254/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/search.php |date=29 July 2007 }}. Retrieved 19 August 2007.</ref> and received a rare five-star review from ''[[Q (magazine)|Q]]'' magazine. It received a less positive review in ''Rolling Stone'' which criticised the band for what the reviewer considered to be political vacuity. "This Is Your Land" was chosen as the lead single for the U.S., and even with guest vocals from [[Lou Reed]], the single failed to make a mark on the pop charts. Reunited with Mel Gaynor, Simple Minds hired Malcolm Foster (ex-[[Pretenders (band)|Pretenders]]) as the new bass player, following a failed attempt to re-recruit Derek Forbes (who declined due to family reasons and a lack of affinity with the new music).<ref>[https://postpunkmonk.com/2023/11/20/simple-minds-bassist-extraordinaire-derek-forbes-unleashes-his-autobiography/ "Simple Minds’ Bassist Extraordinaire Derek Forbes Unleashes His Autobiography"] - review in ''Post Punk Monk'', 20 November 2023</ref><ref>[https://crazyonclassicrock.com/2024/01/05/book-review-a-very-simple-mind-on-tour-by-derek-forbes/ "Book Review: A Very Simple Mind: On Tour by Derek Forbes"] - review in ''Crazy on Classic Rock'' by angiemoonthemod, 5 January 2024</ref> The live band was once again expanded by recruiting three additional touring members: Level 42 backing singer Annie McCaig, percussionist Andy Duncan and violinist [[Lisa Germano]]. Touring began in May 1989, and included the first and only time that the group headlined [[Wembley Stadium (1923)|Wembley Stadium]],<ref>{{cite web |website=WembleyStadium.com|title=Wembley Stadium Concerts history|url=http://www.wembleystadium.com/GloriousPast/greatmemories/stadiumConcerts/stadium+concert+artists.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109022230/http://www.wembleystadium.com/GloriousPast/greatmemories/stadiumConcerts/stadium+concert+artists.htm|archive-date=9 January 2011|access-date=26 September 2011}}</ref> where they were supported by fellow Scottish bands [[The Silencers (band)|The Silencers]], [[Texas (band)|Texas]] and [[Gun (band)|Gun]]. In September, the concert in the Roman amphitheatre [[Verona Arena]] in Italy was recorded for the live video ''Verona'', released by Virgin in 1990, and later included on the ''Seen the Lights'' DVD in 2003.

At the end of the Street Fighting Years tour, Simple Minds laid plans to go to Amsterdam to begin recording a new album. Just before the end of the tour, keyboardist Michael MacNeil announced to the band that he would not be joining them as he needed a break. MacNeil played his last concert with Simple Minds in Brisbane a week later. At the time, MacNeil's departure was put down to health concerns, but he had been gradually suffering disillusionment with the band's lifestyle and touring schedule (as well as what Kerr has referred to as "a number of animated quarrels".<ref name="diary">[https://www.simpleminds.com/2009/12/01/the-spirit-of-macneil/ "The Spirit of MacNeil"] (Jim Kerr online diary entry on Simple Minds website, dated 1 December 2009)</ref>) At around the same time, long-term manager Bruce Findlay was dismissed and over the next few years the band gradually altered to the point where it was a shifting set of musicians around the only remaining core members, Kerr and Burchill.{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}} In December 2009, Kerr retrospectively defended the changes in an online diary entry, although he said that MacNeil's departure had been a "colossal fracture". He also paid tribute to his former bandmate and said that MacNeil had been irreplaceable.<ref name="diary" />

Simple Minds continued to record, hiring keyboard players as and where required. The first of these was session keyboard player [[Peter-John Vettese]] who played live with the band at the Nelson Mandela Freedom Concert and on a short German tour. He was subsequently replaced in the live band by Mark Taylor.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}

In 1991, Simple Minds returned with ''[[Real Life (Simple Minds album)|Real Life]]''. The album's cover showed a trio of Kerr, Burchill and Gaynor and the writing credits for all songs was Kerr/Burchill.<ref name="Larkin"/> The album reached No. 2 in the UK, where it also spawned four Top 40 singles. In the US, "[[See the Lights]]" was the band's last Top 40 pop single. The band toured to support the release, playing as a basic five-piece (Kerr, Burchill, Gaynor, Foster and Taylor) and cutting down on the extended arrangements of the last few large tours. Mel Gaynor left the band in 1992 to pursue session work and other projects, and for the next two years Simple Minds were on hiatus, releasing the compilation album ''[[Glittering Prize 81/92]]'' in 1992.

===''Good News from the Next World'' and ''Néapolis'' (1994–1999)===
Simple Minds returned to activity later in 1994. By now the band was officially a duo of Kerr and Burchill (with the latter taking on keyboards in the studio, as well as guitar). Hiring Keith Forsey (the writer of "Don't You (Forget About Me)") as producer, they began to put together an album which returned to the uplifting arena rock feel of their ''Once Upon a Time'' days. With Gaynor now out of the picture, the remaining instrumentation was covered by session musicians (although Malcolm Foster was included among the bass players used for recording). ''[[Good News from the Next World]]'' was released in 1995.<ref name="Larkin"/> The album reached No. 2 in the UK and produced the Top 10 hit "[[She's a River]]" and the Top 20 single "Hypnotised". The band toured to promote ''Good News from the Next World'', with Malcolm Foster and Mark Taylor as touring bass and keyboard players and Mark Schulman (who had played on the album) on drums. This was Foster's last work with the band, and Schulman returned to session work at the end of the tour.

After being released from their contract with [[Virgin Records]], Simple Minds made use of the skills of their original rhythm section, Derek Forbes and Brian McGee (returning after respective eleven- and fourteen-year absences). Although McGee was not involved beyond the rehearsal stage, Forbes formally rejoined Simple Minds in July 1996. The band then reunited with Mel Gaynor for a studio session in early 1997. Gaynor was reinstated as a full-time member for the European tour (which once again featured Mark Taylor on keyboards). After the tour, album recording sessions were interrupted by Kerr and Burchill's decision to play live (without Forbes, Taylor or Gaynor) as part of the Proms tour (a series of orchestral concerts featuring a mixture of light classical and pop music). The duo played versions of "Alive And Kicking", "Belfast Child" and "Don't You (Forget About Me)" backed by a full orchestra and were billed as Simple Minds.

The new album, ''[[Néapolis (album)|Néapolis]]'' featured Forbes playing bass guitar on all tracks, and Gaynor on one song, "War Babies". Other drum tracks were recorded by session players Michael Niggs and Jim McDermott, with additional percussion programming by [[Transglobal Underground]]/[[Furniture (band)|Furniture]] drummer Hamilton Lee. It was the only Simple Minds album released by [[Chrysalis Records]], who refused to release the album in the U.S., citing lack of interest. The music video for "Glitterball", the album's lead single, was the first production of any kind to film at the [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao|Guggenheim Museum]] in [[Bilbao]], Spain. A European tour followed between March and July 1998, undermined by problems with ill-health and contractual fiascos (including a pull-out from the Fleadh Festival to be replaced by British [[Rock music|rock]] band [[James (band)|James]]).

As Simple Minds' main writing team, Kerr and Burchill had continued to demo and originate material by themselves. For the latest sessions they had shared studio space with a band called Sly Silver Sly who featured Jim Kerr's brother Mark (previously the drummer with [[Gun (band)|Gun]]) and bass guitarist Eddie Duffy, and who were working with American songwriter Kevin Hunter. While in the studio, the two writing and recording projects (including the Hunter co-writes) merged to become the sessions for the next Simple Minds album, ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]''. Once again, Forbes and Gaynor found themselves out of the band: Mark Kerr became the new drummer and Eddie Duffy joined on bass guitar. The new-look Simple Minds made their début with a short set of greatest hits at the Scotland Rocks For Kosovo festival, with Mark Taylor returning on keyboards. The displaced Forbes and Gaynor, having apparently been told that the band was not appearing at the festival, formed a new band of their own to play the same concert.

===''Our Secrets Are the Same'' and ''Cry'' (1999–2005)===

Having delivered ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]'' to Chrysalis, Simple Minds then found themselves caught up in record company politics while Chrysalis, [[EMI]] and other companies attempted to merge with each other. Originally due for release in late 1999, the album remained unreleased after the band mired themselves in lawsuits with Chrysalis. In 2000, the situation became even more complicated when ''Our Secrets Are the Same'' was leaked on the internet. Discouraged with their label's failure to resolve the problems, and with both momentum and potential album sales lost, the band once again went on hiatus. Eddie Duffy, Mark Taylor and Mark Kerr all moved on to other projects. Jim Kerr moved to Sicily and took up a part-time career as a hotelier, although both he and Burchill continued working together on various business interests and kept the idea of the band alive.

In 2001, Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill began working with [[multi-instrumentalist]] Gordon Goudie (ex-[[The Primevals (band)|Primevals]]) on a new Simple Minds album to be called ''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]''. Mark Kerr also contributed to the project (this time as an acoustic guitarist and Burchill's co-writer on several songs) while Kerr brought in various Italian musicians as collaborators, including Planet Funk and Punk Investigation. In parallel to ''Cry'', Simple Minds also recorded an album of covers called ''[[Neon Lights (album)|Neon Lights]]'', featuring Simple Minds versions of songs from artists including [[Patti Smith]], [[Roxy Music]] and [[Kraftwerk]]. ''Neon Lights'' was the first to be completed and released (later in 2001). In the video for the ''Neon Lights'' single "Dancing Barefoot", the band consisted of Jim Kerr, Charlie Burchill, Gordon Goudie and Mark Kerr. A 2-CD compilation, ''[[The Best of Simple Minds]]'', was released soon afterwards.

''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]'' was released in April 2002. Although the album did not sell in great numbers in the U.S., Simple Minds felt confident enough to mount a North American leg of their Floating World tour (named after the instrumental track which closes ''Cry''), their first in seven years. With Goudie opting to remain studio bound (and Mark Kerr leaving the band again), Simple Minds once again recruited Mel Gaynor as tour drummer. The live band was completed by the returning Eddie Duffy on bass guitar and by new keyboard player/programmer Andy Gillespie (of SoundControl). On 28 October 2003, Capitol released ''Seen The Lights – A Visual History'', the first-ever Simple Minds commercial (double) DVD, featuring over four hours and twenty minutes of archive footage. The first disc includes the majority of the band's promotional videos. The second disc is devoted to ''Verona'', the band's first live home video release, which was originally released in VHS format in 1990. It was upmixed to 5.1 surround sound for the DVD, but otherwise remains the same as the original VHS copy.

On 18 October 2004, Simple Minds released a five-CD compilation entitled ''[[Silver Box]]''. This mostly comprised previously unreleased demos, radio and TV sessions and live recordings from 1979 to 1995, but also included the long-delayed ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]''. In July 2005, the band embarked on the "Intimate Tour", a series of low-key European and UK gigs at smaller venues which ended in December 2005. Andy Gillespie was unable to appear at all the gigs, and Mark Taylor returned to cover for him on several occasions. From this point onwards, the two alternated as Simple Minds' live keyboard player, depending on Gillespie's schedule with his other projects.

===''Black & White 050505'' and ''Graffiti Soul'' (2005–2009)===
[[File:Simple Minds.jpg|thumb|left|Frontman Jim Kerr performing with Simple Minds, 2006]]

With the Kerr/Burchill/Duffy/Gaynor lineup, Simple Minds released ''[[Black & White 050505]]'' (their fourteenth studio album), on 12 September 2005. The album's first single, "Home", received airplay on alternative rock radio stations in the US. It reached No. 37 in the UK and was not released in North America. The band spent 2006 touring throughout Europe, the Far East, Australia and New Zealand on the Black And White Tour (with Mark Taylor on keyboards).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2006/index.htm |title=Black and White Tour 2006 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref>

2007 marked the band's 30th anniversary and saw the band embarked on a brief tour of Australia and New Zealand as guests of [[INXS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2007-1/index.htm |title=Simple Minds Australian Tour 2007 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The band continued to release audio and video [[download]] "bundles" through their official website, featuring live music and several short documentary-style videos recorded during their 2006 tour in Edinburgh and [[Brussels]] (including the complete show on 16 February 2006 at the [[Ancienne Belgique]], Brussels, Belgium as "Live Bundles" No. 1 to No. 5 and 6 tracks from the show on 28 August 2006 at the "[[T on the Fringe]]" music festival, Edinburgh, as "Live Bundles" No. 6 & No. 7).{{citation needed|date=May 2022}}

On 27 June 2008, Simple Minds played the 90th birthday tribute to [[Nelson Mandela]] in London's Hyde Park.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2008-4/index.htm |title=46664 Concert Honouring Nelson Mandela At 90 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The band then undertook a short tour of the UK to celebrate their 30th anniversary. During these concerts, the band performed the entire ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)]]'' album and songs from their other albums in a two-part concert performance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2008-2/index.htm |title=Celebrate 30 Years Live |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref> Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill also played a number of concerts with [[Night of the Proms]] across Europe in spring, followed by further shows in late 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2008-3/index.htm |title=Night of the Proms '08 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref>

In June 2008, Kerr and Burchill briefly reunited with the full original band lineup for the first time in twenty-seven years, when meetings with Derek Forbes, Mick MacNeil and Brian McGee led to a studio rehearsal date.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.side-line.com/news_comments.php?id=32152_0_2_0_C |title=Original line-up Simple Minds to record once again |website=Side-line.com |date=9 June 2011 |access-date=1 September 2011}}</ref> However, the reunion rapidly foundered over disagreements regarding control of the band and equal status for all members.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} Reverting to the Kerr/Burchill/Duffy/Gaynor lineup, Simple Minds released a new studio album entitled ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' on 25 May 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/gs/gslpf1.htm |title=Graffiti Soul |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> On the November/December Graffiti Soul UK tour they were supported by [[Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark]] as special guests.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2009-2/index.htm |title=Graffiti Soul Tour |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> A new record label, W14/Universal label, had purchased the Sanctuary label in early 2009. Former Sanctuary Records A&R head John Williams (who had signed the band to Sanctuary) kept his position with the new label, and exercised the option to pick up the remaining Simple Minds albums owed as part of the previous deal.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

In May 2009, ''Graffiti Soul''{{'}}s first single, "Rockets", was released as a [[Music download|digital download]] single only.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/gs/r1.htm |title=Rockets |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> On 31 May 2009, the album entered the UK Album chart at No. 10, becoming Simple Minds' first album in 14 years to enter the UK Top 10.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/28243/simple-minds/ |title=Simple Minds |publisher=Official Charts }}</ref> The album also entered European Top 100 Album chart at No. 9.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} Interspersed with Simple Minds activity, Jim Kerr recorded and released his first solo album ''[[Lostboy! AKA Jim Kerr]]'' on 17 May 2010 under the name "Lostboy! AKA". Explaining the project name and ethos, he commented "I didn't want to start a new band. I like my band...and I didn't want a point blank Jim Kerr solo album either."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pennyblackmusic.co.uk/MagSitePages/Article/5525/Interviews/Lostboy-AKA--Interview|title=Lostboy! AKA - Interview|website=Pennyblackmusic.co.uk|access-date=3 February 2018}}</ref> A Lostboy! AKA 10-date European tour followed from 18 to 31 May 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/lbaka/tours/t2010-1/index.htm |title=Lostboy AKA Promo Tour |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref>

===Touring (2010–2014)===
[[File:SimpleMindsBern2014.jpg|thumb|left|Lead singer Jim Kerr performing in 2014]]
The band played a mini-concert on 2 October 2010 at the Cash For Kids Ball organised by Radio Clyde at the Hilton in Glasgow, and a full-length concert on 10 December 2010 at the Festhalle in [[Bern]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.downloadhome.co.uk/simpleminds/view_all_news_tours.php?cat=&area=gigs |title=Simple Minds Official Web Site / Live Concerts |website=Downloadhome.co.uk |access-date=1 September 2011}}</ref> In early October 2010, a new line-up of Simple Minds - Burchill, Kerr, Gaynor, Gillespie with new bassist Ged Grimes (ex-[[Danny Wilson (band)|Danny Wilson]] and [[Deacon Blue]]) - completed four weeks at the Sphere Recording Studios in London during which four songs were recorded and mixed for a new compilation album to be called ''Greatest Hits +'' and for the new Simple Minds studio album. The sessions were produced by Andy Wright and engineered and mixed by Gavin Goldberg. The four songs recorded were an eight-minute-long version of "In Every Heaven" (originally recorded in 1982 during the ''New Gold Dream'' sessions) and three new compositions: "Stagefright", "On The Rooftop" and "Broken Glass Park". From 10 June to 3 July 2011, Simple Minds embarked on the Greatest Hits Forest tour, playing a series of seven dates in woodland locations of England, as part of Forestry Commission Live Music.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}

From 16 June to 28 August 2011, the Greatest Hits + tour visited European countries: the UK, Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Switzerland, Ireland, Gibraltar and Serbia mainly at summer festival venues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.com/sm/view_all_news_tours.php?cat=&area=gigs#nogo |title=Simple Minds Official Web Site / Live Concerts |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date=1 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.com/sm/index.php#nogo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101215065538/http://www.simpleminds.com/sm/index.php#nogo |url-status = dead|archive-date=15 December 2010 |title=Simple Minds Official Web Site / Shows in Munich and Tuttlingen, Germany! |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date=1 September 2011 }}</ref> Simple Minds played several free concerts (on 4 July 2011 in Potsdam, Germany, on 4 July 2011 in Florence, Italy for the opening of Florence's Hard Rock Cafe, on 18 August in Belgrade, Serbia before 110,000 people and on 27 August in Bad Harzburg, Germany before 25,000 people). To coincide with the 2012 5X5 Live European tour, [[EMI Music]] released on 20 February 2012 the ''X5'' box set featuring the first five albums over six discs: ''Life in a Day'', ''Real to Real Cacophony'', ''Empires and Dance'', ''Sons and Fascination/Sister Feelings Call'' and ''New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)'' (with ''Sons and Fascination'' and ''Sister Feelings Call'' as separate discs in a gatefold sleeve as well as bonus material on each disc, including B-sides and remixes).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/x5/x5lp1.htm |title=X5 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> After a gig on 30 March 2012 at the Døgnvill Festival in [[Tromsø]], Norway, the band embarked on 23 June 2012 in [[Vienna]], on a 25-date tour of European summer festivals which ended on 22 September 2012 in [[Germersheim]], Germany. In July they played at the [[T in the Park]] festival.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2012-2/index.htm |title=Festival Shows 2012 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref>

[[File:Copenhagen 2014-08-08 (15164233175).jpg|thumb|right|Simple Minds performing in [[Copenhagen]], 2014]]

On 21 April [[Virgin Records]] released the band's first record ever to be released exclusively for [[Record Store Day 2012]]. The 12" single contained two remixes, "Theme For Great Cities" remixed by [[Moby]] on side A and the 2012 remix of "I Travel" remixed by John Leckie (who produced the original version of the song in 1980) on side B. The 12" was limited to 1,000 copies worldwide, of which 100 copies were sold in Sister Ray Records in London, where Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill took part in a record-signing session.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/x5/tfgc1.htm |title=Theme for Great Cities |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> [[EMI]] released on 19 November 2012 a double live album of the tour entitled ''[[5X5 Live (live album)|5X5 Live]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/5x5live/5x5livelp1.htm |title=5x5 Live |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> Simple Minds embarked in late 2012 on an eight-date Australia and New Zealand joint tour with American band [[Devo]] and Australian band The Church starting on 29 November 2012 in Melbourne, and ending on 15 December 2012 in Auckland (the only show played in New Zealand).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2012-3/index.htm |title=Australia 2012 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref>

On 25 March 2013 a new greatest-hits two- and three-disc collection entitled ''Celebrate: The Greatest Hits +'' was released on [[Virgin Records]], including two new tracks, "Blood Diamonds" "Broken Glass Park"; the three-disc version also includes "Stagefright", a track which has never been available in CD format before, and unreleased single mixes of "Jeweller to the Stars" and "Space".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/gh2/ghlp1.htm |title=Celebrate The Greatest Hits + |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> The North American version of the album contains only one disc.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/discog/gh2/ghlpff1.htm |title=Celebrate The Greatest Hits + US/Canadian edition |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> It was followed by a 30-date Greatest Hits + UK tour, which began with a concert in [[Dublin]] on 25 March and ended in [[Ipswich]] on 4 May 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2013-1/index.htm |title=Greatest Hits+ |publisher=Dream Giver Redux}}</ref>

In October 2013 they continued the Greatest Hits + tour in Brazil, United States and Canada,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2013-6/index.htm |title=Americas |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref> followed by concerts in South Africa, Europe and the UK in November, including four arena shows in Glasgow, Manchester, Birmingham and London, with guests [[Ultravox]] at all four concerts.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tours/t2013-4/index.htm |title=South Africa/Europe 2013 |publisher=Dream Giver Redux }}</ref>

===''Big Music'' and ''Acoustic'' (2014–2017)===
[[File:2017 Simple Minds - by 2eight - DSC4284.jpg|thumb|left|Simple Minds - Acoustic Live Tour 2017 in [[Nuremberg]], [[Germany]]]]
In November 2014 Simple Minds released their first studio album in five years entitled ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]'', which was followed by a Winter/Spring 2015 UK and European tour (from February to May 2015).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.com/sm/New-Album--European-Tour-Announced-b1040#v9FpsqY6zDyQdh3o.97|title=Simple Minds / News / Article "New Album & European Tour Announced"|website=Simpleminds.com|date=26 September 2014|access-date=24 November 2014}}</ref> On 22 October 2014, Simple Minds were presented the ''[[Q (magazine)|Q]]'' Inspiration to Music award by [[Manic Street Preachers]] frontman [[James Dean Bradfield]] and saw the first public outing of new member [[The Anchoress (musician)|Catherine AD]] as part of the lineup. On 2 November 2014, Simple Minds introduced ''Big Music'' with a special acoustic session for Radio Clyde's The Billy Sloan Collection.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.clyde2.com/on-air/billy-sloan/simple-minds-in-session/|title = Radio Clyde|date = 2 November 2014|access-date = 17 November 2014|website = Radio Clyde - Simple Minds In Session}}</ref> Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill co-hosted the show, choosing some of their favourite records – including Jet Boy by [[The New York Dolls]], [[The Velvet Underground]]'s Sweet Jane and The Model by [[Kraftwerk]] – and playing acoustic versions of songs from ''Big Music'', including "Honest Town" and "Let The Day Begin" and [[David Bowie]] cover "[[The Man Who Sold the World (song)|The Man Who Sold the World]]".{{Citation needed|date=April 2018}}

In December 2014, Simple Minds recorded an acoustic session at [[Absolute Radio]] including live unplugged performances of "Honest Town", "Alive & Kicking", "Let The Day Begin", "[[Don't You (Forget about Me)]]" and [[David Bowie]] cover "The Man Who Sold the World". The band continued to tour throughout 2015.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2015/apr/03/simple-minds-empire-theatre-liverpool-review-big-music|title=Simple Minds review – still the edgy futurists, beneath the stadium style|last=Simpson|first=Dave|date=3 April 2015|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077|access-date=27 November 2016}}</ref> On 14 November 2015, the band self-released a 29-track double-CD live album entitled ''[[Live – Big Music Tour 2015 (Simple Minds live album)|Live – Big Music Tour 2015]]''. It was recorded during the 2015 Big Music live tour and contained a cross-section of the Simple Minds back catalogue.

On 7 April 2016, Simple Minds performed their first unplugged gig at the Zermatt Unplugged Festival in [[Zermatt]], [[Switzerland]], followed by a second unplugged show in [[Zürich]] on 29 October 2016, also at the Zermatt Unplugged Festival. This was the first concert to feature a secondary acoustic live-and-recording line-up of Simple Minds, with Jim Kerr and Sarah Brown on vocals, Burchill on acoustic guitar and accordion, Ged Grimes on bass, Gordy Goudie returning on acoustic guitar and harmonica and new recruit [[Cherisse Osei]] on percussion.<ref name="simpleminds.org Simple Minds simple minds #50">{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.org/sm/tree/sm50.htm |title=Dream Giver Redux > simple minds #50 |date= February 2017 |website=Simpleminds.org |access-date= 11 March 2017}}</ref> In May 2016, they were given an Ivor Novello award where Kerr noted that: "we just wanted to be in a great band and take it round the world. We're very fortunate because we get recognition".<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.scotsman.com/news/simple-minds-pick-up-gong-at-ivor-novello-awards-2016-1-4133089|title=Simple Minds pick up gong at Ivor Novello Awards 2016|date=19 May 2016|website=Scotsman.com|access-date=26 November 2016}}</ref>

In October 2016, the band embarked on a promotional tour of the acoustic material, including a live concert on 10 November 2016 at the [[Hackney Empire]], London that was broadcast on BBC Radio 2.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2016/simple-minds|title=BBC - Simple Minds to perform live In Concert for BBC Radio 2 - Media Centre|website=Bbc.co.uk|access-date=27 November 2016}}</ref> Simple Minds released ''[[Acoustic (Simple Minds album)|Acoustic]]'' which was recorded with the new line-up during Summer 2016<ref name="simpleminds.org Simple Minds simple minds #50"/> and which featured acoustic re-recordings of songs spanning their career. On the lead single, 1982's "Promised You A Miracle", the band were joined by fellow Scot [[KT Tunstall]]. The two-disc vinyl version of the album was released on 25 November 2016, including three extra tracks: "Stand By Love", "Speed Your Love To Me" and "Light Travels".<ref name="Simple Minds Official website Acoustic">{{cite web |url=http://www.simpleminds.com/2016/09/28/acoustic-2016/ |title=Acoustic – 2016 |date= 28 September 2016 |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date= 30 September 2016}}</ref> In Spring 2017 they embarked on a two-month (47-date) Acoustic Live '17 UK & European tour.<ref name="simpleminds.com Simple Minds Acoustic Live 2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.simpleminds.com/2016/11/07/simple-minds-announce-acoustic-live-2017/|title=Simple Minds Announce Acoustic Live 2017|date=7 November 2016|website=Simpleminds.com|access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref>

On 16 November 2016, Simple Minds were given the Forth Best Performance Award at the Radio Forth awards ceremony in Edinburgh.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theedinburghreporter.co.uk/2016/11/simple-minds-and-paul-young-winners-at-the-radio-forth-awards/|title=Simple Minds and Paul Young winners at the Radio Forth awards|last=Stephen|first=Phyllis|date=16 November 2016|website=Theedinburghreporter.co.uk|access-date=26 November 2016}}</ref>

===''Walk Between Worlds'' and line-up changes (2017–2019)===
[[File:Simple Minds - 2016330230310 2016-11-25 Night of the Proms - Sven - 1D X - 0854 - DV3P2994 mod.jpg|thumb|left|Performing live at ''Night of the Proms'', Germany]]
Since September 2014, Simple Minds had been working on new material with the electric Kerr/Burchill/Grimes/Gaynor line-up (minus Andy Gillespie), including the songs "Fireball"{{refn|group=nb|About working on the next album, Jim Kerr said in January 2015 during The Real McCoy radio show: "There's this song I'm very excited about – that you introduced to me, a guy called Steve Eddie, a song called "Fireball" – God, I've had that for seven or eight years and I played that this last month and I just know that its time has come."}} and "A Silent Kiss".{{refn|group=nb|About working on the next album, Jim Kerr said on 4 January 2016: "Back to work: Began yesterday and it's all good! Working on a Charlie Burchill tune called "A Silent Kiss". Kind of dark, very romantic, related in style to both "Liaison" and "Bittersweet" from ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]''. Some songs you seemingly have to dig very deep to create. Others seem like they just want to jump out of you - somehow already fully formed. Some come easy, some more elusive. This one feels great already."}}

On 15 November 2017, the new album title and track listing leaked on Amazon UK. Entitled ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'', the album features eight tracks while the Deluxe edition includes three bonus tracks (one live and two studio tracks). On 20 November 2017, a 20-second promo video was released on the band's Facebook page, promoting the album. The video featured a snippet of "Magic", the lead single, as performed by the six-person ''Acoustic'' line-up (now including [[The Anchoress (musician)|Catherine AD]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/simpleminds/|title=Simple Minds Official|website=Facebook.com|access-date=3 February 2018}}</ref> Produced by Simple Minds, Wright and Goldberg, ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'' was released on 2 February 2018 via [[BMG Rights Management|BMG]] and entered at No. 4 - their highest UK album chart position in over 23 years - and No. 2 on the Scottish albums charts, the album's highest chart position in all.

In Spring and Summer 2018, the band extensively toured Europe as part of the Walk Between Worlds tour, promoting the new album. Having performed on three tracks on the album, Cherisse Osei now became the band's full-time drummer, replacing Mel Gaynor; Catherine AD also joined the live band on additional guitar, vocals and keyboards. The band notably performed ''Walk Between Worlds'' in its entirety during the eight Spring concerts that occurred from 13 February at the [[Barrowland Ballroom]], [[Glasgow]], UK to 22 February 2018 in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]. After a unique show in [[Mexico City]] on 20 September 2018, the band extensively toured North America (now minus Catherine AD) from 24 September in [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania|Bethlehem]], [[Pennsylvania]] up to 11 November 2018 in [[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]], [[Florida]] as part of the Walk Between Worlds tour.

===''Live in the City of Angels'' (2019–2020)===

In 2019, Simple Minds released ''[[Live in the City of Angels]]'', a snapshot from the band's 2018 North American tour, their biggest ever to date. The live album was made available on multiple formats; the standard CD and vinyl versions feature 25 songs, mostly recorded on 24 October 2018 at the [[Orpheum Theatre (Los Angeles)|Orpheum Theatre]], whereas the Deluxe CD and digital formats contain an additional 15 tracks recorded during sound checks and rehearsals, yielding a 40-song collection to mark the band's 40-year career.<ref name="facebook Live In The City Of Angels">{{cite web |url=https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=2373884122691510&id=100317830048162 |title=LIVE IN THE CITY OF ANGELS, out 4th October, is the new album from Simple Minds capturing the band on their biggest ever North American tour. |date= 20 August 2019 |website=[[Facebook]] |access-date= 20 August 2019}}</ref><ref name="simpleminds.com Live In The City Of Angels">{{cite web |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2019/08/20/simple-minds-release-live-in-the-city-of-angels/ |title=20 Aug, 2019 Simple Minds Release: Live In The City Of Angels |date= 20 August 2019 |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date= 20 August 2019}}</ref>

In 2019, Simple Minds also released a new compilation album entitled ''40: The Best Of 1979-2019'', a retrospective of the band's 40-year long recording career. It includes as a new track the band's cover of "[[From Scotland with Love#Track listing|For One Night Only]]" by [[King Creosote]].<ref name="simpleminds.com 40 The Best Of 1979-2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2019/09/30/40-the-best-of-1979-2019-album-announced/ |title=30 Sep, 2019 40: The Best of 1979 – 2019 – Album Announced |date= 30 September 2019 |website=Simpleminds.com |access-date= 5 October 2019}}</ref>

===''Direction of the Heart'' and Everything Is Possible (2020–present)===
[[File:Festival du Bout du Monde 2022 - Simple Minds - 028.jpg|thumb|right|Lead singer Jim Kerr performing with the band, 2022]]

The first Europe & UK (Winter–Spring) leg of the 40 Years Of Hits world tour 2020 kicked off on 28 February 2020 in Stavanger, Norway but was interrupted with the cancellation of the show due to take place on 11 March 2020 in Herning, [[Denmark]] and the cancellation of the rest of the tour due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic|coronavirus pandemic]]. The tour was rescheduled to 2022 with over 80 dates across more than 20 countries in spring/summer 2022.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2020/02/28/40-years-of-hits-tour-2020/ |title=40 Years Of Hits Tour |date=28 February 2020 |publisher=simpleminds.com }}</ref> On 17 January 2022, Simple Minds released the single "Act of Love" to mark the anniversary of the band's first performance on 17 January 1978 at Glasgow's Satellite City. In a statement from the band, the track had ended up shelved in the process of recording Simple Minds' debut album, though it had a lasting life during various live performances. Kerr and other band members still enjoyed the demo recording so much that they vowed to officially release an alternate version eventually.<ref name="simpleminds.com Act Of Love">{{cite web |title=simpleminds.com > 14 Jan, 2022 Out Now – Act Of Love |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2022/01/14/new-single-act-of-love/ |date= 14 January 2022 |website=simpleminds.com |accessdate= 20 January 2022}}</ref>

On 21 October 2022 the band released their studio album ''[[Direction of the Heart]]'' via [[BMG Rights Management|BMG]]. The very same day, they released the lead single "Vision Thing" for free. [[COVID-19]] quarantine restrictions prevented Jim Kerr and Charlie Burchill, who both resided in [[Sicily]], from traveling to the UK, so the new album had been recorded in [[Hamburg]], with most tracks written, created and demoed in Sicily.<ref name="simpleminds.com Direction of the Heart release announcement">{{cite web |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2022/06/14/new-album-direction-of-the-heart/ |title=Direction of the Heart – the new album from Simple Minds |date= 14 June 2022 |website=simpleminds.com |accessdate= 15 June 2022}}</ref><ref name="nme.com Direction of the Heart release announcement">{{cite web |url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/simple-minds-announce-new-album-direction-of-the-heart-share-single-vision-thing-3247603 |title=Simple Minds announce new album 'Direction Of The Heart' and share single 'Vision Thing' (The follow-up to 2018's 'Walk Between Worlds' is out in October) (by Arusa Qureshi) |date= 14 June 2022 |website=nme.com |accessdate= 16 June 2022}}</ref> On 9 July 2022, Simple Minds released a lyric video for "Vision Thing" on YouTube.<ref name="youtube Simple Minds Vision Thing">{{cite web |url=https://youtube.com/watch?src=Linkfire&lId=4e233531-73c3-42ac-b54d-e101372f4dd5&cId=fb37ec4f-c8e9-4e3f-ac04-f165c53e7ef9&v=bFl8LK3eunk |title= Simple Minds - Vision Thing (Lyric Video) (4:39) |date= 9 July 2022 |via=YouTube |accessdate= 10 July 2022}}</ref> A fourth single from the album, "Solstice Kiss", released in October 2023, became a hit in the UK, reaching No. 2 on the [[UK Vinyl Singles Chart]] and entering the Top 40 on the [[UK Singles Chart]] for one week at No. 31.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/songs/simple-minds-solstice-kiss/ |title=Simple Minds Solstice Kiss |publisher=Official Charts }}</ref> Former member [[John Giblin]] died on 14 May 2023.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/kate-bush-pays-tribute-to-bassist-john-giblin-who-has-died-aged-71-3444421 | title=Kate Bush pays tribute to bassist John Giblin, who has died aged 71 | website=[[NME]] | date=16 May 2023 }}</ref>

On 27 October 2023, Simple Minds released the live album ''New Gold Dream – Live From Paisley Abbey'', a recording of the one-off performance of their 1982 album ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)]]'' for [[Sky Group|Sky TV]]'s Greatest Albums Live series, held at [[Paisley Abbey]].<ref>{{cite web |title=New Gold Dream - Live From Paisley Abbey |url=https://www.simpleminds.com/2023/10/27/new-gold-dream-live-from-paisley-abbey-2/ |website=SIMPLEMINDS.COM |date=27 October 2023}}</ref> On 29 December 2023, Charlie Burchill announced that Erik Ljunggren would be joining the group on keyboards for the band's 2024 tour.<ref>[https://www.facebook.com/simpleminds/posts/910030580486546 Simple Minds Facebook Page > post on 29 December 2023]</ref>

On 10 December 2024, Simple Minds released a brand new single entitled "Your Name in Lights" also featured on the soundtrack of the career-spanning documentary ''Everything Is Possible'' also available the same day to stream and download on [[BBC iPlayer]].<ref>[https://www.facebook.com/share/pdXcaBTVe44tG7zq/ Simple Minds Official Facebook page > post "Simple Minds today release a brand new single "Your Name in Lights"!" on 10 December 2024]</ref>

==Concert tours==
{{Main|List of Simple Minds concert tours}}

==Discography==
{{Main|Simple Minds discography}}
{{col div}}
* ''[[Life in a Day (album)|Life in a Day]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Real to Real Cacophony]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Empires and Dance]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Sons and Fascination/Sister Feelings Call]]'' (1981)
* ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)|New Gold Dream (81-82-83-84)]]'' (1982)
* ''[[Sparkle in the Rain]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Once Upon a Time (Simple Minds album)|Once Upon a Time]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Real Life (Simple Minds album)|Real Life]]'' (1991)
* ''[[Good News from the Next World]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Néapolis (album)|Néapolis]]'' (1998)
* ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]'' (1999/2004)
* ''[[Neon Lights (album)|Neon Lights]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Black & White 050505]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Acoustic (Simple Minds album)|Acoustic]]'' (2016)
* ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'' (2018)
* ''[[Direction of the Heart]]'' (2022)
{{col div end}}

==Selected videography==
The release dates are the original ones and the formats mentioned are the most recent versions officially available (not necessarily the original release formats).

* 1990: ''Verona'' {{small|(VHS; May 1990; Virgin Music Video VVD 610) (in 2003, this video was remixed in 5:1 surround sound and released as part of the ''Seen The Lights – A Visual History'' double DVD set)}}
* 1992: ''Glittering Prize 81/92'' {{small|(VHS; October 1992; Virgin Music Video VVD 1103)}}
* 2003: ''Seen The Lights – A Visual History'' {{small|(DVD; release dates: 28 October 2003 in some parts of Europe, 1 November 2003 in Russia, 3 November 2003 in UK and some other parts of Europe, 18 November 2003 in Canada; Virgin SMDVD 1) (this is the first-ever Simple Minds commercial (double) DVD, featuring over four hours and twenty minutes of archived footage; the first disc includes the majority of the band's promotional videos; the second disc is devoted to ''Verona'', the band's first video originally released in 1990 in VHS format, up-mixed here to 5.1 surround sound)}}
* 2014: ''Celebrate – Live at the SSE Hydro Glasgow'' {{small|(limited edition Deluxe DVD book set; release date: June 2014; including four discs: one 21-track DVD of the entire concert filmed and recorded on 27 November 2013 at the SSE Hydro, Glasgow, UK; one DVD of exclusive interview footage and photo gallery; two fully mixed audio CDs of the entire concert + a bound book featuring specially-written notes and exclusive live photos from the Celebrate tour + photographic print individually autographed by the band)}}<ref name="www.discogs.com Simple Minds Celebrate Live At The SSE Hydro Glasgow">{{cite web |url=https://www.discogs.com/fr/Simple-Minds-Celebrate-Live-At-The-SSE-Hydro-Glasgow/release/5763815 |title=Simple Minds – Celebrate (Live At The SSE Hydro Glasgow) |date= January 2020 |website=Discogs.com |access-date= 17 January 2020}}</ref>

==Awards and nominations==
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Year !! Awards !! Work !! Category !! Result !! Ref.
|-
| rowspan="2" | 1985
| rowspan="2" | [[MTV Video Music Awards]]
| rowspan="2" | "[[Don't You (Forget About Me)]]"
| Best Art Direction
| {{nom}}
|-
| Best Direction
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan="5" | 1986
| [[American Music Awards]]
| rowspan="4" | Themselves
| Favorite Pop/Rock Video Band/Duo/Group
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Brit Awards]]
| Best British Group
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Pollstar]] Concert Industry Awards
| Next Major Arena Headliner
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Smash Hits Poll Winners Party]]
| Best Group
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan=2|[[ASCAP Pop Music Awards]]
| "[[Don't You (Forget About Me)]]"
| rowspan=2|Most Performed Songs
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PCQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT76|title = Billboard|date = 14 June 1986}}</ref>
|-
| 1987
| "[[Alive and Kicking (song)|Alive and Kicking]]"
| {{won}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldradiohistory.com/Archive-All-Music/Billboard/80s/1987/Billboard-1987-06-06.pdf#page=24|format=PDF|page=24|title=Billboard|date=6 June 1987|website=Worldradiohistory.com|access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 1989
| [[Music & Media|Music & Media Year-End Awards]]
| Themselves
| Group of the Year
| {{draw|2nd place}}
| <ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Music-and-Media/80s/1989/M&M-1989-12-23.pdf|title=Music & Media|date=23 December 1989|website=Worldradiohistory.com|access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 1990
| [[Brit Awards]]
| "[[Belfast Child]]"
| Best British Single
| {{nom}}
|-
| 1991
| rowspan="2" | [[Q Awards]]
| rowspan="3" | Themselves
| Best Live Act
| {{won}}
|-
| 2014
| Q Inspiration Award
| {{won}}
|-
| 2016
| [[Ivor Novello Award]]
| Outstanding Song Collection
| {{won}}
|-
| 2018
|[[Best Art Vinyl]]
|''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]''
| Best Art Vinyl
| {{nominated}}
| <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://artvinyl.com/award-year/2018/|title=Best Art Vinyl Awards 2018 |website=Artvinyl.com|access-date=21 June 2021}}</ref>
|-
| rowspan=2|2019
| rowspan=2|[[Classic Pop (magazine)|Classic Pop Readers' Awards]]
| rowspan=2|Themselves
| Group of the Year
| {{nom}}
| rowspan=2|<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.classicpopmag.com/2019/01/2018-reader-awards/|title=There's still time to vote in our 2018 Reader Awards!|website=Classicpopmag.com|date=2 January 2019|access-date=11 October 2021}}</ref>
|-
| Live Act of the Year
| {{nom}}
|}

==Personnel==
===Current members===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" border="1"
! width="75" | Image
! width="140" | Name
! width="90" | Years active
! width="160" | Instruments
! Release contributions
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Simple_Minds_-_2018173230404_2018-06-22_Rock_the_Ring_-_1D_X_MK_II_-_2793_-_AK8I5209.jpg|bSize=425|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=70|oLeft=150}}
| [[Jim Kerr]]
| rowspan="2" | 1977–present
| lead vocals
| rowspan="2" | [[Simple Minds discography|all releases]]
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Simple_Minds_-_2018173230337_2018-06-22_Rock_the_Ring_-_1D_X_MK_II_-_2737_-_AK8I5153.jpg|bSize=350|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=45|oLeft=155}}
| [[Charlie Burchill]]
| {{hlist|electric & acoustic guitars|violin|saxophone|keyboards|occasional backing vocals}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=2017 Simple Minds - Ged Grimes - by 2eight - 8SC5787.jpg|bSize=335|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=35|oLeft=110}}
| [[Ged Grimes]]
| 2010–present
| {{hlist|bass guitar|backing vocals}}
| rowspan="2" | all releases from ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]'' (2014) onwards
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Simple Minds - Live in Ipswich Regent Theatre 4th May 2015 - 17196403920.jpg|bSize=850|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=75|oLeft=185}}
| Sarah Brown
| 2017–present {{small|(live member 2009–2017)}}
| backing vocals
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=2017 Simple Minds - by 2eight - DSC4331.jpg|bSize=325|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=20|oLeft=115}}
| Gordy Goudie
| 2017–present {{small|(session member 2001–2017)}}
| {{hlist|additional guitar|keyboards|harmonica|tambourine|maracas|backing vocals|dancing}}
| {{flatlist|
* ''[[Neon Lights (album)|Neon Lights]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]'' (2002)
* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Acoustic (Simple Minds album)|Acoustic]]'' (2016)
* ''[[Acoustic in Concert]]'' (2017)
* ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'' (2018)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Cherisse_Osei_by_myb777_photography_(6).jpg|bSize=375|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=35|oLeft=175}}
| [[Cherisse Osei]]
| 2017–present
| drums
| all releases from ''Acoustic in Concert'' (2017) onwards
|}

===Former members===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" border="1"
! width="75" | Image
! width="140" | Name
! width="90" | Years active
! width="160" | Instruments
! Release contributions
|-
|
| [[Brian McGee (drummer)|Brian McGee]]
| {{hlist|1977–1981|1996}}
| {{hlist|drums|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|
* all releases from ''[[Life in a Day (album)|Life in a Day]]'' (1979) to ''[[Themes for Great Cities 79/81]]'' (1981)
* ''[[Celebration (Simple Minds album)|Celebration]]'' (1982)
* ''[[Silver Box]]'' (2004)}}
|-
|
| Tony Donald
| 1977–1978
| bass
| rowspan="4" | none
|-
|
| John Milarky
| rowspan="2" | 1977
| lead guitar
|-
|
| Allan McNeill
| rowspan="2" | rhythm guitar
|-
|
| Duncan Barnwell
| 1978
|-
|
| [[Mick MacNeil]]
| 1978–1990
| {{hlist|composer|keyboards|piano|synthesizers|accordion|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* all releases from ''Life in a Day'' (1979) to ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (1989)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Derek_Forbes_CamGlen_Radio_7_Dec_2018.jpg|bSize=150|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=50|oLeft=30}}
| [[Derek Forbes]]
| {{hlist|1978–1985|1996–1998}}
| {{hlist|bass guitar|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* all releases from ''Life in a Day'' (1979) to ''[[Sparkle in the Rain]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Live in the City of Light]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Néapolis (album)|Néapolis]]'' (1998)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|
| [[Kenny Hyslop]]
| 1981–1982
| drums
| rowspan="2" | {{flatlist|* ''[[New Gold Dream (81–82–83–84)|New Gold Dream (81-82-83-84)]]'' (1982)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Mike_Ogletree_New_York_2010.jpg|bSize=300|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=35|oLeft=95}}
| [[Mike Ogletree]]
| 1982
| {{hlist|drums|percussion}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=Mel Gaynor Simple Minds.jpg|bSize=625|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=138|oLeft=285}}
| [[Mel Gaynor]]
| {{hlist|1982–1991|1997–1998|2002–2016}}
| {{hlist|drums|percussion|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* all releases from ''New Gold Dream (81-82-83-84)'' (1982) to ''[[Real Life (Simple Minds album)|Real Life]]'' (1991)
* ''Néapolis'' (1998)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)
* ''[[Black & White 050505]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Big Music (album)|Big Music]]'' (2014)
* ''[[Walk Between Worlds (album)|Walk Between Worlds]]'' (2018)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=John Giblin.jpg|bSize=500|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=60|oLeft=255}}
| [[John Giblin]]
| 1985–1989
| rowspan="2" | bass guitar
| {{flatlist|* ''[[Once Upon a Time (Simple Minds album)|Once Upon a Time]]'' (1985)
* ''[[Live in the City of Light]]'' (1987)
* ''[[Street Fighting Years]]'' (1989)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|
| Eddie Duffy
| 1999–2010
| {{flatlist|
* ''[[Silver Box#Disc 5: Our Secrets Are the Same|Our Secrets Are the Same]]'' (1999/2004)
* ''[[Black & White 050505]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)}}
|-
|
| Andy Gillespie
| {{hlist|2002–2005|2007–2016}}
| {{hlist|keyboards|backing vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* ''[[Graffiti Soul]]'' (2009)
* ''Big Music'' (2014)}}
|-
| {{CSS image crop|Image=The Anchoress (52614577849).jpg|bSize=450|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=60|oLeft=250}}
| [[The Anchoress (musician)|Catherine AD]]
| 2014-2018
| {{hlist|keyboards|backing and occasional lead vocals}}
| {{flatlist|* ''Acoustic in Concert'' (2017)
* ''Walk Between Worlds'' (2018)}}
|}

===Live and session musicians===
{| class="wikitable" width="100%" border="1"
! width="75" |Image
! width="140" |Name
! width="90" |Years active
! width="160" |Instruments
!Release contributions
|-
|
|Paul Wishart
|1980
|saxophone
|Empires and Dance tour
|-
|
|[[Robin Clark]]
| rowspan="2" |1985–1986
|vocals
| rowspan="2" |{{flatlist|* Once Upon a Time album and tour
* ''Live in the City of Light'' (1987)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=SueHadjopoulosPercussionPromo2020221lighten_9_20_(1).jpg|bSize=700|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=45|oLeft=120}}
|[[Sue Hadjopoulos]]
| rowspan="2" |percussion
|-
|
|Andy Duncan
| rowspan="3" |1989
|{{flatlist|* Street Fighting Years tour
* ''Real Life'' (1991)}}
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Lisa-Germano.jpg|bSize=350|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=20|oLeft=105}}
|[[Lisa Germano]]
|violin
|{{flatlist|* Street Fighting Years tour
* ''Live in the City of Light'' (1987)
* ''Street Fighting Years'' (1989)
* ''Real Life'' (1991)}}
|-
|
|Annie McCaig
|vocals
|Street Fighting Years tour
|-
|
|[[Malcolm Foster]]
|1989–1995
|bass guitar
|{{flatlist|* ''Real Life'' (1991)
* ''[[Good News from the Next World]]'' (1995)
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|
|[[Peter-John Vettese]]
|1990
| rowspan="2" |keyboards
|{{flatlist|* ''Real Life'' (1991)
* ''Walk Between Worlds'' (2018)}}
|-
|
|Mark Taylor
|{{Hlist|1991–1999|2005–2007}}
|''Silver Box'' (2004)
|-
|
|Timothy Scott Bennett
|1993<ref>"Don't Forget" – article by Peter Walsh in 'Q' Magazine, April 1997</ref>
| rowspan="2" |drums
|
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Mark Schulman 04.jpg|bSize=750|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=136|oLeft=366}}
|[[Mark Schulman]]
|1994–1995
|{{flatlist|* Good News from the Next World album and tour
* ''Silver Box'' (2004)}}
|-
|
|Mark Kerr
|{{Hlist|1999|2002}}
|{{Hlist|drums {{small|(1999)}}|guitar {{small|(2002)}}}}
|{{flatlist|* ''[[Cry (Simple Minds album)|Cry]]'' (2002)
* ''Our Secrets Are the Same'' (1999/2004)}}
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=Heaven17 Nocturnal Culture Night 14 2019 04.jpg|bSize=400|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=85|oLeft=150}}
|Berenice Scott
|2020–2023
|{{Hlist|keyboards|backing vocals}}
| rowspan="2" |none
|-
|{{CSS image crop|Image=A-ha at the MEN Arena, Manchester, 20 November 2010.jpg|bSize=760|cWidth=75|cHeight=75|oTop=300|oLeft=595}}
|[[:no:Erik_Ljunggren|Erik Ljunggren]]
|2023–present
|keyboards
|}

====Timeline====
{{#tag:timeline|
ImageSize = width:900 height:auto barincrement:20
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Alignbars = justify
DateFormat = mm/dd/yyyy
Period = from:01/01/1977 till:{{#time:m/d/Y}}
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ScaleMajor = increment:5 start:1977

Colors =
id:Vocals value:red legend:Vocals
id:Guitar value:green legend:Guitar
id:Keyboards value:purple legend:Keyboards
id:Bass value:blue legend:Bass
id:Drums value:orange legend:Drums
id:BVocals value:pink legend:Backing_vocals
id:Lines1 value:black legend:Studio_albums
id:Lines2 value:gray(0.85) legend:Recording_of_live_and_video_albums

LineData =
at:03/10/1979 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:11/01/1979 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:09/01/1980 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:09/12/1981 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:09/13/1982 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:02/06/1984 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:10/21/1985 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:05/11/1987 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:05/08/1989 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:04/08/1991 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:02/07/1995 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:03/16/1998 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:05/01/1998 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:10/08/2001 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:04/01/2002 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:09/12/2005 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:04/15/2007 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:04/22/2007 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:05/25/2009 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:07/01/2011 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:11/19/2012 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:06/01/2014 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:10/31/2014 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:01/01/2015 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:11/14/2015 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:02/02/2018 color:Lines1 layer:back
at:10/04/2019 color:Lines2 layer:back
at:10/21/2022 color:Lines1 layer:back

BarData =
bar:Kerr text:"Jim Kerr"
bar:Burchill text:"Charlie Burchill"
bar:Milarky text:"John Milarky"
bar:McNeill text:"Allan McNeill"
bar:Barnwell text:"Duncan Barnwell"
bar:Goudie text:"Gordon Goudie"
bar:Donald text:"Tony Donald"
bar:Forbes text:"Derek Forbes"
bar:Giblin text:"John Giblin"
bar:Duffy text:"Eddy Duffy"
bar:Grimes text:"Ged Grimes"
bar:McGee text:"Brian McGee"
bar:Hyslop text:"Kenny Hyslop"
bar:Ogletree text:"Mike Ogletree"
bar:Gaynor text:"Mel Gaynor"
bar:Osei text:"Cherisse Osei"
bar:MacNeil text:"Mick MacNeil"
bar:Gillespie text:"Andy Gillespie"
bar:Scott text:"Berenice Scott"
bar:Brown text:"Sarah Brown"
bar:AD text:"Catherine AD"

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bar:Kerr from:start till:end color:Vocals
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bar:Burchill from:start till:end color:Guitar
bar:Barnwell from:01/01/1978 till:01/01/1979 color:Guitar
bar:Burchill from:11/30/1989 till:end color:Keyboards width:3
bar:Milarky from:start till:12/01/1977 color:Guitar
bar:McNeill from:start till:12/01/1977 color:Guitar
bar:Goudie from:01/01/2017 till:end color:Guitar
bar:Goudie from:01/01/2017 till:end color:Keyboards width:7
bar:Goudie from:01/01/2017 till:end color:BVocals width:3
bar:Donald from:start till:04/01/1978 color:Bass
bar:Forbes from:04/01/1978 till:06/30/1985 color:Bass
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bar:Forbes from:06/01/1996 till:12/31/1998 color:Bass
bar:Forbes from:06/01/1996 till:12/31/1998 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Giblin from:07/01/1985 till:05/31/1989 color:Bass
bar:Duffy from:01/01/1999 till:06/30/2010 color:Bass
bar:Grimes from:07/01/2010 till:end color:Bass
bar:Grimes from:07/01/2010 till:end color:BVocals width:3
bar:McGee from:start till:06/30/1981 color:Drums
bar:McGee from:start till:06/30/1981 color:BVocals width:3
bar:McGee from:06/01/1996 till:11/30/1996 color:Drums
bar:McGee from:06/01/1996 till:11/30/1996 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Hyslop from:07/01/1981 till:04/30/1982 color:Drums
bar:Ogletree from:05/01/1982 till:08/31/1982 color:Drums
bar:Gaynor from:09/01/1982 till:12/31/1991 color:Drums
bar:Gaynor from:09/01/1982 till:12/31/1991 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Gaynor from:01/01/1997 till:12/31/1998 color:Drums
bar:Gaynor from:01/01/1997 till:12/31/1998 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Gaynor from:01/01/2002 till:12/31/2016 color:Drums
bar:Gaynor from:01/01/2002 till:12/31/2016 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Osei from:01/01/2017 till:end color:Drums
bar:MacNeil from:03/01/1978 till:11/30/1990 color:Keyboards
bar:MacNeil from:03/01/1978 till:11/30/1990 color:BVocals width:3
bar:Gillespie from:02/01/2002 till:12/31/2005 color:Keyboards
bar:Gillespie from:02/01/2002 till:12/31/2005 color:bvocals width:3
bar:Gillespie from:04/01/2007 till:12/31/2016 color:Keyboards
bar:Gillespie from:04/01/2007 till:12/31/2016 color:bvocals width:3
bar:Scott from:01/17/2020 till:12/28/2023 color:Keyboards
bar:Scott from:01/17/2020 till:12/28/2023 color:BVocals width:3
bar:AD from:10/22/2014 till:07/15/2018 color:Keyboards width:3
bar:AD from:10/22/2014 till:07/15/2018 color:BVocals
bar:Brown from:01/01/2009 till:end color:BVocals
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.simpleminds.com/ Simple Minds official web site]
* [http://www.simpleminds.org/home.htm Dream Giver Redux], an unofficial (fan) website devoted to the band
* {{AllMusic|class=artist|id=mn0000049374}}
* {{discogs artist}}
* {{IMDb name|1277477}}

{{Portalbar|United Kingdom|Scotland|Biography|Music|Rock music|Pop music|1970s|1980s|1990s|2000s|2010s}}

{{Simple Minds}}{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1977 establishments in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:A&M Records artists]]
[[Category:Arena rock musical groups]]
[[Category:Arista Records artists]]
[[Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines]]
[[Category:British synth-pop new wave groups]]
[[Category:Chrysalis Records artists]]
[[Category:Eagle Records artists]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1977]]
[[Category:Rock music groups from Glasgow]]
[[Category:Scottish art rock groups]]
[[Category:Scottish new wave musical groups]]
[[Category:Scottish post-punk music groups]]
[[Category:Second British Invasion artists]]
[[Category:Sire Records artists]]
[[Category:Virgin Records artists]]

Ljuba Kristol

2025-01-05T13:02:35Z

Omcsesz: /* Tournaments */

{{Short description|Israeli chess player}}
{{Infobox chess biography
| name = Ljuba Kristol
| image = Luba Kristol 1980 Malta.jpg
| caption = Kristol at Chess Olympiad, Malta, 1980
| full_name = Ljuba Danielovna Kristol
| country = [[Israel]]
| birth_date = {{Birth-date and age|May 26, 1944}}
| birth_place = [[Leningrad]], Russia
| title = {{unbulleted list|class=nowrap
| ICCF [[Lady Grandmaster]] (1990)
| FIDE [[Woman International Master]]
}}
| rating = [https://ratings.fide.com/profile/2801035/chart 2233] (October 2000)
| peakrating = [http://www.olimpbase.org/Elo/player/Kristol,%20Luba.html 2250] (January 1987)
| ICCFworldchampion = {{unbulleted list|class=nowrap
| 1978–1984 (women)
| 1993–1998 (women)
}}
| ICCF_rating = [https://www.iccf.com/player?id=270008&tab=3 2338] (October 2008)
| ICCF_peakrating = 2488 (October 2001)
}}

'''Ljuba Danielovna Kristol''' ({{langx|he|לובה דניאלובנה קריסטול}}; {{langx|ru|Любовь Даниэловна Кристол}}; born May 26, 1944, in [[Leningrad]]) is a [[Russians|Russian]]-born [[Israel]]i chess player who holds the [[ICCF title]] of Lady Grandmaster (LGM) and the [[FIDE title]] of Woman International Master (WIM).

She is best known for winning the [[International Correspondence Chess Federation|ICCF]] Women's World Championship in correspondence chess on two occasions: between 1978 and 1984, and between 1993 and 1998.

She grew up in Leningrad (now [[St. Petersburg]]), and since 1976 has lived in Israel.
Kristol is the four-time OTB women's chess champion of Israel.

She took part in four [[Chess Olympiad]]s as a member of the Israeli team. In the Olympiad in 1976 (which took place in [[Haifa]]), Kristol won the gold medal with the Israeli team.

In 1989 Kristol participated in a zonal tournament in Haifa, and shared 1st–2nd place.

== Tournaments ==
Major tournaments that Kristol participated in
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Start date
! Name of tournament
! Site
! Board in a group tournament
! Place in a personal tournament
! Number of games
! Category
! Result needed for a GM norm
! Actual result
|-
| 1 May 1997
| Champion of champions of Israel
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.geocities.com/Colosseum/Bench/5505/AlufimTable.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023123115/http://geocities.com/Colosseum/Bench/5505/AlufimTable.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=2009-10-23|title=The Israeli Champion of champions CC|website=www.webcitation.org|language=en|access-date=2018-07-18}}</ref>
| -
| 1
| 10
| -
| -
| 8
|-
| 16 October 2003
| Semi final of WC number 27
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iccf-webchess.com/EventCrossTable.aspx?id=5479|title=Cross Table|website=www.iccf-webchess.com|access-date=2018-07-18}}</ref>
| -
| 6
| 12
| 7
| 9.5
| 6
|-
| 16 October 2004
| VI European final
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iccf-webchess.com/EventCrossTable.aspx?id=7679&order=p|title=Cross Table|website=www.iccf-webchess.com|access-date=2018-07-18}}</ref>
| 12
| -
| 13
| 5
| -
| 5
|-
| 20 December 2004
| NPSF 60 Years GM Jubilee Tournament
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iccf-webchess.com/EventCrossTable.aspx?id=6053&order=p|title=Cross Table|website=www.iccf-webchess.com|access-date=2018-07-18}}</ref>
| -
| 5
| 14
| 11
| 9
| 7.5
|-
| 10 July 2005
| Preliminary of the 17th Olympiad
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iccf-webchess.com/EventCrossTable.aspx?id=1169|title=Cross Table|website=www.iccf-webchess.com|access-date=2018-07-18}}</ref>
| 5
| -
| 10
| 4
| -
| 4
|-
| 15 April 2006
| 60 Years Anniversary BdF
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iccf-webchess.com/EventCrossTable.aspx?id=8903&order=p|title=Cross Table|website=www.iccf-webchess.com|access-date=2018-07-18}}</ref>
| -
| -
| 16
| -
| -
| 4.5 not ended
|}

== References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{ICCF|id=270008|name=Luba Danielovna Kristol}}
* {{Chessgames player|id=90149|name=Luba Danielovna Kristol}}
* {{FIDE|name=Luba Kristol}}
* {{OlimpBase women's player|name=Luba Kristol}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
| before = [[Lora Jakovleva]]
| title = [[Ladies World Correspondence Chess Champion]]
| years = 1978–1984
| after = [[Liudmila Belavenets]]
}}
{{succession box
| before = [[Liudmila Belavenets]]
| title = [[Ladies World Correspondence Chess Champion]]
| years = 1993–1998
| after = [[Alessandra Riegler]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kristol, Ljuba}}
[[Category:1944 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Russian female chess players]]
[[Category:Russian chess players]]
[[Category:Israeli female chess players]]
[[Category:Israeli chess players]]
[[Category:Soviet female chess players]]
[[Category:Soviet chess players]]
[[Category:Chess Woman International Masters]]
[[Category:World Correspondence Chess Champions]]
[[Category:Chess players from Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:Soviet emigrants to Israel]]
[[Category:Jewish chess players]]
[[Category:Russian Jews]]
[[Category:Israeli Jews]]
[[Category:Chess Olympiad competitors]]
[[Category:20th-century Russian sportswomen]]

Maria Rivka Chwoles-Lichtenfeld

2025-01-05T12:57:40Z

Omcsesz: /* Biography */

{{short description|Israeli chess player}}
{{Infobox chess player
|name = Maria Rivka Chwoles-Lichtenfeld
|image = Rivka Chwoles Lichtenfeld у себя дома (фото 24 января 2016) 01.jpg
|caption = Maria Rivka Chwoles-Lichtenfeld in 2016
|birthname =
|country = Poland Lithuania Israel
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1923|2|10|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Vilnius]], [[Lithuania]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2017|1|23|1923|2|10|df=yes}}
|death_place = [[Ashdod]], [[Israel]]
|title =
|worldchampion =
|womensworldchampion =
|rating =
|peakrating =
|FideID =
}}

'''Maria Rivka Chwoles-Lichtenfeld''' ({{langx|he|רבקה חוואלס ליכטנפלד}}; 10 February 1923 – 23 January 2017) was an Israeli artist and [[chess]] player who survived the Holocaust in her youth. She was two times winner of [[Lithuanian Chess Championship|Lithuanian Women's Chess Championship]] (1954, 1955) and winner [[Israeli Chess Championship|Israeli Women's Chess Championship]] in 1957.

== Biography ==
She studied at the department of arts and crafts of the Vilnius Polytechnic School, simultaneously learning the basics of painting and playing the violin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jew-observer.com/iskusstvo/rivka-xvoles-lixtenfeld-xudozhnica-pobedivshaya-sudbu/|title=Ривка Хволес-Лихтенфельд – художница, победившая судьбу|language=ru|accessdate=2016-08-27}}</ref> After Vilnius was occupied by the Nazis on June 24, 1941, two [[Vilna Ghetto]] were established in the city on September 6, 1941; Rivka and her parents and sisters Elka (1921-1943) and Sofia ended up in the second of them. The sisters were able to escape from the ghetto,<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Cite web|url=http://db.yadvashem.org/righteous/family.html?language=en&itemId=4043668|title=The Righteous Among The Nations|publisher=db.yadvashem.org|accessdate=2016-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://collections.ushmm.org/search/catalog/irn35078|title=Maria Rivka Chwoles Lichtenfeld collection - USHMM Collections Search|publisher=collections.ushmm.org|accessdate=2016-08-27}}</ref> which was liquidated in mid-October 1943, and all its prisoners was murdered in [[Ponary massacre]]. For several weeks, the sisters hid in one of the city basements, and then met Lithuanian girls, sisters Nina and Lydia; when they went to the village of Gelyuny, seventy kilometers from Vilnius (now in Belarus), where their aunt lived at that time, they agreed to take Rivka with them, despite the mortal danger that threatened them for harboring a Jewish woman (In 1994, the Jerusalem [[Yad Vashem]] recognized Nina Balkene and Lydia Petrauskiene [[Righteous Among the Nations]]).<ref name=autogenerated1 /> In a few days, the girls reached the village on foot. Rivka was able to survive, introducing herself as Maria Voishvilovskaya, constantly wandering and changing her place of residence. Returning to Vilnius after the expulsion of the Nazis, she learned that her parents and three sisters, including Elka, had died.

After the war she continued her studies. At the same time, she successfully played chess. In 1951 and 1952 she became the vice-champion, and in 1954 and 1955 - champion of [[Lithuanian Chess Championship|Lithuanian Women's Chess Championship]]; performed under the name Maria Lichtenfeld. In 1955, she participated in the semifinals of the [[USSR Women's Chess Championship]], where she won 4th place. Also in 1955 in [[Lugansk|Voroshilovgrad]], she played for Lithuanian SSR in 4th Soviet Team Chess Championship.<ref>[http://www.olimpbase.org/1955st/1955ltu.html OlimpBase :: 4th Soviet Team Chess Championship, Voroshilovgrad 1955, Lithuanian SSR]</ref>

In 1957 she emigrated to Poland, and from there (two and a half months later) to [[Israel]]. In the same year, she won the second [[Israeli Chess Championship|Israeli Women's Chess Championship]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jewishchesshistory.blogspot.ru/2016/03/rivka-lichtenfeld-1957-israeli-womens.html|title=Jewish Chess History: Rivka Lichtenfeld, 1957 Israeli Women's Champion|publisher=jewishchesshistory.blogspot.ru|accessdate=2016-08-27}}</ref> Immediately settled in the city [[Ashdod]]. In 1969-1972 Studied at the High School of Painting in Tel Aviv. After the emigration of her brother Rafael Chwoles (1913-2002) from Poland to France in 1969, she resumed close contacts with him, repeatedly received him in Israel, and for four years, from 1973 to 1976, visited and worked for him in [[Paris]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kultura.lrytas.lt/-12516966821251127118-r-chwoleso-drob%C4%97se-ir-prie%C5%A1kario-vilniaus-vaizdai.htm|title=R.Chwoleso drobėse – ir prieškario Vilniaus vaizdai|language=lt|accessdate=2016-08-27}}</ref> Rivka Chwoles-Lichtenfeld's style of painting, which was largely influenced by her older brother, is distinguished by its vivid expressiveness and, at the same time, subtle lyricism. Particularly successful are her landscapes, including seascapes, as well as still lifes, the central place in which is usually occupied by bouquets of flowers.

Upon her return to Israel, she taught drawing at schools in Ashdod, [[Holon]] and [[Bat Yam]]. In 1980, she participated in a group exhibition held at the Center for Yiddish Culture in Paris, which exhibited the work of leading artists and sculptors "[[School of Paris]]", including [[Marc Chagall]] [[Emmanuel Mane-Katz]] and others. Three of her solo exhibitions were held in the 1970s - 1980s in Paris, in 1994–2004. five of her exhibitions were held in Ashdod. When, in 1998, for the fiftieth anniversary of the State of Israel, the Ashdod Mayor's Office issued a holiday calendar that included twelve works by local artists, it opened with a reproduction of Rivka Chwoles-Lichtenfeld's painting "The Market in Ashdod." In 2007, she had a joint exhibition with her great-niece Ida Chwoles in Vilnius.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.jmuseum.lt/index.aspx?Element=ViewArticle&TopicID=271&IMAction=AddArticle&EditionID=86|title=Valstybinis Vilniaus Gaono žydų muziejus|publisher=www.jmuseum.lt|accessdate=2016-08-27}}</ref> In 2016, the Jerusalem Center for the Study and Development of Contemporary Art published a book about the Rivka Hvoles-Lichtenfeld.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/contemporary.art.research.center/posts/1425879970760532|title=Центр изучения и развития современного искусства. Москва - Иерусалим - Хроника {{!}} Facebook|publisher=www.facebook.com|accessdate=2016-08-27}}</ref> Died January 23, 2017.

==Literature==
* Игорь Бердичевский. Шахматная еврейская энциклопедия. Москва: Русский шахматный дом, 2016 (Gad Berdichevsky. The Chess Jewish Encyclopedia. Moscow: Russian Chess House, 2016, p. 155) {{ISBN|978-5-94693-503-6}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{chessgames player|id=165692}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chwoles-Lichtenfeld, Maria Rivka}}
[[Category:1923 births]]
[[Category:2017 deaths]]
[[Category:Chess players from Vilnius]]
[[Category:Lithuanian female chess players]]
[[Category:Lithuanian chess players]]
[[Category:Israeli female chess players]]
[[Category:Israeli chess players]]
[[Category:Soviet female chess players]]
[[Category:Soviet chess players]]
[[Category:Israeli women painters]]
[[Category:Israeli contemporary artists]]

Classical Arabic

2025-01-04T00:01:08Z

Omcsesz: /* References */ missing attribute added

{{short description|Form of the Arabic language used in Umayyad and Abbasid literary texts}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Classical Arabic
| altname = Quranic Arabic
| states = [[Caliphate|Early Islamic Caliphates]]
| era = *7th to 9th century AD
*Continued as a liturgical language of [[Islam]]
*Spoken with a [[Modern Standard Arabic|modernized pronunciation]]
| familycolor = Afro-Asiatic
| fam2 = [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]
| fam3 = [[West Semitic languages|West Semitic]]
| fam4 = [[Central Semitic languages|Central Semitic]]
| fam5 = [[Arabic]]
| ancestor = [[Old Arabic]]
| isoexception = historical
| image = Large Koran.jpg
| imagecaption = Verses from the [[Quran]] vocalized in a reading tradition considered normative Classical Arabic, written in the [[cursive]] [[Arabic]].
| notice = IPA
| glotto = none
| nativename = {{lang|ar|العربية الفصحى}} {{transl|ar|ALA|al-ʻArabīyah al-Fuṣḥā}}
| ethnicity = [[Arabs]]
| pronunciation = {{IPA|/al ʕaraˈbijja lˈfusˤħaː/}}
| script = [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic abjad]]
| region = [[Muslim World]]
}}

'''Classical Arabic''' or '''Quranic Arabic''' ({{langx|ar|links=no|العربية الفصحى|al-ʻArabīyah al-Fuṣḥā|the most eloquent classic Arabic}}) is the standardized literary form of [[Arabic]] used from the 7th century and throughout the [[Middle Ages]], most notably in [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] and [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] literary texts such as poetry, elevated prose and oratory, and is also the [[liturgical language]] of [[Islam]]. Classical Arabic is, furthermore, the [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] of the Arabic language on which [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is based.

Several written grammars of Classical Arabic were published with the exegesis of Arabic grammar being at times based on the existing texts and the works of previous texts, in addition to various early sources considered to be of most venerated genesis of Arabic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Al-Jallad|first=Ahmad|date=2011-05-30|title=Polygenesis in the Arabic Dialects|url=http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics/polygenesis-in-the-arabic-dialects-EALL_SIM_000030?s.num=1&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopedia-of-arabic-language-and-linguistics&s.q=neo-arabic|journal=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics|language=en}}</ref> The primary focus of such works was to facilitate different linguistic aspects.

[[Modern Standard Arabic]] is its direct descendant used today throughout the [[Arab world]] in writing and in formal speaking, for example prepared speeches, some radio and television broadcasts and non-entertainment content.{{sfn|Bin-Muqbil|2006|p=14}} The [[lexis (linguistics)|lexis]] and [[stylistics (linguistics)|stylistics]] of Modern Standard Arabic are different from Classical Arabic, and Modern Standard Arabic uses a subset of the syntactic structures available in Classical Arabic, but the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and [[syntax]] have remained basically unchanged.{{sfn|Bin-Muqbil|2006|p=15}} In the Arab world little distinction is made between Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic and both are normally called {{transl|ar|al-fuṣḥā}} ({{lang|ar|الفصحى}}) in Arabic, meaning 'the most eloquent'.

==History==
[[File:Distribution of the Arabic language before the Rashidun islamic conquests.png|thumb|Distribution of Arabic dialects before the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquests]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Einführung |first1=Eine |title=Arabische Dialektgeographie |date=2005 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-47-40649-5 |page=27 |url=https://brill.com/view/title/11696?language=de&contents=toc-43627 |access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref>]]
The earliest forms of Arabic are known as [[Old Arabic]] and survive in inscriptions in [[Ancient North Arabian]] scripts as well as fragments of pre-Islamic poetry preserved in the classical literature. It is hypothesized that by the late 6th century AD a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic [[koiné]]", a [[synthetic language]] distinct from the spoken vernaculars, had developed with conservative as well as innovative features, including the case endings known as [[ʾIʿrab|''ʾiʿrab'']].<ref name="The Arabic Language">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2tghviSsrF8C&q=poetic+koine+arabic&pg=PA46|title=The Arabic Language|last1=Versteegh|first1=Kees|last2=Versteegh|first2=C. H. M.|date=1997|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-11152-2|language=en}}</ref> It is uncertain to what degree the spoken vernaculars corresponded to the literary style, however, as many surviving inscriptions in the region seem to indicate simplification or absence of the inflectional morphology of Classical Arabic. It is often said that the [[Bedouin]] dialects of [[Najd]] were probably the most conservative (or at least resembled the elevated intertribal idiom morphologically and lexically more than the other contemporary vernaculars), a view possibly supported by the romanticization of the ‘purity’ of the language of the desert-dwellers (as opposed to the "[[language change|corrupted]]" dialects of the city-dwellers) expressed in many medieval Arabic works, especially those on grammar, though some argue that all the spoken vernaculars probably deviated greatly from the supraregional literary norm to different degrees, while others, such as [[Joshua Blau]], believe that "the differences between the classical and spoken language were not too far-reaching".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8ZiAAAAMAAJ|title=On Pseudo-corrections in Some Semitic Languages|last1=Blau|first1=Joshua|date=1970|publisher=Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities|language=en}}</ref>

The [[Arabic script]] is generally believed to have evolved from [[Nabataean script|local]] [[cursive]] varieties of the [[Aramaic script]], which have been adopted to write Arabic, though some, such as [[Jean Starcky]], have postulated that it instead derives direct from the [[Syriac script]] since, unlike Aramaic, the scripts of Arabic and Syriac are both cursive. Indigenous speculations concerning the [[History of the Arabic alphabet|history of the script]] sometimes ascribe the origins of the script, and oftentimes the language itself also, to one of the ancient major figures in Islam, such as [[Adam]] or [[Ishmael]], though others mention that it was introduced to Arabia from afar.<ref name="The Arabic Language"/> In the 7th century AD the distinctive features of [[Old Hijazi]], such as loss of final short vowels, loss of [[hamza]], lenition of final /-at/ to /-ah/ and lack of [[nunation]], influenced the consonantal text (or ''[[rasm]]'') of the [[Qur'an]] (and also many of its readings also) and the later normalized orthography of Classical Arabic as a standard literary register in the 8th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Putten|first1=Marijn van|last2=Stokes|first2=Phillip|title=Case in the Qurˀānic Consonantal Text. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 108 (2018), pp. 143–179|url=https://www.academia.edu/37481811|journal=Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes|date=January 2018 |language=en}}</ref>

By the 2nd century [[Hijri year|AH]] (9th century [[AD]]/[[Common Era|CE]]) the language had been standardized by Arabic grammarians and knowledge of Classical Arabic became a prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, since it was the [[lingua franca]] across the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], and the [[Horn of Africa]], and thus the region eventually developed into a widespread state of [[diglossia]]. Consequently the classical language, as well as the [[Arabic script]], became the subject of much mythicization and was eventually associated with religious, ethnic, and racial conflicts, such as the rise of many groups traditionally categorized under the broad label of [[Shu'ubiyya|al-Shu'ibiyya]] (roughly meaning "those of the nations", as opposed to Arab tribes), who, despite the remarkable differences in their views, generally rejected the stressed and often dogmatized belief that the Arabs, as well as their language, were far superior to all other races and ethnicities,<ref group=note>Such views were not held only by Arabs. Many Islamized Persians appear to have internalized similar beliefs, and they are expressed in the works of such renowned Persian scholars as [[al-Farisi]] and his pupil [[Ibn Jinni]].</ref> and so the term later came to be applied pejoratively to such groups by their rivals.<ref group=note>The term is used disparagingly in the introduction to ''Al-Mufaṣṣal'', a treatise on Arabic grammar by the Persian theologian and exegete [[al-Zamakhshari]], wherein he begins by attacking "al-Shu'ubiyya" and thanking Allah for making him "a faithful ally of the Arabs". However the term was also used positively as it derives from the Qur'an.</ref> Moreover, many Arabic grammarians strove to attribute as many words as possible to a "pure Arabic origin", especially those in the Qur'an. Thus, exegetes, theologians, and grammarians who entertained the idea of the presence of "impurities" (for example, naturalized loanwords) in the Qur'an were severely criticized and their proposed etymologies denounced in most cases.<ref group=note>Versteegh (1997) believes that early Medieval Arabic etymologists and philologists, be they exegetes, grammarians, or both, were noticeably far more eager to ascribe words to historically non-Arabic origins, and so he concludes that the spread of the association of "linguistic supremacy" with "etymological purity" was a later development, though he mentions [[al-Suyuti]] as a notable exception to this puristic attitude, which eventually became prevalent.</ref> Nonetheless, the belief in the racial and ethnic supremacy of the Arabs and the belief in the [[Holy Language|linguistic supremacy]] of Arabic did not seem to be necessary entailments of each other.<ref group=note>[[Abu Ubaidah (scholar)|Abu 'Ubayda]], a Persian philologist, exegete, and historian who was later accused of "hating Arabs", asserted that "the Qur'an was revealed in a clear Arabic tongue, and so whosoever claims that [the word] "[[Ta-Ha|taha]]" is [[Nabateans|Nabatean]] has committed a great error".</ref>

Poems and sayings attributed to Arabic-speaking personages who lived before the standardization of the Classical idiom, which are preserved mainly in far later manuscripts, contain traces of elements in morphology and syntax that began to be regarded as chiefly poetic or characteristically regional or dialectal. Despite this, these, along with the Qur'an, were perceived as the principal foundation upon which grammatical inquiry, theorizing, and reasoning were to be based. They also formed the literary ideal to be followed, quoted, and imitated in solemn texts and speeches. Lexically, Classical Arabic may retain one or more of the dialectal forms of a given word as variants of the standardized forms, albeit often with much less currency and use.<ref name="The Arabic Language"/>

Various Arabic dialects freely [[loanword|borrowed words]] from Classical Arabic, a situation similar to the [[Romance languages]], wherein scores of words were borrowed directly from [[Classical Latin]]. Arabic-speakers usually spoke Classical Arabic as a [[second language]] (if they spoke the colloquial dialects as their first language) or as a [[third language]] (if they spoke another language as their first language and a regional variety of colloquial Arabic as their second language). Nonetheless, the pronunciation of Classical Arabic was likely influenced by the [[varieties of Arabic#Phonetics|vernaculars]] to different degrees (much like [[Modern Standard Arabic]]). The differences in pronunciation and vocabulary in the regional Arabic varieties were in turn variously influenced by the native languages spoken in the conquered regions, such as [[Coptic language|Coptic]] in Egypt; [[Berber languages|Berber]] and [[Punic language|Punic]] in the Maghreb; [[Himyaritic language|Himyaritic]], [[Modern South Arabian]], and [[Old South Arabian]] in Yemen; and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] in the Levant.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1fr5t1KLL6oC&q=arabic+vernaculars+coptic+aramaic&pg=PT635|title=The Handbook of Language Contact|last=Hickey|first=Raymond|date=2013-04-24|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-44869-4|language=en}}</ref>

==Phonology==
=== Consonants ===
{{See also|Arabic phonology}}
Like Modern Standard Arabic, Classical Arabic had 28 consonant phonemes:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+Classical Arabic consonant phonemes{{sfn|Watson|2002|p=13}}
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" |[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan="2" |[[Denti-alveolar consonant|Denti-alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]
! rowspan="2" |[[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" |plain
! style="font-size: 80%;" |[[Velarization|emphatic]]
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
|{{IPA link|m}} {{lang|ar|م}}
|
|{{IPA link|n}} {{lang|ar|ن}}
| || || || || ||
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|t|tʰ}} {{lang|ar|ت}}
|{{IPA link|ˁ|tˁ}}{{ref|d|1}} {{lang|ar|ط}}
|
|{{IPA link|k|kʰ}} {{lang|ar|ك}}
|{{IPA link|q|q}}{{ref|g|2}} {{lang|ar|ق}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʔ}} {{lang|ar|[[hamza|ء]]}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
|{{IPA link|b}} {{lang|ar|ب}}
|
|{{IPA link|d}} {{lang|ar|د}}
|
|{{IPA link|ɟ}} {{ref|j|3}} {{lang|ar|ج}}
|
|
| ||
|-
! rowspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiceless consonant|voiceless]]
|{{IPA link|f}} {{lang|ar|ف}}
|{{IPA link|θ}} {{lang|ar|ث}}
|{{IPA link|s}} {{lang|ar|س}}
|{{IPA link|ˁ|sˁ}} {{lang|ar|ص}}
|{{IPA link|ʃ}} {{lang|ar|ش}}
| ||{{IPA link|χ|χ}} {{lang|ar|خ}}
|{{IPA link|ħ}} {{lang|ar|ح}}
|{{IPA link|h}} {{lang|ar|ه}}
|-
! style="text-align: left; font-size: 80%;" |[[Voiced consonant|voiced]]
|
|{{IPA link|ð}} {{lang|ar|ذ}}
|{{IPA link|z}} {{lang|ar|ز}}
|{{IPA link|ˁ|ðˁ}} {{lang|ar|ظ}}
| ||
|{{IPA link|ʁ|ʁ}} {{lang|ar|غ}}
|{{IPA link|ʕ}} {{lang|ar|ع}}
|
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Lateral fricative]]
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɮ}}{{IPA link|ˁ}}{{ref|d|5}} {{lang|ar|ض}}
|
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|w}} {{lang|ar|[[Waw (letter)#Arabic wāw|و]]}}|| || {{IPA link|l}} {{lang|ar|ل}}||{{IPA link|ɫ|lˁ}}{{ref|l|6}} {{lang|ar|ل}}
|{{IPA link|j}} {{lang|ar|[[yāʼ#Arabic yāʼ|ي]]}}
|
| || ||
|-
! colspan="2" style="text-align: left;" |[[Tap consonant|Tap]]
| ||
|
| {{IPA link|rˁ}}{{ref|r|7}} {{lang|ar|ر}}|| || || || ||
|}
Notes:

:{{note|d|1}}[[Sibawayh]] described the consonant {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ط}}}} as voiced ({{IPA|/dˁ/}}), but some modern linguists cast doubt upon this testimony.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics|last1=Danecki|first1=Janusz|date=2008|publisher=Brill|volume=III|page=124|chapter=Majhūra/Mahmūsa}}</ref> It is likely that the word used to describe it did not mean voiced but rather unaspirated.
:{{note|g|2}}[[Ibn Khaldun]] described the pronunciation of {{angbr|{{lang|ar|ق}}}} as a voiced velar {{IPAslink|ɡ}} and that it might have been the old Arabic pronunciation of the letter, he even describes that the [[Muhammad|prophet Muhammad]] may have used the {{IPAslink|ɡ}} pronunciation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Heinrichs|first=Wolfhart|title=Ibn Khaldūn as a Historical Linguist with an Excursus on the Question of Ancient gāf|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B8F_PW9P6dqlcWc1OUpBcFpLZTA/view|journal=Harvard University}}</ref>
:{{note|j|3}}As it derives from [[Proto-Semitic]] *g, {{IPAslink|ɟ}} may have been a palatalized velar: {{IPAslink|ɡʲ}}.

:{{note|d|5}}This is retrospectively reconstructed based on ancient texts describing the proper pronunciation and discouraging the use of any other pronunciation.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Kinberg|first=Naphtali|url=https://archive.org/details/studieslinguisti00kinb|title=Studies in the Linguistic Structure of Classical Arabic|publisher=Brill|year=2001|isbn=9004117652|editor-last=Kinberg|editor-first=Leah|location=Leiden; Boston; Koln|pages=[https://archive.org/details/studieslinguisti00kinb/page/n207 197]-267|chapter=Treatise on the Pronunciation of the Dad|editor-last2=Versteegh|editor-first2=Kees|url-access=limited}}</ref>

:{{note|l|6}}{{IPAslink|ɫ|lˁ}} is a marginal phoneme that only appears in {{IPA|/(ʔa)lːˁɑːh/}}, the name of God, [[Allah]],{{sfn|Watson|2002|p=16}} except after {{IPA|/i/}} or {{IPA|/iː/}} when it becomes unemphatic {{IPA|/l/}}: ''{{transl|ar|bismi l–lāhi}}'' {{IPA|/bismi‿lːaːhi/}} ('in the name of God').

:{{note|r|7}}{{IPAslink|rˁ}} is emphatic except before {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/j/}} when it becomes unemphatic {{IPAblink|r}}.

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+[[Monophthong]] phonemes
! rowspan="2" |
! colspan="2" | Short
! colspan="2" | Long
|-
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|u}}
| {{IPA link|iː}}
| {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|
|
|{{IPA|(eː)}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Studies|first=Sibawayhi|title=solomon i.sara_sibawayh on imalah-text translation|url=https://www.academia.edu/36974800|language=en |website=Academia.edu}}</ref>
|
|- align="center"
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|a}}
| colspan="2" | {{IPA|aː}}
|}
:Notes:
:* {{IPA|[ɑ(ː)]}} is the allophone of {{IPA|/a/}} and {{IPA|/aː/}} after uvular and emphatic consonants
:* {{IPA|[eː]}} arose from two separate sources, often conflated:
:**The contraction of the triphthong {{IPA|*ayV}}. Some Arabs said ''banē'' (< *banaya) for ''banā'' ("he built") and ''zēda'' (< *zayida) for ''zāda'' ("it increased"). This {{IPA|/eː/}} merged with {{IPA|/aː/}} in later Classical Arabic and most modern Arabic dialects.<ref name=":0" />
:**A completely different phenomenon called [[imāla]] led to the raising of {{IPAslink|a}} and {{IPA|/aː/}} adjacent to a sequence {{IPA|i(ː)C}} or {{IPA|Ci(ː)}}, where C was a non-emphatic, non-uvular consonant, e.g. ''al-kēfirīna'' < ''al-kāfirīna'' ("the infidels"). Imala could also occur in the absence of an i-vowel in an adjacent syllable. It was considered acceptable Classical Arabic by Sibawayh, and still occurs in numerous modern Arabic dialects, particularly the urban dialects of the Fertile Crescent and the Mediterranean.
:* [{{IPA|eː}}] may have been the original pronunciation of a final ی which is otherwise pronounced as [{{IPA|aː}}]. In the Kisā'i and Hamzah recitations of the Qur'an, this pronunciation is used, whereas in the Hafs pronunciation {{IPA|aː}} is used instead. An example of this can be seen in the names Mūsā (Moses), 'īsā (Jesus), and Yahyā (John), which would be pronounced as Musē, 'īsē and Yahyē in the former two manners of recitation.

== Grammar ==

=== Nouns ===
{{Main|Arabic nouns and adjectives}}

==== Case ====
The A1 inscription dated to the 3rd or 4th century AD in the [[Greek alphabet]] in a dialect showing affinities to that of the Safaitic inscriptions shows that short final high vowels had been lost in at least some dialects of [[Old Arabic]] at that time, obliterating the distinction between nominative and genitive case in the singular, leaving the accusative the only marked case:<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/12463830|title=Al-Jallad. 2015. New Epigraphica from Jordan I: a pre-Islamic Arabic inscription in Greek letters and a Greek inscription from north-eastern Jordan, w. A. al-Manaser|journal=Arabian Epigraphic Notes 1|access-date=2015-12-09|last1=Al-Manaser|first1=Ali|last2=Al-Jallad|first2=Ahmad|date=19 May 2015 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!bgcolor="EFEFEF" style="text-align: center" |Translation||bgcolor="EFEFEF"|Original Greek transcription||bgcolor="EFEFEF"|Arabic approximate transcription
|-
|ʾAws son of ʿūḏ (?) ||Αυσος Ουδου||أوس عوذ
|-
|son of Bannāʾ son of Kazim||Βαναου Χαζιμ||بناء كازم
|-
|the ʾidāmite came ||μου αλΙδαμι αθα||الإدامي أتو
|-
|because of scarcity; he came||οα μισειαζ αθαοευ̣ ||من شحاص أتو
|-
|to Bannāʾ in this region ||α Βαναα αδαυρα||بناء الدور
|-
|and they pastured on fresh herbage ||αουα ειραυ βακλα||ويرعو بقل
|-
|during Kānūn||βιΧανου ||بكانون
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Safaitic (ca. 3rd – 4th century AD)
|-
!
!Triptote
!Diptote
!Dual
!Masculine plural
!Feminine plural
|-
|Nominative
|∅..الـ ''(ʾal-)...-∅''
| rowspan="3" | -''∅''
|الـ)..ـَان) ''(ʾal-)...-ān''
|الـ)..ـُون) ''(ʾal-)...-ūn''
| rowspan="3" |الـ)..ـَات) ''(ʾal-)...-āt''
|-
|Accusative
|الـ..ـَا ''(ʾal-)...-a''
| rowspan="2" |الـ)..ـَيْن) ''(ʾal-)...-ayn''
| rowspan="2" |الـ)..ـِين) ''(ʾal-)...-īn''
|-
|Genitive
|∅..(الـ) ''(ʾal-)...-∅''
|}

Classical Arabic however, shows a far more archaic system, essentially identical with that of [[Proto-Arabic]]:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Classical Arabic (ca. 7th century AD)
|-
!
! colspan="2" |Triptote
!Diptote
!Dual
!Masculine plural
! colspan="2" |Feminine plural
|-
|Nominative
|ـٌ ''-un''
|الـ..ـُ ''ʾal-...-u''
|ـُ -''u''
|الـ)..ـَانِ) ''(ʾal-)...-āni''
|الـ)..ـُونَ) ''(ʾal-)...-ūna''
|ـَاتٌ ''-ātun''
|الـ..ـَاتُ ''ʾal-...-ātu''
|-
|Accusative
|ـًا، ـً ''-an''
|الـ..ـَ ''ʾal-...-a''
| rowspan="2" |ـَ -''a''
| rowspan="2" |الـ)..ـَيْنِ) ''(ʾal-)...-ayni''
| rowspan="2" |الـ)..ـِينَ) ''(ʾal-)...-īna''
| rowspan="2" |ـَاتٍ ''-ātin''
| rowspan="2" |الـ..ـَاتِ ''ʾal-...-āti''
|-
|Genitive
|ـٍ ''-in''
|الـ..ـِ ''ʾal-...-i''
|}

==== State ====
The definite article spread areally among the Central Semitic languages and it would seem that Proto-Arabic lacked any overt marking of definiteness. Besides dialects with no definite article, the Safaitic inscriptions exhibit about four different article forms, ordered by frequency: ''h-'', ''ʾ-'', ''ʾl-'', and ''hn-''. The Old Arabic of the Nabataean inscriptions exhibits almost exclusively the form ''ʾl-''. Unlike the Classical Arabic article, the Old Arabic ''ʾl'' almost never exhibits the assimilation of the coda to the coronals; the same situation is attested in the Graeco-Arabica, but in A1 the coda assimilates to the following ''d'', αδαυρα *''ʾad-dawra'' {{lang|ar|الدورة}} 'the region'.

In Classical Arabic, the definite article takes the form ''al-'', with the coda of the article exhibiting assimilation to the following dental and denti-alveolar consonants. Note the inclusion of palatal {{IPA|/ɕ/}}, which alone among the palatal consonants exhibits assimilation, indicating that assimilation ceased to be productive before that consonant shifted from Old Arabic {{IPA|/ɬ/}}:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ [[sun and moon letters|Sun consonants]] in Classical Arabic
! colspan="2" | [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! colspan="2" | [[Denti-alveolar consonant|Denti-alveolar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
|-
! style="font-size: 80%;" | plain
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Velarization|emphatic]]
! style="font-size: 80%;" | plain
! style="font-size: 80%;" | [[Velarization|emphatic]]
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|n}} ''n'' – {{lang|ar|ن}}
|
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|t}} ''t'' – {{lang|ar|ت}}
| {{IPA|tˤ}} ''ṭ'' – {{lang|ar|ط}}
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|d}} ''d'' – {{lang|ar|د}}
|
|
|-
| {{IPA|θ}} ''ṯ'' – {{lang|ar|ث}}
|
| {{IPA|s}} ''s'' – {{lang|ar|س}}
| {{IPA|sˤ}} ''ṣ'' – {{lang|ar|ص}}
|
|-
| {{IPA|ð}} ''ḏ'' – {{lang|ar|ذ}}
| {{IPA|ðˤ}} ''ẓ'' – {{lang|ar|ظ}}
| {{IPA|z}} ''z'' – {{lang|ar|ز}}
|
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|ɕ}} (< *ɬ) ''[[š]]'' – {{lang|ar|ش}}
|{{IPA link|ɮˤ}} ''ḍ'' – {{lang|ar|ض}}
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|l}} ''l'' – {{lang|ar|ل}}
|
|
|-
|
|
| {{IPA|r}} ''r'' – {{lang|ar|ر}}
|
|
|}

=== Verbs ===
{{Main|Arabic verbs}}

==== Barth-Ginsberg alternation ====
Proto-Central Semitic, Proto-Arabic, various forms of Old Arabic, and some modern Najdi dialects to this day have alternation in the performative vowel of the prefix conjugation, depending on the stem vowel of the verb. Early forms of Classical Arabic allowed this alternation, but later forms of Classical Arabic levelled the /a/ allomorph:
{| class="wikitable"
!
! colspan="2" |Pre-Classical (''taltalah'')
!Classical
|-
|1 sg.
|''ʾi-rkabu''
|''ʾa-qtulu''
|''ʾa-...-u''
|-
|2 m.sg.
|''ti-rkabu''
|''ta-qtulu''
|''ta-...-u''
|-
|3 m.sg.
|''ya-rkabu'' (< *''yi-'')
|''ya-qtulu''
|''ya-...-u''
|-
|1 pl.
|''ni-rkabu''
|''na-qtulu''
|''na-...-u''
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Islam}}
*[[Arabic]]
*[[Arabic in Islam]]
*[[Modern Standard Arabic]]
*[[Varieties of Arabic]]
*[[Ancient North Arabian]]
*[[Quranic Arabic Corpus]]
*[[Arabic–English Lexicon]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{Cite journal
|last=Bin-Muqbil
|first=Musaed
|year=2006
|title=Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Arabic Emphatics and Gutturals
|place=University of Wisconsin–Madison
|journal=Open Journal of Modern Linguistics
}}
*Holes, Clive (2004) ''Modern Arabic: Structures, Functions, and Varieties'' Georgetown University Press. {{ISBN|1-58901-022-1}}
*[[Kees Versteegh|Versteegh, Kees]] (2001) ''The Arabic Language'' Edinburgh University Press {{ISBN|0-7486-1436-2}} (Ch.5 available in link below)
*{{Cite journal
|last=Watson
|first=Janet
|year=2002
|title=The Phonology and Morphology of Arabic
|place=New York
|publisher=Oxford University Press
}}
*{{Cite journal
|last=Bin Radhan
|first=Neil
|title=Die Wissenschaft des Tadschwīd
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Classical Arabic}}
{{Wiktionary|Modern Standard Arabic}}
{{Wiktionary|Fus-ha}}
* [http://corpus.quran.com Classical Arabic Grammar Documentation] – Visualization of Classical Quranic Grammar ([[i'rab|{{transl|ar|ALA|iʻrāb}}]])
*[http://www.al-mawrid.org/index.php/learning/quranic-arabic-for-beginners/view/quranic-arabic-for-beginners-lesson-1] – Lectures on Quranic Arabic by Dr. Khalid Zaheer (CA)
* [http://www.lqtoronto.com Institute of the Language of the Quran] – Free Video lectures on basic and advanced Classical Arabic grammar
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20210516000855/https://classicalarabic.org/] – A hub for learners of Classical Arabic.

{{Language phonologies}}
{{Arabic language}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Classical Arabic| ]]
[[Category:Arabic languages]]
[[Category:Classical languages|Arabic]]
[[Category:Verb–subject–object languages|Arabic]]
[[Category:Sacred languages]]
[[Category:Medieval languages|Arabic, Classical]]
[[Category:Languages attested from the 7th century]]
[[Category:7th-century establishments in Asia]]

Anomaly (physics)

2025-01-03T23:49:45Z

Omcsesz: Undid revision 1267177722 by Omcsesz (talk)

{{Short description|Asymmetry of classical and quantum action}}
{{Quantum field theory|cTopic=Tools}}
{{distinguish|Anomaly (natural sciences)}}
In [[quantum physics]] an '''anomaly''' or '''quantum anomaly''' is the failure of a [[symmetry]] of a theory's classical [[action (physics)|action]] to be a symmetry of any [[regularization (physics)|regularization]] of the full quantum theory.<ref>
{{cite journal
|last=Bardeen |first=William |year=1969
|title=Anomalous Ward identities in spinor field theories
|journal=[[Physical Review]]
|volume=184
|issue=5 |pages=1848–1859
|doi=10.1103/physrev.184.1848|bibcode = 1969PhRv..184.1848B }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last1=Cheng |first1=T.P.|last2=Li |first2=L.F. |date=1984 |title=Gauge Theory of Elementary Particle Physics|publisher=Oxford Science Publications }}</ref>
In [[classical physics]], a '''classical anomaly''' is the failure of a symmetry to be restored in the limit in which the symmetry-breaking parameter goes to zero. Perhaps the first known anomaly was the dissipative anomaly<ref>{{cite web|title=Dissipative Anomalies in Singular Euler Flows|url=https://www-n.oca.eu/etc7/EE250/presentations/Eyink.pdf}}</ref> in [[turbulence]]: time-reversibility remains broken (and energy dissipation rate finite) at the limit of vanishing [[viscosity]].

In quantum theory, the first anomaly discovered was the [[Adler–Bell–Jackiw anomaly]], wherein the [[Chiral_anomaly|axial vector current]] is conserved as a classical symmetry of [[electrodynamics]], but is broken by the quantized theory. The relationship of this anomaly to the [[Atiyah–Singer index theorem]] was one of the celebrated achievements of the theory. Technically, an anomalous symmetry in a quantum theory is a symmetry of the [[action (physics)|action]], but not of the [[measure (physics)|measure]], and so not of the [[partition function (quantum field theory)|partition function]] as a whole.

==Global anomalies==

A global anomaly is the quantum violation of a global symmetry current conservation.
A global anomaly can also mean that a non-perturbative global anomaly cannot be captured by one loop or any loop perturbative Feynman diagram calculations—examples include the [[#Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly|Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly]].

===Scaling and renormalization===

The most prevalent global anomaly in physics is associated with the violation of [[scale invariance]] by quantum corrections, quantified in [[renormalization]].
Since regulators generally introduce a distance scale, the classically scale-invariant theories are subject to [[renormalization group]] flow, i.e., changing behavior with energy scale. For example, the large strength of the [[strong nuclear force]] results from a theory that is weakly coupled at short distances flowing to a strongly coupled theory at long distances, due to this scale anomaly.

===Rigid symmetries===

Anomalies in [[commutative|abelian]] global symmetries pose no problems in a [[quantum field theory]], and are often encountered (see the example of the [[chiral anomaly]]). In particular the corresponding anomalous symmetries can be fixed by fixing the [[boundary condition]]s of the [[path integral formulation|path integral]].

===Large gauge transformations===

Global anomalies in [[symmetries]] that approach the identity sufficiently quickly at [[infinity]] do, however, pose problems. In known examples such symmetries correspond to disconnected components of gauge symmetries. Such symmetries and possible anomalies occur, for example, in theories with chiral fermions or self-dual [[differential form]]s coupled to [[gravity]] in 4''k'' + 2 dimensions, and also in the [[#Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly|Witten anomaly]] in an ordinary 4-dimensional SU(2) gauge theory.

As these symmetries vanish at infinity, they cannot be constrained by boundary conditions and so must be summed over in the path integral. The sum of the gauge orbit of a state is a sum of phases which form a subgroup of U(1). As there is an anomaly, not all of these phases are the same, therefore it is not the identity subgroup. The sum of the phases in every other subgroup of U(1) is equal to zero, and so all path integrals are equal to zero when there is such an anomaly and a theory does not exist.

An exception may occur when the space of configurations is itself disconnected, in which case one may have the freedom to choose to integrate over any
subset of the components. If the disconnected gauge symmetries map the system between disconnected configurations, then there is in general a consistent truncation of a theory in which one integrates only over those connected components that are not related by large gauge transformations. In this case the large gauge transformations do not act on the system and do not cause the path integral to vanish.

====Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly====

In SU(2) [[gauge theory]] in 4 dimensional [[Minkowski space]], a gauge transformation corresponds to a choice of an element of the [[special unitary group]] SU(2) at each point in spacetime. The group of such gauge transformations is connected.

However, if we are only interested in the subgroup of gauge transformations that vanish at infinity, we may consider the 3-sphere at infinity to be a single point, as the gauge transformations vanish there anyway. If the 3-sphere at infinity is identified with a point, our Minkowski space is identified with the 4-sphere. Thus we see that the group of gauge transformations vanishing at infinity in Minkowski 4-space is [[isomorphic]] to the group of all gauge transformations on the 4-sphere.

This is the group which consists of a continuous choice of a gauge transformation in SU(2) for each point on the 4-sphere. In other words, the gauge symmetries are in one-to-one correspondence with maps from the 4-sphere to the 3-sphere, which is the group manifold of SU(2). The space of such maps is ''not'' connected, instead the connected components are classified by the fourth [[homotopy group]] of the 3-sphere which is the [[cyclic group]] of order two. In particular, there are two connected components. One contains the identity and is called the ''identity component'', the other is called the ''disconnected component''.

When a theory contains an odd number of flavors of chiral fermions, the actions of gauge symmetries in the identity component and the disconnected component of the gauge group on a physical state differ by a sign. Thus when one sums over all physical configurations in the [[functional integration|path integral]], one finds that contributions come in pairs with opposite signs. As a result, all path integrals vanish and a theory does not exist.

The above description of a global anomaly is for the SU(2) gauge theory coupled to an odd number of (iso-)spin-1/2 Weyl fermion in 4 spacetime dimensions. This is known as the Witten SU(2) anomaly.<ref name="An SU(2) Anomaly">{{cite journal | last=Witten | first=Edward | title=An SU(2) Anomaly | journal=Phys. Lett. B | volume=117 | issue=5 | date= November 1982 | doi=10.1016/0370-2693(82)90728-6 | page=324 | bibcode=1982PhLB..117..324W }}</ref> In 2018, it is found by Wang, Wen and Witten that the SU(2) gauge theory coupled to an odd number of (iso-)spin-3/2 Weyl fermion in 4 spacetime dimensions has a further subtler non-perturbative global anomaly detectable on certain non-spin manifolds without [[spin structure]].<ref name="1810.00844">{{cite journal | last1=Wang | first1=Juven | last2=Wen | first2=Xiao-Gang | last3=Witten | first3=Edward | title=A New SU(2) Anomaly | journal=Journal of Mathematical Physics | volume=60 | issue=5 | date= May 2019 | issn= 1089-7658 | doi=10.1063/1.5082852 | page=052301 |arxiv=1810.00844| bibcode=2019JMP....60e2301W | s2cid=85543591 }}</ref> This new anomaly is called the new SU(2) anomaly. Both types of anomalies<ref name="An SU(2) Anomaly"/> <ref name=1810.00844/> have analogs of (1) dynamical gauge anomalies for dynamical gauge theories and (2) the 't Hooft anomalies of global symmetries. In addition, both types of anomalies are mod 2 classes (in terms of classification, they are both finite groups '''Z'''''2'' of order 2 classes), and have analogs in 4 and 5 spacetime dimensions.<ref name=1810.00844/> More generally, for any natural integer N, it can be shown that an odd number of fermion multiplets in representations of (iso)-spin 2N+1/2 can have the SU(2) anomaly; an odd number of fermion multiplets in representations of (iso)-spin 4N+3/2 can have the new SU(2) anomaly.<ref name=1810.00844/> For fermions in the half-integer spin representation, it is shown that there are only these two types of SU(2) anomalies and the linear combinations of these two anomalies; these classify all global SU(2) anomalies.<ref name=1810.00844/> This new SU(2) anomaly also plays an important rule for confirming the consistency of [[SO(10)]] grand unified theory, with a Spin(10) gauge group and chiral fermions in the 16-dimensional spinor representations, defined on non-spin manifolds.<ref name=1810.00844/><ref name="1809.11171">{{cite journal | last1=Wang | first1=Juven | last2=Wen | first2=Xiao-Gang | title=Nonperturbative definition of the standard models | journal=Physical Review Research | volume=2 | issue=2 | date=1 June 2020 | issn=2469-9896 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevResearch.2.023356 | page=023356 |arxiv=1809.11171| bibcode= 2018arXiv180911171W| s2cid=53346597 }}</ref>

===Higher anomalies involving higher global symmetries: Pure Yang–Mills gauge theory as an example===

The concept of global symmetries can be generalized to higher global symmetries,<ref name="1412.5148">{{cite journal | last1=Gaiotto | first1=Davide | last2=Kapustin | first2=Anton | last3=Seiberg | first3=Nathan | last4=Willett | first4=Brian | title=Generalized Global Symmetries | journal=JHEP | volume=2015 | issue=2 | date=February 2015 | page=172 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP02(2015)172 |arxiv=1412.5148| bibcode=2015JHEP...02..172G | s2cid=37178277 }}</ref> such that the charged object for the ordinary 0-form symmetry is a particle, while the charged object for the n-form symmetry is an n-dimensional extended operator. It is found that the 4 dimensional pure Yang–Mills theory with only SU(2) gauge fields with a topological theta term <math>\theta=\pi,</math> can have a mixed higher 't Hooft anomaly between the 0-form time-reversal symmetry and 1-form '''Z'''''2'' center symmetry.<ref name="1703.00501">{{cite journal | last1=Gaiotto | first1=Davide | last2=Kapustin | first2=Anton | last3=Komargodski | first3=Zohar | last4=Seiberg | first4=Nathan | title=Theta, Time Reversal, and Temperature
| journal=JHEP | volume=2017 | issue=5 | date=May 2017 | page=91 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP05(2017)091 |arxiv=1412.5148| bibcode=2017JHEP...05..091G | s2cid=119528151 }}</ref> The 't Hooft anomaly of 4 dimensional pure Yang–Mills theory can be precisely written as a 5 dimensional invertible topological field theory or mathematically a 5 dimensional bordism invariant, generalizing the anomaly inflow picture to this '''Z'''''2'' class of global anomaly involving higher symmetries.<ref name="1904.00994">{{cite journal | last1=Wan | first1=Zheyan | last2=Wang | first2=Juven | last3=Zheng | first3=Yunqin | title=Quantum 4d Yang-Mills Theory and Time-Reversal Symmetric 5d Higher-Gauge Topological Field Theory | journal=Physical Review D | volume=100 | issue=8 | date=October 2019 | issn=2470-0029 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.100.085012 | page= 085012 |arxiv=1904.00994| bibcode=2019PhRvD.100h5012W | s2cid=201305547 }}</ref> In other words, we can regard the 4 dimensional pure Yang–Mills theory with a topological theta term <math>\theta=\pi</math> live as a boundary condition of a certain '''Z'''''2'' class invertible topological field theory, in order to match their higher anomalies on the 4 dimensional boundary.<ref name="1904.00994">{{cite journal | last1=Wan | first1=Zheyan | last2=Wang | first2=Juven | last3=Zheng | first3=Yunqin | title=Quantum 4d Yang-Mills Theory and Time-Reversal Symmetric 5d Higher-Gauge Topological Field Theory | journal=Physical Review D | volume=100 | issue=8 | date=October 2019 | issn=2470-0029 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.100.085012 | page= 085012 |arxiv=1904.00994| bibcode=2019PhRvD.100h5012W | s2cid=201305547 }}</ref>

==Gauge anomalies==

{{Main article|Gauge anomaly}}

Anomalies in gauge symmetries lead to an inconsistency, since a gauge symmetry is required in order to cancel unphysical degrees of freedom with a negative norm (such as a [[photon]] polarized in the time direction). An attempt to cancel them—i.e., to build theories [[consistent]] with the gauge symmetries—often leads to extra constraints on the theories (such is the case of the [[gauge anomaly]] in the [[Standard Model]] of particle physics). Anomalies in [[gauge theory|gauge theories]] have important connections to the [[topology]] and [[geometry]] of the [[gauge group]].

Anomalies in gauge symmetries can be calculated exactly at the one-loop level. At tree level (zero loops), one reproduces the classical theory. [[Feynman diagrams]] with more than one loop always contain internal [[boson]] propagators. As bosons may always be given a mass without breaking gauge invariance, a [[Pauli–Villars regularization]] of such diagrams is possible while preserving the symmetry. Whenever the regularization of a diagram is consistent with a given symmetry, that diagram does not generate an anomaly with respect to the symmetry.

Vector gauge anomalies are always [[chiral anomaly|chiral anomalies]]. Another type of gauge anomaly is the [[gravitational anomaly]].

==At different energy scales==

{{Main article|Anomaly matching condition}}

Quantum anomalies were discovered via the process of [[renormalization]], when some [[ultraviolet divergence|divergent integrals]] cannot be [[regularization (physics)|regularized]] in such a way that all the symmetries are preserved simultaneously. This is related to the high energy physics. However, due to [[Gerard 't Hooft]]'s [[anomaly matching condition]], any [[chiral anomaly]] can be described either by the UV degrees of freedom (those relevant at high energies) or by the IR degrees of freedom (those relevant at low energies). Thus one cannot cancel an anomaly by a [[UV completion]] of a theory—an anomalous symmetry is simply not a symmetry of a theory, even though classically it appears to be.

==Anomaly cancellation==
[[File:Triangle diagram.svg|left]]
Since cancelling anomalies is necessary for the consistency of gauge theories, such cancellations are of central importance in constraining the fermion content of the [[standard model]], which is a chiral gauge theory.

For example, the vanishing of the [[mixed anomaly]] involving two SU(2) generators and one U(1) hypercharge constrains all charges in a fermion generation to add up to zero,<ref>Bouchiat, Cl, Iliopoulos, J, and Meyer, Ph (1972) . "An anomaly-free version of Weinberg's model." ''Physics Letters'' '''B38''', 519-523.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Minahan | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Ramond | first2 = P. | last3 = Warner | first3 = R. C. | year = 1990 | title = Comment on anomaly cancellation in the standard model | journal = Phys. Rev. D | volume = 41 | issue = 2| pages = 715–716 | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.41.715 | pmid = 10012386 |bibcode = 1990PhRvD..41..715M }}</ref> and thereby dictates that the sum of the proton plus the sum of the electron vanish: the ''charges of quarks and leptons must be commensurate''.
Specifically, for two external gauge fields {{math|''Wa''}}, {{math|''Wb''}} and one hypercharge {{mvar|B}} at the vertices of the triangle diagram, cancellation of the triangle requires
:<math>\sum_{all ~doublets}\!\!\!\! \mathrm{Tr} ~T^a T^b Y \propto \delta^{ab} \sum_{all ~doublets} Y=\sum_{all ~doublets} Q =0 ~, </math>
so, for each generation, the charges of the leptons and quarks are balanced, <math>-1+3\times\frac{2-1}{3}=0 </math>, whence {{math|1=''Q''p + ''Q''e = 0}}{{Citation needed|date=April 2020|reason=Why should that follow?}}.

The anomaly cancelation in SM was also used to predict a quark from 3rd generation, the [[top quark]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Conlon|first=Joseph|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781482242492|title=Why String Theory?|date=2016-08-19|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-315-27236-8|edition=1|language=en|doi=10.1201/9781315272368|page=81}}</ref>

Further such mechanisms include:
* [[Axion]]
* [[Chern–Simons]]
* [[Green–Schwarz mechanism]]
* Liouville action

==Anomalies and cobordism==

In the modern description of anomalies classified by [[cobordism]] theory,<ref name="1604.06527">{{cite journal | last1= Freed | first1=Daniel S. | last2=Hopkins | first2=Michael J. | title=Reflection positivity and invertible topological phases
| journal=Geometry & Topology | year=2021 | volume=25 | issue=3 | pages=1165–1330 | doi=10.2140/gt.2021.25.1165 |issn=1465-3060 |arxiv=1604.06527| bibcode= 2016arXiv160406527F| s2cid=119139835 }}</ref> the [[Feynman diagram|Feynman-Dyson graphs]] only captures the perturbative local anomalies classified by integer '''Z''' classes also known as the free part. There exists nonperturbative global anomalies classified by [[cyclic group|cyclic groups]] '''Z'''/''n'''''Z''' classes also known as the torsion part.

It is widely known and checked in the late 20th century that the [[standard model]] and chiral gauge theories are free from perturbative local anomalies (captured by [[Feynman diagram|Feynman diagrams]]). However, it is not entirely clear whether there are any nonperturbative global anomalies for the [[standard model]] and chiral gauge theories.
Recent developments <ref name="1808.00009">{{cite journal | last1=García-Etxebarria | first1=Iñaki | last2=Montero | first2=Miguel | title=Dai-Freed anomalies in particle physics | journal=JHEP | volume=2019 | issue=8 | date=August 2019 | page=3 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP08(2019)003 |arxiv=1808.00009| bibcode=2019JHEP...08..003G | s2cid=73719463 }}</ref>
<ref name="1910.11277">{{cite journal | last1=Davighi | first1=Joe | last2=Gripaios | first2=Ben | last3=Lohitsiri | first3=Nakarin | title=Global anomalies in the Standard Model(s) and Beyond | journal=JHEP | volume=2020 | issue=7 | date=July 2020 | page=232 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP07(2020)232 |arxiv=1910.11277| bibcode=2020JHEP...07..232D | s2cid=204852053 }}</ref>
<ref name="1910.14668">{{cite journal | last1=Wan | first1=Zheyan | last2=Wang | first2=Juven | title=Beyond Standard Models and Grand Unifications: Anomalies, Topological Terms, and Dynamical Constraints via Cobordisms | journal=JHEP | volume=2020 | issue=7 | date=July 2020 | page=62 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP07(2020)062 |arxiv=1910.14668| bibcode=2020JHEP...07..062W | s2cid=207800450 }}</ref>
based on the [[cobordism theory]] examine this problem, and several additional nontrivial global anomalies found can further constrain these gauge theories. There is also a formulation of both perturbative local and nonperturbative global description of anomaly inflow in terms of [[Michael Atiyah|Atiyah]], [[Vijay Kumar Patodi|Patodi]], and [[Isadore Singer|Singer]]
<ref name="APS">{{Citation | last1=Atiyah | first1=Michael Francis | author1-link=Michael Atiyah | last2=Patodi | first2=V. K. | last3=Singer | first3=I. M. | title=Spectral asymmetry and Riemannian geometry | doi=10.1112/blms/5.2.229 | mr=0331443 | year=1973 | journal=The Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society | issn=0024-6093 | volume=5 | issue=2 | pages=229–234| citeseerx=10.1.1.597.6432 }}</ref>
<ref name="APS1">{{Citation | last1=Atiyah | first1=Michael Francis | author1-link=Michael Atiyah | last2=Patodi | first2=V. K. | last3=Singer | first3=I. M. | title=Spectral asymmetry and Riemannian geometry. I | doi=10.1017/S0305004100049410 | mr=0397797 | year=1975 | journal=Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | issn=0305-0041 | volume=77 | issue=1 | pages=43–69| bibcode=1975MPCPS..77...43A | s2cid=17638224 }}</ref> [[eta invariant]] in one higher dimension. This [[eta invariant]] is a cobordism invariant whenever the perturbative local anomalies vanish. <ref name="1909.08775">{{cite arXiv| last1=Witten | first1=Edward | last2=Yonekura | first2=Kazuya | title=Anomaly Inflow and the eta-Invariant | year=2019 |arxiv=1909.08775}}</ref>

== Examples ==
* [[Chiral anomaly]]
* [[Conformal anomaly]] (anomaly of [[scale invariance]])
* [[Gauge anomaly]]
* [[Global anomaly]]
* [[Gravitational anomaly]] (also known as ''diffeomorphism anomaly'')
* [[Konishi anomaly]]
* [[Mixed anomaly]]
* [[Parity anomaly]]
* [[Anomaly matching condition|'t Hooft anomaly]]

==See also==
* [[Anomalon]]s, a topic of some debate in the 1980s, anomalons were found in the results of some [[high-energy physics]] experiments that seemed to point to the existence of anomalously highly interactive states of matter. The topic was controversial throughout its history.

==References==
;Citations
{{reflist}}
;General
* Gravitational Anomalies by [[Luis Alvarez-Gaumé]]: This classic paper, which introduces pure [[gravitational anomaly|gravitational anomalies]], contains a good general introduction to anomalies and their relation to [[regularization (physics)|regularization]] and to [[conserved current]]s. All occurrences of the number 388 should be read "384". Originally at: ccdb4fs.kek.jp/cgi-bin/img_index?8402145. Springer https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4757-0280-4_1
{{String theory topics |state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Anomalies (physics)| ]]

Anomaly (physics)

2025-01-03T23:43:37Z

Omcsesz: /* Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly */ incorrect template category corrected

{{Short description|Asymmetry of classical and quantum action}}
{{Quantum field theory|cTopic=Tools}}
{{distinguish|Anomaly (natural sciences)}}
In [[quantum physics]] an '''anomaly''' or '''quantum anomaly''' is the failure of a [[symmetry]] of a theory's classical [[action (physics)|action]] to be a symmetry of any [[regularization (physics)|regularization]] of the full quantum theory.<ref>
{{cite journal
|last=Bardeen |first=William |year=1969
|title=Anomalous Ward identities in spinor field theories
|journal=[[Physical Review]]
|volume=184
|issue=5 |pages=1848–1859
|doi=10.1103/physrev.184.1848|bibcode = 1969PhRv..184.1848B }}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last1=Cheng |first1=T.P.|last2=Li |first2=L.F. |date=1984 |title=Gauge Theory of Elementary Particle Physics|publisher=Oxford Science Publications }}</ref>
In [[classical physics]], a '''classical anomaly''' is the failure of a symmetry to be restored in the limit in which the symmetry-breaking parameter goes to zero. Perhaps the first known anomaly was the dissipative anomaly<ref>{{cite web|title=Dissipative Anomalies in Singular Euler Flows|url=https://www-n.oca.eu/etc7/EE250/presentations/Eyink.pdf}}</ref> in [[turbulence]]: time-reversibility remains broken (and energy dissipation rate finite) at the limit of vanishing [[viscosity]].

In quantum theory, the first anomaly discovered was the [[Adler–Bell–Jackiw anomaly]], wherein the [[Chiral_anomaly|axial vector current]] is conserved as a classical symmetry of [[electrodynamics]], but is broken by the quantized theory. The relationship of this anomaly to the [[Atiyah–Singer index theorem]] was one of the celebrated achievements of the theory. Technically, an anomalous symmetry in a quantum theory is a symmetry of the [[action (physics)|action]], but not of the [[measure (physics)|measure]], and so not of the [[partition function (quantum field theory)|partition function]] as a whole.

==Global anomalies==

A global anomaly is the quantum violation of a global symmetry current conservation.
A global anomaly can also mean that a non-perturbative global anomaly cannot be captured by one loop or any loop perturbative Feynman diagram calculations—examples include the [[#Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly|Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly]].

===Scaling and renormalization===

The most prevalent global anomaly in physics is associated with the violation of [[scale invariance]] by quantum corrections, quantified in [[renormalization]].
Since regulators generally introduce a distance scale, the classically scale-invariant theories are subject to [[renormalization group]] flow, i.e., changing behavior with energy scale. For example, the large strength of the [[strong nuclear force]] results from a theory that is weakly coupled at short distances flowing to a strongly coupled theory at long distances, due to this scale anomaly.

===Rigid symmetries===

Anomalies in [[commutative|abelian]] global symmetries pose no problems in a [[quantum field theory]], and are often encountered (see the example of the [[chiral anomaly]]). In particular the corresponding anomalous symmetries can be fixed by fixing the [[boundary condition]]s of the [[path integral formulation|path integral]].

===Large gauge transformations===

Global anomalies in [[symmetries]] that approach the identity sufficiently quickly at [[infinity]] do, however, pose problems. In known examples such symmetries correspond to disconnected components of gauge symmetries. Such symmetries and possible anomalies occur, for example, in theories with chiral fermions or self-dual [[differential form]]s coupled to [[gravity]] in 4''k'' + 2 dimensions, and also in the [[#Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly|Witten anomaly]] in an ordinary 4-dimensional SU(2) gauge theory.

As these symmetries vanish at infinity, they cannot be constrained by boundary conditions and so must be summed over in the path integral. The sum of the gauge orbit of a state is a sum of phases which form a subgroup of U(1). As there is an anomaly, not all of these phases are the same, therefore it is not the identity subgroup. The sum of the phases in every other subgroup of U(1) is equal to zero, and so all path integrals are equal to zero when there is such an anomaly and a theory does not exist.

An exception may occur when the space of configurations is itself disconnected, in which case one may have the freedom to choose to integrate over any
subset of the components. If the disconnected gauge symmetries map the system between disconnected configurations, then there is in general a consistent truncation of a theory in which one integrates only over those connected components that are not related by large gauge transformations. In this case the large gauge transformations do not act on the system and do not cause the path integral to vanish.

====Witten anomaly and Wang–Wen–Witten anomaly====

In SU(2) [[gauge theory]] in 4 dimensional [[Minkowski space]], a gauge transformation corresponds to a choice of an element of the [[special unitary group]] SU(2) at each point in spacetime. The group of such gauge transformations is connected.

However, if we are only interested in the subgroup of gauge transformations that vanish at infinity, we may consider the 3-sphere at infinity to be a single point, as the gauge transformations vanish there anyway. If the 3-sphere at infinity is identified with a point, our Minkowski space is identified with the 4-sphere. Thus we see that the group of gauge transformations vanishing at infinity in Minkowski 4-space is [[isomorphic]] to the group of all gauge transformations on the 4-sphere.

This is the group which consists of a continuous choice of a gauge transformation in SU(2) for each point on the 4-sphere. In other words, the gauge symmetries are in one-to-one correspondence with maps from the 4-sphere to the 3-sphere, which is the group manifold of SU(2). The space of such maps is ''not'' connected, instead the connected components are classified by the fourth [[homotopy group]] of the 3-sphere which is the [[cyclic group]] of order two. In particular, there are two connected components. One contains the identity and is called the ''identity component'', the other is called the ''disconnected component''.

When a theory contains an odd number of flavors of chiral fermions, the actions of gauge symmetries in the identity component and the disconnected component of the gauge group on a physical state differ by a sign. Thus when one sums over all physical configurations in the [[functional integration|path integral]], one finds that contributions come in pairs with opposite signs. As a result, all path integrals vanish and a theory does not exist.

The above description of a global anomaly is for the SU(2) gauge theory coupled to an odd number of (iso-)spin-1/2 Weyl fermion in 4 spacetime dimensions. This is known as the Witten SU(2) anomaly.<ref name="An SU(2) Anomaly">{{cite journal | last=Witten | first=Edward | title=An SU(2) Anomaly | journal=Phys. Lett. B | volume=117 | issue=5 | date= November 1982 | doi=10.1016/0370-2693(82)90728-6 | page=324 | bibcode=1982PhLB..117..324W }}</ref> In 2018, it is found by Wang, Wen and Witten that the SU(2) gauge theory coupled to an odd number of (iso-)spin-3/2 Weyl fermion in 4 spacetime dimensions has a further subtler non-perturbative global anomaly detectable on certain non-spin manifolds without [[spin structure]].<ref name="1810.00844">{{cite journal | last1=Wang | first1=Juven | last2=Wen | first2=Xiao-Gang | last3=Witten | first3=Edward | title=A New SU(2) Anomaly | journal=Journal of Mathematical Physics | volume=60 | issue=5 | date= May 2019 | issn= 1089-7658 | doi=10.1063/1.5082852 | page=052301 |arxiv=1810.00844| bibcode=2019JMP....60e2301W | s2cid=85543591 }}</ref> This new anomaly is called the new SU(2) anomaly. Both types of anomalies<ref name="An SU(2) Anomaly"/> <ref name=1810.00844/> have analogs of (1) dynamical gauge anomalies for dynamical gauge theories and (2) the 't Hooft anomalies of global symmetries. In addition, both types of anomalies are mod 2 classes (in terms of classification, they are both finite groups '''Z'''''2'' of order 2 classes), and have analogs in 4 and 5 spacetime dimensions.<ref name=1810.00844/> More generally, for any natural integer N, it can be shown that an odd number of fermion multiplets in representations of (iso)-spin 2N+1/2 can have the SU(2) anomaly; an odd number of fermion multiplets in representations of (iso)-spin 4N+3/2 can have the new SU(2) anomaly.<ref name=1810.00844/> For fermions in the half-integer spin representation, it is shown that there are only these two types of SU(2) anomalies and the linear combinations of these two anomalies; these classify all global SU(2) anomalies.<ref name=1810.00844/> This new SU(2) anomaly also plays an important rule for confirming the consistency of [[SO(10)]] grand unified theory, with a Spin(10) gauge group and chiral fermions in the 16-dimensional spinor representations, defined on non-spin manifolds.<ref name=1810.00844/><ref name="1809.11171">{{cite arXiv | last1=Wang | first1=Juven | last2=Wen | first2=Xiao-Gang | title=Nonperturbative definition of the standard models | journal=Physical Review Research | volume=2 | issue=2 | date=1 June 2020 | issn=2469-9896 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevResearch.2.023356 | page=023356 |arxiv=1809.11171| bibcode= 2018arXiv180911171W| s2cid=53346597 }}</ref>

===Higher anomalies involving higher global symmetries: Pure Yang–Mills gauge theory as an example===

The concept of global symmetries can be generalized to higher global symmetries,<ref name="1412.5148">{{cite journal | last1=Gaiotto | first1=Davide | last2=Kapustin | first2=Anton | last3=Seiberg | first3=Nathan | last4=Willett | first4=Brian | title=Generalized Global Symmetries | journal=JHEP | volume=2015 | issue=2 | date=February 2015 | page=172 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP02(2015)172 |arxiv=1412.5148| bibcode=2015JHEP...02..172G | s2cid=37178277 }}</ref> such that the charged object for the ordinary 0-form symmetry is a particle, while the charged object for the n-form symmetry is an n-dimensional extended operator. It is found that the 4 dimensional pure Yang–Mills theory with only SU(2) gauge fields with a topological theta term <math>\theta=\pi,</math> can have a mixed higher 't Hooft anomaly between the 0-form time-reversal symmetry and 1-form '''Z'''''2'' center symmetry.<ref name="1703.00501">{{cite journal | last1=Gaiotto | first1=Davide | last2=Kapustin | first2=Anton | last3=Komargodski | first3=Zohar | last4=Seiberg | first4=Nathan | title=Theta, Time Reversal, and Temperature
| journal=JHEP | volume=2017 | issue=5 | date=May 2017 | page=91 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP05(2017)091 |arxiv=1412.5148| bibcode=2017JHEP...05..091G | s2cid=119528151 }}</ref> The 't Hooft anomaly of 4 dimensional pure Yang–Mills theory can be precisely written as a 5 dimensional invertible topological field theory or mathematically a 5 dimensional bordism invariant, generalizing the anomaly inflow picture to this '''Z'''''2'' class of global anomaly involving higher symmetries.<ref name="1904.00994">{{cite journal | last1=Wan | first1=Zheyan | last2=Wang | first2=Juven | last3=Zheng | first3=Yunqin | title=Quantum 4d Yang-Mills Theory and Time-Reversal Symmetric 5d Higher-Gauge Topological Field Theory | journal=Physical Review D | volume=100 | issue=8 | date=October 2019 | issn=2470-0029 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.100.085012 | page= 085012 |arxiv=1904.00994| bibcode=2019PhRvD.100h5012W | s2cid=201305547 }}</ref> In other words, we can regard the 4 dimensional pure Yang–Mills theory with a topological theta term <math>\theta=\pi</math> live as a boundary condition of a certain '''Z'''''2'' class invertible topological field theory, in order to match their higher anomalies on the 4 dimensional boundary.<ref name="1904.00994">{{cite journal | last1=Wan | first1=Zheyan | last2=Wang | first2=Juven | last3=Zheng | first3=Yunqin | title=Quantum 4d Yang-Mills Theory and Time-Reversal Symmetric 5d Higher-Gauge Topological Field Theory | journal=Physical Review D | volume=100 | issue=8 | date=October 2019 | issn=2470-0029 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.100.085012 | page= 085012 |arxiv=1904.00994| bibcode=2019PhRvD.100h5012W | s2cid=201305547 }}</ref>

==Gauge anomalies==

{{Main article|Gauge anomaly}}

Anomalies in gauge symmetries lead to an inconsistency, since a gauge symmetry is required in order to cancel unphysical degrees of freedom with a negative norm (such as a [[photon]] polarized in the time direction). An attempt to cancel them—i.e., to build theories [[consistent]] with the gauge symmetries—often leads to extra constraints on the theories (such is the case of the [[gauge anomaly]] in the [[Standard Model]] of particle physics). Anomalies in [[gauge theory|gauge theories]] have important connections to the [[topology]] and [[geometry]] of the [[gauge group]].

Anomalies in gauge symmetries can be calculated exactly at the one-loop level. At tree level (zero loops), one reproduces the classical theory. [[Feynman diagrams]] with more than one loop always contain internal [[boson]] propagators. As bosons may always be given a mass without breaking gauge invariance, a [[Pauli–Villars regularization]] of such diagrams is possible while preserving the symmetry. Whenever the regularization of a diagram is consistent with a given symmetry, that diagram does not generate an anomaly with respect to the symmetry.

Vector gauge anomalies are always [[chiral anomaly|chiral anomalies]]. Another type of gauge anomaly is the [[gravitational anomaly]].

==At different energy scales==

{{Main article|Anomaly matching condition}}

Quantum anomalies were discovered via the process of [[renormalization]], when some [[ultraviolet divergence|divergent integrals]] cannot be [[regularization (physics)|regularized]] in such a way that all the symmetries are preserved simultaneously. This is related to the high energy physics. However, due to [[Gerard 't Hooft]]'s [[anomaly matching condition]], any [[chiral anomaly]] can be described either by the UV degrees of freedom (those relevant at high energies) or by the IR degrees of freedom (those relevant at low energies). Thus one cannot cancel an anomaly by a [[UV completion]] of a theory—an anomalous symmetry is simply not a symmetry of a theory, even though classically it appears to be.

==Anomaly cancellation==
[[File:Triangle diagram.svg|left]]
Since cancelling anomalies is necessary for the consistency of gauge theories, such cancellations are of central importance in constraining the fermion content of the [[standard model]], which is a chiral gauge theory.

For example, the vanishing of the [[mixed anomaly]] involving two SU(2) generators and one U(1) hypercharge constrains all charges in a fermion generation to add up to zero,<ref>Bouchiat, Cl, Iliopoulos, J, and Meyer, Ph (1972) . "An anomaly-free version of Weinberg's model." ''Physics Letters'' '''B38''', 519-523.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Minahan | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Ramond | first2 = P. | last3 = Warner | first3 = R. C. | year = 1990 | title = Comment on anomaly cancellation in the standard model | journal = Phys. Rev. D | volume = 41 | issue = 2| pages = 715–716 | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevD.41.715 | pmid = 10012386 |bibcode = 1990PhRvD..41..715M }}</ref> and thereby dictates that the sum of the proton plus the sum of the electron vanish: the ''charges of quarks and leptons must be commensurate''.
Specifically, for two external gauge fields {{math|''Wa''}}, {{math|''Wb''}} and one hypercharge {{mvar|B}} at the vertices of the triangle diagram, cancellation of the triangle requires
:<math>\sum_{all ~doublets}\!\!\!\! \mathrm{Tr} ~T^a T^b Y \propto \delta^{ab} \sum_{all ~doublets} Y=\sum_{all ~doublets} Q =0 ~, </math>
so, for each generation, the charges of the leptons and quarks are balanced, <math>-1+3\times\frac{2-1}{3}=0 </math>, whence {{math|1=''Q''p + ''Q''e = 0}}{{Citation needed|date=April 2020|reason=Why should that follow?}}.

The anomaly cancelation in SM was also used to predict a quark from 3rd generation, the [[top quark]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Conlon|first=Joseph|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781482242492|title=Why String Theory?|date=2016-08-19|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-315-27236-8|edition=1|language=en|doi=10.1201/9781315272368|page=81}}</ref>

Further such mechanisms include:
* [[Axion]]
* [[Chern–Simons]]
* [[Green–Schwarz mechanism]]
* Liouville action

==Anomalies and cobordism==

In the modern description of anomalies classified by [[cobordism]] theory,<ref name="1604.06527">{{cite journal | last1= Freed | first1=Daniel S. | last2=Hopkins | first2=Michael J. | title=Reflection positivity and invertible topological phases
| journal=Geometry & Topology | year=2021 | volume=25 | issue=3 | pages=1165–1330 | doi=10.2140/gt.2021.25.1165 |issn=1465-3060 |arxiv=1604.06527| bibcode= 2016arXiv160406527F| s2cid=119139835 }}</ref> the [[Feynman diagram|Feynman-Dyson graphs]] only captures the perturbative local anomalies classified by integer '''Z''' classes also known as the free part. There exists nonperturbative global anomalies classified by [[cyclic group|cyclic groups]] '''Z'''/''n'''''Z''' classes also known as the torsion part.

It is widely known and checked in the late 20th century that the [[standard model]] and chiral gauge theories are free from perturbative local anomalies (captured by [[Feynman diagram|Feynman diagrams]]). However, it is not entirely clear whether there are any nonperturbative global anomalies for the [[standard model]] and chiral gauge theories.
Recent developments <ref name="1808.00009">{{cite journal | last1=García-Etxebarria | first1=Iñaki | last2=Montero | first2=Miguel | title=Dai-Freed anomalies in particle physics | journal=JHEP | volume=2019 | issue=8 | date=August 2019 | page=3 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP08(2019)003 |arxiv=1808.00009| bibcode=2019JHEP...08..003G | s2cid=73719463 }}</ref>
<ref name="1910.11277">{{cite journal | last1=Davighi | first1=Joe | last2=Gripaios | first2=Ben | last3=Lohitsiri | first3=Nakarin | title=Global anomalies in the Standard Model(s) and Beyond | journal=JHEP | volume=2020 | issue=7 | date=July 2020 | page=232 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP07(2020)232 |arxiv=1910.11277| bibcode=2020JHEP...07..232D | s2cid=204852053 }}</ref>
<ref name="1910.14668">{{cite journal | last1=Wan | first1=Zheyan | last2=Wang | first2=Juven | title=Beyond Standard Models and Grand Unifications: Anomalies, Topological Terms, and Dynamical Constraints via Cobordisms | journal=JHEP | volume=2020 | issue=7 | date=July 2020 | page=62 | issn=1029-8479 | doi=10.1007/JHEP07(2020)062 |arxiv=1910.14668| bibcode=2020JHEP...07..062W | s2cid=207800450 }}</ref>
based on the [[cobordism theory]] examine this problem, and several additional nontrivial global anomalies found can further constrain these gauge theories. There is also a formulation of both perturbative local and nonperturbative global description of anomaly inflow in terms of [[Michael Atiyah|Atiyah]], [[Vijay Kumar Patodi|Patodi]], and [[Isadore Singer|Singer]]
<ref name="APS">{{Citation | last1=Atiyah | first1=Michael Francis | author1-link=Michael Atiyah | last2=Patodi | first2=V. K. | last3=Singer | first3=I. M. | title=Spectral asymmetry and Riemannian geometry | doi=10.1112/blms/5.2.229 | mr=0331443 | year=1973 | journal=The Bulletin of the London Mathematical Society | issn=0024-6093 | volume=5 | issue=2 | pages=229–234| citeseerx=10.1.1.597.6432 }}</ref>
<ref name="APS1">{{Citation | last1=Atiyah | first1=Michael Francis | author1-link=Michael Atiyah | last2=Patodi | first2=V. K. | last3=Singer | first3=I. M. | title=Spectral asymmetry and Riemannian geometry. I | doi=10.1017/S0305004100049410 | mr=0397797 | year=1975 | journal=Mathematical Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society | issn=0305-0041 | volume=77 | issue=1 | pages=43–69| bibcode=1975MPCPS..77...43A | s2cid=17638224 }}</ref> [[eta invariant]] in one higher dimension. This [[eta invariant]] is a cobordism invariant whenever the perturbative local anomalies vanish. <ref name="1909.08775">{{cite arXiv| last1=Witten | first1=Edward | last2=Yonekura | first2=Kazuya | title=Anomaly Inflow and the eta-Invariant | year=2019 |arxiv=1909.08775}}</ref>

== Examples ==
* [[Chiral anomaly]]
* [[Conformal anomaly]] (anomaly of [[scale invariance]])
* [[Gauge anomaly]]
* [[Global anomaly]]
* [[Gravitational anomaly]] (also known as ''diffeomorphism anomaly'')
* [[Konishi anomaly]]
* [[Mixed anomaly]]
* [[Parity anomaly]]
* [[Anomaly matching condition|'t Hooft anomaly]]

==See also==
* [[Anomalon]]s, a topic of some debate in the 1980s, anomalons were found in the results of some [[high-energy physics]] experiments that seemed to point to the existence of anomalously highly interactive states of matter. The topic was controversial throughout its history.

==References==
;Citations
{{reflist}}
;General
* Gravitational Anomalies by [[Luis Alvarez-Gaumé]]: This classic paper, which introduces pure [[gravitational anomaly|gravitational anomalies]], contains a good general introduction to anomalies and their relation to [[regularization (physics)|regularization]] and to [[conserved current]]s. All occurrences of the number 388 should be read "384". Originally at: ccdb4fs.kek.jp/cgi-bin/img_index?8402145. Springer https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-4757-0280-4_1
{{String theory topics |state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Anomalies (physics)| ]]

Anomaly (physics)

2025-01-03T23:41:41Z

Omcsesz: /* Anomalies and cobordism */ incorrect template category fixed

Ajvar

2025-01-03T22:55:02Z

Omcsesz: /* Etymology and origin */ missing parameter value provided

{{Short description|Balkan condiment}}
{{distinguish|Avar (disambiguation){{!}}Avar}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox food
| name = Ajvar
| image = Традиционално_сервиран_ајвар.jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Ajvar with bread, garlic, pepper and salami
| alternate_name =
| country =
| region = [[Balkans]]
| creator =
| course =
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Capsicum]] (bell peppers), [[oil]], [[salt]]
| variations =
| calories =
| other =
}}

'''Ajvar''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|aɪ|v|ɑːr}} {{respell|EYE|var}}; {{lang-sr-Cyrl|Ajвар}}, {{langx|bg|Aйвар|Ayvar}}) is a [[condiment]] made principally from sweet [[Capsicum|bell peppers]] and [[eggplant]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|title=How to Make Serbian Vegetarian "Caviar" or Ajvar|url=https://www.thespruceeats.com/serbian-eggplant-pepper-spread-vegetarian-caviar-1137506|access-date=2020-10-25|website=The Spruce Eats|language=en}}</ref> The relish became a popular side dish throughout [[Yugoslavia]] after World War II and remains popular in [[Southeast Europe]].

Homemade ajvar is made of roasted peppers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Ajvar (Serbian Roasted Red Pepper Sauce) Recipe|url=https://www.seriouseats.com/recipes/2013/09/ajvar-serbian-roasted-red-pepper-sauce-recipe.html|access-date=2020-10-25|website=www.seriouseats.com|language=en}}</ref> Depending on the [[capsaicin]] content in bell peppers and the amount of added chili peppers, it can be sweet (traditional), piquant (the most common), or very hot. Ajvar can be consumed as a [[bread]] [[Spread (food)|spread]] or as a [[side dish]]. Ajvar has a few variations. One variation contains tomato and [[eggplant]], and another green bell peppers and [[oregano]].

"Homemade [[Leskovac]] Ajvar" and "[[North Macedonia|Macedonian]] Ajvar" are registered with the [[World Intellectual Property Organization]] in order to protect their brand names.<ref>{{cite news|title=How this traditional Balkan red pepper spread brings the neighbourhood together|year=2017|newspaper=[[Hindustan Times]]|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/art-and-culture/how-this-traditional-balkan-red-pepper-spread-brings-the-neighbourhood-together/story-d8Rn4553E8xmEra7dYwNyN.html}}</ref>

==Etymology and origin==
The name ''ajvar'' comes from the [[Turkish language|Turkish]] word {{lang|tr|havyar}}, which means "salted [[roe]], caviar" and shares an etymology with "[[caviar]]", coming from the [[Farsi|Persian]] word {{lang|fa-Latn|xaviyar}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nisanyansozluk.com/?k=havyar&x=0&y=0|title=Havyar}}</ref><ref>Etimološki rečnik srpskog jezika I, 2003, s.v. ajvar</ref> Before the 20th century, significant local production of caviar occurred on the Danube, with [[sturgeon]] swimming from the [[Black Sea]] up to [[Belgrade]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Josip Pančić|title=Pisces Serbiae|year=1860|page=33}}; {{cite book|author=Mihailo Petrović|title=Đerdapski ribolov|year=1941}}</ref> Domestic {{lang|sr-Latn|ajvar}}, meaning "caviar", used to be a very popular dish in Belgrade homes and restaurants,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Belgrade through the ages|volume=7|year=1960|pages=61, 64|journal=Belgrade through the ages}}; {{cite book|author=Dušan J. Popović|author-link=Dušan J. Popović|title=Beograd kroz vekove|year=1964|pages=93, 215, 241}}</ref> but the domestic production of caviar became unsteady in the 1890s because of labor disputes. Eventually a special pepper salad was offered as a substitute in Belgrade restaurants under the name "red ajvar" ({{lang|sr-Latn|crveni ajvar}}) or "Serbian ajvar" ({{lang|sr-Latn|srpski ajvar}}).<ref>{{cite book|author=Malcolm Burr|title=Slouch hat|year=1935|page=165}}; {{cite book|author=Lovett Fielding Edwards|title=Introducing Yugoslavia|year=1954|page=79}}</ref>

==Preparation==
[[File:Homemade pepper spread (cropped).jpg|thumb|200px|Ajvar and other pickles in a home larder]]

Homemade ajvar is made of peppers that are roasted, minced, and then cooked, but some industrial producers use fresh minced peppers, which are only cooked with sunflower oil afterwards, which leads to lower quality. Ajvar preparation is somewhat difficult, because it requires considerable manual labour, particularly for peeling the roasted peppers. It is traditionally prepared in mid-autumn, when peppers are most abundant, and preserved in glass jars for consumption throughout the year. Anecdotally, most households' stocks do not last until the spring, when fresh vegetables become available, so it is usually enjoyed as a winter food. Entire families or neighbours often gather to prepare the peppers together.{{citation needed|date=July 2024}} The traditional [[cultivar]] of pepper used is called ''roga'' (approx. "horn"). ''Roga'' is large, red, horn-shaped and relatively easy to peel, with thick flesh. It typically ripens in late September.{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

To produce ajvar, fresh peppers are roasted whole on a plate above an open fire,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Fankhauser/Travel/Macedonia/03_Macedonia/Ohrid/Making_Ajvar.JPG|title=Making Ajvar|date=16 July 2011|access-date=15 December 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716163448/http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Fankhauser/Travel/Macedonia/03_Macedonia/Ohrid/Making_Ajvar.JPG|archive-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> a plate of wood in a [[stove]], or in an [[oven]]. The baked peppers must briefly cool to allow the flesh to separate from the skin. Next, the skin is carefully peeled off and the seeds are removed. The peppers are then ground in a [[Mill (grinding)|mill]] or chopped into tiny pieces (this variant is often referred to as [[pindjur]]). Finally, the resulting mash is stewed for several hours in large pots. [[Sunflower]] oil is added at this stage to condense and reduce the water, and to enhance later preservation. [[Salt]] is added at the end (sometimes alongside [[vinegar]]), and the hot mush is poured directly into sterilized glass jars, which are sealed immediately.{{Cn|date=August 2021}}

==Production==
[[File:Ajvar1 bright.jpg|thumb|200px|Ajvar]]
{{refimprove section|date=May 2021}}

Ajvar is produced in most Balkan countries,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ajvar: The vegan 'caviar' of the Balkans |url=https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20220417-ajvar-the-vegan-caviar-of-the-balkans |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=www.bbc.com}}</ref> including [[Albania]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Croatia]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Slovenia]] and [[Serbia]]. Serbia's reported annual production is 640 [[ton]]s.<ref>{{cite web | url= http://www.siepa.gov.rs/attach/VegetableIndustryInSerbia.pdf | title = Vegetable Industry in Serbia | publisher = Serbia Investment and Export Promotion Agency}}</ref>

Ajvar is often included as part of ''zimnica'' (winter foods), which include pickled chili peppers, pickled tomatoes, and anything else that can be preserved in a jar just before winter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=zimnica - Medicinski leksikon |url=https://medicinski.lzmk.hr/clanak/zimnica |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=medicinski.lzmk.hr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2016-09-14 |title=Dobra Hrana - Svi recepti koje ćete trebati za pripremu zimnice! |url=https://www.jutarnji.hr/dobrahrana/price/svi-recepti-koje-cete-trebati-za-pripremu-zimnice-4694417 |access-date=2024-02-25 |website=www.jutarnji.hr |language=hr-hr}}</ref>

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Ljutenica}}, a similar relish in [[Bulgarian cuisine|Bulgarian]], [[Macedonian cuisine|Macedonian]], and [[Serbian cuisine|Serbian]] cuisines
* {{annotated link|Pindjur}}, a similar relish in [[Cuisine of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnian]], [[Macedonian cuisine|Macedonian]], and [[Serbian cuisine|Serbian]] cuisines
* {{annotated link|Zacuscă}}, a similar relish in [[Romanian cuisine]]
* {{annotated link|Kyopolou}}, an eggplant-based relish in Bulgarian and [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] cuisines
* [[Malidzano]], a similar relish in [[Macedonian cuisine]]
* {{annotated link|Biber salçası}}, a Turkish paste made from red peppers alone
* {{annotated link|Lecso}}, a similar Hungarian (also made in parts of Slovakia and Serbia) stewed red pepper, onion, and garlic dish
* {{annotated link|List of spreads}}
* {{annotated link|South Asian pickle|Achar}}, a similar relish of Indo-European origin in [[South Asian cuisine]]s

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|title=Fall Brings Red Peppers and Ajvar, 'Serbian Salsa'|date=8 November 2006|publisher=NPR|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6430271&sc=emaf}} (article and recipe)
*{{cite web|title=Ajvar srpski kavijar|year=2013|publisher=Novosti|url=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/naslovna/reportaze/aktuelno.293.html:447291-Ajvar-srpski-kavijar|language=sr}}
*{{cite news|title=Leskovčanka po čijem receptu je brendiran srpski ajvar ušla u biznis kad je ostala bez posla |year=2012|newspaper=Blic|url=http://www.blic.rs/vesti/drustvo/leskovcanka-po-cijem-receptu-je-brendiran-srpski-ajvar-usla-u-biznis-kad-je-ostala/7khcd1s|language=sr}}
*{{cite web|title=Ajvar - Top-notch gastronomic delight, vegan soul food, recipes and origin|year=2017|publisher=Ajvar.com|url=http://www.ajvar.com/en/}}

{{Navboxes|list1=
{{Hot sauces}}
{{Condiments}}
{{eggplant dishes}}
{{Serbian cuisine}}
{{Macedonian cuisine}}
}}

{{portal bar|Food}}

[[Category:Albanian cuisine]]
[[Category:Bosnia and Herzegovina cuisine]]
[[Category:Bulgarian cuisine]]
[[Category:Chili pepper dishes]]
[[Category:Condiments]]
[[Category:Croatian cuisine]]
[[Category:Eggplant dishes]]
[[Category:Kosovan cuisine]]
[[Category:Macedonian cuisine]]
[[Category:Montenegrin cuisine]]
[[Category:Romani cuisine]]
[[Category:Serbian cuisine]]
[[Category:Spreads (food)]]

Air conditioning

2025-01-03T22:46:26Z

Omcsesz: /* Environmental effects */ wrong template category fixed

{{Short description|Cooling of air in an enclosed space}}
{{About|cooling of air|the Curved Air album|Air Conditioning (album)|a similar device capable of both cooling and heating|heat pump}}
{{Redirect|a/c|the abbreviation used in banking and book-keeping|Account (disambiguation)|other uses|AC (disambiguation){{!}}AC}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2024}}
<noinclude>{{multiple image
| perrow = 2
| total_width = 350
| image1 = Mevrouw Klaasesz controleert de airconditioning in het koninklijk vertrek, Bestanddeelnr 252-2507.jpg
| image2 = HITACHI AIR CONDITIONER INDOOR UNIT (2).jpg
| image3 = Daikin 2014 (cropped).jpg
| image4 = DAIKIN AIR CONDITIONER INDOOR UNIT.jpg
| footer = There are various types of air conditioners. Popular examples include: Window-mounted air conditioner ([[Suriname]], 1955); Ceiling-mounted cassette air conditioner ([[China]], 2023); Wall-mounted air conditioner ([[Japan]], 2020); Ceiling-mounted console (Also called ceiling suspended) air conditioner (China, 2023); and portable air conditioner ([[Vatican City]], 2018).
| image5 = Condizionatore portatile 3.jpg
}}
</noinclude>
'''Air conditioning''', often abbreviated as '''A/C''' (US) or '''air con''' (UK),<ref>{{cite web |url= https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/air-con?topic=vents-and-ventilation |title=Air Con |publisher=Cambridge Dictionary |access-date=January 6, 2023 |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220503095434/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/air-con?topic=vents-and-ventilation |url-status=live }}</ref> is the process of removing [[heat]] from an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior temperature and in some cases also controlling the [[humidity]] of internal air. Air conditioning can be achieved using a mechanical 'air conditioner' or by other methods, including [[passive cooling]] and [[ventilative cooling]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=440vAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Air+conditioning%22+can+be+achieved+using+a+mechanical+'air+conditioner'+or+by+other+methods,+including+passive+cooling+and+ventilative+cooling. |title=Dissertation Abstracts International: The humanities and social sciences. A |date=2005 |publisher=University Microfilms |pages=3600 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dQJFAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Air+conditioning%22+can+be+achieved+using+a+mechanical+'air+conditioner'+or+by+other+methods,+including+passive+cooling+and+ventilative+cooling. |title=1993 ASHRAE Handbook: Fundamentals |date=1993 |publisher=ASHRAE |isbn=978-0-910110-97-6 |language=en}}</ref> Air conditioning is a member of a family of systems and techniques that provide [[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Enteria |first1=Napoleon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRKrEAAAQBAJ&dq=Air+conditioning+is+a+member+of+a+family+of+systems+and+techniques+that+provide+heating,+ventilation,+and+air+conditioning+(HVAC).&pg=PA46 |title=Variable Refrigerant Flow Systems: Advances and Applications of VRF |last2=Sawachi |first2=Takao |last3=Saito |first3=Kiyoshi |date=2023-01-31 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-981-19-6833-4 |pages=46 |language=en}}</ref> [[Heat pumps]] are similar in many ways to air conditioners, but use a [[reversing valve]] to allow them both to heat and to cool an enclosed space.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Agencies |first=United States Congress House Committee on Appropriations Subcommittee on Dept of the Interior and Related |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3hQdAAAAMAAJ&dq=Heat+pumps+are+similar+in+many+ways+to+air+conditioners&pg=PA629 |title=Department of the Interior and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1989: Testimony of public witnesses, energy programs, Institute of Museum Services, National Endowment for the Arts, National Endowment for the Humanities |date=1988 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |pages=629 |language=en}}</ref>

Air conditioners, which typically use [[vapor-compression refrigeration]], range in size from small units used in vehicles or single rooms to massive units that can cool large buildings.<ref>{{cite web|title=Earth Tubes: Providing the freshest possible air to your building |url= http://www.ercshowcase.com/hvac/earth-tubes/ |url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Earth Rangers Centre for Sustainable Technology Showcase |archive-date=January 28, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210128004436/http://www.ercshowcase.com/hvac/earth-tubes/}}</ref> [[Air source heat pump]]s, which can be used for heating as well as [[cooling]], are becoming increasingly common in cooler climates.

Air conditioners can reduce [[mortality rate]]s due to higher temperature.<ref name="Barreca"/> According to the [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used globally in 2016.<ref name="IEA2018"/> The [[United Nations]] called for the technology to be made more [[Sustainability|sustainable]] to [[Climate change mitigation|mitigate climate change]] and for the use of alternatives, like passive cooling, [[Evaporative cooler|evaporative cooling]], selective shading, [[windcatcher]]s, and better [[thermal insulation]].

{{Toclimit}}

==History==
Air conditioning dates back to prehistory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Laub |first=Julian M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8c9SAAAAMAAJ&q=Air+conditioning+dates+back+to+prehistory. |title=Air Conditioning & Heating Practice |date=1963 |publisher=Holt, Rinehart and Winston |isbn=978-0-03-011225-6 |pages=367 |language=en}}</ref> Double-walled living quarters, with a gap between the two walls to encourage air flow, were found in the ancient city of [[Hamoukar]], in modern [[Syria]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2000-06-24 |title=Air-conditioning found at 'oldest city in the world' |url= https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/airconditioning-found-at-oldest-city-in-the-world-5370557.html |access-date=2023-12-09 |work=The Independent |archive-date=2023-12-08 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231208053155/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/airconditioning-found-at-oldest-city-in-the-world-5370557.html |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Ancient Egypt]]ian buildings also used a wide variety of passive air-conditioning techniques.<ref name=egypt_trad/> These became widespread from the [[Iberian Peninsula]] through North Africa, the Middle East, and Northern India.<ref name=PDEC/>

Passive techniques remained widespread until the 20th century when they fell out of fashion and were replaced by powered air conditioning. Using information from engineering studies of traditional buildings, passive techniques are being revived and modified for 21st-century architectural designs.<ref name=shady/><ref name="PDEC">{{cite journal |last1=Ford |first1=Brian |title=Passive downdraught evaporative cooling: principles and practice |journal=Architectural Research Quarterly |date=September 2001 |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=271–280 |doi=10.1017/S1359135501001312 }}</ref>

[[File:ACFujitsu2.jpg|thumb|An array of air conditioner condenser units outside a commercial office building]]

Air conditioners allow the building's indoor environment to remain relatively constant, largely independent of changes in external weather conditions and internal heat loads. They also enable [[deep plan]] buildings to be created and have allowed people to live comfortably in hotter parts of the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=US EPA |first=OAR |date=2014-10-17 |title=Heating, Ventilation and Air-Conditioning Systems, Part of Indoor Air Quality Design Tools for Schools |url= https://www.epa.gov/iaq-schools/heating-ventilation-and-air-conditioning-systems-part-indoor-air-quality-design-tools |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=epa.gov |archive-date=2022-07-05 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220705191247/https://www.epa.gov/iaq-schools/heating-ventilation-and-air-conditioning-systems-part-indoor-air-quality-design-tools |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Development===
====Preceding discoveries====

In 1558, [[Giambattista della Porta]] described a method of chilling ice to [[temperature]]s far below its [[Freezing-point depression|freezing point]] by mixing it with [[potassium nitrate]] (then called "nitre") in his [[popular science]] book ''[[Magia Naturalis|Natural Magic]]''.<ref name="conquest">{{cite book|last1=Shachtman |first1=Tom|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=B8PvAAAAMAAJ |title=Absolute zero and the conquest of cold |date=1999 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0395938881 |location=Boston |chapter=Winter in Summer|oclc=421754998 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |chapter-url= https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/shachtman-zero.html |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150237/https://books.google.com/books?id=B8PvAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Porta |first=Giambattista Della |url= https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/rbc/rbc0001/2009/2009pre23451/2009pre23451.pdf |title=Magiae naturalis|year=1584 |location=London |lccn=09023451 |quote=In our method I shall observe what our ancestors have said; then I shall show by my own experience, whether they be true or false|access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=May 13, 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150230/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/rbc/rbc0001/2009/2009pre23451/2009pre23451.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Beck |first=Leonard D. |date=October 1974 |title=Things Magical in the collections of the Rare Book and Special Collections Division|url= https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/pdf/thingsmagical.pdf |journal=Library of Congress Quarterly Journal |volume=31 |pages=208–234 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=March 24, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210324072531/https://www.loc.gov/rr/rarebook/pdf/thingsmagical.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1620, [[Cornelis Drebbel]] demonstrated "Turning Summer into Winter" for [[James VI and I|James I of England]], chilling part of the Great Hall of [[Westminster Abbey]] with an apparatus of troughs and vats.<ref>{{cite book|last=Laszlo |first=Pierre |url= https://archive.org/details/saltgrainoflife00laszrich |title=Salt: Grain of Life |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0231121989 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saltgrainoflife00laszrich/page/117 117] |oclc=785781471 |quote=Cornelius Drebbel air conditioning. |url-access=registration}}</ref> Drebbel's contemporary [[Francis Bacon]], like della Porta a believer in [[science communication]], may not have been present at the demonstration, but in a book published later the same year, he described it as "experiment of artificial freezing" and said that "Nitre (or rather its spirit) is very cold, and hence nitre or salt when added to snow or ice intensifies the cold of the latter, the nitre by adding to its cold, but the salt by supplying activity to the cold of the snow."<ref name="conquest" />

In 1758, [[Benjamin Franklin]] and [[John Hadley (chemist)|John Hadley]], a chemistry professor at the [[University of Cambridge]], conducted experiments applying the principle of evaporation as a means to cool an object rapidly. Franklin and Hadley confirmed that the evaporation of highly [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatile liquids]] (such as [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]] and [[ether]]) could be used to drive down the temperature of an object past the freezing point of water. They experimented with the bulb of a [[mercury-in-glass thermometer]] as their object. They used a bellows to speed up the [[evaporation]]. They lowered the temperature of the thermometer bulb down to {{convert|-14|C|0}} while the ambient temperature was {{convert|18|C|0}}. Franklin noted that soon after they passed the freezing point of water {{convert|0|C|0}}, a thin film of ice formed on the surface of the thermometer's bulb and that the ice mass was about {{convert|1/4|in|mm|abbr=on|0|order=flip}} thick when they stopped the experiment upon reaching {{convert|-14|C|0}}. Franklin concluded: "From this experiment, one may see the possibility of freezing a man to death on a warm summer's day."<ref>{{cite letter|subject=Cooling by Evaporation |first=Benjamin |last=Franklin |recipient=John Lining |date=June 17, 1758|url= http://www.waughfamily.ca/Montgomery/benfranklin1758.htm |access-date=May 12, 2021|title=Archived copy |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210225102815/http://www.waughfamily.ca/Montgomery/benfranklin1758.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 19th century included many developments in compression technology. In 1820, English scientist and inventor [[Michael Faraday]] discovered that compressing and liquefying [[ammonia]] could chill air when the liquefied ammonia was allowed to evaporate.<ref name="Green-2015">{{cite magazine|last=Green |first=Amanda |date=January 1, 2015 |title=The Cool History of the Air Conditioner |url= https://www.popularmechanics.com/home/a7951/history-of-air-conditioning/ |magazine=Popular Mechanics |access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=April 10, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210410032417/https://www.popularmechanics.com/home/a7951/history-of-air-conditioning/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1842, Florida physician [[John Gorrie]] used compressor technology to create ice, which he used to cool air for his patients in his hospital in [[Apalachicola, Florida]]. He hoped to eventually use his ice-making machine to regulate the temperature of buildings.<ref name="Green-2015" /><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=John Gorrie |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Gorrie |access-date=May 12, 2021 |date=September 29, 2020 |archive-date=March 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210313143440/https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Gorrie |url-status=live}}</ref> He envisioned centralized air conditioning that could cool entire cities. Gorrie was granted a patent in 1851,<ref>Gorrie, John [https://ppubs.uspto.gov/dirsearch-public/print/downloadPdf/0008080 "Improved process for the artificial production of ice"] U.S. Patent no. 8080 (Issued: May 6, 1851).</ref> but following the death of his main backer, he was not able to realize his invention.<ref name="Wright2009">{{cite book|first=E. Lynne |last=Wright |title=It Happened in Florida: Remarkable Events That Shaped History|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=RqKU1t8Js4cC&pg=PA13 |year= 2009 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0762761692 |pages=13–}}</ref> In 1851, [[James Harrison (engineer)|James Harrison]] created the first mechanical ice-making machine in [[Geelong|Geelong, Australia]], and was granted a patent for an ether [[vapor-compression refrigeration]] system in 1855 that produced three tons of ice per day.<ref name="adb">{{Australian Dictionary of Biography |first=L. G.|last=Bruce-Wallace|title=Harrison, James (1816–1893) |id2=harrison-james-2165|accessdate=May 12, 2021 |year=1966 |volume=1}}</ref> In 1860, Harrison established a second ice company. He later entered the debate over competing against the American advantage of ice-refrigerated beef sales to the United Kingdom.<ref name="adb" />

====First devices====
[[File:Willis Carrier 1915.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Willis Carrier]], who is credited with building the first modern electrical air conditioning unit]]

Electricity made the development of effective units possible. In 1901, American inventor [[Willis Carrier|Willis H. Carrier]] built what is considered the first modern electrical air conditioning unit.<ref>{{cite web|last=Palermo |first=Elizabeth |date=May 1, 2014 |title=Who Invented Air Conditioning? |url= https://www.livescience.com/45268-who-invented-air-conditioning.html|url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |website=livescience.com |archive-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210116122721/https://www.livescience.com/45268-who-invented-air-conditioning.html}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Varrasi|first=John|date=June 6, 2011 |title=Global Cooling: The History of Air Conditioning |url= https://www.asme.org/topics-resources/content/global-cooling-the-history-of-air-conditioning |url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |publisher=American Society of Mechanical Engineers |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210308223349/https://www.asme.org/topics-resources/content/global-cooling-the-history-of-air-conditioning}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Simha |first=R. V.|date=February 2012 |title=Willis H Carrier |journal=Resonance |volume=17 |issue=2|pages=117–138 |doi=10.1007/s12045-012-0014-y| issn=0971-8044 |s2cid=116582893}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Gulledge III |first1=Charles|last2=Knight|first2=Dennis|date=11 February 2016 |title=Heating, Ventilating, Air-Conditioning, And Refrigerating Engineering|url= https://www.wbdg.org/design-disciplines/hvac-refrigerating-engineering |url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |publisher=National Institute of Building Sciences |quote=Though he did not actually invent air-conditioning nor did he take the first documented scientific approach to applying it, Willis Carrier is credited with integrating the scientific method, engineering, and business of this developing technology and creating the industry we know today as air-conditioning.|archive-date=20 April 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210420233536/https://www.wbdg.org/design-disciplines/hvac-refrigerating-engineering}}</ref> In 1902, he installed his first air-conditioning system, in the Sackett-Wilhelms Lithographing & Publishing Company in [[Brooklyn|Brooklyn, New York]].<ref>{{cite web|date=|title=Willis Carrier – 1876–1902 |url= http://www.williscarrier.com/m/1876-1902.php |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Carrier Global |archive-date=February 27, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210227041543/http://www.williscarrier.com/m/1876-1902.php}}</ref> His invention controlled both the temperature and humidity, which helped maintain consistent paper dimensions and ink alignment at the printing plant. Later, together with six other employees, Carrier formed [[Carrier Global|The Carrier Air Conditioning Company of America]], a business that in 2020 employed 53,000 people and was valued at $18.6 billion.<ref>{{cite press release|url= https://www.corporate.carrier.com/news/news-articles/carrier_reports_first_quarter_2020_earnings.html |title=Carrier Reports First Quarter 2020 Earnings |date=May 8, 2020 |work=Carrier Global |access-date=May 12, 2021|archive-date=January 24, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210124002914/https://www.corporate.carrier.com/news/news-articles/carrier_reports_first_quarter_2020_earnings.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|title=Carrier Becomes Independent, Publicly Traded Company, Begins Trading on New York Stock Exchange |work=Carrier Global |date=April 3, 2020 |url= https://www.corporate.carrier.com/news/news-articles/carrier_becomes_independent_publicly_traded_company__begins_trading_on_new_york_stock_exchange.html |access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210225083334/https://www.corporate.carrier.com/news/news-articles/carrier_becomes_independent_publicly_traded_company__begins_trading_on_new_york_stock_exchange.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1906, [[Stuart W. Cramer]] of [[Charlotte, North Carolina]], was exploring ways to add [[moisture]] to the air in his textile mill. Cramer coined the term "air conditioning" in a patent claim which he filed that year, where he suggested that air conditioning was analogous to "water conditioning", then a well-known process for making textiles easier to process.<ref>Cramer, Stuart W. [https://ppubs.uspto.gov/dirsearch-public/print/downloadPdf/0852823 "Humidifying and air conditioning apparatus"] U.S. Patent no. 852,823 (filed: April 18, 1906; issued: May 7, 1907).
* See also: Cramer, Stuart W. (1906) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433066400650&view=1up&seq=220 "Recent development in air conditioning"] in: ''Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Convention of the American Cotton Manufacturers Association Held at Asheville, North Carolina May 16–17, 1906''. Charlotte, North Carolina, USA: Queen City Publishing Co. pp. 182-211.</ref> He combined moisture with ventilation to "condition" and change the air in the factories; thus, controlling the humidity that is necessary in textile plants. Willis Carrier adopted the term and incorporated it into the name of his company.<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=US808897A |title=Apparatus for treating air |status=patent |pubdate=January 2, 1906 |fdate=September 16, 1904 |pridate=September 16, 1904 |gdate=January 2, 1906 |invent1=Carrier |inventor1-first=Willis H. |assign2=Buffalo Forge Company |url= https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/65/90/66/df3edc322cbd28/US808897.pdf}}{{cite web |url= https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/65/90/66/df3edc322cbd28/US808897.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=December 5, 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191205075346/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/65/90/66/df3edc322cbd28/US808897.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

Domestic air conditioning soon took off. In 1914, the first domestic air conditioning was installed in [[Minneapolis]] in the home of [[Charles Gilbert Gates]]. It is, however, possible that the considerable device (c. {{cvt|7x6x20|ft|m|1|order=flip|disp=semicolon}}) was never used, as the house remained uninhabited<ref name="Green-2015" /> (Gates had already died in October 1913.)

In 1931, H.H. Schultz and J.Q. Sherman developed what would become the most common type of individual room air conditioner: one designed to sit on a window ledge. The units went on sale in 1932 at US$10,000 to $50,000 (the equivalent of ${{Inflation|US|10000|1932|r=-5|fmt=c}} to ${{Inflation|US|50000|1932|r=-5|fmt=c}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}.)<ref name="Green-2015" /> A year later, the first [[Automotive air conditioning|air conditioning systems for cars]] were offered for sale.<ref>{{cite magazine|date=Nov 1933|title=First Air-Conditioned Auto|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7CcDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30 |magazine=Popular Science |volume=123 |issue=5 |page=30|issn=0161-7370 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=April 26, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210426234603/https://books.google.com/books?id=7CcDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA30|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Chrysler|Chrysler Motors]] introduced the first practical semi-portable air conditioning unit in 1935,<ref>{{cite magazine|date=June 1935|title=Room-size air conditioner fits under window sill |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uN4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA885|magazine=Popular Mechanics |volume=63|issue=6 |page=885 |issn=0032-4558|access-date=May 12, 2021|archive-date=November 22, 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161122120919/https://books.google.com/books?id=uN4DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA885 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Packard]] became the first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars in 1939.<ref>{{cite web|title=Michigan Fast Facts and Trivia |url= https://www.50states.com/facts/michigan.htm |url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |website=50states.com |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170618225101/http://www.50states.com/facts/michigan.htm}}</ref>

====Further development====
Innovations in the latter half of the 20th century allowed more ubiquitous air conditioner use. In 1945, Robert Sherman of [[Lynn, Massachusetts]], invented a portable, in-window air conditioner that cooled, heated, humidified, dehumidified, and filtered the air.<ref>{{cite patent |country=US |number=US2433960A |title=Air conditioning apparatus |status=patent |pubdate=January 6, 1948 |fdate=February 13, 1945 |pridate=February 13, 1945 |gdate=January 6, 1948 |invent1=Sherman |inventor1-first=Robert S. |url= https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/16/28/e4/3eb554d15411f0/US2433960.pdf}}</ref> The first inverter air conditioners were released in 1980–1981.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ieee-jp.org/japancouncil/jchc/adm/milestone/39Inverter_Air_Conditioners.pdf |title=IEEE milestones (39) Inverter Air Conditioners, 1980–1981 |date=March 2021 |access-date=February 9, 2024 |archive-date=2024-01-21 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240121175703/http://www.ieee-jp.org/japancouncil/jchc/adm/milestone/39Inverter_Air_Conditioners.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url= https://ethw.org/w/images/8/8b/IEEE_Milestone_Leaflet_ENG.PDF |title=Inverter Air Conditioners, 1980–1981 IEEE Milestone Celebration Ceremony |date=March 16, 2021 |access-date=February 9, 2024 |archive-date=2024-01-21 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240121175740/https://ethw.org/w/images/8/8b/IEEE_Milestone_Leaflet_ENG.PDF |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 1954, Ned Cole, a 1939 architecture graduate from the [[University of Texas at Austin]], developed the first experimental "suburb" with inbuilt air conditioning in each house. 22 homes were developed on a flat, treeless track in northwest [[Austin, Texas]], and the community was christened the 'Austin Air-Conditioned Village.' The residents were subjected to a year-long study of the effects of air conditioning led by the nation’s premier air conditioning companies, builders, and social scientists. In addition, researchers from UT’s Health Service and Psychology Department studied the effects on the "artificially cooled humans." One of the more amusing discoveries was that each family reported being troubled with scorpions, the leading theory being that scorpions sought cool, shady places. Other reported changes in lifestyle were that mothers baked more, families ate heavier foods, and they were more apt to choose hot drinks.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seale |first=Avrel |date=2023-08-07 |title=Texas alumnus and his alma mater central to air-conditioned homes |url=https://news.utexas.edu/2023/08/07/texas-alumnus-and-his-alma-mater-central-to-air-conditioned-homes/ |access-date=2024-11-13 |website=UT News |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Air Conditioned Village |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/austin-air-conditioned-village |access-date=2024-11-13 |website=Atlas Obscura |language=en}}</ref>

Air conditioner adoption tends to increase above around $10,000 annual household income in warmer areas.<ref name="Davis">{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Lucas |last2=Gertler |first2=Paul |last3=Jarvis |first3=Stephen |last4=Wolfram |first4=Catherine |title=Air conditioning and global inequality |journal=Global Environmental Change |date=July 2021 |volume=69 |pages=102299 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102299 |bibcode=2021GEC....6902299D }}</ref> Global [[Gross domestic product#GDP growth|GDP growth]] explains around 85% of increased air condition adoption by 2050, while the remaining 15% can be explained by [[climate change]].<ref name="Davis"/>

As of 2016 an estimated 1.6 billion air conditioning units were used worldwide, with over half of them in [[China]] and [[USA]], and a total cooling capacity of 11,675 gigawatts.<ref name="IEA2018"/><ref>{{cite news|last=Pierre-Louis |first=Kendra |date=May 15, 2018 |title=The World Wants Air-Conditioning. That Could Warm the World. |newspaper=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/15/climate/air-conditioning.html |url-access=limited|access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=February 16, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210216124538/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/05/15/climate/air-conditioning.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[International Energy Agency]] predicted in 2018 that the number of air conditioning units would grow to around 4 billion units by 2050 and that the total cooling capacity would grow to around 23,000 GW, with the biggest increases in [[India]] and [[China]].<ref name="IEA2018"/> Between 1995 and 2004, the proportion of urban households in China with air conditioners increased from 8% to 70%.<ref>{{cite news|last=Carroll |first=Rory |date=October 26, 2015|title=How America became addicted to air conditioning |newspaper=The Guardian |location=Los Angeles |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/oct/26/how-america-became-addicted-to-air-conditioning |access-date=May 12, 2021|archive-date=March 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210313201201/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/oct/26/how-america-became-addicted-to-air-conditioning|url-status=live}}</ref> As of 2015, nearly 100 million homes, or about 87% of US households, had air conditioning systems.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lester|first=Paul|date=July 20, 2015 |title=History of Air Conditioning |url= https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-air-conditioning|url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |publisher=United States Department of Energy |archive-date=June 5, 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200605141658/https://www.energy.gov/articles/history-air-conditioning}}</ref> In 2019, it was estimated that 90% of new single-family homes constructed in the US included air conditioning (ranging from 99% in the [[Southern United States|South]] to 62% in the [[Western United States|West]]).<ref>{{cite report|url= https://www.census.gov/construction/chars/highlights.html |title=Characteristics of New Housing |last1=Cornish |first1=Cheryl |last2=Cooper |first2=Stephen |date=|publisher=United States Census Bureau |last3=Jenkins |first3=Salima |access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=April 11, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210411005738/https://www.census.gov/construction/chars/highlights.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=March 3, 2021 |title=Central Air Conditioning Buying Guide |url= https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/central-air-conditioning/buying-guide/index.htm |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Consumer Reports |archive-date=May 9, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210509034728/https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/central-air-conditioning/buying-guide/index.htm}}</ref>

== Operation ==

===Operating principles===
{{main|Vapor-compression refrigeration}}

[[File:Heatpump.svg|thumb|A simple stylized diagram of the refrigeration cycle: 1) [[condensing coil]], 2) [[thermal expansion valve|expansion valve]], 3) [[evaporator coil]], 4) [[Gas compressor|compressor]]]]

Cooling in traditional air conditioner systems is accomplished using the vapor-compression cycle, which uses a refrigerant's forced circulation and [[phase transition|phase change]] between gas and [[liquid]] to transfer heat.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Petchers |first=Neil |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYJIv2wZtXEC&dq=Cooling+in+traditional+air+conditioner+systems+is+accomplished+using+the+vapor-compression+cycle&pg=PA737 |title=Combined Heating, Cooling & Power Handbook: Technologies & Applications : an Integrated Approach to Energy Resource Optimization |date=2003 |publisher=The Fairmont Press |isbn=978-0-88173-433-1 |pages=737}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Krarti |first=Moncef |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6AoHEAAAQBAJ&dq=Cooling+in+traditional+air+conditioner+systems+is+accomplished+using+the+vapor-compression+cycle&pg=PA370 |title=Energy Audit of Building Systems: An Engineering Approach, Third Edition |date=2020-12-01 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-000-25967-4 |pages=370 |language=en}}</ref> The vapor-compression cycle can occur within a unitary, or packaged piece of equipment; or within a chiller that is connected to terminal cooling equipment (such as a fan coil unit in an air handler) on its evaporator side and heat rejection equipment such as a cooling tower on its condenser side. An [[air source heat pump]] shares many components with an air conditioning system, but includes a [[reversing valve]], which allows the unit to be used to heat as well as cool a space.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is a Reversing Valve |url= https://www.samsung.com/in/support/home-appliances/what-is-a-reversing-valve/ |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190222153359/https://www.samsung.com/in/support/home-appliances/what-is-a-reversing-valve/ |archive-date=February 22, 2019 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Samsung India}}</ref>

Air conditioning equipment will reduce the absolute humidity of the air processed by the system if the surface of the evaporator coil is significantly cooler than the [[dew point]] of the surrounding air. An air conditioner designed for an occupied space will typically achieve a 30% to 60% relative humidity in the occupied space.<ref>{{cite web |title=Humidity and Comfort |url= http://www.dristeem-media.com/literature/Web_HumidityAndComfort.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180516235855/http://www.dristeem-media.com/literature/Web_HumidityAndComfort.pdf |archive-date=May 16, 2018 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=DriSteem}}</ref>

Most modern air-conditioning systems feature a dehumidification cycle during which the compressor runs. At the same time, the fan is slowed to reduce the evaporator temperature and condense more water. A [[dehumidifier]] uses the same [[Heat pump and refrigeration cycle|refrigeration cycle]] but incorporates both the evaporator and the condenser into the same air path; the air first passes over the evaporator coil, where it is cooled<ref>{{cite web |last=Perryman |first=Oliver |date=April 19, 2021 |title=Dehumidifier vs Air Conditioning |url= https://dehumidifiercritic.com/dehumidifier-vs-air-conditioning/ |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150241/https://dehumidifiercritic.com/dehumidifier-vs-air-conditioning/ |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Dehumidifier Critic}}</ref> and dehumidified before passing over the condenser coil, where it is warmed again before it is released back into the room.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}

[[Free cooling]] can sometimes be selected when the external air is cooler than the internal air. Therefore, the compressor does not need to be used, resulting in high cooling efficiencies for these times. This may also be combined with [[seasonal thermal energy storage]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Snijders |first=Aart L. |date=July 30, 2008 |title=Aquifer Thermal Energy Storage (ATES) Technology Development and Major Applications in Europe |url= http://trca.on.ca/dotAsset/16551.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210308043800/http://trca.on.ca/dotAsset/16551.pdf |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Toronto and Region Conservation Authority |publisher=IFTech International |location=Arnhem}}</ref>

==== Heating ====
{{Main|Heat pump}}

Some air conditioning systems can reverse the [[refrigeration cycle]] and act as an [[air source heat pump]], thus heating instead of cooling the indoor environment. They are also commonly referred to as "reverse cycle air conditioners". The heat pump is significantly more energy-efficient than [[electric resistance heating]], because it moves energy from air or groundwater to the heated space and the heat from purchased electrical energy. When the heat pump is in heating mode, the indoor evaporator coil switches roles and becomes the condenser coil, producing heat. The outdoor condenser unit also switches roles to serve as the evaporator and discharges cold air (colder than the ambient outdoor air).

Most air source heat pumps become less efficient in outdoor temperatures lower than 4 °C or 40 °F.<ref name="MDC-2022">{{cite web |title=Cold Climate Air Source Heat Pump |url= https://mn.gov/commerce-stat/pdfs/card-air-source-heat-pump.pdf |access-date=2022-03-29 |work=Minnesota Department of Commerce, Division of Energy Resources |archive-date=2022-01-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220102201057/https://mn.gov/commerce-stat/pdfs/card-air-source-heat-pump.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> This is partly because ice forms on the outdoor unit's heat exchanger coil, which blocks air flow over the coil. To compensate for this, the heat pump system must temporarily switch back into the regular air conditioning mode to switch the outdoor evaporator coil ''back'' to the condenser coil, to heat up and defrost. Therefore, some heat pump systems will have electric resistance heating in the indoor air path that is activated only in this mode to compensate for the temporary indoor air cooling, which would otherwise be uncomfortable in the winter.

Newer models have improved cold-weather performance, with efficient heating capacity down to {{Cvt|-14|F|C}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Even in Frigid Temperatures, Air-Source Heat Pumps Keep Homes Warm From Alaska Coast to U.S. Mass Market |url= https://www.nrel.gov/news/features/2021/even-in-frigid-temperatures-air-source-heat-pumps-keep-homes-warm-from-alaska-coast-to-us-mass-market.html |access-date=2022-03-29 |website=nrel.gov |archive-date=2022-04-10 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220410124219/https://www.nrel.gov/news/features/2021/even-in-frigid-temperatures-air-source-heat-pumps-keep-homes-warm-from-alaska-coast-to-us-mass-market.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="MDC-2022" /><ref>{{cite web |date=2020-12-10 |title=Heat Pumps: A Practical Solution for Cold Climates |url= https://rmi.org/heat-pumps-a-practical-solution-for-cold-climates/ |access-date=2022-03-28 |work=RMI |archive-date=2022-03-31 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220331011727/https://rmi.org/heat-pumps-a-practical-solution-for-cold-climates/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, there is always a chance that the humidity that condenses on the heat exchanger of the outdoor unit could freeze, even in models that have improved cold-weather performance, requiring a defrosting cycle to be performed.

The icing problem becomes much more severe with lower outdoor temperatures, so heat pumps are sometimes installed in tandem with a more conventional form of heating, such as an electrical heater, a [[natural gas]], [[heating oil]], or wood-burning [[fireplace]] or [[central heating]], which is used instead of or in addition to the heat pump during harsher winter temperatures. In this case, the heat pump is used efficiently during milder temperatures, and the system is switched to the conventional heat source when the outdoor temperature is lower.

===Performance===
{{main|coefficient of performance|Seasonal energy efficiency ratio|European seasonal energy efficiency ratio}}

The [[coefficient of performance]] (COP) of an air conditioning system is a ratio of useful heating or cooling provided to the work required.<ref>{{cite web |date=March 14, 2012 |title=TEM Instruction Sheet |url= http://www.tetech.com/temodules/graphs/instructions.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130124080037/http://www.tetech.com/temodules/graphs/instructions.pdf |archive-date=January 24, 2013 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=TE Technology}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=November 18, 2020 |title=Coefficient of Performance (COP) heat pumps |url= https://www.grundfos.com/solutions/learn/research-and-insights/coefficient-of-system-performance |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210503013223/https://www.grundfos.com/solutions/learn/research-and-insights/coefficient-of-system-performance |archive-date=May 3, 2021 |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Grundfos}}</ref> Higher COPs equate to lower operating costs. The COP usually exceeds 1; however, the exact value is highly dependent on operating conditions, especially absolute temperature and relative temperature between sink and system, and is often graphed or averaged against expected conditions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Unpotted HP-199-1.4-0.8 at a hot-side temperature of 25 °C |url= http://www.tetech.com/temodules/graphs/HP-199-1.4-0.8.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090107132318/http://www.tetech.com/temodules/graphs/HP-199-1.4-0.8.pdf |archive-date=January 7, 2009 |access-date=February 9, 2024 |work=TE Technology}}</ref> Air conditioner equipment power in the U.S. is often described in terms of "[[ton of refrigeration|tons of refrigeration]]", with each approximately equal to the cooling power of one [[short ton]] ({{convert|2000|lb|kg}} of ice melting in a 24-hour period. The value is equal to 12,000 [[British thermal unit|BTUIT]] per hour, or 3,517 [[watt]]s.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.330-2019.pdf |title=The International System of Units (SI) |date=August 2019 |publisher=National Institute of Standards and Technology |editor-last=Newell |editor-first=David B. |doi=10.6028/NIST.SP.330-2019 |access-date=May 13, 2021 |editor-last2=Tiesinga |editor-first2=Eite |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210422022620/https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.330-2019.pdf |archive-date=April 22, 2021 |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref> Residential central air systems are usually from 1 to 5 tons (3.5 to 18 kW) in capacity.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}

The efficiency of air conditioners is often rated by the [[seasonal energy efficiency ratio]] (SEER), which is defined by the [[Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute]] in its 2008 standard AHRI 210/240, ''Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning and Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment''.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://www.ahrinet.org/App_Content/ahri/files/standards%20pdfs/ANSI%20standards%20pdfs/ANSI.AHRI%20Standard%20210.240%20with%20Addenda%201%20and%202.pdf |title=ANSI/AHRI 210/240-2008: 2008 Standard for Performance Rating of Unitary Air-Conditioning & Air-Source Heat Pump Equipment |publisher=Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute |year=2012 |access-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180329072533/http://www.ahrinet.org/App_Content/ahri/files/standards |archive-date=March 29, 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref> A similar standard is the [[European seasonal energy efficiency ratio]] (ESEER).{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}

Efficiency is strongly affected by the humidity of the air to be cooled. [[Dehumidifying]] the air before attempting to cool it can reduce subsequent cooling costs by as much as 90 percent. Thus, reducing dehumidifying costs can materially affect overall air conditioning costs.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Baraniuk |first=Chris |title=Cutting-Edge Technology Could Massively Reduce the Amount of Energy Used for Air Conditioning |url=https://www.wired.com/story/cutting-edge-technology-could-massively-reduce-the-amount-of-energy-used-for-air-conditioning/ |access-date=2024-07-18 |magazine=Wired |language=en-US |issn=1059-1028}}</ref>

== Control system ==

=== Wireless remote control ===
{{Main article|Remote control|Infrared blaster}}{{Multiple image
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = Daikin ARC480A48 remote control.jpg
| image2 = Daikin ARC480A48 IR transmitter.jpg
| image3 = The receiver on the aircon.jpg
| total_width = 200
| caption1 = A wireless remote controller
| caption2 = The infrared transmitting LED on the remote
| perrow = 2 / 2
| image4 = IR receiver sensor.jpg
| footer = The infrared receiver on the air conditioner
}}

This type of controller uses an [[infrared]] [[Light-emitting diode|LED]] to relay commands from a remote control to the air conditioner. The output of the infrared LED (like that of any infrared remote) is invisible to the human eye because its wavelength is beyond the range of visible light (940 nm). This system is commonly used on mini-split air conditioners because it is simple and portable. Some window and ducted central air conditioners uses it as well.

=== Wired controller ===
{{Main|Thermostat}}{{Multiple image
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Daikin wired controller.jpg
| image2 = Honeywell wired thermostat.jpg
| image3 = Fujiaire wired thermostat.jpg
| image4 = Midea wired controller.jpg
| direction = horizontal
| perrow = 2
| footer = Several wired controllers ([[Indonesia]], 2024)
}}
A wired controller, also called a "wired thermostat," is a device that controls an air conditioner by switching heating or cooling on or off. It uses different [[sensor]]s to measure temperatures and actuate control operations. Mechanical thermostats commonly use [[bimetallic strip]]s, converting a temperature change into mechanical displacement, to actuate control of the air conditioner. Electronic thermostats, instead, use a [[thermistor]] or other semiconductor sensor, processing temperature change as electronic signals to control the air conditioner.

These controllers are usually used in [[hotel]] rooms because they are permanently installed into a wall and hard-wired directly into the air conditioner unit, eliminating the need for batteries.

== Types ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Types
!Typical Capacity*
!Air supply
!Mounting
!Typical application
|-
|Mini-split
|small – large
|Direct
|Wall
|Residential
|-
|Window
|very small – small
|Direct
|Window
|Residential
|-
|Portable
|very small – small
|Direct / Ducted
|Floor
|Residential, remote areas
|-
|Ducted (individual)
|small – very large
|Ducted
|Ceiling
|Residential, commercial
|-
|Ducted (central)
|medium – very large
|Ducted
|Ceiling
|Residential, commercial
|-
|Ceiling suspended
|medium – large
|Direct
|Ceiling
|Commercial
|-
|Cassette
|medium – large
|Direct / Ducted
|Ceiling
|Commercial
|-
|Floor standing
|medium – large
|Direct / Ducted
|Floor
|Commercial
|-
|Packaged
|very large
|Direct / Ducted
|Floor
|Commercial
|-
|Packaged RTU (Rooftop Unit)
|very large
|Ducted
|Rooftop
|Commercial
|}

<nowiki>*</nowiki> where the typical capacity is in kilowatt as follows:
* very small: <1.5 kW
* small: 1.5–3.5 kW
* medium: 4.2–7.1 kW
* large: 7.2–14 kW
* very large: >14 kW

===Mini-split and multi-split systems===
[[File:GALANZ II.jpg|thumb|right|Evaporator, indoor unit, or terminal, side of a ductless split-type air conditioner]]

Ductless systems (often mini-split, though there are now ducted mini-split) typically supply conditioned and heated air to a single or a few rooms of a building, without ducts and in a decentralized manner.<ref>{{cite web|title=M-Series Contractor Guide |url= https://www.mitsubishipro.com/pdfs/m-series-catalog.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210318225607/https://www.mitsubishipro.com/pdfs/m-series-catalog.pdf |archive-date=March 18, 2021 |access-date=May 12, 2021|website=Mitsubishipro.com |page=19}}</ref> Multi-zone or multi-split systems are a common application of ductless systems and allow up to eight rooms (zones or locations) to be conditioned independently from each other, each with its indoor unit and simultaneously from a single outdoor unit.

The first mini-split system was sold in 1961 by [[Toshiba]] in Japan, and the first wall-mounted mini-split air conditioner was sold in 1968 in Japan by [[Mitsubishi Electric]], where small home sizes motivated their development. The Mitsubishi model was the first air conditioner with a [[cross-flow fan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url= https://shouene-kaden.net/try/kaden/air-con.html#:~:text=1953%E5%B9%B4%20%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%88%9D%E3%81%AE,%E5%88%9D%E3%82%81%E3%81%A6%E7%94%9F%E7%94%A3%E3%81%95%E3%82%8C%E3%81%BE%E3%81%97%E3%81%9F%E3%80%82 |title=エアコンの歴史とヒミツ | 調べよう家電と省エネ | キッズ版省エネ家電 de スマートライフ（一般財団法人家電製品協会）学ぼう！スマートライフ |website=shouene-kaden.net |access-date=2024-01-21 |archive-date=2022-09-07|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220907192752/https://shouene-kaden.net/try/kaden/air-con.html#:~:text=1953%E5%B9%B4%20%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%88%9D%E3%81%AE,%E5%88%9D%E3%82%81%E3%81%A6%E7%94%9F%E7%94%A3%E3%81%95%E3%82%8C%E3%81%BE%E3%81%97%E3%81%9F%E3%80%82 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=April 2016 |title= Air conditioner {{!}} History|url= https://www.toshiba-carrier.co.jp/global/about/history.htm |url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Toshiba Carrier |archive-date=March 9, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210309011149/https://www.toshiba-carrier.co.jp/global/about/history.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=1920s–1970s {{!}} History |url= https://www.mitsubishielectric.com/en/about/history/1920s-70s/index.page|url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Mitsubishi Electric |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210308111609/https://www.mitsubishielectric.com/en/about/history/1920s-70s/index.page}}</ref> In 1969, the first mini-split air conditioner was sold in the US.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Wagner |first1=Gerry |title=The Duct Free Zone: History of the Mini Split |url= https://www.hpacmag.com/features/the-duct-free-zone-history-of-the-mini-split/#:~:text=The%20Twin%20Pac%2C%20the%20first,and%2016000%20(230%20V) |work=HPAC Magazine |access-date=February 9, 2024 |date=November 30, 2021}}</ref> Multi-zone ductless systems were invented by [[Daikin]] in 1973, and [[Variable refrigerant flow|variable refrigerant flow systems]] (which can be thought of as larger multi-split systems) were also invented by Daikin in 1982. Both were first sold in Japan.<ref>{{cite web|title=History of Daikin Innovation |url= https://www.daikin.com/corporate/overview/summary/history/digest/ |url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Daikin |archive-date=June 5, 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200605045033/https://www.daikin.com/corporate/overview/summary/history/digest/}}</ref> Variable refrigerant flow systems when compared with central plant cooling from an [[air handler]], eliminate the need for large cool air ducts, air handlers, and chillers; instead cool refrigerant is transported through much smaller pipes to the indoor units in the spaces to be conditioned, thus allowing for less space above [[dropped ceiling]]s and a lower structural impact, while also allowing for more individual and independent temperature control of spaces. The outdoor and indoor units can be spread across the building.<ref>{{cite web|last=Feit |first=Justin |date=December 20, 2017 |title=The Emergence of VRF as a Viable HVAC Option |website=buildings.com |url= https://www.buildings.com/articles/28170/emergence-vrf-viable-hvac-option |access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=December 3, 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201203234715/https://www.buildings.com/articles/28170/emergence-vrf-viable-hvac-option|url-status=live}}</ref> Variable refrigerant flow indoor units can also be turned off individually in unused spaces.{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}} The lower start-up power of VRF's DC inverter compressors and their inherent DC power requirements also allow VRF [[Solar air conditioning|solar-powered heat pumps]] to be run using DC-providing solar panels.

===Ducted central systems===
Split-system central air conditioners consist of two [[heat exchanger]]s, an outside unit (the [[Condenser (heat transfer)|condenser]]) from which heat is rejected to the environment and an internal heat exchanger (the [[evaporator]], or Fan Coil Unit, FCU) with the piped refrigerant being circulated between the two. The FCU is then connected to the spaces to be cooled by [[Duct (flow)|ventilation ducts]].<ref name=gov/> Floor standing air conditioners are similar to this type of air conditioner but sit within spaces that need cooling.

===Central plant cooling===
{{See also|Chiller}}
[[File:Industrial air conditioning unit (DFdB).JPG|thumb|Industrial air conditioners on top of the shopping mall ''Passage'' in Linz, Austria]]

Large central cooling plants may use intermediate [[coolant]] such as [[chilled water]] pumped into [[air handler]]s or [[fan coil unit]]s near or in the spaces to be cooled which then duct or deliver cold air into the spaces to be conditioned, rather than ducting cold air directly to these spaces from the plant, which is not done due to the low density and [[heat capacity]] of air, which would require impractically large ducts. The chilled water is cooled by [[chiller]]s in the plant, which uses a refrigeration cycle to cool water, often transferring its heat to the atmosphere even in liquid-cooled chillers through the use of [[cooling tower]]s. Chillers may be air- or liquid-cooled.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KX9XDwAAQBAJ&q=chiller+air+conditioning+system | title=Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Engineering | isbn=978-1-351-46783-4 | last1=Kreith | first1=Frank | last2=Wang | first2=Shan K. | last3=Norton | first3=Paul | date=April 20, 2018 | publisher=CRC Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0tVSAAAAMAAJ | title=Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration | isbn=978-0-07-068167-5 | last1=Wang | first1=Shan K. | date=November 7, 2000 | publisher=McGraw-Hill Education }}</ref>

===Portable units===
A portable system has an indoor unit on wheels connected to an outdoor unit via flexible pipes, similar to a permanently fixed installed unit (such as a ductless split air conditioner).

Hose systems, which can be ''monoblock'' or ''air-to-air'', are vented to the outside via air ducts. The ''monoblock'' type collects the water in a bucket or tray and stops when full. The ''air-to-air'' type re-evaporates the water, discharges it through the ducted hose, and can run continuously. Many but not all portable units draw indoor air and expel it outdoors through a single duct, negatively impacting their overall cooling efficiency.

Many portable air conditioners come with heat as well as a dehumidification function.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hleborodova |first=Veronika |date=August 14, 2018 |title=Portable Vs Split System Air Conditioning {{!}} Pros & Cons |url= https://www.canstarblue.com.au/appliances/portable-or-split-system-air-conditioning-the-pros-and-cons/ |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Canstar Blue |archive-date=March 9, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210309052103/https://www.canstarblue.com.au/appliances/portable-or-split-system-air-conditioning-the-pros-and-cons/}}</ref>

===Window unit and packaged terminal===
[[File:A649, University Motor Inn, Schuylkill River, Philadelphia, 2018.jpg|thumb|Through-the-wall PTAC units, University Motor Inn, Philadelphia]]
{{main|Packaged terminal air conditioner}}

The [[packaged terminal air conditioner]] (PTAC), through-the-wall, and window air conditioners are similar. These units are installed on a window frame or on a wall opening. The unit usually has an internal partition separating its indoor and outdoor sides, which contain the unit's condenser and evaporator, respectively. PTAC systems may be adapted to provide heating in cold weather, either directly by using an electric strip, [[gas]], or other heaters, or by reversing the refrigerant flow to heat the interior and draw heat from the exterior air, converting the air conditioner into a [[heat pump]]. They may be installed in a wall opening with the help of a special sleeve on the wall and a custom grill that is flush with the wall and window air conditioners can also be installed in a window, but without a custom grill.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kamins |first=Toni L. |date=July 15, 2013 |title=Through-the-Wall Versus PTAC Air Conditioners: A Guide for New Yorkers |url= https://www.brickunderground.com/blog/2013/07/go_a_through_the_wall_or_ptac_ac_system_were_here_to_help|url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Brick Underground |archive-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210115235022/https://www.brickunderground.com/blog/2013/07/go_a_through_the_wall_or_ptac_ac_system_were_here_to_help}}</ref>

===Packaged air conditioner===
Packaged air conditioners (also known as self-contained units)<ref>{{cite web|date=2015 |title=Self-Contained Air Conditioning Systems |url= https://oslo.daikinapplied.com/api/daikindocument/DownloadDocumentByName/Doc100/Daikin_CAT_860-10_LR_Self-Contained_SWP-H_Catalog.pdf/ |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Daikin Applied Americas |archive-date=October 30, 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201030103405/https://oslo.daikinapplied.com/api/daikindocument/DownloadDocumentByName/Doc100/Daikin_CAT_860-10_LR_Self-Contained_SWP-H_Catalog.pdf/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=April 6, 2018 |title=LSWU/LSWD Vertical Water-Cooled Self-Contained Unit Engineering Guide|url= https://cgproducts.johnsoncontrols.com/yorkdoc/145.05-EG2.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Johnson Controls |archive-date=May 13, 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150232/https://cgproducts.johnsoncontrols.com/yorkdoc/145.05-EG2.pdf}}</ref> are central systems that integrate into a single housing all the components of a split central system, and deliver air, possibly through ducts, to the spaces to be cooled. Depending on their construction they may be outdoors or indoors, on roofs ([[Air handler|rooftop units]]),<ref>{{cite web|date=2016 |title=Packaged Rooftop Unit |url= https://www.carrier.com/commercial/en/ae/media/DesertMasterPKG-50TCMborchure_tcm478-51454.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Carrier Global |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150232/https://www.carrier.com/commercial/en/ae/media/DesertMasterPKG-50TCMborchure_tcm478-51454.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=November 2006 |title=Packaged Rooftop Air Conditioners |url= https://www.trane.com/Commercial/Uploads/Pdf/1102/rtprc010en.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Trane Technologies |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150233/https://www.trane.com/Commercial/Uploads/Pdf/1102/rtprc010en.pdf}}</ref> draw the air to be conditioned from inside or outside a building and be water or air-cooled. Often, outdoor units are air-cooled while indoor units are liquid-cooled using a cooling tower.<ref name="gov">{{cite web|title=Central Air Conditioning |url= https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/central-air-conditioning|url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |publisher=United States Department of Energy |archive-date=January 30, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210130034016/https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/central-air-conditioning}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=January 13, 2010 |title=What is Packaged Air Conditioner? Types of Packged Air Condtioners |url= https://www.brighthubengineering.com/hvac/61457-packaged-air-conditioners-types-of-packaged-ac/ |url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=Bright Hub Engineering |archive-date=February 22, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180222112931/http://www.brighthubengineering.com/hvac/61457-packaged-air-conditioners-types-of-packaged-ac/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Evans |first=Paul |date=November 11, 2018 |title=RTU Rooftop Units explained |url= https://theengineeringmindset.com/rtu-rooftop-units-explained/ |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |work=The Engineering Mindset |archive-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210115090022/https://theengineeringmindset.com/rtu-rooftop-units-explained/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2000|title=water-cooled – Johnson Supply |url= https://studylib.net/doc/18423029/water-cooled---johnson-supply |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |website=studylib.net |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150304/https://studylib.net/doc/18423029/water-cooled---johnson-supply}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=May 2, 2003 |title=Water Cooled Packaged Air Conditioners |url= https://www.daikin.com.sg/resources/ck/files/catalogue/Water-cooled_Type_PL97-6A.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=May 12, 2021 |publisher=Daikin |location=Japan |archive-date=June 19, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180619070815/http://www.daikin.com.sg/resources/ck/files/catalogue/Water-cooled_Type_PL97-6A.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Water Cooled Packaged Unit |url= https://www.daikin.com.sg/resources/ck/files/catalogue/Watercooled%20package_UCCP.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=May 12, 2021 |publisher=Daikin |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150236/https://www.daikin.com.sg/resources/ck/files/catalogue/Watercooled%20package_UCCP.pdf}}</ref>

==Types of compressors==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Compressor types
!Common applications
!Typical capacity
!Efficiency
!Durability
!Repairability
|-
|Reciprocating
|[[Refrigerator]], [[Walk-in freezer]], portable air conditioners
|small – large
|very low (small capacity)
medium (large capacity)
|very low
|medium
|-
|Rotary vane
|Residential mini splits
|small
|low
|low
|easy
|-
|Scroll
|Commercial and central systems, [[Variable refrigerant flow|VRF]]
|medium
|medium
|medium
|easy
|-
|Rotary screw
|Commercial chiller
|medium – large
|medium
|medium
|hard
|-
|Centrifugal
|Commercial chiller
|very large
|medium
|high
|hard
|-
|[[Magnetic levitation|Maglev]] Centrifugal
|Commercial chiller
|very large
|high
|very high
|very hard
|}

=== Reciprocating ===
:{{main|Reciprocating compressor}}
This compressor consists of a [[crankcase]], [[crankshaft]], [[piston rod]], [[piston]], [[piston ring]], [[cylinder head]] and valves. {{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

=== Scroll ===
:{{main|Scroll compressor}}
This compressor uses two interleaving scrolls to compress the refrigerant.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lun |first1=Y. H. Venus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6iy-DwAAQBAJ&dq=This+compressor+uses+two+interleaving+scrolls+to+compress+the+refrigerant+.&pg=PA25 |title=Heat Pumps for Sustainable Heating and Cooling |last2=Tung |first2=S. L. Dennis |date=2019-11-13 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-31387-6 |pages=25 |language=en}}</ref> it consists of one fixed and one orbiting scrolls. This type of compressor is more efficient because it has 70 percent less moving parts than a reciprocating compressor. {{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

=== Screw ===
{{Main article|Rotary-screw compressor}}
This compressor use two very closely meshing spiral rotors to compress the gas. The gas enters at the suction side and moves through the threads as the screws rotate. The meshing rotors force the gas through the compressor, and the gas exits at the end of the screws. The working area is the inter-lobe volume between the male and female rotors. It is larger at the intake end, and decreases along the length of the rotors until the exhaust port. This change in volume is the compression. {{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

==Capacity modulation technologies==
There are several ways to modulate the cooling capacity in refrigeration or air conditioning and [[heating system]]s. The most common in air conditioning are: on-off cycling, hot gas bypass, use or not of liquid injection, manifold configurations of multiple compressors, [[Digital modulation|mechanical modulation]] (also called digital), and inverter technology. {{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

=== Hot gas bypass ===
Hot gas bypass involves injecting a quantity of gas from discharge to the suction side. The compressor will keep operating at the same speed, but due to the bypass, the [[refrigerant]] mass flow circulating with the system is reduced, and thus the cooling capacity. This naturally causes the compressor to run uselessly during the periods when the bypass is operating. The turn down capacity varies between 0 and 100%.<ref>{{cite journal| url= http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/bypass-method-recip-compressor-capacity-control |archive-date=12 August 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140812130223/http://www.pipelineandgasjournal.com/bypass-method-recip-compressor-capacity-control |date=June 2012 |journal=Pipeline and Gas Journal |volume=239 |issue=6 |title=Bypass Method For Recip Compressor Capacity Control |first1=Ali |last1=Ghanbariannaeeni |first2=Ghazalehsadat |last2=Ghazanfarihashemi |access-date=February 9, 2024}}</ref>

=== Manifold configurations ===
Several compressors can be installed in the system to provide the peak cooling capacity. Each compressor can run or not in order to stage the cooling capacity of the unit. The turn down capacity is either 0/33/66 or 100% for a trio configuration and either 0/50 or 100% for a tandem.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}

=== Mechanically modulated compressor ===
This internal mechanical capacity modulation is based on periodic compression process with a [[Control valves|control valve]], the two scroll set move apart stopping the compression for a given time period. This method varies refrigerant flow by changing the average time of compression, but not the actual speed of the motor. Despite an excellent [[turndown ratio]] – from 10 to 100% of the cooling capacity, mechanically modulated scrolls have high [[energy consumption]] as the motor continuously runs.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

=== Variable-speed compressor ===
:{{main|Inverter compressor}}
This system uses a [[variable-frequency drive]] (also called an Inverter) to control the speed of the compressor. The refrigerant flow rate is changed by the change in the speed of the compressor. The turn down ratio depends on the system configuration and manufacturer. It modulates from 15 or 25% up to 100% at full capacity with a single inverter from 12 to 100% with a hybrid tandem. This method is the most efficient way to modulate an air conditioner's capacity. It is up to 58% more efficient than a fixed speed system.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}}

== Impact ==

===Health effects===
[[File:Osaka Municipal Subway 10 series EMU 021.JPG|thumb|Rooftop [[Condenser (heat transfer)|condenser]] unit fitted on top of an [[Osaka Municipal Subway 10 series]] [[Rapid transit|subway]] carriage. Air conditioning has become increasingly prevalent on [[public transport]] vehicles as a form of [[climate control]], and to ensure passenger comfort and drivers' [[occupational safety and health]].]]

In hot weather, air conditioning can prevent [[heat stroke]], [[dehydration]] due to excessive [[sweating]], [[electrolyte imbalance]], [[kidney failure]], and other issues due to [[hyperthermia]].<ref name="IEA2018" /><ref>{{cite web|date=January 2, 2019 |title=Heat Stroke (Hyperthermia) |url= https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/heat-stroke-hyperthermia-a-to-z |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=May 13, 2021 |work=Harvard Health |archive-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210129121907/https://www.health.harvard.edu/a_to_z/heat-stroke-hyperthermia-a-to-z}}</ref> [[Heat wave]]s are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in the United States.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021 |title=Weather Related Fatality and Injury Statistics |work=National Weather Service |url= https://www.weather.gov/hazstat/ |access-date=2022-08-24 |archive-date=2022-08-24 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220824211305/https://www.weather.gov/hazstat/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=2012-10-19 |title=Extreme Weather: A Guide to Surviving Flash Floods, Tornadoes, Hurricanes, Heat Waves, Snowstorms Tsunamis and Other Natural Disasters |url= http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/09504121211278322 |journal=Reference Reviews |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=41 |doi=10.1108/09504121211278322 |issn=0950-4125 |access-date=2023-12-09 |archive-date=2024-01-21 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240121175825/https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/09504121211278322/full/html |url-status=live }}</ref> A 2020 study found that areas with lower use of air conditioning correlated with higher rates of heat-related mortality and hospitalizations.<ref name="Gamarro2020"/> The [[2003 European heatwave|August 2003 France heatwave]] resulted in approximately 15,000 deaths, where 80% of the victims were over 75 years old. In response, the French government required all retirement homes to have at least one air-conditioned room at {{cvt|25|C|F|0}} per floor during heatwaves.<ref name="IEA2018" />

Air conditioning (including filtration, humidification, cooling and disinfection) can be used to provide a clean, safe, [[hypoallergenic]] atmosphere in hospital operating rooms and other environments where proper atmosphere is critical to patient safety and well-being. It is sometimes recommended for home use by people with [[Allergy|allergies]], especially [[mold]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spiegelman |first1=Jay |last2=Friedman |first2=Herman |last3=Blumstein |first3=George I. |date=1963-09-01 |title=The effects of central air conditioning on pollen, mold, and bacterial concentrations |url= https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0021-8707%2863%2990007-8 |journal=Journal of Allergy |volume=34 |issue=5 |pages=426–431 |doi=10.1016/0021-8707(63)90007-8 |pmid=14066385 |issn=0021-8707}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Portnoy |first1=Jay M. |last2=Jara |first2=David |date=2015-02-01 |title=Mold allergy revisited |journal=Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology |volume=114 |issue=2 |pages=83–89 |doi=10.1016/j.anai.2014.10.004 |pmid=25624128 |issn=1081-1206|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, poorly maintained water cooling towers can promote the growth and spread of microorganisms such as ''[[Legionella pneumophila]]'', the infectious agent responsible for [[Legionnaires' disease]]. As long as the cooling tower is kept clean (usually by means of a [[chlorine]] treatment), these health hazards can be avoided or reduced. The state of New York has codified requirements for registration, maintenance, and testing of cooling towers to protect against [[Legionella]].<ref>{{cite web|date=June 7, 2016 |title=Subpart 4-1 – Cooling Towers |url= https://regs.health.ny.gov/content/subpart-4-1-cooling-towers |url-status=live |access-date=May 13, 2021 |work=New York Codes, Rules and Regulations |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150257/https://regs.health.ny.gov/content/subpart-4-1-cooling-towers}}</ref>

=== Economic effects ===
First designed to benefit targeted industries such as the press as well as large factories, the invention quickly spread to public agencies and administrations with studies with claims of increased productivity close to 24% in places equipped with air conditioning.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nordhaus |first=William D. |date=February 10, 2010 |title=Geography and macroeconomics: New data and new findings |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=103 |issue=10 |pages=3510–3517 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0509842103 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1363683 |pmid=16473945 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Air conditioning caused various shifts in demography, notably that of the United States starting from the 1970s. In the US, the [[birth rate]] was lower in the spring than during other seasons until the 1970s but this difference then declined since then.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barreca |first1=Alan |last2=Deschenes |first2=Olivier |last3=Guldi |first3=Melanie |year=2018 |title=Maybe next month? Temperature shocks and dynamic adjustments in birth rates |journal=Demography |doi=10.1007/s13524-018-0690-7 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=1269–1293|pmid=29968058 |pmc=7457515 }}</ref> As of 2007, the [[Sun Belt]] contained 30% of the total US population while it was inhabited by 24% of Americans at the beginning of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Glaeser |first1=Edward L. |last2=Tobio |first2=Kristina |title=The Rise of the Sunbelt |journal=Southern Economic Journal |date=January 2008 |volume=74 |issue=3 |pages=609–643 |doi=10.1002/j.2325-8012.2008.tb00856.x }}</ref> Moreover, the summer [[mortality rate]] in the US, which had been higher in regions subject to a heat wave during the summer, also evened out.<ref name="Barreca">{{cite journal |last1=Barreca |first1=Alan |last2=Clay |first2=Karen |last3=Deschenes |first3=Olivier |last4=Greenstone |first4=Michael |last5=Shapiro |first5=Joseph S. |title=Adapting to Climate Change: The Remarkable Decline in the US Temperature-Mortality Relationship over the Twentieth Century |journal=Journal of Political Economy |date=February 2016 |volume=124 |issue=1 |pages=105–159 |doi=10.1086/684582 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/08c6t2hs }}</ref>

The spread of the use of air conditioning acts as a main driver for the growth of global demand of electricity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherman |first1=Peter |last2=Lin |first2=Haiyang |last3=McElroy |first3=Michael |date=2018 |title=Projected global demand for air conditioning associated with extreme heat and implications for electricity grids in poorer countries |journal=Energy and Buildings |volume=268 |pages=112198 |doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2022.112198 |s2cid=248979815 |issn=0378-7788|doi-access=free }}</ref> According to a 2018 report from the [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA), it was revealed that the energy consumption for cooling in the United States, involving 328 million Americans, surpasses the combined energy consumption of 4.4 billion people in Africa, Latin America, the Middle East, and Asia (excluding China).<ref name="IEA2018" /> A 2020 survey found that an estimated 88% of all US households use AC, increasing to 93% when solely looking at homes built between 2010 and 2020.<ref>{{cite tech report |type=Withdrawn Standard |number=BS 6540-1:1985 |title=Air Filters Used in Air Conditioning and General Ventilation Part 1: Methods of Test for Atmospheric Dust Spot Efficiency and Synthetic Dust Weight Arrestance |publisher=British Standards Institution |date=29 March 1985 |url=https://knowledge.bsigroup.com/products/air-filters-used-in-air-conditioning-and-general-ventilation-methods-of-test-for-atmospheric-dust-spot-efficiency-and-synthetic-dust-weight-arrestance }}</ref>

===Environmental effects===
[[File:External units of air conditioners in Singapore.jpg|thumb|Air conditioner farm in the facade of a building in Singapore]]

Space cooling including air conditioning accounted globally for 2021 terawatt-hours of energy usage in 2016 with around 99% in the form of electricity, according to a 2018 report on air-conditioning efficiency by the [[International Energy Agency]].<ref name="IEA2018"/> The report predicts an increase of electricity usage due to space cooling to around 6200 TWh by 2050,<ref name="IEA2018">
{{cite report |date=May 15, 2018 |title=The Future of Cooling - Opportunities for energy-efficient air conditioning |author=International Energy Agency |url= https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/0bb45525-277f-4c9c-8d0c-9c0cb5e7d525/The_Future_of_Cooling.pdf |access-date=2024-07-01 |language=en-GB |archive-date=2024-06-26 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240626023624/https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/0bb45525-277f-4c9c-8d0c-9c0cb5e7d525/The_Future_of_Cooling.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mutschler |first1=Robin |last2=Rüdisüli |first2=Martin |last3=Heer |first3=Philipp |last4=Eggimann |first4=Sven |date=April 15, 2021 |title=Benchmarking cooling and heating energy demands considering climate change, population growth and cooling device uptake |journal=Applied Energy |volume=288 |issue= |pages=116636 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2021.116636 |issn=0306-2619 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021ApEn..28816636M }}</ref> and that with the progress currently seen, [[greenhouse gas emissions]] attributable to space cooling will double: 1,135 million tons (2016) to 2,070 million tons.<ref name="IEA2018" /> There is some push to increase the energy efficiency of air conditioners. [[United Nations Environment Programme|United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)]] and the IEA found that if air conditioners could be twice as effective as now, 460 billion tons of GHG could be cut over 40 years.<ref name="UNEP2020">{{cite report|doi=10.1163/9789004322714_cclc_2020-0252-0973 |title=Climate-friendly cooling could cut years of Greenhouse Gas Emissions and save US$ trillions: UN }}</ref> The UNEP and IEA also recommended legislation to decrease the use of [[hydrofluorocarbon]]s, better building [[Building insulation|insulation]], and more sustainable temperature-controlled food supply chains going forward.<ref name="UNEP2020" />

Refrigerants have also caused and continue to cause serious environmental issues, including [[ozone depletion]] and [[climate change]], as several countries have not yet ratified the [[Kigali Amendment]] to reduce the consumption and production of [[hydrofluorocarbon]]s.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gerretsen |first=Isabelle |date=December 8, 2020 |title=How your fridge is heating up the planet |url= https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201204-climate-change-how-chemicals-in-your-fridge-warm-the-planet |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210510055033/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201204-climate-change-how-chemicals-in-your-fridge-warm-the-planet |archive-date=May 10, 2021 |access-date=May 13, 2021 |work=BBC Future}}</ref> [[Chlorofluorocarbon|CFCs and HCFCs]] [[refrigerant]]s such as [[Dichlorodifluoromethane|R-12]] and [[Chlorodifluoromethane|R-22]], respectively, used within air conditioners have caused damage to the [[ozone layer]],<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Jo1UAAAAMAAJ&q=CFC+and+HCFC+refrigerants+such+as+R-12+and+R-22,+respectively,+used+within+air+conditioners+have+caused+damage+to+the+ozone+layer |title=Encyclopedia of Energy: Ph-S |date=2004 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0121764821}}</ref> and hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants such as [[R-410A]] and [[R-404A]], which were designed to replace CFCs and HCFCs, are instead exacerbating [[climate change]].<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-100311-4.00013-3 |chapter=New trends and developments in ground-source heat pumps |title=Advances in Ground-Source Heat Pump Systems |date=2016 |last1=Corberan |first1=J.M. |pages=359–385 |isbn=978-0-08-100311-4 }}</ref> Both issues happen due to the venting of refrigerant to the atmosphere, such as during repairs. [[Hydrofluoroolefin|HFO]] refrigerants, used in some if not most new equipment, solve both issues with an ozone damage potential (ODP) of zero and a much lower [[global warming potential]] (GWP) in the single or double digits vs. the three or four digits of hydrofluorocarbons.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Roselli |first1=Carlo |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=YCZAEAAAQBAJ&dq=HFO+refrigerants,+used+in+some+if+not+most+new+equipment,+solve+both+issues+with+an+ozone+damage+potential+(ODP)+of+zero&pg=PA90 |title=Geothermal Energy Utilization and Technologies 2020 |last2=Sasso |first2=Maurizio |date=2021 |publisher=MDPI |isbn=978-3036507040}}</ref>

Hydrofluorocarbons would have raised global temperatures by around {{cvt|0.3-0.5|C-change|F-change|1}} by 2100 without the [[Kigali Amendment]]. With the [[Kigali Amendment]], the increase of global temperatures by 2100 due to hydrofluorocarbons is predicted to be around {{cvt|0.06|C-change|F-change|1}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/71c8db7e-1137-41ef-99c3-8f2c8d3a5d86/Cooling_Emissions_and_Policy_Synthesis_Report.pdf|title=Cooling Emissions and Policy Synthesis Report: Benefits of cooling efficiency and the Kigali Amendment, United Nations Environment Programme - International Energy Agency, 2020}}</ref>

Alternatives to continual air conditioning include [[passive cooling]], passive solar cooling, natural ventilation, operating shades to reduce solar gain, using trees, architectural shades, windows (and using window coatings) to reduce [[solar gain]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2021}}

=== Social effects ===
[[Socioeconomic status|Socioeconomic]] groups with a household income below around $10,000 tend to have a low air conditioning adoption,<ref name="Davis"/> which worsens heat-related mortality.<ref name="Barreca"/> The lack of cooling can be hazardous, as areas with lower use of air conditioning correlate with higher rates of heat-related mortality and hospitalizations.<ref name="Gamarro2020">{{cite journal |last1=Gamarro |first1=Harold |last2=Ortiz |first2=Luis |last3=González |first3=Jorge E. |date=2020-08-01 |title=Adapting to Extreme Heat: Social, Atmospheric, and Infrastructure Impacts of Air-Conditioning in Megacities—The Case of New York City |journal=ASME Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Buildings and Cities |volume=1 |issue=3 |doi=10.1115/1.4048175 |s2cid=222121944 |issn=2642-6641|doi-access=free }}</ref> Premature mortality in NYC is projected to grow between 47% and 95% in 30 years, with lower-income and vulnerable populations most at risk.<ref name="Gamarro2020" /> Studies on the correlation between heat-related mortality and hospitalizations and living in low socioeconomic locations can be traced in Phoenix, Arizona,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harlan |first1=Sharon L. |last2=Declet-Barreto |first2=Juan H. |last3=Stefanov |first3=William L. |last4=Petitti |first4=Diana B. |date=February 2013 |title=Neighborhood Effects on Heat Deaths: Social and Environmental Predictors of Vulnerability in Maricopa County, Arizona |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |language=en |volume=121 |issue=2 |pages=197–204 |doi=10.1289/ehp.1104625 |issn=0091-6765 |pmc=3569676 |pmid=23164621|bibcode=2013EnvHP.121..197H }}</ref> Hong Kong,<ref name="Chan2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Emily Ying Yang |last2=Goggins |first2=William B |last3=Kim |first3=Jacqueline Jakyoung |last4=Griffiths |first4=Sian M |date=April 2012 |title=A study of intracity variation of temperature-related mortality and socioeconomic status among the Chinese population in Hong Kong |journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health |language=en |volume=66 |issue=4 |pages=322–327 |doi=10.1136/jech.2008.085167 |issn=0143-005X |pmc=3292716 |pmid=20974839}}</ref> China,<ref name="Chan2012" /> Japan,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=Chris Fook Sheng |last2=Ueda |first2=Kayo |last3=Takeuchi |first3=Ayano |last4=Nitta |first4=Hiroshi |last5=Konishi |first5=Shoko |last6=Bagrowicz |first6=Rinako |last7=Watanabe |first7=Chiho |last8=Takami |first8=Akinori |title=Sociogeographic Variation in the Effects of Heat and Cold on Daily Mortality in Japan |journal=Journal of Epidemiology |date=2014 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=15–24 |doi=10.2188/jea.JE20130051 |pmid=24317342 |pmc=3872520 }}</ref> and Italy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stafoggia |first1=Massimo |last2=Forastiere |first2=Francesco |last3=Agostini |first3=Daniele |last4=Biggeri |first4=Annibale |last5=Bisanti |first5=Luigi |last6=Cadum |first6=Ennio |last7=Caranci |first7=Nicola |last8=de'Donato |first8=Francesca |last9=De Lisio |first9=Sara |last10=De Maria |first10=Moreno |last11=Michelozzi |first11=Paola |last12=Miglio |first12=Rossella |last13=Pandolfi |first13=Paolo |last14=Picciotto |first14=Sally |last15=Rognoni |first15=Magda |date=2006 |title=Vulnerability to Heat-Related Mortality: A Multicity, Population-Based, Case-Crossover Analysis |journal=Epidemiology |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=315–323 |doi=10.1097/01.ede.0000208477.36665.34 |jstor=20486220 |pmid=16570026 |s2cid=20283342 |issn=1044-3983|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Gronlund2014">{{cite journal |last1=Gronlund |first1=Carina J. |title=Racial and Socioeconomic Disparities in Heat-Related Health Effects and Their Mechanisms: a Review |journal=Current Epidemiology Reports |date=September 2014 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=165–173 |doi=10.1007/s40471-014-0014-4 |pmid=25512891 |pmc=4264980 }}</ref> Additionally, costs concerning health care can act as another barrier, as the lack of private health insurance during a 2009 heat wave in Australia, was associated with heat-related hospitalization.<ref name="Gronlund2014" />

Disparities in [[socioeconomic status]] and access to air conditioning are connected by some to [[Institutional racism|institutionalized racism]], which leads to the association of specific marginalized communities with lower economic status, poorer health, residing in hotter neighborhoods, engaging in physically demanding labor, and experiencing limited access to cooling technologies such as air conditioning.<ref name="Gronlund2014" /> A study overlooking Chicago, Illinois, Detroit, and Michigan found that black households were half as likely to have central air conditioning units when compared to their white counterparts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=M. S. |title=Disparities by Race in Heat-Related Mortality in Four US Cities: The Role of Air Conditioning Prevalence |journal=Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine |date=11 May 2005 |volume=82 |issue=2 |pages=191–197 |doi=10.1093/jurban/jti043 |pmid=15888640 |pmc=3456567 }}</ref> Especially in cities, Redlining creates [[Urban heat island|heat islands]], increasing temperatures in certain parts of the city.<ref name="Gronlund2014" /> This is due to materials heat-absorbing building materials and pavements and lack of vegetation and shade coverage.<ref name="Sampson2013">{{cite journal |last1=Sampson |first1=Natalie R. |last2=Gronlund |first2=Carina J. |last3=Buxton |first3=Miatta A. |last4=Catalano |first4=Linda |last5=White-Newsome |first5=Jalonne L. |last6=Conlon |first6=Kathryn C. |last7=O’Neill |first7=Marie S. |last8=McCormick |first8=Sabrina |last9=Parker |first9=Edith A. |date=2013-04-01 |title=Staying cool in a changing climate: Reaching vulnerable populations during heat events |journal=Global Environmental Change |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=475–484 |doi=10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2012.12.011 |pmid=29375195 |pmc=5784212 |bibcode=2013GEC....23..475S |issn=0959-3780}}</ref> There have been initiatives that provide cooling solutions to low-income communities, such as public [[Cooling center|cooling spaces]].<ref name="IEA2018" /><ref name="Sampson2013" />

==Other techniques==
Buildings designed with passive air conditioning are generally less expensive to construct and maintain than buildings with conventional [[heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|HVAC]] systems with lower energy demands.<ref>{{cite conference|last1=Niktash|first1=Amirreza|last2=Huynh|first2=B. Phuoc |date=July 2–4, 2014 |title=Simulation and Analysis of Ventilation Flow Through a Room Caused by a Two-sided Windcatcher Using a LES Method|journal=Lecture Notes in Engineering and Computer Science|url= http://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCE2014/WCE2014_pp1294-1297.pdf |conference=World Congress on Engineering |location=London |volume=2 |isbn=978-9881925350 |issn=2078-0958 |access-date=May 13, 2021 |eissn=2078-0966 |archive-date=April 26, 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180426210916/http://www.iaeng.org/publication/WCE2014/WCE2014_pp1294-1297.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> While tens of air changes per hour, and cooling of tens of degrees, can be achieved with passive methods, site-specific [[microclimate]] must be taken into account, complicating [[building design]].<ref name=PDEC/>

Many techniques can be used to increase comfort and reduce the temperature in buildings. These include evaporative cooling, selective shading, wind, [[Convection (heat transfer)|thermal convection]], and heat storage.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Chen |last2=Kazanci |first2=Ongun Berk |last3=Levinson |first3=Ronnen |last4=Heiselberg |first4=Per |last5=Olesen |first5=Bjarne W. |last6=Chiesa |first6=Giacomo |last7=Sodagar |first7=Behzad |last8=Ai |first8=Zhengtao |last9=Selkowitz |first9=Stephen |last10=Zinzi |first10=Michele |last11=Mahdavi |first11=Ardeshir |date=2021-11-15 |title=Resilient cooling strategies – A critical review and qualitative assessment |journal=Energy and Buildings |volume=251 |pages=111312 |doi=10.1016/j.enbuild.2021.111312 |issn=0378-7788 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021EneBu.25111312Z |hdl=2117/363031 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

===Passive ventilation ===
{{Excerpt|Passive ventilation}}

=== Passive cooling ===
{{Excerpt|passive cooling}}

[[File:malqaf.svg|thumb|center|upright=2.0|A pair of short [[windcatcher]]s ({{transliteration|ar|malqaf}}) used in traditional architecture; wind is forced down on the [[windward]] side and leaves on the [[leeward]] side (''cross-ventilation''). In the absence of wind, the circulation can be driven with evaporative cooling in the inlet (which is also designed to catch dust). In the center, a {{transliteration|ar|shuksheika}} ([[roof lantern]] vent), used to shade the [[qa'a (room)|qa'a]] below while allowing hot air rise out of it (''[[stack effect]]'').<ref name="egypt_trad">{{cite conference|last1=Mohamed|first1=Mady A.A.|date=January 2010|editor-last=Lehmann|editor-first=S. |editor2=Waer |editor2-first=H.A. |editor3=Al-Qawasmi |editor3-first=J.|title=Traditional Ways of Dealing with Climate in Egypt |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273122348 |conference=The Seventh International Conference of Sustainable Architecture and Urban Development (SAUD 2010) |location=Amman, Jordan |publisher=The Center for the Study of Architecture in Arab Region (CSAAR Press)|pages=247–266|access-date=May 12, 2021 |archive-date=May 13, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150247/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273122348_Traditional_Ways_of_Dealing_with_Climate_in_Egypt |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

=== Daytime radiative cooling ===
[[File:Passive daytime radiative cooling diagram.jpg|thumb|upright|Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) surfaces are high in solar reflectance and heat emittance, cooling with zero energy use or pollution.<ref name="Chen-2022a">{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Meijie |last2=Pang |first2=Dan |last3=Chen |first3=Xingyu |last4=Yan |first4=Hongjie |last5=Yang |first5=Yuan |title=Passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, material designs, and applications |journal=EcoMat |year=2022 |volume=4 |doi=10.1002/eom2.12153 |s2cid=240331557 |quote=Passive daytime radiative cooling (PDRC) dissipates terrestrial heat to the extremely cold outer space without using any energy input or producing pollution. It has the potential to simultaneously alleviate the two major problems of energy crisis and global warming. |doi-access=free }}</ref>]]

[[Passive daytime radiative cooling]] (PDRC) surfaces reflect incoming solar radiation and heat back into outer space through the [[infrared window]] for cooling during the daytime. Daytime radiative cooling became possible with the ability to suppress [[solar heating]] using [[Photonics|photonic structures]], which emerged through a study by Raman et al. (2014).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raman |first1=Aaswath P. |last2=Anoma |first2=Marc Abou |last3=Zhu |first3=Linxiao |last4=Rephaeli |first4=Eden |last5=Fan |first5=Shanhui |title=Passive radiative cooling below ambient air temperature under direct sunlight |journal=Nature |date=November 2014 |volume=515 |issue=7528 |pages=540–544 |doi=10.1038/nature13883 |pmid=25428501 |bibcode=2014Natur.515..540R }}</ref> PDRCs can come in a variety of forms, including paint coatings and films, that are designed to be high in [[solar reflectance]] and [[thermal emittance]].<ref name="Chen-2022a"/><ref name="Bijarniya-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Bijarniya |first1=Jay Prakash |last2=Sarkar |first2=Jahar |last3=Maiti |first3=Pralay |title=Review on passive daytime radiative cooling: Fundamentals, recent researches, challenges and opportunities |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=November 2020 |volume=133 |pages=110263 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2020.110263 |bibcode=2020RSERv.13310263B |s2cid=224874019 }}</ref>

PDRC applications on building roofs and [[Building envelope|envelopes]] have demonstrated significant decreases in energy consumption and costs.<ref name="Bijarniya-2020" /> In [[suburban]] [[Single family residence|single-family residential areas]], PDRC application on roofs can potentially lower energy costs by 26% to 46%.<ref name="Mokharti-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Mokhtari |first1=Reza |last2=Ulpiani |first2=Giulia |last3=Ghasempour |first3=Roghayeh |title=The Cooling Station: Combining hydronic radiant cooling and daytime radiative cooling for urban shelters |journal=Applied Thermal Engineering |date=July 2022 |volume=211 |pages=118493 |doi=10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2022.118493 |bibcode=2022AppTE.21118493M }}</ref> PDRCs are predicted to show a market size of ~$27 billion for indoor space cooling by 2025 and have undergone a surge in research and development since the 2010s.<ref name="Yang-2020">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Yuan |last2=Zhang |first2=Yifan |title=Passive daytime radiative cooling: Principle, application, and economic analysis |journal=MRS Energy & Sustainability |date=July 2020 |volume=7 |issue=1 |doi=10.1557/mre.2020.18 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miranda |first1=Nicole D. |last2=Renaldi |first2=Renaldi |last3=Khosla |first3=Radhika |last4=McCulloch |first4=Malcolm D. |title=Bibliometric analysis and landscape of actors in passive cooling research |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=October 2021 |volume=149 |pages=111406 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2021.111406 |bibcode=2021RSERv.14911406M |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:2266ea3e-4463-4554-9272-6a041888b60b }}</ref>

=== Fans ===
{{main|Ceiling fan}}
[[Hand fan]]s have existed since [[prehistory]]. Large human-powered fans built into buildings include the [[punkah]].

The 2nd-century Chinese inventor [[Ding Huan]] of the [[Han dynasty]] invented a [[Fan (machine)|rotary fan]] for air conditioning, with seven wheels {{convert|3|m|ft|abbr=on|0}} in diameter and manually powered by prisoners.<ref name="Needham-1991">{{cite book|last1=Needham|first1=Joseph|title=Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering |last2=Wang |first2=Ling |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0521058032 |pages= |oclc=468144152}}</ref>{{Rp|99, 151, 233}} In 747, [[Emperor Xuanzong of Tang|Emperor Xuanzong]] (r. 712–762) of the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) had the Cool Hall (''Liang Dian'' {{lang|zh|涼殿}}) built in the imperial palace, which the ''Tang Yulin'' describes as having [[Hydropower|water-powered]] fan wheels for air conditioning as well as rising [[jet stream]]s of water from fountains. During the subsequent [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), written sources mentioned the air conditioning rotary fan as even more widely used.<ref name="Needham-1991" />{{Rp|134, 151}}

===Thermal buffering===
In areas that are [[diurnal temperature variation|cold at night]] or in winter, heat storage is used. Heat may be stored in earth or masonry; air is drawn past the masonry to heat or cool it.<ref name="shady">{{cite conference|last1=Attia|first1=Shady|last2=Herde|first2=André de|date=22–24 June 2009|title=Designing the Malqaf for Summer Cooling in Low-Rise Housing, an Experimental Study |url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242550698 |conference=26th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture (PLEA2009) |location=Quebec City |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150322/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/242550698_Designing_the_Malqaf_for_Summer_Cooling_in_Low-Rise_Housing_an_Experimental_Study |archive-date=13 May 2021 |access-date=May 12, 2021|url-status=live}}</ref>

In areas that are below freezing at night in winter, snow and ice can be collected and stored in [[Ice house (building)|ice house]]s for later use in cooling.<ref name=shady/> This technique is over 3,700 years old in the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dalley |first=Stephanie |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe41vgAACAAJ |title=Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities |date=2002 |publisher=Gorgias Press |isbn=978-1931956024 |edition=2nd |location=Piscataway, New Jersey |page=91 |oclc=961899663 |author-link=Stephanie Dalley |access-date=2021-05-13 |archive-date=2021-01-29 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210129171612/https://books.google.com/books?id=Qe41vgAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> Harvesting outdoor ice during winter and transporting and storing for use in summer was practiced by wealthy Europeans in the early 1600s,<ref name=conquest/> and became popular in Europe and the Americas towards the end of the 1600s.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Nagengast |first=Bernard |date=February 1999 |title=Comfort from a Block of Ice: A History of Comfort Cooling Using Ice |url= https://www.ashrae.org/File%20Library/About/Mission%20and%20Vision/ASHRAE%20and%20Industry%20History/A-History-of-Comfort-Cooling-Using-Ice.pdf |url-status=live |journal=ASHRAE Journal |volume=41 |issue=2 |page=49 |issn=0001-2491 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150238/https://www.ashrae.org/File%20Library/About/Mission%20and%20Vision/ASHRAE%20and%20Industry%20History/A-History-of-Comfort-Cooling-Using-Ice.pdf |archive-date=May 13, 2021|access-date=May 13, 2021}}</ref> This practice was replaced by mechanical compression-cycle [[icemaker]]s.

===Evaporative cooling===
{{Main|Evaporative cooler}}
[[File:Evaporative cooler, CO, IMG 5681.JPG|thumb|An evaporative cooler]]

In dry, hot climates, the [[Evaporative cooler|evaporative cooling]] effect may be used by placing water at the air intake, such that the draft draws air over water and then into the house. For this reason, it is sometimes said that the fountain, in the architecture of hot, arid climates, is like the fireplace in the architecture of cold climates.<ref name=egypt_trad/> Evaporative cooling also makes the air more humid, which can be beneficial in a dry desert climate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bahadori |first1=Mehdi N. |title=Passive Cooling Systems in Iranian Architecture |journal=Scientific American |date=February 1978 |volume=238 |issue=2 |pages=144–154 |doi=10.1038/SCIENTIFICAMERICAN0278-144 |bibcode=1978SciAm.238b.144B }}</ref>

Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window.<ref>{{cite book|last=Smith|first=Shane|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Onv60-c6iEIC |title=Greenhouse Gardener's Companion: Growing Food and Flowers in Your Greenhouse Or Sunspace |publisher=Fulcrum Publishing |others=Illustrated by Marjorie C. Leggitt |year=2000 |isbn=978-1555914509 |edition=illustrated, revised |location=Golden, Colorado |page=62 |oclc=905564174 |access-date=2020-08-25 |archive-date=2021-05-13 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210513150323/https://books.google.com/books?id=Onv60-c6iEIC|url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Air filter]]
* [[Air purifier]]
* [[Cleanroom]]
* [[Crankcase heater]]
* [[Energy recovery ventilation]]
* [[Indoor air quality]]
* [[Particulates]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Air conditioners}}
{{Wiktionary|Cassette air conditioner}}
{{Wikiversity|Refrigeration and air conditioning}}
* {{US patent|808897}} Carrier's original patent
* {{US patent|1172429}}
* {{US patent|2363294}}
* ''Scientific American'', "[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ok9AQAAIAAJ Artificial Cold]", 28 August 1880, p. 138
* ''Scientific American'', "[https://books.google.com/books?id=YIE9AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA84 The Presidential Cold Air Machine]", 6 August 1881, p. 84

{{HVAC}}
{{Home appliances}}
{{Roofs}}
{{Electronic systems}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1902 introductions]]
[[Category:American inventions]]
[[Category:Ancient Egyptian technology]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman technology]]
[[Category:Building automation]]
[[Category:Chinese inventions]]
[[Category:Cooling technology]]
[[Category:Dutch inventions]]
[[Category:Gas technologies]]
[[Category:Home appliances]]

Akita (dog breed)

2025-01-03T22:39:42Z

Omcsesz: /* Japanese history */ wrong template category fixed

{{Infobox dog breed
| name = Akita
| altname = {{ubl|Japanese Akita|Great Japanese Dog|''Akita Inu''|''Akita ken''|''Kuma Inu''}} ('Bearhound')
| image = Akita Collage.png
| country = Japan
| collapse_standards_and_traits =
| maleheight = {{cvt|25|-|28|in|cm|order=flip}}
| femaleheight = {{cvt|23|-|26|in|cm|order=flip}}
| maleweight = {{cvt|60|-|130|lb|kg|order=flip}}
| femaleweight = {{cvt|55|-|100|lb|kg|order=flip}}
| coat = [[Dog coat|Double coat]]
| colour = Red, fawn, brindle, white. All with white fur on the ventral areas of the dog (''urajiro'').
| litter_size = 3–12 puppies (avg. 7–8)
| life_span = 11.4 years
| kc_name = [[Japan Kennel Club]]
| kc_std = https://www.jkc.or.jp/archives/world_dogs/2601
| kc_std1 = https://www.jkc.or.jp/archives/world_dogs/2598
| kc2_name = [[American Kennel Club]]
| kc2_std = https://s3.amazonaws.com/cdn-origin-etr.akc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/06145646/Japanese-Akitainu_AKC_Standard_11052020.pdf
| kc2_std1 = http://images.akc.org/pdf/breeds/standards/Akita.pdf
| kc3_name = [[Royal Kennel Club]]
| kc3_std = https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/breed-standards/utility/akita/
| fcistd = http://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/255g05-en.pdf
| fcistd1 = https://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/344g05-en.pdf
| note = National dog of Japan, Prefecture animal of Akita
|image_caption=}}The {{Nihongo|'''Akita'''|{{linktext|秋田}}|Akita|extra={{IPA|ja|akʲita}}}} is a Japanese [[dog breed]] of large size. Originating from the mountains of northern [[Japan]], the Akita has a short double coat similar to that of many other northern [[Spitz|spitz breeds]]. Historically, they were used by [[matagi]] for [[Guard dog|guarding]] and the hunting of [[bear]]s.

The Akita is a powerful, dominant, and loyal breed, commonly aloof with strangers, but affectionate and deeply loyal to its family. As a breed, Akitas are generally hardy. The two separate varieties of Akita are a pure Japanese strain, called '''Akita Inu''' or '''Akita-ken''', and a larger mixed strain, commonly referred to as the "'''American Akita'''".<ref name="akitanodog.info">{{cite web |date=17 December 2019 |title=American Akita |url=https://www.yourdogsworld.com/b/american-akita/}}</ref> However, it is subject to debate as to whether the Akita strains are distinct, or if they constitute one breed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-27 |title=The Loyal, Bear-Hunting Akita |url=https://www.japanpowered.com/japan-culture/akita |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=Japan Powered |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brearley |first=Joan McDonald |title=The Book of the Akita |publisher=TFH |year=1985 |isbn=0866220488 |pages=4–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Akita {{!}} Breeds A to Z {{!}} The Kennel Club |url=https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/search/breeds-a-to-z/breeds/utility/akita/ |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=www.thekennelclub.org.uk}}</ref>

==Breed name==
Debate exists among fanciers whether these are two separate breeds of Akitas. As of 2020, the [[American Kennel Club]]<ref name="AKC standard">{{cite web|title=Akita Breed Standard|url=https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/japanese-akitainu/|format=website|publisher=American Kennel Club|access-date=20 February 2021| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514045543/http://www.akc.org/breeds/akita/| archive-date= 14 May 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> now considers American and Japanese Akitas to be two separate breeds, no longer allowing free breeding between the two. The [[United Kennel Club]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ukcdogs.com/Web.nsf/WebPages/Library/BreedStandards |publisher=United Kennel Club|format=website|title=Breed Standards |access-date=14 November 2016}}</ref> the [[Fédération Cynologique Internationale|Federation Cynologique Internationale]] (FCI),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/344GB2006_en.doc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515184334/http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/344GB2006_en.doc|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2006|publisher=Federation Cynologique Internationale|format=document|title=FCI standard #344, American Akita|access-date=9 March 2011}}</ref> [[The Kennel Club]],<ref name="Japanese Akita UK Standard">{{cite web|title=UK Breed Standard for Japanese Style|url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=4223|format=website|publisher=The Kennel Club|access-date=15 October 2011|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814134952/https://thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=4223|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=UK Breed Standard for American Style|url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=4091|format=website|publisher=The Kennel Club|access-date=15 October 2011|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814151046/https://thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=4091|url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[Australian National Kennel Council]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Australian Breed Standard|url=http://www.ankc.org.au/Breed_Details.aspx?bid=237|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228024339/http://ankc.org.au/Breed_Details.aspx?bid=237|archive-date=2015-02-28|format=website|publisher=Australian National Kennel Council|access-date=22 December 2016}}</ref> the [[New Zealand Kennel Club]],<ref>{{cite web|title=NZ Standard for American Style|url=http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br637.html|format=website|publisher=New Zealand Kennel Club|access-date=19 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110524175231/http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br637.html| archive-date= 24 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=NZ Standard for Japanese Style|url=http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br601.html|format=website|publisher=New Zealand Kennel Club|access-date=19 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110524175126/http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br601.html| archive-date= 24 May 2011}}</ref> and the [[Japan Kennel Club]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=一般社団法人ジャパンケネルクラブ|url=https://www.jkc.or.jp/|access-date=2021-09-24|language=ja}}</ref> consider Japanese and American Akitas as separate breeds.<ref name="DVM"/> Some countries{{which|date=August 2023}} refer to the American Akita as simply the Akita and not the American Akita. The issue is especially controversial in Japan.<ref name="Itagaki">{{cite web |url=http://www.northlandakitas.com/pdf/preserv_of_japan_dogs.pdf |first1=Dr. Shiro |last1=Itagaki |title=The Preservation and Development of Japanese Dogs|publisher=Akita Learning Center |access-date=6 May 2011}}</ref> For the FCI's 84 countries, the breed split formally occurred in June 1999, when the FCI decided that the American type would be called the Great Japanese Dog,<ref name="DVM"/> later renamed the American Akita in January 2006.<ref name="DVM"/>

==History==

===Japanese history===
[[File:Akita dog circa 1907.jpg|thumb|Akita Inu photographed around 1907.]]
[[File:Faithful Dog Hachiko Photo.png|thumb|right|Hachikō]]
[[File:Hachiko-hakusei.jpg|thumb|right|Loyal [[Hachikō]] became legendary after waiting every day for his master to return at Shibuya Station in central Tokyo. ]]
Since ancient times, hunting dogs called {{Nihongo|matagi dogs|マタギ犬}} were kept in the [[Tōhoku region]] of northern Japan. The word ''matagi'' means hunter. The main targets of hunting were [[Asian black bear]]s, [[Japanese serow]]s, [[Japanese macaque]]s, and rabbits. In [[Akita Prefecture]], there was also a matagi dog called the {{Nihongo|Akita Matagi Inu|秋田マタギ犬}}, which is a medium-sized dog and is distinguished from the Akita Inu.<ref>{{Cite book |editor = Inu no Kenkyusha |title = 昭和日本犬の検討 |trans-title = Examination of Showa Japanese dogs |publisher = Inu no Kenkyusha |date = 1936 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1229309 |doi = 10.11501/1229309 |page = 16 |language = ja |author1 = 犬の研究社 }}</ref> The direct ancestor of the Akita Inu was a dog kept as a guard dog and [[fighting dog]] by samurai and wealthy farmers in the [[Ōdate]] area, and was also known as the {{Nihongo|Ōdate dog|大館犬}}.

During the [[Edo period]] (1603 - 1867), the Akita region was ruled by the [[Satake clan]] of the [[Kubota Domain]]. The {{Nihongo|Satake West Family|佐竹西家}}, the castle keeper of Ōdate Castle, is said to have nurtured the fighting spirit of its vassals through [[Dog fighting|dogfighting]].<ref name="Odate1">{{Cite book |editor = Ōdate City History Compilation Committee |title = 大館市史 |trans-title = Ōdate City History |volume = 1 |publisher = Ōdate City |date = March 1979 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/9537893 |doi = 10.11501/9537893 |page = 76 |language = ja |author1 = 大館市 }}</ref>

It is not known exactly how Akita Inu became larger, but according to a "discussion on dogs by old people" held in 1931 in the then Ōdate Town, a famous dog named "Moku" was kept at the {{Nihongo|Jō'ō-ji Temple|浄応寺}} in Ōdate, commonly known as {{Nihongo|Naka no Tera Temple|中の寺}}, in the late Edo period (1603-1867).<ref name = "Ono1931">{{Cite magazine |last = Ono |first = Susumu |title = 天然記念物に指定された秋田犬に就て |trans-title = On the Akita Inu designated as a natural monument|magazine = Saito Hō'enkai Jiho |issue = 58 |publisher = Saito Hō'enkai |date = October 1931 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1564061 |doi = 10.11501/1564061 |pages = 11–13 |language = ja}}</ref> Moku was a dog born at the end of the [[Ansei]] era (1854 - 1860), lived through the fires of the [[Boshin War]] (1868 - 1869), and lived until 1871 or 1872. Moku was about 85 cm tall at the shoulder and was large enough to carry an adult on its back. Moku was a purely Japanese dog with erect ears and a curly tail, sesame (''goma'') in color, and long hair.<ref name = "Ono1931" /> If this theory is to be believed, Akita Inu had become larger by the end of the Edo period at the latest.

In 1931, the Akita was officially declared a [[Monuments of Japan|Japanese natural monument]]. The mayor of [[Odate]] City in [[Akita Prefecture]] organized the Akita Inu Hozonkai to preserve the original Akita as a Japanese natural treasure through careful breeding.<ref name="Stars" />

In 1933, Heishiro Takaku (Takahisa), one of the early members of Nippo in Tokyo and later of the Nipponinu Kyokai (Nikkyo) in Osaka and Katsuichi (Shoichi) each published articles on a proposed Japanese dog standard, which Included the Akita dog. Akita dogs revealed the most non-uniformity at that time, when compared to medium and small Japanese dogs, due to being outcrossed to the Tosa fighting dog, and other Imported foreign dogs.<ref name=":0"/>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}} In 1934, the first Japanese breed standard for the Akita Inu was listed, following the breed's declaration as a natural monument of Japan.<ref name="obj17">{{cite book |last=Andrews |first=Barbara J. |title=Akitas |publisher=T.F.H. Publications Inc. |year=1996 |isbn=0-7938-2760-4 |location=N.J. USA |page=17}}</ref>

The Akita breed was used during the [[Russo-Japanese War]] to track prisoners of war and lost sailors.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Allsopp |first=Nigel |title=K9 Cops: Police Dogs of the World |publisher=Big Sky Publishing |year=2012}}</ref> During [[World War II]], the Akita was considered a non-military breed and was crossed with [[German Shepherd]]s in an attempt to save them from the wartime government order for all non-military dogs to be culled.<ref name="JAICUK">{{cite web |title=Akita Inu Breed History |url=http://www.japaneseakita-inu.co.uk/Files/History.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113013943/http://www.japaneseakita-inu.co.uk/Files/History.htm |archive-date=13 January 2012 |access-date=29 April 2011 |publisher=Japanese Akita Inu Club Great Britain}}</ref> Some were used as scouts and guards during the war.<ref name=":1" />

A native Japanese breed known as Matagi (hunting dog) was used along with the [[Hokkaido (dog)|Hokkaido Inu]] breed to mix back into the remaining Akita dogs to restore the breed. There were many lines of Akita, but the most influential were the Dewa and Ichinoseki.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=2023-05-06 |title=History Of The Akita Inu: 1 Of The Great Japanese Breeds - A Dog's Game |url=https://adogsgame.com/the-akita-inu-history/ |access-date=2023-05-13 |newspaper=A Dogs Game |language=en-US}}</ref> Both lines contributed to the foundation stock for both Akita types, and many exported dogs were a combination of these lines. According to one Japanese judge, the greatest difference between Japanese- and American-bred Akitas is that the latter still show much evidence of the Dewa strain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Website_Caccia - Akita |url=https://www.caccia.se/Akita_two_lines_sid_2.htm |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=www.caccia.se}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}} In the early 1900s, Dewa-line Akitas were heavily favoured and did well in show. [https://www.akitapedigree.com//details.php?id=68236 Kongo-go] (from the Heirakudo Kennel of Eikichi Hiraizumi) is considered to be the most influential dog of that line.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=History of the Akita {{!}} Minamoto No Yorimitsu |url=http://www.m-n-y-akitas.nl/history-of-the-akita/ |access-date=2022-10-09 |website=www.m-n-y-akitas.nl}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}}

However, the Dewa-line later went into a decline because Japanese breeders felt that the Akita did not give the impression of a Japanese dog, so began to breed towards an ideal type reminiscent of other [[Nihon Ken Hozonkai|Nihon-ken]]. The Dewa line was stereotyped as the “German Shepherd” type, while the Ichinoseki line was referred to as the “Mastiff” type.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> Thus, the Ichinoseki-line rose in popularity. [https://www.akitapedigree.com//details.php?id=66505 Goromaru-Go] was regarded as the most influential Akita of that line who, although didn't perform well in show, produced outstanding Akita dogs when bred to Taihei and Nikkei lines from Southern Akita. Goromaru-Go then became foundation to further the Japanese type.

During the occupation years following the war, the breed began to thrive again through the efforts of Sawataishi and others.<ref name="telegraph" /> Morie Sawataishi and his efforts to breed the Akita is a major reason this breed exists today.<ref name="Sherrill">{{cite book |last1=Sherrill |first1=Martha |title=Dog Man: An Uncommon Life on a Faraway Mountain |date=28 February 2008 |publisher=[[Penguin Press]] USA |isbn=978-1-59420-124-0 |place=City |page=256}} {{ISBN|978-1-59420-124-0}}</ref> For the first time, Akitas were bred for a standardized appearance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AKIKO |url=http://www.clubakita.ro/Akiko/history.html |access-date=2018-02-07 |website=www.clubakita.ro |archive-date=2018-02-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207123112/http://www.clubakita.ro/Akiko/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}} Akita fanciers in Japan began gathering and exhibiting the remaining Akitas and producing litters to restore the breed to sustainable numbers and to accentuate the ideal characteristics of the breed muddied by crosses to other breeds.<ref name="Kimura">{{cite web |last1=Kimura |first1=Tatsuo |title=A History Of The Akita Dog |url=http://www.northlandakitas.com/akitahistory/ahistory.htm |access-date=6 May 2011 |publisher=Akita Learning Center |format=website}}</ref> It wasn't until the 1960-70's where the foxier Japanese type started to diverge from the typical American type.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Akita Pedigree |url=https://www.akitapedigree.com/ |access-date=2022-10-09 |website=www.akitapedigree.com}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=January 2024|reason=No specific page on the site is specified for the citation}}

The story of [[Hachikō]] helped push the Akita into the international dog world. Hachikō was born in 1923 and owned by Professor [[Hidesaburō Ueno]] of Tokyo.<ref name=Killilea16>{{cite book|last=Killilea|first=David|title=The Akita Today|year=1988|publisher=Ringpress Books Ltd.|location=Glouchestershire, UK|isbn=1-86054-099-6|pages=15–16|author2=Jenny Killilea}}</ref> Professor Ueno lived near the [[Shibuya Station|Shibuya Train Station]] in a suburb of the city, and commuted to work every day on the train.<ref name="Stars" /> Hachikō accompanied his master to and from the station each day.<ref name="Stars">{{cite news |url=http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=18964 |last1=Chida |first1=Hiroshi |title=Odate museum honors national dog, the Akita |work=Stripes Pacific Travel |date=27 November 2003 |publisher=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]|access-date=30 April 2011}}</ref> On May 25, 1925, when the dog was 18 months old, he waited for his master's arrival on the four o'clock train, but Professor Ueno had suffered a fatal brain haemorrhage at work.<ref name="Stars" /> Hachikō continued to wait for his master's return.<ref name="Stars" /> He travelled to and from the station each day for the next nine years.<ref name="Stars" /> He allowed the professor's relatives to care for him, but he never gave up the vigil at the station for his master.<ref name="Stars" /> His vigil became world-renowned when, in 1934,<ref name=obj22>{{cite book|last=Andrews|first=Barbara J.|title=Akitas|year=1996|publisher=T.F.H Publications Inc.|location=N.J. USA|isbn=0-7938-2760-4|pages=21–22}}</ref> shortly before his death, a [[bronze statue]] was erected at the Shibuya train station in his honor.<ref name="Stars"/> This statue was melted down for [[Ammunition|munitions]] during the war, but a new one was commissioned after the war.<ref name="obj22"/> Each year on March 8 since 1936, Hachikō's devotion has been honoured with a solemn ceremony of remembrance at Tokyo's Shibuya railroad station.<ref>American Kennel Club (listed author): ''The Complete Dog Book: The Photograph, History, and Official Standard of Every Breed Admitted to AKC Registration, and the Selection, Training, Breeding, Care, and Feeding of Pure-bred Dogs'', Howell Book House, 1985, page 269. {{ISBN|0-87605-463-7}}.</ref><ref>Ruthven Tremain, ''The Animals' Who's Who: 1,146 Celebrated Animals in History, Popular Culture, Literature, & Lore'', Scribner, 1984, page 105. {{ISBN|0-684-17621-1}}. Accessed via Google Books August 21, 2008.</ref> Eventually, Hachikō's legendary faithfulness became a national symbol of loyalty, particularly to the person and institution of the Emperor.<ref name="Skabeland">{{cite web |url=http://www.berfrois.com/2011/09/aaron-herald-skabelund-hachiko/ |title=Canine Imperialism |first1=Aaron Herald |last1=Skabelund |publisher=Berfrois |date=23 September 2011 |access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref>

In 1967, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Akita Dog Preservation Society, the Akita Dog Museum was built to house information, documents and photos.<ref name="Stars"/> There is a tradition in Japan, that when a child is born they receive a statue of an Akita. This statue symbolizes health, happiness, and a long life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/akita/detail/|title=Akita History & Training/Temperament|publisher=American Kennel Club|website=www.akc.org|access-date=2016-09-20}}</ref>

[[File:Akita Stamp.jpg|thumb|The Akita "Tachibana",<ref name="telegraph"/> one of the few Akitas to survive the war, is pictured here on a Japanese 1953-issue postage stamp.]]
In 1937, [[Helen Keller]] travelled to Japan. She expressed a keen interest in the breed and was presented with the first two Akitas to enter the US.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-akita.com/JPTeez/html/helen_keller.html |title=Helen Keller: First Akitas in the USA |publisher=Natural-akita.com |date=June 14, 1937 |access-date=August 24, 2010}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}} The first dog, presented to her by Mr. Ogasawara and named Kamikaze-go, died at {{frac|7|1|2}} months of age from [[Canine distemper|distemper]], one month after her return to the States. A second Akita was arranged to be sent to Keller: Kamikaze's litter brother, Kenzan-go.<ref name="Ogasawara">{{cite web |url=http://www.northlandakitas.com/hellen.htm |title=Helen Keller and Akitas |first1=Ichiro |last1=Ogasawara |publisher=Akita Learning Center |access-date=7 May 2011}}</ref> Keller nicknamed the dog Go-Go and they were great companions from day one. Go-Go even spent his first night at Keller's home sleeping at the foot of her bed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gibeault|first=Stephanie|title=Hellen Keller, Accomplished & Inspirational Icon, Was a Lifelong Dog Lover|url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/news/helen-keller-was-a-true-dog-lover/|access-date=2022-02-10|website=American Kennel Club|language=en}}</ref> Kenzan-go died in the mid-1940s.<ref name = "Killilea">{{cite book|last1=Killilea|first1=David|last2=Killilea|first2=Jenny|title=The Akita Today|year=1998|publisher=Ringpress|location=Glouchester, U.K.|isbn=1-86054-099-6}}</ref> By 1939, a [[breed standard]] had been established and [[Conformation show|dog shows]] had been held, but such activities stopped after [[World War II]] began.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} Keller wrote in the ''Akita Journal'':
{{cquote|If ever there was an angel in fur, it was Kamikaze. I know I shall never feel quite the same tenderness for any other pet. The Akita dog has all the qualities that appeal to me he is gentle, companionable and trusty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petpublishing.com/dogken/breeds/akita.shtml|title=The Akita Inu: The Voice of Japan|author=Rick Beauchamp|publisher=Dog & Kennel|access-date=6 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718182822/http://www.petpublishing.com/dogken/breeds/akita.shtml|archive-date=2011-07-18|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-akita.com/JPTeez/html/helen_keller.html |title=Helen Keller: First Akitas in the USA |publisher=Natural-akita.com |date= 14 June 1937|access-date=24 August 2010}}</ref>
}}

===American history===
[[File:Boy c11.jpg|thumb|A 9-week-old American Akita]][[File:Akita female.png|thumb|A female American Akita.]]{{More citations needed|date=June 2021}}
The Japanese Akita and American Akita began to diverge in type post-World War II due to America and Europe preserving the Akitas that fell out of favour in Japan, particularly the Dewa-types and dogs with the signature black mask or pinto marking. American Akitas are typically considered mixed by Japanese breeders (and not true Akitas by the Japanese standard).{{cn|date=February 2024}} However, their [[phenotype]] predates the Japanese Akita by a few decades, and they are closer to pre-war Akitas like [[Hachikō|Hachiko]].<ref name=":2" />{{citation needed|date=January 2024|reason=Once again the page being cited isn't specified}}

Helen Keller is credited with bringing the Akita to America after being given two Akitas by the Japanese government in 1938. By 1939, a breed standard was established, and dog shows began to be held, but this development was interrupted by World War II.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.akitaclub.org/helen-keller/|title=Helen Keller|work=Akita Club of America|access-date=2018-02-25|language=en-US}}</ref> During this time, US servicemen serving as part of the occupation force in Japan first came into contact with the Akita. The breed so impressed them that many service members chose to bring an Akita back home with them upon completion of their tour.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Although both types derive from common ancestry, marked differences are seen between the two.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Two Akitas|url=http://www.dogchannel.com/dog-information/allan-reznik-dog-expert/the-two-akitas.aspx|website=DogChannel.com|access-date=2015-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714044456/http://www.dogchannel.com/dog-information/allan-reznik-dog-expert/the-two-akitas.aspx|archive-date=2015-07-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> American Akitas generally are heavier boned and larger, with a more bear-like head, whereas Japanese Akitas tend to be lighter and more finely featured with a fox-like head.<ref name="DVM">{{cite web|last=Kaluzniacki|first=Sophia|title=The Akita Dilemma – One Breed or Two?: a historical perspective|url=http://www.tamarlane.com/dillema.htm|publisher=Tamarlane|format=website|access-date=19 May 2011}}{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}}</ref> Additionally, while American Akitas are acceptable in all colors, Japanese Akitas are only permitted to be red, white, or brindle. Additionally, American Akitas may be pinto and/or have [[melanistic mask|black masks]], unlike Japanese Akitas, where these are considered disqualifications and are not permitted in the breed standards.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}

Recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1955, the Akita was placed in the Miscellaneous class. The AKC did not approve the Akita standard until 1972, and it was moved to the Working Dog class. As such, the Akita is a rather new breed in the United States. Foundation stock in America continued to be imported from Japan until 1974, when the AKC cut off registration to any further Japanese imports until 1992, when it recognized the [[Japan Kennel Club]] standards. This decision set the stage for the divergence in type between the American Akita and Japanese Akita Inu that is present today.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Akita Inu|url=https://starpetstore.com/akita-inu-all-related-information/|access-date=2021-09-24|website=starpetstore.com/|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924184940/https://starpetstore.com/akita-inu-all-related-information/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Elsewhere in the world, one American Akita was first introduced to the UK in 1937. He was a Canadian import, owned by a Mrs. Jenson; the descendants of Mrs. Jenson live on today breeding American Akitas. The most widely known of these is Joseph Felton, an award-winning Akita breeder, but the breed was not itself widely known until the early 1980s.<ref name="Killilea"/> The breed was introduced in Australia in 1982 with an American import and to New Zealand in 1986 with an import from the UK.<ref name="Killilea"/>

==Gallery==
[[File:Brindle Moku Akita Inu - Long Fur - In Snow.jpg|thumb|right|Long-coat Akita]]
[[File:آکیتای_سفید.jpg|thumb|right|White Akita]]
[[File:Akita hiking in Shpella e Pëllumbasit.JPG|thumb|Akita hiking in Shpella e Pëllumbasit, [[Tirana]], [[Albania]]]]
[[File:Shinzō Abe and Alina Zagitova (2018-05-26).jpg|thumb|right|Olympic figure-skating champion [[Alina Zagitova]] receiving a Japanese Akita in a ceremony attended by Prime Minister [[Shinzō Abe]]]]

===Appearance===
As a [[spitz]] breed, the appearance of the Akita reflects cold-weather adaptations essential to their original function.<ref>{{cite web|title=Akita: Physical Characteristics|url=http://www.petmd.com/dog/breeds/c_dg_akita|website=Pet MD}}</ref> The Akita is a substantial breed for its height with heavy bones.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1enEDwAAQBAJ&q=%22++++++Breed+standards+state+that+all+dog+breed+coat+colors+are+allowable+in+the+American+Akita,+including+pinto,+all+types+of+brindle,+solid+white,+black+mask,+white+mask,+self-colored+mask,+even+differing+colors+of+under+coat+and+overlay+(guard+hairs).%5B5%5D+This+includes+the+common+Shiba+Inu+coloring+pattern+known+as+Urajiro.|title=The Complete Dog Breed Book: Choose the Perfect Dog for You|date=2020-03-17|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-7440-2234-6|language=en}}</ref> Characteristic physical traits of the breed include a large, bear-like head with erect, triangular ears set at a slight angle following the arch of the neck.<ref name="books.google.com"/> Additionally, the eyes of the Akita are small, dark, deeply set, and triangular in shape.<ref name="Wallis">{{cite journal |url=http://www.dogsincanada.com/akita-proportions |title=Akita proportions |date=20 January 2011 |first1=Sherry |last1=Wallis |journal=[[Dogs in Canada]] |access-date=3 May 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110927132509/http://www.dogsincanada.com/akita-proportions |archive-date=2011-09-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Akitas have thick double coats, and tight, well-knuckled, cat-like feet.<ref name="books.google.com"/> Their tails are carried over the tops of their backs in a gentle or double curl down the loin.<ref name=AKC>{{cite web|title=American Kennel Club – Akita|url=http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/akita/#standard|format=website|publisher=American Kennel Club|access-date=17 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150213194713/http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/akita/#standard| archive-date= 13 February 2015 | url-status= live}}</ref>

Mature American-type males measure typically 26-28 in (66–71 cm) at the withers and weigh between 100 and 130 lb (45–59 kg).<ref name="books.google.com"/> Mature females typically measure 24-26 in (61–66 cm) and weigh between 70 and 100 lb (32–45 kg).<ref name="Canada guide">{{cite web|title=Akita – Canada's Guide to Dogs|url=http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/akita.htm|format=website|publisher=Canada's Guide to Dogs|access-date=17 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514050124/http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/akita.htm| archive-date= 14 May 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> The Japanese type, as stated in the breed standards, is a little smaller and lighter.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Japanese-Akitainu AKC Standard|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/cdn-origin-etr.akc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/06145646/Japanese-Akitainu_AKC_Standard_11052020.pdf |access-date=2024-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828022455/https://s3.amazonaws.com/cdn-origin-etr.akc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/06145646/Japanese-Akitainu_AKC_Standard_11052020.pdf |archive-date=2022-08-28 }}</ref>

Breed standards state that all dog breed coat colors and patterns are allowable in the American Akita.<ref name=tarmalane>{{cite web|title=Akita Colors|url=http://www.tamarlane.com/colors.htm|publisher=Tarmalane|format=website|access-date=17 April 2011}}</ref> This includes the common [[Shiba Inu]] coloring pattern known as ''urajiro''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shiba Inu Appearance – My First Shiba Inu|date=14 January 2016 |url=https://myfirstshiba.com/copy-appearance/|access-date=2022-01-21|language=en-US}}</ref> The Japanese Akitas, as per the breed standards, are restricted to red, fawn, sesame, brindle, and pure white, all with ''urajiro'' markings - whitish coat on the sides of the muzzle, on the cheeks, on the underside of jaw, neck, chest, body, and tail, and on the inside of the legs.<ref name="Japanese Akita UK Standard"/>

===Coat types===
The two coat types in the Akita are the standard coat length and the long coat.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2023-04-29 |title=The Long Coat Akita: A Wonderful Variation - A Dog's Game |url=https://adogsgame.com/the-long-coat-akita-a-wonderful-variation/ |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=adogsgame.com |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211211311/https://adogsgame.com/the-long-coat-akita-a-wonderful-variation/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Taylor /> The long coat is considered a fault in the show ring, however.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=Taylor>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jason|title=Guide to Owning an Akita|year=1996|publisher=TFH Publications|location=United States|isbn=0-7938-1878-8|page=21}}</ref> The long coat, also known as ''moku'', is the result of an [[Dominance (genetics)|autosomal recessive gene]] and may occur [[phenotypically]] only if both sire and dam are carriers. They have longer (about 3-4 in long) and softer coats<ref name=Doubletake>{{cite web|title=Long Coat Akitas|url=http://www.doubletake-ranch.com/Longcoat/longcoats.html|format=website|publisher=DoubleTake|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930050013/http://www.doubletake-ranch.com/Longcoat/longcoats.html|archive-date=2011-09-30|url-status=dead}}{{unreliable source?|date=March 2013}}</ref> and are known to have sweeter temperaments.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="Taylor"/> This gene is thought to come from the [[Karafuto Ken]] ''samurai'' dog.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book|last=Andrews|first=Barbara J.|title=Akitas|year=1996|publisher=TFH Publications Inc|location=NJ, United States of America|isbn=0-7938-2760-4|page=16}}</ref>

==Temperament==
The Akita is generally seen as territorial about its property, and can be reserved with strangers.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

The breed has been defined in some countries' [[breed-specific legislation]] as a dangerous dog.<ref name="BSL america">{{cite web|title=Anti-Canine Legislation Information|url=http://www.akitaclub.org/info/akclegislation.html|publisher=Akita Club of America|format=website|access-date=30 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610040624/http://akitaclub.org/info/akclegislation.html|archive-date=10 June 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="NYC housing">{{cite journal|title=Changes to NYCHA's Pet Policy |journal=New York City Housing Authority Journal |date=April 2009 |volume=39 |issue=4 |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/downloads/pdf/j09apre.pdf |publisher=New York City Government |access-date=17 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111063721/http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/downloads/pdf/j09apre.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012 }}</ref><ref name=Bermuda>{{cite web|title=Restricted Dog Breeds|url=http://www.gov.bm/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_2_1625_207_213_43/http%3B/ptpublisher.gov.bm%3B7087/publishedcontent/publish/ministry_of_environment/environmental_protection/dept___environmental_protection___conditions_of_entry/articles/restricted_dog_breeds.html|format=website|publisher=Bermuda Minister of the Environment|access-date=26 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608071756/http://www.gov.bm/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_2_1625_207_213_43/http%3B/ptpublisher.gov.bm%3B7087/publishedcontent/publish/ministry_of_environment/environmental_protection/dept___environmental_protection___conditions_of_entry/articles/restricted_dog_breeds.html|archive-date=2011-06-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Ireland>{{cite web|title=Dangerous Dogs|url=http://www.environ.ie/en/LocalGovernment/DogControl/|format=website|publisher=Department of Environment, Heritage, and Local Government|access-date=16 August 2009|year=2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629230334/http://www.environ.ie/en/LocalGovernment/DogControl/|archive-date=2009-06-29|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Akita is a large, strong, independent, and dominant dog. A well-trained Akita should be accepting of nonthreatening strangers, otherwise they treat all strangers in an aggressive manner.<ref name="petwave">{{cite web|url=http://www.petwave.com/Dogs/Breeds/Akita/Personality.aspx|title=Akita Inu Dog Breed – Temperament & Personality|date=3 August 2015|access-date=23 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223232504/http://www.petwave.com/Dogs/Breeds/Akita/Personality.aspx|archive-date=23 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

A survey on canine behaviour in five 'ancient' breeds in Poland found the Akita to be the most aggressive towards other dogs with 59% of Akitas being reported to display aggression towards other dogs and animals. They were the second most likely to be aggressive towards humans with 13% of Akitas being reported to display aggression towards humans. [[Stereotypy|Stereotypic]] behaviour was reported in 27% of Akitas, ranking it second out of the five breeds surveyed. Excessive vocalisation was only reported at 17% for the Akita, lower than the other breeds. Less than 10% of Akitas were reported to have [[separation anxiety]], the lowest amount. 70% of all human directed aggression involved a visitor on the Akita's territory, highlighting the defensive nature of the breed.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Wójcik | first1=Anna | last2=Powierża | first2=Kinga | title=The Influence of Breed, Sex, Origin and Housing Conditions on Undesirable Behaviors in Ancient Dog Breeds | journal=Animals | publisher=MDPI AG | volume=11 | issue=5 | date=2021-05-17 | issn=2076-2615 | doi=10.3390/ani11051435 | doi-access=free | page=1435| pmid=34067911 | pmc=8156398 }}</ref>

A Japanese study found that the CAG repeat polymorphism in the AR gene in the Akita Inu was correlated with increased reports of aggression in male Akita dogs, but not females.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Konno | first1=Akitsugu | last2=Inoue-Murayama | first2=Miho | last3=Hasegawa | first3=Toshikazu | title=''Androgen receptor'' gene polymorphisms are associated with aggression in Japanese Akita Inu | journal=Biology Letters | publisher=The Royal Society | volume=7 | issue=5 | date=2011-03-30 | issn=1744-9561 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.0087 | pages=658–660| pmid=21450727 | pmc=3169042 }}</ref>

==Health==
===Autoimmune diseases===
Many [[autoimmune disease]]s are known to occur in the Akita, including:
* [[Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0039.2005.00508.x |title=Uveodermatologic (VKH-like) syndrome in American Akita dogs is associated with an increased frequency of DQA1*00201 |year=2005 |last1=Angles |first1=J. M. |last2=Famula |first2=T. R. |last3=Pedersen |first3=N. C. |journal=Tissue Antigens |volume=66 |issue=6 |pages=656–65 |pmid=16305682}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1748-5827.1987.tb01445.x |title=Harada's disease in the Japanese Akita |year=1987 |last1=Cottelll |first1=Beverley D. |last2=Barnett |first2=K. C. |journal=Journal of Small Animal Practice |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=517–21}}</ref> also known as uveo-dermatologic syndrome, is an autoimmune condition that affects the skin and eyes.<ref name=Monaco>{{cite web|last=Monaco|first=Marie|title=Uveodermatologic Syndrome (UDS, VKH)|url=http://www.samoyedhealthfoundation.org/diseases/uveodermatologic-syndrome-uds|publisher=Samoyed Club of America|access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>
* [[Warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia|Autoimmune hemolytic anemia]]<ref name="JACA"/> is an autoimmune blood disorder.<ref name=Day>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0165-2427(99)00055-0 |title=Antigen specificity in canine autoimmune haemolytic anaemia |year=1999 |last1=Day |first1=M.J |journal=Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology |volume=69 |issue=2–4 |pages=215–24 |pmid=10507306}}</ref>
* [[Sebaceous Adenitis in Canines|Sebaceous adenitis]]<ref name="reichler">{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.0959-4493.2001.00251.x |title=Sebaceous adenitis in the Akita: Clinical observations, histopathology and heredity |year=2001 |last1=Reichler |first1=Iris M. |last2=Hauser |first2=Beat |last3=Schiller |first3=Irene |last4=Dunstan |first4=Robert W. |last5=Credille |first5=Kelly M. |last6=Binder |first6=Heinrich |last7=Glaus |first7=Toni |last8=Arnold |first8=Susi |journal=Veterinary Dermatology |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=243–53 |pmid=11906649}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1023/B:VERC.0000014199.39879.bb |title=Sebaceous Adenitis in the Dog: Three Cases |year=2003 |last1=Spaterna |first1=A. |last2=Antognoni |first2=M.T. |last3=Cappuccini |first3=S. |last4=Tesei |first4=B. |journal=Veterinary Research Communications |volume=27 |pages=441–3 |pmid=14535449|s2cid=30352408 }}</ref><ref name=Pedersen>{{cite web |last1=Pedersen |first1=Niels C |title=Determining whether risk for sebaceous adenitis of Standard Poodles is associated with a specific DLA class II genotype |url=http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/CCAH/local-assets/pdfs/sebaceous_adenitis_PROJECT_DESCRIPTION_3-31-2010.pdf |access-date=22 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708233053/http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/CCAH/local-assets/pdfs/sebaceous_adenitis_PROJECT_DESCRIPTION_3-31-2010.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> is an autoimmune skin disorder believed to be of autosomal recessive inheritance.<ref name="reichler"/>
* [[Pemphigus|Pemphigus foliaceus]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/030098589403100103 |title=Comparative Histopathology of Pemphigus Foliaceus and Superficial Folliculitis in the Dog |year=1994 |last1=Kuhl |first1=K. A. |last2=Shofer |first2=F. S. |last3=Goldschmidt |first3=M. H. |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=31 |pages=19–27 |pmid=8140722 |issue=1|s2cid=2609668 |doi-access= }}</ref> is an autoimmune skin disorder, believed to be genetic.<ref name=pemphigus>{{cite web|title=Pemphigus|url=http://www.akita-association.org/pemphigus.htm|publisher=The Akita Association (UK)|format=website|access-date=22 April 2011|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221830/http://www.akita-association.org/pemphigus.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Systemic lupus erythematosus]], or lupus, is a systemic autoimmune connective-tissue disease that can affect any part of the body.<ref name="akitarescue">{{cite web|title=Diseases in the American Akita|url=http://akitarescue.rescuegroups.org/info/file?file=s197m7036.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=3 April 2011|publisher=Akita Rescue Mid-Atlantic Coast (USA)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526085141/http://akitarescue.rescuegroups.org:80/info/file?file=s197m7036.pdf |archive-date=2010-05-26 }}</ref>

===Immune-mediated endocrine diseases===
In addition to these, some [[Immune-mediated disease|immune-mediated]] [[endocrine]] diseases with a heritable factor can occur, such as:

* [[Hypoadrenocorticism in dogs|Hypoadrenocorticism]], also known as Addison's disease, affects the adrenal glands and is essentially the opposite of [[Cushing's syndrome (veterinary)|Cushing's syndrome]].<ref name="Bouyet"/>
* [[Diabetes in dogs|Diabetes mellitus]], also known as type 1 diabetes, affects the pancreas.<ref name="Bouyet"/>
* [[Hypothyroidism in dogs|Hypothyroidism]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0039.2006.00614.x |title=Association of canine hypothyroidism with a common major histocompatibility complex DLA class II allele |year=2006 |last1=Kennedy |first1=L. J. |last2=Quarmby |first2=S. |last3=Happ |first3=G. M. |last4=Barnes |first4=A. |last5=Ramsey |first5=I. K. |last6=Dixon |first6=R. M. |last7=Catchpole |first7=B. |last8=Rusbridge |first8=C. |last9=Graham |first9=P. A. |last10=Hillbertz |first10=N. S. |last11=Roethel |first11=C. |last12=Dodds |first12=W. J. |last13=Carmichael |first13=N. G. |last14=Ollier |first14=W. E. R. |s2cid=358248 |journal=Tissue Antigens |volume=68 |pages=82–6 |pmid=16774545 |issue=1|url=http://researchonline.rvc.ac.uk/id/eprint/138/ }}</ref> also known as autoimmune hypothyroidism, is an autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid gland.<ref name=AkitaFriends>{{cite web|title=The Akita – Diseases|url=http://www.akita-friends.com/breed/general.htm|publisher=Akita Alumni Dog Club|format=website|access-date=19 April 2011}}</ref>

===Nonimmune-specific conditions===
Other [[Innate immune system|nonimmune-specific conditions]] known to have occurred in the Akita include:

* Gastric dilation, also known as bloat may progress to [[gastric dilatation volvulus]], in which the stomach twists on itself.<ref name="Bell">{{cite web|last1=Bell|first1=Jerold S.|title=Risk Factors for Canine Bloat|url=http://www.malamutehealth.org/articles/bloat_risk.htm|format=website|publisher=malamute health|access-date=4 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425045028/http://www.malamutehealth.org/articles/bloat_risk.htm|archive-date=25 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Microphthalmia]], meaning "small eyes", is a developmental disorder of the eye, believed to be an [[autosomal recessive]] genetic condition.<ref name=upei>{{cite web|title=Microphthalmia|url=http://www.upei.ca/~cidd/Diseases/ocular%20disorders/microphthalmia.htm|format=website|publisher=Canine Inherited Disorders Database|access-date=19 April 2011|year=1998}}</ref>
* [[Canine glaucoma|Primary glaucoma]],<ref name="startup">{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/vr.118.9.251-b |pmid=3705415 |title=Hereditary eye problems in the Japanese akita |year=1986 |journal=Veterinary Record |volume=118 |issue=9 |pages=251|s2cid=30453180|last1=Startup |first1=F. |doi-broken-date=2024-11-16 }}</ref> results increased pressure within the eyeball.<ref name="Turner">{{cite web|last1=Turner |first1=Andrew |last2=Hurn |first2=Simon |title=Eye Diseases and Information |url=http://www.allanimaleyes.com/diseases.html#glaucoma |format=website |publisher=All Animal Eye Services |access-date=19 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805065155/http://www.allanimaleyes.com/diseases.html |archive-date=August 5, 2009 }}</ref>
* [[Progressive retinal atrophy]]<ref name="startup"/><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1748-5827.1996.tb01950.x |title=Recent advances in understanding the spectrum of canine generalised progressive retinal atrophy |year=1996 |last1=Clements |first1=P. J. M. |last2=Sargan |first2=D. R. |last3=Gould |first3=D. J. |last4=Petersen-Jones |first4=S. M. |journal=Journal of Small Animal Practice |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=155–62 |pmid=8731401|doi-access= }}</ref> is a progressive degeneration of the [[retina]] (portion of the eye that senses light and allows sight).<ref name="Turner"/>
* [[Hip dysplasia (canine)|Hip dysplasia]]<ref name=JACA>{{cite web|title=Diseases of The Japanese Akita-Inu |url=http://www.akita-inu.com/health.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229231233/http://www.akita-inu.com/health.htm |archive-date=2014-12-29 |publisher=Japanese Akita Club of America |access-date=22 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a skeletal condition where the head of the femur does not fit properly into the hip socket it leads to osteoarthritis and pain.<ref name=CSU>{{cite web|title=Treatment Options for Mature Canine Hip Dysplasia (Osteoarthritis stage)|url=http://csuvth.colostate.edu/_docs/small_animal/orthopaedics/orthopaedics_201101_hip_dysplasia.pdf|publisher=Colorado State University|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425053550/http://csuvth.colostate.edu/_docs/small_animal/orthopaedics/orthopaedics_201101_hip_dysplasia.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* [[Elbow dysplasia]]<ref name=JACA/> is a skeletal condition in which the components of the elbow joint (the humerus, radius, and ulna) do not line up properly, leading to osteoarthritis and pain.<ref name=Elbow>{{cite web|title=Dog Joint Problems|url=http://www.jointpainindogs.com/dog-joint-problems.html|publisher=JointPainInDogs.com|format=website|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002065149/http://www.jointpainindogs.com/dog-joint-problems.html|archive-date=2011-10-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Von Willebrand disease]],<ref name="Bleeding">{{cite web|last=Dodds|first=Jean|title=Bleeding Disorders|url=http://www.vin.com/proceedings/Proceedings.plx?CID=WSAVA2005&PID=11012&O=Generic|format=website|publisher=World Small Animal Veterinary Association World Congress Proceedings|year=2005|access-date=5 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/jhered/90.1.112 |title=A review of canine inherited bleeding disorders: Biochemical and molecular strategies for disease characterization and carrier detection |year=1999 |last1=Brooks |first1=M. |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=90 |pages=112–8 |pmid=9987916 |issue=1|url=https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article-pdf/90/1/112/6453247/900112.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref> is a genetic bleeding disorder caused by a deficiency in [[Von Willebrand factor]].<ref name=vWDclerk>{{cite web|first1=Julie B.|last1=Anderson|first2=Kenneth S.|last2=Latimer|first3=Perry J.|last3=Bain|first4=Heather L.|last4=Tarpley|title=Von Willebrand's Disease|url=http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/clerk/anderson/index.php|publisher=Veterinary Clinical Pathology Clerkship Program|format=website|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918210247/http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/clerk/anderson/index.php|archive-date=2011-09-18|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Cushing's syndrome (veterinary)|Cushing's syndrome]], also known as hyperadrenocorticism, affects the adrenal glands, and is caused by long-term exposure to high levels of glucocorticosteroids, either manufactured by the body or given as medications.<ref name="Bouyet">{{cite book |last1=Bouyet|first1=Barbara|title=Akita, Treasure of Japan |volume=2|year=2002|publisher=Magnum Publishing|location=Thousand Oaks, California, USA|isbn=0-9716146-0-1|pages=268–269|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNwJAAAAIAAJ&q=Cushing%E2%80%99s+Syndrome+Akita+Dog&pg=PA269|first2=Alicia |last2=Meyers |first3=Steve |last3=Eltinge |first4=Jean |last4=Dodds |access-date=19 April 2011}}</ref>

===Breed-specific conditions===
These breed-specific conditions are mentioned in veterinary literature:

* Immune sensitivity to vaccines, drugs, insecticides, anesthetics, and tranquilizers
* [[Hyperkalemia#Pseudohyperkalemia|Pseudohyperkalemia]] is a rise in the level of [[potassium]] that occurs due to its excessive leakage from [[red blood cells]] (RBCs) when blood is drawn. This can give a false indication of [[hyperkalemia]] on lab tests, hence the prefix [[pseudo]], meaning false.<ref name="akitarescue"/> This occurs because many East Asian breeds, including Akitas and Shiba Inus, have a higher level of potassium in their RBCs than other dogs.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1939-165X.2007.tb00188.x |title=Apparent pseudohyperkalemia in a Chinese Shar Pei dog |year=2007 |last1=Battison |first1=Andrea |journal=Veterinary Clinical Pathology |volume=36 |pages=89–93 |pmid=17311201 |issue=1}}</ref>

===Life expectancy===
A UK study found a life expectancy of 11.4 years for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for [[Mongrel|crossbreeds]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=McMillan | first1=Kirsten M. | last2=Bielby | first2=Jon | last3=Williams | first3=Carys L. | last4=Upjohn | first4=Melissa M. | last5=Casey | first5=Rachel A. | last6=Christley | first6=Robert M. | title=Longevity of companion dog breeds: those at risk from early death | journal=Scientific Reports | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=14 | issue=1 | date=2024-02-01 | issn=2045-2322 | doi=10.1038/s41598-023-50458-w | page=531| pmid=38302530 | pmc=10834484 | bibcode=2024NatSR..14..531M }}</ref>

==Working life==
Predecessors of the modern Akita were used for hunting bear, wild boar, and deer in Japan as late as 1957.<ref name=RRACI>{{cite web|title=Bear hunting in Japan 1957|url=http://www.nylana.org/RRACI/bear.htm|format=website|publisher=Raritan River Akita Club inc.|access-date=19 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219083815/http://www.nylana.org/RRACI/bear.htm|archive-date=19 February 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> They would be used to flush out the boar and keep it at bay until the hunter could come and kill it. Today, the breed is used primarily as a [[companion dog]], but is currently also known to be used as [[therapy dog]]s,<ref name=akitanet>{{cite web|title=Working Akitas|url=http://akitanetwork.com/New/WorkingAkitas.htm|format=website|publisher=Akita Network|access-date=4 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111013232/http://akitanetwork.com/New/WorkingAkitas.htm|archive-date=2012-01-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> and compete in all dog competitions, including [[Conformation dog show|conformation showing]], [[obedience trials]], [[Canine Good Citizen|canine good-citizen program]], [[tracking trial]]s, and [[Dog agility|agility competition]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Andrews|first=Barbara J.|title=Akitas|year=1996|publisher=TFH Publications Inc.|location=N.J. USA|isbn=0-7938-2760-4|pages=74–99|chapter=6 – Sport of purebred dogs}}</ref> as well as [[weight pulling]], hunting, and [[Schutzhund|''Schutzhunde'']] (personal protection dogs).<ref name=JTaylor54>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jason|title=Guide to Owning an Akita|year=1996|publisher=T.F.H. Publications Inc.|location=N.J. USA|isbn=0-7938-1878-8|page=54}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Japan}}
{{Portal|Dogs}}
* [[List of dog breeds]]
* ''[[Ginga: Nagareboshi Gin]]''
* ''[[Hachi: A Dog's Tale]]''
* [[Kai Ken]]
* [[Kishu]]
* ''[[Lovely Muco]]''
* [[Shikoku (dog)]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=upper-alpha}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/3701839/Morie-Sawataishi-Saviour-of-Japans-akita-Samurai-dog.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/3701839/Morie-Sawataishi-Saviour-of-Japans-akita-Samurai-dog.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |title=Morie Sawataishi: Saviour of Japan's Akita Samurai dog |date=11 December 2008 |location=Japan |format=website|access-date=6 May 2011}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
}}

===Further reading===
* {{cite book |title=Empire of Dogs: Canines, Japan, and the Making of the Modern Imperial World (A Study of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute) |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |first1=Aaron Herald |last1=Skabelund |location=Ithaca, NY |type=print|isbn=978-0-8014-5025-9 |year=2011}} {{ISBN|080145025X}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110927144132/http://www.hoflin.com/magazines/Akita%20World.html ''Akita World'']. Bimonthly Akita Magazine (archived 27 September 2011)

*[http://www.akita-inu.com/ Japanese Akita Club of America]
{{Japanese dogs}}
{{Spitz}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:FCI breeds]]
[[Category:Dog breeds originating in Japan]]
[[Category:Dog fighting breeds]]
[[Category:Spitz breeds]]

Akita (dog breed)

2025-01-03T22:37:18Z

Omcsesz: /* Appearance */ missing title added

{{Infobox dog breed
| name = Akita
| altname = {{ubl|Japanese Akita|Great Japanese Dog|''Akita Inu''|''Akita ken''|''Kuma Inu''}} ('Bearhound')
| image = Akita Collage.png
| country = Japan
| collapse_standards_and_traits =
| maleheight = {{cvt|25|-|28|in|cm|order=flip}}
| femaleheight = {{cvt|23|-|26|in|cm|order=flip}}
| maleweight = {{cvt|60|-|130|lb|kg|order=flip}}
| femaleweight = {{cvt|55|-|100|lb|kg|order=flip}}
| coat = [[Dog coat|Double coat]]
| colour = Red, fawn, brindle, white. All with white fur on the ventral areas of the dog (''urajiro'').
| litter_size = 3–12 puppies (avg. 7–8)
| life_span = 11.4 years
| kc_name = [[Japan Kennel Club]]
| kc_std = https://www.jkc.or.jp/archives/world_dogs/2601
| kc_std1 = https://www.jkc.or.jp/archives/world_dogs/2598
| kc2_name = [[American Kennel Club]]
| kc2_std = https://s3.amazonaws.com/cdn-origin-etr.akc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/06145646/Japanese-Akitainu_AKC_Standard_11052020.pdf
| kc2_std1 = http://images.akc.org/pdf/breeds/standards/Akita.pdf
| kc3_name = [[Royal Kennel Club]]
| kc3_std = https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/breed-standards/utility/akita/
| fcistd = http://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/255g05-en.pdf
| fcistd1 = https://www.fci.be/Nomenclature/Standards/344g05-en.pdf
| note = National dog of Japan, Prefecture animal of Akita
|image_caption=}}The {{Nihongo|'''Akita'''|{{linktext|秋田}}|Akita|extra={{IPA|ja|akʲita}}}} is a Japanese [[dog breed]] of large size. Originating from the mountains of northern [[Japan]], the Akita has a short double coat similar to that of many other northern [[Spitz|spitz breeds]]. Historically, they were used by [[matagi]] for [[Guard dog|guarding]] and the hunting of [[bear]]s.

The Akita is a powerful, dominant, and loyal breed, commonly aloof with strangers, but affectionate and deeply loyal to its family. As a breed, Akitas are generally hardy. The two separate varieties of Akita are a pure Japanese strain, called '''Akita Inu''' or '''Akita-ken''', and a larger mixed strain, commonly referred to as the "'''American Akita'''".<ref name="akitanodog.info">{{cite web |date=17 December 2019 |title=American Akita |url=https://www.yourdogsworld.com/b/american-akita/}}</ref> However, it is subject to debate as to whether the Akita strains are distinct, or if they constitute one breed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-09-27 |title=The Loyal, Bear-Hunting Akita |url=https://www.japanpowered.com/japan-culture/akita |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=Japan Powered |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Brearley |first=Joan McDonald |title=The Book of the Akita |publisher=TFH |year=1985 |isbn=0866220488 |pages=4–7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Akita {{!}} Breeds A to Z {{!}} The Kennel Club |url=https://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/search/breeds-a-to-z/breeds/utility/akita/ |access-date=2022-05-24 |website=www.thekennelclub.org.uk}}</ref>

==Breed name==
Debate exists among fanciers whether these are two separate breeds of Akitas. As of 2020, the [[American Kennel Club]]<ref name="AKC standard">{{cite web|title=Akita Breed Standard|url=https://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/japanese-akitainu/|format=website|publisher=American Kennel Club|access-date=20 February 2021| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514045543/http://www.akc.org/breeds/akita/| archive-date= 14 May 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> now considers American and Japanese Akitas to be two separate breeds, no longer allowing free breeding between the two. The [[United Kennel Club]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ukcdogs.com/Web.nsf/WebPages/Library/BreedStandards |publisher=United Kennel Club|format=website|title=Breed Standards |access-date=14 November 2016}}</ref> the [[Fédération Cynologique Internationale|Federation Cynologique Internationale]] (FCI),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/344GB2006_en.doc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515184334/http://www.fci.be/uploaded_files/344GB2006_en.doc|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2006|publisher=Federation Cynologique Internationale|format=document|title=FCI standard #344, American Akita|access-date=9 March 2011}}</ref> [[The Kennel Club]],<ref name="Japanese Akita UK Standard">{{cite web|title=UK Breed Standard for Japanese Style|url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=4223|format=website|publisher=The Kennel Club|access-date=15 October 2011|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814134952/https://thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=4223|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=UK Breed Standard for American Style|url=http://www.thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=4091|format=website|publisher=The Kennel Club|access-date=15 October 2011|archive-date=14 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200814151046/https://thekennelclub.org.uk/services/public/breed/standard.aspx?id=4091|url-status=dead}}</ref> the [[Australian National Kennel Council]],<ref>{{cite web|title=Australian Breed Standard|url=http://www.ankc.org.au/Breed_Details.aspx?bid=237|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228024339/http://ankc.org.au/Breed_Details.aspx?bid=237|archive-date=2015-02-28|format=website|publisher=Australian National Kennel Council|access-date=22 December 2016}}</ref> the [[New Zealand Kennel Club]],<ref>{{cite web|title=NZ Standard for American Style|url=http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br637.html|format=website|publisher=New Zealand Kennel Club|access-date=19 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110524175231/http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br637.html| archive-date= 24 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=NZ Standard for Japanese Style|url=http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br601.html|format=website|publisher=New Zealand Kennel Club|access-date=19 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110524175126/http://www.nzkc.org.nz/br601.html| archive-date= 24 May 2011}}</ref> and the [[Japan Kennel Club]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=一般社団法人ジャパンケネルクラブ|url=https://www.jkc.or.jp/|access-date=2021-09-24|language=ja}}</ref> consider Japanese and American Akitas as separate breeds.<ref name="DVM"/> Some countries{{which|date=August 2023}} refer to the American Akita as simply the Akita and not the American Akita. The issue is especially controversial in Japan.<ref name="Itagaki">{{cite web |url=http://www.northlandakitas.com/pdf/preserv_of_japan_dogs.pdf |first1=Dr. Shiro |last1=Itagaki |title=The Preservation and Development of Japanese Dogs|publisher=Akita Learning Center |access-date=6 May 2011}}</ref> For the FCI's 84 countries, the breed split formally occurred in June 1999, when the FCI decided that the American type would be called the Great Japanese Dog,<ref name="DVM"/> later renamed the American Akita in January 2006.<ref name="DVM"/>

==History==

===Japanese history===
[[File:Akita dog circa 1907.jpg|thumb|Akita Inu photographed around 1907.]]
[[File:Faithful Dog Hachiko Photo.png|thumb|right|Hachikō]]
[[File:Hachiko-hakusei.jpg|thumb|right|Loyal [[Hachikō]] became legendary after waiting every day for his master to return at Shibuya Station in central Tokyo. ]]
Since ancient times, hunting dogs called {{Nihongo|matagi dogs|マタギ犬}} were kept in the [[Tōhoku region]] of northern Japan. The word ''matagi'' means hunter. The main targets of hunting were [[Asian black bear]]s, [[Japanese serow]]s, [[Japanese macaque]]s, and rabbits. In [[Akita Prefecture]], there was also a matagi dog called the {{Nihongo|Akita Matagi Inu|秋田マタギ犬}}, which is a medium-sized dog and is distinguished from the Akita Inu.<ref>{{Cite book |editor = Inu no Kenkyusha |title = 昭和日本犬の検討 |trans-title = Examination of Showa Japanese dogs |publisher = Inu no Kenkyusha |date = 1936 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1229309 |doi = 10.11501/1229309 |page = 16 |language = ja |author1 = 犬の研究社 }}</ref> The direct ancestor of the Akita Inu was a dog kept as a guard dog and [[fighting dog]] by samurai and wealthy farmers in the [[Ōdate]] area, and was also known as the {{Nihongo|Ōdate dog|大館犬}}.

During the [[Edo period]] (1603 - 1867), the Akita region was ruled by the [[Satake clan]] of the [[Kubota Domain]]. The {{Nihongo|Satake West Family|佐竹西家}}, the castle keeper of Ōdate Castle, is said to have nurtured the fighting spirit of its vassals through [[Dog fighting|dogfighting]].<ref name="Odate1">{{Cite book |editor = Ōdate City History Compilation Committee |title = 大館市史 |trans-title = Ōdate City History |volume = 1 |publisher = Ōdate City |date = March 1979 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/9537893 |doi = 10.11501/9537893 |page = 76 |language = ja |author1 = 大館市 }}</ref>

It is not known exactly how Akita Inu became larger, but according to a "discussion on dogs by old people" held in 1931 in the then Ōdate Town, a famous dog named "Moku" was kept at the {{Nihongo|Jō'ō-ji Temple|浄応寺}} in Ōdate, commonly known as {{Nihongo|Naka no Tera Temple|中の寺}}, in the late Edo period (1603-1867).<ref name = "Ono1931">{{Cite magazine |last = Ono |first = Susumu |title = 天然記念物に指定された秋田犬に就て |trans-title = On the Akita Inu designated as a natural monument|magazine = Saito Hō'enkai Jiho |issue = 58 |publisher = Saito Hō'enkai |date = October 1931 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1564061 |doi = 10.11501/1564061 |pages = 11–13 |language = ja}}</ref> Moku was a dog born at the end of the [[Ansei]] era (1854 - 1860), lived through the fires of the [[Boshin War]] (1868 - 1869), and lived until 1871 or 1872. Moku was about 85 cm tall at the shoulder and was large enough to carry an adult on its back. Moku was a purely Japanese dog with erect ears and a curly tail, sesame (''goma'') in color, and long hair.<ref name = "Ono1931" /> If this theory is to be believed, Akita Inu had become larger by the end of the Edo period at the latest.

In 1931, the Akita was officially declared a [[Monuments of Japan|Japanese natural monument]]. The mayor of [[Odate]] City in [[Akita Prefecture]] organized the Akita Inu Hozonkai to preserve the original Akita as a Japanese natural treasure through careful breeding.<ref name="Stars" />

In 1933, Heishiro Takaku (Takahisa), one of the early members of Nippo in Tokyo and later of the Nipponinu Kyokai (Nikkyo) in Osaka and Katsuichi (Shoichi) each published articles on a proposed Japanese dog standard, which Included the Akita dog. Akita dogs revealed the most non-uniformity at that time, when compared to medium and small Japanese dogs, due to being outcrossed to the Tosa fighting dog, and other Imported foreign dogs.<ref name=":0"/>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}} In 1934, the first Japanese breed standard for the Akita Inu was listed, following the breed's declaration as a natural monument of Japan.<ref name="obj17">{{cite book |last=Andrews |first=Barbara J. |title=Akitas |publisher=T.F.H. Publications Inc. |year=1996 |isbn=0-7938-2760-4 |location=N.J. USA |page=17}}</ref>

The Akita breed was used during the [[Russo-Japanese War]] to track prisoners of war and lost sailors.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Allsopp |first=Nigel |title=K9 Cops: Police Dogs of the World |publisher=Big Sky Publishing |year=2012}}</ref> During [[World War II]], the Akita was considered a non-military breed and was crossed with [[German Shepherd]]s in an attempt to save them from the wartime government order for all non-military dogs to be culled.<ref name="JAICUK">{{cite web |title=Akita Inu Breed History |url=http://www.japaneseakita-inu.co.uk/Files/History.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113013943/http://www.japaneseakita-inu.co.uk/Files/History.htm |archive-date=13 January 2012 |access-date=29 April 2011 |publisher=Japanese Akita Inu Club Great Britain}}</ref> Some were used as scouts and guards during the war.<ref name=":1" />

A native Japanese breed known as Matagi (hunting dog) was used along with the [[Hokkaido (dog)|Hokkaido Inu]] breed to mix back into the remaining Akita dogs to restore the breed. There were many lines of Akita, but the most influential were the Dewa and Ichinoseki.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |date=2023-05-06 |title=History Of The Akita Inu: 1 Of The Great Japanese Breeds - A Dog's Game |url=https://adogsgame.com/the-akita-inu-history/ |access-date=2023-05-13 |newspaper=A Dogs Game |language=en-US}}</ref> Both lines contributed to the foundation stock for both Akita types, and many exported dogs were a combination of these lines. According to one Japanese judge, the greatest difference between Japanese- and American-bred Akitas is that the latter still show much evidence of the Dewa strain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Website_Caccia - Akita |url=https://www.caccia.se/Akita_two_lines_sid_2.htm |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=www.caccia.se}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}} In the early 1900s, Dewa-line Akitas were heavily favoured and did well in show. [https://www.akitapedigree.com//details.php?id=68236 Kongo-go] (from the Heirakudo Kennel of Eikichi Hiraizumi) is considered to be the most influential dog of that line.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=History of the Akita {{!}} Minamoto No Yorimitsu |url=http://www.m-n-y-akitas.nl/history-of-the-akita/ |access-date=2022-10-09 |website=www.m-n-y-akitas.nl}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}}

However, the Dewa-line later went into a decline because Japanese breeders felt that the Akita did not give the impression of a Japanese dog, so began to breed towards an ideal type reminiscent of other [[Nihon Ken Hozonkai|Nihon-ken]]. The Dewa line was stereotyped as the “German Shepherd” type, while the Ichinoseki line was referred to as the “Mastiff” type.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":0" /> Thus, the Ichinoseki-line rose in popularity. [https://www.akitapedigree.com//details.php?id=66505 Goromaru-Go] was regarded as the most influential Akita of that line who, although didn't perform well in show, produced outstanding Akita dogs when bred to Taihei and Nikkei lines from Southern Akita. Goromaru-Go then became foundation to further the Japanese type.

During the occupation years following the war, the breed began to thrive again through the efforts of Sawataishi and others.<ref name="telegraph" /> Morie Sawataishi and his efforts to breed the Akita is a major reason this breed exists today.<ref name="Sherrill">{{cite book |last1=Sherrill |first1=Martha |title=Dog Man: An Uncommon Life on a Faraway Mountain |date=28 February 2008 |publisher=[[Penguin Press]] USA |isbn=978-1-59420-124-0 |place=City |page=256}} {{ISBN|978-1-59420-124-0}}</ref> For the first time, Akitas were bred for a standardized appearance.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AKIKO |url=http://www.clubakita.ro/Akiko/history.html |access-date=2018-02-07 |website=www.clubakita.ro |archive-date=2018-02-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180207123112/http://www.clubakita.ro/Akiko/history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}} Akita fanciers in Japan began gathering and exhibiting the remaining Akitas and producing litters to restore the breed to sustainable numbers and to accentuate the ideal characteristics of the breed muddied by crosses to other breeds.<ref name="Kimura">{{cite web |last1=Kimura |first1=Tatsuo |title=A History Of The Akita Dog |url=http://www.northlandakitas.com/akitahistory/ahistory.htm |access-date=6 May 2011 |publisher=Akita Learning Center |format=website}}</ref> It wasn't until the 1960-70's where the foxier Japanese type started to diverge from the typical American type.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Akita Pedigree |url=https://www.akitapedigree.com/ |access-date=2022-10-09 |website=www.akitapedigree.com}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=January 2024|reason=No specific page on the site is specified for the citation}}

The story of [[Hachikō]] helped push the Akita into the international dog world. Hachikō was born in 1923 and owned by Professor [[Hidesaburō Ueno]] of Tokyo.<ref name=Killilea16>{{cite book|last=Killilea|first=David|title=The Akita Today|year=1988|publisher=Ringpress Books Ltd.|location=Glouchestershire, UK|isbn=1-86054-099-6|pages=15–16|author2=Jenny Killilea}}</ref> Professor Ueno lived near the [[Shibuya Station|Shibuya Train Station]] in a suburb of the city, and commuted to work every day on the train.<ref name="Stars" /> Hachikō accompanied his master to and from the station each day.<ref name="Stars">{{cite news |url=http://www.stripes.com/article.asp?section=104&article=18964 |last1=Chida |first1=Hiroshi |title=Odate museum honors national dog, the Akita |work=Stripes Pacific Travel |date=27 November 2003 |publisher=[[Stars and Stripes (newspaper)|Stars and Stripes]]|access-date=30 April 2011}}</ref> On May 25, 1925, when the dog was 18 months old, he waited for his master's arrival on the four o'clock train, but Professor Ueno had suffered a fatal brain haemorrhage at work.<ref name="Stars" /> Hachikō continued to wait for his master's return.<ref name="Stars" /> He travelled to and from the station each day for the next nine years.<ref name="Stars" /> He allowed the professor's relatives to care for him, but he never gave up the vigil at the station for his master.<ref name="Stars" /> His vigil became world-renowned when, in 1934,<ref name=obj22>{{cite book|last=Andrews|first=Barbara J.|title=Akitas|year=1996|publisher=T.F.H Publications Inc.|location=N.J. USA|isbn=0-7938-2760-4|pages=21–22}}</ref> shortly before his death, a [[bronze statue]] was erected at the Shibuya train station in his honor.<ref name="Stars"/> This statue was melted down for [[Ammunition|munitions]] during the war, but a new one was commissioned after the war.<ref name="obj22"/> Each year on March 8 since 1936, Hachikō's devotion has been honoured with a solemn ceremony of remembrance at Tokyo's Shibuya railroad station.<ref>American Kennel Club (listed author): ''The Complete Dog Book: The Photograph, History, and Official Standard of Every Breed Admitted to AKC Registration, and the Selection, Training, Breeding, Care, and Feeding of Pure-bred Dogs'', Howell Book House, 1985, page 269. {{ISBN|0-87605-463-7}}.</ref><ref>Ruthven Tremain, ''The Animals' Who's Who: 1,146 Celebrated Animals in History, Popular Culture, Literature, & Lore'', Scribner, 1984, page 105. {{ISBN|0-684-17621-1}}. Accessed via Google Books August 21, 2008.</ref> Eventually, Hachikō's legendary faithfulness became a national symbol of loyalty, particularly to the person and institution of the Emperor.<ref name="Skabeland">{{cite journal |url=http://www.berfrois.com/2011/09/aaron-herald-skabelund-hachiko/ |title=Canine Imperialism |first1=Aaron Herald |last1=Skabelund |publisher=Berfrois |date=23 September 2011 |access-date=28 October 2011}}</ref>

In 1967, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the founding of the Akita Dog Preservation Society, the Akita Dog Museum was built to house information, documents and photos.<ref name="Stars"/> There is a tradition in Japan, that when a child is born they receive a statue of an Akita. This statue symbolizes health, happiness, and a long life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/akita/detail/|title=Akita History & Training/Temperament|publisher=American Kennel Club|website=www.akc.org|access-date=2016-09-20}}</ref>

[[File:Akita Stamp.jpg|thumb|The Akita "Tachibana",<ref name="telegraph"/> one of the few Akitas to survive the war, is pictured here on a Japanese 1953-issue postage stamp.]]
In 1937, [[Helen Keller]] travelled to Japan. She expressed a keen interest in the breed and was presented with the first two Akitas to enter the US.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-akita.com/JPTeez/html/helen_keller.html |title=Helen Keller: First Akitas in the USA |publisher=Natural-akita.com |date=June 14, 1937 |access-date=August 24, 2010}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}} The first dog, presented to her by Mr. Ogasawara and named Kamikaze-go, died at {{frac|7|1|2}} months of age from [[Canine distemper|distemper]], one month after her return to the States. A second Akita was arranged to be sent to Keller: Kamikaze's litter brother, Kenzan-go.<ref name="Ogasawara">{{cite web |url=http://www.northlandakitas.com/hellen.htm |title=Helen Keller and Akitas |first1=Ichiro |last1=Ogasawara |publisher=Akita Learning Center |access-date=7 May 2011}}</ref> Keller nicknamed the dog Go-Go and they were great companions from day one. Go-Go even spent his first night at Keller's home sleeping at the foot of her bed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gibeault|first=Stephanie|title=Hellen Keller, Accomplished & Inspirational Icon, Was a Lifelong Dog Lover|url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/news/helen-keller-was-a-true-dog-lover/|access-date=2022-02-10|website=American Kennel Club|language=en}}</ref> Kenzan-go died in the mid-1940s.<ref name = "Killilea">{{cite book|last1=Killilea|first1=David|last2=Killilea|first2=Jenny|title=The Akita Today|year=1998|publisher=Ringpress|location=Glouchester, U.K.|isbn=1-86054-099-6}}</ref> By 1939, a [[breed standard]] had been established and [[Conformation show|dog shows]] had been held, but such activities stopped after [[World War II]] began.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}} Keller wrote in the ''Akita Journal'':
{{cquote|If ever there was an angel in fur, it was Kamikaze. I know I shall never feel quite the same tenderness for any other pet. The Akita dog has all the qualities that appeal to me he is gentle, companionable and trusty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petpublishing.com/dogken/breeds/akita.shtml|title=The Akita Inu: The Voice of Japan|author=Rick Beauchamp|publisher=Dog & Kennel|access-date=6 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718182822/http://www.petpublishing.com/dogken/breeds/akita.shtml|archive-date=2011-07-18|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.natural-akita.com/JPTeez/html/helen_keller.html |title=Helen Keller: First Akitas in the USA |publisher=Natural-akita.com |date= 14 June 1937|access-date=24 August 2010}}</ref>
}}

===American history===
[[File:Boy c11.jpg|thumb|A 9-week-old American Akita]][[File:Akita female.png|thumb|A female American Akita.]]{{More citations needed|date=June 2021}}
The Japanese Akita and American Akita began to diverge in type post-World War II due to America and Europe preserving the Akitas that fell out of favour in Japan, particularly the Dewa-types and dogs with the signature black mask or pinto marking. American Akitas are typically considered mixed by Japanese breeders (and not true Akitas by the Japanese standard).{{cn|date=February 2024}} However, their [[phenotype]] predates the Japanese Akita by a few decades, and they are closer to pre-war Akitas like [[Hachikō|Hachiko]].<ref name=":2" />{{citation needed|date=January 2024|reason=Once again the page being cited isn't specified}}

Helen Keller is credited with bringing the Akita to America after being given two Akitas by the Japanese government in 1938. By 1939, a breed standard was established, and dog shows began to be held, but this development was interrupted by World War II.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.akitaclub.org/helen-keller/|title=Helen Keller|work=Akita Club of America|access-date=2018-02-25|language=en-US}}</ref> During this time, US servicemen serving as part of the occupation force in Japan first came into contact with the Akita. The breed so impressed them that many service members chose to bring an Akita back home with them upon completion of their tour.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

Although both types derive from common ancestry, marked differences are seen between the two.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Two Akitas|url=http://www.dogchannel.com/dog-information/allan-reznik-dog-expert/the-two-akitas.aspx|website=DogChannel.com|access-date=2015-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714044456/http://www.dogchannel.com/dog-information/allan-reznik-dog-expert/the-two-akitas.aspx|archive-date=2015-07-14|url-status=dead}}</ref> American Akitas generally are heavier boned and larger, with a more bear-like head, whereas Japanese Akitas tend to be lighter and more finely featured with a fox-like head.<ref name="DVM">{{cite web|last=Kaluzniacki|first=Sophia|title=The Akita Dilemma – One Breed or Two?: a historical perspective|url=http://www.tamarlane.com/dillema.htm|publisher=Tamarlane|format=website|access-date=19 May 2011}}{{Unreliable source?|date=January 2024|reason=This is just some breeder's personal site}}</ref> Additionally, while American Akitas are acceptable in all colors, Japanese Akitas are only permitted to be red, white, or brindle. Additionally, American Akitas may be pinto and/or have [[melanistic mask|black masks]], unlike Japanese Akitas, where these are considered disqualifications and are not permitted in the breed standards.{{citation needed|date=March 2013}}

Recognized by the American Kennel Club in 1955, the Akita was placed in the Miscellaneous class. The AKC did not approve the Akita standard until 1972, and it was moved to the Working Dog class. As such, the Akita is a rather new breed in the United States. Foundation stock in America continued to be imported from Japan until 1974, when the AKC cut off registration to any further Japanese imports until 1992, when it recognized the [[Japan Kennel Club]] standards. This decision set the stage for the divergence in type between the American Akita and Japanese Akita Inu that is present today.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Akita Inu|url=https://starpetstore.com/akita-inu-all-related-information/|access-date=2021-09-24|website=starpetstore.com/|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210924184940/https://starpetstore.com/akita-inu-all-related-information/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Elsewhere in the world, one American Akita was first introduced to the UK in 1937. He was a Canadian import, owned by a Mrs. Jenson; the descendants of Mrs. Jenson live on today breeding American Akitas. The most widely known of these is Joseph Felton, an award-winning Akita breeder, but the breed was not itself widely known until the early 1980s.<ref name="Killilea"/> The breed was introduced in Australia in 1982 with an American import and to New Zealand in 1986 with an import from the UK.<ref name="Killilea"/>

==Gallery==
[[File:Brindle Moku Akita Inu - Long Fur - In Snow.jpg|thumb|right|Long-coat Akita]]
[[File:آکیتای_سفید.jpg|thumb|right|White Akita]]
[[File:Akita hiking in Shpella e Pëllumbasit.JPG|thumb|Akita hiking in Shpella e Pëllumbasit, [[Tirana]], [[Albania]]]]
[[File:Shinzō Abe and Alina Zagitova (2018-05-26).jpg|thumb|right|Olympic figure-skating champion [[Alina Zagitova]] receiving a Japanese Akita in a ceremony attended by Prime Minister [[Shinzō Abe]]]]

===Appearance===
As a [[spitz]] breed, the appearance of the Akita reflects cold-weather adaptations essential to their original function.<ref>{{cite web|title=Akita: Physical Characteristics|url=http://www.petmd.com/dog/breeds/c_dg_akita|website=Pet MD}}</ref> The Akita is a substantial breed for its height with heavy bones.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1enEDwAAQBAJ&q=%22++++++Breed+standards+state+that+all+dog+breed+coat+colors+are+allowable+in+the+American+Akita,+including+pinto,+all+types+of+brindle,+solid+white,+black+mask,+white+mask,+self-colored+mask,+even+differing+colors+of+under+coat+and+overlay+(guard+hairs).%5B5%5D+This+includes+the+common+Shiba+Inu+coloring+pattern+known+as+Urajiro.|title=The Complete Dog Breed Book: Choose the Perfect Dog for You|date=2020-03-17|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-7440-2234-6|language=en}}</ref> Characteristic physical traits of the breed include a large, bear-like head with erect, triangular ears set at a slight angle following the arch of the neck.<ref name="books.google.com"/> Additionally, the eyes of the Akita are small, dark, deeply set, and triangular in shape.<ref name="Wallis">{{cite journal |url=http://www.dogsincanada.com/akita-proportions |title=Akita proportions |date=20 January 2011 |first1=Sherry |last1=Wallis |journal=[[Dogs in Canada]] |access-date=3 May 2011 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110927132509/http://www.dogsincanada.com/akita-proportions |archive-date=2011-09-27 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Akitas have thick double coats, and tight, well-knuckled, cat-like feet.<ref name="books.google.com"/> Their tails are carried over the tops of their backs in a gentle or double curl down the loin.<ref name=AKC>{{cite web|title=American Kennel Club – Akita|url=http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/akita/#standard|format=website|publisher=American Kennel Club|access-date=17 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150213194713/http://www.akc.org/dog-breeds/akita/#standard| archive-date= 13 February 2015 | url-status= live}}</ref>

Mature American-type males measure typically 26-28 in (66–71 cm) at the withers and weigh between 100 and 130 lb (45–59 kg).<ref name="books.google.com"/> Mature females typically measure 24-26 in (61–66 cm) and weigh between 70 and 100 lb (32–45 kg).<ref name="Canada guide">{{cite web|title=Akita – Canada's Guide to Dogs|url=http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/akita.htm|format=website|publisher=Canada's Guide to Dogs|access-date=17 April 2011| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110514050124/http://www.canadasguidetodogs.com/akita.htm| archive-date= 14 May 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref> The Japanese type, as stated in the breed standards, is a little smaller and lighter.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Japanese-Akitainu AKC Standard|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/cdn-origin-etr.akc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/06145646/Japanese-Akitainu_AKC_Standard_11052020.pdf |access-date=2024-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828022455/https://s3.amazonaws.com/cdn-origin-etr.akc.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/06145646/Japanese-Akitainu_AKC_Standard_11052020.pdf |archive-date=2022-08-28 }}</ref>

Breed standards state that all dog breed coat colors and patterns are allowable in the American Akita.<ref name=tarmalane>{{cite web|title=Akita Colors|url=http://www.tamarlane.com/colors.htm|publisher=Tarmalane|format=website|access-date=17 April 2011}}</ref> This includes the common [[Shiba Inu]] coloring pattern known as ''urajiro''.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Shiba Inu Appearance – My First Shiba Inu|date=14 January 2016 |url=https://myfirstshiba.com/copy-appearance/|access-date=2022-01-21|language=en-US}}</ref> The Japanese Akitas, as per the breed standards, are restricted to red, fawn, sesame, brindle, and pure white, all with ''urajiro'' markings - whitish coat on the sides of the muzzle, on the cheeks, on the underside of jaw, neck, chest, body, and tail, and on the inside of the legs.<ref name="Japanese Akita UK Standard"/>

===Coat types===
The two coat types in the Akita are the standard coat length and the long coat.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=2023-04-29 |title=The Long Coat Akita: A Wonderful Variation - A Dog's Game |url=https://adogsgame.com/the-long-coat-akita-a-wonderful-variation/ |access-date=2023-05-13 |website=adogsgame.com |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211211311/https://adogsgame.com/the-long-coat-akita-a-wonderful-variation/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=Taylor /> The long coat is considered a fault in the show ring, however.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=Taylor>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jason|title=Guide to Owning an Akita|year=1996|publisher=TFH Publications|location=United States|isbn=0-7938-1878-8|page=21}}</ref> The long coat, also known as ''moku'', is the result of an [[Dominance (genetics)|autosomal recessive gene]] and may occur [[phenotypically]] only if both sire and dam are carriers. They have longer (about 3-4 in long) and softer coats<ref name=Doubletake>{{cite web|title=Long Coat Akitas|url=http://www.doubletake-ranch.com/Longcoat/longcoats.html|format=website|publisher=DoubleTake|access-date=17 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930050013/http://www.doubletake-ranch.com/Longcoat/longcoats.html|archive-date=2011-09-30|url-status=dead}}{{unreliable source?|date=March 2013}}</ref> and are known to have sweeter temperaments.<ref name=":4" /><ref name="Taylor"/> This gene is thought to come from the [[Karafuto Ken]] ''samurai'' dog.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book|last=Andrews|first=Barbara J.|title=Akitas|year=1996|publisher=TFH Publications Inc|location=NJ, United States of America|isbn=0-7938-2760-4|page=16}}</ref>

==Temperament==
The Akita is generally seen as territorial about its property, and can be reserved with strangers.{{cn|date=February 2024}}

The breed has been defined in some countries' [[breed-specific legislation]] as a dangerous dog.<ref name="BSL america">{{cite web|title=Anti-Canine Legislation Information|url=http://www.akitaclub.org/info/akclegislation.html|publisher=Akita Club of America|format=website|access-date=30 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610040624/http://akitaclub.org/info/akclegislation.html|archive-date=10 June 2011|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name="NYC housing">{{cite journal|title=Changes to NYCHA's Pet Policy |journal=New York City Housing Authority Journal |date=April 2009 |volume=39 |issue=4 |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/downloads/pdf/j09apre.pdf |publisher=New York City Government |access-date=17 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111063721/http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycha/downloads/pdf/j09apre.pdf |archive-date=11 January 2012 }}</ref><ref name=Bermuda>{{cite web|title=Restricted Dog Breeds|url=http://www.gov.bm/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_2_1625_207_213_43/http%3B/ptpublisher.gov.bm%3B7087/publishedcontent/publish/ministry_of_environment/environmental_protection/dept___environmental_protection___conditions_of_entry/articles/restricted_dog_breeds.html|format=website|publisher=Bermuda Minister of the Environment|access-date=26 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608071756/http://www.gov.bm/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_2_1625_207_213_43/http%3B/ptpublisher.gov.bm%3B7087/publishedcontent/publish/ministry_of_environment/environmental_protection/dept___environmental_protection___conditions_of_entry/articles/restricted_dog_breeds.html|archive-date=2011-06-08|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Ireland>{{cite web|title=Dangerous Dogs|url=http://www.environ.ie/en/LocalGovernment/DogControl/|format=website|publisher=Department of Environment, Heritage, and Local Government|access-date=16 August 2009|year=2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629230334/http://www.environ.ie/en/LocalGovernment/DogControl/|archive-date=2009-06-29|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Akita is a large, strong, independent, and dominant dog. A well-trained Akita should be accepting of nonthreatening strangers, otherwise they treat all strangers in an aggressive manner.<ref name="petwave">{{cite web|url=http://www.petwave.com/Dogs/Breeds/Akita/Personality.aspx|title=Akita Inu Dog Breed – Temperament & Personality|date=3 August 2015|access-date=23 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223232504/http://www.petwave.com/Dogs/Breeds/Akita/Personality.aspx|archive-date=23 February 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

A survey on canine behaviour in five 'ancient' breeds in Poland found the Akita to be the most aggressive towards other dogs with 59% of Akitas being reported to display aggression towards other dogs and animals. They were the second most likely to be aggressive towards humans with 13% of Akitas being reported to display aggression towards humans. [[Stereotypy|Stereotypic]] behaviour was reported in 27% of Akitas, ranking it second out of the five breeds surveyed. Excessive vocalisation was only reported at 17% for the Akita, lower than the other breeds. Less than 10% of Akitas were reported to have [[separation anxiety]], the lowest amount. 70% of all human directed aggression involved a visitor on the Akita's territory, highlighting the defensive nature of the breed.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Wójcik | first1=Anna | last2=Powierża | first2=Kinga | title=The Influence of Breed, Sex, Origin and Housing Conditions on Undesirable Behaviors in Ancient Dog Breeds | journal=Animals | publisher=MDPI AG | volume=11 | issue=5 | date=2021-05-17 | issn=2076-2615 | doi=10.3390/ani11051435 | doi-access=free | page=1435| pmid=34067911 | pmc=8156398 }}</ref>

A Japanese study found that the CAG repeat polymorphism in the AR gene in the Akita Inu was correlated with increased reports of aggression in male Akita dogs, but not females.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Konno | first1=Akitsugu | last2=Inoue-Murayama | first2=Miho | last3=Hasegawa | first3=Toshikazu | title=''Androgen receptor'' gene polymorphisms are associated with aggression in Japanese Akita Inu | journal=Biology Letters | publisher=The Royal Society | volume=7 | issue=5 | date=2011-03-30 | issn=1744-9561 | doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.0087 | pages=658–660| pmid=21450727 | pmc=3169042 }}</ref>

==Health==
===Autoimmune diseases===
Many [[autoimmune disease]]s are known to occur in the Akita, including:
* [[Vogt–Koyanagi–Harada syndrome]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0039.2005.00508.x |title=Uveodermatologic (VKH-like) syndrome in American Akita dogs is associated with an increased frequency of DQA1*00201 |year=2005 |last1=Angles |first1=J. M. |last2=Famula |first2=T. R. |last3=Pedersen |first3=N. C. |journal=Tissue Antigens |volume=66 |issue=6 |pages=656–65 |pmid=16305682}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1748-5827.1987.tb01445.x |title=Harada's disease in the Japanese Akita |year=1987 |last1=Cottelll |first1=Beverley D. |last2=Barnett |first2=K. C. |journal=Journal of Small Animal Practice |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=517–21}}</ref> also known as uveo-dermatologic syndrome, is an autoimmune condition that affects the skin and eyes.<ref name=Monaco>{{cite web|last=Monaco|first=Marie|title=Uveodermatologic Syndrome (UDS, VKH)|url=http://www.samoyedhealthfoundation.org/diseases/uveodermatologic-syndrome-uds|publisher=Samoyed Club of America|access-date=8 October 2011}}</ref>
* [[Warm autoimmune hemolytic anemia|Autoimmune hemolytic anemia]]<ref name="JACA"/> is an autoimmune blood disorder.<ref name=Day>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0165-2427(99)00055-0 |title=Antigen specificity in canine autoimmune haemolytic anaemia |year=1999 |last1=Day |first1=M.J |journal=Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology |volume=69 |issue=2–4 |pages=215–24 |pmid=10507306}}</ref>
* [[Sebaceous Adenitis in Canines|Sebaceous adenitis]]<ref name="reichler">{{cite journal |doi=10.1046/j.0959-4493.2001.00251.x |title=Sebaceous adenitis in the Akita: Clinical observations, histopathology and heredity |year=2001 |last1=Reichler |first1=Iris M. |last2=Hauser |first2=Beat |last3=Schiller |first3=Irene |last4=Dunstan |first4=Robert W. |last5=Credille |first5=Kelly M. |last6=Binder |first6=Heinrich |last7=Glaus |first7=Toni |last8=Arnold |first8=Susi |journal=Veterinary Dermatology |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=243–53 |pmid=11906649}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1023/B:VERC.0000014199.39879.bb |title=Sebaceous Adenitis in the Dog: Three Cases |year=2003 |last1=Spaterna |first1=A. |last2=Antognoni |first2=M.T. |last3=Cappuccini |first3=S. |last4=Tesei |first4=B. |journal=Veterinary Research Communications |volume=27 |pages=441–3 |pmid=14535449|s2cid=30352408 }}</ref><ref name=Pedersen>{{cite web |last1=Pedersen |first1=Niels C |title=Determining whether risk for sebaceous adenitis of Standard Poodles is associated with a specific DLA class II genotype |url=http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/CCAH/local-assets/pdfs/sebaceous_adenitis_PROJECT_DESCRIPTION_3-31-2010.pdf |access-date=22 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708233053/http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/CCAH/local-assets/pdfs/sebaceous_adenitis_PROJECT_DESCRIPTION_3-31-2010.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2011 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> is an autoimmune skin disorder believed to be of autosomal recessive inheritance.<ref name="reichler"/>
* [[Pemphigus|Pemphigus foliaceus]]<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1177/030098589403100103 |title=Comparative Histopathology of Pemphigus Foliaceus and Superficial Folliculitis in the Dog |year=1994 |last1=Kuhl |first1=K. A. |last2=Shofer |first2=F. S. |last3=Goldschmidt |first3=M. H. |journal=Veterinary Pathology |volume=31 |pages=19–27 |pmid=8140722 |issue=1|s2cid=2609668 |doi-access= }}</ref> is an autoimmune skin disorder, believed to be genetic.<ref name=pemphigus>{{cite web|title=Pemphigus|url=http://www.akita-association.org/pemphigus.htm|publisher=The Akita Association (UK)|format=website|access-date=22 April 2011|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303221830/http://www.akita-association.org/pemphigus.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Systemic lupus erythematosus]], or lupus, is a systemic autoimmune connective-tissue disease that can affect any part of the body.<ref name="akitarescue">{{cite web|title=Diseases in the American Akita|url=http://akitarescue.rescuegroups.org/info/file?file=s197m7036.pdf|url-status=live|access-date=3 April 2011|publisher=Akita Rescue Mid-Atlantic Coast (USA)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100526085141/http://akitarescue.rescuegroups.org:80/info/file?file=s197m7036.pdf |archive-date=2010-05-26 }}</ref>

===Immune-mediated endocrine diseases===
In addition to these, some [[Immune-mediated disease|immune-mediated]] [[endocrine]] diseases with a heritable factor can occur, such as:

* [[Hypoadrenocorticism in dogs|Hypoadrenocorticism]], also known as Addison's disease, affects the adrenal glands and is essentially the opposite of [[Cushing's syndrome (veterinary)|Cushing's syndrome]].<ref name="Bouyet"/>
* [[Diabetes in dogs|Diabetes mellitus]], also known as type 1 diabetes, affects the pancreas.<ref name="Bouyet"/>
* [[Hypothyroidism in dogs|Hypothyroidism]],<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0039.2006.00614.x |title=Association of canine hypothyroidism with a common major histocompatibility complex DLA class II allele |year=2006 |last1=Kennedy |first1=L. J. |last2=Quarmby |first2=S. |last3=Happ |first3=G. M. |last4=Barnes |first4=A. |last5=Ramsey |first5=I. K. |last6=Dixon |first6=R. M. |last7=Catchpole |first7=B. |last8=Rusbridge |first8=C. |last9=Graham |first9=P. A. |last10=Hillbertz |first10=N. S. |last11=Roethel |first11=C. |last12=Dodds |first12=W. J. |last13=Carmichael |first13=N. G. |last14=Ollier |first14=W. E. R. |s2cid=358248 |journal=Tissue Antigens |volume=68 |pages=82–6 |pmid=16774545 |issue=1|url=http://researchonline.rvc.ac.uk/id/eprint/138/ }}</ref> also known as autoimmune hypothyroidism, is an autoimmune disease that affects the thyroid gland.<ref name=AkitaFriends>{{cite web|title=The Akita – Diseases|url=http://www.akita-friends.com/breed/general.htm|publisher=Akita Alumni Dog Club|format=website|access-date=19 April 2011}}</ref>

===Nonimmune-specific conditions===
Other [[Innate immune system|nonimmune-specific conditions]] known to have occurred in the Akita include:

* Gastric dilation, also known as bloat may progress to [[gastric dilatation volvulus]], in which the stomach twists on itself.<ref name="Bell">{{cite web|last1=Bell|first1=Jerold S.|title=Risk Factors for Canine Bloat|url=http://www.malamutehealth.org/articles/bloat_risk.htm|format=website|publisher=malamute health|access-date=4 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425045028/http://www.malamutehealth.org/articles/bloat_risk.htm|archive-date=25 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Microphthalmia]], meaning "small eyes", is a developmental disorder of the eye, believed to be an [[autosomal recessive]] genetic condition.<ref name=upei>{{cite web|title=Microphthalmia|url=http://www.upei.ca/~cidd/Diseases/ocular%20disorders/microphthalmia.htm|format=website|publisher=Canine Inherited Disorders Database|access-date=19 April 2011|year=1998}}</ref>
* [[Canine glaucoma|Primary glaucoma]],<ref name="startup">{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/vr.118.9.251-b |pmid=3705415 |title=Hereditary eye problems in the Japanese akita |year=1986 |journal=Veterinary Record |volume=118 |issue=9 |pages=251|s2cid=30453180|last1=Startup |first1=F. |doi-broken-date=2024-11-16 }}</ref> results increased pressure within the eyeball.<ref name="Turner">{{cite web|last1=Turner |first1=Andrew |last2=Hurn |first2=Simon |title=Eye Diseases and Information |url=http://www.allanimaleyes.com/diseases.html#glaucoma |format=website |publisher=All Animal Eye Services |access-date=19 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805065155/http://www.allanimaleyes.com/diseases.html |archive-date=August 5, 2009 }}</ref>
* [[Progressive retinal atrophy]]<ref name="startup"/><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1748-5827.1996.tb01950.x |title=Recent advances in understanding the spectrum of canine generalised progressive retinal atrophy |year=1996 |last1=Clements |first1=P. J. M. |last2=Sargan |first2=D. R. |last3=Gould |first3=D. J. |last4=Petersen-Jones |first4=S. M. |journal=Journal of Small Animal Practice |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=155–62 |pmid=8731401|doi-access= }}</ref> is a progressive degeneration of the [[retina]] (portion of the eye that senses light and allows sight).<ref name="Turner"/>
* [[Hip dysplasia (canine)|Hip dysplasia]]<ref name=JACA>{{cite web|title=Diseases of The Japanese Akita-Inu |url=http://www.akita-inu.com/health.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229231233/http://www.akita-inu.com/health.htm |archive-date=2014-12-29 |publisher=Japanese Akita Club of America |access-date=22 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> is a skeletal condition where the head of the femur does not fit properly into the hip socket it leads to osteoarthritis and pain.<ref name=CSU>{{cite web|title=Treatment Options for Mature Canine Hip Dysplasia (Osteoarthritis stage)|url=http://csuvth.colostate.edu/_docs/small_animal/orthopaedics/orthopaedics_201101_hip_dysplasia.pdf|publisher=Colorado State University|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425053550/http://csuvth.colostate.edu/_docs/small_animal/orthopaedics/orthopaedics_201101_hip_dysplasia.pdf|archive-date=25 April 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
* [[Elbow dysplasia]]<ref name=JACA/> is a skeletal condition in which the components of the elbow joint (the humerus, radius, and ulna) do not line up properly, leading to osteoarthritis and pain.<ref name=Elbow>{{cite web|title=Dog Joint Problems|url=http://www.jointpainindogs.com/dog-joint-problems.html|publisher=JointPainInDogs.com|format=website|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002065149/http://www.jointpainindogs.com/dog-joint-problems.html|archive-date=2011-10-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Von Willebrand disease]],<ref name="Bleeding">{{cite web|last=Dodds|first=Jean|title=Bleeding Disorders|url=http://www.vin.com/proceedings/Proceedings.plx?CID=WSAVA2005&PID=11012&O=Generic|format=website|publisher=World Small Animal Veterinary Association World Congress Proceedings|year=2005|access-date=5 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1093/jhered/90.1.112 |title=A review of canine inherited bleeding disorders: Biochemical and molecular strategies for disease characterization and carrier detection |year=1999 |last1=Brooks |first1=M. |journal=Journal of Heredity |volume=90 |pages=112–8 |pmid=9987916 |issue=1|url=https://academic.oup.com/jhered/article-pdf/90/1/112/6453247/900112.pdf|doi-access=free}}</ref> is a genetic bleeding disorder caused by a deficiency in [[Von Willebrand factor]].<ref name=vWDclerk>{{cite web|first1=Julie B.|last1=Anderson|first2=Kenneth S.|last2=Latimer|first3=Perry J.|last3=Bain|first4=Heather L.|last4=Tarpley|title=Von Willebrand's Disease|url=http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/clerk/anderson/index.php|publisher=Veterinary Clinical Pathology Clerkship Program|format=website|access-date=8 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110918210247/http://www.vet.uga.edu/vpp/clerk/anderson/index.php|archive-date=2011-09-18|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Cushing's syndrome (veterinary)|Cushing's syndrome]], also known as hyperadrenocorticism, affects the adrenal glands, and is caused by long-term exposure to high levels of glucocorticosteroids, either manufactured by the body or given as medications.<ref name="Bouyet">{{cite book |last1=Bouyet|first1=Barbara|title=Akita, Treasure of Japan |volume=2|year=2002|publisher=Magnum Publishing|location=Thousand Oaks, California, USA|isbn=0-9716146-0-1|pages=268–269|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DNwJAAAAIAAJ&q=Cushing%E2%80%99s+Syndrome+Akita+Dog&pg=PA269|first2=Alicia |last2=Meyers |first3=Steve |last3=Eltinge |first4=Jean |last4=Dodds |access-date=19 April 2011}}</ref>

===Breed-specific conditions===
These breed-specific conditions are mentioned in veterinary literature:

* Immune sensitivity to vaccines, drugs, insecticides, anesthetics, and tranquilizers
* [[Hyperkalemia#Pseudohyperkalemia|Pseudohyperkalemia]] is a rise in the level of [[potassium]] that occurs due to its excessive leakage from [[red blood cells]] (RBCs) when blood is drawn. This can give a false indication of [[hyperkalemia]] on lab tests, hence the prefix [[pseudo]], meaning false.<ref name="akitarescue"/> This occurs because many East Asian breeds, including Akitas and Shiba Inus, have a higher level of potassium in their RBCs than other dogs.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1939-165X.2007.tb00188.x |title=Apparent pseudohyperkalemia in a Chinese Shar Pei dog |year=2007 |last1=Battison |first1=Andrea |journal=Veterinary Clinical Pathology |volume=36 |pages=89–93 |pmid=17311201 |issue=1}}</ref>

===Life expectancy===
A UK study found a life expectancy of 11.4 years for the breed compared to an average of 12.7 for purebreeds and 12 for [[Mongrel|crossbreeds]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=McMillan | first1=Kirsten M. | last2=Bielby | first2=Jon | last3=Williams | first3=Carys L. | last4=Upjohn | first4=Melissa M. | last5=Casey | first5=Rachel A. | last6=Christley | first6=Robert M. | title=Longevity of companion dog breeds: those at risk from early death | journal=Scientific Reports | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=14 | issue=1 | date=2024-02-01 | issn=2045-2322 | doi=10.1038/s41598-023-50458-w | page=531| pmid=38302530 | pmc=10834484 | bibcode=2024NatSR..14..531M }}</ref>

==Working life==
Predecessors of the modern Akita were used for hunting bear, wild boar, and deer in Japan as late as 1957.<ref name=RRACI>{{cite web|title=Bear hunting in Japan 1957|url=http://www.nylana.org/RRACI/bear.htm|format=website|publisher=Raritan River Akita Club inc.|access-date=19 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219083815/http://www.nylana.org/RRACI/bear.htm|archive-date=19 February 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> They would be used to flush out the boar and keep it at bay until the hunter could come and kill it. Today, the breed is used primarily as a [[companion dog]], but is currently also known to be used as [[therapy dog]]s,<ref name=akitanet>{{cite web|title=Working Akitas|url=http://akitanetwork.com/New/WorkingAkitas.htm|format=website|publisher=Akita Network|access-date=4 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111013232/http://akitanetwork.com/New/WorkingAkitas.htm|archive-date=2012-01-11|url-status=dead}}</ref> and compete in all dog competitions, including [[Conformation dog show|conformation showing]], [[obedience trials]], [[Canine Good Citizen|canine good-citizen program]], [[tracking trial]]s, and [[Dog agility|agility competition]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Andrews|first=Barbara J.|title=Akitas|year=1996|publisher=TFH Publications Inc.|location=N.J. USA|isbn=0-7938-2760-4|pages=74–99|chapter=6 – Sport of purebred dogs}}</ref> as well as [[weight pulling]], hunting, and [[Schutzhund|''Schutzhunde'']] (personal protection dogs).<ref name=JTaylor54>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jason|title=Guide to Owning an Akita|year=1996|publisher=T.F.H. Publications Inc.|location=N.J. USA|isbn=0-7938-1878-8|page=54}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Japan}}
{{Portal|Dogs}}
* [[List of dog breeds]]
* ''[[Ginga: Nagareboshi Gin]]''
* ''[[Hachi: A Dog's Tale]]''
* [[Kai Ken]]
* [[Kishu]]
* ''[[Lovely Muco]]''
* [[Shikoku (dog)]]
{{Clear}}

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=upper-alpha}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="telegraph">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/3701839/Morie-Sawataishi-Saviour-of-Japans-akita-Samurai-dog.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/japan/3701839/Morie-Sawataishi-Saviour-of-Japans-akita-Samurai-dog.html |archive-date=2022-01-12 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |title=Morie Sawataishi: Saviour of Japan's Akita Samurai dog |date=11 December 2008 |location=Japan |format=website|access-date=6 May 2011}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
}}

===Further reading===
* {{cite book |title=Empire of Dogs: Canines, Japan, and the Making of the Modern Imperial World (A Study of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute) |publisher=[[Columbia University]] |first1=Aaron Herald |last1=Skabelund |location=Ithaca, NY |type=print|isbn=978-0-8014-5025-9 |year=2011}} {{ISBN|080145025X}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110927144132/http://www.hoflin.com/magazines/Akita%20World.html ''Akita World'']. Bimonthly Akita Magazine (archived 27 September 2011)

*[http://www.akita-inu.com/ Japanese Akita Club of America]
{{Japanese dogs}}
{{Spitz}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:FCI breeds]]
[[Category:Dog breeds originating in Japan]]
[[Category:Dog fighting breeds]]
[[Category:Spitz breeds]]

Against the Wind (Bonnie Tyler song)

2025-01-03T22:30:32Z

Omcsesz: /* Credits and personnel */ wrong template type fixed

{{Infobox song
| name = Against the Wind
| cover = Bonnie_Tyler_-_Against_the_Wind.jpg
| alt =
| type = single
| artist = [[Bonnie Tyler]]
| album = [[Bitterblue]]
| released = 1991
| recorded = 1991
| studio =
| venue =
| genre = [[Soft rock]]
| length = 3:37
| label = [[Hansa Records]]
| writer = [[Dieter Bohlen]]
| producer = Dieter Bohlen
| prev_title = [[Bitterblue (song)|Bitterblue]]
| prev_year = 1991
| next_title = Where Were You
| next_year = 1992
}}

"'''Against the Wind'''" is a song by Welsh singer [[Bonnie Tyler]] from her 1991 eighth studio album ''[[Bitterblue]]''. It was written by [[Dieter Bohlen]], who produced the song with [[Luis Rodríguez (producer)|Luis Rodríguez]]. The song was released by [[Hansa Records]] in 1991 as the second single, after [[Bitterblue (song)|the title track of the album]]. The song is a soft pop ballad with the lyrics depicting Tyler asking a lover not to [[broken heart|break her heart]].

"Against the Wind" was a commercial success in Europe, entering the Top 40 in Germany and Austria.

== Composition ==
"Against the Wind" was written by [[Dieter Bohlen]]. Inspired by [[Rod Stewart]]'s commercial success with "[[Rhythm of My Heart]]" in early 1991, Bohlen approached Tyler to record an album with elements of [[Scottish folk music]], including instruments such as [[bagpipes]] and [[accordion]].<ref name="bohlen-204">Bohlen, ''Bonnie. Oder: Keiner singt geiler als die Tyler'', p. 204.</ref> Initially, Tyler was reluctant to record Bohlen's music, though he argued, "you just have to be a bit more commercial."<ref name="bohlen-204"/>

== Chart performance ==
The song entered the [[Ö3 Austria Top 40|Austrian singles chart]] on 2 February 1992 at number 19, remaining in the Top 40 for a total of twelve weeks.<ref name="Austria"/> It peaked at number 13 on its third week before falling through the following three weeks.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austriancharts.at/charts/singles/16-02-1992|title=Austriancharts.at – Austria Top 40 – Singles Top 75 16.02.1992|language=German|publisher=[[Ö3 Austria Top 40]]|accessdate=3 June 2015}}</ref> It rose again to number 14 on 15 March before gradually falling again.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austriancharts.at/charts/singles/15-03-1992|title=Austriancharts.at – Austria Top 40 – Singles Top 75 15.03.1992|language=German|publisher=[[Ö3 Austria Top 40]]|accessdate=3 June 2015}}</ref> The previous single, "[[Bitterblue (song)|Bitterblue]]", had already entered the Austrian chart in December 1991,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austriancharts.at/showitem.asp?interpret=Bonnie+Tyler&titel=Bitterblue&cat=s|title=Austriancharts.at – Bonnie Tyler – Bitterblue|language=German|publisher=[[Ö3 Austria Top 40]]|accessdate=3 June 2015}}</ref> and was in its sixth week running when "Against the Wind" debuted. Both songs reached their peak in the same week, though "Bitterblue" reached number 5.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.austriancharts.at/charts/singles/02-02-1992|title=Austriancharts.at – Austria Top 40 – Singles Top 75 02.02.1992|language=German|publisher=[[Ö3 Austria Top 40]]|accessdate=3 June 2015}}</ref>

"Against the Wind" also reached the Top 40 in Germany, though only peaking at number 36, remaining on the charts for a total of seven weeks.<ref name="Germany"/>

==Track listing==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
*;7" single<ref>{{cite AV media notes|title=Against the Wind|others=[[Bonnie Tyler]]|year=1991|type=[[Single (music)|7-inch single]]|publisher=[[Hansa Records]]|id=Hansa 114 991}}</ref>
#"Against the Wind" (Radio Mix) – 3:37
#"Against the Wind" (Instrumental) – 3:37
{{col-2}}
*;CD / 12" single<ref>{{cite AV media notes|title=Against the Wind|others=[[Bonnie Tyler]]|year=1991|type=[[Maxi single|Maxi CD]]|publisher=[[Hansa Records]]|id=Hansa 664 991}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media notes|title=Against the Wind|others=[[Bonnie Tyler]]|year=1991|type=[[12-inch single]]|publisher=[[Hansa Records]]|id=Hansa 614 991}}</ref>
#"Against the Wind" (Radio Mix) – 3:41
#"Against the Wind" (Long Version) – 5:07
#"Against the Wind" (Instrumental) – 3:41
{{col-end}}

== Credits and personnel ==
Credits adapted from AllMusic:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/bitterblue-mw0001047120/credits|title=Bonnie Tyler – Bitterblue Album Personnel |publisher=[[AllMusic]]. [[All Media Network]]|accessdate=4 March 2015}}</ref>
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
*[[Bonnie Tyler]] – lead vocals
*[[Dieter Bohlen]] – producer, writer, engineering
*[[Luis Rodríguez (producer)|Luis Rodríguez]] – producer
*[[Kenny Aronoff]] – drums
*Roy Bittan – keyboards
{{col-2}}
*Richard Gottle – keyboards
*[[Randy Jackson]] – bass guitar
*John Pierce – guitar
*[[Tim Pierce]] – acoustic guitar
*Waddy Wachtel – guitar
{{col-2}}
{{col-end}}

== Charts ==
{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!scope="col"|Chart (1992)
!scope="col"|Peak position
|-
{{singlechart|Austria|13|artist=Bonnie Tyler|song=Against the Wind|rowheader=true|accessdate=2 June 2015|refname=Austria}}
|-
{{singlechart|Germany|36|artist=Bonnie Tyler|song=Against the Wind|songid=10135|rowheader=true|accessdate=2 November 2018|refname=Germany}}
|-
! scope="row"| Eurocharts [[European Hot 100 Singles]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://worldradiohistory.com/UK/Music-and-Media/90s/1992/MM-1992-02-15.pdf|title=Eurocharts Hot 100 Singles|accessdate=October 12, 2017}}</ref>
|align="center"|86
|-
! scope="row"| Swiss Airplay [[Swiss Charts]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swisscharts.com/charts/airplay|title= Swiss Airplay Top 20|accessdate= January 21, 2019}}</ref>
|align="center"|15
|-
|-
! scope="row"| Norway Airplay [[VG-lista]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vglista.no/ |title= Norway Airplay Top 20|accessdate= January 21, 2019}}</ref>
|align="center"|11
|-
|}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last1=Bohlen |first1=Dieter |author-link=Dieter Bohlen |last2=Kessler |first2=Katja|year=2002 |title=Nichts als die Wahrheit |trans-title=Nothing But the Truth |language=German |publisher=Ullstein Heyne List GmbH & Co. KG |isbn=3-453-86143-4|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lnYDAwAAQBAJ }}
{{Refend}}

{{Bonnie Tyler songs}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:1991 songs]]
[[Category:Bonnie Tyler songs]]
[[Category:Songs written by Dieter Bohlen]]
[[Category:Hansa Records singles]]

Percy Abbott (magician)

2025-01-03T22:28:15Z

Omcsesz: /* Written or contributed to */ incorrect template fixed

{{Short description|Australian magician and magic dealer}}
{{More citations needed |date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| image = Percy Abbott magician.png
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1886|5|3|mf=y}}
| birth_place = Braidwood, Australia
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1960|8|26|1886|5|3|mf=y}}
| death_place = Colon, Michigan
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates =
| nationality = Australian
| known_for = Abbott Magic & Novelty Co.
}}
'''Percy Abbott''' (May 3, 1886 – August 26, 1960) was an Australian [[Magic (illusion)|magician]] and magic dealer who founded Abbott's Magic Novelty Company in [[Colon, Michigan]]. Abbott's business was once the largest manufacturer and retailer of magic tricks and stage illusions in the world.<ref>{{cite web |author=All Stories |url=http://www.rivercountryjournal.info/2011/08/06/linda-abbott-daughter-of-percy-abbott-comes-to-colon-historical-museum/ |title=Linda Abbott, daughter of Percy Abbott, comes to Colon Historical Museum! | River Country Journal |publisher=Rivercountryjournal.info |date=2011-08-06 |accessdate=2013-09-14 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130914232259/http://www.rivercountryjournal.info/2011/08/06/linda-abbott-daughter-of-percy-abbott-comes-to-colon-historical-museum/ |archive-date=2013-09-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.abbottmagic.com Official website]</ref>

== Biography ==
Abbott was born in [[Braidwood, New South Wales|Braidwood, Australia]] on May 3, 1886 as one of four children. Orphaned as a youngster, Abbott and his siblings moved in with an aunt who charged the children for room and board.<ref>Cover of [[The Linking Ring]], May 1959</ref>

His early interests included theater and magic. He took part in amateur theatrical productions as a boy. He discovered magic which he would devote most of his life along with its allied art, ventriloquism. In his early 1920s, Abbott found himself performing regularly in Sydney and other Australian towns, eventually taking a position with a firm that supplied magicians with the tricks of their trade, the New York Novelty Co.<ref>A Lifetime in Magic by Percy Abbott, The Abbott Magic Manufacturing Co., (1960)</ref>
Abbott would eventually open his own supply house for conjurers, called the Abbott's Magic Novelty Co., on Pitt St. in downtown Sydney. He continued performing and was reportedly one of the first magicians to perform the [[Sawing a woman in half]] illusion in Australia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanmuseumofmagic.org/bios/PercyAbbott.htm |title=Percy Abbott – American Museum of Magic |publisher=Americanmuseumofmagic.org |date= |accessdate=2013-09-14}}</ref>

Abbott turned the reins of his magic shop over to his brother Frank to leave Australia permanently. He toured the Orient and eventually landed in America, where in 1926 attended the first annual convention of the [[International Brotherhood of Magicians]].

Abbott met [[Harry Blackstone Sr.]] and the two men agreed to form a partnership to establish the "Blackstone Magic Co." in the small village of Colon, Michigan in 1928, but the company only lasted for 18 months. Four years later, after working on [[Coney Island]] with [[Jean Hugard]], playing school shows throughout the Midwest, and getting married, Abbott opened another magic shop in Colon, Michigan, "The Abbott Magic Novelty Company" and began advertising in trade journals in 1933. Recil Bordner, a magic enthusiast and son of successful farmers from Edon, Ohio, joined the firm as a partner in 1934.

The shop moved into larger premises in Colon, at 124 St. Joseph St., and celebrated the event by hosting the first annual [[Abbott Magic Get-Together]] that fall. The event became an annual tradition that continues to this day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.magictimes.com/archives/2012/2012-07_23-29.htm |title=MagicTimes News Archives - July 23-29, 2012 |publisher=Magictimes.com |date= |accessdate=2013-09-14}}</ref><ref>[http://members.tripod.com/~tfred/sjblack2.html The Magic Capital of the World, page 2]</ref>
He also founded the Abbott Magic Co.'s magazine called "Tops", in January 1936, editing it for several years before turning it over to the Abbott company's staff artist, Howard Melson.

By the end of 1945, Percy Abbott's business was spread over seven buildings and employed over 54 workers with Abbott branch stores established in Detroit, Indianapolis, New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago. Abbott's issued the largest magic catalog of all time, some 832 pages long, and featuring over 1800 different products, most manufactured at the Abbott factories.

Abbott maintained an active interest in the magic business until his retirement in 1959. At that time, he sold his share of the company to longtime partner Bordner. In 2003 his children, Marilyn, Linda & Sydney along with Rick Fisher started the Fisher-Abbott Magic Company (FAB Magic) in Colon solidifying Colon's claim as the Magic Capital of The World.<ref name="Cahyka">{{cite news|last1=Chayka|first1=Kyle|title=Welcome to Colon, Magic Capital of the World|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/9/24/6127597/welcome-to-colon-magic-capital-of-the-world|accessdate=21 May 2017|work=The Verge|date=24 September 2014}}</ref>

In 1959 Abbott wrote his memoir, "A Lifetime in Magic" which was published just months before he died, on August 26, 1960, from a heart attack at the age of 74.<ref>Programmes of Famous Magicians, 1937.</ref><ref>Cover of [[Genii Magazine]] (June, 1949)</ref><ref>Cover of The Linking Ring, October 1959</ref> Percy Abbott's life, including personal details of his years in Australia, is subject of website

== Bibliography ==

=== Books ===

==== Written or contributed to ====
* Percy Abbott: Magical Years,Biography of Percy Abbott Written by Rick Fisher (2016)
* Abbott's Magic for Magicians, Secrets of Occidental and Oriental Magic (1934).<ref>{{Cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=MAFwtgAACAAJ&q=editions:ISBN1428621539 | title = Abbott's Magic for Magicians | last1 = Abbott | first1 = Percy | year = 1934}}</ref>
* Abbott's Practical Patter (1935)
* Comedy Magic (Abbott) (1937)
* A Lifetime in Magic (1960)
* Abbott's Encyclopedia of Rope Tricks, Vol. 1 (1941) compiled by Stewart James
* Rice's Encyclopedia of Silks, Vol. 1, (1948) by [[Harold Rice]]
* Abbott's Cigarette Magic compiled by Tom Zeno (1936)

==== Published ====

* Hat Loading Methods, compiled by U. F. Grant and Stewart James (1941)
* Illusions! Illusions! (n.d.)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}[http://www.percyabbott.com WWE]

==External links==
* [http://www.percyabbott.com Percy Abbott: Magical Years]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abbott, Percy}}
[[Category:1886 births]]
[[Category:1960 deaths]]
[[Category:American magicians]]
[[Category:Australian emigrants to the United States]]

7150 aluminium alloy

2025-01-03T22:26:22Z

Omcsesz: /* Alternate designations */ incorrect template changed

{{Short description|Wrought aluminium zinc alloy}}
'''Aluminium 7150 alloy''' is a [[Heat treating|heat treatable]] [[Aluminium alloy|wrought alloy]]. It is used in the [[Aerospace|aerospace industry]] for manufacturing aircraft components. Heat treatment can improve its anti-[[corrosion]] properties with a low corresponding decrease in [[Ultimate tensile strength|strength]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=8 May 2013|title=7150 aluminum alloy|url=https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=8766|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525001927/http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleId=8766 |archive-date=2013-05-25 |access-date=|website=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Aluminum alloy 7150 pdf|url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a227506.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210108085946/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a227506.pdf |archive-date=2021-01-08 |access-date=|website=}}</ref>

== Chemical composition ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Element<ref name=":0" />
!Content (%)
|-
|[[Aluminium|Aluminum]]
|85.9 - 89.5
|-
|[[Zinc]]
|7.2 - 8.2
|-
|Magnesium
|2 - 2.9
|-
|Copper
|1.2 - 1.9
|-
|Silicon
|≤ 0.15
|-
|Titanium
|≤ 0.10
|-
|Iron
|≤ 0.20
|-
|Chromium
|0.10 - 0.22
|-
|Manganese
|≤ 0.20
|-
|Other (total)
|≤ 0.15
|}

== Properties ==
{| class="wikitable"
!Properties
!Value
|-
|Density<ref name=":0" />
|2.84 g/cm3
|-
|Ultimate tensile strength<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Aluminum 7150 properties|url=http://www.matweb.com/search/datasheet.aspx?matguid=3fec163aba814c979b30103abbb72b99|access-date=|website=}}</ref>
|607 MPa
|-
|Yield strength<ref name=":2" />
|565 MPa
|-
|Elongation at break<ref name=":2" />
|11%
|-
|Fracture toughness<ref name=":2" />
|26.4 MPa-m½
|}

== Alternate designations ==
It has the following alternate designations:<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=|first=|date=15 June 2019|title=Aluminum alloy 7150|url=https://dl.asminternational.org/handbooks/book/91/chapter-abstract/2088456/7150High-Strength-Plate-and-Extrusion-Alloy?redirectedFrom=fulltext|access-date=|website=|doi=10.31399/asm.hb.v02b.a0006742|s2cid=240497092}}</ref>
* AA 7150
* AMS 4252A
* 4306A
* 4307S
* 4345A
* UNS A97150

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
# {{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Rui-ji |last2=Sun |first2=Qing-qing |last3=Xie |first3=Yue-huang |last4=Dong |first4=Peng-xuan |last5=Chen |first5=Qi-yuan |last6=Chen |first6=Kang-hua |title=Enhancing corrosion resistance of 7150 Al alloy using novel three-step aging process |journal=Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China |date=1 May 2016 |volume=26 |issue=5 |pages=1201–1210 |doi=10.1016/S1003-6326(16)64192-4 }}
# http://www.icaa-conference.net/ICAA12/pdf/P046.pdf
# https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240427022_Hot_deformation_behavior_of_7150_aluminum_alloy_during_compression_at_elevated_temperature
# https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286794197_Mechanical_properties_and_exfoliation_behavior_of_7150-RRA_aluminum_alloy_retrogressed_at_175C
# https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:44025414

== Aluminium alloy table ==
{{Aluminium alloys}}

[[Category:Aluminium–zinc alloys]]

802.11 frame types

2025-01-03T22:14:26Z

Omcsesz: /* Protocol version subfield */ template type changed

{{Short description|Frames in the Wi-Fi standards (Ipv4_Ipv6 802.11)}}
{{use mdy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Use American English|date = March 2019}}

In the [[IEEE 802.11]] [[wireless LAN]] [[Communication protocol|protocols]] (such as [[Wi-Fi]]), a [[Medium access control|MAC]] [[Frame (networking)|frame]] is constructed of common fields (which are present in all types of frames) and specific fields (present in certain cases, depending on the type and subtype specified in the first octet of the frame).

[[File:802.11_frame.png|alt=|right|frameless|622x622px|Generic 802.11 Frame]]

The very first two octets transmitted by a station are the Frame Control. The first three subfields within the frame control and the last field ([[Frame check sequence|FCS]]) are always present in all types of 802.11 frames. These three subfields consist of two bits Protocol Version subfield, two bits Type subfield, and four bits Subtype subfield.

== Frame control ==
[[File:802.11 Frame Control.png|thumb|802.11 Frame Control Field|alt=|490x490px]]
The first three fields (Protocol Version, Type and Subtype) in the Frame Control field are always present. The fields, in their order of appearance in transmission, are:

# Protocol Version
#[[#Types and subtypes|Type]]
#[[#Types and subtypes|Subtype]]
#[[#ToDS and FromDS|To-DS]]
#[[#ToDS and FromDS|From-DS]]
# More-Fragments
#[[#Retry|Retry]]
# Power Management
# More Data
#[[#Protected frame|Protected frame]]
#[[#+HTC/order|+HTC/order]]

=== Protocol version subfield ===
The two-bit ''protocol version'' subfield is set to 0 for WLAN (PV0) and 1 for [[IEEE 802.11ah]] (PV1). The revision level is incremented only when there is a fundamental incompatibility between two versions of the standard.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://community.cisco.com/t5/wireless-mobility-documents/802-11-frames-a-starter-guide-to-learn-wireless-sniffer-traces/ta-p/3110019|title=802.11 frames : A starter guide to learn wireless sniffer traces|date=2010-10-25|website=community.cisco.com|language=en|access-date=2019-02-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications|publisher=IEEE|version=2016|location=New York, NY|page=638|author=802.11 Working Group}}</ref> PV1 description is incorporated in the latest 802.11-2020 standard.

===Types and subtypes===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: left;"
|+style="text-align: center;" |Various 802.11 frame types and subtypes
!Type value
(bits 3–2)
!Type
description
!Subtype value
(bits 7–4)
!Subtype description
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|0000
|Association Request
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|0001
|Association Response
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|0010
|Reassociation Request
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|0011
|Reassociation Response
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|0100
|Probe Request
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|0101
|Probe Response
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|0110
|Timing Advertisement
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|0111
|Reserved
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|1000
|[[Beacon frame|Beacon]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|1001
|ATIM
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|1010
|Disassociation
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|1011
|Authentication
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|1100
|Deauthentication
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|1101
|Action
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|1110
|Action No Ack (NACK)
|- style="text-align: center;"
|00
|Management
|1111
|Reserved
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|0000–0001
|Reserved
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|0010
|Trigger<ref>{{cite book|author=LAN/MAN Standards Committee |title=IEEE Standard for Information Technology--Telecommunications and Information Exchange between Systems Local and Metropolitan Area Networks--Specific Requirements Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications Amendment 1: Enhancements for High-Efficiency WLAN |date=9 February 2021 |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9442429 |location=New York, NY|publisher=IEEE Standards Association |page=76 |doi=10.1109/IEEESTD.2021.9442429 |isbn=978-1-5044-7390-3}}</ref>
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|0011
|TACK
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|0100
|[[Beamforming]] Report Poll
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|0101
|[[IEEE 802.11ac|VHT]]/[[IEEE 802.11ax|HE]] NDP Announcement
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|0110
|Control Frame Extension
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|0111
|Control Wrapper
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|1000
|[[Block acknowledgement|Block Ack Request (BAR)]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|1001
|[[Block acknowledgement|Block Ack (BA)]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|1010
|[[IEEE 802.11e-2005#Automatic power save delivery|PS-Poll]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|1011
|[[IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS|RTS]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|1100
|[[IEEE 802.11 RTS/CTS|CTS]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|1101
|[[Acknowledgement (data networks)|ACK]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|1110
|CF-End
|- style="text-align: center;"
|01
|Control
|1111
|CF-End + CF-ACK
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|0000
|Data
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|0001–0011
|Reserved
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|0100
|Null (no data)
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|0101–0111
|Reserved
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|1000
|[[Quality of service|QoS]] Data
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|1001
|QoS Data + CF-ACK
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|1010
|QoS Data + CF-Poll
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|1011
|QoS Data + CF-ACK + CF-Poll
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|1100
|QoS Null (no data)
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|1101
|Reserved
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|1110
|QoS CF-Poll (no data)
|- style="text-align: center;"
|10
|Data
|1111
|QoS CF-ACK + CF-Poll (no data)
|- style="text-align: center;"
|11
|Extension
|0000
|[[WiGig|DMG]] [[Beacon frame|Beacon]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
|11
|Extension
|0001
|S1G Beacon
|- style="text-align: center;"
|11
|Extension
|0010–1111
|Reserved
|}

=== ToDS and FromDS ===
ToDS is one bit in length and set to 1 if destined to [[Wireless distribution system|Distribution System]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://dalewifisec.wordpress.com/2014/05/17/the-to-ds-and-from-ds-fields/|title=THE TO DS AND FROM DS FIELDS|last=Rapp|first=Dale|date=2014-05-17|website=DALESWIFISEC|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=13 August 2019}}</ref> while FromDS is a one-bit length that is set to 1 if originated from Distribution System.<ref name=":0" />

=== Retry ===
Set to 1 if the Data or Management frame is part retransmission of the earlier frame. This bit is reused for different purpose in Control frame.

=== Protected frame ===
Set to 1 if the Management Frame is protected by encryption as described in [[IEEE_802.11w-2009]].

=== +HTC/order ===
It is one bit in length and is used for two purposes:

* It is set to 1 in a non-[[Quality of service|QoS]] data frame transmitted by a non-QoS WLAN station to indicate the frame being transmitted is using Strictly-Ordered service class (this use is obsolete and will be removed from the future 802.11 Standard).
* It is set to 1 in a [[Quality of service|QoS]] data or management frame transmitting at HT or higher rate to indicate that the frame contains HT Control field (see above)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Internet access}}
{{Wireless video}}
{{Telecommunications}}
[[Category:Wi-Fi]]
[[Category:Networking standards]]

Hungarian Skeptic Society

2025-01-03T22:05:49Z

Omcsesz: /* History of skepticism in Hungary */ Missing value of parameter added

{{Short description|Organization}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Szkeptikus Társaság Hungarian Skeptic Society
| image = Szkeptikus Tarsasag Sziget 1.JPG
| image_size = 300px
| image_border =
| alt =
| caption = Hungarian Skeptic Society at the [[Sziget Festival]]
| abbreviation = HSS (English); SzT (Hungarian)
| formation = December 2006
| type = [[Nonprofit organization|Nonprofit organisation]]
| status =
| purpose = {{nowrap|Development and support of the [[scientific skepticism|skeptic]]}} community
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = [[Gábor Hraskó]]
| headquarters = [[Budapest]]
| location =
| region_served = [[Hungary]]
| website = http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu
}}

The '''Hungarian Skeptic Society (HSS)''' (Hungarian: ''Szkeptikus Társaság Egyesület'') is a [[Scientific skepticism|skeptic]] [[list of skeptical organizations|organisation]] based in [[Hungary]]. Founded in 2006, it has been a member of the [[European Council of Skeptical Organisations]] (ECSO) since 2007.<ref name=intro>{{cite web | url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/introduction | title=Hungarian Skeptic Society - Introduction | access-date=13 November 2013 }}</ref> Its former president, [[Gábor Hraskó]] was also chairman of ECSO from 2013 to 2017.<ref name=CSICOP>{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/two_decades_of_skepticism_in_hungary_a_personal_view/|title=Two decades of skepticism in Hungary - A personal view|author=András G. Pintér|publisher=[[CSICOP]]|date=2015-01-22|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://szkeptikustarsasag.hu/hirek/42-hirek/700-magyar-ecso-vezeto |title=Magyar vezető az európai szkeptikus szervezet élén|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság |language=hu|date=25 August 2013 |access-date=5 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecso.org/about-us| title= ECSO - Skeptics in Europe - About|publisher=[[European Council of Skeptical Organisations|ECSO]]|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref> The current president, [[András Gábor Pintér]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ecso.org/news/new-leadership-of-the-hungarian-skeptic-society/|title=New leadership of the Hungarian Skeptic Society|publisher=[[European Council of Skeptical Organisations|ECSO]]|date=2020-11-23|access-date=2020-11-28}}</ref> who has been a board member of ECSO since 2017, is also the initiator, producer & co-host of the [[European Skeptics Podcast]].

==History of skepticism in Hungary==
[[File:About Time Tour Gottenheim 05 (cropped).jpg|200px|thumb|[[András G. Pintér]], president of the Hungarian Skeptic Society]]
After the [[End of communism in Hungary (1989)|political changes in Hungary]], pseudoscientific claims started to proliferate in the beginning of the 1990s.<ref name=intro /><ref name=CSICOP /> There was a group of scientists from the [[Hungarian Academy of Sciences]], led by the late professor of anatomy [[János Szentágothai]] who, along with [[science]] writers at the journal ''Természet Világa (the World of Nature)'' and columnists of the time,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Skepticism gains ground in Hungary|author=Barry Karr|author-link=Barry Karr|publisher=Skeptical Briefs|volume=1 | issue=4|date=November 1991|journal= Természet Világa}}</ref> who formed a group called ''Tényeket Tisztelők Társasága'' ("Society of the Respecters of Facts", also called 'Hungarian Skeptics').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.termeszetvilaga.hu/xaknak/10020/|title=A Tényeket Tisztelők Társasága alapszabálya|work=X-Aknák|publisher=Természet Világa|language=hu|date=4 April 1997|access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> However, this was not an officially existing body, only a fellowship of like-minded scholars and journalists, including internationally recognised [[SETI]] astronomer [[Iván Almár]], TV host [[István Vágó]] and many others (i.e. professor of Chemistry Mihály Beck, professor of physiology György Ádám). Also, the approach of this group was fairly different from that seen in other skeptical organisations around [[Europe]] and the world, lacking grassroots activism and focusing on high-ranking scholars, expressing their opinion to a wider audience.

==Founding the Hungarian Skeptic Society==
[[File:Hrasko Gabor ESC 14.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Gábor Hraskó]], former president of the HSS]]
In the second half of 2006, skeptical activists, brought together by the annual Conference of Hungarian Skeptics in [[Székesfehérvár]], teamed up with critically thinking individuals and small groups who had frequently shared their ideas on the internet or other channels. On 15 December 2006 the Hungarian Skeptic Society was founded with 19 participants. {{asof|2015}}, it has around 100 members from across Hungary.<ref name=ECSO_HSS>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecso.org/member-org/hungarian-skeptic-society|title=Members - Hungarian Skeptic Society |publisher=[[European Council of Skeptical Organisations|ECSO]] |date=2014-05-24|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref> The Hungarian Skeptics originally began with the atheist movement, but they discovered that the two groups had different strategies, Hraskó explains that both are important, but the atheist group is more philosophical and has already reached the conclusion that God does not exist, no need to investigate. Whereas skeptics are more focused on the scientific method.<ref name="ESP">{{cite podcast|url=http://theesp.eu/podcast%20archive/episode_001_gabor_hrasko.html|title=Episode No. 001, feat. Gábor Hraskó|publisher=The [[European Skeptics Podcast]]|website=Theesp.eu|host=[[SoundCloud]]|date=3 May 2016|access-date=3 May 2016}}</ref>

==Campaigns and activities==

===Online===
The HSS has an intensive online presence with an official [http://szkeptikus.hu website], an official [[Facebook]] [http://facebook.com/szkeptikustarsasag page] that is rapidly growing in popularity, a discussion [https://www.facebook.com/groups/szkeptikus.tarsasag/ group] with thousands of members, a [http://szkeptikus.blog.hu blog] and a [http://hangtar.szkeptikus.hu podcast channel], along with a [[Twitter]] handle ([https://twitter.com/szkeptikus @szkeptikus]) and a [[YouTube]] [https://www.youtube.com/user/SzkeptikusTarsasag channel].

===Darwin Day===
In 2007, the organisation launched a campaign to celebrate the life and achievements of [[Charles Darwin]] and the scientific importance of [[evolution]] and joined the international [[Darwin Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/news?start=24|title=Darwin Day 2007|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság|date=2007-01-18|access-date=2015-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412165820/http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/news?start=24|archive-date=2015-04-12|url-status=dead}}</ref> with a few local events and a [http://darwinnap.hu website], that was later followed by a [https://www.facebook.com/DarwinNap Facebook page].

===Skeptic Club===
Every month, lectures are held in the centre of Budapest, covering different topics ranging from [[philosophy]] to [[homeopathy]] and featuring many well-known experts on each individual field.<ref name=ECSO_HSS /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/budapest/szt-klub|title=Klubnap|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref>

===14th European Skeptics Congress===
[[File:Speakers ESC 14.jpg|250px|thumb|Speakers of the 14th European Skeptics Congress]]
Between 17 and 19 September 2010, the Hungarian Skeptic Society was granted the rights by the [[European Council of Skeptical Organisations|ECSO]] to organise and host the 14th European Skeptics Congress in [[Budapest]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/14th-european-skeptic-congress|title=14th European Skeptics Congress|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság|date=2010-08-11|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref> The 3-day conference, held in Hotel Flamenco in [[Buda]], featured many internationally recognised skeptics, including [[Willem Betz]] from [[SKEPP]], British psychologist [[Chris French]], Michael Heap from [[Association for Skeptical Enquiry|ASKE]], [[paranormal]] investigator [[Joe Nickell]] from [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|CSI]], [[Massimo Polidoro]] from [[CICAP]] in Italy, Andy Wilson from the [[Merseyside Skeptics Society]] and science writer [[Simon Singh]] along with several Hungarian skeptics (recognised astronomer [[Iván Almár]] from [[SETI]], TV host [[István Vágó]], computational scientist George Kampis, physicist Gábor Szabó and linguist Klára Sándor).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/14th-european-skeptic-congress/lecturers|title=Lecturers|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság|access-date=2015-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412163843/http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/14th-european-skeptic-congress/lecturers|archive-date=2015-04-12|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==="1023 Homeopathy - There's Nothing in It" campaign===
[[File:1023 campaign Hungary.webm|thumb|Homeopathic "overdose" by members of the Hungarian Skeptic Society in [[Szeged]] with then vice president [[Ernő Duda]] (left) and current vice president János Györgyey (middle), 5 February 2011]]
In 2011 the HSS joined the [[10:23 Campaign]], a worldwide challenge to raise awareness about the ineffectiveness of homeopathic remedies and the implausibility of the mechanisms they claim to work in the background of it. As part of the campaign, members and supporters of the organisation executed a homeopathic overdose in 3 Hungarian cities: Budapest, [[Székesfehérvár]], [[Szeged]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1023.org.uk/the-1023-challenge.php|title=The 10:23 Challenge - 2011|access-date=2015-04-12}}</ref>
As part of the campaign, a "Hungarian 10:23 Homeopathy - There's nothing in it" [http://1023.hu webpage] and a [https://www.facebook.com/1023.hu Facebook page] was launched as well.

==Board members==
*András G. Pintér - ''president''
*Dániel Péterfi - ''managing director''
*Laura Csécsi - ''vice president''
*János Györgyey - ''vice president''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://facebook.com/szkeptikustarsasag The Hungarian Skeptic Society's Facebook page]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20170902231342/http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/news?Itemid=66 The Hungarian Skeptic Society's website]

{{Sceptic organisations}}

[[Category:Skeptic organisations in Hungary]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Hungarian Skeptic Society

2025-01-03T22:00:07Z

Omcsesz: /* History of skepticism in Hungary */ Missing attribute for citation added

{{Short description|Organization}}
{{Infobox organization
| name = Szkeptikus Társaság Hungarian Skeptic Society
| image = Szkeptikus Tarsasag Sziget 1.JPG
| image_size = 300px
| image_border =
| alt =
| caption = Hungarian Skeptic Society at the [[Sziget Festival]]
| abbreviation = HSS (English); SzT (Hungarian)
| formation = December 2006
| type = [[Nonprofit organization|Nonprofit organisation]]
| status =
| purpose = {{nowrap|Development and support of the [[scientific skepticism|skeptic]]}} community
| leader_title = President
| leader_name = [[Gábor Hraskó]]
| headquarters = [[Budapest]]
| location =
| region_served = [[Hungary]]
| website = http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu
}}

The '''Hungarian Skeptic Society (HSS)''' (Hungarian: ''Szkeptikus Társaság Egyesület'') is a [[Scientific skepticism|skeptic]] [[list of skeptical organizations|organisation]] based in [[Hungary]]. Founded in 2006, it has been a member of the [[European Council of Skeptical Organisations]] (ECSO) since 2007.<ref name=intro>{{cite web | url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/introduction | title=Hungarian Skeptic Society - Introduction | access-date=13 November 2013 }}</ref> Its former president, [[Gábor Hraskó]] was also chairman of ECSO from 2013 to 2017.<ref name=CSICOP>{{cite web|url=http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/two_decades_of_skepticism_in_hungary_a_personal_view/|title=Two decades of skepticism in Hungary - A personal view|author=András G. Pintér|publisher=[[CSICOP]]|date=2015-01-22|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://szkeptikustarsasag.hu/hirek/42-hirek/700-magyar-ecso-vezeto |title=Magyar vezető az európai szkeptikus szervezet élén|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság |language=hu|date=25 August 2013 |access-date=5 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecso.org/about-us| title= ECSO - Skeptics in Europe - About|publisher=[[European Council of Skeptical Organisations|ECSO]]|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref> The current president, [[András Gábor Pintér]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ecso.org/news/new-leadership-of-the-hungarian-skeptic-society/|title=New leadership of the Hungarian Skeptic Society|publisher=[[European Council of Skeptical Organisations|ECSO]]|date=2020-11-23|access-date=2020-11-28}}</ref> who has been a board member of ECSO since 2017, is also the initiator, producer & co-host of the [[European Skeptics Podcast]].

==History of skepticism in Hungary==
[[File:About Time Tour Gottenheim 05 (cropped).jpg|200px|thumb|[[András G. Pintér]], president of the Hungarian Skeptic Society]]
After the [[End of communism in Hungary (1989)|political changes in Hungary]], pseudoscientific claims started to proliferate in the beginning of the 1990s.<ref name=intro /><ref name=CSICOP /> There was a group of scientists from the [[Hungarian Academy of Sciences]], led by the late professor of anatomy [[János Szentágothai]] who, along with [[science]] writers at the journal ''Természet Világa (the World of Nature)'' and columnists of the time,<ref>{{cite journal|title=Skepticism gains ground in Hungary|author=Barry Karr|author-link=Barry Karr|publisher=Skeptical Briefs|volume=1 | issue=4|date=November 1991|journal= }}</ref> who formed a group called ''Tényeket Tisztelők Társasága'' ("Society of the Respecters of Facts", also called 'Hungarian Skeptics').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.termeszetvilaga.hu/xaknak/10020/|title=A Tényeket Tisztelők Társasága alapszabálya|work=X-Aknák|publisher=Természet Világa|language=hu|date=4 April 1997|access-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> However, this was not an officially existing body, only a fellowship of like-minded scholars and journalists, including internationally recognised [[SETI]] astronomer [[Iván Almár]], TV host [[István Vágó]] and many others (i.e. professor of Chemistry Mihály Beck, professor of physiology György Ádám). Also, the approach of this group was fairly different from that seen in other skeptical organisations around [[Europe]] and the world, lacking grassroots activism and focusing on high-ranking scholars, expressing their opinion to a wider audience.

==Founding the Hungarian Skeptic Society==
[[File:Hrasko Gabor ESC 14.jpg|200px|thumb|[[Gábor Hraskó]], former president of the HSS]]
In the second half of 2006, skeptical activists, brought together by the annual Conference of Hungarian Skeptics in [[Székesfehérvár]], teamed up with critically thinking individuals and small groups who had frequently shared their ideas on the internet or other channels. On 15 December 2006 the Hungarian Skeptic Society was founded with 19 participants. {{asof|2015}}, it has around 100 members from across Hungary.<ref name=ECSO_HSS>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecso.org/member-org/hungarian-skeptic-society|title=Members - Hungarian Skeptic Society |publisher=[[European Council of Skeptical Organisations|ECSO]] |date=2014-05-24|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref> The Hungarian Skeptics originally began with the atheist movement, but they discovered that the two groups had different strategies, Hraskó explains that both are important, but the atheist group is more philosophical and has already reached the conclusion that God does not exist, no need to investigate. Whereas skeptics are more focused on the scientific method.<ref name="ESP">{{cite podcast|url=http://theesp.eu/podcast%20archive/episode_001_gabor_hrasko.html|title=Episode No. 001, feat. Gábor Hraskó|publisher=The [[European Skeptics Podcast]]|website=Theesp.eu|host=[[SoundCloud]]|date=3 May 2016|access-date=3 May 2016}}</ref>

==Campaigns and activities==

===Online===
The HSS has an intensive online presence with an official [http://szkeptikus.hu website], an official [[Facebook]] [http://facebook.com/szkeptikustarsasag page] that is rapidly growing in popularity, a discussion [https://www.facebook.com/groups/szkeptikus.tarsasag/ group] with thousands of members, a [http://szkeptikus.blog.hu blog] and a [http://hangtar.szkeptikus.hu podcast channel], along with a [[Twitter]] handle ([https://twitter.com/szkeptikus @szkeptikus]) and a [[YouTube]] [https://www.youtube.com/user/SzkeptikusTarsasag channel].

===Darwin Day===
In 2007, the organisation launched a campaign to celebrate the life and achievements of [[Charles Darwin]] and the scientific importance of [[evolution]] and joined the international [[Darwin Day]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/news?start=24|title=Darwin Day 2007|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság|date=2007-01-18|access-date=2015-04-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412165820/http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/news?start=24|archive-date=2015-04-12|url-status=dead}}</ref> with a few local events and a [http://darwinnap.hu website], that was later followed by a [https://www.facebook.com/DarwinNap Facebook page].

===Skeptic Club===
Every month, lectures are held in the centre of Budapest, covering different topics ranging from [[philosophy]] to [[homeopathy]] and featuring many well-known experts on each individual field.<ref name=ECSO_HSS /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/budapest/szt-klub|title=Klubnap|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref>

===14th European Skeptics Congress===
[[File:Speakers ESC 14.jpg|250px|thumb|Speakers of the 14th European Skeptics Congress]]
Between 17 and 19 September 2010, the Hungarian Skeptic Society was granted the rights by the [[European Council of Skeptical Organisations|ECSO]] to organise and host the 14th European Skeptics Congress in [[Budapest]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/14th-european-skeptic-congress|title=14th European Skeptics Congress|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság|date=2010-08-11|access-date=2015-04-11}}</ref> The 3-day conference, held in Hotel Flamenco in [[Buda]], featured many internationally recognised skeptics, including [[Willem Betz]] from [[SKEPP]], British psychologist [[Chris French]], Michael Heap from [[Association for Skeptical Enquiry|ASKE]], [[paranormal]] investigator [[Joe Nickell]] from [[Committee for Skeptical Inquiry|CSI]], [[Massimo Polidoro]] from [[CICAP]] in Italy, Andy Wilson from the [[Merseyside Skeptics Society]] and science writer [[Simon Singh]] along with several Hungarian skeptics (recognised astronomer [[Iván Almár]] from [[SETI]], TV host [[István Vágó]], computational scientist George Kampis, physicist Gábor Szabó and linguist Klára Sándor).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/14th-european-skeptic-congress/lecturers|title=Lecturers|publisher=Szkeptikus Társaság|access-date=2015-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150412163843/http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/14th-european-skeptic-congress/lecturers|archive-date=2015-04-12|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==="1023 Homeopathy - There's Nothing in It" campaign===
[[File:1023 campaign Hungary.webm|thumb|Homeopathic "overdose" by members of the Hungarian Skeptic Society in [[Szeged]] with then vice president [[Ernő Duda]] (left) and current vice president János Györgyey (middle), 5 February 2011]]
In 2011 the HSS joined the [[10:23 Campaign]], a worldwide challenge to raise awareness about the ineffectiveness of homeopathic remedies and the implausibility of the mechanisms they claim to work in the background of it. As part of the campaign, members and supporters of the organisation executed a homeopathic overdose in 3 Hungarian cities: Budapest, [[Székesfehérvár]], [[Szeged]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.1023.org.uk/the-1023-challenge.php|title=The 10:23 Challenge - 2011|access-date=2015-04-12}}</ref>
As part of the campaign, a "Hungarian 10:23 Homeopathy - There's nothing in it" [http://1023.hu webpage] and a [https://www.facebook.com/1023.hu Facebook page] was launched as well.

==Board members==
*András G. Pintér - ''president''
*Dániel Péterfi - ''managing director''
*Laura Csécsi - ''vice president''
*János Györgyey - ''vice president''

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://facebook.com/szkeptikustarsasag The Hungarian Skeptic Society's Facebook page]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20170902231342/http://www.szkeptikustarsasag.hu/news?Itemid=66 The Hungarian Skeptic Society's website]

{{Sceptic organisations}}

[[Category:Skeptic organisations in Hungary]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

Members of the Red Army Faction

2025-01-02T01:55:35Z

Omcsesz: /* First generation Red Army Faction (1970–75) */ fixing typo

{{Short description|Members of Red Army Faction}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
[[File:RAF-Logo.svg|thumb|200px|[[Red Army Faction]] insignia]]

Members of the [[Red Army Faction]] (RAF) can be split up into three generations. The first (founding) generation existed from 1970 onwards. The second generation emerged from 1975 and included people from other groups such as the [[Socialist Patients' Collective]] (SPK) and the [[2 June Movement]]. The third generation began in 1982. The group announced its dissolution in 1998.

==Overview==

The [[Red Army Faction]] (RAF) existed in West Germany from 1970 to 1998, committing numerous crimes, especially in the autumn of 1977, which led to a national crisis that became known as the "[[German Autumn]]". The RAF was founded in 1970 by [[Andreas Baader]], [[Gudrun Ensslin]], [[Ulrike Meinhof]], [[Horst Mahler]], and others.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buchar |first=Robert |title=And reality be damned : undoing America : what media didn't tell you about the end of the Cold War and the fall of communism in Europe |publisher=Eloquent Books |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60911-166-3 |location=Durham, Conn. |pages=245 |language=en}}</ref> The first generation of the organization was commonly referred to by the press and the [[government of Germany|government]] as the "Baader-Meinhof Gang", a name the group did not use to refer to itself.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Gus |title=The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism |last2=Kushner |first2=Harvey W |publisher=SAGE Publications |others=Gus Martin, Harvey W. Kushner |year=2011 |isbn=9781412980166 |edition=2nd |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |pages=385 |language=en |author-link2=Harvey Kushner}}</ref>

The RAF was responsible for 34 deaths, including many secondary targets such as chauffeurs and bodyguards, and many injuries in its almost 30 years of activity.

Eileen MacDonald stated in ''Shoot the Women First'' (1991) that women made up about fifty percent of the membership of the Red Army Faction and about eighty percent of the RAF's supporters.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Mahan |first1=Sue |title=Terrorism in Perspective |last2=Griset |first2=Pamala L. |publisher=SAGE Publications |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4522-2545-6 |edition=3rd |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |pages=259 |language=en}}</ref> This was higher than other similar groups in [[West Germany]], in which women made up about thirty percent of the membership.

The RAF announced its dissolution in 1998 with the paper Die Stadtguerilla in Form der RAF ist nun Geschichte (The Urban Guerilla in the form of the RAF is now history).<ref name="RAFV1" />

==First generation Red Army Faction (1970–75)==
=== Founding first generation members ===

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+{{sronly|Founding first generation members of RAF}}
|-
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Dates
! scope="col" |Notes
|-
! scope="row" | Brigitte Asdonk
| 1947-
| Arrested in 1970, released from prison 1982.<ref name="RAFV2">{{cite book |last1=Moncourt |first1=André |last2=Smith |first2=J. |title=The Red Army Faction Volume 2: Dancing with imperialism |date=2013 |publisher=Kersplebedeb |location=Montreal, Quebec |isbn=978-1-60486-030-6}}</ref>{{rp|345}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Andreas Baader]]
| 1943–1977
| Involved in the 1968 [[Frankfurt department store firebombings]], founded the RAF, and was arrested during the 1972 May Offensive.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|345}} Seen by the German state as a leader of the first generation alongside Ensslin, Meinhof, Meins and Raspe.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|250}} Visited in jail by [[Jean Paul Sartre]].<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|267}} Allegedly committed suicide by shooting himself in the back of the head in [[Stammheim prison]] on 18 October 1977.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|41}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ingeborg Barz]]
| 1948-?
| Early member, quit the RAF in 1972, thought to be dead.<ref name="RAFV1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Monika Berberich]]
| 1947-
| Arrested in 1970, escaped and was recaptured in 1976, then was released 1988.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|346}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Gudrun Ensslin]]
| 1940–1977
| Involved in the 1968 [[Frankfurt department store firebombings]], founded the RAF, and was arrested during the 1972 May Offensive.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|349}} Seen by the German state as a leader of the first generation alongside Baader, Meinhof, Meins and Raspe.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|250}} Allegedly committed suicide in [[Stammheim prison]] on 18 October 1977.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|41}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Irene Goergens]]
| 1951-
| Met Ulrike Meinhof as a teenager and was arrested in 1970. She was released in 1977.<ref name="RAFV1">{{cite book |last = Smith |first = J. |author2=Moncourt, André |title = The Red Army Faction, a Documentary History: Volume 1: Projectiles for the People |publisher = PM Press |edition = eBook |year = 2009 |isbn = 978-1-60486-029-0}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Manfred Grashof]]
| 1946-
| Arrested in 1977 and released in 1988.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|350}}
|-
! scope="row" | Peter Homann
| 1936-
| Founding member of the RAF, broke with the RAF after participating in the training camp in Jordan. Went with [[Stefan Aust]] to Sicily and took Ulrike Meinhof's children to their father, whereas Meinhof wanted them to go to her sister.<ref name="RAFV1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Horst Mahler]]
| 1936-
| Lawyer who joined the RAF and was arrested in 1970. By 1974 he had been expelled from the RAF. After his release from prison in 1980, he went on to join the neo-Nazi [[Nationaldemokratische Partei Deutschlands]] and to found a holocaust denial group.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|355}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ulrike Meinhof]]
| 1934–1976
| A well-known radical [[journalist]] who was editor of ''[[konkret]]''. She was married to [[Klaus Rainer Röhl]] then divorced him. She became friends with Baader and Ensslin, then helped free Andreas Baader from imprisonment on 14 Mai 1970. Arrested with Gerhard Müller in 1972 and seen by the German state as a leader of the first generation alongside Baader, Ensslin, Meins and Raspe.<ref name="RAFV1" /><ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|250}} She was found hanged in her prison cell on 9 May 1976. The International Investigatory Commission into the Death of Ulrike Meinhof announced in 1978 that she had been sexually assaulted and murdered.<ref name="RAFV1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Astrid Proll]]
| 1947-
| Arrested in 1971 and released to hospital in 1973 due to health conditions caused by [[solitary confinement]]. She escaped and went to England, where she was re-arrested in 1978.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|358}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Petra Schelm]]
| 1950–1971
| Early member, shot dead by Hamburg police in 1971 at the age of 20.<ref name="RAFV1" /><ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|360}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ingrid Schubert]]
| 1944–1977
| Founding member and amongst the first gorup of RAF members to be arrested alongside Asdonk, Berberich, Goergens and Mahler. Allegedly committed suicide in a Munich prison on 13 November 1977, two weeks after the deaths of Baader, Ensslin and Raspe.<ref name="RAFV1" />
|}

===Other first generation members===

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+{{sronly|Other first generation members of RAF}}
|-
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Dates
! scope="col" |Notes
|-
! scope="row" | Christa Eckes
| 1950-
| Arrested on 4 February 1974 when the police raided RAF [[safehouse]]s simultaneously in Hamburg and Frankfurt together with Kay-Werner Allnach, Wolfgang Beer, Eberhard Becker, Helmut Pohl, Margrit Schiller and Ilse Stachowiak.<ref name="RAFV1" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Schiller |first1=Margrit |title="Es war ein harter Kampf um meine Erinnerung" : ein Lebensbericht aus der RAF |year=1999 |publisher=Konkret Literatur Verlag |isbn=3-89458-181-6|page=256}}</ref> On 28 September 1977, she was sentenced to seven years in prison. After her release she was arrested again on 2 July 1984 in Frankfurt, when a gun was accidentally discharged into the apartment below a safe house. The others arrested were Helmut Pohl, Stefan Frey, Ingrid Jakobsmeier, Barbara Ernst and Ernst-Volker Staub.<ref name="RAFV1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Angela Luther]]
| 1940-
| First involved with the Blues-Scene and West Berlin Tupamaros, but in July 1971, she met with some RAF members, and together with Thomas Weissbecker she expressed interest and started working with the RAF. On 12 May 1972 she participated in the bombing of a police station in Augsburg together with Irmgard Möller, and on 24 May 1972 she was involved in the bombing of the officers club and the Campbell Barracks in Heidelberg{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Holger Meins]]
| 1941 – 1974
| A [[leftist]] [[cinematography]] student in [[West Germany]], he joined the Baader-Meinhof gang quite early on along with Beate Sturm and was seen as a leading member. In 1971 he was arrested alongside Raspe and Baader during a shoot-out with the police in Frankfurt. In prison the Baader-Meinhof gang called for a [[hunger strike]], as they felt they were being treated unfairly by the government. Meins died on 11 November 1974 as a result of the hunger strike. He weighed less than 100 [[pound (mass)|pounds]] at the time of his death; he was over six feet (1.8 m) tall. His death sparked rage amongst RAF members everywhere.{{cn|date=March 2024}} Seen by the German state as a leader of the first generation alongside Baader, Ensslin, Meinhof and Raspe.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|250}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Irmgard Möller]]
| 1947-
| Bombed the [[Campbell Barracks]] in [[Heidelberg]] on 24 May 1972.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=Amy Austin |title=Social Unrest and American Military Bases in Turkey and Germany Since 1945 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-92199-2 |location=[[Cambridge]], [[England]] |pages=105 |language=en}}</ref> She claimed responsibility in the name of the Commando 15 July (the date of Petra Schelm's death) in honour of Schelm.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sargeant |first=Jack |title=Guns, Death, Terror : 1960s & 1970s Revolutionaries, Urban Guerrillas and Terrorists |publisher=Creation |year=2003 |isbn=1-84068-099-7 |location=London |language=en |author-link=Jack Sargeant (writer)}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Jan-Carl Raspe]]
| 1944-1977
| An early member of the RAF, captured a short while before both [[Holger Meins]] and Andreas Baader were arrested in [[Frankfurt]] in 1972 (he had been the driver of their [[Porsche 911|Porsche Targa]]). Alongside Baader, Ensslin and Meinhof he was sentenced to life imprisonment at Stammheim. Raspe supposedly committed suicide in his cell using a [[9 mm]] [[Heckler & Koch]] handgun on 18 October 1977, however, it is also claimed that he was murdered in an extrajudicial killing.{{cn|date=March 2024}} Seen by the German state as a leader of the first generation alongside Baader, Ensslin, Meinhof and Meins.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|250}}
|-
! scope="row" | Beate Sturm
| 1950-
| Joined the RAF in 1970 with [[Holger Meins]] when she was a 19 year old student. She experienced difficulties imagining that innocent people could be affected by RAF actions and left the group in 1971. She later gave some newspaper interviews.<ref name="Moghadam">{{cite journal |last1=Moghadam |first1=Assaf |author-link=Assaf Moghadam |title=Failure and Disengagement in the Red Army Faction |journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism |date=February 2012 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=156–181 |doi=10.1080/1057610X.2012.639062}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Tommy Weissbecker]]
| 1944-1972
| An associate of [[Horst Mahler]] and a minor member of the RAF. He was first involved with the [[Blues|Blues-Scene]] and [[West Berlin Tupamaros]] but in July 1971 he met with some RAF members and together with Angela Luther he expressed interest and started working with the RAF. In 1971 he was charged and acquitted with assaulting a [[Axel Springer AG|Springer]] journalist. Later, on 2 March 1972, Weissbecker, along with Carmen Roll, was stopped by police outside a hotel in [[Augsburg]]. Weissbecker was shot dead by the police when he reached into his pocket, supposedly to grab his gun. However [[Stefan Aust]] claims that he was simply reaching into his pocket to produce ID. On 12 May 1972, over two months after Weissbecker's death, RAF members bombed a police station in Augsburg and a Criminal Investigations Agency in Munich. They claimed responsibility for the bombings in the name of the 'Tommy Weissbecker Kommando'.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|}

== Second generation Red Army Faction (1975–1982) ==
By 1972 a large number of the core members of the Baader-Meinhof Gang had been captured and imprisoned. However, new members swelled the dwindling ranks of the Gang. These revolutionaries mostly had similar backgrounds to the first generation, e.g. they were [[middle class]] and frequently students. Most of them joined the Gang after their own groups dissolved e.g. the [[Socialist Patients' Collective]] (SPK) and [[Movement 2 June]] (J2M).{{cn|date=March 2024}}

===Former SPK members===
The SPK, the leftist 'therapy-through-violence' group, dissolved in 1971, and those members who had turned militant forged links and joined with the Baader-Meinhof Gang. [[Brigitte Mohnhaupt]], Klaus Jünschke Carmen Roll, and Gerhard Müller had already joined as part of the first generation of the RAF but originally started in SPK.

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+{{sronly|Former SPK members}}
|-
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Dates
! scope="col" |Notes
|-
! scope="row" | Elisabeth von Dyck
| 1951–1979
| Member of the SPK and then RAF.<ref name="Aust">{{cite book |last1=Aust |first1=Stefan |title=Der Baader-Meinhof-Komplex |date=2017 |publisher=Hoffmann und Campe |isbn=978-3-455-00033-7 |page=710 |edition=1. Auflage der Neuausgabe, erweiterte und aktualisierte Ausgabe}}</ref> She was born in [[Nuremberg]]. She was the girlfriend of Klaus Jünschke and later of lawyer [[Klaus Croissant]]. She was involved with the 'committees against torture' in 1974. In 1975 von Dyck, along with [[Siegfried Haag]], was arrested on suspicion of [[smuggling]] weapons out of [[Switzerland]] and served six months in a detention centre in [[Cologne]] before being released. However, a warrant went out for her arrest in 1977. von Dyck went underground, and Monika Helbing stated that around this time she fled to Baghdad for a while with Friederike Krabbe. von Dyck returned to West Germany sometime between 1977 and 1979, and on 4 May 1979, von Dyck entered a Nuremberg house, thought to have been an RAF hideout, which was under police surveillance. The police shot von Dyck through the back, killing her. A gun was found on her body. von Dyck was shot even though she was only suspected of being involved with the RAF, and was not a high-priority on the wanted list. However, it was alleged that the police shot her after she first drew a pistol and aimed it at them.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Bernhard Braun
| 1946-
| Involved with SPH, RAF and [[Movement 2 June]]. On 9 June 1972, Braun and [[Brigitte Mohnhaupt]] were arrested in [[West Berlin]]. He broke away from the RAF whilst imprisoned.<ref name="RAFV1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Siegfried Hausner]]
| 1952–1975
| He took part in a bombing of the [[Axel Springer Verlag]] in 1971 and was the leader of the [[West German embassy siege]] in [[Stockholm]] in 1975, when he was fatally injured after [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] was accidentally detonated{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Sieglinde Hofmann]]
| 1944-
| An important figure of the second generation RAF and was personally involved in the [[kidnap]] and murder of [[Hanns-Martin Schleyer]], his driver and three accompanying policemen.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Hanna-Elise Krabbe
| 1945-
| Member of the [[IZRU]] (the group which succeeded the SPK) and was the elder sister of Friederike Krabbe, another member. Hanna-Elise Krabbe took part in the West German embassy siege in Stockholm. She was the only female member involved in the siege. Her role during the siege was to guard the hostages. She was arrested when the siege failed and was sentenced on 20 July 1977, to twice life imprisonment. She was released from prison in 1996, after serving 21 years.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Friederike Krabbe
| 1950-
| Younger sister of Hanna-Elise Krabbe. She is believed to have been one of the RAF members who kidnapped Hanns Martin Schleyer. Afterwards she fled to Iraq, living in Baghdad with Elisabeth von Dyck and Monika Helbing. She left the RAF and is thought to still live in the Middle East.<ref name="Moghadam">{{cite journal |last1=Moghadam |first1=Assaf |author-link=Assaf Moghadam |title=Failure and Disengagement in the Red Army Faction |journal=Studies in Conflict & Terrorism |date=February 2012 |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=156–181 |doi=10.1080/1057610X.2012.639062}}</ref><ref name="RAFV1" />
|-
! scope="row" | [[Brigitte Mohnhaupt]]
| 1949-
| A leader amongst the second generation RAF and was involved in some of their most serious crimes (such as the murder of [[Jürgen Ponto]]) and was a key perpetrator during the [[German Autumn]].{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Klaus Jünschke
| 1947-
| Student member of the SPK, who managed to escape arrest when police came after certain members of the SPK in 1971. He joined the RAF with his militant girlfriend Elisabeth von Dyck and was involved in at least one bank robbery (in December 1971 in [[Kaiserslautern]] – alongside Ingeborg Barz and Wolfgang Grundmann).{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Carmen Roll
|
| Involved in 'working circle explosives' in which she achieved limited success with [[Siegfried Hausner]] when they managed to manufacture a small amount of TNT in December 1970 in the University Institute of Physiology. In February 1971 Roll, along with Hausner, planned to bomb the [[Walter Scheel|President of the Federal Republic's]] special train in Heidelberg station, but she arrived too late with the explosives, and the plot failed. On 2 March 1972, Roll was confronted by police outside a hotel in Augsburg. [[Tommy Weissbecker]] was shot dead and Roll was arrested. Two weeks later to sedate her when she resisted fingerprinting she was given a near-fatal dose of [[diethyl ether|ether]] by prison doctors. In 1976 Roll was freed from prison. She moved to [[Italy]] and became a [[nurse]].{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Lutz Taufer
| 1944-
| Protested against the supposed torture of political prisoners in West Germany in 1974.<ref name="Peters">{{Cite book |last1=Peters|first1=Butz |title=1977 RAF gegen Bundesrepublik |location=München |publisher=Droemer Verlag|year=2017|isbn=978-3-426-27678-5|pages=41–42, 506}}</ref> In 1975, he joined the RAF and took part in the West German embassy siege in Stockholm. He was arrested and sentenced to two life terms, before being released in 1995.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|363}}
|-
! scope="row" | Ulrich Wessel
| 1946–1975
| Son of a rich Hamburg businessman. Wessel was described as a [[dandy]], and he was a millionaire by [[inheritance]]. He was involved with the SPK and took part in the West German embassy siege in Stockholm. He died during the siege when the TNT was accidentally exploded; the force of the explosion startled him so much that he dropped a grenade he was holding and it exploded on him. He died soon afterwards.{{cn|date=March 2024}}
|}

===Former M2J members===
The [[Movement 2 June]] was founded in 1972 and was allied with the RAF but was ideologically anarchist as opposed to the Marxist RAF. In the early 1980s, the movement disbanded and many members then joined the RAF.

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+{{sronly|Former M2J members}}
|-
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Dates
! scope="col" |Notes
|-
! scope="row" | Ingrid Barabass (or Barabaß)
| 1952-
| In 1979, she decided to renounce violence together with fellow RAF members [[Karin Kamp-Münichow]], [[Karola Magg]] and [[Regina Nicolai]].<ref name="Wunschik">{{cite book |last1=Wunschik |first1=Tobias |title=Baader-Meinhofs Kinder: Die zweite Generation der RAF |date=1997 |publisher=Westdt. Verl |location=Opladen |isbn=978-3-531-13088-0}}</ref>{{rp|386}}
|-
! scope="row" | Rolf Heißler
| 1948-
| Became acquainted with [[Brigitte Mohnhaupt]] in the late 1960s and first became a member of the [[Munich Tupamaros]] and later joined the RAF together with his ex-wife Mohnhaupt, but he was also closely acquainted with the Movement 2 June. On 13 April 1971 he was involved in a bank robbery in Munich but was arrested. In 1972 he was sentenced to a six-year imprisonment. On 3 March 1975, he was released as part of the Peter Lorenz kidnapping and exchange together with Rolf Pohle, Verena Becker, [[Ina Siepmann]] and [[Gabriele Kröcher-Tiedemann]] and ended up in [[South Yemen]]. In October 1976 he returned undetected to Germany. According to [[Peter-Jürgen Boock]], Heißler and Stefan Wisniewski shot Hanns Martin Schleyer. On 1 November 1978 he and [[Adelheid Schulz]] shot two Dutch customs officers, [[Dionysius de Jong]] and [[Johannes Goemans]], at a passport control in [[Kerkrade]] and seriously injured two more. de Jong died instantly, and Goemans died on 14 November 1978. When he was arrested on 9 June 1979 in Frankfurt, Heissler was seriously injured by a shot in the head but survived. On 10 November 1982, he was sentenced to two life terms plus 15 years for murders and membership in the RAF. On 25 October 2001, he was released on probation.{{cn|date=April 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Gabriele Kröcher-Tiedemann]]
| 1951–1995
| Member of Movement 2 June, arrested then freed after the Lorenz kidnapping. Involved in the 1976 [[OPEC siege]] led by [[Carlos the Jackal]].<ref name="Becker">{{cite book |last1=Becker |first1=Jillian |title=Hitler's children: the story of the Baader- Meinhof terrorist gang |date=1978 |publisher=Joseph |location=London |isbn=0-7181-1582-1 |edition=3. impr}}</ref>{{rp|299,300}}
|-
! scope="row" | Juliane Plambeck
| 1952–1980
| Member of Munich Red Aid and co-founded Movement 2 June. Arrested in 1975 for involvement in the Lorenz kidnapping, then escaped from detention the following year and went underground. After the dissolution of M2J, she and Inge Viett joined the RAF in 1980. The same year, Plambeck and Wolfgang Beer died in a car crash after stealing a BMW.<ref name="RAFV1" /><ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|132,133}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Rolf Ludwig Pohle|Rolf Pohle]]
| 1942–2004
| First arrested on 17 December 1971 when he attempted to buy thirty-two firearms in a gun shop in [[Neu-Ulm]] which the police claimed were meant for the RAF. In 1974 he was sentenced to four years in prison because of membership in a criminal organisation, weapon possession and support activities for the RAF. On 3 March 1975, he was released as part of the Peter Lorenz kidnapping and exchange together with Rolf Heissler, Verena Becker, Ina Siepmann and Gabriele Kröcher-Tiedemann and ended up in South Yemen. On 21 July 1976, he was arrested again in [[Athens]] but first extradited to Germany on 1 October after a lengthy negotiation with Greece. On top of his original conviction, he was given a further three years and three months. He was released in 1982 and returned to [[Greece]] two years later. Until the outbreak of cancer, he worked as a teacher and translator. Pohle himself continued to deny any profound relations with the RAF. He died on 7 February 2004.{{cn|date=April 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ina Siepmann]]
| 1944-1982?
| Arrested in 1974 then released the following year. She is thought to have lived in Lebanon and to have been killed during the [[Sabra and Shatila Massacre]].<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|362}}
|}

===The Haag/Mayer Group===
The Haag/Mayer Group was a minor group of members within the second generation of the RAF. They were recruited by [[Siegfried Haag]], who organised the regrouping of the RAF in the mid 1970s together with [[Roland Mayer (Red Army Faction)|Roland Mayer]] before Brigitte Mohnhaupt took over the leadership after their arrest in 1976. [[Knut Folkerts]] from SPK and [[Verena Becker]] from J2M were also part of this group.{{CN|date=April 2024}}

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+{{sronly|Haag/Mayer Group}}
|-
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Dates
! scope="col" |Notes
|-
! scope="row" | [[Siegfried Haag]]
| 1944-
| Lawyer for the first generation of the RAF, then member by 1975. He was arrested in 1976 then went underground before being arrested again; he was sentenced to 15 years of imprisonment. In detention, he distanced himself from the RAF and he was released in 1987.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|105,350}}
|-
! scope="row" | Roland Mayer
|
| Arrested in 1976 and sentenced to 14 years of imprisonment, then released in 1988.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|355}}
|-
! scope="row" | Günter Sonnenberg
| 1954-
| Joined the RAF in 1976 and was arrested the following year with Verena Becker in [[Singen]], after he was recognised from a wanted poster. He had been shot in the body and head; hunger-striking prisoners demanded his release in both 1979 and 1981. He was sentenced to two life terms and was mainly held in [[solitary confinement]] until his release in 1992.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|35,363,373,377,380,384}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Knut Folkerts]]
| 1952-
| Convicted of robbing a gun shop with Willi-Peter Stoll and involvement with the assassination of [[Siegfried Buback]] in 1977. Denied the charges and was released in 1995. Also convicted for shooting dead a Dutch policeman during his arrest in Utrecht.<ref name="RAFV1" />
|-
! scope="row" | Uwe Folkerts
| 1948-
| Arrested on 5 May 1977 together with [[Johannes Thimme]] in connection with the [[Siegfried Buback]] assassination. In late 1978 he was found guilty of lending his car to [[Adelheid Schulz]] and Sabine Schmitz and sentenced to sixteen months imprisonment.{{cn|date=April 2024}} Brother of Knut.<ref name="RAFV1" />
|}

===Other second generation members===

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+{{sronly|Haag/Mayer Group}}
|-
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Dates
! scope="col" |Notes
|-
! scope="row" | [[Peter-Jürgen Boock]]
| 1951-
| Husband of Waltraud Boock. Joined the RAF in 1976, left in 1980, arrested in 1981. In 1992, Boock admitted participating in the kidnap of Schleyer, pardoned 1998.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|347}}
|-
! scope="row" | Waltraud Boock
| 1951-
| Wife of [[Peter-Jürgen Boock]], was arrested on 13 December 1976 following an unsuccessful bank raid in Vienna together with Sabine Schmitz. On 4 February 1977 she was sentenced to 15 years.{{cn|date=February 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Karl-Heinz Dellwo
| 1952-
| Took part in the 1975 West German embassy siege in Stockholm. Imprisoned for life in 1977, released 1995.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|348}}
|-
! scope="row" | Monika Helbing
| 1953-
| Joined the RAF in 1974 and was involved in the occupation of the [[Amnesty International]] offices in Hamburg. In 1976 she went underground and with [[Christian Klar]] and other members form the "Southern German cell" of the RAF. She was involved in the preparation and follow-up of the kidnapping of Hanns Martin Schleyer in fall 1977. In 1980 she left the RAF and received asylum and a new identity in East Germany. She was arrested on 14 June 1990 in [[Frankfurt an der Oder]] and later on 24 February 1992 she was sentenced to seven years in prison. After her arrest, she cooperated with the police and prosecutors and testified extensively. She was released in 1995 and today lives under a different name.{{cn|date=April 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Hans-Peter Konieczny
|
| Recruited by lawyer Jörg Lang and had just joined the RAF in February 1972, when he on 7 July the same year was cornered by the police in [[Offenbach am Main|Offenbach]]. He was persuaded to cooperate and set up Klaus Jünschke and [[Irmgard Möller]], who was easily captured by the police. Konieczny was released from custody two months later.{{cn|date=April 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Silke Maier-Witt]]
| 1950-
| Minor involvement in the kidnap of Hanns-Martin Schleyer and broke away from the RAF in 1979. She escaped into East Germany to avoid arrest and lived there until her capture in 1990. She served five years in jail before going on to work as a peace activist in [[Kosovo]].<ref name="terrorism-the-red-army-faction-436841">{{cite news |title=Terrorism: The Red Army Faction |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/terrorism-the-red-army-faction-436841.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219044335/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/terrorism-the-red-army-faction-436841.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 February 2011 |work=The Independent|date=18 February 2007 |access-date=12 February 2009}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Adelheid Schulz]]
| 1955-
| Wwas arrested with Brigitte Mohnhaupt in 1982 and imprisoned on three life sentences in 1985. Pardoned in 2002.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|228,361}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Angelika Speitel]]
| 1952-
| Joined the RAF in 1977, the following year was shot in the leg and arrested. She was sentenced to life imprisonment and pardoned in 1998.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|55,362}}
|-
! scope="row" | Volker Speitel
| 1950-
| Worked in [[Klaus Croissant]]'s office and was arrested in 1977 together with [[Rosemarie Preiss]] on a train in [[Puttgarden]]. He cooperated with the police and prosecutors, receiving the status of a [[Crown witness (Germany)|crown witness]].<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|55,253,374}}

|-
! scope="row" | [[Sigrid Sternebeck]]
| 1949-
| Moved to Hamburg in 1971 and met [[Susanne Albrecht]], [[Silke Maier-Witt]], Karl-Heinz Dellwo, Monika Helbing and Bernhard Rössner. In 1977 she joined the RAF and went underground. In 1980 she left the RAF and received asylum and a new identity in [[East Germany]]. She was arrested on 15 June 1990 in [[Schwedt]] together with her husband, Ralf Baptist Friedrich. After her arrest, she cooperated with the police and prosecutors and on 22 June 1992 sentenced to eight and a half years in prison due to her participation in a murder attempt on [[Alexander Haig]] and the assassination of Hanns Martin Schleyer. Today she lives under a different name in Northern Germany.{{cn|date=April 2024}}
|-
! scope="row" | Willi-Peter Stoll
| 1950-1978
| A RAF member directly involved with the kidnapping of Hanns-Martin Schleyer. He was said to have changed mentally after the event, and he became depressed and withdrew from the RAF. On 6 September 1978, Stoll was having dinner in a Chinese restaurant in the Red Light District in [[Düsseldorf]] when he was approached by police. He drew his gun and a shoot-out followed that resulted in Stoll's death.<ref>{{cite news |title=Top W. German Fugitive Killed |agency=Reuters |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=September 7, 1978 |page=I-8}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Johannes Thimme
| 1956-1985
| Served two prison sentences before dying in 1985, when the bomb that he was leaving at the Association for the Development of Air and Space Industries in Stuttgart went off.<ref name="RAFV1"/><ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|364}}
|-
! scope="row" | Christof Wackernagel
| 1951-
| Joined RAF in 1977 and arrested same year in Amsterdam together with [[Gert Schneider]]. Released from prison in 1987, moved to Mali.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|364}}
|-
! scope="row" | [[Rolf Clemens Wagner]]
| 1944-
| Joined RAF 1976, arrested after bank heist in Switzerland, imprisoned for life then pardoned in 2003.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|364365}}
|-
! scope="row" | Claudia Wannersdorfer
|
| Wounded by the explosion of a bomb she and Johannes Thimme were leaving outside the Association for the Development of Air and Space Industries in Stuttgart in 1985. She was sentenced to eight years in prison.<ref name="RAFV1"/>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Stefan Wisniewski]]
| 1953-
| Arrested in 1978, in Paris, on his way to Yugoslavia.<ref name="RAFV2" />{{rp|51,365}}
|}

==Third generation Red Army Faction (1982–1998)==
This generation was active mostly throughout the 1980s and early 1990s until the group disbanded in 1998.{{cn|date=April 2024}}

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|+{{sronly|Third generation RAF}}
|-
! scope="col" |Name
! scope="col" |Dates
! scope="col" |Notes
|-
! scope="row" | [[Wolfgang Grams]]
| 1953-1993
| Considered a leader of the third generation. Arrested and shot dead in [[Bad Kleinen]] in 1993, during a botched policing operation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aust |first=Stefan |title=Baader-Meinhof : The Inside Story of the R.A.F. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-537275-5 |location=Oxford |pages=436 |language=en |translator-last=Bell |translator-first=Anthea}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sweet |first=Kathleen M. |title=Aviation and airport security : terrorism and safety concerns |publisher=CRC Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4200-8816-8 |edition=2nd |location=Boca Raton |pages=116 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Eva Haule]]
| 1954-
| Went underground in 1984, was arrested in 1986, and after being sentenced remained in prison until 2007.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Provan |first=John |title=The History of Rhein-Main Air Base : A chapter coming to a close |publisher=IMAGUNCULA |year=2020 |isbn=9798569467327 |pages=51 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" |[[Birgit Hogefeld]]
| 1956-
| Considered a leader of the third generation. Arrested in [[Bad Kleinen]] in 1993, during a botched operation in which Grams died.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Aust |first=Stefan |title=Baader-Meinhof : The Inside Story of the R.A.F. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-537275-5 |location=Oxford |pages=436 |language=en |translator-last=Bell |translator-first=Anthea}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sweet |first=Kathleen M. |title=Aviation and airport security : terrorism and safety concerns |publisher=CRC Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4200-8816-8 |edition=2nd |location=Boca Raton |pages=116 |language=en}}</ref> After being sentenced for her involvement in the assassination of Detlef Rohwedder, Hogefeld remained in prison until 2011.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scribner |first=Charity |title=After the Red Army Faction : Gender, Culture, and Militancy |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0231538299 |location=New York |pages=57–58 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Daniela Klette]]
| 1958-
| Suspected perpetrator of a bungled attempt to rob an armoured security van near Bremen in June 2015,<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-35351477|title = German Red Army Faction radicals 'bungled armed robbery'|work = BBC News|date = 19 January 2016|access-date = 21 June 2018|archive-date = 19 February 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180219045415/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-35351477|url-status = live}}</ref> Arrested in Berlin in February 2024.<ref name="APNews2024">{{cite news |title=A former member of Germany's Red Army Faction has been arrested after decades in hiding |url=https://apnews.com/article/germany-red-army-faction-arrest-berlin-12b30502db981e84fd84767c5c3a2a5b |access-date=8 April 2024 |work=AP News |date=27 February 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | Burkhard Garweg
|
| Suspected perpetrator of a bungled attempt to rob an armoured security van near Bremen in June 2015,<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-35351477|title = German Red Army Faction radicals 'bungled armed robbery'|work = BBC News|date = 19 January 2016|access-date = 21 June 2018|archive-date = 19 February 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180219045415/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-35351477|url-status = live}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ernst-Volker Staub]]
|
| Suspected perpetrator of a bungled attempt to rob an armoured security van near Bremen in June 2015,<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-35351477|title = German Red Army Faction radicals 'bungled armed robbery'|work = BBC News|date = 19 January 2016|access-date = 21 June 2018|archive-date = 19 February 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180219045415/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-35351477|url-status = live}}</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book
|last = Aust
|first = Stefan
|author-link = Stefan Aust
|title = Baader-Meinhof Complex
|publisher = Vintage
|year = 2008
|isbn = 978-1-84792-045-4}}
*{{cite journal
|last = Becker
|first = Jillian
|author-link = Jillian Becker
| year = 1981
| title = The Red Army Faction: Another final battle on the stage of history
| journal = [[Terrorism (journal)|Terrorism]]
| volume = 5
| issue = 1/2
| pages = 1–4
|doi = 10.1080/10576108108435505
| url = http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/cultn/cultn012.pdf
| access-date = 20 December 2008
}}
*{{cite book
|last = Becker
|first = Jillian
|author-link = Jillian Becker
|title = [[Hitler's Children: The Story of the Baader-Meinhof Terrorist Gang]]
|publisher = Diane Publishing Company
|year = 1998
|isbn = 0-7881-5472-9}}
*{{cite book
|last = Boock
|first = Peter-Jürgen
|author-link = Peter-Jürgen Boock
|title = Die Entführung und Ermordung des Hanns-Martin Schleyer
|publisher = Eichborn
|language = de
|year = 2002
|isbn = 3-8218-3976-7}}
*{{cite book
|last = Dartnell
|first = Michael York
|title = Action directe: ultra-left terrorism in France, 1979–1987
|publisher = Routledge
|year = 1995
|isbn = 0-7146-4566-4}}
*{{cite book |last1=Schiller |first1=Margrit |title="Es war ein harter Kampf um meine Erinnerung" : ein Lebensbericht aus der RAF |year=1999 |publisher=Konkret Literatur Verlag |isbn=3-89458-181-6}}
*{{cite book
|last = Strassner
|first = Alexander
|title = Die dritte Generation der "Roten Armee Fraktion": Entstehung, Struktur, Funktionslogik und Zerfall einer terroristischen Organisation
|publisher = VS Verlag
|language = de
|year = 2003
|isbn = 3-531-14114-7}}
*{{cite book
|last = Vague
|first = Tom
|title = Televisionaries: The Red Army Faction Story, 1963–1993
|publisher = AK Press
|series = Rev Update edition (August 1994)
|year = 1994
|isbn = 1-873176-47-3}}

{{Members of the Red Army Faction}}

[[Category:Members of the Red Army Faction| ]]
[[Category:Red Army Faction|Members]]

Piping and plumbing fitting

2024-08-05T11:43:04Z

Omcsesz: changed capital first letter to small

{{Short description|Connecting pieces in pipe systems}}
[[File:Kupferfittings 4062.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption|Copper fittings for soldered joints]]
[[File:Robinetterie-raccords.JPG|thumb|alt=See caption|Pipe fittings: 1) Copper (solder); 2) Iron or brass (threaded); 3) Brass (compression); 4) Brass (compression to solder); 5) Brass adapters]]
[[File:Kształtki hydrauliczne.jpg|thumb|alt=dark-colored PVC fittings|PVC fittings]]

A '''fitting''' or '''adapter''' is used in pipe systems to connect sections of [[pipe (fluid conveyance)|pipe]] (designated by [[Nominal Pipe Size|nominal size]], with greater [[Engineering tolerance|tolerances]] of variance) or [[tube (fluid conveyance)|tube]] (designated by actual size, with lower tolerance for variance), adapt to different sizes or shapes, and for other purposes such as regulating (or measuring) [[fluid]] flow.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.safeplumbing.org/technical/glossary#faq-24|title=Glossary|website=Plumbing Manufacturers International (PMI)|access-date=2024-01-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331124604/http://www.plumbingmart.com/plumbing-glossary-a.html|archive-date=2022-03-31|url-status=dead|url=http://www.plumbingmart.com/plumbing-glossary-a.html |title=Plumbing Glossary |website=PlumbingMart |access-date=2 July 2019}}</ref> These fittings are used in [[plumbing]] to manipulate the conveyance of [[Fluid|fluids]] such as [[water]] for [[Drinking water|potatory]], [[irrigation|irrigational]], [[Sanitation|sanitary]], and [[cooling|refrigerative]] purposes, [[Natural gas|gas]], [[petroleum]], [[Wastewater|liquid waste]] , or any other liquid or gaseous substances required in domestic or commercial environments, within a system of pipes or tubes, connected by various methods, as dictated by the material of which these are made, the material being conveyed, and the particular environmental context in which they will be used, such as [[Soldering|soldering]], [[Mortar (masonry)|mortaring]], [[Oakum|caulking]], [[Plastic welding|plastic welding]], [[welding]], [[Interference fit|friction fittings]], [[Threaded pipe|threaded fittings]], and [[Compression fitting|compression fittings]].

Fittings allow multiple pipes to be connected to cover longer distances, increase or decrease the size of the pipe or tube, or extend a network by branching, and make possible more complex systems than could be achieved with only individual pipes. [[Valve|Valves]] are specialized fittings that permit regulating the flow of fluid within a plumbing system.

== Standards ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2016}}
{{geographical imbalance|the world|date=January 2017}}
Standard codes are followed when designing (or manufacturing) a piping system. Organizations which promulgate piping standards include:

* [[ASME]]: American Society of Mechanical Engineers
** A112.19.1 Enameled cast-iron and steel plumbing fixtures standards
** A112.19.2 Ceramic plumbing fixtures standard
* [[ASTM International]]: American Society for Testing and Materials
* API: [[American Petroleum Institute]]
* AWS: [[American Welding Society]]
* AWWA: [[American Water Works Association]]
* MSS: Manufacturers Standardization Society
* ANSI: [[American National Standards Institute]]
* NFPA: [[National Fire Protection Association]]
* EJMA: [[Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association]]
* CGA: [[Compressed Gas Association]]
*PCA: [https://ablis.business.gov.au/service/ag/the-plumbing-code-of-australia-pca-/31066 Plumbing Code of Australia]

Pipes must conform to the dimensional requirements of:

* ASME B36.10M: Welded and seamless wrought-steel pipe
* ASME B36.19M: Stainless-steel pipe
* ASME B31.3 2008: Process piping
* ASME B31.4 XXXX: Power piping

== Materials ==
[[File:BritanniaIronWorksTubeFittings.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=Plumbing fittings on a board|Display of threaded cast-iron fittings]]
The material with which a pipe is manufactured is often the basis for choosing a pipe. Materials used for manufacturing pipes include:

* [[Carbon steel|Carbon]] (CS) and [[Galvanization|galvanized]] steel
* Impact-tested carbon steel (ITCS)
* Low-temperature carbon steel (LTCS)
* [[Stainless steel]] (SS)
* [[Malleable iron]]
* Chrome-molybdenum (alloy) steel (generally used for high-temperature service)
* Non-ferrous metals (includes [[copper]], [[inconel]], [[incoloy]], and [[cupronickel]])
* Non-metallic (includes [[acrylonitrile butadiene styrene]] (ABS), [[fibre-reinforced plastic]] (FRP), [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC), [[chlorinated polyvinyl chloride]] (CPVC), [[high-density polyethylene]] (HDPE), [[Cross-linked polyethylene]] (PEX), and [[toughened glass]]; [[polybutylene]] has also been used, but is now banned in North America because of poor reliability)

The bodies of fittings for pipe and tubing are often the same base material as the pipe or tubing connected: copper, steel, PVC, CPVC, or ABS. Any material permitted by the plumbing, health, or building [[Building code|code]] (as applicable) may be used, but it must be compatible with the other materials in the system, the fluids being transported, and the temperature and pressure inside (and outside) the system. [[Brass]] or [[bronze]] fittings are common in copper piping and plumbing systems. [[Fire protection|Fire resistance]], [[earthquake]] resistance, mechanical ruggedness, theft resistance, and other factors also influence the choice of pipe and fitting materials.

== Gaskets ==
[[Gasket]]s are mechanical seals, usually [[O-ring|ring-shaped]], which seal flange joints.<ref>{{cite news|title=Proper Replacement Of Gaskets Important |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=861&dat=19630226&id=kf5HAAAAIBAJ&sjid=eYAMAAAAIBAJ&pg=6577,5763223 |access-date=December 26, 2013|newspaper=The Victoria Advocate |date=Feb 26, 1963}}</ref> Gaskets vary by construction, materials and features. Commonly used gaskets are non-metallic (ASME B 16.21), spiral-wound (ASME B 16.20) and ring-joint (ASME B 16.20). Non-metallic gaskets are used with flat- or raised-face flanges. Spiral-wound gaskets are used with raised-face flanges, and ring-joint gaskets are used with ring-type joint (RTJ) flanges. Stress develops between an RTJ gasket and the flange groove when the gasket is bolted to a flange, leading to plastic deformation of the gasket.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wermac.org/gaskets/gaskets.html|title=Gaskets General – Non-Metallic Flat, Spiral Wound Gaskets, Camprofile Gaskets, Metal-Jacketed Gaskets and Metallic Gaskets -|work=wermac.org}}</ref>

== {{anchor|Gender of fittings}}Gender ==
{{See also|Gender of connectors and fasteners}}
Piping or tubing is usually inserted into fittings to make connections. Connectors are assigned a gender, abbreviated M or F. An example of this is a "{{frac|3|4}}-inch female adapter [[National pipe thread|NPT]]", which would have a corresponding male connection of the same size and thread standard (in this case also NPT).

==Common piping and plumbing fittings ==
{{anchor|Common fittings for both piping and plumbing}}
This section discusses fittings primarily used in pressurized piping systems, though there is some overlap with fittings for low-pressure or non-pressurized systems. Specialized fittings for the latter setups are discussed in the next major subsection.

===Adapter===
[[File:Copper threaded adapters.jpg|thumb|Two threaded adapters for connecting copper pipe (sweat) to a female thread]]
[[File:Barbed Christmas tree oxygen adapter.png|thumb|Tapered barbed adapter used for oxygen devices]]
In plumbing, an ''adapter'' is generally a fitting that interfaces two different parts. The term commonly refers to:
*any fitting that connects pipes of different materials, including:<ref>{{cite book |title=Design Guide: Residential PEX Water Supply Plumbing Systems |edition=2nd |publisher=Home Innovation Research Labs |year=2013 |quote=Several varieties of fitting adapters are available for simple transition between piping systems, such as solder, threaded, and polybutylene adapters |page=89}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plumbingmart.com/plumbing-glossary-a.html |title=Plumbing Glossary |website=PlumbingMart |access-date=3 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Anvil Pipe Fitters Manual |date=April 2012 |publisher=Anvil International |page=99 |section=Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations |quote=Adaptor: A fitting that joins two different type of pipe together such as PVC to cast iron, or threaded to non-threaded}}</ref>
**'''expansion adapters''' which have a flexible section to absorb expansion or contraction from two dissimilar pipe materials<ref>{{cite book |pages=[https://archive.org/details/audelplumberspoc00mill_239/page/n207 197], 201, 287 |publisher=Wiley Publishing, Inc. |year=2004 |isbn=0-7645-7654-2 |title=Audel Plumber's Pocket Manual |url=https://archive.org/details/audelplumberspoc00mill_239 |url-access=limited |edition=10th |last1=Miller |first1=Rex |last2=Miller |first2=Mark Richard}}</ref>
**'''mechanical joint (MJ) adapters''' for joining polyethylene pipe to another material<ref name="pe-handbook">{{cite book |title=Handbook of Polyethylene (PE) Pipe |url=https://plasticpipe.org/publications/pe-handbook.html |publisher=The Plastics Pipe Institute, Inc. |year=2010 |edition=2nd}}</ref>{{rp|349}}
**'''bell adapters''' which are like mechanical joint adapters but contain a stainless steel backup ring to maintain a positive seal against the mating flange<ref name="pe-handbook" />{{rp|347}}
**'''flange adapters''' which attach to a polyethylene pipe with butt fusion to stiffen a junction and allow another flanged pipe or fitting to be bolted on<ref name="pe-handbook" />{{rp|341}}
*a fitting that connects pipes of different diameters, genders, or threads {{see below|{{section link||Coupling}} below}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://parker.autoclave.com/category/adapters-couplings |title=High pressure adapters/couplings |website=Parker Autoclave Engineers |access-date=3 July 2019}}</ref>
**'''adapter spools''' (also called '''crossover spools'''), used on oilfields and pressure control, have different diameters, pressure ratings or designs at each end<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/Terms/a/adapter-spool.aspx |entry=adapter spool |title=Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary |publisher=Schlumberger}}</ref>
**adapters to convert [[National Pipe Thread|NPT]] to [[British Standard Pipe|BSP]] pipe threads are available<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.parker.com/literature/Tube%20Fittings%20Division/Pipe_Fittings_&_Port_Adapters.pdf |page=F4 |title=Pipe Fittings and Port Adapters |website=Parker Hannifin Corporation |date=October 2017 |access-date=8 July 2019}}</ref>
*a fitting that connects threaded and non-threaded pipe<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.plumbingsupply.com/plumbing_dictionary.html |title=Plumbing, Kitchen & Bath Dictionary |website=PlumbingSupply.com |access-date=3 July 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://theconstructor.org/building/types-of-pipe-fittings-in-plumbing/12541/ |title=Different Types of Pipe Fittings in Plumbing System |website=The Constructor |last=Anupoju |first=Sadanandam |date=6 August 2016 |access-date=4 July 2019}}</ref>

===Elbow===
{{See also|Street elbow}}
[[File:1-1111 CU-solderfitting-type 5041.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Short, 45-degree copper elbow|Short-radius (or regular) 45° elbow (copper sweat)]]
[[File:1-1111 CU-solderfitting-type 5002-18.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Large copper elbow|Long-radius (or sweep) 90° elbow (copper sweat)]]
An elbow is installed between two lengths of pipe (or tubing) to allow a change of direction, usually a 90° or 45° [[angle]]; 22.5° elbows are also available. The ends may be machined for [[Welding|butt welding]], [[Threaded pipe|threaded]] (usually [[Gender of connectors and fasteners|female]]), or socketed. When the ends differ in size, it is known as a reducing (or reducer) elbow.

Elbows are also categorized by length. The [[radius of curvature]] of a long-radius (LR) elbow is 1.5 times the pipe diameter, but a short-radius (SR) elbow has a radius equal to the pipe diameter. Wide available short elbows are typically used in pressurized systems and physically tight locations.

Long elbows are used in low-pressure gravity-fed systems and other applications where low turbulence and minimum deposition of entrained solids are of concern. They are available in [[acrylonitrile butadiene styrene]] (ABS plastic), [[polyvinyl chloride]] (PVC), [[chlorinated polyvinyl chloride]] (CPVC), and copper, and are used in [[Drain-waste-vent system|DWV systems]], sewage, and [[central vacuum]] systems.

===Coupling===
{{main|Coupling (piping)}}
[[File:1-1111 CU-solderfitting-type 5270.jpg|thumb|alt=Short copper tube|Pipe coupling (copper sweat)]]
A [[Coupling (piping)|coupling]] connects two pipes. The fitting is known as a '''reducing coupling''', '''reducer''', or '''adapter''' if their sizes differ. There are two types of collars: "regular" and "slip". A regular coupling has a small ridge or stops internally to prevent the over-insertion of a pipe and, thus, under-insertion of the other pipe segment (which would result in an unreliable connection).

A '''slip coupling''' (sometimes also called a '''repair coupling''') is deliberately made without this internal stop to allow it to be slipped into place in tight locations, such as the repair of a pipe that has a small leak due to [[corrosion]] or [[freezing|freeze]] bursting, or which had to be cut temporarily for some reason. Since the alignment stop is missing, it is up to the installer to carefully measure the final location of the slip coupling to ensure that it is located correctly.

===Union===
[[File:Verschraubung 4072.jpg|thumb|alt=Two identical couplings, one assembled and one disassembled|Combination union and reducer (brass threaded)]]
A union also connects two pipes but is quite different from a coupling, as it allows future disconnection of the pipes for maintenance. In contrast to a coupling requiring [[solvent welding]], [[soldering]], or rotation (for threaded couplings), a union allows easy connection and disconnection multiple times if needed. It consists of three parts: a nut, a female, and a male end. When the female and male ends are joined, the nut seals the joint by pressing the two ends tightly together. Unions are a type of very compact flange connector.

'''Dielectric unions''', with [[dielectric]] insulation, separate dissimilar metals (such as copper and galvanized steel) to prevent [[galvanic corrosion]]. When two dissimilar metals are in contact with an electrically conductive solution (ordinary tap water is conductive), they form an electrochemical couple which generates a voltage by [[electrolysis]]. When the metals are in direct contact with each other, the [[electric current]] from one to the other also moves metallic [[ion]]s from one to the other; this dissolves one metal, depositing it on the other. A dielectric union breaks the electrical path with a plastic liner between its halves, limiting galvanic corrosion.

[[Rotary union]]s allow mechanical [[rotation around a fixed axis|rotation]] of one of the joined parts while resisting leakage.

===Nipple===
{{Main|Nipple (plumbing)}}
[[File:Plumbing Nipple.jpg|100px|thumb|alt=See caption|Nipple]]
A nipple is a short stub of pipe, usually male-threaded [[steel]], brass, chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CPVC), or copper (occasionally unthreaded copper), which connects two other fittings. A nipple with continuous uninterrupted threading is known as a '''close nipple'''. Nipples are commonly used with plumbing and hoses.

===Reducer===
[[File:Reduzierstuecke 4055.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption|Bronze threaded (at left) and copper [[Soldering|sweat]] (at right) reducers]]
{{Redirects|Reducer|the chemistry concept|Reducer (chemistry)}}
{{See also|Concentric reducer|Eccentric reducer}}
A '''reducer''' reduces the [[Pipe (material)|pipe]] size from a larger to a smaller bore (inner [[diameter]]). Alternatively, ''reducer'' may refer to any fitting which causes a change in pipe diameter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plumbingmart.com/plumbing-glossary-r.html |title=Plumbing Glossary |website=PlumbingMart |access-date=2 July 2019}}</ref> This change may be intended to meet [[hydraulic]] flow requirements of the system or adapt to existing piping of a different size. The reduction length is usually equal to the average of the larger and smaller pipe diameters. Although reducers are usually [[concentric]], [[eccentric reducer]]s are used as needed to maintain the top- or bottom-of-pipe level.

A reducer can also be used either as a nozzle or diffuser, depending on the [[mach number]] of the flow.{{cn|date=July 2019}}

===Bushing===
A double-tapped bushing, commonly shortened to bushing, is a fitting which serves as a [[reducer]]. It is a sleeve similar to a [[#Nipple|close nipple]], but is [[Pipe thread|threaded]] on both its inner and outer circumferences. Like a reducer, a double-tapped bushing has two threads of different sizes. A common type of this style fitting is a "hex bushing" with a hex head for installation with a pipe wrench.

A double-tapped bushing is more compact than a reducer but not as flexible. While a double-tapped bushing has a more minor female thread concentric to a larger male thread (and thus couples a smaller male end to a larger female), a reducer may have large and small ends of either gender. If both ends are the same gender, it is a ''gender-changing reducer''.

There are similar fittings for both sweat and solvent joinery. Since they are not "tapped" (threaded), they are simply called '''reducing bushings''.

===Tee===
{{anchor|Olets}}
[[File:1-1111 CU-solderfitting-type 5130-22.jpg|thumb|alt=T-shaped connector|Copper sweat tee]]
A tee combines or divides fluid flow. Tees can connect pipes of different diameters, change the direction of a pipe run, or both. Available in various materials, sizes and finishes, they may also be used to transport two-fluid mixtures.{{explain|date=March 2017}} Tees may be equal or unequal in size of their three connections, with equal tees the most common.

===Diverter tee===
This specialized type of tee fitting is used primarily in pressurized [[hydronic heating]] systems to divert a portion of the flow from the main line into a side branch connected to a radiator or heat exchanger. The diverter tee allows the flow in the main line, even when the side branch is shut down and not calling for heat. Diverter tees must be heeded with directional markings; a tee installed backwards will function very poorly.

===Cross===
Crosses, also known as '''four-way fittings''' or '''cross branch lines''', have one inlet and three outlets (or vice versa), and often have a solvent-welded sockets or female-threaded ends. Cross fittings may stress pipes as temperatures change because they are at the center of four connection points. A tee is steadier than a cross; it behaves like a three-legged stool, and a cross behaves like a four-legged stool. [[Geometry|Geometrically]], any three non-[[collinear]] points can self-consistently define a plane; three legs are inherently stable, whereas four points overdetermine a plane and can be inconsistent, resulting in physical stress on a fitting.

Crosses are common in [[fire sprinkler]] systems (where stress caused by thermal expansion is not generally an issue),{{why|date=March 2017}} but are not common in plumbing.

===Cap ===
{{anchor|Cap}}
[[File:1-1111 CU-solderfitting-type 5301.jpg|thumb|alt=See caption|Copper sweat cap]]
Caps, usually liquid- or gas-tight, cover the otherwise open end of a pipe. The exterior of an industrial cap may be round, square, rectangular, U- or I-shaped, or may have a handgrip.

===Plug===
{{See also|Plug (sanitation)}}
{{anchor|Plug}}
A '''plug''' is a short barbed fitting with a blank end that can only be used with PEX piping to end the continuation of a water line that is no longer in use due to tying in elsewhere within the system or to seal the end of a water line which may be used for future use in the case of additional facilities. All plugs are sealed watertight with a PEX crimp.

===Barb===
{{main|Hose barb}}
[[File:Brass Crimp Fittings.JPG|thumb|upright|alt=Ten different hose barbs|These brass fittings for PEX tubing are very similar to, but not necessarily interchangeable with hose barbs]]
A barb (or [[hose barb]]), which connects flexible hose or tubing to pipes, typically has a male-threaded end which mates with female threads. The other end of the fitting has a single- or multi-barbed tube—a [[truncated cone|long tapered cone]] with ridges, which is inserted into a flexible hose.

===Valve ===
{{anchor|Valves}}
{{Main|Valve}}
[[File:Kitchen renovation leaky valve beneath kitchen sink.JPG|thumb|alt=|These compression connections on water shutoff valves under a kitchen sink show evidence of slow seepage (greenish deposits).]]
Valves stop (or regulate) the flow of liquids or gases. They are categorized by application, such as isolation, throttling, and non-return.

Isolation valves temporarily disconnect part of a piping system to allow maintenance or repair, for example. Isolation valves are typically left in either a fully open or closed position. A given isolation valve may be in place for many years without being operated but must be designed to be readily operable whenever needed, including for emergency use.

Throttling valves control the amount or pressure of a fluid allowed to pass through and are designed to withstand the stress and wear caused by this operation. Because they may wear out in this usage, they are often installed alongside isolation valves which can temporarily disconnect a failing throttling valve from the rest of the system, so it can be refurbished or replaced.

Non-return or check valves allow the free flow of a fluid in one direction but prevent its flow in a reverse direction. They are often seen in drainage or sewage systems but may also be used in pressurized systems.

Valves are available in several types, based on design and purpose:
*Gate, plug, or ball valves – Isolation
*Globe valve – Throttling
*Needle valve – Throttling, usually with high precision but low flow
*Butterfly or diaphragm valves – Isolation and throttling
*Check valve – Preventing reverse flow (non-return)

== Drain-waste-vent (DWV) and related fittings ==
[[File:Cast-iron plumbing pipe.jpg|thumb|upright|This view looking upwards through a hole in the ceiling shows a traditional leaded hub joint (at top) and a more recent rubber-sleeved hubless connection (at lower right).]]
Because they operate at low [[pressure]] and rely on [[gravity]] to move fluids (and entrained solids), [[drain-waste-vent system]]s use fittings whose interior surfaces are as smooth as possible. The fittings may be "belled" (expanded slightly in diameter) or otherwise shaped to accommodate the insertion of pipe or tubing without forming a sharp interior ridge that might catch debris or accumulate material, and cause a clog or blockage.<ref>{{cite news|title=You Can Fix Plumbing Problems With The Right Equipment .|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=894&dat=19961020&id=w51aAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qU0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=4623,2547431|access-date=December 27, 2013|newspaper=The Daily Courier|date=October 20, 1996}}</ref> Freshly cut ends of pipe segments are carefully deburred to remove projecting slivers of material which may snag debris (such as hair or fibers) which can build up to cause blockages. This internal smoothness also makes it easier to "snake out" or "rod out" a clogged pipe with a [[plumber's snake]].

Underground piping systems for [[landscaping]] [[drainage]] or the disposal of [[stormwater]] or [[groundwater]] also use low-pressure gravity flow, so fittings for these systems resemble larger-scale DWV fittings. With high peak-flow volumes, the design and construction of these systems may resemble those of [[storm sewer]]s.

Fittings for [[central vacuum system]]s are similar to DWV fittings but usually have thinner and lighter construction because the weight of the materials conveyed is less. Vacuum-system designs share with DWV designs the need to eliminate internal ridges, burrs, sharp turns, or other obstructions which might create clogs.

=== Slip-joint fitting ===
{{anchor|Slip joint fitting}}
Slip-joint fittings are frequently used in kitchen, bathroom and tub drainage systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.freeonlineplumber.com/slip.html|title=Slip-Joint|work=freeonlineplumber.com}}</ref> They include a detached (movable) slip nut and slip-joint washer; the washer is made of rubber or nylon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://diy.stackexchange.com/questions/43927/in-slip-joints-whats-the-difference-between-rubber-and-nylon-washers|title=plumbing – In slip joints, what's the difference between rubber and nylon washers? – Home Improvement Stack Exchange|work=stackexchange.com}}</ref> An advantage of this type of fitting is that the pipe it is connecting to does not need to be cut to a precise length; the slip joint can attach within a range of the end of the inserting pipe. Many slip fittings may be tightened or loosened by hand for easier access to residential drainpipe systems (for example, to clean out a trap or access a drain line past a trap).

=== Sweep elbow ===
DWV elbows are usually long-radius ("sweep") types.<ref name="TPC"/>{{rp|61}} To reduce flow resistance and solid deposits when the direction of flow is changed, they use a shallow curve with a large [[radius of curvature]].<ref name="TPC"/>{{rp|61}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://diy.stackexchange.com/questions/24796/how-do-i-make-my-bathroom-pipes-more-practical/25057#25057|title=plumbing – How do I make my bathroom pipes more practical? – Home Improvement Stack Exchange|work=stackexchange.com}}</ref> In addition, a well-designed system will often use two 45° elbows instead of one 90° elbow (even a sweep 90° elbow) to reduce flow disruption as much as possible.<ref name="TPC"/>{{rp|61}}

Central vacuum system inlet fittings are intentionally designed with a tighter curvature radius than other bends in the system. If vacuumed debris becomes stuck, it will jam at the inlet, where it is easy to find and remove.

=== Closet flange ===
A [[closet flange]] (the drainpipe [[flange]] to which a [[flush toilet]] is attached) is a specialized flange designed to be flush with the floor, allowing a toilet to be installed above it. The flange must be mechanically strong to accommodate slight misalignments or movements and resist corrosion.

===Clean-out ===
{{anchor|Clean-outs}}
Clean-outs are fittings with removable elements, allowing access to drains without removing plumbing fixtures. They are used to allow an auger (or [[plumber's snake]]) to clean out a plugged drain. Since clean-out augers are limited in length, clean-outs should be placed in accessible locations at regular intervals throughout a drainage system (including outside the building). Minimum requirements are typically at the end of each branch in piping, just ahead of each water closet, at the base of each vertical stack and inside and outside the building in the main drain or sewer. Clean-outs usually have screw-on caps or screw-in plugs. They are also known as "rodding eyes", because of the eye-shaped cover plates often used on external versions.

===Trap primer ===
{{anchor|Trap primers}}
A [[trap primer]] automatically injects water into a [[Trap (plumbing)|trap]], maintaining a water seal to keep [[sewer gas]] out of buildings. It must be installed in an easily accessible place for adjustment, replacement, and repair. A trap primer, a specialized [[valve]], is usually connected to a clean-water supply in addition to a DWV system.<ref>{{cite news|title=Advise Check Of Drains|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2245&dat=19371004&id=IvQzAAAAIBAJ&sjid=Ce8HAAAAIBAJ&pg=5059,519100|date=Oct 4, 1937|newspaper=Lodi News-Sentinel|access-date=2013-12-26}}</ref> Because of the dual connection, it must be designed to resist the accidental [[backflow]] of contaminated water.

=== Combo tee ===
{{anchor|Combo-tee}}

A combination tee (combo tee, combo wye, tee-wye, long-sweep wye, or combi) is a tee with a gradually curving central connecting joint: a wye plus an additional 1/8 bend (45°), combined in one 90° unit. It is used in drains for a smooth, gradually curving path to reduce the likelihood of clogs, to ease the pushing of a [[plumber's snake]] through a drain system and to encourage water flow in the direction of the drain.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|165}}

=== Sanitary tee ===

A sanitary tee has a curved center section. In drainage systems, it is primarily used to connect horizontal drains (including fixture trap arms) to vertical drains. The center connection is generally to the pipe leading to a trap (the trap arm). It must not connect a vertical drain to a horizontal drain because of the likelihood that solids will accumulate at the bottom of the junction and cause a blockage.

=== Baffle tee ===
Also called a tee with a diverter baffle, a waste tee or an end-outlet tee, it typically connects waste lines before they enter the trap and has a baffle to keep water from one waste pipe from entering the other at the connection.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nettally.com/palmk/GDplumbing.html|title=Garbage Disposal Plumbing|website=www.nettally.com}}</ref>

=== Double sanitary tee (sanitary cross) ===
This fitting differs from a standard cross in that two ports have curved inlets. Although it has been used in the past for connecting the drains of back-to-back fixtures (such as back-to-back sinks), some current codes—including the 2006 [[Uniform Plumbing Code]] in the United States—prohibit the use of this fitting for that purpose and require a double-fixture fitting (double combination wye) to minimize wastewater from one side flowing into the other.

=== Wye (Y) or tee-wye (TY) ===
{{anchor|Wye ("Y") fitting|Wye fitting|Y fitting}}


Tee-wyes are similar to tees, except for angling the branch line to reduce friction and turbulence. They are commonly used to attach a vertical drainpipe to a horizontal one, reducing the deposition of entrained solids at the junction.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|159,165}}<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|165}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://diy.stackexchange.com/a/83497/11265|title=plumbing – combo tee vs. tee wye – Home Improvement Stack Exchange|work=stackexchange.com}}</ref> Wyes and combo wyes follow a long-sweep pattern relative to sanitary tees and other short-sweep bends, which have a smaller radius and require less space.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|165}}

Wyes also have industrial applications. Although low-priced wyes are often [[Spot welding|spot-welded]], industrial-strength wyes are [[Flash welding|flash-welded]] at each seam. In long-distance pipeline applications, a specialized wye is used to allow insertion of [[pigging]] to keep pipes clear and flowing.

=== Side inlet tee-wye (TY)===

This fitting (also known as a "bungalow fitting" or a "cottage fitting") is a sanitary tee that allows two trap arms to be connected at the same level. A toilet is the main connection, with the option of a right or left-hand outlet to the 3" inlet with a choice of 1-1/2" or 2" in size. It is used to keep stack-vented fixtures high to the joist space and thus conserves the headroom in a basement. As the water closet must be the lowest fixture, the smaller side outlet (usually used to connect the bathtub trap arm) enters slightly above the larger connection.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

== Hydraulic fittings ==
{{Main|Hydraulic machinery}}
Hydraulic systems use high fluid pressure, such as the [[hydraulic cylinder|hydraulic actuators]] for [[bulldozer]]s and [[backhoe]]s. Their hydraulic fittings are designed and rated for much greater pressure than that experienced in general piping systems, and they are generally not compatible with those used in plumbing. Hydraulic fittings are designed and constructed to resist high-pressure leakage and sudden failure.

== Connection methods ==
Much of the work of installing a piping or plumbing system involves making leakproof, reliable connections, and most piping requires mechanical support against [[gravity]] and other forces (such as [[wind load]]s and [[earthquake]]s) which might disrupt an installation.<ref>{{cite news|title=New Methods Simplify Plumbing Problems|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1917&dat=19330926&id=JF4hAAAAIBAJ&sjid=CYYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=743,2474599|access-date=December 26, 2013|newspaper=Schenectady Gazette|date=Sep 26, 1933}}</ref> Depending on the connection technology and application, basic skills may be sufficient, or specialized skills and [[professional licensing|professional licensure]] may be legally required.

=== Fasteners and supports ===
{{main|Pipe support}}
Fasteners join, or affix, two or more objects. Although they are usually used to attach pipe and fittings to mechanical supports in buildings, they do not connect the pipes. Fasteners commonly used with piping are a stud bolt <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pipingmart.com/products/stud-bolts|title=Steel stud bolts|work=pipingmart.com}}</ref> with nuts (usually fully threaded, with two heavy, hexagonal nuts); a machine bolt and nut; or a [[powder-actuated tool]] (PAT) fastener (usually a [[nail (fastener)|nail]] or [[threaded rod|threaded stud]], driven into concrete or masonry).

=== Threaded pipe ===
{{See also|National pipe thread|British Standard Pipe}}
[[File:Malefemalepipe.jpg|thumb|alt=Threaded pipe and elbow|Male threaded pipe and female threaded elbow]]

A [[threaded pipe]] has a [[screw thread]] at one or both ends for assembly. Steel pipe is often joined with threaded connections; tapered threads are cut into the end of the pipe, and sealant is applied in the form of [[pipe dope|thread-sealing compound]] or [[thread seal tape]] (also known as [[Polytetrafluoroethylene|PTFE]] or Teflon tape) and the pipe is screwed into a threaded fitting with a [[pipe wrench]].

Threaded steel pipe is widely used in buildings to convey [[natural gas]] or [[propane]] fuel and is also a popular choice in [[fire sprinkler]] systems due to its resistance to mechanical damage and high heat (including the threaded joints). Threaded steel pipe may still be used in high-security or exposed locations because it is more resistant to vandalism, more difficult to remove, and its scrap value is much lower than copper or brass.

A [[galvanized]] coating of metallic [[zinc]] was often used to protect steel water pipes from [[corrosion]], but this protective coating eventually would dissolve away, exposing the iron to deterioration. Pipes used to convey fuel gas are often made of "black iron", which has been chemically treated to reduce corrosion, but this treatment does not resist erosion from flowing water. Despite its ruggedness, steel pipe is no longer preferred for conveying drinking water because corrosion can eventually cause leakage (especially at threaded joints), deposits on internal surfaces will eventually restrict flow, and corrosion will shed black or [[rust]]y residues into the flowing water.

These disadvantages are less problematic for fire sprinkler installations because standing water in the steel pipes does not flow, except during occasional tests or activation by a fire. Introducing oxygen dissolved in freshwater supplies will cause some corrosion, but this soon stops without any source of additional water-borne oxygen.

In older installations, the threaded [[brass]] pipe was similarly used and was considered superior to steel for drinking water because it was more resistant to [[corrosion]] and shed much fewer residues into the flowing water.

Assembling threaded pipe is labor-intensive, and requires skill and planning to allow lengths of pipe to be screwed together in sequence. Most threaded-pipe systems require strategically located pipe-union fittings in final assembly. The threaded pipe is heavy and requires adequate attachment to support its weight.

To ensure a comprehensive pressure test, it is crucial to explicitly request a 3.1 certificate in accordance with EN HFF 10204:2004. This certificate attests that the 'metallic products' meet the stipulated order requirements and provides detailed test results. Typically, each fitting is associated with a unique heat number, which corresponds to the information documented in the 3.1 certificate datasheet.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://register.dpma.de/DPMAregister/marke/register/3020232244108/DE | title=DPMAregister | Marken - Registerauskunft }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.hardware-luzern.ch/de/c/abnahmepruefzeugnis-3-1-bedeutung-und-inhalt.7054 | title=Abnahmeprüfzeugnis 3.1: Bedeutung und Inhalt }}</ref>
{{clear}}

=== Solvent welding ===
{{Main|Plastic welding#Solvent welding|l1=Solvent welding}}
[[File:Polypropylene-PPR-Pipe-Tee 173369-480x360 (5000534776).jpg|thumb|alt=Three white plastic fittings: two tees and a union|Polypropylene fittings for solvent welding]]

A solvent is applied to [[Polyvinyl chloride|PVC]], [[Chlorinated polyvinyl chloride|CPVC]], [[Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene|ABS]] or other plastic piping to partially dissolve and fuse the adjacent surfaces of piping and fitting. Solvent welding is usually used with a sleeve-type joint to connect pipe and fittings made of the same (or compatible) material.

Unlike metal welding, solvent welding is relatively easy to perform (although care is needed to make reliable joints). Solvents typically used for plastics are usually [[toxic]]{{cn|date=April 2017}} and may be [[carcinogenic]]{{cn|date=April 2017}} and [[flammable]], requiring adequate ventilation.
{{clear}}

=== Soldering ===
[[File:Copper Brass Fitting Soldering.JPG|thumb|alt=See caption|Brass fitting soft-soldered to copper pipe]]
To make a [[Plumbing solder|solder]] connection, a chemical [[Flux (metallurgy)|flux]] is applied to the inner sleeve of a joint and the pipe is inserted. The joint is then heated, typically by using a [[propane torch|propane]] or [[MAPP gas]] torch, although electrically heated soldering tools are sometimes used. Once the fitting and pipe have reached sufficient temperature, solder is applied to the heated joint, and the molten solder is drawn into the joint by [[capillary action]] as the flux vaporizes. "Sweating" is a term sometimes used to describe the soldering of pipe joints.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Soldering Types|url=https://www.vipferro.com/blog/soldering/|url-status=live|website=VIP Ferro|date=20 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422220118/https://www.vipferro.com/blog/soldering/ |archive-date=Apr 22, 2023}}</ref>

Where many connections must be made in a short period (such as plumbing of a new building), soldering is quicker and less expensive joinery than compression or flare fittings. A degree of skill is needed to make several reliable soldered joints quickly. If flux residue is thoroughly cleaned, soldering can produce a long-lasting connection at a low cost. However, using an open flame for heating joints can present fire and health hazards to building occupants and requires adequate ventilation.



=== Welding ===
[[File:Pipe root weld with HAZ.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=|Partially-welded steel pipe joint]]
The [[welding]] of metals differs from soldering and brazing in that the joint is made without adding a lower-melting-point material (e.g. solder); instead, the pipe or tubing material is partially melted, and the fitting and piping are directly fused. This generally requires piping and fitting to be the same (or compatible) material. Skill is required to melt the joint sufficiently to ensure good fusion while not deforming or damaging the joined pieces.

Properly welded joints are considered reliable and durable. Pipe welding is often performed by specially licensed workers whose skills are retested periodically. For critical applications, every joint is tested with [[nondestructive testing|nondestructive]] methods. Because of the skills required, welded pipe joints are usually restricted to high-performance applications such as [[shipbuilding]], and in [[chemical reactor|chemical]] and [[nuclear reactor]]s.

Adequate [[Ventilation (architecture)|ventilation]] is essential to remove [[Metal fume fever|metal fumes]] from welding operations, and [[personal protective equipment]] must be worn. Because the high temperatures during welding can often generate intense [[ultraviolet light]], dark goggles or full face shields must be used to protect the eyes. Precautions must also be taken to avoid fires caused by stray sparks and hot welding debris.
{{clear}}

=== Compression fittings ===
{{Main|Compression fitting|Compression fittings}}
[[File:Compression fitting isolating valve 15mm screwdriver turn.jpg|thumb|alt=Disassembled three-piece valve|Compression connectors on an isolating valve; the reddish part is a copper compression ring]]
Compression fittings (sometimes called "lock-bush fittings") consist of a tapered, concave conical seat; a hollow, barrel-shaped compression ring (sometimes called a ferrule); and a compression nut which is threaded onto the body of the fitting and tightened to make a leakproof connection. They are typically brass or plastic, but stainless steel or other materials may be used.

Although compression connections are less durable than soldered (aka sweated) connections, they are easy to install with simple tools. However, they take longer to install than soldered joints and sometimes require re-tightening to stop slow leaks which may develop over time. Because of this possible leakage, they are generally restricted to accessible locations (such as under a kitchen or bathroom sink) and are prohibited in concealed locations such as the interiors of walls.

=== Push-to-pull compression fittings ===
{{Main|Push-to-pull compression fittings}}
Push-to-pull fittings are easily removed compression fitting that allows pipes to be connected with minimal tools. These fittings are similar to regular compression fittings but use an [[O-ring]] for sealing and a grip ring to hold the pipe. The main advantage is that it can easily be removed and re-used, it is easy to assemble, and the joints are still rotatable even after assembly. The pipe end should be square, so it sits against the stop in the fittings and does not create turbulence, and needs to be a clean cut to avoid damaging the O-ring during insertion.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Complete Guide to Plumbing |date=January 2019 |publisher=Black and Decker |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ozqEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 |page=30 |isbn=9780760362822 |section=Push-Fit Fittings}}</ref>

=== Flare fittings ===
{{Main|Flare fitting}}
[[File:Flare koppeling.png|thumb|Flare connection: 1) Screw thread; 2) O-ring; 3) Body; 4) Nut; 5) Seal interface; 6) Support ring (sleeve), and 7) Flared tubing]]

Flared connectors should not be confused with compression connectors, which are generally not interchangeable. Lacking a compression ring, they use a [[truncated cone|tapered conical]] shaped connection instead. A specialized flaring tool is used to enlarge tubing into a 45º tapered bell shape matching the projecting shape of the flare fitting.<ref name="Pro" />{{rp|82}} The flare nut, which had previously been installed over the tubing, is then tightened over the fitting to force the tapered surfaces tightly together. Flare connectors are typically brass or plastic, but stainless steel or other materials may be used.

Although flare connections are labor-intensive, they are durable and reliable. Considered more secure against leaks and sudden failure, they are used in [[hydraulic brake]] systems and in other high-pressure, high-reliability applications.

=== Flange fittings ===
[[File:Gasket.svg|thumb|alt=Illustration of fitting, indicating direction of flow|Flange connection with a gasket]]
Flange fittings are generally used to connect valves, inline instruments or equipment nozzles. Two surfaces are joined tightly together with threaded [[Screw|bolts]], [[wedge (mechanical device)|wedges]], clamps, or other means of applying high [[compression (physical)|compressive]] force.<ref>{{cite news|title=Seal Between Flange, Toilet When Troubleshooting In Leaky bathrooms|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1388&dat=20020904&id=_wgkAAAAIBAJ&sjid=QxIEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5035,5621038 |access-date=December 27, 2013 |newspaper=Northwest Columbus News |date=September 4, 2002}}</ref> Although a [[gasket]], [[seal (mechanical)|packing]], or [[O-ring]] may be installed between the flanges to prevent leakage, it is sometimes possible to use only a special grease or nothing at all (if the mating surfaces are sufficiently precisely formed). Although flange fittings are bulky, they perform well in demanding applications such as large [[water supply network]]s and [[Hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] systems.

Flanges are rated at 150, 300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, and 2500 [[Pounds per square inch|psi]]; or 10, 15, 25, 40, 64, 100, and 150 [[Bar (unit)|bars]] of pressure. Various types of flanges are available, depending on construction. Flanges used in piping (orifice, threaded, slip-on, blind, [[Weld neck flange|weld neck]], socket weld, lap-joint, and reducing) are available with a variety of facings, such as raised, flat, and ring-joint.

Flange connections tend to be expensive because they require the precision forming of metal. Factory-installed flanges must meet carefully measured dimensional specifications, and pipe segments cut to length on-site require skilled precision welding to attach flanges under more-difficult field conditions.
{{clear}}

=== Mechanical fittings ===
[[File:VictaulicPiping.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Large pipes connected with clamps|Mechanical sleeve clamps]]
Manufacturers such as [[Victaulic]] and [[Grinnell Grooved Products|Grinnell]] produce sleeve-clamp fittings, which replace many flange connections. They attach to the end of a pipe segment via circumferential grooves pressed (or cut) around the end of the pipe to be joined. They are widely used on larger steel pipes and can also be used with other materials.

The chief advantage of these connectors is that they can be installed after cutting the pipe to length in the field. This can save time and considerable expense compared to flange connections, which must be factory- or field-welded to pipe segments. However, mechanically fastened joints are sensitive to [[residual stress|residual]] and thickness stresses caused by dissimilar metals and temperature changes.

A grooved fitting, also known as a grooved coupling, has four elements: grooved pipe, gasket, coupling housing, and nuts and bolts. The groove is made by cold-forming (or machining) a groove at the end of a pipe. A gasket encompassed by coupling housing is wrapped around the two pipe ends, with the coupling engaging the groove; the bolts and nuts are tightened with a [[Socket wrench|socket]] or [[impact wrench]]. The installed coupling housing encases the gasket and engages the grooves around the pipe to create a leakproof seal in a self-restrained pipe joint. There are two types of grooved coupling; a flexible coupling allows a limited amount of angular movement, and a rigid coupling does not allow movement and may be used where joint immobility is required (similar to a flange or welded joint).
{{clear}}

=== Pressed or crimped fittings ===
{{anchor|Press-connect fittings|Press-connect fitting|Press fittings|Press fitting|Pressed fittings|Pressed fitting}}
[[File:Pince à sertir le tube cuivre..jpg|thumb|upright|Fitting being crimped using a specialized tool]]
[[File:Stainless Steel Pressfittings GDPRESS Swiss Fittings AG.jpg|thumb|alt=Stainless Steel Pressfittings Fittings dead space Example |Pressfittings connection with dead space around the O-ring]]

Crimped or pressed connections to use special fittings permanently attached to tubing with a powered crimper. The fittings, manufactured with a pre-installed sealant or [[O-ring]], slide over the tubing to be connected. High pressure is used to deform the fitting and compress the sealant against the inner tubing, creating a leakproof seal.<ref>[https://plumbingandhvac.ca/sponsored-article-the-future-of-press-connect-fittings/ ''Sponsored Article: The Future of Press-Connect Fittings''], Plumbing & HVAC, November 16th 2023. In: plumbingandhvac.ca</ref>

The advantages of this method are durability, speed, neatness, and safety. The connection can be made even when the tubing is wet. Crimped fittings are suitable for drinking water pipes and other hot-and-cold systems (including central heating). They are more expensive than sweated fittings.

Press fittings with either V and M profile (or contour) in stainless steel, carbon steel, and copper are trendy in Europe, and several manufacturers such as Viega, Geberit, Swiss Fittings, and ISOTUBI, distribute proprietary systems of press fittings. Compared to other connection types, press fittings have the advantages of installation speed and safety. Pressing a stainless steel fitting can be completed within five seconds with the correct equipment. Primary pressing of fittings to pipes or other fittings is performed using electrically powered press equipment, but mechanically driven press equipment is also available.

Press fittings of some major brands carry a plastic slip{{clarify|date=August 2020}} around the sleeves on each end of the fitting which falls off when the fitting has been compressed. This allows for a simple identification whether a press fitting has securely been installed.

Press fittings with appropriate and region-specific certification may be used for gas lines. Stainless steel and carbon steel press fittings can withstand up to 16 bars of pressure.

A disadvantage of press fittings is the dead space between the pipe and the fitting, which can possibly rule out use for beverage and food applications.
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsed"
| colspan="7" |Types of Pressfittings 
|-
|'''Connection Type'''
|All Pressends
|Pressend / Male Thread
|Pressend / Female Thread
|Valve Connection
|Flange
|End-Connector
|-
|
|Elbow 90°, F/F & F/M
Elbow 45°, F/F & F/M

Bend 15°, 45°, 75° M/M

Coupling

Coupling Long

Tee
|Elbow 90° Male Coupling
Bend 90° Male Thread

Tee Male

Union Male Coupling

Male Straight Connector

|Elbow {{not a typo|90°}} Female Coupling
Double Tap Connector 90/90 with Female Thread

Elbow {{not a typo|90°}} Female Adapter Coupling

Female Straight Connector

Adapter Female Coupling (ISO 228)

Female Coupling

Tee Female

Union Female

|3-PC HFF Ball Valve
|Flange Coupling
|Cap
|}

=== Leaded hub fittings===
[[File:Leaded hub.jpg|thumb|Diagram showing the construction of a typical leaded hub joint]]
Cast iron piping was traditionally made with one "spigot" end (plain, which was cut to length as needed) and one "socket" or "hub" end (cup-shaped). The larger-diameter hub was also called a "bell" because of its shape.

In use, the spigot of one segment was placed into the socket of the preceding one, and a ring of [[oakum]] was forced down into the joint with a [[caulking iron]]. Then the remainder of the space in the hub was filled up. Ideally, this would be done by pouring molten [[lead]], allowing it to set, and hammering it tightly with a caulking tool. If this was not possible due to position or some other constraint, the joint could be filled with [[lead wool]] or rope, which was forcibly compacted one layer at a time.<ref>Damm, John A. and Waugaman, Charles H. (1948) ''The Practical and Technical Encyclopedia'' Wm. H. Wise & Co., Inc. New York. pg. 94,395,396</ref>

This labor-intensive technique was durable if appropriately done but required time, skill, and patience for each joint to be made up. Quicker and lower-cost methods, such as rubber sleeve joints, have replaced mainly leaded hub connections of cast-iron piping in most new installations, but the older technology may still be used for some repairs.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|149}} In addition, some conservative plumbing codes still require leaded hub joints for final connections where the sewer main leaves a building.

=== Rubber sleeve fittings ===
[[File:Cast fe and cu dwv piping.jpg|thumb|alt=Pipes under a floor|Flexible rubber sleeves are used to connect this cast-iron and copper DWV installation]]
Cast iron DWV pipe and fittings are still used in premium construction because they muffle the sound of wastewater rushing through them,<ref name="Pro">{{cite book|last1=Cauldwell|first1=Rex|title=Plumbing (for pros, by pros)|date=2007|publisher=Taunton Press|location=Newtown, Connecticut|isbn=978-1-56158-817-6}}</ref>{{rp|149}} but today they are rarely joined with traditional lead joints.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|149}} Instead, pipe and fittings with plain (non-belled) connections are butted against each other, and clamped with special rubber sleeve (or "no-hub") fittings.<ref name="TPC">{{cite book|last1=Cauldwell|first1=Rex|title=Taunton's plumbing complete: expert advice from start to finish|url=https://archive.org/details/tauntonsplumbing0000caul|url-access=registration|date=2009|publisher=Taunton Press|location=Newtown, Connecticut|isbn=978-1-56158-855-8}}</ref>{{rp|71}} The rubber sleeves are typically secured with stainless steel [[worm drive]] clamping bands, which compress the rubber to make a tight seal around the pipes and fittings. These pipe clamps are similar to [[hose clamp]]s, but are heavier-duty and ideally are made completely of stainless steel (including the screw) to provide maximum service life.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|149}}<ref name="TPC" />{{rp|71}} Optionally, the entire rubber sleeve may be jacketed with thin sheet metal, to provide extra stiffness, durability, and resistance to accidental penetration by a misplaced nail or screw.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|149}} Although the fittings are not cheap, they are reasonably durable (the rubber is typically [[neoprene]] or flexible [[PVC]]).

An alternative design also allows the selective use of belled fittings made entirely of flexible rubber, including more-complex shapes such as wyes or tee-wyes.<ref name="TPC"/>{{rp|69}} They are secured to cast iron pipe segments by use of stainless steel worm drive clamps. Because these fittings are not as stiff as traditional cast-iron fittings, the heavy pipe segments may need better anchoring and support to prevent unwanted movement.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|150}} The lighter rubber fittings may not muffle sound as well as the heavy cast-iron fittings.

An advantage of flexible rubber fittings is that they can accommodate small misalignments and can be flexed slightly for installation in tight locations.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|147,149}} A flexible fitting may be preferred to connect a shower or heavy tub to the drainage system without transmitting slight movements or stresses, which could eventually cause cracking.<ref name="Pro"/>{{rp|159}} Flexible fittings may also be used to reduce the transmission of vibration into the DWV system.

If necessary, clamped joints can be disassembled later, and the fittings and pipe may be reconfigured. However, it is often not customary to re-use the clamps and rubber sleeves, which their previous installation may deform and may not seal well after rearranging. Clamped fittings may occasionally need to be disassembled to provide access for "[[plumber's snake|snaking]]" or "rodding-out" with a unique tool to clear blockage or clogs.<ref name="TPC"/>{{rp|69}} This is also an indication that a clean-out fitting could be installed to provide easier future access.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=25em}}
* [[Cutting ring fitting]]
* [[Drain (plumbing)]]
* [[Driving cap]]
* [[Flange]]
* [[Gladhand connector]]
* [[Pipe (fluid conveyance)|Pipe]]
* [[Pipefitter]]
* [[Pipe support]]
* [[Plumber]]
* [[Drainage|Rainwater, surface, and subsurface water drainage]]
* [[Septic system]]s
* [[Plumbing drainage venting|Traps, Drains, and Vents]]
* [[Victaulic]]
* [[Water cooling]]
* [[Domestic water system|Water supply systems]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|fitting}}
{{wiktionary|Sanitary ware}}
* [http://www.iapmo.org/ International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials]
* [http://www.iccsafe.org/ International Code Council]
* [http://www.astm.org/ the American Society for Testing and Materials]

{{Plumbing}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Piping And Plumbing Fittings}}
[[Category:Bathrooms]]
[[Category:Building engineering]]
[[Category:Piping]]
[[Category:Plumbing]]
[[Category:Water industry]]

Oscar Dronjak

2024-07-24T20:39:43Z

Omcsesz: /* Biography */ added missing quotation mark

{{Short description|Swedish guitarist}}
{{BLP sources|date=August 2007}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Oscar Dronjak
| image = Masters of Rock 2007 - Hammerfall - Oscar Dronjak - 06.jpg
| caption = Oscar Dronjak during [[HammerFall]] concert on [[Masters of Rock (festival)|Masters of Rock 2007]] festival.
| background = solo_singer
| birth_name = Oscar Fredrick Dronjak
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1972|01|20|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Mölndal]], Sweden
| death_date =
| instrument = [[Guitar]], [[Singing|vocals]]
| genre = [[Power metal]], [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[thrash metal]], [[black metal]], [[death metal]]
| occupation = [[Musician]], [[songwriter]]
| years_active = 1989–present
| label = [[Nuclear Blast]]
| associated_acts = [[In Flames]], [[HammerFall]], [[Crystal Age]], [[Ceremonial Oath]]
}}

'''Oscar Fredrick Dronjak''' (born 20 January 1972) is a Swedish guitarist and founder of the [[power metal]] band [[HammerFall]]. Prior to the success of HammerFall, he also played and released albums with the [[death metal]] acts [[Ceremonial Oath]] and Crystal Age.

==Biography==
Dronjak was born in the Swedish town of [[Mölndal Municipality|Mölndal]] to a Serbian father from [[Belgrade]] and a Swedish mother.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lelle666.bloggo.nu/Oscar/|title=Oscar!|quote=Oscar Fredrick Dronjak, född 20 januari 1972 i Mölndal, är en musiker från Sverige. Hans pappa kommer ursprungligen från Jugoslavien (nuvarande Serbien), Belgrad, och mamma är från Sverige, Göteborg.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080813/http://lelle666.bloggo.nu/Oscar/|archive-date=March 4, 2016|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
Dronjak's brother is [[Moderate Party|Moderate]] politician [[Daniel Dronjak]].

His first instrument was the [[recorder (musical instrument)|recorder]]; he then played [[trombone]] for a few years until, at the age of fourteen, he settled on [[guitar]]. Soon after, he started his first band, called The Hippie Killers. In 1989 he started a [[death metal]] band called Desecrator, which was later renamed [[Ceremonial Oath]]. But just before they released their first album, he quit the band. The end of his career in Ceremonial Oath was the beginning of HammerFall. At first, Oscar's main priority was the death metal band Crystal Age. Thus, HammerFall was initially merely a [[side project]], where he and some friends were just rehearsing some songs that he had written, one of them being "Steel Meets Steel". But soon, they recorded their first album, called ''[[Glory to the Brave]]''. Throughout his career, Oscar has been using [[Jackson Guitars|Jackson]] guitars, most notably the [[Jackson Rhoads]], but also [[ESP Guitars]] and [[Washburn Guitars|Washburn]]. Since 2014, he exclusively plays Sandberg Guitars, with the hammer guitar as a special attraction.

He also performed backing vocals for three [[In Flames]] albums: ''[[Lunar Strain]]'' (on the track "Lunar Strain"), ''[[Subterranean (EP)|Subterranean]]'' (on the track "Stand Ablaze") and ''[[The Jester Race]]'' ("Dead Eternity").

In 2016 he performed for the HammerFall album ''[[Dominion (HammerFall album)|Dominion]]'', which is scheduled to be released by [[Napalm Records]] on 16 August 2019.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.blabbermouth.net/news/hammerfalls-oscar-dronjak-weve-always-been-on-the-same-path-we-havent-deviated-much/|title=HAMMERFALL's OSCAR DRONJAK: 'We've Always Been On The Same Path; We Haven't Deviated Much'|website=[[Blabbermouth.net]]|date=July 7, 2019|access-date=July 18, 2019}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{HammerFall}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dronjak, Oscar}}
[[Category:Swedish heavy metal musicians]]
[[Category:1972 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Swedish people of Serbian descent]]
[[Category:Swedish heavy metal guitarists]]
[[Category:Rhythm guitarists]]
[[Category:21st-century guitarists]]
[[Category:HammerFall members]]
[[Category:Ceremonial Oath members]]
[[Category:People from Mölndal]]

{{Sweden-musician-stub}}
{{Guitarist-stub}}

Ethiopian Jews in Israel

2024-07-13T16:28:25Z

Omcsesz: Fixed typo

{{Short description|Jews who came from Ethiopia to the State of Israel}}{{More citations needed|date=April 2020}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2012}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = Ethiopian Jews in Israel
| image =
| population = 168,800 <ref name="The Population of Ethiopian Origin in Israel">{{cite web|publisher=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics]]|url= https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/mediarelease/Pages/2023/The-Ethiopian-Population-in-Israel-2023.aspx|title=The Population of Ethiopian Origin in Israel|access-date=2024-03-25}}</ref> (2022) About 2.3% of the [[Israeli Jewish]] population, about 1.75% of the total [[Israelis|Israeli]] population
| langs = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]{{·}}[[Amharic language|Amharic]]{{·}}[[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]]
| rels = [[Haymanot]] and [[Rabbinic Judaism]]
| related = [[Falash Mura]]{{·}}[[Beta Abraham]]
}}

'''Ethiopian Jews in Israel''' are immigrants and descendants of the immigrants from the [[Beta Israel]] communities in [[Ethiopia]] who now reside in Israel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethiopianisraelisproject.org/index.htm |title=The Ethiopian Jews of Israel - Personal Stories of Life in the Promised Land - by Len Lyons, PHD; - Photographs by Ilan Ossendryver - Foreword by Alan Dershowitz |access-date=2012-03-13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111208035841/http://www.ethiopianisraelisproject.org/index.htm |archive-date=December 8, 2011 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/6613020/Ethiopian-Jews-in-Israel-still-await-the-promised-land.html |title=Ethiopian Jews in Israel still await the promised land |website=Telegraph.co.uk |date=November 20, 2009 |access-date=2017-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ynet.co.il/home/0,7340,L-3070,00.html |title=ynet – 20 שנה לעליית יהודי אתיופיה - חדשות |website=Ynet.co.il |access-date=August 27, 2017}}</ref> To a lesser, but notable, extent, the Ethiopian Jewish community in Israel is also composed of [[Falash Mura]], a community of Beta Israel which had converted to Christianity over the course of the past two centuries, but were permitted to immigrate to Israel upon returning to Israelite religion—this time largely to [[Rabbinic Judaism]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3984875,00.html|title=Rabbis: Falash Mura must convert|newspaper=Ynetnews |date=November 15, 2010|last1=Nahshoni |first1=Kobi }}</ref><ref>Weil, S'''.''' 2016b “[http://www.store.tsehaipublishers.com/images/EF-ICES_Flyer.pdf The Complexities of Conversion among the ‘Felesmura’]”. In: Eloi Ficquet, Ahmed Hassen and Thomas Osmond (eds.), ''Movements in Ethiopia, Ethiopia in Movement: Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies''. Addis Ababa: French Center for Ethiopian Studies, Institute of Ethiopian Studies of Addis Ababa University; Los Angeles: Tsehai Publishers, Vol. 1 pp.435-445. </ref>

Most of the community made [[aliyah]] from Ethiopia to Israel in two waves of mass immigration assisted by the Israeli government: [[Operation Moses]] (1984), and [[Operation Solomon]] (1991).<ref>{{cite web |last=Weil |first=Shalva |date=2011 |title=Operation Solomon 20 Years On |publisher=International Relations and Security Network (ISN) |url=http://www.isn.ethz.ch/isn/Current-Affairs/ISN-Insights/Detail?ord538=grp1&ots591=eb06339b-2726-928e-0216-1b3f15392dd8&lng=en&id=129480&contextid734=129480&contextid735=129244&tabid=129244 |access-date=2017-08-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Weil |first=Shalva |year=2007 |chapter=Operation Solomon by Stephen Spector |title=Studies in Contemporary Jewry, an Annual |location=New York and Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |volume=22 |pages=341–343}}</ref> Today, Israel is home to the largest Beta Israel community in the world, with about 168,800 citizens of Ethiopian descent in 2022, who mainly reside in southern and central Israel.<ref name=":4" />

==History==
===First wave (1934–1960)===
The first Ethiopian Jews who settled in [[Israel]] in the modern times came in 1934 along with the [[History of the Jews in Eritrea|Yemenite Jews]] from [[Italian Eritrea]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

===Second wave: (1961–1975)===
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2020}}[[Image:Flickr - Government Press Office (GPO) - MIN. OF EDUCATION AND CULTURE YITZHAK NAVON VISITING A KINDERGARTEN CLASS OF YOUNG IMMIGRANTS FROM ETHIOPIA.jpg|thumb|Minister of Education [[Yitzhak Navon]] visiting kindergarten class of Ethiopian immigrants]]

Between the years 1963 and 1975, a relatively small group of Beta Israel emigrated to Israel. The Beta Israel immigrants during that period were mainly men who had studied and come to Israel on a tourist visa, and then remained in the country illegally.

Several of their supporters in Israel, who recognized their "[[Jewishness]]", decided to assist them. These supporters began organizing in associations, among others under the direction of Ovadia Hazzi, an Eritrean-born Yemeni Jew who married a Beta Israel woman in Israel. With the assistance of these support associations, a number of illegal immigrants managed to get their status regularized by the Israeli authorities. Some agreed to convert to Judaism, so as to be able to remain in Israel. People who obtained regularization often brought their families to Israel as well.

In 1973, Ovadia Hazzi officially raised the question of the "Jewishness" of the Beta Israel with Israel's Sephardi Chief Rabbi [[Ovadia Yosef]]. The rabbi, citing a rabbinic ruling from the 16th century [[David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra]], asserted that the Beta Israel were descendants of the [[Ten Lost Tribes|lost tribe]] of [[Tribe of Dan|Dan]], and eventually acknowledged their "Jewishness" in February 1973.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weil |first=Shalva |date=1997 |title=Religion, Blood and the Equality of Rights: The Case of Ethiopian Jews in Israel |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24674566 |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=4 |issue=3/4 |pages=401 |via=JSTOR}}</ref> This ruling was initially rejected by the Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi [[Shlomo Goren]], who eventually changed his opinion on the matter in 1974.{{citation needed|date=June 2017}}

In April 1975, the Israeli government of [[Yitzhak Rabin]] officially accepted the Beta Israel as Jews for the purpose of the [[Law of Return]] (an Israeli act which grants all the Jews in the world the right to immigrate to Israel).

Later on, Israeli Prime Minister [[Menachem Begin]] obtained clear rulings from Chief Sephardi Rabbi [[Ovadia Yosef]] that they were descendants of the [[Ten Lost Tribes]]. The [[Chief Rabbinate of Israel]] did, however, initially require them to undergo ''pro forma'' [[Conversion to Judaism|Jewish conversions]], to remove any doubt as to their Jewish status.

===Third wave: (1975–1990)===
====Operation Brothers====
[[File:Beta_Israel_Aliyah.svg|thumb|right|Migration map of Beta Israel]]
* '''November 1979 – 1983''': [[Aliyah]] activists and [[Mossad]] agents operating in Sudan, including [[Ferede Aklum]], called the Beta Israel to come to Sudan where they would eventually be taken to Israel via Europe. Jewish Ethiopian refugees from the [[Ethiopian Civil War]] in the mid 1970s began to arrive at the refugee camps in Sudan. Most Beta Israel came from [[Tigray Province|Tigray]], which was then controlled by the [[TPLF]], which often escorted them to the Sudanese border.<ref>Gerrit Jan Abbink, ''The Falashas In Ethiopia And Israel: The Problem of Ethnic Assimilation'', Nijmegen, Institute for Cultural and Social Anthropology, 1984, p. 114</ref> Many Ethiopian Jews also immigrated to Israel to flee from the civil war, famine during and after the war, as well as hostility toward Ethiopian Jews.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Kaplan|first=Stephen|date=1988|title=The Beta Israel and the Rabbinate: Law, Ritual and Politics|journal=Social Science Information|volume=27|issue=3|pages=357–370|doi=10.1177/053901888027003004|s2cid=144691315}}</ref> In 1981, the [[Jewish Defense League]] protested against the "lack of action" to rescue Ethiopian Jews by taking over the main offices of HIAS in [[Manhattan]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.jta.org/1981/09/09/archive/jdl-stages-protests-at-hias-jewish-agency-offices-claiming-lack-of-action-to-rescue-falashas|title=Jdl Stages Protests at Hias, Jewish Agency Offices, Claiming 'lack of Action' to Rescue Falashas|date=September 9, 1981|newspaper=Jewish Telegraphic Agency|location=New York}}</ref>
* '''1983 – March 28, 1985''': this emigration wave was in part motivated by word of mouth reports on the success of the emigration of many Jewish refugees to Israel. In 1983, the governor of [[Begemder|Gondar]] region, Major [[Melaku Teferra]], was ousted as governor and his successor removed restrictions on travel.<ref>Mitchell G. Bard, ''From Tragedy to Triumph: The Politics Behind the Rescue of Ethiopian Jewry'', Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, p. 137</ref> Beta Israel began to arrive in large numbers and the Mossad was unable to evacuate them in time. Due to poor conditions in the camps, many refugees died of disease and hunger. Of these victims, it is estimated that between 2,000 and 5,000 were Beta Israel.<ref>Bard, ''From Tragedy to Triumph'', p. 139</ref> In late 1984, the Sudanese government, following the intervention of the United States, allowed the emigration of 7,200 Beta Israel refugees to Europe. They immediately flew from there to Israel. The first of two operations during this period was [[Operation Moses]] (original name: "The Lion of Judah's Cub"), which took place between November 20, 1984 and January 20, 1985, during which time 6,500 people emigrated to Israel. A few weeks later, the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]] evacuated the 494 Beta Israel refugees remaining in Sudan to Israel in [[Operation Joshua]]. The second operation was mainly carried out due to the intervention and international pressure of the United States.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

===Fourth wave (1990–1999)===
{{Unreferenced section|date=April 2020}}

* '''1991 ([[Operation Solomon]])''': In 1991, the political and economic stability of Ethiopia deteriorated as rebels mounted attacks against, and eventually controlled, the capital city of [[Addis Ababa]]. Worried about the fate of the Beta Israel during the transition period, the Israeli government, together with several private groups, secretly prepared to continue with the migration. Over the course of the next 36 hours, a total of 34 [[El Al]] [[airliner|passenger planes]], with their seats removed to maximize passenger capacity, flew 14,325 Beta Israel directly to Israel. Again, the operation was mainly carried out due to the intervention and international pressure of the U.S. Dr. Rick Hodes, an American doctor who emigrated to Ethiopia, was the medical director for Operation Solomon. It was a difficult two days as he covertly arranged for a number of very ill people to be air-lifted to Israel.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}
* '''1992–1999''': During these years, the [[Qwara Province|Qwara]] Beta Israel emigrated to Israel.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}

===Falash Mura (1993–present)===
* '''1993–present''': From 1993 onwards, an irregular emigration began of [[Falash Mura]], which was and still is mainly subjected to political developments in Israel. These immigrants are required to convert from Christianity to Judaism.<ref name="Complexities of Conversion among the Felesmura">Weil, S., 2016. "The Complexities of Conversion among the 'Felesmura'". In: Eloi Ficquet, Ahmed Hassen and Thomas Osmond (eds.), Movements in Ethiopia, Ethiopia in Movement: Proceedings of the 18th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies. Addis Ababa: French Center for Ethiopian Studies, Institute of Ethiopian Studies of Addis Ababa University; Los Angeles: Tsehai Publishers, Vol. 1 pp. 435–445.
[http://www.store.tsehaipublishers.com/images/EF-ICES_Flyer.pdf Link]</ref>

*'''2018''': In August 2018, the Netanyahu government vowed to bring in 1,000 Falasha Jews from Ethiopia.<ref>[https://www.aa.com.tr/en/africa/israel-vows-to-take-in-1-000-falasha-jews-from-ethiopia/1275824 Israel Vows to bring in 1,000 Falasha Jews from Ethiopia August 25,2018]</ref>
*'''2019''': In April 2019, an estimated 8,000 Falasha were waiting to leave Ethiopia<ref>[https://www.timesofisrael.com/rabbi-of-8000-stranded-ethiopian-jews-fights-to-complete-their-exodus/ Times of Israel rabbi-of-8000-stranded-ethiopian-jews-fights-to-complete-their-exodus/ Times of Israel April 25,2019]</ref>
*'''2020''': On February 25, 2020, 43 Falasha arrived in Israel from Ethiopia.<ref>[https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/elections/.premium-forty-three-falashmura-arrive-in-israel-accompanied-by-likud-lawmakers-1.8587343 Haaretz 25 Feb 2020]</ref>
*'''29 November 2020 - 12 July 2023''': Operation Tzur Israel (Rock of Israel). The operation was implemented in two phases with the goal of facilitating the immigration of 5,000 Ethiopian Jews to Israel, most of whom had close relatives already living there. The first phase, which ran from 28 November 2020 until March 15, 2021, brought 2,000 Ethiopian immigrants to Israel. The second phase, which began on June 2, 2022, brought another 3,000 immigrants, and concluded on 12 July 2023. <ref>{{cite web |date=November 29, 2020 |title=Operation 'Tzur Israel' to Bring Jews from Ethiopia Takes off |url=https://www.jewishpress.com/news/breaking-news/operation-tzur-israel-to-bring-jews-from-ethiopia-takes-off/2020/11/29/}}</ref> <ref name=":3">{{cite web |date=July 12, 2023 |title=Operation Tzur Israel reaches milestone: 5,000 Ethiopian olim reunited |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-749821}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web |date=July 13, 2023 |title=130 Ethiopian Olim Arrive in Israel, Second Phase of Operation Tzur Israel Complete |url=https://www.jewishpress.com/news/israel/aliyah-israel/130-ethiopian-olim-arrive-in-israel-second-phase-of-operation-tzur-israel-complete/2023/07/13//}}</ref>
**'''2021''':
***March 11: Operation Tzur Israel brings 300 Ethiopian Jews to Israel. <ref>[https://www.israelnationalnews.com/news/298307 Israel National News March 11 2021 Last Operation Zur Israel flight]</ref>
***March 15: The first phase of the operation concludes, with 2,000 immigrants brought to Israel.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 15, 2021 |title=Operation “Tzur Yisrael” has concluded with the arrival of the 9th and last flight carrying 300 New Olim |url=https://www.gov.il/en/pages/tzur-israel-20210311 |access-date=June 14, 2024 |website=Ministry of Aliyah and Integration}}</ref>
*** November 14: Falasha in Israel stage a protest so their relatives left behind in Ethiopia can go to Israel.<ref>[https://english.alarabiya.net/News/world/2021/11/14/Hundreds-in-Israel-protest-for-rescue-of-Ethiopia-Jews November 14,2021]</ref>
*** November 28: The Israeli government approves the resumption of immigration for the remainder of the community from Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 28, 2021 |title=Government approves immigration of thousands of Ethiopian Jews |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/government-approves-immigration-of-thousands-of-ethiopian-jews/ |website=Times of Israel}}</ref>
** '''2022'''
*** February 2: The Israeli Supreme Court issues an interim order halting the immigration of 3,000 Ethiopians with close relatives in Israel, while hearing an appeal alleging many of them had faked their claims of Jewish ancestry.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maanit |first=Chen |date=February 2, 2022 |title=High Court Halts Immigration of 3,000 Ethiopians With Close Relatives in Israel |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2022-02-02/ty-article/.premium/high-court-halts-immigration-of-3-000-ethiopians-with-close-relatives-in-israel/0000017f-f316-d487-abff-f3fe38cd0000 |access-date=June 14, 2024 |website=Haaretz}}</ref>
***March 15: The Court lifts the interim order.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-15 |title=High Court decides to resume aliyah of Ethiopian Jews |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-701345 |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en}}</ref>
***June 1: Second phase of operation begins with an airlift of 181 immigrants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-06-01 |title=Operation Tzur Yisrael: 181 new immigrants land in Israel from Ethiopia |url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/article-708310 |access-date=2024-06-14 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en}}</ref>
**'''2023''':
***July 12: Operation Tzur Israel concludes with a final flight of 130 immigrants.<ref name=":3" />

== Integration and Socio-economic status ==
[[File:falasha makstyle.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Beta Israel soldier in [[Nablus]], 2006]]
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 21546 Absorption center in Mevaseret Zion.JPG|200px|thumb|right|The entrance to [[Mevaseret Zion]] Absorption Center, 2010]]The biggest challenge to the Israeli Ethiopian Beta Israel community probably lies in the very low level of formal education of the immigrants. With some exceptions, when they first arrived in Israel, they had no useful training for a developed economy like that of Israel and due to the oral nature of rural living in Ethiopia, illiteracy was very common although young people were better educated, Therefore, the very abrupt transition from village life in Ethiopia to Israel, has been accompanied by adjustment crises which in turn greatly affected their learning and integration into Israeli society.[<nowiki/>[[Wikipedia:Citation needed|''citation needed'']]]

Despite those challenges, large improvement has been made in terms of educational attainment and socio-economic status in recent years and progress is being made on several fronts.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title= |url=https://www.gov.il/he/departments/policies/dec787-2023 }}</ref>

In 2018 the net income per household among Israelis of Ethiopian descent amounted to 14,027 NIS, compared to 17,779 NIS for all Jewish households and 11,810 NIS for Arab households. The income gap between Israelis of Ethiopian origin the overall population has narrowed from 44% in 2014 to 23% in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=ירון |first1=לי |last2=של "הארץ" |first2=כתבת הרווחה |date=2015-11-10 |title=ההכנסה למשק בית אצל יוצאי אתיופיה נמוכה ב-40% מבכלל האוכלוסייה |url=https://www.haaretz.co.il/news/education/2015-11-10/ty-article/0000017f-f698-d460-afff-fffed3f60000 |access-date=2024-03-29 |work=הארץ |language=he}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=האוכלוסייה ממוצא אתיופי בישראל - לקט נתונים לרגל חג הסיגד |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/Pages/2020/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94-%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%90-%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99-%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98-%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%9C-%D7%97%D7%92-%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%92%D7%93-.aspx |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=www.cbs.gov.il |language=he-IL}}</ref>

The unemployment rate among Ethiopian adults was high in the past, and in 2005 it was 65% among those aged 40 and over, but today it has decreased significantly and is lower than the unemployment rate in the general Israeli population<ref>{{Cite news |last=פרנקל |first=בילי |date=2019-11-24 |title=שירות התעסוקה: צעירים יוצאי אתיופיה מתקשים למצוא עבודה |url=https://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-5630535,00.html |access-date=2024-07-09 |work=Ynet |language=he}}</ref>

In 2018, Israelis of Ethiopian descent made up 2.5% of all [[:he:הבטחת_הכנסה|income support]] claimants in Israel - slightly more than their representation in the population, which is close to 2%.<ref>{{Cite news |last=ויסברג |first=הילה |date=2018-11-08 |title=יוצאי אתיופיה 2018: עובדים יותר; פערי השכר וההשכלה גדולים |url=https://www.globes.co.il/news/article.aspx?did=1001259702 |access-date=2024-07-06 |work=Globes}}</ref>

In 2021 the percentage of 12th-grade students of Ethiopian descent taking matriculation exams was 92%, compared with 95.2% of the students in the Hebrew education system overall.The rate of eligibility for a [[Bagrut certificate|Bagrut]] certificate among 12th grade students of Ethiopian descent is 77.1%(compared to 85.1% in the Hebrew education sector and 74.5% in the [[Education in Israel#Arab sector|Arab education sector]]) and has been on the rise in recent years (it was 62% in 2018 and 53% in 2013).<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=האוכלוסייה המוסלמית בישראל – נתונים לרגל חג הקורבן 2023 |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/Pages/2023/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94-%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA-%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%9C-%D7%97%D7%92-%D7%94%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%9F-2023.aspx |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=www.cbs.gov.il |language=he-IL}}</ref> The rate of eligibility for a matriculation certificate that meets the threshold requirements of the universities among 12th grade students of Ethiopian descent is 56.1% compared to 75.1% in the Hebrew education system overall (excluding ultra-Orthodox supervision) and 51.3% in the Arab education sector. the percentage of students of Ethiopian descent eligible for a matriculation certificate that meets university entrance requirements has been increasing in recent years, and the gap between them and the general Hebrew-speaking students has narrowed from 34 percentage points in 2016 to 19 in 2021.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" /> <ref>{{Cite web |title=האוכלוסייה ממוצא אתיופי בישראל - לקט נתונים לרגל חג הסיגד |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/Pages/2017/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94-%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%90-%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99-%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98-%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%9C-%D7%97%D7%92-%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%92%D7%93.aspx |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=www.cbs.gov.il |language=he-IL}}</ref> This gap is still high in comparison to the gap in matriculation certificate eligibility.

== Absorption in Israel ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2024}}
Ethiopian Beta Israel are gradually becoming part of the mainstream Israeli society in religious life, military service (with nearly all males doing national service), education, and politics. Similarly to other groups of immigrant Jews, who made aliyah to Israel, the Ethiopian Beta Israel have faced obstacles in their integration to Israeli society. The Ethiopian Beta Israel community's internal challenges have been complicated by: entering a relatively modern country (Israel) from non-modern, rural, remote regions of Ethiopia (compared with other immigrant groups entering from industrialized countries, and who typically possess significantly greater formal education); the disruption of long-standing hierarchies and customs within Beta Israel in which elders lead and guide their community; racial prejudice; and a degree of lingering doubt within a minority of groups regarding the "Jewishness" of certain Ethiopians (e. g., the Falash Mura). However, with successive generations, Ethiopian Israelis have climbed in Israeli society.

Individual Ethiopian Beta Israel had lived in Eretz Yisrael prior to the establishment of the state. A youth group arrived in Israel in the 1950s to undergo training in Hebrew education, and returned to Ethiopia to educate young Beta Israeli community members there. Also, Ethiopian Beta Israel had been trickling into Israel prior to the 1970s. The numbers of such Ethiopian immigrants grew after the Israeli government officially recognized them in 1973 as Jews, entitled to Israeli citizenship.[1]

To prepare for the absorption of tens of thousands of Ethiopian Beta Israel, the State of Israel prepared two "Master Plans" (Ministry of Absorption, 1985, 1991). The first was prepared in 1985, a year after the arrival of the first wave of immigrants. The second updated the first in response to the second wave of immigration in 1991 from Ethiopia. The first Master Plan contained an elaborate and detailed program. It covered issues of housing, education, employment, and practical organization, together with policy guidelines regarding specific groups, including women, youths, and single-parent families. Like earlier absorption policies, it adopted a procedural approach which assumed that the immigrants were broadly similar to the existing majority population of Israel. The Plans were created with a firm belief in assimilation. As noted in this section, results have been disappointing, and suggest that much greater attention needs to be paid to issues of ethnicity.[2]

According to a 1999 BBC article, a report commissioned by Israel's Ministry of Immigrant Absorption stated that 75% of the 70,000 Ethiopian Beta Israel community, living in Israel in 1999 could not read or write Hebrew. More than half the population could not hold a simple conversation in the Hebrew language. Unlike Russian immigrants, many of whom arrived with job skills, Ethiopians came from a subsistence economy and were ill-prepared to work in an industrialized society. Since then, much progress has been made. Through military service, most Ethiopian Beta Israel have been able to increase their chances for better opportunities.[3] Today, most Ethiopian Beta Israel have been for the most part integrated into Israeli society; however, a high drop-out rate is a problem, although a higher number are now edging towards the higher areas of society. [citation needed]

In September 2006, the Israeli government's proposed 2007 budget included reducing Ethiopian immigration from 600 persons per month to 150. On the eve of the Knesset vote, the Prime Minister's office announced that the plan had been dropped. Advocates for the Falash Mura noted that although the quota was set at 600 per month in March 2005, actual immigration has remained at 300 per month.[4]

The first contact with Israel generally led to a culture shock amongst many of the new immigrants. Many of the Beta Israel immigrants, especially those who came from remote villages in Ethiopia, had never used electricity, elevators, flush toilets, or televisions. In addition, the adaptation to the Israeli cuisine was difficult. [citation needed]

The break-up of many of the close and extended families after being brought to the various integration centers in Israel, as well as the initial integration with the Israeli society was very difficult for many of the new immigrants. Name-changing also caused a symbolic break with the new immigrants' past. The Israeli authorities originally gave many of the new immigrants Hebrew given names, Hebrew names, and required them all to have family names, which did not exist in the Ethiopian society. These name-changes created a two-tier system, in which old and new names were used by the new immigrants. The immersion with the Hebrew language was not easy for the new immigrants, and the majority of the new immigrants never managed to master the language, even after living many years in Israel, resulting in a strong social marginalization. Finally, the questioning of their traditional religious practices by the Chief Rabbinate of Israel led to great confusion amongst the new immigrants.

==Involvement in politics==
The [[Atid Ehad]] party, now repurposed as an unrelated "shelf party", saw itself as the political representative of the community, though other parties include Ethiopian members. In 2006, [[Shas]], a party representing [[Haredi Judaism|Haredi]] Jews of Sephardic and Middle Eastern background, included an Ethiopian rabbi from [[Beersheba]] in its list for the [[Knesset]], in a conscious attempt to represent diverse geographic and ethnic groups. Shas was not the only party attempting to appeal to the Ethiopian vote. [[Herut - The National Movement]] and [[Kadima]] both had Ethiopians on their lists. [[Shlomo Molla|Shlomo Mula]], head of the [[Jewish Agency]]'s Ethiopian absorption department, was ranked 33rd on Kadima's list,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Knesset to swear in 2nd Ethiopian MK|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel/knesset-to-swear-in-2nd-ethiopian-mk|access-date=2020-09-01|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=February 7, 2008 }}</ref> and Avraham was number three on Herut's list.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

In 2012, Israel appointed the country's first Ethiopian-born ambassador, Beylanesh Zevadia. According to the foreign minister of Israel, this represents an important milestone in fighting racism and prejudice.<ref>[http://www.jpost.com/DiplomacyAndPolitics/Article.aspx?id=259779 J'lem appoints first Ethiopian-born ambassador]. Jerusalem Post, 02/28/2012</ref> This was followed in 2020 by the appointment of [[Pnina Tamano-Shata]] to the post of [[Ministry of Aliyah and Integration|Minister of Aliyah and Integration]] in the [[Thirty-fifth government of Israel#Ministers|35th Israeli government]], as the first Ethiopian-born government minister.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pnina Tamano-Shata: From desert exodus to member of cabinet|url=https://www.jpost.com/israel-news/pnina-tamano-shata-from-desert-exodus-to-member-of-cabinet-629417|access-date=2020-09-01|website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com|date=May 31, 2020 }}</ref>

==Language==
The main language used for communication among Israeli citizens and amongst the Ethiopian Beta Israel in Israel is [[Modern Hebrew]]. The majority of the Beta Israel immigrants continue to speak in [[Amharic language|Amharic]] (primarily) and [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]] at home with their family members and friends. The Amharic language and the Tigrinya language are written in the [[Ge'ez alphabet|Ge'ez script]], originally developed for the [[Ge'ez language]] used in [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}}

Historically, Ethiopian Jews had spoken [[Agaw languages]] such as [[Qwara dialect|Qwara]] (nearly extinct) and [[Kayla dialect|Kayla]] (extinct).<ref>"Kaïliña{{spaced ndash}}a "new" Agaw dialect and its implications for Agaw dialectology". In Voice and Power. The Culture of Language in North-East Africa. Ed. by R.J. Hayward & I. Lewis. pp. 1–19. London, SOAS. 1996 (March). {{ISBN|0-7286-0257-1}}.</ref><ref>[[David Appleyard]], "Preparing a Comparative Agaw Dictionary", in ed. Griefenow-Mewis & Voigt, ''Cushitic & Omotic Languages: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium Berlin, Mar. 17-19, 1994'', Rüdiger Köppe Verlag, Köln 1996. {{ISBN|3-927620-28-9}}.</ref>

==Relations with Ethiopia==
Although some non-Jewish Ethiopians expressed bitterness towards the Beta Israel emigration out of Ethiopia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.americanchronicle.com/articles/view/20729|title=Americanchronicle.com|website=Americanchronicle.com|access-date=August 27, 2017}}</ref> the Ethiopian Jews have close ties with Ethiopian people and tradition. Achievements by the Ethiopian Jews like [[Hagit Yaso]] winning the [[Kokhav Nolad]] creates a sense of pride in Ethiopia.{{fact|date=May 2022}} The Ethiopian government is also an important ally of Israel on the international stage. Israel often sends expert assistance for development projects in Ethiopia. Strategically, Israel "has always aspired to protect itself by means of a [[Alliance of the periphery|non-Arab belt]] that has included at various times Iran, Turkey, and Ethiopia".<ref>Zvi Bar'el, [https://web.archive.org/web/20090225091719/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1065943.html "Why we need Turkey"], [[Ha'aretz]], February 22, 2009</ref>

==Demography==
The following is a list of the most significant Beta Israel population centers in Israel, as of 2006:<ref name="auto">{{cite web |last=Almog |first=Oz |year=2008 |title=Residential patterns among olim from Ethiopia |url=http://www.peopleil.org/details.aspx?itemID=7653&searchMode=0&index=7 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328045359/http://www.peopleil.org/details.aspx?itemID=7653&searchMode=0&index=7 |archive-date=March 28, 2012 |access-date=July 25, 2011 |language=he |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

[[File:Poleg interchange.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Netanya]] is home to the largest Beta Israel community in Israel.]]
[[File:PikiWiki Israel 10703 Architecture of Israel.jpg|thumb|250px|Ethiopian Beta Israel Synagogue in [[Netivot]].]]
[[File:EthiopianJewryMemorial-12A.jpg|thumb|250px|The official memorial site to the memory of Ethiopian Beta Israel (Ethiopian Jews), who died in their [[Aliyah from Ethiopia|way to Israel]] on [[Mount Herzl]].]]
[[File:Ethiopian hut.JPG|thumb|250px|[[Tukul|Gojo]] in [[Kfar HaNoar HaDati]], [[Kfar Hasidim]].]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
! Rank || City || Total population || Beta Israel population || % of City Pop 
|-
| 1 || [[Netanya]] || 173,000 || 10,200 || 5.9
|-
| 2 || [[Beersheba]] || 185,443 || 6,216 || 3.4
|-
| 3 || [[Ashdod]] || 204,153 || 6,191 || 3.0
|-
| 4 || [[Rehovot]] || 104,545 || 6,179 || 5.9
|-
| 5 || [[Haifa]] || 266,280 || 5,484 || 2.1
|-
| 6 || [[Ashkelon]] || 107,759 || 5,132 || 4.8
|-
| 7 || [[Rishon LeZion]] || 222,041 || 5,004 || 2.3
|-
| 8 || [[Hadera]] || 76,332 || 4,828 || 6.3
|-
| 9 || [[Jerusalem]] || 733,329 || 4,526 || 0.6
|-
| 10 || [[Petah Tikva]] || 184,196 || 4,041 || 2.2
|-
| 11 || [[Kiryat Malakhi]] || 19,519 || 3,372 || 17.3
|-
| 12 || [[Ramla]] || 64,172 || 3,297 || 5.1
|-
| 13 || [[Lod]] || 66,776 || 3,176 || 4.8
|-
| 14 || [[Afula]] || 39,274 || 3,123 || 8.0
|-
| 15 || [[Kiryat Gat]] || 47,794 || 3,062 || 6.4
|-
| 16 || [[Beit Shemesh]] || 69,482 || 2,470 || 3.6
|-
| 17 || [[Yavne]] || 31,884 || 2,102 || 6.6
|-
| 18 || [[Kiryat Yam]] || 37,201 || 1,672 || 4.5
|-
| 19 || [[Bat Yam]] || 129,437 || 1,502 || 1.2
|-
| 20 || [[Safed]] || 28,094 || 1,439 || 5.1
|-
| 21 || [[Gedera]] || 15,462 || 1,380 || 8.9
|-
| 22 || [[Pardes Hanna-Karkur]] || 29,835 || 1,333 || 4.5
|-
| 23 || [[Netivot]] || 24,919 || 1,217 || 4.9
|-
| 24 || [[Be'er Ya'akov]] || 9,356 || 1,039 || 11.1
|-
| 25 || [[Ness Ziona]] || 30,951 || 986 || 3.2
|-
| 26 || [[Tel Aviv]] || 384,399 || 970 || 0.3
|-
| 27 || [[Or Yehuda]] || 31,255 || 903 || 2.9
|-
| 28 || [[Migdal HaEmek]] || 24,705 || 882 || 3.6
|-
| 29 || [[Holon]] || 167,080 || 825 || 0.5
|-
| 30 || [[Yokneam Illit]] || 18,453 || 772 || 4.2
|-
| 31 || [[Kiryat Motzkin]] || 39,707 || 769 || 1.9
|-
| 32 || [[Kiryat Ekron]] || 9,900 || 735 || 7.4
|-
| 34 || [[Karmiel]] || 44,108 || 667 || 1.5
|-
| 35 || [[Kfar Saba]] || 81,265 || 665 || 0.8
|-
| 36 || [[Tirat Carmel]] || 18,734 || 635 || 3.4
|-
| 37 || [[Arad, Israel|Arad]] || 23,323 || 602 || 2.6
|-
| 38 || [[Ofakim]] || 24,447 || 598 || 2.4
|-
| 39 || [[Nazareth Illit]] || 43,577 || 596 || 1.4
|-
| 40 || [[Kiryat Bialik]] || 36,497 || 524 || 1.4
|-
| 41 || [[Sderot]] || 19,841 || 522 || 2.6
|-
| 42 || [[Ma'ale Adumim]] || 31,754 || 506 || 1.6
|-
| 43 || [[Gan Yavne]] || 15,826 || 501 || 3.2
|-
| 44 || [[Tiberias]] || 39,996 || 483 || 1.2
|-
| 45 || [[Bnei Brak]] || 147,940 || 461 || 0.3
|-
| 46 || [[Rosh HaAyin]] || 37,453 || 424 || 1.1
|-
| 47 || [[Kfar Yona]] || 14,118 || 413 || 2.9
|-
| 48 || [[Ra'anana]] || 72,832 || 385 || 0.5
|-
| 49 || [[Kiryat Ata]] || 49,466 || 350 || 0.7
|-
| 50 || [[Eilat]] || 46,349 || 331 || 0.7
|-
| 51 || [[Nahariya]] || 50,439 || 309 || 0.6
|-
| 52 || [[Herzliya]] || 84,129 || 271 || 0.3
|-
| 53 || [[Beit She'an]] || 16,432 || 230 || 1.4
|-
| 54 || [[Hod HaSharon]] || 44,567 || 210 || 0.5
|-
| 55 || [[Yehud-Monosson]] || 25,464 || 172 || 0.7
|-
| 56 || [[Nesher]] || 21,246 || 166 || 0.8
|-
| 57 || [[Even Yehuda]] || 9,711 || 163 || 1.7
|-
| 58 || [[Ofra]] || 2,531 || 131 || 5.2
|-
| 59 || [[Kedumim]] || 3,208 || 104 || 3.2
|-
| 60 || [[Ramat Gan]] || 129,658 || 101 || 0.1
|-
|}

The city of Kiryat Malakhi has a large concentration of Ethiopian Beta Israel, with 17.3% of the town’s population being members of the Beta Israel as of 2006. This proportion would slightly decline to 16% by 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Magid |first=Jacob |title=In southern Likud stronghold, young Ethiopians lose patience with status quo |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/in-southern-likud-stronghold-young-ethiopians-lose-patience-with-status-quo/ |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=www.timesofisrael.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Kiryat Malakhi Demonstrators: Proud of Our Skin Color |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/2012-01-11/ty-article/kiryat-malakhi-demonstrators-proud-of-our-skin-color/0000017f-df07-d856-a37f-ffc779620000 |access-date=2023-07-02}}</ref> Southern towns, including Qiryat Gat, Kiryat Malakhi, Be'er Sheva, Yavne, Ashkelon, Rehovot, Kiryat Ekron, and Gedera have significant Ethiopian Jewish populations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Situation of Ethiopian Jews in Israel |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/the-situation-of-ethiopian-jews-in-israel |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>

'''Table - The Population of Ethiopian Origin at the End of 2022, in Main Localities'''

The following is a list of the most significant Beta Israel population centers in Israel in localities above 2,000 people, as of 2022, which account for 77.5% of the group's population.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=November 9, 2023 |title=The Population of Ethiopian Origin in Israel: Selected Data Published on the Occasion of the Sigd Festival 2023 |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/pages/2023/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9B%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%99%D7%94-%D7%9E%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%90-%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99-%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%A8%D7%90%D7%9C-%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%98-%D7%A0%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%9D-%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%9C-%D7%97%D7%92-%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%92%D7%93-2023.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231125142036/https://www.cbs.gov.il/he/mediarelease/DocLib/2023/362/11_23_362b.pdf |archive-date=November 25, 2023 |access-date=June 14, 2024 |website=[[Israel Central Bureau of Statistics|Central Bureau of Statistics]] |language=Hebrew}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|'''Locality'''
|'''Total population (thousands)'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Population of Ethiopian Origin in Israel: Selected Data Published on the Occasion of the Sigd Festival 2022 |url=https://www.cbs.gov.il/en/mediarelease/Pages/2022/The-Ethiopian-Population-in-Israel-2022.aspx |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=www.cbs.gov.il |language=en-US}}</ref>
|'''Total Population of Ethiopian origin (thousands)'''
|'''Population of Ethiopian origin out of total population (%)'''
|-
|National Total
|9,662.0
|168.8
|1.7
|-
|Netanya
|233.1
|12.2
|5.2
|-
|Be’er Sheva
|214.2
|10.3
|4.8
|-
|Rishon LeZiyyon
|260.5
|9.6
|3.7
|-
|Ashqelon
|153.1
|9.0
|5.9
|-
|Petah Tiqwa
|255.4
|8.9
|3.5
|-
|Rehovot
|150.7
|7.7
|5.1
|-
|Ashdod
|226.8
|7.5
|3.3
|-
|Qiryat Gat
|64.4
|7.5
|11.6
|-
|Jerusalem
|981.7
|6.6
|0.7
|-
|Hadera
|103.0
|6.2
|6.0
|-
|Haifa
|290.3
|5.8
|2.0
|-
|Bet Shemesh
|154.7
|4.6
|3.0
|-
|Ramla
|79.1
|4.5
|5.7
|-
|Lod
|85.4
|4.4
|5.1
|-
|Afula
|61.5
|3.9
|6.4
|-
|Qiryat Mal’akhi
|25.7
|3.9
|15.1
|-
|Yavne
|56.2
|3.8
|6.7
|-
|Tel Aviv-Yafo
|474.5
|2.7
|0.6
|-
|Holon
|198.0
|2.7
|1.3
|-
|Bat Yam
|128.5
|2.6
|2.0
|-
|Netivot
|46.4
|2.3
|5.0
|-
|Qiryat Yam
|41.1
|2.1
|5.2
|-
|Safed
|38.0
|2.1
|5.4
|}
(1) Localities with 2,000 or more residents of Ethiopian origin
{| class="wikitable"
|+Population of Ethiopian Origin by District, 2022<ref name=":4" />
!District
!Ethiopian Israeli residents
!% of total Ethiopian Israeli population
|-
|Central
|62,361
|36.9%
|-
|South
|44,576
|26.4%
|-
|Haifa
|23,543
|13.9%
|-
|North
|12,235
|7.3%
|-
|Jerusalem
|11,800
|7.0%
|-
|Tel Aviv
|10,689
|6.4%
|-
|West Bank*
|3,461
|2.1%
|-
|'''Total'''
|166,845
|100.0%
|}
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Referred to as Judea & Samaria in the report.

== Controversy ==

=== Discrimination claims ===
Controversy regarding the treatment of Ethiopian Jews began as early as the 1980s. Early that decade, the Israeli Chief Rabbinate put a policy in place that required immigrants to go through a ritual conversion ceremony, accept Rabbinic law, and - for males - be re-circumcised, with the stated goal of facilitating their assimilation to Jewish culture in Israel. By 1984, Ethiopian Jews opposed this policy, which they argued disregarded their religious practices as Jews. Many immigrants began to refuse to undergo conversion ceremonies and re-circumcision. In early 1985, the Chief Rabbinate changed the policy so that only Ethiopian Jews who wanted to marry as Jews in Israel would have to undergo the process. However, the Ethiopians still opposed the policy, which no other immigrant group in Israel had to undergo, and launched a strike on September 4, 1985. The strike aimed to achieve recognition as Jews without formal conversion or circumcision. Strikers also demanded that Ethiopians who wanted to marry as Jews should be dealt with on a case-by-case basis, and with the involvement of Ethiopian elders. The Ethiopians set up their strike in Jerusalem, outside the office of the Chief Rabbinate. Located next to the Great Synagogue, this was a prime location because people walking to and from synagogue everyday could see the protest. Eventually, non-Ethiopian Israelis began to join the protest. The strike continued for a month, into Rosh Hashanah. Anxious for the strike to end before Yom Kippur, the Chief Rabbinate began to negotiate with the protesters. The protestors denied the compromises, and once Yom Kippur was over, the Chief Rabbinate stopped negotiating with the protestors. The protestors realized their demonstration was taking a step back, so in order to avoid humiliation they decided to accept a deal presented to them weeks prior to the end of the strike. The Ethiopian Jews and Israeli officials agreed that in order for Ethiopians to marry in Israel, they would need to apply with their local registrar. The registrar would take testimony from Ethiopian elders into account, and those who could prove Jewish lineage could get married without the conversion ceremony.<ref name=":0" />[[File:Israeli-Ethiopian men.JPG|thumb|right|Men attending a demonstration against racism and discrimination, 2012]]
In May 2015, The Jewish Daily Forward described the Ethiopian Jewish community in Israel as one that has "long complained of discrimination, racism, and poverty".<ref>[http://forward.com/news/breaking-news/307422/ethiopian-israelis-clash-with-police-as-anti-racism-protests-escalate/ Ethiopian Israelis Clash With Police as Anti-Racism Protests Escalate] The Jewish Daily Forward, 3 May 2015</ref> The absorption of Ethiopians in Israeli society represents an ambitious attempt to deny the significance of race.<ref name=Rebhun/> Israeli authorities, aware of the situation of most African diaspora communities in other Western countries, hosted programs to avoid setting in patterns of discrimination.<ref name=Rebhun/> The Ethiopian Beta Israel community's internal challenges have been complicated by perceived racist attitudes in some sectors of Israeli society and the establishment.<ref name="Bookinfo">Onolemhemhen Durrenda Nash, ''The Black Jews of Ethiopia'', Scarecrow Press; Reprint edition 2002, p. 40</ref>

In 2004, racism was alleged regarding delays in admitting Ethiopian Beta Israel to Israel under the [[Law of return]].<ref name=Rebhun>Rebhun, Uzi, ''Jews in Israel: contemporary social and cultural patterns'', UPNE, 2004, pp. 139–140</ref> However, the delay may be attributed to religious motivations rather than racism, since there was debate whether or not Beta Israel people were indeed Jewish.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=2784774 | volume=27|title=Beta Israel people | pages=104–117}}</ref><ref name="Kemp, Adriana 2004, p. 155">Kemp, Adriana, ''Israelis in conflict: hegemonies, identities and challenges'', Sussex Academic Press, 2004, p. 155</ref>

In 2005, racism was alleged when the mayor of [[Or Yehuda]] refused to accept a large increase in Ethiopian immigrants due to fear of having the property of the town decrease in value or having an increase in crime.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ethiopian children cannot go to school in Or Yehuda while politicians argue |author=Yuval Azoulay and Yulie Khromchenko |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/ethiopian-children-cannot-go-to-school-in-or-yehuda-while-politicians-argue-1.168964 |newspaper=Haaretz |date=2005-09-04 |access-date=2012-03-04}}</ref>

In 2009, schoolchildren of Ethiopian ancestry were denied admission into three semi-private Haredi schools in [[Petah Tikva]]. An Israeli government official criticized the Petah Tikva Municipality and the schools. [[Shas]] spiritual leader [[Ovadia Yosef]] threatened to fire any school principal from Shas's school system who refused to receive Ethiopian students. The Israeli Education Ministry decided to pull funding from the Lamerhav, Da'at Mevinim, and Darkhei Noam schools, which refused to accept the students. Israeli Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] spoke out against the rejection of Ethiopian children, calling it "a moral terror attack".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Home/Article.aspx?id=153392|title=Deal reached on Petah Tikva Ethiopian olim|website=Jpost.com|date=August 31, 2009 |access-date=August 27, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/olmert-ethiopian-jews-are-right-to-feel-discriminated-against-1.234885|title=Olmert: Ethiopian Jews Are Right to Feel Discriminated Against|first=Barak|last=Ravid|date=December 9, 2007|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]}}</ref>

Demonstrations in Israel have occurred protesting the alleged racism against Ethiopian immigrants.<ref>''Haaretz'': [http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/thousands-in-jerusalem-protest-racism-against-ethiopian-israelis-1.407998 Thousands in Jerusalem protest racism against Ethiopian Israelis.] January 18, 2012. Accessed February 9, 2015.</ref>

===Protests against police brutality===
[[File:מחאה לאחר מותר של סלמון טקה.jpg|thumb|[[July 2019 Ethiopian Jews protest in Israel]]]]
In April 2015, an Ethiopian IDF soldier was the victim of an unprovoked and allegedly racist attack by an Israeli policeman and the attack was caught on video. The soldier, Damas Pakedeh, was arrested and then released, after being accused of attacking the policeman. Pakadeh is an orphan who emigrated from Ethiopia with his siblings in 2008. He believes the incident was racially motivated, and that, if the video had not been taken, he would have been punished. Instead, the police officer and volunteer were suspended pending an investigation. Likud MK [[Avraham Neguise]] called on National Police Chief [[Yohanan Danino]] to prosecute the police officer and volunteer, saying they engaged in "a gross violation of the basic law of respecting others and their liberty by those who are supposed to protect us". ''The Jerusalem Post'' notes that in 2015, "there have been a series of reports in the Israeli press about alleged acts of [[police brutality]] against Ethiopian Israelis, with many in the community saying they are unfairly targeted and treated more harshly than other citizens".<ref>[http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Video-Police-filmed-beating-IDF-soldier-at-scene-of-suspicious-object-case-399319 Video: Police suspended after assaulting IDF soldier in incident caught on tape] ''The Jerusalem Post'', 29 April 2015</ref><ref>[http://www.timesofisrael.com/cops-beat-ethiopian-idf-soldier-in-alleged-racist-attack/ Cops beat Ethiopian IDF soldier in alleged racist attack] The Times of Israel, 27 April 2015</ref>

The incident of police brutality with Pakedeh and alleged brutality of officials from Israel's [[Administration of Border Crossings, Population and Immigration|Administration of Border Crossings, Population, and Immigration]] with Walla Bayach, an Israeli of Ethiopian descent, brought the Ethiopian community to protest. Hundreds of Ethiopians participated in protests the streets of Jerusalem on April 20, 2015, to decry what they view as "rampant racism" and violence in Israel directed at their community. Israel Police Commissioner [[Yohanan Danino]] met with representatives of the Israeli Ethiopian community that day following the recent violent incidents involving police officers and members of the community.<ref>[http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4652484,00.html Ethiopians protest racist attack: 'Israel will be like Baltimore'] YNET, 30 April 2015</ref> When over a thousand people protested police brutality against Ethiopians and dark-skinned Israelis, Prime Minister [[Benjamin Netanyahu]] announced: "I strongly condemn the beating of the Ethiopian IDF soldier, and those responsible will be held accountable."<ref>[http://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Netanyahu-condemns-police-beating-of-Ethiopian-soldier-but-calls-for-calm-amid-protests-400755 Netanyahu condemns police beating of Ethiopian soldier, but calls for calm amid protests] Jerusalem Post, 30 April 2015</ref> Following protests and demonstrations in Tel Aviv that resulted in violence, Netanyahu planned to meet with representatives of the Ethiopian community, including Pakado. Netanyahu said the meeting would include Danino and representatives of several ministries, including Immigrant Absorption. Danino already announced that the officer who beat Pakado had been fired.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/04/world/middleeast/ethiopian-israelis-protest-in-tel-aviv-over-police-treatment.html Anti-Police Protest in Israel Turns Violent] The New York Times, 3 May 2015</ref>

[[July 2019 Ethiopian Jews protest in Israel|Large protests]] broke out in July 2019 after Solomon Teka, a young Ethiopian man, was shot and killed by an off-duty policy officer, in [[Kiryat Haim]], [[Haifa]], in northern Israel.<ref name='jp'>{{cite news |last1=Keinon |first1=Herb |last2=Ahronheim |first2=Anna |title=ETHIOPIAN ISRAELIS CONTINUE PROTESTS AS FAMILY OF VICTIM CALLS FOR CALM |url=https://www.jpost.com/Israel-News/Netanyahu-on-Ethiopian-Israeli-protests-We-will-not-tolerate-violence-594482 |access-date=3 July 2019 |agency=The Jerusalem Post |newspaper=jpost.com |date=3 July 2019}}</ref><ref name='jta'>{{cite news |last1=Oster | first1=Marcy |title=Dozens arrested in demonstrations protesting Ethiopian-Israeli's shooting death by off-duty cop |url=https://www.jta.org/quick-reads/dozens-arrested-in-demonstrations-protesting-ethiopian-israelis-shooting-death-by-off-duty-cop |access-date=4 July 2019 |agency=JTA |publisher=jta.org |date=2 July 2019}}</ref>

===Blood donations===

On January 24, 1996, ''[[Maariv (newspaper)|Ma'ariv]]'' newspaper revealed a [[Magen David Adom]] policy that drew heavy criticism in Israel and worldwide.<ref name=Seeman99>{{cite journal | last1 = Seeman | first1 = D | date = Jun 1999 | title = One people, one blood": public health, political violence, and HIV in an Ethiopian-Israeli setting | doi = 10.1023/A:1005439308374 | journal = Cult Med Psychiatry | volume = 23 | issue = 2| pages = 159–195 | pmid = 10451801 | s2cid = 19608785 }}</ref><ref name="Kaplan98">{{cite journal | last1 = Kaplan | first1 = Edward H. | date = Apr 1998 | title = Israel's ban on use of Ethiopians' blood: how many infectious donations were prevented? | url = http://www.som.yale.edu/faculty/ehk1/Lancet_Ethiopian_blood.pdf | journal = Lancet | volume = 351 | issue = 9109 | pages = 1127–1128 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(97)10356-7 | pmid = 9660600 | s2cid = 27664179 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100622164125/http://www.som.yale.edu/faculty/ehk1/Lancet_Ethiopian_blood.pdf | archive-date = June 22, 2010 | df = mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="Kaplan99">{{cite journal | last1 = Kaplan | first1 = Edward H. | date = Apr–Jun 1999 | title = Implicit Valuation of a Blood-exclusion Decision | doi = 10.1177/0272989X9901900212 | journal = Med Decis Making | volume = 19 | issue = 2| pages = 207–213 | pmid = 10231084 | s2cid = 30602688 }}</ref> According to the policy, which was not brought to the attention of the [[Health Minister of Israel|Israeli Ministry of Health]] or donors, blood donations received from Ethiopian immigrants and their offspring were secretly disposed of. A later [[public inquiry]] traced this back to a misinterpretation of a 1984 instruction to mark blood donations from Ethiopian immigrants due to a relatively high prevalence of [[HBsAg]], indicative of [[Hepatitis B]] infections, in blood samples taken from this population.<ref>{{Cite web|last=SEEMAN|first=DON|title=ONE PEOPLE, ONE BLOOD: PUBLIC HEALTH, POLITICALVIOLENCE, AND HIV IN AN ETHIOPIAN-ISRAELI SETTING|url=https://webhome.weizmann.ac.il/home/liorg/seeman.pdf}}</ref>

A few days after the expose, ten thousand Beta Israel demonstrated in front of the [[Office of the Prime Minister (Israel)|Office of the Prime Minister]]. The police force was surprised and unprepared for the violence that erupted, leading to policemen being injured by stones, sticks, and steel rods. The police repelled the demonstrators with [[rubber bullets]], [[water cannons]], and [[tear gas]]. 41 policemen and 20 demonstrators were injured, and 200 cars belonging to the employees of the Prime Minister's Office were damaged.

Tests conducted on 650 Ethiopian immigrants who immigrated to Israel in 1984–1990 and 5,200 Ethiopian immigrants who immigrated in 1990–1992 revealed no HIV carriers before July 1990. Nevertheless, among the 5,200 Ethiopian immigrants who immigrated during "[[Operation Solomon]]", there were 118 HIV carriers, who made up 2.3 percent of the test population.<ref name=Alkan93>{{cite journal | last1 = Alkan | first1 = ML | last2 = Maayan | first2 = S | last3 = Belmaker | first3 = I | last4 = Arbeli | first4 = Y | last5 = Mani | first5 = N | last6 = Ben-Yshai | first6 = F | date = Jun–Jul 1993 | title = Serological markers for hepatitis B and treponemal infection among HIV carriers from Ethiopia | journal = Isr J Med Sci | volume = 29 | issue = 6–7| pages = 390–392 | pmid = 8349459 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.snunit.k12.il/heb_journals/chimia/55004.html |title=שם המאמר: האיידס בישראל |website=www1.snunit.k12.il |access-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001205020800/http://www1.snunit.k12.il/heb_journals/chimia/55004.html |archive-date=5 December 2000 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Pollack94>{{cite journal | last1 = Pollack | first1 = S | last2 = Ben-Porath | first2 = E | last3 = Fuad | first3 = B | last4 = Raz | first4 = R | last5 = Etzioni | first5 = A | date = Aug 1994 | title = Epidemiological and serological studies in HIV-infected Ethiopian immigrants to Israel | doi = 10.1111/j.1651-2227.1994.tb13327.x | journal = Acta Paediatr Suppl | volume = 400 | pages = 19–21 | pmid = 7833553 | s2cid = 28429381 }}</ref><ref name=Bentwich96>{{cite journal | last1 = Bentwich | first1 = Z. | last2 = Weisman | first2 = Z. | last3 = Moroz | first3 = C. | last4 = Bar-Yehuda | first4 = S. | last5 = Kalinkovich | first5 = A. | year = 1996 | title = Immune dysregulation in Ethiopian immigrants in Israel: relevance to helminth infections? | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2249.1996.d01-612.x | journal = Clinical & Experimental Immunology | volume = 103 | issue = 2| pages = 239–243 | pmid = 8565306 | pmc=2200340}}</ref><ref name=Bar-Yehuda97>{{cite journal | last1 = Bar-Yehuda | first1 = S | last2 = Weisman | first2 = Z | last3 = Kalinkovich | first3 = A | last4 = Vonsover | first4 = A | last5 = Zlotnikov | first5 = S | last6 = Jehuda-Cohen | first6 = T | last7 = Bentwich | first7 = Z | date = Jan 1997 | title = High prevalence of HIV-specific immunity in seronegative Ethiopian immigrants in Israel | journal = AIDS | volume = 11 | issue = 1| pages = 117–118 | pmid = 9110085 }}</ref>

The public outcry led to the establishment of a commission of inquiry headed by former Israeli president [[Yitzhak Navon]]. After several months, the committee published its conclusions, calling for a change in policy. The Committee did not find evidence of racism, although some researchers have contested this.<ref name=Seeman99/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.iaej.co.il/newsite/content.asp?pageid=482 |title=אגודה ישראלית למען יהודי אתיופיה - הזווית האחרת של פרשת שפיכת הדם |access-date=2011-06-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110616054205/http://www.iaej.co.il/newsite/content.asp?pageid=482 |archive-date=June 16, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynet.co.il/articles/0,7340,L-3324140,00.html|title=במקום לבכות על הדם - ננקה אותו|date=November 6, 2006|access-date=August 27, 2017|newspaper=Ynet|last1=אבבה |first1=דני אדינו }}</ref>

On November 6, 2006, hundreds of Ethiopian protesters clashed with police while attempting to block the entrance to [[Jerusalem]] in the wake of the Israeli Health Ministry's decision to continue the MDA policy of disposing of donations from high-risk groups.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/11/06/africa/ME_GEN_Israel_Blood_Protest.php|title=Ethiopian-Israelis clash with police, disrupt Jerusalem traffic over discarding of donated blood|newspaper=[[International Herald Tribune]]|date=June 20, 2008|access-date=2017-08-27|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620044718/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2006/11/06/africa/ME_GEN_Israel_Blood_Protest.php|archive-date=June 20, 2008|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

To date, the MDA prohibits the use of blood donations from natives of [[sub-Saharan Africa]], except South Africa, natives of Southeast Asia, natives of the [[Caribbean]] and natives of countries which have been widely affected by the AIDS epidemic, including donations from the natives of Ethiopia. Since 1991, all immigrants from Ethiopia undergo mandatory HIV screenings, regardless of their intention to donate blood.<ref name="Walters88">{{cite journal | last1 = Walters | first1 = Leroy | year = 1988 | title = Ethical Issues in the Prevention and Treatment of HIV Infection and AIDS | journal = Science | volume = 239 | issue = 4840| pages = 597–603 | doi=10.1126/science.3340846| pmid = 3340846 | bibcode = 1988Sci...239..597W }}</ref><ref name=Oppenheimer88>Gerald M. Oppenheimer, 'In the eye of the storm: The epidemiological construction of AIDS', pp. 267–300, in [[Elizabeth Fee]] and Daniel M. Fox, eds., 'AIDS: The Burdens of History', (University of California Press, 1988) {{ISBN|978-0-520-06395-2}}</ref><ref name=Farmer92>Farmer P., 'AIDS and accusation. Haiti and the geography of blame', University of California Press, Berkeley, 1992. {{ISBN|978-0-520-08343-1}} pp. 210–228</ref>

===Birth control===
According to a TV program in 2012, female Ethiopian immigrants may have been given the [[Depo-Provera]] birth control drug under intimidation, and without full explanation of its effects,<ref>{{cite news|last=Nesher|first=Talila|title=Israel admits Ethiopian women were given birth control shots|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/national/israel-admits-ethiopian-women-were-given-birth-control-shots.premium-1.496519|access-date=4 February 2013|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|date=27 January 2013}}</ref> although, in response to a letter from the Association of Civil Rights in Israel, the Israeli health ministry instructed all health maintenance organizations not to use the treatment unless patients understand the ramifications. Ethiopian Jewish women awaiting [[aliyah]] were given birth control while in transit camps. The drug has existed for around thirty years and about forty percent of women use this method of birth control in Ethiopia.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Zerihun|first1=Muluken Fekadie|last2=Malik|first2=Tabarak|last3=Ferede|first3=Yohannes Mulu|last4=Bekele|first4=Tesfahun|last5=Yeshaw|first5=Yigizie|date=2019-08-15|title=Changes in body weight and blood pressure among women using Depo-Provera injection in Northwest Ethiopia|journal=BMC Research Notes|volume=12|issue=1|page=512|doi=10.1186/s13104-019-4555-y|issn=1756-0500|pmc=6694638|pmid=31416486 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The practice was first reported in 2010 by ''Isha le'Isha'' (Hebrew: Woman to Woman), an Israeli women's rights organization. Hedva Eyal, the report's author, stated: "We believe it is a method of reducing the number of births in a community that is black and mostly poor."<ref>{{cite news|title=Furore in Israel over birth control drugs for Ethiopian Jews|url=http://www.irinnews.org/Report/97352/Furore-in-Israel-over-birth-control-drugs-for-Ethiopian-Jews|website=Irinnews.org|access-date=4 February 2013|date=28 January 2013}}</ref> ''[[Haaretz]]'' criticized international coverage of the issue, alleging that many Ethiopian women's procreational rights had been violated through poor medical practice on immigrant communities, but dismissed ideas of state-sponsored sterilization as false as the effects of Depo-Provera last only for three months.<ref name=HA1>{{cite news|title=Ethiopian women and birth control: when a scoop becomes a smear|url=http://www.haaretz.com/blogs/routine-emergencies/ethiopian-women-and-birth-control-when-a-scoop-becomes-a-smear.premium-1.500341|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|date=30 January 2013}}</ref>

According to ''[[Haaretz]]'', the government investigation in 2016 into 35 Ethiopian women's claims found no evidence that forced birth control injections for Ethiopian-Israelis took place.<ref name=HA2>{{cite news|title=No Evidence That Ethiopian-Israeli Women Were Forced to Take Birth-control Shot, Comptroller Says|url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2016-01-20/ty-article/.premium/comptroller-ethiopians-not-forced-into-birth-control/0000017f-dc79-df62-a9ff-dcffb5e80000|newspaper=[[Haaretz]]|date=20 January 2016|access-date=2023-11-05}}</ref> In a subsequently published independent study, the rapid decline in fertility rate was shown to be "the product of urbanization, improved educational opportunities, a later age of marriage and commencement of childbirth and an earlier age of cessation of childbearing."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaplan|first=Steven|date=2016|title=Coercion and Control|journal=International Journal of Ethiopian Studies|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26554851|volume=10|issue=1&2|pages=35–50|jstor=26554851 |access-date=2023-11-05}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Israel|Africa}}
* [[Ethiopia–Israel relations]]
* [[Ethiopian cuisine]]
* [[Aliyah from Ethiopia]]
* [[History of the Jews in Africa]]
* [[History of the Jews in Ethiopia]]
* [[Jewish Agency for Israel]]
* [[Jewish ethnic divisions]]
* [[List of Israeli Ethiopian Jews]]
* ''[[The Red Sea Diving Resort]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Israelis of Ethiopian descent}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120304033830/http://www.beteisrael.co.il/index.asp Beta Israel: Society and Culture – Ethiopian Jews]
* [http://www.ethiostruggle.com Ethio-struggle]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120304173243/http://www.yopi.co.il/ Yopi – The Ethiopian Portal]
* [https://iaej.co.il/language/en/association-of-ethiopian-jews/ Association of Ethiopian Jews website]

{{Israeli Jews by ethnic or national origin in Israel}}
{{Demographics of Israel}}{{African diaspora}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ethiopian Jews In Israel}}
[[Category:Israeli Jews by national origin]]
[[Category:Beta Israel| ]]
[[Category:Habesha peoples]]
[[Category:Ethiopian Jews| ]]
[[Category:Ethiopian diaspora by country|Israel]]
[[Category:Society of Israel]]
[[Category:Jewish Ethiopian history]]
[[Category:Jewish Agency for Israel]]
[[Category:Israeli people of Ethiopian-Jewish descent| ]]
[[Category:Ethiopian-Jewish culture in Israel| ]]

Danilo Blanuša

2024-07-13T10:19:04Z

Omcsesz:

{{Short description|Croatian Serb mathematician, physicist, and engineer (1903–1987)}}
'''Danilo Blanuša''' (7 December 1903 – 8 August 1987) was a [[Croatia]]n mathematician, physicist, engineer and a [[professor]] at the [[University of Zagreb]].

==Biography==
Blanuša was born in [[Osijek]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (today [[Croatia]]). He attended elementary school in [[Vienna]] and [[Steyr]] in [[Austria]] and [[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]] in Osijek and [[Zagreb]]. He studied engineering in both Zagreb and Vienna and also [[mathematics]] and [[physics]]. His career started in Zagreb, where he started to work and lecture. His student [[Mileva Prvanović]] completed her doctorate in 1955, the first in geometry in [[Socialist Republic of Serbia|Serbia]].<ref>{{citation|title=Academician Mileva Prvanović – the First Doctor of Geometrical Sciences in Serbia|journal=Filomat|publisher=Faculty of Sciences and Mathematics, [[University of Niš]]|volume=29|issue=3|pages=375–380|doi=10.2298/FIL1503375M|first1=Svetislav|last1=Minčić|first2=Ljubica|last2=Velimirović|year=2015|doi-access=free}}</ref> Blanuša was the [[dean (education)|dean]] of the [[Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Zagreb]] in the 1957–58 school year. He received the [[Ruđer Bošković]] prize in 1960. He died in [[Zagreb]].

==Mathematics==

In mathematics, Blanuša became known for discovering the second and third known [[snark (graph theory)|snarks]] in 1946 (the [[Petersen graph]] was the first), triggering a new area of [[graph theory]]. The study of snarks had its origin in the 1880 work of [[Peter Guthrie Tait|P. G. Tait]], who at that time had proved that the [[four color theorem]] is equivalent to the statement that no snark is [[Planar graph|planar]]. Snarks were so named later by the American mathematician [[Martin Gardner]] in 1976, after the mysterious and elusive object of [[Lewis Carroll]]'s poem ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]''.

Blanuša's most important works were related to [[isometry|isometric]] [[Immersion (mathematics)|immersions]] of [[pseudo-Riemannian manifold]]s in [[differential geometry]]. In particular, in his most cited work <ref>{{citation|title = Über die Einbettung hyperbolischer Räume in euklidische Räume|journal=Monatshefte für Mathematik|volume=59|pages=217–229|year=1955|first1=Danilo|last1=Blanuša|doi=10.1007/BF01303796>}}</ref> he has exhibited an embedding of a hyperbolic ([[Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky|Lobachevsky]]) two-dimensional plane into 6-dimensional [[Euclidean space]] and another construction, for all natural numbers <math>n\geq 2</math>, of an <math>n</math>-dimensional hyperbolic space into <math>6n-5</math>-dimensional Euclidean space. In an earlier work <ref>D. Blanuša, Eine isometrische und singularitätenfreie Einbettung des <math>n</math>-dimensionalen hyperbolischen Raumes im Hilbertschen Raum. Monatsh. f. Math. 57 (1953) 102–108.</ref> he has exhibited embeddings of <math>n</math>-dimensional hyperbolic spaces into a separated (infinite-dimensional) Hilbert space. His other important works are in the theory of the special functions ([[Bessel function]]s) and in [[graph theory]]. Some of his results are included in the [[Japan]]ese mathematical [[encyclopedia]] ''Sugaku jiten'' in [[Tokyo]], published by ''Iwanami Shoten'' in 1962.

==Physics==

His works were mostly related to the theory of relativity. He discovered a mistake in relations for absolute heat Q and temperature T in relativistic phenomenological [[thermodynamics]], published by [[Max Planck]] in ''Annalen der Physik'' in 1908.

* Q0 and T0 are the corresponding classical values, and a=(1-v2/c2)1/2
in the relation → Q=Q0a, T=T0a
really should be → Q=Q0/a, T=T0/a

This correction was published in ''[[Glasnik]]'', the journal relating to [[mathematics]], [[physics]] and [[astronomy]] in 1947 in the article "Sur les paradoxes de la notion d'énergie". It was rediscovered in 1960, and the correction is still wrongly attributed to H. Ott in the mainstream scientific literature.

==See also==
* [[Blanuša snarks]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040214171030/http://www.math.hr/hmd/logo.htm Blanuša snarks in the logo of the Croatian Mathematical Society]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040823013254/http://www.posta.hr/markeasp/index3.asp?brmarke=373 Blanuša snark on a Croatian postage stamp]
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/BlanusaSnarks.html Blanuša Snarks]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Blanusa, Danilo}}
[[Category:20th-century Croatian mathematicians]]
[[Category:Yugoslav mathematicians]]
[[Category:Yugoslav engineers]]
[[Category:Croatian mathematicians]]
[[Category:Members of the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Zagreb]]
[[Category:Faculty of Science, University of Zagreb alumni]]
[[Category:People from Osijek]]
[[Category:Serbs of Croatia]]
[[Category:Burials at Mirogoj Cemetery]]
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1987 deaths]]

Gneiss-2

2024-07-08T10:48:09Z

Omcsesz: Fixed typo

'''Gneiss-2''' was the first [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] produced airborne radar system. It was introduced in 1942, and was installed on [[Petlyakov Pe-2]], [[Petlyakov Pe-3]] and [[Douglas A-20 Havoc]] aircraft.

==Development==
During the [[Soviet-Finnish War]], the chief of the Air Force Research and Testing Institute, General S. A. Danilin, having gained experience of the ground-based Redoubt Radar Redox (RUS-2) under combat conditions, proposed developing an airborne radar system for detecting and attacking enemy aircraft regardless of visibility conditions. Scientists and engineers at the Leningrad Institute of Radio Industries confirmed the possibility of creating such a system, and under the leadership of A. B. Slepushkinthe development of the project, codenamed "Gneiss-1", was started. The Institute of Air Force put forward the following requirements: range of detection of the aircraft 4-5 km; detection zone in the horizontal plane 120 °, in the vertical - about 90 °. The transmitter was based on a klystron, working at a wavelength of 15-16 cm in pulsed mode. The estimated weight of the station and equipment was about 500 kg. The aircraft chosen to install the system was at the suggestion of the test pilot of the Air Force Research Institute, S. Suprun, in which the radar operator could also be accommodated. In early 1941, a prototype of the radar was created.<ref name = "Lobanov 1975">Lobanov, M. M., Aircraft stations "Gneiss-2", PNB and "Gneiss-5" // Beginning of Soviet radar. - M .: Soviet radio, 1975.</ref>

In connection with the outbreak of the [[Great Patriotic War]] and the evacuation of the supplier enterprises, difficulties arose with further work on the Gneiss-1. The design of the radar had to be switched to transmitters of a meter wave band. On the basis of the fixed air-defense radar " Pegmatit " (RUS-2s) under the direction of its developers A. A. Fin and [[Viktor Tikhomirov|V. V. Tikhomirov]], the Gneiss-2 radar was created, operating at a wavelength of 1.5 m.<ref name = "Lobanov 1982">Lobanov, M. M., Airborne Radar Means // Development of Soviet Radar Technology. - M .: Military Publishing, 1982.</ref>

The radar was installed on a Pe-2 aircraft and in July 1942 test flights showed the possibility of detecting a bomber-type aircraft at a distance of 300 to 3500 m with an accuracy of ± 5 ° in angular coordinates with a flight altitude of at least 2000 m. The radio research institute completed a pilot batch of 15 stations that were sent to the troops for testing. In February-May 1943, under the Leningrad 2nd Guards Air Defense Corps, official military tests were conducted (the chairman of the commission, Major General of Aviation Ye. E. Erlykin ). According to their results, by decision of the State Defense Committee of June 16, 1943, Gneiss-2 radar was adopted. By the end of 1944, more than 230 of the systems were released.<ref name = "Lobanov 1982"/>

In 1943, an improved version of the station, Gneiss-2M, was created. On it, new antennas were used, which made it possible to detect both airplanes and surface ships. In the autumn of 1943, the radar was tested on the Caspian Sea, after which it was adopted and launched into mass production.<ref name = "Lobanov 1982"/>

==Specifications==
* Carrier frequency: 200 MHz
* Pulse frequency: 900 Hz
* Pulse duration: 2μs to 2.5 μs
* Maximum range: 3,5 km
* Peak power: 10 kW
* Azimuth error: ± 5 °

==Combat operation==
The first operational "Gneiss-2" radar systems, mounted on the Pe-2 aircraft, were used in battles near Moscow in the autumn of 1942. At the beginning of 1943 some aircraft were used in combat against aircraft supplying the German units surrounded at Stalingrad. From February to May 1943, aircraft with the radar were used in the air defense system of Leningrad - by the 24th Guards Fighter Aviation Regiment of the Second Air Defense Corps. During the interception, the fighters were guided to the target using the RUS-2 long-range radar, and with the approach to the air enemy, the airborne Gneiss-2 was ready to be used. Having discovered the enemy aircraft, the on-board radar operator gave the pilot instructions on how to approach the target.

From February to June 1943, Gneiss-2 was tested with a Douglas A-20 to evaluate its use as a night fighter airborne interception radar. In comparison with Pe-2, the aircraft had a number of advantages, and as a result, in July 1943, the formation of the 56th Air Division of long-range fighters in the two regiments (45 and 173) on A-20 aircraft began. The division was subordinate to the [[Long Range Aviation|ADD]]. According to the staff, each regiment was assigned 32 aircraft and 39 crews, and the regiment included a radar company equipped with the RUS-2. From May 1944 divisions began to enter the front and were used to protect large transport hubs. The planes with the Gneiss-2 radar were also used during the war by the mine-torpedo aviation regiments to detect ships.

In addition to the "Gneiss-2" of its own production, the USSR received aviation radars under a Lend-Lease contract. The United States sent to the allies under this treaty 54,486 aviation radars, mainly for Great Britain. Of this number, 370 stations of two types were sent to the Soviet Union: 320 - [[SCR-695]] and 50 - [[SCR-718]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
''Glimpses of Early Radar Developments in Ukraine and the Former Soviet Union'' by Felix J. Yanovsky [https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=7909881]

{{Soviet and Russian radars|state=expanded}}
[[Category:Soviet military radars]]
[[Category:World War II radars]]
[[Category:Aircraft radars]]

Richard Ashcroft

2024-05-21T01:07:28Z

Omcsesz: /* Early life */

{{Short description|English singer-songwriter}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{EngvarB|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Richard Ashcroft
| image = Richardashcroft.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Ashcroft on 1 July 2012
| background = solo_singer
| birth_name = Richard Paul Ashcroft
| alias =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=y|1971|09|11}}
| birth_place = [[Wigan]], Lancashire, England
| genre = {{flatlist|
* [[Alternative rock]]
* [[shoegazing]]
* [[dream pop]]
* [[Britpop]]
* [[space rock]]
* [[neo-psychedelia]]
}}
| occupations = {{flatlist|
* Singer
* songwriter
* composer
* multi-instrumentalist
}}
| label = {{flatlist|
* Righteous Phonographic Association
* [[Cooking Vinyl]]
* [[Parlophone]]
* [[Hut Records|Hut]]
* [[Virgin Records|Virgin]]
}}
| past_member_of = [[The Verve]]
| instruments = {{flatlist|
* Vocals
* guitar
* keyboards
* melodica
}}
| years_active = 1990–present
| website = {{URL|www.richardashcroft.com}}
}}
'''Richard Paul Ashcroft''' (born 11 September 1971) is an English musician, singer, and songwriter. He was the lead singer and rhythm guitarist of the [[alternative rock]] band [[The Verve]] from their formation in 1990 until their second split in 1999. Songs he wrote for the band include "[[Bitter Sweet Symphony]]", "[[Lucky Man (The Verve song)|Lucky Man]]", and the UK number one "[[The Drugs Don't Work]]". He became a successful solo artist, releasing three UK top-three solo albums. The Verve reformed in 2007 but again broke up by summer 2009. Ashcroft then founded a new band, [[RPA & The United Nations of Sound]], and released a new album on 19 July 2010. Ashcroft released his fourth solo album, [[These People (Richard Ashcroft album)|''These People'']], on 20 May 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://richardashcroft.com/|title=Richard Ashcroft |publisher=Richard Ashcroft|date=22 February 2016|access-date=8 March 2016}}</ref> Ashcroft went on to release the album ''[[Natural Rebel]]'' in 2018, and the compilation of acoustic versions of his best hits, ''[[Acoustic Hymns Vol 1|Acoustic Hymns Vol. 1]]'', in 2021.

In May 2019, Ashcroft received the [[Ivor Novello Award]] for Outstanding Contribution to British Music from the [[British Academy of Songwriters, Composers, and Authors]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Savage |first=Mark |date=23 May 2019 |title=The Bittersweet Symphony dispute is over |agency=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-48380600 |access-date=}}</ref> [[Chris Martin]] of [[Coldplay]] has described Ashcroft as "the best singer in the world".<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.gigwise.com/news/14747/richard-ashcroft-married-to-chris-martin | title= Richard Ashcroft 'Married' To Chris Martin | work=Gigwise | date=19 March 2006 | access-date=3 October 2013}}</ref>

==Early life==
Ashcroft was the only son of office worker Frank and hairdresser Louise Ashcroft (née Baxter); he also has two younger sisters.<ref name="musicsaves.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.musicsaves.org/verve/interviews/36.shtml |title=Follow the Yellow Brick Road |publisher=Musicsaves.org |access-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> His middle name, Paul, is also the name of a paternal uncle. When Ashcroft was 11, his father died suddenly of a [[brain haemorrhage]] in 1982.<ref name="musicsaves.org"/> Ashcroft soon "fell under the influence of his stepfather", who belonged to the [[Rosicrucian]]s.<ref name="Allmusic Biography"/>

Ashcroft attended [[Up Holland High School]] in West Lancashire, along with future bandmates [[Simon Jones (musician)|Simon Jones]], [[Peter Salisbury]] and [[Simon Tong]],<ref name="Allmusic Biography">{{cite web |first=Jason |last=Ankeny |title=Feature: ''Richard Ashcroft Biography'' |url={{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p52705/biography|pure_url=yes}} |publisher=[[AllMusic]] |access-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> and then attended nearby [[Winstanley College]], where he met [[Nick McCabe]].<ref name="musicsaves.org"/> His teachers referred to him as "the cancer of the class",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sing365.com/music/lyric.nsf/Richard-Ashcroft-Biography/7E2C04ECE70800C74825697C00173691 |title=Richard Ashcroft Biography |publisher=Sing365.com |access-date=18 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127075437/http://www.sing365.com/music/lyric.nsf/Richard-Ashcroft-Biography/7E2C04ECE70800C74825697C00173691 |archive-date=27 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> though one member of staff recalled him being "incredibly intelligent".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2002/jun/25/furthereducation.uk3|title=College Days|work=The Guardian|date=25 June 2002 | location=London | access-date=22 May 2010}}</ref> Ashcroft was an avid [[association football|football]] player, he is listed in the 1998 Playfair Football Who's Who as having been on the books of Rotherham United playing junior football for [[Wigan Athletic F.C.|Wigan Athletic]].<ref name="Ashcroft is the man with the power"/> For some time, Ashcroft wanted to be a professional football player, idolising [[George Best]], but as he grew older he lost interest in this, turning to music instead.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicsaves.org/verve/interviews/22.shtml |title=We're Not for Teenyboppers |publisher=Musicsaves.org |access-date=18 January 2012}}</ref>

==The Verve==
{{Main|The Verve}}
Ashcroft formed The Verve (originally just Verve) in 1990 with McCabe, Jones, and Salisbury. The band signed to Hut Records and became well known for their appetite for both psychedelic music and drugs, during which time Ashcroft gained the sobriquet, "Mad Richard".<ref>https://faroutmagazine.co.uk/richard-ashcroft-pride-and-anger-at-mad-richard-tag/</ref> They also became a part of the Britpop movement. The band split in 1995, and around this time Ashcroft wrote a collection of songs he intended to release as his first solo album.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/richard-ashcroft-grand-designs-593258.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110421070949/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/richard-ashcroft-grand-designs-593258.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=21 April 2011 | work=The Independent | location=London | title=Richard Ashcroft: Grand designs | date=4 April 2003 | access-date=22 May 2010}}</ref> However, by 1997 he had changed his mind and asked McCabe to return (alongside new member Tong), reforming the Verve and releasing the very successful album ''[[Urban Hymns]]''. Ashcroft was at the forefront of the band's popularity, receiving an [[Ivor Novello Award]] for his songwriting<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/102024.stm |work=BBC News| title=Radiohead make double swoop | date=29 May 1998 | access-date=22 May 2010}}</ref> and being referred to by the press as "the unmistakable face of the Number One rock band in England".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicsaves.org/verve/interviews/37.shtml |title=Bittersweet Triumph |publisher=Musicsaves.org |access-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> However, the pressures of touring and the tensions within the band led to McCabe's departure in mid-1998 and the announcement of the band's break-up in April 1999.

In early 2007, Ashcroft made peace with McCabe and Jones and the Verve's reunion was announced in June. The band played gigs later that year and continued touring in 2008, headlining at several festivals around the world. A new album, ''[[Forth (The Verve album)|Forth]]'', was released in August.

In August 2008, the Verve broke up for the third time, though it was not announced until the following year.

==Solo career==

===''Alone with Everybody'' and ''Human Conditions'': 2000–2004===
Ashcroft's first solo single, "[[A Song for the Lovers]]", peaked at No. 3 in the UK charts in April 2000.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/> It was followed by the single "[[Money to Burn (Richard Ashcroft song)|Money to Burn]]" which reached the UK Top 20 at No. 17.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/> The album, ''[[Alone with Everybody]]'', was released in June, reaching number 1 and receiving platinum status in the UK. Album reviews were generally positive.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/richard-ashcroft/2437 |title=NME Album Reviews – Alone With Everybody |work=NME |date=20 June 2000 |access-date=18 January 2012}}</ref> In September, a third single was released – "[[C'mon People (We're Making It Now)]]" – entering the charts at No. 21.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/> Richard does not publish the lyrics to his songs in the inlay cards of his albums or singles as he feels they are personal to him.

Ashcroft began work on his second album ''[[Human Conditions]]'' in 2002. The lead single, "[[Check the Meaning]]", was released in early October, and peaked at No. 11 on the UK Singles Chart.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com">{{cite web |title=Richard Ashcroft at OfficialCharts.com |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artists/ |publisher=[[Official Charts Company]] |access-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> The album was released later that month and reached No. 3 in the UK Album Chart.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/> Reception to the album was generally positive. Review aggregating website [[Metacritic]] reports a normalised score of 61% based on 15 reviews. In response to negative reaction to the album, [[Coldplay]]'s [[Chris Martin]] – a fan of both Ashcroft and the Verve – defended the album's merits which "made an impression" on Ashcroft.<ref name="Ashcroft talks Verve and Philosophy"/> The appreciation shown would later result in a support slot for Ashcroft, serving as the opening act for Coldplay during a European tour.<ref name="Ashcroft talks Verve and Philosophy">{{cite news |first=Jane |last=Stevenson |title=Ashcroft talks Verve and Philosophy |url=http://jam.canoe.ca/Music/Artists/A/Ashcroft_Richard/2006/03/17/1493092-sun.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130115082909/http://jam.canoe.ca/Music/Artists/A/Ashcroft_Richard/2006/03/17/1493092-sun.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=15 January 2013 |newspaper=Toronto Sun |access-date=18 June 2009 }}</ref> The album's second single, "[[Science of Silence]]", was released the following January and charted at No. 14 in the UK.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/> On 26 March, Ashcroft made his first live appearance of 2003 at London's [[Royal Albert Hall]] as part of the third annual [[Teenage Cancer Trust]] charity fundraising event,<ref name="Ashcroft reveals single details">{{cite web |first=Jamilia |last=Al-amin |title=News: ''Ashcroft reveals single details'' |url=http://www.citylife.co.uk/music/news/2905_ashcroft_reveals_single_details |date=7 March 2003 |publisher=M.E.N. Media |access-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> before "[[Buy It in Bottles]]", the third and final single to be taken from the album, was released on 7 April, charting at No. 26.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/>

Aside from a limited number of appearances in 2003, Ashcroft was absent from the music business for about two years. He later explained this in 2006, stating that "[e]veryone got it into their heads over the last few years that I was in my ivory tower like [[Lennon]], baking bread all day. The fact of the matter was that I was bringing up kids".<ref>[http://www.richardashcroftonline.com/images/press/ra/nme07-01-06/nme07-01-06d.jpg]{{dead link|date=January 2012}}</ref>

===Live 8 and ''Keys to the World'': 2005–2007===

Ashcroft began playing gigs again in mid-2005, and, on 2 July at the [[Live 8]] concert in [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]], [[Coldplay]] invited him to perform with them during their set. They performed the Verve's hit "[[Bitter Sweet Symphony]]", after having previously rehearsed the song in Crystal Palace. Ashcroft's performance of the song was introduced by [[Chris Martin]] as "probably the best song ever written, and here's the best singer in the world",<ref name="Ashcroft is the man with the power"/><ref name="Ashcroft talks Verve and Philosophy"/> helping to create renewed interest in Ashcroft. At Christmas 2005, a documentary entitled ''Live 8: A Bitter Sweet Symphony'' was aired on the [[BBC]] reliving moments of the day featuring a portion of Ashcroft's performance as the show's opening soundtrack.

After the disintegration of [[Hut Records]] in 2004, Ashcroft signed to [[Parlophone]]<ref name="Ashcroft is the man with the power">{{cite web |title=News: ''Ashcroft is the man with the power'' |url=http://www.citylife.co.uk/music/news/4842_ashcroft_is_the_man_with_the_power |date=6 February 2006 |publisher=M.E.N. Media |access-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> where he released his third solo album, ''[[Keys to the World]]'', on 23 January 2006. The first single from the album, "[[Break the Night with Colour]]", was released on 9 January 2006, and entered the [[UK Singles Chart]] at number 3.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/> Following his performance at Live 8, Ashcroft was booked as a support act for Coldplay's [[Twisted Logic Tour]] throughout North America and the UK, which started on 14 March in [[Ottawa]], Canada. Ashcroft saw the support slot as "a good chance to play to a significant amount of people and say, 'I’m back. And this is what I do'".<ref name="Ashcroft talks Verve and Philosophy"/>

The album's second single, "[[Music Is Power]]", charted at number 20.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/> On 18 April 2006, he recorded the ''Live from London EP'', the ninth in a series of EPs released exclusively as digital downloads from Apple's iTunes Store. The EP was released just 6 days later on 24 April. With the release of ''Keys to the World'', the general consensus was that Ashcroft was "back at the top of his musical game",<ref name="Ashcroft talks Verve and Philosophy"/> as he announced his largest UK tour for years for May 2006, culminating in three nights at London's [[Brixton Academy]]. Following the tour, Ashcroft had hoped to perform two "Homecoming" shows at [[Wigan Athletic F.C.|Wigan Athletic]]'s 25,000 seater [[JJB Stadium]] in June 2006, but was unable to do so as the proposed venue lacked the "appropriate licence".<ref name="JJB">{{cite web |first=Diane |last=Bourne |title=News: ''No go for Richard at JJB'' |url=http://www.citylife.co.uk/music/news/4634_no_go_for_richard_at_jjb |date=19 October 2005 |publisher=M.E.N. Media |access-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> As a consequence, he chose to play at [[Lancashire County Cricket Club]] in [[Old Trafford (district)|Old Trafford]], in what was to be his biggest solo show to date. He was supported at the gig by acts such as [[Razorlight]] and [[the Feeling]], whilst [[DJ Shadow]] joined Richard on stage during his set to perform "Lonely Soul", their [[UNKLE]] collaboration from 1998's ''[[Psyence Fiction]]'' LP.<ref name = "BBC Manchester Review">{{cite web| title = Richard Ashcroft at Lancashire County Cricket Club – 8/10 |author=Nick Bowden |website=BBC Manchester Reviews |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/manchester/content/articles/2006/06/19/170606_richard_ashcroft_feature.shtml | access-date= 19 June 2006 }}</ref> Another UK tour followed five months later, culminating in a show at Manchester's M.E.N. Arena on 30 November.<ref name="Ashcroft's Arena ending">{{cite web |first=Sarah |last=Walters |title=News: ''Ashcroft's Arena ending'' |url=http://www.citylife.co.uk/music/news/5058_ashcroft_s_arena_ending |date=23 November 2006 |publisher=M.E.N. Media |access-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> Ashcroft did not tour ''Keys to the World'' outside of Europe.<ref name="Ashcroft's Arena ending"/>

Ashcroft hinted at the possible release of a new version of his previous single "C'mon People (We're Making It Now)" for the [[Bobby Moore]] Cancer Fund,<ref name="RICHARD ASHCROFT - ASHCROFT'S SOCCER ANTHEM">{{cite web |title=News: ''RICHARD ASHCROFT – ASHCROFT'S SOCCER ANTHEM'' |url=http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/ashcrofts%20soccer%20anthem_30_04_2006 |date=30 April 2006 |publisher=Contactmusic.com Ltd |access-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> which would coincide with [[England national football team|England]]'s participation in the [[2006 Football World Cup]], but the single never materialised. Instead, his next release was "[[Words Just Get in the Way]]", which charted lower than his previous single, peaking at No. 40 in the UK Singles Chart.<ref name="Richard Ashcroft at officialcharts.com"/> On 4 December, the [[double a-side]] [[Why Not Nothing? / Sweet Brother Malcolm|"Why Not Nothing" / "Sweet Brother Malcolm"]] was released on limited edition 7" vinyl.<ref name="Why Not Nothing? / Sweet Brother Malcolm">{{cite web|title=Why Not Nothing? / Sweet Brother Malcolm AA side 7-inch single|date=26 October 2006|publisher=Contact Music|access-date=19 June 2009|url=http://www.contactmusic.com/new/home.nsf/webpages/richardashcroftx26x10x06}}</ref>

===RPA & The United Nations of Sound, ''These People'', ''Natural Rebel'': 2008–present===
Ashcroft played a solo gig on 25 August 2008 as part of the Last Days of Summer Festival in [[Buckingham]].<ref name="Last Days of Summer picture gallery">{{cite web |title=News: ''Last Days of Summer picture gallery'' |url=http://www.northamptonchron.co.uk/news/Last-Days-of-Summer-picture.4426690.jp |date=26 August 2008 |publisher=Johnston Press Digital Publishing |access-date=18 June 2009}}</ref> The Verve broke up for a third time sometime between the last rehearsals in late 2008 and the summer of 2009. It was announced in August 2009 by a band's friend.

At that time, Ashcroft was contractually obligated to record another album for Parlophone.<ref>Graff, Gary..[https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1044396/the-verve-to-continue-on-after-reunion-album "The Verve to Continue on After Reunion Album.] ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]''. 20 August 2008.</ref> A b-side compilation was considered a possibility, as Ashcroft's team asked the fans through his site about their feelings on such an album, but it's now very unlikely. In December 2009, Ashcroft contributed the lead soundtrack song for the documentary ''The Journey''.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2009/dec/18/journey-emma-thompson|title=Emma Thompson: 'Chances are you'll know somebody who pays for sex' |work=The Guardian |date=18 December 2009 |location=London | access-date=22 May 2010 |first=Catherine |last=Shoard}}</ref> A video of the song was posted at Ashcroft's site.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.richardashcroft.co.uk/news-page/P20/|title=Dear All. I have been fortunate enough to work on a very special project...|work=Richard Ashcroft official website|date=18 December 2009|access-date=18 December 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110203035136/http://www.richardashcroft.co.uk/news-page/P20/|archive-date=3 February 2011|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Also, through his blog ''BRAIN'', he stated that he would release a new album in 2010. Sources revealed he worked on a number of new songs in New York, Los Angeles and London with producer [[No I.D.]], who Ashcroft sought after because he liked his work in the [[Jay-Z]] song "[[D.O.A. (Death of Auto-Tune)]]" and read an interview where he states how many producers destroy records to boost sales.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.contactmusic.com/news.nsf/story/ashcroft-working-with-rap-producer-no-id_1126200 |title=Ashcroft Working With Rap Producer No I.D. |publisher=Contactmusic |date=18 December 2009 |access-date=18 January 2012}}</ref>

In 2010, Ashcroft formed a new band called [[RPA & The United Nations of Sound|RPA & the United Nations of Sound]], who released a promo single, "Are You Ready?", from their new album.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=18 January 2010 |title=Watch Richard Ashcroft's 'Are You Ready?' comeback video now - exclusive |url=http://www.nme.com/news/richard-ashcroft/49290/ |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100516171209/https://www.nme.com/news/richard-ashcroft/49290/ |archive-date=16 May 2010 |access-date=17 January 2024 |website=NME}}</ref> The album [[United Nations of Sound (album)|''United Nations of Sound'']] (former working title ''Redemption'')<ref name=":0" /> was released on Parlophone on 19 July 2010;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Roberts |first=John |date=2010 |title=BBC - Music - Review of RPA & The United Nations of Sound - The United Nations of Sound |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/z2cg/ |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=www.bbc.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref> "Born Again", the first proper single from the album, was released on the same day.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Born Again |url=https://richardashcroft.com/portfolio_page/born-again/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718052943/https://richardashcroft.com/portfolio_page/born-again/ |archive-date=18 July 2017 |access-date=17 January 2024 |website=richardashcroft.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> The full album leaked on 15 July and the NME started streaming the album the following day. The new sound seems to emulate many of Richard's influences described over the years in interviews and seems to close a circle for his solo career. Strings, beats, rock-guitar-riffs, voice-loops, ballads and heroic-choir-anthems are the core of the album's sound with Ashcroft's craft for pop tunes and unique melody-making. Also found in the songs are the ever-present spiritual lyrics for Richard, although here in fuller form.

On 15 October 2010, Ashcroft released through his website a second fanclub-only track, "Here We Go Again". On the same day the song "Are You Ready?" was released as the first official single from the new album in the United States.<ref name="Are You Ready? 0124">{{cite web|title=The single "Are You Ready?" was released today in the US iTunes Music store''|website=[[Facebook]] |date=16 October 2010|access-date=16 October 2010|url=http://www.facebook.com/posted.php?id=7217833667&share_id=125290484191766&comments=1}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=January 2018}} During the same month Ashcroft had signed with the record company [[Razor & Tie]] in the United States. The radio edit of "Are You Ready?" is available for free on the US version of Ashcroft's website.

The album ''United Nations of Sound'' was released across the Atlantic on 22 March 2011 under the name "Richard Ashcroft". The lead single "Are You Ready?" was featured over the closing credits of the film ''[[The Adjustment Bureau]]'' in March 2011, along with the new song "Future's Bright", written and performed specifically for the film's opening by Ashcroft and ten-time Oscar-nominated composer [[Thomas Newman]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.razorandtie.com/artist/richard-ashcroft|work=Razor & Tie official website (Richard Ashcroft BIO)|title=Richard Ashcroft news on Razor & Tie website|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101118014015/http://www.razorandtie.com/artist/richard-ashcroft|archive-date=18 November 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

For the US release of "Are You Ready?", Ashcroft and Big Life Management commissioned Giorgio Testi for the promo – created out of live footage from a show at [[Shepherd's Bush Empire]]. The video premiered on 7 February on the official website of Pulse Films, the production company.<ref>{{cite web |title=Richard Ashcroft's 'Are You Ready?' by Giorgio Testi |url=http://www.pulsefilms.co.uk/news/?p=619 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317085326/http://www.pulsefilms.co.uk/news/?p=619 |archive-date=17 March 2012 |work=Pulse Films}}</ref>

On 1 March the song "Future's Bright" was premiered on [[Stereogum]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stereogum.com/648192/richard-ashcroft-futures-bright-stereogum-premiere/mp3s/Feel/|work=Stereogum official website|title=Richard Ashcroft – Future's Bright (Stereogum Premiere)|date=28 February 2011}}</ref> On the official website of the movie ''[[The Adjustment Bureau]]'' there is also a video created for the song by director [[George Nolfi]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theadjustmentbureau.com/yourlifeadjusted/|work=The Adjustment Bureau official website|title=Your Life Adjusted – Video Project}}</ref>

After six years' absence, Ashcroft released his comeback fifth studio album, ''[[These People (Richard Ashcroft album)|These People]]'', in May 2016. The album received largely positive reviews from music critics. The album was followed by 2016 UK and Europe tour, an abbreviated North American tour, and—for the first time in Ashcroft's career—festival dates in Latin America.

In January 2018, it was confirmed that in June 2018, Ashcroft would be supporting [[Liam Gallagher]] at his two concerts in Malahide Castle and Gardens in Dublin and Belsonic at Ormeau Park in Belfast.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/richard-ashcroft-supporting-liam-gallagher-2229103|title=Richard Ashcroft will support Liam Gallagher at these summer gigs|first=Luke Morgan|last=Britton|date=26 January 2018|website=NME|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref> In March 2018, it was announced that Ashcroft would tour with Gallagher in North America in May 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/liam-gallagher-richard-ashcroft-north-america-tour-2268888|title=Liam Gallagher and Richard Ashcroft to tour North America together|first=Luke Morgan|last=Britton|date=19 March 2018|website=NME|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref> On 11 June 2018, it was announced that Ashcroft would support Gallagher at his show at [[Lancashire County Cricket Club]] on 18 August 2018.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.radiox.co.uk/artists/liam-gallagher/richard-ashcroft-support-acts-manchester/|title=Liam Gallagher's Huge Manchester Support Acts Announced|website=Radio X|access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>

In August 2018, Ashcroft announced his sixth solo album, ''[[Natural Rebel]]'', which was released on 19 October, preceded by the single "Surprised By The Joy" in September and subsequent teasers "Born To Be Strangers" and "That's When I Feel It." The LP debuted at No. 4 on the UK album charts, its highest position.<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 2018 |title=Natural Rebel by Richard Ashcroft |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/albums/richard-ashcroft-natural-rebel/ |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=[[The Official Charts]]}}</ref>

On 19 February 2021, he released a cover of [[John Lennon|John Lennon's]] "[[Bring On the Lucie (Freda Peeple)]]"<ref name="nme.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/richard-ashcroft-covers-john-lennons-bring-on-the-lucie-freda-peeple-2884205|title = Richard Ashcroft covers John Lennon's 'Bring on the Lucie (Freda Peeple)'|website=Nme.com|date = 19 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.radiox.co.uk/artists/richard-ashcroft/john-lennon-cover-bring-lucie-freda-peeple/|title = Richard Ashcroft shares John Lennon cover Bring on the Lucie (Freda Peeple)|website=Radiox.co.uk}}</ref> (track 5 on Lennon's 1973 album ''[[Mind Games (John Lennon album)|Mind Games]]''). On 29 October that year, he released his sixth album, ''[[Acoustic Hymns Vol 1|Acoustic Hymns Vol. 1]]''.<ref name="nme">{{Cite web |last=Jones |first=Damian |date=2021-10-29 |title=Richard Ashcroft – 'Acoustic Hymns Vol. 1' review: stripped-back re-imaginings of indie classics |url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/album/richard-ashcroft-acoustic-hymns-vol-1-review-3076035 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104215132/https://www.nme.com/reviews/album/richard-ashcroft-acoustic-hymns-vol-1-review-3076035 |archive-date=4 November 2021 |access-date=2022-07-11 |website=NME }}</ref> It features acoustic versions of Ashcroft's songs with The Verve and his solo career.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/chart-news/richard-ashcroft-announces-acoustic-album-acoustic-hymns-vol-1-featuring-liam-gallagher__33975/|title = Richard Ashcroft announces new acoustic album|website=Officialcharts.com}}</ref> The album debuted at No. 2 on the UK album charts, its peak position.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2021 |title=Acoustic Hymns - Vol 1 by Richard Ashcroft |url=https://www.officialcharts.com/albums/richard-ashcroft-acoustic-hymns-vol-1/ |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=[[The Official Charts]]}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Ashcroft is married to [[Kate Radley]], a former member of [[Spiritualized]].<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2007/nov/09/rock.music | location=London | newspaper=[[The Guardian]] | title=Music's a personal crusade, very much within his soul. But he's reaching out for something else – what he can be | first=Dave | last=Simpson | date=8 November 2007}}</ref> They married in 1995 and it was years before it was publicly revealed that the pair had married. Together, they have two sons: Sonny, born in 2000, and Cassius, born in 2004. The family lives in [[Taynton, Gloucestershire|Taynton]] in [[Gloucestershire]] and [[Richmond, London|Richmond]] in London.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/apr/28/richard-ashcroft-i-wouldnt-trade-what-coldplay-have-achieved-for-any-of-my-songs|title=Richard Ashcroft: 'I wouldn't trade what Coldplay have achieved for any of my songs'|date=28 April 2016|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref> Ashcroft is a [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]] fan, and regularly attends matches.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.skysports.com/watch/video/sports/football/10245139/fenners-meets-richard-ashcroft|title=Fenners meets Richard Ashcroft|website=SkySports.com|access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref>

He is good friends with the band [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]]'s [[Noel Gallagher]], [[Liam Gallagher]] and [[Coldplay]]'s [[Chris Martin]]. For a long time the Gallagher brothers have expressed great respect for Ashcroft, with Noel Gallagher fondly nicknaming Ashcroft 'Captain Rock'. The Oasis track "[[Cast No Shadow (song)|Cast No Shadow]]", from the successful 1995 album ''[[(What's the Story) Morning Glory?]]'' is dedicated to him, possibly as a response to Ashcroft having dedicated the title track of ''[[A Northern Soul]]'' to Noel Gallagher.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/the-verves-a-northern-soul-20-years-on-a-knife-twisting-snapshot-of-a-band-on-the-brink-767197 | work=NME | title=The Verve's 'A Northern Soul' 20 Years On: A Knife-Twisting Snapshot Of A Band On The Brink | date=1 July 2015| access-date=18 November 2016}}</ref> Ashcroft also provided backing vocals on the Oasis song "[[All Around the World (Oasis song)|All Around the World]]" in 1997, for Oasis' ''[[Be Here Now (album)|Be Here Now]]''.

In a 2006 interview, Ashcroft mentioned taking [[Prozac]] to help him with [[clinical depression]], but said that it did not help, referring to the pills as "very, very synthetic." Ashcroft has said that he's always been "a depressive, someone who suffers from depression", and that music and creativity help him cope with his illness.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.londonnet.co.uk/entertainment/2006/jan/883_20060117.html |website=Londonnet.co.uk |title=Richard Ashcroft confesses to taking Prozac for depression |access-date=29 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120823014254/http://www.londonnet.co.uk/entertainment/2006/jan/883_20060117.html |archive-date=23 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Controversies==
Controversy exists over the Verve's biggest hit, "[[Bitter Sweet Symphony]]", on which Ashcroft is the sole band member to share a co-writing credit.<ref name="Urban Hymns sleevenotes">''Urban Hymns'' sleevenotes</ref> The song uses a sample of [[Andrew Oldham Orchestra]]'s recording of [[The Rolling Stones]]' 1965 song "[[The Last Time (The Rolling Stones song)|The Last Time]]". The Verve had negotiated this legally; however, the Rolling Stones' [[ABKCO Records|record company]] successfully sued and argued that they had used "too much." The Verve was subsequently forced to give ABKCO 100 percent of the [[royalties]]<ref name="Allmusic Biography"/> from "Bitter Sweet Symphony", and [[Mick Jagger]] and [[Keith Richards]] were given songwriting credits along with Ashcroft.<ref name="Urban Hymns sleevenotes"/> On 23 May 2019, Ashcroft announced that Jagger and Richards had signed over the rights to him. He now has sole writing credit, and will receive all future royalties.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Humphries |first1=Will |title=Verve singer Richard Ashcroft's 22‑year fight with Rolling Stones is all over now |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/verve-singer-richard-ashcroft-s-22-year-fight-with-rolling-stones-is-all-over-now-5wnfcrwhz |publisher=Times Newspapers Limited |date=24 May 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Beaumont-Thomas |first1=Ben |title=Bittersweet no more: Rolling Stones pass Verve royalties to Richard Ashcroft |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2019/may/23/bitter-sweet-symphony-royalties-richard-ashcroft-verve-royalties-novello |access-date=24 May 2019 |publisher=Guardian News & Media Limited |date=23 May 2019 |language=en |quote=23 May 2019 17.58 BST Last modified on Thu 22.13 BST}}</ref>

On 19 June 2006, Ashcroft was arrested in [[Wiltshire]] after bursting into a youth centre and asking to work with the teenagers present at the club. He began swearing and refusing to leave so employees called the police, resulting in Ashcroft being arrested and receiving an £80 fine for [[disorderly conduct]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Richard Ashcroft in shock arrest|url=https://www.nme.com/news/richard-ashcroft/23405|access-date=7 January 2015|work=NME|date=21 June 2006}}</ref>

In July 2021, Ashcroft pulled out of the headline slot at Sheffield's [[Tramlines Festival]] after it became part of the UK government's pilot events programme.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-07-05|title=Richard Ashcroft refuses to play festival that is government test event|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-57722072|access-date=2021-07-06}}</ref>

==Awards and nominations==

{| class=wikitable
|-
! Year !! Awards !! Work !! Category !! Result
|-
| rowspan=2|1998
| [[Ivor Novello Awards]]
| rowspan=2|Himself
| Songwriter of the Year
| {{won}}
|-
| [[Gaffa (magazine)|Denmark GAFFA Awards]]
| Best Foreign Songwriter<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gaffa.dk/nyhed/8752|title=GAFFA-prisen 1991-2006 – se vinderne|website=Gaffa.dk|access-date=23 October 2021}}</ref>
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan=2|2000
| [[Mercury Prize]]
| ''[[Alone with Everybody]]''
| Album of the Year
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan=2|[[NME Awards]]
| rowspan=2|Himself
| rowspan=2|Best Solo Artist
| {{nom}}
|-
| 2006
| {{nom}}
|-
| 2011
| [[UK Music Video Awards]]
| ''Live at Shepherds Bush Empire''
| Best Live Music Coverage
| {{nom}}
|-
| 2017
| [[NME Awards]]
| rowspan=3|Himself
| Best British Male
| {{nom}}
|-
| rowspan=2|2019
| [[2019 Global Awards|Global Awards]]
| Best Indie
| {{nom}}
|-
| [[Ivor Novello Awards]]
| Outstanding Contribution to British Music
| {{won}}
{{end}}

==Discography==
===Albums===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of studio albums, with selected chart positions and certifications
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:13em;"| Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:19em;"| Album details
! scope="col" colspan="10"| Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:10em;"| [[List of music recording certifications|Certifications]]
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[UK Albums Chart|UK]] <ref name="Uk-charts">{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/artist/8938/richard-ashcroft/|title=UK Charts > Richard Ashcroft|publisher=[[Official Charts Company]]|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[ARIA Charts|AUS]] <ref name="aus2">{{cite book|last=Ryan|first=Gavin|title=Australia's Music Charts 1988–2010|year=2011|publisher=Moonlight Publishing|location=Mt. Martha, VIC, Australia|edition=pdf|pages=19}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Ö3 Austria Top 40|AUT]] <ref name="austrian">{{cite web | title=austriancharts.at Discography Richard Ashcroft | publisher=austriancharts.at | url=http://austriancharts.at/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Richard+Ashcroft | access-date=20 January 2010}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[SNEP|FRA]] <ref name="lescharts">{{cite web |work=lescharts.com |url=http://lescharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Richard+Ashcroft |title=Discographie Richard Ashcroft |access-date=29 January 2013}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[GfK Entertainment charts|GER]] <ref name="ger">{{cite web|url=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/suche?artistId=Richard+Ashcroft|title=Discographie von Richard Ashcroft|publisher=GfK Entertainment|access-date=4 November 2021}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana|ITA]] <ref name="italia">{{cite web | title=italiancharts.com Discography Richard Ashcroft | publisher=italiancharts.com | url=http://italiancharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Richard+Ashcroft&titel=Alone+With+Everybody&cat=a | access-date=20 January 2010}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Irish Albums Chart|IRL]] <ref name="irish">{{cite web | title=irishcharts.com – Discography Richard Ashcroft | work=irish-charts.com | url=http://irish-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Richard+Ashcroft | access-date=20 January 2010}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Dutch Album Top 100|NL]] <ref name="dutch">{{cite web | title=dutchcharts.nl Discography Richard Ashcroft | publisher=dutchcharts.nl | url=http://dutchcharts.nl/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Richard+Ashcroft | access-date=20 January 2010}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Swiss Hitparade|SWI]] <ref name="hitparade">{{cite web | title=hitparade.ch Discography Richard Ashcroft | publisher=hitparade.ch | url=http://hitparade.ch/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Richard+Ashcroft | access-date=20 January 2010}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Billboard 200|US]] <ref name="allmusic">{{cite web |publisher=AllMusic | title=US positions | url={{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p52705/charts-awards|pure_url=yes}} | access-date=20 January 2010}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Alone with Everybody]]''
|
* Released: 26 June 2000
* Label: [[Hut Records|Hut]]
* Formats: [[LP record|LP]], CD, [[Cassette tape|cassette]], download
| 1 || 10 || 18 || 28 || 10 || 4 || 5 || 41 || 39 || 127
|
*[[British Phonographic Industry|BPI]]: Platinum<ref name="BPI">{{cite web | url=http://www.bpi.co.uk/certified-awards/search.aspx | title=Certified Awards Search | publisher=[[British Phonographic Industry]] | access-date=4 July 2011 | format=To access, enter the search parameter "Ashcroft" | archive-date=1 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501152215/http://www.bpi.co.uk/certified-awards/search.aspx | url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Human Conditions]]''
|
* Released: 21 October 2002
* Label: Hut
* Formats: LP, CD, cassette, download
| 3 || 70 || 48 || 67 || 14 || 24 || 11 || — || 51 || —
|
*BPI: Gold<ref name="BPI" />
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Keys to the World]]''
|
* Released: 23 January 2006
* Label: [[Parlophone]]
* Formats: CD, download
| 2 || 54 || 7 || 78 || 6 || 11 || 6 || 49 || 7 || —
|
*BPI: Platinum<ref name="BPI" />
*[[Irish Recorded Music Association|IRMA]]: Gold<ref>{{cite web|url=http://irishcharts.ie/awards/gold06.htm |title=The Irish Charts – Gold awards 2006|publisher=[[Irish Recorded Music Association|IRMA]]|access-date=30 December 2012}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[These People (Richard Ashcroft album)|These People]]''
|
* Released: 20 May 2016
* Label: Righteous Phonographic Association, [[Cooking Vinyl]], [[Harvest Records|Harvest]]
* Formats: LP, CD, download
| 3 || — || 70 || 134 || 51 || 34 || 17 || 92 || 32 || —
|
*BPI: Silver<ref name="BPI" />
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Natural Rebel]]''
|
* Released: 19 October 2018
* Label: Righteous Phonographic Association, [[Bertelsmann Music Group|BMG]]
* Formats: LP, CD, cassette, download
| 4 || — || 71 || — || 82 || 42 || 18 || — || 47 || —
|
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Acoustic Hymns Vol 1]]''
|
* Release: 29 October 2021
* Label: Righteous Phonographic Association, BMG
* Formats: LP, CD, cassette, download
| 2 || — || 64 || 194 || 37 || — || 23 || — || 39 || —
|
|-
| colspan="14" style="font-size:90%" | "—" denotes a recording that did not chart or was not released in that territory.
|}

===Project album===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of project studio albums, with selected chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:13em;"| Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:19em;"| Album details
! scope="col" colspan="4"| Peak chart positions
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[UK Singles Chart|UK]] <ref name="Uk-charts"/>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Ö3 Austria Top 40|AUT]] <ref name="austrian"/>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[GfK Entertainment Charts|GER]] <ref name="ger"/>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Swiss Hitparade|SWI]] <ref name="hitparade"/>
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[United Nations of Sound (album)|United Nations of Sound]]''{{anchor|ref_A}}[[#endnote A|[A]]]
|
* Released: 19 July 2010
* Label: Parlophone
* Formats: LP, CD, download
| 20 || 63 || 49 || 50
|}

===Extended plays===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of extended plays
! scope="col" style="width:14em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:20em;"| EP details
|-
! scope="row" | ''Live from London''
|
* Released: 24 April 2006
* Format: Download
|-
! scope="row" | ''Rare Vibration/Guided Halls''
|
* Released: 19 October 2018
* Format: CD ([[HMV]]'s exclusive market only)
|}

===Singles===
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" border="1"
|+ List of singles, with selected chart positions, showing year released and album name
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:24em;" | Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Year
! scope="col" colspan="10" | Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Album
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[UK Singles Chart|UK]] <ref name="Uk-charts" />

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Austria|AUT]] <ref name="austrian" />

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Ultratop|BEL (WA)]] <ref name="belwa">{{cite web | url=http://www.ultratop.be/fr/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Richard+Ashcroft | title=Discographie Richard Ashcroft | work=ultratop.be | publisher=Hung Medien | access-date=26 January 2010 | language=fr}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Canadian Singles Chart|CAN]] <ref name="amgsingles">{{cite web| url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/richard-ashcroft-mn0000290853/awards | title=Richard Ashcroft Billboard Chart History: Singles|publisher=AllMusic| access-date=8 June 2013}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Media Control Charts|GER]] <ref name="ger" />

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Italy|ITA]] <ref name="italia" />

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Irish Singles Chart|IRL]] <ref name="irish" />

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Single Top 100|NL]] <ref name="dutch" />

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Recording Industry Association of New Zealand|NZ]] <ref name="rianz">{{cite web | title=charts.nz Discography Richard Ashcroft | work=charts.nz | url=https://charts.nz/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Richard+Ashcroft | access-date=20 January 2010}}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Switzerland|SWI]] <ref name="hitparade" />

|-
! scope="row"| "[[A Song for the Lovers]]"
| rowspan="3"| 2000
| 3 || — || — || 6 || 82 || 9 || 11 || 83 || 42 || 78
| rowspan="3"| ''[[Alone with Everybody]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Money to Burn (Richard Ashcroft song)|Money to Burn]]"
| 17 || — || — || — || — || — || 38 || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "[[C'mon People (We're Making It Now)]]"
| 21 || — || — || — || 82 || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Check the Meaning]]"
| 2002
| 11 || — || — || 21 || 94 || 13 || 19 || — || — || —
| rowspan="3"| ''[[Human Conditions]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Science of Silence]]"
| rowspan="2"| 2003
| 14 || — || — || — || — || 31 || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Buy It in Bottles]]"
| 26 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Break the Night with Colour]]"
| rowspan="4"| 2006
| 3 || 17 || 48 || — || 45 || 3 || 10 || 90 || — || 55
| rowspan="4"| ''[[Keys to the World]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Music Is Power]]"
| 20 || — || — || — || — || 42 || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Words Just Get in the Way]]"
| 40 || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Why Not Nothing? / Sweet Brother Malcolm|Why Not Nothing?]]" / "[[Why Not Nothing? / Sweet Brother Malcolm|Sweet Brother Malcolm]]"{{anchor|ref_B}}[[#endnote B|[B]]]
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "Born Again"{{anchor|ref_A}}[[#endnote A|[A]]]
| rowspan="2"| 2010
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
| rowspan="2"| ''[[United Nations of Sound (album)|United Nations of Sound]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Are You Ready?"{{anchor|ref_A}}[[#endnote A|[A]]]
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "This Is How It Feels"
| rowspan="5"|2016
| 42 || — || — || — || — || 89 || — || — || — || —
| rowspan="5"| ''[[These People (Richard Ashcroft album)|These People]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Hold On"
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "They Don't Own Me"
| — || — || — || — || — || 178 || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "Out of My Body"
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "These People"
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "Surprised by the Joy"
| rowspan="3"|2018
| 53 || — || — || 32 || — || 71 || — || — || — || —
| rowspan="3"| ''[[Natural Rebel (album)|Natural Rebel]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Born to Be Strangers"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.clashmusic.com/news/richard-ashcroft-shares-born-to-be-strangers|title=Richard Ashcroft Shares 'Born To Be Strangers' {{!}} News|work=[[Clash (magazine)|Clash]]|last=Murray|first=Robin|date=26 September 2018|access-date=28 September 2018}}</ref>
| — || — || — || 66 || — || 23 || 44 || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "That's When I Feel It"
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Bring On the Lucie (Freda Peeple)]]"<ref name="nme.com"/>
| 2021
| — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || — || —
| {{Non-album single}}
|-
| colspan="14" style="font-size:90%" | "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
|}

====Other releases====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" border="1"
|+ List of singles, showing year released and album name
! scope="col" style="width:20em;" | Title
! scope="col" | Year
! scope="col" | Album
|-
! scope="row"| "The Journey"{{anchor|ref_C}}[[#endnote C|[C]]]
| 2009
| non-album single
|-
! scope="row"| "Are You Ready?"{{anchor|ref_D}}[[#endnote D|[D]]]
| 2010
| ''United Nations of Sound''
|-
! scope="row"| "Future's Bright"{{anchor|ref_E}}[[#endnote E|[E]]]
| 2011
| movie soundtrack
|}

====Guest appearances====
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;" border="1"
|+ List of guest appearances, with selected chart positions, showing year released and album name
! scope="col" rowspan="2" style="width:20em;" | Title
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Year
! scope="col" colspan="2" | Peak chart positions
! scope="col" rowspan="2" | Album
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[UK Singles Chart|UK]] <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.theofficialcharts.com/artist/_/chemical%20brothers/ | title=The Chemical Brothers – The Official Charts Company | publisher=[[Official Charts Company]] | access-date=16 March 2012 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615132059/http://www.theofficialcharts.com/artist/_/chemical%20brothers/ | archive-date=15 June 2011 | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;"| [[Irish Singles Chart|IRL]] <ref>{{cite web | url=http://irish-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=The+Chemical+Brothers | title=Discography The Chemical Brothers | work=irish-charts.com | publisher=Hung Medien | access-date=16 March 2012}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| "Lonely Soul" ([[UNKLE]], with Ashcroft on vocals)
| 1998
| — || —
| ''[[Psyence Fiction]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Come with Us/The Test|The Test]]" ([[The Chemical Brothers]], with Ashcroft on vocals)
| 2002
| 14 || 36
| ''[[Come with Us]]''
|-
| colspan="14" style="font-size:90%" | "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
|}

{{Refbegin}}
'''Notes'''
*A {{anchor|endnote_A}}'''[[#ref A|^]]''' ''United Nations of Sound'' and the singles taken from it were released under Ashcroft's pseudonym "[[RPA & The United Nations of Sound]]".
*B {{anchor|endnote_B}}'''[[#ref B|^]]''' "Why Not Nothing?" / "Sweet Brother Malcolm" was a limited 7" release.
*C {{anchor|endnote_C}}'''[[#ref C|^]]''' "The Journey" was a charity single for [[Helen Bamber]] Foundation.
*D {{anchor|endnote_D}}'''[[#ref D|^]]''' "Are You Ready?" was a released as a limited edition UK promo CD and vinyl.
*E {{anchor|endnote_E}}'''[[#ref D|^]]''' "Future's Bright?", Richard Ashcroft teamed up with the American film score composer Thomas Newman to pen this song for the opening credits of the 2011 movie, ''The Adjustment Bureau''.
{{Refend}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
*[http://www.richardashcroft.co.uk/ Official website (UK)]
*[http://richardashcroftonline.com/ Richard Ashcroft Online] (unofficial website)
*{{IMDb name|id=1479214|name=Richard Ashcroft}}

{{Richard Ashcroft}}
{{The Verve}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ashcroft, Richard}}
[[Category:1971 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:British alternative rock guitarists]]
[[Category:British alternative rock singers]]
[[Category:British alternative rock musicians]]
[[Category:English male guitarists]]
[[Category:English male singers]]
[[Category:English rock singers]]
[[Category:English male songwriters]]
[[Category:Music in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan]]
[[Category:Singers from Manchester]]
[[Category:Parlophone artists]]
[[Category:People from Higher End]]
[[Category:British shoegaze musicians]]
[[Category:Space rock musicians]]
[[Category:The Verve members]]
[[Category:Virgin Records artists]]
[[Category:Ivor Novello Award winners]]
[[Category:Britpop musicians]]

1-Naphthol

2024-05-15T00:11:12Z

Omcsesz: /* Safety */ Closing quotation mark added

{{chembox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 477188585
|ImageFileL1=alpha-Naphthol.svg
|ImageFileR1=1-Naphthol-3D-balls.png
|PIN=Naphthalen-1-ol
|OtherNames=1-Hydroxynaphthalene; 1-Naphthalenol; α-Naphthol
|Section1={{chembox Identifiers
| Beilstein = 1817321
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = 2A71EAQ389
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = C11714
| InChI = 1/C10H8O/c11-10-7-3-5-8-4-1-2-6-9(8)10/h1-7,11H
| InChIKey = KJCVRFUGPWSIIH-UHFFFAOYAZ
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 122617
| EC_number = 201-969-4
| Gmelin = 69192
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C10H8O/c11-10-7-3-5-8-4-1-2-6-9(8)10/h1-7,11H
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = KJCVRFUGPWSIIH-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CASNo=90-15-3
| PubChem=7005
| SMILES = Oc2cccc1ccccc12
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 10319
| ChemSpiderID=6739
}}
|Section2={{chembox Properties
| Formula={{chem2|C10H8O}}
| MolarMass=144.17 g/mol
| Appearance=Colorless or white solid
| Density=1.10 g/cm3
| MeltingPtC=95 to 96
| BoilingPtC=278 to 280
| Solubility=
| MagSus = -98.2·10−6 cm3/mol
}}
|Section3={{chembox Hazards
| GHS_ref=<ref>{{cite web |title=1-Naphthol |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/7005#section=Safety-and-Hazards |website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |language=en}}</ref>
| GHSPictograms = {{GHS05}}{{GHS06}}{{GHS07}}{{GHS09}}
| GHSSignalWord = Danger
| HPhrases = {{H-phrases|302|311|312|315|317|318|335|410|412}}
| PPhrases = {{P-phrases|261|262|264|264+265|270|271|272|273|280|301+317|302+352|304+340|305+354+338|316|317|319|321|330|332+317|333+317|361+364|362+364|391|403+233|405|501}}
| MainHazards=
| FlashPt=
| AutoignitionPt=
}}
}}

'''1-Naphthol''', or '''α-naphthol''', is a [[organic compound]] with the formula {{chem2|C10H7OH}}. It is a [[fluorescence|fluorescent]] white solid. 1-Naphthol differs from its [[isomer]] [[2-Naphthol|2-naphthol]] by the location of the [[hydroxide|hydroxyl group]] on the [[naphthalene]] ring. The naphthols are naphthalene homologues of [[phenol]]. Both isomers are soluble in simple [[organic solvents]]. They are precursors to a variety of useful compounds.<ref name=Ullmann/>

==Production==
1-Naphthol is prepared by two main routes.<ref name=Ullmann/> In one method, naphthalene is nitrated to give 1-nitronaphthalene, which is hydrogenated to the amine followed by hydrolysis:
: {{chem2|C10H8 + HNO3 -> C10H7NO2 + H2O}}
: {{chem2|C10H7NO2 + 3H2 -> C10H7NH2 + 2H2O}}
: {{chem2|C10H7NH2 + H2O -> C10H7OH + NH3}}

Alternatively, naphthalene is hydrogenated to [[tetralin]], which is oxidized to [[1-tetralone]], which undergoes [[dehydrogenation]].

==Reactions==
Some reactions of 1-naphthol are explicable with reference to its tautomerism, which produces a small amount of the keto tautomer.
:[[File:Alpha-naphthol tautomerism.svg|frameless|left|384px]]
{{clear left}}
One consequence of this tautomerism is the [[Bucherer reaction]], the ammonolysis of 1-naphthol to give [[1-Aminonaphthylaminel|1-aminonaphthalene]].

1-Naphthol biodegrades via formation of [[arene oxide|1-naphthol-3,4-oxide]], which converts to [[1,4-Naphthoquinone|1,4-naphthoquinone]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=[[Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology]]|year=2011|title=The Chemical Biology of Naphthoquinones and Its Environmental Implications|author1=Yoshito Kumagai|author2=Yasuhiro Shinkai|author3= Takashi Miura|author4=Arthur K. Cho| author4-link=Arthur K. Cho|volume=52|doi=10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010611-134517|pmid=21942631|pages=221–47}}</ref>

The 4-position of 1-naphthol is susceptible to electrophilic attack. This regioselective reaction is exploited in the preparation of diazo dyes, which are form using [[diazonium salt]]s. Reduction of the diazo derivatives gives 4-amino-1-naphthol.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.15227/orgsyn.003.0007|title=1,4-Aminonaphthol Hydrochloride|author1=J. B. Conant|author2=R. E. Lutz|author3=B. B. Corson |journal=Organic Syntheses |year=1923 |volume=3 |page=7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.15227/orgsyn.017.0009|title=1,2-Aminonaphthol Hydrochloride |journal=Organic Syntheses |year=1937 |volume=17 |page=9 |author=Louis F. Fieser}}</ref>

Partial reduction of 1-naphthol gives the tetrahydro derivative, leaving intact the phenol ring.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.15227/orgsyn.037.0080|title=Ar-Tetrahydro-a-Naphthol |journal=Organic Syntheses |year=1957 |volume=37 |page=80 |author1= C. David Gutsche |author2=Hugo H. Peter}}</ref> Full hydrogenation is catalyzed by rhodium.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.15227/orgsyn.051.0103|title=Hydrogenation of Aromatic Nuclei: 1-Decalol |journal=Organic Syntheses |year=1971 |volume=51 |page=103|author1=A. I. Meyers|author2=W. N. Beverung|author3=R. Gault}}</ref>

==Applications and occurrence==
1-Naphthol is a precursor to a variety of insecticides including [[carbaryl]] and pharmaceuticals including [[nadolol]]<ref>{{cite journal|surname1=M.E. Condon|display-authors=et al|journal=[[Journal of Medicinal Chemistry]]|title=Nondepressant β-adrenergic blocking agents. 1. Substituted 3-amino-1-(5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-1-naphthoxy)-2-propanols|volume=21|issue=9|pages=913–922|date=1978|language=German|doi=10.1021/jm00207a014
|pmid=31485 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite patent|country = DE|number =2258995 |title=2,3-cis-1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-5[2-hydroxy-3-(tert.-butylamino)-propoxy]-2,3-naphthalindiol |pubdate =1973-06-07 |fdate =1972-12-01 |invent1 =F.R. Hauck, C.M. Cimarusti, V.L. Narayan | assign =E.R. Squibb & Sons, Inc.}}</ref> as well as for the [[antidepressant]] [[sertraline]]<ref>{{citation|author1=K. Vukics|author2= T. Fodor|author3= J. Fischer|author4= I. Fellevári|author5= S. Lévai|periodical=Org. Process Res. Dev.|title=Improved industrial synthesis of antidepressant Sertraline|volume=6|issue=1|pages=82–85|date= 2002|language=German|doi=10.1021/op0100549
}}</ref> and the [[Antiprotozoal|anti-protozoan]] therapeutic [[atovaquone]].<ref>{{cite journal|author1=B.N. Roy|author2= G.P. Singh|author3= P.S. Lathi|author4= M.K. Agarwal|journal=Indian J. Chem.|title=A novel process for synthesis of Atovaquone|volume=52B|pages=1299–1312|date=2013|language=German |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530185938/http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/21838/1/IJCB%2052B(10)%201299-1312.pdf |df=dmy-all |archive-date=2022-05-30 |url=http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/21838/1/IJCB%2052B%2810%29%201299-1312.pdf}}</ref> It undergoes [[azo coupling]] to give various [[azo dye]]s, but these are generally less useful than those derived from 2-naphthol.<ref name=Ullmann>{{Ullmann|first=Gerald|last=Booth|title=Naphthalene Derivatives|year=2005|doi=10.1002/14356007.a17_009}}. [https://pdfslide.net/documents/ullmanns-encyclopedia-of-industrial-chemistry-naphthalene-derivatives.html '''full-text PDF''']</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=C. Kaiser|author2= T. Jen|author3= E. Garvey|author4= W.D. Bowen|author5= D.F. Colella|author6= J.R. Wardell Jr.|periodical=[[Journal of Medicinal Chemistry]]|title=Adrenergic agents. 4. Substituted phenoxypropanolamine derivatives as potential β-adrenergic agonists|volume=20|issue=5|pages=687–689|date=1977|language=German|doi=10.1021/jm00215a014|pmid=16136}}</ref>

1-Naphthol is a metabolite of the insecticide [[carbaryl]] and [[naphthalene]]. Along with [[TCPy]], it has been shown to decrease testosterone levels in adult men.<ref>{{cite journal | journal = [[Epidemiology (journal)|Epidemiology]] | volume =17 | issue=1 | pages = 61–68 | title = Exposure to Nonpersistent Insecticides and Male Reproductive Hormones |author1=Meeker, John D. |author2=Ryan, Louise |author3=Barr, Dana B. |author4=Hauser, Russ | doi = 10.1097/01.ede.0000190602.14691.70 | pmid = 16357596 |date= January 2006 | s2cid =24829926| doi-access =free }}</ref>

===Other uses===
1-Naphthol is used in each of the following chemical tests, which predate the use of spectroscopic and chromatographic methods:
* [[Molisch's test]] gives a red- or purple-colored compound to indicate the presence of [[carbohydrate]].
* [[rapid furfural test]] turns purple quickly (<30s) if [[fructose]] is present, distinguishing it from glucose.
* [[Sakaguchi test]] turns red to indicate the presence of [[arginine]] in proteins.
* [[Voges–Proskauer test]] changes color from yellow to red to indicate that [[glucose]] is being broken down into [[acetoin]] which is used by bacteria for external energy storage.

==Safety==
1-Naphthol has been described as "moderately toxic".<ref name=Ullmann/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://webbook.nist.gov/cgi/cbook.cgi?Name=1-naphthol&Units=SI NIST Chemistry WebBook 1-Naphthalenol]
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Napthols |volume=19 |pages=168–169 |short=1}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Naphthol, 1-}}
[[Category:1-Naphthols| ]]
[[Category:1-Naphthyl compounds]]

Jabberwocky

2024-03-30T14:42:43Z

Omcsesz: /* Sample translations */ Unnecessary closing bracket removed

{{Short description|1855 and 1871 nonsense poem by Lewis Carroll}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2013}}
[[File:Jabberwocky.jpg|right|thumb|The Jabberwock, as illustrated by [[John Tenniel]], 1871]]
"'''Jabberwocky'''" is a [[nonsense poem]] written by [[Lewis Carroll]] about the killing of a creature named "the Jabberwock". It was included in his 1871 novel ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'', the sequel to ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' (1865). The book tells of Alice's adventures within the [[Parallel universes in fiction|back-to-front world]] of the [[Looking-Glass world]].

In an early scene in which she first encounters the chess piece characters [[White King (Through the Looking-Glass)|White King]] and [[White Queen (Through the Looking-Glass)|White Queen]], Alice finds a book written in a seemingly unintelligible language. Realising that she is travelling through an inverted world, she recognises that the verses on the pages are written in [[mirror-writing]]. She holds a mirror to one of the poems and reads the reflected verse of "Jabberwocky". She finds the nonsense verse as puzzling as the odd land she has passed into, later revealed as a dreamscape.<ref name="AAW64"/>

"Jabberwocky" is considered one of the greatest nonsense poems written in English.<ref name=" Gardner">{{cite book |last=Gardner |first=Martin |title=The Annotated Alice: The Definitive Edition|year=1999 |publisher=W. W. Norton and Company |location=New York, NY|quote=Few would dispute that Jabberwocky is the greatest of all nonsense poems in English.}}</ref><ref name="NCTE">{{cite journal |last=Rundus |first=Raymond J.|date=October 1967 |title="O Frabjous Day!": Introducing Poetry |journal=The English Journal |volume=56 |issue=7 |pages=958–963 |doi=10.2307/812632 |publisher=National Council of Teachers of English |jstor=812632}}</ref> Its playful, whimsical language has given English [[nonsense word]]s and [[neologisms]] such as "[[wikt:galumphing|galumphing]]" and "[[wikt:chortle|chortle]]".

==Origin and publication==
[[File:Aliceroom2.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Alice entering the [[Looking-Glass Land]]. Illustration by [[John Tenniel]], 1871]]
A decade before the publication of ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'' and the sequel ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'', Carroll wrote the first stanza to what would become "Jabberwocky" while in [[Croft-on-Tees]], where his parents resided. It was printed in 1855 in ''[[Mischmasch]]'', a periodical he wrote and illustrated for the amusement of his family. The piece, titled "Stanza of Anglo-Saxon Poetry", reads:

{{blockquote|<poem>
Twas bryllyg, and þe slythy toves
Did gyre and gymble in þe wabe:
All mimsy were þe borogoves;
And þe mome raths outgrabe.
</poem>}}

The stanza is printed first in faux-mediaeval lettering as a "relic of ancient Poetry" (in which ''þe'' is [[English_articles#Ye_form|a form of the word ''the'']]) and printed again "in modern characters".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/collection-items/lewis-carroll-juvenilia-stanza-of-anglo-saxon-poetry |title=Lewis Carroll juvenilia: 'Stanza of Anglo-Saxon Poetry' |publisher=The British Library |date=2014-04-16 |access-date=2016-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109144006/http://www.bl.uk/collection-items/lewis-carroll-juvenilia-stanza-of-anglo-saxon-poetry |archive-date=9 Nov 2016}}</ref>
The rest of the poem was written during Carroll's stay with relatives at [[Whitburn, Tyne and Wear|Whitburn]], near [[Sunderland]]. The story may have been partly inspired by the local Sunderland area legend of the [[Lambton Worm]]<ref>''A Town Like Alice's'' (1997) Michael Bute Heritage Publications, Sunderland</ref><ref>''Alice in Sunderland'' (2007) Brian Talbot Dark Horse publications.</ref> and the tale of the [[Sockburn Worm]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.englandsnortheast.co.uk/CroftLewisCarroll.html|title=Vikings and the Jabberwock: Croft, Sockburn and Sadberge|access-date=7 July 2017}}</ref>

The concept of nonsense verse was not original to Carroll, who would have known of [[chapbooks]] such as ''[[The World Turned Upside Down]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publicdomainreview.org/collections/the-world-turned-upside-down-18th-century/ |title=The World Turned Upside Down (18th century) |publisher=The Public Domain Review |access-date=2016-08-10}}</ref> and stories such as "[[The Grand Panjandrum]]". Nonsense existed in [[Shakespeare]]'s work and was well-known in the [[Brothers Grimm]]'s fairytales, some of which are called lying tales or ''lügenmärchen''.<ref>Carpenter (1985), 55–56</ref> Biographer [[Roger Lancelyn Green]] suggested that "Jabberwocky" was a parody of the German ballad "[[The Shepherd of the Giant Mountains]]",<ref Name="Lucas">"Jabberwocky back to Old English: Nonsense, Anglo-Saxon and Oxford" by Lucas, Peter J. in ''Language History and Linguistic Modelling'' (1997) p503-520 {{ISBN|978-3-11-014504-5}}</ref><ref Name="Hudson">Hudson, Derek (1977) ''Lewis Carroll: an illustrated biography''. Crown Publishers, 76</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=The Making of the Alice Books: Lewis Carroll's Uses of Earlier Children's Literature | author=Ronald Reichertz | publisher=McGill-Queen's Press | year=2000 | isbn=0-7735-2081-3 | page=99 }}</ref> which had been translated into English by Carroll's cousin [[Menella Bute Smedley]] in 1846.<ref Name="Hudson"/><ref>Martin Gardner (2000) ''The Annotated Alice''. New York: Norton p 154, n. 42.</ref> Historian Sean B. Palmer suggests that Carroll was inspired by a section from Shakespeare's ''[[Hamlet]]'', citing the lines: "The graves stood tenantless, and the sheeted dead / Did squeak and gibber in the Roman streets" from Act I, Scene i.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://inamidst.com/notes/hamwocky |title="Hamlet and Jabberwocky" ''Essays by Sean Palmer'' 21 Aug 2005 |publisher=Inamidst.com |date=2005-08-21 |access-date=2018-10-03}}</ref><ref>Carroll makes later reference to the same lines from ''Hamlet'' Act I, Scene i in the 1869 poem "Phantasmagoria". He wrote: "Shakspeare {{sic}} I think it is who treats / Of Ghosts, in days of old, / Who 'gibbered in the Roman streets".</ref>


[[John Tenniel]] reluctantly agreed to illustrate the book in 1871,<ref Name="Prickett"/> and his illustrations are still the defining images of the poem. The illustration of the Jabberwock may reflect the contemporary Victorian obsession with [[natural history]] and the fast-evolving sciences of [[palaeontology]] and [[geology]]. Stephen Prickett notes that in the context of [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] and [[Gideon Mantell|Mantell's]] publications and vast exhibitions of dinosaurs, [[Crystal Palace Dinosaurs|such as those at the Crystal Palace]] from 1854, it is unsurprising that Tenniel gave the Jabberwock "the leathery wings of a [[pterodactyl]] and the long scaly neck and tail of a [[sauropod]]."<ref Name="Prickett">Prickett, Stephen (2005) ''Victorian Fantasy'' Baylor University Press p80 {{ISBN|1-932792-30-9}}</ref>

==Lexicon==
{{Quote box |align=right |
|quote =<poem>
"'''Jabberwocky'''"

'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.

"Beware the Jabberwock, my son!
The jaws that bite, the claws that catch!
Beware the Jubjub bird, and shun
The frumious Bandersnatch!"

He took his vorpal sword in hand:
Long time the manxome foe he sought—
So rested he by the Tumtum tree,
And stood awhile in thought.

And as in uffish thought he stood,
The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame,
Came whiffling through the tulgey wood,
And burbled as it came!

One, two! One, two! And through and through
The vorpal blade went snicker-snack!
He left it dead, and with its head
He went galumphing back.

"And hast thou slain the Jabberwock?
Come to my arms, my beamish boy!
O frabjous day! Callooh! Callay!"
He chortled in his joy.

'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
</poem>
|salign=right|source =from ''[[Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There|Through the Looking-Glass, and What Alice Found There]]'' (1871)}}
{{listen
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Many of the words in the poem are playful [[nonce word]]s of Carroll's own invention, without intended explicit meaning. When [[Alice (Alice's Adventures in Wonderland)|Alice]] has finished reading the poem she gives her impressions:

{{blockquote|"It seems very pretty," she said when she had finished it, "but it's rather hard to understand!" (You see she didn't like to confess, even to herself, that she couldn't make it out at all.) "Somehow it seems to fill my head with ideas—only I don't exactly know what they are! However, somebody killed something: that's clear, at any rate."<ref name="AAW64">Carroll, Lewis (2010) ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass'' pp 64–65 Createspace ltd {{ISBN|1-4505-7761-X}}</ref>}}

This may reflect Carroll's intention for his readership; the poem is, after all, part of a dream. In later writings he discussed some of his lexicon, commenting that he did not know the specific meanings or sources of some of the words; the linguistic ambiguity and uncertainty throughout both the book and the poem may largely be the point.<ref name="Parsons"/>

In ''Through the Looking-Glass'', the character of [[Humpty Dumpty#In Through the Looking-Glass|Humpty Dumpty]], in response to Alice's request, explains to her the non-sense words from the first stanza of the poem, but Carroll's personal commentary on several of the words differ from Humpty Dumpty's. For example, following the poem, a "rath" is described by Humpty Dumpty as "a sort of green pig".<ref name="AAW96"/> Carroll's notes for the original in ''[[Mischmasch]]'' suggest a "rath" is "a species of Badger" that "lived chiefly on cheese" and had smooth white hair, long hind legs, and short horns like a stag.<ref name="Penguin"/> The appendices to certain ''Looking Glass'' editions state that the creature is "a species of land turtle" that lived on swallows and oysters.<ref name="Penguin"/> Later critics added their own interpretations of the lexicon, often without reference to Carroll's own contextual commentary. An extended analysis of the poem and Carroll's commentary is given in the book ''[[The Annotated Alice]]'' by [[Martin Gardner]].

In 1868 Carroll asked his publishers, [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]], "Have you any means, or can you find any, for printing a page or two in the next volume of Alice in reverse?" It may be that Carroll was wanting to print the whole poem in mirror writing. Macmillan responded that it would cost a great deal more to do, and this may have dissuaded him.<ref name="Penguin"/>

In the author's note to the Christmas 1896 edition of ''Through the Looking-Glass'' Carroll writes, "The new words, in the poem Jabberwocky, have given rise to some differences of opinion as to their pronunciation, so it may be well to give instructions on ''that'' point also. Pronounce 'slithy' as if it were the two words, 'sly, thee': make the 'g' ''hard'' in 'gyre' and 'gimble': and pronounce 'rath' to rhyme with 'bath'."<ref>Carroll, Lewis (2005) ''Through the Looking Glass''. Hayes Barton Press p. 4</ref>

In the Preface to ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]'', Carroll wrote, "[Let] me take this opportunity of answering a question that has often been asked me, how to pronounce 'slithy toves'. The 'i' in 'slithy' is long, as in 'writhe', and 'toves' is pronounced so as to rhyme with 'groves'. Again, the first "o" in "borogoves" is pronounced like the 'o' in 'borrow'. I have heard people try to give it the sound of the 'o' in 'worry'. Such is Human Perversity."<ref name="HoS"/>

==Possible interpretations of words{{anchor|Glossary}}==
* [[Bandersnatch]]: A swift moving creature with snapping jaws, capable of extending its neck.<ref name="HoS">{{cite book|author=Lewis Carroll|title=The Annotated Hunting of the Snark|others=edited with notes by [[Martin Gardner]], illustrations by Henry Holiday and others, introduction by [[Adam Gopnik]]|isbn=0-393-06242-2|publisher=W. W. Norton|edition=Definitive|year=2006|orig-year=1876}}</ref> A "bander" was also an archaic word for a "leader", suggesting that a "bandersnatch" might be an animal that hunts the leader of a group.<ref name="Penguin"/>
* [[wikt:beamish|Beamish]]: Radiantly beaming, happy, cheerful. Although Carroll may have believed he had coined this word, usage in 1530 is cited in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.<ref name="ExplanatoryN">{{cite book|author=Carroll, Lewis|year=2009|title=Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass|chapter=Explanatory notes|editor=Hunt, Peter|publisher=OUP Oxford|page=283|isbn=978-0-19-955829-2}} References the [[Oxford English Dictionary]] (1530).</ref>
* [[wikt:borogove|Borogove]]: Following the poem Humpty Dumpty says: {{"'}}borogove' is a thin shabby-looking bird with its feathers sticking out all round, something like a live mop." In ''[[Mischmasch]]'' borogoves are described differently: "An extinct kind of Parrot. They had no wings, beaks turned up, and made their nests under sun-dials: lived on veal."<ref name="Penguin"/> In ''Hunting of the Snark'', Carroll says that the initial syllable of ''borogove'' is pronounced as in ''borrow'' rather than as in ''worry''.<ref name="HoS"/>
* [[wikt:brillig|Brillig]]: Following the poem, the character of Humpty Dumpty comments: {{"'}}Brillig' means four o'clock in the afternoon, the time when you begin broiling things for dinner."<ref name="AAW96"/> According to ''[[Mischmasch]]'', it is derived from the verb to ''bryl'' or ''broil''.
* [[wikt:burble|Burbled]]: In a letter of December 1877, Carroll notes that "burble" could be a mixture of the three verbs 'bleat', 'murmur', and 'warble', although he did not remember creating it.<ref name="ExplanatoryN"/><ref name="ReferenceA">Lewis Carroll, Letter to Maud Standen, December 1877</ref>
* [[wikt:chortle|Chortled]]: "Combination of 'chuckle' and 'snort'." ([[OED]])
* [[wikt:frabjous|Frabjous]]: Possibly a blend of "fair", "fabulous", and "joyous". Definition from ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', credited to Lewis Carroll.
* Frumious: Combination of "fuming" and "furious". In the Preface to ''The Hunting of the Snark'' Carroll comments, "[T]ake the two words 'fuming' and 'furious'. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first. Now open your mouth and speak. If your thoughts incline ever so little towards 'fuming', you will say 'fuming-furious'; if they turn, by even a hair's breadth, towards 'furious', you will say 'furious-fuming'; but if you have the rarest of gifts, a perfectly balanced mind, you will say 'frumious'."<ref name="HoS"/>
* [[wikt:galumphing|Galumphing]]: Perhaps used in the poem as a blend of "gallop" and "triumphant".<ref name="ExplanatoryN"/> Used later by [[Rudyard Kipling|Kipling]], and cited by Webster as "To move with a clumsy and heavy tread"<ref>{{cite book|title=The Merriam-Webster new book of word histories|year=1991|publisher=Merriam Webster|page=247|isbn=0-87779-603-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ekrgc3RowTgC&q=galumphing+kipling&pg=PA269|title=Alice's Adventures in Wonderland; And, Through the Looking-glass and what Alice Found There|year=1998|author=Lewis Carroll, Roger Lancelyn Green|publisher=John Tenniel Oxford University Press|page=269|isbn=978-0-19-283374-7}}</ref>
* [[Gimble]]: Humpty Dumpty comments that it means: "to make holes like a [[Gimlet (tool)|gimlet]]."<ref name="AAW96">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HAAn1XKaOJoC&q=%22To+make+holes+like+a+gimlet%22&pg=PA199|author=Carroll, Lewis|year=1998|title=Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass|pages=198–199|publisher=Wordsworth Editions|isbn=1-85326-897-6}}</ref>
* [[wikt:gyre|Gyre]]: "To 'gyre' is to go round and round like a gyroscope."<ref name="AAW96"/> ''Gyre'' is entered in the [[OED]] from 1420, meaning a circular or spiral motion or form; especially a giant circular oceanic surface current. Carroll also wrote in ''[[Mischmasch]]'' that it meant to scratch like a dog.<ref name="Penguin"/> The ''g'' is pronounced like the /g/ in ''gold'', not like ''gem'' (since this was how "gyroscope" was pronounced in Carroll's day).<ref name="tlgp">From the preface to ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]''.</ref>
* Jabberwock: When a class in the [[Girls' Latin School]] in Boston asked Carroll's permission to name their school magazine ''The Jabberwock'', he replied: "The [[Anglo-Saxon]] word 'wocer' or 'wocor' signifies 'offspring' or 'fruit'. Taking 'jabber' in its ordinary acceptation of 'excited and voluble discussion', this would give the meaning of 'the result of much excited and voluble discussion'..."<ref name="Penguin">[https://books.google.com/books?id=zfymo8bZhEIC&pg=PA328&q=%22%20the%20next%20volume%20of%20Alice%20in%20reverse%22 Carroll, Lewis (Author), Tenniel, John] (2003). ''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass'', pp. 328–331. Penguin Classics. {{ISBN|0-14-143976-9}}</ref> It is often depicted as a monster similar to a [[dragon]]. John Tenniel's illustration depicts it with a long serpentine neck, rabbit-like teeth, spidery talons, bat-like wings and, as a humorous touch, a waistcoat. In the 2010 film version of [[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|''Alice in Wonderland'']] it is shown with large back legs, small dinosaur-like front legs, and on the ground it uses its wings as front legs like a [[pterosaur]], and it breathes out lightning flashes rather than flame.
* [[Jubjub bird]]: "A desperate bird that lives in perpetual passion", according to the Butcher in Carroll's later poem ''[[The Hunting of the Snark]]''.<ref name="HoS"/> 'Jub' is an ancient word for a [[Jerkin (garment)|jerkin]] or a dialect word for the trot of a horse (OED). It might make reference to the call of the bird resembling the sound "jub, jub".<ref name="Penguin"/>
* Manxome: Possibly 'fearsome'; Possibly a portmanteau of "manly" and "buxom", the latter relating to men for most of its history; or "three-legged" after the [[triskelion]] emblem of the [[Manx people]] from the [[Isle of Man]].
* [[wikt:mimsy|Mimsy]]: Humpty Dumpty comments that {{"'}}Mimsy' is 'flimsy and miserable{{'"}}.<ref name="AAW96"/>
* Mome: Humpty Dumpty is uncertain about this one: "I think it's short for 'from home', meaning that they'd lost their way, you know". The notes in ''[[Mischmasch]]'' give a different definition of 'grave' (via 'solemome', 'solemone' and 'solemn').
* Outgrabe: Humpty Dumpty says {{"'}}outgribing' is something between bellowing and whistling, with a kind of sneeze in the middle".<ref name="AAW96"/> Carroll's book appendices suggest it is the past tense of the verb to 'outgribe', connected with the old verb to 'grike' or 'shrike', which derived 'shriek' and 'creak' and hence 'squeak'.<ref name="Penguin"/>
* Rath: Humpty Dumpty says following the poem: "A 'rath' is a sort of green pig". Carroll's notes for the original in ''[[Mischmasch]]'' state that a 'Rath' is "a species of land turtle. Head erect, mouth like a shark, the front forelegs curved out so that the animal walked on its knees, smooth green body, lived on swallows and oysters."<ref name="Penguin"/> In the [[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|1951 animated film adaptation of the previous book]], the raths are depicted as small, multi-coloured creatures with tufty hair, round eyes, and long legs resembling pipe stems.
* [[wikt:slithy|Slithy]]: Humpty Dumpty says: {{"'}}Slithy' means 'lithe and slimy'. 'Lithe' is the same as 'active'. You see it's like a portmanteau, there are two meanings packed up into one word."<ref name="AAW96"/> The original in ''Mischmasch'' notes that 'slithy' means "smooth and active".<ref name="Penguin"/> The ''i'' is long, as in ''writhe''.
* [[wikt:snicker-snack|Snicker-snack]]: possibly related to the large knife, the [[wikt:snickersnee|snickersnee]].<ref name="ExplanatoryN"/>
* Tove: Humpty Dumpty says {{"'}}Toves' are something like badgers, they're something like lizards, and they're something like corkscrews. ... Also they make their nests under sun-dials, also they live on cheese."<ref name="AAW96"/> Pronounced so as to rhyme with ''groves''.<ref name="HoS"/> They "gyre and gimble", i.e., rotate and bore. Toves are described slightly differently in ''[[Mischmasch]]'': "a species of Badger [which] had smooth white hair, long hind legs, and short horns like a stag [and] lived chiefly on cheese".<ref name="Penguin"/>
* [[wikt:tulgey|Tulgey]]: Carroll himself said he could give no source for this word. It could be taken to mean thick, dense, dark. It has been suggested that it comes from the [[Anglo-Cornish]] word ''tulgu'', 'darkness', which in turn comes from [[Cornish language|Cornish]] ''tewolgow'' 'darkness, gloominess'.<ref>George, Ken. ''An Gerlyver Meur, Cornish-English, English-Cornish Dictionary''. Cornish Language Board, 2009. Part One, Cornish-English, p. 624.</ref>
* Uffish: Carroll noted, "It seemed to suggest a state of mind when the voice is gruffish, the manner roughish, and the temper huffish".<ref name="ExplanatoryN"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* Vorpal: Carroll said he could not explain this word, though it has been noted that it can be formed by taking letters alternately from "verbal" and "gospel".<ref name=AnnotatedAlice>{{cite book|editor-last=Gardner|editor-first=Martin|title=[[The Annotated Alice]]|year=1971|publisher=The World Publishing Company|location=New York|pages=195–196|orig-year=1960}}</ref> It has appeared in dictionaries as meaning both 'deadly' and 'extremely sharp'.<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/us/dictionary/english/vorpal Collins definition]</ref>
* Wabe: The characters in the poem suggest it means "The grass plot around a sundial", called a 'wa-be' because it "goes a long way before it, and a long way behind it".<ref name="AAW96"/> In the original ''Mischmasch'' text, Carroll states a 'wabe' is "the side of a hill (from its being soaked by rain)".<ref name="Penguin"/>

==Linguistics and poetics==
[[File:Humpty Dumpty Tenniel.jpg|thumb|right|[[Humpty Dumpty#In Through the Looking-Glass|Humpty Dumpty]] who explains to Alice the definitions of some of the words in "Jabberwocky". Illustration by [[John Tenniel]], 1871]]
Though the poem contains many nonsensical words, English [[syntax]] and poetic forms are observed, such as the [[quatrain]] verses, the general [[ABAB rhyme scheme]] and the [[Iamb (foot)|iambic]] [[Meter (poetry)|meter]].<ref>Gross and McDowell (1996). ''Sound and form in modern poetry'', p. 15. The University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|0-472-06517-3}}</ref> Linguist Peter Lucas believes the "nonsense" term is inaccurate. The poem relies on a distortion of sense rather than "non-sense", allowing the reader to infer meaning and therefore engage with narrative while lexical allusions swim under the surface of the poem.<ref Name="Lucas"/><ref>For a full linguistic and phonetic analysis of the poem see the article "Jabberwocky back to Old English: Nonsense, Anglo-Saxon and Oxford" by Lucas, Peter J. in ''Language History and Linguistic Modelling'', pp. 503–520. 1997. {{ISBN|3-11-014504-9}}</ref>

Marnie Parsons describes the work as a "[[semiotic]] catastrophe", arguing that the words create a discernible narrative within the structure of the poem, though the reader cannot know what they symbolise. She argues that Humpty Dumpty tries, after the recitation, to "ground" the unruly multiplicities of meaning with definitions, but cannot succeed as both the book and the poem are playgrounds for the "carnivalised aspect of language". Parsons suggests that this is mirrored in the [[Prosody (linguistics)|prosody]] of the poem: in the tussle between the [[tetrameter]] in the first three lines of each stanza and [[trimeter]] in the last lines, such that one undercuts the other and we are left off balance, like the poem's hero.<ref name="Parsons"/>

Carroll wrote many poem parodies such as "[[Twinkle, twinkle little bat]]", "[[You Are Old, Father William]]" and "[[How Doth the Little Crocodile]]?" Some have become generally better known than the originals on which they are based, and this is certainly the case with "Jabberwocky".<ref Name="Lucas"/> The poems' successes do not rely on any recognition or association of the poems that they parody. Lucas suggests that the original poems provide a strong container but Carroll's works are famous precisely because of their random, surreal quality.<ref Name="Lucas"/> Carroll's grave playfulness has been compared with that of the poet [[Edward Lear]]; there are also parallels with the work of [[Gerard Manley Hopkins]] in the frequent use of soundplay, [[alliteration]], created-language and [[portmanteau]]. Both writers were Carroll's contemporaries.<ref name="Parsons">Parsons, Marnie (1994) ''Touch monkeys: nonsense strategies for reading twentieth-century poetry'', pp. 67–73. University of Toronto Press. {{ISBN|0-8020-2983-3}}</ref>

==Translations==
[[Image:Jabberwocky creatures.jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[John Tenniel]]'s illustration for the poem.]]

===History===
"Jabberwocky" has been translated into 65 languages.<ref>Lindseth, Jon A. – Tannenbaum, Alan (eds.): ''Alice in a World of Wonderlands: The Translations of Lewis Carroll's Masterpiece'', vol. I, p. 747. New Castle: Oak Knoll Press, 2015. {{ISBN|978-1-58456-331-0}}.</ref> The translation might be difficult because the poem holds to English syntax and many of the principal words of the poem are invented. Translators have generally dealt with them by creating equivalent words of their own. Often these are similar in spelling or sound to Carroll's while respecting the [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the language they are being translated into. In Frank L. Warrin's French translation, "'Twas brillig" becomes "Il brilgue". In instances like this, both the original and the invented words echo actual words of Carroll's [[lexicon]], but not necessarily ones with similar meanings. Translators have invented words which draw on root words with meanings similar to the English roots used by Carroll. [[Douglas Hofstadter]] noted in his essay "Translations of Jabberwocky", the word 'slithy', for example, echoes the English 'slimy', 'slither', 'slippery', 'lithe' and 'sly'. A French translation that uses 'lubricilleux' for 'slithy', evokes French words like 'lubrifier' (to lubricate) to give an impression of a meaning similar to that of Carroll's word. In his exploration of the translation challenge, Hofstadter asks "what if a word does exist, but it is very intellectual-sounding and Latinate ('lubricilleux'), rather than earthy and Anglo-Saxon ('slithy')? Perhaps 'huilasse' would be better than 'lubricilleux'? Or does the Latin origin of the word 'lubricilleux' not make itself felt to a speaker of French in the way that it would if it were an English word ('lubricilious', perhaps)? ".<ref name="Hofstadter"/>

Hofstadter also notes that it makes a great difference whether the poem is translated in isolation or as part of a translation of the novel. In the latter case the translator must, through Humpty Dumpty, supply explanations of the invented words. But, he suggests, "even in this pathologically difficult case of translation, there seems to be some rough equivalence obtainable, a kind of rough [[Isomorphism (sociology)|isomorphism]], partly global, partly local, between the brains of all the readers".<ref name="Hofstadter">{{cite book | first = Douglas R. | last = Hofstadter | year = 1980 | title = Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid | chapter = Translations of Jabberwocky | chapter-url = http://www76.pair.com/keithlim/jabberwocky/poem/hofstadter.html| isbn = 0-394-74502-7 | publisher = Vintage Books | location = New York, NY}}</ref>

In 1967, D.G. Orlovskaya wrote a popular Russian translation of "Jabberwocky" entitled "Barmaglot" ("Бармаглот"). She translated "Barmaglot" for "Jabberwock", "Brandashmyg" for "Bandersnatch" while "myumsiki" ("мюмзики") echoes "mimsy". Full translations of "Jabberwocky" into French and German can be found in ''[[The Annotated Alice]]'' along with a discussion of why some translation decisions were made.<ref>M. Gardner, ed., The Annotated Alice, 1960; London: Penguin 1970, p. 193f.</ref> [[Chao Yuen Ren]], a Chinese linguist, translated the poem into Chinese<ref>{{Cite journal
|doi=10.2307/2718830|title=Dimensions of Fidelity in Translation With Special Reference to Chinese|last=Chao|first=Yuen Ren|author-link=Yuen Ren Chao|journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies|volume=29|year=1969|pages=109–130|publisher=Harvard-Yenching Institute|jstor=2718830}}</ref> by inventing characters to imitate what [[Rob Gifford]] of [[National Public Radio]] refers to as the "slithy toves that gyred and gimbled in the wabe of Carroll's original".<ref>[[Rob Gifford|Gifford, Rob]]. "The Great Wall of the Mind." ''China Road''. [[Random House]]. 2008. 237.</ref> [[Satyajit Ray]], a film-maker, translated the work into [[Bengali language|Bengali]]<ref>Robinson, Andrew (2004) ''Satyajit Ray''. I.B. Tauris p29</ref> and [[concrete poet]] [[Augusto de Campos]] created a Brazilian Portuguese version. There is also an Arabic translation<ref>Wael Al-Mahdi (2010) [http://waelalmahdi.com/?p=402 Jabberwocky in Arabic]</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |last=Almahdi |first=Wael |title=The Jabberwocky in Arabic – Version 2 (2023) |url=http://waelalmahdi.com/the-jabberwocky-in-arabic-version-2-2023/ |access-date=2023-04-22 |language=en-US}}</ref> by Wael Al-Mahdi, and at least two into [[Croatian language|Croatian]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Priča o Hudodraku, Karazubu i Jabberwockyju|url=http://www.booksa.hr/kolumne/crv-u-kamenu/prica-o-hudodraku-karazubu-i-jabberwockyju|language=hr|publisher=Kulturtreger / KK Booksa|date=2011-09-24}}</ref> Multiple translations into [[Latin]] were made within the first weeks of Carroll's original publication.<ref name="RAZ">{{cite web| last=Vansittart|first=Augustus Arthur |title=Mors Iabrochii |url=http://www.ruthannzaroff.com/wonderland/jabberwocky.htm| work=Jabberwocky |editor=Zaroff, Ruth Ann|location=London|language=la|year=1872}}</ref> In a 1964 article, [[M. L. West]] published two versions of the poem in [[Ancient Greek]] that exemplify the respective styles of the [[epic poets]] [[Homer]] and [[Nonnus]].<ref>[[M. L. West]], "Two Versions of Jabberwocky", ''Greece & Rome'' Vol. 11 No. 2, October 1964, pp. 185-187.</ref>

=== Sample translations ===
Sources:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.waxdog.com/jabberwocky/translate.html |title=Jabberwocky Variations |publisher=waxdog.com |access-date=11 August 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161217075708/http://www.waxdog.com/jabberwocky/translate.html |archive-date=17 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www76.pair.com/keithlim/jabberwocky/translations/ |title=jabberwocky/translations |publisher=76.pair.com |access-date=11 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Carrol |first=Lewis |translator-last=Buckley |translator-first= Ramón |date=1984 |title=Alice's Adventures in Wonderland & Through the Looking-Glass and What Alice found there |trans-title=Las Aventuras de Alicia |language=es |publisher=Anaya |isbn=84-7525-171-4}}</ref>

{| cellpadding="2" cellspacing="1" border="1"
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|width=300px|Bulgarian (Lazar Goldman & Stefan Gechev)
|width=300px|Danish 1 (Mogens Jermiin Nissen) Jabberwocky
|width=300px|Danish 2 (Arne Herløv Petersen) Kloppervok
|-
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Бе сгладне и честлинните комбурси
:търляха се и сврецваха във плите;
:съвсем окласни бяха тук щурпите
:и отма равапсатваха прасурси.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Et slidigt gravben vridrede
:i brumringen på tidvis plent,
:og lappingen var vaklig, og
:det borte grøfgrin grent.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:I glummert lys den slyge spæg
:stod gomrende og glim.
:I børkens dyb stod mamren fjæg
:og bungrede i skim.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|Esperanto ([[Marjorie Boulton]]) La Ĵargonbesto
|Turkish (Nihal Yeğinobalı) Ejdercenkname
|Finnish 1 (Kirsi Kunnas & Eeva-Liisa Manner, 1974) Pekoraali
|-
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Brilumis, kaj la ŝlirtaj melfoj
:en la iejo ĝiris, ŝraŭis;
:mizaris la maldikdudelfoj,
:forfuraj ratjoj vaŭis.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:akşamözdü, yavışkan burguleler
:döndeleyip cermelerken günsatba
:uyudüşmüş kalmışlardı karpüsler
:yemizler derseniz ak-ök begirba
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:On illanpaisto, ja silkavat saijat
:luopoissa pirkeinä myörien ponkii:
:surheisna kaikk' kirjuvat lorokaijat
:ja vossut lonkaloisistansa ulos vonkii.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|Finnish 2 (Matti Rosvall, 1999) Jabberwocky<ref>This rendering comes from Rosvall's [[Finnish language|Finnish]] translation of [[Fredric Brown]]'s novel ''Night of the Jabberwock'' (''Syntipukin yö'').</ref>
|Finnish 3 (Alice Martin, 2010) Monkerias
|French (Frank L. Warrin)
|-
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Kyryissä mäiden myryt parvat
:ripoen kormivat pällyissään.
:Vilhujen borogrovien karvat
:talsoivat – ne niin sällyissään.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Jo koitti kuumon aika, ja viukkaat puhvenet
:päinillä harpitellen kieruloivat,
:haipeloina seisoksivat varakuhvenet,
:ja öksyt muvut kaikki hinkuroivat.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Il brilgue: les tôves lubricilleux
:Se gyrent en vrillant dans le guave.
:Enmîmés sont les gougebosqueux
:Et le mômerade horsgrave.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|Georgian (Giorgi Gokieli) ტარტალოკი
|German (Robert Scott)
|Hebrew 1 (Aharon Amir) פִּטְעוֹנִי
|-
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:მიმწუხარშდა. მოქნიალა სლუკები
:ზილობდნენ და ძვრიალებდნენ მარეხვში;
:საბუდავად ცხოვდნენ ბარდალუკები,
:ვით ფშუნები სურდაბილის გარეშე.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Es brillig war. Die schlichten Toven
:Wirrten und wimmelten in Waben;
:Und aller-mümsige Burggoven
:Die mohmen Räth' ausgraben.
| dir=rtl style="vertical-align: top;"|
:בְעֵת בָשָׁק וּשְׁלֵי פַּחְזָר,
:בְּאַפְסֵי־חָק סָבְסוּ, מָקְדוּ,
:אוֹ אָז חִלְכֵּן הָיָה נִמְזַר,
:וּמְתֵי־עָרָן כֵּרְדוּ.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|Hebrew 2 (Rina Litvin) גֶּבֶרִיקָא
|Icelandic (Valdimar Briem) Rausuvokkskviða
|Irish ([[Nicholas Williams (Celticist)|Nicholas Williams]]) An Gheabairleog
|-
| dir=rtl style="vertical-align: top;"|
:הִבְרִיל כְבָר, זַחְלָצִים קְלִיחִים
:חָגְווּ וְעָגוּ בַּשְּׁבִילֵל,
:מַסִּים הָיוּ הַסְּמַרְלַחִים
:וְחֶזְרוֹנִי צִרְלֵל.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Það leið að stekju, og slýgir greðlar
:sig snældu og böluðu um slöffruna,
:og angurvært sungu sópfiðrungar
:við sífgelt týðmana svíræna.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Briollaic a bhí ann; bhí na tóibhí sleo
:ag gírleáil 's ag gimleáil ar an taof.
:B’an-chuama go deo na borragóibh
:is bhí na rádaí miseacha ag braíomh.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|Italian (Adriana Crespi) Il ciarlestrone
|Latin (Hassard H. Dodgson) Gaberbocchus
|Polish (Janusz Korwin-Mikke) Żabrołak
|-
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Era brillosto, e gli alacridi tossi
:succhiellavano scabbi nel pantúle:
:Méstili eran tutti i paparossi,
:e strombavan musando i tartarocchi.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Hora aderat briligi. Nunc et Slythia Tova
:Plurima gyrabant gymbolitare vabo;
:Et Borogovorum mimzebant undique formae,
:Momiferique omnes exgrabuere Rathi.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Błyszniało – szlisgich hopuch świr
:Tęczując w kałdach świtrzem wre,
:Mizgłupny był borolągw hyr,
:Chrząszczury wlizły młe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://home.agh.edu.pl/~szymon/jabberwocky.shtml|title=jabberwocky|publisher=home.agh.edu.pl|access-date=11 August 2016}}</ref>
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|Portuguese 1 ([[Augusto de Campos]], 1980) Jaguadarte<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Argenta |first1=Marinice |last2=Maggio |first2=Sandra Sirangelo |title=O enigma de "Jabberwocky" na tradução de Augusto de Campos para o português brasileiro |journal=Letrônica |date=26 June 2019 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=32027 |doi=10.15448/1984-4301.2019.1.32027|doi-access=free |hdl=10183/197310 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
|Portuguese 2 (Oliveira Ribeiro Neto, 1984) Algaravia<ref name="algaravia">{{cite web |title=A arte de traduzir Lewis Carroll – Revista Bravo – Blog da Psicologia da Educação |url=https://www.ufrgs.br/psicoeduc/variados/traduzir-lewis-carroll/ |website=Blog da Psicologia da Educação |publisher=UFRGS |access-date=1 November 2020 |language=pt-BR}}</ref>
|Portuguese 3 (Ricardo Gouveia) Blablassauro<ref name="algaravia" />
|-
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Era briluz. As lesmolisas touvas
:Roldavam e reviam nos gramilvos.
:Estavam mimsicais as pintalouvas,
:E os momirratos davam grilvos.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Era o auge e as rolas brilhantes
:Pelo ar giravam, giravam.
:Palhaços davam pinotes,
:Os montes se amontoava.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Brilumia e colescosos touvos
:No capimtanal se giroscavam;
:Miquíticos eram os burrogouvos,
:E os mamirathos extrapitavam.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|Russian (Dina Orlovskaya)
|Spanish 1 (Ulalume González de León) El Jabberwocky
|Spanish 2 (Adolfo de Alba) El Jabberwocky
|-
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Варкалось. Хливкие шорьки
:Пырялись по наве,
:И хрюкотали зелюки,
:Как мюмзики в мове.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Era la parrillhora y los flexiosos tovos
:en el cesplejos giroscopiaban, vibrhoradaban.
:Frivoserables estaban los borogovos
:y los verchinos telehogariados relinchiflaban.
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Era la asarvesperia y los flexilimosos toves
:giroscopiaban taledrando en el vade;
:debilmiseros estaban los borogoves;
:bramatchisilban los verdilechos parde.
|- style="text-align:center; background:#efe9ef;"
|Spanish 3 (Ramón Buckley, 1984) El Fablistanón
|Welsh (Selyf Roberts) Siaberwoci
|American Sign Language (ASL)
(Eric Malzkuhn, 1939)
|-
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Borgotaba. Los viscoleantes toves
:rijando en la solea, tadralaban...
:Misébiles estaban los borgoves
:y algo momios los verdos bratchilbaban
|style="vertical-align: top;"|
:Mae'n brydgell ac mae'r brochgim stwd
:Yn gimblo a gyrian yn y mhello:
:Pob cólomrws yn féddabwd,
:A'r hoch oma'n chwibruo.
|Due to no written language in ASL, [https://web.archive.org/web/20190529230953/http://www.sorensonvrs.com/ericm view video] to see translation of Jabberwocky. (Performed in 1994)
See [https://web.archive.org/web/20160922040138/http://www.formsofcouncil.org/en/inquiries/30_tacet/784_space_time_and_gesture this link] for explanation of techniques used by Eric Malzkuhn
|}

==Reception==
According to Chesterton and Green and others, the original purpose of "Jabberwocky" was to satirise both pretentious verse and ignorant literary critics. It was designed as verse showing how not to write verse, but eventually became the subject of pedestrian translation or explanation and incorporated into classroom learning.<ref>Green, Roger Lancelyn (1970) ''The Lewis Carroll Handbook'', "Jabberwocky, and other parodies" : Dawson of Pall Mall, London</ref> It has also been interpreted as a parody of contemporary Oxford scholarship and specifically the story of how [[Benjamin Jowett]], the notoriously agnostic Professor of Greek at Oxford, and Master of [[Balliol College, Oxford|Balliol]], came to sign the ''[[Thirty-Nine Articles]]'', as an Anglican statement of faith, to save his job.<ref>Prickett, Stephen (2005) ''Victorian Fantasy'' Baylor University Press p113 {{ISBN|1-932792-30-9}}</ref> The transformation of audience perception from satire to seriousness was in a large part predicted by [[G. K. Chesterton]], who wrote in 1932, "Poor, poor, little Alice! She has not only been caught and made to do lessons; she has been forced to inflict lessons on others."<ref>[[G. K. Chesterton|Chesterton, G. K]] (1953) "Lewis Carroll" in ''A Handful of Authors'', ed. Dorothy Collins, Sheed and Ward, London</ref>

It is often now cited as one of the greatest nonsense poems written in English,<ref name="NCTE" /><ref name="Gardner" /> the source for countless parodies and tributes. In most cases the writers have changed the nonsense words into words relating to the parodied subject, as in [[Frank Jacobs]]'s "If Lewis Carroll Were a Hollywood Press Agent in the Thirties" in ''Mad for Better or Verse''.<ref>Jacobs, Frank (1968) ''Mad, for better or verse'' N.A.L</ref> Other writers use the poem as a form, much like a [[sonnet]], and create their own words for it as in "Strunklemiss" by [[Shay K. Azoulay]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smylesandfish.com/lounge/the-canon.php?strunklemiss=1|title=Strunklemiss|work=smylesandfish.com}}</ref> or the poem "Oh Freddled Gruntbuggly" recited by [[Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz]] in [[Douglas Adams]]' ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (novel)|The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'', a 1979 book which contains numerous other references and homages to Carroll's work.<ref name="Cyberspace">{{cite web|author=Robert McFarlane |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/aug/12/sciencefictionfantasyandhorror.douglasadams |title="Lewis Carroll in cyberspace" ''Guardian'' 12 August 2001 |work=The Guardian|date=12 August 2001 |access-date=2018-10-03}}</ref>

{{blockquote|<poem>
Oh freddled gruntbuggly thy micturations are to me
As plurdled gabbleblotchits on a lurgid bee.
Groop I implore thee my foonting turlingdromes
And hooptiously drangle me with crinkly bindlewurdles,
Or I will rend thee in the gobberwarts with my
blurglecruncheon, see if I don't!<ref Name="Cyberspace"/><ref>"Oh Freddled Gruntbuggly" by [[Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz]]. In Adams, Douglas (1988) Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Pocket Books p65 {{ISBN|0-671-74606-5}}</ref>
</poem>}}

Some of the words that Carroll created, such as "[[wikt:chortle|chortled]]" and "[[wikt:galumphing|galumphing]]", have entered the English language and are listed in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''. The word "[[wikt:jabberwocky|jabberwocky]]" itself has come to refer to nonsense language.

In American Sign Language, Eric Malzkuhn invented the sign for "chortled". It unintentionally caught on and became a part of American Sign Language's lexicon as well.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sorensonvrs.com/ericm |title=Eric Malzkuhn – March 2016 - Sorenson VRS |website=sorensonvrs.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529230953/http://www.sorensonvrs.com/ericm |archive-date=29 May 2019 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Media==
A song called "Beware the Jabberwock" was written for Disney's 1951 animated film ''[[Alice in Wonderland (1951 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' sung by [[Stan Freberg]], but it was discarded, replaced with "'Twas Brillig", sung by the [[Cheshire Cat]], that includes the first stanza of "Jabberwocky".

The [[Alice in Wonderland sculpture]] in [[Central Park]] in [[Manhattan]], New York City, has at its base, among other inscriptions, a line from "Jabberwocky".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gothamist.com/arts-entertainment/the-16-best-public-art-pieces-in-nyc|title=The 16 Best Public Art Pieces in NYC|date=16 April 2015|website=Gothamist|author=Rebecca Fishbein}}</ref>

The British group [[Boeing Duveen and The Beautiful Soup]] released a single (1968) called "Jabberwock" based on the poem.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.discogs.com/artist/927610-Boeing-Duveen-And-The-Beautiful-Soup|title=Boeing Duveen and the Beautiful Soup|publisher=discogs}}</ref> Singer and songwriter [[Donovan]] put the poem to music on his album ''[[HMS Donovan (album)|HMS Donovan]]'' (1971).

The poem was a source of inspiration for [[Jan Švankmajer]]'s 1971 short film ''Žvahlav aneb šatičky slaměného Huberta'' (released as [[Jabberwocky (1971 film)|''Jabberwocky'']] in English) and [[Terry Gilliam]]'s 1977 feature film ''[[Jabberwocky (film)|Jabberwocky]]''.

In 1972, the American composer [[Sam Pottle]] put the poem to music.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sheetmusicplus.com/title/jabberwocky-sheet-music/7445134|title=Jabberwocky Sam Pottle|work=sheetmusicplus.com}}</ref> The stage musical [[Jabberwocky (musical)|''Jabberwocky'']] (1973) by Andrew Kay, Malcolm Middleton and Peter Phillips, follows the basic plot of the poem.<ref name="nla">{{cite book|url=http://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/211352|title=Catalogue entry|author=National Library of Australia|year=1974|publisher=Printed by the Guild of Undergraduates, University of Western Australia|location=Canberra, ACT|access-date=5 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.musicaustralia.org/apps/MA?function=showDetail&currentBibRecord=000013683564&itemSeq=6&total=13&returnFunction=searchResults&term1=Pantomimes+with+music+Vocal+scores+with+piano.+&location1=Anywhere&scope=scope&parameter1=phrase&boolean1=and&sessionId=reuseSearchF43B22291FDD847390BDEBE11A12AA641303213378404|title=Catalogue entry|author=Music Australia|location=Sydney, NSW|access-date=5 September 2011}}</ref>
Keyboardists [[Clive Nolan]] and [[Oliver Wakeman]] released a musical version ''[[Jabberwocky (album)|Jabberwocky (1999)]]'' with the poem read in segments by [[Rick Wakeman]]. <ref>{{Cite thesis |title=The Logic of Nonsense: Personal Process towards Oppositionality and Reorganisation as Music Composition |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1950526046 |publisher=University of Western Sydney (Australia) |place=Australia |degree=D.C.A. |language=English |first=Holly |last=Harrison|id={{ProQuest|1950526046}} }}</ref> British contemporary lieder group Fall in Green set the poem to music for a single release (2021) on Cornutopia Music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://musicbrainz.org/release-group/a5105906-6417-49f4-abb1-ed55ca9ab7dc|title = Release group "Jabberwocky" by Fall in Green - MusicBrainz}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PWMvMrkl4E0| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/PWMvMrkl4E0| archive-date=2021-12-11 | url-status=live|title = Fall in Green - Jabberwocky [Official Video]|website = [[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

In 1978, the musical group [[Ambrosia_(band)|Ambrosia]] included the text of ''Jabberwocky'' in the lyrics of "Moma Frog" (credited to musicians Puerta, North, Drummond, and Pack) on their debut album ''[[Ambrosia_(album)|Ambrosia]]''.<ref>''Ambrosia'' album released by Warner Brothers Records, Inc. "Moma Frog" copyrighted 1974 by Rubicon Music (BMI).</ref>

In 1980 ''[[The Muppet Show]]'' staged a full version of "Jabberwocky" for TV viewing, with the Jabberwock and other creatures played by Muppets closely based on Tenniel's original illustrations. According to Jaques and Giddens, it distinguished itself by stressing the humor and nonsense of the poem.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jaques |first1=Zoe |last2=Giddens |first2=Eugene |title=Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking - Glass: A publishing History |date=6 May 2016 |publisher=Routledge |page=207}}</ref>

The Jabberwock appears in [[Tim Burton]]'s ''[[Alice in Wonderland (2010 film)|Alice in Wonderland]]'' (2010), voiced by [[Christopher Lee]], and is referred to as "The Jabberwocky". An abridged version of the poem is spoken by the Mad Hatter (played by [[Johnny Depp]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/bryan-young/review-tim-burtons-emalic_b_484160.html|title=Review: Tim Burton's ''Alice in Wonderland'' - Bryan Young|work=HuffPost|date=3 May 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.sainsburysentertainment.co.uk/en/Films-TV/Blu-ray/Anne-Hathaway/Alice-In-Wonderland-3D/product.html?product=E10365714 ''Alice In Wonderland''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114221359/http://www.sainsburysentertainment.co.uk/en/Films-TV/Blu-ray/Anne-Hathaway/Alice-In-Wonderland-3D/product.html?product=E10365714 |date=14 January 2013 }}, profile, Sainsbury's entertainment</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|England|Poetry}}
* [[Works based on Alice in Wonderland|Works based on ''Alice in Wonderland'']]
* [[Translations of Through the Looking-Glass|Translations of ''Through the Looking-Glass'']]

==References==

===Footnotes===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
* Carpenter, Humphrey (1985). ''Secret Gardens: The Golden Age of Children's Literature''. Houghton Mifflin. {{ISBN|0-395-35293-2}} Medievil 1998 sony playstation 1

==Further reading==
* Alakay-Gut, Karen. "Carroll's Jabberwocky". ''Explicator'', Fall 1987. Volume 46, issue 1.
* Borchers, Melanie. "A Linguistic Analysis of Lewis Carroll's Poem 'Jabberwocky'". ''The Carrollian: The Lewis Carroll Journal''. Autumn 2009, No. 24, pp. 3–46. {{ISSN|1462-6519}}.
* Dolitsky, Marlene (1984). ''Under the tumtum tree: from nonsense to sense, a study in nonautomatic comprehension. J. Benjamins Pub. Co. Amsterdam, Philadelphia''
* Gardner, Martin (1999). ''The Annotated Alice: The Definitive Edition''. New York: W .W. Norton and Company.
* Green, Roger Lancelyn (1970). ''The Lewis Carroll Handbook'', "Jabberwocky, and other parodies" : Dawson of Pall Mall, London
* {{cite book| first = Douglas R. | last = Hofstadter | year = 1980 | title = Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid | chapter = Translations of Jabberwocky | chapter-url = http://www76.pair.com/keithlim/jabberwocky/poem/hofstadter.html| isbn = 0-394-74502-7 | publisher = Vintage Books | location = New York}}
* Lucas, Peter J. (1997). "Jabberwocky back to Old English: Nonsense, Anglo-Saxon and Oxford" in ''Language History and Linguistic Modelling''. {{ISBN|978-3-11-014504-5}}.
* Richards, Fran. "The Poetic Structure of Jabberwocky". ''Jabberwocky: The Journal of the Lewis Carroll Society''. 8:1 (1978/79):16–19.

==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
{{Commons category}}
* {{librivox book | title=Jabberwocky | author=Lewis Carroll}}
* [http://www76.pair.com/keithlim/jabberwocky/poem/hofstadter.html Essay: "Translations of Jabberwocky"]. [[Douglas R. Hofstadter]], 1980 from ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach|Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid]]'' {{ISBN|0-394-74502-7}}, Vintage Books, New York
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/clips/z243d2p BBC Video] (2 mins), "Jabberwocky" read by English actor [[Brian Blessed]]
* {{youTube|id=XDLac7sAFsI|t=24|Jabberwocky}} read by English author [[Neil Gaiman]]
* [http://www.poetryfoundation.org/archive/poet.html?id=81205 Poetry Foundation Biography of Lewis Carroll]
* [http://thecarrollian.org.uk/ ''The Lewis Carroll Journal'' published by The Lewis Carroll Society].
* {{YouTube|id=Bnkumgf5qVw|title=Jabberwocky by composer}} [[Sam Pottle]]

{{Alice}}
{{Lewis Carroll}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jabberwocky| ]]
[[Category:1871 poems]]
[[Category:Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]
[[Category:British poems]]
[[Category:Fictional dragons]]
[[Category:Fictional monsters]]
[[Category:Fictional reptiles]]
[[Category:Gibberish language]]
[[Category:Humorous poems]]
[[Category:Nonce words]]
[[Category:Nonsense poetry]]
[[Category:Poetry by Lewis Carroll]]
[[Category:Fantasy poetry]]

Cumin

2024-03-09T20:49:37Z

Omcsesz: /* Etymology and pronunciation */

{{short description|Species of plant with seeds used as a spice}}
{{Redirect|Geerah|a unit of measurement|girah}}
{{Distinguish|curcumin|Cuman|text=[[curcumin]] or the [[Cumans]]}}
{{Other uses|Cumin (surname)|Cummin (given name)|Cummins (surname)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{speciesbox
|name = Cumin
|image = Cuminum cyminum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-198.jpg
|genus = Cuminum
|species = cyminum
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN | access-date=13 March 2008}}</ref>
}}
{{Special characters}}

'''Cumin''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ʌ|m|ɪ|n}},<ref name=mw>{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cumin|title=Cumin|website=Merriam-Webster: Dictionary|date=8 February 2024|access-date=20 February 2024}}</ref><ref name=old>{{cite web|url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/cumin?q=cumin|title=Cumin|website=Oxford Learner's Dictionaries|access-date=20 February 2024}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|juː|m|ɪ|n}};<ref name=mw/><ref name=old/> {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˈ|k|uː|m|ɪ|n}};<ref name=mw/> '''''Cuminum cyminum''''') is a [[flowering plant]] in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Apiaceae]], native to the [[Irano-Turanian Region]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2004-09-01|title=Archaeobotanical and archaeoentomological evidence from a well at Atlit-Yam indicates colder, more humid climate on the Israeli coast during the PPNC period|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440304000299|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|language=en|volume=31|issue=9|pages=1301–1310|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2004.02.010|issn=0305-4403|last1=Kislev|first1=Mordechai E.|last2=Hartmann|first2=Anat|last3=Galili|first3=Ehud|bibcode=2004JArSc..31.1301K }}</ref> Its seeds – each one contained within a fruit, which is dried – are used in the [[cuisine]]s of many cultures in both whole and ground form. Although cumin is used in [[traditional medicine]], there is no high-quality evidence that it is safe or effective as a [[prescription drug|therapeutic agent]].<ref name="drugs">{{cite web|title=Cumin|url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/cumin.html|publisher=Drugs.com|access-date=24 February 2018|date=2018}}</ref>

== Etymology and pronunciation==
The term comes via [[Middle English]] ''comyn'', from [[Old English]] ''cymen'' (which is cognate with [[Old High German]] ''kumin'') and [[Old French]] cummin, both from the Latin term {{lang|la|cuminum}}. This in turn comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|κύμινον}} ({{Lang|grc-latn|kúminon}}), a [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] borrowing related to [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{lang|he|{{Script|Hebrew|כמון}}|rtl=yes}} ({{Lang|he-latn|kammōn}}) and [[Arabic]] {{lang|ar|{{Script|Arabic|كمون}}|rtl=yes}} ({{Lang|ar-latn|kammūn}}). All of these ultimately derive from [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] {{lang|akk|𒂵𒈬𒉡}} ({{Lang|akk-latn|kamūnu}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.lexico.com/definition/cumin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200114071750/https://www.lexico.com/definition/cumin |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 January 2020 |title=CUMIN | Meaning & Definition for UK English |publisher=Lexico.com |date= |access-date=2022-02-27}}</ref><ref>[[Heinrich Zimmern]] (1915) Akkadische Fremdwörter als Beweis für babylonischen Kultureinfluss (in German), Leipzig: A. Edelmann, [https://archive.org/stream/akkadischefremdw00zimmuoft#page/57/mode/1up page 57]</ref>

The English word is traditionally pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|ʌ|m|ɪ|n}} ({{respell|KUM|in}}), like "coming" with an ⟨n⟩ instead of ⟨ng⟩ (/ŋ/).<ref name=Way>"Cumin." ''[[A Way with Words]]'' (Radio broadcast/podcast). 25 October 2014. Retrieved 15 February 2024.</ref> American lexicographer [[Grant Barrett]] notes that this pronunciation now is rarely used,<ref name=Way/> replaced in the late 20th century<ref>Charles Harrington Elster. "Cumin." ''The Big Book of Beastly Mispronunciations: The Complete Opinionated Guide for the Careful Speaker.'' Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1999. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7iocw3kK9BIC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA92#v=onepage&q&f=false pp. 92–93.] {{ISBN|9780395893388}}</ref> by [[hyperforeignism|hyperforeignized]] {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|juː|m|ɪ|n}} ({{respell|KYOO|min}}) and {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|uː|m|ɪ|n}} ({{respell|KOO|min}}).<ref name=Way/>

== Description ==
[[File:Sa cumin.jpg|thumb|Cumin seeds, about 5 mm.]]
Cumin is the dried seed of the herb ''Cuminum cyminum'', a member of the [[Apiaceae|parsley family]]. The cumin plant grows to {{convert|30|–|50|cm|0|abbr=on}} tall and is harvested by hand. It is an [[annual plant|annual]] [[herbaceous plant]], with a slender, [[glabrousness (botany)|glabrous]], branched [[Plant stem|stem]] that is {{convert|20|-|30|cm|0|abbr=on}} tall and has a diameter of 3–5 cm ({{frac|1|1|4}}–2 in).<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Each branch has two to three sub-branches. All the branches attain the same height, so the plant has a uniform canopy.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> The stem is colored grey or dark green. The [[leaf|leaves]] are {{convert|5|-|10|cm|0|abbr=on}} long, [[pinnate]] or [[bipinnate]], with thread-like leaflets. The [[flower]]s are small, white or pink, and borne in [[umbel]]s. Each umbel has five to seven umbellets.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> The [[fruit]] is a lateral fusiform or [[ovoid]] [[achene]] 4–5 mm ({{frac|6}}–{{frac|5}} in) long, containing two mericarps with a single [[seed]].<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Cumin seeds have eight ridges with oil canals.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> They resemble [[caraway]] seeds, being oblong in shape, longitudinally ridged, and yellow-brown in color, like other members of the family Apiaceae ([[Umbelliferae]]) such as caraway, parsley, and [[dill]].<ref name="Słowianek">{{cite journal|display-authors=3 | last1=Słowianek | first1=Marta | last2=Majak | first2=Iwona | last3=Leszczyńska | first3=Joanna | last4=Smolińska | first4=Beata | last5=Mańkowska | first5=Dorota | last6=Buczyłko | first6=Krzysztof | last7=Wagner | first7=Aneta | title=New allergens from spices in the Apiaceae family: anise Pimpinella anisum L. and caraway Carum carvi L. | journal=Central-European Journal of Immunology | volume=45 | issue=3 | year=2020 | issn=1426-3912 | pmid=33437175 | pmc=7790001 | doi=10.5114/ceji.2020.101236 | pages=241–247}}</ref>

=== Confusion with other spices ===
[[File:Black Cumin.jpg|thumb|Black cumin seeds]]
[[File:Caraway Seed.jpg|thumb|Caraway fruits are similar in shape and structure to cumin seeds]]

Cumin is sometimes confused with [[caraway]] (''Carum carvi''), another spice in the parsley family ([[Apiaceae]]). Many European and Asian languages do not distinguish clearly between the two;{{Cn|date=November 2023}} for example, in [[Indonesia]] both are called {{Lang|id|jinten}}. Many [[slavic languages|Slavic]] and [[Uralic languages]] refer to cumin as "[[Rome|Roman]] caraway" or "spice caraway". The distantly related ''[[Bunium persicum]]'' and ''[[Bunium bulbocastanum]]'' and the unrelated ''[[Nigella sativa]]'' are both sometimes called black cumin (''q.v.'').<ref name=eb/>

== History ==
[[File:Historical CUMIN.jpg|thumb|''Cuminum cyminum'' Linn]]
[[File:CuminEssOil.png|thumb|upright|Cumin essential oil in clear glass vial]]

Likely originating in [[Central Asia]], [[Western Asia|Southwestern Asia]], or the [[Eastern Mediterranean]],<ref name=":1" /><ref name="nabhan">{{cite book|last=Nabhan|first=Gary Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e-glDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA234|title=Cumin, Camels, and Caravans: A Spice Odyssey|date=2014|publisher=Univ of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-26720-6|page=234|name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> cumin has been in use as a spice for thousands of years.<ref name="eb">{{cite web | title = Cumin | url = https://www.britannica.com/plant/cumin|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica | access-date = 24 February 2018 | date = 2018 }}</ref> Seeds of wild cumin were excavated in the now-submerged settlement of [[Atlit Yam|Atlit-Yam]], dated to the early 6th millennium BC.<ref name=":0" /> Seeds excavated in Syria were dated to the second millennium BC.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pickersgill |first1=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Pickersgill |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |page=162 |isbn=0415927463}}</ref> They have also been reported from several [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] levels of [[ancient Egyptian]] archaeological sites.<ref name=":1">{{cite book | first1 = Daniel | last1 = Zohary | first2 = Maria | last2 = Hopf | name-list-style = vanc | title = Domestication of plants in the Old World | edition = first | location = Oxford | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2000 | page = 206 }}</ref><ref name=nabhan/> In the ancient Egyptian civilization, cumin was used as a spice and as a preservative in mummification.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /><ref name=nabhan/>

Cumin was a significant spice for the [[Minoan civilization|Minoans]] in ancient [[Crete]]. [[Ideogram]]s for cumin appear in [[Linear A]] archive tablets documenting [[Minoan palace]] stores during the [[Minoan civilization#Late Minoan|Late Minoan]] period.<ref>Castleden, Rodney, "Minoans: Life in Bronze Age Crete”, Routledge, London & New York, 1990, p.52.</ref> The ancient Greeks kept cumin at the dining table in its own container (much as pepper is frequently kept today), and this practice continues in [[Morocco]]. Cumin was also used heavily in ancient Roman cuisine.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-11 |title=Cumin: The Ancient Spice That's Traveled The Globe |url=https://www.kpbs.org/news/2015/03/11/cumin-the-ancient-spice-thats-traveled-the-globe |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=KPBS Public Media |language=en}}</ref> In India, it has been used for millennia as a traditional ingredient in innumerable recipes, and forms the basis of many other spice blends.<ref name=drugs/>

Cumin was introduced to the [[Americas]] by Spanish and Portuguese colonists. Black and green cumin are used in [[Persian cuisine]]. Today, the plant is mostly grown in the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Northern Africa]], [[Mexico]], [[Chile]], and [[China]].<ref name=eb/> Since cumin is often used as part of [[bird food]] and exported to many countries, the plant can occur as an introduced species in many territories.<ref>[http://archive.bsbi.org.uk/Wats15p237.pdf Bird Seed Aliens in Britain]</ref>

== Cultivation and production ==
[[File:4622 - Cumino al mercato di Ortigia, Siracusa - Foto Giovanni Dall'Orto, 20 marzo 2014.jpg|thumb|Ground cumin on display at the market in Ortigia, Syracuse (Italy)]]
[[File:Cumin.JPG|thumb|Commercially packaged whole and ground cumin seeds]]
[[File:Jeera-rice.JPG|thumb|''Jeera'' (cumin) rice, an [[Indian cuisine|Indian dish]]]]

=== Cultivation areas ===
[[India]] is the world's largest producer of cumin, accounting for about 70%. The other major cumin-producing countries are [[Syria]] (13%), [[Turkey]] (5%), [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]] (3%), and [[Iran]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rahman |first1=Azad |last2=Akbar |first2=Delwar |last3=Surya |first3=Bhattarai |last4=Michael |first4=Thomson |last5=Tieneke |first5=Trotter |last6=Sanjaya |first6=Timilsina |display-authors= 3 |title= Market Analysis of Cumin Seed | website= crcna.com.au |url= https://crcna.com.au/file-download/download/public/329 |publisher= CRC for Developing Northern Australia |access-date=31 August 2021}}</ref> India produced 856,000 tons of cumin seed in the 2020–2021 fiscal year.<ref>{{cite web |title= Cumin : Area, Production and Productivity in India |url= https://www.dasd.gov.in/index.php/content/index/statistics |website= dasd.gov.in |publisher=Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development, [[Calicut]] |access-date=31 August 2021 |date=June 2021}}</ref>

=== Climatic requirements ===
Cumin is a drought-tolerant tropical or subtropical crop. It is vulnerable to frost and has a growth season of 120 frost-free days.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cuminum cyminum (Cumin, Cummin, Jeera) |url=https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/cuminum-cyminum/ |website= plants.ces.ncsu.edu; North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox | publisher= North Carolina State University |access-date=2022-12-24}}</ref> The optimum growth temperature ranges are between {{cvt|25|and|30|C}}.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> The Mediterranean climate is most suitable for its growth. Cultivation of cumin requires a long, hot summer of three to four months. At low temperatures, the leaf color changes from green to purple. High temperatures might reduce growth period and induce early ripening. In India, cumin is sown from October until the beginning of December, and harvesting starts in February.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj">{{cite encyclopedia | title = Soils, Plant Growth and Crop Production | encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems]] | chapter-url = http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c10/e1-05a-50-00.pdf | first1 = E. V. Divakara | last1 = Sastry | first2 = Muthuswamy | last2 = Anandaraj | name-list-style = vanc | access-date = 29 November 2013 | chapter = Cumin, Fennel and Fenugreek }}</ref> In Syria and Iran, cumin is sown from mid-November until mid-December (extensions up to mid-January are possible) and harvested in June/July.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" />

===Grading===
{{See also|Food grading}}
The three noteworthy sorts of cumin seeds in the market vary in seed shading, amount of oil, and flavor.<ref name="Mintec">{{cite web | url= https://www.cips.org/Documents/Knowledge/Categories-Commodities/Mintec/MintecCFS_Cumin.pdf | title=Cumin: commodity factsheet | website= cips.org| publisher= Mintec | url-status= dead| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170309070547/https://www.cips.org/Documents/Knowledge/Categories-Commodities/Mintec/MintecCFS_Cumin.pdf| archive-date= 9 March 2017 |date=2014 | access-date=8 March 2017}}</ref>
* Iranian
* Indian, [[South Asian]]
* Middle Eastern

=== Cultivation parameters ===
Cumin is grown from seeds. The seeds need {{cvt|2|to|5|°C}} for emergence, an optimum of {{convert|20|-|30|°C}} is suggested. Cumin is vulnerable to frost damage, especially at flowering and early seed formation stages.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Methods to reduce frost damage are spraying with [[sulfuric acid]] (0.1%), irrigating the crop prior to frost incidence, setting up [[windbreak]]s, or creating an early-morning smoke cover.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> The seedlings of cumin are rather small and their vigor is low. Soaking the seeds for 8 hours before sowing enhances germination.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> For an optimal plant population, a sowing density of {{convert|12|-|15|kg/ha}} is recommended.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Fertile, sandy, loamy soils with good aeration, proper drainage, and high oxygen availability are preferred. The pH optimum of the soil ranges from 6.8 to 8.3.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Cumin seedlings are sensitive to salinity<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bettaieb Rebey |first1=Iness |last2=Bourgou |first2=Soumaya |last3=Rahali |first3=Fatma Zohra |last4=Msaada |first4=Kamel |last5=Ksouri |first5=Riadh |last6=Marzouk |first6=Brahim |date=2017-04-01 |title= Relation between salt tolerance and biochemical changes in cumin (''Cuminum cyminum'' L.) seeds|journal=Journal of Food and Drug Analysis |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=391–402 |doi=10.1016/j.jfda.2016.10.001 |issn=1021-9498 |pmid=28911682|pmc=9332532 }}</ref> and emergence from heavy soils is rather difficult. Therefore, a proper seedbed preparation (smooth bed) is crucial for the optimal establishment of cumin.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Two sowing methods are used for cumin, broadcasting and line sowing.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> For broadcast sowing, the field is divided into beds and the seeds are uniformly broadcast in this bed. Afterwards, they are covered with soil using a rake. For line sowing, shallow furrows are prepared with hooks at a distance of {{convert|20|to|25|cm|0|abbr=on}}. The seeds are then placed in these furrows and covered with soil. Line sowing offers advantages for intercultural operations such as weeding, hoeing, or spraying.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> The recommended sowing depth is 1–2 cm and the recommended sowing density is around 120 plants per m2. The water requirements of cumin are lower than those of many other species.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Despite this, cumin is often irrigated after sowing to be sure that enough moisture is available for seedling development. The amount and frequency of irrigation depends on the climate conditions.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" />

=== Cultivation management ===
The relative humidity in the center of origin of cumin is rather low. High relative humidity (i.e. wet years) favors fungal diseases. Cumin is especially sensitive to ''[[Alternaria]]'' blight and ''[[Fusarium]]'' wilt. Early-sown crops exhibit stronger disease effects than late-sown crops. The most important disease is ''Fusarium'' wilt, resulting in yield losses up to 80%.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> ''Fusarium'' is seed- or soil-borne and it requires distinct soil temperatures for the development of epidemics.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Inadequate fertilization might favor ''Fusarium'' epidemics.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Cumin blight (''Alternaria'') appears in the form of dark brown spots on leaves and stems.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> When the weather is cloudy after flowering, the incidence of the disease is increased.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Another, but less important, disease is [[powdery mildew]]. Incidence of powdery mildew in early development can cause drastic yield losses because no seeds are formed.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Later in development, powdery mildew causes discolored, small seeds.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" />

Pathogens can lead to high reductions in crop yield. Cumin can be attacked by aphids (''[[Myzus persicae]]'') at the flowering stage. They suck the sap of the plant from tender parts and flowers. The plant becomes yellow, the seed formation is reduced (yield reduction), and the quality of the harvested product decreases. Heavily infested plant parts should be removed. Other important pests are the mites (''[[Petrobia latens]]'') which frequently attack the crop. Since the mites mostly feed on young leaves, the infestation is more severe on young inflorescences.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ericacea (Heath) Family and Their Culture |url=https://extension.psu.edu/ericacea-heath-family-and-their-culture |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=Penn State Extension |language=en}}</ref>

The open canopy of cumin is another problem. Only a low proportion of the incoming light is absorbed. The [[leaf area index]] of cumin is low (about 1.5). This might be a problem because weeds can compete with cumin for essential resources such as water and light and thereby lower yield. The slow growth and the short stature of cumin favors weed competition additionally.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> Two hoeing and weeding sessions (30 and 60 days after sowing) are needed for the control of weeds. During the first weeding session (30 days after sowing), thinning should be done, as well, to remove excess plants. The use of preplant or pre-emergence [[herbicides]] is very effective in India,<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> but this kind of herbicide application requires soil moisture for a successful weed control.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Preemergence Herbicides, Dry Soils and Rain {{!}} Integrated Crop Management |url=https://crops.extension.iastate.edu/cropnews/2021/04/preemergence-herbicides-dry-soils-and-rain |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=crops.extension.iastate.edu}}</ref>

{{Nutritional value
| name = Cumin seed
| image =
| caption =
| serving_size = 100 g
| kJ = 1567
| carbs = 44.24 g
| starch =
| sugars = 2.25 g
| fibre = 10.5 g
| fat = 22.27 g
| satfat = 1.535 g
| transfat =
| monofat = 14.04 g
| polyfat = 3.279 g
| omega3fat =
| omega6fat =
| protein = 17.81 g
| water = 8.06 g
| vitA_ug = 64
| vitA_iu = 1270
| betacarotene_ug = 762
| lutein_ug =
| thiamin_mg = 0.628
| riboflavin_mg = 0.327
| niacin_mg = 4.579
| pantothenic_mg =
| vitB6_mg = 0.435
| folate_ug = 10
| vitB12_ug = 0
| choline_mg = 24.7
| vitC_mg = 7.7
| vitD_ug = 0
| vitD_iu = 0
| vitE_mg = 3.33
| vitK_ug = 5.4
| calcium_mg = 931
| iron_mg = 66.36
| magnesium_mg = 931
| manganese_mg = 3.333
| phosphorus_mg = 499
| potassium_mg = 1788
| sodium_mg = 168
| zinc_mg = 4.8
| note = Reference<ref name=USDA>{{cite web|title=Cumin Seed|url=https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170923/nutrients|publisher=FoodData Central, United States Department of Agriculture|date=2017|access-date=24 February 2018}}</ref>
| source =
| source_usda = 1
| noRDA =
| float =
}}

=== Breeding ===
Cumin is a [[diploid]] species with 14 [[chromosome]]s (i.e. 2n = 14). The chromosomes of the different varieties have morphological similarities with no distinct variation in length and volume. Most of the varieties available today are selections.<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> The variabilities of yield and yield components are high. Varieties are developed by sib mating in enclosed chambers<ref name="Sastry_Anandaraj" /> or by biotechnology. Cumin is a cross-pollinator, i.e. the breeds are already hybrids. Therefore, methods used for breeding are ''in vitro'' regenerations, DNA technologies, and gene transfers. The ''[[in vitro]]'' cultivation of cumin allows the production of genetically identical plants. The main sources for the explants used ''in vitro'' regenerations are embryos, [[hypocotyl]], shoot internodes, leaves, and [[cotyledon]]s. One goal of cumin breeding is to improve its resistance to biotic (fungal diseases) and abiotic (cold, drought, salinity) stresses. The potential genetic variability for conventional breeding of cumin is limited and research about cumin genetics is scarce.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ebrahimie E, Habashi AA, Ghareyazie B, Ghannadha M, Mohammadie M | title = A rapid and efficient method for regeneration of plantlets from embryo explants of cumin (Cuminum cyminum) | journal = Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture | year = 2003 | volume = 75 | pages = 19–25 | doi = 10.1023/A:1024676507010 | s2cid = 13278163 }}</ref>

== Uses ==
Cumin seed is used as a [[spice]] for its distinctive flavor and aroma.<ref name=eb/><ref name=nabhan/> Cumin can be found in some cheeses, such as [[Leyden cheese]], and in some traditional breads from France. Cumin can be an ingredient in [[chili powder]] (often [[Tex-Mex]] or Mexican-style) and is found in ''[[achiote]]'' blends, ''[[adobo]]s'', ''[[sofrito]]'', ''[[garam masala]]'', [[curry powder]], and ''[[bahaarat]]'', and is used to flavor numerous commercial food products.<ref name=drugs/> In Indian and other South Asian cuisine, it is often combined with [[coriander|coriander seeds]] in a powdered mixture called ''[[Dhana jiru|dhana jeera]]''.

Cumin can be used [[milling (grinding)|ground]] or as whole seeds.<ref name=eb/><ref name=nabhan/> It imparts an earthy, warming and aromatic character to food, making it a staple in certain stews and soups, as well as spiced gravies such as curry and chili.<ref name=nabhan/> It is also used as an ingredient in some pickles and pastries.<ref>{{cite book | title = Culinary Herbs: Their Cultivation Harvesting Curing and Uses | year = 1912 | publisher = Orange Judd Company | url = http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21414/21414-h/21414-h.htm#Page_85 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104722/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/21414/21414-h/21414-h.htm | vauthors = Kains MG | archive-date=4 March 2016 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

=== Traditional ===
In India, the seeds are powdered and used in different forms such as ''kashaya'' (decoction), ''arishta'' (fermented decoction), and ''vati'' (tablet/pills), and processed with ''[[ghee]]'' (a semifluid clarified butter). In [[traditional medicine]] practices of several countries, dried cumin seeds are believed to have medicinal purposes,<ref name=drugs/> although there is no scientific evidence for any use as a drug or medicine.<ref name=drugs/>

=== Volatiles and essential oil ===
[[Cuminaldehyde]], [[p-Cymene|cymene]], and [[terpenoid]]s are the major volatile components of cumin oil, which is used for a variety of [[flavoring|flavors]], [[perfume]]s, and [[essential oil]].<ref name=eb/><ref name="jsfa">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bettaieb I, Bourgou S, Sriti J, Msaada K, Limam F, Marzouk B | title = Essential oils and fatty acids composition of Tunisian and Indian cumin (Cuminum cyminum L.) seeds: a comparative study | journal = Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture | volume = 91 | issue = 11 | pages = 2100–7 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21681765 | doi = 10.1002/jsfa.4513 | bibcode = 2011JSFA...91.2100B }}</ref> Cumin oil may be used as an ingredient in some [[cosmetics]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-635/cumin|title=Cumin|publisher=WebMD|date=2019|access-date=28 August 2019}}</ref>

=== Aroma ===
Cumin's flavor and warm aroma are due to its [[essential oil]] content, primarily the [[aroma compound]] [[cuminaldehyde]].<ref name="jsfa" /> Other aroma compounds of toasted cumin are the [[Substitution (chemistry)|substituted]] [[pyrazine]]s, 2-ethoxy-3-isopropylpyrazine, {{chem name|2-methoxy-3-''sec''-butylpyrazine}}, and 2-methoxy-3-methylpyrazine. Other components include [[Terpinene|γ-terpinene]], [[safranal]], [[p-cymene]], and [[beta-Pinene|β-pinene]].<ref name=cceo>{{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = Rong | last2 = Zi-Tao | first2 = Jiang | name-list-style = vanc | title = Chemical composition of the essential oil of ''Cuminum cyminum'' L. from China | journal = Flavour and Fragrance Journal | volume = 19 | issue = 4 | pages = 311–313 | year = 2004 | doi = 10.1002/ffj.1302 }}</ref><ref name=unec>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang L, Wang Z, Zhang H, Li X, Zhang H | title = Ultrasonic nebulization extraction coupled with headspace single drop microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for analysis of the essential oil in Cuminum cyminum L | journal = Analytica Chimica Acta | volume = 647 | issue = 1 | pages = 72–7 | date = August 2009 | pmid = 19576388 | doi = 10.1016/j.aca.2009.05.030 }}</ref><ref name=aacc>{{cite journal | vauthors = Iacobellis NS, Lo Cantore P, Capasso F, Senatore F | title = Antibacterial activity of Cuminum cyminum L. and Carum carvi L. essential oils | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 53 | issue = 1 | pages = 57–61 | date = January 2005 | pmid = 15631509 | doi = 10.1021/jf0487351 }}</ref>

=== Nutritional value ===
In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g}}, cumin seeds provide high amounts of the [[Daily Value]] for [[fat]] (especially [[monounsaturated fat]]), [[protein]], and [[dietary fiber]] (table). [[B vitamins]], [[vitamin E]], and several [[mineral (nutrient)|dietary minerals]], especially [[iron]], [[magnesium]], and [[manganese]], are present in substantial Daily Value amounts (table).

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cookbook-inline|Cumin}}
* {{wiktionary-inline}}

{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Edible Apiaceae}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q132624}}

[[Category:Edible Apiaceae]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Spices]]

Kiev pogrom (1881)

2024-03-06T17:27:02Z

Omcsesz: Updating changed URL

{{Short description|Anti-Jewish pogrom in Kiev in 1881}}
The '''Kiev pogrom of 1881''' lasted for three days starting 26 April (7 May), 1881 in the city of [[Kiev]] and spread to villages in the surrounding region. Sporadic violence continued until winter. It is considered the worst of the [[pogroms]] that swept through south-western [[Imperial Russia]] in 1881.<ref name="eleven.co">[https://eleven.co.il/jews-of-russia/government-society-jews/13251] {{in lang|ru}}</ref> Pogroms continued on through the summer, spreading across the territory of modern-day Ukraine including [[Podolia Governorate]], [[Volyn Governorate]], [[Chernigov Governorate]], [[Yekaterinoslav Governorate]], and others.<ref>[http://www.diapozytyw.pl/pl/site/slownik_terminow/pogrom/ Pogrom] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100206114536/http://www.diapozytyw.pl/pl/site/slownik_terminow/pogrom/ |date=2010-02-06 }}, based on [[Alina Cała]], Hanna Węgrzynek, Gabriela Zalewska, "Historia i kultura Żydów polskich. Słownik", WSiP. {{in lang|pl}}</ref>

It has been said that the tsarist authorities made no attempt to stop it.<ref>Eurêka, [http://www.eurekaencyclopedia.com/index.php/Category:Anti-Semitism_In_Russia Anti-Semitism In Russia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304030646/http://www.eurekaencyclopedia.com/index.php/Category:Anti-Semitism_In_Russia |date=2016-03-04 }} ''Eurêka, the 21st Century Guide to Knowledge''.</ref> However, professor [[John D. Klier]] of modern Jewish History at [[University College London]] (who spent almost his entire academic life researching Jewish life in Russian controlled territory) came to the conclusion (in his detailed study Russians, Jews and the Pogroms of 1881-1882) that, far from passively allowing the pogroms to take place, the Tsarist government actively and repeatedly issued orders to the police, and military to suppress them. They also published proclamations forbidding anti-Jewish riots.<ref>Klier, John D. (2011). Russians, Jews and the Pogroms of 1881-112. p. 26 &foll. {{ISBN|978-1-107-63415-2}}</ref>

The direct trigger for the pogrom in Kiev, as in other places, was the [[Assassination of Alexander II|assassination of Tsar Alexander II]] on 1 March (13 March) 1881, for which the instigators blamed the Russian Jews.<ref name="Chronicle">''[[Jewish Chronicle]]'', May 6, 1881, cited in Benjamin Blech, ''Eyewitness to Jewish History''</ref> Nevertheless, the Southern-Russian Workers' Union substantially contributed to the spread and continuation of violence by printing and mass distributing a leaflet which read:

{{quote|Brother workers. You are beating the Jews, but indiscriminately. One should not beat the Jew because he is a Jew and prays to God in his own way – indeed, God is one and the same to all – rather, one should beat him because he is robbing the people, he is sucking the blood of the working man.<ref>M. Kishkinky, "The Attitude of the Southern-Russian Workers' Union toward the Jews (1880-1881)" in Harvard Ukrainian Studies, Vol. 6, No. 2 (June 1982), p. 206. [http://israeled.org/kiev-pogrom/ Center for Israel Education, 2015]</ref>}}

[[File:1881-06-22, La Ilustración Española y Americana, Kieff (Rusia), La expulsión de los judíos eslavos, familias israelitas abandonando sus hogares (cropped).jpg|thumb|Expulsion of Jews in Kiev (1881)]]

The extent to which the Russian press was responsible for encouraging perceptions of the assassination as a Jewish act has been disputed.<ref>Stephen M Berk, ''Year of Crisis, Year of Hope: Russian Jewry and the Pogroms of 1881–1882'' (Greenwood, 1985), pp. 54–55.</ref> Local economic conditions (such as [[usury|ancestral debt]]s owed to [[moneylender]]s) are thought to have contributed significantly to the rioting, especially with regard to the participation of the business competitors of local Jews and the participation of [[railroad]] workers. It has been argued that this was actually more important than rumours of Jewish responsibility for the death of the Tsar.<ref name=Aronson1980>I. Michael Aronson, "Geographical and Socioeconomic Factors in the 1881 Anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia", ''[[Russian Review]]'', Vol. 39, No. 1. (Jan., 1980), pp. 18–31</ref> These rumours, however, were clearly of some importance, if only as a trigger, and they drew upon a small kernel of truth: one of the close associates of the assassins, [[Hesya Helfman]], was born into a Jewish home. The fact that the other assassins were all atheists and that the wider Jewish community had nothing to do with the assassination had little impact on the spread of such antisemitic rumours. Nonetheless, the assassination inspired "retaliatory" attacks on Jewish communities. During these pogroms thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed, many families were reduced to poverty, and large numbers of men, women, and children were injured in 166 towns in the southwest provinces of the Empire.<ref name="YIVO">The YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe, [http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Pogroms Pogroms in the Russian Empire] 2010, YIVO Institute for Jewish Research.</ref>

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15729/15729.txt ''History of the Jews in Russia and Poland''], Volume II, by [[S. M. Dubnow]].

{{Massacres of Jews}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kiev Pogrom (1881)}}
[[Category:Anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Massacres in Ukraine]]
[[Category:19th century in Kyiv]]
[[Category:Antisemitism in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 1881]]
[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Kyiv]]
[[Category:Jewish Ukrainian history]]
[[Category:Kiev Governorate]]
[[Category:1881 in Ukraine]]
[[Category:1881 in the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:May 1881 events]]
[[Category:1881 murders in Europe]]
[[Category:1881 murders in the Russian Empire]]

[[he:הסופות בנגב]]

Bruce Schneier

2024-03-06T16:17:29Z

Omcsesz: /* Early life */

{{Self-published|date=June 2023}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{Short description|American computer scientist}}
{{Infobox scientist
| image = Bruce Schneier at CoPS2013-IMG 9174.jpg
| name = Bruce Schneier
| caption = Schneier in 2013
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1963|1|15}}<ref name=fb>{{cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/bruce.schneier |title=Bruce Schneier <nowiki>|</nowiki> Facebook |publisher=[[Facebook]]}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[New York City]], US
| field = [[Computer science]]
| work_institutions = {{plainlist|
*[[Harvard University]]
*[[Counterpane Internet Security]]
*[[Bell Labs]]
*[[United States Department of Defense]]
*[[BT Group]]}}
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
*[[American University]]
*[[University of Rochester]]}}
| known_for = [[Cryptography]], [[security]]
| website={{URL|https://www.schneier.com}}
| signature = Bruce Schneier-signature.jpg
}}

'''Bruce Schneier''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʃ|n|aɪ|.|ər}}; born January 15, 1963) is an American [[cryptographer]], [[computer security]] professional, [[privacy]] specialist, and writer. Schneier is a Lecturer in Public Policy at the [[Harvard Kennedy School]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hks.harvard.edu/faculty/bruce-schneier |access-date=14 December 2021|title=Bruce Schneier|website=[[Harvard Kennedy School]]}}</ref> and a Fellow at the [[Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society]] as of November, 2013.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bergman |first1=Kristin |title=Q+A with Bruce Schneier |date=October 9, 2014 |url=https://cyber.harvard.edu/node/95760 |access-date=14 December 2021}}</ref> He is a board member of the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]], [[Access Now]], and [[The Tor Project]]; and an advisory board member of [[Electronic Privacy Information Center]] and [[VerifiedVoting.org]]. He is the author of several books on general [[security]] topics, computer security and [[cryptography]] and is a [[squid]] enthusiast.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Friday Squid Blogging: Squid Found on Provincetown Sandbar - Schneier on Security|url=https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2020/07/friday_squid_bl_737.html|access-date=2020-11-13|website=www.schneier.com}}</ref>

In 2015, Schneier received the EPIC Lifetime Achievement Award from Electronic Privacy Information Center.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://epic.org/june1/|url-status=dead|archive-url=
https://web.archive.org/web/20160710014823/https://epic.org/june1/|archive-date=July 10, 2016|title=EPIC 2015 Champioins of Freedom}date=June 1|website=EPIC}}</ref>

== Early life ==
Bruce Schneier is the son of Martin Schneier, a Brooklyn Supreme Court judge. He grew up in the [[Flatbush, Brooklyn|Flatbush]] neighborhood of [[Brooklyn|Brooklyn, New York]], attending P.S. 139 and [[Hunter College High School]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.schneier.com/news-080.html |title="Schneier on Security;" A Judge's Son Builds a Reputation of Cryptic Fame |date=February 9, 2009 |author=Samuel Newhouse |work=Brooklyn Daily Eagle}}</ref>

He is [[Jewish]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bruce Schneier |url=https://www.nndb.com/people/339/000055174/ |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=www.nndb.com}}</ref>

After receiving a physics bachelor's degree from the [[University of Rochester]] in 1984,<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.schneier.com/news-114.html |title=Interview: BT's Bruce Schneier |author=Drew Amorosi |work=InfoSecurity |date=July 11, 2011}}</ref> he went to [[American University]] in [[Washington, D.C.]], and got his master's degree in computer science in 1988.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mann |first1=Charles C. |title=Homeland Insecurity |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2002/09/homeland-insecurity/302575/ |access-date=14 December 2021 |work=The Atlantic |issue=September, 2002}}</ref> He was awarded an honorary Ph.D from the [[University of Westminster]] in [[London|London, England]], in November 2011. The award was made by the Department of Electronics and Computer Science in recognition of Schneier's 'hard work and contribution to industry and public life'.

Schneier was a founder and chief technology officer of Counterpane Internet Security (now [[BT Managed Security Solutions]]). He worked for [[IBM]] once they acquired Resilient Systems where Schneier was [[Chief technology officer|CTO]]<ref name="c3-cto">{{cite web |url=https://www.resilientsystems.com/company/management-team/bruce-schneier |title=Bruce Schneier, CTO of Resilient Systems, Inc |access-date=2015-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150224195700/https://www.resilientsystems.com/company/management-team/bruce-schneier |archive-date=2015-02-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |title=IBM Security Closes Acquisition of Resilient Systems |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/49472.wss |location=Armonk, NY, USA |publisher=IBM Security |date=2016-04-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2016/02/resilient_syste_2.html |title=Resilient Systems News: IBM to Buy Resilient Systems |last=Schneier |first=Bruce |date=2016-02-29 |website=Schneier on Security}}</ref> until he left at the end of June 2019.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2019/06/im_leaving_ibm.html |title=I'm Leaving IBM |last=Schneier |first=Bruce |date=2019-06-28 |website=Schneier on Security}}</ref>

== Writings on computer security and general security ==
In 1991, Schneier was laid off from his job and started writing for computer magazines. Later he decided to write a book on applied cryptography "since [[Books on cryptography|no such book]] existed". He took his articles, wrote a proposal to [[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley]] and they bought the proposal.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|date=2020-09-07|title=On starting a career - Special exclusive interview with Bruce Schneier at NoNameCon 2020|work=NoNameCon live conference|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vn7wL12qjY0&feature=youtu.be&t=226&ab_channel=NoNameCon}}</ref>

In 1994, Schneier published ''Applied Cryptography'', which details the design, use, and implementation of cryptographic algorithms.

{{quote|This book allowed me to write more, to start consulting, to start my companies, and really launched me as an expert in this field, and it really was because no one else has written this book. I wanted to read it so I had to write it. And it happened in a really lucky time when everything started to explode on the Internet.<ref name=":1" />}}

In 2010 he published ''Cryptography Engineering'', which is focused more on how to use cryptography in real systems and less on its internal design. He has also written books on security for a broader audience. In 2000, Schneier published ''Secrets and Lies: Digital Security in a Networked World''; in 2003, ''[[Beyond Fear: Thinking Sensibly About Security in an Uncertain World]]''; in 2012, ''[[Liars and Outliers|Liars and Outliers: Enabling the Trust that Society Needs to Thrive]]''; and in 2015, ''Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and Control Your World''.<ref>{{cite web|
last=Austin|first=Richard|
date=12 March 2015|
publisher=www.ieee-security.org|
website=Cipher|
title=review of ''Data and Goliath: The hidden Battles to capture your data and control your world''|
access-date=18 March 2015|
url=http://www.ieee-security.org/Cipher/BookReviews/2015/Schneier_by_austin.html
}}</ref>

Schneier writes a freely available monthly Internet newsletter on computer and other security issues, ''Crypto-Gram'', as well as a security [[weblog]], ''Schneier on Security''.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.schneier.com/| title = schneier.com}}</ref> The blog focuses on the latest threats, and his own thoughts. The weblog started out as a way to publish essays before they appeared in Crypto-Gram, making it possible for others to comment on them while the stories were still current, but over time the newsletter became a monthly email version of the blog, re-edited and re-organized.<ref name="blood">{{cite web |url= http://www.rebeccablood.net/bloggerson/bruceschneier.html |title= Bruce Schneier |access-date= April 19, 2007 |last= Blood |first= Rebecca |date= January 2007 |website= Bloggers on Blogging}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}} 
Schneier is frequently quoted in the press on computer and other security issues, pointing out flaws in security and cryptographic implementations ranging from [[biometrics]] to [[airline security]] after the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Severance|first=Charles|title=Bruce Schneier: the security mindset|journal=Computer|year=2016|volume=49|issue=2|pages=7–8|doi=10.1109/MC.2016.38}}</ref>

== Viewpoints ==

=== Blockchain ===
Schneier warns about misplaced trust in [[blockchain]]<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.wired.com/story/theres-no-good-reason-to-trust-blockchain-technology/|title=There's No Good Reason to Trust Blockchain Technology|last=SCHNEIER|first=BRUCE|date=2019-02-06|magazine=Wired|access-date=2019-02-06|issn=1059-1028}}</ref> and the lack of use cases, calling blockchain a solution in search of a problem.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.netzwoche.ch/news/2019-02-06/warum-bruce-schneier-keinen-einsatzzweck-fur-die-blockchain-sieht|title=Was Bruce Schneier von Blockchain, IoT und Quantencomputern hält|website=www.netzwoche.ch|language=de|access-date=2019-02-06}}</ref>

{{poemquote|What blockchain does is shift some of the trust in people and institutions to trust in technology. You need to trust the cryptography, the protocols, the software, the computers and the network. And you need to trust them absolutely, because they’re often single points of failure.

I’ve never seen a legitimate use case for blockchain. I’ve never seen any system where blockchain provides security in a way that is impossible to provide in any other way.<ref>{{Cite news|title=On blockchain - Special exclusive interview with Bruce Schneier at NoNameCon 2020|work=NoNameCon live 2020|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vn7wL12qjY0&feature=youtu.be&t=1893&ab_channel=NoNameCon|access-date=2020-09-07}}</ref>}}

He goes on to say that [[cryptocurrencies]] are useless and are only used by speculators looking for quick riches.

=== Cryptography ===
To Schneier, peer review and expert analysis are important for the security of cryptographic systems.<ref name="crypto_harder">{{cite web |url=https://www.schneier.com/essay-037.html |title=Why Cryptography Is Harder Than It Looks |year=1997 |author=Schneier, Bruce |access-date=2011-04-08}}</ref> Mathematical cryptography is usually not the weakest link in a security chain; effective security requires that cryptography be combined with other things.<ref name="practical_crypto_preface">{{cite web |url=https://www.schneier.com/book-practical-preface.html |title=Practical Cryptography: Preface |author1=Ferguson, Niels |author2=Schneier, Bruce |access-date=2011-04-08}}</ref>

The term ''Schneier's law'' was coined by [[Cory Doctorow]] in a 2004 speech.<ref name=drm-talk>{{cite web |author=Cory Doctorow |date=2004-06-17 |title=Microsoft Research DRM talk |url=http://www.dashes.com/anil/stuff/doctorow-drm-ms.html |access-date=2006-12-31 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061202192720/http://www.dashes.com/anil/stuff/doctorow-drm-ms.html  |archive-date = 2006-12-02|author-link=Cory Doctorow }}</ref> The law is phrased as:

{{quote|Any person can invent a security system so clever that she or he can't think of how to break it.}}

He attributes this to Bruce Schneier, who wrote in 1998: "Anyone, from the most clueless amateur to the best cryptographer, can create an algorithm that he himself can't break. It's not even hard. What is hard is creating an algorithm that no one else can break, even after years of analysis."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Crypto-gram: October 15, 1998 - Schneier on Security|url=https://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram/archives/1998/1015.html#cipherdesign|access-date=2022-01-26|website=www.schneier.com}}</ref>

Similar sentiments had been expressed by others before. In ''[[The Codebreakers]]'', [[David Kahn (writer)|David Kahn]] states: "Few false ideas have more firmly gripped the minds of so many intelligent men than the one that, if they just tried, they could invent a cipher that no one could break", and in "A Few Words On Secret Writing", in July 1841, [[Edgar Allan Poe]] had stated: "Few persons can be made to believe that it is not quite an easy thing to invent a method of secret writing which shall baffle investigation. Yet it may be roundly asserted that human ingenuity cannot concoct a cipher which human ingenuity cannot resolve."<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2011/04/schneiers_law.html| title = "'Schneier's law'"}}</ref>

Schneier also coined the term "kid sister cryptography", writing in the Preface to ''Applied Cryptography''<ref>{{cite book|last=Schneier|first=Bruce|date=1996|title=Applied Cryptography|url=https://www.schneier.com/books/applied-cryptography-2preface/|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-09672-6}}</ref> that:

{{quote|There are two kinds of cryptography in this world: cryptography that will stop your kid sister from reading your files, and cryptography that will stop major governments from reading your files.}}

=== Digital rights management ===
Schneier is critical of [[digital rights management]] (DRM) and has said that it allows a vendor to increase [[Vendor lock-in|lock-in]].<ref name="iphone_control">{{cite web |url=https://www.schneier.com/essay-204.html |title=With iPhone, 'Security' Is Code for 'Control' |date=2008-02-07 |author=Schneier, Bruce |access-date=2011-04-08}}</ref> Proper implementation of control-based security for the user via [[trusted computing]] is very difficult, and security is not the same thing as control.<ref name="iphone_control" />

Schneier insists that "owning your data is a different way of thinking about data."<ref>{{Cite news|title=On owning your data - Special exclusive interview with Bruce Schneier at NoNameCon 2020|work=NoNameCon live conference|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vn7wL12qjY0&feature=youtu.be&t=2771&ab_channel=NoNameCon|access-date=2020-09-07}}</ref>

=== Full disclosure ===
Schneier is a proponent of [[Full disclosure (computer security)|full disclosure]], i.e. making security issues public.

{{quote|If researchers don't go public, things don’t get fixed. Companies don't see it as a security problem; they see it as a PR problem.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2011-11-16|title=After Apple Punishes Researcher, A Complex Relationship Is Tested|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/charlie-miller-apple-cybersecurity-bug-hacker_n_1095330|access-date=2022-01-26|website=HuffPost|language=en}}</ref>}}

=== Homeland security ===
Schneier has said that [[homeland security]] money should be spent on [[Intelligence agency|intelligence]], investigation, and [[Emergency service|emergency response]].<ref name="movie_plots">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.wired.com/politics/security/commentary/securitymatters/2005/09/68789 |title=Terrorists Don't Do Movie Plots |date=2005-09-08 |magazine=[[Wired News]] |author=Schneier, Bruce}}</ref> Defending against the broad threat of terrorism is generally better than focusing on specific potential terrorist plots.<ref name="movie_plots" /> According to Schneier, analysis of intelligence data is difficult but is one of the better ways to deal with global terrorism.<ref name="homeland_insec">{{cite web |url=https://www.schneier.com/essay-032.html |title=Homeland Insecurity |date=2004-01-09 |author=Schneier, Bruce |access-date=2011-04-08}}</ref> Human intelligence has advantages over automated and computerized analysis, and increasing the amount of intelligence data that is gathered does not help to improve the analysis process.<ref name="homeland_insec" /> Agencies that were designed around fighting the [[Cold War]] may have a culture that inhibits the sharing of information; the practice of sharing information is more important and less of a security threat in itself when dealing with more decentralized and poorly funded adversaries such as al Qaeda.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://articles.sfgate.com/2010-01-15/bay-area/17828460_1_intelligence-homeland-security-organizations |author=Schneier, Bruce |publisher=[[SFGate]] |date=2010-01-15 |access-date=2011-04-08 |title=Fixing intelligence failures – SFGate}}</ref>

Regarding [[PETN]]—the explosive that has become terrorists' weapon of choice—Schneier has written that only swabs and dogs can detect it. He also believes that changes to airport security since 11 September 2001 have done more harm than good and he defeated [[Kip Hawley]], former head of the Transportation Security Administration, in an ''[[The Economist|Economist]]'' online debate by 87% to 13% regarding the issue.<ref>"International terrorism: AQAP tries again: Good intelligence work still leaves questions over airport security", ''[[The Economist]]'', dated 12 May 2012.</ref> He is widely credited with coining the term "[[security theater]]" to describe some such changes.

As a [[Fellow]] of Berkman Center for Internet & Society at [[Harvard University]], Schneier is exploring the intersection of security, technology, and people, with an emphasis on power.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://cyber.law.harvard.edu/newsroom/2013_2014_community | title=Berkman Center Announces 2013–2014 Community | publisher=Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University | date=July 8, 2013 | access-date=8 July 2013}}</ref>

====Movie plot threat====
"Movie-plot threat" is a term Schneier coined that refers to very specific and dramatic [[terrorism|terrorist]] attack scenarios, reminiscent of the behavior of terrorists in movies, rather than what terrorists actually do in the real world.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://motherboard.vice.com/read/2014-will-not-be-the-year-of-online-murder| title= 2014 Will Not Be the Year of the First 'Online Murder' | author=Ben Makuch | work=Motherboard Vice.com| date= 8 October 2014 |access-date=18 June 2015}}</ref> Security measures created to protect against movie plot threats do not provide a higher level of real security, because such preparation only pays off if terrorists choose that one particular avenue of attack, which may not even be feasible. Real-world terrorists would also be likely to notice the highly specific security measures, and simply attack in some other way. The specificity of movie plot threats gives them power in the public imagination, however, so even extremely unrealistic security theater countermeasures may receive strong support from the public and legislators. Among many other examples of movie plot threats, Schneier described banning [[Baby transport|baby carrier]]s from [[Rapid transit|subway]]s, for fear that they may contain explosives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2005/10/exploding_baby.html|title=Schneier on Security: Exploding Baby Carriages in Subways|last=Schneier|first=Bruce|quote=And if we ban [[baby carriage]]s from the subways, and the terrorists put their bombs in [[duffel bag]]s instead, have we really won anything?}}</ref> Starting in April 2006, Schneier has had an annual contest to create the most fantastic movie-plot threat.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2006/04/announcing_movi.html|title=Schneier on Security: Announcing: Movie-Plot Threat Contest|last=Schneier|first=Bruce}}</ref> In 2015, during the 8th and {{as of|2022|February|17|lc=y}} the last one, he mentioned that the contest may have run its course.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Schneier |first1=Bruce |title=Eighth Movie-Plot Threat Contest Semifinalists |url=https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2015/05/eighth_movie-pl.html |website=Schneier on Security |access-date=17 February 2022}}</ref>

=== System design ===
Schneier has criticized security approaches that try to prevent any malicious incursion, instead arguing that designing systems to [[failing badly|fail well]] is more important.<ref name="ATLANTIC">[http://charlesmann.org/articles/Homeland-Insecurity-Atlantic.pdf Homeland Insecurity] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928002928/http://charlesmann.org/articles/Homeland-Insecurity-Atlantic.pdf |date=September 28, 2011 }}, ''[[Atlantic Monthly]]'', September 2002</ref> The designer of a system should not underestimate the capabilities of an attacker, as technology may make it possible in the future to do things that are not possible at the present.<ref name="crypto_harder" /> Under [[Kerckhoffs's Principle]], the need for one or more parts of a cryptographic system to remain secret increases the fragility of the system; whether details about a system should be obscured depends upon the availability of persons who can make use of the information for beneficial uses versus the potential for attackers to misuse the information.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.schneier.com/crypto-gram-0205.html |title=Crypto-Gram: May 15, 2002 |date=2002-05-15 |author=Schneier, Bruce |access-date=2011-04-08}}</ref>

{{quote|Secrecy and security aren't the same, even though it may seem that way. Only bad security relies on secrecy; good security works even if all the details of it are public.<ref>Doctorow, Cory. Little Brother. New York: Tor Teen, 2008, page 129.</ref>}}

== Cryptographic algorithms ==
Schneier has been involved in the creation of many cryptographic algorithms.

[[Hash functions]]:
* [[Skein (hash function)|Skein]]

[[Stream ciphers]]:
* [[Solitaire (cipher)|Solitaire]]
* [[Phelix]]
* [[Phelix#Helix|Helix]]

[[Pseudo-random number generator]]s:
* [[Fortuna (PRNG)|Fortuna]]
* [[Yarrow algorithm]]

[[Block ciphers]]:
* [[Blowfish (cipher)|Blowfish]]
* [[Twofish]]
* [[Threefish]]
* [[MacGuffin (cipher)|MacGuffin]]

== Publications ==
* Schneier, Bruce. ''Applied Cryptography'', John Wiley & Sons, 1994. {{ISBN|0-471-59756-2}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''Protect Your Macintosh'', Peachpit Press, 1994. {{ISBN|1-56609-101-2}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''E-Mail Security'', John Wiley & Sons, 1995. {{ISBN|0-471-05318-X}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''Applied Cryptography'', Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1996. {{ISBN|0-471-11709-9}}
* Schneier, Bruce; Kelsey, John; Whiting, Doug; Wagner, David; Hall, Chris; Ferguson, Niels. ''The [[Twofish]] Encryption Algorithm'', John Wiley & Sons, 1996. {{ISBN|0-471-35381-7}}
* Schneier, Bruce; Banisar, David. ''The Electronic Privacy Papers'', John Wiley & Sons, 1997. {{ISBN|0-471-12297-1}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''Secrets and Lies: Digital Security in a Networked World'', John Wiley & Sons, 2000. {{ISBN|0-471-25311-1}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''[[Beyond Fear: Thinking Sensibly About Security in an Uncertain World]]'', Copernicus Books, 2003. {{ISBN|0-387-02620-7}}
* Ferguson, Niels; Schneier, Bruce. ''[[Practical Cryptography]]'', John Wiley & Sons, 2003. {{ISBN|0-471-22357-3}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''Secrets and Lies: Digital Security in a Networked World'', John Wiley & Sons, 2004. {{ISBN|978-0-471-45380-2}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''Schneier on Security'', John Wiley & Sons, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-470-39535-6}}
* Ferguson, Niels; Schneier, Bruce; Kohno, Tadayoshi. ''Cryptography Engineering'', John Wiley & Sons, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-470-47424-2}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''[[Liars and Outliers]]: Enabling the Trust that Society Needs to Thrive'', John Wiley & Sons, 2012. {{ISBN|978-1-118-14330-8}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''Carry On: Sound Advice from Schneier on Security'', John Wiley & Sons, 2013. {{ISBN|978-1118790816}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''Data and Goliath: The Hidden Battles to Collect Your Data and Control Your World'', [[W. W. Norton & Company]], 2015. {{ISBN|978-0-393-24481-6}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''[[Click Here to Kill Everybody]]: Security and Survival in a Hyper-connected World'', [[W. W. Norton & Company]], 2018. {{ISBN|978-0-393-60888-5}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''We Have Root: Even More Advice from Schneier on Security'', John Wiley & Sons, 2019. {{ISBN|978-1119643012}}
* Schneier, Bruce. ''A Hacker’s Mind: How the Powerful Bend Society’s Rules, and How to Bend them Back'', [[W. W. Norton & Company]], 2023. {{ISBN|978-0-393-86666-7}}

== Activism ==

Schneier is a board member of the [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]].<ref name="eff_board">{{cite web|url=https://www.eff.org/press/releases/renowned-security-expert-bruce-schneier-joins-eff-board-directors |title=Renowned Security Expert Bruce Schneier Joins EFF Board of Directors |date=2013-06-27 |author=Jeschke, Rebecca |access-date=2013-07-06}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Attack tree]]
* [[Failing badly]]
* [[Snake oil (cryptography)]]
* [[Alice and Bob]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Bruce Schneier}}
{{Wikiquote}}

* [https://www.schneier.com/ Personal website, Schneier.com]
* [https://www.schneier.com/books.html Bruce Schneier's books, Schneier.com/books.html]
* [http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2014/03/bruce-schneier-glenn-greenwald-encryption-104705_full.html Profile of Bruce Schneier in Politico Magazine] "Glenn Greenwald's Encryption Guru," by Alex Carp, March 16, 2014
* [http://www.itwire.com/opinion-and-analysis/open-sauce/16422-talking-security-with-bruce-almighty Talking security with Bruce Almighty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304100728/http://www.itwire.com/opinion-and-analysis/open-sauce/16422-talking-security-with-bruce-almighty |date=March 4, 2016 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090428195928/http://media.omediaweb.com/rsa2009/preview/webcast.htm?id=1_5 Schneier at the 2009 RSA conference], video with Schneier participating on the Cryptographer's Panel, April 21, 2009, [[Moscone Center]], San Francisco
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110513061852/http://www.reallawradio.net/podcasts_february-march.html Bruce Schneier on Real Law Radio], Bruce talks with Bob DiCello on the legal news talk radio program, Real Law Radio, about the case involving a Philadelphia school that allegedly spied on its students via the webcam on their computers (Podcasts/Saturday February 27, 2010).
* {{cite web |last=Roberts |first=Russ |title=Schneier on Power, the Internet, and Security |url=http://www.econtalk.org/archives/_featuring/bruce_schneier/ |website=[[EconTalk]] |publisher=[[Library of Economics and Liberty]] |author-link=Russ Roberts |date=June 10, 2013}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m3NJ-Ow2Lvg Bruce Schneier at Google], 19 June 2013. Schneier discusses various aspects of Internet computing and global geo-politics including trust, power relations, control, cooperative systems, ethics, laws, and security technologies. (55 minutes)
* [http://www.well.com/conf/inkwell.vue/topics/452/Bruce-Schneier-Liars-and-Outlier-page01.html Bruce Schneier interviewed] on [[The WELL]] by [[Jon Lebkowsky]], August 2012

{{Authority control}}
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[[Category:American technology writers]]
[[Category:Berkman Fellows]]
[[Category:20th-century American Jews]]
[[Category:American University alumni]]
[[Category:University of Rochester alumni]]
[[Category:People associated with computer security]]
[[Category:Modern cryptographers]]
[[Category:Cypherpunks]]
[[Category:Privacy activists]]
[[Category:American chief technology officers]]
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[[Category:21st-century American Jews]]

Fernseh

2024-02-04T13:29:33Z

Omcsesz: /* Products */

{{short description|German television company}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Fernseh
| logo =
| logo_caption =
| logo_upright = 
| logo_alt =
| type =
| industry = Mass media
| predecessor = 
| founded =July 3, 1929
| founder = 
| defunct = 
| fate =
| successor = 
| hq_location_city = Berlin
| hq_location_country = Germany
| area_served = 
| key_people =
| products =
| owner = 
| num_employees =
| num_employees_year = 
| parent =
| website = 
}}
The '''Fernseh AG''' [[television]] company was registered in [[Berlin]] on July 3, 1929, by [[John Logie Baird]], [[Robert Bosch]], [[Zeiss Ikon]] and [[Loewe (electronics)|D.S. Loewe]] as partners. John Baird owned Baird Television Ltd. in [[London]], Zeiss Ikon was a camera company in [[Dresden]], D.S. Loewe owned a company in Berlin and Robert Bosch owned a company, [[Robert Bosch GmbH]], in [[Stuttgart]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiomuseum.org/dsp_hersteller_detail.cfm?company_id=7309|title=Fernseh ; Berlin - Darmstadt manufacturer in D, Model types|first=Fernseh (Fernseh AG, GmbH, FESE, Bosch Fernsehanlagen); Berlin -|last=Darmstadt}}</ref> with an initial capital of 100,000 [[Reichsmark]]. Fernseh AG did research and manufacturing of [[History of television|television equipment]].<ref>[http://www.fernsehmuseum.info/fese-historie-00.0.html?&L=0%29 Fernsehmuseum - Sie sind im Bereich : Fese Historie Start]</ref><ref>[https://www.radiomuseum.org/dsp_hersteller_detail.cfm?company_id=7309 ''radiomuseum.org'' Fernseh AG]</ref>

==Etymology==
The company name "Fernseh AG" is a [[Compound (linguistics)|compound]] of ''Fernsehen'' ‘television’ and ''[[Aktiengesellschaft]] (AG)'' ‘joint-stock company’. The company was mainly known by its German abbreviation "FESE".<ref name="The Bosch Group — Published in 2004">{{Cite web |url=http://www.bosch.com/content/language2/html/3074_3202.htm |title=The Bosch Group – Published in 2004 |access-date=2007-02-17 |archive-date=2011-07-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716214357/http://www.bosch.com/content/language2/html/3074_3202.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> See [[Fernseh#See also|section see also]] on this page for other uses.

==Early years==
In 1929 Fernseh [[Aktiengesellschaft|AG]]'s original board of directors included: [[Emanuel Goldberg]], Oliver George Hutchinson (for Baird), David Ludwig Loewe, and Erich Carl Rassbach (for Bosch) and Eberhard Falkenstein who did the legal work.<ref name="The Bosch Group — Published in 2004"/>
[[Carl Zeiss]]'s [[Carl Zeiss AG|company]] worked alongside the early Bosch company. Much of the early work was in the area of research and development. Along with early TV sets (DE-6, E1, DE10) Fernseh AG made the first "Remote Truck"/"[[Outside broadcasting|OB van]]", an "intermediate-film" mobile television camera in August 1932. This was a film camera that had its film developed in the truck and a "telecine" then transmitted the signal almost "live".<ref>[http://www.fernsehmuseum.info/fese-historie-01.0.html?&L=0%29 Sie sind auf der Homepage von Fernsehmuseum Wiesbaden: Fese Historie 1]</ref>

==Fernseh GmbH==
*In 1939 [[Robert Bosch GmbH]] took complete ownership of Fernseh AG when Zeiss Ikon AG sold its share of Fernseh AG.
*In 1952 Fernseh moved to [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]], and increased its broadcast product line.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fernseh-gmbh.de/seitenleiste_eng.html|title=Farvis TV museum Pfungstadt|last=Fiona}}</ref>
*In 1967 Fernseh, by then commonly called "Bosch Fernseh", introduced color TV products. Fernseh offered a full line of video and film equipment: [[professional video camera]]s, [[VTR]]s and [[telecine]] devices. On August 27, 1967, the first color TV program in Germany aired, with a live broadcast from a Bosch Fernseh outside broadcast (OB) van. The networks [[ZDF]], [[Norddeutscher Rundfunk|NDR]] and [[Westdeutscher Rundfunk|WDR]] each acquired a new color OB van from Bosch Fernseh to begin broadcasting in color.

==Fernsehanlagen GmbH==
In 1972 Robert Bosch renamed its TV division: Fernsehanlagen GmbH (Fernseh facilities). The company supplied almost all the studio equipment for the [[1972 Summer Olympics]] in Munich. The Darmstadt HQ had over 2000 employees in 1972. In 1972 Fernseh started to manufacture [[SECAM]] TV studio equipment for [[Moscow]].

==Fernseh Inc.==
*In October 1979 [[Bell and Howell]]'s [[TeleMation Inc.]] Division located in [[Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]], entered a joint venture with [[Robert Bosch GmbH]], Bosch's Fernseh Division. The new joint venture was called Fernseh Inc., Bosch Fernseh Division, located in [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]].
*In April 1982 Bosch fully acquired Fernseh Inc., renaming it "Robert Bosch Corporation, Fernseh Division".
*In 1986 Bosch entered into a new joint venture with [[Philips]] Broadcast in [[Breda]], [[Netherlands]]. This new company was called [[Broadcast Television Systems Inc.|Broadcast Television Systems]] or BTS inc. Philips had been in the Broadcast market for many years with a line of PC- and LDK- [[Norelco]] [[professional video camera]]s and other video products.
*In 1995 Philips Electronics North America Corp. fully acquired BTS Inc., renaming it Philips Broadcast-Philips Digital Video Systems. Philips sold many of the [[Spirit DataCine]]s.
*In March 2001 this Philips division was sold to [[Thomson SA]], the Division was call Thomson Multimedia. In 2002, the French electronics giant Thomson SA also acquired the Grass Valley Group from a private investor that had acquired it three years earlier from [[Tektronix]] in Beaverton, Oregon, USA. The name of this division of Thomson was shortened to [[Grass Valley (company)|Grass Valley]]. The Fernseh's [[Darmstadt]] factory, near the [[Darmstadt Hauptbahnhof|Darmstadt Train Station]] and [[European Space Operations Centre]] was moved a short distance to [[Weiterstadt]], [[Germany]]. (Later, Grass Valley was sold to [[Belden (electronics company)|Belden]] on February 6, 2014. Belden also owned Miranda.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.grassvalley.com/belden|title=Belden Announcement|access-date=2014-08-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115153/http://www.grassvalley.com/belden|archive-date=2014-08-26|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*Thomson Film Division, located in Weiterstadt including the product line of [[Spirit DataCine]] 4K, [[Spirit DataCine#Bones Dailies|Bones Workstation]], [[Scanity]] realtime film scanner and [[3D LUT|LUTher 3D Color Space converter]], was sold to Parter Capital Group.<ref name="parter-capital.de">{{cite web|url=http://www.parter-capital.de/en/index.php|title=PARTER Capital Group - Gesellschaft für Beteiligungsberatung}}</ref> The sale was made public on Sept. 9, 2008 and completed on Dec. 1, 2008. The new Headquarters was still in Weiterstadt, the former Bosch Fernseh — BTS factory. Parter Capital Group continued to have worldwide offices to support products from Weiterstadt, Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.videography.com/articles/article_16060.shtml|archive-url=https://archive.today/20110717201158/http://www.videography.com/articles/article_16060.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-07-17|title=Creative Planet Network}}</ref><ref name="parter-capital.de"/> The new name of the company is '''Digital Film Technology'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dft-film.com/|title=Digital Film Technology GmbH - Scanity - HDR Film Scanner}}</ref> DFT Digital Film Technology<ref>[http://www.dft-film.de/ dft-film.de - DFT Digital Film Technology] - Manufacturer of CCD based telecines and data scanners</ref> became part of a new company: Precision Mechatronics GmbH in Weiterstadt, Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.precision-mechatronics.com|title=Digital Film Technology GmbH - Scanity - HDR Film Scanner}}</ref> On October 1, 2012 Precision Mechatronics and DFT were acquired by Prasad Group, part of [[Prasad Studios]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prasadcorp.com/|title=Prasad Corp - Visual Effects - Digital Archive - Digital Film Restoration - Media Asset Management - Digital Intermediate|first=Prasad|last=Group}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dft-film.com/news/press_releases/01_10_12.php DFT Press Release, Weiterstadt, Germany – October 1, 2012 ] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130831235019/http://www.dft-film.com/news/press_releases/01_10_12.php |date=August 31, 2013 }}</ref> In 2013 DFT moved from Weiterstadt to [[Darmstadt-Arheilgen|Arheilgen]]-Darmstadt, Germany.

==Products==
<ref>[https://www.nolaneveritt.com/broadcasting101.ws/anselmo6.htm broadcasting101, Fernseh]</ref>
<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/m/fernseh_d_en_1~typ.html radiomuseum.org] Fernseh Product list</ref><ref>[http://www.tvcameramuseum.org/fernseh/fernseh_list.htm tvcameramuseum.org] List of Fernseh Product</ref>
*Home [[Television]] sets (later moved to the [[Blaupunkt]] Division) (1930- )<ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1935-1941.htm tvhistory.tv] Television History — The First 75 Years, 1935-1941, Fernseh German Television Sets</ref><ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1950-1959.htm tvhistory.tv] Television History — The First 75 Years, 1950-1959 Fernseh German Television Sets</ref><ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_de8rde_8.html radiomuseum.org] Fernseh DE8R model TV, 1939</ref><ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1935-39GermanTV.htm tvhistory.tv] Television History — The First 75 Years</ref><ref>[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1936%20German%20Olympics%20TV%20Program.htm tvhistory.tv] Television History — The First 75 Years, 1936 German (Berlin) Olympics</ref><ref>[http://www.earlytelevision.org/fernseh.html earlytelevision.org] Fernseh AG TV sets</ref><ref>[http://fernsehen.bplaced.net/ind_fag.html fernsehen.bplaced.net] German prewar TV sets, Producer Fernseh AG</ref>
*Home [[Radio]]s (later moved to the [[Blaupunkt]] Division) (1930- )<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_de6r.html radiomuseum.org] Fernseh, DE6R Radio, 1938</ref><ref>[http://www.fernseh-gmbh.de//museum_eng.html fernseh-gmbh.de] TV museum Pfungstadt</ref>
*[[Vacuum tube]][[Tube tester]]<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_farvipruefer.html radiomuseum.org] 1949, Fernseh, Vacuum Tube tester, Farviprüfer</ref>
*Early mechanical Camera for [[Mechanical television]] 1938, "Universal mechanical scanner"<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_mechanischer_universal_a.html radiomuseum.org] 1938, Universal mechanical scanner, Mechanischer Universal Abtaster</ref>
*[[Intermediate film system]] for [[Outside broadcasting|Remote Truck]] ([[1936 Summer Olympics|1936]])<ref>[http://people.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/television.html School of Information Management & Systems], Michael Buckland, Professor. Emanuel Goldberg, Television & Zeiss Ikon.School of Information Management & Systems, Michael Buckland, Professor. Emanuel Goldberg, Television & Zeiss Ikon, "Fernseh AG made considerable technical advances, ... they developed amazing "intermediate" systems that combined film and television technology both for sending and for receiving."</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qn6_5XqRXVsC&dq=Intermediate-film++Fernseh+AG&pg=PA251 Technological history of motion pictures and television] By Raymond Fielding</ref>
*"Farvimeter" a universal electrical testing device (1947)<ref>[https://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_farvimeter.html Farvimeter]</ref>
*"Farvigraph" a universal [[Oscilloscope]] (1949)<ref>[https://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_farvigraph.html Farvigraph]</ref>
* Slide scanner for station ID and test patterns (1955)<ref>[https://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_diaabtaster.html radiomuseum.org, Slide scanner]</ref>
*Filmgeber [[Film Chain]] F16LP15 [[Analog signal|Analog]]<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_filmgeber_f16lp15f_16_lp.html radiomuseum.org] Fernseh, Filmgeber F16LP15, 1959</ref>
*Fernseh Theater TV system, 1935<ref>[http://www.earlytelevision.org/fernseh_theater_tv.html yearlytelevision.org] Fernseh Theater TV system, December 1935</ref>
*[[TV transmitter]] 1944<ref>[http://fernsehen.bplaced.net/pictures/dtm_fag_sender_1.jpg Fernsehsender / TV transmitter Fernseh GmbH 1944]</ref>
*[[Master control]], B&W Video switcher<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_regieanlage.html radiomuseum.org] Regieanlage, directed system, control room</ref>
* Sound recorder — player, Diaabtaster DAT15, Fernseh<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_diaabtaster_dat15dat_1.html radiomuseum.org] Fernseh Diaabtaster DAT15</ref>
*B & W [[Film Chain]]<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_filmgeber_telecine.html radiomuseum.org] Fernseh Filmgeber Telecine 1968</ref>
*OMY Color Film Chain - [[Analog signal|Analog]]<ref>[http://www.fernsehmuseum.info/der-filmabtaster.html Deutsches Fernsehmuseum Wiesbaden] OMY, Film Chain, German site</ref>
*[[Quadruplex videotape#See also|BCM-40]] and B&W BM-20 [[2 inch Quadruplex videotape]] 1966-70s<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_magnetbandanlage_bc_m_40a.html radiomuseum.org] Magnetbandanlage BC M 40A, 1966</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://mail.quadvideotapegroup.com/pipermail/quadlist_quadvideotapegroup.com/attachments/20090602/64463c7d/attachment-0003.jpe |title=BM-20 B & W Quad TVR photo |access-date=2012-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418171205/http://mail.quadvideotapegroup.com/pipermail/quadlist_quadvideotapegroup.com/attachments/20090602/64463c7d/attachment-0003.jpe |archive-date=2015-04-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*B & W cameras like Videokamera s/w K11 VK9 HA<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_videokamera_sw_k11_vk9_ha.html radiomuseum.org] Fernseh, Videokamera s/w K11 VK9 HA, 1975</ref><ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_fernsehkamera_dffb.html radiomuseum.org] Fernsehkamera DFFB (KOD) 1958</ref>
* M series monitors<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_kontroll_monitor_m32ba28m.html radiomuseum.org] Kontroll-Monitor M32BA28 1960</ref><ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_m21bc9fm_21_bc_9.htmlradiomuseum.org] M21BC9F 1965</ref>
*TV [[Oscilloscope]]<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_kontroll_monitor_und_osz.html radiomuseum.org] Oscilloscope, Fernseh, Kontroll-Monitor und Oszilloskop EOv25-75, 1955</ref><ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_farvigraph.html radiomuseum.org] lab, Oscilloscope, Fernseh</ref>
*[[Video-signal generator]]s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_pruefsignalgebersatz_pgm.html|title=Prüfsignalgebersatz PGM 408-003 Equipment Fernseh Fernseh AG|last=Ukkola}}</ref>
*[[Television standards conversion#Historical standards conversion techniques|Television standards conversion]](1970s) [[Analog signal|Analog]] Model NC 56 P 40, with [[Plumbicon]] tube camera inside.<ref>[https://collection.sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk/objects/co34608/fernseh-ntsc-pal-image-transfer-standards-converter-television-image-converter Fernseh NTSC/PAL image-transfer standards converter type NC56 P40]''sciencemuseumgroup.org.uk''</ref>
* Transcoder to convert [[PAL]] to [[SECAM]] and SECAM to PAl. (1972)
*BCR pre BCN VTR<ref>[http://www.vtoldboys.com/mont87.htm vtoldboys.com] The Bosch/Philips BCR 1" helical scan that was shown in 1973 and preceded the BCN.</ref>
*BCN series [[1 inch type B videotape]] (1979–1989) [[Analog signal|Analog]] [[VTR]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/watvhistory/3364676507/in/photostream/|title=1979 Miss Universe BCNs|date=11 March 2009}}</ref>
*KC series color [[professional video camera]] KCU-40,<ref>[http://www.broadcasting101.ws/kcu40.jpg broadcasting101.ws] KCU-40</ref><ref>[http://www.broadcasting101.ws/kcu40rear.jpg broadcasting101.ws] KCU-40 rear</ref> KCR,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/manano/2234879381/|title=bosch portatil|date=29 January 2008}}</ref> KCK-40, KCK-R-40, KCP-40, KCP-60, KCA, KCF-1, KCM-125, KCA, KCN92, KCN(1967–1990),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvcameramuseum.org/bosch/kck40a/kck40p1.htm|title=Bosch KCK-40 Television Camera 45° view|first=Brian|last=Summers}}</ref><ref>[http://www.vtoldboys.com/arc22.htm Oldboys website] Picture of a Bosch KCR-40 and KCA-100 Camera</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvcameramuseum.org/bosch/kca100/kca100p1.htm|title=Bosch KCA-100 Television Camera|first=Brian|last=Summers}}</ref><ref>[http://www.broadcasting101.ws/fernsehfoursome.jpg broadcasting101.ws] Four Bosch cameras, photo only</ref><ref>[http://www.broadcasting101.ws/techstuff.jpg broadcasting101.ws] Setup Camera</ref><ref>[http://www.broadcasting101.ws/soccer78tv.jpg broadcasting101.ws] Bosch Cameras, 1978 Games, photo only</ref><ref>[http://www.tvcameramuseum.org/bosch/boschthumbnails.htm tvcameramuseum.org] list of Bosch cameras</ref><ref>[http://www.fernseh-gmbh.de//cameras.html fernseh-gmbh.de] Farvis TV-Museum Pfungstadt, Fernseh Cameras</ref><ref>[http://www.oldtvgear.com/kcu-40.html oldtvgear.com] kcu-40 page</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/manano/326244838/|title=bosch kck 40, original del 78|date=20 May 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvcameramuseum.org/bosch/boschthumbnails.htm|title=Camera Manufacturers List}}</ref><ref>[http://www.tvcameramuseum.org/bosch/kcn92/pictures/inside750.jpg KCN-92 open]</ref>
*Color film chain, with KCU-40 camera<ref>[http://www.oldtvgear.com/uploads/2/3/8/7/2387699/1763118_orig.jpg oldtvgear.com] Color film chain, with Bosch Fernseh KCU-40 camera as PU</ref>
*MC series color and B&W[[Video monitor]]MC-37, MC-50 MCH 51, MH 21<ref>[http://www.radiomuseum.org/r/fernseh_mc473bamc_473_b.html adiomuseum.org] MC473BA B&W monitor</ref><ref>[http://www.adsausage.com/electronics/broadcast/ad.cfm?id=15639 www.adsausage.com] Bocsh MC monitor add</ref><ref>[http://www.broadcasting101.ws/techstuff.jpg broadcasting101.ws]</ref>
*OB Van - [[Outside broadcasting|TV Remote Trucks]] - and Terminal Rack Equipment<ref>[http://www.broadcasting101.ws/olympics-control.jpg Bosch made Olympiad 1972 Control Room ]</ref><ref>[http://www.broadcasting101.ws/f-remotetruck.jpg Bosch OB Van]</ref>
*RME series Mixers — Switcher - [[Vision mixer]], [[Analog signal|Analog]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flickriver.com/photos/manano/334354545/|title=Mixer Bosch Fernseh - a photo on Flickriver}}</ref>
*FDL-60 [[Telecine]] - The world's first [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] [[telecine]] (1979–1989)
*FRP-60 Color Corrector-[[Color grading]] (1983–1989)<ref>[FRP 60 Control Panel Bosch Fernesh.JPG FRP 60 Control Panel Bosch Fernesh]</ref>
*[[FDL60|FDL-90]] [[Telecine]] (1989–1993) (now under BTS)
*[[Noise reduction#Removing image noise|Noise/Grain Reducer]]: FDGR, DNR7, MNR9, MNR10, MNR11, VS4, Scream, Scream 4k<ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/fl3/FDL60/nrfdgr.JPG Noise reduction, Bosch FDGR]</ref><ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/fl3/FDL60/nrfdgrcp.JPG Bosch Noise reduction, FDGR, control panel]</ref><ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/fl3/FDL60/nrdnr7.JPG Noise reduction, MNR ]</ref>
*KCA-110 [[Electronic news gathering|ENG]] Camera
*KCF-1 ENG Camera (later Quartercam, not sold)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vtoldboys.com/arc18.htm|title=Archive photos R01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://loreoutlet.dyndns.org/collsite/video/umatic/boschkcf1/gallery.html|title=loreoutlet.dyndns.org on KCP}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=TOMOmmrvwCcC&dq=Bosch+BCN+2-hour+reels&pg=PA196 The History of Television, 1942 to 2000], By Albert Abramson, Christopher H. Sterling</ref>
*[[CCIR 601]] Products CD7, DC7, 4X4 Booster, Test Gen. Encoders, Decoders.
*DD series [[CCIR 601]]-[[D1 (Sony)|D1]] Mixers - [[Vision mixer]] DD5, DD10, DD20, DD30<ref>[http://grassvalley.novosolutions.net/default.asp?id=2170&Lang=1 DD10 Switcher]</ref>
*DCR series [[D1 (Sony)|D1]] [[VTR]] DCR-100 DCR-300 DCR-500
*[[1 inch type B videotape#Special BCN units|BCH 1000]] [[HDTV]] 1" [[VTR]]
*KCH 1000 HDTV camera (RMH 1000)<ref>[http://www.live-production.tv/case-studies/sports/brief-review-hdtv-europe-early-90%E2%80%99s.html live-production.tv] A Brief Review on HDTV in Europe in the early 90s</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvcameramuseum.org/bosch/kch1000/kch1000p1.htm|title=Bosch KCH1000 Television Camera|first=Brian|last=Summers}}</ref>
*[[FLH1000|FLH 1000]] [[Telecine]] The world's first [[HDTV]] [[Charge-coupled device|CCD]] [[Telecine]] (1994–1996)
*[[FDL90|Quadra]] [[Chroma subsampling|4:4:4]] [[Telecine]] (1993–1998)
*[[D6 HDTV VTR]] Uncompressed [[HDTV]] [[VTR]] (VooDoo)-([[Gigabit]] Data Recorder) (2000–2006) (Now under Philips)
*[[Spirit DataCine]] [[Motion picture film scanner]] and [[HDTV]] [[Telecine]] SDC-2000 (1996–2006) also: SDC2001, SDC2002
*[[Spirit DataCine#Bones Dailies|Phantom Transfer Engine Software]] for Spirit [[Motion picture film scanner|Datacine]] [[Telecine]] for [[Virtual telecine]](1998-)
*[[Spirit DataCine#Shadow|Shadow]] HDTV [[Telecine]] STE (2000–2006)
*VDC-2000 Specter [[Virtual telecine]] (1999–2002)
*Specter FS [[Virtual telecine]] (2002–2006)
*[[Spirit DataCine#SDC 2k Spirit DataCine|Spirit DataCine]] 4k [[Motion picture film scanner|Datacine]] - [[Telecine]] (2004-2014) also Spirit Spirit 2k/Spirit-HD (now Under Thomson-Grassvalley)
*Bones Linux-Based Software for Spirit Datacine [[Telecine]] Transfer Engine Software (2005-2014 )
*[[Spirit DataCine#Bones Dailies|Bones Dailies]] (2008-2014)
*LUTher [[3D LUT]] Color Space (2005-2013)<ref>[http://videoengineer.net/documents/manuals/Grass%20Valley/Luther%20Color.pdf videoengineer.net] LUTher manual</ref>
* [[Spirit DataCine#Flexxity|Flexxity]] (2011-2014)
* [[Scanity]] film scanner (2009- )<ref>[http://www.dft-film.com/downloads/datasheets/DFT-SCANITY-AudioOption-Datasheet.pdf DFT's SCANITY Audio Option Datasheet]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cinelicious.tv/news/inscanity-4k-hdr-film-scanning-comes-to-cinelicious|title=Cinelicious|date=12 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.btlnews.com/crafts/post-production/cinelicious-installs-scanity/|title=Cinelicious Installs Scanity - Below the Line|date=26 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.btlnews.com/crafts/post-production/mercury-post-installs-scanity-film-scanner/|title=Mercury Post Installs SCANITY Film Scanner - Below the Line|date=12 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.content-technology.com/asiapacificnews/?p=1771|title=Spice Shop Installs SCANITY High-Speed Film Scanner - Asia-Pacific News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://cinelicious.tv/we-love-film/telecine-scanning |title=Scanity and Sprit Datacine in a control room |access-date=2015-06-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206091632/http://cinelicious.tv/we-love-film/telecine-scanning |archive-date=2010-12-06 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.shootonline.com/go/index.php?name=Release&op=action_email&id=rs-web2-1494574-1300811512-2 Shoot online, SHOOT Publicity Wire], OMNIMAGO Invests in SCANITY for New Production and Archive Scanning Projects, March 22, 2011</ref> (Now under DFT)
* Phantom 2: Linux-Based transfer Engine software and workstation for Spirit Datacine (2014-)<ref>[http://www.dft-film.com/downloads/datasheets/Phantom-II.pdf dft-film.com, Phantom-II in pdf]</ref> (Now under DFT)
* Polar HQ a 9.3K native scanner came out in 2023.<ref>[https://dft-film.com/products/dft-polar-hq/ DFT Polar HQ]</ref>

==Photo gallery==
<gallery>
File:Robert Bosch mit Hut 1888 - 10031.jpg|Robert Bosch in 1888
Image:Zwischenfilmverfahren.svg|Intermediate film system for first Remote Truck (1936) - movie camera; 2 - film processor; 3 - washing bath; 4 - film drying compartment; 5 - telecine; 6 - monitor; 7 - video output; 8 - sewage; 9 - plumbing.
Image:BOSCH 2 ZOLL QUADRUPLEX BCM 40.jpg|BOSCH Quad VTR Model BCM 40
Image:Films_shown_in_television_transmission,_1956_(21699275565).jpg| Fernseh GmbH Telecine with a Pantason 16 mm film projector in 1956
Image:Orthikon_television_camera,_1957_(29408138332).jpg|Orthikon Camera in 1957
Image:MTV_stúdió,_Fernseh_GmbH_gyártmányú_kép-_és_hangrögzítő_(telerekorder)_berendezés._Fortepan_56517.jpg|Fernseh GmbH TV recorder at [[Magyar Televízió|MTV Studio]] in 1958 in [[Budapest]]
Image:BOSCH 1 ZOLL B BCN 51.jpg|BCN 51 Fernseh VTR
Image:Bcn-scanner-head.jpg|Type B video Scanner Head from DC Video, [http://www.dcvideo.com/]
Image:Fdl60-cap-gate.JPG|Bosch Fernseh FDL 60 Telecine Film Deck and Lens Gate
Image:FRP_60_Control_Panel_Bosch_Fernesh.JPG|FRP 60 Control Panel, Bosch Fernesh
File:BCN 52 type B VTR.jpg|BCN 52 VTR
File:BCN 20 VTR L unit playback.jpg|BCN 20 VTR with "L unit" playback with TBC.
Image:BCN-20-VTR.jpg|BCN 20 VTR hand held VTR recorder.
File:BCN-20-VTR-CLOSEUP.jpg|BCN 20 VTR deck
File:BNC HDTV VTR-type B deck.jpg|BCH-1000 HDTV B VTR
Image:BOSCH QUATERCAM.jpg|QUATERCAM BCF studio VTR (Lineplex system)
Image:BOSCH BTS D1 DCR 500.jpg|D1 DCR 500 VTR
Image:Bosch Fernseh en grúa.JPG|BOSCH KCK-40
Image:Hdtv-camera-Bosch-KCM-125.jpg|KCM-125 SDTV camera with a Schneider Optics Lens
Image:Fernseh-Studiokamera aus den 1950ern.jpg|KOD 3 television studio camera from 1958 in the Museum Hamburg
Image:Bosch Fernseh HQ Darmstadt Germany.jpg|Bosch Fernseh HQ_Darmstadt, Germany
Image:Bosch street sign Darmstadt Germany.jpg|Bosch Fernseh HQ street sign Darmstadt Germany
Image:Fernseh inc logo.jpg|Fernseh Inc. Logo
Image:Bosch_Video_Corp_logo.jpg|Bosch Video Corp. logo
Image:D6-VTR-Tape Deck-part.jpg|D6 VTR Tape Deck
Image:D6-VTR-Scanner.jpg|D6 VTR Scanner, removed
Image:D6-VTR-Tape Deck-inside.jpg|Inside a D6 VTR Tape Deck
File:D6 VTR Full 2 parts.jpg|D6 VTR full unit
Image:SDC-2000 Spirit DataCine Telecine.JPG|SDC-2000 Spirit DataCine Film Deck
File:BTS Quadra 444 Telecine.JPG|Quadra Telecine Film Deck
Image:Sdc-fcp-control panel.JPG|SDC-2000 Spirit DataCine Functional Control Panel-FCP
Image:Spirit Datacine 4k doors closed.jpg|Spirit Datacine 4k with the doors closed
Image:Spirit Datacine 4k doors open.jpg|Spirit Datacine 4k with the doors open.jpg
Image:Telecine site 1.jpg|A Shadow Telecine in a color correction suite.
Image:Shadow telecine (6498603509).jpg| Shadow Telecine
Image:GCP-Datacine-IMG 8756.jpg|GCP for a Spirit Datacine
Image:Scanity_Film_Scanner_-_DFT.jpg|Scanity Film Deck
Image:Cinelicious Scanity 4k.jpg|[[Cinelicious]] Scanity 4k and work station
Image:Bosch_Logo_Stuttgart.JPG|Bosch Logo
</gallery>

==Offices==
Past and current offices in the cities of acquisitions (see History):
* [[Cergy]], [[France]] (Thomson World Headquarters)
* [[Salt Lake City]], [[Utah]], [[United States]] - from TeleMation Inc -[[Bell and Howell]]
* [[Beaverton, Oregon|Beaverton]], [[Oregon]], United States- from [[Tektronix]]
* [[Nevada City, California|Nevada City]], [[California]], United States — from Grassvalley Group
* [[Breda]], [[Netherlands]] - from Philips - [[Norelco]]
* [[Weiterstadt]] - [[Darmstadt]], [[Germany]] from Bosch Fernseh-(DFT),
* In 2013 DFT moved from Weiterstadt to [[Darmstadt-Arheilgen|Arheilgen]]-Darmstadt, Germany.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Hans Walz]]
*[[Post-production]]
*[[Professional video camera]]
*[[Telecine]]
*[[TV]]
*[[Video camera]]
**Fernseh prefix:
*[[Fernsehturm Berlin]] Television Tower.
*''Fernsehen'', German word for "[[television]]".
*[[Fernseh sprechstellen]] German Videotelephony.
*[[Fernsehturm Stuttgart]] telecommunications tower in Stuttgart.
*[[Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow]] first public television station in the world.
*[[Fernsehturm (disambiguation)]] German word for television tower.
*[[Fernsehen der DDR]] state television broadcaster in East Germany.
*[[Fernsehturm Heidelberg]] Heidelberg transmission tower.
*[[Fernsehturm Dresden-Wachwitz]] TV tower in Dresden.
*[[Fernsehserien]] German for TV series which comprises several episodes.
*[[ZDF Fernsehgarten]] "ZDF Television garden" is a German entertainment show.
*[[Deutscher Fernseh-Rundfunk]] Early German Television Broadcasting
*Fernsehproduktion a television production.
*Fernsehnorm TV standard.
*Fernsehpitaval Crime TV show from 1958 to 1978 on GDR.
* {{intitle|Fernseh}}
* {{intitle|Fernsehen}}
* {{intitle|Fernsehturm}}
{{div col end}}

==References and notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ischool.berkeley.edu/~buckland/television.html History of Bosch Fernseh]
*[http://www.bosch.com/en/com/bosch_group/history/company-history.html Bosch.com History]
*[http://www.angelfire.com/fl3/FDL60/history.htm Film Products]
*[http://www.tvhistory.tv/1935-1941.htm Early Fernseh TV set]
*[http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn=259954&search=australian+television&images=&c=1&s= Early Camera]
*[http://www.vtoldboys.com/arc08.htm BCN Pictures]
*[http://www.earlytelevision.org/fernseh_mech.html Fernseh mechanical TVs]
*[http://www.fernsehmuseum.info/bosch-fese.0.html?&L=0%29 Deutsches Fernsehmuseum - German TV Museum]

{{Bosch}}

[[Category:Mass media companies of Germany]]
[[Category:Cameras]]
[[Category:Video storage]]
[[Category:Film production]]
[[Category:Television technology]]
[[Category:Video hardware]]
[[Category:Technicolor SA]]

Shabiha

2023-12-22T17:06:22Z

Omcsesz: /* Syrian Civil War */

{{Short description|Armed militia supporting the Baath Arab and Socialist Party of Syria}}
{{infobox war faction
| name = Shabiha
| native_name = شبيحة
| native_name_lang = ar
| war = the [[Syrian civil war]]
| image =
| caption =
| active = 1980s – 2012<ref name="reuters1">{{cite web|title=Insight: Battered by war, Syrian army creates its own replacement|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-paramilitary-insight-idUSBRE93K02R20130421|publisher=Reuters|date=21 April 2013|access-date=31 October 2015}}</ref>
| clans = *[[Lions of Hussein#Muhammad al-Assad's Shabiha|Mohammed al-Assad's group]]
*Berri clan militias{{sfnp|Cooper|2015|p=21}}
| leaders = [[Maher al-Assad]]<ref name=alHendi /> Fawaz al-Assad{{sfnp|Cooper|2015|p=20}} Mundhir al-Assad{{sfnp|Cooper|2015|p=20}} [[Al-Assad family#Hafez's cousins|Numeir al-Assad]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Dougherty|first=Jill|title=Al-Assad's inner circle, mostly family, like 'mafia'|url=http://security.blogs.cnn.com/2012/08/09/assads-inner-circle-will-it-crack/|access-date=18 August 2012|publisher=CNN|date=9 August 2012}}</ref> [[Zaino Berri]] {{executed}} (Aleppo leader)<ref>{{cite news|title=Executions Reported as Syria Civilian Crisis Looms|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390443545504577563360252949488|work=Wall Street Journal|date=1 August 2012|access-date=26 May 2013}}</ref> [[Ayman Jaber]] (Latakia leader) [[Mohammed al-Assad]]{{KIA}} (Qardaha leader)
| headquarters =
| area =
| ideology = [[Assadism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Phillips |first=Christopher |title=The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle East |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780300217179 |location=London, UK |chapter=2: The Arab Spring Comes to Syria|pages=2, 53–54}}</ref> [[Anti-Sunnism]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Phillips |first=Christopher |title=The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle East |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780300217179 |location=London, UK |chapter=2: The Arab Spring Comes to Syria|pages=2, 53–54}}</ref>
| strength = 5,000–10,000 (2011){{sfnp|Cooper|2015|p=21}}
| partof =
| previous =
| next = {{flagicon image|InfoboxNDF.png}} [[National Defense Force (Syria)|National Defense Force]]<ref name="reuters1"/>
| allies = {{SYR}}
| opponents = {{flagicon|Syrian opposition}} [[Free Syrian Army]] {{flagicon image|Flag of Ahrar ash-Sham.svg}} [[Ahrar al-Sham]] {{Flagicon image|Flag of the Al-Nusra Front (Variant).svg}} [[Al-Nusra Front]] {{flagicon image|ShababFlag.svg}} [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]]
| battles = [[Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)]] [[Battle of Tremseh]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnewsradioonline.com/world-news/syrian-army-denies-using-heavy-artillery-in-tremesh-assault.html |date=July 16, 2012|title=Syrian Army Denies Using Heavy Artillery in Tremesh Assault |publisher=ABC News Radio|access-date=August 9, 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121126184306/http://abcnewsradioonline.com/world-news/syrian-army-denies-using-heavy-artillery-in-tremesh-assault.html |archive-date=November 26, 2012 }}</ref>
| url =
| type = [[Militia]]
| role = [[Counter-insurgency]]
| allegiance = {{SYR}}
}}

'''''Shabiha''''' ([[North Levantine Arabic|Levantine Arabic]]: {{lang|apc|شَبِّيحَة}} ''{{transl|apc|Šabbīḥa}}'', {{IPA-ar|ʃabˈbiːħa|pron}}; also romanized '''''Shabeeha''''' or '''''Shabbiha'''''; {{literal translation|ghosts}}) is a term for state sponsored mercenaries of the [[Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)|Syrian government]] loyal to [[Al-Assad family|Assad family]].
The mercenaries consist exclusively of [[Alawites|Alawite]] men paid by the regime to eliminate figures of its [[Syrian opposition|domestic opposition]] and alleged [[Fifth columnists|fifth-columnists]]. ''Shabiha'' were established in the 1980s to smuggle weapons to the Syrian soldiers stationed in [[Lebanon]] during the [[Syrian occupation of Lebanon]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Kellier |first=Peter |date=31 May 2012 |title=Ghosts of Syria:diehard militias who kill in the name of Assad |work=Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/31/ghosts-syria-regime-shabiha-militias |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130905064837/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/31/ghosts-syria-regime-shabiha-militias |archive-date=5 September 2013}}</ref>

The word became common in the 1990s, when it was being used to refer to "thugs" who work with the government and often drove [[Mercedes-Benz S-Class]] and gave their guards the same car; that specific car model was nicknamed Shabah (Ghost) in many Arabic countries which led to its drivers being called Shabeeh <ref>[https://soshals.com/social/36734/ word origin]</ref> The [[Syrian opposition]] stated that the ''shabiha'' are a tool of the government for cracking down on dissent.<ref name="Bloomberg" /> The [[Syrian Observatory for Human Rights]] has stated that some of the ''shabiha'' are [[mercenary|mercenaries]].<ref name="Bloomberg" /> Fervently loyalist to [[Assad dynasty]] and [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]], ''shabiha'' militias are discreetly financed by pro-Assad figures, with the objective to disguise regime's involvement in its brutal tactics, ranging from massacres to organized rapes of female sympathisers of the [[Syrian Opposition|opposition]]. [[Psychological warfare]] against Syria's Sunni population are also employed by the ''Shabiha'', which includes demonising Sunni religious beliefs and usage of deriding slogans such as "''There is no God but Bashar''".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Phillips |first=Christopher |title=The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle East |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2015 |isbn=9780300217179 |location=London, UK |pages=2, 53-54, 66, 83-84, 86, 131, 199-200}}</ref>

== Before the Syrian civil war ==
According to defectors privately interviewed by ''The Star'' in 2012, 'Shabiha mercenaries' were established in the 1980s by [[Rifaat al-Assad]] and Namir al-Assad, President [[Hafez al-Assad]]'s brother and cousin.<ref name="thestar.com">{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/article/1212059--inside-syria-s-shabiha-death-squads?bn=1 |title=Inside Syria's shabiha death squads|date=15 June 2012|work=Global Star|publisher=Toronto Star Newspapers Ltd|author=Hugh Macleod and Annasofie Flamand}}</ref> They were originally concentrated in the Mediterranean region of Syria around [[Latakia]], [[Banias]] and [[Tartous]], where they allegedly benefited from smuggling through the ports in the area.<ref name=Bloomberg>{{cite news|last1=Razzouk |first1=Nayla |last2=Alexander |first2=Caroline |title=Syrian Thugs Are Assad's Tool in Protest Crackdown, Groups Say |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-06-01/syrian-thugs-are-assad-s-tool-in-protest-crackdown-groups-say.html |work=[[Bloomberg Businessweek]] |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=29 May 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022211913/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-06-01/syrian-thugs-are-assad-s-tool-in-protest-crackdown-groups-say.html |archive-date=October 22, 2013}}</ref> The shabiha, who were named for the Arabic word for ghost or for the [[Mercedes-Benz W140|Mercedes S600]] that was popular for its smuggling sized trunk and was called the Shabah,<ref name="thestar.com" /> were known by the Alawites in Syria as Alawi ganglords.<ref name=tele>{{cite news|author1=Harriet Alexander, and Ruth Sherlock|title=The Shabiha: Inside Assad's death squads|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9307411/The-Shabiha-Inside-Assads-death-squads.html|access-date=14 December 2014|work=The Telegraph|date=2 June 2012}}</ref><ref name=FT26>{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/4df6d898-aa6c-11e1-9331-00144feabdc0,Authorised=false.html?_i_location=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ft.com%2Fcms%2Fs%2F0%2F4df6d898-aa6c-11e1-9331-00144feabdc0.html&_i_referer=#axzz1wRIU8KIa |title=Shoes Give Clue to Houla Assailants |author=Michael Peel and Abigail Fielding-Smith |date=2 June 2012 |work=The Financial Times |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref> During the late 1980s and early 1990s, they smuggled food, cigarettes and commodities, subsidized by the government, from Syria into Lebanon and sold them for a massive profit, while luxury cars, guns and drugs were smuggled in reverse from Lebanon up the [[Bekaa Valley]] and into Syria's state controlled economy.<ref name="thestar.com" />

The shabiha guards, who each had loyalty to different members of the [[Assad family|extended Assad family]], were untouchable and operated with impunity from the local authorities.<ref name="thestar.com" /> They gained notoriety in the 1990s for the brutal way they enforced their protection rackets in Latakia and were noted for their cruelty and blind devotion to their leaders.<ref name=Blomfield>{{cite journal |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/8409870/Syria-feared-militia-kills-up-to-21-people-as-protests-continue.html |title=Syria: feared militia kills up to 21 people as protests continue |journal=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=27 March 2011|author=Adrian Blomfield |access-date=30 May 2012}}</ref> By the mid-1990s, they had gotten out of hand, and President Hafez Assad had his son [[Basil Assad]] clamp down on them, which he did successfully.<ref name="thestar.com" /> In 2000, when Bashar Assad came to power, they were apparently disbanded,<ref name="Blomfield" /> but following the uprising that began in March 2011, the shabiha gangs, which evolved into the shabiha militias, were again approved by Assad's government.<ref name=FT26 />

== Syrian Civil War ==
{{Main|Syrian Civil War}}
[[File:Berri clan militiamen captured by FSA.png|right|thumb|Berri clan militiamen, considered to be "''Shabiha''", after their capture by the [[al-Tawhid Brigade]] in [[Aleppo]], July 2012 ]]

Upon the outbreak of the Syrian Revolution in 2011, the regime deployed the ''Shabiha'' death squads upon the demonstrators, ordering them to execute sectarian attacks on the protestors, torture [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] demonstrators and engage in [[Anti-Sunnism|anti-Sunni]] rhetoric. This policy led to large-scale desertions within the army ranks and further defections of officers who began forming a [[resistance movement]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Glynn Williams |first=Brian |title=Counter Jihad: America's Military Experience in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-8122-4867-8 |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-4112, USA |pages=270 |chapter=6: The New War on ISIS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lefevre |first=Raphael |title=Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-19-933062-1 |location=198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016, USA |pages=185 |chapter=9: Uprisings in Syria: Revenge on History}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=A. Shoup |first=John |title=The History of Syria |publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-4408-5834-5 |location=Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911, USA |pages=144 |chapter=10: Bashar al-Asad’s Syria: 2000–Present}}</ref> In March 2011, activists reported that Shabiha drove through [[Latakia]] in cars armed with machine guns firing at protesters, and then later of taking up sniper position on rooftops and killing up to 21 people.<ref name=Blomfield /> It was reported by local activists that on 18 and 19 April that the shabiha and security forces killed 21 protesters in Homs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.buenosairesherald.com/article/65073/syrias-president-ends-state-of-emergency%20Syria's%20President%20ends%20state%20of%20emergency |title=Syria's President ends state of emergency |date=21 April 2011 |work=Buenos Aires Herald |agency=Reuters |access-date=30 May 2012}}</ref>

In May, ''[[Foreign Affairs]]'' reported that the ''shabiha'' joined the [[4th Armoured Division (Syria)|Fourth Armoured Division]], led by [[Maher al-Assad]], and attacked civilians in the cities of Banias, Jableh, and Latakia."<ref name=alHendi>{{cite web |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67823/ahed-al-hendi/the-structure-of-syrias-repression |title=The Structure of Syria's Repression |author=Ahed Al Hendi |date=3 May 2011 |work=Foreign Affairs |access-date=30 May 2012}}</ref> A month later in June, witnesses and refugees from the northwestern region said that the shabiha have reemerged during the uprising and were being used by the [[Assad regime]] to carry out "a scorched earth campaign […] burning crops, ransacking houses and shooting randomly."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.euronews.com/2011/06/19/syria-forces-storm-border-town-witnesses/ |title=Syria forces storm border town – witnesses |date=19 June 2011 |publisher=Euronews |access-date=30 May 2012 |archive-date=8 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121208180510/http://www.euronews.com/2011/06/19/syria-forces-storm-border-town-witnesses/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[The Washington Post]]'' reported a case in which four sisters were raped by shabiha members.<ref>{{cite news|author=Gul Tuysuz|title=Syrian men promise to marry women who were raped|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle-east/syrian-men-promise-to-marry-women-who-were-raped/2011/06/20/AG6sO1cH_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=21 June 2011|access-date=30 May 2012}}</ref>

The ''shabiha'' are described to wear civilian clothes, trainers and white running shoes and often are taking steroids. A physician explained that "many of the men were recruited from bodybuilding clubs and encouraged to take steroids. They are treated like animals, and manipulated by their bosses to carry out these murders".<ref name=tele /> Many ''shabiha'' were described by locals as having shaved heads, thin beards and white trainers. It was also reported by Syrian locals that some elements in the ''Shabiha'' were contemplating plans to clear Sunni Muslim villages from the Alawi northwest in the hopes of creating an easily defendable [[rump state]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.economist.com/node/21556952 |newspaper=The Economist |title=With both barrels |date=16 June 2012}}</ref> One militiaman said he was ready to kill women and children to defend his friends, family and president: "Sunni women are giving birth to babies who will fight us in years to come, so we have the right to fight anyone who can hurt us in the future".<ref name=PBS>{{cite web|last1=Macleod |first1=Hugh |last2=Flamand |first2=Annasofie |date=15 June 2012 |title=Syria: Shabiha Militia Member Tells It Like It Is |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/world/jan-june12/syria_06-15.html |work=NewsHour |publisher=PBS |access-date=6 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120706071627/http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/world/jan-june12/syria_06-15.html |archive-date=July 6, 2012}}</ref>

In July 2012, a captured alleged shabiha member admitted looting and murder, stating that it was for "money and power".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://worldobserveronline.com/2012/07/17/confessions-assad-shabiha-loyalist-i-raped-killed-300-month/ |title=Confessions of an Assad 'Shabiha' loyalist: how I raped and killed for £300 a month |access-date=2012-08-10 |archive-date=2012-07-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120720221220/http://worldobserveronline.com/2012/07/17/confessions-assad-shabiha-loyalist-i-raped-killed-300-month/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> The newspaper ''[[Toronto Star]]'' describes Shabiha as "mafia militia […] smuggling commodities, appliances, drugs and guns between Syria and Lebanon at the behest of Assad’s extended family" and the Telegraph as "a group that suffers from a dangerous cocktail of religious indoctrination, minority paranoia and smuggler roots".<ref name=thestar.com /> The [[United Nations]] report published in August 2012 condemned the ''shabiha'' for sectarian attacks against Sunni civilians, murdering protesters, detaining army members of Sunni background and for carrying out the [[Houla massacre]] which killed at least 108 [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] civilians, including 41 children.<ref>{{cite news |author=Luke Harding, Julian Borger and agencies in Damascus |date=15 August 2012 |title=Houla killings: UN blames Syria troops and militia |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/15/houla-killings-un-blames-syria-troops |access-date=2013-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221029202447/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/15/houla-killings-un-blames-syria-troops |archive-date=29 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |date=16 August 2012 |title=Report of the independent international commission of inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/G12/160/66/PDF/G1216066.pdf?OpenElement |journal=Human Rights Council: Twenty-first Session |publisher=United Nations Human Rights Council |pages=1–102 |via=OHCHR.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=15 August 2012 |title=Houla massacre: UN blames Syria and militia |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2012/aug/15/un-inquiry-syrian-arab-republic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220525230950/https://www.theguardian.com/world/interactive/2012/aug/15/un-inquiry-syrian-arab-republic |archive-date=25 May 2022}}</ref>

In December 2012, [[NBC News]] reporter [[Richard Engel]] and his five crew members [[NBC News team kidnapping in Syria|were abducted]] in [[Latakia]]. Having escaped after five days in captivity, Engel held a Shabiha group responsible for the abduction.<ref>{{citation |author1=Brian Stelter |author-link=Brian Stelter |author2=Sebnem Arsu |title=Richard Engel of NBC Is Freed in Syria |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/19/business/media/richard-engel-of-nbc-is-released-in-syria.html |date=18 December 2012 |access-date=8 December 2015}}</ref> Engel's account was however challenged from early on.<ref>{{cite web |author=Jamie Dettmer |title=Richard Engel's Kidnapping: A Behind the Scenes Look |work=[[The Daily Beast]] |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/12/22/richard-engel-s-kidnapping-a-behind-the-scenes-look.html |date=22 December 2012 |access-date=8 December 2015}}</ref> More than two years later, following further investigation by ''[[The New York Times]]'', it however came out that the NBC team "was almost certainly taken by a Sunni criminal element affiliated with the [[Free Syrian Army]]," rather than by a loyalist Shia group.<ref>{{cite news |author1=Ravi Somaiya |author2=C. J. Chivers |author2-link=C. J. Chivers |author3=Karam Shoumali |title=NBC News Alters Account of Correspondent's Kidnapping in Syria |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/16/business/media/nbc-news-alters-account-of-correspondents-kidnapping-in-syria.html |date=15 April 2015 |access-date=8 December 2015}}</ref>

=== Houla massacre ===
{{Main|Houla massacre}}
On May 25, 2012, 78 people, including 49 children, were killed in two opposition-controlled villages in the [[Houla Region]] of Syria, a cluster of villages north of [[Homs]].<ref name=Reuters529 /> While a small proportion of the deaths appeared to have resulted from artillery and tank rounds used against the villages, the foreign press later announced that most of the massacre's victims had been "summarily executed in two separate incidents",<ref name=BBC529>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18249413 |title=Syria crisis: Most Houla victims 'were executed' |date=May 29, 2012 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=May 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530203935/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18249413 |archive-date=May 30, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> and that witnesses affirmed that the Shabiha were the most likely perpetrators.<ref name=Reuters529>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-un-idUSBRE84S10020120529 |title=Most Houla victims killed in summary executions: U.N. |author=Nebehay, Stephanie |date=May 29, 2012 |work=Reuters |access-date=May 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530210559/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/29/us-syria-un-idUSBRE84S10020120529 |archive-date=May 30, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Townspeople described how Shabiha, from Shia/Alawite villages to the south and west of Houla ([[Kabu, Syria|Kabu]] and Felleh were named repeatedly), entered the town after shelling of the ground for several hours. According to one eyewitness, the killers had written Shia slogans on their foreheads.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://blogs.channel4.com/alex-thomsons-view/searing-grief-houlas-survivors/1739 |title=The searing grief of Houla's Survivors |author=Thomson, Alex |date=May 30, 2012 |publisher=Channel 4 News |access-date=May 30, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531005300/http://blogs.channel4.com/alex-thomsons-view/searing-grief-houlas-survivors/1739 |archive-date=May 31, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> The U.N. reported that "entire families were shot in their houses",<ref name=Reuters529 /> and video emerged of children with their skulls split open.<ref name=AA526>{{cite news |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/05/26/216538.html |title=U.N. observers in Syria visit scene of Houla 'massacre:' state media |date=May 26, 2012 |publisher=Al Arabiya |access-date=May 26, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120527024732/http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/05/26/216538.html |archive-date=May 27, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> Others had been shot or knifed to death, some with their throats cut.<ref name="I 27 May 2012">{{cite news |title=Exclusive dispatch: Assad blamed for massacre of the innocents|author=Cockburn, Patrick |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/exclusive-dispatch-assad-blamed-for-massacre-of-the-innocents-7791507.html|newspaper=[[The Independent]] |date=May 27, 2012 |access-date=May 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120526235301/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18221461 |archive-date=May 26, 2012 |url-status=live |location=London}}</ref>

The fifteen nations of the [[U.N. Security Council]] unanimously condemned the massacre,<ref name="UN">{{cite news |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/2012527213720286129.html |title=UN condemns Syria over Houla massacre |date=May 27, 2012 |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=May 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529002901/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/2012527213720286129.html |archive-date=May 29, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=NYT275>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/28/world/middleeast/syria-denies-responsibility-in-brutal-attack.html?_r=1&hp |title=U.N. Security Council Issues Condemnation of Syria Attack |author=MacFarquhar, Neil |date=May 27, 2012 |work=The New York Times |at=(part 1 of article) |access-date=May 27, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524051648/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/28/world/middleeast/syria-denies-responsibility-in-brutal-attack.html?_r=2&hp |archive-date=May 24, 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> with Russia and China agreeing to a resolution on the [[Syrian Civil War]] for the first time.<ref name=AFP529>{{cite news |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jfihYaR53KQwQxaqR49ebzIpXVXw?docId=CNG.7f0c5ba0cb66f3aa93cbda971b24c6a1.a1 |title=US hopes Syria massacre sparks change in Russia |date=May 29, 2012 |agency=Agence France-Presse |access-date=May 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029021421/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jfihYaR53KQwQxaqR49ebzIpXVXw?docId=CNG.7f0c5ba0cb66f3aa93cbda971b24c6a1.a1 |archive-date=October 29, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref> The U.S., U.K., and eleven other nations–the Netherlands, Australia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Spain, Bulgaria, Canada and Turkey–jointly expelled Syrian ambassadors and diplomats already 4 days after the massacre took place.<ref name="expulsion">{{cite news |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/05/29/217206.html |title=Several countries expel Syrian diplomats as EU mulls joint expulsion |date=May 29, 2012 |publisher=Al Arabiya |access-date=May 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530221822/http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/05/29/217206.html |archive-date=May 30, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=AJ530>{{cite news |title=Executions reported in Syria |author=agencies |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/2012530105841216556.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=May 30, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531202030/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/05/2012530105841216556.html |archive-date=May 31, 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Alleged role in Al-Qubair massacre ===
{{Main|Al-Qubeir massacre}}
Another massacre was reported but not investigated by local villagers and activists to have taken place in the Syrian settlement of [[Al-Qubair]] on June 6, 2012, only two weeks after the killings at Houla. According to [[BBC News]], Al-Qubair is a farming settlement inside the village of [[Maarzaf]].<ref name=BBC-18352281>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18352281|title=Syria UN team 'shot at' near Qubair 'massacre site'|publisher=BBC News|quote=Qubair is a small farming settlement inside the Sunni Muslim village of Maarzaf, which lies close to Alawite villages.|date=7 June 2012|access-date=7 June 2012}}</ref>

According to activists, 28 people were killed, many of them women and children. The day after the massacre, [[United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria|UNSMIS]] observers attempted to enter Al-Qubair to verify the reports, but were fired upon and forced to retreat by Sunni armed militia that have entered the city the day before.<ref name=BBC-18352281 /> Victims were reportedly stabbed and shot by shabiha forces loyal to the government of [[Bashar al-Assad]], according to the victim's families.<ref name=bbcnews2012-06-07>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18348201|title=New 'massacre' reported in Syria's Hama province|date=7 June 2012|publisher=BBC News|access-date=7 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.sky.com/home/world-news/article/16242668 |title=New Syria 'Massacre' Claims Emerge From Hama |publisher=Sky News |date=7 June 2012 |access-date=7 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607234141/http://news.sky.com/home/world-news/article/16242668 |archive-date=June 7, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,16005794,00.html|title=Opposition claim Syrian government 'massacre'|work=Deutsche Welle|date=7 June 2012|access-date=7 June 2012}}</ref> Reports published by the German newspaper [[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung|FAZ]] in June 2012, claimed that the Houla massacre was instead perpetrated by rebel militias antagonistic to the Syrian government.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/neue-erkenntnisse-zu-getoeteten-von-hula-abermals-massaker-in-syrien-11776496.html |date=7 June 2012 |title=Neue Erkenntnisse zu Getöteten von Hula; von Rainer Hermann, Damaskus|work=Frankfurter Allgemeine|language=de}}</ref>

== Leadership ==
In the coastal region, the group is reportedly led by Fawaz al-Assad and Munzer al-Assad, first cousins of President Assad.<ref name=alHendi /> Another source, Mahmoud Merhi, head of the [[Arab Organization for Human Rights]], has been quoted as saying that "most Syrians view" the Shabiha as "operating without any known organization or leadership."<ref name=Bloomberg /> Sunni and Alawite businessmen who are protecting their own interests in the country are alleged to be paying the groups.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ghosts of Syria:diehard militias who kill in the name of Assad|work=Guardian|date=1 June 2012|author=Peter Kellier (pn)|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/may/31/ghosts-syria-regime-shabiha-militias|location=London}}</ref>

== Accusation of looting and outside analysis ==
Aron Lund, a Swedish journalist specializing in Middle East issues, says that post-2011 the term "Shabbiha" is generally used as a generalized, insulting description of an Assad supporter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eurasiareview.com/30072013-gangs-of-latakia-the-militiafication-of-the-assad-regime-oped/ |title=Gangs Of Latakia: The Militiafication Of The Assad Regime |date=30 July 2013 |work=Eurasia Review |access-date=30 July 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013030517/http://www.eurasiareview.com/30072013-gangs-of-latakia-the-militiafication-of-the-assad-regime-oped/ |archive-date=October 13, 2013 }}</ref>

British newspaper ''[[Sunday Times]]'' and pan-Arab network Al-Arabiya have reported on Shabiha militia stealing [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] [[antiquities]] and selling them on the [[black market]] in [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].<ref>[http://www.alarabiya.net/ar/arab-and-world/syria/2013/05/05/الشبيحة-ينهبون-آثار-سوريا-ويبيعونها-في-السوق-السوداء.html الشبيحة ينهبون آثار سوريا ويبيعونها في السوق السوداء] – quoting {{cite news |title=Syrians loot Roman treasures to buy guns |author=Hala Jaber |author2=George Arbuthnott |url=http://thesyriantimes.com/?p=580 |newspaper=The Syrian Times |date=5 May 2013 |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[National Defence Force (Syria)|National Defence Force]]
* [[Popular Committees (Syria)|Popular Committees]]
* [[List of armed groups in the Syrian Civil War]]
* [[Basij]], a similar militia in [[Iran]]
* [[Kadyrovites]], a similar militia in [[Chechnya]], Russia
* [[Gestapo]], historical [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] equivalent
* [[NKVD]], historical [[Stalinism|Stalinist Soviet]] equivalent

== References ==
{{reflist}}

=== Works cited ===
* {{cite book |last = Cooper |first = Tom |author-link1= Tom Cooper (author)|title= Syrian Conflagration. The Civil War 2011–2013 |date= 2015 |publisher= Helion & Company Limited |location= [[Solihull]] |isbn= 978-1-910294-10-9 }}

== External links ==
* [[United Nations Human Rights Council]]: [http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session21/A-HRC-21-50.doc Report of the] [[Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic]] (Word Document, 9.16 MB, 102 pages, advance edited version), 15 August 2012, containing numerous findings relating to shabiha activities
{{Syrian security forces}}
{{Syrian civil war}}

[[Category:Pro-government factions of the Syrian civil war]]
[[Category:Guerrilla organizations]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in the 1980s]]
[[Category:Paramilitary organizations based in Syria]]
[[Category:Axis of Resistance]]

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Omcsesz: /* Example */

{{Short description|Software needed to operate motherboards}}
{{Unreferenced|date=December 2009}}
In [[embedded systems]], a '''board support package''' ('''BSP''') is the layer of [[software]] containing [[computer hardware|hardware]]-specific [[boot firmware]] and [[device driver]]s and other routines that allow a given [[embedded operating system]], for example a [[real-time operating system]] (RTOS), to function in a given hardware environment (a [[motherboard]]), integrated with the embedded operating system.

==Software==
Third-party hardware developers who wish to support a given embedded operating system must create a BSP that allows that embedded operating system to run on their platform. In most cases, the embedded operating system image and [[software license]], the BSP containing it, and the hardware are bundled together by the hardware vendor.

BSPs are typically customizable, allowing the user to specify which drivers and routines should be included in the build based on their selection of hardware and software options. For instance, a particular single-board computer might be paired with several peripheral chips; in that case the BSP might include drivers for peripheral chips supported; when building the BSP image the user would specify which peripheral drivers to include based on their choice of hardware.

Some suppliers also provide a root file system, a [[toolchain]] for building programs to run on the [[embedded system]], and utilities to configure the device (while running) along with the BSP. Many embedded operating system providers provide template BSP's, developer assistance, and test suites to aid BSP developers to set up an embedded operating system on a new hardware platform.

==History==
The term ''BSP'' has been in use since 1981 when Hunter & Ready, the developers of the [[Versatile Real-Time Executive]] (VRTX), first coined the term to describe the [[hardware-dependent software]] needed to run VRTX on a specific hardware platform. Since the 1980s, it has been in wide use throughout the industry. Virtually all RTOS providers now use the term BSP.

==Example==
The [[Wind River Systems]] board support package for the ARM Integrator 920T single-board computer contains, among other things, these elements:
* A config.h file, which defines constants such as ROM_SIZE and RAM_HIGH_ADRS.
* A [[Makefile]], which defines binary versions of VxWorks ROM images for programming into [[flash memory]].
* A boot ROM file, which defines the boot line parameters for the board.
* A target.ref file, which describes board-specific information such as switch and jumper settings, interrupt levels, and offset bias.
* A [[VxWorks]] image.
* Various [[C (programming language)|C]] files, including:
:flashMem.c—the device driver for the board's flash memory
:pciIomapShow.c—mapping file for the PCI bus
:primeCellSio.c—TTY driver
:sysLib.c—system-dependent routines specific to this board
:romInit.s—ROM initialization module for the board; contains entry code for images that start running from ROM

Additionally the BSP is supposed to perform the following operations:
*Initialize the processor
*Initialize the board
*Initialize the RAM
*Configure the segments
*Load and run OS from flash

== See also ==
* [[BIOS]]
* [[UEFI]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Embedded systems}}

[[Category:Booting]]
[[Category:Firmware]]
[[Category:Motherboard]]
[[Category:Embedded systems]]

Drain STH

2023-12-03T12:22:45Z

Omcsesz: /* Discography */

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}}
{{short description|Swedish rock band}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Drain STH
| image =
| caption =
| alias = Drain
| origin = [[Stockholm]], Sweden
| instrument =
| genre = {{flatlist|
*[[Grunge]]
*[[alternative metal]]
*[[hard rock]]
*[[nu metal]]
}}
| occupation =
| years_active = 1993–2000
| label = {{hlist|MVG Records|The Enclave|[[Mercury Records|Mercury]]}}
| website =
| current_members = Maria Sjöholm Anna Kjellberg Flavia Canel Martina Axen
| past_members =
}}

'''Drain''', known in North America as '''Drain STH''' (S.T.H. for Stockholm), was a Swedish [[hard rock]] band from [[Stockholm]].

== Biography ==
[[Stockholm]] quartet Drain STH underwent many changes in both musical style and image. Guitarist Flavia Canel and drummer Martina Axén had been together in many acts starting with [[Punk rock|punk]] band [[Livin' Sacrifice]] (not to be confused with the [[thrash metal]] band [[Living Sacrifice]]). As this act progressed the sound developed into more of a [[hard rock]] vein.

Livin' Sacrifice evolved into Aphrodite with Axén, Canel, vocalist Malin Ekholm, guitarist Maria "Mia" Landberg, and bassist Marianne Hall. Aphrodite folded upon Ekholm's departure in 1990.

Axén, Canel and Anna K formed a new band called Ragdoll in 1991 that included vocalist Annie Gutå.

With Gutås's departure, Axén, Canel and Anna K joined forces with former Necro Nancy guitarist-turned-vocalist Maria Sjöholm (later wife of [[Black Sabbath]] guitarist [[Tony Iommi]]). They changed the name to Drain and signed a deal with MVG Records in 1994. For the American market the band was known as Drain STH. Live promotion in North America included second stage appearances at the [[Ozzfest]] event in 1997 and 1999, and tours with [[Type O Negative]], [[Corrosion of Conformity]], [[Machine Head (band)|Machine Head]], [[Megadeth]], [[Godsmack]] and Black Sabbath among others. The 1999 album ''Freaks Of Nature'' would be noted for the inclusion of the track "Black", co-written by Iommi, along with two tracks — "Simon Says" and "Right Through You" — co-written by [[Max Martin]]. In ''[[Metal Edge]]'' magazine's 1999 Readers' Choice Awards, they were voted "Female Performers of the Year" and "Most Underrated Band".<ref>''Metal Edge'', July 2000</ref> The single "Simon Says" was used as the entrance music for [[Extreme Championship Wrestling]] wrestler [[Simon Diamond]]. Despite heavy publicity, the band folded in 2000.

Axén (switching to vocals) and Anna K created Superfix with guitarist China and drummer Sid from Sinisstar. Progress with this new unit was slow, a second demo and [[Los Angeles]] showcase gig being delivered in August 2002 with the project laid to rest soon after.

During 2001 Canel re-emerged, touting her new project, the Brooklyn-based Anotherday. In early 2002 Axén announced the formation of a side-project dubbed Dr. Fungus, with [[Coal Chamber]] bassist Nadja Puelen, [[Adema]] drummer Kris Kohls, and [[Unida]] guitarist Arthur Seay.

By mid-2003 Canel, working alongside vocalist / guitarist Niklas Fagerström, ex-SELPH guitarist Serban Carapancea and drummer Fabien Perreau, was touting a fresh [[Stockholm]]-based band entitled Blowsight. That summer bassist Anna K joined New York [[Industrial music|industrial]] band [[Hanzel und Gretyl]] for their ''Fukken Über'' tour, remaining a member until 2005. In 2006 Anna K was recruited by [[Al Jourgensen]] for the re-union tour of [[Revolting Cocks]] and in 2007 she joined the LA based [[Opiate for the Masses]]. Axén joined [[Snake River Conspiracy]] in June 2004, replacing [[Tobey Torres]], and quit in early 2006 to focus on her solo work.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myspace.com/annakbass |title=Anna K | Listen and Stream Free Music, Albums, New Releases, Photos, Videos |website=Myspace.com |date= |accessdate=19 April 2020}}</ref>

== Members ==
* Maria Sjöholm – lead vocals
* Flavia Canel – guitar
* Anna Kjellberg – bass
* Martina Axén – drums, backing vocals

== Discography ==
* 1995 ''Serve The Shame'' [EP]
features tracks that will be used in the ''Horror Wrestling'' LP: "Serve The Shame" & "Unreal" (from the original edition), "Klotera" & "So I Will Burn (Alone)" (from the reissue expanded edition) and the 7 seconds long "To Be Continued..." (an a cappella chorus used into the song "Someone")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://purjo.com/discographies/discography.asp?artist=00_drain|title=Drain discography|website=purjo.com|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=IamTahko|title=Drain STH – Without Eyes/To Be Continued.|date=6 December 2013|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Hd8Ai5pKfI&t=4m29s |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211219/9Hd8Ai5pKfI |archive-date=19 December 2021 |url-status=live|accessdate=7 September 2017}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
* 1996 ''[[Horror Wrestling]]'' [expanded in 1998]
The expanded edition collects most of the non-album songs around that time. But some were left out: "''I Don't Mind (Clawfinger Remix)''" by Jocke Skog, "''Without Eyes''" ("''Crack The Liars Smile''" b-side) and one of the two "''Serve The Shame''" acoustic versions (the other was collected but under the generic name of "''acoustic version''" while a single featured an "''Unplugged''" and a "''Further Unplugged''" version)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.discogs.com/it/Drain-STH-Serve-The-Shame-Acoustic/release/3388952|title=Drain S.T.H.* – Serve The Shame (Acoustic)|website=Discogs|language=it|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>
* 1999 ''[[Freaks of Nature (Drain STH album)|Freaks Of Nature]]''<ref>{{cite web|url={{Allmusic|class=album|id=r422242|pure_url=yes}}|title=Allmusic review|accessdate=2 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/artists/drainsth/albums/album/310505/review/5945845/freaks_of_nature|title=Rolling Stone Review|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|accessdate=2 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905105900/http://www.rollingstone.com/artists/drainsth/albums/album/310505/review/5945845/freaks_of_nature|archive-date=5 September 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref>
A single release of "''Enter My Mind''" featured the B-side "''Down''"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.discogs.com/it/Drain-Enter-My-Mind/release/8056619|title=Drain (3) – Enter My Mind|website=Discogs|language=it|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> (both are featured as the opening tracks of the sampler disc "''Ozzfest Rock Pile Sampler''")<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.discogs.com/it/Various-Ozzfest-Rock-Pile-Sampler/release/753666|title=Various – Ozzfest Rock Pile Sampler|website=Discogs|language=it|access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref>
* "''[[20th Century Boy]]''" cover from [[Detroit Rock City (film)#Soundtrack|''Detroit Rock City (Music From The Motion Picture)'']]

== Chart positions ==
'''Albums'''
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:220px;"| Album details
!colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
|-
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | [[Sverigetopplistan|SWE]]
! scope="col" style="width:3em;font-size:90%;" | [[Top Heatseekers|US Heatsekeers]]
|-
|''Horror Wrestling''
(Released in 1996)
| style="text-align:center;"|59
| style="text-align:center;"|-
|-
|''Freaks of Nature''
(Released in 1999)
| style="text-align:center;"|26
| style="text-align:center;"|25
|}

'''Singles''' – Billboard (USA)
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Single
!Chart
!Position
|-
|1997
|"I Don't Mind"
|Mainstream Rock
| style="text-align:center;"|33
|-
|1998
|"Crack the Liar's Smile"
|Mainstream Rock
| style="text-align:center;"|25
|-
|rowspan="2"|1999
|"Enter My Mind"
|Mainstream Rock
| style="text-align:center;"|34
|-
|"Simon Says"
|Mainstream Rock
| style="text-align:center;"|24
|}

== Careers of members ==
* Maria Sjöholm married [[Black Sabbath]] guitarist [[Tony Iommi]], and is now retired from music.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bonedo.de/artikel/einzelansicht/interview-tony-iommiheaven-hell/2.html|title=Interview Tony Iommi/Heaven & Hell|page=2|publisher=Bonedo|language=German|date=24 April 2009}}</ref>
* Martina Axén sang in [[Snake River Conspiracy]] and has recorded a solo album that has yet to be released.
* Flavia Canel, is now Manager of [[Sonic Syndicate]] and is not playing guitar professionally anymore.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://profile.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=user.viewprofile&friendid=14986218 |title=Flavia's Official MySpace Page |accessdate=10 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081114180429/http://profile.myspace.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=user.viewprofile |archivedate=14 November 2008 }}</ref>
* Anna K played in [[Hanzel Und Gretyl]], [[Revolting Cocks]], [[Opiate for the Masses]] and has last worked on a Stockholm-based project involving members of [[Clawfinger]] and Skintrade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://myspace.com/annakbass |title=Anna K | Listen and Stream Free Music, Albums, New Releases, Photos, Videos |website=Myspace.com |date= |accessdate=19 April 2020}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.facebook.com/DrainSTH Drain STH on Facebook]
* [http://www.myspace.com/drainsthmusic Drain STH on MySpace]
* [http://www.myspace.com/blowsight Blowsight's MySpace]
* [http://www.myspace.com/martinaaxen Martina Axén MySpace]
* [http://www.myspace.com/annakbass Anna K Myspace]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Swedish hard rock musical groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Stockholm]]
[[Category:All-female bands]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1993]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2000]]
[[Category:1993 establishments in Sweden]]
[[Category:2000 disestablishments in Sweden]]
[[Category:Mercury Records artists]]
[[Category:Swedish girl groups]]

Uri Fink

2023-09-11T11:00:41Z

Omcsesz: /* Work */

{{short description|Israeli comics artist and comic book writer (b. 1963)}}
{{Infobox comics creator
| image = Uri Fink.jpg
| caption = Fink, 2004
| birth_name = Uri Fink
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|9|18}}
| birth_place = [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]]
| nationality = [[Israel]]i
| area =
| cartoonist = y
| write = y
| art = y
| alias =
| notable works = ''[[Zbeng!]]''
| awards =
}}
'''Uri Fink''' (Hebrew: אורי פינק, born 18 September 1963) is an Israeli [[comic book]] artist and writer, and creator of the comics series ''[[Zbeng!]]'' He is considered one of Israel's leading comic book artists.

==Biography==
Fink was born in [[Tel Aviv]], [[Israel]] in 1963.<ref>[http://lambiek.net/artists/f/fink-uri.htm Comic creator: Uri Fink]</ref> He began drawing at a very early age, influenced mainly by the comic books he enjoyed reading.

In 1978, at age 15, he published his first comic story of the Hebrew superhero Sabraman.<ref>[http://www.internationalhero.co.uk/h/hebrewsh.htm Hebrew Superheroes, by Eli Eshed]</ref>

After serving in the Israeli army from 1981 to 1984, he was accepted into the Department of Visual Design at Israeli's [[Bezalel Academy of Art and Design]]. His final project was the comic book ''Hevlay Meshiach,'' which was later published.<ref>[http://no666.wordpress.com/2007/10/03/אורי-פינק-האיש-והתופעה/ אורי פינק :האיש והתופעה « המולטי יקום של אלי אשד]</ref>

On August 17, 1987, his comic ''[[Zbeng!]]'' was first published in the leading Israeli teen magazine ''Ma'Ariv La'Noar.''<ref>[http://www.cartooningforpeace.org/en/dessinateurs/fink Cartooning for Peace - URI FINK]</ref> The one-page comic was soon expanded to a number of pages, and became the magazine's most prominent feature.

Fink has published 22 ''Zbeng!'' books, and two books on how to draw the ''Zbeng!'' characters. He has also published many other ''Zbeng!'' products, including a series of school diaries, a notebook, and ''Zbengale'' (''Zbeng!'' for younger children).

Fink published many comic books during the 1990s, when ''Zbeng!'' enjoyed massive popularity among Israeli youth.

He is also the editor of the monthly ''Zbeng!'' Magazine, which features the work of Fink and other Israeli cartoonists. More than 100 issues have been published.

Following his belief that art can contribute back to society, Fink joined [https://web.archive.org/web/20130930144408/http://www.cnv.co.il/cfa.htm "Comics For All"] in May 2010, a collective of Israeli comic artists which aims to promote the comic medium as a cultural and educational tool. He participates in various of the group's activities.

== Work ==
Fink has written and drawn many comic books, including:
* ''Sabraman'' (סברמן) – The adventures of the Hebrew superhero "Sabraman," also known as Dan Bar-On. His parents are killed during the [[Holocaust]] by the [[Nazis]]. After the end of [[World War II]] he immigrates to Israel, becomes a policeman, then a special secret agent. He receives a special transplanted atomic brain that gives him radioactive super-powers.
* ''Havlei Mashiah'' (הבלי משיח) – a book designed as part of Fink's final project at Israel's [[Bezalel Academy of Art and Design]].
* ''Super Shlumper'' (סופר שלומפר) – a series parodying typical [[superhero]]es, features a hero who appears in [[pajamas]]
* ''[[Zbeng!]]'' (!זבנג) – a comics series about a gang of typical Israeli teens that plays on stereotypes of that age group (the Geek; the Bully; the Raunchy Guy; the Leftist; the Rocker; the Most Beautiful Girl in the Class; the Soldier; the Fat Kid; the Homosexual; the Quirky Principal; and the Mean Teacher), it has long been popular with Israeli youth. It appeared in the weekly youth magazine ''[[Ma'Ariv La'Noar]]''; was published in 22 different volumes; and was adapted into a TV show. An extensive line of ''Zbeng!" merchandise includes school diaries, notebooks and booklets.
* ''Zbengale'' (זבנגלה) – This comic takes place is a different time in the world of ''Zbeng!''; that of the early childhood of the original character set. This comic series was created by Fink from his desire to create a comic designed for children without much [[violence]] or crudeness.
* ''Days of Antiochus'' (ימי אנטיוכוס) – The main character of this comic series is an evil dog called Antiochus.
* ''Shabtai'' (שבתאי) – This comic originally appeared in the Israeli web portal "Nana" in 1999, where it has been published until today. ''Shabtai'' is the only daily comic in Israel, starting originally as somewhat similar to the comic ''[[Dilbert]]'', although it has become more political and current events-oriented.
* ''The Golem'' (הגולם) – An [[Alternate history|alternative history]] comic book. The main character in the book is The Golem, a supposedly real Israeli superhero, who is very popular in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, and had a big influence on the crucial moments of Israel. In 2005,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3039154,00.html |title='Golem' creators know their field |publisher=[[Ynetnews#Website|ynetnews.com]] |date=22 February 2005 |access-date=9 February 2009}}</ref> Fink and writer Eli Eshed adapted the Golem series into a daily strip that ran online on the Israeli English-language news website, [[Ynetnews]].
* ''Gogi Stories'' (סיפורי גוגי) – After Uri Fink became a father, he created this comic which is dedicated entirety to the experience of parenthood. The main characters are his own family: his wife, Liat; his daughters, Inbar and Yael.
* ''The Jungle Book'' (ספר הג'ונגל) – Three books which parody the [[Politics of Israel|Israeli politics]].
* ''Tales From the Ragin' Region'' – A subversive comic book only printed in English. It addresses the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]].

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CogIP5_YoGU PRI's The World: Israeli political cartoonist Uri Fink] - published on [[YouTube]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ks227CdJGts Uri Fink explains the process of creating comics in his studio (Part I)] [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rKhqE7vsfm8 (Part II)] - published on [[YouTube]] (Hebrew)
* [http://lambiek.net/artists/f/fink-uri.htm Fink bio], Lambiek Comiclopedia

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fink, Uri}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Israeli illustrators]]
[[Category:Bezalel Academy of Arts and Design alumni]]
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Israeli comics artists]]
[[Category:Israeli comics writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Tel Aviv]]
[[Category:20th-century Israeli male artists]]
[[Category:21st-century Israeli male artists]]
[[Category:20th-century Israeli male writers]]
[[Category:21st-century Israeli male writers]]

List of Russian mathematicians

2023-08-17T10:23:26Z

Omcsesz: /* K */

{{Short description|None}}
{{Expand list|date=February 2011}}
[[File:The Soviet Union 1961 CPA 2627 stamp (Publicizing Communist labor teams in their efforts for labor. education and relaxation. Workers studying mathematics).jpg|thumb|1961 Soviet stamp depicting "Workers studying mathematics"]]
This '''list of [[Russia]]n [[mathematician]]s''' includes the famous mathematicians from the [[Russian Empire]], the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Russian Federation]].

==Alphabetical list==
{{compact ToC|side=yes|seealso=yes}}__NOTOC__



===A===
[[File:Vladimir Arnold-1.jpg|thumb|90px|'''[[Vladimir Arnold|Arnold]]''']]

*'''[[Georgy Adelson-Velsky]]''', inventor of [[AVL tree]] algorithm, developer of [[Kaissa]], the first world computer chess champion
*'''[[Sergei Adian]]''', known for his work in [[group theory]], especially on the [[Burnside problem]]
*'''[[Aleksandr Danilovich Aleksandrov|Aleksandr Aleksandrov]]''', developer of [[CAT(k) space]] and [[Alexandrov's uniqueness theorem]] in geometry
*'''[[Pavel Alexandrov]]''', author of the [[Alexandroff compactification]] and the [[Alexandrov topology]]
*'''[[Dmitri Anosov]]''', developed [[Anosov diffeomorphism]]
*'''[[Vladimir Arnold]]''', an author of the [[Kolmogorov–Arnold–Moser theorem]] in [[dynamical system]]s, solved [[Hilbert's 13th problem]], raised the [[ADE classification]] and [[Arnold's rouble problem]]s

===B===
*'''[[Alexander Beilinson]]''', influential mathematician in [[representation theory]], [[algebraic geometry]] and [[mathematical physics]]
*'''[[Sergey Bernstein]]''', developed the [[Bernstein polynomial]], [[Bernstein's theorem on monotone functions|Bernstein's theorem]] and [[Bernstein inequalities in probability theory]]
*'''[[Nikolay Bogolyubov]]''', mathematician and theoretical physicist, author of the [[edge-of-the-wedge theorem]], [[Krylov–Bogolyubov theorem]], [[describing function]] and multiple important contributions to [[quantum mechanics]]
*'''[[Vladimir Berkovich]]''', developed [[Berkovich space]]s
*'''[[Viktor Bunyakovsky]]''', noted for his work in theoretical mechanics and number theory, and is credited with an early discovery of the [[Cauchy–Schwarz inequality]]
*'''[[Leonid Berlyand]]''', [[Partial differential equation|PDE]] theorist, worked on [[asymptotic homogenization]] methods, [[Humboldt Prize]] winner

===C===
[[File:Chebyshev.jpg|thumb|90px|'''[[Chebyshev]]''']]

*'''[[Georg Cantor]]''', inventor of [[set theory]]. Cantor was born into the Russian Empire, moving to Saxony with his family at age 11.
*'''[[Sergey Alexeyevich Chaplygin|Sergey Chaplygin]]''', author of [[Chaplygin's equation]] important in [[aerodynamics]] and notion of [[Chaplygin gas]].
*'''[[Nikolai Chebotaryov]]''', author of [[Chebotarev's density theorem]]
*'''[[Pafnuti Chebyshev]]''', prominent tutor and founding father of Russian mathematics, contributed to [[probability]], [[statistics]] and [[number theory]], author of the [[Chebyshev's inequality]], [[Chebyshev distance]], [[Chebyshev function]], [[Chebyshev equation]] etc.
*'''[[Sergei Chernikov]]''', significant contributor to both infinite group theory (developer of Chernikov groups), and linear programming.

===D===

*'''[[Boris Delaunay]]''', inventor of [[Delaunay triangulation]], organised the first [[Soviet Student Olympiad]] in mathematics
*'''[[Vladimir Drinfeld]]''', mathematician and theoretical physicist, introduced [[quantum group]]s and [[ADHM construction]], [[Fields Medal]] winner
*'''[[Eugene Dynkin]]''', developed [[Dynkin diagram]], [[Doob–Dynkin lemma]] and [[Dynkin system]] in [[algebra]] and [[probability]]

===E===
[[File:Leonhard Euler 2.jpg|thumb|100px|'''[[Euler]]''']]

*'''[[Dmitri Egorov]]''', known for significant contributions to the areas of differential geometry and mathematical analysis.
*'''[[Leonhard Euler]]''', preeminent 18th century mathematician, arguably the greatest of all time, made important discoveries in [[mathematical analysis]], [[graph theory]] and [[number theory]], introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation ([[mathematical function]], [[Euler's number]], [[Euler circle (disambiguation)|Euler circle]]s etc.) Although Swiss born Euler spent most of his life in [[Saint Petersburg|St. Petersburg]].

===F===

*'''[[Ivan Fesenko]]''', number theorist
*'''[[Anatoly Fomenko]]''', topologist and chronologist, put forth a controversial theory of the [[New Chronology (Fomenko)|New Chronology]]
*'''[[Aleksander Friedman]]''', mathematician, physicist, geophysicist; [[Friedmann-Lamaître-Robertson-Walker metric]]
*'''[[Yevgraf Fyodorov]]''', mathematician and crystallographer, identified [[Periodic graph (geometry)|Periodic graph]] in geometry, the first to catalogue all 230 [[space groups]] of crystals

===G===
[[File:Gromov Mikhail Leonidovich.jpg|thumb|105px|'''[[Mikhail Gromov (mathematician)|Gromov]]''']]

*'''[[Boris Galerkin]]''', developed the [[Galerkin method]] in [[numerical analysis]]
*'''[[Israel Gelfand]]''', major contributor to numerous areas of mathematics, including [[group theory]], [[representation theory]] and [[linear algebra]], author of the [[Gelfand representation]], [[Gelfand pair]], [[Gelfand triple]], [[integral geometry]] etc.
*'''[[Alexander Gelfond]]''', author of [[Gelfond's theorem]], provided means to obtain infinite number of [[transcendentals]], including [[Gelfond–Schneider constant]] and [[Gelfond's constant]], [[Wolf Prize in Mathematics]] winner
*'''[[Semyon Aranovich Gershgorin]]''', of [[Gerschgorin circle theorem]] fame
*'''[[Sergei Godunov]]''', developed [[Godunov's theorem]] and [[Godunov's scheme]] in [[differential equations]]
*'''[[Valery Goppa]]''', inventor of [[Binary Goppa code|Goppa codes]], and [[Algebraic geometry code|algebraic geometry codes]] in the field of [[algebraic geometry]]
*'''[[Mikhail Leonidovich Gromov|Mikhail Gromov]]''', a prominent developer of [[geometric group theory]], inventor of [[homotopy principle]], introduced [[Gromov's compactness theorem (geometry)|Gromov's compactness theorem]], [[Gromov norm]], [[Gromov product]] etc., Wolf Prize winner

===K===
[[File:Sofja Wassiljewna Kowalewskaja 1.jpg|thumb|95px|'''[[Sofia Kovalevskaya|Kovalevskaya]]''']]
*'''[[Leonid Kantorovich]]''', mathematician and economist, founded [[linear programming]], introduced the [[Kantorovich inequality]] and [[Kantorovich metric]], developed the theory of [[Optimization (mathematics)|optimal allocation]] of resources, [[Nobel Prize in Economics]] winner
*'''[[Anatoly Karatsuba]]''', developed the [[Karatsuba algorithm]] (the first fast [[multiplication algorithm]])
*'''[[David Kazhdan]]''', Soviet, American and Israeli mathematician, Representation theory, Category theory, [[Kazhdan-Lusztig conjecture]], [[Kazhdan-Margulis theorem]], [[Kazhdan property (T)]]. Held [[MacArthur Fellowship]], [[Israel Prize]], [[Shaw prize]] in Mathematics, doctoral adviser of [[Vladimir Voevodsky]] ([[Fields medal]] recipient)
*'''[[Leonid Khachiyan]]''', developed the [[Ellipsoid algorithm]] for [[linear programming]]
*'''[[Aleksandr Khinchin]]''', developed the [[Pollaczek-Khinchine formula]], [[Wiener–Khinchin theorem]] and [[Khinchin inequality]] in [[probability theory]]
*'''[[Askold Khovanskii]]''', inventor of the theory of [[Fewnomials]], contributions to the theory of [[toric varieties]], [[Jeffery–Williams Prize]] winner
*'''[[Andrey Kolmogorov]]''', preeminent 20th century mathematician, Wolf Prize winner; multiple contributions to mathematics include: [[probability axioms]], [[Chapman–Kolmogorov equation]] and [[Kolmogorov extension theorem]] in [[probability]]; [[Kolmogorov complexity]] etc.
*'''[[Maxim Kontsevich]]''', author of the [[Kontsevich integral]] and [[Kontsevich quantization formula]], Fields Medal winner
*'''[[Aleksandr Korkin]]''',
*'''[[Vladimir Aleksandrovich Kotelnikov|Vladimir Kotelnikov]]''', pioneer in [[information theory]], an author of fundamental [[sampling theorem]]
*'''[[Sofia Kovalevskaya]]''', first woman professor in Northern Europe and Russia, the first female professor of mathematics, discovered the [[Kovalevskaya top]]
*'''[[Mikhail Kravchuk]]''', developed the [[Kravchuk polynomials]] and [[Kravchuk matrix]]
*'''[[Mark Krein]]''', developed the [[Tannaka–Krein duality]], [[Krein–Milman theorem]] and [[Krein space]], Wolf Prize winner
*'''[[Alexander Kronrod]]''', developer of [[Gauss–Kronrod quadrature formula]] and [[Kaissa]], the first world computer chess champion
*'''[[Aleksey Krylov|Aleksey Nikolaevich Krylov]]''', first developed the method of [[Krylov subspace]], still widely used numerical method for linear problems
*'''[[Nikolay Mitrofanovich Krylov|Nikolay Krylov]]''', author of the [[edge-of-the-wedge theorem]], [[Krylov–Bogolyubov theorem]] and [[describing function]]
*'''[[Aleksandr Kurosh]]''', author of the [[Kurosh subgroup theorem]] and [[Kurosh problem]] in [[group theory]]

===L===
[[File:Lobachevsky cropped.jpg|thumb|90px|'''[[Lobachevsky]]''']]
[[File:Alexander Ljapunow jung.jpg|thumb|90px|'''[[Aleksandr Lyapunov|Lyapunov]]''']]

*'''[[Olga Aleksandrovna Ladyzhenskaya|Olga Ladyzhenskaya]]''', made major contributions to solution of [[Hilbert's nineteenth problem|Hilbert's 19th problem]] and important [[Navier–Stokes equations]]
*'''[[Evgeny Landis]]''', inventor of [[AVL tree]] algorithm
*'''[[Vladimir Levenshtein]]''', developed the [[Levenshtein automaton]], [[Levenshtein coding]] and [[Levenshtein distance]]
*'''[[Leonid Levin]]''', computer scientist, developed the [[Cook-Levin theorem]]
*'''[[Yuri Linnik]]''', developed [[Linnik's theorem]] in [[analytic number theory]]
*'''[[Nikolai Lobachevsky]]''', a ''[[Copernicus]] of [[Geometry]]'' who created the first [[non-Euclidean]] geometry ([[Lobachevskian]] or [[hyperbolic geometry]])
*'''[[Lazar Lyusternik]]''', Mathematician, famous for work in topology and differential geometry. Codevelops Lyusternik-Schnirelmann theory with '''[[Lev Schnirelmann]]'''.
*'''[[Nikolai Lusin]]''', developed [[Luzin's theorem]], [[Luzin set|Luzin spaces]] and [[Luzin set]]s in [[descriptive set theory]]
*'''[[Aleksandr Lyapunov]]''', founder of [[stability theory]], author of the [[Lyapunov's central limit theorem]], [[Lyapunov equation]], [[Lyapunov fractal]], [[Lyapunov time]] etc.

===M===
[[File:AAMarkov.jpg|thumb|100px|'''[[Andrey Markov|Markov, Sr.]]''']]

*'''[[Leonty Magnitsky]]''', a director of the [[Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation]], author of the principal Russian 18th century textbook in mathematics
*'''[[Anatoly Maltsev]]''', researched [[decidability (logic)|decidability]] of various [[algebraic group]]s, developed the [[Malcev algebra]]
*'''[[Yuri Manin]]''', author of the [[Gauss–Manin connection]] in [[algebraic geometry]], [[Manin-Mumford conjecture]] and [[Manin obstruction]] in [[diophantine geometry]]
*'''[[Grigory Margulis]]''', worked on [[lattice (discrete subgroup)|lattices]] in [[Lie groups]], Wolf Prize and [[Fields Medal]] winner
*'''[[Andrey Markov|Andrey Markov, Sr.]]''', invented the [[Markov chain]]s, proved [[Markov brothers' inequality]], author of the [[hidden Markov model]], [[Markov number]], [[Markov property]], [[Markov's inequality]], [[Markov process]]es, [[Markov random field]], [[Markov algorithm]] etc.
*'''[[Andrey Markov (Soviet mathematician)|Andrey Markov, Jr.]]''', author of [[Markov's principle]] and [[Markov's principle#Markov's rule|Markov's rule]] in logics
*'''[[Yuri Matiyasevich]]''', author of [[Matiyasevich's theorem]] in [[set theory]], provided a negative solution for [[Hilbert's tenth problem]]
*'''[[Mikhail Vasilyevich Menshikov|Mikhail Menshikov]]''', probabilist
*'''[[Alexander Ivanovich Mikhailov|Alexander Mikhailov]]''', coined the term ''[[Informatics (academic field)|Informatics]]''

===N===

*'''[[Mark Naimark]]''', author of the [[Gelfand–Naimark theorem]] and [[Naimark's problem]]
*'''[[Pyotr Novikov]]''', solved the [[word problem for groups]] and [[Burnside's problem]]
*'''[[Sergei Novikov (mathematician)|Sergei Novikov]]''', worked on [[algebraic topology]] and [[soliton theory]], developed [[Adams–Novikov spectral sequence]] and [[Novikov conjecture]], Wolf Prize and Fields Medal winner

===O===

*'''[[Andrei Okounkov]]''', [[infinite symmetric group]]s and [[Hilbert scheme]] researcher, Fields Medal winner
*'''[[Mikhail Vasilievich Ostrogradsky|Mikhail Ostrogradsky]]''', mathematician and physicist, author of [[divergence theorem]] and [[partial fractions in integration]]

===P===

*'''[[Grigori Perelman]]''', made landmark contributions to [[Riemannian geometry]] and [[topology]], proved [[Geometrization conjecture]] and [[Poincaré conjecture]], won a [[Fields medal]] and the first Clay [[Millennium Prize Problems]] Award (declined both)
*'''[[Lev Pontryagin]]''', blind mathematician, developed [[Pontryagin duality]] and [[Pontryagin class]]es in topology, and [[Pontryagin's minimum principle]] in [[optimal control]]
*'''[[Yury Prokhorov]]''', author of the [[Lévy–Prokhorov metric]] and [[Prokhorov's theorem]] in [[probability]]

===R===

*'''[[Alexander Razborov]]''', [[mathematician]] and [[computational theorist]] who won the [[Nevanlinna Prize]] in 1990 and the [[Gödel Prize]] for contributions to [[Theory of computation|computer sciences]]

===S===
[[File:Igor_Shafarevich.jpeg|thumb|95px|'''[[Igor Shafarevich|Shafarevich]]''']]
[[File:Sobolev S L.jpeg|thumb|95px|'''[[Sergei Sobolev|Sobolev]]''']]
[[File:Steklov.jpg|thumb|95px|'''[[Vladimir Steklov (mathematician)|Steklov]]''']]

*'''[[Numan Yunusovich Satimov]]''', specialist in the theory of [[differential equations]]
*'''[[Lev Schnirelmann]]''', developed the [[Lusternik–Schnirelmann category]] in topology and [[Schnirelmann density]] of numbers
*'''[[Igor Shafarevich]]''', introduced the [[Shafarevich–Weil theorem]], proved the [[Golod–Shafarevich theorem]] and [[Shafarevich's theorem on solvable Galois groups]], important [[dissident]] during the [[Soviet]] regime, wrote books and articles that criticised [[socialism]]
*'''[[Moses Schönfinkel]]''', inventor of [[combinatory logic]]
*'''[[Yakov Sinai]]''', developed the [[Kolmogorov–Sinai entropy]] and [[Sinai billiard]], Wolf Prize winner
*'''[[Eugen Slutsky]]''', statistician and economist, developed the [[Slutsky equation]] and [[Slutsky's theorem]]
*'''[[Stanislav Smirnov]]''', prominent researcher of [[triangular lattice]], Fields Medalist
*'''[[Sergei Sobolev]]''', introduced the [[Sobolev space]]s and [[mathematical distribution]]s, co-developer of the first [[ternary computer]] ''[[Setun]]''
*'''[[Vladimir Steklov (mathematician)|Vladimir Steklov]]''', mathematician and physicist, founder of [[Steklov Institute of Mathematics]], proved theorems on [[generalized Fourier series]]
*'''[[Bella Subbotovskaya]]''', specialist in [[Boolean functions]], founder of unauthorized Jewish People's University to educate Jews barred from quality universities

===T===

*'''[[Jakow Trachtenberg]]''', developed the [[Trachtenberg system]] of [[mental calculation]]
*'''[[Boris Trakhtenbrot]]''', proved the [[Gap theorem]], developed [[Trakhtenbrot's theorem]]
*'''[[Valentin Turchin]]''', inventor of [[Refal programming language]], introduced [[metasystem transition]] and [[supercompilation]]
*'''[[Andrey Tychonoff|Andrey Tikhonov]]''', author of [[Tikhonov space]] and [[Tikhonov's theorem]] (central in [[general topology]]), the [[Tikhonov regularization]] of [[ill-posed problem]]s, invented [[magnetotellurics]]

===U===
*'''[[Pavel Urysohn]]''', developed the topological [[dimension theory]] and [[metrization theorems]], [[Urysohn's Lemma]] and [[Fréchet–Urysohn space]] in [[topology]]

===V===
*'''[[Nicolai A. Vasiliev|Nicolay Vasilyev]]''', inventor of [[non-Aristotelian logic]], the forerunner of [[Paraconsistent logic|paraconsistent]] and [[multi-valued logic]]s
*'''[[Ivan Matveevich Vinogradov|Ivan Vinogradov]]''', developed [[Vinogradov's theorem]] and [[Pólya–Vinogradov inequality]] in [[analytic number theory]]
*'''[[Vladimir Voevodsky]]''', introduced a [[homotopy theory]] for schemes and modern [[motivic cohomology]], Fields Medalist
*'''[[Georgy Voronoy]]''', invented the [[Voronoi diagram]]

===Y===
*'''[[Dmitry Yegorov]]''', author of [[Egorov's Theorem]] in [[mathematical analysis]]

===Z===

*'''[[Efim Zelmanov]]''', solved the [[restricted Burnside problem]]; [[Fields Medal]] winner

==See also==
*[[List of mathematicians]]
*[[List of Russian physicists]]
*[[List of Russian scientists]]
*[[Science and technology in Russia]]

{{Lists of Russians|state=uncollapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Russian Mathematicians}}
[[Category:Lists of mathematicians by nationality]]
[[Category:Russian mathematicians| ]]
[[Category:Lists of Russian people by occupation|Mathematicians]]

Tivadar Csontváry Kosztka

2023-08-12T13:02:06Z

Omcsesz: /* Gallery */ fixed typo

{{Eastern name order|Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar}}
{{More citations needed|date=October 2015}}

{{Infobox artist
| name = Tivadar Csontváry Kosztka
| image = Csontváry Önarckép.jpg|
| caption = ''Self-portrait'' (around 1900)
| alt =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 5 July 1853
| birth_place = [[Kisszeben]], [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Kingdom of Hungary]], [[Austrian Empire]] (now Sabinov, [[Slovakia]])
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1919|6|20|1853|7|5|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Budapest]], [[Hungarian Democratic Republic|Hungary]]
| nationality = [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]]
| field = Painter
| training =
| influenced by =
| movement = [[Post-Impressionism]], [[expressionism]]
| works =
| patron =
| awards =
}}

'''Tivadar Csontváry Kosztka''' born ''Mihály Tivadar Kosztka'' ({{IPA-hu|ˈtivɒdɒr ˈt͡ʃontvaːri ˈkostkɒ}}; 5 July 1853 – 20 June 1919) was a Hungarian painter who was part of the avant-garde movement of the early twentieth century.<ref name=Mansbach>{{Harvnb|Mansbach|V. West|1991| p=101}}</ref> Working mostly in Budapest, he was one of the first Hungarian painters to become known in [[Europe]]. He belonged to no specific school of art, but his works included elements similar to those of the foremost painters of [[Post-Impressionism|Post-impressionism]]. Many critics consider him Hungary’s greatest painter.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tivadar Csontváry-Kosztka {{!}} Hungarian artist {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Tivadar-Csontvary-Kosztka |access-date=2023-05-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> On 15 December 2006 the Kieselbach Gallery in Budapest sold an auction the most expensive Csontváry painting so far. The ''Rendezvous'' (1902) ("Meeting of the lovers") was bought by an anonymous client for more than one million EUR.

His works are held by the [[Hungarian National Gallery]] in [[Budapest]] and the Csontváry Museum in [[Pécs]], among other institutions and private collectors.

==Biography==
Csontváry was born on 5 July 1853 in [[Sabinov|Kisszeben]], [[Sáros County]], [[Kingdom of Hungary]] (today [[Sabinov]], [[Slovakia]]), and died 20 June 1919 in [[Budapest]]. His father, Dr. László Kosztka, was a physician and pharmacist, his mother was Franciska Hajczelmajer of Darócz (now [[Šarišské Dravce]], [[Slovakia]]).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Nemeth|first=Lajos|title=Csontvary|publisher=Corvina|year=1992|isbn=9631326357}}</ref> His ancestors on his father's side were [[Polish people|Poles]] who settled in Hungary.<ref>{{cite book |title= The Art quarterly|last=Valentiner|first= Wilhelm Reinhold|author-link=Wilhelm Valentiner|year= 1965|volume=28|publisher= [[Detroit Institute of Arts]]|quote=Tivadar Kosztka — he was a descendant of old Polish aristocracy who settled in Hungary|page=247 }}</ref> Although Csontváry was obsessed with his [[Hungarian people|Magyar]] roots, he grew up speaking [[Slovak language|Slovak]] mixed with [[German language|German]].<ref name="The Hungarian quarterly">{{cite book|title=The Hungarian quarterly |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bh0QAQAAMAAJ&q=kosztka+slovak+mixed+german |access-date=20 September 2011 |year=1997 |publisher= MTI |page=40 }}</ref> He was a [[pharmacist]] until his twenties.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Bäckström |first1= Per |last2= Hjartarson |first2= Benedikt |title= Decentring the Avant-Garde |date=2014 |publisher= Rodopi |isbn= 978-90-420-3788-5 |pages=72}}</ref>

On the hot sunny afternoon of 13 October 1880, when he was 27 years old, he had a mystic vision. He heard a voice saying, "You are going to be the greatest painter of the world, greater than [[Raphael]]."<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last=Ustasi|first=Macar|title=Csontváry |date=2010|publisher=Pera Müzesi|isbn=978-97-591-2379-6|pages=86}}</ref> He took journeys around Europe, visited the galleries of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]], and returned to Hungary to earn money for his journeys by working as an [[apothecary]]. From 1890, he traveled around the world. He visited [[Paris]], the Mediterraneum ([[Dalmatia]], [[Italy]], [[Greece]]), North Africa and the Middle East ([[Lebanon]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Egypt]], [[Syria]]) and painted pictures. Often his pictures are very large, several meters (yards) wide and height is not unusual.

He painted his major works between 1903 and 1909. He had some exhibitions in Paris (1907) and Western Europe. Most of the critics in Western Europe recognized his abilities, art and congeniality, but in the Kingdom of Hungary during his life, he was considered to be an eccentric [[Crank (person)|crank]] for several reasons, e. g. for his [[vegetarianism]], [[Teetotalism|anti-alcoholism]], [[Abstinence|anti-smoking]], [[pacifism]], and his cloudy, [[prophet]]ic writings and pamphlets about his life (''Curriculum''), genius (''The Authority'', ''The Genius'') and religious philosophy (''The Positivum''). Some of his biographists considered this as a latent, but increasingly disruptive [[schizophrenia]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://szegedma.hu/hir/szeged/2011/11/csontvary-kosztka-tivadar-munkassaga-a-pszichobiografia-tukreben-fotok.html|title=Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar munkássága a pszichobiográfia tükrében + FOTÓK|website=Szeged Ma - tények és vélemények|access-date=2016-05-24}}</ref> Although he was later acclaimed, during his lifetime Csontváry found little understanding for his visionary, expressionistic style. A loner by nature, his "failure" impaired his creative power.

After his death, 42 of Csontváry's paintings lay rolled up, and his heirs almost sold them to be used as cart tarp. They might have been lost forever, if an architect named [[:hu:Gerlóczy_Gedeon|Gedeon Gerlóczy]] had not been searching for a studio at the very time and in the very place, stumbling upon the paintings and buying them. For fifty years, these works of art were gathering dust in Gerlóczy's apartment.

He painted more than one hundred pictures, the most famous and emblematic of which is probably ''The Lonely Cedar'' ([[:hu:Kép:Maganyoscedrus.jpg|''Magányos cédrus'']]). His art connects with post-impressionism and [[expressionism]], but he was an autodidact and cannot be classified into one style. He identified as a "[[Ecliptic|sunway]]"-painter, a term which he created.

== Csontváry and mental disorder ==
Csontváry is remembered as the “mad painter” in Hungary. Sources, including his own diary indicate that he had suffered from mental disorder at least from the time of his first auditory [[hallucination]] experienced at age 27.<ref name=":0" /> Many believe that his unique [[artistic style]] is a product of his mental difficulties,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kővári |first=Adrienn |date=23 April 2009 |title=Amikor megbomlik az összhang |work=hirextra.hu |url=https://www.hirextra.hu/2009/04/23/amikor-megbomlik-az-osszhang/ |access-date=17 March 2023}}</ref> although opinion is split as to what, if any [[mental disorder]] affected the Csontváry and whether that is reflected is his art.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Magyar |first=Hajnalka |date=8 October 2012 |title=Czeizel Endre: Csontváry nem volt őrült... |work=zaol.hu |url=https://www.zaol.hu/tudomany/czeizel-endre-csontvary-nem-volt-orult-1385308/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226085702/https://www.zaol.hu/tudomany/czeizel-endre-csontvary-nem-volt-orult-1385308/ |access-date=17 March 2023|archive-date=2021-02-26 }}</ref>

==Legacy==

[[File:Csontváry - Traui látkép naplemente idején.jpg|thumb|300px|''Traui at sunset'']]
*The Csontváry Museum in [[Pécs]], Hungary, was founded in his honor and holds many of his works.

== A quote ==

:''"I, Tivadar Kosztka, who gave up his prime of youth for the rebirth of the world, accepting the call of the invisible Spirit, had a regular civil job, comfort, wealth then (...) Going to Paris in 1907 I oppositely stood alone in front of millions with only the result of the divine providence, and I beat the vanity of the world hollow, but I haven't killed 10 million people, only sobered them, I haven't made commercials from things, because I didn't care for the pedlar's press; I retired from the world instead, going to the top of the Lebanons, and I painted cedars."''
:: T., Cs. K.: ''[[wikisource:Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar:A Pozitívum|The Positivum]]''.

==Gallery==
{{See also|List of works by Tivadar Csontváry Kosztka}}
<gallery>
File:Contváry Ablaknál ülő nő 1890.jpg|Woman sitting in the window.
File:Csontváry Kosztka, Tivadar - Deer (1893).jpg|Deer.
File:Csontváry Kosztka, Tivadar - Bird of Prey (1893).jpg|Bird of Prey.
File:Csontvary Teniszező társaság.jpg|Tennis party.
File:Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar - Hídon átvnuló társaság (1901 korul).jpg|''People passing a bridge'', 1901
File:Cskt-castellamare di stabia (1902).jpg|''Castellamare di stabia'', 1902
File:Cskt-selmecbanya latkepe (1902).jpg|Panorama of Selmecbánya
File:Csontváry_Szerelmesek_találkozása.jpg|''Rendez-vous of Lovers'', c. 1902
File:Csontváry Kosztka, Tivadar - Old Fisherman (1902).jpg|''Old Fisherman''
File:Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar - 1903 - Schaffhauseni vízesés.jpg|''Waterfall at Schaffhausen'' 1903
File:Cskt-jajcei vizeses (1903).jpg|Waterfall at Jajce
File:Cskt-romai hid mosztarban (1903).jpg|Tivadar Csontváry Kosztka, painting 1903
File:Cskt-tavasz mosztarban (1903).jpg|''Springtime in [[Mostar]]'', 1903, Csontváry Museum, [[Pécs]]
File:Cskt-fohaszkodo udvozito (1903).jpg|''The praying Prophet'' ([[The Young Man from Nain]]), 1903.
File:Cskt-panaszfal bejaratanal jeruzsalemben (1904).jpg|''The Wailing Wall in Jerusalem'', 1904
File:Cskt-olajfak hegye jeruzsalemben (1905).jpg|The Mount of Olives in Jerusalem
File:Cskt-zarandoklas a cedrusokhoz libanonban (1907).jpg|''[[Pilgrimage to the Cedars in Lebanon]]'', 1907, Hungarian National Gallery, [[Budapest]]
File:Cskt-maganyos cedrus (1907).jpg|''The Lonely Cedar'', 1907, Csontváry Museum, Pécs
File:Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar - 1908 - Mária kútja Názáretben.jpg|Maria's well in Nazareth
File:Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar - 1909 - Sétalovaglás a tengerparton.jpg|''The riders at the sea'', 1909
File:Csontváry Kosztka, Tivadar - Ruins of the Greek Theatre at Taormina - Google Art Project.jpg|''Ruins of Greek Theatre at [[Taormina]]'', 1905, Hungarian National Gallery, [[Budapest]]
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book
|last1 = Mansbach
|first1 = Steven A.
|author-link1 = Steven Mansbach
|last2 = V. West
|first2 = Richard
|title = Standing in the tempest: painters of the Hungarian avant-garde, 1908-1930
|publisher = [[Santa Barbara Museum of Art]]
|year = 1991
|isbn = 978-0-262-13274-9
|url-access = registration
|url = https://archive.org/details/standingintempes0000mans
}}

== Further reading ==
*Németh, Lajos. Csontváry. Budapest: Corvina, 1992. {{ISBN|963 13 2635 7}}.

== External links ==
{{commons|Csontváry Kosztka Tivadar}}
{{wikiquote|Tivadar Csontváry Kosztka}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120324180926/http://360gigapixel.net/gigapixel/nemzeti_galeria/csontvary/ An extremely high-res photo of painting ''Ruins of Greek Theatre at Taormina''] (courtesy of Hungarian National Gallery)
*[http://www.pecsimuzeumok.hu/index.php?m=1&s=2&id=35 Csontváry Museum, Pécs] (after first switching to [http://www.pecsimuzeumok.hu/index.php?langid=en English])
*[http://www.hung-art.hu/index-en.html Fine Arts in Hungary]
* [http://www.hung-art.hu/frames-e.html?/english/c/csontvar/index.html Short biography]
* {{IMDb title|0080577|Csontváry (1980)}}
* [http://www.oceansbridge.com/oil-paintings/section.php?xSec=2823 Csontvary on the Oceanbidge]
* [http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-1325879/Tivadar-Csontvary-Kosztka Csontvary in Encyclopedia - Britannica Online Encyclopedia]
* [http://csontvary-kiallitas.hu/ Csontváry Geniusz] exhibition in Budapest, 2015

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Csontvary Kosztka, Tivadar}}
[[Category:1853 births]]
[[Category:1919 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Hungarian painters]]
[[Category:20th-century Hungarian painters]]
[[Category:Burials at Kerepesi Cemetery]]
[[Category:People from Sabinov]]
[[Category:People with schizophrenia]]
[[Category:Symbolist painters]]

Lajos Kassai

2023-08-07T09:30:06Z

Omcsesz: /* Awards, merits */

'''Lajos Kassai''' (born 16 September 1960) is a [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] [[bowyer]], [[archer]] and [[Equestrianism|equestrian]]. He is primarily known for his work reviving the traditional art of [[horse archery]], including adapting it into a modern sport. For his work he received the Officer's Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary]].

== Bow-making ==
Lajos Kassai started making his bows in the mid-1980s and was competing successfully in field archery. Then based on the work of Karoly Cs. Sebestyen and Dr Gyula Fabian, using modern materials and technologies, he reconstructed and as first one in the world started series production of the traditional Hungarian bow used in the age of the [[Hungarian Conquest]]. Eventually bow-making became his primary profession, and he became the first in the world to mass-produce this style of bow. Besides Hungarian, Kassai makes other types of traditional bows, including; [[Scythian]], [[Hun]] (asymmetric type), [[Pannonian Avars|Avar]], and [[Mongol bow|Mongol]].

== Equestrian archery ==
[[File:Kassai-valley.jpg|thumb|280x280px|Kassai-völgy.]]
[[File:Kassai Lajos red bow is an Ölyv, the black bow is a Farkas II.jpg|thumb|right|265px|Ölyv (red) and Farkas II. (black) bows]]
{{Cquote
| text = We are not to follow our ancestors, we are to follow what they were following.
| author = Lajos Kassai
| source = <ref>[https://www.lovasijaszat.hu/en/about-kassai-lajos/], mstt.hu</ref>
}}
Kassai created the competitive rule system of horse archery in the late 1980s, and started to propagate this new sport, first in Hungary, and from the 1990s in the rest of [[Europe]], the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. He made himself familiar with [[kyūdō]] in [[Kamakura]], [[Japan]], and travelled to [[Shaolin Monastery|Shaolin]] in [[China]] to study.

He summarized his experiences in his book ''Lovasíjászat'' ('Horse Archery'), which since its issue has been translated into German, English and Russian.<ref>Lajos Kassai : ''Lovasíjászat'', Dee-Sign Kiadó, Budapest, 2001, 2002, 2003 {{ISBN|9638613416}}, [[Püski Kiadó]], 2006 {{ISBN|9789633021682}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lovasijaszat.hu/volgy/index.php?module=staticpage&id=35&lang=1 |title=Summary of the book |access-date=2017-05-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530170803/http://www.lovasijaszat.hu/volgy/index.php?module=staticpage&id=35&lang=1 |archive-date=2017-05-30 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

He founded the center of Hungarian horse archery, Kassai-völgy, near [[Kaposmérő]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lovasijaszat.hu/volgy/ |title=A Kassai-völgy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128150434/http://www.lovasijaszat.hu/volgy/ |archive-date=2016-01-28 }}</ref> Horse archery centers based on the Kassai school are currently operating in fourteen countries, and organize world cups regularly.

In 2011, the University of Physical Education accepted the education practice developed by Kassai and began horse archery training. Hungary is the first country in the world where one can get a teaching diploma in horse archery.

His life and work was dramatized by Géza Kaszás in the film ''A lovasíjász'' ('The horse archer'), which premiered in January 2016.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://kaposvarmost.hu/videok/kaposvar-most/2016/01/22/kassai-lajos-a-lovasijasz-egy-motivacios-film.html |title=Kassai Lajos: A Lovasíjász egy motivációs film |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160128160643/http://kaposvarmost.hu/videok/kaposvar-most/2016/01/22/kassai-lajos-a-lovasijasz-egy-motivacios-film.html |archive-date=2016-01-28 }}</ref>

== Achievements ==
Lajos Kassai won all competitions he entered from 1994 to 2019, among them countless World Cup rounds and international equestrian archery competitions, and the Equestrian Archery Open World Championship in 2014.

== [[Guinness World Records]] of Lajos Kassai ==
'''He set five Guinness World Records:''' <ref>{{Cite web|title=Kassai Lajos - CV|url=https://www.lovasijaszat.hu/en/about-kassai-lajos/|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''2011''': In December, he shot 14 discs under 19.85 seconds in front of an 8,000 member audience and set his fifth Guinness World Record at the [[László Papp Budapest Sports Arena|Budapest Sport Arena]].

'''2009''': In December, he set his fourth record in the Budapest Sports Arena. He shot 12 pieces of 30 cm diameter flying discs (thrown by his students) from the back of a galloping horse in 17.80 seconds.

'''2006''': Riding 12 horses, Kassai Lajos did equestrian archery continuously for 24 hours during 661 competition runs, he achieved a total score of 15,596.43 points with 5,412 shots. His average point per standard competition (9 runs) was 212.35 points.

'''2002''': Riding 12 horses, during 12 hours of continuous equestrian archery, he managed to achieve a total score of 7,126.05 with nearly 3,000 shots in 323 competition runs, breaking his previous record. His average point per standard competition was 198.55 points.

'''1998''': Riding 12 horses, shot more than 1,000 targeted shots in 286 competition runs during 12 hours of continuous equestrian archery. His average point per standard competition was 133 points.

== Awards, merits ==
* Teleki Pál merit (2021) <ref>{{Cite web|last=Judit|first=Cservenka|title=Kitüntetések – ünnepség nélkül {{!}} Felvidék.ma|url=https://felvidek.ma/2021/03/kituntetesek-unnepseg-nelkul/|access-date=2021-06-24|language=hu}}</ref>
*World Ethnosport Confederation – Special award (2020) <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-02-23|title=Lovasíjászat: Kassai Lajos rangos elismerésben részesült - NSO|url=https://www.nemzetisport.hu/egyeb_egyeni/lovasijaszat-kassai-lajos-rangos-elismeresben-reszesult-2749337|access-date=2021-06-24|website=NSO.hu|language=hu}}</ref>
*University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest – Riding instructor honorary award (2018)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sikertörténet a lovastanár-képzés az Állatorvostudományi Egyetemen|url=https://agronaplo.hu/hirek/sikertortenet-a-lovastanar-kepzes-az-allatorvostudomanyi-egyetemen|access-date=2021-06-24|website=agronaplo.hu|language=hu}}</ref>
*Granite Lion Award – Finalist in the public role model category (2017) <ref>{{Cite web|title=Kassai Lajos Közéleti példakép kategória Döntőse|url=http://ferfiakklubja.hu/ferfiak_klubja_tv/kassai_lajos_peldakep?mode=full|access-date=2021-06-24|website=Férfiak Klubja}}</ref>
*„For the Hungarian nation” – Silver medal (2017)
*From the Hungarian Equestrian Association – Count István Széchenyi Equestrian Commemorative Medal (2017) <ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-02-20|title=Kitüntetettjeink 2016|url=http://www.lovasszovetseg.hu/2017/02/20/kituntetettjeink-2016/|access-date=2021-06-24|website=A Magyar Lovassport Szövetség Hivatalos Weboldala|language=hu}}</ref>
*Pongrátz Gergely cross of merit (2017)
*Middle Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary|Order of Merit of Hungary]] (2016)<ref>{{Cite web|date=2016-03-15|title=Ők vehettek át állami kitüntetéseket a nemzeti ünnep alkalmából {{!}} Híradó|url=http://www.hirado.hu/2016/03/15/ok-vehettek-at-allami-kitunteteseket-a-nemzeti-unnep-alkalmabol/|access-date=2021-06-24|website=web.archive.org|archive-date=2016-03-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315164557/http://www.hirado.hu/2016/03/15/ok-vehettek-at-allami-kitunteteseket-a-nemzeti-unnep-alkalmabol/|url-status=bot: unknown}}</ref>
*Pro Comitatu Somogy award (2016) <ref>{{Cite web|title=Kassai Lajos kapta az idei "Pro Comitatu Somogy" Kitüntető Díjat|url=http://kaposvarmost.hu/videok/kaposvar-most/2016/01/06/kassai-lajos-kapta-az-idei-pro-comitatu-somogy-kitunteto-dijat.html|access-date=2021-06-24|website=kaposvarmost.hu|language=hu}}</ref>
*“For the Hungarians of the World” public award (2014)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Budapest portál {{!}} A főpolgármester köszöntötte a IV. Magyar Világtalálkozó résztvevőit|url=https://budapest.hu:443/Lapok/Budapest-f%C5%91polg%C3%A1rmestere-k%C3%B6sz%C3%B6nt%C3%B6tte-a-IV.-Magyar-Vil%C3%A1gtal%C3%A1lkoz%C3%B3-megnyit%C3%B3j%C3%A1nak-r%C3%A9sztvev%C5%91it-az-.aspx|access-date=2021-06-24|website=budapest.hu|language=hu-hu}}</ref>
*The Original Kassai System equestrian archery method was included in the (Hungarikum) Collection of Hungarian Values (2013) <ref>{{Cite web|title=Kassai-féle lovasíjász módszer {{!}} Hungarikumok Gyűjteménye - Magyar Értéktár|url=http://www.hungarikum.hu/hu/kassai-f%C3%A9le-lovas%C3%ADj%C3%A1sz-m%C3%B3dszer|access-date=2021-06-24|website=www.hungarikum.hu|archive-date=2021-06-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624204017/http://www.hungarikum.hu/hu/kassai-f%C3%A9le-lovas%C3%ADj%C3%A1sz-m%C3%B3dszer|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*Golden Arrowhead Award (2013)<ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-06-29|title=Ismét legyőztük a keleti frankokat! {{!}} Délmagyar Kistelek és környéke, Ópusztaszer|url=https://www.delmagyar.hu/szeged-es-kornyeke/ismet-legyoztuk-a-keleti-frankokat-2892055/|access-date=2021-06-24|website=Délmagyar|language=hu}}</ref>
*Szent István University, Gödöllő – Riding instructor honorary award and Silver Laurel Wreath Award (2013)
*Bárdudvarnok – Honorary citizen (2013)
*Hungarian Heritage Award (2012) <ref>{{Cite web|title=List of Awarded people|url=https://magyarorokseg.hu/dijazottak_tablazata|url-status=live}}</ref>
*The Original Kassai System equestrian archery method was included in Intangible Cultural Heritage in Hungary (2012) <ref>{{Cite web|title=Szellemi Kulturális Örökség Magyarországon|url=http://szellemikulturalisorokseg.hu/index0.php?name=0_kassai_fele_lovasijasz_modszer|access-date=2021-06-24|website=szellemikulturalisorokseg.hu}}</ref>
*Knight of the Hungarian Culture (2012) <ref>{{Cite web|title=A Magyar Kultúra Lovagja lett Kassai Lajos|url=https://kapos.hu/hirek/kultura/2012-01-23/a_magyar_kultura_lovagja_lett_kassai_lajos_.html|access-date=2021-06-24|website=kapos.hu|language=hu}}</ref>
*Equestrian Archery was included into the university education first time in the world in Hungary, Budapest (2011) <ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-25|title=Kassai Lajos: Ha van egy cél, akkor köré tudom rendezni a világot|url=https://vasarnap.hu/2020/01/25/kassai-lajos-ha-van-egy-cel-akkor-kore-tudom-rendezni-a-vilagot/|access-date=2021-06-24|website=vasarnap.hu|language=hu}}</ref>
*Person of the year – Somogy County (2010)<ref>{{Cite web|date=2010-01-08|title=2009-ről jelentjük: Kassai Lajos Az Év Somogyi Embere|url=https://www.sonline.hu/somogy/kozelet-somogy/2009-rol-jelentjuk-kassai-lajos-az-ev-somogyi-embere-280074/|access-date=2021-06-24|website=Sonline|language=hu|archive-date=2020-10-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020160814/https://www.sonline.hu/somogy/kozelet-somogy/2009-rol-jelentjuk-kassai-lajos-az-ev-somogyi-embere-280074/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*The Kassai Equestrian Archery School won the (Kaposvár Városért díj) – Award for the city of Kaposvár (2009)<ref>{{Cite web|last=Város|first=Kaposvár Megyei Jogú|title=Otthon vagyok - Kaposvár|url=https://otthon.kaposvar.hu/hu/a-kaposvar-varosert-kituntetes-tulajdonosai/|access-date=2021-06-24}}</ref>
*Árpád Shield Award (2008)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Árpád-pajzs: révkomáromi gála holnap|url=https://magyarnemzet.hu/archivum/archivum-magyarnemzet/arpad-pajzs-revkomaromi-gala-holnap-4445423/|access-date=2021-06-24|website=Magyar Nemzet|language=hu}}</ref>
*Our Heritage – Somogy County’s treasure award (2008) <ref>{{Cite web|title=Kassai Lajos lovasíjász birodalma|url=https://somogyiertekek.hu/oroksegunk-somogyorszag-kincse/dijazottak/kassai-lajos-lovasijasz-birodalma.html|access-date=2021-06-24|website=somogyiertekek.hu|language=hu}}</ref>
*Kaposmérő – Honorary citizen <ref>{{Cite web|title=Kaposmérő|url=http://www.kaposmero.hu/|access-date=2021-06-24|website=www.kaposmero.hu}}</ref>
*Officer's Cross of the [[Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary]] (2003)<ref>{{Citation|title=A Magyar Érdemrend tisztikeresztje|date=2020-10-10|url=https://hu.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=A_Magyar_%C3%89rdemrend_tisztikeresztje&oldid=23122117|work=Wikipédia|language=hu|access-date=2021-06-24}}</ref>

== Travels to foreign countries ==
2020. [[Turkey]]: Antalya – 2. International Traditional Sport Award

2020. [[Qatar]]: Doha – training camp

2020. [[South Africa]]: Pretoria – training camp and track initiation

2019. [[Romania]]: Miercurea Ciuc – track initiation

2019. [[France]]: Charron La Rochelle – track initiation

2019. [[Russia]]: Volgograd – training camp and track initiation

2019. China: Wuhan – training camp and track initiation

2018. [[Canada]]: Nova Scotia – training camp and track initiation

2018. USA: Hamilton, MT – training camp and track initiation

2018. [[Luxembourg|Luxemburg]]: Limpach – training camp and track initiation

2017. [[United States|USA]]: Arlington, WA – training camp and track initiation

2017. Canada: Ottawa – training camp

2017. USA: Solvang, California – training camp at Monty Roberts’ farm (Flag is up)

2015. [[Malaysia]]: Penang, Turf Club, International Festival with Horses – training camp and presentation

2015. (November) Qatar: Doha – training camp

2015. (August) Qatar: Doha – training camp

2015. [[China]]: Peking – CCTV, Impossible Challenge China – presentation

2015. China: Peking, Tsingtao – training camp

2015. [[Germany]]: Köln, Baasem – track initiation

2015. France: Maulde – track initiation

2014. China: Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Peking – training camp

2014: Qatar: Doha – training camp and presentation

2014. China''':''' Chinghai, Tsingtao, Tongwancheng, Inner Mongolia – training camp

2013. China: Hsian, Hohhot, Xilinhot, Wuhan – presentation

2013. China: Peking – presentation

2013. France: Avignon, (Cheval Passion 2013) – presentation

2012. Turkey: Denizli – presentation

2012. China: Peking, Ordosz – presentation

2012. China: Peking, Csengtu, Sanghaj, Hangcsou, Sencsen – presentation

2012. [[Switzerland]]: Zürich (Mercedes SCI Cup) – presentation

2011. France: Paris (International Agricultural Exhibition) – presentation

2010. France: Saint Sébastien sur Loire – presentation

2009. [[Spain]]: Seville (Sicab) – presentation

2007. [[Austria]]: Mariensee – presentation

2006. [[Greece]]: Athens (European Archery Championship, 2006) – presentation

2006. Germany: Berlin – training camp and presentation

2002. USA: Fort Dodge, Iowa – presentation

2000. USA: Fort Dodge, Iowa – presentation

1999: China: [[Shaolin Monastery|Shaolin]] – study trip

1999. Ausztria: Bécs (Wiener Stadthalle) – presentation

1996. USA: Pennsylvania – training camp and presentation

1996. [[Japan]]: [[Kamakura]] – study trip

1992. [[Netherlands]]: Amsterdam – presentation

1992. [[Italy]]: Forli – presentation

'''Presentations - Attended by royal families of the countries:'''

* 2019. [[England]]: London (Royal Windsor Horse Show)
* 2015. Malaysia: Pinang
* 2014. Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur
* 2012. [[Jordan]] : Al Faris
* 2009. [[Morocco]]: El Jadida

== Family ==
Kassai is married and has three daughters. His wife is Vanda Kassainé Olter.

== See also ==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120314205300/http://www.volgy.lovasijaszat.hu/volgy/index.php?module=staticpage&id=34&lang=1 ''Kassai Lajos életrajz''] (magyar nyelven). ''lovasíjászat.hu''. (Accessed: 2016-01-23)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160326152026/http://www.filmtekercs.hu/kritikak/a-magyar-harcmuveszet-reklamfilmje-a-lovasijasz ''A magyar harcművészet reklámfilmje – A lovasíjász''] filtekercs.hu, 2016-01-20.
*[http://www.origo.hu/kultura/20170306-a-sportagrol-a-volgyrol-es-matt-damonrol-is-beszelgettunk-a-hires-lovasijasszal.html''Kassai Lajos: Nincs lovasíjászgénünk''], Origo.hu, 2017-03-10.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kassai, Lajos}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Kaposvár]]
[[Category:Hungarian male archers]]
[[Category:Bowyers]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Somogy County]]

Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin

2023-08-03T16:59:16Z

Omcsesz:

{{Short description|Soviet mathematician}}
{{Other people|Vladimir Rokhlin}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox scientist
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin
| honorific_suffix =
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| image = Vladimir Rokhlin.jpeg
| image_size =
| image_upright =
| alt =
| caption = Vladimir Rokhlin in [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], 1966.
| birth_date = {{birth date |df=yes|1919|08|23}}
| birth_place = [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]]
| death_date = {{death date and age |df=yes|1984|12|03 |1919|08|23}}
| death_place = [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], [[Soviet Union]]
| death_cause =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates = 
| other_names =
| residence =
| citizenship = Citizen of the [[Soviet Union]]
| nationality =
| fields = [[Mathematics]]
| workplaces = [[Saint Petersburg State University|Leningrad State University]]
| patrons =
| education = [[Moscow State University]] (1935-1941)
| alma_mater =
| thesis_title =
| thesis_url =
| thesis_year =
| doctoral_advisor =
| academic_advisors = [[Abraham Plessner]]
| doctoral_students =
| notable_students = {{ublist |[[Yakov Eliashberg]] |[[Mikhail Leonidovich Gromov|Mikhail Gromov]] |[[Nikolai V. Ivanov]] | [[Viatcheslav M. Kharlamov]] | [[Anatoly Vershik]] |[[Oleg Viro]]}}
| known_for = {{ublist |[[Rokhlin lemma]] |Rokhlin partitions |[[Rokhlin's theorem]]| [[Lebesgue–Rokhlin probability space|Standard probability space]]}}
| influences =
| influenced =
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| author_abbrev_bot =
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| spouse =
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| children = [[Vladimir Rokhlin, Jr.]]
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}}
'''Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Влади́мир Абра́мович Ро́хлин) (23 August 1919 – 3 December 1984) was a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[mathematician]], who made numerous contributions in [[algebraic topology]], [[geometry]], [[measure theory]], [[probability theory]], [[ergodic theory]] and [[entropy|entropy theory]].<ref>see {{harvtxt|Vershik|1989}}, {{harvtxt|Arnol'd|1986}}</ref>

==Life==
Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin was born in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]], to a wealthy Jewish family.<ref>see {{harvtxt|Turaev|Vershik|2001}}, p. 8</ref> His mother, Henrietta Emmanuilovna Levenson, had studied medicine in France (she died in Baku in 1923, believed to have been killed during civil unrest provoked by an epidemic). His maternal grandmother, Clara Levenson, had been one of the first female doctors in Russia. His maternal grandfather Emmanuil Levenson was a wealthy businessman (he was also the illegitimate father of [[Korney Chukovsky]], who was thus Henrietta's half-brother). Vladimir Rokhlin's father Abram Veniaminovich Rokhlin was a well-known social democrat (he was imprisoned during Stalin's [[Great Purge]], and executed in 1941).<ref>see {{harvtxt|Turaev|Vershik|2001}}, p. 1</ref>

Vladimir Rokhlin entered [[Moscow State University]] in 1935. His advisor was [[Abraham Plessner]]. He volunteered for the army in 1941, leading to four years as a [[Prisoner of war|prisoner]] of a [[List of POW camps in Germany|German war camp]]. During this time he was able to hide his Jewish origins from the Nazis. Rokhlin was liberated by the Soviet military in January 1945. He then served as a German language translator for the 5th Army of the Belorussian front. In May 1945 he was sent to a Soviet 'verification camp' for former prisoners of war. In January 1946 he was transferred to another camp to determine if he was an "enemy of the Soviet." Rokhlin was cleared in June 1946 but was forced to remain in the camp as a guard. Due to intercession by mathematicians [[Andrey Kolmogorov]] and [[Lev Pontryagin]], he was released in December 1946 and allowed to return to [[Moscow]], after which he returned to mathematics.

In 1959 Rokhlin joined [[Saint Petersburg State University|Leningrad State University]] as a faculty member. He died in 1984 in [[Leningrad]]. His students include [[Viatcheslav M. Kharlamov|Viatcheslav Kharlamov]], [[Yakov Eliashberg]], [[Mikhail Gromov (mathematician)|Mikhail Gromov]], [[Nikolai V. Ivanov]], [[Anatoly Vershik]] and [[Oleg Viro]].<ref>{{MathGenealogy|id=42580|title=Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin}}</ref>

==Work==
Rokhlin's contributions to topology include [[Rokhlin's theorem]], a result of 1952 on the [[signature (topology)|signature]] of [[4-manifold]]s. He also worked in the theory of [[characteristic class]]es, [[homotopy theory]], [[cobordism theory]], and in the topology of [[Real algebraic geometry|real algebraic varieties]].

In [[measure theory]], Rokhlin introduced what are now called [[Rokhlin partition]]s. He introduced the notion of [[standard probability space]], and characterised such spaces up to [[standard probability space#Isomorphism modulo zero|isomorphism mod 0]]. He also proved the famous [[Rokhlin lemma]].

==Family==
His son [[Vladimir Rokhlin, Jr.]] is a well-known mathematician and computer scientist at [[Yale University]].

Rokhlin's uncle was [[Korney Chukovsky]], a well-known [[Russian language|Russian]] poet, most famous for his popular children's books.

==See also==
*[[Gudkov's conjecture]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{citation|first=Vladimir|last= Arnol'd|authorlink=Vladimir Arnold|year=1986|journal=Russ. Math. Surv.|volume=41|issue= 3|pages=189–195|doi=10.1070/RM1986v041n03ABEH003331|title=Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin (obituary)|bibcode= 1986RuMaS..41R.189A|mr=0854242|s2cid= 250910259|display-authors=etal}}
* {{citation|title=Topology, ergodic theory, real algebraic geometry: Rokhlin's Memorial|volume=202|editor1-first=Vladimir G.|editor1-last= Turaev|editor1-link=Vladimir Turaev|editor2-first= Anatoly M.|editor2-last= Vershik|editor2-link=Anatoly Vershik|publisher=American Mathematical Society|location=Providence, RI|year=2001|mr=1819175|doi=10.1090/trans2/202|series=American Mathematical Society Translations: Series 2|isbn=9780821827406|hdl=11693/48903|hdl-access=free}}
* {{citation |author-link=A. M. Vershik|first=Anatoly M.|last=Vershik |year=1989 |title=Vladimir Abramovich Rokhlin—A biographical tribute (23.8.1919–3.12.1984) |journal=Ergodic Theory and Dynamical Systems |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=629–641 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/S0143385700005265 |mr=1036901|doi-access=free }}

==External links==
*{{MathGenealogy|id=42580}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.mccme.ru/edu/index.php?ikey=n-rohlin|title=Rokhlin|authorlink=Sergei Novikov (mathematician)|first=Sergei|last=Novikov|website=www.mccme.ru|language=Russian|access-date=10 May 2006|archive-date=15 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515203948/http://www.mccme.ru/edu/index.php?ikey=n-rohlin|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web|url=http://mathfoolery.wordpress.com/2011/01/01/a-lecture-about-teaching-mathematics-to-non-mathematicians/|title=A lecture about teaching mathematics to non-mathematicians, Part I. |year= 1981 |first= Vladimir A. |last=Rokhlin|website=mathfoolery.wordpress.com}}
*{{MacTutor Biography|id=Rokhlin}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rokhlin, Vladimir}}
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Russian mathematicians]]
[[Category:Soviet mathematicians]]
[[Category:Jewish scientists]]
[[Category:Russian Jews]]
[[Category:Soviet prisoners of war]]
[[Category:Jewish concentration camp survivors]]
[[Category:Topologists]]
[[Category:Algebraic geometers]]
[[Category:Moscow State University alumni]]
[[Category:Scientists from Baku]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Saint Petersburg State University]]
[[Category:Prisoners and detainees of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Russian Ashkenazi Jews]]

[[pt:Vladimir Rokhlin]]

Jerry Springer

2023-07-30T15:56:59Z

Omcsesz: /* Early life */

{{Use American English|date=May 2023}}
{{Short description|American TV personality, politician (1944–2023)}}
{{other uses|Jerry Springer (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jerry Springer
| image = Jerry Springer at Emory (cropped).jpg
| caption = Springer in 2007
| birth_name = Gerald Norman Springer
| birth_date = {{birth date|1944|2|13}}
| birth_place = London, England, United Kingdom
| death_date = {{death date and age|2023|4|27|1944|2|13|}}
| death_place = [[Evanston, Illinois]], US
| resting_place = Memorial Park Cemetery, Skokie, Illinois, U.S.
| nationality = British/American
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Television host|attorney|politician}}
| years_active = 1968–2022
| spouse = {{marriage|Micki Velton|1973}}
| children = 1

| education = {{ubl|[[Tulane University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])|[[Northwestern University]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])}}
| television = {{ubl|''[[Jerry Springer (talk show)|Jerry Springer]]'' (1991–2018)|''[[Judge Jerry]]'' (2019–2022)}}
| module = {{Infobox officeholder
| embed = yes
| order = 56th
| office = Mayor of Cincinnati
| term_start = January 1, 1977
| term_end = January 1, 1978
| predecessor = [[Jim Luken]]
| successor = [[Bobbie L. Sterne]]
| office2 = Member of the [[Cincinnati City Council]]
| term_start2 = January 1, 1976
| term_end2 = 1981
| term_start3 = January 1, 1972
| term_end3 = April 29, 1974
}}
}}
'''Gerald Norman Springer''' (February 13, 1944 – April 27, 2023) was an American broadcaster, journalist, actor, producer, lawyer, and politician.<ref name=thislife>{{cite episode |first=Alex |last=Blumberg |title=Leaving the Fold |series=This American Life |series-link=This American Life |medium=Radio program |url=https://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/258/leaving-the-fold?act=1#play |location=Chicago |station=[[WBEZ]] |number=258 |access-date=June 5, 2017}}</ref> Born in [[London during World War II]] to German-Jewish [[Emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe|refugees escaping the Holocaust]], Springer was raised in [[Queens]], New York City. He attended [[Northwestern University School of Law]], qualified as a lawyer, and first became actively involved in politics working for the [[Robert F. Kennedy 1968 presidential campaign|campaign of Robert Kennedy]] in 1968.

A [[Cincinnati City Council]] member, Springer served as the 56th [[List of mayors of Cincinnati|Mayor of Cincinnati]] from 1977 to 1978. He then worked as a local news anchor in Cincinnati where he won several Regional [[Emmy Awards]] for commentary. Springer was best known for hosting the sometimes controversial [[Tabloid journalism|tabloid]] talk show ''[[Jerry Springer (talk show)|Jerry Springer]]'' from 1991 to 2018. He was also the host of ''[[America's Got Talent]]'' from 2007 to 2008, and of the courtroom show ''[[Judge Jerry]]'' from 2019 to 2022. Off television, he also hosted ''The Jerry Springer Podcast'' from 2015 to 2022. He was noted as a pioneer in the emergence of "[[Tabloid talk show|trash TV]]"; his eponymous show was a "commercial smash and certifiable cultural phenomenon" in the 1990s.<ref name=NBC>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/tv/jerry-springer-face-americas-lurid-talk-show-opened-era-trash-tv-rcna81784|title=Jerry Springer, face of America's most lurid talk show, opened the era of 'trash TV'|date=April 27, 2023 |publisher=NBC News|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref>

==Early life==
Gerald Norman Springer was born on February 13, 1944,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biography.com/people/jerry-springer-498154 |title=Jerry Springer |website=Biography |access-date=February 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116170631/http://www.biography.com/people/jerry-springer-498154 |archive-date=January 16, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> in the [[London Underground]]'s [[Highgate tube station|Highgate station]] while the station was in use [[Air raid shelter#London Underground stations|as a shelter]] from German bombing during [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.freebmd.org.uk/cgi/information.pl?cite=RtqbPAuDEgqHh2af3oDs%2Bw&scan=1|title=Index entry|access-date=January 6, 2018|work=FreeBMD|publisher=ONS}}</ref><ref name="jconline">{{cite news|last=Nathan|first=John|title=Interview tube stat: Jerry Springer|url=https://www.thejc.com/life-and-culture/all/interview-jerry-springer-1.10091|access-date=April 28, 2023|newspaper=Jewish Chronicle Online|date=July 2, 2009}}</ref> Springer grew up on Chandos Road, [[East Finchley]]. His parents, Margot
({{née|Kallmann}}; a bank clerk) and Richard Springer (owner of a shoe shop), were [[Emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe|German-Jewish refugees]] who escaped from [[Landsberg an der Warthe]], [[Prussia]] (now [[Gorzów Wielkopolski]], [[Poland]]).<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/whodoyouthinkyouare/new-stories/jerry-springer/how-we-did-it_2.shtml Who do you think you are] [[BBC]] documentary</ref><ref name="sheridan-breakfast">{{cite news | last=Sheridan | first=Patricia | title=Patricia Sheridan's Breakfast with Jerry Springer | work=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] | url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07162/793130-129.stm | date=June 11, 2007 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.filmreference.com/film/28/Jerry-Springer.html| title=Jerry Springer Biography (1944–)| publisher=Theatre, Film, and Television Biographies| access-date=December 13, 2008}}</ref> His maternal grandmother, Marie Kallmann, who was left behind, was killed in the [[gas van]]s of [[Chełmno extermination camp]] in [[German-occupied Poland]]. His paternal grandmother, Selma Springer (née Elkeles), died at the hospital in the [[Theresienstadt concentration camp]] in [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|German-occupied Czechoslovakia]].

Selma Springer's brother, Hermann Elkeles, was a renowned Berlin doctor who also died at Theresienstadt concentration camp.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.holocaust.cz/en/victims/PERSON.ITI.340510 |title=Dr. Hermann Elkeles |publisher=Holocaust.cz |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006095820/http://www2.holocaust.cz/en/victims/PERSON.ITI.340510 |archive-date=October 6, 2014}}</ref>

In January 1949, when Springer was four, his family immigrated to the United States, settling in the [[Kew Gardens, Queens|Kew Gardens]] neighborhood of [[Queens]], a [[borough of New York City]]. He attended nearby [[Forest Hills High School (Queens)|Forest Hills High School]]. One of his earliest memories about current events was when he was 12 and watching the [[1956 Democratic National Convention]] on television where he saw and was impressed by then-Senator [[John F. Kennedy]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Johnson |first1=Rebecca |last2=Powers |first2=Kathleen |date=September 1998 |title=Jerry Springer Under Siege |magazine=[[Good Housekeeping]] |pages=114–119}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Waldman |first=Allison J. |date=May 8, 2006 |title=American Pie: The In-Your-Face Success of 'The Jerry Springer Show' |url= |magazine=[[TelevisionWeek]] |page=31}}</ref>

Springer earned a Bachelor of Arts from [[Tulane University]] in 1965, majoring in [[political science]].<ref>"Springer, Gerald N." ''Tulane University Alumni Directory 2002'', New Orleans: Tulane U. p. 761</ref> He earned a [[Juris Doctor]] from [[Northwestern University]] in 1968.<ref name="sheridan-breakfast"/><ref name = "plotz-slate"/>

==Career==
===Kennedy campaign and early law career===
Springer worked as a [[political campaign]] adviser to [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[Robert F. Kennedy]] in 1968.<ref name="plotz-slate"/> Following [[Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy|Kennedy's assassination]], he began practicing law at the [[Cincinnati]] law firm of Frost & Jacobs, now [[Frost Brown Todd]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=Sep 2003 |title=This Is Your Life, Jerry Springer |pages=75 |work=Cincinnati Magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zO8CAAAAMBAJ&dq=%22Frost+%26+Jacobs%22+jerry+springer+-dies+-dead&pg=RA1-PA75 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Halper |first=Donna L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCzuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Frost |title=Icons of Talk: The Media Mouths that Changed America |date=2009 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-34381-0 |pages=252 |language=en}}</ref>

Springer was a partner in the law firm of Grinker, Sudman & Springer from 1973 to 1985,<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 10, 2019 |title=Kim Kardashian West, Esq.? 7 Celebrities With Law Degrees |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/celebrities-law-degrees |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=Vogue |language=en-US}}</ref> alongside former NBA agent Ronnie Grinker (d. 1997) and current [[Butler County, Ohio]], magistrate Harry Sudman.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etonline.com/jerry-springer-to-launch-new-court-show-judge-jerry-114413|title=Jerry Springer to Launch New Court Show 'Judge Jerry' | Entertainment Tonight|website=www.etonline.com|date=November 26, 2018 }}</ref>

===Political career===
In 1970, Springer ran for the [[United States House of Representatives]]. He failed to unseat incumbent Republican [[Donald D. Clancy]], but took 45% of the vote in a traditionally Republican district. He had previously spearheaded the effort to lower the voting age, including testifying before the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] in support of ratification of the [[Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|26th Amendment]]. Three days after announcing his candidacy, Springer, who was also an [[United States Army Reserve|Army reservist]] at the time, was called to active duty and stationed at [[Fort Knox]]. He resumed his campaign after he was discharged.<ref>{{cite web|last=Goodman |first=Mark |url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20107358,00.html |title=Unsilent Springer |publisher=People |date=January 24, 1994 |access-date=April 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921010055/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20107358,00.html |archive-date=September 21, 2016}}</ref>

Springer was elected to the [[Cincinnati City Council]] in 1971.<ref name="plotz-slate">{{cite magazine | last=Plotz | first=David | title=Jerry Springer | url=http://www.slate.com/id/1857/ | magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] | date=March 22, 1998 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref> On April 29, 1974, Springer resigned from the council after admitting to soliciting a prostitute.<ref name="plotz-slate"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jordan |first1=Felicia |title=Jerry Springer dead: TV talk show host and former mayor of Cincinnati dies at 79 |url=https://www.wcpo.com/news/local-news/jerry-springer-dead-tv-talk-show-host-and-former-mayor-of-cincinnati-dies-at-79 |website=WCPO 9 Cincinnati |access-date=April 27, 2023 |language=en |date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> He ran for the office in 1975, winning by a landslide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jerry Springer set to visit WCH |url=https://www.recordherald.com/2017/10/13/jerry-springer-set-to-visit-wch/ |website=Record Herald |access-date=April 27, 2023 |date=October 13, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=1977 (Before Finding His Metier): Jerry Springer Becomes Mayor of Cincinnati |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2015-12-01/ty-article/.premium/1977-jerry-springer-becomes-cincinnati-mayor/0000017f-f45c-d487-abff-f7fecb9e0000 |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> He was reelected in 1977 and 1979.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kiesewetter |first1=John |title=Jerry Springer, Cincinnati politician turned daytime 'ringmaster,' dies at 79 |url=https://www.wvxu.org/media/2023-04-27/jerry-springer-dead-79-cincinnati-wlwt-tvkiese#:~:text=Jerry%20Springer%2C%20the%20former%20Cincinnati,He%20was%2079. |website=WVXU |access-date=April 27, 2023 |language=en |date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> Springer was considered a "[[Gonzo journalism|gonzo]]" type politician with stunts such as staying a night in jail and commandeering a bus after the city took over bus service.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Jerry Springer, talk show host and former Cincinnati mayor, dead at 79 |url=https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/2023/04/27/jerry-springer-talk-show-host-and-former-cincinnati-mayor-dead-at-79-report/70158206007/ |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=The Enquirer |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1977, Springer was chosen by the Cincinnati City Council to serve for one year as mayor.<ref name="plotz-slate"/>

In 1981, Springer stepped down from his seat on the City Council to focus on running for [[governor of Ohio]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Collection: Jerry Springer papers {{!}} University of Cincinnati Libraries Special Collections |url=https://findingaids.libraries.uc.edu/repositories/5/resources/343 |website=findingaids.libraries.uc.edu |publisher=University of Cincinnati |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> seeking the Democratic nomination in the [[1982 Ohio gubernatorial election]]. Television commercials for Springer's campaign referenced his use of a check to pay a prostitute, saying that he was not afraid of the truth "even if it hurts."<ref>{{Cite news|agency=AP|date=May 25, 1982|title=OHIO CANDIDATE TELLS OF PAYING FOR PROSTITUTE (Published 1982)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/25/us/ohio-candidate-tells-of-paying-for-prostitute.html|access-date=January 23, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{YouTube|tzT4dOyCMg0|Jerry Springer for Governor: a 1980 Campaign Ad}}</ref> He failed to win the Democratic party's nomination—finishing a distant third behind former lieutenant governor [[Dick Celeste|Richard F. Celeste]] and [[Ohio Attorney General]] [[William J. Brown (Ohio)|William J. Brown]]—and his political career was put on hold.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|last1=Peterson|first1=Iver|date=June 9, 1982|title=REP. BROWN AND CELESTE WIN OHIO NOMINATIONS (Published 1982)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/09/us/rep-brown-and-celeste-win-ohio-nominations.html|access-date=January 23, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In the late 1980s, he played a major role in saving the historic [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal|Cincinnati Union Terminal]].<ref name="auto"/>

Springer considered running for the [[United States Senate]] in [[2000 United States Senate election in Ohio|2000]]<ref name=FTVFSIPCNWKTV>{{cite news|url=http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:NewsBank:CPDB&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0F80DAD1979DA0C4&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=0D0CB579A3BDA420|title=Four To Vie For Senate in Primary Challengers Not Well Known To Voters|access-date=October 20, 2008 |date=January 8, 2000|publisher=[[Newsbank]]|work=[[The Plain Dealer]]|author=McCarty, James F.}}</ref> and [[United States Senate election in Ohio, 2004|2004]],<ref name="korte-door">{{cite news|last=Korte|first=Gregory|title=Springer opens door on politics|url=http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/02/14/loc_springer14.html|work=[[The Cincinnati Enquirer]]|date=February 14, 2003}}</ref> but he backed down due to negative associations with the [[Jerry Springer (talk show)|''Jerry Springer'' talk show]].<ref name="horstman-senate">{{cite news|title=Jerry Springer Life – From London To Success|url=https://purenetworth.com/jerry-springer-life/|publisher=Pure Net Worth|date=May 6, 2022 }}</ref> He also considered running in the [[2018 Ohio gubernatorial election]], but decided against it due to his age.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jerry Springer announces decision on running for governor|url=https://www.fox19.com/story/36962386/jerry-springer-announces-decision-on-running-for-governor|url-status=live|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=www.fox19.com|date=November 30, 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref> Even after his departure from politics, he was the largest contributor to the [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]] Democratic Party from 1993 to 2018.<ref name=":0" />

===Broadcast career===
Springer was hired as a political reporter and commentator on Cincinnati's [[NBC]] affiliate, [[WLWT]], which had, at the time, the lowest-rated news program. Later, having been named primary news anchor and managing editor, he needed a broadcast catchphrase in the model of other great newsmen. With the help of some others at WLWT, he created his signature line: "Take care of yourself, and each other." Within two years he was Cincinnati's number-one news anchor, along with partner Norma Rashid. For five years, he was the most popular news anchor in the city,<ref name="plotz-slate"/> garnering ten local [[Emmy Award]]s for his nightly commentaries, which were frequently satirized by Cincinnati radio personality [[Gary Burbank]]. Those commentaries would eventually become his "Final Thought" on ''[[Jerry Springer (talk show)|Jerry Springer]]''. Springer would remain commentator at WLWT until January 1993. He resided in [[Loveland, Ohio]], during this time.<ref name="CincyMag Graham">{{cite journal|title=Jerry Springer Live!|first=Michael|last=Graham|journal=[[Cincinnati Magazine]]|location=[[Columbus, Ohio]]|publisher=CM Media|date=June 1992|volume=25|issue=9|page=48|issn=0746-8210|access-date=February 9, 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LesCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA48|quote=A resident of Loveland, [Jerry] Springer is married with a 15-year-old daughter...}}</ref>

In 1997, the Chicago-based NBC-owned station [[WMAQ-TV]] hired Springer to serve as a news commentator. However, this proved to be unpopular among viewers, as it resulted in the resignation of long-time news anchors [[Ron Magers]] and [[Carol Marin]] due to Springer's talk show. After performing only two commentaries, Springer resigned as commentator.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/09/us/springer-quits-news-show-citing-attacks.html|work= The New York Times|title= Springer Quits News Show, Citing Attacks|date = May 9, 1997|access-date=May 25, 2009 |first=Bill |last=Carter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/b34501_Jerry_Springer_Quits_News_Job.html|title= E! Online: ''Jerry Springer Quits News Job.''|date= May 9, 1997|access-date=May 25, 2009}}</ref>

====''Jerry Springer'' (1991–2018)====
{{Main|Jerry Springer (talk show)}}
''Jerry Springer'' debuted on September 30, 1991.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kiesewetter|first=John|title='Jerry Springer Show' Debuted In 1991 On WLWT|url=https://www.wvxu.org/post/jerry-springer-show-debuted-1991-wlwt|access-date=September 22, 2020|website=www.wvxu.org|date=September 30, 2016|language=en}}</ref> It started as a politically oriented talk show, a longer version of Springer's commentaries. Guests on the show included [[Oliver North]] and [[Jesse Jackson]], and topics included [[homelessness]] and [[Gun politics in the United States|gun politics]].<ref>[http://www.nytix.com/TV_Shows/JerrySpringer/jerryspringer.html Jerry Springer Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215044849/http://www.nytix.com/TV_Shows/JerrySpringer/jerryspringer.html |date=December 15, 2007 }} New York Show Tickets</ref><ref name="whos faking whom">Elder, Larry [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/elder043098.html Who's faking whom?] ''Jewish World Review'', April 30, 1998</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kiesewetter |first=John |date=September 30, 2016 |title='Jerry Springer Show' Debuted In 1991 On WLWT |language=en |work=WVXU |url=https://www.wvxu.org/history/2016-09-30/jerry-springer-show-debuted-in-1991-on-wlwt |access-date=April 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831170724/https://www.wvxu.org/history/2016-09-30/jerry-springer-show-debuted-in-1991-on-wlwt |archive-date=August 31, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In early 1994, Springer and his new producer, [[Richard Dominick]], revamped the show's format to garner higher ratings. The show became more successful as it became targeted toward tabloidish sensationalism.<ref name="trash tv">Dixon, Mary. [http://weeklywire.com/ww/05-26-98/slc_ae.html Trash TV?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015122730/http://weeklywire.com/ww/05-26-98/slc_ae.html |date=October 15, 2007 }} ''Salt Lake City Weekly'', May 26, 1998</ref> Guests were everyday people confronted on a television stage by a spouse or family member's adultery, homosexuality, transsexuality, prostitution, [[transvestism]], [[hate group]] membership, or other controversial situations.<ref name="trash tv" /> These confrontations were often promoted by scripted shouting or violence on stage. The show received substantial ratings and much attention.<ref name="trash tv" /> By 1998, it was beating ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'' in many cities, and was reaching around 8 million viewers.<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/27/arts/television/jerry-springer-dead.html|title = Jerry Springer, 79, Whose Outrageous Talk Show Set New Lows, Dies|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]|last = Genzlinger|first = Neil|date = April 28, 2023|accessdate = April 30, 2023|page = A21|url-access = limited}}</ref>

On July 10, 2002, the sons of guest Nancy Campbell-Panitz – who was murdered by her ex-husband after they appeared on a May 2000 episode with his girlfriend – filed suit in [[Sarasota County, Florida|Sarasota County]] against Springer, his producers, and his distributor, claiming he created "a mood that led to murder".<ref>Note: online sources that call her "Nanny" seem to be in error. Most media reports say that her first name was Nancy. For example, {{cite news|date = July 11, 2002|title = Springer sued over murdered guest|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/2121700.stm|work = BBC News}}</ref> Ultimately, the estate of Campbell-Panitz dropped all monetary claims against ''Jerry Springer'' and the show agreed to waive its claims for malicious prosecution against the personal representative of the estate of Campbell-Panitz and his counsel.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Eckhart |first=Robert |title=Family drops suit against Springer show |language=en-US |url=https://www.heraldtribune.com/story/news/2003/01/03/family-drops-suit-against-springer/28531325007/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206010706/https://www.heraldtribune.com/story/news/2003/01/03/family-drops-suit-against-springer/28531325007/ |archive-date= February 6, 2023 |url-status=live |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref>

The British musical, ''[[Jerry Springer: The Opera]]'' was inspired by him and his talk show. For the New York City performances of the work at [[Carnegie Hall]] his character was portrayed by [[Harvey Keitel]]. The show
won four [[Olivier awards]] for its run on London's [[West End (theatre)|West End]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/31/theater/31springer.html|title=And Blessed Are the Singing, Pole-Dancing Fetishists|first=Ben|last=Brantley|work=The New York Times |date=January 31, 2008|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>

In 2005, a UK version of the show aired on Britain's [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] network titled ''[[Jerry Springer (talk show)#The Springer Show|The Springer Show]]''. A subdued and more [[tongue-in-cheek]] version of the US show, it beat its talk-show rival ''[[Trisha Goddard (TV series)|Trisha Goddard]]'' five to one in the ratings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/broadcasting/a21921/springer-thrashing-trisha-in-talkshow-battle.html|title=Springer thrashing Trisha in talkshow battle|date=June 19, 2005|publisher=Digital Spy (entertainment news)}}</ref>

The [[VH1]] "celebreality" series ''The Springer Hustle'', which took a look at how ''Jerry Springer'' is produced, premiered in April 2007.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.vh1.com/shows/dyn/springer_hustle/series.jhtml| title=The Springer Hustle| publisher=VH1| access-date=December 13, 2008}}</ref>

In April 2015, Springer debuted ''The Jerry Springer Podcast'' on his website, JerrySpringer.com.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jerryspringer.com/|title=Jerry Springer Podcast – Tales, Tunes & Tomfoolery}}Along with Jerry, the show was co-hosted by Jene Galvin and Megan Hils. The show was also produced by Jene Galvin. New episodes emerged from the [https://www.folkschoolcoffeeparlor.com/ Folk School Coffee Parlor] in Ludlow, Kentucky. Technical crew is [http://ambientstudios.org Ambient Studios] and [http://PanopticMedia.com Panoptic Media].</ref> He later partnered with [[Westwood One]] to stream the [[podcast]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.insideradio.com/free/westwood-one-falls-for-springer-s-audio-tomfoolery/article_e8ca4742-8f82-11e6-9f3b-fb127b750e63.html|title=Westwood One Falls for Springer's Audio "Tomfoolery'.|date=October 11, 2016|website=Insideradio.com}}</ref> It was also broadcast in the UK on [[Talkradio]], on Sundays at midnight. Springer was the second American talk show host to travel to [[Cuba]], after [[Conan O'Brien]], for ''The Jerry Springer Podcast''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/jerryspringer/status/732703487058956288|title=Jerry Springer Twitter}}</ref> The podcast ended in 2022.<ref name = McIntosh>{{cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-65415348|title = Jerry Springer: Era-defining TV host dies aged 79|work = [[BBC News]]|date = April 27, 2023|accessdate = April 27, 2023|last = McIntosh|first = Steven}}</ref>

On July 26, 2018, ''Jerry Springer'' aired its final episode in syndication after 27 seasons before it began airing reruns on [[The CW]] on September 10, 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Swenson |first=Kyle |date=June 20, 2018 |title=Jerry Springer changed TV forever. After 27 seasons, his daytime talk circus may be over. |language=en-US |work=The Florida Times-Union |url=https://www.jacksonville.com/story/news/2018/06/20/jerry-springer-changed-tv-forever-after-27-seasons-his-daytime-talk-circus-may-be-over/11930376007/ |access-date=April 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819030212/https://www.jacksonville.com/story/news/2018/06/20/jerry-springer-changed-tv-forever-after-27-seasons-his-daytime-talk-circus-may-be-over/11930376007/ |archive-date=August 19, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

====''Judge Jerry'' (2019–2022)====
{{Main|Judge Jerry}}
Springer debuted a new courtroom show, ''[[Judge Jerry]]'', on September 9, 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Andreeva|first1=Nellie|last2=Ramos|first2=Dino-Ray|date=November 26, 2018|title=Jerry Springer Syndicated Court Show 'Judge Jerry' From NBCU TV Distribution To Launch In Fall 2019|url=https://deadline.com/2018/11/jerry-springer-judge-jerry-nbcuniversal-television-distribution-nbc-court-show-1202508597/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=Deadline|language=en-US}}</ref> The show gave him the opportunity to host a more "grown-up" program and to use his law school education.<ref name=springerinterview>{{cite web|last=Starr|first=Michael|title='Judge Jerry' Springer moves from talk show 'circus' to courtroom|url=https://nypost.com/2019/09/06/judge-jerry-springer-moves-from-talk-show-circus-to-courtroom/|work=[[New York Post]]|date=September 6, 2019|access-date=September 17, 2019}}</ref> On March 9, 2022, the series was canceled after three seasons.<ref name="Cancellation">{{cite web |last=Andreeva |first=Nellie |title='Judge Jerry' Canceled: Jerry Springer's Court Show To End With Current Third Season |url=https://deadline.com/2022/03/judge-jerry-canceled-jerry-springer-court-show-end-third-season-1234974835/ |work=[[Deadline Hollywood]] |date=March 9, 2022}}</ref>

====Other====
[[File:JerrySpringerJan2011.jpg|thumb|right|Springer in January 2011]]

Springer hosted ''[[America's Got Talent]]'' on NBC for its second and third seasons, replacing [[Regis Philbin]],<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/news.aspx?id=20070305nbc02 |title=Popular Television Talk-Show Host Jerry Springer Named Host of NBC's 'America's Got Talent' when Hit Variety-Talent Competition Series Returns this Summer |publisher=[[NBC Universal]] |date=March 5, 2007 |access-date=August 27, 2019 }}</ref> before leaving to concentrate on other projects.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hibberd |first=James |title=Jerry Springer Out as Talent Host |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/jerry-springer-talent-host-78909 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date= February 7, 2009 |access-date=June 5, 2017}}</ref>

From January 17, 2005, to December 5, 2006, Springer hosted ''[[Springer on the Radio]]'', a liberal talk show on Cincinnati's [[WCKY (AM)|WCKY-AM]]. He did the show from the [[Clear Channel Communications|Clear Channel]] studios in [[Kenwood, Ohio]] on Mondays, Thursdays, and Fridays, and in Chicago (where his television show taped at the time) on Tuesdays and Wednesdays.<ref name="usatoday-synd">{{cite news | agency=[[Associated Press]] | title=Jerry Springer ends syndicated radio show | url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-12-05-springer_x.htm?POE=LIFISVA | work=[[USA Today]] |date=December 5, 2006 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref> [[Air America (radio network)|Air America Radio]] syndicated the program for most of the show's run. In 2007 Springer Also Cameoed in a Couple Of Episodes Of The George Lopez Show.

He hosted [[Miss World]] in [[Miss World 2000|2000]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 1, 2000|title=Overnight ratings November 30|url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2000/dec/01/channelfive.overnights|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> and [[Miss World 2001|2001]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Miss World crown out of Africa's reach|url=https://www.news24.com/News24/Miss-World-crown-out-of-Africas-reach-20011116|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=News24|language=en-US}}</ref> and the [[Miss Universe 2008]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jerry Springer, Melanie Brown to host Miss Universe|url=http://www.today.com/popculture/jerry-springer-melanie-brown-host-miss-universe-wbna25377607|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=TODAY.com|date=June 25, 2008 |language=en}}</ref> He was also the [[List of WWE Raw guest hosts|guest host]] for ''[[WWE Raw]]'' on February 15, 2010, at [[Wells Fargo Arena (Des Moines)|Wells Fargo Arena]] in [[Des Moines, Iowa]]. Springer also hosted ''[[The Price Is Right Live!]]''.

From 2010 to 2015, Springer hosted a dating game show called ''[[Baggage (U.S. game show)|Baggage]]'', which aired on [[Game Show Network|GSN]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Elber | first = Lynn |title=Jerry Springer hosts new dating game show |work=USA Today |date=March 23, 2010 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010-03-23-jerry-springer_N.htm |access-date=April 10, 2010}}</ref>

In July 2012, he hosted <nowiki>''</nowiki>Price is Right Live!<nowiki>''</nowiki> in Vancouver's [[Boulevard Casino]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 13, 2012|title=Come on Down! Price is Right Live in Vancouver, through July 29|url=https://www.insidevancouver.ca/2012/07/13/come-on-down-price-is-right-live-in-vancouver-through-july-29/|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=Inside Vancouver}}</ref> He hosted the show at [[Jack Cincinnati Casino]] in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mayhew|first=Chris|title=Come on Down to play The Price is Right Live with Jerry Springer at Jack Cincinnati Casino|url=https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/local/cincinnati/2018/01/08/play-price-right-live-jerry-springer/1013268001/|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=The Enquirer|language=en-US}}</ref>

From January 2014, Springer hosted [[Investigation Discovery]] series ''Tabloid''.<ref>http://previously.tv/tabloid/jerry-springers-tabloid-worth-picking/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325154412/http://previously.tv/tabloid/jerry-springers-tabloid-worth-picking/ |date=March 25, 2015 }} Tabloid TV series</ref>

He hosted ''[[The Adam Carolla Show (radio)|The Adam Carolla Show]]'' on April 25, 2014, where he sat in for [[Adam Carolla]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://adamcarolla.com/jerry-springer-and-cindy-caponera/ |title=Jerry Springer and Cindy Caponera |access-date=November 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129025051/http://adamcarolla.com/jerry-springer-and-cindy-caponera/ |archive-date=November 29, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Springer guest hosted the 22nd-season premiere episode of [[WWE Raw]] on September 8, 2014, in an attempt to conduct an intervention with [[The Bella Twins]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/09/03/4326366/jerry-springer-to-conduct-intervention.html|title=Jerry Springer to conduct intervention with Bella Twins on WWE 'Monday Night Raw' but was injured during the intetvention on Sept. 8|publisher=Alexandra Villoch|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|editor=Aminda Marqués Gonzalez|access-date=September 8, 2014|date=September 3, 2014}}</ref>

Springer hosted the show ''Jerry Springer Presents WWE Too Hot For TV'' on the [[WWE Network]] in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Flanagan|first=Graham|title=Jerry Springer's new WWE Network show is going to be like 'The Soup' for professional wrestling|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/wwe-network-jerry-springer-show-2015-4|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=Business Insider}}</ref>

====UK====
After a few years of his US talk show being broadcast in the UK, [[ITV1]] approached Springer, who temporarily co-hosted ''[[This Morning (TV programme)|This Morning]]'' with [[Judy Finnigan]] in March 1999<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/323008.stm | work=BBC News | title=Springer presents UK TV show | date=April 19, 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/apr/19/2|title=Breakfast with Jerry Springer|author=Sue Quinn|work=The Guardian|date=April 19, 1999}}</ref> and again in 2000. In summer 1999, ITV made 12 episodes of the UK-based version of the series, ''Jerry Springer UK'', filmed at the same studios as his US show.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/32214|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107174339/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/32214|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 7, 2014|title=Jerry Springer UK (TV series)|work=BFI}}</ref>

In September 1999, Springer made a pilot for a [[David Letterman]]-style talk show for ITV called ''Jerry Springer on Sunday''. The show received good reviews and ratings and a further four episodes were commissioned to be broadcast in May 2000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jerry Springer moves to ITV |url=https://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/jerry-springer-moves-to-itv/1224137.article |website=Broadcastnow |language=en}}</ref> Five were broadcast during May and June 2000 under the name ''Springer''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2023/apr/27/jerry-springer-show-tv-episodes-moments|title=Jerry Springer Show: his most outrageous TV moments|first=Alaina|last=Demopoulos|date=April 27, 2023|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

The series was picked up by [[Channel 5 (UK)|Channel 5]] and renamed ''Late Night with Jerry Springer''. Two series were made in 2000 and 2001 with 16 episodes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/34590|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100110223708/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/34590|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 10, 2010|title=Late Night with Jerry Springer (TV series)|work=BFI|access-date=August 24, 2013}}</ref> While working for Channel 5 In 2001, he was the host of [[Greed (UK game show)|the UK version of ''Greed'']],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukgameshows.com/ukgs/Greed|title=Greed|work=ukgameshows.com}}</ref> and a stand in host for ''[[The Wright Stuff]]''. On April 16, 2006, Springer was the guest host for the opening show for the third series of ''[[The Sunday Night Project|The Friday Night Project]]'' for [[Channel 4]] and guest hosted ''[[Have I Got News for You]]'' on December 12, 2008. In 2007, he signed on to host ''[[Nothing But the Truth (UK game show)|Nothing But the Truth]]'', the UK version of ''[[Nada más que la verdad]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crazy Like a Foxx |url=https://www.vulture.com/2007/08/crazy_like_a_foxx.html |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=Vulture |date=August 17, 2007 |language=en-us}}</ref>

Springer covered the [[2016 United States presidential election]] for ITV's ''[[Good Morning Britain (2014 TV programme)|Good Morning Britain]]''.<ref name="gmb">{{cite news|title=Jerry Springer joins ''GMB''! |url=http://www.itv.com/goodmorningbritain/news/jerry-springer-joins-gmb |publisher=[[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] |date=January 25, 2016 |access-date=January 25, 2016}}</ref>

In 2016, 2017 and 2018, he guest hosted three episodes of the BBC's ''[[The One Show]]'' with TV host [[Alex Jones (Welsh presenter)|Alex Jones]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The One Show, 10/06/2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07dn96t |website=BBC |access-date=May 31, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The One Show, 23/06/2017 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08vd15v |website=BBC |access-date=May 31, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The One Show, 04/05/2018 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0b0w4p0 |website=BBC |access-date=May 31, 2021}}</ref>

===In the media===
====Acting====
Springer appeared in an episode of ''[[Married... with Children]]'' as the host of a talk show called ''The Masculine Feminist'', in which he advocated for women getting the men's bowling night and eventually taking over at a [[Bowling|bowling alley]]. [[Al Bundy]] and his friends tie Springer to a chair and take over his show with a stripper who jumps up and down for the crowd's delight.<ref>{{Citation|title=Married...With Children – Season 8 Episode 9|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/tv/married_with_children/s08/e09|language=en|access-date=January 22, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=August 31, 2019|title=10 Guest Stars We Forgot Were On Married With Children|url=https://screenrant.com/10-guest-stars-forgot-married-children/|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=ScreenRant|language=en-US}}</ref>

Springer starred in the 1998 film ''[[Ringmaster (film)|Ringmaster]]'' as a talk show host largely based on himself, though named "Jerry Farrelly".<ref name="cnn-ringmaster">{{cite news | title=Jerry Springer the 'Ringmaster' of his domain | url=http://www.cnn.com/SHOWBIZ/Movies/9811/18/springer/index.html | work=[[CNN]] Showbiz Today | date=November 18, 1998 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref> ''Ringmaster'' offers a behind-the-scenes look at would-be guests who apply to a Springer-like show. The same year, Springer also released an unrelated autobiography named ''Ringmaster''. He quipped, "I can only think of one title a year."<ref name="cnn-ringmaster"/>

Four years later, Springer appeared in [[Brad Paisley]]'s "[[I'm Gonna Miss Her (The Fishin' Song)]]" where the host is trying to stop a fight between men who like to fish and the wives who don't. Springer's section was titled "My Husband Left Me for a Fish." The song hit number one of the country charts in July 2002 and won [[Country Music Association Award for Video of the Year|CMA Video of the Year]] three months later.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cmt.com/news/country-music/1457254/paisley-netted-big-catch-in-cma-nominations.jhtml |title=Paisley Netted Big Catch in CMA Nominations |access-date=April 10, 2008 |last=Gilbert |first=Calvin |date=August 31, 2002 |work=CMT}}</ref>

In 2004, he played the US president in ''[[The Defender (2004 film)|The Defender]]'', directed by [[Dolph Lundgren]].<ref>{{Citation|title=The Defender (2004)|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/defender|language=en|access-date=January 23, 2021}}</ref>

In June 2012, he appeared in ''[[Chicago (musical)|Chicago]]'' at the [[Cambridge Theatre]] London as Billy Flynn for a short period of time, starring alongside [[Aoife Mulholland]] and [[Leigh Zimmerman]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Rhone|first1=Nedra|title=Jerry Springer in character for 'Chicago'|url=https://www.ajc.com/entertainment/calendar/jerry-springer-character-for-chicago/XS01PTAcSq9qD8G0Q9yTsL/|access-date=January 23, 2021|newspaper=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution|language=English}}</ref>

He had a cameo appearance as himself in episode 2 of the [[Netflix]] show ''[[Happy! (TV series)|Happy!]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 14, 2017|title=How Happy!'s Crazy Jerry Springer Cameo Came About, According To Grant Morrison|url=https://www.cinemablend.com/television/1744279/how-happys-crazy-jerry-springer-cameo-came-about-according-to-grant-morrison|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=CINEMABLEND}}</ref>

In 1996, he appeared on an episode of the ninth season of ''[[Roseanne (TV series)|Roseanne]]'' and on ''[[The X-Files]]'' episode "[[The Post-Modern Prometheus]]". In 1998, he voiced a cartoon version of himself in the "Starship Poopers" segment of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' [[Halloween]] episode, [[Treehouse of Horror IX]]. That same year, he appeared as himself on an episode of ''[[The Wayans Bros.]]''. In 1999, he appeared in the episode "Mrs. Kraft" of the third season of ''[[Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996 TV series)|Sabrina the Teenage Witch]]'' with his talk show. That same year, he was in an episode of ''[[Space Ghost Coast to Coast]]''. He made a [[cameo appearance]] in ''[[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]]'' (1999) as himself during an episode of his show featuring [[Dr. Evil]] and his estranged son [[Scott Evil]].<ref>{{Cite press release|date=February 13, 2019|title=From 'X-Files' to 'Roseanne,' the Best Jerry Springer Guest Spots on Streaming|url=https://decider.com/2019/02/13/jerry-springer-tv-episodes-movies/|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=Decider|language=en-US}}</ref>

====Television appearances====
In 2009, Springer appeared as a guest on the British game show ''[[Countdown (game show)|Countdown]]''. He appeared on the ''[[Chris Moyles|Chris Moyles Show]]'' in April 2009<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Radio 1 – The Chris Moyles Show, Chris Moyles guests 2009 – Jerry Springer – 08 Jun 09 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0126n4k/p0126q9z |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Radio 1 – The Chris Moyles Show, 08/06/2009 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00kw86d |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> and was a guest on ''[[The Andrew Marr Show]] o''n May 31, 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gordon Brown's D-Day at hands of Jerry Springer |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/mandrake/5430215/Gordon-Browns-D-Day-at-hands-of-Jerry-Springer.html |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref>

He was interviewed by satirist [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]] in his surreal radio series ''[[Blue Jam]]'' (Series 2, Episode 6). On January 23, 2004, Springer was featured in an episode of ''[[This American Life]]'' titled "Leaving the Fold".<ref name=thislife/>

In late 2006, Springer was a contestant on the [[Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 3)|third season]] of ''[[Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series)|Dancing with the Stars]]'', with his professional dance partner, [[Kym Johnson]]. He wanted to appear on the show so he could learn the [[waltz]] for the wedding of his daughter, Katie.<ref name="usatoday-synd"/><ref name="msnbc">{{cite news | title=Fans go wild for 'Dancing' Jerry Springer | work=Today.com | url=https://www.today.com/popculture/fans-go-wild-dancing-jerry-springer-wbna15127991 | date=October 4, 2006 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref> Springer and Johnson were eliminated in the seventh week of competition.<ref>{{cite news | title=Jerry Springer Voted Off 'Dancing With the Stars' |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,225478,00.html | work=[[Fox News Channel]] | date=October 26, 2006 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref>

Springer appeared in an episode of [[BBC One]]'s television series ''[[Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series)|Who Do You Think You Are?]]'' on August 27, 2008.<ref name="whodoyou">{{cite news | title=Jerry Springer's "Who Do You Think You Are?" Story | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/whodoyouthinkyouare/past-stories/jerry-springer.shtml | work=[[BBC]] | date=August 27, 2008 | access-date=July 26, 2013}}</ref> In the episode he traveled to Poland, where he discovered that his maternal grandmother had been sent to Chełmno extermination camp by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] and killed. His paternal grandmother died at Theresienstadt concentration camp in what is the [[Czech Republic]]. He wept openly when he learned of how they died.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jerry Springer|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jerry-springer|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>

Springer was a guest panelist on episodes of ''[[8 Out of 10 Cats]]'' in 2014, ''[[Through the Keyhole]]'' in 2015,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paddy McGuinness takes a peek Through the Keyhole |url=https://www.theboltonnews.co.uk/news/13652507.paddy-mcguinness-takes-a-peek-through-the-keyhole/ |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=The Bolton News |date=September 8, 2015 |language=en}}</ref> and ''[[QI]]'' ("Noodles") in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Two – QI, Series N, Noodles |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b088jr5t |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In 2022, Springer competed in [[The Masked Singer (American season 8)|season eight]] of ''[[The Masked Singer (American TV series)|The Masked Singer]]'' as "Beetle". He was eliminated on "Muppet Night" alongside [[Kat Graham]] as "Robo-Girl".<ref>{{Cite magazine |first1=Lauren |last1=Huff |title='The Masked Singer' Beetle is already crafting his apology for doing the show: 'I'm the anti-Trump' |url=https://ew.com/tv/the-masked-singer-beetle-revealed-jerry-springer/ |access-date=April 27, 2023 |magazine=Entertainment Weekly |language=en}}</ref>

===Other projects===
In 1995, Springer recorded the album ''Dr. Talk'' for Fiddle Fish Records, which mostly consisted of [[country music]] covers.<ref>{{Cite AV media|title=From The Vault... The WSVNRadio.net Archives|url=http://www.wsvnradio.net/archives/YEAR20%5Cdrtalk.htm|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=wsvnradio.net}}</ref>

On May 16, 2008, Springer delivered the [[Northwestern University School of Law]] commencement address.<ref>{{cite news | title=Former Lawyers Who Followed Their Passions | work=ONE400 | url=http://one-400.com/blog/ex-lawyers-followed-passions/ | access-date=October 3, 2014 | archive-date=October 6, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006163448/http://one-400.com/blog/ex-lawyers-followed-passions/ | url-status=dead}}</ref> Although many students had criticized the university's choice of speaker, he received a standing ovation from about half the audience and reviews of his speech were generally positive.<ref name="dailynu-speech">{{cite news|title=Springer addresses Law grads at commencement |url=http://media.www.dailynorthwestern.com/media/storage/paper853/news/2008/05/16/Campus/Springer.Addresses.Law.Grads.At.Commencement-3372681.shtml |work=[[The Daily Northwestern]] |date=May 16, 2008 |access-date=August 1, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520132617/http://media.www.dailynorthwestern.com/media/storage/paper853/news/2008/05/16/Campus/Springer.Addresses.Law.Grads.At.Commencement-3372681.shtml |archive-date=May 20, 2008}}</ref> He later stated that his speech was about "the ethical judgments we all have to make in whatever business we go".<ref>{{cite episode | title = Anytime with Bob Kushell feat. Jerry Springer | series = Anytime with Bob Kushell | airdate = March 12, 2009 | season = 1 | number = 13}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Springer married Micki Velton in 1973; though it is sometimes reported they divorced in 1994, a spokesperson said they were still married at the time of his death.<ref name = Smith>{{cite news|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2023/04/27/jerry-springer-talk-show-dead/|title = Jerry Springer, whose tabloid talk show became a rowdy hit, dies at 79|newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]|date = April 27, 2023|accessdate = May 19, 2023|last = Smith|first = Harrison|url-access = limited}}</ref> The couple had a daughter, Katie, in 1976.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=All About Jerry Springer's Daughter, Katie Springer |url=https://people.com/parents/all-about-jerry-springer-daughter-katie-springer/ |access-date=April 28, 2023 |newspaper=People |language=en}}</ref> She was born without nasal passages, for which she required immediate surgery after birth, and is blind, as well as deaf in one ear. In a 2006 interview, Katie stated that her parents were always supportive despite her health complications and that they did not raise her differently.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jerry Springer: 'Dancing' With His Daughter {{!}} Access Online |url=https://www.accessonline.com/articles/jerry-springer-dancing-with-his-daughter-56064 |access-date=April 28, 2023 |website=Access |date=October 10, 2006 |language=en}}</ref> In 2006, Springer donated $230,000 to Park School in Chicago, where his daughter worked as an assistant teacher, to help construct a high-tech facility called "Katie's Corner" for students with disabilities.<ref name=":1" />

=== Death ===
Springer died at his home in [[Evanston, Illinois]], on April 27, 2023, at the age of 79.<ref name = McIntosh/><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://evanstonroundtable.com/2023/04/27/jerry-springer-obituary-evanston-broadcaster/|title = Jerry Springer, 1944–2023|newspaper = Evanston RoundTable|date = April 27, 2023|accessdate = April 28, 2023}}</ref> A family spokesperson said that he had been diagnosed with [[pancreatic cancer]] a few months prior to his death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jerry Springer, daytime television pioneer, dies at 79 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/obituaries/jerry-springer-daytime-television-pioneer-dies-79-rcna81773 |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=NBC News |date=April 27, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> [[Steve Wilkos]], former ''Jerry Springer'' show bodyguard, paid tribute to his colleague, saying "Other than my father, Jerry was the most influential man in my life. Everything I have today I owe to Jerry. He was the smartest, most generous, kindest person I've ever known. [[Rachelle Wilkos|My wife]] and I are devastated. We will miss him terribly."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jackson |first1=Dory |date=April 27, 2023 |title=Jerry Springer Dead: Steve Wilkos, Whoopi Goldberg, More Pay Tribute |url=https://people.com/tv/jerry-springer-death-reactions-tributes/ |access-date=May 3, 2023 |website=People |publisher= |ref=People}}</ref>

==Legacy==
During his career, Springer and his program quickly became a cultural phenomenon, with commentators describing the show as central to the emergence of [[trash TV]].<ref name=NBC/><ref name=Vanity>{{cite web|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2023/04/jerry-springer-controversial-and-iconic-talk-show-host-dies-at-79|title=Jerry Springer, Controversial and Iconic Talk Show Host, Dies at 79|date=April 27, 2023 |publisher=Vanity Fair|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> After his death, ''[[The Guardian]]'' said that Springer "changed US television for better and worse".<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/apr/27/jerry-springer-tv-legacy|title=Jerry Springer: the man who changed US television for better and worse|last = Lawrence|first = Andrew|newspaper=The Guardian|date=April 27, 2023 |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> Despite his controversial career, he had a large fanbase from [[millennials]], as his show gained popularity throughout their childhoods, leading the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' to dub him the "millennials' babysitter".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/tv/story/2023-04-27/jerry-springer-dead-reactions-tributes|title=Final thought: Love him or loathe him, Jerry Springer was millennials' 'babysitter'|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=April 27, 2023|last = Saad|first = Nadine|url-access = limited}}</ref>

Springer was credited for creating a new television format which encouraged conflict among its guests.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jta.org/2023/04/27/obituaries/jerry-springer-son-of-jewish-refugees-whose-eponymous-talk-show-was-known-for-conflict-dies-at-79|title=Jerry Springer, son of Jewish refugees whose eponymous talk show was known for conflict, dies at 79|date=April 27, 2023 |publisher=JTA|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> ''[[USA Today]]'' cited him as an inspiration for other tabloid talk shows such as ''[[Maury (talk show)|Maury]]'' and ''[[The Steve Wilkos Show]]'', with the latter program being hosted by [[Steve Wilkos|a former security guard and guest host]] for Springer's show.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/tv/2023/04/27/jerry-springer-talk-show-host-dies-79/11751126002/|title=Jerry Springer, controversial daytime talk show host, dies at 79|work=USA Today|date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> The [[Associated Press]] said that Springer's show was "a US cultural pariah, synonymous with lurid drama".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/united-states-canada/article/3218644/former-us-talk-show-host-jerry-springer-has-died-age-79|title=Former US talk show host Jerry Springer has died, age 79|newspaper = [[South China Morning Post]]|date=April 27, 2023 |agency = [[Associated Press]]|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref>

In an obituary for Springer, ''[[The Irish Times]]'' said that Springer had changed the "television medium" through "The Jerry Springer Formula", which was "straightforward, despicable and ingenious".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/tv-radio/2023/04/27/the-jerry-springer-formula-despicable-and-ingenious/|title=The Jerry Springer formula: despicable and ingenious|publisher=The Irish Times|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> The [[BBC]] noted that Springer had televised the "fringes of [American] society to a global audience" and called him an "era-defining TV host".<ref name = McIntosh/>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* Springer, Jerry and Laura Morton. ''Ringmaster''. St. Martin's Press, 1998.
* Springer, Jerry and Richard Dominick. ''Jerry Springers Wildest Shows Ever''. Harper Paperbacks, 1999.

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{official website}}
* {{C-SPAN|55049}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* [https://findingaids.libraries.uc.edu/repositories/5/resources/343 Jerry Springer papers], Archives and Rare Books Library, [[University of Cincinnati]]

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List of mayors of Cincinnati|Mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio]]
| before=[[Jim Luken]]
| after=[[Bobbie L. Sterne]]
| years=1977–1978|
}}
{{s-end}}
{{The Jerry Springer Show}}
{{Cincinnati Mayor}}
{{Talkradio}}
{{Golden Raspberry Award for Worst New Star}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Springer, Jerry}}
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Jerry Springer

2023-07-30T15:56:32Z

Omcsesz: /* Early life */

{{Use American English|date=May 2023}}
{{Short description|American TV personality, politician (1944–2023)}}
{{other uses|Jerry Springer (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jerry Springer
| image = Jerry Springer at Emory (cropped).jpg
| caption = Springer in 2007
| birth_name = Gerald Norman Springer
| birth_date = {{birth date|1944|2|13}}
| birth_place = London, England, United Kingdom
| death_date = {{death date and age|2023|4|27|1944|2|13|}}
| death_place = [[Evanston, Illinois]], US
| resting_place = Memorial Park Cemetery, Skokie, Illinois, U.S.
| nationality = British/American
| party = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]]
| occupation = {{hlist|Television host|attorney|politician}}
| years_active = 1968–2022
| spouse = {{marriage|Micki Velton|1973}}
| children = 1

| education = {{ubl|[[Tulane University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])|[[Northwestern University]] ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])}}
| television = {{ubl|''[[Jerry Springer (talk show)|Jerry Springer]]'' (1991–2018)|''[[Judge Jerry]]'' (2019–2022)}}
| module = {{Infobox officeholder
| embed = yes
| order = 56th
| office = Mayor of Cincinnati
| term_start = January 1, 1977
| term_end = January 1, 1978
| predecessor = [[Jim Luken]]
| successor = [[Bobbie L. Sterne]]
| office2 = Member of the [[Cincinnati City Council]]
| term_start2 = January 1, 1976
| term_end2 = 1981
| term_start3 = January 1, 1972
| term_end3 = April 29, 1974
}}
}}
'''Gerald Norman Springer''' (February 13, 1944 – April 27, 2023) was an American broadcaster, journalist, actor, producer, lawyer, and politician.<ref name=thislife>{{cite episode |first=Alex |last=Blumberg |title=Leaving the Fold |series=This American Life |series-link=This American Life |medium=Radio program |url=https://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/258/leaving-the-fold?act=1#play |location=Chicago |station=[[WBEZ]] |number=258 |access-date=June 5, 2017}}</ref> Born in [[London during World War II]] to German-Jewish [[Emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe|refugees escaping the Holocaust]], Springer was raised in [[Queens]], New York City. He attended [[Northwestern University School of Law]], qualified as a lawyer, and first became actively involved in politics working for the [[Robert F. Kennedy 1968 presidential campaign|campaign of Robert Kennedy]] in 1968.

A [[Cincinnati City Council]] member, Springer served as the 56th [[List of mayors of Cincinnati|Mayor of Cincinnati]] from 1977 to 1978. He then worked as a local news anchor in Cincinnati where he won several Regional [[Emmy Awards]] for commentary. Springer was best known for hosting the sometimes controversial [[Tabloid journalism|tabloid]] talk show ''[[Jerry Springer (talk show)|Jerry Springer]]'' from 1991 to 2018. He was also the host of ''[[America's Got Talent]]'' from 2007 to 2008, and of the courtroom show ''[[Judge Jerry]]'' from 2019 to 2022. Off television, he also hosted ''The Jerry Springer Podcast'' from 2015 to 2022. He was noted as a pioneer in the emergence of "[[Tabloid talk show|trash TV]]"; his eponymous show was a "commercial smash and certifiable cultural phenomenon" in the 1990s.<ref name=NBC>{{cite web|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/tv/jerry-springer-face-americas-lurid-talk-show-opened-era-trash-tv-rcna81784|title=Jerry Springer, face of America's most lurid talk show, opened the era of 'trash TV'|date=April 27, 2023 |publisher=NBC News|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref>

==Early life==
Gerald Norman Springer was born on February 13, 1944,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biography.com/people/jerry-springer-498154 |title=Jerry Springer |website=Biography |access-date=February 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116170631/http://www.biography.com/people/jerry-springer-498154 |archive-date=January 16, 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> in the [[London Underground]]'s [[Highgate tube station|Highgate station]] while the station was in use [[Air raid shelter#London Underground stations|as a shelter]] from German bombing during [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.freebmd.org.uk/cgi/information.pl?cite=RtqbPAuDEgqHh2af3oDs%2Bw&scan=1|title=Index entry|access-date=January 6, 2018|work=FreeBMD|publisher=ONS}}</ref><ref name="jconline">{{cite news|last=Nathan|first=John|title=Interview tube stat: Jerry Springer|url=https://www.thejc.com/life-and-culture/all/interview-jerry-springer-1.10091|access-date=April 28, 2023|newspaper=Jewish Chronicle Online|date=July 2, 2009}}</ref> Springer grew up on Chandos Road, [[East Finchley]]. His parents, Margot
({{née|Kallmann}}; a bank clerk) and Richard Springer (owner of a shoe shop), were [[Emigration of Jews from Nazi Germany and German-occupied Europe|German-Jewish refugees]] who escaped from [[Landsberg an der Warthe]], [[Prussia]] (now [[Gorzów Wielkopolski]], [[Poland]]).<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/whodoyouthinkyouare/new-stories/jerry-springer/how-we-did-it_2.shtml Who do you think you are] [[BBC]] documentary</ref><ref name="sheridan-breakfast">{{cite news | last=Sheridan | first=Patricia | title=Patricia Sheridan's Breakfast with Jerry Springer | work=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] | url=http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/07162/793130-129.stm | date=June 11, 2007 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.filmreference.com/film/28/Jerry-Springer.html| title=Jerry Springer Biography (1944–)| publisher=Theatre, Film, and Television Biographies| access-date=December 13, 2008}}</ref> His maternal grandmother, Marie Kallmann, who was left behind, was killed in the [[gas van]]s of [[Chełmno extermination camp]] in [[German-occupied Poland]]. His paternal grandmother, Selma Springer (née Elkeles), died at the hospital in the [[Theresienstadt concentration camp]] in [[German occupation of Czechoslovakia|German-occupied Czechoslovakia]].

. Selma Springer's brother, Hermann Elkeles, was a renowned Berlin doctor who also died at Theresienstadt concentration camp.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.holocaust.cz/en/victims/PERSON.ITI.340510 |title=Dr. Hermann Elkeles |publisher=Holocaust.cz |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006095820/http://www2.holocaust.cz/en/victims/PERSON.ITI.340510 |archive-date=October 6, 2014}}</ref>

In January 1949, when Springer was four, his family immigrated to the United States, settling in the [[Kew Gardens, Queens|Kew Gardens]] neighborhood of [[Queens]], a [[borough of New York City]]. He attended nearby [[Forest Hills High School (Queens)|Forest Hills High School]]. One of his earliest memories about current events was when he was 12 and watching the [[1956 Democratic National Convention]] on television where he saw and was impressed by then-Senator [[John F. Kennedy]].<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Johnson |first1=Rebecca |last2=Powers |first2=Kathleen |date=September 1998 |title=Jerry Springer Under Siege |magazine=[[Good Housekeeping]] |pages=114–119}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Waldman |first=Allison J. |date=May 8, 2006 |title=American Pie: The In-Your-Face Success of 'The Jerry Springer Show' |url= |magazine=[[TelevisionWeek]] |page=31}}</ref>

Springer earned a Bachelor of Arts from [[Tulane University]] in 1965, majoring in [[political science]].<ref>"Springer, Gerald N." ''Tulane University Alumni Directory 2002'', New Orleans: Tulane U. p. 761</ref> He earned a [[Juris Doctor]] from [[Northwestern University]] in 1968.<ref name="sheridan-breakfast"/><ref name = "plotz-slate"/>

==Career==
===Kennedy campaign and early law career===
Springer worked as a [[political campaign]] adviser to [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[Robert F. Kennedy]] in 1968.<ref name="plotz-slate"/> Following [[Assassination of Robert F. Kennedy|Kennedy's assassination]], he began practicing law at the [[Cincinnati]] law firm of Frost & Jacobs, now [[Frost Brown Todd]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=Sep 2003 |title=This Is Your Life, Jerry Springer |pages=75 |work=Cincinnati Magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zO8CAAAAMBAJ&dq=%22Frost+%26+Jacobs%22+jerry+springer+-dies+-dead&pg=RA1-PA75 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Halper |first=Donna L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCzuAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Frost |title=Icons of Talk: The Media Mouths that Changed America |date=2009 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-34381-0 |pages=252 |language=en}}</ref>

Springer was a partner in the law firm of Grinker, Sudman & Springer from 1973 to 1985,<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 10, 2019 |title=Kim Kardashian West, Esq.? 7 Celebrities With Law Degrees |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/celebrities-law-degrees |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=Vogue |language=en-US}}</ref> alongside former NBA agent Ronnie Grinker (d. 1997) and current [[Butler County, Ohio]], magistrate Harry Sudman.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.etonline.com/jerry-springer-to-launch-new-court-show-judge-jerry-114413|title=Jerry Springer to Launch New Court Show 'Judge Jerry' | Entertainment Tonight|website=www.etonline.com|date=November 26, 2018 }}</ref>

===Political career===
In 1970, Springer ran for the [[United States House of Representatives]]. He failed to unseat incumbent Republican [[Donald D. Clancy]], but took 45% of the vote in a traditionally Republican district. He had previously spearheaded the effort to lower the voting age, including testifying before the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] in support of ratification of the [[Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|26th Amendment]]. Three days after announcing his candidacy, Springer, who was also an [[United States Army Reserve|Army reservist]] at the time, was called to active duty and stationed at [[Fort Knox]]. He resumed his campaign after he was discharged.<ref>{{cite web|last=Goodman |first=Mark |url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20107358,00.html |title=Unsilent Springer |publisher=People |date=January 24, 1994 |access-date=April 9, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921010055/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20107358,00.html |archive-date=September 21, 2016}}</ref>

Springer was elected to the [[Cincinnati City Council]] in 1971.<ref name="plotz-slate">{{cite magazine | last=Plotz | first=David | title=Jerry Springer | url=http://www.slate.com/id/1857/ | magazine=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]] | date=March 22, 1998 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref> On April 29, 1974, Springer resigned from the council after admitting to soliciting a prostitute.<ref name="plotz-slate"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Jordan |first1=Felicia |title=Jerry Springer dead: TV talk show host and former mayor of Cincinnati dies at 79 |url=https://www.wcpo.com/news/local-news/jerry-springer-dead-tv-talk-show-host-and-former-mayor-of-cincinnati-dies-at-79 |website=WCPO 9 Cincinnati |access-date=April 27, 2023 |language=en |date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> He ran for the office in 1975, winning by a landslide.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jerry Springer set to visit WCH |url=https://www.recordherald.com/2017/10/13/jerry-springer-set-to-visit-wch/ |website=Record Herald |access-date=April 27, 2023 |date=October 13, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=1977 (Before Finding His Metier): Jerry Springer Becomes Mayor of Cincinnati |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/2015-12-01/ty-article/.premium/1977-jerry-springer-becomes-cincinnati-mayor/0000017f-f45c-d487-abff-f7fecb9e0000 |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> He was reelected in 1977 and 1979.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kiesewetter |first1=John |title=Jerry Springer, Cincinnati politician turned daytime 'ringmaster,' dies at 79 |url=https://www.wvxu.org/media/2023-04-27/jerry-springer-dead-79-cincinnati-wlwt-tvkiese#:~:text=Jerry%20Springer%2C%20the%20former%20Cincinnati,He%20was%2079. |website=WVXU |access-date=April 27, 2023 |language=en |date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> Springer was considered a "[[Gonzo journalism|gonzo]]" type politician with stunts such as staying a night in jail and commandeering a bus after the city took over bus service.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Jerry Springer, talk show host and former Cincinnati mayor, dead at 79 |url=https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/2023/04/27/jerry-springer-talk-show-host-and-former-cincinnati-mayor-dead-at-79-report/70158206007/ |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=The Enquirer |language=en-US}}</ref> In 1977, Springer was chosen by the Cincinnati City Council to serve for one year as mayor.<ref name="plotz-slate"/>

In 1981, Springer stepped down from his seat on the City Council to focus on running for [[governor of Ohio]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Collection: Jerry Springer papers {{!}} University of Cincinnati Libraries Special Collections |url=https://findingaids.libraries.uc.edu/repositories/5/resources/343 |website=findingaids.libraries.uc.edu |publisher=University of Cincinnati |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> seeking the Democratic nomination in the [[1982 Ohio gubernatorial election]]. Television commercials for Springer's campaign referenced his use of a check to pay a prostitute, saying that he was not afraid of the truth "even if it hurts."<ref>{{Cite news|agency=AP|date=May 25, 1982|title=OHIO CANDIDATE TELLS OF PAYING FOR PROSTITUTE (Published 1982)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/05/25/us/ohio-candidate-tells-of-paying-for-prostitute.html|access-date=January 23, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{YouTube|tzT4dOyCMg0|Jerry Springer for Governor: a 1980 Campaign Ad}}</ref> He failed to win the Democratic party's nomination—finishing a distant third behind former lieutenant governor [[Dick Celeste|Richard F. Celeste]] and [[Ohio Attorney General]] [[William J. Brown (Ohio)|William J. Brown]]—and his political career was put on hold.<ref name="auto">{{Cite news|last1=Peterson|first1=Iver|date=June 9, 1982|title=REP. BROWN AND CELESTE WIN OHIO NOMINATIONS (Published 1982)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/06/09/us/rep-brown-and-celeste-win-ohio-nominations.html|access-date=January 23, 2021|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In the late 1980s, he played a major role in saving the historic [[Cincinnati Museum Center at Union Terminal|Cincinnati Union Terminal]].<ref name="auto"/>

Springer considered running for the [[United States Senate]] in [[2000 United States Senate election in Ohio|2000]]<ref name=FTVFSIPCNWKTV>{{cite news|url=http://docs.newsbank.com/openurl?ctx_ver=z39.88-2004&rft_id=info:sid/iw.newsbank.com:NewsBank:CPDB&rft_val_format=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:ctx&rft_dat=0F80DAD1979DA0C4&svc_dat=InfoWeb:aggregated5&req_dat=0D0CB579A3BDA420|title=Four To Vie For Senate in Primary Challengers Not Well Known To Voters|access-date=October 20, 2008 |date=January 8, 2000|publisher=[[Newsbank]]|work=[[The Plain Dealer]]|author=McCarty, James F.}}</ref> and [[United States Senate election in Ohio, 2004|2004]],<ref name="korte-door">{{cite news|last=Korte|first=Gregory|title=Springer opens door on politics|url=http://www.enquirer.com/editions/2003/02/14/loc_springer14.html|work=[[The Cincinnati Enquirer]]|date=February 14, 2003}}</ref> but he backed down due to negative associations with the [[Jerry Springer (talk show)|''Jerry Springer'' talk show]].<ref name="horstman-senate">{{cite news|title=Jerry Springer Life – From London To Success|url=https://purenetworth.com/jerry-springer-life/|publisher=Pure Net Worth|date=May 6, 2022 }}</ref> He also considered running in the [[2018 Ohio gubernatorial election]], but decided against it due to his age.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jerry Springer announces decision on running for governor|url=https://www.fox19.com/story/36962386/jerry-springer-announces-decision-on-running-for-governor|url-status=live|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=www.fox19.com|date=November 30, 2017 |language=en-US}}</ref> Even after his departure from politics, he was the largest contributor to the [[Hamilton County, Ohio|Hamilton County]] Democratic Party from 1993 to 2018.<ref name=":0" />

===Broadcast career===
Springer was hired as a political reporter and commentator on Cincinnati's [[NBC]] affiliate, [[WLWT]], which had, at the time, the lowest-rated news program. Later, having been named primary news anchor and managing editor, he needed a broadcast catchphrase in the model of other great newsmen. With the help of some others at WLWT, he created his signature line: "Take care of yourself, and each other." Within two years he was Cincinnati's number-one news anchor, along with partner Norma Rashid. For five years, he was the most popular news anchor in the city,<ref name="plotz-slate"/> garnering ten local [[Emmy Award]]s for his nightly commentaries, which were frequently satirized by Cincinnati radio personality [[Gary Burbank]]. Those commentaries would eventually become his "Final Thought" on ''[[Jerry Springer (talk show)|Jerry Springer]]''. Springer would remain commentator at WLWT until January 1993. He resided in [[Loveland, Ohio]], during this time.<ref name="CincyMag Graham">{{cite journal|title=Jerry Springer Live!|first=Michael|last=Graham|journal=[[Cincinnati Magazine]]|location=[[Columbus, Ohio]]|publisher=CM Media|date=June 1992|volume=25|issue=9|page=48|issn=0746-8210|access-date=February 9, 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LesCAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA48|quote=A resident of Loveland, [Jerry] Springer is married with a 15-year-old daughter...}}</ref>

In 1997, the Chicago-based NBC-owned station [[WMAQ-TV]] hired Springer to serve as a news commentator. However, this proved to be unpopular among viewers, as it resulted in the resignation of long-time news anchors [[Ron Magers]] and [[Carol Marin]] due to Springer's talk show. After performing only two commentaries, Springer resigned as commentator.<ref>{{cite news|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1997/05/09/us/springer-quits-news-show-citing-attacks.html|work= The New York Times|title= Springer Quits News Show, Citing Attacks|date = May 9, 1997|access-date=May 25, 2009 |first=Bill |last=Carter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.eonline.com/uberblog/b34501_Jerry_Springer_Quits_News_Job.html|title= E! Online: ''Jerry Springer Quits News Job.''|date= May 9, 1997|access-date=May 25, 2009}}</ref>

====''Jerry Springer'' (1991–2018)====
{{Main|Jerry Springer (talk show)}}
''Jerry Springer'' debuted on September 30, 1991.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Kiesewetter|first=John|title='Jerry Springer Show' Debuted In 1991 On WLWT|url=https://www.wvxu.org/post/jerry-springer-show-debuted-1991-wlwt|access-date=September 22, 2020|website=www.wvxu.org|date=September 30, 2016|language=en}}</ref> It started as a politically oriented talk show, a longer version of Springer's commentaries. Guests on the show included [[Oliver North]] and [[Jesse Jackson]], and topics included [[homelessness]] and [[Gun politics in the United States|gun politics]].<ref>[http://www.nytix.com/TV_Shows/JerrySpringer/jerryspringer.html Jerry Springer Biography] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215044849/http://www.nytix.com/TV_Shows/JerrySpringer/jerryspringer.html |date=December 15, 2007 }} New York Show Tickets</ref><ref name="whos faking whom">Elder, Larry [http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/elder043098.html Who's faking whom?] ''Jewish World Review'', April 30, 1998</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Kiesewetter |first=John |date=September 30, 2016 |title='Jerry Springer Show' Debuted In 1991 On WLWT |language=en |work=WVXU |url=https://www.wvxu.org/history/2016-09-30/jerry-springer-show-debuted-in-1991-on-wlwt |access-date=April 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831170724/https://www.wvxu.org/history/2016-09-30/jerry-springer-show-debuted-in-1991-on-wlwt |archive-date=August 31, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In early 1994, Springer and his new producer, [[Richard Dominick]], revamped the show's format to garner higher ratings. The show became more successful as it became targeted toward tabloidish sensationalism.<ref name="trash tv">Dixon, Mary. [http://weeklywire.com/ww/05-26-98/slc_ae.html Trash TV?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015122730/http://weeklywire.com/ww/05-26-98/slc_ae.html |date=October 15, 2007 }} ''Salt Lake City Weekly'', May 26, 1998</ref> Guests were everyday people confronted on a television stage by a spouse or family member's adultery, homosexuality, transsexuality, prostitution, [[transvestism]], [[hate group]] membership, or other controversial situations.<ref name="trash tv" /> These confrontations were often promoted by scripted shouting or violence on stage. The show received substantial ratings and much attention.<ref name="trash tv" /> By 1998, it was beating ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]'' in many cities, and was reaching around 8 million viewers.<ref>{{cite news|url = https://www.nytimes.com/2023/04/27/arts/television/jerry-springer-dead.html|title = Jerry Springer, 79, Whose Outrageous Talk Show Set New Lows, Dies|newspaper = [[The New York Times]]|last = Genzlinger|first = Neil|date = April 28, 2023|accessdate = April 30, 2023|page = A21|url-access = limited}}</ref>

On July 10, 2002, the sons of guest Nancy Campbell-Panitz – who was murdered by her ex-husband after they appeared on a May 2000 episode with his girlfriend – filed suit in [[Sarasota County, Florida|Sarasota County]] against Springer, his producers, and his distributor, claiming he created "a mood that led to murder".<ref>Note: online sources that call her "Nanny" seem to be in error. Most media reports say that her first name was Nancy. For example, {{cite news|date = July 11, 2002|title = Springer sued over murdered guest|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/tv_and_radio/2121700.stm|work = BBC News}}</ref> Ultimately, the estate of Campbell-Panitz dropped all monetary claims against ''Jerry Springer'' and the show agreed to waive its claims for malicious prosecution against the personal representative of the estate of Campbell-Panitz and his counsel.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Eckhart |first=Robert |title=Family drops suit against Springer show |language=en-US |url=https://www.heraldtribune.com/story/news/2003/01/03/family-drops-suit-against-springer/28531325007/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206010706/https://www.heraldtribune.com/story/news/2003/01/03/family-drops-suit-against-springer/28531325007/ |archive-date= February 6, 2023 |url-status=live |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref>

The British musical, ''[[Jerry Springer: The Opera]]'' was inspired by him and his talk show. For the New York City performances of the work at [[Carnegie Hall]] his character was portrayed by [[Harvey Keitel]]. The show
won four [[Olivier awards]] for its run on London's [[West End (theatre)|West End]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/31/theater/31springer.html|title=And Blessed Are the Singing, Pole-Dancing Fetishists|first=Ben|last=Brantley|work=The New York Times |date=January 31, 2008|via=NYTimes.com}}</ref>

In 2005, a UK version of the show aired on Britain's [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] network titled ''[[Jerry Springer (talk show)#The Springer Show|The Springer Show]]''. A subdued and more [[tongue-in-cheek]] version of the US show, it beat its talk-show rival ''[[Trisha Goddard (TV series)|Trisha Goddard]]'' five to one in the ratings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/broadcasting/a21921/springer-thrashing-trisha-in-talkshow-battle.html|title=Springer thrashing Trisha in talkshow battle|date=June 19, 2005|publisher=Digital Spy (entertainment news)}}</ref>

The [[VH1]] "celebreality" series ''The Springer Hustle'', which took a look at how ''Jerry Springer'' is produced, premiered in April 2007.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.vh1.com/shows/dyn/springer_hustle/series.jhtml| title=The Springer Hustle| publisher=VH1| access-date=December 13, 2008}}</ref>

In April 2015, Springer debuted ''The Jerry Springer Podcast'' on his website, JerrySpringer.com.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jerryspringer.com/|title=Jerry Springer Podcast – Tales, Tunes & Tomfoolery}}Along with Jerry, the show was co-hosted by Jene Galvin and Megan Hils. The show was also produced by Jene Galvin. New episodes emerged from the [https://www.folkschoolcoffeeparlor.com/ Folk School Coffee Parlor] in Ludlow, Kentucky. Technical crew is [http://ambientstudios.org Ambient Studios] and [http://PanopticMedia.com Panoptic Media].</ref> He later partnered with [[Westwood One]] to stream the [[podcast]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.insideradio.com/free/westwood-one-falls-for-springer-s-audio-tomfoolery/article_e8ca4742-8f82-11e6-9f3b-fb127b750e63.html|title=Westwood One Falls for Springer's Audio "Tomfoolery'.|date=October 11, 2016|website=Insideradio.com}}</ref> It was also broadcast in the UK on [[Talkradio]], on Sundays at midnight. Springer was the second American talk show host to travel to [[Cuba]], after [[Conan O'Brien]], for ''The Jerry Springer Podcast''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/jerryspringer/status/732703487058956288|title=Jerry Springer Twitter}}</ref> The podcast ended in 2022.<ref name = McIntosh>{{cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-65415348|title = Jerry Springer: Era-defining TV host dies aged 79|work = [[BBC News]]|date = April 27, 2023|accessdate = April 27, 2023|last = McIntosh|first = Steven}}</ref>

On July 26, 2018, ''Jerry Springer'' aired its final episode in syndication after 27 seasons before it began airing reruns on [[The CW]] on September 10, 2018.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Swenson |first=Kyle |date=June 20, 2018 |title=Jerry Springer changed TV forever. After 27 seasons, his daytime talk circus may be over. |language=en-US |work=The Florida Times-Union |url=https://www.jacksonville.com/story/news/2018/06/20/jerry-springer-changed-tv-forever-after-27-seasons-his-daytime-talk-circus-may-be-over/11930376007/ |access-date=April 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819030212/https://www.jacksonville.com/story/news/2018/06/20/jerry-springer-changed-tv-forever-after-27-seasons-his-daytime-talk-circus-may-be-over/11930376007/ |archive-date=August 19, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

====''Judge Jerry'' (2019–2022)====
{{Main|Judge Jerry}}
Springer debuted a new courtroom show, ''[[Judge Jerry]]'', on September 9, 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Andreeva|first1=Nellie|last2=Ramos|first2=Dino-Ray|date=November 26, 2018|title=Jerry Springer Syndicated Court Show 'Judge Jerry' From NBCU TV Distribution To Launch In Fall 2019|url=https://deadline.com/2018/11/jerry-springer-judge-jerry-nbcuniversal-television-distribution-nbc-court-show-1202508597/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=Deadline|language=en-US}}</ref> The show gave him the opportunity to host a more "grown-up" program and to use his law school education.<ref name=springerinterview>{{cite web|last=Starr|first=Michael|title='Judge Jerry' Springer moves from talk show 'circus' to courtroom|url=https://nypost.com/2019/09/06/judge-jerry-springer-moves-from-talk-show-circus-to-courtroom/|work=[[New York Post]]|date=September 6, 2019|access-date=September 17, 2019}}</ref> On March 9, 2022, the series was canceled after three seasons.<ref name="Cancellation">{{cite web |last=Andreeva |first=Nellie |title='Judge Jerry' Canceled: Jerry Springer's Court Show To End With Current Third Season |url=https://deadline.com/2022/03/judge-jerry-canceled-jerry-springer-court-show-end-third-season-1234974835/ |work=[[Deadline Hollywood]] |date=March 9, 2022}}</ref>

====Other====
[[File:JerrySpringerJan2011.jpg|thumb|right|Springer in January 2011]]

Springer hosted ''[[America's Got Talent]]'' on NBC for its second and third seasons, replacing [[Regis Philbin]],<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.thefutoncritic.com/news.aspx?id=20070305nbc02 |title=Popular Television Talk-Show Host Jerry Springer Named Host of NBC's 'America's Got Talent' when Hit Variety-Talent Competition Series Returns this Summer |publisher=[[NBC Universal]] |date=March 5, 2007 |access-date=August 27, 2019 }}</ref> before leaving to concentrate on other projects.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hibberd |first=James |title=Jerry Springer Out as Talent Host |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/jerry-springer-talent-host-78909 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |date= February 7, 2009 |access-date=June 5, 2017}}</ref>

From January 17, 2005, to December 5, 2006, Springer hosted ''[[Springer on the Radio]]'', a liberal talk show on Cincinnati's [[WCKY (AM)|WCKY-AM]]. He did the show from the [[Clear Channel Communications|Clear Channel]] studios in [[Kenwood, Ohio]] on Mondays, Thursdays, and Fridays, and in Chicago (where his television show taped at the time) on Tuesdays and Wednesdays.<ref name="usatoday-synd">{{cite news | agency=[[Associated Press]] | title=Jerry Springer ends syndicated radio show | url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-12-05-springer_x.htm?POE=LIFISVA | work=[[USA Today]] |date=December 5, 2006 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref> [[Air America (radio network)|Air America Radio]] syndicated the program for most of the show's run. In 2007 Springer Also Cameoed in a Couple Of Episodes Of The George Lopez Show.

He hosted [[Miss World]] in [[Miss World 2000|2000]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 1, 2000|title=Overnight ratings November 30|url=http://www.theguardian.com/media/2000/dec/01/channelfive.overnights|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=The Guardian|language=en}}</ref> and [[Miss World 2001|2001]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Miss World crown out of Africa's reach|url=https://www.news24.com/News24/Miss-World-crown-out-of-Africas-reach-20011116|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=News24|language=en-US}}</ref> and the [[Miss Universe 2008]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jerry Springer, Melanie Brown to host Miss Universe|url=http://www.today.com/popculture/jerry-springer-melanie-brown-host-miss-universe-wbna25377607|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=TODAY.com|date=June 25, 2008 |language=en}}</ref> He was also the [[List of WWE Raw guest hosts|guest host]] for ''[[WWE Raw]]'' on February 15, 2010, at [[Wells Fargo Arena (Des Moines)|Wells Fargo Arena]] in [[Des Moines, Iowa]]. Springer also hosted ''[[The Price Is Right Live!]]''.

From 2010 to 2015, Springer hosted a dating game show called ''[[Baggage (U.S. game show)|Baggage]]'', which aired on [[Game Show Network|GSN]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Elber | first = Lynn |title=Jerry Springer hosts new dating game show |work=USA Today |date=March 23, 2010 |url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/television/news/2010-03-23-jerry-springer_N.htm |access-date=April 10, 2010}}</ref>

In July 2012, he hosted <nowiki>''</nowiki>Price is Right Live!<nowiki>''</nowiki> in Vancouver's [[Boulevard Casino]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=July 13, 2012|title=Come on Down! Price is Right Live in Vancouver, through July 29|url=https://www.insidevancouver.ca/2012/07/13/come-on-down-price-is-right-live-in-vancouver-through-july-29/|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=Inside Vancouver}}</ref> He hosted the show at [[Jack Cincinnati Casino]] in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mayhew|first=Chris|title=Come on Down to play The Price is Right Live with Jerry Springer at Jack Cincinnati Casino|url=https://www.cincinnati.com/story/news/local/cincinnati/2018/01/08/play-price-right-live-jerry-springer/1013268001/|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=The Enquirer|language=en-US}}</ref>

From January 2014, Springer hosted [[Investigation Discovery]] series ''Tabloid''.<ref>http://previously.tv/tabloid/jerry-springers-tabloid-worth-picking/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325154412/http://previously.tv/tabloid/jerry-springers-tabloid-worth-picking/ |date=March 25, 2015 }} Tabloid TV series</ref>

He hosted ''[[The Adam Carolla Show (radio)|The Adam Carolla Show]]'' on April 25, 2014, where he sat in for [[Adam Carolla]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://adamcarolla.com/jerry-springer-and-cindy-caponera/ |title=Jerry Springer and Cindy Caponera |access-date=November 18, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129025051/http://adamcarolla.com/jerry-springer-and-cindy-caponera/ |archive-date=November 29, 2014 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Springer guest hosted the 22nd-season premiere episode of [[WWE Raw]] on September 8, 2014, in an attempt to conduct an intervention with [[The Bella Twins]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miamiherald.com/2014/09/03/4326366/jerry-springer-to-conduct-intervention.html|title=Jerry Springer to conduct intervention with Bella Twins on WWE 'Monday Night Raw' but was injured during the intetvention on Sept. 8|publisher=Alexandra Villoch|work=[[The Miami Herald]]|editor=Aminda Marqués Gonzalez|access-date=September 8, 2014|date=September 3, 2014}}</ref>

Springer hosted the show ''Jerry Springer Presents WWE Too Hot For TV'' on the [[WWE Network]] in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Flanagan|first=Graham|title=Jerry Springer's new WWE Network show is going to be like 'The Soup' for professional wrestling|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/wwe-network-jerry-springer-show-2015-4|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=Business Insider}}</ref>

====UK====
After a few years of his US talk show being broadcast in the UK, [[ITV1]] approached Springer, who temporarily co-hosted ''[[This Morning (TV programme)|This Morning]]'' with [[Judy Finnigan]] in March 1999<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/323008.stm | work=BBC News | title=Springer presents UK TV show | date=April 19, 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/apr/19/2|title=Breakfast with Jerry Springer|author=Sue Quinn|work=The Guardian|date=April 19, 1999}}</ref> and again in 2000. In summer 1999, ITV made 12 episodes of the UK-based version of the series, ''Jerry Springer UK'', filmed at the same studios as his US show.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/32214|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107174339/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/32214|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 7, 2014|title=Jerry Springer UK (TV series)|work=BFI}}</ref>

In September 1999, Springer made a pilot for a [[David Letterman]]-style talk show for ITV called ''Jerry Springer on Sunday''. The show received good reviews and ratings and a further four episodes were commissioned to be broadcast in May 2000.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jerry Springer moves to ITV |url=https://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/jerry-springer-moves-to-itv/1224137.article |website=Broadcastnow |language=en}}</ref> Five were broadcast during May and June 2000 under the name ''Springer''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2023/apr/27/jerry-springer-show-tv-episodes-moments|title=Jerry Springer Show: his most outrageous TV moments|first=Alaina|last=Demopoulos|date=April 27, 2023|newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

The series was picked up by [[Channel 5 (UK)|Channel 5]] and renamed ''Late Night with Jerry Springer''. Two series were made in 2000 and 2001 with 16 episodes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/34590|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100110223708/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/series/34590|url-status=dead|archive-date=January 10, 2010|title=Late Night with Jerry Springer (TV series)|work=BFI|access-date=August 24, 2013}}</ref> While working for Channel 5 In 2001, he was the host of [[Greed (UK game show)|the UK version of ''Greed'']],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ukgameshows.com/ukgs/Greed|title=Greed|work=ukgameshows.com}}</ref> and a stand in host for ''[[The Wright Stuff]]''. On April 16, 2006, Springer was the guest host for the opening show for the third series of ''[[The Sunday Night Project|The Friday Night Project]]'' for [[Channel 4]] and guest hosted ''[[Have I Got News for You]]'' on December 12, 2008. In 2007, he signed on to host ''[[Nothing But the Truth (UK game show)|Nothing But the Truth]]'', the UK version of ''[[Nada más que la verdad]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crazy Like a Foxx |url=https://www.vulture.com/2007/08/crazy_like_a_foxx.html |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=Vulture |date=August 17, 2007 |language=en-us}}</ref>

Springer covered the [[2016 United States presidential election]] for ITV's ''[[Good Morning Britain (2014 TV programme)|Good Morning Britain]]''.<ref name="gmb">{{cite news|title=Jerry Springer joins ''GMB''! |url=http://www.itv.com/goodmorningbritain/news/jerry-springer-joins-gmb |publisher=[[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] |date=January 25, 2016 |access-date=January 25, 2016}}</ref>

In 2016, 2017 and 2018, he guest hosted three episodes of the BBC's ''[[The One Show]]'' with TV host [[Alex Jones (Welsh presenter)|Alex Jones]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The One Show, 10/06/2016 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b07dn96t |website=BBC |access-date=May 31, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The One Show, 23/06/2017 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b08vd15v |website=BBC |access-date=May 31, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The One Show, 04/05/2018 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0b0w4p0 |website=BBC |access-date=May 31, 2021}}</ref>

===In the media===
====Acting====
Springer appeared in an episode of ''[[Married... with Children]]'' as the host of a talk show called ''The Masculine Feminist'', in which he advocated for women getting the men's bowling night and eventually taking over at a [[Bowling|bowling alley]]. [[Al Bundy]] and his friends tie Springer to a chair and take over his show with a stripper who jumps up and down for the crowd's delight.<ref>{{Citation|title=Married...With Children – Season 8 Episode 9|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/tv/married_with_children/s08/e09|language=en|access-date=January 22, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=August 31, 2019|title=10 Guest Stars We Forgot Were On Married With Children|url=https://screenrant.com/10-guest-stars-forgot-married-children/|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=ScreenRant|language=en-US}}</ref>

Springer starred in the 1998 film ''[[Ringmaster (film)|Ringmaster]]'' as a talk show host largely based on himself, though named "Jerry Farrelly".<ref name="cnn-ringmaster">{{cite news | title=Jerry Springer the 'Ringmaster' of his domain | url=http://www.cnn.com/SHOWBIZ/Movies/9811/18/springer/index.html | work=[[CNN]] Showbiz Today | date=November 18, 1998 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref> ''Ringmaster'' offers a behind-the-scenes look at would-be guests who apply to a Springer-like show. The same year, Springer also released an unrelated autobiography named ''Ringmaster''. He quipped, "I can only think of one title a year."<ref name="cnn-ringmaster"/>

Four years later, Springer appeared in [[Brad Paisley]]'s "[[I'm Gonna Miss Her (The Fishin' Song)]]" where the host is trying to stop a fight between men who like to fish and the wives who don't. Springer's section was titled "My Husband Left Me for a Fish." The song hit number one of the country charts in July 2002 and won [[Country Music Association Award for Video of the Year|CMA Video of the Year]] three months later.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cmt.com/news/country-music/1457254/paisley-netted-big-catch-in-cma-nominations.jhtml |title=Paisley Netted Big Catch in CMA Nominations |access-date=April 10, 2008 |last=Gilbert |first=Calvin |date=August 31, 2002 |work=CMT}}</ref>

In 2004, he played the US president in ''[[The Defender (2004 film)|The Defender]]'', directed by [[Dolph Lundgren]].<ref>{{Citation|title=The Defender (2004)|url=https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/defender|language=en|access-date=January 23, 2021}}</ref>

In June 2012, he appeared in ''[[Chicago (musical)|Chicago]]'' at the [[Cambridge Theatre]] London as Billy Flynn for a short period of time, starring alongside [[Aoife Mulholland]] and [[Leigh Zimmerman]].<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Rhone|first1=Nedra|title=Jerry Springer in character for 'Chicago'|url=https://www.ajc.com/entertainment/calendar/jerry-springer-character-for-chicago/XS01PTAcSq9qD8G0Q9yTsL/|access-date=January 23, 2021|newspaper=The Atlanta Journal-Constitution|language=English}}</ref>

He had a cameo appearance as himself in episode 2 of the [[Netflix]] show ''[[Happy! (TV series)|Happy!]]''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=December 14, 2017|title=How Happy!'s Crazy Jerry Springer Cameo Came About, According To Grant Morrison|url=https://www.cinemablend.com/television/1744279/how-happys-crazy-jerry-springer-cameo-came-about-according-to-grant-morrison|access-date=January 23, 2021|website=CINEMABLEND}}</ref>

In 1996, he appeared on an episode of the ninth season of ''[[Roseanne (TV series)|Roseanne]]'' and on ''[[The X-Files]]'' episode "[[The Post-Modern Prometheus]]". In 1998, he voiced a cartoon version of himself in the "Starship Poopers" segment of ''[[The Simpsons]]'' [[Halloween]] episode, [[Treehouse of Horror IX]]. That same year, he appeared as himself on an episode of ''[[The Wayans Bros.]]''. In 1999, he appeared in the episode "Mrs. Kraft" of the third season of ''[[Sabrina the Teenage Witch (1996 TV series)|Sabrina the Teenage Witch]]'' with his talk show. That same year, he was in an episode of ''[[Space Ghost Coast to Coast]]''. He made a [[cameo appearance]] in ''[[Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me]]'' (1999) as himself during an episode of his show featuring [[Dr. Evil]] and his estranged son [[Scott Evil]].<ref>{{Cite press release|date=February 13, 2019|title=From 'X-Files' to 'Roseanne,' the Best Jerry Springer Guest Spots on Streaming|url=https://decider.com/2019/02/13/jerry-springer-tv-episodes-movies/|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=Decider|language=en-US}}</ref>

====Television appearances====
In 2009, Springer appeared as a guest on the British game show ''[[Countdown (game show)|Countdown]]''. He appeared on the ''[[Chris Moyles|Chris Moyles Show]]'' in April 2009<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Radio 1 – The Chris Moyles Show, Chris Moyles guests 2009 – Jerry Springer – 08 Jun 09 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p0126n4k/p0126q9z |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Radio 1 – The Chris Moyles Show, 08/06/2009 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00kw86d |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref> and was a guest on ''[[The Andrew Marr Show]] o''n May 31, 2009.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gordon Brown's D-Day at hands of Jerry Springer |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/mandrake/5430215/Gordon-Browns-D-Day-at-hands-of-Jerry-Springer.html |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=www.telegraph.co.uk}}</ref>

He was interviewed by satirist [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]] in his surreal radio series ''[[Blue Jam]]'' (Series 2, Episode 6). On January 23, 2004, Springer was featured in an episode of ''[[This American Life]]'' titled "Leaving the Fold".<ref name=thislife/>

In late 2006, Springer was a contestant on the [[Dancing with the Stars (U.S. season 3)|third season]] of ''[[Dancing with the Stars (U.S. TV series)|Dancing with the Stars]]'', with his professional dance partner, [[Kym Johnson]]. He wanted to appear on the show so he could learn the [[waltz]] for the wedding of his daughter, Katie.<ref name="usatoday-synd"/><ref name="msnbc">{{cite news | title=Fans go wild for 'Dancing' Jerry Springer | work=Today.com | url=https://www.today.com/popculture/fans-go-wild-dancing-jerry-springer-wbna15127991 | date=October 4, 2006 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref> Springer and Johnson were eliminated in the seventh week of competition.<ref>{{cite news | title=Jerry Springer Voted Off 'Dancing With the Stars' |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,225478,00.html | work=[[Fox News Channel]] | date=October 26, 2006 | access-date=June 21, 2007}}</ref>

Springer appeared in an episode of [[BBC One]]'s television series ''[[Who Do You Think You Are? (British TV series)|Who Do You Think You Are?]]'' on August 27, 2008.<ref name="whodoyou">{{cite news | title=Jerry Springer's "Who Do You Think You Are?" Story | url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/whodoyouthinkyouare/past-stories/jerry-springer.shtml | work=[[BBC]] | date=August 27, 2008 | access-date=July 26, 2013}}</ref> In the episode he traveled to Poland, where he discovered that his maternal grandmother had been sent to Chełmno extermination camp by the [[Nazism|Nazis]] and killed. His paternal grandmother died at Theresienstadt concentration camp in what is the [[Czech Republic]]. He wept openly when he learned of how they died.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jerry Springer|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jerry-springer|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>

Springer was a guest panelist on episodes of ''[[8 Out of 10 Cats]]'' in 2014, ''[[Through the Keyhole]]'' in 2015,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Paddy McGuinness takes a peek Through the Keyhole |url=https://www.theboltonnews.co.uk/news/13652507.paddy-mcguinness-takes-a-peek-through-the-keyhole/ |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=The Bolton News |date=September 8, 2015 |language=en}}</ref> and ''[[QI]]'' ("Noodles") in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=BBC Two – QI, Series N, Noodles |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b088jr5t |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=BBC |language=en-GB}}</ref>

In 2022, Springer competed in [[The Masked Singer (American season 8)|season eight]] of ''[[The Masked Singer (American TV series)|The Masked Singer]]'' as "Beetle". He was eliminated on "Muppet Night" alongside [[Kat Graham]] as "Robo-Girl".<ref>{{Cite magazine |first1=Lauren |last1=Huff |title='The Masked Singer' Beetle is already crafting his apology for doing the show: 'I'm the anti-Trump' |url=https://ew.com/tv/the-masked-singer-beetle-revealed-jerry-springer/ |access-date=April 27, 2023 |magazine=Entertainment Weekly |language=en}}</ref>

===Other projects===
In 1995, Springer recorded the album ''Dr. Talk'' for Fiddle Fish Records, which mostly consisted of [[country music]] covers.<ref>{{Cite AV media|title=From The Vault... The WSVNRadio.net Archives|url=http://www.wsvnradio.net/archives/YEAR20%5Cdrtalk.htm|access-date=January 22, 2021|website=wsvnradio.net}}</ref>

On May 16, 2008, Springer delivered the [[Northwestern University School of Law]] commencement address.<ref>{{cite news | title=Former Lawyers Who Followed Their Passions | work=ONE400 | url=http://one-400.com/blog/ex-lawyers-followed-passions/ | access-date=October 3, 2014 | archive-date=October 6, 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006163448/http://one-400.com/blog/ex-lawyers-followed-passions/ | url-status=dead}}</ref> Although many students had criticized the university's choice of speaker, he received a standing ovation from about half the audience and reviews of his speech were generally positive.<ref name="dailynu-speech">{{cite news|title=Springer addresses Law grads at commencement |url=http://media.www.dailynorthwestern.com/media/storage/paper853/news/2008/05/16/Campus/Springer.Addresses.Law.Grads.At.Commencement-3372681.shtml |work=[[The Daily Northwestern]] |date=May 16, 2008 |access-date=August 1, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520132617/http://media.www.dailynorthwestern.com/media/storage/paper853/news/2008/05/16/Campus/Springer.Addresses.Law.Grads.At.Commencement-3372681.shtml |archive-date=May 20, 2008}}</ref> He later stated that his speech was about "the ethical judgments we all have to make in whatever business we go".<ref>{{cite episode | title = Anytime with Bob Kushell feat. Jerry Springer | series = Anytime with Bob Kushell | airdate = March 12, 2009 | season = 1 | number = 13}}</ref>

== Personal life ==
Springer married Micki Velton in 1973; though it is sometimes reported they divorced in 1994, a spokesperson said they were still married at the time of his death.<ref name = Smith>{{cite news|url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2023/04/27/jerry-springer-talk-show-dead/|title = Jerry Springer, whose tabloid talk show became a rowdy hit, dies at 79|newspaper = [[The Washington Post]]|date = April 27, 2023|accessdate = May 19, 2023|last = Smith|first = Harrison|url-access = limited}}</ref> The couple had a daughter, Katie, in 1976.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news |title=All About Jerry Springer's Daughter, Katie Springer |url=https://people.com/parents/all-about-jerry-springer-daughter-katie-springer/ |access-date=April 28, 2023 |newspaper=People |language=en}}</ref> She was born without nasal passages, for which she required immediate surgery after birth, and is blind, as well as deaf in one ear. In a 2006 interview, Katie stated that her parents were always supportive despite her health complications and that they did not raise her differently.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jerry Springer: 'Dancing' With His Daughter {{!}} Access Online |url=https://www.accessonline.com/articles/jerry-springer-dancing-with-his-daughter-56064 |access-date=April 28, 2023 |website=Access |date=October 10, 2006 |language=en}}</ref> In 2006, Springer donated $230,000 to Park School in Chicago, where his daughter worked as an assistant teacher, to help construct a high-tech facility called "Katie's Corner" for students with disabilities.<ref name=":1" />

=== Death ===
Springer died at his home in [[Evanston, Illinois]], on April 27, 2023, at the age of 79.<ref name = McIntosh/><ref>{{Cite news|url = https://evanstonroundtable.com/2023/04/27/jerry-springer-obituary-evanston-broadcaster/|title = Jerry Springer, 1944–2023|newspaper = Evanston RoundTable|date = April 27, 2023|accessdate = April 28, 2023}}</ref> A family spokesperson said that he had been diagnosed with [[pancreatic cancer]] a few months prior to his death.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Jerry Springer, daytime television pioneer, dies at 79 |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/obituaries/jerry-springer-daytime-television-pioneer-dies-79-rcna81773 |access-date=April 27, 2023 |website=NBC News |date=April 27, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> [[Steve Wilkos]], former ''Jerry Springer'' show bodyguard, paid tribute to his colleague, saying "Other than my father, Jerry was the most influential man in my life. Everything I have today I owe to Jerry. He was the smartest, most generous, kindest person I've ever known. [[Rachelle Wilkos|My wife]] and I are devastated. We will miss him terribly."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Jackson |first1=Dory |date=April 27, 2023 |title=Jerry Springer Dead: Steve Wilkos, Whoopi Goldberg, More Pay Tribute |url=https://people.com/tv/jerry-springer-death-reactions-tributes/ |access-date=May 3, 2023 |website=People |publisher= |ref=People}}</ref>

==Legacy==
During his career, Springer and his program quickly became a cultural phenomenon, with commentators describing the show as central to the emergence of [[trash TV]].<ref name=NBC/><ref name=Vanity>{{cite web|url=https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2023/04/jerry-springer-controversial-and-iconic-talk-show-host-dies-at-79|title=Jerry Springer, Controversial and Iconic Talk Show Host, Dies at 79|date=April 27, 2023 |publisher=Vanity Fair|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> After his death, ''[[The Guardian]]'' said that Springer "changed US television for better and worse".<ref name=Guardian>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2023/apr/27/jerry-springer-tv-legacy|title=Jerry Springer: the man who changed US television for better and worse|last = Lawrence|first = Andrew|newspaper=The Guardian|date=April 27, 2023 |access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> Despite his controversial career, he had a large fanbase from [[millennials]], as his show gained popularity throughout their childhoods, leading the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' to dub him the "millennials' babysitter".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/tv/story/2023-04-27/jerry-springer-dead-reactions-tributes|title=Final thought: Love him or loathe him, Jerry Springer was millennials' 'babysitter'|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=April 27, 2023|last = Saad|first = Nadine|url-access = limited}}</ref>

Springer was credited for creating a new television format which encouraged conflict among its guests.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.jta.org/2023/04/27/obituaries/jerry-springer-son-of-jewish-refugees-whose-eponymous-talk-show-was-known-for-conflict-dies-at-79|title=Jerry Springer, son of Jewish refugees whose eponymous talk show was known for conflict, dies at 79|date=April 27, 2023 |publisher=JTA|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> ''[[USA Today]]'' cited him as an inspiration for other tabloid talk shows such as ''[[Maury (talk show)|Maury]]'' and ''[[The Steve Wilkos Show]]'', with the latter program being hosted by [[Steve Wilkos|a former security guard and guest host]] for Springer's show.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/entertainment/tv/2023/04/27/jerry-springer-talk-show-host-dies-79/11751126002/|title=Jerry Springer, controversial daytime talk show host, dies at 79|work=USA Today|date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> The [[Associated Press]] said that Springer's show was "a US cultural pariah, synonymous with lurid drama".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/world/united-states-canada/article/3218644/former-us-talk-show-host-jerry-springer-has-died-age-79|title=Former US talk show host Jerry Springer has died, age 79|newspaper = [[South China Morning Post]]|date=April 27, 2023 |agency = [[Associated Press]]|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref>

In an obituary for Springer, ''[[The Irish Times]]'' said that Springer had changed the "television medium" through "The Jerry Springer Formula", which was "straightforward, despicable and ingenious".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/tv-radio/2023/04/27/the-jerry-springer-formula-despicable-and-ingenious/|title=The Jerry Springer formula: despicable and ingenious|publisher=The Irish Times|access-date=April 27, 2023}}</ref> The [[BBC]] noted that Springer had televised the "fringes of [American] society to a global audience" and called him an "era-defining TV host".<ref name = McIntosh/>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
* Springer, Jerry and Laura Morton. ''Ringmaster''. St. Martin's Press, 1998.
* Springer, Jerry and Richard Dominick. ''Jerry Springers Wildest Shows Ever''. Harper Paperbacks, 1999.

==External links==
{{commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{official website}}
* {{C-SPAN|55049}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* [https://findingaids.libraries.uc.edu/repositories/5/resources/343 Jerry Springer papers], Archives and Rare Books Library, [[University of Cincinnati]]

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box
| title=[[List of mayors of Cincinnati|Mayor of Cincinnati, Ohio]]
| before=[[Jim Luken]]
| after=[[Bobbie L. Sterne]]
| years=1977–1978|
}}
{{s-end}}
{{The Jerry Springer Show}}
{{Cincinnati Mayor}}
{{Talkradio}}
{{Golden Raspberry Award for Worst New Star}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Springer, Jerry}}
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Folketing

2023-07-23T21:42:26Z

Omcsesz: /* Demographics */

{{short description|Parliament of Denmark}}
{{use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox legislature
| name = Parliament of Denmark
| native_name = {{Native name|da|Folketinget}}
| coa_pic = 2018 Seal of the Folketing of Denmark.svg
| coa_res =
| legislature = [[List of members of the Folketing, 2022–present|72nd Folketing]]
| house_type = [[Unicameral]]
| leader1_type = [[List of Speakers of the Folketing|Speaker]]
| leader1 = [[Søren Gade]]
| party1 = {{Lang|da|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]]|italic=no}}
| election1 = 16 November 2022
| members = 179
| structure1 = Current Danish Parliament June 26.svg
| structure1_res = 250px
| structure1_alt = Current Structure of the Folketing
| political_groups1 =
'''[[Frederiksen II Cabinet|Government]] (89)'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Danmark får ny regering: "Det betyder ikke, vi er enige om alt" |url=https://www.altinget.dk/artikel/danmark-har-faaet-ny-regering |access-date=2022-12-13 |website=Altinget.dk |date=13 December 2022 |language=da-DK}}</ref>
: {{Color box|{{party color|Social Democrats (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]] (50)
: {{Color box|{{party color|Venstre (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} {{Lang|da|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]]|italic=no}} (23)
: {{Color box|{{party color|Moderates (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} [[Moderates (Denmark)|Moderates]] (16)
'''[[Confidence and supply|Supported by]] (4)'''
: {{Color box|{{party color|Union Party (Faroe Islands)}}|border=silver}} [[Union Party (Faroe Islands)|Union Party]] ([[Anna Falkenberg|1]]){{efn|name="FaroeParty"|[[Faroe Islands|Faroese]] political party represented in the Danish parliament.}}
: {{Color box|{{party color|Social Democratic Party (Faroe Islands)}}|border=silver}} [[Social Democratic Party (Faroe Islands)|Social Democratic Party]] ([[Sjúrður Skaale|1]]){{efn|name="FaroeParty"}}
: {{Color box|{{party color|Siumut (2021)}}|border=silver}} [[Siumut]] ([[Aki-Matilda Høegh-Dam|1]]){{efn|name="GreenlandParty"|[[Greenland]]ic political party represented in the Danish parliament.}}
: {{Color box|{{party color|Inuit Ataqatigiit}}|border=silver}} [[Inuit Ataqatigiit]] ([[Aaja Chemnitz Larsen|1]]){{efn|name="GreenlandParty"}}
'''Neither support or opposition (7)'''
: {{Color box|{{party color|Danish Social Liberal Party}}|border=silver}} [[Danish Social Liberal Party|Social Liberals]] (7) <ref>{{Cite web |title= {{!}} Nyheder |url=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/politik/radikale-er-ude-af-regeringsforhandlinger-jeg-tror-vi-kan-goere-en-stoerre-forskel |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=dr.dk |language=da-DK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title= {{!}} Nyheder |url=https://nyheder.tv2.dk/video/dXJuOnR2MjpjbXM6YnJpZ2h0Y292ZTp2aWRlbzo2MzE3MTMzMDQ1MTEy |access-date=2023-07-02 |website=tv2.dk |language=da-DK}}</ref>
'''[[Opposition (politics)|Opposition]] (79)'''
: {{Color box|{{party color|Green Left (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} [[Green Left (Denmark)|Green Left]] (15)
: {{Color box|#1272C2|border=silver}} [[Denmark Democrats]] (14)
: {{Color box|{{party color|Liberal Alliance (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} [[Liberal Alliance (Denmark)|Liberal Alliance]] (14)
: {{Color box|{{party color|Conservative People's Party (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} [[Conservative People's Party (Denmark)|The Conservatives]] (10)
: {{Color box|{{party color|Red–Green Alliance (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} [[Red–Green Alliance (Denmark)|Red-Green Alliance]] (9)
: {{Color box|{{party color|Danish People's Party}}|border=silver}} [[Danish People's Party]] (7)
: {{Color box|{{party color|The Alternative (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} [[The Alternative (Denmark)|Alternative]] (6)
: {{Color box|{{party color|New Right (Denmark)}}|border=silver}} [[New Right (Denmark)|New Right]] (3)
: {{Color box|{{party color|Independent politician}}|border=silver}} [[Independent politician|Independent]] ([[Lars Boje Mathiesen|1]])
| voting_system1 = [[Open list|Open]] [[Party-list proportional representation|list]] [[proportional representation]] through the [[D'Hondt method]] with a 2% [[electoral threshold|election threshold]] in constituencies {{small|See [[Elections in Denmark]]}}
| last_election1 = [[2022 Danish general election|1 November 2022]]
| next_election1 =
| session_room = Folketingssalen 2018a.jpg
| meeting_place = Folketingssalen, [[Christiansborg Palace]], Copenhagen
| website = {{Official URL}}
|leader2=[[Leif Lahn Jensen]]|leader2_type=Deputy Speakers&ensp;|leader3=[[Jeppe Søe]]|leader4=[[Karsten Hønge]]|leader5=[[Karina Adsbøl]]|leader3_type=&ensp;|leader4_type=&ensp;|leader5_type=&ensp;|party2=[[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]]|party3=[[Moderates (Denmark)|Moderates]]|party4=[[Green Left (Denmark)|Green Left]]|party5=[[Denmark Democrats]]}}
{{Politics of Denmark}}

The '''Folketing''' ({{lang-da|Folketinget}}, {{IPA-da|ˈfʌlkəˌtsʰe̝ŋˀð̩|pron}}; {{Literal translation|''The people's [[Thing (assembly)|thing]]''|''People's assembly''}}), also known as the '''Parliament of Denmark''' or the '''Danish Parliament''' in English,<ref>{{cite web|title=About the Danish Parliament|url=http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/About_the_Danish_Parliament.aspx|website=thedanishparliament.dk|publisher=The Danish Parliament|access-date=23 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825003755/http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/About_the_Danish_Parliament.aspx|archive-date=25 August 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> is the [[unicameral]] [[List of legislatures by country|national legislature]] ([[parliament]]) of the [[Danish Realm|Kingdom of Denmark]]—[[Denmark]] proper together with the [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]]. Established in 1849, until 1953 the Folketing was the [[lower house]] of a [[bicameralism|bicameral]] parliament, called the [[Rigsdagen|Rigsdag]]; the [[upper house]] was the [[Landstinget (Denmark)|Landsting]]. It meets in [[Christiansborg Palace]], on the islet of [[Slotsholmen]] in central [[Copenhagen]].

The Folketing passes all laws, approves the [[Cabinet of Denmark|cabinet]], and supervises the work of the government. It is also responsible for adopting the state's budgets and approving the state's accounts. As set out in the [[Constitution of Denmark]], the Folketing shares power with the reigning [[Monarchy of Denmark|monarch]]. In practice, however, the monarch's role is limited to signing laws passed by the legislature; this must be done within 30 days of adoption.

The Folketing consists of [[List of members of the parliament of Denmark|179 MPs]]; including two from Greenland and two from the Faroe Islands. [[Elections in Denmark|General elections]] must be held every four years, but it is within the powers of the [[Prime Minister of Denmark|Prime Minister]] to ask the monarch to call for an election before the term has elapsed. On a [[Motion of no confidence|vote of no confidence]], the Folketing may force a single Minister or the entire government to resign.<ref>"A Minister shall not remain in office after the Parliament has passed a vote of no confidence in him." [http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/da00000_.html The Constitution of Denmark – Section 15.]</ref>

Members are democratically elected by [[proportional representation]]: 135 directly in [[Constituencies in Denmark|constituencies]] using the [[D'Hondt method]] and with 40 [[leveling seats]]. The Danish political system has traditionally generated coalitions. Most post-war governments have been minority coalitions ruling with the support of non-government parties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.b.dk/din-mening/radikale-ved-historisk-skillevej|title=Radikale ved historisk skillevej|work=[[Berlingske Tidende]]|date=17 June 2007|access-date=17 August 2007}}</ref> The first sitting of the house is usually attended by Queen [[Margrethe II]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Danish Parliament opens on 6 October|url=http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/News/2015/09/Opening.aspx|website=thedanishparliament.dk|publisher=Folketinget (The Danish Parliament)|access-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428165231/http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/News/2015/09/Opening.aspx|archive-date=28 April 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==History==
From 1849 to 1953, the ''Folketing'' was one of the two houses in the [[bicameral]] parliament known as the ''[[Rigsdag]]''; the other house was known as ''[[Landsting (Denmark)|Landstinget]]''. The difference between the houses was its size, voter representation, and electoral system.

The Folketing was elected by common vote among men and consisted mainly of independent farmers, traders, and merchants as well as the educated classes. From 1866 to 1915, the right of vote for the Landsting was restricted to the wealthiest, and some of its members were appointed by the king, thus it predominantly represented the landed gentry and other conservatives. From 1915, both men and women had the right of vote for both houses, and the Landsting was elected by common vote, although indirectly and with a higher age limit than for the Folketing. During the next decades, law-making mainly took place in the Folketing and the Landsting came to be regarded as a superfluous rubber stamp.

[[File:Danish parlement in Copenhagen.JPG|thumb|left|[[Christiansborg Palace]], the location of the Folketing chamber since 1849]]
In 1953, a revised constitution was adopted by [[1953 Danish constitutional and electoral age referendum|a referendum]]. Among the changes was the elimination of the Landsting and the introduction of a [[unicameral]] parliament, known only as the Folketing. [[Christiansborg Palace]] (also known by its nickname ''[[Christiansborg Palace|Borgen]]'', Danish for ''the castle'') has been the domicile of parliament since 1849. The palace is located in the heart of [[Copenhagen]].

Gaining representation in parliament normally requires only 2% of the national vote. With such a low [[Electoral threshold|election threshold]], a large number of parties are represented in the chamber, making it all but impossible for one party to win the 90 seats necessary for a majority. No party has achieved this since 1901. All Danish governments since then have been coalitions or one-party minority governments. The constitution allows a government to take office without getting a vote of confidence and stay in office as long as it does not lose a [[vote of no confidence]]. One consequence is that, unlike in most other parliamentary systems, most Danish governments in modern times are not assured that their legislative agendas will pass, forcing them to assemble a majority for each individual piece of legislation.

==Constitutional requirements and electoral system==
{{Wikisource|Constitutional Act of Denmark, 5 June 1953}}
;Composition of members
* The Folketing consists of 179 members all elected for a four-year term or until the [[Prime Minister of Denmark|Prime Minister]] (via the Queen-in-council) calls for elections, whichever comes first. 175 members are elected in Denmark proper, while [[Greenland (Folketing constituency)|Greenland]] and the [[Faroe Islands (Folketing constituency)|Faroe Islands]] each elect two members in separate constituencies.
* The constitution does not mention political parties at all, although the electoral act does, and MPs are almost always elected for a party. The only independent who has been elected in modern times is the comedian [[Jacob Haugaard]], but independents, usually unknown ones, are seen at every election. Requirements for standing as an independent candidate are much more lenient than for a new party (signatures from 150 eligible voters), but independents are only allowed to contest in a single constituency, making it difficult to gain the needed number of votes for a seat.
;Voting system
* The Constitution requires for "equal representation of the various opinions of the electorate", and for regional representation to be secured. The electoral act stipulates the details for this: 135 seats are elected by proportional representation in 10 constituencies, and 40 [[leveling seat|levelling seat]]s are allotted to make up for the difference between constituency and nationwide vote. The 135 district seats are distributed to the parties by the [[D'Hondt method]] under a [[Party-list proportional representation|party-list system]]. The 40 levelling seats are allocated to the parties using the [[largest remainder method]], and then distributed across electoral provinces with the [[Sainte-Laguë method]] and across constituencies with quotients of 1, 4, 7, and so on. Each party may choose among a number of methods for how the seats won by that party are to be distributed among its candidates, with most choosing to use an [[open list]].<ref>[http://valg.ism.dk/valgsystem/Documents/opgoer-FTV.pdf]{{dead link|date=October 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}} {{in lang|da}}</ref>
* The overall result is [[proportional representation|proportional]] to the number of votes cast for each party; however, in rare cases, the largest parties may gain one or two seats extra from smaller parties.
* The voter may vote for a party list, one of the candidates on a party list, or an independent candidate. Voting for a candidate on a party list also gives a vote to that party.
* Parties (usually district party associations) decide on the nomination of candidates before the election. When an [[open list]] is used, candidates are elected according to personal votes (including assigned votes). When a [[Open list|relatively closed list]] is used, only an extreme number of personal votes can change the rank of the list order.
* Parties must either pass the [[Election threshold|threshold]] of 2% of the national vote, or gain a constituency seat to gain any [[leveling seat|supplemental seat]]s. Though very rare, it is possible for a party to gain a constituency seat without getting 2% of the national vote. There is also an esoteric third rule that allows a party to be represented, if it has enough votes in two of the three electoral provinces that the country is divided into. No party has ever fulfilled this rule without getting 2% of the national vote.
* To stand for election, parties that are not currently represented in Parliament must collect signatures of support from approximately 20,000 voters (the number of valid votes cast in Denmark proper at the latest election, divided by 175—the equivalent of one seat; after the [[2019 Danish general election|2019 election]] the required number is 20,182). As of 2016, it is possible to submit and collect signatures digitally.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Sørensen |first1=Iben |last2=Winther |first2=Bent |date=2016-01-12 |title=Vælgererklæringer bliver digitale |url=https://www.berlingske.dk/content/item/102316 |access-date=2022-08-03 |website=Berlingske.dk |language=da}}</ref>
;Voter requirements
* Denmark has [[universal suffrage]] for all citizens above age 18 who live in the realm and who have not been declared incapable of managing their own affairs. The constitution makes it possible to restrict suffrage for convicted criminals and people receiving social benefits, but this option has not been used for several decades.
* All voters who have not been convicted of criminal acts that makes them unworthy for a seat in the parliament, are eligible. Parliament decides if a member is eligible or not (after their election). Parliament can also decide that an incumbent member is ineligible, if a member is convicted of a crime during a term. This happened after the [[Impeachment of Inger Støjberg]] in 2021.
[[File:Bertel Haarder i forbindelse med graensehindringsdebat i Folketinget.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bertel Haarder]] ([[Venstre (Denmark)|V]]) making a speech]]
[[File:Graensehindringsdebat i Folketinget.jpg|thumb|right|View from the gallery]]
;Parliamentary privileges
* Members enjoy [[Parliamentary immunity|immunity]], meaning that no criminal charges may be brought against an MP, unless they are caught [[:wiktionary:red-handed|red-handed]], provided that the Folketing does not lift the immunity. The purpose of this is to prevent political persecution. In practice, the Folketing has almost always lifted the immunity when a member has been accused of a crime, usually with the consent of the accused member themself.<ref>{{Cite news |url= http://www.dr.dk/nyheder/politik/fakta-om-ophaevelse-af-parlamentarisk-immunitet |trans-title= Facts about lifting parliamentary immunity|title=Fakta om ophævelse af parlamentarisk immunitet|publisher=[[DR (broadcaster)|DR]]|access-date=2017-08-08|date=2003-05-23|language=da}}</ref>
* Debates can be conducted behind closed doors, although this has not happened since 9 April 1940, day of the German invasion in World War II.
;Ministers
* Ministers may hold a seat in parliament, but they do not need to. [[Supreme Court of Denmark|Supreme Court]] judges—according to convention—may not hold a seat whilst also acting as judges.
* Ministers may—even if they are not MPs—demand talking time whenever they want.
;Legislating
* Bills may be brought before parliament by members ([[private member's bill]]s) and ministers. Bills are predominantly brought before parliament by ministers, because they have the Law Office of the [[Ministry of Justice (Denmark)|Ministry of Justice]] at their disposal. Instead of putting forward a private bill, the opposition usually put forward a proposal for parliamentary decision, i.e., a short resolution that addresses the subject and directs the relevant minister to propose a bill concerning it.

==Forming a parliament==
{{Main|Member of the Folketing}}
The 179 members of the folketing are directly elected to four-year terms, subject to calls for early elections. All Danish citizens 18 years or older may vote in legislative elections, which are conducted by secret ballot.
Folketing seats are allocated among the various parties using the [[D'Hondt method]] of party list [[proportional representation]]. A party or electoral alliance must pass the election threshold of 2% of the overall vote to be allocated a seat.

===Coalition governments===
{{Update|section|date=April 2016}}
The Danish political system is characterised by a [[fusion of powers]], with the government being drawn from the ranks of the Folketing. Denmark is governed by a cabinet and a prime minister who do not have a majority in the Folketing against them (negative parliamentarism).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-01-09 |title=Parlamentarisme / Folketinget |url=https://www.ft.dk/da/leksikon/Parlamentarisme |access-date=2023-02-16 |website=Folketinget |language=da |quote=En regering må ikke have et flertal imod sig.}}</ref> Since no single party in Denmark has had an absolute majority in the Folketing since 1903, in order to pass laws, the prime minister must form alliances with parties outside his or her own party. This either results in a [[coalition government|coalition]] cabinet of multiple parties, or a single-party minority government.

During his first term in 2009 to 2011, [[Lars Løkke Rasmussen]] led a centre-right minority government consisting of the Liberal Party ({{Lang|da|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]]|italic=no}}) and the [[Conservative People's Party (Denmark)|Conservative People's Party]]. This coalition government worked with regular parliamentary support from the [[national conservatism|national conservative]] [[Danish People's Party]] and often gained the necessary 90th seat for majority in the Folketing through negotiations with either the sole MP from the [[Christian Democrats (Denmark)|Christian Democrats]], Ørum-Jørgensen<ref>{{cite web |url=http://politiken.dk/politik/ECE1030119/kristendemokraterne-vil-med-i-finansloven/ |title=Kristendemokraterne vil med i finansloven |language=da |website=Politiken.dk |date=26 July 2011 |access-date=16 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111040936/http://politiken.dk/politik/ECE1030119/kristendemokraterne-vil-med-i-finansloven/ |archive-date=11 January 2012 }}</ref> or another MP outside parties, Christmas Møller, both elected in 2007 as conservative MPs and having defected since then.

Since the [[2007 Danish parliamentary election|2007 elections]], the [[Liberal Alliance (Denmark)|Liberal Alliance]] (previously Ny Alliance) gained momentum in opinion polls, and since early 2010, the governing coalition have not been able to gather a majority in the polls without the support of the Alliance. The continuing rise in the polls is to an extent the result of the internal crisis in the Conservative People's Party over the leadership of [[Lene Espersen]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.berlingske.dk/politik/lene-espersens-krise-smitter-af-paa-loekke |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120722102458/http://www.berlingske.dk/politik/lene-espersens-krise-smitter-af-paa-loekke |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 July 2012 |title=Lene Espersens krise smitter af på Løkke – Politiko | www.b.dk |publisher=Berlingske.dk |access-date=16 September 2011 }}</ref> and the continuing debate over a lack of "true" liberal/conservative ideology in government policy.<ref>{{cite web |author=Af Uffe Tang og Christian Brøndum |url=http://www.berlingske.dk/politik/liberal-alliance-redder-regeringen |title=Liberal Alliance redder regeringen – Politiko | www.b.dk |publisher=Berlingske.dk |access-date=16 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225022046/http://www.berlingske.dk/politik/liberal-alliance-redder-regeringen |archive-date=25 December 2010 }}</ref>

On 13 January 2011, the continuing turmoil within the Conservative group in the Folketing caused Lene Espersen to resign as political leader of the party and focus on her role as [[Minister of Foreign Affairs]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Af Lene Frøslev |url=http://www.berlingske.dk/politik/det-er-den-rigtige-beslutning |title="Det er den rigtige beslutning" – Politiko | www.b.dk |date=13 January 2011 |publisher=Berlingske.dk |access-date=16 September 2011}}</ref> A leadership election between [[Brian Mikkelsen]], the [[Ministry of Economic and Business Affairs (Denmark)|Minister of Economic and Business Affairs]] and [[Lars Barfoed]], the [[Justice Minister of Denmark|Justice Minister]], was widely expected,<ref>{{cite web |author=Af Morten Henriksen og Chris Kjær Jessen |url=http://www.berlingske.dk/politik/baade-barfoed-og-brian-vil-afloese-lene |title=Både Barfoed og Brian vil afløse Lene – Politiko | www.b.dk |publisher=Berlingske.dk |access-date=16 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116192321/http://www.berlingske.dk/politik/baade-barfoed-og-brian-vil-afloese-lene |archive-date=16 January 2011 }}</ref> but on 14 January the Conservative group in the Folketing unanimously elected Barfoed as their new political leader.<ref>{{cite web|author=Af Louise Lyck Dreehsen |url=http://www.berlingske.dk/politik/barfoed-ny-k-leder |title=Barfoed taler til pressen – Politiko | www.b.dk |date=14 January 2011 |publisher=Berlingske.dk |access-date=16 September 2011}}</ref>

The [[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]] under the leadership of [[Helle Thorning-Schmidt]] have enjoyed continuing majorities in opinion polls since late 2009 and hopes to form a centre-left government coalition consisting of the [[Socialist People's Party (Denmark)|Socialist People's Party]] and the [[Danish Social Liberal Party|Social Liberal Party]] with parliamentary support from the small [[Red-Green Alliance (Denmark)|Red-Green Alliance]].<ref>{{cite web|date= 13 June 2010|url=http://www.bt.dk/politik/roed-dominans |title=Rød dominans – Politik |publisher=BT.dk |access-date=16 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Politik/2010/12/02/232622.htm |title=Greens: Markant rødt flertal – dr.dk/Nyheder/Politik |date=2 December 2010 |publisher=Dr.dk |access-date=16 September 2011}}</ref>

Both [[Margrethe Vestager]] (Social Liberal Party) and [[Villy Søvndal]] (Socialist People's Party) pledged their support to Thorning-Schmidt before the 2011 election.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://borsen.dk/nyheder/politik/artikel/1/143035/vestager_peger_paa_helle_thorning.html |title=Vestager peger på Helle Thorning |publisher=Borsen.dk |date=20 October 2008 |access-date=16 September 2011}}</ref> But there has been considerable debate about the future politics of this coalition, mainly because the Social Liberal Party demands a more [[economic liberalism|liberal economic]] agenda. Also on immigration issues there are political differences between the three coalition parties. This has led some observers to believe that the Social Liberal Party will not join a government coalition but instead opt to be a part of the parliamentary support of a new, centre-left government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dr.dk/Nyheder/Politik/2010/08/19/150632.htm?rss=true |title=Radikale med i regering – hvis ... – dr.dk/Nyheder/Politik |publisher=Dr.dk |date=19 August 2010 |access-date=16 September 2011}}</ref> In the event the Social Liberals did join the new three-party coalition government formed on 3 October.

Following the [[2015 Danish general election|2015 general election]], Thorning-Schmidt was replaced as Prime Minister by her predecessor Lars Løkke Rasmussen. Until 28 November 2016,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.com/en/denmark-pm-strikes-deal-to-form-new-government/a-36543082|title=Denmark PM strikes deal to form new government|publisher=Deutsche Welle|access-date=13 February 2017}}</ref> he led a government consisting only of Venstre – a very unusual situation in Danish politics.

==Speaker==
{{Main|List of Speakers of the Folketing}}
The Speaker is the [[speaker (politics)|presiding officer]] of the Folketing. The Speaker determines which members may speak, and is responsible for maintaining order during debates. The position was created in 1850, and the inaugural holder of the office was [[Carl Christoffer Georg Andræ]]. The current Speaker is [[Søren Gade]] of {{Lang|da|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]]|italic=no}}.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nu er Søren Gade valgt som Folketingets formand {{!}} Nyheder |url=https://www.dr.dk/nyheder/seneste/nu-er-soeren-gade-valgt-som-folketingets-formand |access-date=2022-11-16 |website=DR |date=16 November 2022 |language=da-DK}}</ref> The Speaker and four Deputy Speakers are elected by MPs at the opening of parliament after each general election and compose presidium of the body.<ref name="Speaker">{{cite web|url=http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/About_the_Danish_Parliament/The_Speaker.aspx|title=The Speaker|website=Thedanishparliament.dk|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150825203727/http://www.thedanishparliament.dk/About_the_Danish_Parliament/The_Speaker.aspx|archive-date=25 August 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=23 August 2015}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Position
!Member
!Party
|-
|President
|{{sortname|Søren|Gade}}
|{{Lang|da|[[Venstre (Denmark)|Venstre]]|italic=no}}
|-
|First Deputy Speaker
|{{sortname|Leif|Lahn Jensen}}
|[[Social Democrats (Denmark)|Social Democrats]]
|-
|Second Deputy Speaker
|{{sortname|Jeppe|Søe}}
|[[Moderates (Denmark)|Moderates]]
|-
|Third Deputy Speaker
|{{sortname|Karsten|Hønge}}
|[[Green Left (Denmark)|Green Left]]
|-
|Fourth Deputy Speaker
|{{sortname|Karina |Adsbøl}}
|[[Denmark Democrats]]
|}

==Composition==
===Demographics===
Although Denmark is a [[representative democracy]], a bias is seen in the demographics of the Folketing as opposed to the [[demographics of Denmark]], with middle-aged men being over represented, the Folketing is therefore not a direct representation of the country.

About one-third of seats have been switched for new members every election, a figure that has stayed more or less constant over previous elections. The largest change in these figures was seen in the election of 1973, where 45 percent of seats saw new members, and the lowest change was in the election of 1988 where 14.8 percent of members were newcomers.<ref>
{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date=16 June 2022 |title=Folketinget (book) |url= |location=Denmark |publisher=Gyldendal |page=179 |isbn=978-87-02-26493-7}}</ref>

Since the [[Women's suffrage|incorporation of women]] into the Folketing in 1915, a general rise in the seats held by women has been observed. In the most recent election in 2022, 78 of 179 seats were held by women.

{| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" border="1"
|+ Sortable and collapsible table
|-
! scope="col" | Election year
! scope="col" |Female members <ref>{{Cite web |title=Tal og fakta om Folketinget / Folketinget |date=24 November 2016 |url=https://www.ft.dk/da/folkestyret/folketinget/tal-og-fakta-om-folketinget |access-date=29 May 2023 |language=Danish}}</ref>
! scope="col" | Percent change
|-
|[[1957 Danish general election|1957]] || 15 || -
|-
|[[1960 Danish general election|1960]] || 17 || style="color: green" | +13.3%
|-
|[[1964 Danish general election|1964]] || 17 || +0.0%
|-
|[[1966 Danish general election|1966]] || 19 || style="color: green" |+11.8%
|-
|[[1968 Danish general election|1968]] || 19 ||+0.0%
|-
|[[1971 Danish general election|1971]]|| 30 || style="color: green" | +57.9%
|-
|[[1973 Danish general election|1973]] || 27 || style="color: red" | -10.0%
|-
|[[1975 Danish general election|1975]] || 28 || style="color: green" | +3.7%
|-
|[[1977 Danish general election|1977]] || 30 || style="color: green" | +7.1%
|-
|[[1979 Danish general election|1979]] || 42 || style="color: green" | +40.0%
|-
|[[1981 Danish general election|1981]] || 42 || +0.0%
|-
|[[1984 Danish general election|1984]] || 47 || style="color: green" | +11.9%
|-
|[[1987 Danish general election|1987]] || 52 || style="color: green" | +10.6%
|-
|[[1988 Danish general election|1988]] || 52 || 0.0%
|-
|[[1990 Danish general election|1990]] || 59 || style="color: green" | +13.5%
|-
|[[1994 Danish general election|1994]] || 59 || +0.0%
|-
|[[1998 Danish general election|1998]] || 67 || style="color: green" | +13.6%
|-
|[[2001 Danish general election|2001]] || 68 || style="color: green" | +1.5%
|-
|[[2005 Danish general election|2005]] || 66 || style="color: red" | -2.9%
|-
|[[2007 Danish general election|2007]] || 67 || style="color: green" | +1.5%
|-
|[[2011 Danish general election|2011]] || 70 || style="color: green" | +4.5%
|-
|[[2015 Danish general election|2015]] || 67 || style="color: red" | -4.3%
|-
|[[2019 Danish general election|2019]] || 70 || style="color: green" | +4.5%
|-
|[[2022 Danish general election|2022]] || 78 || style="color: green" | +11.4%
|}

===Historical composition===
{{See also||Elections in Denmark}}
Between 1918 and 1920 the Folketing had 140 seats, this was then increased to 149. The number was increased to 179 in 1953, which it remains to this day.

[[File:Folketing historical composition.png|1000px|Representation per party between 1918 and 2019]]

===Current composition===

{{Update|reason=needs to reflect the results of the [[2022 Danish general election]]|date=June 2023}}

{{See also||List of members of the Folketing, 2022–present}}
{{stack|
[[File:Christiansborg and election posters.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Christiansborg Palace]], the seat of the three branches of government: the Folketing, the [[Prime Minister of Denmark|Prime Minister's Office]] and the [[Supreme Court of Denmark|Supreme Court]]. Here it is surrounded by posters, a typical scene during an election season.]]
{{Politics of Denmark}}
}}
{{#section-h:2022 Danish general election|Denmark}}

==See also==
*[[Cabinet of Denmark]]
*[[Constituencies in Denmark]]
*[[Elections in Denmark]]
*[[Elections in the Faroe Islands]]
*[[Elections in Greenland]]
*[[Parliament of Greenland|Inatsisartut]] – [[Greenland]] (Parliament)
*[[Løgting]] – [[Faroe Islands]] (Parliament)
*[[List of prime ministers of Denmark]]
{{Portal bar|Denmark|Faroe Islands|Politics}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.thedanishparliament.dk}} {{in lang|en}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Folketinget}}
* [https://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/partner/the-danish-parliament The Danish Parliament at Google Cultural Institute]
* Klint, Thorkil; Evert, Anne Sofie; Kjær, Ulrik; Pedersen, Mogens N.; Hjorth, Frederik (2023). "[[doi:10.1016/j.electstud.2023.102624|The Danish legislators database]]". ''Electoral Studies. –'' a database of members of Folketinget for every electoral term since its inception in 1849.

{{Denmark topics}}
{{Danish elections}}
{{Faroese elections}}
{{Greenlandic elections}}
{{Parliaments in Europe}}
{{Legislatures of the Nordic countries}}
{{National unicameral legislatures}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|55|40|34|N|12|34|47|E|region:DK_type:landmark_source:dewiki|display=title}}

[[Category:1849 establishments in Denmark]]
[[Category:Government of Denmark]]
[[Category:Parliaments by country|Denmark]]
[[Category:National legislatures|Denmark]]
[[Category:Thing (assembly)]]
[[Category:Unicameral legislatures|Denmark]]
[[Category:Folketing| ]]

Richard Kruspe

2023-07-12T07:23:00Z

Omcsesz: /* Career */

{{short description|German rock musician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}}
{{BLP sources|date=May 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| image = Richard Kruspe (cropped).JPG
| caption = Kruspe with [[Rammstein]] in 2011
| alias = Richard Z. Kruspe<ref name="allmusic" /> Richard Zven Kruspe
| birth_place = [[Wittenberge]], [[East Germany]]
| birth_name = Sven Kruspe
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|df=yes|1967|6|24}}
| origin =
| instrument = {{flatlist|
* Guitar
* vocals
* keyboards
}}
| genre = {{flatlist|
* {{Lang|de|[[Neue Deutsche Härte]]|italic=no}}
* [[industrial metal]]
* [[alternative metal]]
}}
| occupation = Musician
| years_active = 1985–present
| current_member_of = {{flatlist|
* [[Rammstein]]
* [[Emigrate (band)|Emigrate]]
}}
| past_member_of =
| website =
}}

'''Richard Kruspe''' (born '''Sven Kruspe''';<ref>{{Cite web |title=Orgasm Death Gimmick Photos (7 of 10) |url=https://www.last.fm/music/Orgasm+Death+Gimmick/+images/6d90c574f5fc4168a609fb7ab59e309e |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220503161423/https://www.last.fm/music/Orgasm+Death+Gimmick/+images/6d90c574f5fc4168a609fb7ab59e309e |archive-date=May 3, 2022 |access-date= |website=Last.fm}}</ref><ref name="Loudwire"/> 24 June 1967) is a German musician. He is the lead guitarist of the {{Lang|de|[[Neue Deutsche Härte]]|italic=no}} band [[Rammstein]], as well as the lead singer and lead guitarist of the US-based [[industrial metal]] band [[Emigrate (band)|Emigrate]].

==Early life==
Sven Kruspe was born in [[Wittenberge]] (then part of East Germany). He later changed his first name to Richard, believing that anyone should be able to change their name.<ref name="Loudwire">{{cite web |last1=Hartmann |first1=Graham |title=Richard Kruspe of Rammstein + Emigrate - Wikipedia: Fact or Fiction? |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=By8kfo8qSkQ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/By8kfo8qSkQ |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|website=YouTube |access-date=14 June 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> He has two older sisters and an older brother. His parents divorced when he was young, and his mother remarried; Kruspe did not get along with his stepfather. The family moved to the village of [[Weisen]] when Kruspe was young. Because of his poor relationship with his stepfather, Kruspe often ran away from home in his early teens, sleeping on park benches.

In a 2014 interview with ''[[Metal Hammer]]'', he commented on life in East Germany, stating: "The thing about East Germany is that it was great to grow up there until you were 12. You were presented with the illusion of a very healthy society, which worked unless you asked questions – and you don't ask questions until you're 12."<ref name="MHfeature">{{cite web |last1=Everley |first1=Dave |title=Rammstein: The birth of a legend |url=https://www.loudersound.com/features/rammstein-the-birth-of-a-legend |website=[[Metal Hammer]] |publisher=[[Future plc]] |access-date=8 January 2021 |date=4 July 2019}}</ref>

At 16, Kruspe and some friends visited Czechoslovakia, where he bought a guitar, originally planning to sell it.<ref name="Loudwire"/> He then met a girl who saw him with the guitar and insisted he plays the instrument. When Kruspe hit random notes in frustration, the girl commented it was "beautiful" and that inspired him to play the guitar.<ref>{{cite web |last1=ESP Guitars USA |title=ESP Guitars: Richard Z. Kruspe (Rammstein) Interview - Oct 2011 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L5S0fZEua9E |website=YouTube |access-date=10 March 2023}}</ref>

==Career==
[[File: Rammstein (5424000485).jpg|thumb|right|Kruspe during a performance of the Rammstein song "[[Feuer frei!]]"]]
In 1985, bored with the apathetic music scene in his hometown, Kruspe moved to [[East Berlin]] and lived on Lychener Straße, where he "made music all day". For two years, he lived in an apartment with a drum kit and a guitar and made music by himself as he did not know anybody there. "It was a lonely time", according to Kruspe, but he used it to explore music.

On 10 October 1989, before the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], Kruspe was riding on the subway. After coming back above ground, he found himself in the middle of a political demonstration. He was hit on the head, which caused moderate damage to his right eye, and arrested just for being there and thrown in jail for six days. Once out of jail, he decided to leave East Germany. Because of the [[Eastern Bloc emigration and defection|Eastern Bloc]], he entered West Germany by traveling through Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Austria. When the Berlin Wall came down, he moved back East of Berlin.

Kruspe's first band, Das Elegante Chaos,<ref name="MHfeature"/> was formed in the late 1980s. The band played live with other bands such as [[First Arsch]] (in which [[Till Lindemann]] was a drummer). In 1989, when Kruspe was 22, some songs were recorded by the band; these songs were later released in 2011 on the album ''Lyrik'' by Dachboden-Records. Seeking a more independent experience, Kruspe formed Orgasm Death Gimmick,<ref name="MHfeature"/> which operated between 1991 and 1993; Orgasm Death Gimmick released three demo tapes, and a promotional tape through their label, Wydoks, before disbanding.

During his early career, Kruspe also played with other bands, such as First Arsch. Finally, Rammstein was formed in 1994, when Kruspe, who lived with [[Oliver Riedel]] and [[Christoph Schneider]] at the time, was looking for a new band in which to create a new style of music.<ref name="allmusic" >{{Cite web|title=Richard Z. Kruspe {{!}} Credits|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/richard-z-kruspe-mn0001609672/credits|access-date=2020-10-27|website=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref>

==Personal life==

Kruspe married South African actress [[Caron Bernstein]] on 29 October 1999. The ceremony was Jewish, and Kruspe composed the music for it. He took the name Richard Kruspe-Bernstein during their marriage. He moved from Berlin to New York in 2001 to live closer to Bernstein, but they separated in 2004, and he reverted to his original last name. He moved back to Berlin in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rammstein Interview|url=http://www.thegauntlet.com/interview/307/720/Rammstein|work=The Gauntlet|access-date=10 November 2012|year=2011|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030164811/http://www.thegauntlet.com/interview/307/720/Rammstein|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Discography==

{{See|Rammstein discography|Emigrate (band)#Discography}}

;Rammstein
* ''[[Herzeleid]]'' (1995)
* ''[[Sehnsucht (Rammstein album)|Sehnsucht]]'' (1997)
* ''[[Mutter (album)|Mutter]]'' (2001)
* ''[[Reise, Reise]]'' (2004)
* ''[[Rosenrot]]'' (2005)
* ''[[Liebe ist für alle da]]'' (2009)
* ''[[Untitled Rammstein album|Rammstein]]'' (2019)
* ''[[Zeit (Rammstein album)|Zeit]]'' (2022)

;Emigrate
* ''[[Emigrate (album)|Emigrate]]'' (2007)
* ''[[Silent So Long]]'' (2014)
* ''[[A Million Degrees]]'' (2018)
* ''[[The Persistence of Memory (album)|The Persistence of Memory]]'' (2021)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
*{{IMDb name|id=0472898}}
*[https://www.rammstein.de Rammstein website]
*[https://www.this-is-emigrate.com/ Emigrate website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427122123/https://www.this-is-emigrate.com/ |date=27 April 2019 }}

{{Rammstein}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kruspe, Richard}}
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Wittenberge]]
[[Category:German heavy metal guitarists]]
[[Category:German male guitarists]]
[[Category:German heavy metal singers]]
[[Category:German male singers]]
[[Category:Lead guitarists]]
[[Category:Rammstein members]]
[[Category:German industrial musicians]]
[[Category:Emigrate (band) members]]
[[Category:Industrial metal musicians]]
[[Category:East German defectors]]

Post processor

2023-06-26T10:18:29Z

Omcsesz:

{{Notability|date=January 2017}}
{{COI|date=January 2017}}
A Post Processor is a unique "driver" specific to a [[Numerical control|CNC machine]], robot or mechanism; some machines start at different locations or require extra movement between each operation, the Post-Processor works with the CAM software or off-line programming software to make sure the G-Code output or program is correct for a specific Trademark machine Control Cabinet (Fanuc, Siemens-Sinumeric, Mazak-Mazatrol, Heidenhein, Deckel-Maho, etc.
)
CAM software uses geometry from a [[Computer-aided design|CAD]] model and converts it to [[G-code]]. The CAM software analyzes the CAD model and determines what tooling and [[Machine tool|toolpaths]] will be used to mill the desired features. Doing so requires a CAM post processor that generates the exact G-code dialect used by the machine Control Module (Sinumeric, Fanuc, Mazatrol, Heidenhein, Toshiba etc.) that is being targeted. An instance of such a translation is often referred to as a "post". There will be a different “post” for each G-code dialect the CAM software supports. Post Processors (usually do not convert g-code from one dialect to the next), rather the “post” uses an intermediate format that captures the [[G-code]] commands in a dialect-independent form.
Most CAM software accomplishes this with an intermediate format called "[[Cutter location|CL.Data]]."

Please adjust the above terms.

Post processor is a software subroutine(sub-program) which converts graphical or non-graphical CAM software toolpath outcome into a specific NC Control(Fanuc, Sinumeric, Mazatrol, Heidenhein) Deckel-Maho etc).
Post processor is independent of hardware, it is a software adapting (compiling) toolpath into machine readable language or motions.

The Post-Processor will alter the program output to suit a specific machine; a "Post" can be used for complex things like producing a proprietary machine language other than [[G-code|G-Code]] or M-Code, or a Post-Processor may be used to start a machine from a specific position.
Another example of use for a Post-Processor would be an ATC (Automatic-Tool-Change) for a CNC, the Post-Processor is required so the correct Tool is collected from the correct location.

Some devices connect to the computer using "Serial Communication" and some CNC devices connect using "Parallel Communication", the Post-Processor does not influence the "communication", the Machine Software does.

There is post processors too on context of web development and development in general.

==See also==
* [[Preprocessor]]
* [[Transpiler]]

* [[PostCSS]]
* [[Prefix-free]]
* [[Stylecow]]
* [[CssNext]]
* [[BlessCss]]
* [[Pleeease]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Device drivers]]
[[Category:Computing input devices]]

Lilith (computer)

2023-06-26T09:46:29Z

Omcsesz: /* External links */ updating not working URL

{{Short description|1980 custom-built workstation computer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox information appliance
| name = DISER Lilith
| title =
| aka =
| logo =
| image = Lilith-enter-museum.jpg
| caption =
| developer = [[ETH Zurich]]
| manufacturer = Modula Computer Systems
| family = [[Niklaus Wirth|Wirth]]
| type = [[workstation]]
| generation =
| release date = {{Start date and age|1980}}
| retail availability = 
| lifespan =
| price = $8000
| discontinued = Yes
| units sold = 120<ref>{{Cite AV media |author= |date=15 June 2017 |title=ETH Zurich: Ready |medium=video |language=en |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvbhVPLS2fM |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/IvbhVPLS2fM |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|website=YouTube |time=1:25–1:35 |location=[[Zurich]], Switzerland |publisher=[[ETH Zurich]] |access-date=21 March 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
| units shipped = 120
| media = [[Floppy disk]] {{convert|5.25|in|cm|abbr=on}} 140 K
| os = [[#Operating system|Medos-2]] ([[Modula-2]])
| power =
| soc =
| cpu = [[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]] [[AMD Am2900|2901]]
| memory = 256 K (131,072 [[16-bit computing|16-bit]] [[Word (computer architecture)|words]])
| storage = 15 MB [[Hard disk drive|hard disk]]
| memory card =
| display = {{convert|12|in|cm|abbr=on}} [[monochrome]] [[Raster graphics|bitmapped]]
| graphics =
| sound =
| input =
| controllers =
| camera =
| touchpad =
| connectivity =
| currentfw =
| platform =
| service =
| dimensions = {{convert|15.5|x|15|x|14.5|in|cm|abbr=on}}
| weight =
| topgame =
| compatibility =
| predecessor =
| successor = [[Ceres (workstation)|Ceres]]
| related =
| marketing_target = Research
| website = 
}}
[[File:Diser Lilith-IMG 1729.jpg|thumb|The vertical screen, keyboard and mouse of the Diser Lilith]]
[[File:Lilith-IMG 7326.jpg|thumb|Vertical tower central unit]]

The '''DISER Lilith''' is a custom built [[workstation]] computer based on the [[Advanced Micro Devices]] (AMD) [[AMD Am2900|2901]] [[bit slicing]] processor, created by a group led by [[Niklaus Wirth]] at [[ETH Zürich]].<ref name="Byte8-84">{{Cite magazine |last=Ohran |first=Richard |date=August 1984 |title=Lilith and Modula-2: A case study of high-level-language processor design |magazine=[[Byte (magazine)|Byte]] |pages=181–192 |url=https://archive.org/details/byte-magazine-1984-08/page/n186/mode/1up |access-date=6 March 2021}} Reprint.</ref><ref name="Byte9-84">{{Cite magazine |last=Sand |first=Paul A. |date=September 1984 |title=The Lilith Personal Computer |magazine=[[Byte (magazine)|Byte]] |pages=300–311 |url=https://archive.org/details/BYTE_Vol_09-10_1984-09_Computer_Graphics/page/n309/mode/2up |access-date=6 March 2021}} Reprint.</ref> The project began in 1977, and by 1984 several hundred workstations were in use. It has a high resolution full page [[Page orientation|portrait oriented]] [[cathode ray tube]] display, a [[Mouse (computing)|mouse]], a [[laser printer]] interface, and a [[computer networking]] interface. Its software is written fully in [[Modula-2]] and includes a [[relational database]] program named Lidas.

The Lilith processor architecture is a [[stack machine]].<ref name="Byte8-84"/> Citing from Sven Erik Knudsen's contribution to "The Art of Simplicity": "Lilith's clock speed was around 7 MHz and enabled Lilith to execute between 1 and 2 million instructions (called M-code) per second. (...) Initially, the main memory was planned to have 65,536 [[16-bit computing|16-bit]] [[Word (computer architecture)|words]] memory, but soon after its first version, it was enlarged to twice that capacity. For regular Modula-2 programs however, only the initial 65,536 words were usable for storage of variables."<ref>{{Cite book |editor1-last=Böszörményi |editor1-first=László |editor2-last=Gutknecht |editor2-first=Jürg |editor2-link=Jürg Gutknecht |editor3-last=Pomberger |editor3-first=Gustav |date=25 October 2000 |title=The School of Niklaus Wirth: The Art of Simplicity |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann |isbn=978-1558607231}} {{ISBN|1-55860-723-4}} & dpunkt, {{ISBN|3-932588-85-1}}.</ref>

==History==
The development of Lilith was influenced by the [[Xerox Alto]] from the [[Xerox PARC]] (1973) where [[Niklaus Wirth]] spent a sabbatical from 1976 to 1977. Unable to bring back one of the Alto systems to Europe, Wirth decided to build a new system from scratch between 1978 and 1980, selling it under the company name DISER (''Data Image Sound Processor and Emitter Receiver System'').<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wirth |first=Niklaus |author-link=Niklaus Wirth |date=January 1995 |url=http://www.modulaware.com/mdlt52.htm |title=A Brief History of Modula and Lilith |journal=The ModulaTor |volume=Nr. 0}}</ref> In 1985, he had a second sabbatical leave to PARC, which led to the design of the [[Oberon (operating system)|Oberon System]]. [[Ceres (workstation)|Ceres]], the follow-up to Lilith, was released in 1987.

==Operating system==
{{Infobox OS
| name = Medos-2
| logo = 
| logo size =
| logo caption =
| logo alt =
| screenshot = 
| caption =
| screenshot_alt =
| developer = Svend Erik Knudsen
| family = [[Niklaus Wirth|Wirth]]
| working state = Discontinued
| source model = 
| released = {{Start date and age|1983}}
| discontinued = Yes
| latest release version =
| latest release date = 
| marketing target = Research
| programmed in = [[Modula-2]]
| language = English
| update model = Compile from [[source code]]
| package manager = Modula-2 modules
| supported platforms = Lilith ([[Advanced Micro Devices|AMD]] [[AMD Am2900|2901]])
| kernel type = [[Modular programming|Modular]], [[Object-oriented operating system|object-oriented]]
| userland =
| ui =
| license =
| succeeded by = [[Oberon (operating system)|Oberon]]
| website = 
| other articles =
}}
The Lilith [[operating system]] (OS), named Medos-2, was developed at ETH Zurich, by Svend Erik Knudsen with advice from Wirth. It is a single user, [[object-oriented operating system]] built from modules of Modula-2.<ref name="Byte9-84"/><ref>
{{cite thesis |last=Knudsen |first=Svend Erik |date=1983 |title=Medos-2: A Modula-2 Oriented Operating System for the Personal Computer Lilith |type=PhD |publisher=[[ETH Zurich]] |doi=10.3929/ethz-a-000300091}}</ref><ref>
{{Cite book |last=Knudsen |first=Svend Erik |date=25 October 2000 |chapter=Medos in Retrospect |editor1-last=Böszörményi |editor1-first=László |editor2-last=Gutknecht |editor2-first=Jürg |editor2-link=Jürg Gutknecht |editor3-last=Pomberger |editor3-first=Gustav |title=The School of Niklaus Wirth: The Art of Simplicity |pages=69–86 |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann |isbn=978-1558607231}} {{ISBN|1-55860-723-4}} & dpunkt, {{ISBN|3-932588-85-1}}.</ref>

Its design influenced design of the OS ''[[Kronos (computer)#Operating system|Excelsior]]'', developed for the Soviet Kronos workstation (see below), by the Kronos Research Group (KRG).<ref name="Kronos-Excelsior">{{Cite web |last1=Kuznetsov |first1=D.N. |last2=Nedorya |first2=A.E. |last3=Tarasov |first3=E.V. |last4=Filippov |first4=V.E. |date= |title=Kronos: a family of processors for high-level languages |url=http://www.kronos.ru/literature/processors |website=Kronos: History of a Project |publisher=xTech |language=ru |access-date=13 April 2021}}</ref>

==Soviet variants==
From 1986 into the early 1990s, [[Soviet Union]] technologists created and produced a line of [[printed circuit board]] systems, and workstations based on them, all named [[Kronos (computer)|Kronos]]. The workstations were based on Lilith, and made in small numbers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kronos: History of a Project |url=http://www.kronos.ru/ |date= |publisher=xTech |language=ru |access-date=8 April 2021}}</ref>

==Mouse==
The [[computer mouse]] of the Lilith was custom-designed, and later used with the [[Smaky]] computers. It then inspired the first mice produced by [[Logitech]].


==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Diser Lilith}}
* [http://bitsavers.org/pdf/eth/lilith/ Documentation on BitSavers]
* [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/eth/lilith/LilithHandbook_Aug82.pdf Geissman, L et al. (August 1982) Lilith Handbook]
* [http://www.cfbsoftware.com/modula2/Lilith.pdf Wirth, N (1981) The Personal Computer Lilith]
* [ftp://ftp.dreesen.ch/Emulith Emulith emulator for the Lilith], [http://pascal.hansotten.com/niklaus-wirth/lilith/emulith/ homepage] and [ftp://ftp.dreesen.ch/Emulith/Emulith_Manual.pdf documentation]
* [http://cfbsoftware.com/modula2 Lilith and Modula-2]
* [http://www.ethistory.ethz.ch/rueckblicke/departemente/dinfk/weitere_seiten/lilith/index_EN ETHistory - Lilith Workstation]
* [http://www.cpu-world.com/CPUs/2901/AMD-AM2901DC.html AMD AM2901DC entry on CPU World]

{{Modula, Oberon}}
{{Wirth}}

[[Category:Computer workstations]]
[[Category:Computers using bit-slice designs]]
[[Category:High-level language computer architecture]]