Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Slipjoint

2016-04-12T00:29:54Z

Owlgorithm: Grammar edit: Fixed verb to match the plural subject.

{{Underlinked|date=December 2012}}

{{Refimprove|date=April 2008}}
A '''slipjoint''' knife is one of the most ubiquitous types of [[Pocket knife|pocketknives]].

A slipjoint knife consists of a handle with one or more folding blades. These blades are held in position by a strong "backspring" which biases them towards the open or closed position. Contrast this with the [[penny knife]], which has no locking mechanism other than friction, or locking knives which mechanically lock the blade in position.

==Legal status==

In several countries, such as the United Kingdom, slipjoints are used over locking folders due to laws regarding carrying knives for general use. In Germany, because the use of locking one handed opening (OHO) knives is restricted,<ref>http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/waffg_2002/__42a.html</ref> slipjoint knives are a viable alternative.

==American slipjoint knife variants==

The United States produced a massive array of slipjoint knife models from the mid-19th Century to the present day. The following is a list of representative models and their defining features:

*''Peanut''—a very small (3" or less) pocketknife, with a slightly irregular ovaloid shape resembling an elongated peanut. Generally with two blades of different sizes/profiles opening from the same end.

*''Barlow''—a medium-sized pocketknife of tapered oval construction, with one or two blades of different sizes/profiles opening from the same end.

*''Sunfish'' or ''Elephant's Toenail''—a small pocket knife with a very wide body usually having two blades one of which has the same wide body as the handle. The blades usually open from either end.

*''Congress''—a small pocket knife with shallow concave back and shallow convex top. Usually carries four blades opening at opposite ends.

*''Sowbelly'' or ''Stockman knife''—a medium sized pocket knife 3" to 4" with bend in the body. Usually carries three blades with two clip points and a spey blade being a common configuration. Blades usually open from both ends.

*''Canoe''—a medium sized knife 3" to 4", rather wide with a slight curve. Generally with one large and one small blade at opposite ends.

*''Trapper''—a medium sized pocket knife with a rounded end and which tapers slightly towards the knife end. Usually carries two blades with a clip point and a spey blade being a common configuration. Both blades open from the same end.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Pocket knives]]

{{tool-stub}}

Cobalt

2016-04-08T21:48:42Z

Owlgorithm: /* Alloys */Fixed a date error which contradicted the page it linked to. (It said "19th century" in reference to the 1900's, which is an obvious mistake.)

{{about|the chemical element}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}
{{Infobox cobalt}}

'''Cobalt''' is a [[chemical element]] with symbol '''Co''' and atomic number 27. Like nickel, cobalt in the Earth's crust is found only in chemically combined form, save for small deposits found in alloys of natural [[meteoric iron]]. The free element, produced by reductive [[smelting]], is a hard, lustrous, silver-gray [[metal]].

Cobalt-based blue pigments ([[cobalt blue]]) have been used since ancient times for jewelry and paints, and to impart a distinctive blue tint to glass, but the color was later thought by alchemists to be due to the known metal [[bismuth]]. Miners had long used the name ''[[kobold]] ore'' (German for ''goblin ore'') for some of the blue-pigment producing [[minerals]]; they were so named because they were poor in known metals, and gave poisonous [[arsenic]]-containing fumes upon smelting. In 1735, such ores were found to be reducible to a new metal (the first discovered since ancient times), and this was ultimately named for the ''kobold''.

Today, some cobalt is produced specifically from various metallic-lustered ores, for example [[cobaltite]] (Co[[Arsenic|As]][[Sulfur|S]]), but the main source of the element is as a by-product of [[copper]] and [[nickel]] mining. [[Copperbelt|The copper belt]] in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Central African Republic]] and [[Zambia]] yields most of the cobalt mined worldwide.

Cobalt is primarily used as the metal, in the preparation of [[magnetism|magnetic]], wear-resistant and high-strength [[alloy]]s. Its compounds cobalt silicate and cobalt(II) aluminate (CoAl2O4, cobalt blue) give a distinctive deep blue color to [[glass]], [[ceramic]]s, [[ink]]s, [[paint]]s and [[varnish]]es. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable [[isotope]], cobalt-59. [[Cobalt-60]] is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a [[radioactive tracer]] and for the production of high energy [[gamma ray]]s.

Cobalt is the active center of [[coenzymes]] called [[cobalamin]]s, the most common example of which is [[vitamin B12|vitamin B{{ssub|12}}]]. As such it is an essential trace [[dietary mineral]] for all animals. Cobalt in inorganic form is also [[micronutrient]] for bacteria, [[algae]] and [[fungi]].

==Characteristics==
[[File:Kobalt 13g.jpg|thumb|left|alt=a sample of pure cobolt|A block of [[Electrolysis|electrolytically]] refined cobalt (99.9% purity) cut from a large plate]]

Cobalt is a [[Ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] metal with a [[specific gravity]] of 8.9. The [[Curie temperature]] is {{convert|1115|C}}<ref>{{cite book|author1 =Enghag, Per|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=aff7sEea39EC&pg=PA680|title =Encyclopedia of the elements: technical data, history, processing, applications|chapter = Cobalt|page =667|date =2004|isbn =978-3-527-30666-4}}</ref> and the magnetic moment is 1.6–1.7 [[Bohr magneton]]s per [[atom]].<ref>{{cite book|author1 = Murthy, V. S. R|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=fi_rnPJeTV8C&pg=PA381|title = Structure And Properties Of Engineering Materials|chapter = Magnetic Properties of Materials|page = 381|date = 2003|isbn = 978-0-07-048287-6}}</ref> Cobalt has a [[Permeability (electromagnetism)|relative permeability]] two-thirds that of [[iron]].<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=opQjaSj2yIMC&pg=PA27|pages = 27|title = Electromagnetic Shielding|isbn = 978-0-470-05536-6|author1 = Celozzi, Salvatore|author2 = Araneo, Rodolfo|author3 = Lovat, Giampiero|date = 2008-05-01}}</ref> [[Metal]]lic cobalt occurs as two [[crystallographic structure]]s: [[Hexagonal close packed|hcp]] and [[Face-centered cubic|fcc]]. The ideal transition temperature between the hcp and fcc structures is {{convert|450|C}}, but in practice, the energy difference is so small that random intergrowth of the two is common.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Lee|first1 = B.|last2 = Alsenz|first2 = R.|last3 = Ignatiev|first3 = A.|last4 = Van Hove|first4 = M.|last5 = Van Hove|first5 = M. A.|title = Surface structures of the two allotropic phases of cobalt|journal = Physical Review B|volume = 17|pages = 1510–1520|date = 1978|doi = 10.1103/PhysRevB.17.1510|issue = 4|bibcode = 1978PhRvB..17.1510L }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.americanelements.com/co.html|title = Properties and Facts for Cobalt|publisher=[[American Elements]]|accessdate = 2008-09-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=H8XVAAAAMAAJ| page = 45|title = Cobalt|author1 = Cobalt, Centre d'Information du Cobalt, Brussels|date = 1966}}</ref>

Cobalt is a weakly reducing metal that is protected from oxidation by a [[Passivation (chemistry)|passivating]] [[oxide]] film. It is attacked by [[halogens]] and [[sulfur]]. Heating in [[oxygen]] produces [[Cobalt(II,III) oxide|Co3O4]] which loses oxygen at {{convert|900|C}} to give the [[Cobalt(II) oxide|monoxide]] CoO.<ref name="HollemanAF"/> The metal reacts with [[fluorine]] ([[Fluorine|F2]]) at 520 K to give [[Cobalt(III) fluoride|CoF3]]; with [[chlorine]] ([[Chlorine|Cl2]]), [[bromine]] ([[Bromine|Br2]]) and [[iodine]] ([[Iodine|I2]]), the corresponding binary [[halides]] are formed. It does not react with [[hydrogen gas]] ([[hydrogen|H2]]) or [[nitrogen gas]] ([[nitrogen|N2]]) even when heated, but it does react with [[boron]], [[carbon]], [[phosphorus]], [[arsenic]] and sulfur.<ref>{{Housecroft3rd|page=722}}</ref> At ordinary temperatures, it reacts slowly with [[mineral acids]], and very slowly with moist, but not with dry, air.

==Compounds==
{{Category see also|Cobalt compounds}}
Common [[oxidation states]] of cobalt include +2 and +3, although compounds with oxidation states ranging from −3 to +4 are also known. A common oxidation state for simple compounds is +2 (cobalt(II)). These salts form the pink-colored [[metal aquo complex]] [Co(H2O)6]2+ in water. Addition of chloride gives the intensely blue {{chem|[CoCl|4|]|2-}}.<ref name=greenwood/>

===Oxygen and chalcogen compounds===
Several [[oxide]]s of cobalt are known. Green [[cobalt(II) oxide]] (CoO) has [[Cubic crystal system|rocksalt]] structure. It is readily oxidized with water and oxygen to brown cobalt(III) hydroxide (Co(OH)3). At temperatures of 600–700 °C, CoO oxidizes to the blue [[cobalt(II,III) oxide]] (Co3O4), which has a [[spinel]] structure.<ref name=greenwood>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|pages=1117–1119}}</ref> Black [[cobalt(III) oxide]] (Co2O3) is also known.<ref>{{cite book|page=107|title=The history and use of our earth's chemical elements: a reference guide|author=Krebs, Robert E.|edition=2nd|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|date=2006|isbn=0-313-33438-2}}</ref> Cobalt oxides are [[antiferromagnetic]] at low [[temperature]]: CoO ([[Néel temperature]] 291 K) and Co3O4 (Néel temperature: 40 K), which is analogous to [[magnetite]] (Fe3O4), with a mixture of +2 and +3 oxidation states.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Petitto|first1=Sarah C.|last2=Marsh|first2=Erin M.|last3=Carson|first3=Gregory A.|last4=Langell|first4=Marjorie A.|title=Cobalt oxide surface chemistry: The interaction of CoO(100), Co3O4(110) and Co3O4(111) with oxygen and water|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=chemistrylangell|journal=Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical|volume=281|pages=49–58|date=2008|doi=10.1016/j.molcata.2007.08.023}}</ref>

The principal [[chalcogen]]ides of cobalt include the black [[cobalt(II) sulfide]]s, CoS2, which adopts a [[pyrite]]-like structure, and [[cobalt sulfide|cobalt(III) sulfide]] (Co2S3).

===Halides===
[[File:Cobalt(II)-chloride-hexahydrate-sample.jpg|thumb|left|alt=purple pile of power of Cobalt(II)-chloride-hexahydrate| Cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate]]
Four dihalides of cobalt(II) are known: [[cobalt(II) fluoride]] (CoF2, pink), [[cobalt(II) chloride]] (CoCl2, blue), [[cobalt(II) bromide]] (CoBr2, green), [[cobalt(II) iodide]] (CoI2, blue-black). These halides exist in anhydrous and hydrated forms. Whereas the anhydrous dichloride is blue, the hydrate is red.<ref name=greenwood2>{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd|pages=1119–1120}}</ref>

The reduction potential for the reaction
:{{chem|Co|3+}} + e− → {{chem|Co|2+}}

is +1.92 V, beyond that for [[chlorine]] to chloride, +1.36 V. As a consequence cobalt(III) and chloride would result in the cobalt(III) being reduced to cobalt(II). Because the reduction potential for fluorine to fluoride is so high, +2.87 V, [[cobalt(III) fluoride]] is one of the few simple stable cobalt(III) compounds. Cobalt(III) fluoride, which is used in some fluorination reactions, reacts vigorously with water.<ref name="HollemanAF"/>
{{clear left}}

===Coordination compounds===
As for all metals, molecular compounds and polyatomic ions of cobalt are classified as [[coordination complex]]es, that is molecules or ions that contain cobalt linked to several [[ligand]]s. The principles of [[electronegativity]] and [[HSAB theory|hardness–softness]] of a series of ligands can be used to explain the usual oxidation state of the cobalt. For example, Co+3 complexes tend to have [[ammine]] ligands. As phosphorus is softer than nitrogen, phosphine ligands tend to feature the [[HSAB theory|softer]] Co2+ and Co+, an example being tris(triphenylphosphine)cobalt(I) chloride ((P(C6H5)3)3CoCl). The more electronegative (and harder) oxide and fluoride can stabilize Co4+ and Co5+ derivatives, e.g. caesium hexafluorocobaltate (Cs2CoF6) and potassium percobaltate (K3CoO4).<ref name="HollemanAF">{{cite book|author=Holleman, A. F.|author2=Wiberg, E.|author3=Wiberg, N.|title = Lehrbuch der Anorganischen Chemie|edition = 102nd|publisher = de Gruyter|date = 2007|language=German|isbn = 978-3-11-017770-1| pages = 1146–1152|chapter = Cobalt}}</ref>

[[Alfred Werner]], a Nobel-prize winning pioneer in [[coordination chemistry]], worked with compounds of [[empirical formula]] [Co(NH3)6]Cl3. One of the isomers determined was [[cobalt(III) hexammine chloride]]. This coordination complex, a "typical" Werner-type complex, consists of a central cobalt atom coordinated by six [[ammine]] ligands orthogonal to each other and three [[chloride]] counteranions. Using chelating [[ethylenediamine]] ligands in place of ammonia gives [[tris(ethylenediamine)cobalt(III) chloride]] ([Co(en)3]Cl3), which was one of the first [[coordination complex]]es that was resolved into [[Chirality (chemistry)|optical isomers]]. The complex exists as both either right- or left-handed forms of a "three-bladed propeller". This complex was first isolated by Werner as yellow-gold needle-like crystals.<ref>{{cite journal|author = Werner, A. |title = Zur Kenntnis des asymmetrischen Kobaltatoms. V|journal = [[Chemische Berichte]]|date = 1912|volume = 45|pages = 121–130|doi = 10.1002/cber.19120450116}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=9d893122U6kC&pg=PR31|pages =31–33|chapter = Early Theories of Coordination Chemistry|title = Coordination chemistry|isbn = 978-3-527-31802-5|author1 = Gispert, Joan Ribas|date = 2008}}</ref>

===Organometallic compounds===
{{Main|Organocobalt chemistry}}
[[Cobaltocene]] is a structural analog to [[ferrocene]], where cobalt substitutes for iron. Cobaltocene is sensitive to oxidation, much more than ferrocene.<ref>{{cite book|author=James E. House|title=Inorganic chemistry|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ocKWuxOur-kC&pg=PA767 | accessdate = 2011-05-16 |date=2008 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-12-356786-4 |pages=767–}}</ref> Cobalt carbonyl (Co2(CO)8) is a [[Catalysis|catalyst]] in [[carbonylation]] and [[hydrosilylation]] reactions.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Charles M. Starks|author2=Charles Leonard Liotta|author3=Marc Halpern|title=Phase-transfer catalysis: fundamentals, applications, and industrial perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-QCGckdeKAkC&pg=PA600|accessdate= 2011-05-16 |date=1994|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-412-04071-9|pages=600–}}</ref> Vitamin B12 (see [[Cobalt#Biological role|below]]) is an organometallic compound found in nature and is the only [[vitamin]] to contain a metal atom.<ref>{{cite book|title=Organometallics in Environment and Toxicology (Metal Ions in Life Sciences)|date=2010|publisher=[[Royal Society of Chemistry|Royal Society of Chemistry Publishing]]|location=[[Cambridge]], [[United Kingdom|UK]]|isbn=978-1-84755-177-1|page=75
|editor1-first=Astrid|editor1-last=Sigel|editor2-first=Helmut|editor2-last=Sigel|editor3-first=Roland|editor3-last=Sigel}}</ref>

==Isotopes==
{{Main|Isotopes of cobalt}}
59Co is the only stable cobalt [[isotope]] and the only isotope to exist naturally on Earth. 22 [[radioisotope]]s have been characterized with the most stable being 60Co with a [[half-life]] of 5.2714 years, 57Co with a half-life of 271.8 days, 56Co with a half-life of 77.27 days, and 58Co with a half-life of 70.86 days. All of the remaining [[radioactive]] isotopes have half-lives that are shorter than 18 hours, and the majority of these are shorter than 1 second. This element also has 4 [[meta state]]s, all of which have half-lives shorter than 15 minutes.<ref name="nubase">{{cite journal| last = Audi| first = G.|title = The NUBASE Evaluation of Nuclear and Decay Properties| journal = Nuclear Physics A| volume = 729| pages = 3–128| publisher = Atomic Mass Data Center| date = 2003| doi=10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001| bibcode=2003NuPhA.729....3A| last2 = Bersillon| first2 = O.| last3 = Blachot| first3 = J.| last4 = Wapstra| first4 = A.H.}}</ref>

The isotopes of cobalt range in [[atomic weight]] from 50 [[atomic mass unit|u]] (50Co) to 73 u (73Co). The primary [[decay mode]] for isotopes with atomic mass unit values less than that of the most abundant stable isotope, 59Co, is [[electron capture]] and the primary mode of decay for those of greater than 59 atomic mass units is [[beta decay]]. The primary [[decay product]]s before 59Co are element 26 ([[iron]]) isotopes and the primary products after are element 28 (nickel) isotopes.<ref name="nubase"/>

==History==
[[File:Early blue and white ware circa 1335 Jingdezhen.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=cobalt blue Chinese porcelain |Early Chinese blue and white porcelain, manufactured c. 1335]]
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to [[glass]], [[ceramic glaze|glazes]] and [[Ceramics (art)|ceramics]]. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture and Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the ruins of [[Pompeii]] (destroyed in 79 AD), and in China dating from the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907 AD) and the [[Ming dynasty]] (1368–1644 AD).<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/123235/cobalt-Co Cobalt], Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref>

Cobalt has been used to color glass since the [[Bronze Age]]. The excavation of the [[Uluburun shipwreck]] yielded an ingot of blue glass, which was cast during the 14th century BC.<ref name="Pulak">{{cite journal |last = Pulak |first = Cemal |date=1998 |title=The Uluburun shipwreck: an overview |journal = International Journal of Nautical Archaeology|volume = 27 |issue = 3 |pages = 188–224 |doi = 10.1111/j.1095-9270.1998.tb00803.x}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title = The Science and Archaeology of Materials: An Investigation of Inorganic Materials|first = Julian|last = Henderson|publisher = Routledge|date = 2000|isbn = 978-0-415-19933-9|url = https://books.google.com/?id=p9xJ-VpUuNkC|chapter = Glass|page = 60}}</ref> Blue glass items from Egypt are colored with copper, iron, or cobalt. The oldest cobalt-colored glass was from the time of the [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|Eighteenth dynasty]] in [[Egypt]] (1550–1292 BC). The location where the cobalt compounds were obtained is unknown.<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Archaeometry|volume = 43|issue = 4|date = 2003|title = Aspects of the Production of Cobalt-blue Glass in Egypt|first = Th.|last = Rehren|doi = 10.1111/1475-4754.00031|pages = 483–489}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title = Ancient Egyptian Materials and Industries|first = A.|last = Lucas|publisher = Kessinger Publishing|date = 2003|isbn = 978-0-7661-5141-3|page = 217|url = https://books.google.com/?id=GugkliLHDMoC}}</ref>

The word ''cobalt'' is derived from the German ''{{lang|mhd|kobalt}}'', from ''[[kobold]]'' meaning "goblin", a superstitious term used for the [[ore]] of cobalt by miners. The first attempts at smelting these ores to produce metals such as copper or nickel failed, yielding simply powder (cobalt(II) oxide) instead. Also, because the primary ores of cobalt always contain arsenic, smelting the ore oxidized the arsenic content into the highly toxic and volatile [[arsenic(III) oxide|arsenic oxide]], which also decreased the reputation of the ore for the miners.<ref name="met1863" >{{cite book|isbn = 978-0-202-36361-5|pages =254–256|chapter = Cobalt|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=UyE49SzKWHIC&pg=PA254|title = Metallurgy: 1863–1963|author1 = Dennis, W. H|date = 2010}}</ref>

Swedish chemist [[Georg Brandt]] (1694–1768) is credited with discovering cobalt circa 1735, showing it to be a new previously unknown element different from bismuth and other traditional metals, and calling it a new "semi-metal."<ref>Georg Brandt first showed cobalt to be a new metal in: G. Brandt (1735) "Dissertatio de semimetallis" (Dissertation on semi-metals), ''Acta Literaria et Scientiarum Sveciae'' (Journal of Swedish literature and sciences), vol. 4, pages 1–10. See also: '''(1)''' G. Brandt (1746) "Rön och anmärkningar angäende en synnerlig färg — cobolt" (Observations and remarks concerning an extraordinary pigment — cobalt), ''Kongliga Svenska vetenskapsakademiens handlingar'' (Transactions of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science), vol.7, pages 119–130; '''(2)''' G. Brandt (1748) "Cobalti nova species examinata et descripta" (Cobalt, a new element examined and described), ''Acta Regiae Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis'' (Journal of the Royal Scientific Society of Uppsala), 1st series, vol. 3 , pages 33–41; '''(3)''' James L. Marshall and Virginia R. Marshall (Spring 2003) [http://www.chem.unt.edu/Rediscovery/Riddarhyttan.pdf "Rediscovery of the Elements: Riddarhyttan, Sweden,"] ''The Hexagon'' (official journal of the [[Alpha Chi Sigma]] fraternity of chemists), vol. 94, no. 1, pages 3–8.</ref><ref name="Wang">{{cite journal|journal =Journal of the Minerals, Metals and Materials Society|volume = 58|issue = 10|date = 2006|doi = 10.1007/s11837-006-0201-y|pages = 47–50|title = Cobalt—Its recovery, recycling, and application|first = Shijie|last = Wang|bibcode = 2006JOM....58j..47W }}</ref> He was able to show that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue color in glass, which previously had been attributed to the [[bismuth]] found with cobalt. Cobalt became the first metal to be discovered since the pre-historical period, during which all the known metals (iron, copper, silver, gold, zinc, mercury, tin, lead and bismuth) had no recorded discoverers.<ref name="Weeks">{{cite journal|last1 = Weeks|first1 = Mary Elvira|authorlink1=Mary Elvira Weeks|title = The discovery of the elements. III. Some eighteenth-century metals|journal = Journal of Chemical Education|volume = 9|pages = 22|date = 1932|doi = 10.1021/ed009p22|bibcode = 1932JChEd...9...22W }}</ref>

During the 19th century, a significant part of the world's production of [[cobalt blue]] (a dye made with cobalt compounds and alumina) and [[smalt]] ([[cobalt glass]] powdered for use for pigment purposes in ceramics and painting) was carried out at the Norwegian [[Blaafarveværket]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Ivar B. Ramberg|title=The making of a land: geology of Norway|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMVNE0F2SckC&pg=PA98|accessdate= 2011-04-30 |date=2008 |publisher=Geological Society |isbn=978-82-92394-42-7|pages=98–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Cyclopaedia|title=Cyclopædia of useful arts & manufactures|editor=C. Tomlinson. 9 divs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_cGAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA400|accessdate= 2011-04-30 |date=1852|pages=400–}}</ref> The first mines for the production of smalt in the 16th to 18th century were located in Norway, Sweden, [[Saxony]] and Hungary. With the discovery of cobalt ore in [[New Caledonia]] in 1864 the mining of cobalt in Europe declined. With the discovery of ore deposits in [[Ontario]], Canada in 1904 and the discovery of even larger deposits in the [[Katanga Province]] in the [[DR Congo|Congo]] in 1914 the mining operations shifted again.<ref name="met1863"/> With the [[Shaba II|Shaba conflict]] starting in 1978, the main source for cobalt, the copper mines of Katanga Province, nearly stopped their production.<ref name="USGSnonfuel">{{cite web|url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2007/1294/paper1.html|title = Global Nonfuel Mineral Resources and Sustainability |first1 = Friedrich-Wilhelm|last1 = Wellmer|first2 = Jens Dieter|last2 = Becker-Platen|publisher = United States Geological Survey}}</ref><ref name="glres">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Xpypu9qqDncC&pg=PA75|isbn = 978-0-19-829104-6|pages = 75–78|chapter = cobalt|title = Global resources and international conflict: environmental factors in strategic policy and action|author1 = Westing, Arthur H|author2 = Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|date = 1986}}</ref> The impact on the world cobalt economy from this conflict was however smaller than expected. Cobalt being a rare metal and the pigment being highly toxic, the industry had already established effective ways for recycling cobalt materials and in some cases was able to change to cobalt-free alternatives.<ref name="USGSnonfuel"/><ref name="glres"/>

In 1938, John Livingood and [[Glenn T. Seaborg]] discovered the radioisotope [[cobalt-60]].<ref>{{cite journal| last1 =Livingood| first1 =J.| last2 =Seaborg| first2 =G.| title =Long-Lived Radio Cobalt Isotopes| journal =Physical Review| volume =53| pages =847–848| date =1938| doi =10.1103/PhysRev.53.847| issue =10|bibcode = 1938PhRv...53..847L }}</ref> This isotope was famously used at [[Columbia University]] in the 1950s to establish [[Parity (physics)|parity]] violation in radioactive [[beta decay]].<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Wu| first1 = C. S.| title = Experimental Test of Parity Conservation in Beta Decay| journal = Physical Review| volume = 105| pages = 1413–1415| date = 1957| doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.105.1413| issue = 4|bibcode = 1957PhRv..105.1413W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url = http://www.actaphys.uj.edu.pl/_old/vol39/pdf/v39p0251.pdf|journal =Acta Physica Polonica B|volume = 39|issue = 2|date = 2008|pages = 251|title = The Downfall of Parity – the Revolution That Happened Fifty Years Ago|first =A.K.|last = Wróblewski|bibcode = 2008AcPPB..39..251W }}</ref>

After World War II, the US wanted to be sure it was never short of the ore needed for military cobalt uses (as the Germans had been during that war) and explored for cobalt within the U.S. border. A good supply of the ore needed was found in Idaho near [[Blackbird Mine|Blackbird canyon]] in the side of a mountain. The firm Calera Mining Company got production started at the site.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=kNwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA65&dq=true#v=onepage&q=true&f=true "Richest Hole In The Mountain"] ''Popular Mechanics'', May 1952, pp. 65–69.</ref>

==Occurrence==
The stable form of cobalt is created in [[supernova]]s via the [[r-process]].<ref>{{cite journal|bibcode = 1980SvAL....6...61P|title=Creation of the Iron-Group Elements in a Supernova Explosion|author=Ptitsyn, D. A.|author2=Chechetkin, V. M.|journal=Soviet Astronomy Letters|volume= 6|date=1980|pages=61–64}}</ref> It comprises [[Abundance of the chemical elements|0.0029% of the Earth's crust]] and is one of the first [[transition metal]]s.

Free cobalt (the [[native metal]]) is not found in on Earth due to the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere and chlorine in the ocean. Oxygen and chlorine are abundant enough in the upper layers of the Earth's crust so as to make native metal cobalt formation extremely rare. Except as recently delivered in meteoric iron, pure cobalt in native metal form is unknown on Earth (see below). Though the element is of medium abundance, natural compounds of cobalt are numerous. Small amounts of cobalt compounds are found in most rocks, soil, plants, and animals.

In nature, cobalt is frequently associated with [[nickel]], and both are characteristic components of [[meteoric iron]], though cobalt is much less abundant in iron meteorites than nickel. As with nickel, cobalt in meteoric iron alloys may have been well enough protected from oxygen and moisture to occur as the free metal,<ref>[http://rruff.info/rdsmi/V35/RDSMI35_355.pdf Metallic Co in meteorites]</ref> a state which otherwise is not seen with either element in the ancient terrestrial crust.

Cobalt in compound form occurs as a minor component of copper and nickel minerals. It is the major metallic component in combination with [[sulfur]] and arsenic in the sulfidic [[cobaltite]] (CoAsS), [[safflorite]] (CoAs2), [[glaucodot]] ((Co,Fe)AsS), and [[skutterudite]] (CoAs3) minerals.<ref name="HollemanAF"/> The mineral [[cattierite]] is similar to [[pyrite]] and occurs together with [[vaesite]] in the copper deposits of the Katanga Province.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Cattierite and Vaesite: New Co-Ni Minerals from the Belgian Kongo|journal =American Mineralogist|first = Paul F.|last = Kerr| date = 1945|volume = 30| pages = 483–492| url = http://www.minsocam.org/ammin/AM30/AM30_483.pdf}}</ref> Upon contact with the atmosphere, [[weathering]] occurs and the sulfide minerals oxidize to form pink [[erythrite]] ("cobalt glance": Co3(AsO4)2·8H2O) and [[spherocobaltite]] (CoCO3).<ref>{{cite journal|last1 =Buckley|first1 =A.N.|title =The Surface Oxidation of Cobaltite|journal =Australian Journal of Chemistry|volume =40|pages =231|date =1987|doi =10.1071/CH9870231|issue =2}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 =Young|first1 =R|title =The geochemistry of cobalt|journal =Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta|volume =13|pages =28–41|date =1957|doi =10.1016/0016-7037(57)90056-X|bibcode = 1957GeCoA..13...28Y }}</ref>

==Production==
[[File:Cobalt OreUSGOV.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=cobolt ore specimen|Cobalt ore]]

[[File:2005cobalt (mined).PNG|thumb|right|alt=global map with cobalt production|Cobalt output in 2005]]

[[File:Cobalt - world production trend.svg|thumb|alt=cobolt production in 1000 of tons by year|World production trend]]

{{See also|Cobalt extraction techniques}}
The main ores of cobalt are cobaltite, erythrite, glaucodot and skutterudite (see above), but most cobalt is obtained not by active mining of cobalt ores, but rather by reducing cobalt compounds that occur as [[by-product]]s of nickel and [[copper]] mining activities.<ref name="YB2006">{{cite web|url = http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cobalt/myb1-2006-cobal.pdf|first = Kim B|last = Shedd|accessdate = 2008-10-26|title = Mineral Yearbook 2006: Cobalt|publisher = United States Geological Survey}}</ref><ref name="CR2008">{{cite web|url = http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/cobalt/mcs-2008-cobal.pdf|first = Kim B|last = Shedd|accessdate = 2008-10-26|title = Commodity Report 2008: Cobalt|publisher = United States Geological Survey}}</ref>

In 2005, the copper deposits in the Katanga Province (former Shaba province) of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] were the top producer of cobalt with almost 40% world share, reports the [[British Geological Survey]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/downloads/african_mp_01_05.pdf| title =African Mineral Production|publisher = British Geological Survey|accessdate = 2009-06-06}}</ref> The political situation in the Congo influences the price of cobalt significantly.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/2007/1294/paper1.html|title = Global Nonfuel Mineral Resources and Sustainability|first = Friedrich-Wilhelm|last = Wellmer|author2=Becker-Platen, Jens Dieter|accessdate = 2009-05-16}}</ref>

The [[Mukondo Mountain]] project, operated by the [[Central African Mining and Exploration Company]] in Katanga, may be the richest cobalt reserve in the world. It is estimated to be able to produce about one third of total global production of cobalt in 2008.<ref name=IntMining200807>{{cite web
|url=http://www.infomine.com/publications/docs/InternationalMining/Chadwick2008t.pdf
|title=CAMEC – The Cobalt Champion
|publisher=International Mining
|date=July 2008
|accessdate=2011-11-18}}</ref>
In July 2009 CAMEC announced a long term agreement under which CAMEC would deliver its entire annual production of cobalt in concentrate from Mukondo Mountain to Zhejiang Galico Cobalt & Nickel Materials of China.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.miningweekly.com/article/daily-podcast---july-6-2009-2009-07-06-2
|title=Daily podcast – July 6, 2009
|author=Amy Witherden
|date=6 July 2009
|work=Mining weekly
|accessdate=2011-11-15}}</ref>

Several methods exist for the separation of cobalt from copper and nickel. They depend on the concentration of cobalt and the exact composition of the used ore. One separation step involves [[froth flotation]], in which surfactants bind to different ore components, leading to an enrichment of cobalt ores. Subsequent [[roasting (metallurgy)|roasting]] converts the ores to the [[cobalt sulfate]], whereas the copper and the iron are oxidized to the oxide. The [[Leaching (metallurgy)|leaching]] with water extracts the sulfate together with the [[arsenate]]s. The residues are further leached with [[sulfuric acid]] yielding a solution of copper sulfate. Cobalt can also be leached from the slag of the copper smelter.<ref>{{cite book|page = 347| title = ASM specialty handbook: nickel, cobalt, and their alloys| author =Davis, Joseph R.|publisher = ASM International| date = 2000| isbn = 0-87170-685-7| url = https://books.google.com/?id=IePhmnbmRWkC&dq=cobalt+copper+nickel+ore+separate}}</ref>

The products of the above-mentioned processes are transformed into the cobalt oxide (Co3O4). This oxide is reduced to the metal by the [[aluminothermic reaction]] or reduction with carbon in a [[blast furnace]].<ref name="HollemanAF"/>

Activists have alleged that [[child labor]] is being used in some African countries to mine a portion of the worldwide supply of cobalt.<ref>https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2016/01/child-labour-behind-smart-phone-and-electric-car-batteries/</ref>

==Applications==
The main application of cobalt is as the free metal, in production of certain high performance alloys.<ref name="YB2006"/><ref name="CR2008"/>

===Alloys===
Cobalt-based [[superalloy]]s consume most of the produced cobalt.<ref name="YB2006"/><ref name="CR2008"/> The temperature stability of these alloys makes them suitable for use in turbine blades for gas [[turbine]]s and jet [[aircraft]] [[engine]]s, though nickel-based [[single crystal]] alloys surpass them in this regard.<ref name="super">{{cite book|title = Superalloys: A Technical Guide|first = Matthew J.|last = Donachie|publisher = ASM International|date = 2002|isbn = 978-0-87170-749-9|url = https://books.google.com/?id=vjCJ5pI1QpkC}}</ref> Cobalt-based alloys are also [[corrosion]] and wear-resistant. This makes them useful in the medical field, where cobalt is often used (along with [[titanium]]) for orthopedic [[Implant (medicine)|implants]] that do not wear down over time. The development of the wear-resistant cobalt alloys started in the first decade of the 20th century with the [[stellite]] alloys, which are cobalt-chromium alloys with varying tungsten and carbon content. The formation of [[chromium]] and [[tungsten carbide]]s makes them very hard and wear resistant.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=6VdROgeQ5M8C&pg=PA557|isbn = 978-0-87170-867-0|chapter = Cobalt and Cobalt Alloys|pages = 557–558|title = Elements of metallurgy and engineering alloys|author1 = Campbell, Flake C|date = 2008-06-30}}</ref> Special cobalt-chromium-[[molybdenum]] alloys like [[Vitallium]] are used for prosthetic parts such as hip and knee replacements.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Systemic effects of implanted prostheses made of cobalt-chromium alloys|journal = Archives of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery|volume = 110|issue = 2|date = 1991|doi = 10.1007/BF00393876|pages = 61–74|first = R.|last = Michel|author2 = Nolte, M.|author3 = Reich M.|author4 = Löer, F.|pmid = 2015136}}</ref> Cobalt alloys are also used for dental prosthetics, where they are useful to avoid allergies to nickel.<ref>{{cite book|title = Cobalt-base Aloys for Biomedical Applications|first = John A.|last = Disegi|publisher = ASTM International|date = 1999|isbn = 0-8031-2608-5|url = https://books.google.com/?id=z4rXM1EnPugC|page=34}}</ref> Some [[high speed steel]] drill bits also use cobalt to increase heat and wear-resistance. The special alloys of aluminium, nickel, cobalt and iron, known as [[Alnico]], and of samarium and cobalt ([[samarium-cobalt magnet]]) are used in [[permanent magnets]].<ref name´="Alnico">{{cite journal|title = Reproducing the Properties of Alnico Permanent Magnet Alloys with Elongated Single-Domain Cobalt-Iron Particles|journal = Journal Applied Physics|volume = 28|issue = 344|date = 1957|doi = 10.1063/1.1722744|first = F. E.|last = Luborsky|author2 = Mendelsohn, L. I.|author3 = Paine, T. O.|page = 344|bibcode = 1957JAP....28..344L }}</ref> It is also alloyed with 95% [[platinum]] for jewelry purposes, yielding an alloy that is suitable for fine detailed casting and is also slightly magnetic.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1595/147106705X24409|title = The Hardening of Platinum Alloys for Potential Jewellery Application|date = 2005|last1 = Biggs|first1 = T.|last2 = Taylor|first2 = S. S.|last3 = Van Der Lingen|first3 = E.|journal = Platinum Metals Review|volume = 49|pages = 2–15}}</ref>

===Batteries===
[[Lithium cobalt oxide]] (LiCoO2) is widely used in [[lithium ion battery]] cathodes. The material is composed of cobalt oxide layers in which the lithium is [[Intercalation (chemistry)|intercalated]]. During discharging the lithium intercalated between the layers is set free as lithium ion.<ref name="WhyCo">{{cite journal|title = Why we need cobalt|last = Hawkins|first = M.|journal = Applied Earth Science: Transactions of the Institution of Mining & Metallurgy, Section B|date = 2001|volume = 110|issue = 2|pages =66–71|doi=10.1179/aes.2001.110.2.66}}</ref> [[Nickel-cadmium battery|Nickel-cadmium]]<ref name=bat1>{{cite journal|last1 = Armstrong|first1 = R. D.|last2 = Briggs|first2 = G. W. D.|last3 = Charles|first3 = E. A.|title = Some effects of the addition of cobalt to the nickel hydroxide electrode|journal = Journal of Applied Electrochemistry|volume = 18|pages = 215–219|date = 1988|doi = 10.1007/BF01009266|issue = 2}}</ref> (NiCd) and [[Nickel metal hydride battery|nickel metal hydride]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Zhang|first1 = P|title = Recovery of metal values from spent nickel–metal hydride rechargeable batteries|journal = Journal of Power Sources|volume = 77|pages = 116–122|date = 1999|doi = 10.1016/S0378-7753(98)00182-7|issue = 2|last2 = Yokoyama|first2 = Toshiro|last3 = Itabashi|first3 = Osamu|last4 = Wakui|first4 = Yoshito|last5 = Suzuki|first5 = Toshishige M.|last6 = Inoue|first6 = Katsutoshi|bibcode = 1999JPS....77..116Z }}</ref> (NiMH) batteries also contain significant amounts of cobalt; the cobalt improves the oxidation capabilities of nickel in the battery.<ref name=bat1/>

===Catalysts===
Several cobalt compounds are used in chemical reactions as oxidation catalysts. Cobalt acetate is used for the conversion of [[xylene]] to [[terephthalic acid]], the precursor to the bulk polymer [[polyethylene terephthalate]]. Typical catalysts are the cobalt [[carboxylate]]s (known as cobalt soaps). They are also used in paints, varnishes, and inks as "drying agents" through the oxidation of [[drying oils]].<ref name="WhyCo"/> The same carboxylates are used to improve the adhesion of the steel to rubber in steel-belted radial tires.

Cobalt-based catalysts are also important in reactions involving [[carbon monoxide]]. [[Steam reforming]], useful in [[hydrogen production]], uses cobalt oxide-base catalysts. Cobalt is also a catalyst in the [[Fischer–Tropsch process]], used in the [[hydrogenation]] of carbon monoxide into liquid fuels.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Khodakov, Andrei Y.|author2=Chu, Wei|author3=Fongarland, Pascal|last-author-amp=yes |title=Advances in the Development of Novel Cobalt Fischer-Tropsch Catalysts for Synthesis of Long-Chain Hydrocarbons and Clean Fuels|journal= Chemical Reviews|date= 2007| volume =107|pages=1692–1744|doi=10.1021/cr050972v|issue=5}}</ref> The [[hydroformylation]] of [[alkene]]s often rely on [[cobalt octacarbonyl]] as the catalyst,<ref>{{cite journal|author=Hebrard, Frédéric|author2=Kalck, Philippe|last-author-amp=yes |title=Cobalt-Catalyzed Hydroformylation of Alkenes: Generation and Recycling of the Carbonyl Species, and Catalytic Cycle|journal= Chemical Reviews|date= 2009| volume= 109|pages= 4272–4282|doi=10.1021/cr8002533|issue=9|pmid=19572688}}</ref> although such processes have been partially displaced by more efficient iridium- and rhodium-based catalysts, e.g. the [[Cativa process]].

The [[hydrodesulfurization]] of [[petroleum]] uses a catalyst derived from cobalt and molybdenum. This process helps to rid petroleum of sulfur impurities that interfere with the refining of liquid fuels.<ref name="WhyCo"/>

===Pigments and coloring===
[[File:bristol.blue.glass.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|right|145px|alt=shelf with blue glass vessels|Cobalt blue glass]]
[[File:Cobalt blue flask.jpg|thumb|left|145px|alt=blue glass bottle with neck|Cobalt-colored glass]]
Before the 19th century, the predominant use of cobalt was as a pigment. Since the Middle Ages, it has been involved in the production of [[smalt]], a blue colored glass. Smalt is produced by melting a mixture of the roasted mineral [[smaltite]], [[quartz]] and [[potassium carbonate]], yielding a dark blue silicate glass which is ground after the production.<ref>{{cite book|title = A treatise on metallurgy|first = Frederick|last = Overman|publisher = D. Appleton & company|date = 1852|url = https://books.google.com/?id=APgQAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA631|pages = 631–637}}</ref> Smalt was widely used for the coloration of glass and as pigment for paintings.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Smalt|first1= Bruno|last1= Muhlethaler|first2= Jean|last2 = Thissen|last3 = Muhlethaler|first3 = Bruno|journal = Studies in Conservation|volume = 14|issue = 2|date = 1969|pages = 47–61|doi = 10.2307/1505347|jstor = 1505347}}</ref> In 1780, [[Sven Rinman]] discovered [[cobalt green]] and in 1802 [[Louis Jacques Thénard]] discovered cobalt blue.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Ueber die Bereitung einer blauen Farbe aus Kobalt, die eben so schön ist wie Ultramarin. Vom Bürger Thenard|first = A.F.|last = Gehlen|url = https://books.google.com/?id=UGsMAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA506|journal = Neues allgemeines Journal der Chemie, Band 2|publisher = H. Frölich|date = 1803}} (German translation from L. J. Thénard; Journal des Mines; Brumaire 12 1802; p 128–136)</ref> Cobalt pigments, such as [[cobalt blue]] (cobalt aluminate), [[cerulean]] blue (cobalt(II) stannate), various hues of [[cobalt green]] (a mixture of [[cobalt(II) oxide]] and [[zinc oxide]]), and cobalt violet ([[cobalt phosphate]]) are used as artist's pigments because of their superior stability.<ref>{{cite journal|doi =10.1021/ie50143a048|title =Colors Developed by Cobalt Oxides|date =1921|last1 =Witteveen|first1 =H. J.|first2 =E. F.|journal =Industrial & Engineering Chemistry|volume =13|pages =1061–1066|last2 =Farnau|issue =11}}</ref><ref name ="Venetskii">{{cite journal|title = The charge of the guns of peace|journal = Metallurgist|volume = 14|issue = 5|date = 1970|doi = 10.1007/BF00739447|pages = 334–336|first =S.|last = Venetskii}}</ref> [[Aureolin]] (cobalt yellow) is now largely replaced by more lightfast yellow pigments.

===Radioisotopes===
[[Cobalt-60]] (Co-60 or 60Co) is useful as a gamma ray source because it can be produced in predictable quantity and high [[activity (radioactivity)|activity]] by bombarding cobalt with [[neutron]]s. It produces two [[gamma ray]]s with energies of 1.17 and 1.33 [[MeV]].<ref name="nubase"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Mandeville|first1 = C.|last2 = Fulbright|first2 = H.|title = The Energies of the γ-Rays from Sb122, Cd115, Ir192, Mn54, Zn65, and Co60|journal = Physical Review|volume = 64|pages = 265–267|date = 1943|doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.64.265|issue = 9–10|bibcode = 1943PhRv...64..265M }}</ref>

Its uses include [[external beam radiotherapy]], sterilization of medical supplies and medical waste, radiation treatment of [[food irradiation|foods for sterilization]] (cold [[pasteurization]]),<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FpIpsqs7CRUC&pg=PA53|page = 53|title = Food irradiation: a reference guide|isbn = 978-1-85573-359-6|author = Wilkinson, V. M|author2 = Gould, G|date = 1998}}</ref> industrial [[radiography]] (e.g. weld integrity radiographs), density measurements (e.g. concrete density measurements), and tank fill height switches. The metal has the unfortunate habit of producing a fine dust, causing problems with [[radiation protection]]. Cobalt from radiotherapy machines has been a serious hazard when not disposed of properly, and one of the worst radiation contamination accidents in North America occurred in 1984, after a discarded radiotherapy unit containing cobalt-60 was mistakenly disassembled in a junkyard in Juarez, Mexico.<ref>{{cite news| url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9501E7D71338F932A35756C0A962948260 |title = The Juarez accident|accessdate=2009-06-06|publisher =New York Times|first=Sandra|last=Blakeslee|date=1984-05-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1983MEX1.html |title = Ciudad Juarez orphaned source dispersal, 1983|date = 2005-11-23|accessdate = 2009-10-24|publisher = Wm. Robert Johnston}}</ref>

Cobalt-60 has a radioactive half-life of 5.27 years. This decrease in activity requires periodic replacement of the sources used in radiotherapy and is one reason why cobalt machines have been largely replaced by [[Linear particle accelerator|linear accelerators]] in modern radiation therapy.<ref>{{cite book|author1=National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on Radiation Source Use and Replacement|author2=National Research Council (U.S.). Nuclear and Radiation Studies Board|title=Radiation source use and replacement: abbreviated version|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3cT2REdXJ98C&pg=PA35|accessdate= 2011-04-29 |date=January 2008 |publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-11014-3|pages=35–}}</ref>

[[Isotopes of cobalt|Cobalt-57]] (Co-57 or 57Co) is a cobalt radioisotope most often used in medical tests, as a radiolabel for vitamin B{{ssub|12}} uptake, and for the [[Schilling test]]. Cobalt-57 is used as a source in [[Mössbauer spectroscopy]] and is one of several possible sources in [[X-ray fluorescence]] devices.<ref>{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=-gfKqUBGNgoC&pg=PA368|page = 368|title = Physical Therapist Examination Review|isbn = 978-1-55642-588-2|author1 = Meyer, Theresa|date = 2001-11-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1 =Kalnicky|first1 =D|last2 =Singhvi|first2 =R|title =Field portable XRF analysis of environmental samples|journal =Journal of Hazardous Materials|volume =83|issue =1–2|pages =93–122|date =2001|pmid =11267748|doi =10.1016/S0304-3894(00)00330-7}}</ref>

[[Nuclear weapon design]]s could intentionally incorporate 59Co, some of which would be activated in a [[nuclear explosion]] to produce 60Co. The 60Co, dispersed as [[nuclear fallout]], creates what is sometimes called a [[cobalt bomb]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Occupational Medicine|date = 1977|volume = 27|pages = 20–25|title = The Hazards of Cobalt|first =L.R.|last = Payne|url = http://occmed.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/27/1/20|doi = 10.1093/occmed/27.1.20|issue=1}}</ref>

===Other uses===
Other uses of cobalt are in [[electroplating]], owing to its attractive appearance, hardness and resistance to [[oxidation]],<ref>{{cite journal|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IePhmnbmRWkC&pg=PA354|author1 = Davis, Joseph R|title = Nickel, cobalt, and their alloys|page = 354|author2 = Handbook Committee, ASM International|date = 2000-05-01|chapter = Cobalt|isbn = 978-0-87170-685-0}}</ref> and as ground coats for [[porcelain]] [[vitreous enamel|enamels]].<ref>{{cite book|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=-CIrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA129| page = 129|chapter = Ground–Coat Frit|title =Cobalt conservation through technological alternatives|author1 =Committee On Technological Alternatives For Cobalt Conservation, National Research Council (U.S.)|author2 =National Materials Advisory Board, National Research Council (U.S.)|date =1983}}</ref>

==Biological role==
[[File:Cobalamin.svg|thumb|upright|alt=chemical diagram of Cobalamin molecule|[[Cobalamin]]]]
[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 10487 Cobalt deficient sheep.jpg|thumb|alt=two Cobalt deficient sheep facing away from camera|Cobalt deficient sheep]]
Cobalt is essential to all [[animal]]s. It is a key constituent of [[Vitamin B12|cobalamin]], also known as vitamin B{{ssub|12}}, which is the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an "ultratrace" element.<ref>{{cite book
|first1=Kazuhiro
|last1=Yamada
|editor=Astrid Sigel|editor2=Helmut Sigel|editor3=Roland K. O. Sigel
|title=Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases
|series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences
|volume=13
|date=2013
|publisher=Springer
|pages=295–320
|chapter=Chapter 9. Cobalt: Its Role in Health and Disease
|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_9
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|last1=Cracan|first1=Valentin |last2=Banerjee|first2=Ruma
|editor1-first=Lucia |editor1-last=Banci |series=Metal Ions in Life Sciences |volume=12
|chapter= Chapter 10 Cobalt and Corrinoid Transport and Biochemistry
|title=Metallomics and the Cell |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-94-007-5560-4|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-5561-10_10}} electronic-book ISBN 978-94-007-5561-1 {{issn|1559-0836}} electronic-{{issn|1868-0402}}
</ref> Bacteria in the guts of [[ruminant]] animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B{{ssub|12}}, a compound which can only be produced by bacteria or archaea. The minimum presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the health of [[grazing]] animals, and an uptake of 0.20 mg/kg a day is recommended for them, as they can obtain vitamin B{{ssub|12}} in no other way.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Schwarz|first1 = F. J.|last2 = Kirchgessner|first2 = M.|last3 = Stangl|first3 = G. I.|title = Cobalt requirement of beef cattle – feed intake and growth at different levels of cobalt supply|journal = Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition|volume = 83|pages = 121–131|date = 2000|doi = 10.1046/j.1439-0396.2000.00258.x|issue = 3}}</ref>

In the early 20th century during the development for farming of the [[North Island Volcanic Plateau]] of New Zealand, cattle suffered from what was termed "bush sickness". It was discovered that the volcanic soils lacked cobalt salts, which was necessary for cattle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sci.waikato.ac.nz/farm/content/soils.html#bush_sickness|title=Soils|publisher=Waikato University|accessdate= 2012-01-16}}</ref> The ailment was cured by adding small amounts of cobalt to fertilizers in the form of Superphosphate (at the time derived from Canadian sources).

In the 1930s "coast disease" of sheep in the [[Ninety Mile Desert]] of the [[Limestone Coast|Southeast]] of [[South Australia]] was found to be due to nutrient deficiencies of the trace elements cobalt and copper. The cobalt deficiency was overcome by the development of "cobalt bullets", dense pellets of cobalt oxide mixed with clay, which are orally inserted to lodge in the animal's rumen.<ref>[http://www.asap.unimelb.edu.au/bsparcs/aasmemoirs/marston.htm Australian Academy of Science > Deceased Fellows > Hedley Ralph Marston 1900–1965] Accessed 12 May 2013.</ref>

Non-ruminant herbivores produce vitamin B{{ssub|12}} from bacteria in their colons which again make the vitamin from simple cobalt salts. However the vitamin cannot be absorbed from the colon, and thus non-ruminants must ingest [[cecotrope|feces]] to obtain the nutrient.{{Citation needed|date = November 2015}} Animals that do not follow these methods of getting vitamin B{{ssub|12}} from their own gastrointestinal bacteria or that of other animals, must obtain the vitamin pre-made in other animal products in their diet, and they cannot benefit from ingesting simple cobalt salts.{{Citation needed|date = November 2015}}

The cobalamin-based proteins use [[corrin]] to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B12 features a reactive C-Co bond, which participates in its reactions.<ref>{{cite book |author=Voet, Judith G. |author2=Voet, Donald |title=Biochemistry |publisher=J. Wiley & Sons |location=New York |date=1995 |page=675 |isbn=0-471-58651-X |oclc=31819701}}</ref> In humans, B12 exists with two types of [[Alkane|alkyl]] ligand: [[Methyl group|methyl]] and adenosyl. MeB12 promotes methyl (-CH3) group transfers. The adenosyl version of B12 catalyzes rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an oxygen atom of an alcohol, or an amine. [[Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase]] (MUT) converts [[L-methylmalonyl-CoA|MMl-CoA]] to [[succinyl-CoA|Su-CoA]], an important step in the extraction of energy from proteins and fats.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Smith|first1 = David M.|last2 = Golding|first2 = Bernard T.|last3 = Radom|first3 = Leo|title = Understanding the Mechanism of B12-Dependent Methylmalonyl-CoA Mutase: Partial Proton Transfer in Action|journal = Journal of the American Chemical Society|volume = 121|pages = 9388–9399|date = 1999|doi = 10.1021/ja991649a|issue = 40}}</ref>

Although far less common than other metalloproteins (e.g. those of zinc and iron), cobaltoproteins are known aside from B12. These proteins include [[METAP2|methionine aminopeptidase 2]] an enzyme that occurs in humans and other mammals which does not use the corrin ring of B12, but binds cobalt directly. Another non-corrin cobalt enzyme is [[nitrile hydratase]], an enzyme in bacteria that are able to metabolize [[nitrile]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|journal = European Journal of Biochemistry|volume = 261|issue = 1|pages =1–9|title = Cobalt proteins|first = Michihiko|last = Kobayashi|author2=Shimizu, Sakayu|doi = 10.1046/j.1432-1327.1999.00186.x|date = 1999|pmid = 10103026}}</ref>

==Precautions==
{{Main|Cobalt poisoning}}
[[File:Epikutanni-test.jpg|thumb|alt=five by seven patch test on medical subjects upper back|[[Patch test]]]]
Cobalt is an essential element for life in minute amounts. The [[Median lethal dose|LD50]] value for soluble cobalt salts has been estimated to be between 150 and 500 mg/kg. Thus, for a 100 kg person the LD50 for a single dose would be about 20 grams.<ref name=Ullmann>Donaldson, John D. and Beyersmann, Detmar "Cobalt and Cobalt Compounds" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{DOI|10.1002/14356007.a07_281.pub2}}</ref> In the US, the [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) has designated a [[permissible exposure limit]] (PEL) in the workplace as a time-weighted average (TWA) of 0.1 mg/m3. The [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] (NIOSH) has set a [[recommended exposure limit]] (REL) of 0.05 mg/m3, time-weighted average. The [[IDLH]] (immediately dangerous to life and health) value is 20 mg/m3.<ref>{{PGCH|0146}}</ref>

However, chronic cobalt ingestion has caused serious health problems at doses far less than the lethal dose. In 1966, the addition of cobalt compounds to stabilize [[beer foam]] in Canada led to a peculiar form of toxin-induced [[cardiomyopathy]], which came to be known as ''beer drinker's cardiomyopathy''.<ref>{{cite journal |author= Morin Y |author2= Tětu A |author3= Mercier G|title=Quebec beer-drinkers’ cardiomyopathy: Clinical and hemodynamic aspects |journal=Ann N Y Acad Sci|volume=156 |pages=566–576 |date=1969|pmid=5291148 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1969.tb16751.x|bibcode = 1969NYASA.156..566M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title = Cobalt|author = Barceloux, Donald G.|author2 = Barceloux, Donald|last-author-amp = yes |doi = 10.1081/CLT-100102420|journal = Clinical Toxicology|volume = 37|issue = 2|date = 1999| pages = 201–216}}</ref>

After [[nickel]] and chromium, cobalt is a major cause of [[Allergic contact dermatitis|contact dermatitis]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Contact Dermatitis|volume = 49|issue = 1|pages =1–7|doi = 10.1111/j.0105-1873.2003.00149.x|title = Nickel, chromium and cobalt in consumer products: revisiting safe levels in the new millennium|first =David A.|last = Basketter|author2 = Angelini, Gianni|author3 = Ingber, Arieh|author4 = Kern, Petra S.|author5 = Menné, Torkil|date = 2003|pmid = 14641113}}</ref>

Cobalt can be effectively absorbed by charred pigs bones; however this process is inhibited by copper and zinc; which have greater affinities to bone char.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sorption of cobalt to bone char: Kinetics, competitive sorption and mechanism|journal=Salination|volume=249|pages=609–614|first1=Pan|last1= Xiangliang| first2=Wang|last2= Jianlong|first3= Zhang|last3= Daoyong|date=January 2009}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Cobalt}}
{{Wiktionary|cobalt}}
* [http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substance-info/profiles/26.html National Pollutant Inventory (Australia)– Cobalt fact sheet]
* [http://www.caro-acro.ca/caro/educ/publ/vig/vignettes/cobalt/Interactions.pdf London celebrates 50 years of Cobalt-60 Radiotherapy ]
* [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/027.htm Cobalt] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)
* [http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/cobalt/ Centers for Disease and Prevention – Cobalt]
* [http://www.thecdi.com The Cobalt Development Institute]
{{Clear}}
{{Compact periodic table}}
{{Cobalt compounds}}
{{Good article}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Dietary minerals]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Cobalt|*]]
[[Category:Ferromagnetic materials]]
[[Category:IARC Group 2B carcinogens]]
[[Category:Biology and pharmacology of chemical elements]]

Magic circle

2015-10-31T04:41:25Z

Owlgorithm: /* In popular culture */Fixed typo ("circe" -> "circle")

{{Globalize|date=July 2015}}
{{Other uses}}
[[File:John William Waterhouse - Magic Circle.JPG|thumb|Magic Circle, by [[John William Waterhouse]] (1886)]]
A '''magic circle''' is circle (or sphere, field) of space marked out by practitioners of many branches of [[Magic (paranormal)|ritual magic]], which they generally believe will contain energy and form a sacred space, or will provide them a form of magical protection, or both. It may be marked physically, drawn in salt or chalk, for example, or merely visualised. Its spiritual significance is similar to that of [[mandala]] and [[yantra]]{{Citation needed|date=April 2008}} in some [[Eastern religions]].

==Common terms and practices==
[[File:Circletriangle.gif|thumb|A solomonic magic circle with a triangle of [[conjuration]] in the east. This would be drawn on the ground, and the operator would stand within the protection of the circle while a spirit was conjured into the triangle.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}]]

Traditionally, circles were believed by ritual magicians to form a protective barrier between themselves and what they summoned.<ref name="Wiccap556">{{cite book | title = Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner | pages = 55–56}}</ref> In modern times, practitioners generally cast magic circles to contain and concentrate the energy they raise during a ritual.{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

Creating a magic circle is known as ''casting a circle'', ''circle casting'', and various other names.{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

==Techniques==
There are many published techniques for casting a circle, and many groups and individuals have their own unique methods. The common feature of these practices is that a boundary is traced around the working area. Some [[witchcraft]] traditions say that one must trace around the circle [[deosil]] three times. There is variation over which [[cardinal directions|direction]] one should start in.{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}}

Circles may or may not be physically marked out on the ground, and a variety of elaborate patterns for circle markings can be found in [[grimoire]]s and magical manuals, often involving angelic and [[Names of God|divine names]]. Such markings, or a simple unadorned circle, may be drawn in chalk or salt, or indicated by other means such as with a cord.<ref name="Wiccap556"/>

The four [[cardinal directions]] are often prominently marked, such as with four candles. In [[ceremonial magic]] traditions the four directions are commonly related to the four archangels [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], [[Gabriel]], [[Raphael (angel)|Raphael]] and [[Uriel]] (or Auriel), or the four [[classical elements]], and also have four associated names of God. Other ceremonial traditions have candles between the quarters, i.e. in the north-east, north-west and so on. Often, an incantation will be recited stating the purpose and nature of the circle, often repeating an assortment of divine and angelic names.

==In Wicca==
In [[Wicca]], a circle is typically nine feet in diameter, though the size can vary depending on the purpose of the circle, and the preference of the caster.<ref>{{cite book | title = Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft | pages = 43, 64}}</ref>

Some varieties of [[Wicca]] use the common ceremonial colour attributions for their "quarter candles": yellow for [[Air (classical element)|Air]] in the east, red for [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]] in the south, blue for [[Water (classical element)|Water]] in the west and green for [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]] in the north (though these attributions differ according to geographical location and individual philosophy).

The common technique for raising energy within the circle is by means of a [[cone of power]].<ref name="Wiccap556"/><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.occult100.com/bos/coneofpower.html | title=Occult 100 | accessdate = 2007-06-09}}</ref>

The barrier is believed to be fragile, so that leaving or passing through the circle would weaken or dispel it.<ref>{{cite book | last=Starhawk | title=The Spiral Dance | page=83}}</ref> This is referred to as "breaking the circle".<ref>{{cite book | title = Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft | page = 224}}</ref> It is generally advised that practitioners do not leave the circle unless absolutely necessary.

In order to leave a circle and keep it intact, Wiccans believe a door must be cut in the energy of the circle, normally on the East side. Whatever was used to cast the circle is used to cut the doorway, such as a sword, staff or knife[athame], a doorway is "cut" in the circle, at which point anything may pass through without harming the circle.<ref name="Wiccap11920">{{cite book | title = Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner | pages = 119–120}}</ref> This opening must be closed afterwards by "reconnecting" the lines of the circle.

The circle is usually closed by the practitioner after they have finished by drawing in the energy with the athame or whatever was used to make the circle including their hand (usually in a [[widdershins]]: that is, counter-clockwise fashion). This is called ''closing the circle'' or ''releasing the circle''.<ref name="Wiccap11920"/> The term "opening" is often used, representing the idea the circle has been expanded and dissipated rather than closed in on itself.

==Modern dreams and [[dream analysis]]==
[[C. G. Jung]] comments on a significant dream of [[Wolfgang Pauli]] where a snake describes a spellbinding magic circle about the dreamer, establishing a protected [[temenos]].<ref>Jung, C.G. (1968). ''[[Psychology and Alchemy]]'', par. 63.</ref>

==In popular culture==
{{relevance|section|date=July 2015}}
In {{nihongo|[[Kekkaishi]]|結界師||lit. "Barrier Master"|lead=yes}}, a [[supernatural]] [[manga]] series written and illustrated by [[Yellow Tanabe]], magic circle may have other names: '''magical circle''', '''magical energy barrier''', '''magical barrier''', '''energy barrier'''.

==See also==
* [[Mandala]]
* [[Talismans]]
* [[List of magical terms and traditions]]

==Notes and references==
{{commonscat|Magic circles (occult)}}
*{{note|Buckland}}Buckland, Raymond (2002). ''Buckland's Complete Book of Witchcraft'', Second edition, Revised & Expanded, Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0-87542-050-8.
*{{note|Cunningham}}Cunningham, Scott (2001). ''Wicca: A Guide for the Solitary Practitioner'', 29th edition, Llewellyn Publications. ISBN 0-87542-118-0.
*{{cite book |last=Jung |first=Carl Gustav |authorlink=C. G. Jung |year= 1968 |title= ''[[Psychology and Alchemy]]'' |work= Collected Works |volume= 12 |location=Princeton, N.J. |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn= 0-691-01831-6}}
{{reflist|1}}
{{Place of worship}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Magic Circle}}
[[Category:Wicca]]
[[Category:Ceremonial magic]]
[[Category:Magic symbols]]

List of largest insects

2015-05-19T16:27:15Z

Owlgorithm: Fixed misspelling and added a missing space

[[File:Goliathus goliatus dos.jpg|thumb|The larval stage of the [[goliath beetle]] is arguably the world's heaviest insect]]
[[File:Titanus giganteus MHNT dos.jpg|thumb|The [[titan beetle]] ]]
[[Insect]]s, which are a type of [[arthropod]], are easily the most numerous group of [[organism]]s on the planet, with about a million species identified so far. The title of heaviest insect in the world has many rivals, the most frequently crowned of which is the [[larval stage]] of the [[Goliathus|goliath beetle]], ''Goliathus goliatus'', the top size of which is at least 115 g (4.1 oz) and 11.5 cm (4.5 in). The largest confirmed weight of an adult insect is {{convert|71|g|oz|abbr=on}} for a [[giant weta]], ''Deinacrida heteracantha'',<ref name="weta">{{cite web
|title=Chapter 30 — Largest Insect
|url=http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/walker/ufbir/chapters/chapter_30.shtml
|author=David M. Williams
|publisher=[[University of Florida]]
|date=2001-04-21
|work=Book of Insect Records
}}</ref> although it is likely one of the [[elephant beetle]]s, ''[[Megasoma elephas]]'' and ''[[Megasoma actaeon]]'', or [[Goliathus|goliath beetles]], both of which can commonly exceed 50 g (1.75 oz) and 10 cm (4 in), can reach a higher weight.<ref name ="weta" />

The longest insects are the stick insects, see below.

Representatives of the extinct dragonfly-like [[Order (biology)|order]] [[Meganisoptera]] such as the [[Carboniferous]] ''[[Meganeura monyi]]'' and the [[Permian]] ''[[Meganeuropsis permiana]]'' are the largest [[insect]] species ever known. These creatures had a wingspan of some 75 cm (30 in) and an estimated body weight of over 1 lb (450 g){{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}, making them about the size of a [[crow]].

*'''Weta'''
:''[[Deinacrida heteracantha]]'' or Little Barrier Island giant weta, one specimen weighed an atypical 71g <ref>[http://gizmodo.com/5864195/the-worlds-biggest-insect-is-so-freaking-huge-it-can-eat-a-carrot Weta foto]</ref>
*'''Cockroaches''' (Blattodea)
:The largest [[cockroach]] is the [[giant burrowing cockroach]] (''Macropanesthia rhinoceros''). This species can attain a length of 8.3 cm (3.3 in) and a weight of 36 g (1.3 oz).
*'''Beetles''' (Coleoptera)
:The [[beetle]]s are the largest order of organisms on earth, with about 350,000 species so far identified. The most massive species are the ''[[Goliathus]]'', ''[[Megasoma]]'', and ''[[Titan beetle|Titanus]]'' beetles already mentioned. The longest species is the [[Hercules beetle]], ''Dynastes hercules'', with a maximum overall length of at least 17 cm (7 in) including the very long pronotal horn.
*'''Earwigs''' (Dermaptera)
:The largest of the [[earwig]]s was the [[Saint Helena earwig|Saint Helena giant earwig]], (''Labidura herculeana''), which was up to 8.4 cm (3.2 in) in length.<ref>{{cite web|title=Labidura|url=http://www.kidstonmill.org.uk/Labidura.htm|accessdate=2011-02-05|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5wHNCt1R4|archivedate=2011-02-05|deadurl=no}}</ref>
*'''True flies''' (Diptera)
:The largest species of this huge order is ''[[Gauromydas heros]]'', which can reach a length of 6 cm (2½ in) and a wingspan of 10 cm (4 in). The largest species of [[crane fly]], ''Holorusia brobdignagius'', can attain nearly the same wingspan, but if the legs are extended in front of and behind the body, then an overall length of 23 cm (9 in) makes it the longest true fly.<ref>Carwardine, M. 2008. Animal Records. Sterling Publishing, NY.</ref>
*'''Mayflies''' (Ephemeroptera)
:The largest mayflies are members of the genus ''[[Proboscidoplocia]]'' from [[Madagascar]]. These insects can reach a length of 5 cm (2 in).
*'''True bugs''' (Hemiptera)
:The largest species of this diverse, huge order is a [[giant water bug]], ''Lethocerus maximus''. This species can attain a length of 11.6 cm (4.6 in), although it is more slender and less heavy than most other insects of this size (principally the huge [[beetle]]s).
*'''Ants and allies''' (Hymenoptera)
:The largest of the [[ant]]s, and the heaviest species of the order, are the females of ''[[Dorylus helvolus]]'', reaching a length of 5 cm (2 in). The ant that averages the largest for the mean size of the whole colony is ''[[Dinoponera gigantea]]'', averaging up to 3.3 cm (1¼ in). Another ant that is native to Australia, ''[[Myrmecia brevinoda]]'', workers are reported to be 3.7 cm (1.5 in) on average and queens are more than 4 cm (1.6 in) in length.<ref name = "Wood">Wood, Gerald ''The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats'' (1983) ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9</ref> The largest of the [[bee]] species, also in the order [[Hymenoptera]], is ''[[Megachile pluto]]'', the females of which can be 3.8 cm (1½ in) long, with a 6.3-cm (2.5-in) wingspan. The largest wasp is probably the so-called [[tarantula hawk]] species ''[[Pepsis pulszkyi]]'', at up to 6.8 cm (2.7 in) long and 11.6 cm (4½ in) wingspan, although many other ''[[Pepsis]]'' species approach a similar size.
*'''Termites''' (Isoptera)
:The largest of the [[termite]]s is the African species ''[[Macrotermes bellicosus]]''. The queen of this species can attain a length of 10.6 cm (4.2 in) and breadth of 5.5 cm (2.3 in); other adults, though, are about a third of the size.
[[Image:MP - Ornithoptera alexandrae 3.jpg|thumb|The [[Queen Alexandra's birdwing]] is the largest species of butterfly.]]
*'''Moths and allies''' (Lepidoptera)
:The largest species is probably either the [[Queen Alexandra's birdwing]], ''Ornithoptera alexandrae'', a butterfly, or the [[Atlas moth]], ''Attacus atlas''. Both of these species can exceed a length of 8 cm (3¼ in), a wingspan of 28 cm (11 in) and a weight of 12 g. Their larvae can weigh up to {{convert|58|g|oz|1|abbr=on}} or {{convert|1.9|oz|g|0|abbr=on}} . However, the white witch, ''[[Thysania agrippina]]'', has the longest recorded wingspan of the order, and indeed of any living insect, at up to 30 cm (12 in), though it is exceeded in surface area and mass by both ''[[Ornithoptera]]'' and ''[[Attacus]]''.
*'''Praying mantises''' (Mantodea)
:Giant shield mantids of the genus ''[[Rhombodera]]'' can reach lengths of nearly 11cm and are more robust than comparably-sized mantids of other genera (''[[Tenodera]]'', ''[[Hierodula]]'', ''[[Sphodromantis]]'' and ''[[Plistospilota]]''.) Some larger species have been known to capture and consume frogs, lizards, mice, small birds, and even snakes. Giant Stick Mantids of the genus ''[[Toxodera]]'' and ''[[Solygia]]'' can reach lengths of 20 cm, but are more gracile in build than other large mantids.
*'''Dragonflies and damselflies''' (Odonata)
:The largest living species of [[odonate]] (the order that includes [[dragonflies]] and [[damselflies]]) is ''[[Megaloprepus caerulatus]]'', attaining a size of as much as 19 cm (7.5 in) across the wings and a body length of over 12 cm (4.7 in). The largest species of dragonfly ever is the extinct ''[[Meganeura]]''.
*'''Grasshoppers and allies''' ([[Orthoptera]])
:The largest of this widespread, varied complex of insects is the [[giant weta]], ''Deinacrida heteracantha'', of New Zealand. This formidable insect can weigh over 75 g (2.6 oz) and measure up to nearly 10 cm (4 in), rivaling the huge [[beetle]]s in size.
*'''Stick insects''' (Phasmatodea)
:The longest known [[stick insect]] is ''[[Phobaeticus chani]]'', with one specimen held in the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]] in London measuring {{convert|567|mm|in|abbr=on}} in total length.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.nhm.ac.uk/about-us/news/2008/october/worlds-longest-insect-revealed.html|title= World's longest insect revealed|accessdate=2008-10-16 |work= |publisher= [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]]|date=2008-10-16 }}</ref> This measurement is, however, with the front legs fully extended. The body alone still measures {{convert|357|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hennemann, F.H. & Conle, O.V.|title= Revision of Oriental Phasmatodea: The tribe Pharnaciini Günther, 1953, including the description of the world's longest insect, and a survey of the family Phasmatidae Gray, 1835 with keys to the subfamilies and tribes (Phasmatodea: "Anareolatae": Phasmatidae)|journal= Zootaxa|volume= 1906|issue= |pages= 1–316 pp|publisher= Magnolia Press|location= Auckland, New Zealand|issn= 1175-5326|url= http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2008/f/z01906p316f.pdf|format=PDF|accessdate=2008-10-16 |date=October 2008 }}</ref> The species with the second-longest body is ''[[Phobaeticus kirbyi]]'', which measures up to {{convert|328|mm|in|abbr=on}},<ref name=Brock>Brock, P.D. 1999. ''The amazing world of stick and leaf-insects''. Cravitz Printing Co., Essex, England.</ref> while the overall length (from the hind to the front legs) is up to {{convert|546|mm|in|abbr=on}},<ref name=Brock /> and the body weight is up to 72 g (2.5 oz).{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} The second-longest insect in terms of total length is ''[[Phobaeticus serratipes]]'', measuring up to {{convert|555|mm|in|abbr=on}}.<ref>Seow-Choen, F. (1995). The longest insect in the world. ''Malayan Nat.'' '''48''': 12.</ref>
*'''Stoneflies''' (Plecoptera)
:The largest species of [[stonefly]] is ''[[Pteronarcys californica]]'', a species favored by [[fishermen]] as bait. This species can attain a length of 5 cm (2 in) and a wingspan of nearly 7.5 cm (3 in).
*'''Booklice''' ([[Psocoptera]])
:The largest of this order of very small insects is the barklouse of the genus ''[[Psocus]]'', the top size of which is about 1 cm (0.4 in).
*'''Fleas''' (Siphonaptera)
:The largest species of [[flea]] is ''[[Hystrichopsylla schefferi]]''. This parasite, known exclusively from the fur of the [[mountain beaver]], can reach a length of 1.2 cm (0.5 in).
*'''Thrips''' ([[Thysanoptera]])
:Members of the genus ''[[Phasmothrips]]'' are the largest [[thrip]]s. The maximum size of these species is about 1.3 cm (0.5 in).

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Lists of insects|Largest insects]]
[[Category:Lists of superlatives]]

Porcelain

2015-05-01T08:29:59Z

Owlgorithm: /* Chinese porcelain */Fixed typo

{{About|the ceramic material}}
{{Hatnote|"Fine china" redirects here. For the band, see [[Fine China (band)]]. "China (pottery)" redirects here. For pottery historically made in China see [[Chinese ceramics]].}}
[[File:Room 95-6753.JPG|thumb|250px|Porcelain wares, such as those similar to these Yongle-era porcelain flasks, were often presented as trade goods during the 15th-century [[Treasure voyages|Chinese maritime expeditions]]. (British Museum)]]

'''Porcelain''' is a [[ceramic]] material made by heating materials, generally including [[kaolin]], in a [[kiln]] to temperatures between {{convert|1200|and|1400|°C|°F|-2}}. The toughness, strength, and translucence of porcelain arises mainly from the formation of [[glass]] and the mineral [[mullite]] within the fired body at these high temperatures.

Porcelain derives its present name from the old [[Italian language|Italian]] ''porcellana'' ([[cowrie shell]]) because of its resemblance to the translucent surface of the shell.<ref>''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'': "The ceramic material was apparently so named on account of the resemblance of its translucent surface to the [[nacre]]ous shell of the mollusc. [...] The cowrie was probably originally so named on account of the resemblance of the fissure of its shell to a [[vulva]] (it is unclear whether the reference is spec. to the vulva of a sow)."</ref> Porcelain can informally be referred to as "china" or "fine china" in some English-speaking countries, as [[China]] was the birthplace of porcelain making.<ref>[[OED]], "China"; An Introduction to Pottery. 2nd edition. Rado P. Institute of Ceramic / Pergamon Press. 1988. Usage of "china" in this sense is inconsistent, & it may be used of other types of ceramics also.</ref> [[Properties]] associated with porcelain include low [[Permeability (earth sciences)|permeability]] and [[elasticity (physics)|elasticity]]; considerable [[Strength of materials|strength]], [[hardness]], [[toughness]], [[white]]ness, [[Translucent|translucency]] and [[resonance]]; and a high resistance to chemical attack and [[thermal shock]].

The ''Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities'' defines porcelain as being "completely vitrified, hard, impermeable (even before glazing), white or artificially coloured, translucent (except when of considerable thickness), and resonant." However, the term ''porcelain'' lacks a universal definition and has "been applied in a very unsystematic fashion to substances of diverse kinds which have only certain surface-qualities in common" (Burton 1906).

[[File:ChelseaSwanTureeen.JPG|thumb|175px|[[Soft-paste porcelain]] Swan [[tureen]], 1752-6, [[Chelsea porcelain factory|Chelsea]].]]
[[File:Centro de flores (Porcelana Buen Retiro, MAN 1982-85-5) 01.jpg|thumb|175px|Flower centrepiece, 18th century, Spain.]]

== Scope ==
The most common uses of porcelain are for utilitarian wares and artistic objects. It can be difficult to distinguish between [[stoneware]] and porcelain because this depends upon how the terms are defined. A useful working definition of ''porcelain'' might include a broad range of ceramic wares, including some that could be classified as a stoneware. Porcelain is used to make household wares, decorative items and objects of fine art amongst other things.

== Materials ==
{{further2|[[Pottery]]}}
[[Kaolin]] is the primary material from which porcelain is made, even though clay minerals might account for only a small proportion of the whole. The word "paste" is an old term for both the unfired and fired material. A more common terminology these days for the unfired material is "body"; for example, when buying materials a potter might order an amount of porcelain body from a vendor.

The composition of porcelain is highly variable, but the clay mineral [[kaolinite]] is often a raw material. Other raw materials can include [[feldspar]], [[ball clay]], [[glass]], [[bone ash]], [[steatite]], [[quartz]], [[petuntse]] and [[alabaster]].

The clays used are often described as being long or short, depending on their [[Plasticity (physics)|plasticity]]. Long clays are cohesive (sticky) and have high plasticity; short clays are less cohesive and have lower plasticity. In [[soil mechanics]], plasticity is determined by measuring the increase in content of water required to change a clay from a solid state bordering on the plastic, to a plastic state bordering on the liquid, though the term is also used less formally to describe the facility with which a clay may be worked. Clays used for porcelain are generally of lower plasticity and are shorter than many other pottery clays. They wet very quickly, meaning that small changes in the content of water can produce large changes in workability. Thus, the range of water content within which these clays can be worked is very narrow and consequently must be carefully controlled.

=== Methods ===
The following section provides background information on the methods used to form, decorate, finish, glaze, and fire ceramic wares.

====Forming====
{{main|Pottery#Methods of shaping|Ceramic forming techniques}}

====Glazing====
Unlike their lower-fired counterparts, porcelain wares do not need [[ceramic glaze|glazing]] to render them impermeable to liquids and for the most part are glazed for decorative purposes and to make them resistant to dirt and staining. Many types of glaze, such as the iron-containing glaze used on the celadon wares of [[Longquan celadon|Longquan]], were designed specifically for their striking effects on porcelain.

====Decoration====
Porcelain wares may be decorated under the glaze using pigments that include cobalt and copper or over the glaze using coloured [[Vitreous enamel|enamels]]. Like many earlier wares, modern porcelains are often [[bisque (pottery)|biscuit]]-fired at around 1,000 degrees [[Celsius]], coated with glaze and then sent for a second [[Ceramic glaze|glaze]]-firing at a temperature of about 1,300 degrees Celsius or greater. Another early method is ''once-fired'' where the glaze is applied to the unfired body and the two fired together in a single operation.

====Firing====
In this process, ''green'' (unfired) ceramic wares are heated to high temperatures in a [[kiln]] to permanently set their shapes. Porcelain is fired at a higher temperature than earthenware so that the body can vitrify and become non-porous.

== History ==

=== Chinese porcelain ===
[[File:Verseuse phénix Musée Guimet 2418.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Song Dynasty]] [[celadon]] porcelain with a [[fenghuang]] spout, 10th century, China.]]
{{main|Chinese ceramics}}
{{See also|List of Chinese inventions}}
Porcelain originated in [[China]]. Although proto-porcelain wares exist dating from the [[Shang Dynasty]] (1600–1046 BC), by the time of the Eastern [[Han Dynasty]] period (206 BC – 220 AD), glazed ceramic wares had developed into porcelain.<ref name=kelun>{{cite book|last=Kelun|first=Chen|title=Chinese porcelain: Art, elegance, and appreciation|year=2004|publisher=Long River Press|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-1-59265-012-5|page=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zOEfZtcSaFEC}}</ref><ref name="columbia"/> Porcelain manufactured during the [[Tang Dynasty]] (618–907 AD) was exported to the Islamic world, where it was highly prized.<ref name="columbia">{{cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/porcelain.aspx#3|title=''Porcelain''|publisher=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]] Sixth Edition. 2008|accessdate=2008-06-27}}</ref><ref name=cheng/> Early porcelain of this type includes the tri-colour glazed porcelain, or ''[[sancai]]'' wares. There is no precise date to separate the production of proto-porcelain from that of porcelain. Porcelain items in the sense that we know them today could be found in the Tang Dynasty,<ref name="adshead 80 83">Adshead, S.A.M. (2004). T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-3456-8 (hardback). Page 80 & 83.</ref> and archaeological finds have pushed the dates back to as early as the Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD).<ref name=kelun/><ref name="temple"/> By the [[Sui Dynasty]] (581–618 AD) and Tang Dynasty (618–907 AD), porcelain was widely produced.

Eventually, porcelain and the expertise required to create it began to spread into other areas of East Asia. During the [[Song Dynasty]] (960–1279 AD), artistry and production had reached new heights. The manufacture of porcelain became highly organised, and the kiln sites excavated from this period could fire as many as 25,000 wares.<ref name="temple">Temple, Robert K.G. (2007). ''The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention'' (3rd edition). London: André Deutsch, pp. 104-5. ISBN 978-0-233-00202-6</ref> While Xing Ware is regarded as among the greatest of the Tang Dynasty porcelain, Ding Ware became the premier porcelain of Song Dynasty.<ref name=Wood>{{cite book |last=Wood |first=Nigel |title=Chinese Glazes: Their Origins, Chemistry, and Recreation |publisher=A. & C. Black |publicationplace=London |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-4081-4025-3}}</ref> By the time of the [[Ming Dynasty]] (1368–1644 AD), porcelain wares were being [[Chinese export porcelain|exported]] to Europe. Some of the most well-known [[Chinese ceramics#Types of Chinese porcelain wares|Chinese porcelain art styles]] arrived in Europe during this era, such as the coveted ''[[blue-and-white]]'' wares.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cohen|first=David Harris|title=Looking at European ceramics : a guide to technical terms|year=1993|publisher=The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal|location=Malibu|isbn=978-0-89236-216-5|page=59|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PLAh5fomv2cC|author2=Hess, Catherine}}</ref> The Ming Dynasty controlled much of the porcelain trade, which was expanded to Asia, Africa and Europe via the [[Silk Road]]. In 1517, Portuguese merchants began direct trade by sea with the Ming Dynasty, and in 1598, Dutch merchants followed.<ref name=cheng>{{cite book|last=Te-k'un|first=Cheng|title=Studies in Chinese ceramics|year=1984|publisher=Chinese University Press|location=Hong Kong|isbn=978-962-201-308-7|pages=92–93|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3die4xQmNzQC}}</ref>

[[File:Bowl with dragons, phoenixes, gourds, and characters for happiness.jpg|thumb|left|Bowl with dragons, phoenixes, gourds, and characters for happiness. From [[Peabody Essex Museum]].]]
Some porcelains were more highly valued than others in imperial China. We can identify the most valued types by their association with the court, either as tribute offerings, or as products of kilns under imperial supervision.<ref name=Rawson>Rawson, Jessica "Chinese Art", 2007, publisher:the British Museum Press, London,ISBN=978-0-7141-2446-9</ref> Some of the best-known examples are of [[Jingdezhen]] porcelain. During the Ming dynasty, Jingdezhen porcelain become a source of imperial pride. The [[Yongle emperor]] erected a white porcelain brick-faced pagoda at Nanjing, and an exceptionally smoothly glazed type of white porcelain is peculiar to his reign. Jingdezhen porcelain's fame came to a peak in the Qing dynasty.

=== European porcelain ===
[[File:Fonthill vase by Barthelemy Remy 1713.jpg|thumb|175px|left|[[Fonthill vase]] is the earliest Chinese porcelain object to have reached Europe. It was a Chinese gift for [[Louis the Great of Hungary]] in 1338.]]
[[File:Lettre du pere Entrecolles 1712 du Halde 1735.jpg|thumb|175px|Section of a letter from [[Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles]] about Chinese porcelain manufacturing techniques, 1712, re-published by [[Jean-Baptiste Du Halde]] in 1735.]]
These exported Chinese porcelains were held in such great esteem in Europe that in the [[English language]] ''[[wikt:china|china]]'' became a commonly–used synonym for the Franco-Italian term ''porcelain''. Apart from copying Chinese porcelain in [[faience]] ([[Tin-glazed pottery|tin glazed]] [[earthenware]]), the soft-paste [[Medici porcelain]] in 16th-century [[Florence]] was the first real European attempt to reproduce it, with little success.

Early in the 16th century, Portuguese traders returned home with samples of kaolin, which they discovered in China to be essential in the production of porcelain wares. However, the Chinese techniques and composition used to manufacture porcelain were not yet fully understood.<ref name="temple"/> Countless experiments to produce porcelain had unpredictable results and met with failure.<ref name="temple"/> In the German state of Saxony, the search concluded in 1708 when [[Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus]] produced a hard, white, translucent type of porcelain specimen with a combination of ingredients, including [[kaolin]] and [[alabaster]], mined from a Saxon mine in [[Colditz]].<ref name=burns/><ref name=richards>{{cite book|last=Richards|first=Sarah|title=Eighteenth-century ceramic: Products for a civilised society|year=1999|publisher=Manchester University Press|location=Manchester|isbn=978-0-7190-4465-6|pages=23–26|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vgoNAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> It was a closely guarded trade secret of the Saxon enterprise.<ref name=richards/><ref>{{cite book|last=Wardropper|first=Ian|title=News from a radiant future: Soviet porcelain from the collection of Craig H. and Kay A. Tuber|year=1992|publisher=Art Institute of Chicago|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-86559-106-6|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E-J_fF8zgpMC}}</ref>

In 1712, many of the elaborate Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets were revealed throughout Europe by the French [[Jesuit]] father [[Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles]] and soon published in the ''Lettres édifiantes et curieuses de Chine par des missionnaires jésuites''.<ref name=Entrecolles1 /> The secrets, which d'Entrecolles read about and witnessed in China, were now known and began seeing use in Europe.<ref name=Entrecolles1>{{•}}Baghdiantz McAbe, Ina (2008). ''Orientalism in Early Modern France''. Oxford: Berg Publishing, p. 220. ISBN 978-1-84520-374-0 
{{•}}Finley, Robert (2010). ''The pilgrim art. Cultures of porcelain in world history''. University of California Press, p. 18. ISBN 978-0-520-24468-9 
{{•}}Kerr, R. & Wood, N. (2004). ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mabcHwmAD5oC Joseph Needham : Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 5 Chemistry and Chemical Technology : Part 12 Ceramic Technology]''. Cambridge University Press, p. 36-7. ISBN 0-521-83833-9 
{{•}}{{cite book|last=Zhang|first=Xiping|title=Following the steps of Matteo Ricci to China|year=2006|publisher=China Intercontinental Press|location=Beijing|isbn=978-7-5085-0982-2|page=168|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=o_u2P83LgGUC}} 
{{•}}{{cite book|last=Burton| first=William| year=1906| pages=47–48|title=Porcelain, Its Nature, Art and Manufacture|location=London|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/cu31924089530079#page/n59/mode/2up/}}</ref>

==== Meissen ====
Von Tschirnhaus and [[Johann Friedrich Böttger]] were employed by [[Augustus the Strong]] and worked at [[Dresden]] and [[Meissen]] in the German state of Saxony. Tschirnhaus had a wide knowledge of science and had been involved in the European quest to perfect porcelain manufacture when in 1705 Böttger was appointed to assist him in this task. Böttger had originally been trained as a pharmacist; after he turned to alchemical research, he claimed to have known the secret of transmuting dross into gold, which attracted the attention of Augustus. Imprisoned by Augustus as an incentive to hasten his research, Böttger was obliged to work with other alchemists in the futile search for transmutation and was eventually assigned to assist Tschirnhaus.<ref name=burns>{{cite book|last=Burns|first=William E.|title=Science in the enlightenment: An encyclopedia|year=2003|publisher=ABC-Clio|location=Santa Barbara|isbn=978-1-57607-886-0|pages=38–39|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=4H9_Zvp80nAC}}</ref> One of the first results of the collaboration between the two was the development of a red stoneware that resembled that of [[Yixing clay|Yixing]].

A workshop note records that the first specimen of hard, white and vitrified European porcelain was produced in 1708. At the time, the research was still being supervised by Tschirnhaus; however, he died in October of that year. It was left to Böttger to report to Augustus in March 1709 that he could make porcelain. For this reason, credit for the European discovery of porcelain is traditionally ascribed to him rather than Tschirnhaus.<ref>Gleeson, Janet. ''The Arcanum'', an accurate historic novel on the greed, obsession, murder and betrayal that led to the creation of Meissen porcelain. Bantam Books, London, 1998.</ref>

The [[Meissen porcelain|Meissen factory]] was established in 1710 after the development of a kiln and a glaze suitable for use with Böttger's porcelain, which required firing at temperatures of up to {{convert|1400|°C|°F|0}} to achieve translucence. Meissen porcelain was ''once-fired'', or ''green-fired''. It was noted for its great resistance to [[thermal shock]]; a visitor to the factory in Böttger's time reported having seen a white-hot teapot being removed from the kiln and dropped into cold water without damage. Evidence to support this widely disbelieved story was given in the 1980s when the procedure was repeated in an experiment at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]].{{Citation needed|date=April 2009}}

====Soft paste porcelain====
[[File:Saint Cloud bowl soft porcelain with blue decorations under glaze 1700 1710.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Saint-Cloud manufactory]] [[soft porcelain]] bowl, with blue decoration under glaze, 1700-1710.]]
{{main|Soft-paste porcelain}}
The pastes produced by combining clay and powdered glass ([[frit]]) were called ''Frittenporzellan'' in Germany and ''frita'' in Spain. In France they were known as ''pâte tendre'' and in England as "soft-paste".<ref>Honey, W.B., ''European Ceramic Art'', Faber and Faber, 1952, p.533</ref> They appear to have been given this name because they do not easily retain their shape in the wet state, or because they tend to slump in the kiln under high temperature, or because the body and the glaze can be easily scratched.

Experiments at [[Rouen]] produced the earliest soft-paste in France, but the first important French soft-paste porcelain was made at the [[Saint-Cloud factory]] before 1702. Soft-paste factories were established with the [[Chantilly porcelain|Chantilly manufactory]] in 1730 and at [[Mennecy]] in 1750. The [[Vincennes porcelain factory]] was established in 1740, moving to larger premises at [http://manufacturedesevres.culture.gouv.fr/site.php?type=P&id=20 Sèvres]<ref>Munger, Jeffrey (October 2004). "[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/sevr/hd_sevr.htm Sèvres Porcelain in the Nineteenth Century]". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 31 October 2011</ref> in 1756. Vincennes soft-paste was whiter and freer of imperfections than any of its French rivals, which put Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain in the leading position in France and throughout the whole of Europe in the second half of the 18th century.<ref>[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/porf/hd_porf.htm Metropolitan Museum of Art]</ref>

The first soft-paste in England was demonstrated by Thomas Briand to the [[Royal Society]] in 1742 and is believed to have been based on the Saint-Cloud formula. In 1749, Thomas Frye took out a [[patent]] on a porcelain containing bone ash. This was the first [[bone china]], subsequently perfected by [[Josiah Spode]].

In the twenty-five years after Briand's demonstration, a number of factories were founded in England to make soft-paste table-wares and figures:

* [[Chelsea porcelain factory|Chelsea]] (1743)<ref>‘Science Of Early English Porcelain.’ I.C. Freestone. ''Sixth Conference and Exhibition of the European Ceramic Society''. Vol.1 Brighton, 20–24 June 1999, p.11-17</ref><ref>‘The Sites Of The Chelsea Porcelain Factory.’ E.Adams. ''Ceramics'' (1), 55, 1986.</ref>
* [[Bow porcelain factory|Bow]] (1745)<ref>{{cite web|title=Bow|url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ceramics/pages/subcategory.asp?subcat_id=725|publisher=Museum of London|accessdate=31 October 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bow porcelain bowl, painted by Thomas Craft|url=http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/pe_mla/b/bow_porcelain_bowl,_painted_by.aspx|publisher=British Museum|accessdate=31 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="british-history.ac.uk">{{cite web|title=Bow porcelain|url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=22166|work=British History Online|publisher=University of London & History of Parliament Trust|accessdate=31 October 2011}}</ref>
* St James's (1748)<ref name="british-history.ac.uk"/><ref>{{cite web|title=St James's (Charles Gouyn)|url=http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/ceramics/pages/subcategory.asp?subcat_id=727&subcat_name=St+James%27s+%28Charles+Gouyn%29|publisher=Museum of London|accessdate=31 October 2011}}</ref>
* [[Bristol porcelain]] (1748)
* [[Longton Hall]] (1750)<ref>Ceramic Figureheads. Pt. 3. William Littler And The Origins Of Porcelain In Staffordshire. ''Cookson Mon. Bull. Ceram. Ind.'' (550), 1986.</ref>
* [[Royal Crown Derby]] (1750 or 1757)<ref>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.royalcrownderby.co.uk/history|publisher=Royal Crown Derby|accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20120206195707/http://www.thepotteries.org/features/royal_crown_derby1956.htm History of Royal Crown Derby Co Ltd, from "British Potters and Potteries Today", publ 1956]</ref>
* [[Royal Worcester]] (1751)
* [[Lowestoft porcelain]] (1757)<ref>'The Lowestoft Porcelain Factory, and the Chinese Porcelain Made for the European Market during the Eighteenth Century.' L. Solon. ''The Burlington Magazine''. No. 6. Vol.II. August 1906.</ref><ref>[http://museums.norfolk.gov.uk/lowestoft/index.htm Norfolk Museums & Archaeology Service]{{dead link|date=October 2011}}</ref>
* [[Wedgwood]] (1759)
* [[Spode]] (1767)

====Other developments====
[[William Cookworthy]] discovered deposits of kaolin in [[Cornwall]], making a considerable contribution to the development of porcelain and other whiteware ceramics in the United Kingdom. Cookworthy's [[Plymouth Porcelain|factory at Plymouth]], established in 1768, used kaolin and [[china stone]] to make porcelain with a body composition similar to that of the Chinese porcelains of the early 18th century.

== Types ==
[[File:Ming Dynasty porcelain vase, Wanli Reign Period (2).JPG|thumb|175px|[[Ming Dynasty]] porcelain vase from the Wanli Emperor reign (1572-1620)]]
[[File:Transparent porcelain.jpg|thumb|175px|Demonstration of the translucent quality of porcelain]]
Porcelain can be divided into the three main categories: hard-paste, soft-paste and bone china depending on the composition of the paste, the material used to form the body of a porcelain object and the firing conditions.

=== Hard paste ===
{{main|Hard-paste porcelain}}

These porcelains that came from East Asia, especially China, were some of the finest quality porcelain wares. The earliest European porcelains were produced at the [[Meissen porcelain|Meissen factory]] in the early 18th century; they were formed from a paste composed of [[kaolin]] and [[alabaster]] and fired at temperatures up to {{convert|1400|°C|°F|0}} in a wood-fired kiln, producing a porcelain of great hardness, translucency, and strength.<ref name=richards/> Later, the composition of the Meissen hard paste was changed and the alabaster was replaced by [[feldspar]] and [[quartz]], allowing the pieces to be fired at lower temperatures. Kaolinite, feldspar and quartz (or other forms of [[silica]]) continue to provide the basic ingredients for most continental European hard-paste porcelains.

=== Soft paste ===
{{main|Soft-paste porcelain}}
Soft-paste porcelains date back from the early attempts by European potters to replicate Chinese porcelain by using mixtures of clay and [[frit]] to produce soft-paste porcelain. Soapstone and lime were known to have been included in these compositions. These wares were not yet actual porcelain wares as they were not hard and vitrified by firing [[kaolin]] clay at high temperatures. As these early formulations suffered from high pyroplastic deformation, or slumping in the kiln at raised temperature, they were uneconomic to produce and of low quality. Formulations were later developed based on kaolin with quartz, feldspars, nepheline syenite or other feldspathic rocks. These were technically superior and continue in production. Soft-paste porcelains are fired at lower temperatures than hard-paste porcelain, therefore these are in general less hard than hard-paste porcelains.<ref name=reed/><ref>{{cite book|title=The Old China Book|year=1903|isbn=978-1-4344-7727-9|page=7|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1W96CstNfEgC|author=N. Hudson Moore}}</ref>

=== Bone china ===
{{main|Bone china}}
Although originally developed in England since 1748<ref name=strumpf>{{cite book|last=Strumpf|first=Faye|title=Limoges boxes: A complete guide|year=2000|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RKaRJHFUK-wC|publisher=Krause Publications|location=Iola, WI|isbn=978-0-87341-837-9|page=125}}</ref> to compete with imported porcelain, [[bone china]] is now made worldwide. The English{{clarify|date=December 2013}} had read the letters of [[Jesuit]] missionary [[Francois Xavier d'Entrecolles]], which described Chinese porcelain manufacturing secrets in detail.<ref name=burton/> One writer has speculated that a misunderstanding of the text could possibly have been responsible for the first attempts to use bone-ash as an ingredient of English porcelain,<ref name=burton/> although this is not supported by researchers and historians.<ref>''Science Of Early English Porcelain''. Freestone I C. Sixth Conference and Exhibition of the European Ceramic Society. Extended Abstracts. Vol.1 Brighton, 20–24 June 1999, pg.11-17</ref><ref>''The Special Appeal Of Bone China''. Cubbon R C P.Tableware Int. 11, (9), 30, 1981</ref><ref>''All About Bone China''. Cubbon R C P. Tableware Int. 10, (9), 34, 1980</ref><ref>''Spode's Bone China - Progress In Processing Without Compromise In Quality''. George R T; Forbes D; Plant P. Ceram. Ind. 115, (6), 32, 1980</ref><ref>''An Introduction To The Technology Of Pottery''. Paul Rado. Institute of Ceramics & Pergamon Press, 1988</ref> In China, kaolin was sometimes described as forming the ''bones'' of the paste, while the ''flesh'' was provided by the refined rocks suitable for the porcelain body.<ref name=reed>{{cite book|last=Reed|first=Cleota|title=Syracuse China|year=1997|publisher=Syracuse University Press|location=Syracuse, N.Y.|isbn=978-0-8156-0474-7|pages=51–52|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=O4DcYxsoKjwC|author2=Skoczen |author3=Stan }}</ref><ref name=burton>{{cite book|last=Burton|first=William|pages=18–19|title=Porcelain, Its Nature, Art and Manufacture|location=London|url=http://www.archive.org/stream/cu31924089530079#page/n31/mode/2up}}</ref> Traditionally English bone china was made from two parts of bone-ash, one part of [[kaolin]] and one part [[china stone]], although this has largely been replaced by feldspars from non-UK sources.<ref>Changes & Developments Of Non-plastic Raw Materials. Sugden A. International Ceramics Issue 2 2001.</ref>

==Other uses==

===Electric insulating material===
[[File:Insulator.jpg|thumb|175px|Porcelain insulator for medium-high voltage]]
Porcelain and other [[ceramic materials]] have many applications in engineering, especially [[ceramic engineering]]. Porcelain is an excellent insulator for use at [[high voltage]], especially in outdoor applications, see [[Insulator (electricity)#Material]]. Examples include: terminals for [[high voltage cable]]s, bushings of [[power transformer]]s, insulation of high frequency [[Antenna (radio)|antennas]] and many other components.

===Building material===
[[File:Dakinbldg.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Dakin Building]], Brisbane, California using porcelain panels]]
Porcelain can be used as a [[building material]], usually in the form of [[tile]]s or large rectangular panels. Modern porcelain tiles are generally produced to a number of recognised international standards and definitions.<ref>“New American Standard Defines Polished Porcelain By The Porcelain Tile Certification Agency.” Tile Today No.56, 2007.</ref><ref>Porcelain tile as defined in ASTM C242 - 01(2007) Standard Terminology of Ceramic Whitewares and Related Products published by ASTM International.</ref> Manufacturers are found across the world<ref>’Manufacturers Of Porcelain Tiles’ Ceram.World Rev. 6, No.19, 1996 … ‘The main manufacturers of porcelain tiles in Italy, Europe, Asia, Africa, Oceania and the Americas are listed.’</ref> with Italy being the global leader, producing over 380 million square metres in 2006.<ref>”Italian Porcelain Tile Production At The Top” Ind.Ceram. 27, No.2, 2007.</ref> Historic examples of rooms decorated entirely in porcelain tiles can be found in several European palaces including ones at [[Museo di Capodimonte|Capodimonte]], Naples, the [[Royal Palace of Madrid]] and the nearby [[Royal Palace of Aranjuez]].<ref>[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2792293957101026524 Porcelain Room, Aranjuez] Comprehensive but shaky video</ref> and the [[Porcelain Tower of Nanjing]]. More recent noteworthy examples include The [[Dakin Building]] in [[Brisbane, California]], and the [[Gulf Building (Houston)|Gulf Building]] in Houston, Texas, which when constructed in 1929 had a {{convert|21|m|ft|adj=mid|-long}} porcelain logo on its exterior.<ref name="Porcelain Tile 1992">“Porcelain Tile: The Revolution Is Only Beginning.” Tile Decorative Surf. 42, No.11, 1992.</ref> A more detailed description of the history, manufacture and properties of porcelain tiles is given in the article “Porcelain Tile: The Revolution Is Only Beginning.”<ref name="Porcelain Tile 1992"/>

=== Bathroom fittings ===
[[File:Bourdaloue dsc02723.jpg|thumbnail|right|Porcelain Chamber Pots from Vienna.]]
Because of its durability, inability to rust and impermeability, glazed porcelain has been in use for personal hygiene since at least the third quarter of the 17th century. During this period, porcelain chamber pots were commonly found in higher-class European households, and the term "bourdaloue" was used as the name for the pot.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-bourdaloue.htm |title=What is a Bourdaloue? |first= |last= |work=wisegeek.com |year=2014 |accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref>

However bath tubs are not made of porcelain, but of [[Industrial porcelain enamel|porcelain enamel]] on a metal base, usually of [[cast iron]]. Porcelain enamel is a [[marketing]] term used in the US, and is not porcelain but [[vitreous enamel]]..<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.reviewjournal.com/autos/drive/buick-made-bathtubs-he-built-cars |title=Buick made bathtubs before he built cars | Las Vegas Review-Journal |first= |last= |work=reviewjournal.com |year=2014 |accessdate=27 March 2014}}</ref>

=== Loudspeakers ===
[[File:Porcelain loudspeaker casing.jpg|thumb|Spherical speakers made from porcelain]]

Porcelain has been used for [[loudspeaker]] casings.
<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fashion.at/music/2015/mosound_augarten2-2015.htm |title=mo°sound speakers in luxury porcelain ball by Augarten. |first= |last= |work=fashion.at |year=2015 |accessdate=16 April 2015}}</ref>

== Manufacturers ==
{{Dynamic list}}
{{div col|cols=2}}
*[[Porcelain manufacturing companies in Europe|Europe]]
** [[Austria]]
*** [[Vienna Porcelain Manufactory]]
** [[Czech Republic]]
*** [[Haas & Czjzek]], [[Horní Slavkov]], (1792-2011)
*** [[Thun 1794]], [[Klášterec nad Ohří]], (1794–present)
*** [[Český porcelán]] a.s., [[Dubí]], Eichwelder Porzellan und Ofenfabriken Bloch & Co. Böhmen, (1864–present)
*** [[Rudolf Kämpf]], [[Nové Sedlo (Sokolov District)]], (1907–present)
** [[Denmark]]
*** [[Royal Copenhagen]] (1775–present)
** [[Finland]]
*** [[Arabia (brand)|Arabia]]
** [[France]]
***[[Rouen manufactory|Rouen porcelain]], (1673–1696), [[faience]]
***[[Nevers manufactory|Nevers porcelain]], (1600–1789), [[faience]]
***[[Saint-Cloud porcelain]], (1693–1766)
***[[Strasbourg faience]], (1721-1784)
***[[Chantilly porcelain]], (1730–1800)
***[[Vincennes porcelain]], (1740–1756)
***[[Mennecy-Villeroy porcelain]], (1745–1765)
***[[Manufacture nationale de Sèvres|Sèvres porcelain]], (1756–present)
***[[Revol Porcelaine|Revol porcelain]], (1789–present)
***[[Limoges porcelain]]
***[[Haviland & Co.|Haviland porcelain]]
** [[Germany]]
*** [[Porcelain manufacturing companies in Europe#Current porcelain manufacturers in Germany|Current porcelain manufacturers in Germany]]
** [[Hungary]]
*** [[Herend Porcelain Manufactory|Herend Porcelain Manufacture]], (1826–present)
*** [[Hollóházi Porcelán Manufaktúra Zrt. (company)|Hollóháza Porcelain Manufacture]], (1777,1831–present)
*** [[Zsolnay|Zsolnay Porcelain Manufacture]], (1853–present)
** [[Italy]]
*** [[Capodimonte porcelain]], (1743–present)
*** [[Doccia porcelain|Richard-Ginori 1735 Manifattura di Doccia]], (1735–2013)
*** [[Manifattura Italiana Porcellane Artistiche Fabris]], (1922-1972)
** [[Lithuania]]
** [[Norway]]
*** [[Figgjo]] (1941–present)
** [[Poland]]
***[[Ćmielów]]
***[http://www.porcelana-kristoff.pl Kristoff]
** [[Portugal]]
*** [[Vista Alegre (company)|Vista Alegre]]
*** [[Spal (company)|Sociedade Porcelanas de Alcobaça]]
** [[Romania]]
** [[Spain]]
*** [[Real Fábrica del Buen Retiro|Buen Retiro Royal Porcelain Factory]] (1760–1812)
*** [[Lladró]] (1953–present)
** [[Switzerland]]
*** [[Suisse Langenthal]]

* [[Japan]]
** Narumi
** [[Noritake]]
* [[Russia]]
** [[Dulevo Farfor]] (1832–present) Дулевский фарфор
** [[Imperial Porcelain Factory]] (1744), [[Oranienbaum, Russia|Oranienbaum]]
** [[Gzhel (ceramics)]] (1802), [[Gzhel, Moscow Oblast|Gzhel (village)]]
* [[Turkey]]
** [[Kutahya Porselen]]
* [[United Kingdom]]
** [[Aynsley China]], (1775–present)
** [[Belleek Pottery|Belleek]], (1884–present)
** [[Chelsea porcelain factory]]
** [[Coalport porcelain]]
** [[Davenport Pottery|Davenport]]
** [[Goss crested china]]
** [[Liverpool porcelain]]
** [[Mintons Ltd]], (1793–1968, merged with [[Royal Doulton]])
** [[New Hall porcelain]]
** [[Plymouth Porcelain]]
** [[Rockingham Pottery]]
** [[Royal Crown Derby]], (1750/57-present)
** [[Royal Doulton]], (1815-2009 acquired by [[KPS Capital Partners]] and part of [[WWRD Group Holdings Ltd]])
** [[Royal Worcester]], (1751-2008 acquired by [[Portmeirion Pottery]])
** [[Spode]], (1767-2008 acquired by [[Portmeirion Pottery]])
** [[Wedgwood]], (1759–2009 acquired by [[KPS Capital Partners]] and part of [[WWRD Group Holdings Ltd]])
* [[United States]]
** [[Blue Ridge (dishware)|Blue Ridge]]
** [[CoorsTek]], Inc.
** [[Franciscan Ceramics|Franciscan]]
** [[Lenox (company)|Lenox]]
** [[Lotus Ware]]
* [[Brazil]]
** [[Germer Porcelanas Finas]]
** [[Porcelana Schmidt]]
* [[Iran]]
** [[Zarin Iran porcelain Industries]]
* [[Vietnam]]
** [[Minh Long I porcelain]]
* [[Sri Lanka]]
** Dankotuwa Porcelain
** Noritake Lanka Porcelain
* [[United Arab Emirates]]
** RAK Porcelain
* [[South Korea]]
** [[Haengnam Chinaware]]
** [[Hankook Chinaware]]

{{div col end}}

== See also ==
*[[Lithophane]]
*[[Sea pottery]]
*[[Faience]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
* Combined Nomenclature of the European Communities - EC Commission in Luxembourg, 1987 .
* Burton, William (1906). [http://openlibrary.org/books/OL24188766M/Porcelain_its_nature_art_and_manufacture ''Porcelain, its Nature, Art and Manufacture'']. Batsford, London
*{{cite book |author=Le Corbeiller, Clare | title=[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/58497/rec/1 ''Eighteenth-century Italian porcelain''] | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=1985 | isbn=0870994212}}
*{{cite book|title=The Pilgrim Art: Cultures of Porcelain in World History|first=Robert|last=Finlay|volume=Volume 11 of California World History Library|edition=illustrated|year=2010|publisher=University of California Press|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uHWIKuAYbK8C&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false|isbn=0520945387|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}
*{{cite book|title=Oriental trade ceramics in South-East Asia, ninth to sixteenth centuries: with a catalogue of Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai wares in Australian collections|first=John|last=Guy|editor-first=John|editor-last=Guy|volume=|edition=illustrated, revised|year=1986|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GxrrAAAAMAAJ|isbn=|accessdate=24 April 2014| ref=harv }}
*Valenstein, S. (1998). ''[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/38422/rec/3 A handbook of Chinese ceramics]'', Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. ISBN 9780870995149

== External links ==
{{commons category|Porcelain}}
*[http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Porcelain.html How porcelain is made]
*[http://www.madehow.com/Volume-5/Bisque-Porcelain-Figurine.html How bisque porcelain is made]
*[http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/p/porcelain.html ArtLex Art Dictionary - Porcelain]

{{Porcelain}}
{{Pottery}}

[[Category:Porcelain| ]]
[[Category:Ceramic materials]]
[[Category:Tableware]]
[[Category:Chinese culture]]
[[Category:Chinese inventions]]
[[Category:Dielectrics]]
[[Category:Pottery]]
[[Category:Materials with minor glass phase]]

Jade

2015-04-15T03:51:03Z

Owlgorithm: Added a missing comma

{{About|the gemstone}}
[[Image:chinese jadeite buttons.jpg|thumb|A selection of antique, hand-crafted [[Chinese jade]] buttons]]
[[Image:Jadestein.jpg|thumb|upright|Unworked jade]]
[[Image:Jade 001.jpg|thumb|Jade on display in [[Jade City, British Columbia]], Canada]]
'''Jade''' is an ornamental rock.
The term ''jade'' is applied to two different [[metamorphic rock]]s that are made up of different [[silicate minerals]]:
*[[Nephrite]] consists of a microcrystalline interlocking fibrous matrix of the calcium, magnesium-iron rich [[amphibole]] mineral series [[tremolite]] (calcium-magnesium)-ferroactinolite (calcium-magnesium-iron). The middle member of this series with an intermediate composition is called [[actinolite]] (the silky fibrous mineral form is one form of [[asbestos]]). The higher the iron content, the greener the colour.
*[[Jadeite]] is a sodium- and aluminium-rich [[pyroxene]]. The gem form of the mineral is a microcrystalline interlocking crystal matrix.

==Etymology==
The English word ''jade'' is derived (via French ''l'ejade'' and Latin ''ilia'' "flanks, kidney area")<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=jade |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |date= |accessdate=2011-03-07}}</ref> from the Spanish term ''piedra de ijada'' (first recorded in 1565) or "loin stone", from its reputed efficacy in curing ailments of the [[loin]]s and [[kidney]]s. ''Nephrite'' is derived from ''lapis nephriticus'', the Latin version of the Spanish ''piedra de ijada''.<ref>Easby, Elizabeth Kennedy. ''Pre-Columbian Jade from Costa Rica''. (1968). André Emmerich Inc., New York</ref>

==Overview==

===Nephrite and jadeite===
Nephrite and jadeite were used from [[prehistoric]] periods for [[hardstone carving]]. Jadeite has about the same [[Hardness (materials science)|hardness]] as quartz. Nephrite is slightly softer, but is tougher (more resistant to breakage) than jadeite. It was not until the 19th century that a French mineralogist, [[Alexis Damour]] (1808-1902), determined that "jade" was in fact two different minerals.{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Among the earliest known jade artifacts excavated from prehistoric sites are simple ornaments with bead, button, and tubular shapes.<ref>Liu, Li. The Products of Minds as Well as Hands: Production of Prestige Goods in Neolithic and Early State Periods of China. ''Asian Perspectives'' 42(1):1-40, 2003, pg 2.</ref> Additionally, jade was used for [[adze]] heads, [[knives]], and other [[weapon]]s, which can be delicately shaped. As metal-working technologies became available, the beauty of jade made it valuable for ornaments and decorative objects. Jadeite measures between 6.0 and 7.0 [[Mohs scale of mineral hardness|Mohs hardness]], and nephrite between 6.0 and 6.5, so it can be worked with quartz or garnet sand, and polished with bamboo or even ground jade.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}

===Unusual varieties===
{{unreferenced section|date=August 2011}}
Nephrite can be found in a creamy white form (known in China as "mutton fat" jade) as well as in a variety of green colours, whereas jadeite shows more colour variations, including blue, lavender-mauve, pink, and emerald-green colours.{{citation needed|date=March 2014}} Of the two, jadeite is rarer, documented in fewer than 12 places worldwide. Translucent emerald-green jadeite is the most prized variety, both historically and today. As "quetzal" jade, bright green jadeite from [[Guatemala]] was treasured by [[Mesoamerica]]n cultures, and as "kingfisher" jade, vivid green rocks from Burma became the preferred stone of post-1800 Chinese imperial scholars and rulers. Burma ([[Myanmar]]) and Guatemala are the principal sources of modern gem jadeite. In the area of [[Mogaung]] in the [[Myitkyina]] District of Upper Burma, jadeite formed a layer in the dark-green serpentine, and has been quarried and exported for well over a hundred years.<ref name="HUN">Hunter, Sir William Wilson and [[Richard Burn (Indologist)|Sir Richard Burn]], The Imperial Gazeteer of India, Vol. 3, Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, Henry Frowde Publishers (1907), p. 242</ref> Canada provides the major share of modern lapidary nephrite. Nephrite jade was used mostly in pre-1800 [[China]] as well as in [[New Zealand]], the Pacific Coast and Atlantic Coasts of North America, Neolithic Europe, and Southeast Asia. In addition to Mesoamerica, jadeite was used by Neolithic Japanese and European cultures.

==History==

===Prehistoric and historic China===
{{Main|Chinese jade}}
[[Image:Han jade dragen.JPG|thumb|upright|Jade dragon, [[Western Han Dynasty]] (202 BC – 9 AD)]]
[[File:Large mutton fat jade displayed in Hotan Cultural Museum lobby.jpg|thumb|left|Large "mutton fat" nephrite jade displayed in [[Hotan Cultural Museum]] lobby.]]
[[File:Collecting jade in the White Jade River near Khotan.jpg|thumb|300px|Collecting jade in the White Jade River near [[Khotan]] in 2011]]
[[File:Jade rocks in truck.jpg|thumb|300px|Jade rocks in truck in [[Khotan]] in 2011]]
During [[Neolithic]] times, the key known sources of nephrite jade in China for utilitarian and [[ceremonial]] jade items were the now depleted deposits in the Ningshao area in the [[Yangtze River Delta]] ([[Liangzhu culture]] 3400–2250 BC) and in an area of the [[Liaoning province]] and [[Inner Mongolia]] ([[Hongshan culture]] 4700–2200 BC).<ref>Liu, Li 2003:3-15</ref> Dushan Jade was being mined as early as 6000 BC. In the Yin Ruins of the Shang Dynasty (1600 to 1050 BC) in Anyang, Dushan Jade ornaments were unearthed in the tomb of the Shang kings. Jade was used to create many utilitarian and ceremonial objects, from indoor decorative items to [[jade burial suit]]s. Jade was considered the "imperial gem". From the earliest [[Chinese dynasties]] to the present, the jade deposits most in use were not only those of [[Khotan]] in the Western Chinese province of [[Xinjiang]] but other parts of China as well, such as Lantian, [[Shaanxi]]. There, white and greenish nephrite jade is found in small quarries and as pebbles and boulders in the [[rivers]] flowing from the [[Kuen-Lun mountain range]] eastward into the [[Takla-Makan desert]] area. The river jade collection is concentrated in the [[Yarkand River|Yarkand]], the White Jades ([[Yurungkash River|Yurungkash]]) and Black Jade ([[Karakash River|Karakash]]) Rivers. From the [[Kingdom of Khotan]], on the southern leg of the [[Silk Road]], yearly tribute payments consisting of the most precious white jade were made to the Chinese Imperial court and there worked into ''objets d'art'' by skilled artisans as jade had a status-value exceeding that of [[gold]] or [[silver]]. Jade became a favourite material for the crafting of Chinese scholars' objects, such as rests for calligraphy brushes, as well as the mouthpieces of some [[opium pipes]], due to the belief that breathing through jade would bestow longevity upon smokers who used such a pipe.<ref>Martin, Steven. ''The Art of Opium Antiques''. Silkworm Books, Chiang Mai, 2007</ref>

Jadeite, with its bright emerald-green, pink, lavender, [[Orange (colour)|orange]] and brown colours was imported from [[Burma]] to China only after about 1800. The vivid green variety became known as Feicui (翡翠) or Kingfisher (feathers) Jade. It quickly became almost as popular as nephrite and a favorite of Qing Dynasty's nouveau riche, while scholars still had strong attachment to nephrite (white jade, or Khotan), which they deemed to be the symbol of a nobleman.

In the history of the art of the Chinese empire, jade has had a special significance, comparable with that of gold and [[diamonds]] in the West.<ref name=gem>[http://www.gemstone.org/gem-by-gem/english/jade.html Jade]. Gemstone.org</ref> Jade was used for the finest objects and cult figures, and for grave furnishings for high-ranking members of the imperial family.<ref name=gem/> Due to that significance and the rising middle class in China, today the finest jade when found in nuggets of “mutton fat” jade — so-named for its marbled white consistency — can fetch $3,000 an ounce, a tenfold increase from a decade ago.<ref name="Andrew Jabobs">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/09/21/world/asia/21jade.html?_r=2&hp& |title=Jade From China’s West Surpasses Gold in Value |first=Andrew |last=Jacobs |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=September 20, 2010 |publisher=[[New York Times Company|NYTC]] |location=[[New York, NY|New York]] |issn=0362-4331 |accessdate=October 13, 2012}}</ref>

The Chinese character 玉<ref>[[:zh:玉]]</ref> is used to denote the several types of stone known in English as "jade" (e.g. 玉器, jadewares), such as [[jadeite]] (硬玉, 'hard jade', another name for 翡翠) and [[nephrite]] (軟玉, 'soft jade'). But because of the value added culturally to jades throughout Chinese history, the word has also come to refer more generally to precious or ornamental stones,<ref>http://www.gia.edu/cs/Satellite?blobcol=gfile&blobheader=application%2Fpdf&blobheadername1=Content-Disposition&blobheadername2=MDT-Type&blobheadername3=Content-Type&blobheadervalue1=attachment%3B+filename%3DGG-Gem-News-International&blobheadervalue2=abinary%3B+charset%3DUTF-8&blobheadervalue3=application%2Funknown&blobkey=id&blobtable=GIA_DocumentFile&blobwhere=1355958258903&ssbinary=true</ref> and is very common in more symbolic usage as in phrases like 拋磚引玉/抛砖引玉 (lit. 'casting a brick (i.e. the speaker's own words) to draw a jade (i.e. pearls of wisdom from the other party)'), 玉容 (a beautiful face; 'jade countenance'), and 玉立 (slim and graceful; 'jade standing upright'). The character has a similar range of meanings when appearing as a radical as parts of other characters.

===Prehistoric and historic India===
[[File:Dagger India Louvre MR13434.jpg|thumb|upright|Dagger with Jade hilt, India, 17th–18th century. [[Louvre]] ]]
The [[Jainism|Jain]] [[Derasar|temple]] of [[Kolanpak]] in the [[Nalgonda district]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]] is home to a {{convert|5|ft|m|adj=on}} high [[sculpture]] of [[Mahavira]] that is carved entirely out of jade. It is the largest sculpture made from a single jade rock in the world. India is also noted for its craftsman tradition of using large amounts of green [[Serpentine group|serpentine]] or ''false jade'' obtained primarily from Afghanistan in order to fashion jewellery and ornamental items such as sword hilts and dagger handles.<ref name="HUN">Hunter, Sir William Wilson and Burn, Sir Richard, The Imperial Gazeteer of India, Vol. 3, Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, Henry Frowde Publishers (1907), p. 242</ref>

===Prehistoric and early historic Korea===
[[File:Korea-Silla kingdom-Gold crown from Geumgwanchong-No.191-01D.jpg|thumb|Golden crown with jade pendants from [[Silla]], fifth or sixth century AD, in the [[National Museum of Korea]]. ]]
The use of jade and other greenstone was a long-term tradition in [[Korea]] (c. 850 BC – AD 668). Jade is found in small numbers of [[pit-house]]s and [[burials]]. The craft production of small [[comma]]-shaped and tubular "jades" using materials such as jade, [[microcline]], [[jasper]], etc., in southern Korea originates from the Middle [[Mumun Pottery Period]] (c. 850–550 BC).<ref>Bale, Martin T. and Ko, Min-jung. Craft Production and Social Change in Mumun Pottery Period Korea. ''Asian Perspectives'' 45(2):159-187, 2006.</ref> Comma-shaped jades are found on some of the gold crowns of [[Silla]] royalty (c. 300/400–668 AD) and sumptuous [[elite]] burials of the [[Korean Three Kingdoms]]. After the state of Silla united the Korean Peninsula in 668, the widespread popularisation of death rituals related to [[Buddhism]] resulted in the decline of the use of jade in burials as prestige mortuary goods.

===Southeast Asia===
Archaeologists have discovered two forms of jade that can be found across Taiwan through the Philippines, East Malaysia, central and southern Vietnam, and even extend to eastern Cambodia and peninsular Thailand. These two forms are called linling-o penannular earring with three pointed circumferential projections and the double animal-headed ear pendant. The forms are very similar in size and range from about 30-35mm in diameter. Furthermore, radiocarbon dates have dated these forms in Southeast Asia from around 500 BC to 500 AD.<ref>Hung, H. C., Iizuka, Y., Bellwood, P., Nguyen, K. D., Bellina, B., Silapanth, P., & Manton, J. H. (2007). Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(50), 19745-19750.</ref> The electron probe microanalysis shows that the raw material of these two kinds of jade artifact are nephrite jade originated from Taiwan, named as the Fengtian nephrite. Evidence recovered from multiple sites from Taiwan, the Philippines and the mainland southeast Asia suggests that Taiwan is the main source of the exchange of this kind jade. During the Iron Age of Southeast Asia, there might be skilled craftsmen traveling from Taiwan to southeast Asia along the coastline of the South China Sea, making jade ornaments for local inhabitants.<ref>Hung, H. C., Iizuka, Y., Bellwood, P., Nguyen, K. D., Bellina, B., Silapanth, P., ... & Manton, J. H. (2007). Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(50), 19745-19750.</ref>

===Māori===
Nephrite jade in [[New Zealand]] is known as ''[[pounamu]]'' in the [[Māori language]] (often called "greenstone" in [[New Zealand English]]), and plays an important role in [[Culture of the Māori|Māori culture]]. It is considered a ''[[taonga]]'', or treasure, and therefore protected under the [[Treaty of Waitangi]], and the exploitation of it is restricted and closely monitored. It is found only in the [[South Island]] of New Zealand, known as ''Te Wai Pounamu'' in [[Māori language|Māori]]—"The [land of] Greenstone Water", or ''Te Wahi Pounamu''—"The Place of Greenstone".

Tools, weapons and ornaments were made of it; in particular [[adze]]s, the '[[Mere (weapon)|mere]]' (short club), and the [[Hei-tiki]] (neck pendant). These were believed to have their own [[mana]], handed down as valuable heirlooms, and often given as gifts to seal important agreements. Nephrite [[jewellery]] of Maori design is widely popular with locals and tourists, although some of the jade used for these is now imported from [[British Columbia]] and elsewhere.<ref>Salt, Donn, 1992, ''Stone, Bone and Jade - 24 New Zealand Artists'', David Bateman Ltd, Auckland.</ref>

===Canada===

Jade was first identified in Canada by Chinese settlers in 1886 in British Columbia. At this time jade was considered worthless as they were searching for gold. Jade was not commercialized in Canada until the 1970s. The mining business Loex James Ltd., which was started by two Californians, began commercial mining of Canadian jade in 1972.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Talbot|first1=Matthew|title=In Depth Green With Jade|url=http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/ja05/indepth/resources.asp|website=Canadian Geographic|accessdate=6 November 2014}}</ref>

====Mining====

Mining is done from large boulders that contain bountiful deposits of jade. Jade is exposed using diamond-tipped core drills in order to extract samples. This is done to ensure that the jade meets requirements. Hydraulic spreaders are then inserted into cleavage points in the rock so that the jade can be broken away. Once the boulders are removed and the jade is accessible, it is broken down into more manageable 10-tonne pieces using water-cooled diamond saws. The jade is then loaded onto trucks and transported to the proper storage facilities.<ref>{{cite web|title=What is Jade?|url=http://www.polarjade.ca/canadajade.html|website=Polar Jade|accessdate=6 November 2014}}</ref>

===Mesoamerica===
{{Main|Jade use in Mesoamerica}}
[[File:Mayan Jade.jpg|thumb|Jadeite [[Gorget|Pectoral]] from the [[Maya civilization|Maya]]n Classic period ({{convert|195|mm|in|disp=or|abbr=on}} high)]]

Jade was a rare and valued material in [[pre-Columbian]] [[Mesoamerica]]. The only source from which the various [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] [[culture]]s, such as the [[Olmec]] and [[Maya civilization|Maya]], could obtain jade was located in the [[Motagua River]] valley in [[Guatemala]]. Jade was largely an [[elite]] good, and was usually carved in various ways, whether serving as a medium upon which [[hieroglyph]]s were inscribed, or shaped into [[symbol]]ic [[figurine]]s. Generally, the material was highly symbolic, and it was often employed in the performance of [[ideology|ideological]] practices and [[ritual]]s.

==Enhancement==
Jade may be enhanced (sometimes called "stabilized"). Note that some merchants will refer to these as Grades, but it is important to bear in mind that degree of enhancement is different from colour and texture quality. In other words, Type A jadeite is not enhanced but can have poor colour and texture. There are three main methods of enhancement, sometimes referred to as the ABC Treatment System:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ssef-alumni.org/pdf/newsletter_3.pdf |format=PDF |title=Tay Thye Sun, The Changing Face of Jade |publisher=Ssef-alumni.org |work=Alumni Newsletter No. 3, pp. 5 - 6 |accessdate= }}</ref>
*'''Type A''' jadeite has not been treated in any way except surface waxing.
*'''Type B''' treatment involves exposing a promising but stained piece of jadeite to chemical bleaches and/or acids and impregnating it with a clear [[polymer]] [[resin]]. This results in a significant improvement of transparency and colour of the material. Currently, [[infrared spectroscopy]] is the most accurate test for the detection of polymer in jadeite.
*'''Type C''' jade has been artificially stained or dyed. The effects are somewhat uncontrollable and may result in a dull brown. In any case, translucency is usually lost.
*'''B+C jade''' is a combination of B and C: it has been both impregnated and artificially stained.
*'''Type D''' jade refers to a composite stone such as a doublet comprising a jade top with a plastic backing.

==See also==
*[[Axstone]]
*[[Costa Rican jade tradition]]
*[[Serpentine group|False Jade]] or [[Serpentine group|Serpentine]]
*[[Heavenly Horse Tomb]], a Silla royal tomb in Korea with jade artifacts.
*[[Jade burial suit]]
*[[Mumun Pottery Period]], the time in Korea when jade ornament production began
*[[Pounamu]]

==References==
<references/>

==Further reading==
*Laufer, Berthold, 1912, ''Jade: A Study in Chinese Archeology & Religion'', Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1974.
*[[Jessica Rawson|Rawson, Jessica]], 1975, ''Chinese Jade Throughout the Ages'', London: Albert Saifer, ISBN 0-87556-754-1
*[http://www.cigem.ca/pdf/jadeite.pdf Jadeite sources in Mesoamerica (PDF)]
*[http://www.guardian.co.uk/theobserver/2001/nov/11/features.magazine37 Between hell and the Stone of Heaven: Observer article on Jade Mining in Burma]
*[http://asianart.com/articles/hoffman/index.html Old Chinese Jades: Real or Fake?]

==External links==
{{Commons category|Jade}}

*{{dmoz|Science/Earth_Sciences/Geology/Rocks_and_Minerals/Gemstone|Gemstone}}
*[http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/online_tours/asia/chinese_jade/chinese_jade.aspx The British Museum - 7,000 years of Chinese jade]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/19960101-re_/http://dragonartwork.net/2008/01/11/more-ways-of-detecting-fake-chinese-dragon-carvings/ Gravity Measurement For Testing Jade] (2008 archived version)
*[http://www.mindat.org/min-10403.html mindat.org (Mineralogical data about Jade)]
*[http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/JA05/indepth/ Jade in Canada]
*[http://www.em.gov.bc.ca/mining/Geolsurv/minfile/products/Jade/jadetab.htm "Jade in British Columbia table", BC Govt MINFILE summary of jade showings and producers]
*[http://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/202/300/cdn_rockhound/1997-2000/2000/02/index.html Canadian Rockhound magazine feature on jade ]
*[https://www.mountainjade.co.nz/artist/niki-nepia/ Modern Interpretations of Maori Jade Artwork]
*[http://www.jademaya.com/ "Guatemalan Jadeite", Pre-Columbian Replicas and Fine Jewelry]

{{Jewellery}}

[[Category:Chinese culture]]
[[Category:Gemstones]]
[[Category:Provincial symbols of British Columbia]]
[[Category:Inosilicates]]
[[Category:Hardstone carving]]
[[Category:Shades of green]]
[[Category:Jade| ]]

Hippie

2014-09-28T19:29:24Z

Owlgorithm: /* Art and fashion */ Fixed typos

{{Redirect|Hippies|the British comedy series|Hippies (TV series)|the garage rock album|Hippies (album)}}

[[File:Hippie girl 1969.jpg|thumb|upright|Hippie woman giving a [[Peace symbol#The V sign|peace sign]], Los Angeles, 1969]]
The '''hippie''' (or '''hippy''') [[subculture]] was originally a [[youth movement]] that arose in the [[United States]] during the mid-1960s and spread to other countries around the world. The [[Hippie (etymology)|word 'hippie']] came from ''[[hipster (1940s subculture)|hipster]]'', and was initially used to describe [[beatnik]]s who had moved into New York City's [[Greenwich Village]] and San Francisco's [[Haight-Ashbury]] district. The origins of the terms ''[[Hip (slang)|hip]]'' and ''hep'' are uncertain, though by the 1940s both had become part of [[African American culture|African American]] [[African American Vernacular English|jive]] slang and meant "sophisticated; currently fashionable; fully up-to-date".<ref>To say "I'm hip to the situation" means "I'm aware of the situation. See: {{Citation| last = Sheidlower| first = Jesse | author-link = Jesse Sheidlower| date = 2004-12-08| title = Crying Wolof: Does the word hip really hail from a West African language?| publisher = ''[[Slate Magazine]]''| url = http://www.slate.com/id/2110811/ | accessdate = 2007-05-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=hep |title=Online Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Etymonline.com |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hep |title=Hep - Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=2012-08-31 |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref> The Beats adopted the term ''hip'', and early hippies inherited the language and [[counterculture of the 1960s|countercultural values]] of the [[Beat Generation]]. Hippies created their own communities, listened to [[psychedelic music]], embraced the [[sexual revolution]], and used drugs such as [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]], [[Lysergic acid diethylamide|LSD]], and [[psilocybin mushroom]]s to explore [[Altered state of consciousness|altered states of consciousness]].

In January 1967, the [[Human Be-In]] in [[Golden Gate Park]] in San Francisco popularized hippie culture, leading to the [[Summer of Love]] on the [[West Coast of the United States]], and the 1969 [[Woodstock Festival]] on the East Coast. Hippies in Mexico, known as ''jipitecas'', formed ''[[La Onda]]'' and gathered at [[Festival Rock y Ruedas de Avándaro|Avándaro]], while in New Zealand, nomadic [[housetrucker]]s practiced alternative lifestyles and promoted sustainable energy at [[Nambassa]]. In the United Kingdom, mobile "peace convoys" of [[New age travellers]] made summer [[pilgrimage]]s to free music festivals at [[Stonehenge]] and later (in 1970) to the gigantic [[Isle of Wight Festival 1970|Isle of Wight Festival]] with a crowd of around 400,000 people.<ref>"The attendance at the third Pop Festival at...Isle of Wight, England on 30 Aug 1970 was claimed by its promoters, Fiery Creations, to be 400,000." ''The Guinness book of Records - 1987'', (p91), Editor Russell, Alan. Guiness Books, 1986 ISBN 0851124399</ref> In Australia hippies gathered at [[Nimbin, New South Wales|Nimbin]] for the 1973 [[Aquarius Festival]] and the annual Cannabis Law Reform Rally or [[MardiGrass]]. "[[Piedra Roja|''Piedra Roja'' Festival]]", a major hippie event in Chile, was held in 1970.<ref>{{cite book|last=Purcell|first=Fernando|title=Ampliando miradas: Chile y su historia en un tiempo global|year=2009|publisher=RIL Editores|isbn=956-284-701-2|author2=Alfredo Riquelme|page=21}}</ref>

Hippie fashions and values had a major effect on culture, influencing [[popular music]], television, film, literature, and the arts. One of the main early influential leaders in the hippie movement, affecting hippie culture very heavily, was Tom Nolan.<ref name="Harry The Hipster Gibson 1986">{{Citation
| author = Harry "The Hipster" Gibson
| year = 1986| title = Everybody's Crazy But Me646456456654151
| series = The Hipster Story
| publisher = Progressive Records
| url = http://www.hyzercreek.com/harryautobio.htm
| authorlink = Harry Gibson
}}</ref> Since the 1960s, many aspects of hippie culture have been assimilated by mainstream society. The religious and [[cultural diversity]] espoused by the hippies has gained widespread acceptance, and [[Eastern philosophy]] and spiritual concepts have reached a larger audience. The hippie legacy can be observed in contemporary culture in myriad forms, including [[health food]], [[music festival]]s, [[sexual revolution|contemporary sexual mores]], and even the [[cyberspace]] revolution.<ref name="Brand_Time"/>

==Etymology==
{{main|Hippie (etymology)}}

[[Lexicography|Lexicographer]] [[Jesse Sheidlower]], the principal American editor of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', argues that the terms ''hipster'' and ''hippie'' derive from the word ''[[hip (slang)|hip]]'', whose origins are unknown.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Vitaljich-
| first = Shaun
| author-link = Shaun Vitaljich
| publication-date =
| date = 2004-12-08
| title = Crying Wolof
| publisher = ''[[Slate Magazine]]''
| url = http://www.slate.com/id/2110811/
| accessdate = 2007-05-07
}}</ref> The word ''hip'' in the sense of "aware, in the know" is first attested in a 1902 cartoon by [[Tad Dorgan]],<ref>Jonathan Lighter, ''Random House Dictionary of Historical Slang''</ref> and first appeared in print in a 1904 novel by [[George Vere Hobart]], ''Jim Hickey, A Story of the One-Night Stands'', where a black American character uses the slang phrase "Are you hip?"

The term ''hipster'' was coined by [[Harry Gibson]] in 1944.<ref name="Harry The Hipster Gibson 1986"/> By the 1940s, the terms ''hip'', ''hep'' and ''hepcat'' were popular in [[Harlem]] [[jazz]] slang, although ''hep'' eventually came to denote an inferior status to ''hip''.<ref>Harry Gibson wrote: ''"At that time musicians used jive talk among themselves and many customers were picking up on it. One of these words was ''hep'' which described someone in the know. When lots of people started using ''hep'', musicians changed to ''hip''. I started calling people ''hipsters'' and greeted customers who dug the kind of jazz we were playing as 'all you hipsters.' Musicians at the club began calling me ''Harry the Hipster''; so I wrote a new tune called 'Handsome Harry the Hipster.'"'' -- "Everybody's Crazy But Me" (1986).</ref> In [[Greenwich Village]] in the early 1960s, [[New York City]], young [[counterculture]] advocates were named ''hips'' because they were considered "in the know" or "cool", as opposed to being ''[[Square (slang)|square]]''. In a 1961 essay, [[Kenneth Rexroth]] used both the terms ''hipster'' and ''hippies'' to refer to young people participating in black American or [[Beatnik]] nightlife.<ref>Rexroth, Kenneth. (1961). "[http://www.bopsecrets.org/rexroth/jazz2.htm What's Wrong with the Clubs]." ''Metronome''. Reprinted in ''Assays''</ref> According to [[Malcolm X]]'s 1964 autobiography, the word ''hippie'' in 1940s Harlem had been used to describe a specific type of white man who "acted more [[Negro]] than Negroes".<ref>Booth, Martin (2004), ''Cannabis: A History, St. Martin's Press'', p. 212.</ref> [[Andrew Loog Oldham]] refers to "all the Chicago hippies," seemingly in reference to black blues/R&B musicians, in his rear [[Liner notes|sleeve notes]] to the 1965 LP ''[[The Rolling Stones, Now!]]''

Although the word ''hippies'' made other isolated appearances in print during the early 1960s, the first use of the term on the West Coast appeared on September 5, 1965, in the article, "A New Haven for [[Beatniks]]", by San Francisco journalist Michael Fallon. In that article, Fallon wrote about the Blue Unicorn [[coffeehouse]], using the term ''hippie'' to refer to the new generation of beatniks who had moved from [[North Beach, San Francisco|North Beach]] into the [[Haight-Ashbury, San Francisco, California|Haight-Ashbury]] district.<ref name=pc42>{{Gilliland |url=http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc19801/m1/ |title=Show 42 - The Acid Test: Defining 'hippy' |show=42 |track=1}}</ref><ref>Use of the term "hippie" did not become widespread in the [[mass media]] until early 1967, after ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]'' [[columnist]] [[Herb Caen]] began to use the term; See "Take a Hippie to Lunch Today", S.F. Chronicle, 20 Jan 1967, p. 37. San Francisco Chronicle, 18 Jan 1967 column, p. 27</ref> ''[[New York Times]]'' editor and usage writer [[Theodore M. Bernstein]] said the paper changed the spelling from ''hippy'' to ''hippie'' to avoid the ambiguous description of clothing as ''hippy fashions''.{{citation needed|date=March 2012}}

==History==
{{main|History of the hippie movement}}

===Origins===
[[File:Hippie bug! (1043753793).jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Hippie-painted VW bug.]]
A July 1968 ''[[Time Magazine]]'' study on hippie philosophy credited the foundation of the hippie movement with historical precedent as far back as the counterculture of the [[Greece|Ancient Greeks]], espoused by philosophers like [[Diogenes of Sinope]] and the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynic]]s also as early forms of hippie culture.<ref name="Time_1968">{{Citation
| title = The Hippies
| newspaper = [[Time (magazine)|Time]]
| date = 1968-07-07
| url = http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html
| accessdate = 2007-08-24
}}</ref> It also named as notable influences the religious and spiritual teachings of [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Hillel the Elder]], [[Jesus]], [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]], [[St. Francis of Assisi]], [[Gandhi]], and [[J.R.R. Tolkien]].<ref name="Time_1968" />

The first signs of modern "proto-hippies" emerged in [[fin de siècle]] [[Europe]]. Between 1896 and 1908, a German youth movement arose as a countercultural reaction to the organized social and cultural clubs that centered around German folk music. Known as ''[[Wandervogel|Der Wandervogel]]'' ("migratory bird"), the movement opposed the formality of traditional German clubs, instead emphasizing amateur music and singing, creative dress, and communal outings involving hiking and camping.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Randall
| first = Annie Janeiro
| title = Music, Power, and Politics
| chapter = The Power to Influence Minds
| pages = 66–67
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2005
| isbn = 0-415-94364-7
}}</ref> Inspired by the works of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]], [[Goethe]], [[Hermann Hesse]], and [[Eduard Baltzer]], Wandervogel attracted thousands of young Germans who rejected the rapid trend toward urbanization and yearned for the [[Germanic Neopaganism|pagan]], back-to-nature spiritual life of their ancestors.<ref name="Kennedy_Ryan">{{Citation
| last = Kennedy
| first = Gordon
| last2 = Ryan
| first2 = Kody
| title = Hippie Roots & The Perennial Subculture
| year = 2003
| url = http://www.hippy.com/php/article-243.html
| accessdate =2007-08-31
}}. See also: {{harvnb|Kennedy|1998}}.</ref> During the first several decades of the 20th century, Germans settled around the United States, bringing the values of the Wandervogel with them. Some opened the first [[health food store]]s, and many moved to [[southern California]] where they could practice an alternative lifestyle in a warm climate. Over time, young Americans adopted the beliefs and practices of the new immigrants. One group, called the "Nature Boys", took to the California desert and raised organic food, espousing a back-to-nature lifestyle like the Wandervogel.<ref name=LAT081004>Elaine Woo, [http://articles.latimes.com/2004/aug/10/local/me-boots10 Gypsy Boots, 89; Colorful Promoter of Healthy Food and Lifestyles], ''Los Angeles Times'', August 10, 2004, Accessed December 22, 2008.</ref> Songwriter [[eden ahbez|Eden Ahbez]] wrote a hit song called ''[[Nature Boy (song)|Nature Boy]]'' inspired by Robert Bootzin ([[Gypsy Boots]]), who helped popularize health-consciousness, [[yoga]], and [[organic food]] in the United States.
[[File:Hippies 04thailand0026.jpg|thumb|right|200px|American hippies smoking cannabis in Thailand.]]
Like Wandervogel, the hippie movement in the United States began as a youth movement. Composed mostly of white teenagers and young adults between 15 and 25 years old,<ref>[[Benjamin Zablocki|Zablocki, Benjamin]]. "Hippies." ''World Book Online Reference Center''. 2006. Retrieved on 2006-10-12. "Hippies were members of a youth movement...from white middle-class families and ranged in age from 15 to 25 years old."</ref><ref name="Dudley_2000_193194">{{harvnb|Dudley|2000|pp=193–194}}.</ref> hippies inherited a tradition of cultural dissent from [[Bohemianism|bohemian]]s and [[beatniks]] of the [[Beat Generation]] in the late 1950s.<ref name="Dudley_2000_193194"/> Beats like [[Allen Ginsberg]] crossed over from the beat movement and became fixtures of the burgeoning hippie and anti-war movements. By 1965, hippies had become an established [[Group (sociology)|social group]] in the U.S., and the movement eventually expanded to other countries,<ref name="Hirsch_1993_419">{{harvnb|Hirsch|1993|p=419}}. Hirsch describes hippies as: "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. in the 1960s and affected Europe before fading in the 1970s...fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."</ref><ref name="Pendergast_2005">{{harvnb|Pendergast|Pendergast|2005}}. Pendergast writes: "The Hippies made up the...nonpolitical subgroup of a larger group known as the counterculture...the counterculture included several distinct groups...One group, called the New Left...Another broad group called...the Civil Rights Movement...did not become a recognizable social group until after 1965...according to John C. McWilliams, author of ''The 1960s Cultural Revolution''."</ref> extending as far as the United Kingdom and Europe, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Japan, [[La Onda|Mexico]], and Brazil.<ref name="Stone_1994">{{harvnb|Stone|1994|loc=[http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/havens.htm Hippy Havens]}}</ref> The hippie ethos influenced [[The Beatles]] and others in the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe, and they in turn influenced their American counterparts.<ref>August 28 - Bob Dylan turns The Beatles on to cannabis for the second time. See also: {{Citation
| last = Brown
| first = Peter
| author-link = Peter Brown (music industry)
| last2 = Gaines
| first2 = Steven
| title = The Love You Make: An Insider's Story of the Beatles
| publisher = NAL Trade
| year = 2002
| isbn = 0-451-20735-1
}};{{Citation
| last = Moller
| first = Karen
| title = Tony Blair: Child Of The Hippie Generation
| publisher = Swans
| date = 2006-09-25
| url = http://www.swans.com/library/art12/moller04.html
| accessdate = 2007-07-29
}}</ref> Hippie culture spread worldwide through a fusion of [[rock music]], [[folk music|folk]], [[blues]], and [[psychedelic rock]]; it also found expression in literature, the dramatic arts, [[1960s in fashion|fashion]], and the visual arts, including film, posters advertising rock concerts, and [[album]] covers.<ref>{{Citation
| title = Light My Fire: Rock Posters from the Summer of Love
| publisher = [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]
| year = 2006| url = http://www.mfa.org/exhibitions/sub.asp?key=15&subkey=2147
| accessdate = 2007-08-25
}}</ref> Self-described hippies had become a significant minority by 1968, representing just under 0.2% of the U.S. population<ref name="Booth_2004_214">{{harvnb|Booth|2004|p=214}}.</ref> before declining in the mid-1970s.<ref name="Hirsch_1993_419"/>

Along with the [[New Left]] and the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|American Civil Rights Movement]], the hippie movement was one of three dissenting groups of the 1960s counterculture.<ref name="Pendergast_2005" /> Hippies rejected established institutions, criticized [[middle class]] values, opposed [[nuclear weapons]] and the [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|Vietnam War]], embraced aspects of [[Eastern philosophy]],<ref name="Oldmeadow_2004_260269">{{harvnb|Oldmeadow|2004|pp=260, 264}}.</ref> championed [[sexual liberation]], were often [[vegetarian]] and [[environmentally friendly|eco-friendly]], promoted the use of [[psychedelic drug]]s which they believed expanded one's consciousness, and created [[Intentional community|intentional communities]] or communes. They used alternative arts, [[street theatre]], [[folk music]], and [[psychedelic rock]] as a part of their lifestyle and as a way of expressing their feelings, their protests and their vision of the world and life. Hippies opposed political and social orthodoxy, choosing a gentle and nondoctrinaire ideology that favored peace, love and personal freedom,<ref name="Time-Life Books_1998_137">{{harvnb|Stolley|1998|pp=137}}.</ref><ref>[[Yippie]] [[Abbie Hoffman]] envisioned a different society: "...where people share things, and we don't need money; where you have the machines for the people. A free society, that's really what it amounts to... a free society built on life; but life is not some ''Time Magazine'', hippie version of fagdom... we will attempt to build that society..." See: Swatez, Gerald. Miller, Kaye. (1970). ''[http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3077305241438405731 Conventions: The Land Around Us]'' Anagram Pictures. University of Illinois at Chicago Circle. Social Sciences Research Film Unit. qtd at ~16:48. The speaker is not explicitly identified, but it is thought to be Abbie Hoffman.</ref> expressed for example in [[The Beatles]]' song "[[All You Need is Love]]".<ref>{{Citation
| last = Wiener
| first = Jon
| author-link = Jon Wiener
| title = Come Together: John Lennon in His Time
| page = 40
| publisher = University of Illinois Press
| year = 1991
| isbn = 0-252-06131-4
}}: "Seven hundred million people heard it in a worldwide TV satellite broadcast. It became the anthem of flower power that summer...The song expressed the highest value of the counterculture...For the hippies, however, it represented a call for liberation from Protestant culture, with its repressive sexual taboos and its insistence on emotional restraint...The song presented the [[flower power]] critique of movement politics: there was nothing you could do that couldn't be done by others; thus you didn't need to do anything...John was arguing not only against bourgeois self-denial and future-mindedness but also against the activists' sense of urgency and their strong personal commitments to fighting injustice and oppression..."</ref> Hippies perceived the dominant culture as a corrupt, monolithic entity that exercised undue power over their lives, calling this culture "[[The Establishment]]", "[[Big Brother (Nineteen Eighty-Four)|Big Brother]]", or "[[The Man]]".<ref name="Yablonsky_1968_106107">{{harvnb|Yablonsky|1968|pp=106–107}}.</ref><ref>Theme appears in contemporaneous interviews throughout Yablonsky (1968).</ref><ref name="McCleary_2004_50166323">{{harvnb|McCleary|2004|pp=50, 166, 323}}.</ref> Noting that they were "seekers of meaning and value", scholars like [[Timothy Miller]] have described hippies as a [[new religious movement]].<ref name="Dudley_2000_203206">{{harvnb|Dudley|2000|pp=203–206}}. [[Timothy Miller]] notes that the counterculture was a "movement of seekers of meaning and value...the historic quest of any religion." Miller quotes [[Harvey Cox]], William C. Shepard, [[Jefferson Poland]], and [[Ralph J. Gleason]] in support of the view of the hippie movement as a new religion. See also [[Wes Nisker]]'s ''The Big Bang, The Buddha, and the Baby Boom'': "At its core, however, hippie was a spiritual phenomenon, a big, unfocused, revival meeting." Nisker cites the ''San Francisco Oracle'', which described the Human Be-In as a "spiritual revolution".</ref>

===Early hippies (1960–1966)===
[[Image:Furthur 02.jpg|thumb|250px|<blockquote>Escapin' through the lily fields I came across an empty space It trembled and exploded Left a bus stop in its place The bus came by and I got on That's when it all began There was cowboy Neal At the wheel Of a bus to never-ever land</blockquote> - [[Grateful Dead]], lyrics from "That's It for the Other One"<ref name="Dodd 1998">{{Citation
| last = Dodd
| first = David
| title = The Annotated Grateful Dead Lyrics: "That's It For The Other One"
| publisher = [[University of California, Santa Cruz]]
| date = 1998-06-22
| url = http://arts.ucsc.edu/gdead/agdl/other1.html
| accessdate = 2008-05-09}}
</ref>]]

During the early 1960s, novelist [[Ken Kesey]] and the [[Merry Pranksters]] lived communally in California. Members included Beat Generation hero [[Neal Cassady]], [[Ken Babbs]], [[Carolyn Garcia|Carolyn Adams (aka Mountain Girl/Carolyn Garcia)]], [[Stewart Brand]], [[Del Close]], [[Paul Foster (cartoonist)|Paul Foster]], [[Merry Pranksters|George Walker]], Sandy Lehmann-Haupt and others. Their early escapades were documented in [[Tom Wolfe]]'s book ''[[The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test]]''. With Cassady at the wheel of a school bus named [[Further (bus)|Further]], the Merry Pranksters traveled across the United States to celebrate the publication of Kesey's novel ''[[Sometimes a Great Notion (novel)|Sometimes a Great Notion]]'' and to visit the 1964 [[World's Fair]] in New York City. The Merry Pranksters were known for using [[cannabis (drug)|marijuana]], [[amphetamines]], and [[LSD]], and during their journey they "turned on" many people to these [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s. The Merry Pranksters filmed and audio taped their bus trips, creating an immersive multimedia experience that would later be presented to the public in the form of festivals and concerts. The [[Grateful Dead]] wrote a song about the Merry Pranksters' bus trips called "That's It for the Other One".<ref name="Dodd 1998"/>

During this period [[Greenwich Village]] in New York City and [[Berkeley, California]] anchored the American folk music circuit. Berkeley's two coffee houses, the Cabale Creamery and the Jabberwock, sponsored performances by folk music artists in a beat setting.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Arnold
| first = Corry
| last2 = Hannan
| first2 = Ross
| title = The History of The Jabberwock
| date = 2007-05-09
| url = http://www.chickenonaunicycle.com/Jabberwock%20History.htm
| accessdate = 2007-08-31
}}</ref> In April 1963, Chandler A. Laughlin III, co-founder of the Cabale Creamery,<ref>{{Citation
| last = Hannan
| first = Ross
| author-link =
| last2 = Arnold
| first2 = Corry
| title = Berkeley Art
| date = 2007-10-07
| url = http://www.chickenonaunicycle.com/Berkeley%20Art.htm
| accessdate = 2007-10-07
}}</ref> established a kind of tribal, family identity among approximately fifty people who attended a traditional, all-night [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] [[peyote]] ceremony in a rural setting. This ceremony combined a [[psychedelic experience]] with traditional Native American spiritual values; these people went on to sponsor a unique genre of musical expression and performance at the Red Dog Saloon in the isolated, old-time mining town of [[Virginia City, Nevada]].<ref name="Works" />

During the summer of 1965, Laughlin recruited much of the original talent that led to a unique amalgam of traditional folk music and the developing psychedelic rock scene.<ref name="Works">{{Citation
| author = Works, Mary (Director)
| year = 2005
| title = Rockin' At the Red Dog: The Dawn of Psychedelic Rock
| publisher = Monterey Video
}}</ref> He and his cohorts created what became known as "[[Red Dog Experience|The Red Dog Experience]]", featuring previously unknown musical acts — [[Grateful Dead]], [[Jefferson Airplane]], [[Big Brother and the Holding Company]], [[Quicksilver Messenger Service]], [[The Charlatans (U.S. band)|The Charlatans]], and others — who played in the completely refurbished, intimate setting of Virginia City's Red Dog Saloon. There was no clear delineation between "performers" and "audience" in "The Red Dog Experience", during which music, psychedelic experimentation, a unique sense of personal style and Bill Ham's first primitive light shows combined to create a new sense of community.<ref name="Ham">{{Citation
| last =
| first =
| title = Bill Ham Lights
| year = 2001
| url = http://www.billhamlights.com
| accessdate =
}}</ref> Laughlin and George Hunter of the Charlatans were true "proto-hippies", with their [[long hair]], boots and outrageous clothing of 19th-century American (and Native American) heritage.<ref name="Works"/> LSD manufacturer [[Owsley Stanley]] lived in Berkeley during 1965 and provided much of the LSD that became a seminal part of the "Red Dog Experience", the early evolution of psychedelic rock and budding hippie culture. At the Red Dog Saloon, The Charlatans were the first psychedelic rock band to play live (albeit unintentionally) loaded on LSD.<ref name="Lau">{{Citation
| last = Lau
| first = Andrew
| title = The Red Dog Saloon And The Amazing Charlatans
| publisher = Perfect Sound Forever
| date = 2005-12-01
| url = http://www.furious.com/perfect/reddogsaloon.html
| accessdate = 2007-09-01
}}</ref>

When they returned to San Francisco, Red Dog participants Luria Castell, Ellen Harman and Alton Kelley created a collective called "The Family Dog."<ref name="Works"/> Modeled on their Red Dog experiences, on October 16, 1965, the Family Dog hosted "[[Doctor Strange|A Tribute to Dr. Strange]]" at Longshoreman's Hall.<ref name="Grunenberg_2005_325">{{harvnb|Grunenberg|Harris|2005|p=325}}.</ref> Attended by approximately 1,000 of the Bay Area's original "hippies", this was San Francisco's first [[psychedelic rock]] performance, costumed dance and light show, featuring [[Jefferson Airplane]], [[The Great Society (band)|The Great Society]] and The Marbles.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2007/05/20/MNG2NPUD1C1.DTL&ao=all | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | first=Joel | last=Selvin | title=Summer of Love: 40 Years Later / 1967: The stuff that myths are made of | date=2011-06-24}}</ref> Two other events followed before year's end, one at California Hall and one at the Matrix.<ref name="Works" /> After the first three Family Dog events, a much larger psychedelic event occurred at San Francisco's Longshoreman's Hall. Called "The Trips Festival", it took place on January 21–January 23, 1966, and was organized by [[Stewart Brand]], [[Ken Kesey]], [[Owsley Stanley]] and others. Ten thousand people attended this sold-out event, with a thousand more turned away each night.<ref name="Tamony_1981_98">{{harvnb|Tamony|1981|p=98}}.</ref> On Saturday January 22, the [[Grateful Dead]] and [[Big Brother and the Holding Company]] came on stage, and 6,000 people arrived to imbibe punch spiked with LSD and to witness one of the first fully developed light shows of the era.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Dodgson
| first = Rick
| title = Prankster History Project
| publisher = pranksterweb.org
| year = 2001
| url = http://www.pranksterweb.org/trips.htm
| accessdate = 2007-10-19
}}</ref>

{{Quote_box
| width = 20%
| align = left
| quote = It is nothing new. We have a private revolution going on. A revolution of individuality and diversity that can only be private. Upon becoming a group movement, such a revolution ends up with imitators rather than participants...It is essentially a striving for ''realization'' of one's ''relationship'' to life and other people...
|source= Bob Stubbs, "Unicorn Philosophy"<ref name="Perry_2005_18">{{harvnb|Perry|2005|p=18}}.</ref>}}

By February 1966, the Family Dog became Family Dog Productions under organizer [[Chet Helms]], promoting happenings at the [[Avalon Ballroom]] and the [[The Fillmore|Fillmore Auditorium]] in initial cooperation with [[Bill Graham (promoter)|Bill Graham]]. The Avalon Ballroom, the Fillmore Auditorium and other venues provided settings where participants could partake of the full psychedelic music experience. Bill Ham, who had pioneered the original Red Dog light shows, perfected his art of [[Liquid light show|liquid light projection]], which combined light shows and film projection and became [[Wiktionary:synonymous#Pronunciation|synonymous]] with the San Francisco ballroom experience.<ref name="Works" /><ref name="Grunenberg_2005_156">{{harvnb|Grunenberg|Harris|2005|p=156}}.</ref> The sense of style and costume that began at the Red Dog Saloon flourished when San Francisco's Fox Theater went out of business and hippies bought up its costume stock, reveling in the freedom to dress up for weekly musical performances at their favorite ballrooms. As ''San Francisco Chronicle'' music columnist [[Ralph J. Gleason]] put it, "They danced all night long, orgiastic, spontaneous and completely free form."<ref name="Works" />

Some of the earliest San Francisco hippies were former students at [[San Francisco State University|San Francisco State College]]<ref>The college was later renamed San Francisco State University.</ref> who became intrigued by the developing psychedelic hippie music scene.<ref name="Works" /> These students joined the bands they loved, living communally in the large, inexpensive [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] apartments in the [[Haight-Ashbury]].<ref name="Perry_2005_57">{{harvnb|Perry|2005|pp=5–7}}. Perry writes that SFSC students rented cheap, Edwardian-Victorians in the Haight.</ref> Young Americans around the country began moving to San Francisco, and by June 1966, around 15,000 hippies had moved into the Haight.<ref name="Tompkins_2001b" /> [[The Charlatans (U.S. band)|The Charlatans]], [[Jefferson Airplane]], [[Big Brother and the Holding Company]], and the [[Grateful Dead]] all moved to San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood during this period. Activity centered around the [[Diggers (theater)|Diggers]], a guerrilla street [[theatre]] group that combined spontaneous street theatre, anarchistic action, and [[Happening|art happenings]] in their agenda to create a "free city". By late 1966, [[Diggers (theater)|the Diggers]] opened [[free stores]] which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art.<ref name="Lytle_2006_213215">{{harvnb|Lytle|2006|pp=213, 215}}.</ref>

On October 6, 1966, the state of California declared LSD a controlled substance, which made the drug illegal.<ref name="Columbia">{{Citation
| last = Farber
| first = David
| last2 = Bailey
| first2 = Beth L.
| title = The Columbia Guide to America in the 1960s
| page = 145
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| year = 2001
| isbn = 0-231-11373-0
}}</ref> In response to the criminalization of psychedelics, San Francisco hippies staged a gathering in the [[Panhandle (San Francisco)|Golden Gate Park panhandle]], called the [[Love Pageant Rally]],<ref name="Columbia" /> attracting an estimated 700–800 people.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Charters
| first = Ann
| author-link = Ann Charters
| title = The Portable Sixties Reader
| page = 298
| publisher = Penguin Classics
| year = 2003
| isbn = 0-14-200194-5
}}</ref> As explained by Allan Cohen, co-founder of the ''[[San Francisco Oracle]]'', the purpose of the rally was twofold: to draw attention to the fact that LSD had just been made illegal — and to demonstrate that people who used LSD were not criminals, nor were they mentally ill. The Grateful Dead played, and some sources claim that LSD was consumed at the rally. According to Cohen, those who took LSD "were not guilty of using illegal substances...We were celebrating transcendental consciousness, the beauty of the universe, the beauty of being."<ref name="Lee_Shlain_1992_149">{{harvnb|Lee|Shlain|1992|p=149}}.</ref>

===Summer of Love (1967)===
{{Main|Summer of Love}}
[[Image:Be-In poster.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Poster for the [[Human Be-In]] by Michael Bowen]]
On January 14, 1967, the outdoor [[Human Be-In]] organized by [[Michael Bowen (artist)|Michael Bowen]]<ref>"Chronology of San Francisco Rock 1965-1969</ref> helped to popularize hippie culture across the United States, with 20,000 hippies gathering in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park. On March 26, [[Lou Reed]], [[Edie Sedgwick]] and 10,000 hippies came together in [[Manhattan]] for the [[Central Park Be-In]] on [[Easter Sunday]].<ref>DeCurtis, Anthony. (July 12, 2007). "New York". ''Rolling Stone''. Issue 1030/1031; For additional sources, see McNeill, Don, "[http://www.villagevoice.com/specials/0543,50thmcneill,69181,31.html Central Park Rite is Medieval Pageant]", The Village Voice, 30 March. 1967: pg 1, 20; Weintraub, Bernard, "Easter: A Day of Worship, a "Be-In" or just Parading in the Sun", The New York Times, 27 March. 1967: pg 1, 24.</ref> The [[Monterey Pop Festival]] from June 16 to June 18 introduced the rock music of the counterculture to a wide audience and marked the start of the "Summer of Love".<ref name="Dudley_2000_254">{{harvnb|Dudley|2000|pp=254}}.</ref> [[Scott McKenzie]]'s rendition of [[John Phillips (musician)|John Phillips]]' song, "[[San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)|San Francisco]]", became a hit in the United States and Europe. The lyrics, "If you're going to San Francisco, be sure to wear some flowers in your hair", inspired thousands of young people from all over the world to travel to San Francisco, sometimes wearing flowers in their hair and distributing flowers to passersby, earning them the name, "[[flower child|Flower Children]]". Bands like the [[Grateful Dead]], [[Big Brother and the Holding Company]] (with [[Janis Joplin]]), and [[Jefferson Airplane]] lived in the Haight.

In June 1967, [[Herb Caen]] was approached by "a distinguished magazine"<ref name=Caen/> to write about why hippies were attracted to San Francisco. He declined the assignment but interviewed hippies in the Haight for his own newspaper column in the ''[[San Francisco Chronicle]]''. Caen determined that, "Except in their music, they couldn't care less about the approval of the straight world."<ref name=Caen/> Caen himself felt that the city of San Francisco was so straight that it provided a visible contrast with hippie culture.<ref name=Caen>SFGate.com. Archive. Herb Caen, June 25, 1967. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2009/05/31/PK6016S108.DTL ''Small thoughts at large'']. Retrieved on June 4, 2009.</ref> On July 7, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine featured a cover story entitled, "The Hippies: The Philosophy of a Subculture." The article described the guidelines of the hippie code: "Do your own thing, wherever you have to do it and whenever you want. Drop out. Leave society as you have known it. Leave it utterly. Blow the mind of every straight person you can reach. Turn them on, if not to drugs, then to beauty, love, honesty, fun."<ref name="Marty_1997_125">{{harvnb|Marty|1997|pp=125}}.</ref> It is estimated that around 100,000 people traveled to San Francisco in the summer of 1967. The media was right behind them, casting a spotlight on the Haight-Ashbury district and popularizing the "hippie" label. With this increased attention, hippies found support for their ideals of love and peace but were also criticized for their anti-work, pro-drug, and permissive ethos.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}
{{Quote_box
| width = 30%
| align = right | quote = "According to the hippies, LSD was the glue that held the Haight together. It was the hippie sacrament, a mind detergent capable of washing away years of social programming, a re-imprinting device, a consciousness-expander, a tool that would push us up the evolutionary ladder."
|source= [[Jay Stevens]]<ref name="Stevens_1998_xiv">{{harvnb|Stevens|1998|p=xiv}}.</ref>}}

At this point, [[The Beatles]] had released their groundbreaking album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' which was quickly embraced by the hippie movement with its colorful psychedelic sonic imagery.<ref>''Sgt. Pepper and the Beatles: It Was Forty Years Ago Today'', Julien, Olivier. Ashgate, 2009. ISBN 978-0754667087.</ref>

By the end of the summer, the Haight-Ashbury scene had deteriorated. The incessant media coverage led [[Diggers (theater)|the Diggers]] to declare the "death" of the hippie with a parade.<ref>{{Citation|first=Barry |last=Miles|year=2003 |title=Hippie|publisher=Sterling Press|isbn=1-4027-1442-4|pages=210–211}}</ref><ref>{{Citation
| title = October Sixth Nineteen Hundred and Sixty Seven
| publisher = San Francisco Diggers
| date = 1967-10-06
| url = http://www.diggers.org/free_city_news_sheets.htm
| accessdate =2007-08-31
}}</ref><ref name="Bodroghkozy">{{Citation|last=Bodroghkozy|first=Aniko |title=Groove Tube: Sixties Television and the Youth Rebellion|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2001|page=92|isbn=0-8223-2645-0}}</ref> According to poet Susan 'Stormi' Chambless, the hippies buried an effigy of a hippie in the [[Panhandle (San Francisco)|Panhandle]] to demonstrate the end of his/her reign. Haight-Ashbury could not accommodate the influx of crowds (mostly naive youngsters) with no place to live. Many took to living on the street, panhandling and drug-dealing. There were problems with malnourishment, disease, and drug addiction. Crime and violence skyrocketed. None of these trends reflected what the hippies had envisioned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hippiedictionary.com/excerpts.html |title=The Hippie Dictionary, about the 60s and 70s |publisher=Hippiedictionary.com |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref> By the end of 1967, many of the hippies and musicians who initiated the Summer of Love had moved on. [[Beatle]] [[George Harrison]] had once visited Haight-Ashbury and found it to be just a haven for dropouts, inspiring him to give up LSD.{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}} Misgivings about the hippie culture, particularly with regard to [[drug abuse]] and lenient morality, fueled the [[moral panic]]s of the late 1960s.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Muncie
| first = John
| author-link =
| title = Youth & Crime
| place =
| publisher = [[SAGE Publications]]
| page = 176
| year = 2004
| volume =
| edition =
| url = http://www.sagepub.co.uk/booksProdDesc.nav?prodId=Book225374
| isbn = 0-7619-4464-8
}}</ref>

===Revolution (1967–1969)===
By 1968, hippie-influenced fashions were beginning to take off in the mainstream, especially for youths and younger adults of the populous "[[Baby Boomer]]" generation, many of whom may have aspired to emulate the hardcore movements now living in tribalistic communes, but had no overt connections to them. This was noticed not only in terms of clothes and also longer hair for men, but also in music, film, art, and literature, and not just in the US, but around the world. [[Eugene McCarthy]]'s brief presidential campaign successfully persuaded a significant minority of young adults to "get clean for Gene" by shaving their beards or wearing longer skirts; however the "Clean Genes" had little impact on the popular image in the media spotlight, of the hirsute hippy adorned in beads, feathers, flowers and bells.

[[File:Psych out.jpg|250px|right|thumb|Poster for the [[hippie exploitation films|hippie exploitation film]] ''[[Psych-Out]]'']] A sign of this was the visibility that the hippie subculture gained in various mainstream and underground media. [[Hippie exploitation films]] are 1960s [[exploitation films]] about the hippie counterculture<ref>{{cite web|author=admin |url=http://thesocietyofthespectacle.com/2009/04/mondo-mod-worlds-of-hippie-revolt-and-other-weirdness/ |title=Mondo Mod Worlds Of Hippie Revolt (And Other Weirdness) |publisher=Thesocietyofthespectacle.com |date=2009-04-05 |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref> with stereotypical situations associated with the movement such as [[marijuana]] and [[LSD]] use, sex and wild psychedelic parties. Examples include ''[[The Love-ins]]'', ''[[Psych-Out]]'', ''[[The Trip (1967 film)|The Trip]]'', and ''[[Wild in the Streets]]''. Other more serious and more critically acclaimed films about the hippie counterculture also appeared such as ''[[Easy Rider]]'' and ''[[Alice's Restaurant]]'' (for more information on hippie related films see [[List of films related to the hippie subculture]]). Documentaries and television programs have also been produced until today as well as [[List of books and publications related to the hippie subculture|fiction and nonfiction books]]. Also the popular broadway musical ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'' was presented in 1967.

The [[Yippies]], who were seen as an offshoot of the hippie movements parodying as a political party, came to national attention during their celebration of the 1968 spring equinox, when some 3,000 of them took over [[Grand Central Terminal]] in New York — eventually resulting in 61 arrests. The Yippies, especially their leaders [[Abbie Hoffman]] and [[Jerry Rubin]], became notorious for their theatrics, such as trying to levitate the Pentagon at the October 1967 war protest, and such slogans as "Rise up and abandon the creeping meatball!" Their stated intention to protest the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] in Chicago in August, including nominating their own candidate, "[[Pigasus (politics)|Lyndon Pigasus Pig]]" (an actual pig), was also widely publicized in the media at this time.<ref>{{cite web|author=iPad iPhone Android TIME TV Populist The Page |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,900067,00.html |title="The Politics of Yip", ''TIME Magazine'', Apr. 5, 1968 |publisher=Time.com |date=1968-04-05 |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref> In Cambridge, hippies congregated each Sunday for a large "be-in" at Cambridge Park with swarms of drummers and those beginning the Women's Movement. In the US the Hippie movement started to be seen as part of the "[[New Left]]" which was associated with anti-war college campus protest movements.<ref name="Carmines and Layman"/> The New Left was a term used mainly in the [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]] in reference to [[social activism|activists]], [[educator]]s, [[agitators]] and others in the 1960s and 1970s who sought to implement a broad range of reforms on issues such as gay rights, abortion, gender roles and drugs<ref name="Carmines and Layman">Carmines, Edward G., and Geoffrey C. Layman. 1997. "Issue Evolution in Postwar American Politics." In Byron Shafer, ed., '''Present Discontents'''. NJ:Chatham House Publishers.</ref> in contrast to earlier leftist or Marxist movements that had taken a more [[vanguardist]] approach to social justice and focused mostly on [[labor movement|labor unionization]] and questions of [[social class]].<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=3nJUwFqRLTwC&lpg=PA277&ots=R6I8p1E-Mu&dq=new%20left%20cynthia%20kaufman&pg=PA275#v=onepage&q=new%20left&f=false] Cynthia Kaufman ''Ideas For Action: Relevant Theory For Radical Change''</ref><ref> [[Todd Gitlin]], "The Left's Lost Universalism". In Arthur M. Melzer, Jerry Weinberger and M. Richard Zinman, eds., ''Politics at the Turn of the Century'', pp. 3–26 (Lanham, MD: [[Rowman & Littlefield]], 2001).{{Cite journal|author=Grant Farred|authorlink=Grant Farred|year=2000|title=Endgame Identity? Mapping the New Left Roots of Identity Politics|journal=[[New Literary History]]|volume=31|issue=4|pages=627–648|jstor=20057628|doi=10.1353/nlh.2000.0045}}</ref>

In April 1969, the building of [[People's Park (Berkeley)|People's Park]] in Berkeley, California received international attention. The [[University of California, Berkeley]] had demolished all the buildings on a {{convert|2.8|acre|m2|sing=on}} parcel near campus, intending to use the land to build playing fields and a parking lot. After a long delay, during which the site became a dangerous eyesore, thousands of ordinary Berkeley citizens, merchants, students, and hippies took matters into their own hands, planting trees, shrubs, flowers and grass to convert the land into a park. A major confrontation ensued on May 15, 1969, when Governor [[Ronald Reagan]] ordered the park destroyed, which led to a two-week occupation of the city of Berkeley by the [[California National Guard]].<ref name="Wollenberg">{{Citation|last=Wollenberg|first=Charles |title=Berkeley, A City in History|publisher=University of California Press|year=2008|isbn=0-520-25307-8|url=http://www.berkeleypubliclibrary.org/system/Chapter9.html}}</ref><ref name=hayward_2001>{{Citation|last=Hayward|first=Steven F.|title=The Age of Reagan, 1964-1980: The Fall of the Old Liberal Order|year=2001|publisher=Prima Publishing|location=Roseville, California|isbn=978-0-7615-1337-7|oclc=47667257|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0BafgsBIlrwC&pg=PA325|accessdate=31 January 2011|page=325}}</ref> [[Flower power]] came into its own during this occupation as hippies engaged in acts of [[civil disobedience]] to plant flowers in empty lots all over Berkeley under the slogan "Let a Thousand Parks Bloom".

In August 1969, the [[Woodstock Festival|Woodstock Music and Art Fair]] took place in [[Bethel, New York]], which for many, exemplified the best of hippie counterculture. Over 500,000 people arrived<ref name="Dean">{{Citation|last=Dean|first=Maury|authorlink=Maury Dean |title=Rock 'N' Roll Gold Rush|publisher=Algora Publishing|year=2003|page=243|isbn=0-87586-207-1}}</ref> to hear some of the most notable musicians and bands of the era, among them [[Canned Heat]], [[Richie Havens]], [[Joan Baez]], [[Janis Joplin]], [[The Grateful Dead]], [[Creedence Clearwater Revival]], [[Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young]], [[Carlos Santana]], [[The Who]], [[Jefferson Airplane]], and [[Jimi Hendrix]]. [[Wavy Gravy|Wavy Gravy's]] [[Hog Farm]] provided security and attended to practical needs, and the hippie ideals of love and human fellowship seemed to have gained real-world expression. Similar rock festivals occurred in other parts of the country, which played a significant role in spreading hippie ideals throughout America.<ref>Mankin, Bill. [http://likethedew.com/2012/03/04/we-can-all-join-in-how-rock-festivals-helped-change-america/ We Can All Join In: How Rock Festivals Helped Change America]. Like the Dew. 2012.</ref>

In December 1969, a rock festival took place in [[Altamont, California]], about 30 miles (45 km) east of San Francisco. Initially billed as "Woodstock West", its official name was [[Altamont Music Festival|The Altamont Free Concert]]. About 300,000 people gathered to hear [[The Rolling Stones]]; [[Crosby, Stills, Nash, & Young|Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young]]; [[Jefferson Airplane]] and other bands. The [[Hells Angels]] provided security that proved far less benevolent than the security provided at the Woodstock event: 18-year-old [[Meredith Hunter]] was stabbed and killed during The Rolling Stones' performance after he brandished a gun and waved it toward the stage.<ref name="Lee">{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2005/05/26/ALTAMONT.TMP|title=Altamont 'cold case' is being closed|last=Lee|first=Henry K.|date=2005-05-26|publisher=San Francisco Chronicle |accessdate=2008-09-11}}</ref>

===Aftershocks (1970–present)===
[[File:RussianRainbowGathering 4Aug2005.jpg|thumb|upright|Contemporary hippie at the [[Rainbow Gathering]] in Russia, 2005.]]
By the 1970s, the 1960s [[zeitgeist]] that had spawned hippie culture seemed to be on the wane.<ref name="Bugliosi_1994">{{harvnb|Bugliosi|Gentry|1994|pp=638–640}}.</ref><ref>Bugliosi (1994) describes the popular view that the Manson case "sounded the death knell for hippies and all they symbolically represented", citing [[Joan Didion]], [[Diane Sawyer]], and ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. Bugliosi admits that although the Manson murders "may have hastened" the end of the hippie era, the era was already in decline.</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/13/opinion/sunday/the-entrepreneurial-generation.html?_r=2&pagewanted=all&smid=fb-share | work=New York Times | title=Generation Sell | date=2011-11-12 | accessdate=2011-12-03 | first1=William | last1=Deresiewics}}</ref> The events at [[Altamont Free Concert]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=208_1226021428 |title=Murder At Altamont |publisher=LiveLeak.com |date=1969-11-28 |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref> shocked many Americans,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.findingdulcinea.com/news/on-this-day/On-This-Day--Deaths-at-Rolling-Stones--Altamont-Concert-Shocks-the-Nation.html |title=On This Day: Four Die at Rolling Stonesâ€™ Altamont Concert |publisher=Findingdulcinea.com |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref> including those who had strongly identified with hippie culture. Another shock came in the form of the [[Sharon Tate]] and [[Leno and Rosemary LaBianca]] murders committed in August 1969 by [[Charles Manson]] and his "family" of followers. Nevertheless, the turbulent political atmosphere that featured the bombing of [[Cambodia]] and shootings by [[National Guard of the United States|National Guardsmen]] at [[Jackson State University]] and [[Kent State University]] still brought people together. These shootings inspired the May 1970 song by [[Quicksilver Messenger Service]] "What About Me?", where they sang, "You keep adding to my numbers as you shoot my people down", as well as [[Neil Young]]'s "[[Ohio (CSNY song)|Ohio]]", recorded by [[Crosby, Stills & Nash (and Young)|Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young]].

Much of hippie style had been integrated into [[mainstream]] American society by the early 1970s.<ref name="Tompkins_2001a">{{harvnb|Tompkins|2001a}}.</ref><ref name="Morford">{{Citation
| last = Morford
| first = Mark
| author-link = Mark Morford
| author2-link =
| title = The Hippies Were right!
| publisher = [[SF Gate]]
| date = 2007-05-02
| url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/g/a/2007/05/02/notes050207.DTL
| accessdate = 2007-05-25
}}</ref> Large rock concerts that originated with the 1967 KFRC [[Fantasy Fair and Magic Mountain Music Festival]] and [[Monterey Pop Festival]] and the 1968 [[Isle of Wight Festival]] became the norm, evolving into [[Arena rock|stadium rock]] in the process. The anti-war movement reached its peak at the [[1971 May Day Protests]] as over 12,000 protesters were arrested in Washington DC. President Nixon himself actually ventured out of the White House and chatted with a group of the 'hippie' protesters. The draft was ended soon thereafter, in 1973. During the mid 1970s, with the [[Fall of Saigon|end]] of the draft and the [[Vietnam War]], a renewal of [[patriotism|patriotic]] sentiment associated with the approach of the [[United States Bicentennial]] and the emergence of [[punk movement|punk]] in London, Manchester, New York and Los Angeles, the mainstream media lost interest in the hippie counterculture. At the same time there was [[Mod revival|a revival of the Mod subculture]], skinheads, [[Teddy Boy|teddy boys]] and the emergence of new youth cultures, like the [[goth subculture|goths]] (an arty offshoot of punk) and [[football casuals]]. Acid rock gave way to [[prog rock]], [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[disco]], and [[punk rock]].

Starting in the late 1960s, hippies began to come under attack by [[skinhead]]s.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://books.google.com/?id=iS4hsxKiMNgC&pg=PA188&lpg=PA188&dq=Hippie+bashing+by+skinheads#PPA189,M1 | title = Encyclopedia of contemporary British culture | isbn = 978-0-415-14726-2 | author1 = Childs | first1 = Peter | last2 = Storry | first2 = Mike | year = 1999 | postscript = .}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eelpie.org/epd_19.htm |title=Eel Pie Dharma - Skinheads - Chapter 19 |publisher=Eelpie.org |date=2005-12-13 |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,909318-1,00.html | work=Time | title=Britain: The Skinheads | date=1970-06-08 | accessdate=2010-05-04}}</ref> Hippies were also vilified and sometimes attacked by [[Punk subculture|punks]], [[Mod revival|revivalist mods]], [[Greaser (subculture)|greasers]], football [[casual (subculture)|casual]]s, [[Teddy boy]]s, [[rednecks]] and members of other youth subcultures of the 1970s and 1980s. The countercultural movement was also under covert assault by [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s infamous "Counter Intelligence Program" ([[COINTELPRO]]), but in some countries it was other youth groups that were a threat. Hippie ideals had a marked influence on [[anarcho-punk]] and some [[post-punk]] youth subcultures, especially during the [[Second Summer of Love]].

[[File:Cornflake & Vivian.jpg|thumb|left|Couple attending Snoqualmie Moondance Festival, Aug. 1993]]
Hippie communes, where members tried to live the ideals of the hippie movement continued to flourish. On the west coast, Oregon had quite a few.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cavejunction.com/cavejunction/locsites2.shtml |title=In Cave Junction alone there were a number of communes listed |publisher=Cavejunction.com |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref> Some faded away. Some are still around.

While many hippies made a long-term commitment to the lifestyle, some people argue that hippies "sold out" during the 1980s and became part of the materialist, consumer culture.<ref name="Lattin_2004">{{harvnb|Lattin|2004|pp=74}}.</ref><ref name="Heath_Potter_2004">{{harvnb|Heath|Potter|2004}}.</ref> Although not as visible as it once was, hippie culture has never died out completely: hippies and neo-hippies can still be found on college campuses, on communes, and at gatherings and festivals. Many embrace the hippie values of peace, love, and community, and hippies may still be found in [[Bohemianism|bohemian]] enclaves around the world.<ref name="Stone_1994" />

Towards the end of the 20th century, a trend of "cyber hippies" emerged, that embraced some of the qualities of the 1960s psychedelic counterculture. The hippie subculture is also linked to the psychedelic trance or [[psytrance]] scene, born out of the Goa scene in India.<ref>[http://www.techgnosis.com/chunkshow-single.php?chunk=chunkfrom-2006-01-21-1538-0.txt Techgnosis] Hedonic Tantra - Erik Davis</ref><ref>''Rave Culture and Religion (Routledge Advances in Sociology)'', edited Graham St. John. Hedonic Tantra - Golden Goa's Trance Transmission, Erik Davis (p256-272). Routledge, 2009. ISBN 9780415552509</ref>

==Ethos and characteristics==
[[File:Tie-dye hippie.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A hippie wearing tie-dyed clothes.]]
Hippies sought to free themselves from societal restrictions, choose their own way, and find new [[meaning of life|meaning in life]]. One expression of hippie independence from societal norms was found in their standard of dress and grooming, which made hippies instantly recognizable to one another, and served as a visual symbol of their respect for individual rights. Through their appearance, hippies declared their willingness to question authority, and distanced themselves from the "straight" and "[[square (slang)|square]]" (i.e., conformist) segments of society.<ref name="Yablonsky_1968_243357">{{harvnb|Yablonsky|1968|pp=103 et al.}}.</ref> [[Personality traits]] and values that hippies tend to be associated with are "[[altruism]] and [[mysticism]], [[honesty]], [[Happiness|joy]] and [[nonviolence]]".<ref>{{cite web|author=iPad iPhone Android TIME TV Populist The Page |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,899555-1,00.html |title="The Hippies" in Time magazine |publisher=Time.com |date=1967-07-07 |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref>

At the same time, many thoughtful hippies distanced themselves from the very idea that the way a person dresses could be a reliable signal of who he was — especially after outright criminals such as [[Charles Manson]] began to adopt superficial hippie characteristics, and also after plainclothes policemen started to "dress like hippies" to [[divide and rule|divide and conquer]] legitimate members of the counterculture. [[Frank Zappa]], known for lampooning hippie ethos, particularly with songs like "[[Who Needs the Peace Corps?]]" (1968), admonished his audience that "we all wear a uniform". The San Francisco clown/hippie [[Wavy Gravy]] said in 1987 that he could still see fellow-feeling in the eyes of [[Market Street (San Francisco)|Market Street]] businessmen who had dressed conventionally to survive.

=== Art and fashion ===
{{See also|Psychedelia}}
[[Image:Be Your Own Goddess art bus (1967 VW Kombi) IMG 0136.JPG|thumb|left|230px|A 1967 [[Volkswagen Type 2|VW Kombi]] bus decorated with hand-painting ]]
Leading proponents of the 1960s Psychedelic Art movement were San Francisco poster artists such as: [[Rick Griffin]], [[Victor Moscoso]], [[Bonnie MacLean]], [[Stanley Mouse]] & [[Alton Kelley]], and [[Wes Wilson]]. Their Psychedelic Rock concert posters were inspired by [[Art Nouveau]], Victoriana, [[Dada]], and [[Pop Art]]. The "Fillmore Posters" were among the most notable of the time. Richly saturated colors in glaring contrast, elaborately ornate lettering, strongly symmetrical composition, collage elements, rubber-like distortions, and bizarre iconography are all hallmarks of the San Francisco psychedelic poster art style. The style flourished from roughly the years 1966 to 1972. Their work was immediately influential to album cover art, and indeed all of the aforementioned artists also created album covers. Psychedelic light-shows were a new art-form developed for rock concerts. Using oil and dye in an emulsion that was set between large convex lenses upon overhead projectors, the lightshow artists created bubbling liquid visuals that pulsed in rhythm to the music. This was mixed with slideshows and film loops to create an improvisational motion picture art form, and to give visual representation to the improvisational jams of the rock bands and create a completely "trippy" atmosphere for the audience. The [[Brotherhood of Light]] were responsible for many of the light-shows in San Francisco psychedelic rock concerts.
[[Image:Freak Brother No 1.jpg|thumb|right|200px|No. 1 of the cult underground comic strip ''[[The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers]]'' which dealt with the adventures and lifestyles of three fictional hippies]]
Out of the psychedelic counterculture there also arose a new genre of comic books: [[underground comix]]. "Zap Comix" was among the original underground comics, and featured the work of [[Robert Crumb]], [[S. Clay Wilson]], [[Victor Moscoso]], [[Rick Griffin]], and [[Robert Williams (artist)|Robert Williams]] among others. Underground Comix were ribald, intensely satirical, and seemed to pursue weirdness for the sake of weirdness. [[Gilbert Shelton]] created perhaps the most enduring of underground cartoon characters, "The [[Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers]]", whose drugged-out exploits held a hilarious mirror up to the hippy lifestyle of the 1960s.

As in the beat movement preceding them, and the [[punk movement]] that followed soon after, hippie symbols and iconography were purposely borrowed from either "low" or "primitive" cultures, with hippie fashion reflecting a disorderly, often [[Vagrancy (people)|vagrant]] style.<ref name="Katz_1988_120">{{harvnb|Katz|1988|pp=120}}.</ref> As with other adolescent, white middle-class movements, [[deviance (sociology)|deviant behavior]] of the hippies involved challenging the prevailing [[gender differences]] of their time: both men and women in the hippie movement wore jeans and maintained long hair,<ref name="Katz_1988_125">{{harvnb|Katz|1988|pp=125}}.</ref> and both genders wore sandals or went [[barefoot]].<ref name="Tompkins_2001b" /> Men often wore beards,<ref name="Pendergast" /> while women wore little or no makeup, with many going [[History of brassieres#Feminist protests, Miss America, and "bra burning"|braless]].<ref name="Tompkins_2001b">{{harvnb|Tompkins|2001b}}</ref> Hippies often chose brightly colored clothing and wore unusual [[Styles of clothing|styles]], such as [[Bell-bottoms|bell-bottom]] pants, vests, [[tie-dye]]d garments, [[dashiki]]s, [[peasant blouses]], and long, full skirts; non-Western inspired clothing with [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]], [[Asia]]n, [[Indian subcontinent|Indian]], [[Africa]]n and [[Latin America]]n motifs were also popular. Much hippie clothing was self-made in defiance of corporate culture, and hippies often purchased their clothes from flea markets and second-hand shops.<ref name="Pendergast" /> Favored accessories for both men and women included Native American jewelry, head scarves, headbands and [[Love beads|long beaded necklaces]].<ref name="Tompkins_2001b" /> Hippie homes, vehicles and other possessions were often decorated with [[psychedelic art]]. The bold colors, hand-made clothing and loose fitting clothes, opposed the tight and uniform clothing of the 1940s and 1950s. It also rejected consumerism in that the hand-production of clothing called for self-efficiency and individuality.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pendergast|first=Sara|title=Fashion, Costume, and Culture: Clothing, Headwear, Body Decorations, and Footwear Through the Ages|year=2004|publisher=UXL|location=Detroit|page=640}}</ref>

=== Love and sex ===
{{See also|Free love}}
[[Image:Oz Mag Number 28.png|thumb|left|200px|''[[Oz (magazine)|Oz]]'' number 28, also known as the "[[Schoolkids OZ|Schoolkids issue of OZ]]", which was the main cause of a 1971 high-profile obscenity case in the United Kingdom. ''Oz'' was a UK underground publication with a general hippie / counter-cultural point of view.]] The common stereotype on the issues of love and sex had it that the hippies were "[[promiscuous]], having wild sex [[orgies]], seducing innocent teenagers and every manner of sexual perversion."<ref name="StonesexII">{{harvnb|Stone|1994|loc=[http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/sex.htm "Sex, Love and Hippies"]}}</ref> The hippie movement appeared concurrently in the midst of a rising [[Sexual Revolution]], in which many views of the ''status quo'' on this subject were being challenged.

The clinical study ''[[Human Sexual Response (book)|Human Sexual Response]]'' was published by [[Masters and Johnson]] in 1966, and the topic suddenly became more commonplace in America. The 1969 book ''[[Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (But Were Afraid to Ask)]]'' by Dr. [[David Reuben (sex author)|David Reuben]] was a more popular attempt at answering the public's curiosity regarding such matters. Then in 1972 appeared ''[[The Joy of Sex]]'' by [[Alex Comfort]], reflecting an even more candid perception of love-making. By this time, the recreational or 'fun' aspects of sexual behavior were being discussed more openly than ever before, and this more 'enlightened' outlook resulted not just from the publication of such new books as these, but from a more pervasive Sexual Revolution that had already been well underway for some time.<ref name="StonesexII"/>

The hippies inherited various countercultural views and practices regarding sex and love from the [[Beat Generation]]; "their writings influenced the hippies to open up when it came to sex, and to experiment without guilt or [[jealousy]]."<ref name="StonesexIII">"Again the Beat generation must be credited with living and writing about sexual freedom. Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, William Burroughs and others lived unusually free, sexually expressive lives."{{harvnb|Stone|1994|loc=[http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/sex.htm "Sex, Love and Hippies"]}}</ref> One popular hippie slogan that appeared was "If it feels good, do it!"<ref name="StonesexII">{{harvnb|Stone|1994|loc=[http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/sex.htm "Sex, Love and Hippies"]}}</ref> which for many "meant you were free to love whomever you pleased, whenever you pleased, however you pleased. This encouraged spontaneous sexual activity and experimentation. [[Group sex]], [[public sex]]...[[homosexuality]], all the taboos went out the window. This doesn't mean that straight sex...or [[monogamy]] were unknown, quite the contrary. Nevertheless, the [[open relationship]] became an accepted part of the hippy lifestyle. This meant that you might have a primary relationship with one person, but if another attracted you, you could explore that relationship without rancor or jealousy."<ref name="StonesexII"/>

Hippies embraced the old slogan of [[free love]] of the radical social reformers of other eras; it was accordingly observed that "Free love made the whole love, marriage, sex, baby package obsolete. Love was no longer limited to one person, you could love anyone you chose. In fact love was something you shared with everyone, not just your sex partners. Love exists to be shared freely. We also discovered the more you share, the more you get! So why reserve your love for a select few? This profound truth was one of the great hippie revelations."<ref name="StonesexII"/> Sexual experimentation alongside psychedelics also occurred, due to the perception of their being uninhibitors.<ref name="StonesexIV">"But the biggest release of inhibitions came about through the use of drugs, particularly marijuana and the psychedelics. Marijuana is one of the best aphrodisiacs known to man. It enhances the senses, unlike alcohol, which dulls them. As any hippie can tell you, sex is a great high, but sex on pot is fuckin' far out![...] More importantly, the use of psychedelic drugs, especially LSD was directly responsible for liberating hippies from their sexual hang-ups. The LSD trip is an intimate soul wrenching experience that shatters the ego's defenses, leaving the tripper in a very poignant and sensitive state. At this point, a sexual encounter is quite possible if conditions are right. After an LSD trip, one is much more likely to explore one's own sexual nature without inhibitions." {{harvnb|Stone|1994|loc=[http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/sex.htm "Sex, Love and Hippies"]}}</ref> Others explored [[Religion and sexuality|the spiritual aspects of sex]].<ref name="StonesexV">"Many hippies on the spiritual path found enlightenment through sex. The ''[[Kama Sutra]]'', the [[Tantric sex]]ual manual from ancient India is a way to cosmic union through sex. Some gurus like Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh ([[Osho]]) formed cults that focused on liberation through the release of sexual inhibitions"{{harvnb|Stone|1994|loc=[http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/sex.htm "Sex, Love and Hippies"]}}</ref>

===Travel===
[[Image:Gypsy Van Front.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Hand-crafted Hippie Truck, 1968]]
Hippies tended to travel light, and could pick up and go wherever the action was at any time. Whether at a "love-in" on [[Mount Tamalpais]] near San Francisco, a demonstration against the Vietnam War in Berkeley, or one of [[Ken Kesey]]'s "Acid Tests", if the "vibe" wasn't right and a change of scene was desired, hippies were mobile at a moment's notice. Planning was eschewed, as hippies were happy to put a few clothes in a backpack, stick out their thumbs and hitchhike anywhere. Hippies seldom worried whether they had money, hotel reservations or any of the other standard accoutrements of travel. Hippie households welcomed overnight guests on an ''impromptu'' basis, and the reciprocal nature of the lifestyle permitted greater freedom of movement. People generally cooperated to meet each other's needs in ways that became less common after the early 1970s.<ref name="Yablonsky_1968_106107">{{harvnb|Yablonsky|1968|p=201}}</ref> This way of life is still seen among [[Rainbow Family]] groups, [[new age travellers]] and New Zealand's [[housetrucker]]s.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Sharkey
| first = Mr.
| last2 = Fay
| first2 = Chris
| title = Gypsy Faire
| publisher = www.mrsharkey.com
| url = http://www.mrsharkey.com/busbarn/misctruk/gypsytrk.htm
| accessdate = 2007-10-19
}}</ref>

[[Image:Gypsy Van Interior.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Hippie Truck interior]]
A derivative of this free-flow style of travel were the hippie trucks and buses, hand-crafted mobile houses built on a truck or bus chassis to facilitate a nomadic lifestyle, as documented in the 1974 book ''Roll Your Own''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mrsharkey.com/busbarn/rollown/rollown.htm |title=Book Review - Roll Your Own |publisher=MrSharkey.Com |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref> Some of these mobile gypsy houses were quite elaborate, with beds, toilets, showers and cooking facilities.

On the West Coast, a unique lifestyle developed around the [[Renaissance Faire]]s that Phyllis and Ron Patterson first organized in 1963. During the summer and fall months, entire families traveled together in their trucks and buses, parked at Renaissance Pleasure Faire sites in Southern and Northern California, worked their crafts during the week, and donned Elizabethan costume for weekend performances, and to attend booths where handmade goods were sold to the public. The sheer number of young people living at the time made for unprecedented travel opportunities to special happenings. The peak experience of this type was the [[Woodstock Festival]] near [[Bethel, New York]], from August 15 to 18, 1969, which drew between 400,000 to 500,000 people.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/18/newsid_2760000/2760911.stm BBC - On This Day] - 1969: Woodstock music festival ends. "An estimated 400,000 youngsters turned up..." Retrieved 21 December 2013.</ref><ref>"...nearly 500,000 revellers came together for three days and three nights and showed the world what a generation was made of..." ''Woodstock 1969 - The First Festival''. Landy, Elliott. Ravette Publishing Ltd, 2009. ISBN 978-1841613093.</ref>

==== Hippie trail ====
{{Main|Hippie trail}}
One travel experience, undertaken by hundreds of thousands of hippies between 1969 and 1971, was the [[Hippie trail]] overland route to [[India]]. Carrying little or no luggage, and with small amounts of cash, almost all followed the same route, hitch-hiking across Europe to [[Athens]] and on to [[Istanbul]], then by train through central [[Turkey]] via [[Erzurum]], continuing by bus into [[Iran]], via [[Tabriz]] and [[Tehran]] to [[Mashhad]], across the Afghan border into [[Herat]], through southern [[Afghanistan]] via [[Kandahar]] to [[Kabul]], over the [[Khyber Pass]] into [[Pakistan]], via [[Rawalpindi]] and [[Lahore]] to the Indian frontier. Once in India, hippies went to many different destinations, but gathered in large numbers on the beaches of [[Goa]] and [[Kovalam]] in [[Trivandrum]] ([[Kerala]]),<ref name="Sherwood">{{cite news|url=http://travel.nytimes.com/2006/04/09/travel/09goa.html|title=A New Generation of Pilgrims Hits India's Hippie Trail |last=Sherwood|first=Seth|publisher=The New York Times Company |accessdate=2008-09-11 | date=2006-04-09}}</ref> or crossed the border into [[Nepal]] to spend months in [[Kathmandu]]. In Kathmandu, most of the hippies hung out in the tranquil surroundings of a place called Freak Street,<ref name="Independent">{{cite web|url=http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3549557|title=Have a high time on hippy trail in Katmandu|date=2001-01-30|publisher=Independent Online|accessdate=2008-09-11 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071011064213/http://www.ioltravel.co.za/article/view/3549557 |archivedate = October 11, 2007}}</ref> ([[Nepal Bhasa]]: Jhoo Chhen) which still exists near Kathmandu Durbar Square.

===Spirituality and religion===
Many hippies rejected mainstream organized religion in favor of a more personal spiritual experience, often drawing on indigenous and folk beliefs. If they adhered to mainstream faiths, hippies were likely to embrace [[Buddhism]], [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Hinduism]] and the [[restorationist]] Christianity of the [[Jesus Movement]]. Some hippies embraced [[neo-paganism]], especially [[Wicca]].<ref name="hare">[http://web.archive.org/web/20111129151747/http://dissentmagazine.org/online.php?id=552 In Defense of Hippies] - Danny Goldberg. Dissent Magazine Online. Internet Archive: Retrieved 18th December 2013.</ref>

In his 1991 book, "Hippies and American Values", Timothy Miller described the hippie ethos as essentially a "religious movement" whose goal was to transcend the limitations of mainstream religious institutions. "Like many dissenting religions, the hippies were enormously hostile to the religious institutions of the dominant culture, and they tried to find new and adequate ways to do the tasks the dominant religions failed to perform."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=e7F31yYxOMAC&pg=PA16&lpg=PA16&dq=hippie+as+a+religious+movements&source=bl&ots=HBMRWRs-zN&sig=0rEsZECxVWDhme6MO1Ui8-AFZ3k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=89oAT4uoIdTYiQKC0-SDDw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=hippie%20as%20a%20religious%20movements&f=false |title=Timothy Miller. ''Hippies and American Values''. Univ Tennessee Press; 1st edition |publisher=Books.google.com |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref> In his seminal, contemporaneous work, "The Hippie Trip", author Lewis Yablonsky notes that those who were most respected in hippie settings were the spiritual leaders, the so-called "high priests" who emerged during that era.<ref>''The Hippie Trip'', Lewis Yablonsky, p. 298</ref>
[[File:TimothyLeary-LectureTour-SUNYAB-1969.jpg|200px|thumbnail|right|[[Timothy Leary]], family and band on a lecture tour at State University of New York at Buffalo in 1969]]
One such hippie "high priest" was San Francisco State University Professor [[Stephen Gaskin]]. Beginning in 1966, Gaskin's "Monday Night Class" eventually outgrew the lecture hall, and attracted 1,500 hippie followers in an open discussion of spiritual values, drawing from Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu teachings. In 1970 Gaskin founded a Tennessee community called [[The Farm (Tennessee)|The Farm]], and he still lists his religion as "Hippie."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefarm.org/lifestyle/miller.html |title=Communal Religions |publisher=Thefarm.org |date=1966-10-06 |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tokeofthetown.com/2010/12/new_book_tells_inside_story_of_biggest_hippie_comm.php |title=New Book Tells Inside Story Of Biggest Hippie Commune In U.S. - Toke of the Town - cannabis news, views, rumor and humor |publisher=Toke of the Town |date=2010-12-23 |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Monday Night Class |url=http://www.amazon.com/Monday-Night-Class-Stephen-Gaskin/dp/1570671818/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1325485159&sr=1-1 |title=Monday Night Class: Stephen Gaskin: 9781570671814: Amazon.com: Books |publisher=Amazon.com |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref>

[[Timothy Leary]] was an American [[psychology|psychologist]] and writer, known for his advocacy of [[psychedelic drugs]]. On September 19, 1966, Leary founded the [[League for Spiritual Discovery]], a religion declaring LSD as its holy sacrament, in part as an unsuccessful attempt to maintain legal status for the use of LSD and other psychedelics for the religion's adherents based on a "freedom of religion" argument. ''[[The Psychedelic Experience]]'' was the inspiration for [[John Lennon]]'s song "[[Tomorrow Never Knows]]" in [[The Beatles]]' album ''[[Revolver (The Beatles album)|Revolver]]''.<ref name="Sante">{{cite news| last = Sante| first = Luc| title = The Nutty Professor| work = 'Timothy Leary: A Biography,' by Robert Greenfield| work=[[The New York Times Book Review]]| date = 2006-06-26| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/25/books/review/25sante.html?pagewanted=all| accessdate = 2008-07-12}}</ref> He published a pamphlet in 1967 called ''Start Your Own Religion'' to encourage just that<ref>Start Your Own Religion. Leary, Timothy. Millbrook, New York: Kriya Press. 1967. (The original 1967 version was privately published. It is not to be confused with a compilation of Leary's writings compiled, edited, and published posthumously under the same title.)</ref> and was invited to attend the January 14, 1967 [[Human Be-In]] a gathering of 30,000 hippies in San Francisco's [[Golden Gate Park]] In speaking to the group, he coined the famous phrase "[[Turn on, tune in, drop out]]".<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=eFaq_I24teQC&pg=PA641&dq=timothy+leary+%22michael+bowen%22&lr=&as_brr=0&client=firefox-a&redir_esc=y#PPA299,M1 |title=Timothy Leary: A Biography|first=Robert|last= Greenfield |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |accessdate=2013-10-11}}</ref> The English magician [[Aleister Crowley]] became an influential icon to the new alternative spiritual movements of the decade as well as for rock musicians. [[The Beatles]] included him as one of [[List of images on the cover of Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band|the many figures]] on the cover sleeve of their 1967 album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' while [[Jimmy Page]], the guitarist of [[The Yardbirds]] and co-founder of 1970s rock band [[Led Zeppelin]] was fascinated by Crowley, and owned some of his clothing, manuscripts and ritual objects, and during the 1970s bought [[Boleskine House]], which also appears in the band's movie ''[[The Song Remains the Same (film)|The Song Remains the Same]]''. On the back cover of [[the Doors]] ''13'' album, Jim Morrison and the other members of the Doors are shown posing with a bust of Aleister Crowley. [[Timothy Leary]] also openly acknowledged the inspiration of English occultist [[Aleister Crowley]].<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2gY3dSqs68A Timothy Leary: I carried on Aleister Crowley's work ]</ref>

=== Politics ===
{{See also|Make love, not war|Turn on, tune in, drop out}}
[[File:Flower Power demonstrator.jpg|200px|left|thumb|Iconic photo of a female demonstrator offering a flower to a Military Police officer during an anti-war protest, 10/21/1967.]]
{{Quote_box
| width = 30%
| align = right
| quote = The hippies were heirs to a long line of bohemians that includes [[William Blake]], [[Walt Whitman]], [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]], [[Henry David Thoreau]], [[Herman Hesse]], [[Arthur Rimbaud]], [[Oscar Wilde]], [[Aldous Huxley]], utopian movements like the [[Rosicrucians]] and the [[Theosophists]], and most directly the [[Beatniks]]. Hippies emerged from a society that had produced birth-control pills, a counterproductive war in Vietnam, the liberation and idealism of the [[civil rights movement]], feminism, homosexual rights, FM radio, mass-produced [[LSD]], a strong economy, and a huge number of [[Baby-boom generation|baby-boom teenagers]]. These elements allowed the hippies to have a mainstream impact that dwarfed that of the [[Beat Generation|Beats]] and earlier [[avant-garde]] cultures.
|source= [http://web.archive.org/web/20111129151747/http://dissentmagazine.org/online.php?id=552 In Defense of Hippies] by Danny Goldberg<ref name="hare" />}}
For the historian of the [[anarchist]] movement Ronald Creagh, the hippie movement could be considered as the last spectacular resurgence of [[utopian socialism]]<ref name="wikiwix.com">{{cite web|url=http://wikiwix.com/cache/?url=http://endehors.net/news/communes-communautes-milieux-libres&title=pr%C3%A9sentation%20en%20ligne |title=Ronald Creagh. ''Laboratoires de l’utopie. Les communautés libertaires aux États-Unis''. Paris. Payot. 1983. pg. 11 |publisher=Wikiwix.com |accessdate=2014-02-03}}</ref> For Creagh, a characteristic of this is the desire for the transformation of society not through political revolution, or through reformist action pushed forward by the state, but through the creation of a counter-society of a [[Libertarian socialism|socialist]] character in the midst of the current system, which will be made up of ideal communities of a more or less [[anarchist|libertarian]] social form.<ref name="wikiwix.com"/>

The [[Peace symbols|peace symbol]] was developed in the UK as a logo for the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]], and was embraced by U.S. anti-war protesters during the 1960s.
Hippies were often [[pacifism|pacifists]], and participated in non-violent political demonstrations, such as [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights marches]], the [[protest|marches on Washington D.C.]], and [[Opposition to the Vietnam War|anti–Vietnam War]] demonstrations, including [[draft-card burning]]s and the [[1968 Democratic National Convention protest activity|1968 Democratic National Convention protests]].<ref name="Tribune">{{cite news|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/topic/politics/elections/1968-democratic-convention-EVHST000046.topic|title=1968 Democratic Convention|publisher=Chicago Tribune|accessdate=2008-09-08}}</ref> The degree of political involvement varied widely among hippies, from those who were active in peace demonstrations, to the more anti-authority street theater and demonstrations of the [[Youth International Party|Yippies]], the most politically active hippie sub-group.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Shannon
| first = Phil
| date = 1997-06-18
| title = Yippies, politics and the state
| series = Cultural Dissent, Issue #
| publisher = ''[[Green Left Weekly]]''
| issue = 278
| url = http://www.greenleft.org.au/1997/278/16698
| accessdate = 2008-12-10
}}</ref> [[Bobby Seale]] discussed the differences between Yippies and hippies with [[Jerry Rubin]], who told him that Yippies were the political wing of the hippie movement, as hippies have not "necessarily become political yet". Regarding the political activity of hippies, Rubin said, "They mostly prefer to be stoned, but most of them want peace, and they want an end to this stuff."<ref name="Seale_1991_350">{{harvnb|Seale|1991|p=350}}.</ref>

In addition to non-violent political demonstrations, hippie opposition to the Vietnam War included organizing political action groups to oppose the war, refusal to serve in the military and conducting "[[teach-in]]s" on college campuses that covered Vietnamese history and the larger political context of the war.<ref name="Junker">{{Citation|last=Junker|first=Detlef |coauthors= Gassert,Philipp|title=The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War, 1945-1990|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2004|page=424|isbn=0-521-83420-1}}</ref>

Scott McKenzie's 1967 rendition of John Phillips' song "[[San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)]]", which helped to inspire the hippie Summer of Love, became a homecoming song for all Vietnam veterans arriving in San Francisco from 1967 onward. McKenzie has dedicated every American performance of "San Francisco" to Vietnam veterans, and he sang in 2002 at the 20th anniversary of the dedication of the [[Vietnam Veterans Memorial]]. Hippie political expression often took the form of "dropping out" of society to implement the changes they sought.

Politically motivated movements aided by hippies include the [[back to the land movement]] of the 1960s, [[cooperative|cooperative business enterprises]], [[alternative energy]], the [[Freedom of the press|free press]] movement, and [[organic farming]].<ref name="Morford" /><ref name="Turner_2006_3239">{{harvnb|Turner|2006|pp=32–39}}.</ref> The San Francisco group known as [[Diggers (theater)|the Diggers]] articulated an influential radical criticism of contemporary mass consumer society, and so they opened [[free stores]] which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art.<ref name="Lytle_2006_213215"/> The Diggers took their name from the original [[Diggers|English Diggers]] (1649–50) led by [[Gerrard Winstanley]],<ref name="Digger Archives">{{cite web |url=http://www.diggers.org/overview.htm |title= Overview: who were (are) the Diggers? |accessdate=2007-06-17 | work=The Digger Archives}}</ref> and they sought to create a mini-society [[Criticism of capitalism|free of money and capitalism]].<ref name="American Experience doc">{{cite video
| people =[[Gail Dolgin]]; Vicente Franco
|date =2007
| title =American Experience: The Summer of Love
| url =http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/love/index.html
| publisher =PBS
| accessdate =2007-04-23
}}
</ref>

Such activism was ideally carried through [[anti-authoritarian]] and [[non-violent]] means; thus it was observed that "The way of the hippie is antithetical to all repressive hierarchical power structures since they are adverse to the hippie goals of peace, love and freedom... Hippies don't impose their beliefs on others. Instead, hippies seek to change the world through reason and by living what they believe."<ref name="Stonepolitics">{{harvnb|Stone|1994|loc=[http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/sex.htm "The Way of the Hippy"]}}</ref>

The political ideals of hippies influenced other movements, such as [[anarcho-punk]], [[rave culture]], [[green politics]], [[stoner culture]] and the [[new age]] movement. [[Penny Rimbaud]] of the English anarcho-punk band [[Crass]] said in interviews, and in an essay called ''The Last Of The Hippies'', that Crass was formed in memory of his friend, [[Wally Hope]].<ref>{{Citation |title=The Last Of The Hippies - An Hysterical Romance |last=Rimbaud |first=Penny |authorlink=Penny Rimbaud |year=1982 |publisher=Crass. |url=http://www.spunk.org/texts/places/britain/sp001297.txt}}</ref> Crass had its roots in [[Dial House, Essex|Dial House]], which was established in 1967 as a commune.<ref>''Shibboleth: My Revolting Life'', Rimbaud, Penny, AK Press, 1999. ISBN 978-1873176405.</ref> Some [[punk subculture|punks]] were often critical of Crass for their involvement in the hippie movement. Like Crass, [[Jello Biafra]] was influenced by the hippie movement, and cited the yippies as a key influence on his political activism and thinking, though he also wrote songs critical of hippies.<ref>{{cite web|last=Vander Molen|first=Jodi|title=Jello Biafra Interview|url=http://www.progressive.org/mag_intvbiafra|work=The Progressive|publisher=The Progressive|accessdate=Feb 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Colurso|first=Mary|title=Jello Biafra can ruffle feathers|url=http://blog.al.com/mcolurso/2007/06/jello_biafra_can_ruffle_feathe.html|work=The Birmingham News|publisher=The Birmingham News|accessdate=Feb 2007}}</ref>

===Drugs===
{{see also|Spiritual use of cannabis|History of LSD}}
[[Image:Sharing a joint.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tahquitz Canyon]], Palm Springs, California, 1969, sharing a joint]]
Following in the footsteps of the Beats, many hippies used [[Cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] (marijuana), considering it pleasurable and benign. They enlarged their spiritual pharmacopeia to include [[Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants|hallucinogen]]s such as LSD, [[psilocybin]], [[Datura Stramonium]], [[Brugmansia suaveolens]], [[Ibogaine]], [[Atropa Belladonna]], [[Amanita Muscaria]] and [[mescaline]], while often renouncing the use of alcohol. On the [[East Coast of the United States]], [[Harvard University]] professors [[Timothy Leary]], [[Ralph Metzner]] and [[Ram Dass|Richard Alpert]] (Ram Dass) advocated psychotropic drugs for [[psychotherapy]], self-exploration, [[Religion and drugs|religious]] and [[Entheogen|spiritual]] use. Regarding LSD, Leary said, "Expand your consciousness and find ecstasy and revelation within."<ref name="Time-Life Books_1998_139">{{harvnb|Stolley|1998|pp=139}}.</ref>

On the [[West Coast of the United States]], [[Ken Kesey]] was an important figure in promoting the recreational use of psychotropic drugs, especially LSD, also known as "acid." By holding what he called "[[Acid Tests]]", and touring the country with his band of [[Merry Pranksters]], Kesey became a magnet for media attention that drew many young people to the fledgling movement. The [[Grateful Dead]] (originally billed as "The Warlocks") played some of their first shows at the Acid Tests, often as high on LSD as their audiences. Kesey and the Pranksters had a "vision of turning on the world."<ref name="Time-Life Books_1998_139" /> Harder drugs, such as [[amphetamines]] and heroin, were also sometimes used in hippie settings; however, these drugs were often disdained, even among those who used them, because they were recognized as harmful and addictive.<ref name="Yablonsky_1968_243357">{{harvnb|Yablonsky|1968|pp=243, 257}}</ref>

==Legacy==
{{see also|List of books and publications related to the hippie subculture|List of films related to the hippie subculture}}
{{Quote_box
| width = 30%
| align = right
| quote = Newcomers to the Internet are often startled to discover themselves not so much in some soulless colony of technocrats as in a kind of cultural Brigadoon - a flowering remnant of the '60s, when hippie communalism and libertarian politics formed the roots of the modern cyberrevolution...
|source= [[Stewart Brand]], "We Owe It All To The Hippies".<ref name="Brand_Time"/>}}
The legacy of the hippie movement continues to permeate Western society.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/music/festivals/article1994608.ece | work=The Times | location=London | title=We're all hippies now | first=Evie | last=Prichard | date=2007-06-28 | accessdate=2010-05-04}}</ref> In general, unmarried couples of all ages feel free to travel and live together without societal disapproval.<ref name="Morford">{{cite news
|url = http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/g/a/2007/05/02/notes050207.DTL
|title = The Hippies Were right!
|accessdate = 2007-05-03
|last = Morford
|first = Mark
|date = 2007-05-02
|publisher = SF Gate }}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/columnists/mary_ann_sieghart/article1837763.ece
|title = Hey man, we're all kind of hippies now. Far out
|author = Mary Ann Sieghart
|publisher = The Times
|date = May 25, 2007
|accessdate = 2007-05-25 | location=London}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Frankness regarding sexual matters has become more common, and the rights of [[Homosexuality|homosexual]], [[bisexual]] and [[transsexual]] people, as well as people who choose not to categorize themselves at all, have expanded.<ref name=imdb>
{{cite video |people=Kitchell, Mark (Director and Writer) |date=January 1990 |title=Berkeley in the Sixties |url=http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0099121/ |medium=Documentary |publisher=Liberation |accessdate=2009-05-10}}
</ref> Religious and cultural diversity has gained greater acceptance.<ref>{{Citation
| first = George
| last = Barnia
| title = The Index of Leading Spiritual Indicators
| publisher = Word Publishing
| location = Dallas TX
| year = 1996
| url = http://www.religioustolerance.org/newage.htm
}}</ref> Co-operative business enterprises and creative community living arrangements are more accepted than before.<ref>{{cite web|author=Hip Inc. |url=http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/atoz.htm |title=Hippies From A to Z by Skip Stone |publisher=Hipplanet.com |accessdate=2012-11-21}}</ref> Some of the little hippie [[health food]] stores of the 1960s and 1970s are now large-scale, profitable businesses, due to greater interest in natural foods, herbal remedies, vitamins and other nutritional supplements.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Baer
| first = Hans A.
| title = Toward An Integrative Medicine: Merging Alternative Therapies With Biomedicine
| publisher = Rowman Altamira
| year = 2004| pages = 2–3
| isbn = 0-7591-0302-X
}}</ref> Authors [[Stewart Brand]] and [[John Markoff]] argue that the development and popularization of personal computers and the [[Internet]] find one of their primary roots in the anti-authoritarian ethos promoted by hippie culture.<ref name="Brand_Time">{{Citation
| last = Brand
| first = Stewart
| author-link = Stewart Brand
| title = We Owe It All To The Hippies
| publisher = ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''
| volume = 145
| issue = 12
| pages =
| date = Spring 1995
| url = http://members.aye.net/~hippie/hippie/special_.htm
| accessdate = 2007-11-25
}}</ref><ref name="Dormouse">{{Citation
| last = Markoff
| first = John
| author-link = John Markoff
| title = [[What the Dormouse Said]]: How the 60s Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry
| publisher = Penguin
| year = 2005
| isbn = 0-670-03382-0
}}</ref>

[[Image:Leo Poster.jpg|thumb|upright|left|A hippie in [[Stockholm]], Sweden, in August 1971.]]
Distinct appearance and clothing was one of the immediate legacies of hippies worldwide.<ref name="Pendergast">Pendergast, Sara. (2004) ''Fashion, Costume, and Culture''. Volume 5. Modern World Part II: 1946-2003. Thomson Gale. ISBN 0-7876-5417-5</ref><ref name="Connikie">Connikie, Yvonne. (1990). ''Fashions of a Decade: The 1960s''. Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160-2469-3</ref> During the 1960s and 1970s, mustaches, beards and long hair became more commonplace and colorful, while multi-ethnic clothing dominated the fashion world. Since that time, a wide range of personal appearance options and clothing styles, including nudity, have become more widely acceptable, all of which was uncommon before the hippie era.<ref name="Pendergast">Pendergast, Sara. (2004) ''Fashion, Costume, and Culture''. Volume 5. Modern World Part II: 1946–2003. Thomson Gale. ISBN 0-7876-5417-5</ref><ref name="Connikie"/> Hippies also inspired the decline in popularity of the [[necktie]] and other ''business'' clothing, which had been unavoidable for men during the 1950s and early 1960s. Additionally, hippie fashion itself has been commonplace in the years since the 1960s in clothing and accessories, particularly the [[peace symbol]].<ref>[http://www.chron.com/life/article/Peace-sign-makes-a-statement-in-the-fashion-world-1773516.php Sewing, Joy; [[Houston Chronicle]]; publ. 24 Jan 2008; "Peace sign makes a statement in the fashion world"]. Retrieved 10 Jun 2012.</ref> [[Astrology]], including everything from serious study to whimsical amusement regarding personal traits, was integral to hippie culture.<ref>The musical ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'' and a multitude of well known contemporary song lyrics such as ''The Age of Aquarius''</ref> The generation of the 1970s became influenced by the hippie and the 60s countercultural legacy. As such in [[New York City]] musicians and audiences from the female, homosexual, black, and Latino communities adopted several traits from the hippies and [[psychedelia]]. They included overwhelming sound, free-form dancing, weird lighting, colorful costumes, and [[hallucinogens]].<ref name="Partylikeits1975">[http://www.villagevoice.com/2001-07-10/news/disco-double-take/2 Disco Double Take: New York Parties Like It's 1975]. [[Village Voice]].com. ''Retrieved on August 9, 2009''.</ref><ref name="Cambridge">(1998) "The Cambridge History of American Music", ISBN 978-0-521-45429-2, ISBN 978-0-521-45429-2, p.372: "Initially, disco musicians and audiences alike belonged to marginalized communities: women, gay, black, and Latinos"</ref><ref name="Traces">(2002) "Traces of the Spirit: The Religious Dimensions of Popular Music", ISBN 978-0-8147-9809-6, ISBN 978-0-8147-9809-6, p.117: "New York City was the primary center of disco, and the original audience was primarily gay African Americans and Latinos."</ref> [[Psychedelic soul]] groups like the [[Chambers Brothers]] and especially [[Sly and The Family Stone]] influenced proto-disco acts such as [[Isaac Hayes]], [[Willie Hutch]] and the [[Philadelphia soul|Philadelphia Sound]].<ref>[{{Allmusic|class=explore|id=essay/|pure_url=yes}} Psychedelic Soul Allmusic]</ref> In addition, the perceived positivity, lack of irony, and earnestness of the [[hippies]] informed proto-disco music like [[M.F.S.B.]]'s album ''[[Love Is the Message (album)|Love Is the Message]]''.<ref name=Partylikeits1975/><ref>"But the pre-Saturday Night Fever dance underground was actually sweetly earnest and irony-free in its hippie-dippie positivity, as evinced by anthems like M.F.S.B.'s 'Love Is the Message.'" -- ''Village Voice'', 10 July 2001.</ref>

The hippie legacy in literature includes the lasting popularity of books reflecting the hippie experience, such as ''[[The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test]]''.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Bryan
| first = C. d. b.
| title = 'The Pump House Gang' and 'The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test'
| publisher = ''[[The New York Times]]'
| date = 1968-08-18
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/1968/08/18/books/wolfe-acid.html
| accessdate =2007-08-21
}}</ref> In music, the [[folk rock]] and [[psychedelic rock]] popular among hippies evolved into genres such as [[acid rock]], [[World music|world beat]] and [[heavy metal music]]. [[Psychedelic trance]] (also known as psytrance) is a type of [[electronic music]] music influenced by 1960s psychedelic rock. The tradition of hippie music festivals began in the United States in 1965 with Ken Kesey's [[Acid Tests]], where the [[Grateful Dead]] played tripping on [[LSD]] and initiated psychedelic jamming. For the next several decades, many hippies and neo-hippies became part of the [[Deadhead]] community, attending music and art festivals held around the country. The [[Grateful Dead]] toured continuously, with few interruptions between 1965 and 1995. [[Phish]] and their fans (called ''Phish Heads'') operated in the same manner, with the band touring continuously between 1983 and 2004. Many contemporary bands performing at hippie festivals and their derivatives are called [[jam band]]s, since they play songs that contain long instrumentals similar to the original hippie bands of the 1960s.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20070124191643/http://www.jambands.com/jamband.html JamBands.com] - What is a Jam Band? Retrieved from Internet Archive 23 December 2013.</ref>

With the demise of Grateful Dead and Phish, nomadic touring hippies attend a growing series of summer festivals, the largest of which is called the [[Bonnaroo Music Festival|Bonnaroo Music & Arts Festival]], which premiered in 2002. The [[Oregon Country Fair]] is a three-day festival featuring handmade crafts, educational displays and costumed entertainment. The annual [[Starwood Festival]], founded in 1981, is a seven-day event indicative of the spiritual quest of hippies through an exploration of non-mainstream religions and world-views, and has offered performances and classes by a variety of hippie and counter-culture icons.

{{Quote box
| quote = "The '60s were a leap in human consciousness. Mahatma Gandhi, Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, Che Guevara, they led a revolution of conscience. The Beatles, The Doors, Jimi Hendrix created revolution and evolution themes. The music was like Dalí, with many colors and revolutionary ways. The youth of today must go there to find themselves."
| source = — [[Carlos Santana]]<ref>[http://puntodigital.com/carlos-santana-im-immortal/224228/ Carlos Santana: I’m Immortal] interview by ''Punto Digital'', October 13, 2010</ref>
| width = 30%
| align = right
}}

The [[Burning Man]] festival began in 1986 at a San Francisco beach party and is now held in the [[Black Rock Desert]] northeast of [[Reno, Nevada]]. Although few participants would accept the ''hippie'' label, Burning Man is a contemporary expression of alternative community in the same spirit as early hippie events. The gathering becomes a temporary city (36,500 occupants in 2005, 50,000+ in 2011), with elaborate encampments, displays, and many [[art cars]]. Other events that enjoy a large attendance include the [[Rainbow Family Gatherings]], The Gathering of the Vibes, Community Peace Festivals, and the [[Woodstock Festival]]s.

In the UK, there are many [[new age travellers]] who are known as hippies to outsiders, but prefer to call themselves the [[Peace Convoy]]. They started the [[Stonehenge Free Festival]] in 1974, but [[English Heritage]] later banned the festival in 1985, resulting in the [[Battle of the Beanfield]]. With Stonehenge banned as a festival site, new age travellers gather at the annual [[Glastonbury Festival]]. Today, hippies in the UK can be found in parts of [[South West England]], such as [[Bristol]] (particularly the neighborhoods of [[Montpelier, Bristol|Montpelier]], [[Stokes Croft]], [[St Werburghs]], [[Bishopston, Bristol|Bishopston]], [[Easton, Bristol|Easton]] and [[Totterdown]]), [[Glastonbury]] in [[Somerset]], [[Totnes]] in [[Devon]], and [[Stroud]] in [[Gloucestershire]], as well as areas of [[London]] and [[Brighton]]. In the summer, many hippies and those of similar subcultures gather at numerous outdoor festivals in the countryside.

In [[New Zealand]] between 1976 and 1981 tens of thousands of hippies gathered from around the world on large farms around [[Waihi]] and [[Waikino]] for music and alternatives festivals. Named ''[[Nambassa]]'', the festivals focused on peace, love, and a balanced lifestyle. The events featured practical [[workshops]] and displays advocating [[alternative lifestyles]], [[self sufficiency]], clean and [[sustainable energy]] and [[sustainable living]].<ref>Nambassa: A New Direction, edited by Colin Broadley and Judith Jones, A. H. & A. W. Reed, 1979. ISBN 0-589-01216-9</ref>

[[Image:1981 People Pix.jpg|thumb|left|225px|left|Hippies at the [[Nambassa]] 1981 Festival in [[New Zealand]] ]]
In the UK and Europe, the years 1987 to 1989 were marked by a large-scale revival of many characteristics of the hippie movement. This later movement, composed mostly of people aged 18 to 25, adopted much of the original hippie philosophy of love, peace and freedom. The summer of 1988 became known as the [[Second Summer of Love]]. Although the music favored by this movement was modern [[electronic music]], especially [[house music]] and [[acid house]], one could often hear songs from the original hippie era in the ''chill out rooms'' at [[rave]]s. In the UK, many of the well-known figures of this movement first lived communally in [[Stroud Green, London|Stroud Green]], an area of north London located in Finsbury Park. In 1995, [[The Sekhmet Hypothesis]] attempted to link both hippie and rave culture together in relation to transactional analysis, suggesting that rave culture was a social archetype based on the mood of friendly strength, compared to the gentle hippie archetype, based on friendly weakness.<ref>''The Sekhmet Hypothesis'', Iain Spence, 1995, Bast's Blend. ISBN 0952536501</ref> The later electronic dance genres known as [[goa trance]] and [[psychedelic trance]] and its related events and culture have important hippie legacies and neo hippie elements. The popular DJ of the genre [[Goa Gil]], like other hippies from the 1960s, decided to leave the US and Western Europe to travel on the [[hippie trail]] and later developing psychedelic parties and music in the Indian island of [[Goa]] in which the goa and psytrance genres were born and exported around the world in the 1990s and 2000s.<ref>"In 1969, Gilbert Levy left the Haigh Ashbury district of San Francisco and took the overland trail through Afganistan and PAkistan, first to Bombay and then to Goa...Throughout the 1970s, Gil organized legendary parties at Anjuna- moonlight jams of non-stop music, dancing and chemical experimentation that lasted from Christmas Eve to New Year´s Day for a tribe of fellow overland travellers who called themselves the Goa Freaks...In the 90s, Gil started to use snippets from industrial music, etno techno, acid house and psychedelic rock to help create Goa Trance, dance music with a heavy spiritual accent...For Goa Gil, Goa Trance is a logical continuation of what hippies were doing back in the 60s and 70s. "The Psychedelic Revolution never really stopped" he said, " it just had to go halfway round the world to the end of a dirt road on a deserted beach, and there it was allowed to evolve and mutate, without government or media pressures". ''Time Out: Mumbai and Goa''. Time Out Guides Ltd. London. 2011 pg. 184</ref>
[[File:Goa Gil LHS.jpg|200px|thumbnail|right|[[Goa Gil]], original 1960s hippie who later became a pioneering electronic dance music DJ and party organizer, here appearing in the 2001 film ''[[Last Hippie Standing]]'']]
Popular films depicting the hippie ethos and lifestyle include ''[[Woodstock (film)|Woodstock]]'', ''[[Easy Rider]]'', ''[[Hair (film)|Hair]]'', ''[[The Doors (film)|The Doors]]'', ''[[Across the Universe (film)|Across the Universe]]'', ''[[Taking Woodstock]]'', and ''[[Crumb (film)|Crumb]]''.

In 2002, photojournalist John Bassett McCleary published a 650-page, 6,000-entry unabridged [[slang dictionary]] devoted to the language of the hippies titled ''The Hippie Dictionary: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1960s and 1970s''. The book was revised and expanded to 700 pages in 2004.<ref>McCleary, John Bassett. ''The Hippie Dictionary: A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1960s and 1970s'', Ten Speed Press, 2004. ISBN 1580085474</ref><ref>{{Citation
| last = Gates
| first = David
| title = Me Talk Hippie
| newspaper = [[Newsweek]]
| date = 2004-07-12
| url = http://www.newsweek.com/id/54372
| accessdate = 2008-01-27
}}</ref> McCleary believes that the hippie counterculture added a significant number of words to the English language by borrowing from the lexicon of the [[Beat Generation]], through the hippies' shortening of beatnik words and then popularizing their usage.<ref>{{Citation
| last = Merritt
| first = Byron
| title = A Groovy Interview with Author John McCleary
| publisher = Fiction Writers of the Monterey Peninsula
| date = August 2004
| url = http://www.fwomp.com/int-johnmccleary.htm
| accessdate = 2008-01-27
}}</ref> 

In 2005, journalist Oliver Benjamin founded [http://dudeism.com The Church of Latter-Day Dude], a website-philosophy and [[mock religion]] inspired by the character "the Dude", a former hippie, in the 1998 movie ''[[The Big Lebowski]]''. [[Dudeism]], as it is known, holds many connections to the hippie ethos, from its “take it easy” attitude and rebel shrug, to its come-as-you-are sense of individual freedom and expression. Dudeism is very much influenced by the hippie movement, maintaining that the "revolution is not over",<ref name="Our Revolution is Not Over, Dudes">[http://dudespaper.com/our-revolution-is-not-over-dudes.html/ Our Revolution is Not Over, Dudes] by Dwayne Eutsey, Dudespaper</ref> that it actually began a very long time ago, and will continue far into the future. Dudeist literature even claims that Dudeism has provided a contemporary spiritual home for the hippie philosophy.<ref name="A New Home for Lost Hippies">[http://dudespaper.com/dudeism-a-new-home-for-lost-hippies.html/ A New Home for Lost Hippies] July 2010 Dudespaper</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Culture}}
*[[Indomania]]
*[[Counterculture of the 1960s]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading and resources==
{{commons category|Hippies}}
*Binkley, Sam. (2002). [http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100587 Hippies]. ''St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture''. FindArticles.com.
*{{Citation
| last = Booth
| first = Martin
| author-link = Martin Booth
| title = Cannabis: A History
| publisher = St. Martin's Press
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-312-32220-8
}}.
*Brand, Stewart. (Spring, 1995). [http://www.hippiemuseum.org/webhippies.html We Owe it All to the Hippies]. ''Time''.
*{{Citation
| last = Bugliosi
| first = Vincent
| author-link = Vincent Bugliosi
| last2 = Gentry
| first2 = Curt
| author2-link = Curt Gentry
| title = [[Helter Skelter (book)|Helter Skelter]]
| publisher = V. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
| year = 1994
| isbn = 0-393-32223-8
}}.
*{{Citation
| editor-last = Dudley
| editor-first = William
| title = The 1960s (America's decades)
| publisher = Greenhaven Press.
| place = San Diego
| year = 2000
| isbn =
}}.
*Gaskin, Stephen. (1970). ''Monday Night Class''. The Book Farm. ISBN 1-57067-181-8.
*{{Citation
| last = Heath
| first = Joseph
| last2 = Potter
| first2 = Andrew
| title = [[The Rebel Sell|Nation of Rebels: Why Counterculture Became Consumer Culture]]
| publisher = Collins
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-06-074586-X
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Grunenberg
| first = Christoph
| last2 = Harris
| first2 = Jonathan
| title = Summer of Love: Psychedelic Art, Social Crisis and Counterculture in the 1960s
| publisher = Liverpool University Press
| year = 2005
| isbn = 0-85323-929-0
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Hirsch
| first = E.D.
| author-link = Eric Donald Hirsch
| title = The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy
| publisher = Houghton Mifflin
| year = 1993
| isbn = 0-395-65597-8
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Katz
| first = Jack
| title = Seductions of Crime: Moral and Sensual Attractions in Doing Evil
| publisher = Basic Books
| year = 1988
| isbn = 0-465-07616-5
}}.
*[[Stephen A. Kent|Kent, Stephen A.]] (2001). ''From slogans to mantras: social protest and religious conversion in the late Vietnam war era''. [[Syracuse University]] Press. ISBN 0-8156-2923-0
*{{Citation
| last = Kennedy
| first = Gordon
| title = Children of the Sun: A Pictorial Anthology From Germany To California, 1883–1949
| publisher = Nivaria Press
| year = 1998
| isbn = 0-9668898-0-0
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Lattin
| first = Don
| title = Following Our Bliss: How the Spiritual Ideals of the Sixties Shape Our Lives Today
| publisher = HarperCollins
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-06-073063-3
}}.
*Mankin, Bill. (2012) [http://likethedew.com/2012/03/04/we-can-all-join-in-how-rock-festivals-helped-change-america/ ''We Can All Join In: How Rock Festivals Helped Change America'']. Like the Dew.
*{{Citation
| last = Lee
| first = Martin A.
| last2 = Shlain
| first2 = Bruce
| title = Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond
| publisher = Grove Press
| year = 1992
| isbn = 0-8021-3062-3
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Lemke-Santangelo
| first = Gretchen
| title = Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture
| year = 2009
| publisher = University Press of Kansas
| ISBN = 978-0700616336
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Lytle
| first = Mark H.
| title = America's Uncivil Wars: The Sixties Era from Elvis to the Fall of Richard Nixon
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| year = 2006
| isbn = 0-19-517496-8
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = McCleary
| first = John
| title = The Hippie Dictionary
| publisher = Ten Speed Press
| year = 2004
| isbn = 1-58008-547-4
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = MacLean
| first = Rory
| author-link = Rory MacLean
| year = 2008
| title = Magic Bus: On the Hippie Trail from Istanbul to India
| place = New York
| publisher = Ig Publishing
| url = http://www.magicbus.info
| isbn = 0-14-101595-0
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Markoff
| first = John
| author-link = John Markoff
| title = [[What the Dormouse Said|What the Dormouse Said: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry]]
| publisher = Penguin Books
| year = 2006
| isbn = 0-14-303676-9
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Marty
| first = Myron A.
| title = Daily life in the United States, 1960–1990
| place = Westport, CT
| publisher = The Greenwood Press
| year = 1997
| isbn = 0-313-29554-9
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Oldmeadow
| first = Harry
| title = Journeys East: 20th Century Western Encounters with Eastern Religious Traditions
| publisher = World Wisdom, Inc
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-941532-57-7
}}.
*Mecchi, Irene. (1991). ''The Best of Herb Caen, 1960–75''. Chronicle Books. ISBN 0-8118-0020-2
*{{Citation
| contribution = Sixties Counterculture: The Hippies and Beyond
| editor-last = Pendergast
| editor-first = Tom
| editor2-last=Pendergast
| editor2-first=Sara
| title = The Sixties in America Reference Library
| volume = 1: Almanac
| pages = 151–171
| publisher = [[Thomson Gale]]
| place = Detroit
| year = 2005
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Perry
| first = Charles
| title = The Haight-Ashbury: A History
| publisher = Wenner Books
| edition = Reprint
| year = 2005
| isbn = 1-932958-55-X
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Seale
| first = Bobby
| author-link = Bobby Seale
| title = Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton
| publisher = Black Classic Press
| year = 1991
| isbn = 0-933121-30-X
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Stevens
| first = Jay
| author-link = Jay Stevens
| title = Storming Heaven: LSD and the American Dream
| publisher = Grove Press
| year = 1998
| isbn = 0-8021-3587-0
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Stone
| first = Skip
| title = Hippies From A to Z: Their Sex, Drugs, Music and Impact on Society From the Sixties to the Present
| publisher = Hip Inc.
| year = 1999
| isbn = 1-930258-01-1
| url = http://www.hipplanet.com/books/atoz/atoz.htm
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Stolley
| first = Richard B.
| title = Turbulent Years: The 60s (Our American Century)
| publisher = Time-Life Books
| year = 1998
| isbn = 0-7835-5503-2
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Tamony
| first = Peter
| author-link = Peter Tamony
| title = Tripping out from San Francisco
| journal = American Speech
| volume = 56
| issue = 2
| pages = 98–103
| date = Summer 1981
| doi = 10.2307/455009
| pmid = 11623430
| jstor = 455009
| publisher = Duke University Press
}}.
*{{Citation
| contribution = Assimilation of the Counterculture
| editor-last = Tompkins
| editor-first = Vincent
| title = American Decades
| volume = 8: 1970–1979
| publisher = [[Thomson Gale]]
| place = Detroit
| year = 2001a
}}.
*{{Citation
| contribution = Hippies
| editor-last = Tompkins
| editor-first = Vincent
| title = American Decades
| volume = 7: 1960–1969
| publisher = [[Thomson Gale]]
| place = Detroit
| year = 2001b
}}.
*{{Citation
| first = Fred | last = Turner
| author-link = Fred Turner (academic)
| title = From Counterculture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digital Utopianism
| publisher = University Of Chicago Press
| year = 2006
| isbn = 0-226-81741-5
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Yablonsky
| first = Lewis
| title = The Hippie Trip
| publisher = Pegasus
| year = 1968
| isbn = 0-595-00116-5
}}.
* Young, Shawn David. (2005). ''Hippies, Jesus Freaks, and Music''. Ann Arbor: Xanedu/Copley Original Works. ISBN 1-59399-201-7
{{refend}}
*{{Citation
| last1 = Altman | first1 = Robert (Curator)
| author1-link = Robert Altman (photographer)
| title = Summer of Love 30th Anniversary Celebration
| contribution = The Summer of Love – Gallery
| publisher = The Council for the Summer of Love
| year = 1997
| url = http://www.summeroflove.org/gallery.html
| accessdate = 2008-01-21
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Bissonnette
| first = Anne (Curator)
| title = Revolutionizing Fashion: The Politics of Style
| date = April 12 – September 17, 2000
| publisher = Kent State University Museum
| url = http://dept.kent.edu/museum/exhibit/70s/jeans.html
| accessdate = 2008-01-21
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080118183053/http://dept.kent.edu/museum/exhibit/70s/jeans.html |archivedate = January 18, 2008}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Brode
| first = Douglas
| year = 2004
| title = From Walt to Woodstock: How Disney Created the Counterculture
| publisher = University of Texas Press
| isbn = 0-292-70273-6
}}.
*{{Citation
| author = Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
| author1-link = Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
| title = Hippie Society: The Youth Rebellion
| series = Life and Society
| year = 2006
| publisher = CBC Digital Archives
| url = http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-69-580/life_society/hippies/
| accessdate = 2008-01-21
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Charters
| first = Ann
| author-link = Ann Charters
| year = 2003
| title = The Portable Sixties reader
| place = New York
| publisher = [[Penguin Books]]
| isbn = 0-14-200194-5
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Curl
| first = John
| author-link =
| year = 2007
| title = Memories of DROP CITY: The First Hippie Commune of the 1960s and the Summer of Love, A Memoir
| place = New York
| publisher = iuniverse
| url = http://www.red-coral.net/DropCityIndex.html
| isbn = 978-0595423439
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Howard
| first = John Robert
| author-link =
| title = The Flowering of the Hippie Movement
| journal = [[Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science]]
| volume = 382
| issue = Protest in the Sixties
| pages = 43–55
| date = Mar 1969
| url =
| doi = 10.1177/000271626938200106
| id =
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Laughead
| first = George
| title = WWW-VL: History: 1960s
| year = 1998
| publisher = [[European University Institute]]
| url = http://vlib.iue.it/history/USA/ERAS/20TH/1960s.html
| accessdate = 2008-01-21
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Lemke-Santangelo
| first = Gretchen
| title = Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture
| year = 2009
| publisher = University Press of Kansas
| ISBN = 978-0700616336
}}.
*{{Citation
| last1 = Lund
| first1 = Jens
| last2 = Denisoff
| first2 = R. Serge
| title = The Folk Music Revival and the Counter Culture: Contributions and Contradictions
| journal = The Journal of American Folklore
| volume = 84
| issue = 334
| pages = 394–405
| date = Oct–Dec 1971
| doi = 10.2307/539633
| id =
| publisher = American Folklore Society
| jstor = 539633
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = MacFarlane
| first = Scott
| year = 2007
| title = The Hippie Narrative: A Literary Perspective on the Counterculture
| publisher = McFarland & Company, Inc.
| isbn = 0-7864-2915-1
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Neville
| first = Richard
| author1-link = Richard Neville (writer)
| year = 1995
| title = Hippie, Hippie, Shake: The Dreams, the Trips, the Trials, the Love-ins, the Screw ups—the Sixties.
| publisher = William Heinemann Australia
| isbn = 0-85561-523-0
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Neville
| first = Richard
| author1-link = Richard Neville (writer)
| year = 1996
| title = Out of My Mind: From Flower Power to the Third Millennium—the Seventies, the Eighties and the Nineties
| publisher = Penguin
| isbn = 0-14-026270-9
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Partridge
| first = William L.
| year = 1973
| title = The Hippie Ghetto: The Natural History of a Subculture
| place = New York
| publisher = Holt, Rinehart and Winston
| isbn = 0-03-091081-1
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Pirsig
| first = Robert M.
| author-link = Robert M. Pirsig
| origyear = 1991
| year = 2006
| title = [[Lila: An Inquiry into Morals]]
| publisher = [[Bantam Books]]
| isbn = 0-553-07873-9
}}.
*{{Citation
| author = Rainbow Family
| author1-link = Rainbow Family
| title = Rainbow Family of the Living Light
| year = 2004
| publisher = Circle of Light Community Network
| url = http://welcomehere.org/
| accessdate = 2008-01-21
}}. See also: [http://www.welcomehere.org/wiki/index.php?title=Main_Page Rainbowpedia]
*{{Citation
| last = Riser
| first = George (Curator)
| title = The Psychedelic '60s: Literary Tradition and Social Change
| year = 1998
| publisher = Special Collections Department. [[University of Virginia]] Library
| url = http://www.lib.virginia.edu/small/exhibits/sixties/index.html
| accessdate = 2008-01-21
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Staller
| first = Karen M.
| author-link =
| year = 2006
| title = Runaways: How the Sixties Counterculture Shaped Today's Practices and Policies
| place =
| publisher = Columbia University Press
| isbn = 0-231-12410-4
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Stone
| first = Skip
| author-link =
| year = 2000
| title = The Way of the Hippy
| place =
| publisher = Hip Inc.
| url = http://www.hippy.com/hippyway.htm
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Thompson
| first = Hunter S.
| authorlink = Hunter S. Thompson
| title = [[Fear and Loathing in America: The Brutal Odyssey of an Outlaw Journalist 1968–1976]]
| year = 2000| publisher = Simon & Schuster
| pages =
| chapter = Owl Farm – Winter of '68
| isbn = 0-684-87315-X
}}
*{{Citation
| last = Walpole
| first = Andy
| title = Harold Hill: A People's History
| contribution = Hippies, Freaks and the Summer of Love
| year = 2004
| publisher = haroldhill.org
| url = http://www.haroldhill.org/chapter-four/page-five-hippies-freaks-and-the-summer-of-love.htm
| accessdate = 2008-01-21
}}.
*{{Citation
| last = Wolfe
| first = Tom
| author-link = Tom Wolfe
| year = 1968
| title = [[The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test]]
| place = New York
| publisher = Farrar, Straus & Giroux
| isbn =
}}.

== External links ==
{{commons category|Hippies}}
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/love/ ''Summer of Love'']. A film part of [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]´s ''[[American Experience]]'' series. Includes the [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/love/program/love_01_wm_hi.html film available to watch online] and other information on the San Francisco event known as the [[Summer of Love]] as well as other material related to the hippie subculture
*[http://archives.cbc.ca/society/youth/topics/580/ ''Hippie Society: The Youth Rebellion'']. A Canadian program by the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] public network on the hippie rebellion including videos to watch
*[http://www.ukhippy.com/ ''UK Hippy'']. Long running British discussion forum covering all aspects of the British Hippy Counter-Culture from the 1960s to present day.
*[http://www.sixtiespix.com/ ''Sixtiespix''] An archive with photographs of hippie culture.

{{Navboxes
|list={{hippies}}
{{anti-war}}
{{simple living}}
{{drug use}}
{{Sexual revolution}}
{{Youth Empowerment}}
}}

[[Category:Subcultures]]
[[Category:1960s fashion]]
[[Category:1970s fashion]]
[[Category:Hippie movement| ]]
[[Category:Counterculture]]
[[Category:Counterculture of the 1960s]]
[[Category:California culture]]
[[Category:Oregon culture]]
[[Category:Washington (state) culture]]
[[Category:Culture of the Pacific Northwest]]
[[Category:Free love advocates]]
[[Category:Sexual revolution]]
[[Category:Drug culture]]

Yum (software)

2014-02-27T16:59:25Z

Owlgorithm: Corrected grammar by inserting missing word "nor"

{{About|the open source application|other meanings for YUM|Yum (disambiguation){{!}}Yum}}
{{copy edit|for=see also section - per MOS - no redlinks, only one blue, remove ones linked in body|date=November 2013}}
{{Infobox software
| name = Yellowdog Updater, Modified
| title =
| logo = [[Image:yum.png]]
| logo caption =
| logo_size =
| logo_alt =
| screenshot = Yum-update.png
| caption = A screenshot from Yum running a update on [[Fedora_(operating_system)|Fedora]] 16.
| screenshot_size =
| screenshot_alt =
| collapsible =
| author =
| developer = Seth Vidal
| released = 
| discontinued =
| latest release version =
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2011|06|28}}
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date = 
| frequently updated = 
| status =
| programming language = [[Python (programming language)|Python]]<ref name="patch">{{cite book |title= Linux Patch Management: Keeping Linux Systems Up to Date |chapter= Setting Up a yum Repository - Chapter 7 |url=http://www.pearsonhighered.com/samplechapter/0132366754.pdf |publisher=Prentice Hall Professional |author= Michael H. Jang |date= 14 December 2005 }}</ref>
| operating system = [[Linux]]
| platform =
| size =
| language =
| language count = 
| language footnote =
| genre = [[Package management system]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License#Version 2|GPL v2]]
| alexa =
| website = {{URL|http://yum.baseurl.org/}}
| standard =
| AsOf =
}}

The '''Yellowdog Updater, Modified''' ('''yum''') is an [[Open-source software|open-source]] [[command-line interface|command-line]] [[Package management system|package-management]] utility for [[Linux]] [[operating system]]s using the [[RPM Package Manager]].<ref name="howto">{{cite web |last= Brown |first= Robert G. |title=Yum (Yellowdog Updater, Modified) HOWTO - Introduction|url=http://www.phy.duke.edu/~rgb/General/yum_HOWTO/yum_HOWTO/yum_HOWTO-1.html |publisher=Duke Physics |accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref> Though yum has a command-line interface, several other tools provide [[graphical user interface]]s to yum functionality.

Yum allows automatic updates, package and dependency management, on RPM-based distributions.<ref name="IBM">{{cite web |last= Shields |first= Ian|title= RPM and YUM package management |url= http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-lpic1-v3-102-50 |work= Learn Linux, 101 /|publisher=IBM|accessdate=12 July 2013|date=11 May 2010}}</ref> Like the [[Advanced Packaging Tool]] (APT) from [[Debian]], yum works with [[software repository|software repositories]] (collections of packages), which can be accessed locally<ref>{{cite web |title=Creating a Local Yum Repository Using an ISO Image |url= http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E37670_01/E37355/html/ol_create_repo.html |publisher= Oracle |accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref> or over a network connection.

Under the hood, yum depends on [[Red Hat Package Manager | RPM]], which is a packaging standard for [[digital distribution]] of software, which automatically uses [[MD5 | hashes]] and [[GNU Privacy Guard|digisigs]] to verify the authorship and integrity of said software; unlike some [[app stores]], which serve a similar function, neither yum nor RPM provide built-in support for [[Digital rights management|proprietary restrictions]] on copying of packages by endusers. Yum is implemented as libraries in the [[Python (programming language)|Python]] programming language, with a small set of programs that provide a [[command-line interface]].<ref name="Brown" /> GUI-based wrappers such as Yum Extender (yumex) also exist.<ref name="yumex"/>

== History ==
As a full rewrite of its predecessor tool, Yellowdog Updater (YUP), yum evolved primarily in order to update and manage [[Red Hat Linux]] systems used at the [[Duke University]] department of Physics. It was originally developed by Seth Vidal and Michael Stenner at Duke. It was then maintained by Dan Burcaw, Bryan Stillwell, Stephen Edie, and Troy Bengegerdes of [[Yellow Dog Linux]].<ref name="howto" /> Documentation was published by Robert G. Brown at Duke in 2003.<ref name="Brown">{{Cite web |title= YUM: Yellowdog Updater, Modied |date= 17 December 2003 |author= Robert G. Brown |url= http://www.phy.duke.edu/~rgb/General/yum_article/yum_article.pdf |accessdate= 13 July 2013}}</ref> Since then, it was adopted by [[Red Hat Enterprise Linux]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6 Deployment Guide. Chapter 6: Yum |publisher=[[Red Hat]] |url=https://access.redhat.com/site/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/6/html/Deployment_Guide/ch-yum.html |accessdate=11 July 2013 }}</ref> [[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora]], [[CentOS]], and many other RPM-based [[Linux distribution]]s, including Yellow Dog Linux itself, where it replaced the original YUP utility, which had its last update on [[SourceForge]] in 2001.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Yellow Dog Update Program |url= http://sourceforge.net/projects/yup/ |work= [[SourceForge]] repository|accessdate=18 July 2013 }}</ref> By 2005, it was estimated to be available on over half of the Linux market,<ref name="patch" /> and by 2007 yum was considered "the tool of choice" for RPM-based Linux distributions.<ref>{{Cite book |title= The Linux Programmer's Toolbox |author= John Fusco |publisher= Pearson Education |isbn= 9780132703048 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=5fgn7Tg4Lt8C&pg=PT62 }}</ref>

The [[GNU General Public License]] of yum allows the [[Free and open-source software]] to be freely distributed and modified without any royalty, if other terms of the license are followed.<ref name="howto" /> Vidal continued to contribute to yum until he was killed in a [[Durham, North Carolina]] bicycle accident on 8 July 2013.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Seth Vidal, creator of "yum" open source software, killed in bike accident off Hillandale Rd. |work= Durham io: The Daily Durham |date= 9 July 2013 |url= http://durham.io/2013/07/09/seth-vidal-creator-of-yum-open-source-software-killed-in-bike-accident-off-hillandale-rd/ |accessdate= 13 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title= Thank you, Seth Vidal |date= 10 July 2013 |publisher= Red Hat |url= http://www.redhat.com/about/news/archive/2013/7/thank-you-seth-vidal |accessdate= 13 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title= 36-Year-Old Open Source Guru Seth Vidal Has Been Tragically Killed |author= Julie Bort |work= Business Insider |date= 9 July 2013 |url= http://www.businessinsider.com/36-year-old-seth-vidal-tragically-killed-2013-7 |accessdate= 13 July 2013 }}</ref>

Yum was created to address both the perceived deficiencies in the old [[APT-RPM]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Murphy|first=David|title=How to run your own yum repository|url=http://archive09.linux.com/feature/37660|publisher=Linux Foundation|accessdate=12 July 2013 |date=23 July 2004}}</ref> and restrictions of the Red Hat [[up2date]] package management tool. Up2date was replaced by Yum in Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5 and later.<ref>{{cite web|title=What are the yum equivalents of up2date and rpm common tasks on Red Hat Enterprise Linux?|url=https://access.redhat.com/site/solutions/2529|publisher=RedHat}}</ref> Some authors refer to it as the Yellowdog Update Manager, or suggest that "Your Update Manager" would be more appropriate.<ref>{{Cite book |title= Network Security Using Linux |author= Michael Sweeney |year= 2005 |isbn= 9781411621770 |page= 84 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=RIPFByuIvvAC&pg=PA84 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title= Linux Bible |author= Christopher Negus, Christine Bresnahan |publisher= John Wiley & Sons |year= 2012 |isbn= 9781118286906 |page= 598 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=w0gL9poGWIIC&pg=PA598 }}</ref> A basic knowledge of yum is often included as a requirement for Linux system administrator certification.<ref name="IBM" />

== Metadata ==
Information about packages (as opposed to the packages themselves) is known as [[metadata]]. These metadata are combined with information in each package to determine (and resolve, if possible) dependencies among the packages. The hope is to avoid a situation known as [[dependency hell]]. A separate tool, <code>createrepo</code>, sets up yum [[software repository|software repositories]], generating the necessary metadata in a standard [[XML]] format (and the [[SQLite]] metadata if given the -d option).<ref>{{cite web |title= createrepo(8) |work= Linux manual page |url= http://linux.die.net/man/8/createrepo |accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref><ref name=susexml /> The <code>mrepo</code> tool (formerly known as Yam) can help in the creation and maintenance of repositories.<ref>{{cite web|title=mrepo|url=http://freecode.com/projects/mrepo|publisher=Freecode|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref>

Yum's XML repository, built with input from many other developers, quickly became the standard for RPM-based repositories.<ref name=susexml>{{cite web|title=Standards Rpm Metadata|url=http://en.opensuse.org/openSUSE:Standards_Rpm_Metadata|publisher=openSUSE|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref> Besides the distributions that use Yum directly, [[SUSE Linux]] 10.1<ref>{{cite web|title=SUSE Linux 10.1 Alpha 2 is ready|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060208235135/http://lists.opensuse.org/archive/opensuse-announce/2005-Oct/0005.html|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref> added support for Yum repositories in [[YaST]], and the [[Open Build Service]] repositories use the yum XML repository format metadata.<ref name=susexml />

Yum automatically synchronizes the remote meta data to the local client, with other tools opting to synchronize only when requested by the user. Having automatic synchronization means that yum cannot fail due to the user failing to run a command at the correct interval.<ref>{{cite web|last=Schmitz|first=Dietrich T.|title=YUM vs. APT: Which is Best? |url= http://www.linuxadvocates.com/2013/03/yum-vs-apt-which-is-best.html}}</ref>

== Extensions ==
[[File:Screenshot-Yum Extender 2.0.4-1.png|thumb |upright=1.5 |Screenshot of Yum Extender (yumex)]]
The 2.x versions of yum feature an additional interface for programming extensions in Python that allows the behavior of yum to be altered. Certain plug-ins are installed by default.<ref>{{cite web|title=Yum Plug-ins|url=https://access.redhat.com/site/documentation/en-US/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux/6/html/Deployment_Guide/sec-Yum_Plugins.html|publisher=RedHat|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref> A commonly installed<ref>{{cite web|title=Maintaining yum|url=http://www.centos.org/docs/5/html/yum/sn-yum-maintenance.html|publisher=CentOS|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref> package <code>yum-utils</code>, contains commands which use the yum API, and many plugins.

[[Graphical user interface]]s, known as "front-ends", allow easier use of yum. [[PackageKit]] and Yum Extender (yumex) are two examples.<ref name="yumex">{{Cite web |title= Yum Extender |work= Web site |url= http://www.yumex.dk/ |accessdate= 13 July 2013 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[.rpm]], the particular packaging-fileformat used by yum

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
{{Portal|Free software}}
{{Commons category|Yum Extender}}
* {{Official website|http://yum.baseurl.org/}}
* [http://prefetch.net/articles/yum.html Managing packages with yum] – Describes how to use yum to manage packages
* [http://docs.fedoraproject.org/yum/ Yum documentation] in [[Fedora]]
* [http://wiki.centos.org/PackageManagement/Yum/ Yum documentation] in [[CentOS]]
* [https://www.scientificlinux.org/documentation/faq/yum.apt.repo Yum documentation] in [[Scientific Linux]]

{{Digital distribution platforms}}
{{Package management systems}}

[[Category:Free package management systems]]
[[Category:Free software programmed in Python]]
[[Category:Linux package management-related software]]
[[Category:Software distribution platforms]]

Psoriasis

2012-09-20T16:25:50Z

Owlgorithm: Removed a sentence that just said, "Yes."

{{Infobox disease
| Name = Psoriasis
| Image = Psoriasis on back1.jpg
| Caption = A person whose back and arms are affected by psoriasis
| DiseasesDB = 10895
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|L|40||l|40}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|696}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM = 177900
| MedlinePlus = 000434
| eMedicineSubj = emerg
| eMedicineTopic = 489
| eMedicine_mult = Dermatology:{{eMedicine2|derm|365}} plaque {{eMedicine2|derm|361}} guttate {{eMedicine2|derm|363}} nails {{eMedicine2|derm|366}} pustular Arthritis {{eMedicine2|derm|918}} Radiology {{eMedicine2|radio|578}} Physical Medicine {{eMedicine2|pmr|120}}
| MeshID = D011565
}}
'''Psoriasis''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|s|ə|ˈ|r|aɪ|.|ə|s|ɨ|s}}) is an [[autoimmune disease]] that affects the skin. It occurs when the immune system mistakes the skin cells as a pathogen, and sends out faulty signals that speed up the growth cycle of skin cells. Psoriasis is not contagious.<ref>{{cite web |title=Learn: About psoriasis |publisher=[[National Psoriasis Foundation]] |url=http://www.psoriasis.org/netcommunity/about_psoriasis}}</ref> However, psoriasis has been linked to an increased risk of stroke,<ref>{{cite news |title=Psoriasis Linked to Stroke Risk |publisher=[[BBC]]|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-14559523 | date=28 August 2011}}</ref> and treating high [[Blood lipids|blood lipid]] levels may lead to improvement.<ref>{{cite pmid|21233693}}</ref>
There are five types of psoriasis: plaque, guttate, inverse, pustular, and erythrodermic. The most common form, plaque psoriasis, is commonly seen as red and white hues of scaly patches appearing on the top first layer of the epidermis (skin). Some patients, though, have no dermatological signs or symptoms. The name ''[[wikt:psoriasis|psoriasis]]'' (ψωρίασης) is from Ancient Greek, meaning roughly "itching condition" (''psora'' "itch" + ''-sis'' "action, condition").

In plaque psoriasis, skin rapidly accumulates at these sites, which gives it a silvery-white appearance. Plaques frequently occur on the skin of the [[Elbow-joint|elbows]] and [[knee]]s, but can affect any area, including the [[scalp]], palms of hands and soles of feet, and [[sex organ|genitals]]. In contrast to [[eczema]], psoriasis is more likely to be found on the [[extensor|outer side]] of the joint.

The [[disease|disorder]] is a chronic recurring condition that varies in severity from minor localized patches to complete body coverage. [[Nail (anatomy)|Fingernails]] and toenails are frequently affected (psoriatic nail dystrophy) and can be seen as an isolated sign. Psoriasis can also cause inflammation of the joints, which is known as [[psoriatic arthritis]]. Between 10—30% of all people with psoriasis also have psoriatic arthritis.<ref>{{cite web |author=Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use (CHMP) |title=Guideline on Clinical Investigation of Medicinal Products indicated for the treatment of Psoriasis |date=18 November 2004 |publisher=European Medicines Agency
|url=http://www.ema.europa.eu/pdfs/human/ewp/245402en.pdf |format=PDF}}</ref><ref>http://www.psoriasis.org/learn_statistics Statistic from Psoriasis.org.</ref>

The cause of psoriasis is not fully understood, but it is believed to have a [[genetics|genetic]] component and local psoriatic changes can be triggered by an injury to the skin known as the [[Koebner phenomenon]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Cox, Neil; White, Gary |title=Diseases of the skin: a color atlas and text |publisher=Mosby |location=St. Louis |year=2000 |isbn=0-7234-3155-8 }}</ref> Various environmental factors have been suggested as aggravating to psoriasis, including [[stress (medicine)|stress]], withdrawal of systemic [[corticosteroid]], as well as other environmental factors, but few have shown statistical significance.<ref>[http://www.emedicine.com/derm/topic365.htm#section~clinical see '''causes''']</ref> There are many treatments available, but because of its chronic recurrent nature, psoriasis is a challenge to treat.
Withdrawal of corticosteroids (topical steroid cream) can aggravate the condition due to the '[[rebound effect]]' of corticosteroids.<ref>url=http://kellypalace61.web.officelive.com/Documents/CorticosteriodAddictionArticle.pdf</ref>

==Classification==
The symptoms of psoriasis can manifest in a variety of forms. Variants include plaque, pustular, guttate, and flexural psoriasis. This section describes each type (with [[ICD|ICD-10]] code <ref>http://web.ilds.org/icd10_list.php?VIEW=1&START_CODE=L40.0&START_EXT=00</ref>).<ref>[http://web.ilds.org/icd10_list.php?VIEW=1&START_CODE=L40.0&START_EXT=00 "Application to dermatology of International Classification of Disease (ICD-10) — ICD sorted by code: L40.000–L41.000"], The International League of Dermatological Societies</ref>

Psoriasis is a chronic relapsing disease of the skin that may be classified into nonpustular and [[pustule|pustular]] types as follows<ref name="Fitz2">{{cite book |author=Freedberg, Irwin M.; Fitzpatrick, Thomas B. |title=Fitzpatrick's dermatology in general medicine |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York |year=2003 |isbn=0-07-138076-0 |edition=6th |page=414}}</ref>:

===Nonpustular===
*'''Psoriasis vulgaris''' (chronic stationary psoriasis, plaque-like psoriasis)(L40.0) is the most common form of psoriasis. It affects 80 to 90% of people with psoriasis. Plaque psoriasis typically appears as raised areas of inflamed skin covered with silvery white scaly skin. These areas are called plaques.

*'''[[Psoriatic erythroderma]]''' (erythrodermic psoriasis)(L40.85) involves the widespread inflammation and exfoliation of the skin over most of the body surface. It may be accompanied by severe itching, swelling and pain. It is often the result of an exacerbation of unstable plaque psoriasis, particularly following the abrupt withdrawal of systemic treatment. This form of psoriasis can be fatal, as the extreme inflammation and exfoliation disrupt the body's ability to regulate temperature and for the skin to perform barrier functions.<ref>[http://dermnetnz.org/scaly/erythrodermic-psoriasis.html "Erythrodermic psoriasis"], New Zealand Dermatological Society</ref>

===Pustular===
'''Pustular psoriasis''' (L40.1-3, L40.82) appears as raised bumps that are filled with noninfectious pus (pustules). The skin under and surrounding the pustules is red and tender. Pustular psoriasis can be localised, commonly to the hands and feet (palmoplantar pustulosis), or generalised with widespread patches occurring randomly on any part of the body. Types include:

*[[Generalized pustular psoriasis]] (pustular psoriasis of von Zumbusch)
*[[Pustulosis palmaris et plantaris]] (persistent palmoplantar pustulosis, pustular psoriasis of the Barber type, pustular psoriasis of the extremities)
*[[Annular pustular psoriasis]]
*[[Acrodermatitis continua]]
*[[Impetigo herpetiformis]]

=== Other ===
Additional types of psoriasis include<ref name="Andrews">{{cite book |author=James, William; Berger, Timothy; Elston, Dirk |title=Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology |publisher=Saunders |year=2005 |isbn=0-7216-2921-0 |edition=10th |page=191–7}}</ref>:
*[[Drug-induced psoriasis]]

*[[Inverse psoriasis]] (flexural psoriasis, inverse psoriasis)(L40.83-4) appears as smooth inflamed patches of skin. It occurs in [[skin fold]]s, particularly around the [[genitals]] (between the thigh and groin), the [[armpit]]s, under an overweight abdomen ([[panniculus]]), and under the [[breasts]] ([[inframammary fold]]). It is aggravated by [[friction]] and [[sweat]], and is vulnerable to [[Mycosis|fungal infection]]s.

*[[Napkin psoriasis]]

*[[Seborrheic-like psoriasis]]

[[Guttate psoriasis]] (L40.4) is characterized by numerous small, scaly, red or pink, teardrop-shaped lesions. These numerous spots of psoriasis appear over large areas of the body, primarily the trunk, but also the limbs and scalp. Guttate psoriasis is often preceded by a [[streptococcal]] infection, typically [[streptococcal pharyngitis]]. The reverse is not true.

[[Psoriatic nails|Nail psoriasis]] (L40.86) produces a variety of changes in the appearance of finger and toe nails. These changes include discolouring under the nail plate, pitting of the nails, lines going across the nails, thickening of the skin under the nail, and the loosening ([[onycholysis]]) and crumbling of the nail.

[[Psoriatic arthritis]] (L40.5) involves joint and [[connective tissue]] [[inflammation]]. Psoriatic arthritis can affect any joint, but is most common in the joints of the fingers and toes. This can result in a sausage-shaped swelling of the fingers and toes known as [[dactylitis]]. Psoriatic arthritis can also affect the hips, knees and spine ([[spondylitis]]). About 10–15% of people who have psoriasis also have psoriatic arthritis.

The [[migratory stomatitis]] in the [[oral cavity]] [[mucosa]] and the [[geographic tongue]] that confined to the dorsal and lateral aspects of the [[tongue]] mucosa, are believed to be oral manifestations of psoriasis, as being [[histology|histologically]] identical to cutaneous psoriasis lesions and more prevalent among psoriasis patients<ref name="MS">{{cite journal |author= Zadik Y, Drucker S, Pallmon S |title=Migratory stomatitis (ectopic geographic tongue) on the floor of the mouth |journal=J Am Acad Dermatol |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=459–60 |year=2011 |month=Aug |pmid=21763590 |doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2010.04.016|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0190962210004883}}</ref>, although these conditions are quite common in the non-psoriatic population, affecting 1% to 2.5% of the general population.<ref name="MS" />

==Signs and symptoms==
<gallery>
image:Psoriasis2010.JPG|Plaque of psoriasis
Image:Psoriasis2010a.JPG|Plaque of psoriasis
Image:Psoriasis.jpg|A person's arm covered with plaque psoriasis
Image:Psoriasis fingernail.jpg|Psoriasis of a fingernail
</gallery>

===Quality of life===
Severe cases of psoriasis have been shown to affect health-related quality of life to an extent similar to the effects of other chronic diseases, such as [[clinical depression|depression]], [[hypertension]], [[congestive heart failure]] or [[type 2 diabetes]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Sampogna F, Chren MM, Melchi CF, Pasquini P, Tabolli S, Abeni D |title=Age, gender, quality of life and psychological distress in patients hospitalized with psoriasis |journal=Br. J. Dermatol. |volume=154 |issue=2 |pages=325–31 |year=2006 |month=February |pmid=16433804 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06909.x |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0007-0963&date=2006&volume=154&issue=2&spage=325}}</ref> Depending on the severity and location of outbreaks, individuals may experience significant physical discomfort and some disability. Itching and pain can interfere with basic functions, such as self-care, [[walking]], and [[sleep]]. Plaques on [[hands]] and [[foot|feet]] can prevent individuals from working at certain occupations, playing some [[sports]], and caring for family members or a home. Plaques on the scalp can be particularly embarrassing, as flaky plaque in the hair can be mistaken for [[dandruff]]. Medical care can be costly and time-consuming, and can interfere with an employment or school schedule.

Individuals with psoriasis may also feel self-conscious about their appearance and have a poor self-image that stems from fear of public rejection and psychosexual concerns. Psychological distress can lead to significant [[clinical depression|depression]] and [[social isolation]].

In a 2008 [[National Psoriasis Foundation]] survey of 426 psoriasis sufferers, 71 percent reported the disease was a significant problem in everyday life. More than half reported significant feelings of self-consciousness (63 percent) and embarrassment (58 percent). More than one-third said they avoided social activities and limited dating or intimate interactions.<ref>[http://www.parade.com/health/healthyskin/coping-with-psoriasis.html "Coping With Psoriasis" Parade.com]</ref>

Many tools exist to measure quality of life of patients with psoriasis and other dermatalogical disorders. Clinical research has indicated individuals often experience a diminished quality of life.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bhosle MJ, Kulkarni A, Feldman SR, Balkrishnan R |title=Quality of life in patients with psoriasis |journal=Health Qual Life Outcomes |volume=4 |issue= |pages=35 |year=2006 |pmid=16756666 |pmc=1501000 |doi=10.1186/1477-7525-4-35 |url=http://www.hqlo.com/content/4//35}}</ref> A 2009 study looked at the impact of psoriasis by using interviews with dermatologists and exploring patients viewpoint. It found that in cases of mild and severe psoriasis, itch contributed most to the diminished health-related quality of life (HRQoL).<ref>{{cite journal |author=Globe D, Bayliss MS, Harrison DJ |title=The impact of itch symptoms in psoriasis: results from physician interviews and patient focus groups |journal=Health Qual Life Outcomes |volume=7 |issue= |pages=62 |year=2009 |pmid=19580674 |pmc=2717072 |doi=10.1186/1477-7525-7-62 |url=http://www.hqlo.com/content/7//62}}</ref>

According to a study published in 2010 in the [[Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology]], the reliability of a simple six-point Likert scale for self-assessment of pruritus (itching) by patients was validated in patients with moderate to severe plaque psoriasis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Gottlieb A, Feng J, Harrison DJ, Globe D |title=Validation and response to treatment of a pruritus self-assessment tool in patients with moderate to severe psoriasis |journal=J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=580–6 |year=2010 |month=October |pmid=20599294 |doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2009.09.049 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0190-9622(09)01346-2}}</ref> This will allow better communication, assessment, as well as staging and management of itching. It could also allow future studies to objectively evaluate the effectiveness of therapy directed towards itching, with consequent improvement in quality of life.<ref>{{cite web |title=Simple Psoriasis Pruritus Self-Assessment Tool Validated |publisher=Doctors Lounge |url=http://www.doctorslounge.com/index.php/news/pb/14435}}</ref>

===Severity===
[[Image:Distribution of psoriasis severity.svg|thumb|Distribution of severity among people with psoriasis]]
Psoriasis is usually graded as mild (affecting less than 3% of the body), moderate (affecting 3–10% of the body) or severe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.healblog.net/psoriasis |title=Psoriasis Symptoms & Treatment |accessdate=2012-08-27 }}</ref> Several scales exist for measuring the severity of psoriasis. The degree of severity is generally based on the following factors: the proportion of body surface area affected; disease activity (degree of plaque redness, thickness and scaling); response to previous therapies; and the impact of the disease on the person.

The [[Psoriasis Area Severity Index]] (PASI) is the most widely used measurement tool for psoriasis. PASI combines the assessment of the severity of lesions and the area affected into a single score in the range 0 (no disease) to 72 (maximal disease).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skinandaging.com/article/5394 |title=Psoriasis Update -Skin & Aging |accessdate=2007-07-28 }}</ref> Nevertheless, the PASI can be too unwieldy to use outside of trials, which has led to attempts to simplify the index for clinical use.<ref name="pmid15530297">{{Cite journal|author=Louden BA, Pearce DJ, Lang W, Feldman SR |title=A Simplified Psoriasis Area Severity Index (SPASI) for rating psoriasis severity in clinic patients |journal=Dermatol. Online J. |volume=10 |issue=2 |page=7 |year=2004 |pmid=15530297 }}</ref>

==Cause==
The cause of psoriasis is not fully understood. There are two main hypotheses about the process that occurs in the development of the disease. The first considers psoriasis as primarily a disorder of excessive growth and reproduction of skin cells. The problem is simply seen as a fault of the [[epidermis (skin)|epidermis]] and its [[keratinocytes]]. The second hypothesis sees the disease as being an [[immune-mediated disease|immune-mediated disorder]] in which the excessive reproduction of skin cells is secondary to factors produced by the [[immune system]]. [[T cell]]s (which normally help protect the body against infection) become active, migrate to the [[dermis]] and trigger the release of [[cytokines]] ([[tumor necrosis factor-alpha]] TNFα, in particular) which cause inflammation and the rapid production of skin cells. It is not known what initiates the activation of the T cells.

The immune-mediated model of psoriasis has been supported by the observation that [[immunosuppressant]] medications can clear psoriasis plaques. However, the role of the immune system is not fully understood, and it has recently been reported that an [[animal model]] of psoriasis can be triggered in mice lacking T cells.<ref name=Zenz>{{Cite journal|author=Zenz R, Eferl R, Kenner L, ''et al.'' |title=Psoriasis-like skin disease and arthritis caused by inducible epidermal deletion of Jun proteins |journal=Nature |volume=437 |issue=7057 |pages=369–75 |year=2005 |pmid=16163348 |doi=10.1038/nature03963}}</ref> [[Animal model]]s, however, reveal only a few aspects resembling human psoriasis.

Compromised skin barrier function has a role in psoriasis susceptibility.<ref>{{cite journal |author=de Cid R, Riveira-Munoz E, Zeeuwen PL, ''et al.'' |title=Deletion of the late cornified envelope LCE3B and LCE3C genes as a susceptibility factor for psoriasis |journal=Nat. Genet. |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=211–5 |year=2009 |month=February |pmid=19169253 |doi=10.1038/ng.313 |pmc=3128734 }}</ref>

Psoriasis is a fairly [[idiosyncratic]] disease. The majority of people's experience of psoriasis is one in which it may worsen or improve for no apparent reason. Studies of the factors associated with psoriasis tend to be based on small (usually hospital based) samples of individuals. These studies tend to suffer from representative issues, and an inability to tease out [[causal]] associations in the face of other (possibly unknown) intervening factors. Conflicting findings are often reported. Nevertheless, the first outbreak is sometimes reported following [[stress (medicine)|stress]] (physical and mental), skin injury, and [[streptococcal infection]]. Conditions that have been reported as accompanying a worsening of the disease include infections, stress, and changes in season and [[climate]]. Certain medicines, including [[lithium salt]], [[beta blocker]]s and the [[antimalarial drug]] chloroquine have been reported to trigger or aggravate the disease. Excessive alcohol consumption, smoking and obesity may exacerbate psoriasis or make the management of the condition difficult or perhaps these comorbidities are effects rather than causes.<ref>[http://www.skincarephysicians.com/psoriasisnet/triggers.html Psoriasis Triggers] at Psoriasis Net. SkinCarePhysicians.com 9-28-05. American Academy of Dermatology, 2008.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Behnam SM, Behnam SE, Koo JY |title=Smoking and psoriasis |journal=Skinmed |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=174–6 |year=2005 |pmid=15891254 |doi= 10.1111/j.1540-9740.2005.03716.x|url=http://www.lejacq.com/articleDetail.cfm?pid=SKINmed_4;3:174}}</ref> Hairspray, some face creams and hand lotions, can also cause an outbreak of psoriasis.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} In 1975, [[Stefania Jablonska]] and collaborators advanced a new theory that special antibodies tend to break through into the lower layers of the skin and set up a complex series of chemical reactions.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Your Health |first= Lester L |last= Coleman |newspaper=Boca Raton News |date=November 30, 1975 |url=http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=d9APAAAAIBAJ&sjid=WI0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=4808,3654533&dq}}</ref>

Individuals suffering from the advanced effects of the [[HIV|human immunodeficiency virus]], or HIV, often exhibit psoriasis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fife DJ, Waller JM, Jeffes EW, Koo JYM |title=Unraveling the Paradoxes of HIV-associated Psoriasis: A Review of T-cell Subsets and Cytokine Profiles |journal=Dermatology Online Journal |volume=13 |issue=2 |year=18 May 2007 |url=http://dermatology.cdlib.org/132/reviews/HIV/fife.html}} [http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/556533 at Medscape]</ref> This presents a paradox to researchers, as traditional therapies that reduce [[T-cell]] counts generally cause psoriasis to improve. Yet, as CD4-T-cell counts decrease with the progression of HIV, psoriasis worsens.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Ortonne JP, [[Mark G. Lebwohl|Lebwohl M]], Em Griffiths C |title=Alefacept-induced decreases in circulating blood lymphocyte counts correlate with clinical response in patients with chronic plaque psoriasis |journal=Eur J Dermatol |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=117–23 |year=2003 |pmid=12695125 |url=http://www.john-libbey-eurotext.fr/medline.md?issn=1167-1122&vol=13&iss=2&page=117}}</ref> In addition, HIV is typically characterized by a strong [[T helper cell|Th2]] [[cytokine]] profile, whereas psoriasis vulgaris is characterized by a strong [[T helper cell|Th1]] secretion pattern.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Austin LM, Ozawa M, Kikuchi T, Walters IB, Krueger JG |title=The majority of epidermal T cells in Psoriasis vulgaris lesions can produce type 1 cytokines, interferon-gamma, interleukin-2, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, defining TC1 (cytotoxic T lymphocyte) and TH1 effector populations: a type 1 differentiation bias is also measured in circulating blood T cells in psoriatic patients |journal=J. Invest. Dermatol. |volume=113 |issue=5 |pages=752–9 |year=1999 |month=November |pmid=10571730 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1747.1999.00749.x }}</ref> It is hypothesized that the diminished CD4-T-Cell presence causes an overactivation of CD8-T-cells, which are responsible for the exacerbation of psoriasis in HIV positive patients. It is important to remember that most individuals with psoriasis are otherwise healthy, and the presence of HIV accounts for less than 1% of cases. The prevalence of psoriasis in the HIV positive population ranges from 1 to 6 percent, which is about three times higher than the normal population.<ref>[http://www.nsc.gov.sg/cgi-bin/WB_ContentGen.pl?id=401&gid=83] A Case Report of Severe Psoriasis in a Patient with AIDS: The Role of the HIV Virus and the Therapeutic Challenges Involved. Vol: 13 No 2, 2002. National Skin Center. Retrieved 05-13-08.</ref> Psoriasis in AIDS sufferers is often severe, and untreatable with conventional therapy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Images of Memorable Cases: Case 34 |quote=This AIDS patient presented with a pruritic eruption over most of his body |work=Connexions |publisher=Rice University |url=http://cnx.org/content/m14956/latest/}}</ref>

Psoriasis occurs more likely in dry skin than oily or well-moisturized skin, and specifically after an external skin injury such as a scratch or cut (see [[Koebner phenomenon]]). This is believed to be caused by an infection, in which the infecting organism thrives under dry skin conditions with minimal skin oil, which otherwise protects skin from infections. The case for psoriasis is opposite to the case of [[athlete's foot]], which occurs because of a fungus infection under wet conditions as opposed to dry in psoriasis. This infection induces inflammation, which causes the symptoms commonly associated with psoriasis, such as itching and rapid skin turnover, and leads to drier skin, as the infecting organism absorbs the moisture that would otherwise go to the skin. To prevent dry skin and reduce psoriasis symptoms, it is advised to not use shower scrubs, as they not only damage skin by leaving tiny scratches, but they also scrape off the naturally occurring skin oil. Additionally, moisturizers can be applied to moisturize the skin, and lotions used to promote skin oil gland functions.{{Citation needed|reason=most of the references to this connection on the Internet seem to be commercial|date=December 2008}}

===Genetics===
{{See also|List of human leukocyte antigen alleles associated with cutaneous conditions}}
Psoriasis has a large hereditary component, and many genes are associated with it, but it is not clear how those genes work together. Most of them involve the immune system, particularly the [[major histocompatibility complex]] (MHC) and [[T cells]]. The main value of genetic studies is they identify molecular mechanisms and pathways for further study and potential drug targets.<ref name=Nestle>{{cite journal |author=Nestle FO, Kaplan DH, Barker J |title=Psoriasis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=361 |issue=5 |pages=496–509 |year=2009 |month=July |pmid=19641206 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra0804595 |url=http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/361/5/496}} Review article: Mechanisms of Disease.</ref>

Classic genomewide linkage analysis has identified nine locations (loci) on different chromosomes associated with psoriasis. They are called psoriasis susceptibility 1 through 9 ([[PSORS1]] through PSORS9). Within those loci are genes. Many of those genes are on pathways that lead to inflammation. Certain variations (mutations) of those genes are commonly found in psoriasis.<ref name=Nestle/>

The major determinant is PSORS1, which probably accounts for 35–50% of its heritability. It controls genes that affect the immune system or encode proteins that are found in the skin in greater amounts in psoriasis. PSORS1 is located on [[chromosome 6]] in the [[major histocompatibility complex|MHC]], which controls important immune functions. Three genes in the PSORS1 locus have a strong association with psoriasis vulgaris: HLA-C variant HLA-Cw6, which encodes a MHC class I protein; [[CCHCR1]], variant WWC, which encodes a coiled protein that is overexpressed in psoriatic epidermis; and CDSM, variant allele 5, which encodes corneodesmosin, which is expressed in the granular and [[cornified layer]]s of the epidermis and upregulated in psoriasis.<ref name=Nestle/>

Genome-wide association scans have identified other genes which are altered to characteristic variants in psoriasis. Some of these genes express inflammatory signal proteins, which affect cells in the immune system that are also involved in psoriasis. Some of these genes are also involved in other autoimmune diseases.<ref name=Nestle/>

Two major genes under investigation are [[IL12B]] on chromosome 5q, which expresses interleukin-12B; and [[IL23R]] on chromosome 1p, which expresses the interleukin-23 receptor, and is involved in T cell differentiation. T cells are involved in the inflammatory process that leads to psoriasis.<ref name=Nestle/>

These genes are on the pathway that ends up upregulating tumor necrosis factor-α and [[NF-κB|nuclear factor κB]], two genes that are involved in inflammation.<ref name=Nestle/>

Recently the first gene directly linked to psoriasis has been identified. Studies have suggested that a rare mutation in the gene encoding for the [[CARD14]] protein plus an environmental trigger was enough to cause plaque psoriasis (the most common form of psoriasis).<ref name = Jordan1> {{vcite journal|author = Jordan CT, Cao L, Roberson EDO et al. | date = April 19 2012 | url = http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297%2812%2900157-7 | journal = The American Journal of Human Genetics | title = Rare and common variants in CARD14, encoding an epidermal regulator of NF-kappaB, in psoriasis | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.03.013}}</ref><ref name = Jordan2> {{vcite journal|author = Jordan CT, Cao L, Roberson EDO et al. | date = April 19 2012 | url = http://www.cell.com/AJHG/abstract/S0002-9297%2812%2900156-5 | journal = The American Journal of Human Genetics | title = PSORS2 is due to mutations in CARD14 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2012.03.012}}</ref>

===Immunology===
In psoriasis, immune cells move from the dermis to the epidermis, where they stimulate skin cells (keratinocytes) to proliferate. Psoriasis does not seem to be a true [[autoimmune disease]].<ref name=Nestle/> In an autoimmune disease, the immune system confuses an outside antigen with a normal body component, and attacks them both. But in psoriasis, the inflammation does not seem to be caused by outside antigens (although DNA does have an immunostimulatory effect). Researchers have identified many of the immune cells involved in psoriasis, and the chemical signals they send to each other to coordinate inflammation. At the end of this process, immune cells, such as [[dendritic cells]] and T cells, move from the [[dermis]] to the [[Epidermis (skin)|epidermis]], secreting chemical signals, such as tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6, which cause inflammation, and interleukin-22, which causes keratinocytes to proliferate.<ref name=Nestle/>

The [[immune system]] consists of an [[innate immune system]], and an [[adaptive immune system]].

In the innate system, immune cells have receptors that have evolved to target specific proteins and other antigens which are commonly found on pathogens. In the adaptive immune system, immune cells respond to proteins and other antigens that they may never have seen before, which are presented to them by other cells. The innate system often passes antigens on to the adaptive system. When the immune system makes a mistake, and identifies a healthy part of the body as a foreign antigen, the immune system attacks that protein, as it does in autoimmunity.

In psoriasis, DNA is an inflammatory stimulus. DNA stimulates the receptors on plasmacytoid dendritic cells, which produce interferon-α, an immune stimulatory signal (cytokine). In psoriasis, keratinocytes produce antimicrobial peptides. In response to dendritic cells and T cells, they also produce cytokines, such as interleukin-1, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α, which signals more inflammatory cells to arrive and produces further inflammation.<ref name=Nestle/>

[[Dendritic cell]]s bridge the innate and adaptive immune system. They are increased in psoriatic lesions and induce the proliferation of T cells and type 1 helper T cells. Certain dendritic cells can produce tumor necrosis factor-α, which calls more immune cells and stimulates more inflammation. Targeted immunotherapy, and psoralen and ultraviolet A (PUVA) therapy, reduces the number of dendritic cells.<ref name=Nestle/>

T cells move from the dermis into the epidermis. They are attracted to the epidermis by alpha-1 beta-1 integrin, a signalling molecule on the collagen in the epidermis. Psoriatic T cells secrete interferon-γ and [[interleukin-17]]. Interleukin-17 is also associated with [[interleukin-22]]. Interleukin-22 induces keratocytes to proliferate.<ref name=Nestle/>

One hypothesis is that psoriasis involves a defect in regulatory T cells, and in the regulatory cytokine interleukin-10.<ref name=Nestle/>

==Diagnosis==
A [[medical diagnosis|diagnosis]] of psoriasis is usually based on the appearance of the skin; there are no special blood tests or diagnostic procedures. Sometimes, a skin [[biopsy]], or scraping, may be needed to rule out other disorders and to confirm the diagnosis. Skin from a biopsy will show clubbed [[rete pegs]] if positive for psoriasis. Another sign of psoriasis is that when the plaques are scraped, one can see pinpoint bleeding from the skin below ([[Auspitz's sign]]).

==Management==
[[Image:Psoriasis treatment ladder.svg|thumb|Schematic of psoriasis treatment ladder]]
There are a number of different treatment options for psoriasis. Typically topical agents are used for mild disease, phototherapy for moderate disease, and systemic agents for severe disease.<ref name=Lancet07>{{cite journal |author=Menter A, Griffiths CE |title=Current and future management of psoriasis |journal=Lancet |volume=370 |issue=9583 |pages=272–84 |year=2007 |month=July |pmid=17658398 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61129-5 }}</ref>

===Topical agents===
Bath solutions and [[moisturizer]]s, [[mineral oil]], and [[petroleum jelly]] may help soothe affected skin and reduce the dryness which accompanies the build-up of skin on psoriatic plaques. Medicated creams and ointments applied directly to psoriatic plaques can help reduce inflammation, remove built-up scale, reduce skin turn over, and clear affected skin of plaques. Ointment and creams containing [[coal tar]], [[dithranol]] (anthralin), [[corticosteroid]]s like [[desoximetasone]] (Topicort), [[fluocinonide]], [[vitamin D]]3 analogues (for example, [[calcipotriol]]), and [[retinoid]]s are routinely used. The use of the [[Finger tip unit]] may be helpful in guiding how much topical treatment to use.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Menter |first=Alan |last2=Gottlieb |first2=Alice |last3=Feldman |first3=Steven R. |last4=Van Voorhees |first4=Abby S. |last5=Leonardi |first5=Craig L. |last6=Gordon |first6=Kenneth B. |last7=Lebwohl |first7=Mark |last8=Koo |first8=John Y. M.|last9=Elmets |first9=Craig A. |trunc=3 |year=2009 |title=Guidelines of care for the management of psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis: Section 3 |journal=[[Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology|J. Am. Acad. Dermatol.]] |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=643–659 |doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2008.12.032 }}</ref> The [[mechanism of action]] of each is probably different, but they all help to normalise skin cell production and reduce inflammation. Activated vitamin D and its analogues can inhibit skin cell proliferation.

===Phototherapy===
[[Phototherapy]] in the form of [[sunlight]] has long been used effectively for treatment.<ref name=Lancet07/> Wavelengths of 311–313 nm are most effective and special lamps have been developed for this application.<ref name=Lancet07/> The exposure time should be controlled to avoid over exposure and burning of the skin. The UVB lamps should have a timer that will turn off the lamp when the time ends. The amount of light used is determined by a person's skin type.<ref name=Lancet07/> Increased rates of cancer from treatment appear to be small.<ref name=Lancet07/>

[[Psoralen]] and ultraviolet A phototherapy ([[PUVA]]) combines the oral or topical administration of psoralen with exposure to ultraviolet A (UVA) light. The [[mechanism of action]] of PUVA is unknown, but probably involves activation of psoralen by UVA light, which inhibits the abnormally rapid production of the cells in psoriatic skin. There are multiple mechanisms of action associated with PUVA, including effects on the skin immune system.

PUVA is associated with [[nausea]], [[headache]], [[Fatigue (physical)|fatigue]], burning, and itching. Long-term treatment is associated with [[squamous cell carcinoma]] (but not with [[melanoma]]).{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}

===Systemic agents===
[[Image:Psoriasis infliximab ar1182-2.gif|thumb|Pictures of a patient with psoriasis (and [[psoriatic arthritis]]) at baseline and 8 weeks after initiation of [[infliximab]] therapy.]]
Psoriasis that is resistant to [[topical|topical treatment]] and [[light therapy|phototherapy]] is treated by [[medication]]s taken internally by [[pill (pharmacy)|pill]] or [[Injection (medicine)|injection]] (systemic). Patients undergoing systemic treatment are required to have regular [[Blood test|blood]] and [[liver function tests]] because of the [[toxicity]] of the [[medication]]. [[Pregnancy]] must be avoided for the majority of these treatments. Most people experience a recurrence of psoriasis after systemic treatment is discontinued.

The three main traditional systemic treatments are [[methotrexate]], [[cyclosporine]] and [[retinoids]]. Methotrexate and cyclosporine are [[immunosuppressive drug|immunosuppressant]] drugs; retinoids are synthetic forms of [[vitamin A]]. Patients taking methotrexate are prone to ulcerations. Methotrexate exposure may contribute to post-surgical events.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Conte H, Ezzedine K, Jouary T, Hubiche T, Taieb A, Milpied B |title=Eventration caused by methotrexate in a psoriatic patient |journal=J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=76–7 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=19453786 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-3083.2009.03269.x }}</ref>

[[biologic medical product|Biologics]] are manufactured proteins that interrupt the immune process involved in psoriasis. Unlike generalised [[immunosuppressive drug|immunosuppressant]] therapies such as methotrexate, biologics focus on specific aspects of the immune function leading to psoriasis. These drugs (interleukin antagonists) are relatively new, and their long-term impact on immune function is unknown, but they have proven effective in treating psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. Biologics are usually given by self-injection or in a doctor's office. In the United Kingdom in 2005, the British Association of Dermatologists (BAD) published guidelines for use of biological interventions in psoriasis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Smith CH, Anstey AV, Barker JN, ''et al.'' |title=British Association of Dermatologists guidelines for use of biological interventions in psoriasis 2005 |journal=Br. J. Dermatol. |volume=153 |issue=3 |pages=486–97 |year=2005 |month=September |pmid=16120132 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06893.x |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/resolve/openurl?genre=article&sid=nlm:pubmed&issn=0007-0963&date=2005&volume=153&issue=3&spage=486}}</ref> A UK national register called the BAD Biological Register (BADBIR) has been set up to collect valuable information on side effects and benefits and will be used to inform doctors on how best to use biological agents and similar drugs.

Two drugs that target T cells are [[efalizumab]] and [[alefacept]]. Efalizumab is a monoclonal antibody which blocks the molecules that [[dendritic cells]] use to communicate with [[T cells]]. It also blocks the adhesion molecules on the [[endothelial]] cells that line blood vessels, which attract T cells. However, it suppressed the immune system's ability to control normally harmless viruses, which led to fatal brain infections. Efalizumab was voluntarily withdrawn from the US market in April, 2009 by the manufacturer. Alefacept also blocks the molecules that dendritic cells use to communicate with T cells and even causes natural killer cells to kill T cells as a way of controlling inflammation.<ref name=Nestle/>

Several [[monoclonal antibodies]] (MAbs) target [[cytokines]], the molecules that cells use to send inflammatory signals to each other. [[tumor necrosis factor α|TNF-α]] is one of the main executor inflammatory cytokines. Four MAbs ([[infliximab]], [[adalimumab]], [[golimumab]] and [[certolizumab pegol]]) and one recombinant TNF-α [[decoy receptor]], [[etanercept]], have been developed against TNF-α to inhibit TNF-α signaling. Additional monoclonal antibodies have been developed against pro-inflammatory cytokines [[Interleukin-12|IL-12]]/[[Interleukin-23|IL-23]] and [[Interleukin-17]] <ref>{{cite journal |author=Hueber W, Patel DD, Dryja T, ''et al.'' |title=Effects of AIN457, a fully human antibody to interleukin-17A, on psoriasis, rheumatoid arthritis, and uveitis |journal=Sci Transl Med |volume=2 |issue=52 |pages=52ra72 |year=2010 |month=October |pmid=20926833 |doi=10.1126/scitranslmed.3001107 }}</ref> and inhibit the inflammatory pathway at a different point than the anti-TNF-α antibodies.<ref name=Nestle/> IL-12 and IL-23 share a common domain, p40, which is the target of the recently FDA-approved [[ustekinumab]]. Ustekinumab ([[Interleukin 12|IL-12]]/[[Interleukin 23|IL-23]] blocker) was shown to have higher efficacy than high-dose etanercept over a 12-week period in patients with psoriasis.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Griffiths CE, Strober BE, van de Kerkhof P, ''et al.'' |title=Comparison of ustekinumab and etanercept for moderate-to-severe psoriasis |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=362 |issue=2 |pages=118–28 |year=2010 |month=January |pmid=20071701 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa0810652 }}</ref>

In 2008, the FDA approved three new treatment options<ref>[http://www.parade.com/health/healthyskin/psoriasis-medical-breakthroughs.html "Psoriasis Medical Breakthroughs" Parade.com]</ref> available to psoriasis patients: 1) Taclonex Scalp, a new topical ointment for treating scalp psoriasis; 2) the Xtrac Velocity excimer laser system, which emits a high-intensity beam of ultraviolet light, can treat moderate to severe psoriasis; and 3) the biologic drug [[adalimumab]] (brand name Humira) was also approved to treat moderate to severe psoriasis. Adalimumab had already been approved to treat psoriatic arthritis. The most recent biologic drug that has been approved to treat moderate to severe psoriasis, as of 2010, is [[ustekinumab]] (brand name Stelara).

Medications with the least potential for adverse reactions are preferentially employed. If the treatment goal is not achieved, then therapies with greater potential [[toxicity]] may be used. Medications with significant toxicity are reserved for severe unresponsive psoriasis. This is called the psoriasis treatment ladder.<ref name=Lofholm>{{Cite journal|author=Lofholm PW |title=The psoriasis treatment ladder: a clinical overview for pharmacists |journal=US Pharm |year=2000 |volume=25 |issue=5 |pages=26–47 |url=http://www.uspharmacist.com/oldformat.asp?url=newlook/files/Feat/apr00pro.cfm&pub_id=8&article_id=511}}</ref> As a first step, medicated [[ointment]]s or creams, called topical treatments, are applied to the skin. If topical treatment fails to achieve the desired goal, then the next step would be to expose the skin to [[ultraviolet]] (UV) radiation. This type of treatment is called [[phototherapy]]. The third step involves the use of medications which are taken internally by pill or [[Injection (medicine)|injection]]. This approach is called systemic treatment.

A 2010 meta-analysis compares the change in Psoriasis Area and Severity Index (PASI) improvement from baseline in 22 trials. The combination therapy for moderate to severe psoriasis using psoralen with ultraviolet A (PUVA) plus acitretin shows a 97.3% PASI improvement from baseline. Therapy limitations need to be taken into consideration in the treatment of moderate to severe psoriasis, such as the increased risk of skin cancer with phototherapy and birth defects with acitretin.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hankin CS, Bhatia ND, Goldenberg G, ''et al.'' |title=A Comparison of the Clinical Effectiveness and Cost-Effectiveness of Treatments for Moderate to Severe Psoriasis |journal=Drug Benefit Trends |volume=21 |pages=17–27 |year=2010 |url=http://dbt.consultantlive.com/display/article/1145628/1524557}}</ref>

===Alternative therapy===
Some studies suggest psoriasis symptoms can be relieved by changes in diet and lifestyle. Fasting periods, low energy
diets and vegetarian diets have improved psoriasis symptoms in some studies,<ref name=Wolters05/> and diets supplemented with [[fish oil]] (in this study [[cod liver oil]]) have also shown beneficial
effects.<ref name=Wolters05>{{Cite journal|author=Wolters M|title=Diet and psoriasis: experimental data and clinical evidence|journal=[[British Journal of Dermatology|Br J Dermatol]]|volume=153|issue=4|pages=706–714|year=2005|month=October|pmid=16181450 |url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/514108|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2133.2005.06781.x}}</ref> Fish oils are rich in the two [[omega-3 fatty acid]]s [[eicosapentaenoic acid]] (EPA) and [[docosahexaenoic acid]] (DHA) and contain [[Vitamin E]], furthermore cod liver oil contains [[Vitamin A]] and [[Vitamin D]].

The severity of psoriasis symptoms may also be influenced by lifestyle habits related to alcohol, smoking, weight, sleep, stress and exercise.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Treloar V|title=Integrative dermatology for psoriasis: facts and controversies|journal=Clinics in Dermatology|volume=28|issue=1|pages=93–99|year=2010|pmid=20082958|doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2009.03.016|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20082958}}</ref>

It has been suggested that [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] might treat psoriasis, due to the anti-inflammatory properties of its [[cannabinoids]], and their regulatory effects on the immune system.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Namazi MR |title=Cannabinoids, loratadine and allopurinol as novel additions to the antipsoriatic ammunition |journal=J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=319–22 |year=2005 |pmid=15857457 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-3083.2004.01184.x}}</ref> The adverse effects of cannabis might be avoided with a topical preparation or by the use of (a) more specific endocannabinoid receptor agonist(s),<ref name="pmid16375686">{{Cite journal|author=Fowler CJ |title=Pharmacological properties and therapeutic possibilities for drugs acting upon endocannabinoid receptors |journal=Current drug targets. CNS and neurological disorders |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=685–96 |year=2005 |pmid=16375686 |doi=10.2174/156800705774933041}}</ref>

==Prognosis==
Psoriasis is typically a lifelong condition. There is currently no cure, but various treatments can help to control the symptoms.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Jobling R|title=A patient's journey:Psoriasis|journal=Br Med J|year=2007|volume=334|pages=953–4|doi=10.1136/bmj.39184.615150.802|pmc=1865393|pmid=17478850|issue=7600}}</ref> Many of the most effective agents used to treat severe psoriasis carry an increased risk of significant morbidity including [[skin cancer]]s, [[lymphoma]] and liver disease. However, the majority of people's experience of psoriasis is that of minor localized patches, particularly on the elbows and knees, which can be treated with topical medication. Psoriasis can get worse over time, but it is not possible to predict who will go on to develop extensive psoriasis or those in whom the disease may appear to vanish. Individuals will often experience flares and remissions throughout their lives. Controlling the signs and symptoms typically requires lifelong therapy.

According to one study,<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Olsen JH, Frentz G, Møller H |title=[Psoriasis and cancer] |language=Danish |journal=Ugeskr. Laeg. |volume=155 |issue=35 |pages=2687–91 |year=1993 |pmid=8212383 }}</ref> psoriasis is linked to 2.5-fold increased risk for nonmelanoma skin cancer in men and women, with no preponderance of any specific histologic subtype of cancer. This increased risk could also be attributed to antipsoriatic treatment.

==Epidemiology==
Psoriasis affects both [[sex]]es equally, and can occur at any [[ageing|age]], although it most commonly appears for the first time between the ages of 15 and 25 years.

The [[prevalence]] of psoriasis in Western populations is estimated to be around 2-3%. The prevalence of psoriasis among 7.5 million patients who were registered with a general practitioner in the United Kingdom was 1.5%.<ref name=Gelfand>{{Cite journal|author=Gelfand JM et al. |title=Prevalence and Treatment of Psoriasis in the United Kingdom |journal=Arch. Dermatol. |volume=141 |issue=12 |pages=1537–1541 |year=2005 |pmid=16365254 |doi=10.1001/archderm.141.12.1537}}</ref> A [[statistical survey|survey]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.psoriasis.org/files/pdfs/press/npfsurvey.pdf
|title=Benchmark Survey on Psoriasis and Psoriatic Arthritis: Summary of Top-Line Results
|publisher=National Psoriasis Foundation
|format=PDF
}}</ref>
conducted by the [[National Psoriasis Foundation]] (a US-based psoriasis [[education]] and [[advocacy group]]) found a prevalence of 2.1% among [[adult]] [[United States|Americans]]. The study found 35% of people with psoriasis could be classified as having moderate to severe psoriasis.

Around one-third of people with psoriasis report a [[family history (medicine)|family history]] of the disease, and researchers have identified genetic [[locus (genetics)|loci]] associated with the condition. Studies of [[twin|monozygotic twins]] suggest a 70% chance of a twin developing psoriasis if the other twin has psoriasis. The [[concordance (genetics)|concordance]] is around 20% for [[twin|dizygotic twins]]. These findings suggest both a genetic predisposition and an environmental response in developing psoriasis.<ref name=Krueger>{{Cite journal|author=Krueger G, Ellis CN |title=Psoriasis--recent advances in understanding its pathogenesis and treatment |journal=J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. |volume=53 |issue=1 Suppl 1 |pages=S94–100 |year=2005 |pmid=15968269 |doi=10.1016/j.jaad.2005.04.035}}</ref>

Onset before age 40 usually indicates a greater genetic susceptibility and a more severe or recurrent course of psoriasis.

==History==
Some scholars believe psoriasis to have been included among the skin conditions called ''[[tzaraath|tzaraat]]'' in the [[Hebrew Bible]], defined by [[chazal]] as the result of talking [[lashon hara]] (slander). The patient deemed "impure" (see [[tumah and taharah]]) during their afflicted phase and is ultimately treated by the [[kohen]].<ref name=Shai>{{Cite journal|author=Shai A, Vardy D, Zvulunov A |title=[Psoriasis, biblical afflictions and patients' dignity] |language=Hebrew |journal=Harefuah |volume=141 |issue=5 |pages=479–82, 496 |year=2002 |pmid=12073533 }}</ref> In more recent times psoriasis was frequently described as a variety of [[leprosy]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} The Greeks used the term lepra (λεπρα) for scaly skin conditions. They used the term psora to describe itchy skin conditions. It became known as ''Willan's lepra'' in the late 18th century when English [[dermatologist]]s [[Robert Willan]] and Thomas Bateman differentiated it from other skin diseases. Leprosy, they said, is distinguished by the regular, circular form of patches, while psoriasis is always irregular. Willan identified two categories: ''leprosa graecorum'' and ''psora leprosa''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Meenan FO |title=A note on the history of psoriasis |journal=Ir J Med Sci |issue=351 |pages=141–2 |year=1955 |month=March |pmid=14353580 }}</ref>

It was not until 1841 that the condition was finally given the name ''psoriasis'' by the [[Vienna|Viennese]] dermatologist [[Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra|Ferdinand von Hebra]]. The name is derived from the [[Greek language|Greek]] word ''psora'' which means ''to itch''.<ref name=Glickman>{{Cite journal|author=Glickman FS |title=Lepra, psora, psoriasis |journal=J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. |volume=14 |issue=5 Pt 1 |pages=863–6 |year=1986 |pmid=3519699 |doi=10.1016/S0190-9622(86)70101-1}}</ref>

It was during the 20th century that psoriasis was further differentiated into specific types.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}

===Historical treatment===
{{Original research|date=June 2011}}
The history of psoriasis is littered with treatments of dubious effectiveness and high toxicity. These treatments received brief popularity at particular time periods or within certain geographical regions. The application of [[cat]] [[faeces]] to red lesions on the skin, for example, was one of the earliest topical treatments employed in ancient [[Egypt]]. Onions, sea salt and [[urine]], goose oil and [[semen]], wasp droppings in [[sycamore]] milk, and soup made from [[Viperidae|viper]]s have all been reported as being ancient treatments.

In the more recent past, [[Fowler's solution]], which contains a [[poisonous]] and [[carcinogenic]] [[arsenic]] compound, was used by dermatologists as a treatment for psoriasis during the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Grenz rays]] (also called ultrasoft X-rays or Bucky rays) was a popular treatment of psoriasis during the middle of the 20th century. This type of therapy was superseded by ultraviolet therapy.

[[Undecylenic acid]] was investigated and used for psoriasis some 40 years ago (circa 1950).<ref>{{Cite journal| author=Ereaux L, Craig G | title=The Oral Administration Of Undecylenic Acid In The Treatment Of Psoriasis | journal=Canad. M. A. J. | year=1949 | month=October | volume=61 | pages=361–4 | accessdate=2007-01-05 | pmc=1591667 | pmid=18140580| issue=4}} — see page 4/364 of link</ref>

All these treatments have fallen out of favour.

Sulphur was fashionable as a treatment for psoriasis in the Victorian and Edwardian eras. It has recently regained some credibility as a safe alternative to steroids and coal tar.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

==Research==
Historically, agents used to treat psoriasis were discovered by experimentation or by accident. In contrast, current novel therapeutic agents are designed from a better understanding of the immune processes involved in psoriasis and by the specific targeting of molecular mediators. Examples can be seen in the use of biologics, which target T cells and TNF inhibitors.

Emerging clinical research has demonstrated the integral role of [[Janus kinase]] (JAK) proteins in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. As of 2010, two new oral [[JAK inhibitor]] drugs, [[ruxolitinib]] and [[tofacitinib]] (formerly called tasocitinib), have shown rapid and promising efficacy in Phase I/II trials with patients showing significant skin clearing within one week of beginning treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Mesa RA |title=Ruxolitinib, a selective JAK1 and JAK2 inhibitor for the treatment of myeloproliferative neoplasms and psoriasis |journal=IDrugs |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=394–403 |year=2010 |month=June |pmid=20506062 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Boy MG, Wang C, Wilkinson BE, ''et al.'' |title=Double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-escalation study to evaluate the pharmacologic effect of CP-690,550 in patients with psoriasis |journal=J. Invest. Dermatol. |volume=129 |issue=9 |pages=2299–302 |year=2009 |month=September |pmid=19225543 |doi=10.1038/jid.2009.25 }}</ref> Ruxolitinib has completed Phase II clinical trials supplied as a topical cream.<ref>{{ClinicalTrialsGov|NCT00778700|A Dose Ranging Study of the Effect of INCB018424 Phosphate Cream When Applied to Patients With Plaque Psoriasis}}</ref>

[[Briakinumab]] is a human anti-[[Interleukin 12|IL-12]]/[[Interleukin 23|IL-23]] [[monoclonal antibody]] directed against the shared p40 subunit of IL-12 and IL-23. Briakinumab is being developed by [[Abbott Laboratories]] in conjunction with [[Cambridge Antibody Technology]] for the treatment of multiple autoimmune diseases, including psoriasis. Abbott completed Phase III trials in 2010.<ref>[[ClinicalTrials.gov]] [http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results?term=ABT-874 10 studies with search of: ABT-874]</ref> Despite successful trials, in January 2011 Abbott withdrew their biologic drug application from United States and European regulatory offices.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSN1415033420110114 |author=Krauskopf L |title=Abbott withdraws applications for psoriasis drug |publisher=Reuters |date=14 January 2011}}</ref>

[[Talarozole]] amplifies the effects of retinoic acid by inhibiting its metabolism. {{As of|February 2009}}, it is undergoing clinical trials.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Giltaire|first=S|coauthors=Herphelin F, Frankart A, Hérin M, Stoppie P, Poumay Y|date=11 December 2008|title=The CYP26 inhibitor R115866 potentiates the effects of all-trans retinoic acid on cultured human epidermal keratinocytes|journal=Br J Dermatol|pmid=19120344|volume=160|issue=3|pages=505–13|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08960.x}}</ref>

Research into [[oligonucleotide|antisense oligonucleotide]]s carries the potential to provide novel therapeutic strategies for treating psoriasis. Antisense oligonucleotides would be used to down regulate key cellular proteins known to play a role in psoriatic pathogenesis including inflammatory proteins such as [[ICAM-1]] (intercellular adhesion molecule-1), [[Interleukin-2|IL-2]] and [[Interleukin-8|IL-8]], cellular proliferation proteins like [[insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor]] (IGF-IR) <ref>{{cite journal |author=Liew SC, Das-Gupta E, Chakravarthi S, ''et al.'' |title=Differential expression of the angiogenesis growth factors in psoriasis vulgaris |journal=BMC Res Notes |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=201 |year=2012 |month=April |pmid=22537619 |doi=10.1186/1756-0500-5-201 |url=http://www.biomedcentral.com/1756-0500/5/201}}</ref>and [[epidermal growth factor]] and hyperangiogenesis [[vascular endothelial growth factor]] (VEGF).<ref name=White>{{Cite journal|author=White PJ, Atley LM, Wraight CJ |title=Antisense oligonucleotide treatments for psoriasis |journal=Expert opinion on biological therapy |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=75–81 |year=2004 |pmid=14680470 |doi=10.1517/14712598.4.1.75}}</ref>

A novel boron-containing topical anti-inflammatory, AN2728, is currently being developed by [[Anacor]] Pharmaceuticals and is in Phase 2b trials for mild-to-moderate plaque type psoriasis.<ref>>{{ClinicalTrialsGov|NCT01300052}}</ref> The molecule works by inhibiting PDE4 and reducing the production of TNF-alpha, a precursor of the inflammation associated with psoriasis, as well as other cytokines, including IL-12 and IL-23.

Noting that [[botulinum toxin]] has been shown to have an effect on inhibiting [[neurogenic inflammation]], and evidence suggesting the role of [[neurogenic inflammation]] in the [[pathogenesis]] of psoriasis,<ref>{{cite journal | pmid= 17034513 | last1= Saraceno | first1= R | year= 2006 | pages= 876–82 | issue= 5 | last2= Kleyn | volume= 155 | first2= CE | journal= The British Journal of Dermatology | last3= Terenghi | first3= G | last4= Griffiths | first4= CE |title=The role of neuropeptides in psoriasis | doi= 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2006.07518.x}}</ref> the [[University of Minnesota]] has begun a [[clinical trial]] to follow up on the observation that patients treated with botulinum toxin for [[dystonia]] had dramatic improvement in psoriasis.<ref>{{ClinicalTrialsGov|NCT00816517|Use of Botulinum Toxin to Treat Psoriasis}}</ref>

In 2004, Tas and Avci demonstrated [[cyclopamine]]’s clinical potential for the treatment of psoriasis and basal cell carcinoma in two preliminary proof of concept studies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tas |first=S. |last2=Avci |first2=O. |title=Rapid clearance of psoriatic skin lesions induced by topical cyclopamine |journal=Dermatology |year=2004 |volume=209 |issue=2 |pages=126–131 |doi=10.1159/000079596 |pmid=15316166 }}</ref> By treating 31 psoriatic lesions in 7 patients, these authors asserted topical cyclopamine was more effective in the clinical and histological clearance of guttate and plaque psoriasis than the topical steroid [[clobetasol-17 propionate]]. Furthermore, they demonstrated concurrent application of cylopamine and clobetasol-17 propionate accelerated regression and clearance of selected lesions greater than cyclopamine alone, with clearance times as early as 48 hours. They assert cyclopamine inhibits the abnormal proliferation of epithelial cells, induces terminal differentiation, and is associated with the
decreased presence of inflammatory cells, including CD41 lymphocytes.

On 27 August 2006, scientists led by Jeung-Hoon Lee created the synthetic lipids pseudoceramides, which are involved in [[skin cell]] growth, and could be used in treating [[skin diseases]] such as [[atopic dermatitis]], a form of [[eczema]] characterized by red, flaky and very itchy skin; psoriasis, and [[glucocorticoid]]-induced [[epidermal atrophy]], in which the skin shrinks due to skin cell loss.<ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070827184713.htm Science Daily, New Skin-healing Chemicals]</ref>

The International Federation of Psoriasis Associations (IFPA) supports research in the field of psoriasis. The IFPA is a non-profit organization made up of psoriasis associations from around the world.<ref>http://www.ifpa-pso.org/</ref>. The Psoriasis International Network, a program of the [[Fondation René Touraine]], is part of the IFPA.

==In children==
Psoriasis can affect children. Approximately one third of psoriasis patients report being diagnosed before age 20.<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Sandrine |last=Benoit |first2=Henning |last2=Hamm |year=2007 |title=Childhood Psoriasis |journal=Clinics in Dermatology |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=555–562 |accessdate=13 June 2009 |doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2007.08.009 |pmid=18021892 }}</ref> Self-esteem and behavior can be affected by the disease. Bullying has been noted in clinical research.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Magin |first=Parker |last2=Adams |first2=Jon |last3=Heading |first3=Gaynor |last4=Pond |first4=Dimity |last5=Smith |first5=Wayne |year=2008 |title=Experiences of appearance-related teasing and bullying in skin diseases and their psychological sequelae: results of a qualitative study |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=430–436 |doi=10.1111/j.1471-6712.2007.00547.x |pmid=18840226 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of cutaneous conditions]]
* [[List of human leukocyte antigen alleles associated with cutaneous conditions]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{Cite book |title=From Arsenic to Biologicals: A 200 Year History of Psoriasis |first=Barbara S. |last=Baker |location=Beckenham, UK |publisher=Garner Press |year=2008 |isbn=0-9551603-2-4 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

* {{DMOZ|Health/Conditions_and_Diseases/Skin_Disorders/Psoriasis/}}

{{Diseases of the skin and appendages by morphology}}
{{Papulosquamous disorders}}

[[Category:Psoriasis]]
[[Category:Autoimmune diseases]]

{{Link GA|es}}

[[ar:صداف]]
[[be:Псарыяз]]
[[bg:Псориазис]]
[[bs:Psorijaza]]
[[ca:Psoriasi]]
[[cs:Psoriáza]]
[[cy:Soriasis]]
[[da:Psoriasis]]
[[de:Schuppenflechte]]
[[el:Ψωρίαση]]
[[es:Psoriasis]]
[[eo:Psoriazo]]
[[fa:پسوریازیس]]
[[fr:Psoriasis]]
[[ko:건선]]
[[hi:छाल रोग]]
[[hr:Psorijaza]]
[[id:Psoriasis]]
[[it:Psoriasi]]
[[he:פסוריאזיס]]
[[ka:ფსორიაზი]]
[[ky:Кабырчыктуу чакалай]]
[[lt:Žvynelinė]]
[[hu:Pikkelysömör]]
[[nl:Psoriasis]]
[[ne:सोरियासिस]]
[[ja:乾癬]]
[[no:Psoriasis]]
[[pl:Łuszczyca]]
[[pt:Psoríase]]
[[ro:Psoriazis]]
[[ru:Псориаз]]
[[simple:Psoriasis]]
[[fi:Psoriasis]]
[[sv:Psoriasis]]
[[ta:தடிப்புத் தோல் அழற்சி]]
[[te:సోరియాసిస్]]
[[th:โรคสะเก็ดเงิน]]
[[tr:Sedef hastalığı]]
[[uk:Псоріаз]]
[[vi:Bệnh vẩy nến]]
[[zh:銀屑病]]

COBOL

2011-09-13T20:30:50Z

Owlgorithm: /* Verbose syntax */ Edited the URL of a citation after corresponding with the target link's webmaster (error was due to server software migration, but content was unchanged)

{{Other uses|COBOL (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox programming language
| name = '''COBOL LANGUAGE'''
| logo =
| paradigm = [[Procedural programming|procedural]], [[Object-oriented programming|object-oriented]]
| year = {{start-date|1959}}
| designer = [[Grace Hopper]], William Selden, Gertrude Tierney, Howard Bromberg, Howard Discount, Vernon Reeves, [[Jean E. Sammet]]
| latest release version = COBOL 2002
| latest release date = 2002
| typing = [[strong typing|strong]], [[static typing|static]]
| implementations = [[OpenCOBOL]], [[Micro Focus International]] (e.g. the [[Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]]-plug-in ''Micro Focus Net Express'')
| dialects = HP3000 COBOL/II, COBOL/2, IBM OS/VS COBOL, IBM COBOL/II, IBM COBOL SAA, IBM Enterprise COBOL, IBM COBOL/400, IBM ILE COBOL, Unix COBOL X/Open, Micro Focus COBOL, Microsoft COBOL, Ryan McFarland RM/COBOL, Ryan McFarland RM/COBOL-85, DOSVS COBOL, UNIVAC COBOL, Realia COBOL, Fujitsu COBOL, ICL COBOL, ACUCOBOL-GT, COBOL-IT, DEC COBOL-10, DEC VAX COBOL, Wang VS COBOL, Visual COBOL, Tandem (NonStop) COBOL85, Tandem (NonStop) SCOBOL (a COBOL74 variant for creating screens on text-based terminals)
| influenced_by = [[FLOW-MATIC]], [[COMTRAN]], [[FACT computer language|FACT]]
| influenced = [[PL/I]], [[CobolScript]], [[ABAP]]
| wikibooks = COBOL
}}
'''COBOL''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|k|oʊ|b|ɒ|l}}) is one of the oldest [[programming language]]s. Its name is an [[acronym]] for '''CO'''mmon '''B'''usiness-'''O'''riented '''L'''anguage, defining its primary domain in [[business]], finance, and administrative systems for companies and governments.

The COBOL 2002 standard includes support for [[object-oriented programming]] and other modern language features.<ref>{{cite book | last = Oliveira | first = Rui | title = The Power of Cobol | publisher = BookSurge Publishing | location = City | year = 2006 | isbn = 0620346523}}</ref>

==History and specification==
The ''COBOL'' specification was created by a committee of researchers from private industry, universities, and government during the second half of 1959. The specifications were to a great extent inspired by the [[FLOW-MATIC]] language invented by [[Grace Hopper]] - commonly referred to as "the mother of the COBOL language." The IBM [[COMTRAN]] language invented by [[Bob Bemer]] was also drawn upon, but the [[FACT computer language|FACT]] language specification from [[Honeywell]] was not distributed to committee members until late in the process and had relatively little impact. [[FLOW-MATIC]]'s status as the only language of the bunch to have actually been implemented made it particularly attractive to the committee.<ref name=cisn>{{cite journal
| last = Sammet
| first = Jean
| authorlink = Jean_Sammet
| coauthors =
| title = The Early History of COBOL
| journal = ACM SIGPLAN Notices
| volume = 13
| issue = 8
| pages = 121–161
| publisher = Association for Computing Machinery, Inc.
| location =
| year = 1978
| url =http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1198367
| issn =
| doi =
| id =
| accessdate = 14 January 2010
| pmid = }}</ref>

The scene was set on April 8, 1959 at a meeting of computer manufacturers, users, and university people at the [[University of Pennsylvania]] Computing Center. The [[United States Department of Defense]] subsequently agreed to sponsor and oversee the next activities. A meeting chaired by Charles A. Phillips was held at [[the Pentagon]] on May 28 and 29 of 1959 (exactly one year after the [[Zürich]] [[ALGOL 58]] meeting); there it was decided to set up three committees: short, intermediate and long range (the last one was never actually formed). It was the Short Range Committee, chaired by Joseph Wegstein of the US National Bureau of Standards, that during the following months created a description of the first version of COBOL.<ref>{{cite book | last = Garfunkel | first = Jerome | title = The Cobol 85 Example Book | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | year = 1987 | isbn = 0471804614}}</ref> The committee was formed to recommend a short range approach to a common business language. The committee was made up of members representing six computer manufacturers and three government agencies. The six computer manufacturers were [[Burroughs Corporation]], [[IBM]], Minneapolis-[[Honeywell]] (Honeywell Labs), [[RCA]], [[Sperry Rand]], and [[Sylvania Electric Products]]. The three government agencies were the [[US Air Force]], the Navy's [[David Taylor Model Basin]], and the [[National Bureau of Standards]] (now [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]]). The intermediate-range committee was formed but never became operational. In the end a sub-committee of the Short Range Committee developed the specifications of the COBOL language. This sub-committee was made up of six individuals:

* William Selden and Gertrude Tierney of [[IBM]]
* Howard Bromberg and Howard Discount of [[RCA]]
* Vernon Reeves and [[Jean E. Sammet]] of [[Sylvania Electric Products]]<ref>{{cite book | last = Wexelblat | first = Richard | title = History of Programming Languages | publisher = Academic Press | location = Boston | year = 1981 | isbn = 0127450408}}</ref>

The decision to use the name "COBOL" was made at a meeting of the committee held on 18 September 1959. The subcommittee completed the specifications for COBOL in December 1959.

The first compilers for COBOL were subsequently implemented in 1960, and on December 6 and 7, essentially the same COBOL program ran on two different computer makes, an RCA computer and a Remington-Rand [[Univac]] computer, demonstrating that compatibility could be achieved.

=== ANS COBOL 1968 ===
After 1959 COBOL underwent several modifications and improvements. In an attempt to overcome the problem of incompatibility between different versions of COBOL, the American National Standards Institute ([[ANSI]]) developed a standard form of the language in 1968. This version was known as American National Standard (ANS) COBOL.

=== COBOL 1974 ===
In 1974, ANSI published a revised version of (ANS) COBOL, containing a number of features that were not in the 1968 version.

=== COBOL 1985 ===
In 1985, ANSI published still another revised version that had new features not in the 1974 standard, most notably structured language constructs ("scope terminators"), including <code>END-IF</code>, <code>END-PERFORM</code>, <code>END-READ</code>, etc.

===COBOL 2002 and object-oriented COBOL===
The language continues to evolve today. In the early 1990s it was decided to add object-orientation in the next full revision of COBOL. The initial estimate was to have this revision completed by 1997 and an ISO CD (Committee Draft) was available by 1997. Some implementers (including [[Micro Focus International|Micro Focus]], [[Fujitsu]], [[Veryant]], and [[IBM]]) introduced object-oriented syntax based on the 1997 or other drafts of the full revision. The final approved ISO Standard (adopted as an ANSI standard by INCITS) was approved and made available in 2002.

Like the [[C++]] and [[Java (programming language)|Java]] programming languages, object-oriented COBOL compilers are available even as the language moves toward standardization. [[Fujitsu]] and [[Micro Focus]] currently support object-oriented COBOL compilers targeting the .NET framework.<ref>[http://www.adtools.com/products/windows/netcobol.html NetCOBOL for .NET supports COBOL migration and software development in the .NET environment]</ref>

The 2002 (4th revision) of COBOL included many other features beyond object-orientation. These included (but are not limited to):

* National Language support (including but not limited to Unicode support)
* Locale-based processing
* User-defined functions
* CALL (and function) [[function prototype|prototypes]] (for compile-time parameter checking)
* Pointers and syntax for getting and freeing storage
* Calling conventions to and from non-COBOL languages such as [[C (programming language)|C]]
* Support for execution within framework environments such as Microsoft's [[.NET Framework|.NET]] and [[Java (programming language)|Java]] (including COBOL instantiated as [[Enterprise JavaBean]]s)
* Bit and Boolean support
* “True” binary support (up until this enhancement, binary items were truncated based on the (base-10) specification within the Data Division)
* [[Floating-point]] support
* Standard (or portable) arithmetic results
* [[XML]] generation and parsing

===History of COBOL standards===
The specifications approved by the full Short Range Committee were approved by the Executive Committee on January 3, 1960, and sent to the government printing office, which edited and printed these specifications as ''[[Cobol 60]]''.

The [[American National Standards Institute]] (ANSI) produced several revisions of the COBOL standard, including:

* [[COBOL-68]]
* [[COBOL-74]]
* [[COBOL-85]]
* Intrinsic Functions Amendment - 1989
* Corrections Amendment - 1991

After the Amendments to the 1985 ANSI Standard (which were adopted by ISO), primary development and ownership was taken over by ISO. The following editions and TRs (Technical Reports) have been issued by ISO (and adopted as ANSI) Standards:

* [[COBOL 2002]]
* Finalizer Technical Report - 2003
* Native XML syntax Technical Report - 2006
* Object Oriented Collection Class Libraries - pending final approval...

From 2002, the [[ISO]] standard is also available to the public coded as [[ISO/IEC 1989]].

Work progresses on the next full revision of the COBOL Standard. Approval and availability was expected early 2010s. For information on this revision, to see the latest draft of this revision, or to see what other works is happening with the COBOL Standard, see [http://www.cobolstandards.com the COBOL Standards Website].

===Legacy===
COBOL programs are in use globally in governmental and military agencies and in commercial enterprises, and are running on operating systems such as IBM's [[z/OS]], the [[POSIX]] families ([[Unix]]/[[Linux]] etc.), and Microsoft's [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] as well as [[International Computers Limited|ICL]]'s [[ICL VME|VME]] operating system and [[Unisys]]' [[Unisys OS 2200 operating system|OS 2200]]. In 1997, the [[Gartner Group]] reported that 80% of the world's business ran on COBOL with over 200 billion lines of code in existence and with an estimated 5 billion lines of new code annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cobolportal.com/developer/future.asp?bhcp=1 | title=What Professionals think of the Future of COBOL? | publisher=Micro Focus | accessdate=2010-05-05 }}</ref>

Near the end of the twentieth century the [[year 2000 problem]] was the focus of significant COBOL programming effort, sometimes by the same programmers who had designed the systems decades before. The particular level of effort required for COBOL code has been attributed both to the large amount of business-oriented COBOL, as COBOL is by design a business language and business applications use dates heavily, and to constructs of the COBOL language such as the PICTURE clause, which can be used to define fixed-length numeric fields, including two-digit fields for years.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} Because of the clean-up effort put into these COBOL programs for Y2K, many of them have been kept in use for years since then.{{Citation needed|June 2011|date=June 2011}}

==Features==
COBOL as defined in the original specification included a [[picture clause|PICTURE clause]] for detailed field specification. It did not support local variables, recursion, dynamic memory allocation, or [[structured programming]] constructs. Support for some or all of these features has been added in later editions of the COBOL standard. COBOL has many [[reserved word]]s (over 400), called [[keyword (computing)|keyword]]s.

===Self-modifying code===
The original COBOL specification supported [[self-modifying code]] via the infamous "ALTER X TO PROCEED TO Y" statement. X and Y are paragraph labels, and any "GOTO X" statements executed after such an ALTER statement have the meaning "GOTO Y" instead. Most{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} compilers still support it, but it should not be used in new programs.

===Syntactic features===
COBOL provides an update-in-place syntax, for example

<source lang="cobol">
ADD YEARS TO AGE
</source>

The equivalent construct in many procedural languages would be

<source lang="cobol">
age = age + years
</source>

This syntax is similar to the compound assignment operator later adopted by C:

<source lang="cobol">
age += years
</source>

The abbreviated conditional expression

<source lang="cobol">
IF SALARY > 8000 OR SUPERVISOR-SALARY OR = PREV-SALARY
</source>

is equivalent to

<source lang="cobol">
IF SALARY > 8000
OR SALARY > SUPERVISOR-SALARY
OR SALARY == PREV-SALARY
</source>

COBOL provides "named conditions" (so-called 88-levels). These are declared as sub-items of another item (the conditional variable). The named condition can be used in an IF statement, and tests whether the conditional variable is equal to any of the values given in the named condition's VALUE clause. The SET statement can be used to make a named condition TRUE (by assigning the first of its values to the conditional variable).

COBOL allows identifiers up to 30 characters long. When COBOL was introduced, much shorter lengths (e.g., 6 characters for FORTRAN) were prevalent.

COBOL introduced the concept of ''[[copybook (programming)|copybooks]]''— chunks of code that can be inserted into a larger program. COBOL does this with the COPY statement, which also allows other code to replace parts of the copybook's code with other code (using the REPLACING ... BY ... clause).

===Data types===
Standard COBOL provides the following [[data type]]s:

{| class="wikitable" width="90%"
|-
!style="width:30%"| Data type
!style="width:30%"| Sample declaration
!style="width:40%"| Notes
|-
|Character
|<code>[[picture clause|PIC]] X(20) PIC A(4)9(5)X(7)</code>
|Alphanumeric and alphabetic-only Single-byte character set (SBCS)
|-
|Edited character
|<code>PIC X99BAXX</code>
|Formatted and inserted characters
|-
|Numeric fixed-point binary
|<code>PIC S999V99 [USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL</code> or <code>BINARY</code>
|Binary 16, 32, or 64 bits (2, 4, or 8 bytes) Signed or unsigned. Conforming compilers limit the maximum value of variables based on the picture clause and not the number of bits reserved for storage.
|-
|Numeric fixed-point [[Binary-coded decimal#Packed_BCD|packed decimal]]
|<code>PIC S999V99 <code>PACKED-DECIMAL</code>
|1 to 18 decimal digits (1 to 10 bytes) Signed or unsigned
|-
|Numeric fixed-point [[Binary-coded decimal#Zoned_decimal|zoned decimal]]
|<code>PIC S999V99 <nowiki>[</nowiki>USAGE DISPLAY<nowiki>]</nowiki></code>
|1 to 18 decimal digits (1 to 18 bytes) Signed or unsigned Leading or trailing sign, overpunch or separate
|-
|Numeric floating-point
|<code>PIC S9V999ES99</code>
|Binary floating-point
|-
|Edited numeric
|<code>PIC +Z,ZZ9.99 PIC $***,**9.99CR</code>
|Formatted characters and digits
|-
|Group ''([[Record (computer science)|record]])''
|<code>01 CUST-NAME.   05 CUST-LAST PIC X(20).   05 CUST-FIRST PIC X(20).</code>
|Aggregated elements
|-
|[[Table (information)|Table]] ''([[Array data type|array]])''
|<code>OCCURS 12 TIMES</code>
|Fixed-size array, row-major order Up to 7 dimensions
|-
|[[Variable-length array|Variable-length table]]
|<code>OCCURS 0 to 12 TIMES DEPENDING ON CUST-COUNT</code>
|Variable-sized array, row-major order Up to 7 dimensions
|-
|Renames ''([[variant record|variant]] or [[union (computer science)|union]] data)''
|<code>66 RAW-RECORD   RENAMES CUST-RECORD</code>
|Character data overlaying other variables
|-
|Condition name
|<code>88 IS-RETIRED-AGE   VALUES 65 THRU 150</code>
|Boolean value dependent upon another variable
|-
|Array index
|<code>[USAGE] INDEX</code>
|Array subscript
|}

Most vendors provide additional types, such as:

{| class="wikitable" width="90%"
!style="width:30%"| Data type
!style="width:30%"| Sample declaration
!style="width:40%"| Notes
|-
|Numeric floating-point single precision
|<code>PIC S9V9999999ES99</code> <code>[USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL-1</code>
|Binary floating-point (32 bits, 7+ digits) (IBM extension)
|-
|Numeric floating-point double precision
|<code>PIC S9V999ES99</code> <code>[USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL-2</code>
|Binary floating-point (64 bits, 16+ digits) (IBM extension)
|-
|Numeric fixed-point [[Binary-coded decimal#Packed_BCD|packed decimal]] 
|<code>PIC S9V999</code> <code>[USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL-3</code>
|same as PACKED DECIMAL (IBM extension)
|-
|Numeric fixed-point binary
|<code>PIC S999V99 [USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL-4</code>
|same as COMPUTATIONAL or BINARY (IBM extension)
|-
|Numeric fixed-point binary (native binary)
|<code>PIC S999V99 [USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL-5</code>
|Binary 16, 32, or 64 bits (2, 4, or 8 bytes) Signed or unsigned. The maximum value of variables based on the number of bits reserved for storage and not on the picture clause. (IBM extension)
|-
|Numeric fixed-point binary in native byte order
|<code>PIC S999V99 [USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL-4</code>
|Binary 16, 32, or 64 bits (2, 4, or 8 bytes) Signed or unsigned
|-
|Numeric fixed-point binary in [[big-endian]] byte order
|<code>PIC S999V99 [USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL-5</code>
|Binary 16, 32, or 64 bits (2, 4, or 8 bytes) Signed or unsigned
|-
|Wide character
|<code>PIC G(20)</code>
|Alphanumeric Double-byte character set (DBCS)
|-
|Edited wide character
|<code>PIC G99BGGG</code>
|Formatted and inserted wide characters
|-
|Edited floating-point
|<code>PIC +9.9(6)E+99</code>
|Formatted characters, decimal digits, and exponent
|-
|[[Pointer (computing)|Data pointer]]
|<code>[USAGE] POINTER</code>
|Data memory address
|-
|[[Function pointer|Code pointer]]
|<code>[USAGE] PROCEDURE-POINTER</code>
|Code memory address
|-
|Bit field
|<code>PIC 1(''n'') [USAGE] COMPUTATIONAL-5</code>
|''n'' can be from 1 to 64, defining an ''n''-bit integer Signed or unsigned
|-
|Index
|<code>[USAGE] INDEX</code>
|Binary value corresponding to an occurrence of a table element May be linked to a specific table using <code>INDEXED BY</code>
|}

===Hello, world===
An example of the "[[Hello, world]]" program in COBOL:
<source lang="cobol">
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. HELLO-WORLD.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
DISPLAY 'Hello, world'.
STOP RUN.
</source>


==Criticism and defense==
===Lack of structurability===
In his letter to an editor in 1975 titled "How do we tell truths that might hurt?" which was critical of several programming languages contemporaneous with COBOL, computer scientist and [[Turing Award]] recipient [[Edsger Dijkstra]] remarked that "The use of COBOL cripples the mind; its teaching should, therefore, be regarded as a criminal offense."<ref name="Dijkstra1">{{Cite web|url=http://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD04xx/EWD498.html|title=E. W. Dijkstra Archive: How do we tell truths that might hurt? (EWD498)|accessdate=August 29, 2007|publisher=University of Texas at Austin|year=2006|author=Dijkstra }}</ref>

In his dissenting response to Dijkstra's article and the above "offensive statement," computer scientist Howard E. Tompkins defended structured COBOL: "COBOL programs with convoluted control flow indeed tend to 'cripple the mind'," but this was because "There are too many such business application programs written by programmers that have never had the benefit of structured COBOL taught well..."<ref>"''In Defense of Teaching Structured COBOL as Computer Science''," Howard E. Tompkins, ACM SIGPLAN Notices, Vol. 18, Issue 4, April 1983.</ref>

Additionally, the introduction of OO-COBOL has added support for [[object-oriented programming|object-oriented]] code as well as user-defined functions and user-defined data types to COBOL's repertoire.

===Compatibility issues after standardization===
COBOL 85 was not fully compatible with earlier versions, resulting in the "cesarean birth" of COBOL 85. Joseph T. Brophy, [[Chief Information Officer|CIO]], [[St. Paul Travelers|Travelers Insurance]], spearheaded an effort to inform users of COBOL of the heavy reprogramming costs of implementing the new standard. As a result the [[American National Standards Institute|ANSI COBOL Committee]] received more than 3,200 letters from the public, mostly negative, requiring the committee to make changes. On the other hand, conversion to COBOL 85 was thought to increase productivity in future years, thus justifying the conversion costs.<ref>{{cite book|title =The COBOL 85 example book|first = Jerome|last = Garfunkel|publisher = Wiley|location = New York|year = 1987|isbn = 0471804614}}</ref>

===Verbose syntax===
COBOL syntax has often been criticized for its verbosity. However, proponents note that this was intentional in the language design, and many consider it one of COBOL's strengths. One of the design goals of COBOL was that non-programmers—managers, supervisors, and users—could read and understand the code. This is why COBOL has an English-like syntax and structural elements—including: nouns, verbs, clauses, sentences, sections, and divisions. Consequently, COBOL is considered by at least one source to be "The most readable, understandable and self-documenting programming language in use today. [...] Not only does this readability generally assist the maintenance process but the older a program gets the more valuable this readability becomes."<ref name="cobol-intro">[http://www.csis.ul.ie/cobol/course/COBOLIntro.htm#part1 COBOL Tutorial - Introduction to COBOL]</ref> On the other hand, the mere ability to read and understand a few lines of COBOL code does not grant to an executive or end user the experience and knowledge needed to design, build, and maintain large software systems.

===Other defenses===

Additionally, traditional COBOL is a simple language with a limited scope of function (with no pointers, no user-defined types, and no user-defined functions), encouraging a straightforward coding style. This has made it well-suited to its primary domain of business computing—where the program complexity lies in the business rules that need to be encoded rather than sophisticated algorithms or data structures. And because the standard does not belong to any particular vendor, programs written in COBOL are highly portable. The language can be used on a wide variety of hardware platforms and operating systems. And the rigid hierarchical structure restricts the definition of external references to the Environment Division, which simplifies platform changes.<ref name="cobol-intro" />

==See also==
* [[Generational list of programming languages#COBOL_based|Programming language genealogies]]
* [[Alphabetical list of programming languages]]
* [[Comparison of programming languages]]
* [[OpenCOBOL]]
* [[CODASYL]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}


==Sources==
* Ebbinkhuijsen, Wim B.C., ''COBOL'' Alphen aan den Rijn/Diegem: Samson Bedrijfsinformatie bv, 1990. ISBN 90-14-04560-3. (Dutch)

==External links==
{{wikibooks}}
{{External links|date=July 2010}}
Standards:
* [http://www.cobolstandards.com COBOL Standard Committee]
Reference manuals:
* [http://publibfp.boulder.ibm.com/cgi-bin/bookmgr/Shelves/igy3sh40 IBM Enterprise COBOL for z/OS V4R1 Bookshelf]
* [http://publibz.boulder.ibm.com/cgi-bin/bookmgr_OS390/Shelves/IGYSH007 IBM VS COBOL II V1R4.0 Bookshelf]
* [http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/iseries/v5r2/ic2924/index.htm?info/rzahgcobol.htm IBM COBOL documentation (iSeries Information Center)]
* [http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/comphelp/v101v121/index.jsp IBM AIX compiler information center]
* {{PDFlink|[http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/iseries/v5r4/topic/books/sc092540.pdf IBM ILE COBOL Programmer's Guide]|6.8 MB}}
* {{PDFlink|[http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/iseries/v5r4/topic/books/sc092539.pdf IBM ILE COBOL Language Reference]|7.0 MB}}
* {{PDFlink|[http://opencobol.add1tocobol.com/OpenCOBOL%20Programmers%20Guide.pdf OpenCOBOL Programmer's Guide]|3.3 MB}}

Compilers and other products:
* [http://www-01.ibm.com/software/awdtools/cobol/ IBM COBOL compilers]
* [http://www.microfocus.com/products/micro-focus-developer/visual_cobol/ Micro Focus] Micro Focus Visual COBOL, COBOL development, deployment and modernization.
* [http://www.veryant.com Veryant], affordable COBOL maintenance and modernization platform]
* [http://www.cobol-it.com COBOL-IT], The Enterprise-Class Open Source COBOL Compiler]
* [http://www.opencobol.org OpenCOBOL], an open-source COBOL compiler.
* [http://opencobol.add1tocobol.com OpenCOBOL FAQ], and collection of code samples.
* [http://tiny-cobol.sourceforge.net/ TinyCOBOL], an open-source COBOL compiler based on the COBOL 85 standards

{{Major programming languages}}
{{Computer language}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cobol}}
[[Category:COBOL| ]]
[[Category:Object-oriented programming languages]]
[[Category:.NET programming languages]]

[[af:COBOL]]
[[ar:كوبول]]
[[az:Cobol]]
[[bn:কোবোল]]
[[bs:COBOL]]
[[bg:COBOL]]
[[ca:COBOL]]
[[cs:COBOL]]
[[da:COBOL]]
[[de:COBOL]]
[[et:COBOL]]
[[el:COBOL]]
[[es:COBOL]]
[[eo:COBOL]]
[[fa:کوبول]]
[[fr:COBOL]]
[[ga:COBOL]]
[[gl:Cobol]]
[[ko:코볼]]
[[hr:COBOL]]
[[id:COBOL]]
[[ia:COBOL]]
[[it:COBOL]]
[[he:COBOL]]
[[ka:კობოლი]]
[[lt:COBOL]]
[[hu:COBOL]]
[[mr:कोबॉल]]
[[ms:COBOL]]
[[nl:COBOL]]
[[ja:COBOL]]
[[no:COBOL]]
[[pl:COBOL]]
[[pt:COBOL]]
[[ro:Cobol]]
[[ru:Кобол]]
[[simple:COBOL]]
[[sk:COBOL]]
[[sl:COBOL]]
[[sr:Кобол (програмски језик)]]
[[sh:COBOL]]
[[fi:COBOL]]
[[sv:COBOL]]
[[ta:கோபால் நிரலாக்க மொழி]]
[[te:కోబాల్]]
[[th:ภาษาโคบอล]]
[[tg:COBOL]]
[[tr:COBOL]]
[[uk:COBOL]]
[[vi:COBOL]]
[[yi:קאבאל]]
[[zh:COBOL]]

Variadic function

2011-03-11T02:02:33Z

Owlgorithm: /* Variadic functions in JavaScript */ A technical detail was not only incorrect but also contradictory to the source it cited, which had explicitly stated the correct detail!

{{Redirect|Varargs|the varargs.h library in C|varargs.h}}

In [[computer programming]], a '''variadic function''' is a [[function (programming)|function]] of indefinite [[arity]], i.e. one which accepts a variable number of [[argument]]s. Support for variadic functions differs widely among [[programming language]]s.

There are many mathematical and logical operations that come across naturally as variadic functions. For instance, the summing of numbers or the concatenation of strings or other sequences are operations that can logically apply to any number of operands.

Another operation that has been implemented as a variadic function in many languages is output formatting. The [[C (programming language)|C]] function <TT>[[printf]]</TT> and the [[Common Lisp]] function <TT>format</TT> are two such examples. Both take one argument that specifies the formatting of the output, and ''any number'' of arguments that provide the values to be formatted.

Variadic functions can expose type-safety problems in some languages. For instance, C's <TT>printf</TT>, if used incautiously, can give rise to a class of security holes known as [[format string attack]]s. The attack is possible because the language support for variadic functions is not [[type safety|type-safe]]; it permits the function to attempt to pop more arguments off the stack than were placed there -- corrupting the stack and leading to unexpected behavior.

Variadic functionality can be considered complementary to the [[apply]] function, which takes a function and a list/sequence/array as arguments and then calls the function once, with the arguments being the elements of the list.

== Specific implementations ==
{{Manual|date=April 2008}}
The following provides an overview of specific implementations in different programming languages and environments.

=== Variadic functions in Common Lisp ===
Common Lisp uses the &rest argument specifier to implement variadic functions. At execution time, the &rest variable collects all following arguments into one list. For example:

<source lang="Lisp">
(defun average (&rest args)
(when args
(/ (apply #'+ args) (length args))))
</source>

Note that this uses the standard lisp add function which itself is a variadic function.

Common Lisp also provides the &body specifier for situations where multiple statements of code are being passed in as parameters (generally when implementing syntactic macros). While such situations can equivalently be handled by &rest, &body is preferred because it conveys the author's intent more specifically. For example, here is a re-implementation of prog1, a macro that returns the result of the first of a block of statements:

<source lang="Lisp">
(defmacro prog1-2 (&body statements)
(let ((varname (gensym)))
,(let ((,varname ,(car statements)))
,@(cdr statements)
,varname)))
</source>

Like Python, Common Lisp provides a facility for optional parameters and named parameters (also called dictionary parameters). For instance, consider this function whose second parameter takes a default value if unspecified:

<source lang="Lisp">
(defun plus (n &optional (number-to-add 1))
(+ n number-to-add))
</source>

When invoked with a single parameter N, the result will be N + 1. When invoked with two parameters X and Y, the result will be X + Y.

Parameters may also be given out-of-order. Consider, for instance, a function that constructs a tuple representing a data item. Such a function could be implemented like this:

<source lang="Lisp">
(defun construct-data-record (&key (name "") (phone "") (fax "") (address ""))
(list name phone fax address))

(construct-data-record :name "Name") ; => ("Name" "" "" "")
(construct-data-record :address "10 Some Street" :phone "555-555-5555") ; => ("" "555-555-5555" "" "10 Some Street")
(construct-data-record) ; => ("" "" "" "")
</source>

=== Variadic functions in C, Objective-C, C++, and D ===
To portably implement variadic functions in the C programming language, the standard <tt>[[stdarg.h]]</tt> header file should be used. The older <tt>[[varargs.h]]</tt> header has been [[Deprecation|deprecated]] in favor of <tt>stdarg.h</tt>. In C++, the header file <tt>cstdarg</tt> should be used.<ref>http://www.cplusplus.com/reference/clibrary/cstdarg/</ref>

To create a variadic function, an ellipsis (<code>...</code>) must be placed at the end of a parameter list. Inside the body of the function, a variable of type <code>va_list</code> must be defined. Then the macros <code>va_start(''va_list'', ''last fixed param'')</code>, <code>va_arg(''va_list'', ''cast type'')</code>, <code>va_end(''va_list'')</code> can be used. For example:

<source lang="C">
#include <stdarg.h>

double average(int count, ...)
{
va_list ap;
int j;
double tot = 0;
va_start(ap, count); //Requires the last fixed parameter (to get the address)
for(j=0; j<count; j++)
tot+=va_arg(ap, double); //Requires the type to cast to. Increments ap to the next argument.
va_end(ap);
return tot/count;
}
</source>

This will compute the average of an arbitrary number of arguments. Note that the function does not know the number of arguments or their types. The above function requires that the types be <code>double</code>, and the number of arguments is passed in the first argument. In some other cases, for example [[printf]], the number and types of arguments are figured out from a format string. In both cases, this depends on the programmer to actually supply the correct information. If fewer arguments are passed in than the function believes, or the types of arguments are incorrect, this could cause it to read into invalid areas of memory and can lead to vulnerabilities like the [[format string attack]].

Objective-C uses the same varargs functionality as C. Like C, it has no way of knowing the number or types of the arguments. When the arguments are all objects, the convention is that, if the number of arguments is undetermined, then the list must be "terminated" with <code>nil</code>. Functions that follow this convention include the constructors of data structures that take an undetermined number of elements, like <code>[NSArray arrayWithObjects:...]</code>.

<source lang="objc">
#include <stdarg.h>

void logObjects(id firstObject, ...) // <-- there is always at least one arg, "nil", so this is valid, even for "empty" list
{
va_list args;
va_start(args, firstObject);
id obj;
for (obj = firstObject; obj != nil; obj = va_arg(args, id))
NSLog(@"%@", obj);
va_end(args);
}

// This function can be called with any number or type of objects, as long as you terminate it with "nil":
logObjects(@"foo", [NSNumber numberWithInt:4], @"bar", nil);
</source>

In the upcoming standard of [[C++]], [[C++0x]], templates may also take variadic argument lists; this feature is called [[variadic templates]]. This allows the creation of variadic template classes and variadic template functions. Variadic templates will finally allow the creation of true [[tuple]] classes in C++.

<source lang="Cpp">
template<typename T>
void print( const T& t )
{
std::cout << t;
}

template< typename T, typename... Args>
void print( const T& t, const Args&... args )
{
print( t );
print( args... );
}

template<typename... T>
class tuple;
template<typename T, typename... Ts>
class tuple<T,Ts...>;
template<>
class tuple<>;
</source>

Variadic templates similar to this exist in [[D_(programming language)|D]]:

<source lang="D">
real average(T...)(T args) {
real sum = 0;
foreach(arg; args) {
sum += arg;
}
return sum / args.length;
}
</source>

=== Variadic functions in C#, C++.net, VB.net, and Java ===
Other languages, such as [[C Sharp (programming language)|C#]], [[VB.net]], and [[Java (programming language)|Java]] use a different approach—they just allow a variable number of arguments of the same (super)type to be passed to a variadic function. Inside the method they are simply collected in an [[Array data structure|array]].

This feature, called "varargs", has been introduced to Java in [[Java Platform, Standard Edition#Nomenclature, standards and specifications|J2SE 5.0]]. Parameters are passed as an array:

<source lang="Java5">
public static void printSpaced(Object... objects) {
for (Object o : objects)
System.out.print(o + " ");
}

// Can be used to print:
// printSpaced(1, 2, "three");
</source>

C# Example:

<source lang="Csharp">
public static void PrintSpaced(params Object[] objects)
{
foreach (Object o in objects)
Console.Write(o + " ");
}

// Can be used to print:
// PrintSpaced(1, 2, "three");
</source>

VB.Net example:
<source lang="VBnet">
Public Shared Sub PrintSpaced(ParamArray objects As Object())
For Each o As Object In objects
Console.Write(o & " ")
Next
End Sub

' Can be used to print:
' PrintSpaced(1, 2, "three")
</source>

C++.NET Example:

<source lang="Cpp">
public static void PrintSpaced(...array<Object^> ^objects)
{
for each (Object^ o in objects)
Console::Write(o + " ");
}

// Can be used to print:
// PrintSpaced(1, 2, "three");
</source>

=== Variadic functions in Haskell ===
[[Haskell (programming language)|Haskell]]'s type system can be used to make functions that seem to be able to take an unlimited number of arguments, of different types.<ref>[http://okmij.org/ftp/Haskell/polyvariadic.html#polyvar-fn Functions with the variable number of (variously typed) arguments]</ref>

=== Variadic functions in JavaScript ===
In [[JavaScript]], the arguments to a function may be accessed individually as local variables within the function. Additionally, the arguments may be accessed together as members of a local object called <code>arguments</code>. The <code>arguments</code> object is not a true array, but rather an array-like object that possesses a <code>length</code> property. <ref>https://developer.mozilla.org/en/JavaScript/Reference/functions_and_function_scope/arguments</ref>

<source lang="JavaScript">
function printSpaced() {
for (var i = 0; i < arguments.length; i++) {
document.write(arguments[i] + " ");
}
}
</source>

=== Variadic functions in Perl ===
In [[Perl]] 5, functions don't have an explicit list of parameters (except optional ''prototypes'' that are used to imitate certain syntax, ie, when reimplementing some built-in functions). All arguments are stored in an array called <code>@_<code>, which can be accessed in the function. Therefore no special effort is needed to accept variable number of arguments.

<source lang="perl">
sub print_spaced {
my @objects = @_;
print "@objects\n";
}

sub print_names {
my ($title, @names) = @_;
print "This is the list of $title names:\n"
foreach (@names) {
print "Name: $_\n";
}
}

print_spaced(1, 2, "three");
</source>

=== Variadic functions in PHP ===
In [[PHP]], [http://php.net/manual/en/functions.arguments.php#functions.variable-arg-list variable-length argument lists] are natively supported (without security risks) since version 4; dedicated functions (<code>func_num_args</code>, <code>func_get_arg</code>, <code>func_get_args</code>) allow the programmer to determine the number and values of unspecified arguments.

<source lang="php">function sum() {
$args = func_get_args();
return array_sum($args); // func_get_args() call cannot appear in function call prior to PHP 5.3
}</source>

=== Variadic functions in Python ===
[[Python (programming language)|Python]] supports very flexible variadic functions. By marking variables with one asterisk (e.g. <code>*var</code>) the given variable is defined to be a tuple of all the extra arguments. By marking variables with two asterisks (e.g. <code>**var</code>) the given variable is a dictionary of all extra [[Parameter (computer science)|keyword arguments]]; the keys are strings, which are the names that were used to identify the arguments. If they exist, these arguments must be the last one in the list.

<source lang="Python">
def f(*args, **kwargs):
print args
print kwargs

>>> f(1, 2, "cow", "kitty")
(1, 2, "cow", "kitty")
{}

>>> f(arg1=1, sample=2, name="cow", hero="kitty")
()
{"arg1": 1, "sample": 2, "name": "cow", "hero": "kitty"}

>>> f(1, 2, name="cow", hero="kitty")
(1, 2)
{"name": "cow", "hero": "kitty"}

>>> f(arg1=1, sample=2, name="cow", "kitty")
SyntaxError "Non-keyword arg after keyword arg"
</source>


Conversely you may also pass in a tuple or dictionary using the same asterisk-notation and have it automatically expand to fill.

<source lang="Python">
def g(a, b, c):
print a, b, c

>>> mytuple = 1,2,3
>>> mydict = {"a": "first", "b": "second", "c": "third"}
>>> g(*mytuple)
1 2 3
>>> g(**mydict)
first second third
>>> g(**{"a": "first"})
TypeError "g() takes exactly 3 non-keyword arguments (got 1)"
>>> g(**{"a": "first", "b": "second", "c": "third", "d": "fourth"})
TypeError "g() got an unexpected keyword argument 'd'"
</source>

=== Variadic functions in S-Lang ===

[[S-Lang (programming language)|S-Lang]] supports two mechanisms for passing optional arguments to a
function. The two mechanisms are illustrated by the <code>readascii</code>
function that is distributed as part of the S-Lang library. The
function is used to read one or more data columns from an ascii (as
opposed to binary) file:

<source lang="C">
readascii ("xy.dat", &x, &y);
readascii ("xydy.dat", &x, &y, &dy);
readascii ("score.dat", &name, &score, &date, &flags;
format="%s %lf %s %d", skip=5);
</source>

The optional keyword/value pairs that follow the semi-colon in the
argument list are called ''qualifiers'' in S-Lang parlance.

When a function is called, the "<code>_NARGS</code>" variable contains the number
of arguments passed to the function. This value does not include the
number of qualifiers. Here is a simple example that performs the sum
of the arguments (assumed here to be numeric) passed to a function:

<source lang="C">
define sum_values ()
{
if (_NARGS == 0)
usage ("result = sum_values (val1, val2, ...);");
variable args = __pop_args (_NARGS);
variable total = 0, arg;
foreach arg (args) total += arg.value;
return total;
}
vmessage ("Sum = %g", sum_values (1,2,3,4,5));
</source>

Here is a variant of the above that uses a qualifier to alternate
between the sum and difference of the successive arguments. This
example makes use of the built-in sum function to add the elements of
an array.

<source lang="C">
define sum_values ()
{
if (_NARGS == 0)
usage ("result = sum_values (val1, val2, ... ; alternate);");
variable args = __pop_args (_NARGS);

% Create an array from the arguments
variable array = [__push_args(args)];

% If the sum is to alternate, multiply the odd elements by -1
if (qualifier_exists ("alternate"))
array[[1::2]] *= -1;

return sum(array);
}
vmessage ("Sum = %g", sum_values (1,2,3,4,5 ; alternate));
</source>

===Variadic functions in Ruby===

[[Ruby (programming language)|Ruby]] supports variadic functions natively. An asterisk before the last parameter in the function declaration declares that parameter to be an array into which all remaining input arguments are placed.

<source lang="Ruby">
def printNames(listTitle, *nameList)
puts "This is the list of #{listTitle} names:"
nameList.each do |name|
puts "Name: #{name}"
end
end

printNames("employee", "John", "Bob", "Chris")

#This code produces the following output:
#
#This is the list of employee names:
#Name: John
#Name: Bob
#Name: Chris
</source>

=== Variadic functions in Scheme ===
In [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]], there is a dotted notation for representing ''improper lists'' (chains of pairs whose last cdr is not null). You can use this notation in argument lists to specify an argument to "dump" the rest of the arguments into.

If a function is defined with the "<code>define</code>" syntax, then you put a dot before the varargs argument

<source lang="scheme">
(define (print-spaced . args)
(for-each
(lambda (x) (display x) (display " "))
args))

(define (print-names title . names)
(display "This is the list of ")
(display title)
(display " names:")
(newline)
(for-each
(lambda (x) (display "Name: ") (display x) (newline))
names))

(print-spaced 1 2 "three")
</source>

If a function is defined with the "<code>lambda</code>" syntax, then it is the same thing, except that if there are no arguments before the varargs argument (i.e. if you want to put all the arguments into one thing), then you remove the parentheses altogether; as if to say, let this be the entire argument list.

<source lang="scheme">
(define print-spaced
(lambda args
(for-each
(lambda (x) (display x) (display " "))
args)))

(define print-names
(lambda (title . names)
(display "This is the list of ")
(display title)
(display " names:")
(newline)
(for-each
(lambda (x) (display "Name: ") (display x) (newline))
names)))
</source>

=== Variadic functions in Tcl ===
In Tcl a variadic argument can be defined as last argument and must be named <code>args</code>. The content of args is a list.

<source lang="tcl">
proc variadic { p1 p2 args } {
puts [info level 0]
puts $p1
puts $p2
puts "Number of variadic elements: [llength $args]"
foreach arg $args
{
puts $arg
}
}
</source>

Variadic functions are used very often to process key-value lists.

<source lang="tcl">
proc process-key-value { args } {
puts [info level 0]
puts "Number of variadic elements: [llength $args]"
foreach {key value} $args
{
switch $key {
"-loglevel" {
# Do something useful
}
default {
set options($key) $value
}
}
}
}
</source>

=== Variadic functions in Lua ===
[[Lua (programming language)|Lua]] supports variadic functions, by use of a special named parameter "..."

<source lang="Lua">
function foo(bar, ...) -- ... must be passed as the last param
print('number of variable params:', select('#', ...))
print('omit first param:', select(2, ...))
local baz = {...} -- pack variable number of params into a table
print('all variadic params are:', ...)
print('param no 2', baz[2])
end

foo('bar', 1, 2, 3)
</source>

==See also==
* [[Computing]]
* [[Java syntax]]
* [[Variadic macro]] (C programming language)
* [[Variadic templates]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.codeproject.com/cpp/argfunctions.asp?df=100&forumid=15556&exp=0&select=503481 Variable Argument Functions] — A tutorial on Variable Argument Functions for C++
* [http://www.gnu.org/software/hello/manual/libc/Variadic-Functions.html GNU libc manual]

[[Category:Subroutines]]

[[de:Variadische Funktion]]
[[fr:Fonction variadique]]
[[it:Funzione variadica]]

Bitwise operation

2011-01-30T19:57:22Z

Owlgorithm: /* Applications */ Code gave the wrong answer (otherwise it exits too early and gives the wrong answer)

{{ri|date=August 2010}}
A '''bitwise operation''' operates on one or more [[bit pattern]]s or [[Binary numeral system|binary numerals]] at the level of their individual [[bit]]s. On most older [[microprocessor]]s, bitwise operations are slightly faster than addition and subtraction operations and usually significantly faster than multiplication and division operations. On modern architectures, this is not the case:<ref>[http://www.fredosaurus.com/notes-cpp/expressions/bitops.html Fredosaurus Bit Operations, C++ Bit Operations]</ref> bitwise operations are generally the same speed as addition (though still faster than multiplication).

==Bitwise operators==
===NOT===

The '''bitwise NOT''', or '''complement''', is a [[unary operation]] that performs logical [[negation]] on each bit, forming the ones' complement of the given binary value. Digits which were 0 become 1, and vice versa. For example:

NOT 0111 (decimal 7)
= 1000 (decimal 8)

In many programming languages (including those in the [[C (programming language)|C]] family), the bitwise NOT operator is "<code>~</code>" ([[tilde]]). This operator must not be confused with the "logical not" operator, "<code>!</code>" (exclamation point), which in C++ treats the entire value as a single [[Boolean datatype|Boolean]]—changing a true value to false, and vice versa, and that C makes a value of 0 to 1 and a value other than 0 to 0. The "logical not" is not a bitwise operation.

===OR===
A '''bitwise OR''' takes two bit patterns of equal length, and produces another one of the same length by matching up corresponding bits (the first of each; the second of each; and so on) and performing the logical inclusive [[Logical disjunction|OR]] operation on each pair of corresponding bits. In each pair, the result is 1 if the first bit is 1 '''OR''' the second bit is 1 '''OR''' both bits are 1, and otherwise the result is 0. For example:

'''
0101 (decimal 5)
OR 0011 (decimal 3)
= 0111 (decimal 7)''
In the C & Java programming language family, the bitwise OR operator is "<code>|</code>" ([[vertical bar|pipe]]). Again, this operator must not be confused with its Boolean "logical or" counterpart, which treats its operands as Boolean values, and is written "<code>||</code>" (two pipes).

The bitwise OR may be used in situations where a set of bits are used as [[flag (computing)|flag]]s; the bits in a single binary numeral may each represent a distinct [[Boolean datatype|Boolean]] variable. Applying the bitwise OR operation to the numeral along with a bit pattern containing 1 in some positions will result in a new numeral with those bits ''set''. For example:

0010 (decimal 2)

can be considered as a set of four flags. The first, second, and fourth flags are not set (0); the third flag is set (1). The first flag may be set by applying the bitwise OR to this value, along with another value in which only the first flag is set:

0010 (decimal 2)
OR 1000 (decimal 8)
= 1010 (decimal 10)

This technique is often used to conserve memory in programs dealing with large numbers of Boolean values.

===XOR===
A '''bitwise exclusive or''' takes two bit patterns of equal length and performs the logical [[Exclusive disjunction|XOR]] operation on each pair of corresponding bits. The result in each position is 1 if the two bits are different, and 0 if they are the same. For example:

0101 (decimal 5)
XOR 0011 (decimal 3)
= 0110 (decimal 6)

In the C programming language family, the bitwise XOR operator is "<code>^</code>" ([[caret]]).

[[Assembly language]] programmers sometimes use the XOR operation as a short-cut to set the value of a [[Processor register|register]] to zero. Performing XOR on a value against itself always yields zero, and on many architectures, this operation requires fewer [[Central processing unit|CPU]] clock cycles than the sequence of operations that may be required to load a zero value and save it to the register.

The bitwise XOR may also be used to [[toggle]] flags in a set of bits. Given the bit pattern,

0010 (decimal 2)

the first and third bits may be toggled simultaneously by a bitwise XOR with another bit pattern containing 1 in the first and third positions:

0010 (decimal 2)
XOR 1010 (decimal 10)
= 1000 (decimal 8)

This technique may be used to manipulate bit patterns representing sets of Boolean variables.

====See also====
*[[Xor swap algorithm]]
*[[Xor linked list]]

===AND===
A '''bitwise AND''' takes two binary representations of equal length and performs the logical [[Logical conjunction|AND]] operation on each pair of corresponding bits. In each pair, the result is 1 if the first bit is 1 '''AND''' the second bit is 1. Otherwise, the result is 0. For example:

0101 (decimal 5)
AND 0011 (decimal 3)
= 0001 (decimal 1)

In the C programming language family, the bitwise AND operator is "<code>&</code>" ([[ampersand]]). Again, this operator must not be confused with its Boolean "logical and" counterpart, which treats its operands as Boolean values, and is written "<code>&&</code>" (two ampersands).

The bitwise AND may be used to perform a '''[[Mask (computing)|bit mask]]''' operation. This operation may be used to isolate part of a string of bits, or to determine whether a particular bit is 1 or 0. For example, given a bit pattern:

0011 (decimal 3)

To determine whether the second bit is 1, a bitwise AND is applied to it and another bit pattern containing 1 in the second bit:

0011 (decimal 3)
AND 0010 (decimal 2)
= 0010 (decimal 2)

Since the result is 0010 (non-zero), the second bit in the original pattern was 1. Using bitwise AND in this manner is called ''bit masking'', by analogy to the use of [[masking tape]] to cover, or ''mask'', portions that should not be altered, or are not of interest. In this case, the 0 values mask the bits that are not of interest.

The bitwise AND can also be combined with the bitwise NOT to ''clear'' bits. For example:

0110 (decimal 6)

The second bit may be ''cleared'' (i.e. set to 0) by applying the bitwise AND to this value, along with the complement (i.e. NOT) of another value in which only the second bit is set:

NOT 0010 (decimal 2)
= 1101 (decimal 13)

0110 (decimal 6)
AND 1101 (decimal 13)
= 0100 (decimal 4)

==Bit shifts==
The '''bit shifts''' are sometimes considered bitwise operations, since they operate on the binary representation of an integer instead of its numerical value; however, the bit shifts do not operate on pairs of corresponding bits, and therefore cannot properly be called ''bit-wise'' operations. In this operation, the digits are moved, or ''shifted'', to the left or right. [[Processor register|Register]]s in a computer processor have a fixed number of available bits for storing numerals, so some bits will be "shifted out" of the register at one end, while the same number of bits are "shifted in" from the other end; the differences between bit shift operators lie in how they compute the values of those shifted-in bits.

===Arithmetic shift===
{{main|Arithmetic shift}}
[[Image:Rotate left logically.svg|thumb|150px|Left arithmetic shift]]
[[Image:Rotate right arithmetically.svg|thumb|150px|Right arithmetic shift]]
In an ''arithmetic shift'', the bits that are shifted out of either end are discarded. In a left arithmetic shift, zeros are shifted in on the right; in a right arithmetic shift, the [[sign bit]] is shifted in on the left, thus preserving the sign of the operand. Further on while shifting right the empty spaces will be filled up with a copy of the MSB. Meaning by shifting ASR#2 with a MSB=1 you fill up with 1.

This example uses an 8-bit register:

00010111 LEFT-SHIFT
= 00101110

00010111 RIGHT-SHIFT
= 00001011

In the first case, the leftmost digit was shifted past the end of the register, and a new 0 was shifted into the rightmost position. In the second case, the rightmost 1 was shifted out (perhaps into the carry flag), and a new 0 was copied into the leftmost position, preserving the sign of the number. Multiple shifts are sometimes shortened to a single shift by some number of digits. For example:

00010111 LEFT-SHIFT-BY-TWO
= 01011100

A left arithmetic shift by ''n'' is equivalent to multiplying by 2''n'' (provided the value does not [[arithmetic overflow|overflow]]), while a right arithmetic shift by ''n'' of a [[two's complement]] value is equivalent to dividing by 2''n'' and rounding toward [[negative infinity]]. If the binary number is treated as [[ones' complement]], then the same right-shift operation results in division by 2''n'' and rounding toward zero.

===Logical shift===
{{main|Logical shift}}

{| align=right border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
| [[Image:Rotate right logically.svg|thumb|150px|Logical shift right]]
| [[Image:Rotate left logically.svg|thumb|150px|Logical shift left]]
|}
In a ''logical shift'', the bits that are shifted out are discarded, and zeros are shifted in (on either end). Therefore, the logical and arithmetic left-shifts are exactly the same operation. However, the logical right-shift inserts bits with value 0 instead of copying in the sign bit. Hence the logical shift is suitable for unsigned binary numbers, while the arithmetic shift is suitable for signed [[two's complement]] binary numbers.
 

===Rotate no carry===
{{main|Circular shift}}

{| align=right border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
| [[Image:Rotate right.svg|thumb|150px|Right circular shift or rotate]]
| [[Image:Rotate left.svg|thumb|150px|Left circular shift or rotate]]
|}
Another form of shift is the ''circular shift'' or ''bit rotation''. In this operation, the bits are "rotated" as if the left and right ends of the register were joined. The value that is shifted in on the right during a left-shift is whatever value was shifted out on the left, and vice versa. This operation is useful if it is necessary to retain all the existing bits, and is frequently used in digital [[cryptography]].
 

===Rotate through carry===

{| align=right border=0 cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0
|[[Image:Rotate right through carry.svg|thumb|150px|Right rotate through carry]]
|[[Image:Rotate left through carry.svg|thumb|150px|Left rotate through carry]]
|}
''Rotate through carry'' is similar to the ''rotate no carry'' operation, but the two ends of the register are considered to be separated by the [[carry flag]]. The bit that is shifted in (on either end) is the old value of the carry flag, and the bit that is shifted out (on the other end) becomes the new value of the carry flag.

A single ''rotate through carry'' can simulate a logical or arithmetic shift of one position by setting up the carry flag beforehand. For example, if the carry flag contains 0, then <code>x RIGHT-ROTATE-THROUGH-CARRY-BY-ONE</code> is a logical right-shift, and if the carry flag contains a copy of the sign bit, then <code>x RIGHT-ROTATE-THROUGH-CARRY-BY-ONE</code> is an arithmetic right-shift. For this reason, some microcontrollers such as [[PIC microcontroller|PIC]]s just have ''rotate'' and ''rotate through carry'', and don't bother with arithmetic or logical shift instructions.

Rotate through carry is especially useful when performing shifts on numbers larger than the processor's native [[word size]], because if a large number is stored in two registers, the bit that is shifted off the end of the first register must come in at the other end of the second. With rotate-through-carry, that bit is "saved" in the carry flag during the first shift, ready to shift in during the second shift without any extra preparation.
 

===Shifts in C, C++, C#===
In C-inspired languages, the left and right shift operators are "<code><<</code>" and "<code>>></code>", respectively. The number of places to shift is given as the second argument to the shift operators. For example,

<source lang="c">x = y << 2;</source>

assigns ''x'' the result of shifting ''y'' to the left by two bits.

In C, C++ and C#, computations with the left operand as an unsigned integer use logical shifts. In C, the results with the left operand as a signed integer are<ref>[http://std.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC22/WG14/www/docs/n843.htm JTC1/SC22/WG14 N843 "C programming language"], section 6.5.7#5</ref>:
*for "<code><<</code>": y×2left (undefined if an overflow occurs);
*for "<code>>></code>": implementation-defined (most often the result of the arithmetic shift: y/2right).

===Shifts in Java===
In [[Java (programming language)|Java]], all integer types are signed, and the "<code><<</code>" and "<code>>></code>" operators perform arithmetic shifts. Java adds the operator "<code>>>></code>" to perform logical right shifts, but since the logical and arithmetic left-shift operations are identical, there is no "<code><<<</code>" operator in Java. These general rules are affected in several ways by the default [[type promotion]]s; for example, since the eight-bit type <code>byte</code> is promoted to <code>int</code> in shift-expressions,<ref>"The Java Language Specification, Second Edition", sections [http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/second_edition/html/expressions.doc.html#5121 15.19] (shift operators) and [http://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/second_edition/html/conversions.doc.html#170952 5.6.1] (unary numeric promotion)</ref> the expression "<code>b >>> 2</code>" effectively performs an arithmetic shift of the byte value <code>b</code> instead of a logical shift. Such effects can be mitigated by judicious use of [[type conversion|cast]]s or [[bitmask]]s; for example, "<code>(b & 0xFF) >>> 2</code>" effectively results in a logical shift.

===Shifts in Pascal===
In Pascal, as well as in all its dialects, for example [[Object Pascal]] and [[GNU Pascal|Standard Pascal]], the left and right shift operators are "<code>shl</code>" and "<code>shr</code>", respectively. The number of places to shift is given as the second argument to the shift operators. For example,

<source lang="pascal">x := y shl 2;</source>

assigns ''x'' the result of shifting ''y'' to the left by two bits.

==Applications==
Bitwise operations are necessary for much low-level programming, such as writing device drivers, low-level graphics, communications protocol packet assembly and decoding.

Although machines often have efficient built-in instructions for performing arithmetic and logical operations, in fact all these operations can be performed by combining the bitwise operators and zero-testing in various ways.

For example, here is a [[pseudocode]] example showing how to multiply two arbitrary integers <code>a</code> and <code>b</code> (<code>a</code> greater than <code>b</code>) using only bitshifts and addition:

<code>
c := 0
'''while''' b != 0
'''if''' (b '''and''' 1) != 0
c := c + a
shift a left by one
shift b right by one

'''return''' c
</code>

This implementation of [[ancient Egyptian multiplication]], like most [[multiplication algorithm]]s, involves bitshifts. In turn, even addition can be written using just bitshifts and zero-testing:

<code>
c := b '''and''' a
'''while''' a != 0
c := b '''and''' a
b := b '''xor''' a
shift c left by one
a := c
'''return''' b
</code>

==See also==
*[[Bit manipulation]]
*[[Bitboard]]
*[[Boolean algebra (logic)]]
*[[Double dabble]]
*[[Logic gate]]
*[[Logical operator]]
*[[Karnaugh map]]

==References==
<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.miniwebtool.com/bitwise-calculator/ Online Bitwise Calculator] supports Bitwise AND, OR and XOR
*[http://www.cs.uiowa.edu/~jones/bcd/divide.html Division using bitshifts]
* "[http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/BitwiseOperationsModN/ Bitwise Operations Mod N]" by Enrique Zeleny, [[Wolfram Demonstrations Project]].
* "[http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/PlotsOfCompositionsOfBitwiseOperations/ Plots Of Compositions Of Bitwise Operations]" by Enrique Zeleny, The Wolfram Demonstrations Project.

[[Category:Computer arithmetic]]
[[Category:Programming constructs]]
[[Category:Articles with example pseudocode]]
[[Category:Boolean algebra]]

[[cs:Bitový operátor]]
[[de:Bitweiser Operator]]
[[es:Operador a nivel de bits]]
[[eo:Laŭbita logiko]]
[[fr:Opérations sur les bits]]
[[ko:비트 연산]]
[[lv:Bitu nobīde]]
[[ja:ビット演算]]
[[pl:Operacje bitowe]]
[[pt:Operação bit a bit]]
[[ru:Битовые операции]]
[[simple:Bitwise operation]]
[[vi:Phép toán thao tác bit]]
[[zh:位操作]]

Space (mathematics)

2009-04-29T04:45:35Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ added Sobolev space

{{Otheruses4|mathematical sets called spaces|space as a geometric concept|Euclidean space|all other uses|space (disambiguation)}}

[[Image:Mathematical_Spaces.png|thumb|A hierarchy of mathematical spaces: The inner product induces a norm. The norm induces a metric. The metric induces a topology.]]

In [[mathematics]], a '''space''' is a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] with some added structure.

Mathematical spaces often form a hierarchy, i.e., one space may inherit all the characteristics of a parent space. For instance, all [[inner product space]]s are also [[normed vector space]]s, because the inner product ''induces'' a [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] on the inner product space such that:
:<math> \|x\| =\sqrt{\langle x, x\rangle}.</math>

==See also==
* [[Affine space]]
* [[Banach space]]
* [[Cauchy space]]
* [[Euclidean space]]
* [[Function space]]
* [[Hardy space]]
* [[Hilbert space]]
* [[Inner product space]]
* [[Kolmogorov space]]
* [[Lp space]]
* [[Measure (mathematics)|Measure space]]
* [[Metric space]]
* [[Minkowski space]]
* [[Normed vector space]]
* [[Quotient space]]
* [[Sobolev space]]
* [[Topological space]]
* [[Uniform space]]
* [[Vector space]]

{{math-stub}}

[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]

[[da:Rum#Matematik]]
[[de:Raum (Mathematik)]]
[[et:Ruum (matemaatika)]]
[[es:Espacio#En Matemáticas]]
[[eo:Spaco#3. Spaco en Matematiko:]]
[[fr:Espace (notion)#Mathématiques]]
[[gl:Espazo#Matemática]]
[[ko:공간#수학]]
[[io:Spaco]]
[[it:Spazio (matematica)]]
[[nl:Ruimte (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:空間#数学的な空間]]
[[nov:Spatie]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń (matematyka)]]
[[pt:Espaço#Espaço matemático]]
[[ru:Пространство#Математика]]
[[fi:Avaruus (matematiikka)]]
[[sv:Rum (matematik)]]
[[zh:空间 (数学)]]

Space (mathematics)

2009-04-29T04:45:08Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ added Lp space

{{Otheruses4|mathematical sets called spaces|space as a geometric concept|Euclidean space|all other uses|space (disambiguation)}}

[[Image:Mathematical_Spaces.png|thumb|A hierarchy of mathematical spaces: The inner product induces a norm. The norm induces a metric. The metric induces a topology.]]

In [[mathematics]], a '''space''' is a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] with some added structure.

Mathematical spaces often form a hierarchy, i.e., one space may inherit all the characteristics of a parent space. For instance, all [[inner product space]]s are also [[normed vector space]]s, because the inner product ''induces'' a [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] on the inner product space such that:
:<math> \|x\| =\sqrt{\langle x, x\rangle}.</math>

==See also==
* [[Affine space]]
* [[Banach space]]
* [[Cauchy space]]
* [[Euclidean space]]
* [[Function space]]
* [[Hardy space]]
* [[Hilbert space]]
* [[Inner product space]]
* [[Kolmogorov space]]
* [[Lp space]]
* [[Measure (mathematics)|Measure space]]
* [[Metric space]]
* [[Minkowski space]]
* [[Normed vector space]]
* [[Quotient space]]
* [[Topological space]]
* [[Uniform space]]
* [[Vector space]]

{{math-stub}}

[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]

[[da:Rum#Matematik]]
[[de:Raum (Mathematik)]]
[[et:Ruum (matemaatika)]]
[[es:Espacio#En Matemáticas]]
[[eo:Spaco#3. Spaco en Matematiko:]]
[[fr:Espace (notion)#Mathématiques]]
[[gl:Espazo#Matemática]]
[[ko:공간#수학]]
[[io:Spaco]]
[[it:Spazio (matematica)]]
[[nl:Ruimte (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:空間#数学的な空間]]
[[nov:Spatie]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń (matematyka)]]
[[pt:Espaço#Espaço matemático]]
[[ru:Пространство#Математика]]
[[fi:Avaruus (matematiikka)]]
[[sv:Rum (matematik)]]
[[zh:空间 (数学)]]

Space (mathematics)

2009-04-29T04:44:31Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ added Hardy space

{{Otheruses4|mathematical sets called spaces|space as a geometric concept|Euclidean space|all other uses|space (disambiguation)}}

[[Image:Mathematical_Spaces.png|thumb|A hierarchy of mathematical spaces: The inner product induces a norm. The norm induces a metric. The metric induces a topology.]]

In [[mathematics]], a '''space''' is a [[Set (mathematics)|set]] with some added structure.

Mathematical spaces often form a hierarchy, i.e., one space may inherit all the characteristics of a parent space. For instance, all [[inner product space]]s are also [[normed vector space]]s, because the inner product ''induces'' a [[norm (mathematics)|norm]] on the inner product space such that:
:<math> \|x\| =\sqrt{\langle x, x\rangle}.</math>

==See also==
* [[Affine space]]
* [[Banach space]]
* [[Cauchy space]]
* [[Euclidean space]]
* [[Function space]]
* [[Hardy space]]
* [[Hilbert space]]
* [[Inner product space]]
* [[Kolmogorov space]]
* [[Measure (mathematics)|Measure space]]
* [[Metric space]]
* [[Minkowski space]]
* [[Normed vector space]]
* [[Quotient space]]
* [[Topological space]]
* [[Uniform space]]
* [[Vector space]]

{{math-stub}}

[[Category:Mathematical terminology]]

[[da:Rum#Matematik]]
[[de:Raum (Mathematik)]]
[[et:Ruum (matemaatika)]]
[[es:Espacio#En Matemáticas]]
[[eo:Spaco#3. Spaco en Matematiko:]]
[[fr:Espace (notion)#Mathématiques]]
[[gl:Espazo#Matemática]]
[[ko:공간#수학]]
[[io:Spaco]]
[[it:Spazio (matematica)]]
[[nl:Ruimte (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:空間#数学的な空間]]
[[nov:Spatie]]
[[pl:Przestrzeń (matematyka)]]
[[pt:Espaço#Espaço matemático]]
[[ru:Пространство#Математика]]
[[fi:Avaruus (matematiikka)]]
[[sv:Rum (matematik)]]
[[zh:空间 (数学)]]

Space mathematics

2009-04-29T04:43:59Z

Owlgorithm:

'''Space mathematics''' may refer to:
* [[Orbital mechanics]]
* [[Newton's laws of motion]]
* [[Newton's law of universal gravitation]]
* [[Space (mathematics)]]

{{dab}}
{{Short pages monitor}}

Promise ring

2009-02-27T22:32:04Z

Owlgorithm: removal of "silly vandalism" (see Wikipedia:Vandalism)

{{about|a kind of jewelry|the 2007 song by [[Tiffany Evans]]|Promise Ring (song)|the American [[emo|emo band]]|The Promise Ring}}

A '''promise ring''' is a ring worn to indicate a that you will not have sex before marriage. There are a couple subtypes of promise rings:
*A [[purity ring]] is worn to signify a pledge to [[sexual abstinence]].
*A [[pre-engagement ring]] is worn to signify a commitment to a [[monogamy|monogamous relationship]].

Apollo

2008-11-18T23:57:05Z

Owlgorithm: /* Cult sites */ grammar edit -- "Unusually" to "Unusual"

{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}

{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Greek deity|
| Image = Apollo ny carlsberg glyptotek.jpg
| Caption = 2nd century AD Roman statue of Apollo depicting the god's attributes - the lyre and the snake [[Python (mythology)|Python]]
| Name = Apollo
| God_of = '''God of music, poetry and oracles'''
| Abode =
| Symbol =
| Consort =
| Parents = [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]]
| Siblings= [[Artemis]]
| Children= [[Asclepius]], [[Troilus]], [[Aristaeus]]
| Mount =
| Roman_equivalent = Apollo
}}
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
{{Ancient Roman religion}}

In [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]], '''Apollo''' (in [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], ''Ἀπόλλων''—''Apóllōn'' or ''Ἀπέλλων''—''Apellōn''), is one of the most important and many-sided of the [[Twelve Olympians|Olympian deities]]. The ideal of the ''[[kouros]]'' (a beardless youth), Apollo has been variously recognized as a god of light and the sun; truth and prophecy; [[archery]]; medicine and healing; music, poetry, and the arts; and more. Apollo is the son of [[Zeus]] and [[Leto]], and has a [[twins|twin]] sister, the chaste huntress [[Artemis]]. Apollo is known in Greek-influenced [[Etruscan mythology]] as ''Apulu''. Apollo was worshipped in both [[Ancient Greek religion|ancient Greek]] and [[Ancient Roman religion|Roman religion]], as well as in the modern [[Hellenic neopaganism]].

As the patron of [[Delphi]] (''Pythian Apollo''), Apollo was an [[oracular]] god — the prophetic deity of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]]. Medicine and healing were associated with Apollo, whether through the god himself or mediated through his son [[Asclepius]]. Apollo was also seen as a god who could bring ill-health and deadly [[Plague (disease)|plague]] as well as one who had the ability to cure. Amongst the god's custodial charges, Apollo became associated with dominion over [[Colonies in antiquity|colonists]], and as the patron defender of herds and flocks. As the leader of the [[Muse]]s (''Apollon Musagetes'') and director of their choir, Apollo functioned as the patron god of music and [[poetry]]. [[Hermes]] created the [[lyre]] for him, and the instrument became a common [[Apollo#Attributes and symbols|attribute]] of Apollo. Hymns sung to Apollo were called [[paean]]s.

In Hellenistic times, especially during the third century BCE, as ''Apollo Helios'' he became identified among Greeks with [[Helios]], [[solar deity|god of the sun]], and his sister Artemis similarly equated with [[Selene]], [[lunar deity|goddess of the moon]].<ref>For the iconography of the Alexander-Helios type, see H. Hoffmann, 1963. "Helios," in ''Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt'' '''2''', pp. 117-23; cf. Yalouris 1980, no. 42.</ref> In Latin texts, however, Joseph Fontenrose declared himself unable to find any conflation of Apollo with [[Sol]] among the [[Classical Latin|Augustan poets]] of the first century, not even in the conjurations of [[Aeneas]] and [[Latinus]] in ''[[Aeneid]]'' XII (161-215).<ref>Joseph Fontenrose, "Apollo and Sol in the Latin poets of the first century BC", ''Transactions of the American Philological Association'' '''30''' (1939), pp 439-55; "Apollo and the Sun-God in Ovid", ''American Journal of Philology'' '''61''' (1940) pp 429-44; and "Apollo and Sol in the Oaths of Aeneas and Latinus" ''Classical Philology'' '''38'''.2 (April 1943), pp. 137-138.</ref> Apollo and Helios/Sol remained separate beings in literary and mythological texts until the third century CE.

==Etymology==
The etymology of ''Apollo'' is uncertain. Several instances of [[popular etymology]] are attested from ancient authors. Thus, [[Plato]] in ''[[Cratylus]]'' connects the name with {{polytonic|ἀπόλυσις}} "redeem", with {{polytonic|ἀπόλουσις}} "purification", and with {{polytonic|ἁπλοῦν}} "simple",<ref>The ἁ{{polytonic|πλοῦν}} suggestion is repeated by [[Plutarch]] in ''[[Moralia]]'' in the sense of "[[1 (number)|unity]]".</ref> in particular in reference to the Thessalian form of the name, {{polytonic|Ἄπλουν}}, and finally with {{polytonic|Ἀει-βάλλων}} "ever-shooting". [[Hesychius of Alexandria|Hesychius]] connects the name Apollo with the Doric απελλα, which means "assembly", so that Apollo would be the god of political life, and he also gives the explanation σηκος ("fold"), in which case Apollo would be the god of flocks and herds. It is also possible<ref>Burkert so holds; ''Greek Religion'' p.144</ref> that ''apellai'' derives from an old form of Apollo which can be equated with Appaliunas, an Anatolian god whose name possibly means "father lion" or "father light". The Greeks later associated Apollo's name with the Greek verb απολλυμι (apollymi) meaning "to destroy".<ref>[http://www.behindthename.com/php/view.php?name=apollo Behind the Name: Meaning, Origin and History of the Name Apollo]</ref>

It has also been suggested<ref> de Grummond, Nancy Thomson (2006) "Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend". (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology)</ref><ref>Mackenzie, Donald A. (2005) "Myths of Babylonia and Assyria" (Gutenberg)</ref> that Apollo comes from the [[Hurrian]] and [[Hittite]] divinity, Aplu, who was widely evoked during the "plague years". Aplu, it is suggested, comes from the Akkadian ''Aplu Enlil'', meaning "the son of Enlil", a title that was given to the god [[Nergal]], who was linked to [[Shamash]], Babylonian god of the sun.

==Origins of cult==
It appears that both [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] Apollo came to the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] during the [[Iron Age]] (i.e. from c.1100 BCE to c. 800 BCE) from [[Anatolia]]. [[Homer]] pictures him on the side of the [[Trojan]]s, against the [[Achaean]]s, during the [[Trojan War]] and he has close affiliations with a [[Luwian]] deity, [[Apaliunas]], who in turn seems to have traveled west from further east. The [[Late Bronze Age]] (from 1700–1200 BCE) [[Hittites|Hittite]] and [[Hurrian]] ''Aplu'',<ref>Croft, John (2003) wrote in the [https://listhost.uchicago.edu/pipermail/ane/2003-May/009551.html Ancient Near East mail list hosted by the University of Chicago] that "Apollo does not have a Greek provenance but an Anatolian one. Luwian Apaliuna seems to have travelled west from further East. Hurrian Aplu was a god of the plague, and resembles the mouse god Apollo Smitheus. Hurrian Aplu itself seems derived from the Babylonian "Aplu" meaning a "son of" — a title that was given to the Babylonian plague God, Nergal (son of Enlil)"</ref> like the Homeric Apollo, was a god of [[Plague (disease)|plague]]s, and resembles the mouse god ''Apollo Smintheus''. Here we have an [[apotrope|apotropaic]] situation, where a god originally bringing the plague was invoked to end it, merging over time through fusion with the [[Mycenae]]an healer-god Paieon (PA-JA-WO in [[Linear B]]); [[Paean]], in Homer's ''[[Iliad]]'', was the Greek healer of the wounded gods [[Ares]] and [[Hades]]. In other writers, the word becomes a mere epithet of Apollo in his capacity as a god of [[healing]], but it is now known from Linear B that Paean was originally a separate deity.

Homer illustrated Paieon the god as well as the song both of [[apotropaic]] thanksgiving or triumph,<ref>See [[Paean]].</ref> and [[Hesiod]] also separated the two; in later poetry Paean was invoked independently as a god of healing. It is equally difficult to separate Paean or Paeon in the sense of "healer" from Paean in the sense of "song."

Such songs were originally addressed to Apollo, and afterwards to other gods, [[Dionysus]], [[Helios]], [[Asclepius]].. About the fourth century BCE, the paean became merely a formula of adulation; its object was either to implore protection against disease and misfortune, or to offer thanks after such protection had been rendered. It was in this way that Apollo had become recognised as the god of music. Apollo's role as the slayer of the [[Python (mythology)|Python]] led to his association with battle and victory; hence it became the Roman custom for a paean to be sung by an [[army]] on the march and before entering into battle, when a fleet left the harbour, and also after a victory had been won.

Apollo's links with oracles again seem to be associated with wishing to know the outcome of an illness. He is a god of music and the lyre. Healing belongs to his realm: he was the father of Asclepius, the god of [[medicine]]. The Muses are part of his retinue, so that [[music]], [[history]], [[poetry]] and [[dance]] all belong to him.

==Cult sites==
Unusual among the Olympic deities, Apollo had two cult sites that had widespread influence: [[Delos]] and [[Delphi]]. In cult practice, Delian Apollo and Pythian Apollo (the Apollo of Delphi) were so distinct that they might both have shrines in the same locality.<ref>Burkert 1985:143.</ref> [[Theophoric names]] such as ''Apollodorus'' or ''Apollonios'' and cities named [[Apollonia]] are met with throughout the Greek world. Apollo's [[Cult (religion)|cult]] was already fully established when written sources commenced, about 650 BCE.

===Oracular shrines===
Apollo had a famous [[oracle]] in Delphi, and other notable ones in [[Clarus]] and [[Branchidae]]. His oracular shrine in [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]], where he bore the [[toponym]]ic epithet ''[[Abaeus]]'' ({{polytonic|Ἀπόλλων Ἀβαῖος}}, ''Apollon Abaios'') was important enough to be consulted by [[Croesus]] ([[Herodotus]], 1.46).
His oracular shrines include:
* In [[Didyma]], an oracle on the coast of [[Anatolia]], south west of [[Lydia]]n ([[Luwian]]) [[Sardis]], in which priests from the lineage of the Branchidae received inspiration by drinking from a healing spring located in the temple.
* In [[Manbij|Hierapolis Bambyce]], Syria (modern Manbij), according to the treatise ''[[De Dea Syria]]'', the sanctuary of the [[Atargatis|Syrian Goddess]] contained a robed and bearded image of Apollo. Divination was based on spontaneous movements of this image.<ref>[[Lucian]] (attrib.), ''[[De Dea Syria]]'' [http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/luc/tsg/tsg07.htm#35 35–37].</ref>
* In [[Delos]], there was an oracle to the Delian Apollo, during summer. The Hieron (Sanctuary) of Apollo adjacent to the Sacred Lake, was the place where the god was said to have been born.
* In [[Corinth]], the Oracle of Corinth came from the town of [[Tenea]], from prisoners supposedly taken in the Trojan War
* In [[Bassae]] in the [[Peloponnese]]
* In [[Abae]] in [[Phocis]]
* In [[Delphi]], the [[Pythia]] became filled with the ''[[pneuma]]'' of Apollo, said to come from a spring inside the [[Adyton]].
* At [[Patara]], in [[Lycia]], there was a seasonal winter oracle of Apollo, said to have been the place where the god went from Delos. As at Delphi the oracle at Patara was a woman.
* At [[Clarus]], on the west coast of [[Asia Minor]]; as at Delphi a holy spring which gave off a ''pneuma'', from which the priests drank.
* In [[Segesta]] in [[Sicily]]

Oracles were also given by sons of Apollo.
* In [[Oropus]], north of [[Athens]], the oracle [[Amphiaraus]], was said to be the son of Apollo; Oropus also had a sacred spring.
* in Labadea, {{convert|20|mi|km}} east of Delphi, [[Trophonius]], another son of Apollo, killed his brother and fled to the cave where he was also afterwards consulted as an oracle.

==Festivals==
The chief Apollonian festivals were the [[Boedromia]], [[Carneia]], Carpiae, [[Daphnephoria]], [[Delia (festival)|Delia]], [[Hyacinthia]], [[Metageitnia]], [[Pyanepsia]], [[Pythia]] and [[Thargelia]].

==Attributes and symbols==
[[Image:Apolocitaredo8.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Apollo Citharoedus]]'' ("Apollo with a kithara"), [[Musei Capitolini]], [[Rome]]]]
Apollo's most common attributes were the bow and [[arrow]]. Other attributes of his included the [[kithara]] (an advanced version of the common [[lyre]]), the [[plectrum]] and the sword. Another common emblem was the [[sacrificial tripod]], representing his prophetic powers. The [[Pythian Games]] were held in Apollo's honor every four years at [[Delphi]]. The bay [[laurel tree|laurel]] plant was used in expiatory sacrifices and in making the [[laurel wreath|crown of victory]] at these games. The [[palm tree|palm]] was also sacred to Apollo because he had been born under one in [[Delos]]. Animals sacred to Apollo included [[wolf|wolves]], [[dolphin]]s, [[roe deer]], [[swan]]s, [[cicada]]s (symbolizing music and [[song]]), [[hawk]]s, [[raven]]s, [[crow]]s, [[snake]]s (referencing Apollo's function as the god of prophecy), [[mice]] and [[griffin]]s, mythical eagle-lion hybrids of Eastern origin.

As god of colonization, Apollo gave oracular guidance on colonies, especially during the height of colonization, 750–550 BCE. According to Greek tradition, he helped [[Crete|Cretan]] or [[Arcadia]]n colonists found the city of [[Troy]]. However, this story may reflect a cultural influence which had the reverse direction: [[Hittites|Hittite]] [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts mention a Minor Asian god called ''Appaliunas'' or ''Apalunas'' in connection with the city of [[Wilusa]] attested in Hittite inscriptions, which is now generally regarded as being identical with the Greek [[Troy|Ilion]] by most scholars. In this interpretation, Apollo’s title of ''Lykegenes'' can simply be read as "born in Lycia", which effectively severs the god's supposed link with wolves (possibly a [[folk etymology]]).

In literary contexts, Apollo represents harmony, order, and reason—characteristics contrasted with those of [[Dionysus]], god of wine, who represents ecstasy and disorder. The contrast between the roles of these gods is reflected in the adjectives [[Apollonian and Dionysian]]. However, the Greeks thought of the two qualities as complementary: the two gods are brothers, and when Apollo at winter left for [[Hyperborea]], he would leave the Delphic oracle to Dionysus. This contrast appears to be shown on the two sides of the [[Borghese Vase]].

Apollo is often associated with the [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden Mean]]. This is the Greek [[ideal]] of [[moderation]] and a [[virtue]] that opposes [[gluttony]].

==Roman Apollo==
The Roman worship of Apollo was adopted from the Greeks. As a quintessentially [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]], Apollo had no direct Roman equivalent, although later Roman poets often referred to him as [[Phoebus]]. There was a tradition that the Delphic oracle was consulted as early as the period of the [[Roman Kingdom|kings of Rome]] during the reign of [[Tarquinius Superbus]].<ref>[[Livy]] [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Liv.+1.56 1.56].</ref> On the occasion of a pestilence in the 430s BC, Apollo's [[Temple of Apollo Sosianus|first temple]] at Rome was established in the Flaminian fields, replacing an older cult site there known as the "Apollinare".<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0026:book=3:chapter=63 3.63.7], [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0145:book=4:chapter=25 4.25.3].</ref> During the [[Second Punic War]] in 212 BC, the ''[[Ludi Apollinares]]'' ("Apollonian Games") were instituted in his honor, on the instructions of a prophecy attributed to one Marcius.<ref>Livy [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0147:book=25:chapter=12 25.12].</ref> In the time of [[Augustus]], who considered himself under the special protection of Apollo and was even said to be his son, his worship developed and he became one of the chief gods of Rome.<ref>{{cite book |author=J. H. W. G. Liebeschuetz |title=Continuity and Change in Roman Religion |year=1979 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=0-19-814822-4 |pages=pp. 82–85 }}</ref> After the [[battle of Actium]], which was fought near a sanctuary of Apollo, Augustus enlarged Apollo's temple, dedicated a portion of the spoils to him, and instituted [[quinquennial]] games in his honour.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars#Life of Augustus|Augustus]]'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#18.2 18.2]; [[Cassius Dio]] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html#1 51.1.1–3].</ref> He also erected [[Temple of Apollo (Palatine)|a new temple]] to the god on the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine hill]].<ref>Cassius Dio [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/53*.html#1.3 53.1.3].</ref> Sacrifices and prayers on the Palatine to Apollo and [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] formed the culmination of the [[Secular Games]], held in 17 BCE to celebrate the dawn of a new era.<ref>''Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae'' 5050, translated by {{cite book |author=Mary Beard |authorlink=Mary Beard (classicist) |coauthors=John North and Simon Price |title=Religions of Rome: Volume 2: A Sourcebook |year=1998 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |id=ISBN 0-521-45015-2 (hbk.); ISBN 0-521-45646-0 (pbk.) |pages=no. 5.7b }}</ref>

== In art ==
[[Image:Roman Statue of Apollo.jpg|thumb|left|Apollo (the "Adonis" of Centocelle), Roman after a Greek original ([[Ashmolean Museum]])]]

In art, Apollo is depicted as a handsome beardless young man, often with a [[kithara]] (as [[Apollo Citharoedus]]) or bow in his hand, or reclining on a tree (the [[Lycian Apollo]] and [[Apollo Sauroctonos]] types). The [[Apollo Belvedere]] is a [[marble]] [[sculpture]] that was rediscovered in the late 15th century; for centuries it epitomized the ideals of [[Classical Antiquity]] for Europeans, from the [[Renaissance]] through the nineteenth century. The marble is a [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]] or Roman copy of a bronze original by the Greek sculptor [[Leochares]], made between 350 and 325 BC.

The lifesize so-called "[[Adonis]]" (shown at left) found in 1780 on the site of a ''[[Roman villa|villa suburbana]]'' near the [[Via Labicana]] in the Roman suburb of Centocelle and now in the [[Ashmolean Museum]], Oxford, is identified as an Apollo by modern scholars. It was probably never intended as a [[cult object]], but was a [[pastiche]] of several fourth-century and later Hellenistic model types, intended to please a Roman connoisseur of the second century AD, and to be displayed in his villa.

[[Image:Apollo1.JPG|thumb|right|Apollo with a radiant [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]] in a Roman floor mosaic, [[El Djem]], Tunisia, late 2nd century]]

In the late second century CE floor mosaic from [[El Djem]], Roman ''Thysdrus'' (right), he is identifiable as [[Helios|Apollo Helios]] by his effulgent [[Halo (religious iconography)|halo]], though now even a god's divine [[nudity|nakedness]] is concealed by his cloak, a mark of increasing conventions of modesty in the later [[Roman Empire|Empire]]. Another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from [[Hadrumentum]], is in the museum at [[Sousse]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |title=http://www.tunisiaonline.com/mosaics/mosaic05b.html |accessdate= |format= |work= }}</ref> The conventions of this representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed, curling [[Hairstyle|hair cut]] in locks grazing the neck, were developed in the third century BCE to depict [[Alexander the Great]] (Bieber 1964, Yalouris 1980). Some time after this mosaic was executed, the earliest depictions of Christ will be beardless and haloed.

==Mythology==
===Birth===
When [[Hera]] discovered that Leto was pregnant and that Zeus was the father, she banned Leto from giving birth on "[[terra firma]]", or the mainland, or any [[island]]. In her wanderings, [[Leto]] found the newly created [[floating island]] of [[Delos]], which was neither mainland nor a real island, and she gave birth there. The island was surrounded by swans. Afterwards, Zeus secured Delos to the bottom of the ocean. This island later became sacred to Apollo.

It is also stated that Hera kidnapped [[Ilithyia]], the goddess of childbirth, to prevent Leto from going into labor. The other gods tricked Hera into letting her go by offering her a [[necklace]], nine yards long, of [[amber]]. Mythographers agree that Artemis was born first and then assisted with the birth of Apollo, or that [[Artemis]] was born one day before Apollo, on the island of [[Ortygia]] and that she helped Leto cross the sea to Delos the next day to give birth to Apollo. Apollo was born on the seventh day ({{polytonic|ἡβδομαγενης}}) of the month Thargelion —according to Delian tradition— or of the month Bysios— according to Delphian tradition. The seventh and twentieth, the days of the new and [[full moon]], were ever afterwards held sacred to him.

=== Youth ===
Four days after his birth, Apollo killed the chthonic dragon [[Python (mythology)|Python]], which lived in [[Delphi]] beside the [[Castalian Spring]]. This was the spring which emitted vapors that caused the oracle at Delphi to give her prophesies. Hera sent the serpent to hunt Leto to her death across the world. In order to protect his mother, Apollo begged [[Hephaestus]] for a bow and arrows. After receiving them, Apollo cornered Python in the sacred cave at Delphi.<ref>''Children of the Gods''' by Kenneth McLeish, page 32.</ref> Apollo killed Python but had to be punished for it, since Python was a child of [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]].

Hera then sent the giant [[Tityos]] to kill Leto. This time Apollo was aided by his sister Artemis in protecting their mother. During the battle Zeus finally relented his aid and hurled Tityos down to [[Tartarus]]. There he was pegged to the rock floor, covering an area of nine acres, where a pair of [[vulture]]s feasted daily on his liver.

=== Admetus ===
When Zeus struck down Apollo's son Asclepius, with a lightning bolt for resurrecting [[Hippolytus (mythology)|Hippolytus]] from the dead (transgressing [[Themis]] by stealing [[Hades]]'s subjects), Apollo in revenge killed the [[Cyclops]], who had fashioned the bolt for Zeus. Apollo would have been banished to [[Tartarus]] forever, but was instead sentenced to one year of [[Penal labour|hard labor]] as punishment, thanks to the intercession of his mother, [[Leto]]. During this time he served as shepherd for [[Admetus|King Admetus]] of [[Pherae]] in [[Thessaly]]. Admetus treated Apollo well, and, in return, the god conferred great benefits on Admetus.

Apollo helped Admetus win [[Alcestis]], the daughter of [[Pelias|King Pelias]] and later convinced the [[Moirae|Fates]] to let Admetus live past his time, if another took his place. But when it came time for Admetus to die, his parents, whom he had assumed would gladly die for him, refused to cooperate. Instead, Alcestis took his place, but [[Heracles]] managed to "persuade" [[Thanatos]], the god of death, to return her to the world of the living.

=== Trojan War ===
Apollo shot arrows infected with the plague into the Greek encampment during the [[Trojan War]] in retribution for [[Agamemnon]]'s insult to [[Chryses]], a priest of Apollo whose daughter [[Chryseis]] had been captured. He demanded her return, and the Achaeans complied, indirectly causing the anger of Achilles, which is the theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''.

When [[Diomedes]] injured [[Aeneas]] (''[[Iliad]]''), Apollo rescued him. First, [[Aphrodite]] tried to rescue Aeneas but Diomedes injured her as well. Aeneas was then enveloped in a cloud by Apollo, who took him to Pergamos, a sacred spot in [[Troy]].

Apollo aided [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] in the killing of [[Achilles]] by guiding the arrow of his bow into [[Achilles]]' heel. One interpretation of his motive is that it was in revenge for Achilles' sacrilege in murdering [[Troilus]], the god's own son by [[Hecuba]], on the very altar of the god's own temple.

=== Niobe ===
A queen of [[Thebes (Greece)|Thebes]] and wife of [[Amphion]], [[Niobe]] boasted of her superiority to Leto because she had fourteen children ([[Niobids]]), seven male and seven female, while Leto had only two. Apollo killed her sons as they practiced athletics, with the last begging for his life, and Artemis her daughters. Apollo and Artemis used poisoned arrows to kill them, though according to some versions of the myth, a number of the Niobids were spared ([[Chloris]], usually). Amphion, at the sight of his dead sons, either killed himself or was killed by Apollo after swearing revenge. A devastated Niobe fled to [[Spil Mount|Mount Sipylos]] in [[Asia Minor]] and turned into stone as she wept. Her tears formed the river [[Achelous]]. Zeus had turned all the people of Thebes to stone and so no one buried the Niobids until the ninth day after their death, when the gods themselves entombed them.

=== Consorts and children ===
Love affairs ascribed to Apollo are a late development in Greek mythology.<ref>""The love-stories themselves were not told until later." ([[Karl Kerenyi]], ''The Gods of the Greeks'' 1951:140.</ref> Their vivid anecdotal qualities have made some of them favourites of painters since the Renaissance, so that they stand out more prominently in the modern imagination.

====Female lovers====
{{main|Apollo and Daphne}}
In explanation of the connection of Apollon with ''daphne'', the [[Bay Laurel|Laurel]] whose leaves his priestess employed at [[Delphi]], it was told by [[Libanius]], a fourth-century CE teacher of rhetoric,<ref>Libanius, ''Narrationes''.</ref> that Apollo chased a nymph, [[Daphne]], daughter of [[Peneus]], who had scorned him. In [[Ovid]]'s telling for a Roman audience, Phoebus Apollo chaffs Cupid for toying with a man's weapon suited to a man, whereupon Cupid wounds him with an arrow with a golden dart; simultaneously, however, Eros had shot a leaden arrow into Daphne, causing her to be repulsed by Apollo. Following a spirited chase by Apollo, Daphne prayed to Mother Earth, or, alternatively, her father — a [[Sea and river deity|river god]] — to help her and he changed her into the Laurel tree, sacred to Apollo.

Apollo had an affair with a human princess named [[Leucothea]], daughter of [[Orchamus]] and sister of [[Clytia]]. Leucothea loved Apollo who disguised himself as Leucothea's mother to gain entrance to her chambers. Clytia, jealous of her sister because she wanted Apollo for herself, told Orchamus the truth, betraying her sister's trust and confidence in her. Enraged, Orchamus ordered Leucothea to be buried alive. Apollo refused to forgive Clytia for betraying his beloved, and a grieving Clytia wilted and slowly died. Apollo changed her into an incense plant, either heliotrope or sunflower, which follows the sun every day.

[[Marpessa]] was kidnapped by [[Idas]] but was loved by Apollo as well. [[Zeus]] made her choose between them, and she chose Idas on the grounds that Apollo, being immortal, would tire of her when she grew old.

[[Castalia]] was a [[nymph]] whom Apollo loved. She fled from him and dived into the [[castalian Spring|spring]] at Delphi, at the base of [[Mt. Parnassos]], which was then named after her. Water from this spring was sacred; it was used to clean the Delphian temples and inspire poets.

By [[Cyrene (mythology)|Cyrene]], Apollo had a son named [[Aristaeus]], who became the patron god of cattle, [[fruit trees]], hunting, husbandry and [[bee-keeping]]. He was also a [[culture-hero]] and taught humanity dairy skills and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives.

With [[Hecuba]], wife of King [[Priam]] of [[Troy]], Apollo had a son named [[Troilus]]. An [[oracle]] prophesied that Troy would not be defeated as long as Troilus reached the age of twenty alive. He was ambushed and killed by [[Achilles]].

Apollo also fell in love with [[Cassandra]], daughter of Hecuba and Priam, and Troilus' half-sister. He promised Cassandra the gift of prophecy to seduce her, but she rejected him afterwards. Enraged, Apollo indeed gifted her with the ability to know the future, with a curse that she could only see the future tragedies and that no one would ever believe her.

[[Coronis]], daughter of [[Phlegyas]], King of the [[Lapiths]], was another of Apollo's liaisons. Pregnant with [[Asclepius]], Coronis fell in love with [[Ischys]], son of [[Elatus]]. A crow informed Apollo of the affair. When first informed he disbelieved the crow and turned all crows black (where they were previously white) as a punishment for spreading untruths. When he found out the truth he sent his sister, Artemis, to kill Coronis (in other stories, Apollo himself had killed Coronis). As a result he also made the crow sacred and gave them the task of announcing important deaths. Apollo rescued the baby and gave it to the [[centaur]] [[Chiron]] to raise. Phlegyas was irate after the death of his daughter and burned the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. Apollo then killed him for what he did.

In [[Euripides]]' play ''[[Ion (play)|Ion]]'', Apollo fathered [[Ion (mythology)|Ion]] by [[Creusa]], wife of [[Xuthus]]. Creusa left Ion to die in the wild, but Apollo asked [[Hermes]] to save the child and bring him to the oracle at [[Delphi]], where he was raised by a priestess.

One of his other liaisons was with [[Acantha]], the spirit of the [[Acanthus (genus)|acanthus]] tree. Upon her death, Apollo transformed her into a sun-loving herb.

====Male lovers====
[[Image:Hyacinthus.jpg|thumb|''Apollo and Hyacinthus'' Jacopo Caraglio; 16th c. Italian engraving]]

Apollo, the eternal beardless [[kouros]] himself, had the most prominent male relationships of all the [[Greek Gods]]. That might be expected from a god who was god of the [[palaestra]], the athletic gathering place for youth who all competed [[Nudity in sport|in the nude]]. Many of Apollo's male lovers suffer tragic deaths resulting from accidents.

[[Hyacinth (mythology)|Hyacinth (or Hyacinthus]] was one of his male lovers. Hyacinthus was a [[Sparta]]n prince, beautiful and athletic. The pair were practicing throwing the [[Discus throw|discus]] when a discus thrown by Apollo was blown off course by the jealous [[Zephyrus]] and struck Hyacinthus in the head and killing him instantly. When Hyacinthus died, Apollo is said to be filled with grief and in anger at Zephyrus, transformed him into the wind so that he could never touch or speak to anyone again. Out of Hyacinthus' blood, Apollo created a [[hyacinth (plant)|flower]] named after him as a memorial to his death, and his tears stained the flower petals with ''άί'' ''άί'', meaning alas. The Festival of Hyacinthus was a celebration of Sparta.

Another male lover was [[Cyparissus]], a descendant of [[Heracles]]. Apollo gave him a tame deer as a companion but Cyparissus accidentally killed it with a [[Pilum|javelin]] as it lay asleep in the undergrowth. Cyparissus asked Apollo to let his tears fall forever. Apollo granted the request by turning him into the [[Cupressaceae|tree]] named after him, which was said to be a sad tree because the sap forms droplets like tears on the trunk.

=== Birth of Hermes ===
[[Hermes]] was born on [[Mount Kyllini|Mount Cyllene]] in Arcadia. The story is told in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Hermes]]. His mother, [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]], had been secretly impregnated by [[Zeus]]. Maia wrapped the infant in blankets but Hermes escaped while she was asleep. Hermes ran to [[Thessaly]], where Apollo was grazing his cattle. The infant Hermes stole a number of his cows and took them to a cave in the woods near [[Pylos]], covering their tracks. In the cave, he found a [[tortoise]] and killed it, then removed the insides. He used one of the cow's intestines and the tortoise shell and made the first [[lyre]]. Apollo complained to Maia that her son had stolen his cattle, but Hermes had already replaced himself in the blankets she had wrapped him in, so Maia refused to believe Apollo's claim. Zeus intervened and, claiming to have seen the events, sided with Apollo. Hermes then began to play music on the lyre he had invented. Apollo, a god of music, fell in love with the instrument and offered to allow exchange of the cattle for the lyre. Hence, Apollo became a master of the lyre.

=== Other stories ===
Apollo gave the order through the Oracle at Delphi, for [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] to kill his mother, [[Clytemnestra]], and her lover, [[Aegisthus]]. Orestes was punished fiercely by the [[Erinyes]] (the [[Furies]], [[female]] personifications of [[revenge|vengeance]]) for this crime. Relentlessly pursued by the Furies, Orestes asked for the intercession of [[Athena]], who decreed that he be tried by a [[jury]] of his [[Peer group|peer]]s, with Apollo acting as his attorney.

In the [[Odyssey]], [[Odysseus]] and his surviving crew landed on an island sacred to Helios the sun god, where he kept sacred cattle. Though Odysseus warned his men not to (as [[Tiresias]] and [[Circe]] had told him), they killed and ate some of the cattle and Helios had [[Zeus]] destroy the ship and all the men, except [[Odysseus]].

Apollo also had a [[lyre]]-playing contest with [[Cinyras]], his son, who [[Suicide|committed suicide]] when he lost.

Apollo killed the [[Aloadae]] when they attempted to storm [[Mount Olympus (Mountain)|Mt. Olympus]].

It was also said that Apollo rode on the back of a swan to the land of the [[Hyperboreans]] during the winter months, a swan that he also lent to his beloved Hyacinthus to ride.

Apollo turned [[Cephissus]] into a [[sea monster]].

==== Musical contests ====
===== Pan =====
Once [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]] had the audacity to compare his music with that of Apollo, and to challenge Apollo, the god of the [[kithara]], to a trial of skill. [[Tmolus]], the mountain-god, was chosen to umpire. Pan blew on his pipes, and with his rustic melody gave great satisfaction to himself and his faithful follower, [[Midas]], who happened to be present. Then Apollo struck the strings of his lyre. Tmolus at once awarded the victory to Apollo, and all but Midas agreed with the judgment. He dissented, and questioned the justice of the award. Apollo would not suffer such a depraved pair of ears any longer, and caused them to become the ears of a [[donkey]].

===== Marsyas =====
[[Image:TItian - The Flaying of Marsyas.jpg|thumb|''The Flaying of Marsyas'' by [[Titian]], c.1570-76.]]
Apollo has ominous aspects aside from his plague-bringing, death-dealing arrows: [[Marsyas]] was a [[satyr]] who challenged Apollo to a contest of music. He had found an [[aulos]] on the ground, tossed away after being invented by [[Athena]] because it made her cheeks puffy. The contest was judged by the [[Muse]]s. After they each performed, both were deamed equal until Apollo decreed they play and sing at the same time. As Apollo played the [[lyre]], this was easy to do. Marsyas could not do this as he only knew how to use the flute and could not sing at the same time. Apollo was declared the winner because of this. Apollo [[flaying|flayed]] Marsyas alive in a cave near [[Celaenae]] in [[Phrygia]] for his [[hubris]] to challenge a god. He then nailed Marsyas' shaggy skin to a nearby pine-tree. Marsyas' blood turned into the river [[Marsyas (river)|Marsyas]].

Another variation is that Apollo played his instrument (the lyre) upside down. Marsyas could not do this with his instrument (the [[flute]]), and so Apollo hung him from a tree and flayed him alive.<ref>''Man Myth and Magic'' by Richard Cavendish</ref>

== Graeco-Roman epithets and cult titles ==
Apollo, like other Greek deities, had a number of [[epithet]]s applied to him, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the god. However, while Apollo has a great number of appellations in Greek myth, only a few occur in [[Latin literature]], chief among them '''[[Phoebus]]''' ("shining one"), which was very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans in Apollo's role as the god of light.

In Apollo's role as healer, his appellations included '''Akesios''', '''Iatros''', and '''[[Acestor]]'''<ref>[[Euripides]], ''[[Andromache (play)|Andromache]]'' 901</ref> meaning "healer". He was also called '''[[Alexicacus]]''' ("restrainer of evil") and '''Apotropaeus''' ("he who averts evil"), and was referred to by the Romans as '''Averruncus''' ("averter of evils"). As a plague god and defender against rats and locusts, Apollo was known as '''Smintheus''' ("mouse-catcher") and '''Parnopius''' ("grasshopper"). The Romans also called Apollo '''Culicarius''' ("driving away [[midge (insect)|midges]]"). In his healing aspect, the Romans referred to Apollo as '''Medicus''' ("the Physician"), and a [[Roman temple|temple]] was dedicated to ''Apollo Medicus'' at Rome, probably next to the temple of [[Bellona]]. As a sun-god he was worshiped as '''Aegletes''', the radiant god.<ref>[[Apollonius of Rhodes]], iv. 1730</ref><ref>[[Apollodorus]], i. 9. § 26</ref>

As a god of archery, Apollo was known as '''Aphetoros''' ("god of the bow") and '''Argurotoxos''' ("with the silver bow"). The Romans referred to Apollo as '''Articenens''' ("carrying the bow") as well. As a pastoral shepherd-god, Apollo was known as '''Nomios''' ("wandering"). As the protector of roads and homes he was '''[[Agyieus]]'''.

Apollo was also known as '''Archegetes''' ("director of the foundation"), who oversaw colonies. He was known as '''Klarios''', from the Doric ''klaros'' ("allotment of land"), for his supervision over cities and colonies.

He was known as '''Delphinios''' ("Delphinian"), meaning "of the womb", in his association with ''Delphoi'' ([[Delphi]]). At Delphi, he was also known as '''Pythios''' ("Pythian"). An [[aitiology]] in the [[Homeric hymns]] connects the epitheton to [[dolphin]]s. '''Kynthios''', another common epithet, stemmed from his birth on Mt. [[Cynthus]]. He was also known as '''Lyceios''' or '''Lykegenes''', which either meant "[[wolf]]ish" or "of [[Lycia]]", Lycia being the place where some postulate that his cult originated.

Specifically as god of prophecy, Apollo was known as '''Loxias''' ("the obscure"). He was also known as '''Coelispex''' ("he who watches the heavens") to the Romans. Apollo was attributed the epithet '''Musagetes''' as the leader of the [[muse]]s, and '''Nymphegetes''' as "[[nymph]]-leader".

'''Acesius''' was the epithet of Apollo worshipped in [[Elis]], where he had a temple in the [[agora]]. This surname, which has the same meaning as ''akestor'' and ''alezikakos'', characterized the god as the averter of evil.<ref name=Smith>"Acesius". ''Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology''. London, 1880. </ref> '''Acraephius''' or '''Acraephiaeus''' was his epithet worshipped in the [[Boeotia]]n town of Acraephia, reputedly founded by his son, [[Acraepheus]]. '''Actiacus''' was his epithet in [[Actium]], one of the principal places of his worship.<ref>[[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' xiii. 715</ref><ref>[[Strabo]], x. p. 451</ref>

== Celtic epithets and cult titles ==
* Apollo was worshipped throughout the [[Roman Empire]]. In the traditionally [[Celtic nations|Celtic]] lands he was most often seen as a healing and sun god. He was often equated with [[List of Celtic gods|Celtic gods]] of similar character. <ref>''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Miranda J. Green, Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997</ref>

* '''[[Apollo Atepomarus]]''' ("the great horseman" or "possessing a great horse"). Apollo was worshipped at [[Mauvières]] ([[Indre]]) under this name. Horses were, in the Celtic world, closely linked to the sun. <ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII, 1863-1986</ref><ref>Pagan Celtic Britain, A. Ross, 1967</ref><ref>The Gods of the Celts, M.J. Green, 1986, London</ref>

* '''[[Apollo Belenus]]''' ('bright' or 'brilliant'). This epithet was given to Apollo in parts of [[Gaul]], North [[Italy]] and [[Noricum]] (part of modern [[Austria]]. Apollo Belenus was a healing and sun god. <ref>Fontes Historiae Religionis Celticae, J. Zwicker, 1934-36, Berlin</ref><ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum V, XI, XII, XIII</ref><ref>''Le culte de Belenos en Provence occidentale et en Gaule'', Ogam (vol 6), J. Gourcest, 1954</ref><ref>''Le cheval sacre dans la Gaule de l'Est'', Revue archeologique de l'Est et du Centre-Est (vol 2), E. Thevonot, 1951</ref><ref>''Temoignages du culte de l'Apollon gaulois dans l'Helvetie romaine'', Revue celtique (vol 51), 1934</ref>

* '''[[Apollo Cunomaglus]]''' ('hound lord'). A title given to Apollo at a shrine in [[Wiltshire]]. Apollo Cunomaglus may have been a god of healing. Cunomaglus himself may originally have been an independent healing god. <ref>The Excavation of the Shrine of Apollo at Nettleton, Whilshire 1956-1971, Society of Antiquaries of London</ref>

* '''[[Apollo Grannus]]'''. Grannus was a healing spring god, later equated with Apollo <ref>The Celtic Heritage in Hungary, M. Szabo, 1971, Budapest</ref><ref name=thevonat>Divinites et sanctuaires de la Gaule, E. Thevonat, 1968, Paris</ref><ref name=devries>La religion des Celtes, J. de Vries, 1963, Paris</ref>

* '''Apollo Maponus'''. A god known from inscriptions in Britain. This may a local fusion of Apollo and [[Maponus]].

* '''[[Apollo Moritasgus]]''' ('masses of sea water'). An epithet for Apollo at Alesia, where he was worshipped as god of healing and, possibly, of physicians. <ref><Alesia, archeologie et histoire, J. Le Gall, 1963, Paris</ref>

* '''[[Apollo Vindonnus]]''' ('clear light'). Apollo Vindonnus had a temple at [[Essarois]], near [[Chatillon-sur-Seine]] in [[Burgundy]]. He was a god of healing, especially of the eyes. <ref name=thevonat/>

* '''[[Apollo Virotutis]]''' ('benefactor of mankind?'). Apollo Virotutis was worshipped, among other places, at Fins d'Annecy ([[Haute-Savoie]]) and at [[Jublains]] ([[Maine-et-Loire]]) <ref name=devries/><ref>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum XIII</ref>

==Reception==
Apollo has often featured in postclassical art and literature. [[Percy Bysshe Shelley]] composed a "Hymn of Apollo" (1820), and the god's instruction of the Muses formed the subject of [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s ''[[Apollon musagète]]'' (1927–1928). The name Apollo was given to [[NASA]]'s [[Apollo program|Apollo Lunar program]] in the 1960s.

==Media==
*[[Media:Apollo and Hyacinth - wiki.ogg|1. ''Apollo and Hyacinthus,'' read by Timothy Carter]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

== References ==
* {{1911 |article=Apollo |author=John Henry Freese |url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=User:Tim_Starling/ScanSet_TIFF_demo&vol=02&page=EB2A196}}

== Further reading ==
===Primary sources===
*[[Homer]], ''Iliad'' ii.595–600 (c. 700 BCE)
*[[Sophocles]], ''Oedipus Rex''
*[[Palaephatus]], ''On Unbelievable Tales'' 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE)
*[[Apollodorus]], ''Library'' 1.3.3 (140 BCE)
*[[Ovid]], ''Metamorphoses'' 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE)
*[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (160–176 CE)
*[[Philostratus the Elder]], ''Images'' i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)
*[[Philostratus the Younger]], ''Images'' 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE)
*[[Lucian]], ''Dialogues of the Gods'' 14 (170 CE)
*[[First Vatican Mythographer]], 197. Thamyris et Musae

===Secondary sources===
* M. Bieber, 1964. ''Alexander the Great in Greek and Roman Art'' (Chicago)
*[[Walter Burkert]], 1985. ''Greek Religion'' (Harvard University Press) III.2.5 ''passim''
*[[Robert Graves]], 1960. ''The Greek Myths'', revised edition (Penguin)
*Miranda J. Green, ''Dictionary of Celtic Myth and Legend'', Thames and Hudson Ltd, 1997
*[[Karl Kerenyi]], ''Apollon: Studien über Antiken Religion und Humanität'' rev. ed. 1953.
*Karl Kerenyi , 1951 ''The Gods of the Greeks''
* [[Pauly-Wissowa]], ''Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft'': II, "Apollon". The best repertory of cult sites (Burkert).
*Pfeiff, K.A., 1943. ''Apollon: Wandlung seines Bildes in der griechischen Kunst''. Traces the changing iconography of Apollo.
* [[William Smith (lexicographer)]], ''[[Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology]]'', 1870, article on Apollo,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0239.html |title=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0239.html |accessdate= |format= |work= }}</ref>
* N. Yalouris, 1980. ''The Search for Alexander'' (Boston) Exhibition.

==External links==
{{commons|Apollo}}
* [http://www.maicar.com/GML/Apollo.html Apollo] at the Greek Mythology Link, by Carlos Parada

{{Greek religion}}
{{Roman religion}}

[[Category:Apollo| ]]
[[Category:Greek mythology]]
[[Category:Greek gods]]
[[Category:Twelve Olympians]]
[[Category:Roman gods]]
[[Category:Oracular gods]]
[[Category:Health gods]]
[[Category:Solar gods]]
[[Category:Arts gods]]
[[Category:Muses]]
[[Category:Offspring of Zeus]]
[[Category:Deities in the Iliad]]
[[Category:Culture heroes]]

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[[lb:Apollo (Mythologie)]]
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[[hu:Apollón]]
[[mk:Аполон]]
[[ml:അപോളോ]]
[[mt:Apollo (divinità)]]
[[nl:Apollon]]
[[ja:アポローン]]
[[no:Apollon]]
[[nn:Apollon]]
[[nrm:Apollon]]
[[nds:Apollon]]
[[pl:Apollo (mitologia)]]
[[pt:Apolo]]
[[ro:Apollo (mitologie)]]
[[ru:Аполлон]]
[[simple:Apollo]]
[[sk:Apolón]]
[[sl:Apolon]]
[[sr:Аполон]]
[[sh:Apolon]]
[[fi:Apollon]]
[[sv:Apollon]]
[[ta:அப்போலோ]]
[[th:อพอลโล]]
[[vi:Apollo]]
[[tr:Apollon]]
[[uk:Аполлон]]
[[ur:اپالو]]
[[zh-yue:阿波羅]]
[[zh:阿波罗]]

Delos

2008-11-18T23:30:05Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ forgot links are case-sensitive (should have previewed...)

{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Greek Isles
|name = Delos
|native_name = Δήλος
|skyline = Delos2.jpg
|sky_caption = Archaeological site of Delos
|map = GR_Delos.PNG
|coordinates = {{coord|37|23|N|25|15|E|region:GR_type:isle|display=inline,title}}
|chain = Cyclades
|isles =
|area = 40
|highest_mount = Mt. Kynthos
|elevation = 112
|periph = [[South Aegean]]
|prefect = [[Cyclades]]
|capital =
|population = 14
|pop_as_of = 2001
|postal = 841 xx
|telephone = 22890
|license = EM
|website =
}}

The island of '''Delos''' ({{lang-el|Δήλος, ''Dhilos''}}), isolated in the centre of the roughly circular ring of islands called the [[Cyclades]], near [[Mykonos]], is one of the most important mythological, historical and archaeological sites in Greece. The excavations in the island are among the most extensive in the [[Mediterranean]]; ongoing work takes place under the direction of the [[French School at Athens]].

Delos had a position as a holy sanctuary for a millennium before Olympian [[Greek mythology]] made it the birthplace of [[Apollo]] and [[Artemis]]. From its Sacred Harbour, the horizon shows the two conical mounds (''image below'') that have identified landscapes sacred to a goddess in other sites: one, retaining its archaic name '''Mount Kynthos''',<ref>The combination ''-nth-'' is a marker for pre-Greek words: Corinth, menthos, labyrinth, etc. A name [[Artemis]] and even [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] retained was ''Cynthia''.</ref> is crowned with a sanctuary of [[Dionysus]].

Established as a cult centre, Delos had an importance that its natural resources could never have offered. In this vein [[Leto]], searching for a birthing-place for Apollo, addressed the island:

:''Delos, if you would be willing to be the abode of my son Phoebus Apollo and make him a rich temple --; for no other will touch you, as you will find: and I think you will never be rich in oxen and sheep, nor bear vintage nor yet produce plants abundantly. But if you have the temple of far-shooting Apollo, all men will bring you [[Sacrifice|hecatomb]]s and gather here, and incessant savour of rich sacrifice will always arise, and you will feed those who dwell in you from the hand of strangers; for truly your own soil is not rich.''
:::—Homeric ''Hymn to Delian Apollo''

==History==
[[Image:Delos Agora of the Competaliastae.jpg|thumb|left|'''Delos''': Agora of the Competaliastae.]]

Investigation of ancient stone huts found on the island indicate that it has been inhabited since the [[3rd millennium BC]]. [[Thucydides]] identifies the original inhabitants as piratical Carians who were eventually expelled by King Minos of Crete<ref>Thucydides, I,8.</ref> By the time of the [[Odyssey]] the island was already famous as the birthplace of the twin gods [[Apollo]] and [[Artemis]]. (Although there seems to be some confusion of Artemis' birthplace being either Delos or the island of [[Ortygia]].) Indeed between [[900 BC]] and AD [[100]], sacred Delos was a major cult centre, where [[Dionysus]] is also in evidence as well as the Titaness [[Leto]], mother of the above mentioned twin deities.

A number of "purifications" were executed by the city-state of Athens in an attempt to render the island fit for the proper worship of the Gods. The first took place in the 6th century BC, directed by the tyrant [[Peisistratos (Athens)|Pisistratus]] who ordered that all graves within sight of the temple be dug up and the bodies moved to another nearby island. In the 5th century, during the 6th year of the [[Peloponnesian war]] and under instruction from the Delphic Oracle, the entire island was purged of all dead bodies. It was then ordered that no one should be allowed to either die or give birth on the island due to its sacred importance and to preserve its neutrality in commerce, since no one could then claim ownership through inheritance. Immediately after this purification, the first quinquennial festival of the Delian games were celebrated there.<ref>Thucydides, III,104.</ref>

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
|WHS = Delos
|Image = [[Image:Italy and Greece 306.jpg|225px]]
|imagecaption= Column with phallus at the [[Stoivadeion]]
|State Party = {{GRE}}
|Type = Cultural
|Criteria = ii, iii, iv, vi
|ID = 530
|Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe and North America]]
|Coordinates = {{coord|37.399790|N|25.268083|E}}
|Year = 1990
|Session = 14th
|Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/530
}}

After the Persian wars the island became the natural meeting-ground for the [[Delian League]], founded in [[478 BC]], the congresses being held in the temple (a separate quarter was reserved for foreigners and the sanctuaries of foreign deities.) The League's common treasury was kept here as well until 454 BC when [[Pericles]] removed it to Athens.<ref>Thucydides, I,96.</ref>

Since 1873 the École Française d'Athènes ("French School of Athens") has been excavating the island, the complex of buildings of which compares with those of Delphi and Olympia.

The island had no productive capacity for food, fiber, or timber, with such being imported. Limited water was exploited with an extensive cistern and aqueduct system, wells, and sanitary drains. Various regions operated [[agora]]s (markets). The largest [[slave]] market in the larger region was also maintained here.

In 1990, [[UNESCO]] inscribed Delos on the [[World Heritage List]], citing it as the "exceptionally extensive and rich" archaeological site which "conveys the image of a great cosmopolitan Mediterranean port".<ref>http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/530</ref>

==Landmarks==
*The small '''Sacred Lake''' in its circular bowl, now intentionally left dry by the island's caretakers to suppress disease spreading bacteria, is a topographical feature that determined the placement of later features.
*The '''Minoan Fountain''' was a rectangular public well hewn in the rock, with a central column; it formalized the sacred spring in its present [[6th century BC]] form, reconstructed in 166 BC, according to an inscription. Tightly-laid courses of masonry form the walls; water can still be reached by a flight of steps that fill one side.
*There are several market squares. The [[Hellenistic]] [[Agora of the Competaliasts]] by the Sacred Harbour retains the postholes for market awnings in its stone paving. Two powerful Italic merchant guilds dedicated statues and columns there.
*The '''Temple of the Delians''' is a classic example of the Doric order; a pen-and-wash reconstruction of the temple is illustrated at [[Doric order]]
*The '''Terrace of the Lions''' dedicated to Apollo by the people of [[Naxos Island|Naxos]] shortly before [[600 BC]], had originally nine to twelve squatting, snarling marble guardian lions along the Sacred Way; one is inserted over the main gate to the [[Venetian Arsenal]]. The lions create a monumental avenue comparable to [[Egypt]]ian avenues of [[sphinx]]es. (There is a Greek sphinx in the Delos Museum.)
*The meeting '''hall of the Poseidoniasts''' of [[Beirut]] housed an association of merchant, warehousemen, shipowners and innkeepers during the early years of Roman hegemony, late [[2nd century BC]]. To their protective triad of [[Baal]]/[[Poseidon]], [[Astarte]]/[[Aphrodite]] and [[Echmoun]]/[[Asklepios]], they added [[Roma (mythology)|Roma]].
*The platform of the '''''[[Stoivadeion]]''''' dedicated to [[Dionysus]] bears a statue of the god of wine and the life-force. On either side of the platform, a pillar supports a colossal [[phallus]], the symbol of Dionysus. The southern pillar, which is decorated with relief scenes from the Dionysiac circle, was erected ca. [[300 BC]] to celebrate a winning theatrical performance. The statue of Dionysus was originally flanked by those of two actors impersonating ''Paposilenoi'' (conserved in the Delos Museum). The marble theatre is a rebuilding of an older one, undertaken shortly after 300 BC.
*The [[Doric order|Doric]] '''Temple of Isis''' was built on a high over-looking hill at the beginning of the Roman period to venerate the familiar trinity of [[Isis]], the Alexandrian [[Serapis]] and [[Anubis]].
*The '''Temple of Hera''', ca [[500 BC]], is a rebuilding of an earlier ''Heraion'' on the site.
*The '''House of Dionysus''' is a luxurious [[2nd century]] private house named for the floor mosaic of Dionysus riding a panther.
*The '''House of the Dolphins''' is similarly named from its [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]] mosaic, where erotes ride [[Delphinus|dolphins]]; its [[Phoenicia]]n owner commissioned a floor mosaic of [[Tanit]] in his vestibule.

==Current population==
The 2001 Greek census reported a population of 14 inhabitants on the island. The island is administratively a part of the [[Communities and Municipalities of Greece|municipality]] of Mýkonos.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Carl Anton Joseph Rottmann 001.jpg|The island of Delos, [[Carl Anton Joseph Rottmann]], 1847
Image:Delos Lions.jpg|The Lions' Terrace in Delos.
Image:Delos House of Dionysus floor mosaic.jpg|House of Dionysus floor mosaic
Image:Conquête Duché Naxos.png|[[Cyclades]] islands. Delos is near the middle
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Delian League]]
*[[French School at Athens|French Archaeological School at Athens]]
*[[Delian problem]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Delos}}
*[http://www.ancientplaces.tv/archives/31 Ancient Places TV: HD Video of Delos, Greece]
*[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2371 Hellenic Ministry of Culture site: Delos]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/siteindex?entry=Delos Perseus site: Delos]
*[http://www.efa.gr/histoire/histoire1870_03.htm EfA website with history of the Delos Archaelogical site] {{fr}}
*[http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=37391982&x=25268383&z=12&l=19&m=a Delos Island on WikiMapia]
*[http://www.mykonos.gr/ Official website of Municipality of Mýkonos] {{el icon}}

{{Aegean Sea}}
{{The Cyclades}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Greece}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek geography]]
[[Category:Islands of Greece]]
[[Category:The Cyclades]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Greek temples]]

[[br:Delos]]
[[bg:Делос]]
[[ca:Delos]]
[[cs:Délos]]
[[cy:Delos]]
[[da:Delos]]
[[de:Delos]]
[[et:Delos]]
[[el:Δήλος]]
[[es:Delos]]
[[eo:Deloso]]
[[fr:Délos]]
[[gl:Delos - Δήλος]]
[[it:Delo]]
[[he:דלוס]]
[[la:Delos]]
[[hu:Délosz]]
[[mk:Дилос]]
[[nl:Delos]]
[[ja:デロス島]]
[[no:Delos]]
[[nn:Dílos]]
[[pl:Delos]]
[[pt:Delos]]
[[ro:Delos]]
[[ru:Делос]]
[[sr:Делос]]
[[sh:Delos]]
[[fi:Delos]]
[[sv:Delos]]
[[uk:Делос]]
[[zh:提洛岛]]

Delos

2008-11-18T23:28:54Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ added link to famous mathematical problem related to Delos

{{otheruses}}
{{Infobox Greek Isles
|name = Delos
|native_name = Δήλος
|skyline = Delos2.jpg
|sky_caption = Archaeological site of Delos
|map = GR_Delos.PNG
|coordinates = {{coord|37|23|N|25|15|E|region:GR_type:isle|display=inline,title}}
|chain = Cyclades
|isles =
|area = 40
|highest_mount = Mt. Kynthos
|elevation = 112
|periph = [[South Aegean]]
|prefect = [[Cyclades]]
|capital =
|population = 14
|pop_as_of = 2001
|postal = 841 xx
|telephone = 22890
|license = EM
|website =
}}

The island of '''Delos''' ({{lang-el|Δήλος, ''Dhilos''}}), isolated in the centre of the roughly circular ring of islands called the [[Cyclades]], near [[Mykonos]], is one of the most important mythological, historical and archaeological sites in Greece. The excavations in the island are among the most extensive in the [[Mediterranean]]; ongoing work takes place under the direction of the [[French School at Athens]].

Delos had a position as a holy sanctuary for a millennium before Olympian [[Greek mythology]] made it the birthplace of [[Apollo]] and [[Artemis]]. From its Sacred Harbour, the horizon shows the two conical mounds (''image below'') that have identified landscapes sacred to a goddess in other sites: one, retaining its archaic name '''Mount Kynthos''',<ref>The combination ''-nth-'' is a marker for pre-Greek words: Corinth, menthos, labyrinth, etc. A name [[Artemis]] and even [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]] retained was ''Cynthia''.</ref> is crowned with a sanctuary of [[Dionysus]].

Established as a cult centre, Delos had an importance that its natural resources could never have offered. In this vein [[Leto]], searching for a birthing-place for Apollo, addressed the island:

:''Delos, if you would be willing to be the abode of my son Phoebus Apollo and make him a rich temple --; for no other will touch you, as you will find: and I think you will never be rich in oxen and sheep, nor bear vintage nor yet produce plants abundantly. But if you have the temple of far-shooting Apollo, all men will bring you [[Sacrifice|hecatomb]]s and gather here, and incessant savour of rich sacrifice will always arise, and you will feed those who dwell in you from the hand of strangers; for truly your own soil is not rich.''
:::—Homeric ''Hymn to Delian Apollo''

==History==
[[Image:Delos Agora of the Competaliastae.jpg|thumb|left|'''Delos''': Agora of the Competaliastae.]]

Investigation of ancient stone huts found on the island indicate that it has been inhabited since the [[3rd millennium BC]]. [[Thucydides]] identifies the original inhabitants as piratical Carians who were eventually expelled by King Minos of Crete<ref>Thucydides, I,8.</ref> By the time of the [[Odyssey]] the island was already famous as the birthplace of the twin gods [[Apollo]] and [[Artemis]]. (Although there seems to be some confusion of Artemis' birthplace being either Delos or the island of [[Ortygia]].) Indeed between [[900 BC]] and AD [[100]], sacred Delos was a major cult centre, where [[Dionysus]] is also in evidence as well as the Titaness [[Leto]], mother of the above mentioned twin deities.

A number of "purifications" were executed by the city-state of Athens in an attempt to render the island fit for the proper worship of the Gods. The first took place in the 6th century BC, directed by the tyrant [[Peisistratos (Athens)|Pisistratus]] who ordered that all graves within sight of the temple be dug up and the bodies moved to another nearby island. In the 5th century, during the 6th year of the [[Peloponnesian war]] and under instruction from the Delphic Oracle, the entire island was purged of all dead bodies. It was then ordered that no one should be allowed to either die or give birth on the island due to its sacred importance and to preserve its neutrality in commerce, since no one could then claim ownership through inheritance. Immediately after this purification, the first quinquennial festival of the Delian games were celebrated there.<ref>Thucydides, III,104.</ref>

{{Infobox World Heritage Site
|WHS = Delos
|Image = [[Image:Italy and Greece 306.jpg|225px]]
|imagecaption= Column with phallus at the [[Stoivadeion]]
|State Party = {{GRE}}
|Type = Cultural
|Criteria = ii, iii, iv, vi
|ID = 530
|Region = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Europe|Europe and North America]]
|Coordinates = {{coord|37.399790|N|25.268083|E}}
|Year = 1990
|Session = 14th
|Link = http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/530
}}

After the Persian wars the island became the natural meeting-ground for the [[Delian League]], founded in [[478 BC]], the congresses being held in the temple (a separate quarter was reserved for foreigners and the sanctuaries of foreign deities.) The League's common treasury was kept here as well until 454 BC when [[Pericles]] removed it to Athens.<ref>Thucydides, I,96.</ref>

Since 1873 the École Française d'Athènes ("French School of Athens") has been excavating the island, the complex of buildings of which compares with those of Delphi and Olympia.

The island had no productive capacity for food, fiber, or timber, with such being imported. Limited water was exploited with an extensive cistern and aqueduct system, wells, and sanitary drains. Various regions operated [[agora]]s (markets). The largest [[slave]] market in the larger region was also maintained here.

In 1990, [[UNESCO]] inscribed Delos on the [[World Heritage List]], citing it as the "exceptionally extensive and rich" archaeological site which "conveys the image of a great cosmopolitan Mediterranean port".<ref>http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/530</ref>

==Landmarks==
*The small '''Sacred Lake''' in its circular bowl, now intentionally left dry by the island's caretakers to suppress disease spreading bacteria, is a topographical feature that determined the placement of later features.
*The '''Minoan Fountain''' was a rectangular public well hewn in the rock, with a central column; it formalized the sacred spring in its present [[6th century BC]] form, reconstructed in 166 BC, according to an inscription. Tightly-laid courses of masonry form the walls; water can still be reached by a flight of steps that fill one side.
*There are several market squares. The [[Hellenistic]] [[Agora of the Competaliasts]] by the Sacred Harbour retains the postholes for market awnings in its stone paving. Two powerful Italic merchant guilds dedicated statues and columns there.
*The '''Temple of the Delians''' is a classic example of the Doric order; a pen-and-wash reconstruction of the temple is illustrated at [[Doric order]]
*The '''Terrace of the Lions''' dedicated to Apollo by the people of [[Naxos Island|Naxos]] shortly before [[600 BC]], had originally nine to twelve squatting, snarling marble guardian lions along the Sacred Way; one is inserted over the main gate to the [[Venetian Arsenal]]. The lions create a monumental avenue comparable to [[Egypt]]ian avenues of [[sphinx]]es. (There is a Greek sphinx in the Delos Museum.)
*The meeting '''hall of the Poseidoniasts''' of [[Beirut]] housed an association of merchant, warehousemen, shipowners and innkeepers during the early years of Roman hegemony, late [[2nd century BC]]. To their protective triad of [[Baal]]/[[Poseidon]], [[Astarte]]/[[Aphrodite]] and [[Echmoun]]/[[Asklepios]], they added [[Roma (mythology)|Roma]].
*The platform of the '''''[[Stoivadeion]]''''' dedicated to [[Dionysus]] bears a statue of the god of wine and the life-force. On either side of the platform, a pillar supports a colossal [[phallus]], the symbol of Dionysus. The southern pillar, which is decorated with relief scenes from the Dionysiac circle, was erected ca. [[300 BC]] to celebrate a winning theatrical performance. The statue of Dionysus was originally flanked by those of two actors impersonating ''Paposilenoi'' (conserved in the Delos Museum). The marble theatre is a rebuilding of an older one, undertaken shortly after 300 BC.
*The [[Doric order|Doric]] '''Temple of Isis''' was built on a high over-looking hill at the beginning of the Roman period to venerate the familiar trinity of [[Isis]], the Alexandrian [[Serapis]] and [[Anubis]].
*The '''Temple of Hera''', ca [[500 BC]], is a rebuilding of an earlier ''Heraion'' on the site.
*The '''House of Dionysus''' is a luxurious [[2nd century]] private house named for the floor mosaic of Dionysus riding a panther.
*The '''House of the Dolphins''' is similarly named from its [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]] mosaic, where erotes ride [[Delphinus|dolphins]]; its [[Phoenicia]]n owner commissioned a floor mosaic of [[Tanit]] in his vestibule.

==Current population==
The 2001 Greek census reported a population of 14 inhabitants on the island. The island is administratively a part of the [[Communities and Municipalities of Greece|municipality]] of Mýkonos.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Carl Anton Joseph Rottmann 001.jpg|The island of Delos, [[Carl Anton Joseph Rottmann]], 1847
Image:Delos Lions.jpg|The Lions' Terrace in Delos.
Image:Delos House of Dionysus floor mosaic.jpg|House of Dionysus floor mosaic
Image:Conquête Duché Naxos.png|[[Cyclades]] islands. Delos is near the middle
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Delian League]]
*[[French School at Athens|French Archaeological School at Athens]]
*[[Delian Problem]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Delos}}
*[http://www.ancientplaces.tv/archives/31 Ancient Places TV: HD Video of Delos, Greece]
*[http://odysseus.culture.gr/h/3/eh351.jsp?obj_id=2371 Hellenic Ministry of Culture site: Delos]
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/siteindex?entry=Delos Perseus site: Delos]
*[http://www.efa.gr/histoire/histoire1870_03.htm EfA website with history of the Delos Archaelogical site] {{fr}}
*[http://www.wikimapia.org/#y=37391982&x=25268383&z=12&l=19&m=a Delos Island on WikiMapia]
*[http://www.mykonos.gr/ Official website of Municipality of Mýkonos] {{el icon}}

{{Aegean Sea}}
{{The Cyclades}}
{{World Heritage Sites in Greece}}

[[Category:Ancient Greek geography]]
[[Category:Islands of Greece]]
[[Category:The Cyclades]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Greece]]
[[Category:Greek temples]]

[[br:Delos]]
[[bg:Делос]]
[[ca:Delos]]
[[cs:Délos]]
[[cy:Delos]]
[[da:Delos]]
[[de:Delos]]
[[et:Delos]]
[[el:Δήλος]]
[[es:Delos]]
[[eo:Deloso]]
[[fr:Délos]]
[[gl:Delos - Δήλος]]
[[it:Delo]]
[[he:דלוס]]
[[la:Delos]]
[[hu:Délosz]]
[[mk:Дилос]]
[[nl:Delos]]
[[ja:デロス島]]
[[no:Delos]]
[[nn:Dílos]]
[[pl:Delos]]
[[pt:Delos]]
[[ro:Delos]]
[[ru:Делос]]
[[sr:Делос]]
[[sh:Delos]]
[[fi:Delos]]
[[sv:Delos]]
[[uk:Делос]]
[[zh:提洛岛]]

Doubling the cube

2008-11-18T23:27:20Z

Owlgorithm: /* History */ word void filled -- "thanks"

'''Doubling the cube''' (also known as '''The Delian Problem''') is one of the three most famous [[geometry|geometric]] problems unsolvable by [[compass and straightedge]] construction. It was known to the [[Egyptian mathematics|Egyptians]], [[Greek mathematics|Greeks]], and [[Indian mathematics|Indians]].<ref>Lucye Guilbeau (1930). "The History of the Solution of the Cubic Equation", ''Mathematics News Letter'' '''5''' (4), p. 8-12.</ref>

To "double the cube" means to be given a [[cube]] of some side length ''s'' and volume ''V'', and to construct a new cube, larger than the first, with volume 2''V'' and therefore side length <math>s\cdot\sqrt[3]{2}</math>. The problem is known to be impossible to solve with only compass and straightedge, because <math>\sqrt[3]{2}</math> is not a [[constructible number]].

==History==
According to legend, the citizens of [[Athens]] consulted the [[oracle]] of [[Apollo]] at [[Delos]] in 430 BC, in order to learn how to defeat a [[Bubonic plague|plague]] which was ravaging their lands. The oracle responded that to stop the plague, they must double the size of their altar. The Athenians dutifully doubled each side of the altar, and the plague increased. The correct interpretation was that they must double the volume of their altar, not merely its side length; this proved to be a most difficult problem indeed, but was solved in 350 BC thanks to the efforts of [[Menaechmus]]. The only problem was that the plague was finished several decades before. It is due to this legend that the problem is often known as the "Delian problem".<ref>{{cite book | title = Famous problems of geometry and how to solve them | publisher = Dover Publications | date = 1982 | pages = 29-30 | isbn = 0486242978}}</ref>

==Solutions==
[[Image:DoublingTheCubeWithUnitRuler.png|thumb|320px|An illustration of the ruler-and-compass method.]]
There are many ways to construct <math>\sqrt[3]{2}</math> which involve tools other than compass and straightedge. In fact, some of these tools can themselves be constructed using compass and straightedge, but must be cut out of a sheet of paper before they can be used. For example, following Sir [[Isaac Newton]], construct a ruler with a single unit distance marked on it. Construct an equilateral triangle ABC with side length 1, and extend side <math>\overline{AB}</math> by one unit to form the line segment <math>\overline{ABD}</math>. Extend side <math>\overline{BC}</math> to form the ray <math>\overrightarrow{BCE}</math>, and draw the ray <math>\overrightarrow{DCF}</math>. Now take the ruler and place it so that it passes through vertex A and intersects <math>\overline{DCF}</math> at G and <math>\overline{BCE}</math> at H, such that the distance GH is exactly 1. The distance AG will then be precisely <math>\sqrt[3]{2}</math>.

Menaechmus' original solution involves the intersection of two conic curves. Other more complicated methods of doubling the cube involve the [[cissoid of Diocles]], the [[Conchoid (mathematics)|conchoid of Nicomedes]], or the [[Philo line]]. [[Archytas]] solved the problem in the fourth century B.C. using geometric construction in three dimensions, determining a certain point as the intersection of three surfaces of revolution.

False claims of doubling the cube with compass and straightedge abound in mathematical [[Crank (person)|crank]] literature ([[Pseudomathematics]]).

== References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/Doubling_the_cube.html Doubling the cube]. J. J. O'Connor and E. F. Robertson in the MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
* [http://mathforum.org/dr.math/faq/davies/cubedbl.htm To Double a Cube -- The Solution of Archytas]. Excerpted with permission from A History of Greek Mathematics by Sir Thomas Heath.
* [http://www.cut-the-knot.org/Curriculum/Geometry/Delian.shtml Delian Problem Solved. Or Is It?] at [[cut-the-knot]].

[[Category:Euclidean plane geometry]]

[[ar:مضاعفة المكعب]]
[[cs:Duplikace krychle]]
[[de:Würfelverdoppelung]]
[[el:Διπλασιασμός του κύβου]]
[[es:Duplicación del cubo]]
[[fr:Duplication du cube]]
[[it:Duplicazione del cubo]]
[[hu:Kockakettőzés]]
[[nl:Verdubbeling van de kubus]]
[[pl:Podwojenie sześcianu]]
[[pt:Duplicação do cubo]]
[[ro:Duplicarea cubului]]
[[ru:Удвоение куба]]
[[sk:Zdvojenie kocky]]
[[sl:Podvojitev kocke]]
[[sv:Deliska problemet]]
[[zh:倍立方]]

Whole Lotta Rosie

2008-11-16T10:55:32Z

Owlgorithm: /* Personnel */ added internal link to rhythm guitar

{{Infobox Single
| Name = Whole Lotta Rosie
| Cover = AC DC wholelottarosie.jpg
| Artist = [[AC/DC]]
| from Album = [[Let There Be Rock (Australian album)|Let There Be Rock]]
| B-side = "[[Dog Eat Dog (song)|Dog Eat Dog]]"
| Released = 1978
| Format = [[Compact Disc|CD]]
| Recorded = 1977
| Genre = [[Hard rock]]
| Length = 5:20
| Label = [[Atco Records|ATCO]]
| Producer = [[Harry Vanda]], [[George Young (rock musician)|George Young]]
| Chart position =
| Last single = "[[Let There Be Rock (song)|Let There Be Rock]]" / "[[Problem Child (song)|Problem Child]]" (1977)
| This single = "Whole Lotta Rosie" (1978)
| Next single = "[[Rock 'n' Roll Damnation]]" / "[[Sin City (song)|Sin City]]" (1978)
}}
{{Infobox Song 
| Name = Whole Lotta Rosie
| Cover =
| Artist = [[AC/DC]]
| Album = [[Let There Be Rock (Australian album)|Let There Be Rock]]
| Released = March 1977
| track_no = 8
| Recorded = January-February 1977
| Genre = [[Hard rock]]
| Length = 5:33
| Writer = [[Angus Young]], [[Bon Scott]], [[Malcolm Young]]
| Label = [[Atco Records|ATCO]]
| Producer = [[Harry Vanda]], [[George Young (rock musician)|George Young]]
| Chart Position =
| prev = "[[Hell Ain't a Bad Place to Be]]"
| prev_no = 7
| next = N/A
}}
{{Infobox Song 
| Name = Whole Lotta Rosie

| Artist = [[AC/DC]]
| Album = [[Let There Be Rock (International album)|Let There Be Rock]]
| Released = [[June 23]], [[1977]]
| track_no = 8
| Length = 5:33
| prev = "[[Hell Ain't a Bad Place to Be]]"
| prev_no = 7
| next = N/A
}}

"'''Whole Lotta Rosie'''" is a song by [[Australia]]n [[hard rock]] band [[AC/DC]]. It is the eighth and final track on the band's fourth Australian album, ''[[Let There Be Rock (Australian album)|Let There Be Rock]]'', released in Australia in March [[1977 in music|1977]], and was written by [[Angus Young]], [[Malcolm Young]], and [[Bon Scott]]. It is also the eighth and final track on the [[Let There Be Rock (International album)|international version]] of the album, released in June the same year.

It was also released as a single in 1978, with ''Let There Be Rock'' album track "[[Dog Eat Dog (song)|Dog Eat Dog]]" as the [[b side]].

== Composition ==
The song is about an obese woman, Rosie, with whom the singer has had [[sexual relations]]. In addition to pointing out the woman's obesity, the singer finds her to be one of the most talented lovers he's ever experienced.

The song's first verse reveals Rosie's substantial physical measurements (42"-39"-56"), and that she weighs nineteen [[stone (weight)|stone]] (approximately 266 pounds/120 kilograms). On the ''[[Live from the Atlantic Studios]]'' disc, however, Scott describes the titular woman as "...a Tasmanian devil... weighs 305 pounds...," a measurement that differs from the "19 stone" lyric.

== Influences ==
The song's lyrics are based on Bon Scott's actual sexual experiences with an obese woman, whose first name was Rosie.<ref>Bon Scott Interview, ''Bonfire'' Box Set, Disc 4</ref> There is an ongoing search for the real Rosie, although she has yet to be found.<ref>[http://www.theadvocate.com.au/news.cgi?type=1&id=254224 YourGuide - News, classifieds and community in your town]</ref>

Some believe the title is a reference to the [[Led Zeppelin]] classic "[[Whole Lotta Love]]",{{Fact|date=April 2007}} but it is more likely just a variation of the idiomatic English phrase ''"a whole lot of [something]"'': hence the chorus lyric, "you're a whole lotta woman".

== Early version ==
The song's main riff was also featured on an earlier recording with different lyrics, titled "Dirty Eyes", which saw official release on ''[[Volts (album)|Volts]]'', part of the ''[[Bonfire (album)|Bonfire]]'' box set. "Dirty Eyes" features a different chord progression in the chorus, as well as a slower tempo than "Rosie".

== Live recordings and performances ==
One of AC/DC's most popular songs, "Whole Lotta Rosie" has been included on each of the band's official live albums: three with Scott (''[[If You Want Blood You've Got It]]'', ''[[Live from the Atlantic Studios]]'', ''[[Let There Be Rock: The Movie]]'', the latter two released in 1997 as part of the ''[[Bonfire (album)|Bonfire]]'' box set), and also three with Brian Johnson (released on ''[[Live (AC/DC album)|Live]]'', ''[[Live: 2 CD Collector's Edition]]'', and also the [[Stiff Upper Lip Tour Edition|tour edition]] of ''[[Stiff Upper Lip]]''). The only other song that appears on all five of these releases is "[[The Jack]]". A live video of "Whole Lotta Rosie" is also featured on the DVD [[Family Jewels]], from a 1978 performance on the [[BBC]]'s TV concert series [[Rock Goes To College]], on which Scott refers to Rosie as the "biggest, fattest woman who ever [[fornication|fornicated]]."

Current live performances of "Whole Lotta Rosie" are accompanied by a giant, inflatable "Rosie" as seen on the ''[[Live at Donington (AC/DC)|Live at Donington]]'' video. In March 2005, [[Q magazine|''Q'' magazine]] placed the live version from ''If You Want Blood...'' at number 16 in its list of the 100 Greatest Guitar Tracks.

== Trivia ==
{{Trivia|date=March 2008}}
*After the death of Scott in 1980, [[Brian Johnson]] sang "Whole Lotta Rosie" in his audition as Scott's successor.<ref name="acdc.cc">{{cite web | title=AC/DC History | work=AC/DC - Bedlam in Belgium | url=http://www.ac-dc.cc | accessdate = 2006-09-23}}</ref>

*Angus the bull, the mascot of [[Aberdeen F.C.]], runs out to the riff from "Whole Lotta Rosie".

*A live cover version, performed by [[Guns N' Roses]], can be found on their "Live from the Jungle" EP, a CD that was released in Japan but is currently discontinued.

*When they play the song live, the crowd usually yells "Angus" between the opening chords until Bon/Brian starts to sing. This can be heard in the live album ''[[If You Want Blood You've Got It]]'', as well as following live performances.

*[[Sweet (band)|Sweet]] has covered the song live.

== Personnel ==
*[[Bon Scott]] - [[lead vocals]]
*[[Angus Young]] - [[electric guitar|lead guitar]]
*[[Malcolm Young]] - [[rhythm guitar]]
*[[Mark Evans (musician)|Mark Evans]] - [[bass guitar|bass]]
*[[Phil Rudd]] - [[drum kit|drums]]

== Production ==
*Producers: [[Harry Vanda]], [[George Young (rock musician)|George Young]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=33:fnem9kb7kr5t Review of Whole Lotta Rosie by All Music Guide]

== References ==
<div style="font-size:90%;"><references/></div>

[[Category:AC/DC songs]]

[[nl:Whole Lotta Rosie]]

Dash

2008-11-15T22:54:22Z

Owlgorithm: /* Figure dash */ added link to the page of an already-present reference

{{pp-move-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Distinguish|Hyphen}}
{{SpecialChars}}
{{Punctuation marks}}

A '''dash''' is a [[punctuation]] mark. It is longer than a [[hyphen]] and is used differently. The most common versions of the dash are the en dash (–) and the em dash (—).

==Common dashes==
There are several forms of dash, of which the most common are:
{| class="wikitable"
! –
! [[glyph]]
! [[Unicode]]<ref>[[Character (computing)|Character]]s in Unicode are referenced in prose via the "U+" notation. The [[hexadecimal]] number after the "U+" is the character's Unicode code point. The decimal equivalent is shown in parentheses.</ref>
! [[HTML]]<ref>Specifically, the predefined [[character entity]] reference that can be used in an HTML document in place of a literal dash.</ref>
! HTML/[[XML]]<ref>Specifically, the [[numeric character reference]] that can be used in an HTML or XML document in place of a literal dash.</ref>
![[TeX]]
|-
! [[Dash#Hyphen|hyphen]]
| align="center"| ‐
| {{U+|2010}} (8208)
| ''none''
| <code>&#x2010;</code> or <code>&#8208;</code>
| <code>-</code>
|-
! [[Dash#Figure dash|figure dash]]
| align="center"| {{unicode|‒}}
| U+2012 (8210)
| ''none''
| <code>&#x2012;</code> or <code>&#8210;</code>
| ''none''
|-
! [[Dash#En dash|en dash]]
| align="center"| –
| U+2013 (8211)
| <code>&ndash;</code>
| <code>&#x2013;</code> or <code>&#8211;</code>
| <code>--</code>
|-
! [[Dash#Em dash|em dash]]
| align="center"| —
| U+2014 (8212)
| <code>&mdash;</code>
| <code>&#x2014;</code> or <code>&#8212;</code>
| <code>---</code>
|-
! [[Dash#Horizontal bar|horizontal bar]]
| align="center"| ―
| U+2015 (8213)
| ''none''
| <code>&#x2015;</code> or <code>&#8213;</code>
|-
! [[Dash#Swung dash|swung dash]]
| align="center"| <math>\sim</math>
| U+2053 (8275)
| ''none''
| <code>&#x2053;</code> or <code>&#8275;</code>
|}

===Hyphen===
{{main|Hyphen}}
The '''hyphen''' {{unicode|(‐)}} is used both to join words and to separate syllables. Strictly speaking, the hyphen is not a dash; thus, careful [[typesetting]] (including with modern computer applications, such as [[word processor]]s and HTML) relies on the following proper dashes instead.

===Figure dash===
The '''figure dash''' {{unicode|(‒)}} is so named because it is the same width as a digit, at least in [[typeface]]s with digits of equal width.

The figure dash is used when a dash must be used within numbers, for example with [[telephone number]]s: [[867-5309/Jenny|''867{{unicode|‒}}5309'']]. This does not indicate a range (en dash is used for that), or function as the [[minus sign]] (which has its own glyph).

The figure dash is often unavailable; in this case, one may use a hyphen-minus instead. In [[Unicode]], the figure dash is {{U+|2012}} (decimal 8210). HTML authors must use the numeric forms <code>&#8210;</code> or <code>&#x2012;</code> to type it unless the file is in Unicode; there is no equivalent character entity. In [[TeX]], the standard fonts have no figure dash; however, the digits normally all have the same width as the en dash, so an en dash can be substituted in TeX.

===En dash===
The '''en dash''', or '''n dash''', '''n-rule''', etc., (–) is roughly the width of the letter ''n''. It is half the size of an [[Em_dash|em dash]].

The en dash is used in ranges, such as ''6–10 years'', read as "six to ten years".

====Ranges of values====
The en dash is commonly used to indicate a closed range (a range with clearly defined and non-infinite upper and lower boundaries) of values, such as those between dates, times, or numbers.<ref name="barronsgrammar">{{cite book |author=Griffith, Benjamin W., ''et al.'' |title=Pocket Guide to Correct Grammar |series=Barron's Pocket Guides |publisher=Barron's Educational Series |location=Woodbury, N.Y |year=2004 |isbn=0-7641-2690-3}}</ref><ref name="copyeditguide">{{cite book |last=Judd |first=Karen |title=Copyediting: A Practical Guide |publisher=Crisp Publications |location=Menlo Park, Calif |year=2001 |isbn=1-56052-608-4}}</ref><ref name="webstersgrammar">{{cite book |first=Gordon |last=Loberger |coauthors=Kate Shoup Welsh |title=Webster's new world English grammar handbook |publisher=Hungry Minds |location=New York |year=2001 |isbn=0-7645-6488-9}}</ref><ref name="texttypestyle">{{cite book |last=Ives |first=George B. |title=Text, Type and Style: A Compendium of Atlantic Usage |year=1921 |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Press |location=Boston}}</ref>

Some examples of this usage:
* June – July 1967
* 1:00 – 2:00 p.m.
* For ages 3–5
* pp. 38–55
* President Jimmy Carter (1977–1981)

The ''Guide for the Use of the International System of Units ([[SI]])'' recommends that the word ''to'' be used instead of an en dash when a number range might be misconstrued as subtraction, such as a range of units. For example, "a voltage of 50 V to 100 V" rather than "a voltage of 50 – 100 V".

It is also considered inappropriate to use the en dash in place of the words ''to'' and ''and'' in phrases that follow the forms ''from ... to ...'' and ''between ... and ...''.<ref name="copyeditguide" /><ref name="webstersgrammar" />

====Relationships and connections====
The en dash can also be used to contrast values, or illustrate a relationship between two things.<ref name="barronsgrammar" /><ref name="texttypestyle" />

Some examples of this usage:
* Notre Dame beat Miami 31–30.
* New York–London flight (though some sources say that ''New York to London flight'' is more appropriate because New York is a single name composed of two valid words; with a dash the phrase is ambiguous and could mean either ''Flight from New York to London'' or ''New flight from [[York]] to London''<ref name="texttypestyle" />)
* Mother–daughter relationship
* The Supreme Court voted 5–4 to uphold the decision.
* The [[McCain–Feingold bill]]
* A [[Carbon|C]]–C [[single bond]]

A "simple" compound used as an adjective is written with a hyphen; at least one authority considers name pairs, as in the [[Taft-Hartley Act]] to be "simple",<ref name="copyeditguide" /> while most consider an en dash appropriate there{{Fact|date=April 2008}} to represent the parallel relationship, as in the [[McCain–Feingold bill]] or [[Bose–Einstein statistics]]. (Note, however, that truly compound names are written with a hyphen, thus the [[Lennard-Jones potential]] is named after one person, while [[Satyendra Nath Bose|Bose]] and [[Einstein]] are two people.)

Note that ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'' limits the use of the en dash to two main purposes: to indicate ranges of time, money, or other amounts (or in certain other cases where it replaces the word ''to''); and in place of a hyphen in a compound adjective when one of the elements of the adjective is an open compound or when one of the elements is already hyphenated.<ref name="Chicago">{{cite book |title=[[The Chicago Manual of Style]] |edition=15th Edition |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=2003 |pages=261–265 |isbn=0-226-10403-6}}</ref> That is, the ''Chicago Manual of Style'' rules specify en dash in these:
* Notre Dame beat Miami 31–30.
* New York–London flight.
* The Supreme Court voted 5–4 to uphold the decision.

but hyphens in these:

* Mother-daughter relationship
* The [[McCain-Feingold bill]]
* A [[Carbon|C]]-C [[single bond]]
* [[Taft-Hartley Act]]
* [[Bose-Einstein statistics]]

====Compound adjectives====
The en dash can be used instead of a [[hyphen]] in compound adjectives in which one part consists of two words or a hyphenated word:<ref name="copyeditguide" /><ref name="webstersgrammar" />
* The non–[[San Francisco]] part of the world
* The post–[[MS-DOS]] era
* High-priority–high-pressure tasks (tasks which are both high-priority and high-pressure).

====Usage guidelines====
The en dash is used instead of a hyphen in compound adjectives for which neither part of the adjective modifies the other. That is, when each is modifying the noun. This is common in science, when names compose an adjective as in [[Bose–Einstein condensate]]. Compare this with "award-winning novel" in which "award" modifies "winning" and together they modify "novel". Contrast "Franco-Prussian War", "Anglo-Saxon", etc., in which the first element does not strictly modify the second, but a hyphen is still normally used. ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'' recognizes but does not mandate this usage and uses a hyphen in Bose-Einstein condensate.<ref name="Chicago" />

En dashes that are used instead of hyphens to connect words normally do not have spaces around them. An exception is when excluding them may cause confusion or look odd (e.g., 12 June – 3 July; contrast 12 June–3 July). However, when an actual en dash is unavailable, one may use a hyphen-minus with a single space on each side (" - ").

====Parenthetic and other uses at the sentence level====

Like em dashes, en dashes can be used instead of colons, or pairs of commas that mark off a nested clause or phrase. They can also be used around parenthetical expressions – such as this one – in place of the em dashes preferred by some publishers, particularly where short columns are used, since em dashes can look awkward at the end of a line. See [[#En dash versus em dash|En dash versus em dash]], below. In these situations, en dashes must have a single space on each side.

====Electronic usage====
In Unicode, the en dash is U+2013 (decimal 8211). In HTML, one may use the numeric forms <code>&#8211;</code> or <code>&#x2013;</code>; there is also an HTML entity <code>&ndash;</code>. In [[TeX]], the en dash may normally (depending on the font) be input as a double hyphen-minus (<code><nowiki>--</nowiki></code>). On a computer running the [[Mac OS X]] operating system, most keyboard layouts map an en dash to Option-hyphen. On Microsoft Windows, an en dash may be entered as Alt+0150, where the digits are typed on the numeric keypad while holding the Alt key down.

The en dash is sometimes used as a substitute for the [[minus sign]], when the minus sign character is not available, since the en dash is usually the same width as a plus sign. For example, the original 8-bit Macintosh character set had an en dash, useful for minus sign, years before Unicode with a dedicated minus sign was available. The hyphen-minus is usually too narrow to make a typographically acceptable minus sign. The en dash cannot be used in [[programming languages]] for a minus, however, since the syntax usually requires a hyphen-minus; since programming languages are usually set in a fixed-pitch (monospaced) font face, the hyphen-minus looks acceptable there.

=== Em dash ===
The '''em dash''' (—), or '''m dash''', '''m-rule''', etc., often demarcates a parenthetical thought—like this one—or some similar interpolation.

It is also used to indicate that a sentence is unfinished because the speaker has been interrupted. Similarly, it can be used instead of an [[ellipsis]] to indicate [[aposiopesis]], the [[rhetorical device]] by which a sentence is stopped short not because of interruption but because the speaker is too emotional to continue, such as [[Darth Vader]]'s line "I sense something; a presence I have not felt since—" in ''[[Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope]]''.

The term ''em dash'' derives from its defined width of one [[em (typography)|em]] (originally the width of the letter ''m''), which is the length, expressed in [[point (typography)|point]]s, by which font sizes are typically specified. Thus in 9-point type, an em is 9 points wide, while the em of 24-point type is 24 points wide, and so on. (By comparison, the [[#En dash|en dash]], with its 1-[[en (typography)|en]] width, is 1/2 em wide in any [[typeface|font]].{{Fact|date=June 2008}})

The em dash is used in much the way a [[colon (punctuation)|colon]] or set of [[Bracket#Parentheses ( )|parentheses]] is used: it can show an abrupt change in thought or be used where a [[full stop]] (or "period") is too strong and a [[comma (punctuation)|comma]] too weak. Em dashes are sometimes used in lists or definitions, but that is a style guide issue; a colon is often recommended for use instead.

According to most American sources (e.g., ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'') and to some British sources (e.g., ''[[Hart's Rules|The Oxford Guide to Style]]''), an em dash should always be set closed (not surrounded by spaces). But the practice in many parts of the English-speaking world, also the style recommended by ''[[The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage]]'', sets it open (separates it from its surrounding words by using spaces{{Unicode| }} or [[hair space]]s (U+200A)) when it is being used parenthetically. Some writers, finding the em dash unappealingly long, prefer to use an open-set en dash. This "space, en dash, space" sequence is also the predominant style in [[Germany|German]] and [[France|French]] [[typography]]. See [[#En dash versus em dash|En dash versus em dash]] below.

Monospaced fonts (such as Courier) that mimic the look of a typewriter have the same width for all characters. Some of these fonts have em and en dashes which more or less fill the monospaced width they have available. For example, "<code>- – — −</code>" will show as a hyphen, en dash, em dash, and minus in a monospace font. Typewriters often only have a single hyphen glyph, so it is common to use two monospace hyphens strung together<tt>--</tt>like this<tt>--</tt>to serve as an em dash.

When an actual em dash is unavailable—as in the ASCII character set—a double ("<nowiki>--</nowiki>") or triple hyphen-minus ("<nowiki>---</nowiki>") is used. In Unicode, the em dash is U+2014 (decimal 8212). In HTML, one may use the numeric forms <code>&#8212;</code> or <code>&#x2014;</code>; there is also the HTML entity <code>&mdash;</code>. In TeX, the em dash may normally be input as a triple hyphen-minus (<code><nowiki>---</nowiki></code>). On a computer running the OS X operating system, most keyboard layouts map an em dash to Shift-Option-hyphen. On Microsoft Windows, an em dash may be entered as Alt+0151, where the digits are typed on the numeric keypad while holding the Alt key down. It can also be entered into Microsoft Office applications by using the ctrl-alt-hyphen combination.

===En dash versus em dash===
The en dash is half the width of the em dash. The width of the en dash was originally the width of the typeset lowercase letter '[[n]]', while the width of the em dash was the width of an uppercase '[[M]]'—hence the names. A more correct definition of the [[Em (typography)#Incorrect and alternate definitions|em width]] is the point size of the currently used font, since the M character is not always the width of the point size.<ref>{{cite web | title = A glossary of typographic terms | publisher = Adobe | accessdate=2007-10-18 | url = http://www.adobe.com/uk/type/topics/glossary.html#ememspaceemquad}}</ref>

Traditionally an em dash—like so—or a spaced em dash — like so — has been used for a dash in running text. ''[[The Elements of Typographic Style]]'' recommends the more concise spaced en dash – like so – and argues that the length and visual magnitude of an em dash "belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography." The spaced en dash is also the house style for certain major publishers ([[Penguin Group|Penguin]], [[Cambridge University Press]], and [[Routledge]] among them). However, some longstanding typographical guides such as ''[[The Chicago Manual of Style]]'' still recommend unspaced em dashes for this purpose. The ''[[Hart's Rules|Oxford Guide to Style]]'' (2002, section 5.10.10) acknowledges that this style is used by "other British publishers", but observes that Oxford University Press (OUP) does not use it. In practice, there is little consensus, and it is a matter of personal or house taste.

The en dash (always with spaces, in running text) and the ''spaced'' em dash both have a certain technical advantage over the ''unspaced'' em dash. In most typesetting and most word processing, the spacing between words is expected to be variable, so there can be [[Justification (typesetting)|full justification]]. Alone among punctuation that marks pauses or logical relations in text, the ''unspaced'' em dash disables this for the words between which it falls. The effect can be uneven spacing in the text.

En dashes are often preferred to em dashes when text is set in narrow columns (as in newspapers and similar publications).{{Fact|date=November 2007}}

The ''spaced'' em dash risks introducing excessive separation of words: it is already long, and the spaces increase the separation. In full justification, the adjacent spaces may be stretched, and the separation of words is further exaggerated.

===Horizontal bar===
The '''horizontal bar''' or ''quotation dash'' {{unicode|(―)}} is used to introduce quoted text. This is the standard method of printing [[dialogue]] in some languages (see the [[Quotation mark, non-English usage#Quotation dash|quotation dash section]] of the [[Quotation mark]] article for further details of how it is used).

If the quotation dash is unavailable, then the em dash can be used instead. In Unicode, the quotation dash is U+2015 (decimal 8213). In HTML, it can be input only with the numeric form, <code>&#x2015;</code> or <code>&#8213;</code>; there is no equivalent character entity. But  for web pages one generally uses the em dash. There is no support in the standard TeX fonts, but one can use <code>\hbox{<nowiki>---</nowiki>}\kern-.5em<nowiki>---</nowiki></code> instead (or just use an em dash).

===Swung dash===
{{main|Tilde#Lexicography}}

The '''swung dash''' (<math>\sim</math> or ~) resembles a lengthened [[tilde]], and is used to separate alternatives or approximates. In [[dictionary|dictionaries]], it is frequently used to stand in for the defined term in example text. This character was added since Unicode 4.0.0. Note that there are several similar characters: ⁓ (U+2053: SWUNG DASH, used in Western typography), ∼ (U+223C: TILDE OPERATOR, used in mathematics), and 〜 (U+301C: WAVE DASH, used in East Asian typography).

Example:
* henceforth (adverb), from this time forth; from now on; '''"<math>\sim</math> she will be known as Mrs. Smith"'''.

The swung dash in Unicode is U+2053 (decimal 8275). In HTML, it can be input only with the numeric form, <code>&#x2053;</code> or <code>&#8275;</code>; there is no equivalent HTML entity.

In [[LaTeX|LaTeX2ε]], one can use the math mode command <code>$\sim$</code>, which yields the tilde operator, a similar character.

In [[Japanese language|Japanese]] a similar character, the [[Japanese punctuation#Wave dash|wave dash]] is used instead, for a variety of purposes:
* to indicate an extension of a vowel in slang;
* it is often used in Japanese and [[Korean language|Korean]] in place of an en dash;
* in [[Chinese language|Chinese]], the wave dash and the em dash can be used interchangeably to express a range.

==Other dash-like characters==
The are several characters which resemble dashes but have different meanings and uses. These include:
* The '''[[hyphen-minus]]''' (-), [[Unicode]] U+002D, is the standard [[ASCII]] hyphen. It looks like a dash, but should only be used as such when proper dashes are unavailable. Sometimes this is used in groups to indicate different types of dash.
* The '''[[tilde]]''' (~), U+007E, is a [[diacritic]] mark.
* The '''[[underscore]]''' (_), U+005F, is either a diacritic mark, or a character replacing a standard space.
* The '''[[macron]]''' {{unicode|(¯)}}, U+00AF, is another diacritic mark.
* The '''[[hyphen#Hyphens in computing|soft hyphen]]''' (U+00AD) is used to indicate where a line ''may'' break, as in a compound word or between syllables.
* The '''[[hyphen]]''' {{unicode|(‐)}}, U+2010, is a character which, unlike the ASCII hyphen, ''always'' represents a hyphen.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}
* The '''hyphen bullet''' {{unicode|(⁃)}}, U+2043, is a short horizontal line used as a list [[bullet (typography)|bullet]].
* The '''[[minus sign]]''' (−), U+2212, <code>&minus;</code>, is an [[arithmetic]] [[operator]] used in [[mathematics]] to represent [[subtraction]] or [[negative number]]s.
* The '''wave dash''' {{unicode|(〜)}}, U+301C, and the '''wavy dash''' {{unicode|(〰)}}, U+3030, are wavy lines found in some East Asian [[character set]]s. Typographically, they have the width of one [[CJK]] character cell ([[fullwidth form]]), and follow the direction of the text (horizontal for horizontal text, vertical for columnar). They are used as dashes, and occasionally as emphatic variants of the [[katakana]] vowel extender mark.
* The '''Armenian hyphen''' {{unicode|(֊)}}, U+058A, is a hyphen from the [[Armenian alphabet]].
* The '''Hebrew maqaf''' {{unicode|(־)}}, U+05BE, is a hyphen-like character from the [[Hebrew alphabet]].
* The '''Mongolian todo hyphen''' {{unicode|(᠆)}}, U+1806, is a hyphen from the [[Mongolian alphabet]].
* The '''[[Hangul]] Jungseong Eu''' ({{unicode|ㅡ}} U+3161 or {{unicode|ᅳ}} U+1173) is used in [[Korean language|Korean]] to indicate the sound {{IPA|[ɨ]}}.
* The '''Japanese [[chōonpu]]''' {{unicode|(ー)}}, U+30FC, is used in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] to indicate a long vowel.
* The '''yī/ichi''' {{unicode|(一)}}, U+4E00, is a Chinese character which means "one" in both [[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]].

==Rendering dashes on computers==
Typewriters and computers have traditionally had only a limited [[character (computing)|character]] set, often having no key with which to produce a dash. In consequence, it became common to substitute the nearest incorrect punctuation mark or symbol. Em dashes are often represented by a pair of spaces surrounding a single hyphen-minus (typical British usage) or by a pair of spaces surrounding ''two'' hyphen-minuses (mostly in the United States).

Modern computer software typically has support for many more characters, and is usually capable of rendering both the en and em dashes correctly—albeit sometimes with a little inconvenience for the user who has to input them. Some software, though, may operate in a more limited mode. Some text editors, for example, are restricted to working with a single 8-bit [[character encoding]], and when unencodable characters are entered (e.g., by pasting from the clipboard), they are often blindly converted to question marks. Sometimes this happens to em and en dashes, even when the 8-bit encoding supports them, or when an alternative representation using hyphen-minuses would seem to be an option.

Any kind of dash can manifest directly in an [[HTML]] document, but HTML also allows them to be entered as [[character entity reference]]s. The entity names for the em dash and the en dash are mdash and ndash; therefore, they can be referenced in HTML as <code>&mdash;</code> and <code>&ndash;</code>. The equivalent [[numeric character reference]]s are <code>&#8212;</code> and <code>&#8211;</code>. Nearly all [[web browser]]s and [[operating system]]s used today are capable of rendering the numeric form, and almost as many correctly display the named form.

* In '''[[Unicode]]''', the figure dash, en dash, em dash, quotation dash, and swung dash correspond to characters U+2012, U+2013, U+2014, U+2015, and U+2053, respectively.

* In '''[[Mac OS]]''' using the Australian, British, Canadian, German, Irish, Irish Extended, Russian, U.S., or U.S. Extended keyboard layout, an en dash can be obtained by typing option-hyphen, while an em dash can be typed with option-shift-hyphen.

* In '''[[TeX]]''', an em dash is typed as three hyphens ("---"), an en dash as two hyphens ("--"), and a hyphen-minus as one hyphen ("-"). Mathematical minus is signified as "$-$".

* Under recent versions of '''[[X11]]''', you can obtain the ''em dash'' (—) by pressing the [[Compose key]] followed by - - - (triple hyphen-minus), and the ''en dash'' (–) can be obtained by pressing the Compose key followed by - - . (hyphen-minus, hyphen-minus, dot). In the absence of a [[compose key]], it can be emulated by remapping some other seldom used key.[http://process-of-elimination.net/wiki/Means_of_Composing_Accented_Characters_in_X_Window_System]

* On '''[[Plan 9 from Bell Labs|Plan 9]]''' systems, an en or em dash may be entered by pressing the [[Compose key]] (usually left Alt), followed by typing <tt>en</tt> or <tt>em</tt> respectively.

* In '''[[Microsoft Windows]]''', an em dash can be typed with ctrl + alt + numeric hyphen (on the numeric keypad, usually in the top-right corner), and an en dash can be typed with ctrl + numeric hyphen. This will not work with the hyphen key on the main keyboard (usually between "0" and "="), which has completely different functions. Alternatively, an en or em dash may be typed into most text areas by holding down the [[Alt key]] and pressing 0150 or 0151 respectively. The numbers must be typed on the numeric keypad with [[num lock]] turned on.

* With '''[[Microsoft Word]]''''s default settings (both Windows and Macintosh versions), an em dash symbol (not always a true em dash from the font) is automatically produced by Autocorrect when two unspaced hyphens are entered between words ("word--word"). An en dash (again, not always a true en dash from the font) is automatically produced when one or two hyphens surrounded by spaces are entered: ("word - word") or ("word -- word"). This feature can be disabled by customising Autocorrect. Other dashes, spaces, and special characters are possible, found through Tools → Customize… → Keyboard… → Common Symbols. Unassigned symbols (such as the true minus sign) can be assigned keyboard shortcuts through Insert → Symbol… → (select desired symbol) → Shortcut key… . To determine if the true en or em dash from the font are being used rather than a crossreferenced character from the Symbol font, copy and paste samples of the dashes into a text editor such as Windows Notepad. Using the true dash is important if one ever needs to share documents with other users in other applications or operating systems.

In professionally printed documents, a typographer sometimes adds [[hair space]], or, rarely, a full inter-word space, on either side of an em dash. In HTML it is possible to generate a hair space using the numeric character reference <code>&#8201;</code>, but current-generation web browsers are not uniformly supportive of this character, and may render it incorrectly.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/CMS_FAQ/HyphensEnDashesEmDashes/HyphensEnDashesEmDashes_questions01.html Chicago Style Q&A — Hyphens, En Dashes, Em Dashes]
* Peter K. Sheerin, [http://www.alistapart.com/articles/emen/ The trouble with EM 'n EN]
* [http://www.cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/dashes.html Dashes and Hyphens]
* [http://blogs.officezealot.com/spiller/archive/2004/05/26/486.aspx Colons, Semicolons, and Em-dashes]
* [http://www.cs.sfu.ca/~ggbaker/reference/characters/ Commonly confused characters]
* [[meta:Help:Special characters|MediaWiki User's Guide to creating special characters]]
* {{srlink|WP:MOSDASH|Wikipedia's style guideline on dashes}}

{{SpecialChars}}

{{Typography terms}}

[[Category:Punctuation]]
[[Category:Typography]]

[[cv:Тире]]
[[da:Tankestreg]]
[[de:Halbgeviertstrich#Gedankenstrich]]
[[es:Raya (puntuación)]]
[[fr:Tiret]]
[[hr:Crtica (pravopis)]]
[[he:קו מפריד]]
[[hu:Nagykötőjel]]
[[ja:ダッシュ (記号)]]
[[pl:Pauza (znak typograficzny)]]
[[pt:Travessão]]
[[ru:Тире]]
[[fi:Viivamerkit]]
[[sv:Streck (typografi)]]
[[th:ยัติภาค]]
[[wa:Tiret]]
[[zh:连接号]]

Hacker

2008-07-28T04:56:22Z

Owlgorithm: /* History */ added link to NORAD

{{cleanup-restructure|article|date=April 2008}}
{{dablink|This article is about computer hacking. For other uses, see [[Hacker]] and [[Hacking]].}}
In [[computing]], '''hacker''' has several meanings:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webzone.k3.mah.se/k3jolo/HackerCultures/origins.htm|title=webzone.k3.mah.se/k3jolo/HackerCultures/origins.htm}}</ref>

* People engaged in circumvention of computer security. This primarily refers to unauthorized remote computer break-ins via a communication network such as the Internet (''[[black hat]]s''), but also includes those who debug or fix security problems (''[[white hat]]s''). Its earliest known meaning in the computer context<ref name="shapiro">Fred Shapiro: [http://listserv.linguistlist.org/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind0306B&L=ads-l&P=R5831&m=24290 Antedating of "Hacker"]. ''American Dialect Society Mailing List'' (13. June 2003)</ref> referred to an unauthorized user of the telephone company network (now called a [[phreaker]]).
* A community of enthusiast [[computer programmer]]s and [[systems designer]]s, originated in the 1960s around the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT)'s [[Tech Model Railroad Club]] (TMRC) and [[MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]]. This community is notable for launching the [[free software movement]]. The [[World Wide Web]] and the [[Internet]] itself are also hacker artifacts. [http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html#what_is] The [[Request for Comments]] (RFC) 1392 [http://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc1392.txt] amplifies this meaning as ''a person who delights in having an intimate understanding of the internal workings of a system, computers and computer networks in particular''.
* The hobbyist home computing community, focusing on hardware in the late 1970s (e.g. the [[Homebrew Computer Club]]<ref>Levy, part 2</ref>) and on software (computer games,<ref>Levy, part 3</ref> software cracking, the [[demoscene]]) in the 1980s/1990s.
Today, mainstream usage mostly refers to computer criminals, due to the mass media usage of the word since the 1980s. This includes [[script kiddie]]s, people breaking into computers using programs written by others, with very little knowledge about the way they work. This usage is so much predominant in the general public that a large segment of it is unaware that different meanings also exist.

This article compares and contrasts the three meanings defined above. There are specific articles about each one of them at [[Hacker (computer security)]], [[Hacker (Free and Open Source Software)]], and [[Hacker (hobbyist)]], respectively. While the use of the word by hobbyist hackers is acknowledged by all three subcultures, and the computer security hackers accept all uses of the word, free software hackers consider the computer intrusion related usage incorrect, and refer to security breakers as “crackers”.

==Hacker definition controversy==
{{Cleanup|date=March 2008}}
The terms '''[[hacker]]''' and '''hack''' are marked by contrasting positive and negative connotations. Computer programmers often use the words ''hacking'' and ''hacker'' to express admiration for the work of a skilled software developer (but may also use them in a negative sense to describe the production of inelegant [[kludge]]s). Some frown upon using ''hacking'' as a synonym for [[security cracking]] -- in distinct contrast to the larger world, in which the word ''hacker'' is typically used to describe someone who "hacks into" a system by evading or disabling security measures.

=== Controversy and ambiguity ===
While "hack" was originally more used as a verb for "messing about" with (e.g. "I hack around with computers"), the meaning of the term has shifted over the decades since it first came into use in a computer context. As usage has spread more widely, the primary meaning of newer users of the word has shifted to one which conflicts with the original primary emphasis.

Currently, "''hacker''" is used in two main ways, one pejorative and one complimentary. In popular usage and in the media, it most often refers to computer intruders or criminals, with associated pejorative connotations. (For example, "An Internet 'hacker' broke through state government security systems in March.") In the computing community, the primary meaning is a complimentary description for a particularly brilliant programmer or technical expert. (For example, "[[Linus Torvalds]], the creator of [[Linux kernel|Linux]], is considered by some to be a genius hacker.") A large segment of the technical community insist the latter is the "correct" usage of the word (see the [[Jargon File]] definition below).

The [[mainstream media]]'s current usage of the term may be traced back to the early 1980s (see [[Hacker definition controversy#History|History]]). When the term was introduced to wider society by the mainstream media in 1983, even those in the computer community referred to computer intrusion as "hacking", although not as the exclusive use of that word. In reaction to the increasing media use of the term exclusively with the criminal connotation, the computer community began to differentiate their terminology. Several alternative terms such as "[[black hat]]" and "[[Security cracking|cracker]]" were coined in an effort to distinguish between those performing criminal activities, and those whose activities were the legal ones referred to more frequently in the historical use of the term "[[Hack (technology slang)|hack]]". Analogous terms such as "[[white hat]]s" and "[[gray hat]]s" developed as a result. However, since network news use of the term pertained primarily to the criminal activities despite this attempt by the technical community to preserve and distinguish the original meaning, the mainstream media and general public continue to describe computer criminals with all levels of technical sophistication as "hackers" and does not generally make use of the word in any of its non-criminal connotations.

As a result of this difference, the definition is the subject of heated controversy. The wider dominance of the pejorative connotation is resented by many who object to the term being taken from their cultural [[jargon]] and used negatively<ref> [http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html TMRC site], [http://web.archive.org/web/20060503072049/http://tmrc.mit.edu/hackers-ref.html Archive.org cache] </ref>, including those who have historically preferred to self-identify as hackers. Many advocate using the more recent and nuanced alternate terms when describing criminals and others who negatively take advantage of security flaws in software and hardware. Others prefer to follow common popular usage, arguing that the positive form is confusing and unlikely to become widespread in the general public. A minority still stubbornly use the term in both original senses despite the controversy, leaving context to clarify (or leave ambiguous) which meaning is intended. It is noteworthy, however, that the positive definition of hacker was widely used as the predominant form for many years before the negative definition was popularized.

"Hacker" can therefore be seen as a [[shibboleth]], identifying those who use the technically-oriented sense (as opposed to the exclusively intrusion-oriented sense) as members of the computing community.

A possible middle ground position has been suggested, based on the observation that "hacking" describes a collection of skills which are used by hackers of both descriptions for differing reasons. The analogy is made to locksmithing, specifically picking locks, which — aside from its being a skill with a fairly high [[tropism]] to 'classic' hacking — is a skill which can be used for good or evil. The primary weakness of this analogy is the inclusion of [[script kiddies]] in the popular usage of "hacker", despite the lack of an underlying skill and knowledge base.

===History===

A timeline of the noun "hack" and etymologically related terms as they evolved in historical English:
*c.1700, originally, "person hired to do routine work," short for hackney "an ordinary horse" (c.1300) later, coach for hire, and taxicab driver (hackie).
*Early 20th century: ''hack'' is one of many slang terms in use by railroaders for a train's [[caboose]] <ref> ''A Glossary of Railroad Terms'', American Speech, volume 18 number 3 (October 1943), pp. 161-170; cited page 163. </ref>. Subsequent spread of this usage from professional rail workers to model rail hobbyists is likely, but not proven.
*1950s: [[amateur radio]] enthusiasts defined the term ''hacking'' as creatively tinkering to improve performance.
*1959: ''hack'' is defined in [[MIT]]'s [[Tech Model Railroad Club]] Dictionary as "1) an article or project without constructive end; 2) a project undertaken on bad self-advice; 3) an entropy booster; 4) to produce, or attempt to produce, a hack(3)." ''hacker'' is defined as "one who hacks, or makes them." Much of the TMRC's jargon is later imported into early computing culture.
*1963: The first recorded reference to hackers in the computer sense is made in The Tech (MIT Student Magazine).<ref>{{Citation|title=The Origin of "Hacker"|url=http://imranontech.com/2008/04/01/the-origin-of-hacker/}}</ref>

*1972: [[Stewart Brand]] publishes "[[Spacewar!|S P A C E W A R]]: Fanatic Life and Symbolic Death Among the Computer [[Bum]]s" in ''[[Rolling Stone]]'', an early piece describing computer culture. In it, [[Alan Kay]] is quoted as saying "A true hacker is not a group person. He's a person who loves to stay up all night, he and the machine in a love-hate relationship... They're kids who tended to be brilliant but not very interested in conventional goals[...] It's a term of derision and also the ultimate compliment."
*1980: The August issue of ''[[Psychology Today]]'' prints (with commentary by [[Philip Zimbardo]]) "The Hacker Papers", an excerpt from a Stanford Bulletin Board discussion on the addictive nature of computer use.
*1982: In the film [[Tron (film)|TRON]], Kevin Flynn ([[Jeff Bridges]]) describes his intentions to break into ENCOM's computer system, saying "I've been doing a little hacking here". CLU is the [[software]] he uses for this.
*1983: The movie [[WarGames]], featuring a computer intrusion into [[NORAD]], is released. A gang of 6 teenagers is caught breaking into dozens of computer systems, including that of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]].<ref name = "drzmzu">{{Citation|last=Elmer-DeWitt|first=Philip|title=The 414 Gang Strikes Again|newspaper=[[Time magazine]]|pages=p. 75|year=1983|date=August 29, 1983|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949797,00.html}}</ref> ''[[Newsweek]]'' features the cover story "Beware: Hackers at play."<ref name = "iophas">{{Citation|title=Beware: Hackers at play|newspaper=[[Newsweek]]|pages=pp. 42–46,48|year=1983|date=September 5, 1983}}</ref> First [[Usenet]] post on the use of the term ''hacker'' in the media (CBS News) to mean computer criminal.<ref>{{cite newsgroup|newsgroup=net.misc, net.followup|author=j...@uvacs. UUCP|date=Mon, 19-Sep-83 13:50:25 EDT|title=for hack ( er ) s who want to complain to CBS|url=http://groups.google.com/group/net.misc/msg/5f706369944b69d6}}</ref> Pressured by media coverage of computer intrusions, Congress begins work on new laws for computer security.<ref>David Bailey, "Attacks on Computers: Congressional Hearings and Pending Legislation," sp, p. 180, 1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, 1984.</ref>
*1984: [[Steven Levy]] publishes ''[[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]].'' The book publicizes, and perhaps originates the phrase "Hacker Ethic" and gives a [[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution#Hacker ethic|codification of its principles]].
*1988: ''Stalking the Wily Hacker'', an article by [[Clifford Stoll]] appears in the May 1988 issue of the ''[[Communications of the ACM]]'' and uses the term ''hacker'' in the sense of a computer criminal. Later that year, the release by [[Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.]] of the so-called [[Morris worm]] provoked the popular media to spread this usage.
*1989: ''[[The Cuckoo's Egg]]'' by [[Clifford Stoll]] is published, and its popularity further entrenches the term in the public's consciousness.
*1995: The film ''[[Hackers (film)|Hackers]]'' is released by [[Warner Brothers]].

=== Types of hackers ===
{{OR|section|date=May 2008}}
The types of hackers are usually named by the hackers own slang (also known as jargon).
Generally hackers can be divided into three classes (also groups or even schools)

====White Hat Hacker====
{{main|White hat}}
A white hat hacker, also rendered as whitehat or white-hat, is in the realm of information technology, a person who is ethically opposed to the abuse of computer systems. Realizing that the Internet now represents human voices from all around the world makes the defense of its integrity an important pastime for many. A white hat generally focuses on securing IT systems, whereas a black hat (the opposite) would like to break into them but this is a simplification. A black hat will wish to secure his own machine, and a white hat might need to break into a black hat's machine in the course of an investigation. What exactly differentiates white hats and black hats is open to interpretation, but white hats tend to cite altruistic motivations.

====Grey or Brown Hat Hacker====
{{main|Grey hat}}
A hacker of this type is a skilled hacker who sometimes acts legally and in good will and sometimes not. They are a hybrid between white and black hat hackers. They hack for no personal gain and do not have malicious intentions, but occasionally may or may not commit crimes in their actions. There is no distinction between grey and brown for hackers in this category.

====Black Hat Hacker====
{{main|Black hat}}
A black hat or black-hat hacker is a malicious or criminal person whose correct label is "cracker". The term hacker is also commonly used as a synonym for "black hat hacker". However, in computer jargon, the meaning of "hacker" is much more broad.
Usually a Black Hat refers to a person that maintains knowledge of the vulnerabilities and exploits they find as secret for private advantage, not revealing them either to the general public or manufacturer for correction. Many Black Hats promote individual freedom and accessibility over privacy and security. Black Hats may seek to expand holes in systems; any attempts made to patch software are generally to prevent others from also compromising a system they have already obtained secure control over. A Black Hat cracker may have access to 0-day exploits (private software that exploits security vulnerabilities; 0-day exploits have not been distributed to the public). In the most extreme cases, Black Hats may work to cause damage maliciously, and/or make threats to do so for blackmail purposes.

===Contemporary Use===
The modern, computer-related use of the term is considered likely rooted in the goings on at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] (MIT) in the 1960s, long before computers became common; the word "[[Hack (technology slang)|hack]]" was local [[slang]] which had a large number of related meanings. One was a simple, but often inelegant, solution to a problem. It also meant any [http://hacks.mit.edu/ clever prank] perpetrated by MIT students; logically the perpetrator was a '''hacker'''. To this day the terms ''hack'' and ''hacker'' are used in several ways at MIT, without necessarily referring to computers. When MIT students surreptitiously put a [http://hacks.mit.edu/Hacks/by_year/1994/cp_car/ fake police car] atop the dome on MIT's Building 10, that was a hack, and the students involved were therefore hackers. Another type of hacker — one who explores undocumented or unauthorized areas in buildings — is now called a [[reality hacker]] or [[urban spelunker]].

The term was fused with computers when members of the [[Tech Model Railroad Club]] started working with a [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] [[PDP-1]] computer and applied local model railroad slang to computers.

The earliest known use of the term in this manner is from the [[20 November]] [[1963]] issue of The Tech, the student paper of MIT:

<blockquote>Many telephone services have been curtailed because of so-called hackers, according to Prof. Carlton Tucker, administrator of the Institute phone system. […] The hackers have accomplished such things as tying up all the tie-lines between Harvard and MIT, or making long-distance calls by charging them to a local radar installation. One method involved connecting the PDP-1 computer to the phone system to search the lines until a dial tone, indicating an outside line, was found. […] Because of the 'hacking', the majority of the MIT phones are 'trapped'.</blockquote>

Originally, the term "hack" was applied almost exclusively to [[programming]] or [[electrical engineering]], but it has come to be used in some circles for almost any type of clever circumvention, in phrases such as "hack the media", "hack your brain" and "hack your reputation".

=== Negative usage in engineering ===

Another meaning of the term "hack", similar to [[kludge]] and distinct from both the positive and security-related meanings discussed above, derives from the everyday English sense "to cut or shape by or as if by crude or ruthless strokes" [Merriam-Webster]. In other words to "hack" at an original creation, as if with an axe, is to force-fit it into being usable for a task not intended by the original creator, and a "hacker" would be someone who does this habitually. (The original creator and the hacker may be the same person.)

This usage is common in both programming (as demonstrated by a [[Google code search]] for "HACK" [http://www.google.com/codesearch?q=HACK]) and engineering. In programming, hacking in this sense appears to be tolerated and seen as a necessary compromise in many situations. In non-software engineering, the culture is less tolerant of unmaintainable solutions, even when intended to be temporary, and describing someone as a "hacker" might imply that they lack professionalism. In this sense, the term has no real positive connotations, except for the idea that the hacker is capable of doing modifications that allow a system to work in the short term, and so has some sort of marketable skills. There is always, however, the understanding that a more skillful, or technical, logician could have produced successful modifications that would not be considered a "hack-job".

The definition is similar to other, non-computer based, uses of the term "hack-job". For instance, a professional modification of a production sports car into a racing machine would not be considered a hack-job, but a cobbled together backyard mechanic's result could be. Even though the outcome of a race of the two machines could not be assumed, a quick inspection would instantly reveal the difference in the level of professionalism of the designers.

==Hacker Ethic==
{{main|Hacker Ethic}}

Many "white hat" hackers adhere to hacker ethics and shared values that were common among the early hackers at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] and the [[Homebrew Computer Club]] based in [[Silicon Valley]]. Hacker ethics are founded upon principles of openness, sharing, and the Hands-On Imperative. All of these principles cumulate to the improvement of software, hardware, and ideally, the world.

==Computer security hackers==
{{main|Hacker (computer security)}}

[[Image:Stering.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Bruce Sterling]], author of [[The Hacker Crackdown]]]]

In computer security, a hacker is someone who focuses on security mechanisms of computer and network systems. While including those who endeavor to strengthen such mechanisms, it is more often used by the [[mass media]] and popular culture to refer to those who seek access despite these security measures. That is, the media portrays the 'hacker' as a villain. Nevertheless, parts of the subculture see their aim in correcting security problems and use the word in a positive sense. They operate under a code of the [[white hat|Hacker Ethic]], which acknowledges that breaking into other people's computers is bad, but that discovering and exploiting security mechanisms and breaking into computers is still an interesting activity that can be done ethically and legally. Accordingly, the term bears strong connotations that are favorable or pejorative, depending on the context.

The subculture around such hackers is termed network hacker subculture, hacker scene or computer underground. It initially developed in the context of [[phreaking]] during the 1960s and the microcomputer [[Bulletin board system|BBS scene]] of the 1980s. It is implicated with ''[[2600: The Hacker Quarterly]]'' and the ''[[alt.2600]]'' newsgroup.

By 1983, hacking in the sense of breaking computer security had already been in use as computer jargon,<ref>See the [http://www.catb.org/jargon/oldversions/jarg1-81-MM-DD.txt 1981 version of the ''Jargon File''], entry "hacker", last meaning.</ref> but there was no public awareness about such activities.<ref>{{cite paper|title=Computer hacking: Where did it begin and how did it grow?|publisher=WindowSecurity.com|date=October 16, 2002|url=http://www.windowsecurity.com/whitepapers/Computer_hacking_Where_did_it_begin_and_how_did_it_grow_.html}}</ref> However, the release of the movie ''[[WarGames]]'' that year raised the public belief that computer security hackers (especially teenagers) could be a threat to national security. This concern became real when a gang of teenage [[Black hat|hackers]] in [[Milwaukee, Wisconsin]] known as [[The 414s]] broke into computer systems throughout the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], including those of [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]], [[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center|Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]] and [[Security Pacific Bank]]. The case quickly grew media attention,<ref>{{Citation|newspaper=[[Detroit Free Press]]|year=1983|date=September 27, 1983}}</ref><ref name = "drzmzu"/> and 17-year-old Neal Patrick emerged as the spokesman for the gang, including a cover story in ''[[Newsweek]]'' entitled "Beware: Hackers at play", with Patrick's photograph on the cover.<ref name = "iophas"/> The Newsweek article appears to be the first use of the word ''hacker'' by the mainstream media in the pejorative sense.

As a result of news coverage, congressman [[Dan Glickman]] called for an investigation and new laws about computer hacking.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Washington Post|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A50606-2002Jun26.html|year=2002|accessdate=2006-04-14|title=Timeline: The U.S. Government and Cybersecurity}}</ref>
Neal Patrick testified before the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] on [[September 26]] [[1983]] about the dangers of computer hacking, and six bills concerning computer crime were introduced in the House that year.<ref>David Bailey, "Attacks on Computers: Congressional Hearings and Pending Legislation," sp, p. 180, 1984 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy, 1984.</ref> As a result of these laws against computer criminality, [[white hat]], [[grey hat]] and [[black hat]] hackers try to distinguish themselves from each other, depending on the legality of their activities.

==Free and open source software hackers==
{{main|Hacker (free and open source software)}}

The computer security use is contrasted by the different understanding of hacker as a person who follows a spirit of playful cleverness and loves programming. It is found in an originally academic movement unrelated to computer security and most visibly associated with [[free software]] and [[open source]]. It also has a [[hacker ethic]], based on the idea that writing software and sharing the result is a good idea, but only on a voluntary basis, and that information should be free, but that it's not up to the hacker to make it free by breaking into private computer systems. Academic hackers disassociate from the mass media's pejorative use of the word 'hacker' referring to computer security, and usually prefer the term 'cracker' for that meaning.

In this hacker culture, a computer hacker is a person who enjoys designing software and building programs with a sense for aesthetics and playful cleverness. The term [[hack]] in this sense can be traced back to "describe the elaborate college pranks that...students would regularly devise" (Levy, 1984 p.10). To be considered a 'hack' was an honour among like-minded peers as "to qualify as a hack, the feat must be imbued with innovation, style and technical virtuosity" (levy, 1984 p.10)

According to [[Eric S. Raymond]],<ref>Eric S. Raymond: [http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/hacker-history/hacker-history.html A Brief History of Hackerdom] (2000)</ref> the Open source and Free Software hacker subculture developed in the 1960s among ‘academic hackers’<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faqs.org/docs/artu/ch20s06.html|title=www.faqs.org/docs/artu/ch20s06.html}}</ref> working on early [[minicomputer]]s in [[computer science]] environments in the United States. After 1969 it fused with the technical culture of the pioneers of the [[Arpanet]]. The [[PDP-10]] machine AI at [[MIT]], which was running the [[Incompatible Timesharing System|ITS]] operating system and was connected to the Arpanet, provided an early hacker meeting point. After 1980 the subculture coalesced with the culture of [[Unix]], and after 1987 with elements of the early [[microcomputer]] hobbyists that themselves had connections to radio amateurs in the 1920s. Since the mid-1990s, it has been largely coincident with what is now called the [[free software movement|free software]] and [[open source movement]].

Many programmers have been labeled "great hackers,"<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.paulgraham.com/gh.html | title=Great Hackers | author=[[Paul Graham|Graham, Paul]] | year=2004}}</ref> but the specifics of who that label applies to is a matter of opinion. Certainly major contributors to [[computer science]] such as [[Edsger Dijkstra]] and [[Donald Knuth]], as well as the inventors of popular software such as [[Linus Torvalds]] ([[Linux]]), and [[Dennis Ritchie]] and [[Ken Thompson (computer programmer)|Ken Thompson]] (the [[C (programming language)|C programming language]]) are likely to be included in any such list; see also [[List of programmers]]. People primarily known for their contributions to the consciousness of the academic hacker culture include [[Richard Stallman]], the founder of the free software movement and the [[GNU project]], president of the [[Free Software Foundation]] and author of the famous [[Emacs]] text editor as well as the [[GNU Compiler Collection|GNU Compiler Collection (GCC)]], and [[Eric S. Raymond]], one of the founders of the [[Open Source Initiative]] and writer of the famous text [[The Cathedral and the Bazaar]] and many other essays, maintainer of the [[Jargon File]] (which was previously maintained by [[Guy L. Steele, Jr.]]).

Within the academic hacker culture, the term hacker is also used for a programmer who reaches a goal by employing a series of modifications to extend existing [[source code|code]] or resources. In this sense, it can have a negative connotation of using [[kludge]]s to accomplish programming tasks that are ugly, inelegant, and inefficient. This derogatory form of the noun "[[Hack (technology slang)|hack]]" is even used among users of the positive sense of "hacker" (some argue that it should not be, due to this negative meaning; others argue that some kludges can, for all their ugliness and imperfection, still have "hack value"). In a very universal sense, hacker also means someone who makes things work beyond perceived limits in a clever way in general.<ref>[http://catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html#what_is How To Become A Hacker]</ref> That is, people who apply the creative attitude of software hackers in fields other than computing. This includes even activities that predate computer hacking, for example [[reality hacker]]s.<ref>See for example the [http://hacks.mit.edu/ MIT Gallery of Hacks]</ref> More recent examples of this usage are [[wetware hacker]]s and [[media hacker]]s. According to the ''Jargon File'' the word hacker was used in a similar meaning among radio amateurs already in the 1950s.<ref>[http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/H/hacker.html hacker]</ref>

The culture sometimes uses jargon which is "incomprehensible to outsiders"<ref name="Levy">{{cite book |title=Hackers: Heroes of the Compuer Revolution |last=Levy |first=Steven |authorlink=Steven Levy|year=2001 |origyear=1984|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=0141000511 |pages=9 }}</ref>. Examples are 'losing' "when a piece of equipment is not working"<ref name="Levy" /> and 'munged' "when a piece of equipment is ruined"<ref name="Levy" />.

==Home computer hackers==
{{main|Hacker (hobbyist)}}

In a third meaning, hacker refers to computer hobbyists who push the limits of their software or hardware. The home computer hacking subculture relates to the hobbyist home computing of the late 1970s, beginning with the availability of [[MITS Altair]]. An influential organization was the [[Homebrew Computer Club]].

The areas that did not fit together with the academic hacker subculture focus mainly on commercial [[ROM hacking|computer and video games]], [[software cracking]] and exceptional computer programming ([[demo scene]]). Also of interest to some members of this group is the modification of computer hardware and other electronic devices, see [[modding]].

== Overlaps and differences ==
The main basic difference between academic and computer security hackers is their mostly separate historical origin and development. However, the ''Jargon File'' reports that considerable overlap existed for the early phreaking at the beginning of the 1970s. An article from MIT's student paper ''The Tech'' used the term hacker in this context already in 1963 in its pejorative meaning for someone messing with the phone system.<ref name=shapiro/> The overlap quickly started to break when people joined in the activity who did it in a less responsible way.<ref>[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/P/phreaking.html phreaking]</ref> This was the case after the publication of an article exposing the activities of Draper and Engressias.

According to Raymond, academic hackers usually work openly and use their real name, while computer security hackers prefer secretive groups and identity-concealing aliases.<ref name="Raymond-cracker" /> Also, their activities in practice are largely distinct. The former focus on creating new and improving existing infrastructure (especially the software environment they work with), while the latter primarily and strongly emphasize the general act of circumvention of security measures, with the effective use of the knowledge (which can be to report and help fixing the security bugs, or exploitation for criminal purpose) being only rather secondary. The most visible difference in these views was in the design of the MIT hackers' [[Incompatible Timesharing System]], which deliberately didn't have any security measures.

There are some subtle overlaps, however, since basic knowledge about computer security is also common within the academic hacker community. For example, Ken Thompson noted during his 1983 [[Turing Award]] lecture that it is possible to add code to the [[UNIX]] "login" command that would accept either the intended encrypted [[password]] or a particular known password, allowing a back door into the system with the latter password. He named his invention the "[[Trojan horse (computing)|Trojan horse]]." Furthermore, Thompson argued, the [[Compiler|C compiler]] itself could be modified to automatically generate the rogue code, to make detecting the modification even harder. Because the compiler is itself a program generated from a compiler, the Trojan horse could also be automatically installed in a new compiler program, without any detectable modification to the source of the new compiler. However, Thompson disassociated himself strictly from the computer security hackers: "I would like to criticize the press in its handling of the 'hackers,' the 414 gang, the Dalton gang, etc. The acts performed by these kids are vandalism at best and probably trespass and theft at worst. ... I have watched kids testifying before Congress. It is clear that they are completely unaware of the seriousness of their acts." <ref>{{cite journal|first=Ken|last=Thompson|title=Reflections on Trusting Trust|journal=Communications of the ACM|volume=27|issue=8|date=August 1984|url=http://www.ece.cmu.edu/~ganger/712.fall02/papers/p761-thompson.pdf}}</ref>

The academic hacker community sees secondary circumvention of security mechanisms as legitimate if it is done to get practical barriers out of the way for doing actual work. In special forms, that can even be an expression of playful cleverness.<ref>[http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/rms-hack.html The Hacker Community and Ethics: An Interview with Richard M. Stallman - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation (FSF)]</ref> However, the systematic and primary engagement in such activities is not one of the actual interests of the academic hacker subculture and it doesn't have significance in its actual activities, either.<ref name="Raymond-cracker">[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/C/cracker.html cracker]</ref> A further difference is that, historically, academic hackers were working at academic institutions and used the computing environment there. In contrast, the prototypical computer security hacker had access exclusively to a home computer and a modem. However since the mid-1990s, with home computers that could run Unix-like operating systems and with inexpensive internet home access being available for the first time, many people from outside of the academic world started to take part in the academic hacking subculture.

Since the mid-1980s, there are some overlaps in ideas and members with the computer security hacking community. The most prominent case is Robert T. Morris, who was a user of MIT-AI, yet wrote the [[Morris worm]]. The ''Jargon File'' hence calls him "a true hacker who blundered".<ref>[http://www.catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html#bibliography Part III. Appendices]</ref> Nevertheless, members of the academic subculture have a tendency to look down on and disassociate from these overlaps. They commonly refer disparagingly to people in the computer security subculture as crackers, and refuse to accept any definition of hacker that encompasses such activities. The computer security hacking subculture on the other hand tends not to distinguish between the two subcultures as harshly, instead acknowledging that they have much in common including many members, political and social goals, and a love of learning about technology. They restrict the use of the term cracker to their categories of [[script kiddie]]s and [[black hat]] hackers instead.

All three subcultures have relations to hardware modifications. In the early days of network hacking, phreaks were building [[blue box]]es and various variants. The academic hacker culture has stories about several hardware hacks in its folklore, such as a mysterious 'magic' switch attached to a PDP-10 computer in MIT's AI lab, that, when turned off, crashed the computer.<ref>[http://www.catb.org/~esr/jargon/html/magic-story.html A Story About ‘Magic']</ref> The early hobbyist hackers built their home computers themselves, from construction kits. However, all these activities have died out during the 1980s, when the phone network switched to digitally controlled switchboards, causing network hacking to shift to dialing remote computers with modems, when pre-assembled inexpensive home computers were available, and when academic institutions started to give individual mass-produced workstation computers to scientists instead of using a central timesharing system. The only kind of widespread hardware modification nowadays is [[case modding]].

An encounter of the academic and the computer security hacker subculture occurred at the end of the 1980s, when a group of computer security hackers, sympathizing with the Chaos Computer Club (who disclaimed any knowledge in these activities), broke into computers of American military organizations and academic institutions. They sold data from these machines to the Soviet secret service, one of them in order to fund his drug addiction. The case could be solved when [[Clifford Stoll]], a scientist working as a system administrator, found ways to log the attacks and to trace them back (with the help of many others). ''[[23 (film)|23]]'', a German film adaption with fictional elements, shows the events from the attackers' perspective. Stoll described the case in his book ''[[The Cuckoo's Egg (book)|The Cuckoo's Egg]]'' and in the TV documentary ''The KGB, the Computer, and Me'' from the other perspective. According to Eric S. Raymond, it "nicely illustrates the difference between 'hacker' and 'cracker'. Stoll's portrait of himself, his lady Martha, and his friends at Berkeley and on the Internet paints a marvelously vivid picture of how hackers and the people around them like to live and how they think."<ref>[http://catb.org/jargon/html/pt03.html Part III. Appendices]</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Hack (technology)]]
* [[:Category:Computer hacking]]
* [[History of free software]]
* [[Timeline of computer security hacker history]]
* [[Hacker Ethic]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Related books ==
<div class="references-small">
* Michael Hasse: [http://www.neue-information.de/fileadmin/neue-information/pdf/hasse_hacker.pdf Die Hacker: Strukturanalyse einer jugendlichen Subkultur] (1994)
* Alan Liu, "The Laws of Cool: Knowledge Work and the Culture of Information'', [[University of Chicago Press]] pp. 396-398 (2004)
</div>

{{wikibooks|Hacking}}
=== Computer security hacking books ===
<div class="references-small">
* Logik Bomb: [http://insecure.org/stf/hackenc.txt Hacker's Encyclopedia] (1997)
* Katie Hafner & John Markoff: ''Cyberpunk: Outlaws and Hackers on the Computer Frontier'' (Simon & Schuster, 1991), ISBN 0-671-68322-5.
* {{cite book | authorlink = Bruce Sterling | last = Sterling | first = Bruce | url = http://www.mit.edu/hacker/hacker.html | title = The Hacker Crackdown | year = 1992 | id = ISBN 0-553-08058-X | publisher = Bantam }}
* {{cite book | last = Slatalla | first = Michelle | coauthors = Joshua Quittner | title = [[Masters of Deception]]: The Gang That Ruled Cyberspace | year = 1995 | id = ISBN 0-06-017030-1 | publisher = HarperCollins }}
* {{cite book | last = Dreyfus | first = Suelette | title = [[Underground (book)|Underground: Tales of Hacking, Madness and Obsession on the Electronic Frontier]] | year = 1997 | id = ISBN 1-86330-595-5 | publisher = Mandarin }}
* {{cite book | last = Verton | first = Dan | title = The Hacker Diaries : Confessions of Teenage Hackers | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0-07-222364-2 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Osborne Media }}
* {{cite book | last = Thomas | first = Douglas | title = Hacker Culture | year = 2002 | id = ISBN 0816633452 | publisher = University of Minnesota Press}}
</div>

=== Free Software/Open Source hacking books ===
<div class="references-small">
* Eric S. Raymond, Guy L. Steele (Eds.): ''[[Jargon File|The New Hacker's Dictionary]]'' (The MIT Press, 1996), ISBN 0262680920
* {{cite book | first = Eric S. | last = Raymond | title = [[The Art of Unix Programming]] | publisher = Prentice Hall International | year = 2003 | id = ISBN 0131429019}}
* {{cite book | authorlink = Steven Levy | last = Levy | first = Steven | title = [[Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution]] | year = 1984 | id = ISBN 0-385-19195-2 | publisher = Doubleday }}
*[[Sherry Turkle|Turkle, Sherry]] (1984),''The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit'' , New Edition: MIT Press 2005, ISBN 0262701111
* {{cite book | authorlink = Paul Graham | last = Graham | first = Paul | title = [[Hackers and Painters]] | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 0-59-600662-4 }}
* Karim R. Lakhani, Robert G Wolf: [http://freesoftware.mit.edu/papers/lakhaniwolf.pdf Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects]. In J. Feller, B. Fitzgerald, S. Hissam, and K. R. Lakhani(Eds.): ''Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software'' (MIT Press, 2005)
* Himanen, Pekka. 2001. ''The Hacker Ethic and the Spirit of the Information Age.'' Random House. ISBN 0-375-50566-0
</div>

==External links==
{{wiktionary|Hacker}}
* [http://chaosradio.ccc.de/cri011.html Interview with Steven Levy]: About the different hacker subcultures and their relations.
* [http://www.paulgraham.com/gba.html The Word "Hacker"]
* [http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~bh/hacker.html What is a Hacker?, Brian Harvey]
* [http://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2006/09/what_is_a_hacke.html "What is a Hacker?"] by [[Bruce Schneir]]
* [http://www.maniacworld.com/original-hackers.htm Steve Wozniak Discusses the original meaning of hacker]

=== Computer security hacking weblinks ===
* [http://www.casoabierto.com/Reportajes/Investigacion/The-Ten-Biggest-Legends-of-the-Hacker-Universe.html The Ten Biggest Legends of the Hacker Universe]
* [http://web.archive.org/web/20010708111438/http://www.claws-and-paws.com/personal/hacking/17steps.shtml Hacking in 17 easy steps], by Doug Mclean 1995.

=== Free Software/Open Source hacking weblinks ===
*[http://www.catb.org/~esr/faqs/hacker-howto.html How To Become A Hacker] by [[Eric S. Raymond]], open source perspective
*[http://gnu.mirrorspace.org/philosophy/rms-hack.html The Hacker Community and Ethics]: An interview with [[Richard Stallman|Richard M. Stallman]], 2002

[[Category:Computer hacking]]
[[Category:Computing culture]]
[[Category:Naming controversies]]
[[Category:Computing terminology]]
[[Category:Subcultures]]

[[ar:قرصان الحاسوب]]
[[ast:Hacker]]
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[[bs:Hacker]]
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[[cs:Hacker]]
[[da:Hacker]]
[[de:Hacker]]
[[et:Häkker]]
[[es:Hacker]]
[[eo:Kodumulo]]
[[eu:Hacker]]
[[fa:هکر]]
[[gl:Hacker]]
[[ko:해커]]
[[id:Peretas]]
[[it:Hacker]]
[[he:האקר]]
[[ka:ჰაკერი]]
[[lt:Hakeris]]
[[hu:Hacker]]
[[nl:Hacker]]
[[ja:ハッカー]]
[[no:Datasnok]]
[[pl:Haker (slang komputerowy)]]
[[pt:Hacker]]
[[ru:Хакер]]
[[sq:Hakeri]]
[[simple:Hacker]]
[[sk:Haker]]
[[sl:Heker]]
[[sr:Хакер]]
[[fi:Hakkeri]]
[[sv:Hackare]]
[[th:แฮกเกอร์]]
[[vi:Hacker]]
[[tr:Hacker]]
[[uk:Хакер]]
[[yi:העקער]]
[[zh:黑客]]

Talk:Walnut Creek CDROM

2008-07-28T04:25:43Z

Owlgorithm: page creation, question posed

Should this page be merged with [[Simtel]]? [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm|talk]]) 04:25, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

Single-user mode

2008-07-28T04:08:23Z

Owlgorithm: /* Mac OS X */ i just did this on tiger a second ago

'''Single user mode''' is a mode in which a [[multiuser]] computer [[operating system]] [[boot (computing)|boots]] into a single [[superuser]]. It is mainly used for maintenance of multi-user environments such as network servers. Some tasks may require exclusive access to shared resources, for example running <tt>[[fsck]]</tt> on a [[network share]]. This mode may also be used for security purposes - network services are not run, eliminating the possibility of outside interference. On some systems a lost [[superuser]] password can be changed by switching to single user mode, but not asking for the password in such circumstances is viewed as a security vulnerability.

==Mac OS X==
[[Mac OS X]] users can accomplish this by holding down Apple key/Command (for users of Mac OS 10.4 or up)+S after powering the system. The user may be required to enter a password set in the [[firmware]]. Single User Mode is different from a [[Safe Mode]] boot in that the system goes directly to the console instead of starting up the core elements of Mac OS X (items in <tt>/System/Library/</tt>, ignoring <tt>/Library/</tt>, <tt>~/Library/</tt>, et al.). From there users are encouraged by a prompt to run [[fsck]] or other [[command line]] utilities as needed (or installed).

==Microsoft Windows==
[[Microsoft Windows]] provides [[Recovery Console]]. It is different from single user modes in other operating systems because it is independent of the maintained operating system.

==Unix family==
[[Unix-like]] operating systems provide single user mode functionality through [[runlevel]]s. Runlevels are usually changed using the <tt>init</tt> command, runlevel 1 or S will boot into single user mode.

[[Category:Operating system technology]]
[[Category:Booting]]

{{comp-sci-stub}}

User talk:Owlgorithm

2008-07-21T17:19:39Z

Owlgorithm: things seem to be OK

== A note about WP:AIV ==

Hi, Owlgorithm. I wanted to leave you a note about your recent report to [[WP:AIV]] (you reported {{User|99.7.44.215}} ). I declined the report, because the editor behind the IP hasn't edited in nearly four days, which is insufficient recent activity to justify a block. Please remember that blocks are to prevent further damage to Wikipedia, and not a form of punishment. Toward that end, only vandals that are currently vandalizing and that have already been properly warned should be reported to AIV. Don't think that I'm upset with you, or anything of the sort. I'm just letting you know how you can help make anti-vandal work more efficient. Regards, [[User:Parsecboy|Parsecboy]] ([[User talk:Parsecboy|talk]]) 02:13, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

==CfD nomination of [[:Category:Tastes like chicken]]==
I have nominated {{lc|Tastes like chicken}} for deletion. Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at [[Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Log/2008 July 17#Category:Tastes like chicken|the discussion page]]. Thank you. — [[User talk:Jwillbur|jwillbur]] 17:36, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

:Your <nowiki>[[:Category:Tastes like chicken]]</nowiki>, while amusing, might be considered [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]] in some quarters, and has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. Thanks for the laugh, tho. Cool username, too. (Do you run on [[spotted owl]]s?) =] [[User:Trekphiler|TREKphiler]] [[User talk:Trekphiler|hit me ♠ ]] 21:05 & 21:06, 17 July 2008 (UTC)
::Thanks! I took the name from [[Rice University]] and my course of study there. Thanks for the input about the category, too -- I'm glad it was at least good for a laugh, because I didn't expect it to be so useless to Wikipedia itself. Hopefully it won't take too long to fix :-) [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm#top|talk]]) 22:56, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

:::I admire your nerve. I've been tempted to leave cute stuff, but there are so many humorless trolls who won't even leave (half-serious!) gags in article footnotes.... [[User:Trekphiler|TREKphiler]] [[User talk:Trekphiler|hit me ♠ ]] 00:03, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

== July 2008 ==

<s>[[Image:Information.png|25px]] The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fried_spider?diff=226326495 recent edit] you made to [[:Fried spider]] constitutes [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]], and has been reverted. Please do not continue to vandalize pages; use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] for testing. Thanks.  [[User:MattieTK|Mattie]][[User talk:MattieTK|TK]] 21:42, 17 July 2008 (UTC)</s>
Hi mate. I've stricken the warning from the record as the edit you made did not really constitute [[WP:VANDALISM|vandalism]]. However, it did introduce problems with [[WP:NPOV|POV]] which you should always aim to address in future edits. In case you have not already checked there is also a reply regarding you category on my talk page. Thanks again, [[User:MattieTK|Mattie]][[User talk:MattieTK|TK]] 22:08, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

==Barnstars 'R' U==
{| style="border: 1px solid {{{border|gray}}}; background-color: {{{color|#fdffe7}}};"
|rowspan="2" valign="middle" | [[Image:Original_Barnstar.png|100px]]
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Hidden Page Barnstar'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | I award '''you''' one for finding [[User:Trekphiler|Trekphiler]]'s page for people who always think that "new message" bar is real. Aren't you glad you checked your mail? [[User:Trekphiler|TREKphiler]] [[User talk:Trekphiler|hit me ♠ ]] 00:03, 18 July 2008 (UTC)
|} 

== Welcome ==

You've got quite a few things on your talk page already, but no explicit Welcome. The links in the regular welcome template might be helpful to you, so I've put it below.

'''Welcome!'''

Hello, {{BASEPAGENAME}}, and [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome]] to Wikipedia! Thank you for [[Special:Contributions/{{BASEPAGENAME}}|your contributions]]{{#if:|, especially what you did for [[{{{art}}}]]|}}. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are some pages that you might find helpful:
*[[Wikipedia:Five pillars|The five pillars of Wikipedia]]
*[[Wikipedia:Tutorial|Tutorial]]
*[[Wikipedia:How to edit a page|How to edit a page]]
*[[Wikipedia:Article development|How to write a great article]]
*[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]]
I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians|Wikipedian]]! Please [[Wikipedia:Signatures|sign]] your messages on [[Wikipedia:talk page|discussion page]]s using four [[tilde]]s (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>); this will automatically insert your username and the date. If you need help, check out [[Wikipedia:Questions]], ask me on {{#if:|[[user talk:{{{1}}}|my talk page]]|my talk page}}, or ask your question on this page and then place <code><nowiki>{{helpme}}</nowiki></code> before the question. Again, welcome!  - [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] ([[User talk:Enuja|talk]]) 02:36, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

I noticed your edits to [[Alligator]] in the first place because I have it [[Help:Watching pages|watched]]. Therefore, I also saw your recent edit [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AAlligator&diff=226374185&oldid=224502499]. In the future, please try to avoid deleting any comments on [[WP:Talk|talk pages]]. It is possible to [[WP:Archive|archive]] old talk instead. I didn't revert your edit because, in this case, it really doesn't matter, but please keep this in mind in the future. - [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] ([[User talk:Enuja|talk]]) 03:11, 18 July 2008 (UTC)
:Thank you for pointing this out. I am embarrassed that there are so many things I don't know! I am learning to contribute content, which is new for me because I have previously only made minor edits like spelling and grammar (although I didn't even mark them "minor" because I didn't know to...). Anyway, thank you for these hints and for the links to the tutorials, which I am going to read so I won't keep causing trouble. Thank you! [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm#top|talk]]) 18:32, 19 July 2008 (UTC)
::You're welcome. Don't worry, you aren't causing trouble. Every user was a new user once! There really is a lot to learn about "how we do things" but, as long as you are trying to make the encyclopedia better (which you certainly appear to be doing), your contributions are very much appreciated. It's a problem with this encylopedia that it seems like there is so much to learn before you start editing. You're doing it the right way; start editing, and learn as you go! - [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] ([[User talk:Enuja|talk]]) 23:36, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

Talk:Viola

2008-07-19T21:44:38Z

Owlgorithm: /* jokes section */ refer to above joke section

{{WPMusInst |quality=start|importance=mid}}
==title of article==
Suggest title of article be modified to '''viola (musical instrument)'''
so that everyone looking for blue flowers will go directly to disambiguation page...

==Viola the whole article==
**Perhaps we should incorporate many of the features as seen in our family instruments (violin, cello). They seem to be well written. They do not include violin or cello jokes. The bass article refers to "notable classical players of historical importance." Perhaps that is what should be the criteria for listing the violist, is some significant importance. The genres that the viola is found should be grouped together and perhaps outlined more (orchestral, chamber music, solo music, modern music, folk music, future avenues-electronic violas?). debcallico/ut —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 19:29, 15 April 2008 (UTC) 

==Violists==

I've added Lillian Fuchs and Rebecca Clarke; I'm not sure if Clarke should be in the list of composers who played viola or, like Hindemith, be listed in the 'violists' paragraph. I still think the paragraph about jokes is incongruent in this context. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 09:19, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

In light of the recent flurry of changes to the list of violists, I request that anyone who makes changes to that list put the names they are adding or deleting in the summary along with a brief description of why they are adding or deleting. Thanks [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 00:33, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

After more careful scrutiny of the history of this page, I have come to the conclusion that User 65.88.88.148 is intent on removing people from the list of well-known violists without specific reason (all three of the most frequently removed names are sufficiently well-known violists. None of these names is going to have the recognizability of, say, [[Yo-Yo Ma]], but that's not a reason to remove them.) [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 06:22, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

Thanks for giving voice to that. I don't know who's who, but I've been watching the flipping and flopping with silent puzzled amusement. [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 15:03, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

I was amused too.... However if it continues (I hope not!), I may get annoyed. I believe this is what's commonly referred to as an 'edit war'..... It would be a shame to have to ask an administrator to step in and do something about stopping it. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 23:21, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

I put a "citation needed" template in the sentence "among the great composers, several preferred the viola to the violin when playing in ensembles", as it seems like a claim that could easily be more motivated by enthusiasm than actual history. [[User:Hjijch|Hjijch]] 22:26, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

I've added Rivka Golani and Nobuko Imai to the list. Especially Golani, who has a huge international reputation and is one of the few violists who has made her living as a full time soloist. For 25 years she has toured and recorded. Someone keeps removing Golani and Imai from the list. Thats weird. Golani has had more than 50 concertos written for her and more than 200 works in total. I heard her concerts at the Glenn Gould studio and Wigmore Hall and was stunned by her genius. I suspect the individual removing Golani from the list (and Imai, who is an extremely eminent viola soloist, based in Holland but originally Japanese) may not have enough international knowledge of their importance. I havent added Yuri Bashmet as obviously its going to be a challenge to keep Golani and Imai on the list but I hope someone will come forward to stubbornly push for him too. The list as it stood was like a smile with three missing teeth, I have replaced two - please will someone push for Bashmet too. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cshelley|Cshelley]] ([[User talk:Cshelley|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cshelley|contribs]]) 4:47, 14 July 2007

:First of all, you added this comment out of order in the discussion. But more to the point, the reason those names you've added have been removed is simply because the '''sentence''' in which the '''short list of names''' appears is not the place for the definitive, end-all, be-all list of violists in the world. By "consensus" (see the comment in the article text), it's to be limited to a small number (5) of representative players. The "list of violists" article is the place to add any and all names of notable players, not this short list. Please don't push for more list-bloat, which is an endemic problem all across this project (Wikipedia). +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] 17:31, 14 July 2007 (UTC)

Thanks, I have corrected the order for the discussion. I really appreciate your tenacity at policing this entry. It is certainly important to protect against bloat and I can see that this issue emerged before. You (ILike2BeAnonymous) seem to very much dislike additions to the violists/viola player category. You strongly suggested that two entries be removed if I insist upon the Golani and Imai additions. I have reluctantly removed two therefore (and I hope someone else will come along and restore them). You seem to like making the rules here, but anyone can refine a Wikipedia entry. That is what I have done - by adding these two Great violists here. No one, incidentally, has established absolute "objective" criteria for additions to the violists entries. I am confident, however, that if it really came down to it, arbitrators who do the research on Golani and Imai will see that I have made no transgression here whatsoever but have provided the names of two very famous and unusually gifted players who have made extraordinary contributions over decades as viola virtuosi through their recordings and on the international, solist circuit. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cshelley|Cshelley]] ([[User talk:Cshelley|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cshelley|contribs]]) 04:32, 15 July 2007

:I must correct you on a few points. I have myself reverted several attempts to re-grow this sentence into a list, so there is not just one editor acting as "policeman". Neither is there one person who is attempting to make up rules: as you've noticed - rather late in the day - the issue has been discussed before. It would have been nice if you had taken the trouble to re-open that discussion on this page in the first place, rather than attempting to get your own way by conducting an edit war. The consensus reached, reinforced by plain common sense, was that the sentence can't be allowed to carry on growing every time someone sees that their personal favourite is not included. Once that starts, people think that there's no good reason not to add the name of that really great teacher they had in third grade. The fact that no objective criterion for inclusion exists doesn't mean that choices don't have to be made, even if they have to be done by something as crude as a Google search.

:Just to close with a personal anecdote, a few years ago I persuaded a friend to go with me to a recital by one of the two players you've just added. I had never heard the player, but her reviews and reputation had encouraged me to suggest it. The performance was painful enough for me to have suppressed most of my recollection; when it was over, my friend looked at me in silence for a few seconds and then said "I hadn't realised that the viola was such a difficult instrument". Odd thing, celebrity. --[[User:Stephen Burnett|Stephen Burnett]] 09:03, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

::Regarding your anecdote: sheesh, that's almost as bad as telling a musician after a performance, "Wow, you certainly have a beautiful instrument there". +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] 11:14, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

::Thanks for the above. Whether the performance was liked or not, it acknowledges the arguments that I made, that both are well known and belong on this list. The "common sense" of limiting the list is sensible and the policing factor important as the list could grow to be too large. Its not an issue of one's favourite player, but an issue of accuracy and logic. The existing list of players that had been constructed under the sentence "More recent well-known" had no logic to it and was arbitrary, it was my aim to maintain the established logic in the paragraph by consistency, not one's favourite principal player but international solists of note (whether liked or not). "Rather late in the game" suggests that Wikipedia is a static entity in which no one can come along and make corrections, this is not the case. Finally, the individual referred to above was indeed policing my additions since they were replying to each one of the attempts to add the two players under my Watchlist and giving (actually ordering) instructions to place those names elsewhere. I stand by these additions and am prepared to go to arbitration with them if necessary. Thanks for caring so much about this entry regardless, I think it an important category. I have never engaged in an edit war before, I dont like the term "war", I prefer the struggle for accuracy and the search for consensus (an ideal that is often never reached or maintained). Thanks and appreciation. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cshelley|Cshelley]] ([[User talk:Cshelley|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cshelley|contribs]]) 14:52, 15 July 2007

:::Well, I'm not going to remove those names, at least not now; my stated intention was to keep the short list short, which you've done. But more to the point, I don't intend to take part in this musical pissing match—"My violist is more notable than your violist". Try as you might, at the end of the day, you really cannot make a good argument that violist X is more worthy of inclusion than violist Y (in this short list, remember, not the definitive and all-inclusive scroll of great violists of all time), assuming, of course, that both X and Y are top-level performers. There just aren't any kind of qualitative, objective metrics that would make this possible. (And don't '''even''' mention Google ...)
:::And at the risk of being a nag, please sign your comments, so that others don't have to come after you and stick in the <nowiki>{{unsigned}}</nowiki> template. (The 10th button on the toolbar up there does this for you.) +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] 19:54, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

::::I just added [[Yuri Bashmet]] to the "more recently" group. From [http://www.sonyclassical.com/artists/bashmet/bio.html his bio at the Sony site,] it appears that he is stellar enough to be on the short list. Disclaimer: I am truly clueless as to who's who in the upper reaches of viola players. But, beside his solo appearances, that bio says he has shared the stage with a few names that are pretty widely recognized:

In a number of major concert halls, including La Scala
in Milan and the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam, Bashmet
has been the first violist ever to give a solo recital.
He has appeared on many occasions with Sviatoslav Richter
and has performed chamber music with many other leading
artists, including Natalia Gutman, the Borodin Quartet,
Gidon Kremer, Viktoria Mullova, Mstislav Rostropovich
and Maxim Vengerov.

::::I'd like to see some knowledgeable person take off a few more names, but perhaps that's not a sensible wish just now. __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 03:19, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

==Brahms Sonatas (op. 120)==
the most recent revision states that brahms transcribed the op. 120 clarinet sonatas himself. I have heard some debate about this -- regarding whether he actually did it himself or merely approved of it when the publisher presented it to him. Does anyone have a source for this information? If not, I'd like to change it back to the previous version, which states that the pieces were originally for clarinet but doesn't make any claim as to who did the transcribing.

:From the Wiener Urtext edition of the E-flat sonata: "In the spring of 1895 the Sonatas were published by N. Simrock, Berlin, together with an arrangement of the clarinet part for viola ... The engraver's copies of the original version (score and solo part) and of the viola part arranged by Brahms still exist. They are located in th Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek, Hamburg ... They were written by a copyist, with numerous corrections and several important alterations in Brahms' hand." (Hans Christian Muller) The rest of the preface does not seem to doubt that Brahms was the original arranger. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 00:35, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

::Excellent, thanks. BTW, we should start citing sources, perhaps this is a good place to start. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 23:04, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

:::As documented in my article, http://www.solisti.de/brahms/sonatas120_eng.html which was published in German by the Viola Society, there is evidence that Brahms transcribed the Sonatas Op. 120 himself, although this manuscript is lost. The published version was based on a manuscript by the copyist Wilhelm Kupfer for the publisher Simrock, which shows evidence of only some hurried corrections by Brahms. It is not incorrect to state that Brahms made a transcription of these Sonatas for the viola, but nobody alive today has seen this version. - Prof. James Creitz

== Viola jokes ==
I have a psychology book somewhere (a quite serious one) that has something like half a chapter on the viola joke (mainly musing on why the viola and not some other useless instrument like the flute). And I see even Google is getting in on the act of slating violists now: if you search for "virtuoso violist" it mocks "Did you mean:virtuoso violinist"... --[[User:Camembert|Camembert]]
:By the way, if you search for "violist", it says "did you mean violinist". Google doesn't think "violist" is a word. '''[[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]]''' [[User talk:Frosty0814snowman|('sup?)]] 13:07, 27 July 2006 (UTC)
::Nope, I don't get that when I search google http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=violist&btnG=Search [[User:TehNomad|TehNomad]] 20:58, 17 December 2006 (UTC)
:::no, you don't get it anymore. Used to, though! (*assumes fake accent and far-off look of nostalgia in eyes* ...eh, back in "my day".... when the internet was young, my lad!)[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 05:42, 19 December 2006 (UTC)
::::Appears again. Of course, it's not a deliberate slight to the viola so much as the lower pagerank -- it's hard to be a virtuoso when violists are all so good ;-) [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm|talk]]) 21:42, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

Viola jokes were the one source of amusement during the long hours I spend languishing in 2nd violins. http://www.mit.edu/~jcb/jokes/viola.html -- [[User:Tarquin|Tarquin]]

Methinks we should have some kind of gentle, viola player-friendly reference to those jokes, because orchestra culture wouldn't be the same without them. [[User:Weasel|Weasel]]

:True, orchestra culture wouldn't be the same without them. But I've always thought of viola jokes as akin to blonde jokes or lawyer jokes or ethnic jokes. Does an encyclopedia article on lawyers have a reference to lawyer jokes? Does an article on ethnicity have a reference to ethnic jokes? It may be a separate category, we can add to [[jokes]] the "musician" joke. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:13, 21 January 2006 (UTC)
:Whatever the case, I don't believe the viola joke should be the first thing a person sees when they go to the section on "Violists". I've re-arranged the paragraphs so that the list of violists appears first, then the list of famous composers who were also violists, and put the reference to viola jokes last. If no one disagrees, I may move the reference to the [[jokes]] article.[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:24, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

::Whoever puts together the viola jokes (and they should go in a separate article, linked to "jokes", not in this article) should be sure not to omit the best of them all—the one that tops violinists:
:::Did you know that a violin and a viola are actually the same size?
::::No, I did not know that.
:::It's true; it's just that violinist's heads are so much larger. +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] 22:46, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

Note that [[Viola jokes]] redirects to [[joke]]. This is a page crying out for creation! [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm|talk]]) 21:42, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

== Viola vs. Voila ==
About this bit:

''Viola is a common misspelling of the French word voila, often used as a demonstrative exclamation (e.g. ... you mix the ingredients, bake for 40 minutes, take out of the oven, and voila!) ''

- I can't make up my mind - is it appropriate for this article? Does an encylopedia usually bother to define near-miss misspellings?? [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 08:51 Dec 11, 2002 (UTC)

:No-one else wants to play (chiz), so I will answer my own questions - no, and no, I think. So I will remove the definition and see if anyone minds. [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 02:09 Dec 28, 2002 (UTC)

:: This is me not minding. :-) -- [[User:Tarquin|Tarquin]] 10:34 Dec 28, 2002 (UTC)

::heheh thanks. [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 11:01 Dec 28, 2002 (UTC)

If you're so keen on anagrams, I suggest you hustle your alias up, say as 'Vile Neyl', but do your homework: there is NO French word "voila", just "voilà", a contraction of "vois là" ('see there').
There! Now back to the play pen: Wikipedia is serious business, and all the grimmer as pseudo-contributors confuse it with a mindless passtime, unfortunatelt wasting every one else's time- surely there are chat rooms if you're desperate for oocpatinal therapy- or maybe you might just have a go at an actual contribution?.
:<sigh> Poor Fastifex just didn't get it, it seems. More careful reading might have helped ... oh well. [[User:82.45.248.177|82.45.248.177]] 23:31, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

== Better Photo? ==
I'm glad to see a number of people doing good work on the viola article. A better photo than we currently have of the violist holding a viola would be welcome; I uploaded this photo as there was none at the time and wouldn't be offended if it were replaced by a better one. A photo of a viola being played in proper position with a good view of the instrument would be great.-- [[User:Infrogmation|Infrogmation]] 18:23, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)

**I'd like to see pictures of the different types of violas listed, such as the Tetris model, the cut-away, the double bout, etc. (I probably don't have the types correct, but you get the idea)
debcallico from Utah** —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 01:11, 10 April 2008 (UTC) 

== Vertical Viola ==
I am convinced that it is a mistake to give such prominence to upright violas. In an article about the viola you would expect to read about what 99.9% of violas are like. The upright bit is an interesting aside but should be where it has been moved several times, at or near the bottom of the article. There could be all sorts of other wacky violas too but none of them shoudl be right up near the top - that's just misleading. Nevilley

:Hi Nevilley--I respectfully disagree with you on the issue of whether the [[vertical viola]] is "wacky". So would Yo-Yo Ma, who called his encounter with the instrument "an amazing experience". But I do agree with you that the vertical viola should not be so prominent in the viola article. It's particularly annoying that the current version, created by an anonymous editor, isn't even correct; Hutchins invented the vertical viola for purposes of tonal quality, not ease of playing. I'll fix this soon when it looks like the coast is clear. [[User:Opus33|Opus33]] 04:01, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

::Sorry, "wacky" was uncalled-for. I have no doubt it's a lovely instrument and I have the greatest respect for Yo-Yo Ma although I'm not sure what viola players generally would think about cellists poaching their way into the already sorely limited repertoire! But thanks, and yes it does need fixing to give this non-wacky, but rare, atypical and minority-flavoured instrument rather less prominence in the article than it currently enjoys. [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 08:50, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I play the viola (the everyday type that falls under "99.9%). Now no matter how much I stick to the things I know and don't think much of musical varity, "Wacky" was '''not''' OK here.
And I have the greatest respect for Yo-Yo Ma, who is the best cellist the world has ever seen.

== True or false?? ==
True or false: the bottom of this page can move to [[Viola (disambiguation)]]. [[User:66.245.99.122|66.245.99.122]] 23:21, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

:I'm amused at the "true/false" format for an opinion question! My opinion is it's probably a good idea. [[User:Opus33|Opus33]] 00:24, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

:Me too. [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 07:53, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

== in play the viola ==
and I think that violins suck because they are all so whiney and they look down on us when, more often than not, they are the ones that have the greatest amount of problems with their parts. is it just me, or do the violas seem to be more talented. people always say that it is because our music is easier, but when both instruments get the same part, it is the violin that seems to have more problems.

:Alright, calm down! Don't take yourself seriously - all us viola players know that we are better than violinists and we just humour them with their little jokes...

== The picture ==
The picture at the top would be easier to justify if the
young lady were actually playing the viola.

: I'm not sure what you mean by "justify"... hunh? As I say above, a better photo would be welcome. I'd say it's "justified" for the time being as being better than no photo. If you can take a good photo of a violist playing a viola, and upload a copy to Wikipedia released under [[GNU FDL]] that's be great. P.S.: Please sign your talk page comments; you can put 4 tildes (~) at the end and it will be added automatically. -- [[User:Infrogmation|Infrogmation]] 03:30, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

:: For the record, the image in question, [[:Image:Violist.jpg]], has since been removed from the article in favor of a different image of a viola. However we still could use a decent photo of someone actually playing the viola. -- [[User:Infrogmation|Infrogmation]] 17:16, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

::: I'll take a closeup of playing the viola and upload it - I think I'll just add it, not replace the current image. That one is good for the size comparison. [[User:Aethir|Aethir]] 05:00, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

:::: Put up a picture of actually playing the instrument. We'll see if it meets approval. [[User:Aethir|Aethir]] 06:59, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

:::: Is there a way to get the text of the first 'point' to wrap around the bottom of the picture? [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 22:48, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

: I like the addition of the picture labeling the pegs and showing the notes on the strings, that was a good touch. [[User:24.28.43.198|24.28.43.198]] 18:45, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

== String instrument history ==
What does modern scholarship have to say about Forsyth's ''Orchestration'' claim, that the viola was the first to appear of the modern strings? Is it worth having a section on this anywhere? (There's a section on violin history in [[Violin]] but it makes no connections to the Gamba family or to the Viola d'amore, etc. ...) [[User:Schissel|Schissel]] 13:25, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

:I think it's more of a folkloric claim than one that has been documented with actual evidence. Grove specifically refutes it (I'm at work now so can't look it up, I can later). As far as I know the instruments in the violin family developed concurrently; some early Renaissance paintings show three-string and four-string instruments which are about violin-size, but no instruments survive from before about 1560. [[User:Antandrus|Antandrus]] 00:26, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

::Thanks - good to know (''sotto voce'' - *g* sometimes, not the first time, it occurs to me I should check a more recent reference work than his, anyway!) [[User:Schissel|Schissel]] 01:16, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

:::Here's a bit more. Probably Forsyth's claim (in an otherwise excellent book) is based on a misunderstanding about the word "viola". Before about 1535, "viola" referred generally to ''any'' bowed stringed instrument. It was modified variously to describe instruments of different families (''viola da braccio'', ''soprano di viola da braccio'', ''viola da gamba'', ''viola d'amore'', etc.) It did not mean ''specifically'' what we modernly call a viola until about the 18th century. At any rate all the members of the violin family (now this is from Grove) developed at about the same time, in the first few decades of the 16th century. (Should this go in the article somewhere?) Fun stuff. [[User:Antandrus|Antandrus]] 03:59, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

::::Agreed, and for including it in the article my own opinion is that it seems a good idea. Thanks. [[User:Schissel|Schissel]] 10:40, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

== Rictor Noren ==
I removed Noren from the list of better known recent violists. I know that Google is not the LAST word on fame but I do not think it can be completely ignored when it stacks up like this. Here are Noren and the other people who were in the same list, by Google entries:

Bashmet 20,300
Kashkashian 17,800
Zimmermann 16,400
Noren 24

However you slice it and dice it, it does not look, based on that count, like Noren belongs in the same list as the other three, not yet anyway. I would not be happy to see Noren reinstated to the list, in its present form, without some very solid evidence as to why this should be so. [[User:138.37.188.109|138.37.188.109]] 08:12, 13 Jan 2005 (UTC)

This criteria got me interested. It seems I have 17,100 Google entries, more than Tabea Zimmermann, which is somehow ridiculous, if this is the primary criterium. As I am not one of the most-known violists, I would have my doubts about this methodology. Why is Bruno Giuranna, arguably the most infuential and important violist after Primrose (987,000), not included? Google turns up over 58,000 listings for his name. - James Creitz

== Jason ==
I just had a question about violas. I was wondering they can be tuned to violin tuning gdea?
If so is it something commonly done?

:Viola strings are calibrated for a certain tension level. To try and tune them up a full fifth would be an extraordinary amount of surplus pressure. I can't see how you would do it without breaking the strings. I have never heard of any situation where a viola is not tuned to the standard ADGC [[User:Evanbro|Evanbro]] 04:42, Mar 6, 2005 (UTC)

:I have. The strings are not generally tuned up (too much tension will break the strings) but there are several compositions, especially music for viola ensembles, that call for the C string to be tuned down, for example, to a G. I suppose other strings could be tuned down as well. But not up. Unless you like broken strings. [[User:Bobhobbit|Bobhobbit]] 22:46, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
::That is true, Bobhobbit. Pieces sometimes also call for tuning the G string down a half step, or something like that. [[User:Bratsche|Bratsche]][[User_talk:Bratsche|talk]] [[WP:5P|5 pillars]] 01:41, Jun 21, 2005 (UTC)

Agreed. I once tried to tune my viola myself. I'm 10. It was a ''big'' mistake. It's hard to play with a broken A string.

I bought some violin strings for my viola, shaved down the bridge to relieve tension on the strings and it sounds fine to me.Although I miss the mellow mood the viola makes. Make sure your strings are long enough or lengthen your tail piece

**The bigger question is why would anyone ever want to spoil the wonderful sound of a viola by tuning it like a violin. Probably a "converted" violist (one who switched from violin to viola) who misses the violin. If you are an "original" violist (one who started on the viola) you wouldn't desicrate such a fine instrument. (lol) In all seriousness, wouldn't a 5 string viola viola meet your needs better?

Back in the dark ages, when I was 10 (ok not that far), I must have went through about 50 A strings. Don't give up on trying to tune your viola yourself. Be sure to have a reliable source for your tuning pitch and always come from below. Practice matching pitch on the next string down. The hardest part about tuning once you can here where you need to go, is manipulating the pegs and tuners....debcallico from Utah** —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 00:57, 10 April 2008 (UTC) 

== Section on "Playing the viola" ==

I've [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=0&oldid=12867550 blanked] and [[Viola#Playing the viola|partially rewritten]] the section on '''Playing the viola'''. With a few minor exceptions, the entire section was an outdated duplicate of the [[Violin#Playing the violin|similar section]] in the violin article. This struck me as fairly useless, so I decided to [[WP:Be bold|be bold]] and get rid of the whole section after merging any significant differences to the violin article. If this decision is hugely unpopular I guess it can be reverted, but I really think it's better if the Viola article offers unique, useful content, instead of just duplicating the Violin article. —[[User:MilesK|Miles]] [[User_talk:MilesK|→☎]] 03:17, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)

:I think the previous revision was a better fit to the article, but if someone can explain to me why the current revision makes more sense...[[User:Aethir|Aethir]] 04:21, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

::I don't think those things which are duplicates of items in another article are necessary here. I've posted some discussion of moving most of the material on 'playing the violin' (currently on the [[violin]] page) to the article [[how to play the violin]], and changing that article's title to include viola. Hopefully this article would then become a place where more technical details can be gotten into, especially details comparing and contrasting playing techniques. With time, both the viola and the violin article could refer to this page.[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:17, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

== Frog ==

In the UK, we do use the term 'frog' as well as (more commonly) 'heel'...

[[User:Fatboy06|Fatboy06]] 16:30, 27 November 2005 (UTC)

==POV==
The second paragraph in the introduction seems to be too biased. It is true that violas are very underrated compared to practically all other string instruments and can have a beautiful sound that is vital for a group's overall sound. However, calling it the most versatile of string instruments is too easily contended with to be put in a wikipedia article. Could I get some feedback (no pun intended) on this? I am primarily a violinist, secondly a violist, so I am biased. I would appreciate any comments on the second paragraph. [[User:Omnijohn|omnijohn]] 21:32, 18 March 2006 (UTC)

:A cello is pretty versatile as well, in the right hands, just not so portable. That paragraph does seem a bit overdone, as well as POV. [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 00:02, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
::I removed the defensive statement, including (perhaps mistakenly) this sentence:
::: ''In the right hands, it is capable of expressing both a mournful, penetrating melancholia and a dignified, joyous voice, singular and delightful in its restrained clarity.''
::I'm not sure if this sentence is really defensive. [[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]] 12:24, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

:::I've put it back. The part about being underrated is the part of the general impression. And I think we have a right to wax lyrical about the viola's tonal qualities in the viola article. :) Also, the next sentence wouldn't really follow if we removed it. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 14:21, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

::::I agree that the part about being underrated is not defensive -- it's merely a succinct reference to several facts: 1, the relative anonymity of the viola in "mainstream" culture: many people who would recognize the terms 'violin" "cello" and "double bass" or "string bass" do not know what a 'viola' is. 2) the lack of famous repertoire: many people who do know what it is perceive that it has less solo repertoire and of a lower quality than the other two instruments in the violin family (violin & cello), 3) the very fact that viola jokes are as prominent as they are among orchestral musicians -- more so than jokes for almost any other instrument... enough so that people feel the need to place a section about them in this article!, 4) the sad state of many youth or school orchestras where violists are few and far between, and where students play arrangements where the viola part has been reduced to nothing more than a section of "third violins", and this coupled with the lack of instruction for children on the viola (compared to the overwhelming number of young violinists and cellists -- which leads one to think that parents and teachers don't often choose or promote the viola as a suitable instrument to teach their young children: in short, they underrate it. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 23:04, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

== Differences in bowing: violin & viola ==

02:01, 2 April 2006 Quadalpha ''(revert POV/inaccuracy - a change like this would be better discussed on the talk page first)''

part of the paragraph in question:

: ... right handed technique is quite different. For example, violinists tend to play in the middle-to-upper half of the bow. A violists strongest point in the bow is the lower half, and to create such a somber sound, violists are required to play in this part of the bow. It is a common mistake for violinists who also play viola to not note the differences in bow technique and produce a poorer tone that tends to be light and weak.

The article does mention the extra bow weight needed, and the fact that viola strings speak more slowly than violin strings. It will be useful to mention differences in bow distribution, if they are systematically taught or practiced. Any experts watching this? [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 15:20, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

:Personally, I've never seen a violinist who systematically plays higher in the bow than I would on a viola for similar passages. "A violists strongest point in the bow is the lower half, and to create such a somber sound, ''violists are required to play in this part of the bow.''" - that seems too much of a generalisation, even if it has any basis in fact. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 01:24, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

I play the viola!!

Righto. That part about bow location is bumpkus. The difference in technics lies in the weight and manipulation of the bow arm. I am, after reading this article, convinced it was written largely by someone who had never actually played the viola, rather just watched someone and decided it made them an expert. [[User:BKratchmer|BKratchmer]] ([[User talk:BKratchmer|talk]]) 00:22, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

:Well, you know, like they say: find a valid source for this, then go to it.
:By the way, the word you want is "[[List of English words of Yiddish origin|bupkis]]" (or "bupkes"). +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] ([[User talk:ILike2BeAnonymous|talk]]) 02:08, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

== Audio Examples ==

I don't know about you guys, but I feel that the the audio example with the 4 violas, although cool, doesn't represent the instrument very well. Its muddled and unclear to me. Any possibility of putting other examples that are more straight forward for those people who really don't know what the viola sounds like? And also maybe a file format that is more common? (I had to load it in my studio recording software to play it) Thoughts? Pehaps a nice cadenza from a concerto? [[User:Cmw328i|Cmw328i]] 18:54, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

:I'll put in a link to Shlomo Mintz's Brahms sonatas. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 05:05, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

::I've added the prelude to Bach's [[Cello Suites (Bach)|Fifth Cello Suite]] played on a viola. The post above is quite old but you can now play sound files online from Wikipedia. Also see [[Wikipedia:Media help]] for how to play the files offline. '''[[User:Graham87|Graham]]'''[[User talk:Graham87|87]] 05:24, 26 February 2008 (UTC)

== Sound similar to elec. guitar? ==

How to describe the electric bowed sound? Amplified pizz may slightly resemble a guitar sound, but there are enough differences that I just took that part out, rather than go into a lengthy comparison. __ [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 01:17, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

== jokes ==

I've moved this bit here:

:However, there are also jokes about the players and other instruments in the stringed sections. The idea that modern viola players are any less skilled or competent than violinists or, indeed, the players of any other instrument, is simply illogical.

Doesn't that strike you as awfully defensive? Any ideas for a re-phrase? --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 01:33, 11 June 2006 (UTC)

:Yup, defensive. Thanks for taking it out of the article. __ [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 04:11, 11 June 2006 (UTC)
:p.s. In cases of excessive solemnity and liability to take offense, "musical equivalent of the blonde joke" will provide a clue. (If you want me to play ''spiccato,'' just write "solo" over my part. ;-) [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]]

Did we agree on what to do about the jokes section? I vaguely remember a consensus to ''not'' give it its own section, or am I imagining things? --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 13:41, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

----
Now the jokes section seems to have taken on a lot of original research. It's much too long and disorganised. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 14:58, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

I'm seriously considering removing the section altogether.[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:27, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

:Darn. I've always liked the one where "he won't tell me which peg he turned..." Can we keep the section, leaving it as short as it is now? __ [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 03:20, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

:If we removed it, someone's bound to add it back again, probably in a less grammatically-informed state. I'm fine with leaving it as it is. We can start a jokes collection on the talk page. (Are there other ones except the big collection that MIT site?) --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 14:24, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

::Quadalpha, you're right. Even though I STILL don't think an encyclopedia should have this section in this article at all.... as a comparison: [[lawyer]] has jokes relegated to an aside in a section called "criticism" which is more about historical attempts to abolish the profession than it is about jokes (it has no link at all to the [[lawyer joke]] page, and [[blond]] only has a link to another page called the [[blonde joke]] in it's "see also" section. Since both of these forms of jokes have their own wikipedia pages, and I'm not advocating the creation of a separate "viola joke" page, we can compromise and leave the section here, perhaps changing the redirect on [[viola jokes]] to point to this section instead of to the page on [[joke]]s in general.[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 23:50, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

::I redirected [[viola jokes]] to this section. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 08:45, 17 July 2006 (UTC) /// never mind; it seems not to have worked the way I intended. I reverted it back. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 08:48, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

===pertinent info for "Jokes" section==

I've just added back two bits of info which were removed from the Jokes section. While I agree that, if we have it at all, it ought to be as as short as possible, I also hold that, once granted the section, it needs to refer to viola jokes as being more prominent than other instrument jokes (after all, that is the only reason we have this section: otherwise it appears to be a random reference to "instrument jokes" stating that there are instrument jokes -- and that there are viola jokes -- which is redundant and very not-useful information. If the section itself is unencyclopedic, removing any reference to why it's there in the first place makes it doubly so).

I also put back the reference to "jokes about viola jokes", which serves to highlight further how prominent/prolific the viola joke is.
[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 05:38, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

Then I say that we remove it; the reason for the "Jokes" section is not to say that there are more viola jokes than other instrument jokes, nor for it "to be a random reference to "instrument jokes" stating that there are instrument jokes -- and that there are viola jokes", but rather investigating the premise for viola jokes (i.e. the main premise is "that violists are not very good technical musicians")in the context of the instrument jokes. However, it is most certainly not up to us to say that violas (or indeed any other instrument) are any better or worse than any other instrument/musician, as was the case before there were anyone else editing it (nor is it an option say that one side of any issue is better or worse than another. We must leave the reader to make up their own mind). I must ask the obvious question, and please forgive me for doing so, but in what way was it encyclopedic before? It was not a balanced article.

By saying that violists are the object of fun any more than any other instrument (which they are not- they simply are not well known enough to be the laughing stock*) we are destroying the neutrality of the section, and thus the article. Any biased article is one too many, and this is one section which appears to want to lean to the negitive. If it cannot be neutral, which it certainly was not before the editing, then I say it ought to be deleted, and left at that.

*(Plus I can give copious amounts of examples of jokes about almost all other mainstream instruments, all individually equalling the number and "bite" of viola jokes.)

:1) please sign your posts, it helps when people want to follow a discussion if they can see when a new person is chiming into a debate.

:2) In response to your post:

:-I meant by "more prominent" that viola jokes are told ''more often'' than other jokes ''within the orchestral or chamber music world'', and '''not''' that they are more numerous, nor that violists are "the laughing stock" of the entire world; for '''you are right''' in saying that they are not well known enough for that.

:-I don't believe the section had a '''particularly''' negative POV before; rather, I thought that removing the reference to the prominence of viola jokes made it ''less truthful'' by leaving out the underlying reason for mentioning the subject.

:-I hold that the section should not exist at all, OR that it should give the reason why there is a need to mention viola jokes on the viola page '''when there is no need to reference jokes about other instruments on their respective pages'''.

:3) Given the earlier discussion and consensus about keeping the section, I propose adding the following sentence:
::"In the music world, particularly in music schools or youth orchestras, the viola joke is often told with more frequency than other instrumental jokes."

:This would of course be better if I could find some research to back it up, which I recall seeing somewhere, so I will go looking for it before I add it.
:[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 09:43, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

Good luck with looking for it as I do not believe you'll find it, but researching is good. Can never do too much research. Also, your comment "I don't believe the section had a '''particularly''' negative POV" implies that even you believe there '''''was''''' '''some''' bias in the article.

However, these jokes are not told anymore commonly than any other types of instrument jokes- I have played in many various youth and chamber orchestras for many, many years and I have never even heard an instrument joke told once, let alone a barrage of viola jokes that is suggested both by you (Plural), and in the article, seem to suggest. I have also played in full orchestras, jazz combos, rock mixes and have been in proffesional fierce competition with our rival ensembles and never have we heard a single viola joke. I have asked all of my peers and my former teachers and my conductor. None of them have ever heard of a many of instrument jokes, much less an insurmountable majority of viola jokes.

While it may not have been the ''intention'' to suggest that violas are the laughing stock of the musical world and they are inferior, it was certainly the implication and as such I maintain that the article is a freely biased form of prejudice, and as such should be removed. The idea that simply because the whole viola article has a “viola jokes section”, the viola must be inferior is deeply flawed; it takes one person to add such a section, and as such doesn’t mean that it is the “truth”. Also, since the viola joke is not any more prominent than any other instrument joke, saying (or rather, Speculating, perhaps?) that they are adding to the lessening the truth/ making the article “less truthful”, as you put it.

Also, the fact that there ''are'' '''so many''' jokes (and I don't mean viola jokes) implies that they would be told equally, if at all.

My very, very strong recommendation is that we remove the article, and I don’t think that anyone else will add it back again; the viola article did just fine without it before about May this year. Sunday, July 30

:Hi, I still don't know who I'm talking to, or if you are more than one person (since there are two different IPs listed in the history section), or what. Please sign your posts so its easier to see who is talking, and who is making which points ! Thanks. I hope when you say "remove the article" you mean "remove the section on Viola Jokes" and not "remove the Viola article"? I would be happy to see the section disappear. Others who have chimed in to keep it before, what do you think now? [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 06:04, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

:Me again. I found that bit of "research" I referred to. [http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/jcb/viola-presentation.html] After re-reading it, it seems less methodical of a 'study' than I remembered it being. However it does provide a basis for the claim that viola jokes were more prominent than other types of jokes in the recent past, and it does cite evidence for their prominence from various major and international newspaper articles & columns, at least one well-known humorist's book, as well as from the authors' own original research. Having found this I now propose an ammendment to my previously proposed statment:

:"In the recent past, there is evidence (mostly anecdotal) that the viola joke rose in popularity above other instrumental jokes, and although it may have since declined, the "infamy" gained from this joke cycle by the viola and by violists can still be felt in some situations (Rahkonen, Carl, 1994)." [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 08:54, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

I maintain that we remove the section. You are right in that it is not really a study, but after researching it, it is clear that this a poorly studied and written, heavily personalized and biased text that is not well constructed. The author takes the quotes the people meant to be “proving” his point out of context, and misuses information when there is simply not really much evidence in the generalizations with which he provides the reader. Plus, it is not really right to have an “encyclopaedic” article based on only a single resource, much less one which is as poorly edited as this one. Therefore, this article simply is not a suitable for the basis of a Wikipedia article or section. This article is based on Rahkonen’s pov, rather than well-researched work. We can’t in good faith base the section on only one source.

And, a collection of 50 viola jokes is actually '''''less''''' than the number of any of the jokes that I have found about '''''any''''' of the instruments.

Also, having 1 article in a newspaper with viola jokes proves nothing- I have seen numerous articles on other instruments, and jokes just about people because they play '''''an''''' instrument- any instrument.

Even if we take his points as true, he states that the peak was in 1993,and then was "greatly diminished" by 1994-12 years ago!! They should be well and truely dead by now. It seems a bit pointless to me having a section about a brief flare-up.

I could also launch into a 12 page analysis of the weaknesses of the practice of using only one resource and using his article for this article, but I'm sure you see the weaknessess too.

I say that we remove the jokes section.

If this article was all it the section was based on, then really it should never really have been created. Monday, July 31

:Please, sign your posts with a name. Use a screen name if you like, you can still be anonymous, but it's easier to keep track of who posts what when everyone signs their posts in each discussion with the same screen name each time they post. If you're using the same computer, you can use four tildes like this<nowiki>: ~~~~</nowiki> at the end of each post; when you save it it will automatically post your IP and the time/date. Or you can create a username, and using four tildes will sign your username when you're signed in.

:regarding the discussion here, I don't think the jokes section was actually based on that article. Rather, I got the impression that whoever created the section was basing it on what they thought was "common knowledge" in the viola-related music world. Most of the viola article seems to be full of such "common knowledge" information. I'm not saying we shouldn't find sources for certain things, especially if they are disputed, but that most people (except you) seemed to accept the idea that there is something notable about viola jokes which makes people consider placing a section on them in this article (see previous "joke" related discussions here). I only brought up the article because I recalled reading a paper about the prominence of viola jokes, so I thought I'd go look it up. My own experience as a musician and a violist, along with the experiences of other musicians I have spoken to, who hail from places all over the globe, leads me to believe that viola jokes are told more frequently than other kinds of musican jokes -- and that they are told more frequently in almost every music school, conservatory, orchestra (be it youth, community, or professional), and classical music festival or institute the world over. Therefore, I assumed that, since I saw no other notable feature in viola jokes, this prominence was the very thing which caused people to want to place a section on viola jokes in this article, when no such jokes section has been brought up in connection to other orchestral string instrument's articles. I maintain that merely stating that viola jokes are told with more frequency than other musician jokes is not in itself a negative point of view (it is merely a description of what happens). I maintain that if the section is kept (which is a position I have never wholeheartedly supported), it must refer to this prominence -- otherwise, by leaving out the only possible reason for mentioning the jokes, it becomes at best a very silly section which may leave readers wondering why it is there, and at worst a rather biased section which gives readers the impression that some Wikipedia editor thinks viola jokes themselves are somehow worthy of being described because of their great wit, charm, originality, and intellectual appeal. (that last clause is dripping with sarcasm :P in case you couldn't tell). [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:12, 2 August 2006 (UTC)

I'm sorry but your last sentence makes no sense and should be broken up into 2 pieces. However, as I have previously stated I have '''never''' heard a viola joke be told, and it would be ridiculous to say that the people that I have met and asked, both in the musical and general community, have all been "mysteriously isolated from viola jokes".

This (at the very least) equals and cancels out your assertion that you have met so many "viola joke specialists", and I have worked and/or studied in all of the institutions that you have mentioned and never one instrument joke has been uttered, much less a viola joke.

Also, I am clearly not the only person to be aware of the weaknessess of this wikipedia article. There were at least 2 others that saw the bias of the section, and clearly voiced their own outrage(this does not imply that my reaction is ooutrage, but that they were very angry about it), and as we know, not a great number of people can either actually A)Know how to edit an article B) Know how to leave a "talk" message, so your claim (which is verging on rude, so be careful to keep civil ": P") that "people, except [me]" "have no problem with it", is downright wrong. I daresay that the people that left those messages are also likely represent a large number of people that see the bias.

As few people are likely to research their own instrument, the violists are unlikely to read the article, so the people that would best to edit and write about the viola (i.e. violists) would not actually be the ones to write the article, so we are left with people that, by majority are most likely not primarily violists.

The entire (according to your argument) basis of the article is "common knowledge". However, as we have established, those which you have (apparently) heard are, at a minimum, negated by mine, and my experiences (you can only compare individual experiences with one another- you can't have 2 or more compared to only one person) it is not common knowledge. How can it be "common knowledge" if, forgive me, the "knowledge" is not "common". This section is based not fact but rather a misconception at best.

Also if we take that man's 1994 article as true, they were (perhaps)popular in c. 1992-3. this is certainly no reason for having an article on it 12+ years later.

You previously said that the article that you referred to from the mit site "does provide a basis for the claim that viola jokes were more prominent than other types of jokes in the recent past, and it does cite evidence for their prominence from various major and international newspaper articles & columns, at least one well-known humorist's book, as well as from the authors' own original research".You also said that there was "mostly anecdotal" evidence. However, after I "poked holes" in this poorly written article, you now say that it is "common knowledge". I'm sorry, but one '''''cannot''''' go from saying that there is merely "mostly anecdotal" evidence to the suppossed prominence of viola jokes being some thing that "everyone knows" and that is "common knowledge", as you said. I have managed to debunk most of the pro viola-joke arguments so far and, as it is, it looks like I will be able to continue to do so. It seems, with due dignity, that the relavence for the jokes section of this article is fading and the supposed reasons for the section are holding on for dear life.

If, as you suggest, the viola joke section is based on the idea that they are more prominant than other jokes, and that this was the reason for the section, then it should most certainly be deleted. Thursday, August 3, 2006.

:Please sign your posts with a name, thanks. Otherwise it's hard to keep track of what you've said.
:I'm not disputing your personal experience, and I apologize if you were offended by anything I typed. It was never my intention to be rude! :) [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 12:41, 5 August 2006 (UTC)

== POV II ==

''In fact, if someone says that a violist is less competent than any other musician, they are only repeating a centuries old '''myth'''. In fact, one could tell them to "get with the times", rather than just telling each other old instument jokes.''

This paragraph looked awfully defensive to violists, so I removed it.
[[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]] 22:37, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

== Bow length ==

Because the sounding point is further from the body, less bow length is useful to a viola player of average build. In other words, any given player will use less length of bow on a viola than a violin, so bows are built accordingly. All the full-size bows I can get my hands on at the moment confirm this, as well as Strobel's ''Useful Measurements for Violin Makers.'' __ [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 16:18, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

* Viola bows have the same size as violin bows...
::The Strobel reference hasn't changed, but I was just holding two "full-sized" bows, and the viola bow is a solid cm longer than the violin bow. The viola frog is a bit more massive than the violin one, about 0,6 mm wider at it's widest face, by the shell slide. Not sure what to do with this info... [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 16:09, 28 December 2006 (UTC)
-----
Better to leave length out of it. More variable than violin bows, some viola bows are longer, some shorter. Cello bows and French style bass bows are ''shorter'' than viola bows. [http://www.elevation-music.com/loyounetokna.html] __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] ([[User talk:Just plain Bill|talk]]) 16:31, 26 December 2007 (UTC)

== POV edits and vandalism ==

There are some IPs (they all start with 21-something) who keep making pro-violist POV edits to the "Jokes" section (like [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=61195615&oldid=61119912 this], [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=65197542&oldid=64776896 this], [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=65536540 this], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=65541153&oldid=65536728 this]) and vandalizes the page ([http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=65459551&oldid=65442096 like this]. What do I do with them? --'''[[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]]''' [[User talk:Frosty0814snowman|(sup?)]] 12:57, 24 July 2006 (UTC)
:'''Comment''': The vandalism IP is from a different country than the others, so it's probably not related to the viola-joke edits. It's a POV issue, not a vandalism issue. — [[User:MilesK|Miles]][[User_talk:MilesK|←☎]] 14:27, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

What should I do with the POV IPs? '''[[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]]''' [[User talk:Frosty0814snowman|(sup?)]] 17:47, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

I don't know, but you're right, the "pro-viola" edits are just as NON-encyclopedic as any anti-viola edits for the jokes section. The whole "jokes section is non-encyclopedic (IMHO -- but see above for discussion on keeping it in the article as it is). I reverted it back to the short paragraph and two examples which are 1) informative and 2)not particularly defensive nor particularly offensive. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 04:49, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

== jokes section ==

Can the "jokes" section be removed altogether? -- [[User:Frosty0814snowman|'''Frosty'''the'''Snowman''']] [[User talk:Frosty0814snowman|('sup?)]] 00:03, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

:Yes! --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 03:53, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

Hooray! Finally!! Guys, well done!!![[User:211.27.194.16|211.27.194.16]] 14:07, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

I'm coming into this discussion late, but I believe I wrote the first version of the now-deleted jokes section, last year sometime (it was very short when I wrote it) and I think its loss is a real one. I play and love the viola, and certainly wouldn't want to give the jokes too much emphasis. The section should be short and down towards the bottom of the article. But lore is a category of knowledge, and viola jokes are a real phenomenon, which people interested in the viola might well be want to know about. Deleting the section seems like insecurity, not a way to improve knowledge. I won't add it back in again, because that would an "edit war," but I strongly think that Wikipedia should be about giving people more, not less, information. [[User:Mschlanger|Mschlanger]] 18:16, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

**Perhaps the jokes could be their own article. My viola teacher has shared many a viola joke with me. I can surely relate to the one: How do you get a violist to play down bow spiccato? Write "solo" above a whole note. That was me to a "T" (and sometimes it still is). I also like the musician joke: definition of a string quartet: a good violinist, a bad violinist, an ex-violinist, and someone who hates violins. Ahh, what a loss in anyones education to miss good jokes like these. (and to misquote Mary Poppins, "that was nothing like a good joke.") debcallico/Utah —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 19:27, 10 April 2008 (UTC) 

Please read the above section about viola jokes and post there, just to organize a little better :-) [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm|talk]]) 21:44, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

== Sound of Viola Ambiguity ==

In the second paragraph, the sentence "However, the viola's timbre sets it apart: its rich sonority is more full-bodied than the violin's, dark-toned and earthy." is a little unclear. It's a little confusing whether the Violin's sound is dark-toned and earthy or if it continues describing the Viola. I'm editing it so that it says "than the violin's dark-toned, earthy sound" for better readability.

It's rather a nitpick, I won't be offended if it's changed back or made into something better. It may be a minor edit, but I'm afraid that the sentence does mean 'viola's dark-toned and earthy'. I just want it to be reviewed to make sure it's correct. [[User:FrankieVA|FrankieVA]] 22:03, 19 January 2007 (UTC)
:Yup, it's supposed to mean that. The viola sound is darker-toned and earthier than a violin's, at least the way I hear it. __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 04:35, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

:P.S. It's not just a matter of range or ''[[tessitura]].'' The same phrase on the G, D and A strings of either instrument will sound more full-bodied (talking about "body" in the sense of a singer's instrument here) on the viola, yes? [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]]

== List of "well-known" players. ==

I have pruned this list. Many of the names appeared to be there either because they were someone's favourite player, or the editor thought that if they deserved a page in Wikipedia, then they must deserve a mention in the list too. As a result it was becoming ludicrously long, as such lists have a tendency to do.

The important words here are "well-known". This does have the advantage of being amenable to the objective test of a simple google search of "+<name> +viola". Sorry if anyone thinks that's too crude and unmusical, but it's relative notability that is at issue here, not musicianship. Anyone who is upset by the removal of their favourite, please feel free to discuss it here. --[[User:Stephen Burnett|Stephen Burnett]] 10:43, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

:I agree with you that the list was too long, but the ''objective test of a simple google search''?? That is hilarious. I hope you don't take google ranks or hits as a measure for popularity, or as a measure for anything. According to [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=total+idiot&btnG=Google+Search your objective source], the most popular 'total idiot' is a certain G.W.Bush. I would say the number of compact discs recorded is a better parameter for popularity than the results in a search engine that sells its rankings.--[[User:Dr. Friendly|Dr. Friendly]] 22:30, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

::Agree that the number of google hits doesn't always correlate with notability, expecially when the subject is a highly visible target for a [[Google bomb|google bombing]] campaign. But violists? I doubt that it's worth anyone's time to inflate a bratsche-player's standing like that. The google method is useful for ruling out the name of a high-school section player, for an extreme example. __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 02:36, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

If theres 10 in the list or 20 pick 5, or pick 6, and eliminate the least notable. Google, notability, whether they are mentioned in viola schools and widely recognized as examples, maybe 1 russian 1 american 1 chinese 1 indian 1 latin american 1 european 1 african example for instance.[[User:71.142.91.34|71.142.91.34]] 12:27, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

I think we should all add our names so we can be famous too (lol).debcallico/ut —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 19:29, 10 April 2008 (UTC) 

== New viola design ==

I believe [http://www.americanviolasociety.org/JAVS%20Online/Summer2004/Summer2004/pellagrina.htm this new viola design], with larger body size for resonation of the lower tones, should be mentioned. Don Ehrlich of San Francisco has just released a CD of the Bach Cello Suites on this instrument, [http://shopsfsymphony.org/item.jsp?item=06338 here]. [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 04:36, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

:It is currently mentioned in the third paragraph of the section called "form of the viola", along with several other designs which address ergonomic issues. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 02:20, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

== Electric viola section: [[WP:CB]]? ==

No way to put this gently, but the first paragraph of the electric viola section as it now stands is a load of [[WP:CB|um, nonsense]]. While electric violas do exist, they are rare, usually custom built, and '''not''' the same size as a violin. John Jordan, Ned Steinberger, Jensen, or someone like that will build you an e-viola, either to "standard" dimensions, a 16.5" viola for example, or to your own specification. Instruments exist with the scale length of a violin, with strings going down to C, F, or B flat, and they are called "violins," "e-violins," or "electric violins."

I'm thinking of deleting this section entirely. __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 15:36, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

:I agree - the stuff about violin-sized so-called electric violas is just plain wrong. To quote from www.zetamusic.com ....
:"Zeta’s Modern Body design employs simplified yet elegant contemporary lines. Extreme waist cutaways and a highly sculpted back relief create a lightweight solid body design. With the key reference dimensions of a traditional acoustic viola, the Modern viola body maintains the positional cues so important for familiarity of feel and proper intonation."
:Quite so - if you're used to playing a viola, why on earth would you want to go to a violin-sized instrument, with all the re-learning of fingering and vibrato which that would entail? --[[User:Stephen Burnett|Stephen Burnett]] 18:42, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

== Viola societies ==

Viola societies such as the American Viola Society http://www.americanviolasociety.org/ as well as any other prominent ones should be mentioned in the article. [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 19:40, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

== Fractional violin strung as viola ==

I notice there is a fact tag from Feb '08 on this sentence: "Often, a fractional-sized violin will be strung with the strings of a viola (C, G, D and A) for those children who need even smaller sizes."

I don't think we should be too hasty to lose this sentence. It is an indisputable fact. When I was helping maintain a rental fleet, that's exactly how we "created" violas in smaller sizes. The smallest true viola I've seen has a 12" body. In some cases, I've seen a similar job done with a half-size violin strung as a viola. I have no clue where to find a reference to cite for this; who bothers to write this kind of stuff down, anyway? __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] ([[User talk:Just plain Bill|talk]]) 03:31, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

Talk:Viola

2008-07-19T21:43:00Z

Owlgorithm: /* Viola jokes */ informal page request for Viola jokes

{{WPMusInst |quality=start|importance=mid}}
==title of article==
Suggest title of article be modified to '''viola (musical instrument)'''
so that everyone looking for blue flowers will go directly to disambiguation page...

==Viola the whole article==
**Perhaps we should incorporate many of the features as seen in our family instruments (violin, cello). They seem to be well written. They do not include violin or cello jokes. The bass article refers to "notable classical players of historical importance." Perhaps that is what should be the criteria for listing the violist, is some significant importance. The genres that the viola is found should be grouped together and perhaps outlined more (orchestral, chamber music, solo music, modern music, folk music, future avenues-electronic violas?). debcallico/ut —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 19:29, 15 April 2008 (UTC) 

==Violists==

I've added Lillian Fuchs and Rebecca Clarke; I'm not sure if Clarke should be in the list of composers who played viola or, like Hindemith, be listed in the 'violists' paragraph. I still think the paragraph about jokes is incongruent in this context. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 09:19, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

In light of the recent flurry of changes to the list of violists, I request that anyone who makes changes to that list put the names they are adding or deleting in the summary along with a brief description of why they are adding or deleting. Thanks [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 00:33, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

After more careful scrutiny of the history of this page, I have come to the conclusion that User 65.88.88.148 is intent on removing people from the list of well-known violists without specific reason (all three of the most frequently removed names are sufficiently well-known violists. None of these names is going to have the recognizability of, say, [[Yo-Yo Ma]], but that's not a reason to remove them.) [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 06:22, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

Thanks for giving voice to that. I don't know who's who, but I've been watching the flipping and flopping with silent puzzled amusement. [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 15:03, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

I was amused too.... However if it continues (I hope not!), I may get annoyed. I believe this is what's commonly referred to as an 'edit war'..... It would be a shame to have to ask an administrator to step in and do something about stopping it. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 23:21, 15 February 2006 (UTC)

I put a "citation needed" template in the sentence "among the great composers, several preferred the viola to the violin when playing in ensembles", as it seems like a claim that could easily be more motivated by enthusiasm than actual history. [[User:Hjijch|Hjijch]] 22:26, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

I've added Rivka Golani and Nobuko Imai to the list. Especially Golani, who has a huge international reputation and is one of the few violists who has made her living as a full time soloist. For 25 years she has toured and recorded. Someone keeps removing Golani and Imai from the list. Thats weird. Golani has had more than 50 concertos written for her and more than 200 works in total. I heard her concerts at the Glenn Gould studio and Wigmore Hall and was stunned by her genius. I suspect the individual removing Golani from the list (and Imai, who is an extremely eminent viola soloist, based in Holland but originally Japanese) may not have enough international knowledge of their importance. I havent added Yuri Bashmet as obviously its going to be a challenge to keep Golani and Imai on the list but I hope someone will come forward to stubbornly push for him too. The list as it stood was like a smile with three missing teeth, I have replaced two - please will someone push for Bashmet too. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cshelley|Cshelley]] ([[User talk:Cshelley|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cshelley|contribs]]) 4:47, 14 July 2007

:First of all, you added this comment out of order in the discussion. But more to the point, the reason those names you've added have been removed is simply because the '''sentence''' in which the '''short list of names''' appears is not the place for the definitive, end-all, be-all list of violists in the world. By "consensus" (see the comment in the article text), it's to be limited to a small number (5) of representative players. The "list of violists" article is the place to add any and all names of notable players, not this short list. Please don't push for more list-bloat, which is an endemic problem all across this project (Wikipedia). +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] 17:31, 14 July 2007 (UTC)

Thanks, I have corrected the order for the discussion. I really appreciate your tenacity at policing this entry. It is certainly important to protect against bloat and I can see that this issue emerged before. You (ILike2BeAnonymous) seem to very much dislike additions to the violists/viola player category. You strongly suggested that two entries be removed if I insist upon the Golani and Imai additions. I have reluctantly removed two therefore (and I hope someone else will come along and restore them). You seem to like making the rules here, but anyone can refine a Wikipedia entry. That is what I have done - by adding these two Great violists here. No one, incidentally, has established absolute "objective" criteria for additions to the violists entries. I am confident, however, that if it really came down to it, arbitrators who do the research on Golani and Imai will see that I have made no transgression here whatsoever but have provided the names of two very famous and unusually gifted players who have made extraordinary contributions over decades as viola virtuosi through their recordings and on the international, solist circuit. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cshelley|Cshelley]] ([[User talk:Cshelley|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cshelley|contribs]]) 04:32, 15 July 2007

:I must correct you on a few points. I have myself reverted several attempts to re-grow this sentence into a list, so there is not just one editor acting as "policeman". Neither is there one person who is attempting to make up rules: as you've noticed - rather late in the day - the issue has been discussed before. It would have been nice if you had taken the trouble to re-open that discussion on this page in the first place, rather than attempting to get your own way by conducting an edit war. The consensus reached, reinforced by plain common sense, was that the sentence can't be allowed to carry on growing every time someone sees that their personal favourite is not included. Once that starts, people think that there's no good reason not to add the name of that really great teacher they had in third grade. The fact that no objective criterion for inclusion exists doesn't mean that choices don't have to be made, even if they have to be done by something as crude as a Google search.

:Just to close with a personal anecdote, a few years ago I persuaded a friend to go with me to a recital by one of the two players you've just added. I had never heard the player, but her reviews and reputation had encouraged me to suggest it. The performance was painful enough for me to have suppressed most of my recollection; when it was over, my friend looked at me in silence for a few seconds and then said "I hadn't realised that the viola was such a difficult instrument". Odd thing, celebrity. --[[User:Stephen Burnett|Stephen Burnett]] 09:03, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

::Regarding your anecdote: sheesh, that's almost as bad as telling a musician after a performance, "Wow, you certainly have a beautiful instrument there". +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] 11:14, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

::Thanks for the above. Whether the performance was liked or not, it acknowledges the arguments that I made, that both are well known and belong on this list. The "common sense" of limiting the list is sensible and the policing factor important as the list could grow to be too large. Its not an issue of one's favourite player, but an issue of accuracy and logic. The existing list of players that had been constructed under the sentence "More recent well-known" had no logic to it and was arbitrary, it was my aim to maintain the established logic in the paragraph by consistency, not one's favourite principal player but international solists of note (whether liked or not). "Rather late in the game" suggests that Wikipedia is a static entity in which no one can come along and make corrections, this is not the case. Finally, the individual referred to above was indeed policing my additions since they were replying to each one of the attempts to add the two players under my Watchlist and giving (actually ordering) instructions to place those names elsewhere. I stand by these additions and am prepared to go to arbitration with them if necessary. Thanks for caring so much about this entry regardless, I think it an important category. I have never engaged in an edit war before, I dont like the term "war", I prefer the struggle for accuracy and the search for consensus (an ideal that is often never reached or maintained). Thanks and appreciation. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Cshelley|Cshelley]] ([[User talk:Cshelley|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Cshelley|contribs]]) 14:52, 15 July 2007

:::Well, I'm not going to remove those names, at least not now; my stated intention was to keep the short list short, which you've done. But more to the point, I don't intend to take part in this musical pissing match—"My violist is more notable than your violist". Try as you might, at the end of the day, you really cannot make a good argument that violist X is more worthy of inclusion than violist Y (in this short list, remember, not the definitive and all-inclusive scroll of great violists of all time), assuming, of course, that both X and Y are top-level performers. There just aren't any kind of qualitative, objective metrics that would make this possible. (And don't '''even''' mention Google ...)
:::And at the risk of being a nag, please sign your comments, so that others don't have to come after you and stick in the <nowiki>{{unsigned}}</nowiki> template. (The 10th button on the toolbar up there does this for you.) +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] 19:54, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

::::I just added [[Yuri Bashmet]] to the "more recently" group. From [http://www.sonyclassical.com/artists/bashmet/bio.html his bio at the Sony site,] it appears that he is stellar enough to be on the short list. Disclaimer: I am truly clueless as to who's who in the upper reaches of viola players. But, beside his solo appearances, that bio says he has shared the stage with a few names that are pretty widely recognized:

In a number of major concert halls, including La Scala
in Milan and the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam, Bashmet
has been the first violist ever to give a solo recital.
He has appeared on many occasions with Sviatoslav Richter
and has performed chamber music with many other leading
artists, including Natalia Gutman, the Borodin Quartet,
Gidon Kremer, Viktoria Mullova, Mstislav Rostropovich
and Maxim Vengerov.

::::I'd like to see some knowledgeable person take off a few more names, but perhaps that's not a sensible wish just now. __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 03:19, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

==Brahms Sonatas (op. 120)==
the most recent revision states that brahms transcribed the op. 120 clarinet sonatas himself. I have heard some debate about this -- regarding whether he actually did it himself or merely approved of it when the publisher presented it to him. Does anyone have a source for this information? If not, I'd like to change it back to the previous version, which states that the pieces were originally for clarinet but doesn't make any claim as to who did the transcribing.

:From the Wiener Urtext edition of the E-flat sonata: "In the spring of 1895 the Sonatas were published by N. Simrock, Berlin, together with an arrangement of the clarinet part for viola ... The engraver's copies of the original version (score and solo part) and of the viola part arranged by Brahms still exist. They are located in th Staats- und Universitatsbibliothek, Hamburg ... They were written by a copyist, with numerous corrections and several important alterations in Brahms' hand." (Hans Christian Muller) The rest of the preface does not seem to doubt that Brahms was the original arranger. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 00:35, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

::Excellent, thanks. BTW, we should start citing sources, perhaps this is a good place to start. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 23:04, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

:::As documented in my article, http://www.solisti.de/brahms/sonatas120_eng.html which was published in German by the Viola Society, there is evidence that Brahms transcribed the Sonatas Op. 120 himself, although this manuscript is lost. The published version was based on a manuscript by the copyist Wilhelm Kupfer for the publisher Simrock, which shows evidence of only some hurried corrections by Brahms. It is not incorrect to state that Brahms made a transcription of these Sonatas for the viola, but nobody alive today has seen this version. - Prof. James Creitz

== Viola jokes ==
I have a psychology book somewhere (a quite serious one) that has something like half a chapter on the viola joke (mainly musing on why the viola and not some other useless instrument like the flute). And I see even Google is getting in on the act of slating violists now: if you search for "virtuoso violist" it mocks "Did you mean:virtuoso violinist"... --[[User:Camembert|Camembert]]
:By the way, if you search for "violist", it says "did you mean violinist". Google doesn't think "violist" is a word. '''[[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]]''' [[User talk:Frosty0814snowman|('sup?)]] 13:07, 27 July 2006 (UTC)
::Nope, I don't get that when I search google http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&q=violist&btnG=Search [[User:TehNomad|TehNomad]] 20:58, 17 December 2006 (UTC)
:::no, you don't get it anymore. Used to, though! (*assumes fake accent and far-off look of nostalgia in eyes* ...eh, back in "my day".... when the internet was young, my lad!)[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 05:42, 19 December 2006 (UTC)
::::Appears again. Of course, it's not a deliberate slight to the viola so much as the lower pagerank -- it's hard to be a virtuoso when violists are all so good ;-) [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm|talk]]) 21:42, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

Viola jokes were the one source of amusement during the long hours I spend languishing in 2nd violins. http://www.mit.edu/~jcb/jokes/viola.html -- [[User:Tarquin|Tarquin]]

Methinks we should have some kind of gentle, viola player-friendly reference to those jokes, because orchestra culture wouldn't be the same without them. [[User:Weasel|Weasel]]

:True, orchestra culture wouldn't be the same without them. But I've always thought of viola jokes as akin to blonde jokes or lawyer jokes or ethnic jokes. Does an encyclopedia article on lawyers have a reference to lawyer jokes? Does an article on ethnicity have a reference to ethnic jokes? It may be a separate category, we can add to [[jokes]] the "musician" joke. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:13, 21 January 2006 (UTC)
:Whatever the case, I don't believe the viola joke should be the first thing a person sees when they go to the section on "Violists". I've re-arranged the paragraphs so that the list of violists appears first, then the list of famous composers who were also violists, and put the reference to viola jokes last. If no one disagrees, I may move the reference to the [[jokes]] article.[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:24, 21 January 2006 (UTC)

::Whoever puts together the viola jokes (and they should go in a separate article, linked to "jokes", not in this article) should be sure not to omit the best of them all—the one that tops violinists:
:::Did you know that a violin and a viola are actually the same size?
::::No, I did not know that.
:::It's true; it's just that violinist's heads are so much larger. +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] 22:46, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

Note that [[Viola jokes]] redirects to [[joke]]. This is a page crying out for creation! [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm|talk]]) 21:42, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

== Viola vs. Voila ==
About this bit:

''Viola is a common misspelling of the French word voila, often used as a demonstrative exclamation (e.g. ... you mix the ingredients, bake for 40 minutes, take out of the oven, and voila!) ''

- I can't make up my mind - is it appropriate for this article? Does an encylopedia usually bother to define near-miss misspellings?? [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 08:51 Dec 11, 2002 (UTC)

:No-one else wants to play (chiz), so I will answer my own questions - no, and no, I think. So I will remove the definition and see if anyone minds. [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 02:09 Dec 28, 2002 (UTC)

:: This is me not minding. :-) -- [[User:Tarquin|Tarquin]] 10:34 Dec 28, 2002 (UTC)

::heheh thanks. [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 11:01 Dec 28, 2002 (UTC)

If you're so keen on anagrams, I suggest you hustle your alias up, say as 'Vile Neyl', but do your homework: there is NO French word "voila", just "voilà", a contraction of "vois là" ('see there').
There! Now back to the play pen: Wikipedia is serious business, and all the grimmer as pseudo-contributors confuse it with a mindless passtime, unfortunatelt wasting every one else's time- surely there are chat rooms if you're desperate for oocpatinal therapy- or maybe you might just have a go at an actual contribution?.
:<sigh> Poor Fastifex just didn't get it, it seems. More careful reading might have helped ... oh well. [[User:82.45.248.177|82.45.248.177]] 23:31, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

== Better Photo? ==
I'm glad to see a number of people doing good work on the viola article. A better photo than we currently have of the violist holding a viola would be welcome; I uploaded this photo as there was none at the time and wouldn't be offended if it were replaced by a better one. A photo of a viola being played in proper position with a good view of the instrument would be great.-- [[User:Infrogmation|Infrogmation]] 18:23, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)

**I'd like to see pictures of the different types of violas listed, such as the Tetris model, the cut-away, the double bout, etc. (I probably don't have the types correct, but you get the idea)
debcallico from Utah** —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 01:11, 10 April 2008 (UTC) 

== Vertical Viola ==
I am convinced that it is a mistake to give such prominence to upright violas. In an article about the viola you would expect to read about what 99.9% of violas are like. The upright bit is an interesting aside but should be where it has been moved several times, at or near the bottom of the article. There could be all sorts of other wacky violas too but none of them shoudl be right up near the top - that's just misleading. Nevilley

:Hi Nevilley--I respectfully disagree with you on the issue of whether the [[vertical viola]] is "wacky". So would Yo-Yo Ma, who called his encounter with the instrument "an amazing experience". But I do agree with you that the vertical viola should not be so prominent in the viola article. It's particularly annoying that the current version, created by an anonymous editor, isn't even correct; Hutchins invented the vertical viola for purposes of tonal quality, not ease of playing. I'll fix this soon when it looks like the coast is clear. [[User:Opus33|Opus33]] 04:01, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

::Sorry, "wacky" was uncalled-for. I have no doubt it's a lovely instrument and I have the greatest respect for Yo-Yo Ma although I'm not sure what viola players generally would think about cellists poaching their way into the already sorely limited repertoire! But thanks, and yes it does need fixing to give this non-wacky, but rare, atypical and minority-flavoured instrument rather less prominence in the article than it currently enjoys. [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 08:50, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I play the viola (the everyday type that falls under "99.9%). Now no matter how much I stick to the things I know and don't think much of musical varity, "Wacky" was '''not''' OK here.
And I have the greatest respect for Yo-Yo Ma, who is the best cellist the world has ever seen.

== True or false?? ==
True or false: the bottom of this page can move to [[Viola (disambiguation)]]. [[User:66.245.99.122|66.245.99.122]] 23:21, 12 May 2004 (UTC)

:I'm amused at the "true/false" format for an opinion question! My opinion is it's probably a good idea. [[User:Opus33|Opus33]] 00:24, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

:Me too. [[User:Nevilley|Nevilley]] 07:53, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

== in play the viola ==
and I think that violins suck because they are all so whiney and they look down on us when, more often than not, they are the ones that have the greatest amount of problems with their parts. is it just me, or do the violas seem to be more talented. people always say that it is because our music is easier, but when both instruments get the same part, it is the violin that seems to have more problems.

:Alright, calm down! Don't take yourself seriously - all us viola players know that we are better than violinists and we just humour them with their little jokes...

== The picture ==
The picture at the top would be easier to justify if the
young lady were actually playing the viola.

: I'm not sure what you mean by "justify"... hunh? As I say above, a better photo would be welcome. I'd say it's "justified" for the time being as being better than no photo. If you can take a good photo of a violist playing a viola, and upload a copy to Wikipedia released under [[GNU FDL]] that's be great. P.S.: Please sign your talk page comments; you can put 4 tildes (~) at the end and it will be added automatically. -- [[User:Infrogmation|Infrogmation]] 03:30, 11 Oct 2004 (UTC)

:: For the record, the image in question, [[:Image:Violist.jpg]], has since been removed from the article in favor of a different image of a viola. However we still could use a decent photo of someone actually playing the viola. -- [[User:Infrogmation|Infrogmation]] 17:16, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

::: I'll take a closeup of playing the viola and upload it - I think I'll just add it, not replace the current image. That one is good for the size comparison. [[User:Aethir|Aethir]] 05:00, 8 December 2005 (UTC)

:::: Put up a picture of actually playing the instrument. We'll see if it meets approval. [[User:Aethir|Aethir]] 06:59, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

:::: Is there a way to get the text of the first 'point' to wrap around the bottom of the picture? [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 22:48, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

: I like the addition of the picture labeling the pegs and showing the notes on the strings, that was a good touch. [[User:24.28.43.198|24.28.43.198]] 18:45, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

== String instrument history ==
What does modern scholarship have to say about Forsyth's ''Orchestration'' claim, that the viola was the first to appear of the modern strings? Is it worth having a section on this anywhere? (There's a section on violin history in [[Violin]] but it makes no connections to the Gamba family or to the Viola d'amore, etc. ...) [[User:Schissel|Schissel]] 13:25, 5 Nov 2004 (UTC)

:I think it's more of a folkloric claim than one that has been documented with actual evidence. Grove specifically refutes it (I'm at work now so can't look it up, I can later). As far as I know the instruments in the violin family developed concurrently; some early Renaissance paintings show three-string and four-string instruments which are about violin-size, but no instruments survive from before about 1560. [[User:Antandrus|Antandrus]] 00:26, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

::Thanks - good to know (''sotto voce'' - *g* sometimes, not the first time, it occurs to me I should check a more recent reference work than his, anyway!) [[User:Schissel|Schissel]] 01:16, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

:::Here's a bit more. Probably Forsyth's claim (in an otherwise excellent book) is based on a misunderstanding about the word "viola". Before about 1535, "viola" referred generally to ''any'' bowed stringed instrument. It was modified variously to describe instruments of different families (''viola da braccio'', ''soprano di viola da braccio'', ''viola da gamba'', ''viola d'amore'', etc.) It did not mean ''specifically'' what we modernly call a viola until about the 18th century. At any rate all the members of the violin family (now this is from Grove) developed at about the same time, in the first few decades of the 16th century. (Should this go in the article somewhere?) Fun stuff. [[User:Antandrus|Antandrus]] 03:59, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

::::Agreed, and for including it in the article my own opinion is that it seems a good idea. Thanks. [[User:Schissel|Schissel]] 10:40, 6 Nov 2004 (UTC)

== Rictor Noren ==
I removed Noren from the list of better known recent violists. I know that Google is not the LAST word on fame but I do not think it can be completely ignored when it stacks up like this. Here are Noren and the other people who were in the same list, by Google entries:

Bashmet 20,300
Kashkashian 17,800
Zimmermann 16,400
Noren 24

However you slice it and dice it, it does not look, based on that count, like Noren belongs in the same list as the other three, not yet anyway. I would not be happy to see Noren reinstated to the list, in its present form, without some very solid evidence as to why this should be so. [[User:138.37.188.109|138.37.188.109]] 08:12, 13 Jan 2005 (UTC)

This criteria got me interested. It seems I have 17,100 Google entries, more than Tabea Zimmermann, which is somehow ridiculous, if this is the primary criterium. As I am not one of the most-known violists, I would have my doubts about this methodology. Why is Bruno Giuranna, arguably the most infuential and important violist after Primrose (987,000), not included? Google turns up over 58,000 listings for his name. - James Creitz

== Jason ==
I just had a question about violas. I was wondering they can be tuned to violin tuning gdea?
If so is it something commonly done?

:Viola strings are calibrated for a certain tension level. To try and tune them up a full fifth would be an extraordinary amount of surplus pressure. I can't see how you would do it without breaking the strings. I have never heard of any situation where a viola is not tuned to the standard ADGC [[User:Evanbro|Evanbro]] 04:42, Mar 6, 2005 (UTC)

:I have. The strings are not generally tuned up (too much tension will break the strings) but there are several compositions, especially music for viola ensembles, that call for the C string to be tuned down, for example, to a G. I suppose other strings could be tuned down as well. But not up. Unless you like broken strings. [[User:Bobhobbit|Bobhobbit]] 22:46, 20 Jun 2005 (UTC)
::That is true, Bobhobbit. Pieces sometimes also call for tuning the G string down a half step, or something like that. [[User:Bratsche|Bratsche]][[User_talk:Bratsche|talk]] [[WP:5P|5 pillars]] 01:41, Jun 21, 2005 (UTC)

Agreed. I once tried to tune my viola myself. I'm 10. It was a ''big'' mistake. It's hard to play with a broken A string.

I bought some violin strings for my viola, shaved down the bridge to relieve tension on the strings and it sounds fine to me.Although I miss the mellow mood the viola makes. Make sure your strings are long enough or lengthen your tail piece

**The bigger question is why would anyone ever want to spoil the wonderful sound of a viola by tuning it like a violin. Probably a "converted" violist (one who switched from violin to viola) who misses the violin. If you are an "original" violist (one who started on the viola) you wouldn't desicrate such a fine instrument. (lol) In all seriousness, wouldn't a 5 string viola viola meet your needs better?

Back in the dark ages, when I was 10 (ok not that far), I must have went through about 50 A strings. Don't give up on trying to tune your viola yourself. Be sure to have a reliable source for your tuning pitch and always come from below. Practice matching pitch on the next string down. The hardest part about tuning once you can here where you need to go, is manipulating the pegs and tuners....debcallico from Utah** —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 00:57, 10 April 2008 (UTC) 

== Section on "Playing the viola" ==

I've [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=0&oldid=12867550 blanked] and [[Viola#Playing the viola|partially rewritten]] the section on '''Playing the viola'''. With a few minor exceptions, the entire section was an outdated duplicate of the [[Violin#Playing the violin|similar section]] in the violin article. This struck me as fairly useless, so I decided to [[WP:Be bold|be bold]] and get rid of the whole section after merging any significant differences to the violin article. If this decision is hugely unpopular I guess it can be reverted, but I really think it's better if the Viola article offers unique, useful content, instead of just duplicating the Violin article. —[[User:MilesK|Miles]] [[User_talk:MilesK|→☎]] 03:17, Apr 27, 2005 (UTC)

:I think the previous revision was a better fit to the article, but if someone can explain to me why the current revision makes more sense...[[User:Aethir|Aethir]] 04:21, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

::I don't think those things which are duplicates of items in another article are necessary here. I've posted some discussion of moving most of the material on 'playing the violin' (currently on the [[violin]] page) to the article [[how to play the violin]], and changing that article's title to include viola. Hopefully this article would then become a place where more technical details can be gotten into, especially details comparing and contrasting playing techniques. With time, both the viola and the violin article could refer to this page.[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:17, 20 December 2005 (UTC)

== Frog ==

In the UK, we do use the term 'frog' as well as (more commonly) 'heel'...

[[User:Fatboy06|Fatboy06]] 16:30, 27 November 2005 (UTC)

==POV==
The second paragraph in the introduction seems to be too biased. It is true that violas are very underrated compared to practically all other string instruments and can have a beautiful sound that is vital for a group's overall sound. However, calling it the most versatile of string instruments is too easily contended with to be put in a wikipedia article. Could I get some feedback (no pun intended) on this? I am primarily a violinist, secondly a violist, so I am biased. I would appreciate any comments on the second paragraph. [[User:Omnijohn|omnijohn]] 21:32, 18 March 2006 (UTC)

:A cello is pretty versatile as well, in the right hands, just not so portable. That paragraph does seem a bit overdone, as well as POV. [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 00:02, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
::I removed the defensive statement, including (perhaps mistakenly) this sentence:
::: ''In the right hands, it is capable of expressing both a mournful, penetrating melancholia and a dignified, joyous voice, singular and delightful in its restrained clarity.''
::I'm not sure if this sentence is really defensive. [[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]] 12:24, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

:::I've put it back. The part about being underrated is the part of the general impression. And I think we have a right to wax lyrical about the viola's tonal qualities in the viola article. :) Also, the next sentence wouldn't really follow if we removed it. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 14:21, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

::::I agree that the part about being underrated is not defensive -- it's merely a succinct reference to several facts: 1, the relative anonymity of the viola in "mainstream" culture: many people who would recognize the terms 'violin" "cello" and "double bass" or "string bass" do not know what a 'viola' is. 2) the lack of famous repertoire: many people who do know what it is perceive that it has less solo repertoire and of a lower quality than the other two instruments in the violin family (violin & cello), 3) the very fact that viola jokes are as prominent as they are among orchestral musicians -- more so than jokes for almost any other instrument... enough so that people feel the need to place a section about them in this article!, 4) the sad state of many youth or school orchestras where violists are few and far between, and where students play arrangements where the viola part has been reduced to nothing more than a section of "third violins", and this coupled with the lack of instruction for children on the viola (compared to the overwhelming number of young violinists and cellists -- which leads one to think that parents and teachers don't often choose or promote the viola as a suitable instrument to teach their young children: in short, they underrate it. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 23:04, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

== Differences in bowing: violin & viola ==

02:01, 2 April 2006 Quadalpha ''(revert POV/inaccuracy - a change like this would be better discussed on the talk page first)''

part of the paragraph in question:

: ... right handed technique is quite different. For example, violinists tend to play in the middle-to-upper half of the bow. A violists strongest point in the bow is the lower half, and to create such a somber sound, violists are required to play in this part of the bow. It is a common mistake for violinists who also play viola to not note the differences in bow technique and produce a poorer tone that tends to be light and weak.

The article does mention the extra bow weight needed, and the fact that viola strings speak more slowly than violin strings. It will be useful to mention differences in bow distribution, if they are systematically taught or practiced. Any experts watching this? [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 15:20, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

:Personally, I've never seen a violinist who systematically plays higher in the bow than I would on a viola for similar passages. "A violists strongest point in the bow is the lower half, and to create such a somber sound, ''violists are required to play in this part of the bow.''" - that seems too much of a generalisation, even if it has any basis in fact. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 01:24, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

I play the viola!!

Righto. That part about bow location is bumpkus. The difference in technics lies in the weight and manipulation of the bow arm. I am, after reading this article, convinced it was written largely by someone who had never actually played the viola, rather just watched someone and decided it made them an expert. [[User:BKratchmer|BKratchmer]] ([[User talk:BKratchmer|talk]]) 00:22, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

:Well, you know, like they say: find a valid source for this, then go to it.
:By the way, the word you want is "[[List of English words of Yiddish origin|bupkis]]" (or "bupkes"). +[[User:ILike2BeAnonymous|ILike2BeAnonymous]] ([[User talk:ILike2BeAnonymous|talk]]) 02:08, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

== Audio Examples ==

I don't know about you guys, but I feel that the the audio example with the 4 violas, although cool, doesn't represent the instrument very well. Its muddled and unclear to me. Any possibility of putting other examples that are more straight forward for those people who really don't know what the viola sounds like? And also maybe a file format that is more common? (I had to load it in my studio recording software to play it) Thoughts? Pehaps a nice cadenza from a concerto? [[User:Cmw328i|Cmw328i]] 18:54, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

:I'll put in a link to Shlomo Mintz's Brahms sonatas. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 05:05, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

::I've added the prelude to Bach's [[Cello Suites (Bach)|Fifth Cello Suite]] played on a viola. The post above is quite old but you can now play sound files online from Wikipedia. Also see [[Wikipedia:Media help]] for how to play the files offline. '''[[User:Graham87|Graham]]'''[[User talk:Graham87|87]] 05:24, 26 February 2008 (UTC)

== Sound similar to elec. guitar? ==

How to describe the electric bowed sound? Amplified pizz may slightly resemble a guitar sound, but there are enough differences that I just took that part out, rather than go into a lengthy comparison. __ [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 01:17, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

== jokes ==

I've moved this bit here:

:However, there are also jokes about the players and other instruments in the stringed sections. The idea that modern viola players are any less skilled or competent than violinists or, indeed, the players of any other instrument, is simply illogical.

Doesn't that strike you as awfully defensive? Any ideas for a re-phrase? --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 01:33, 11 June 2006 (UTC)

:Yup, defensive. Thanks for taking it out of the article. __ [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 04:11, 11 June 2006 (UTC)
:p.s. In cases of excessive solemnity and liability to take offense, "musical equivalent of the blonde joke" will provide a clue. (If you want me to play ''spiccato,'' just write "solo" over my part. ;-) [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]]

Did we agree on what to do about the jokes section? I vaguely remember a consensus to ''not'' give it its own section, or am I imagining things? --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 13:41, 21 June 2006 (UTC)

----
Now the jokes section seems to have taken on a lot of original research. It's much too long and disorganised. --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 14:58, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

I'm seriously considering removing the section altogether.[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:27, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

:Darn. I've always liked the one where "he won't tell me which peg he turned..." Can we keep the section, leaving it as short as it is now? __ [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 03:20, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

:If we removed it, someone's bound to add it back again, probably in a less grammatically-informed state. I'm fine with leaving it as it is. We can start a jokes collection on the talk page. (Are there other ones except the big collection that MIT site?) --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 14:24, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

::Quadalpha, you're right. Even though I STILL don't think an encyclopedia should have this section in this article at all.... as a comparison: [[lawyer]] has jokes relegated to an aside in a section called "criticism" which is more about historical attempts to abolish the profession than it is about jokes (it has no link at all to the [[lawyer joke]] page, and [[blond]] only has a link to another page called the [[blonde joke]] in it's "see also" section. Since both of these forms of jokes have their own wikipedia pages, and I'm not advocating the creation of a separate "viola joke" page, we can compromise and leave the section here, perhaps changing the redirect on [[viola jokes]] to point to this section instead of to the page on [[joke]]s in general.[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 23:50, 14 July 2006 (UTC)

::I redirected [[viola jokes]] to this section. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 08:45, 17 July 2006 (UTC) /// never mind; it seems not to have worked the way I intended. I reverted it back. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 08:48, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

===pertinent info for "Jokes" section==

I've just added back two bits of info which were removed from the Jokes section. While I agree that, if we have it at all, it ought to be as as short as possible, I also hold that, once granted the section, it needs to refer to viola jokes as being more prominent than other instrument jokes (after all, that is the only reason we have this section: otherwise it appears to be a random reference to "instrument jokes" stating that there are instrument jokes -- and that there are viola jokes -- which is redundant and very not-useful information. If the section itself is unencyclopedic, removing any reference to why it's there in the first place makes it doubly so).

I also put back the reference to "jokes about viola jokes", which serves to highlight further how prominent/prolific the viola joke is.
[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 05:38, 29 July 2006 (UTC)

Then I say that we remove it; the reason for the "Jokes" section is not to say that there are more viola jokes than other instrument jokes, nor for it "to be a random reference to "instrument jokes" stating that there are instrument jokes -- and that there are viola jokes", but rather investigating the premise for viola jokes (i.e. the main premise is "that violists are not very good technical musicians")in the context of the instrument jokes. However, it is most certainly not up to us to say that violas (or indeed any other instrument) are any better or worse than any other instrument/musician, as was the case before there were anyone else editing it (nor is it an option say that one side of any issue is better or worse than another. We must leave the reader to make up their own mind). I must ask the obvious question, and please forgive me for doing so, but in what way was it encyclopedic before? It was not a balanced article.

By saying that violists are the object of fun any more than any other instrument (which they are not- they simply are not well known enough to be the laughing stock*) we are destroying the neutrality of the section, and thus the article. Any biased article is one too many, and this is one section which appears to want to lean to the negitive. If it cannot be neutral, which it certainly was not before the editing, then I say it ought to be deleted, and left at that.

*(Plus I can give copious amounts of examples of jokes about almost all other mainstream instruments, all individually equalling the number and "bite" of viola jokes.)

:1) please sign your posts, it helps when people want to follow a discussion if they can see when a new person is chiming into a debate.

:2) In response to your post:

:-I meant by "more prominent" that viola jokes are told ''more often'' than other jokes ''within the orchestral or chamber music world'', and '''not''' that they are more numerous, nor that violists are "the laughing stock" of the entire world; for '''you are right''' in saying that they are not well known enough for that.

:-I don't believe the section had a '''particularly''' negative POV before; rather, I thought that removing the reference to the prominence of viola jokes made it ''less truthful'' by leaving out the underlying reason for mentioning the subject.

:-I hold that the section should not exist at all, OR that it should give the reason why there is a need to mention viola jokes on the viola page '''when there is no need to reference jokes about other instruments on their respective pages'''.

:3) Given the earlier discussion and consensus about keeping the section, I propose adding the following sentence:
::"In the music world, particularly in music schools or youth orchestras, the viola joke is often told with more frequency than other instrumental jokes."

:This would of course be better if I could find some research to back it up, which I recall seeing somewhere, so I will go looking for it before I add it.
:[[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 09:43, 30 July 2006 (UTC)

Good luck with looking for it as I do not believe you'll find it, but researching is good. Can never do too much research. Also, your comment "I don't believe the section had a '''particularly''' negative POV" implies that even you believe there '''''was''''' '''some''' bias in the article.

However, these jokes are not told anymore commonly than any other types of instrument jokes- I have played in many various youth and chamber orchestras for many, many years and I have never even heard an instrument joke told once, let alone a barrage of viola jokes that is suggested both by you (Plural), and in the article, seem to suggest. I have also played in full orchestras, jazz combos, rock mixes and have been in proffesional fierce competition with our rival ensembles and never have we heard a single viola joke. I have asked all of my peers and my former teachers and my conductor. None of them have ever heard of a many of instrument jokes, much less an insurmountable majority of viola jokes.

While it may not have been the ''intention'' to suggest that violas are the laughing stock of the musical world and they are inferior, it was certainly the implication and as such I maintain that the article is a freely biased form of prejudice, and as such should be removed. The idea that simply because the whole viola article has a “viola jokes section”, the viola must be inferior is deeply flawed; it takes one person to add such a section, and as such doesn’t mean that it is the “truth”. Also, since the viola joke is not any more prominent than any other instrument joke, saying (or rather, Speculating, perhaps?) that they are adding to the lessening the truth/ making the article “less truthful”, as you put it.

Also, the fact that there ''are'' '''so many''' jokes (and I don't mean viola jokes) implies that they would be told equally, if at all.

My very, very strong recommendation is that we remove the article, and I don’t think that anyone else will add it back again; the viola article did just fine without it before about May this year. Sunday, July 30

:Hi, I still don't know who I'm talking to, or if you are more than one person (since there are two different IPs listed in the history section), or what. Please sign your posts so its easier to see who is talking, and who is making which points ! Thanks. I hope when you say "remove the article" you mean "remove the section on Viola Jokes" and not "remove the Viola article"? I would be happy to see the section disappear. Others who have chimed in to keep it before, what do you think now? [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 06:04, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

:Me again. I found that bit of "research" I referred to. [http://www.mit.edu:8001/people/jcb/viola-presentation.html] After re-reading it, it seems less methodical of a 'study' than I remembered it being. However it does provide a basis for the claim that viola jokes were more prominent than other types of jokes in the recent past, and it does cite evidence for their prominence from various major and international newspaper articles & columns, at least one well-known humorist's book, as well as from the authors' own original research. Having found this I now propose an ammendment to my previously proposed statment:

:"In the recent past, there is evidence (mostly anecdotal) that the viola joke rose in popularity above other instrumental jokes, and although it may have since declined, the "infamy" gained from this joke cycle by the viola and by violists can still be felt in some situations (Rahkonen, Carl, 1994)." [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 08:54, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

I maintain that we remove the section. You are right in that it is not really a study, but after researching it, it is clear that this a poorly studied and written, heavily personalized and biased text that is not well constructed. The author takes the quotes the people meant to be “proving” his point out of context, and misuses information when there is simply not really much evidence in the generalizations with which he provides the reader. Plus, it is not really right to have an “encyclopaedic” article based on only a single resource, much less one which is as poorly edited as this one. Therefore, this article simply is not a suitable for the basis of a Wikipedia article or section. This article is based on Rahkonen’s pov, rather than well-researched work. We can’t in good faith base the section on only one source.

And, a collection of 50 viola jokes is actually '''''less''''' than the number of any of the jokes that I have found about '''''any''''' of the instruments.

Also, having 1 article in a newspaper with viola jokes proves nothing- I have seen numerous articles on other instruments, and jokes just about people because they play '''''an''''' instrument- any instrument.

Even if we take his points as true, he states that the peak was in 1993,and then was "greatly diminished" by 1994-12 years ago!! They should be well and truely dead by now. It seems a bit pointless to me having a section about a brief flare-up.

I could also launch into a 12 page analysis of the weaknesses of the practice of using only one resource and using his article for this article, but I'm sure you see the weaknessess too.

I say that we remove the jokes section.

If this article was all it the section was based on, then really it should never really have been created. Monday, July 31

:Please, sign your posts with a name. Use a screen name if you like, you can still be anonymous, but it's easier to keep track of who posts what when everyone signs their posts in each discussion with the same screen name each time they post. If you're using the same computer, you can use four tildes like this<nowiki>: ~~~~</nowiki> at the end of each post; when you save it it will automatically post your IP and the time/date. Or you can create a username, and using four tildes will sign your username when you're signed in.

:regarding the discussion here, I don't think the jokes section was actually based on that article. Rather, I got the impression that whoever created the section was basing it on what they thought was "common knowledge" in the viola-related music world. Most of the viola article seems to be full of such "common knowledge" information. I'm not saying we shouldn't find sources for certain things, especially if they are disputed, but that most people (except you) seemed to accept the idea that there is something notable about viola jokes which makes people consider placing a section on them in this article (see previous "joke" related discussions here). I only brought up the article because I recalled reading a paper about the prominence of viola jokes, so I thought I'd go look it up. My own experience as a musician and a violist, along with the experiences of other musicians I have spoken to, who hail from places all over the globe, leads me to believe that viola jokes are told more frequently than other kinds of musican jokes -- and that they are told more frequently in almost every music school, conservatory, orchestra (be it youth, community, or professional), and classical music festival or institute the world over. Therefore, I assumed that, since I saw no other notable feature in viola jokes, this prominence was the very thing which caused people to want to place a section on viola jokes in this article, when no such jokes section has been brought up in connection to other orchestral string instrument's articles. I maintain that merely stating that viola jokes are told with more frequency than other musician jokes is not in itself a negative point of view (it is merely a description of what happens). I maintain that if the section is kept (which is a position I have never wholeheartedly supported), it must refer to this prominence -- otherwise, by leaving out the only possible reason for mentioning the jokes, it becomes at best a very silly section which may leave readers wondering why it is there, and at worst a rather biased section which gives readers the impression that some Wikipedia editor thinks viola jokes themselves are somehow worthy of being described because of their great wit, charm, originality, and intellectual appeal. (that last clause is dripping with sarcasm :P in case you couldn't tell). [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 10:12, 2 August 2006 (UTC)

I'm sorry but your last sentence makes no sense and should be broken up into 2 pieces. However, as I have previously stated I have '''never''' heard a viola joke be told, and it would be ridiculous to say that the people that I have met and asked, both in the musical and general community, have all been "mysteriously isolated from viola jokes".

This (at the very least) equals and cancels out your assertion that you have met so many "viola joke specialists", and I have worked and/or studied in all of the institutions that you have mentioned and never one instrument joke has been uttered, much less a viola joke.

Also, I am clearly not the only person to be aware of the weaknessess of this wikipedia article. There were at least 2 others that saw the bias of the section, and clearly voiced their own outrage(this does not imply that my reaction is ooutrage, but that they were very angry about it), and as we know, not a great number of people can either actually A)Know how to edit an article B) Know how to leave a "talk" message, so your claim (which is verging on rude, so be careful to keep civil ": P") that "people, except [me]" "have no problem with it", is downright wrong. I daresay that the people that left those messages are also likely represent a large number of people that see the bias.

As few people are likely to research their own instrument, the violists are unlikely to read the article, so the people that would best to edit and write about the viola (i.e. violists) would not actually be the ones to write the article, so we are left with people that, by majority are most likely not primarily violists.

The entire (according to your argument) basis of the article is "common knowledge". However, as we have established, those which you have (apparently) heard are, at a minimum, negated by mine, and my experiences (you can only compare individual experiences with one another- you can't have 2 or more compared to only one person) it is not common knowledge. How can it be "common knowledge" if, forgive me, the "knowledge" is not "common". This section is based not fact but rather a misconception at best.

Also if we take that man's 1994 article as true, they were (perhaps)popular in c. 1992-3. this is certainly no reason for having an article on it 12+ years later.

You previously said that the article that you referred to from the mit site "does provide a basis for the claim that viola jokes were more prominent than other types of jokes in the recent past, and it does cite evidence for their prominence from various major and international newspaper articles & columns, at least one well-known humorist's book, as well as from the authors' own original research".You also said that there was "mostly anecdotal" evidence. However, after I "poked holes" in this poorly written article, you now say that it is "common knowledge". I'm sorry, but one '''''cannot''''' go from saying that there is merely "mostly anecdotal" evidence to the suppossed prominence of viola jokes being some thing that "everyone knows" and that is "common knowledge", as you said. I have managed to debunk most of the pro viola-joke arguments so far and, as it is, it looks like I will be able to continue to do so. It seems, with due dignity, that the relavence for the jokes section of this article is fading and the supposed reasons for the section are holding on for dear life.

If, as you suggest, the viola joke section is based on the idea that they are more prominant than other jokes, and that this was the reason for the section, then it should most certainly be deleted. Thursday, August 3, 2006.

:Please sign your posts with a name, thanks. Otherwise it's hard to keep track of what you've said.
:I'm not disputing your personal experience, and I apologize if you were offended by anything I typed. It was never my intention to be rude! :) [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 12:41, 5 August 2006 (UTC)

== POV II ==

''In fact, if someone says that a violist is less competent than any other musician, they are only repeating a centuries old '''myth'''. In fact, one could tell them to "get with the times", rather than just telling each other old instument jokes.''

This paragraph looked awfully defensive to violists, so I removed it.
[[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]] 22:37, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

== Bow length ==

Because the sounding point is further from the body, less bow length is useful to a viola player of average build. In other words, any given player will use less length of bow on a viola than a violin, so bows are built accordingly. All the full-size bows I can get my hands on at the moment confirm this, as well as Strobel's ''Useful Measurements for Violin Makers.'' __ [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 16:18, 9 July 2006 (UTC)

* Viola bows have the same size as violin bows...
::The Strobel reference hasn't changed, but I was just holding two "full-sized" bows, and the viola bow is a solid cm longer than the violin bow. The viola frog is a bit more massive than the violin one, about 0,6 mm wider at it's widest face, by the shell slide. Not sure what to do with this info... [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 16:09, 28 December 2006 (UTC)
-----
Better to leave length out of it. More variable than violin bows, some viola bows are longer, some shorter. Cello bows and French style bass bows are ''shorter'' than viola bows. [http://www.elevation-music.com/loyounetokna.html] __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] ([[User talk:Just plain Bill|talk]]) 16:31, 26 December 2007 (UTC)

== POV edits and vandalism ==

There are some IPs (they all start with 21-something) who keep making pro-violist POV edits to the "Jokes" section (like [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=61195615&oldid=61119912 this], [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=65197542&oldid=64776896 this], [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=65536540 this], and [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=65541153&oldid=65536728 this]) and vandalizes the page ([http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Viola&diff=65459551&oldid=65442096 like this]. What do I do with them? --'''[[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]]''' [[User talk:Frosty0814snowman|(sup?)]] 12:57, 24 July 2006 (UTC)
:'''Comment''': The vandalism IP is from a different country than the others, so it's probably not related to the viola-joke edits. It's a POV issue, not a vandalism issue. — [[User:MilesK|Miles]][[User_talk:MilesK|←☎]] 14:27, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

What should I do with the POV IPs? '''[[User:Frosty0814snowman|Frosty]]''' [[User talk:Frosty0814snowman|(sup?)]] 17:47, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

I don't know, but you're right, the "pro-viola" edits are just as NON-encyclopedic as any anti-viola edits for the jokes section. The whole "jokes section is non-encyclopedic (IMHO -- but see above for discussion on keeping it in the article as it is). I reverted it back to the short paragraph and two examples which are 1) informative and 2)not particularly defensive nor particularly offensive. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 04:49, 27 July 2006 (UTC)

== jokes section ==

Can the "jokes" section be removed altogether? -- [[User:Frosty0814snowman|'''Frosty'''the'''Snowman''']] [[User talk:Frosty0814snowman|('sup?)]] 00:03, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

:Yes! --[[User:Quadalpha|Quadalpha]] 03:53, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

Hooray! Finally!! Guys, well done!!![[User:211.27.194.16|211.27.194.16]] 14:07, 1 September 2006 (UTC)

I'm coming into this discussion late, but I believe I wrote the first version of the now-deleted jokes section, last year sometime (it was very short when I wrote it) and I think its loss is a real one. I play and love the viola, and certainly wouldn't want to give the jokes too much emphasis. The section should be short and down towards the bottom of the article. But lore is a category of knowledge, and viola jokes are a real phenomenon, which people interested in the viola might well be want to know about. Deleting the section seems like insecurity, not a way to improve knowledge. I won't add it back in again, because that would an "edit war," but I strongly think that Wikipedia should be about giving people more, not less, information. [[User:Mschlanger|Mschlanger]] 18:16, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

**Perhaps the jokes could be their own article. My viola teacher has shared many a viola joke with me. I can surely relate to the one: How do you get a violist to play down bow spiccato? Write "solo" above a whole note. That was me to a "T" (and sometimes it still is). I also like the musician joke: definition of a string quartet: a good violinist, a bad violinist, an ex-violinist, and someone who hates violins. Ahh, what a loss in anyones education to miss good jokes like these. (and to misquote Mary Poppins, "that was nothing like a good joke.") debcallico/Utah —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 19:27, 10 April 2008 (UTC) 

== Sound of Viola Ambiguity ==

In the second paragraph, the sentence "However, the viola's timbre sets it apart: its rich sonority is more full-bodied than the violin's, dark-toned and earthy." is a little unclear. It's a little confusing whether the Violin's sound is dark-toned and earthy or if it continues describing the Viola. I'm editing it so that it says "than the violin's dark-toned, earthy sound" for better readability.

It's rather a nitpick, I won't be offended if it's changed back or made into something better. It may be a minor edit, but I'm afraid that the sentence does mean 'viola's dark-toned and earthy'. I just want it to be reviewed to make sure it's correct. [[User:FrankieVA|FrankieVA]] 22:03, 19 January 2007 (UTC)
:Yup, it's supposed to mean that. The viola sound is darker-toned and earthier than a violin's, at least the way I hear it. __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 04:35, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

:P.S. It's not just a matter of range or ''[[tessitura]].'' The same phrase on the G, D and A strings of either instrument will sound more full-bodied (talking about "body" in the sense of a singer's instrument here) on the viola, yes? [[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]]

== List of "well-known" players. ==

I have pruned this list. Many of the names appeared to be there either because they were someone's favourite player, or the editor thought that if they deserved a page in Wikipedia, then they must deserve a mention in the list too. As a result it was becoming ludicrously long, as such lists have a tendency to do.

The important words here are "well-known". This does have the advantage of being amenable to the objective test of a simple google search of "+<name> +viola". Sorry if anyone thinks that's too crude and unmusical, but it's relative notability that is at issue here, not musicianship. Anyone who is upset by the removal of their favourite, please feel free to discuss it here. --[[User:Stephen Burnett|Stephen Burnett]] 10:43, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

:I agree with you that the list was too long, but the ''objective test of a simple google search''?? That is hilarious. I hope you don't take google ranks or hits as a measure for popularity, or as a measure for anything. According to [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=total+idiot&btnG=Google+Search your objective source], the most popular 'total idiot' is a certain G.W.Bush. I would say the number of compact discs recorded is a better parameter for popularity than the results in a search engine that sells its rankings.--[[User:Dr. Friendly|Dr. Friendly]] 22:30, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

::Agree that the number of google hits doesn't always correlate with notability, expecially when the subject is a highly visible target for a [[Google bomb|google bombing]] campaign. But violists? I doubt that it's worth anyone's time to inflate a bratsche-player's standing like that. The google method is useful for ruling out the name of a high-school section player, for an extreme example. __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 02:36, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

If theres 10 in the list or 20 pick 5, or pick 6, and eliminate the least notable. Google, notability, whether they are mentioned in viola schools and widely recognized as examples, maybe 1 russian 1 american 1 chinese 1 indian 1 latin american 1 european 1 african example for instance.[[User:71.142.91.34|71.142.91.34]] 12:27, 15 July 2007 (UTC)

I think we should all add our names so we can be famous too (lol).debcallico/ut —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/12.10.219.39|12.10.219.39]] ([[User talk:12.10.219.39|talk]]) 19:29, 10 April 2008 (UTC) 

== New viola design ==

I believe [http://www.americanviolasociety.org/JAVS%20Online/Summer2004/Summer2004/pellagrina.htm this new viola design], with larger body size for resonation of the lower tones, should be mentioned. Don Ehrlich of San Francisco has just released a CD of the Bach Cello Suites on this instrument, [http://shopsfsymphony.org/item.jsp?item=06338 here]. [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 04:36, 22 May 2007 (UTC)

:It is currently mentioned in the third paragraph of the section called "form of the viola", along with several other designs which address ergonomic issues. [[User:J Lorraine|J Lorraine]] 02:20, 4 June 2007 (UTC)

== Electric viola section: [[WP:CB]]? ==

No way to put this gently, but the first paragraph of the electric viola section as it now stands is a load of [[WP:CB|um, nonsense]]. While electric violas do exist, they are rare, usually custom built, and '''not''' the same size as a violin. John Jordan, Ned Steinberger, Jensen, or someone like that will build you an e-viola, either to "standard" dimensions, a 16.5" viola for example, or to your own specification. Instruments exist with the scale length of a violin, with strings going down to C, F, or B flat, and they are called "violins," "e-violins," or "electric violins."

I'm thinking of deleting this section entirely. __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] 15:36, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

:I agree - the stuff about violin-sized so-called electric violas is just plain wrong. To quote from www.zetamusic.com ....
:"Zeta’s Modern Body design employs simplified yet elegant contemporary lines. Extreme waist cutaways and a highly sculpted back relief create a lightweight solid body design. With the key reference dimensions of a traditional acoustic viola, the Modern viola body maintains the positional cues so important for familiarity of feel and proper intonation."
:Quite so - if you're used to playing a viola, why on earth would you want to go to a violin-sized instrument, with all the re-learning of fingering and vibrato which that would entail? --[[User:Stephen Burnett|Stephen Burnett]] 18:42, 5 July 2007 (UTC)

== Viola societies ==

Viola societies such as the American Viola Society http://www.americanviolasociety.org/ as well as any other prominent ones should be mentioned in the article. [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 19:40, 2 December 2007 (UTC)

== Fractional violin strung as viola ==

I notice there is a fact tag from Feb '08 on this sentence: "Often, a fractional-sized violin will be strung with the strings of a viola (C, G, D and A) for those children who need even smaller sizes."

I don't think we should be too hasty to lose this sentence. It is an indisputable fact. When I was helping maintain a rental fleet, that's exactly how we "created" violas in smaller sizes. The smallest true viola I've seen has a 12" body. In some cases, I've seen a similar job done with a half-size violin strung as a viola. I have no clue where to find a reference to cite for this; who bothers to write this kind of stuff down, anyway? __[[User:Just plain Bill|Just plain Bill]] ([[User talk:Just plain Bill|talk]]) 03:31, 15 May 2008 (UTC)

Joke

2008-07-19T21:37:22Z

Owlgorithm: /* Cycles */ link to viola

{{for|the given name|Joke (given name)}}
{{distinguish|The Joke}}
{{redirect|Jokes|the filmmaker|Jokes Yanes}}
A '''joke''' is a short story or ironic depiction of a situation communicated with the intent of being [[humour|humorous]]. These jokes will normally have a punch line that will end the sentence to make it humorous. A joke can also be a single phrase or statement that employs [[sarcasm]]. The word joke can also be used as a slang term for a person or thing which is not taken seriously by others in general or is known as being a failure. A [[practical joke]] or prank differs from a spoken one in that the major component of the humour is physical rather than verbal (for example placing salt in the sugar bowl).

Jokes are typically for the entertainment of friends and onlookers. The desired response is generally [[laughter]]; when this does not happen the joke is said to have "fallen flat".

==Anthropology of jokes==

In 1975 [[anthropologist]] [[Mary Douglas]] noted that "Joking as one mode of expression has yet to be interpreted in its total relation to other modes of expression";<ref>"Jokes" 1975 p.291</ref> scholar Seth Graham remarked that 30 years later this statement remains largely valid.<ref>Seth Benedict Graham ''[http://etd.library.pitt.edu/ETD/available/etd-11032003-192424/unrestricted/grahamsethb_etd2003.pdf A CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE RUSSO-SOVIET ANEKDOT]'' 2003 p.2</ref><ref>"Jokes" 1975 p.293</ref>

==Psychology of jokes==
Why we laugh has been the subject of serious academic study, examples being:
*[[Immanuel Kant]], in ''Critique of Judgement'' (1790) states that "Laughter is an effect that arises if a tense expectation is transformed into nothing." Here is Kant's 218-year old joke and his analysis:
<blockquote>"An Englishman at an Indian's table in Surat saw a bottle of ale being opened, and all the beer, turned to froth, rushed out. The Indian, by repeated exclamations, showed his great amazement. - Well, what's so amazing in that? asked the Englishman. - Oh, but I'm not amazed at its coming out, replied the Indian, but how you managed to get it all in. - This makes us laugh, and it gives us a hearty pleasure. This is not because, say, we think we are smarter than this ignorant man, nor are we laughing at anything else here that it is our liking and that we noticed through our understanding. It is rather that we had a tense expectation that suddenly vanished..."</blockquote>
*[[Henri Bergson]], in his book ''Le rire'' (''Laughter'', 1901), suggests that laughter evolved to make social life possible for human beings.
*[[Sigmund Freud]]'s ''"[[Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious]]"''. (''Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewußten'').
*[[Arthur Koestler]], in ''[[The Act of Creation]]'' (1964), analyses humour and compares it to other creative activities, such as [[literature]] and [[science]].
*[[Marvin Minsky]] in ''[[Society of Mind]] (1986)''.
:Marvin Minsky suggests that laughter has a specific function related to the human [[brain]]. In his opinion jokes and laughter are mechanisms for the brain to learn [[nonsense]]. For that reason, he argues, jokes are usually not as funny when you hear them repeatedly.
*[[Edward de Bono]] in ''"The Mechanism of the Mind"'' (1969) and ''"I am Right, You are Wrong"'' (1990).
:Edward de Bono suggests that the mind is a pattern-matching machine, and that it works by recognizing stories and behaviour and putting them into familiar patterns. When a familiar connection is disrupted and an alternative unexpected new link is made in the brain via a different route than expected, then laughter occurs ''as the new connection is made''. This theory explains a lot about jokes. For example:
:*Why jokes are only funny the first time they are told: once they are told the pattern is already there, so there can be no new connections, and so no laughter.
:*Why jokes have an elaborate and often repetitive set up: The repetition establishes the familiar pattern in the brain. A common method used in jokes is to tell almost the same story twice and then deliver the punch line the third time the story is told. The first two tellings of the story evoke a familiar pattern in the brain, thus priming the brain for the punch line.
:*Why jokes often rely on stereotypes: the use of a stereotype links to familiar expected behaviour, thus saving time in the set-up.
:*Why jokes are variants on well-known stories (eg the genie and a lamp and a man walks into a bar): This again saves time in the set up and establishes a familiar pattern.
*In 2002, [[Richard Wiseman]] conducted a study intended to discover the [[world's funniest joke]] [http://www.laughlab.co.uk].
*Humour and Jokes have also been concluded to be logic that is completely random or vice versa.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

[[Laughter]], the intended human reaction to jokes, is healthy in moderation, uses the [[stomach]] [[muscle]]s, and releases [[endorphins]], natural "feel good" chemicals, into the brain.

== Rules ==
The rules of humour are analogous to those of [[poetry]]. These common rules are mainly [[timing]], [[precision]], [[synthesis]], and [[rhythm]]. French philosopher [[Henri Bergson]] has said in an essay: "''In every wit there is something of a poet.''"<ref name="BergsonWitPoetry">{{cite book|author=[[Henri Bergson]] |title=Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic| origyear=1901|publisher = Dover Publications|year=2005|url=http://www.authorama.com/laughter-9.html}}</ref> In this essay Bergson views the essence of humour as the encrustation of the mechanical upon the living. He used as an instance a book by an English humourist, in which an elderly woman who desired a reputation as a philanthropist provided "homes within easy hail of her mansion for the conversion of atheists who have been specially manufactured for her, so to speak, and for a number of honest folk who have been made into drunkards so that she may cure them of their failing, etc." This idea seems funny because a genuine impulse of charity as a living, vital impulse has become encrusted by a mechanical conception of how it should manifest itself.

=== Precision ===
To reach precision, the comedian must choose the words in order to provide a vivid, [[in focus|in-focus]] image, and to avoid being generic as to confuse the audience, and provide no laughter.
To properly arrange the words in the sentence is also crucial to get precision. An example by [[Woody Allen]] (from ''[[Side Effects]]'', "''A Giant Step for Mankind''" story [http://jaiarjun.blogspot.com/2006/06/recos-woody-allen-stories.html]):

{{cquote|Grasping the mouse firmly by the tail, I snapped it like a small whip, and the morsel of cheese came loose.}}

=== Synthesis ===
As [[Shakespeare]] said in ''[[Hamlet]]'', "''Brevity is the soul of wit''".<ref name="HamletWit">{{cite book|author=[[William Shakespeare]] |title=[[Hamlet]]| year=1600-1602|pages=act 2, scene 2}}</ref> Meaning that a joke is best when it expresses the maximum level of humour with a minimal number of words; this is today considered one of the key technical elements of a joke. An example from Woody Allen:
{{cquote|I took a [[speed reading]] course and read ''[[War and Peace]]'' in twenty minutes. It involves Russia.}}

Though, the familiarity of the pattern of "brevity" has led to numerous examples of jokes where the very length is itself the pattern breaking "punchline". Numerous examples from [[Monty Python]] exist, for instance, the song "I Like Traffic Lights", and more modernly, [[Family Guy]] contains numerous such examples, most notably, in the episode [[Wasted Talent]], [[Peter Griffin]] bangs his shin, a classic slapstick routine, and tenderly nurses it whilst inhaling and exhaling to quiet the pain. This goes on for considerably longer than expected. Certain versions of the popular vaudevillian joke [[The Aristocrats (joke)|The Aristocrats]] can go on for several minutes, and it is considered an [[anti-joke]], as the humour is more in the set-up than the punchline.

=== Rhythm ===
{{main|Timing (linguistics)|Comic timing}}
The joke's content (meaning) is not what provokes the [[laughter|laugh]], it just makes the [[salience]] of the joke and provokes a [[smile]]. What makes us laugh is the joke mechanism. [[Milton Berle]] demonstrated this with a classic theatre experiment in the 1950s: if during a series of jokes you insert phrases that are not jokes, but with the same [[rhythm]], the audience laughs anyway. A classic is the [[ternary rhythm]], with three [[Meter (poetry)|beat]]s: [[introduction (essay)|Introduction]], [[premise (film)|premise]], [[antithesis]] (with the antithesis being the [[punch line]]).

In regards to the Milton Berle experiment, they can be taken to demonstrate the concept of "breaking context" or "breaking the pattern". It is not necessarily the rhythm that caused the audience to laugh, but the disparity between the expectation of a "joke" and being instead given a non-sequitur "normal phrase." This normal phrase is, itself, unexpected, and a type of punchline.

=== Conclusions ===
When a technically good joke is referred changing it with [[paraphrasing]], it is not laughable any more; this is because the paraphrase, changing some term or moving it within the sentence, breaks the joke mechanism (its vividness, brevity and rhythm), and its power and effectiveness are lost. [[Douglas Adams]] described sentences where the joke word is the final word as "comically weighted." This saves the "payoff" until the last possible moment, allowing the expectation for surprise to reach its highest point, while the mind is more firmly rooted in the pattern established by the rest of the sentence. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

=== Comic ===
In the comic field plays the 'economy of ideative expenditure'; in other words excessive energy is wasted or action-essential energy is saved. The profound meaning of a [[comic gag]] or a comic joke is "I'm a child"; the comic deals with the clumsy body of the child.

[[Laurel and Hardy]] are a classic example. An individual laughs because he recognizes the child that is in himself. In [[clown]]s stumbling is a childish [[tempo]]. In the comic, the visual gags may be translated into a joke. For example in ''[[Side Effects]]'' (''By Destiny Denied'' story) by Woody Allen:
{{cquote|"My father used to wear loafers," she confessed. "Both on the same foot".}}
The typical comic technique is the disproportion.

=== Wit ===
In the wit field plays the "economy of censorship expenditure"<ref name="FreudJokeWit">{{cite book|author=[[Sigmund Freud]]|title=Wit and its relation to the unconscious|date=missingdate|publisher=missingpublisher|pages=180,371–374|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/kincaid2/intro2.html}}</ref>(Freud literally calls it "the economy of psychic expenditure".); usually censorship prevents some 'dangerous ideas' from reaching the conscious mind, or helps us avoid saying everything that comes to mind; adversely, the wit circumvents the censorship and brings up those ideas. Different wit techniques allow one to express them in a funny way. The profound meaning behind a wit joke is "I have dangerous ideas". An example from Woody Allen:
{{cquote|I contemplated suicide again - this time by inhaling next to an insurance salesman.}}
Or, when a bagpipe player was asked "How do you play that thing?" his answer was:
{{cquote|Well.}}
Wit is a branch of [[rhetoric]], and there are about 200 techniques (technically they are called [[Trope (linguistics)|tropes]], a particular kind of [[figure of speech]]) that can be used to make jokes.<ref name="AttardoLinguistic">{{cite book|author=Salvatore Attardo|title=Linguistic Theories of Humour|pages=55|date=1994|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|id=ISBN 3-11-014255-4}}</ref>

[[Irony]] can be seen as belonging to this field.

=== Humour ===
In the comedy field, humour induces an "economized expenditure of emotion" (Freud literally calls it "economy of affect" or "economy of sympathy". Freud produced this final part of his interpretation many years later, in a paper later supplemented to the book.).<ref name="FreudJokeWit" /><ref name="FreudJokeHumor">{{cite journal|date=1928|title=Humour|author=Sigmund Freud|journal=International Journal of Psychoanalysis}}</ref> In other words, the joke erases an emotion that should be felt about an event, making us insensitive to it.e.g: "yo momma" jokes. The profound meaning of the void feeling of a humour joke is "I'm a [[cynic]]". An example from Woody Allen:
{{cquote|Three times I've been mistaken for [[Robert Redford]]. Each time by a blind person.}}
This field of jokes is still a [[grey area]], being mostly unexplored. Extensive use of this kind of humour can be found in the work of British satirist [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]], like the sketches of the ''[[Jam (TV series)|Jam]]'' television program.

[[Black humour]] and [[sarcasm]] belong to this field.

== Cycles ==
Folklorists, in particular (but not exclusively) those who study the [[folklore of the United States]], collect jokes into '''joke cycles'''. A '''cycle''' is a collection of jokes with a particular theme or a particular "script". (That is, it is a [[literature cycle]].)<ref>{{cite book|title=Humorous Texts: A Semantic and Pragmatic Analysis|author=Salvatore Attardo|date=2001|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|id=ISBN 311017068X|pages=69–71|chapter=Beyond the Joke}}</ref> Folklorists have identified several such cycles:
* the [[elephant joke]] cycle that began in 1962
* the Helen Keller Joke Cycle that comprises jokes about [[Helen Keller]]<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of American Folklore|volume=93|pages=441–448|date=1980|author=K. Hirsch and M.E. Barrick|title=The Hellen Keller Joke Cycle}}</ref>
* [[Viola]] jokes<ref>{{cite journal|date=Winter 2000|author=Carl Rahkonen|title=No Laughing Matter: The Viola Joke Cycle as Musicians' Folklore|journal=Western Folklore|volume=59|issue=1|pages=49–63|doi=10.2307/1500468}}</ref>
* the [[NASA]], Challenger, or Space Shuttle Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=The NASA Joke Cycle: The Astronauts and the Teacher|author=Elizabeth Radin Simons|journal=Western Folklore|volume=45|issue=4|date=October 1986|pages=261–277|doi=10.2307/1499821}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Challenger Jokes and the Humor of Disaster|author=Willie Smyth|journal=Western Folklore|volume=45|issue=4|date=October 1986|pages=243–260|doi=10.2307/1499820}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Jokes and the Discourse on Disaster|author=Elliott Oring|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=100|issue=397|date=July – September 1987|pages=276–286|doi=10.2307/540324}}</ref>
* the Chernobyl Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the [[Chernobyl disaster]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Politics of Joking: Popular Response to Chernobyl|author=Laszlo Kurti|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=101|issue=401|date=July – September 1988|pages=324–334|doi=10.2307/540473}}</ref>
* the Polish Pope Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to [[Pope John Paul II]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=Polish Pope Jokes|author=[[Alan Dundes]]|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=92|issue=364|date=April – June 1979|pages=219–222|doi=10.2307/539390}}</ref>
* the [[Essex girl]] and the Stupid Irish joke cycles in the [[United Kingdom]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Jokes and Their Relation to Society|author=Christie Davies|date=1998|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|id=ISBN 3110161044|pages=186–189}}</ref>
* the Dead Baby Joke Cycle<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Dead Baby Joke Cycle|author=Alan Dundes|journal=Western Folklore|volume=38|issue=3|date=July 1979|pages=145–157|doi=10.2307/1499238}}</ref>
* the Dingo Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the [[Azaria Chamberlain disappearance]]
* the [[Newfie]] Joke Cycle that comprises jokes made by Canadians about [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]]ers<ref>{{cite book|title=Mirth of Nations|author=Christie Davies|chapter=Jokes about Newfies and Jokes told by Newfoundlanders|date=2002|publisher=Transaction Publishers|id=ISBN 0765800969}}</ref>
* the Little Willie Joke Cycle, and the Quadriplegic Joke Cycle<ref>{{cite book|pages=255|title=The Mourning for Diana|author=Christie Davies|editor=eJulian Anthony Walter and Tony Walter|date=1999|publisher=Berg Publishers|chapter=Jokes on the Death of Diana|id=ISBN 1859732380}}</ref>
* the Jew Joke Cycle and the Polack Joke Cycle<ref>{{cite journal|author=Alan Dundes|title=A Study of Ethnic Slurs: The Jew and the Polack in the United States|journal=Journal of American Folklore|volume=84|date=1971|pages=186–203}}</ref>
* the Rastus and Liza Joke Cycle, which Dundes describes as "the most vicious and widespread white anti-Negro joke cycle"<ref>{{cite book|title=Mother Wit from the Laughing Barrel: Readings in the Interpretation of Afro-American Folklore|editor=Alan Dundes|pages=612|chapter=Folk Humor|date=1991|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|id=ISBN 0878054782}}</ref>
* the [[Jewish American Princess]] and [[Jewish mother stereotype|Jewish American Mother]] joke cycles<ref>{{cite journal|title=The J. A. P. and the J. A. M. in American Jokelore|author=[[Alan Dundes]]|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=98|date=October – December 1985|pages=456–475|doi=10.2307/540367|unused_data=|issue-390}}</ref>
* the Wind-Up Doll Joke Cycle<ref>{{cite journal|title=Wind-Up Dolls|author=Robin Hirsch|journal=Western Folklore|volume=23|issue=2|date=April 1964|pages=107–110|doi=10.2307/1498259}}</ref>
*[[Chuck Norris Facts|Chuck Norris jokes]]
*[[Tom Swifties]]
*Aggie jokes honor [[Texas A&M University]] and its students' lack of intelligence.<ref name="sandiego">{{Citation | last = Greenwald | first = Michael | title = Crash course in Rooting for Aggies | newspaper = [[San Diego Union-Tribune]] | year = [[2006]] | date = [[December 14]], [[2006]] | url = http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20061224/news_1s24am.html}}</ref><ref name="DeadElephant">{{cite web |url = http://www.sanangeloaggiemoms.org/newsletters/dec_04.html |title = Elephant Walk |accessdate = 2008-02-21 |date = |format = HTML |publisher = San Antonio Aggie Moms| date = December 2004 |language = English }}</ref><ref name="joke">{{cite web | last = Johnson | first = Judy | title = Aggie Jokes| work = ENG123 Texas Culture | date = [[2002]]-[[04-29]] | url = http://web.archive.org/web/20041121150559/http://www.nvcc.edu/home/ataormina/jujohnson5/texas/texasjokes.html | format = HTML | accessdate = 2008-01-27}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Football with a Difference|publisher=''The Saturday Evening Post''|date=1978|author=Read, Nat B. Jr.|pages=126–127}}</ref>

Gruner discusses several "[[sick joke]]" cycles that occurred upon events surrounding [[Gary Hart]], [[Natalie Wood]], [[Vic Morrow]], [[Jim Bakker]], [[Richard Pryor]], and [[Michael Jackson]], noting how several jokes were recycled from one cycle to the next. For example: A joke about [[Vic Morrow]] ("We now know that Vic Morrow had [[dandruff]]: they found his [[Head & Shoulders|head and shoulders]] in the bushes") was subsequently recycled about [[Admiral Mountbatten]] after his murder by Irish Republican terrorists in 1980, and again applied to the crew of the Challenger space shuttle ("How do we know that [[Christa McAuliffe]] had dandruff? They found her head and shoulders on the beach.").<ref name=Gruner>{{cite book|title=The Game of Humor: A Comprehensive Theory of Why We Laugh|author=Charles R. Gruner|date=1997|publisher=Transaction Publishers|id=ISBN 0765806592|pages=142–143}}</ref>

Berger asserts that "whenever there is a popular joke cycle, there generally is some widespread kind of social and cultural anxiety, lingering below the surface, that the joke cycle helps people deal with".<ref>{{cite book|title=An Anatomy of Humor|author=Dr Arthur Asa Berger|date=1993|publisher=Transaction Publishers|id=ISBN 0765804948|pages=161–162|chapter=Healing with Humor}}</ref>

==Types of jokes==
Jokes often depend on the humour of the unexpected, the mildly [[taboo]] (which can include the distasteful or socially improper), or playing off [[stereotype]]s and other cultural beliefs. Many jokes fit into more than one category.

=== Subjects ===
''Political jokes'' are usually a form of [[satire]]. They generally concern politicians and heads of state, but may also cover the absurdities of a country's political situation. A prominent example of political jokes would be political cartoons. Two large categories of this type of jokes exist. The first one makes fun of a negative attitude to political opponents or to politicians in general. The second one makes fun of political clichés, mottos, catch phrases or simply blunders of politicians. Some, especially the [[you have two cows]] genre, derive humour from comparing different political systems.

[[Professional humour]] includes caricatured portrayals of certain professions such as lawyers, and in-jokes told by professionals to each other.

[[Mathematical joke]]s are a form of [[in-joke]], generally designed to be understandable only by insiders.

[[Ethnic joke]]s exploit [[ethnic stereotypes]]. They are often [[racist]] and frequently considered offensive.

For example, the British tell jokes starting "[[An Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman]]..." which exploit the supposed parsimony of the Scot, stupidity of the Irish or rigid conventionality of the English. Such jokes exist among numerous peoples.

Racially offensive humour is increasingly unacceptable, but there are similar jokes based on other stereotypes such as [[blonde joke]]s.

Religious jokes fall into several categories:
*Jokes based on stereotypes associated with people of religion (e.g. ''nun jokes'', ''priest jokes'', or ''rabbi jokes'')
*Jokes on classical religious subjects: [[crucifixion]], [[Adam and Eve]], [[St. Peter]] at The Gates, etc.
*Jokes that collide different religious denominations: "A [[rabbi]], a [[medicine man]], and a [[pastor]] went fishing..."
*Letters and addresses to God.

[[Self-deprecating]] or self-effacing humour is superficially similar to racial and stereotype jokes, but involves the targets laughing at themselves. It is said to maintain a sense of perspective and to be powerful in defusing confrontations. Probably the best-known and most common example is [[Jewish humour]]. The egalitarian tradition was strong among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe in which the powerful were often mocked subtly. Prominent members of the community were kidded during social gatherings, part a good-natured tradition of humour as a levelling device. A similar situation exists in the Scandinavian "[[Ole and Lena]]" joke.

Self-deprecating humour has also been used by politicians, who recognize its ability to acknowledge controversial issues and steal the punch of criticism - for example, when [[Abraham Lincoln]] was accused of being two-faced he replied, "If I had two faces, do you think this is the one I’d be wearing?".

[[Dirty jokes]] are based on [[taboo]], often [[sex]]ual, content or vocabulary.

Other taboos are challenged by ''[[sick joke]]s'' and ''[[gallows humour]]''; to joke about [[disability]] is considered in this group.

Surrealist or minimalist jokes exploit semantic inconsistency, for example: ''Q: What's red and invisible? A: No tomatoes.''.

[[Anti-joke]]s are jokes that are not funny in regular sense, and often can be decidedly unfunny, but rely on the let-down from the expected joke to be funny in itself. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}

An [[elephant joke]] is a joke, almost always a [[riddle]] or conundrum and often a sequence of connected riddles, that involves an [[elephant]].

Jokes involving [[non-sequitur]] humour, with parts of the joke being unrelated to each other; e.g. "My uncle once punched a man so hard his legs became trombones", from the [[Mighty Boosh]] TV series.

=== Styles ===

The question / answer joke, sometimes posed as a common [[riddle]], has a supposedly straight question and an answer which is twisted for humorous effect; [[pun]]s are often employed. Of this type are [[knock-knock joke]], [[light bulb joke]], the many variations on "[[why did the chicken cross the road?]]", and the class of "What's the difference between..." joke, where the punch line is often a pun or a [[spoonerism]] linking two apparently entirely unconnected concepts.

Some jokes require a [[double act]], where one respondent (usually the [[straight man]]) can be relied on to give the correct response to the person telling the joke. This is more common in performance than informal joke-telling.

A [[shaggy dog story]] is an extremely long and involved joke with an intentionally weak or completely non-existent punchline. The humour lies in building up the audience's anticipation and then letting them down completely. The longer the story can continue without the audience realising it is a joke, and not a serious anecdote, the more successful it is. Shaggy jokes appear to date from the 1930s, although there are several competing variants for the "original" shaggy dog story. According to one, an advertisement is placed in a newspaper, searching for the shaggiest dog in the world. The teller of the joke then relates the story of the search for the shaggiest dog in extreme and exaggerated detail (flying around the world, climbing mountains, fending off sabre-toothed tigers, etc); a good teller will be able to stretch the story out to over half an hour. When the winning dog is finally presented, the advertiser takes a look at the dog and states: "I don't think he's so shaggy."

Some shaggy dog stories are actually cleverly constructed stories, frequently interesting in themselves, that culminate in one or more puns whose first meaning is reasonable as part of the story but whose second meaning is a common aphorism, commercial jingle, or other recognizable word or phrase. As with other puns, there may be multiple separate rhyming meanings. Such stories treat the listener or reader with respect. (See: "Upon My Word!", a book by [[Frank Muir]] and [[Denis Norden]], spun off from their long-running BBC radio show [[My Word!]].)

== See also ==
{{wiktionary}}
*[[Anecdote]]
*[[Comedy]]
*[[Comedy genres]]
*[[Computational humor]]
*[[Feghoot]]
*[[Funny]]
*[[Insult]]
*[[Internet humour]]
*[[Pun]]
*[[Punch line]]
*[[Russian jokes]]
*[[The Funniest Joke in the World|Monty Python Lethal Joke]]
*[[World's funniest joke]]
*[[Joke chess problem]]
*[[Taboo]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* [[Mary Douglas]] “Jokes.” ''Rethinking Popular Culture: Contemporary Perspectives in Cultural Studies.'' [1975] Ed. Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson. Berkeley: U of California P, 1991.

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | last = Cante | first = Richard C. | title = Gay Men and the Forms of Contemporary US Culture | publisher = Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0 7546 7230 1. Chapter 2: The AIDS Joke as Cultural Form | year = March 2008 | location = London}}

==External links==










*{{dmoz|Recreation/Humor/Jokes/|''Jokes''}} – An active listing of links to jokes.
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-58 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] Sense of the Comic

[[Category:Humor]]
[[Category:Jokes|*]]

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Joke

2008-07-19T21:36:49Z

Owlgorithm: /* Cycles */ added links

{{for|the given name|Joke (given name)}}
{{distinguish|The Joke}}
{{redirect|Jokes|the filmmaker|Jokes Yanes}}
A '''joke''' is a short story or ironic depiction of a situation communicated with the intent of being [[humour|humorous]]. These jokes will normally have a punch line that will end the sentence to make it humorous. A joke can also be a single phrase or statement that employs [[sarcasm]]. The word joke can also be used as a slang term for a person or thing which is not taken seriously by others in general or is known as being a failure. A [[practical joke]] or prank differs from a spoken one in that the major component of the humour is physical rather than verbal (for example placing salt in the sugar bowl).

Jokes are typically for the entertainment of friends and onlookers. The desired response is generally [[laughter]]; when this does not happen the joke is said to have "fallen flat".

==Anthropology of jokes==

In 1975 [[anthropologist]] [[Mary Douglas]] noted that "Joking as one mode of expression has yet to be interpreted in its total relation to other modes of expression";<ref>"Jokes" 1975 p.291</ref> scholar Seth Graham remarked that 30 years later this statement remains largely valid.<ref>Seth Benedict Graham ''[http://etd.library.pitt.edu/ETD/available/etd-11032003-192424/unrestricted/grahamsethb_etd2003.pdf A CULTURAL ANALYSIS OF THE RUSSO-SOVIET ANEKDOT]'' 2003 p.2</ref><ref>"Jokes" 1975 p.293</ref>

==Psychology of jokes==
Why we laugh has been the subject of serious academic study, examples being:
*[[Immanuel Kant]], in ''Critique of Judgement'' (1790) states that "Laughter is an effect that arises if a tense expectation is transformed into nothing." Here is Kant's 218-year old joke and his analysis:
<blockquote>"An Englishman at an Indian's table in Surat saw a bottle of ale being opened, and all the beer, turned to froth, rushed out. The Indian, by repeated exclamations, showed his great amazement. - Well, what's so amazing in that? asked the Englishman. - Oh, but I'm not amazed at its coming out, replied the Indian, but how you managed to get it all in. - This makes us laugh, and it gives us a hearty pleasure. This is not because, say, we think we are smarter than this ignorant man, nor are we laughing at anything else here that it is our liking and that we noticed through our understanding. It is rather that we had a tense expectation that suddenly vanished..."</blockquote>
*[[Henri Bergson]], in his book ''Le rire'' (''Laughter'', 1901), suggests that laughter evolved to make social life possible for human beings.
*[[Sigmund Freud]]'s ''"[[Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious]]"''. (''Der Witz und seine Beziehung zum Unbewußten'').
*[[Arthur Koestler]], in ''[[The Act of Creation]]'' (1964), analyses humour and compares it to other creative activities, such as [[literature]] and [[science]].
*[[Marvin Minsky]] in ''[[Society of Mind]] (1986)''.
:Marvin Minsky suggests that laughter has a specific function related to the human [[brain]]. In his opinion jokes and laughter are mechanisms for the brain to learn [[nonsense]]. For that reason, he argues, jokes are usually not as funny when you hear them repeatedly.
*[[Edward de Bono]] in ''"The Mechanism of the Mind"'' (1969) and ''"I am Right, You are Wrong"'' (1990).
:Edward de Bono suggests that the mind is a pattern-matching machine, and that it works by recognizing stories and behaviour and putting them into familiar patterns. When a familiar connection is disrupted and an alternative unexpected new link is made in the brain via a different route than expected, then laughter occurs ''as the new connection is made''. This theory explains a lot about jokes. For example:
:*Why jokes are only funny the first time they are told: once they are told the pattern is already there, so there can be no new connections, and so no laughter.
:*Why jokes have an elaborate and often repetitive set up: The repetition establishes the familiar pattern in the brain. A common method used in jokes is to tell almost the same story twice and then deliver the punch line the third time the story is told. The first two tellings of the story evoke a familiar pattern in the brain, thus priming the brain for the punch line.
:*Why jokes often rely on stereotypes: the use of a stereotype links to familiar expected behaviour, thus saving time in the set-up.
:*Why jokes are variants on well-known stories (eg the genie and a lamp and a man walks into a bar): This again saves time in the set up and establishes a familiar pattern.
*In 2002, [[Richard Wiseman]] conducted a study intended to discover the [[world's funniest joke]] [http://www.laughlab.co.uk].
*Humour and Jokes have also been concluded to be logic that is completely random or vice versa.{{Fact|date=December 2007}}

[[Laughter]], the intended human reaction to jokes, is healthy in moderation, uses the [[stomach]] [[muscle]]s, and releases [[endorphins]], natural "feel good" chemicals, into the brain.

== Rules ==
The rules of humour are analogous to those of [[poetry]]. These common rules are mainly [[timing]], [[precision]], [[synthesis]], and [[rhythm]]. French philosopher [[Henri Bergson]] has said in an essay: "''In every wit there is something of a poet.''"<ref name="BergsonWitPoetry">{{cite book|author=[[Henri Bergson]] |title=Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic| origyear=1901|publisher = Dover Publications|year=2005|url=http://www.authorama.com/laughter-9.html}}</ref> In this essay Bergson views the essence of humour as the encrustation of the mechanical upon the living. He used as an instance a book by an English humourist, in which an elderly woman who desired a reputation as a philanthropist provided "homes within easy hail of her mansion for the conversion of atheists who have been specially manufactured for her, so to speak, and for a number of honest folk who have been made into drunkards so that she may cure them of their failing, etc." This idea seems funny because a genuine impulse of charity as a living, vital impulse has become encrusted by a mechanical conception of how it should manifest itself.

=== Precision ===
To reach precision, the comedian must choose the words in order to provide a vivid, [[in focus|in-focus]] image, and to avoid being generic as to confuse the audience, and provide no laughter.
To properly arrange the words in the sentence is also crucial to get precision. An example by [[Woody Allen]] (from ''[[Side Effects]]'', "''A Giant Step for Mankind''" story [http://jaiarjun.blogspot.com/2006/06/recos-woody-allen-stories.html]):

{{cquote|Grasping the mouse firmly by the tail, I snapped it like a small whip, and the morsel of cheese came loose.}}

=== Synthesis ===
As [[Shakespeare]] said in ''[[Hamlet]]'', "''Brevity is the soul of wit''".<ref name="HamletWit">{{cite book|author=[[William Shakespeare]] |title=[[Hamlet]]| year=1600-1602|pages=act 2, scene 2}}</ref> Meaning that a joke is best when it expresses the maximum level of humour with a minimal number of words; this is today considered one of the key technical elements of a joke. An example from Woody Allen:
{{cquote|I took a [[speed reading]] course and read ''[[War and Peace]]'' in twenty minutes. It involves Russia.}}

Though, the familiarity of the pattern of "brevity" has led to numerous examples of jokes where the very length is itself the pattern breaking "punchline". Numerous examples from [[Monty Python]] exist, for instance, the song "I Like Traffic Lights", and more modernly, [[Family Guy]] contains numerous such examples, most notably, in the episode [[Wasted Talent]], [[Peter Griffin]] bangs his shin, a classic slapstick routine, and tenderly nurses it whilst inhaling and exhaling to quiet the pain. This goes on for considerably longer than expected. Certain versions of the popular vaudevillian joke [[The Aristocrats (joke)|The Aristocrats]] can go on for several minutes, and it is considered an [[anti-joke]], as the humour is more in the set-up than the punchline.

=== Rhythm ===
{{main|Timing (linguistics)|Comic timing}}
The joke's content (meaning) is not what provokes the [[laughter|laugh]], it just makes the [[salience]] of the joke and provokes a [[smile]]. What makes us laugh is the joke mechanism. [[Milton Berle]] demonstrated this with a classic theatre experiment in the 1950s: if during a series of jokes you insert phrases that are not jokes, but with the same [[rhythm]], the audience laughs anyway. A classic is the [[ternary rhythm]], with three [[Meter (poetry)|beat]]s: [[introduction (essay)|Introduction]], [[premise (film)|premise]], [[antithesis]] (with the antithesis being the [[punch line]]).

In regards to the Milton Berle experiment, they can be taken to demonstrate the concept of "breaking context" or "breaking the pattern". It is not necessarily the rhythm that caused the audience to laugh, but the disparity between the expectation of a "joke" and being instead given a non-sequitur "normal phrase." This normal phrase is, itself, unexpected, and a type of punchline.

=== Conclusions ===
When a technically good joke is referred changing it with [[paraphrasing]], it is not laughable any more; this is because the paraphrase, changing some term or moving it within the sentence, breaks the joke mechanism (its vividness, brevity and rhythm), and its power and effectiveness are lost. [[Douglas Adams]] described sentences where the joke word is the final word as "comically weighted." This saves the "payoff" until the last possible moment, allowing the expectation for surprise to reach its highest point, while the mind is more firmly rooted in the pattern established by the rest of the sentence. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

=== Comic ===
In the comic field plays the 'economy of ideative expenditure'; in other words excessive energy is wasted or action-essential energy is saved. The profound meaning of a [[comic gag]] or a comic joke is "I'm a child"; the comic deals with the clumsy body of the child.

[[Laurel and Hardy]] are a classic example. An individual laughs because he recognizes the child that is in himself. In [[clown]]s stumbling is a childish [[tempo]]. In the comic, the visual gags may be translated into a joke. For example in ''[[Side Effects]]'' (''By Destiny Denied'' story) by Woody Allen:
{{cquote|"My father used to wear loafers," she confessed. "Both on the same foot".}}
The typical comic technique is the disproportion.

=== Wit ===
In the wit field plays the "economy of censorship expenditure"<ref name="FreudJokeWit">{{cite book|author=[[Sigmund Freud]]|title=Wit and its relation to the unconscious|date=missingdate|publisher=missingpublisher|pages=180,371–374|url=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/kincaid2/intro2.html}}</ref>(Freud literally calls it "the economy of psychic expenditure".); usually censorship prevents some 'dangerous ideas' from reaching the conscious mind, or helps us avoid saying everything that comes to mind; adversely, the wit circumvents the censorship and brings up those ideas. Different wit techniques allow one to express them in a funny way. The profound meaning behind a wit joke is "I have dangerous ideas". An example from Woody Allen:
{{cquote|I contemplated suicide again - this time by inhaling next to an insurance salesman.}}
Or, when a bagpipe player was asked "How do you play that thing?" his answer was:
{{cquote|Well.}}
Wit is a branch of [[rhetoric]], and there are about 200 techniques (technically they are called [[Trope (linguistics)|tropes]], a particular kind of [[figure of speech]]) that can be used to make jokes.<ref name="AttardoLinguistic">{{cite book|author=Salvatore Attardo|title=Linguistic Theories of Humour|pages=55|date=1994|publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]]|id=ISBN 3-11-014255-4}}</ref>

[[Irony]] can be seen as belonging to this field.

=== Humour ===
In the comedy field, humour induces an "economized expenditure of emotion" (Freud literally calls it "economy of affect" or "economy of sympathy". Freud produced this final part of his interpretation many years later, in a paper later supplemented to the book.).<ref name="FreudJokeWit" /><ref name="FreudJokeHumor">{{cite journal|date=1928|title=Humour|author=Sigmund Freud|journal=International Journal of Psychoanalysis}}</ref> In other words, the joke erases an emotion that should be felt about an event, making us insensitive to it.e.g: "yo momma" jokes. The profound meaning of the void feeling of a humour joke is "I'm a [[cynic]]". An example from Woody Allen:
{{cquote|Three times I've been mistaken for [[Robert Redford]]. Each time by a blind person.}}
This field of jokes is still a [[grey area]], being mostly unexplored. Extensive use of this kind of humour can be found in the work of British satirist [[Chris Morris (satirist)|Chris Morris]], like the sketches of the ''[[Jam (TV series)|Jam]]'' television program.

[[Black humour]] and [[sarcasm]] belong to this field.

== Cycles ==
Folklorists, in particular (but not exclusively) those who study the [[folklore of the United States]], collect jokes into '''joke cycles'''. A '''cycle''' is a collection of jokes with a particular theme or a particular "script". (That is, it is a [[literature cycle]].)<ref>{{cite book|title=Humorous Texts: A Semantic and Pragmatic Analysis|author=Salvatore Attardo|date=2001|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|id=ISBN 311017068X|pages=69–71|chapter=Beyond the Joke}}</ref> Folklorists have identified several such cycles:
* the [[elephant joke]] cycle that began in 1962
* the Helen Keller Joke Cycle that comprises jokes about [[Helen Keller]]<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Journal of American Folklore|volume=93|pages=441–448|date=1980|author=K. Hirsch and M.E. Barrick|title=The Hellen Keller Joke Cycle}}</ref>
* viola jokes<ref>{{cite journal|date=Winter 2000|author=Carl Rahkonen|title=No Laughing Matter: The Viola Joke Cycle as Musicians' Folklore|journal=Western Folklore|volume=59|issue=1|pages=49–63|doi=10.2307/1500468}}</ref>
* the [[NASA]], Challenger, or Space Shuttle Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=The NASA Joke Cycle: The Astronauts and the Teacher|author=Elizabeth Radin Simons|journal=Western Folklore|volume=45|issue=4|date=October 1986|pages=261–277|doi=10.2307/1499821}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Challenger Jokes and the Humor of Disaster|author=Willie Smyth|journal=Western Folklore|volume=45|issue=4|date=October 1986|pages=243–260|doi=10.2307/1499820}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Jokes and the Discourse on Disaster|author=Elliott Oring|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=100|issue=397|date=July – September 1987|pages=276–286|doi=10.2307/540324}}</ref>
* the Chernobyl Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the [[Chernobyl disaster]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Politics of Joking: Popular Response to Chernobyl|author=Laszlo Kurti|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=101|issue=401|date=July – September 1988|pages=324–334|doi=10.2307/540473}}</ref>
* the Polish Pope Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to [[Pope John Paul II]]<ref>{{cite journal|title=Polish Pope Jokes|author=[[Alan Dundes]]|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=92|issue=364|date=April – June 1979|pages=219–222|doi=10.2307/539390}}</ref>
* the [[Essex girl]] and the Stupid Irish joke cycles in the [[United Kingdom]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Jokes and Their Relation to Society|author=Christie Davies|date=1998|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|id=ISBN 3110161044|pages=186–189}}</ref>
* the Dead Baby Joke Cycle<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Dead Baby Joke Cycle|author=Alan Dundes|journal=Western Folklore|volume=38|issue=3|date=July 1979|pages=145–157|doi=10.2307/1499238}}</ref>
* the Dingo Joke Cycle that comprises jokes relating to the [[Azaria Chamberlain disappearance]]
* the [[Newfie]] Joke Cycle that comprises jokes made by Canadians about [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]]ers<ref>{{cite book|title=Mirth of Nations|author=Christie Davies|chapter=Jokes about Newfies and Jokes told by Newfoundlanders|date=2002|publisher=Transaction Publishers|id=ISBN 0765800969}}</ref>
* the Little Willie Joke Cycle, and the Quadriplegic Joke Cycle<ref>{{cite book|pages=255|title=The Mourning for Diana|author=Christie Davies|editor=eJulian Anthony Walter and Tony Walter|date=1999|publisher=Berg Publishers|chapter=Jokes on the Death of Diana|id=ISBN 1859732380}}</ref>
* the Jew Joke Cycle and the Polack Joke Cycle<ref>{{cite journal|author=Alan Dundes|title=A Study of Ethnic Slurs: The Jew and the Polack in the United States|journal=Journal of American Folklore|volume=84|date=1971|pages=186–203}}</ref>
* the Rastus and Liza Joke Cycle, which Dundes describes as "the most vicious and widespread white anti-Negro joke cycle"<ref>{{cite book|title=Mother Wit from the Laughing Barrel: Readings in the Interpretation of Afro-American Folklore|editor=Alan Dundes|pages=612|chapter=Folk Humor|date=1991|publisher=University Press of Mississippi|id=ISBN 0878054782}}</ref>
* the [[Jewish American Princess]] and [[Jewish mother stereotype|Jewish American Mother]] joke cycles<ref>{{cite journal|title=The J. A. P. and the J. A. M. in American Jokelore|author=[[Alan Dundes]]|journal=The Journal of American Folklore|volume=98|date=October – December 1985|pages=456–475|doi=10.2307/540367|unused_data=|issue-390}}</ref>
* the Wind-Up Doll Joke Cycle<ref>{{cite journal|title=Wind-Up Dolls|author=Robin Hirsch|journal=Western Folklore|volume=23|issue=2|date=April 1964|pages=107–110|doi=10.2307/1498259}}</ref>
*[[Chuck Norris Facts|Chuck Norris jokes]]
*[[Tom Swifties]]
*Aggie jokes honor [[Texas A&M University]] and its students' lack of intelligence.<ref name="sandiego">{{Citation | last = Greenwald | first = Michael | title = Crash course in Rooting for Aggies | newspaper = [[San Diego Union-Tribune]] | year = [[2006]] | date = [[December 14]], [[2006]] | url = http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20061224/news_1s24am.html}}</ref><ref name="DeadElephant">{{cite web |url = http://www.sanangeloaggiemoms.org/newsletters/dec_04.html |title = Elephant Walk |accessdate = 2008-02-21 |date = |format = HTML |publisher = San Antonio Aggie Moms| date = December 2004 |language = English }}</ref><ref name="joke">{{cite web | last = Johnson | first = Judy | title = Aggie Jokes| work = ENG123 Texas Culture | date = [[2002]]-[[04-29]] | url = http://web.archive.org/web/20041121150559/http://www.nvcc.edu/home/ataormina/jujohnson5/texas/texasjokes.html | format = HTML | accessdate = 2008-01-27}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Football with a Difference|publisher=''The Saturday Evening Post''|date=1978|author=Read, Nat B. Jr.|pages=126–127}}</ref>

Gruner discusses several "[[sick joke]]" cycles that occurred upon events surrounding [[Gary Hart]], [[Natalie Wood]], [[Vic Morrow]], [[Jim Bakker]], [[Richard Pryor]], and [[Michael Jackson]], noting how several jokes were recycled from one cycle to the next. For example: A joke about [[Vic Morrow]] ("We now know that Vic Morrow had [[dandruff]]: they found his [[Head & Shoulders|head and shoulders]] in the bushes") was subsequently recycled about [[Admiral Mountbatten]] after his murder by Irish Republican terrorists in 1980, and again applied to the crew of the Challenger space shuttle ("How do we know that [[Christa McAuliffe]] had dandruff? They found her head and shoulders on the beach.").<ref name=Gruner>{{cite book|title=The Game of Humor: A Comprehensive Theory of Why We Laugh|author=Charles R. Gruner|date=1997|publisher=Transaction Publishers|id=ISBN 0765806592|pages=142–143}}</ref>

Berger asserts that "whenever there is a popular joke cycle, there generally is some widespread kind of social and cultural anxiety, lingering below the surface, that the joke cycle helps people deal with".<ref>{{cite book|title=An Anatomy of Humor|author=Dr Arthur Asa Berger|date=1993|publisher=Transaction Publishers|id=ISBN 0765804948|pages=161–162|chapter=Healing with Humor}}</ref>

==Types of jokes==
Jokes often depend on the humour of the unexpected, the mildly [[taboo]] (which can include the distasteful or socially improper), or playing off [[stereotype]]s and other cultural beliefs. Many jokes fit into more than one category.

=== Subjects ===
''Political jokes'' are usually a form of [[satire]]. They generally concern politicians and heads of state, but may also cover the absurdities of a country's political situation. A prominent example of political jokes would be political cartoons. Two large categories of this type of jokes exist. The first one makes fun of a negative attitude to political opponents or to politicians in general. The second one makes fun of political clichés, mottos, catch phrases or simply blunders of politicians. Some, especially the [[you have two cows]] genre, derive humour from comparing different political systems.

[[Professional humour]] includes caricatured portrayals of certain professions such as lawyers, and in-jokes told by professionals to each other.

[[Mathematical joke]]s are a form of [[in-joke]], generally designed to be understandable only by insiders.

[[Ethnic joke]]s exploit [[ethnic stereotypes]]. They are often [[racist]] and frequently considered offensive.

For example, the British tell jokes starting "[[An Englishman, an Irishman and a Scotsman]]..." which exploit the supposed parsimony of the Scot, stupidity of the Irish or rigid conventionality of the English. Such jokes exist among numerous peoples.

Racially offensive humour is increasingly unacceptable, but there are similar jokes based on other stereotypes such as [[blonde joke]]s.

Religious jokes fall into several categories:
*Jokes based on stereotypes associated with people of religion (e.g. ''nun jokes'', ''priest jokes'', or ''rabbi jokes'')
*Jokes on classical religious subjects: [[crucifixion]], [[Adam and Eve]], [[St. Peter]] at The Gates, etc.
*Jokes that collide different religious denominations: "A [[rabbi]], a [[medicine man]], and a [[pastor]] went fishing..."
*Letters and addresses to God.

[[Self-deprecating]] or self-effacing humour is superficially similar to racial and stereotype jokes, but involves the targets laughing at themselves. It is said to maintain a sense of perspective and to be powerful in defusing confrontations. Probably the best-known and most common example is [[Jewish humour]]. The egalitarian tradition was strong among the Jewish communities of Eastern Europe in which the powerful were often mocked subtly. Prominent members of the community were kidded during social gatherings, part a good-natured tradition of humour as a levelling device. A similar situation exists in the Scandinavian "[[Ole and Lena]]" joke.

Self-deprecating humour has also been used by politicians, who recognize its ability to acknowledge controversial issues and steal the punch of criticism - for example, when [[Abraham Lincoln]] was accused of being two-faced he replied, "If I had two faces, do you think this is the one I’d be wearing?".

[[Dirty jokes]] are based on [[taboo]], often [[sex]]ual, content or vocabulary.

Other taboos are challenged by ''[[sick joke]]s'' and ''[[gallows humour]]''; to joke about [[disability]] is considered in this group.

Surrealist or minimalist jokes exploit semantic inconsistency, for example: ''Q: What's red and invisible? A: No tomatoes.''.

[[Anti-joke]]s are jokes that are not funny in regular sense, and often can be decidedly unfunny, but rely on the let-down from the expected joke to be funny in itself. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}

An [[elephant joke]] is a joke, almost always a [[riddle]] or conundrum and often a sequence of connected riddles, that involves an [[elephant]].

Jokes involving [[non-sequitur]] humour, with parts of the joke being unrelated to each other; e.g. "My uncle once punched a man so hard his legs became trombones", from the [[Mighty Boosh]] TV series.

=== Styles ===

The question / answer joke, sometimes posed as a common [[riddle]], has a supposedly straight question and an answer which is twisted for humorous effect; [[pun]]s are often employed. Of this type are [[knock-knock joke]], [[light bulb joke]], the many variations on "[[why did the chicken cross the road?]]", and the class of "What's the difference between..." joke, where the punch line is often a pun or a [[spoonerism]] linking two apparently entirely unconnected concepts.

Some jokes require a [[double act]], where one respondent (usually the [[straight man]]) can be relied on to give the correct response to the person telling the joke. This is more common in performance than informal joke-telling.

A [[shaggy dog story]] is an extremely long and involved joke with an intentionally weak or completely non-existent punchline. The humour lies in building up the audience's anticipation and then letting them down completely. The longer the story can continue without the audience realising it is a joke, and not a serious anecdote, the more successful it is. Shaggy jokes appear to date from the 1930s, although there are several competing variants for the "original" shaggy dog story. According to one, an advertisement is placed in a newspaper, searching for the shaggiest dog in the world. The teller of the joke then relates the story of the search for the shaggiest dog in extreme and exaggerated detail (flying around the world, climbing mountains, fending off sabre-toothed tigers, etc); a good teller will be able to stretch the story out to over half an hour. When the winning dog is finally presented, the advertiser takes a look at the dog and states: "I don't think he's so shaggy."

Some shaggy dog stories are actually cleverly constructed stories, frequently interesting in themselves, that culminate in one or more puns whose first meaning is reasonable as part of the story but whose second meaning is a common aphorism, commercial jingle, or other recognizable word or phrase. As with other puns, there may be multiple separate rhyming meanings. Such stories treat the listener or reader with respect. (See: "Upon My Word!", a book by [[Frank Muir]] and [[Denis Norden]], spun off from their long-running BBC radio show [[My Word!]].)

== See also ==
{{wiktionary}}
*[[Anecdote]]
*[[Comedy]]
*[[Comedy genres]]
*[[Computational humor]]
*[[Feghoot]]
*[[Funny]]
*[[Insult]]
*[[Internet humour]]
*[[Pun]]
*[[Punch line]]
*[[Russian jokes]]
*[[The Funniest Joke in the World|Monty Python Lethal Joke]]
*[[World's funniest joke]]
*[[Joke chess problem]]
*[[Taboo]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* [[Mary Douglas]] “Jokes.” ''Rethinking Popular Culture: Contemporary Perspectives in Cultural Studies.'' [1975] Ed. Chandra Mukerji and Michael Schudson. Berkeley: U of California P, 1991.

==Further reading==
*{{cite book | last = Cante | first = Richard C. | title = Gay Men and the Forms of Contemporary US Culture | publisher = Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0 7546 7230 1. Chapter 2: The AIDS Joke as Cultural Form | year = March 2008 | location = London}}

==External links==










*{{dmoz|Recreation/Humor/Jokes/|''Jokes''}} – An active listing of links to jokes.
*[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-58 ''Dictionary of the History of ideas'':] Sense of the Comic

[[Category:Humor]]
[[Category:Jokes|*]]

[[ay:Larusiña yatiyäwi]]
[[bar:Witz]]
[[bs:Vic (humor)]]
[[cs:Vtip]]
[[da:Vittighed]]
[[de:Witz]]
[[et:Nali]]
[[es:Chiste]]
[[eo:Ŝerco]]
[[fr:Blague]]
[[it:Barzelletta]]
[[he:בדיחה]]
[[la:Iocus]]
[[ms:Lawak]]
[[nl:Grap]]
[[ja:ジョーク]]
[[no:Vits]]
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[[wa:Couyonåde]]
[[yi:וויץ]]
[[bat-smg:Joukā]]
[[zh:笑話]]

The Rundown

2008-07-19T21:15:33Z

Owlgorithm: /* Trivia */ add link to minnow

{{Infobox_Film
|name = The Rundown
|image = The Rundown Movie.jpg
|caption = ''The Rundown'' movie poster
|director = [[Peter Berg]]
|producer = [[Vince McMahon]] Marc Abraham Bill Corless Karen Glasser Kevin Misher
|writer = '''Screenplay:''' R.J. Stewart James Vanderbilt '''Story:''' R.J. Stewart
|starring = [[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]] [[Seann William Scott]] [[Rosario Dawson]] [[Christopher Walken]]
|music = [[Harry Gregson-Williams]]
|distributor = [[Universal Pictures]] [[Columbia Pictures]]
|cinematography = Tobias A. Schliessler
|editing = [[Rick Pearson|Richard Pearson]]
|released = [[September 26]], [[2003]]
|runtime = 104 min.
|language = [[English language|English]] [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|budget =$85 million
| gross = '''Domestic:''' $47,726,342 '''Worldwide:''' 
$80,916,492
|mpaa rating =PG-13
|imdb_id = 0327850
}}

'''''The Rundown''''' (also known as '''''Welcome to the Jungle''''') is a [[2003 in film|2003]] [[action film]] starring [[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]] and [[Seann William Scott]] about a [[bounty hunter]] who must head for the [[Amazon Rainforest]] to retrieve his employer's renegade son. It was directed by [[Peter Berg]].

==Plot==
Beck ([[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]]) is a professional [[bag man]] who chooses not to use [[guns]] in his work due to a previous bad experience. He is hired by his boss, Walker, to go to get Walker's son, Travis ([[Sean William Scott]]), from the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazon jungle]]. Beck wants out of the business, and Walker agrees to make this his last job before Beck retires and opens his own restaurant. He heads down to the small South American town of "Helldorado" to find Travis and retrieve him from the mess he is in. The town is run by Hatcher ([[Christopher Walken]]) who owns the town and the people cannot afford not to work for him due to his monopoly.

Beck quickly captures Travis, but Travis escapes with the help of Hatcher. Travis is looking for an ancient golden artifact known as the ''Gato'' that, if the townspeople acquired it, would allow them to buy their freedom from Hatcher, which is why Hatcher wants the Gato and wants Travis free to find it for him. Travis flees into the jungle but is again captured by Beck, and after Travis fails to talk his way out of capture, they in turn run afoul of a group of rebels led by Mariana ([[Rosario Dawson]]), a town clerk with whom Travis is infatuated. Beck agrees to let Travis find the Gato for Mariana before he takes him home, and with the assistance of the rebels, the three find the location of the Gato and retrieve it. Travis is eager to donate the artifact to a museum despite his greedy tendencies, but Mariana incapacitates Travis and Beck with a toxic fruit and takes it, unwilling to allow Travis to keep it.

In the morning, Beck returns to the airstrip to take Travis home, but finds out that Mariana has been captured by Hatcher. Reluctant to leave after his agreement with Mariana, Beck returns to town with Travis. After learning of Beck's return, Hatcher locks down the town and sends his men out to kill him. After being bested by Hatcher's gunmen, Beck reluctantly takes up his own guns and reveals himself as a skilled marksmen, effortlessly dispatching Hatcher's men and freeing Mariana. Hatcher confronts Beck amidst the townspeople and is shot when he attempts to attack Mariana. Agreeing to leave the town, Hatcher attempts to walk away but collapses dead. Beck and Travis return to Walker while Mariana and the townspeople are left the Gato. With Walker, Beck watches as he is paid and Travis is hit and ridiculed by his father. As a sort of toast to his last job, Beck feeds Walker and his men the same toxic fruit that Mariana fed to him, and they collapse in paralysis as an overjoyed Travis leaves with Beck, grateful but still irritating him. The film ends with Beck muttering "I'm gonna kill you" after Travis fakes a punch at him.

==Cast==
* [[The Rock (entertainer)|The Rock]] as Beck
* [[Seann William Scott]] as Travis Alfred Walker
* [[Rosario Dawson]] as Mariana
* [[Christopher Walken]] as Cornelius Bernard Hatcher
* [[Ewen Bremner]] as Declan
* [[Jon Gries]] as Harvey
* [[Ernie Reyes, Jr.]] as Manito

==Reaction==
''The Rundown'' was warmly received by both critics and moviegoers. The film holds a "fresh" 71% on [[Rotten Tomatoes]]. Noted film critic [[Roger Ebert]] gave the film 3 1/2 stars out of 4, saying "The jungle locations give the film a texture and beauty that underlines the outsized characters." Despite the positive acclaim, the modest box office take for the film makes the likelihood of a sequel possible but not entirely likely. Director Peter Berg has expressed interest in making a sequel to the film but notes that "no one can ever get motivated and focused enough to do it."[http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=37397]

==Trivia==
{{trivia|date=August 2007}}
*The film's working titles were ''Helldorado'' and ''Welcome to the Jungle'', both of which are referenced in the film. After arriving in the [[Amazon Rainforest|Amazon]], Beck passes a sign that reads "Helldorado", and in the jungle, Travis says "Welcome to the jungle!" It kept the title ''Welcome to the Jungle'' in some territories, such as the [[United Kingdom]], [[Denmark]], [[South Korea]], [[Norway]], [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[Switzerland]], [[Austria]], [[France]] (as ''Bienvenue dans la jungle''), [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], [[India]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Brazil]] (as ''Bem Vindo à Selva''), and [[Poland]] (as ''Witajcie w Dżungli''). In [[Mexico]], the film is known as ''El Tesoro del Amazonas'' ("The Treasure of the Amazon") and in [[Russia]] as ''Сокровища Амазонки'' ("The Treasures of the Amazon").
*The film was planned to be shot in the Amazon, but after the crew got robbed in the jungle, they decided to shoot it in [[Hawaii]] instead.
*The football clips shown when Beck is describing the offensive linemen in the club are not [[NFL]] clips, but rather clips from [[Vince McMahon|Vince McMahon's]] [[XFL]].
*[[Arnold Schwarzenegger]] makes a [[cameo appearance|cameo]] at the start of the film. The Rock's character is walking into a nightclub about to confront a group of professional [[American football|football]] players. Schwarzenegger passes by and says to The Rock, "Have fun". Arnold Schwarzenegger was campaigning in the California gubernatorial election during the filming of the film.
*During the fight with the football players, The Rock delivers a [[Powerslam#Side_slam|Rock Bottom]] to one of the players, his finishing move as a wrestler.
*The name of the fish Beck calls a "[[penis]]-eating [[minnow]]" is the [[candirú]].
*Baboons are [[Old World monkey]]s and are native to Africa, not the Amazon.
*The poem "[[Do not go gentle into that good night]]" is referenced multiple times, both quoted by Declan and by the tattoos on the insides of Beck's arms.
* Recently The Rock's character "Beck" was named 6 out of 10 best movie bounty hunters by Empire Magazine.
*A special feature on the DVD is called "Appetite for Destruction". [[Guns 'N Roses]]' debut album ''[[Appetite for Destruction]]'' features the song "Welcome to the Jungle", the original title of the film.
*Declan enters into the town while playing a Scottish tune called "Highland Laddie". When it shows him strike up again, his fingers are not in snyc with the playing or in any actual note postition.
*The film was originally shot and concieved with an "R" rating in mind. Most original scenes (ie the shootings, the beatings, etc) were at first bloodier and more brutal. It was then decided to cut the film back to PG-13 for more commercial reasons. It is unknown if an unrated version will ever be released.

==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0327850|title=The Rundown}}
*{{rotten-tomatoes|id=rundown|title=The Rundown}}
*{{mojo title|id=rundown|title=The Rundown}}

{{Box Office Leaders USA
| before = [[Underworld (2003 film) |Underworld]]
| date = September 28
| year = 2003
| after = [[The School of Rock]]
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rundown, The}}

{{Peter Berg}}

[[Category:2003 films]]
[[Category:Buddy films]]
[[Category:WWE Films]]
[[Category:Films directed by Peter Berg]]

[[bg:Добре дошли в джунглата]]
[[de:Welcome to the Jungle]]
[[fr:Bienvenue dans la jungle]]
[[it:Il Tesoro dell'Amazzonia]]
[[pt:The Rundown]]
[[sr:Добродошли у џунглу]]
[[sv:The Rundown]]

Miller columns

2008-07-19T19:31:25Z

Owlgorithm: /* Popularizing the Column Browser */ added link, edit a few words for accuracy

{{Refimprove|date=April 2008}}

[[Image:GNUstep-liveCD.png|right|thumb|300px|A Miller Column browser as implemented by [[GNUstep]]. It incorporates a [[Shelf (computing)|Shelf]].]]
[[Image:ColumnBrowseInOSX10.2.8.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A Miller Column browser as implemented by [[Mac OS X]] 10.2.8. The toolbar is not a shelf, only storing [[Symbolic link|symlinks]].]]

'''Miller Columns''' are a [[File_manager#Navigational_file_manager|browsing]]/[[visualization]] technique that can be applied to [[Tree (data structure)|tree structures]]. The columns allow multiple levels of the hierarchy to be open at once, and provide a visual representation of the current location. It is closely related to techniques used earlier in the [[Smalltalk]] browser, but was independently invented by [[Mark S. Miller]] in [[1980]] at [[Yale University]]{{Fact|date=April 2008}}. The technique was then used at [[Project Xanadu]], [[Datapoint]], and [[NeXT]].

While at Datapoint, Miller generalized the technique to browse directed graphs with labeled [[Node (computer science)|nodes]] and directed graphs with labeled nodes and arcs{{Fact|date=April 2008}}. In all cases, the technique is appropriate only for structures with high degree (large fanout). For low-degree structures, outline editors or graph viewers are more effective.

==Popularizing the Column Browser==
Miller Columns are most well known today as the "Columns" view of the [[Mac OS X]] [[Macintosh Finder|Finder]], as well as the "Browser" view in [[iTunes]].
The Columns in Finder descend directly from the [[NeXTSTEP]] File Viewer's use of Miller Columns going back to [[1986]]. The [[GNUstep]] project continues to offer a Miller column browser that closely follows the NeXT approach, bringing the advantages of a Column browser to [[Linux]], [[BSD]], and other [[Operating system|operating systems]] with large tree structures. The [[iPod]]'s browsing of categories and audio file tag attributes is reminiscent of column browsing, but only one column is visible at a time. Many software [[music players]] implement a "tag browsing" feature that utilizes Miller columns.

==See also==
*[[Shelf (computing)|Shelf]]: NeXT GUI element that can be combined with Columns to make a file manager

== External links ==
*[http://www.cocoatech.com Path Finder] a file system viewer similar to the Finder
*[http://www.bayernline.de/~gscholz/linux/fsviewer/ FSViewer] a GNU file system viewer similar to NeXT's Workspace Manager
*[http://www.rbrowser.com RBrowser] a Miller Column FTP browser that started on NeXTSTEP
*[http://www.kaleidoscope.net/greg/browser.html Greg's Browser] a NeXT-inspired column browser for the [[MacOS]] that predates Mac OS X

[[Category:Graphical user interface]]
[[Category:File managers]]
[[Category:NeXT]]
[[Category:Mac OS X user interface]]

Talk:Alligator

2008-07-19T18:45:31Z

Owlgorithm: /* What does alligator meat taste like? */ one interpretation of NPOV

{{talkheader}}
{{AARTalk
|class=B
|importance=Mid
|small=no
|needs-taxobox=no
|needs-photo=no
|attention=no
}}
{{WPCD-animals}}
{{WP1.0|v0.7=pass|class=B|category=Natsci|importance=|small=yes}}
{{archive box|
#[[/Archive 1|Oct 2006 - May 2008]]}}

== What does alligator meat taste like? ==

Responding to the recent spate of edits, especially [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alligator&diff=226468414&oldid=226371551] by Bob98133. What is a good source for the taste of alligator meat, then? Does this "fact" even need to be in the article? If the exotic meat-seller is a not a source for the taste of alligator meat, why do we still have a list of foods alligator meat is used in (the currently unsourced statement in the article came from the same .pdf)? - [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] ([[User talk:Enuja|talk]]) 02:09, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

:Should probably see if Ernest A. Liner, author of [http://books.google.com/books?id=QXa129zWDcUC&pg=PA133&lpg=PA133&dq=taste+of+alligator+meat&source=web&ots=mevyVpZDiL&sig=ZUmnXF8Z_F3YaZCqZ0Lyx1ZvfwA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=4&ct=result#PPP1,M1 The Culinary Herpetologist](!) has ever written anything on the subject of the taste ;-p [[User:Mfield|Mfield]] ([[User talk:Mfield|talk]]) 06:13, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

:I thought originally that the exotic meat seller would be a good source because they would be most in contact with the meat itself and with those who consume it, but the "Culinary Herpetologist" book sounds more promising. The problem, as I was informed because of my other edits, exists in the fact that comparing tastes can only ever be considered an opinion. Undoubtedly I have heard many people say alligator meat tastes like chicken -- I have heard it, I have experienced it. "That I have heard it" is the fact. Its taste is subjective. At least, that's my current understanding. So, the exotic meat seller would have an interest in selling its product, and ordinary sources might be too subjective. I hope we can figure something out, though, because there are many people who are curious what alligator would taste like who will never find out for themselves. There's more at [[WP:NPOV]], if someone will offer another interpretation. [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm|talk]]) 18:45, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

User talk:Owlgorithm

2008-07-19T18:32:34Z

Owlgorithm: /* Welcome */ thanks for tutorials

I have recently introduced POV into several articles regarding the taste of chicken. Please do not issue me a vandalism warning! It was not my intention to hurt Wikipedia in any way, and I am currently working to remove it. If you have found some that I have not yet corrected, please let me know here and I will remove it posthaste.

== A note about WP:AIV ==

Hi, Owlgorithm. I wanted to leave you a note about your recent report to [[WP:AIV]] (you reported {{User|99.7.44.215}} ). I declined the report, because the editor behind the IP hasn't edited in nearly four days, which is insufficient recent activity to justify a block. Please remember that blocks are to prevent further damage to Wikipedia, and not a form of punishment. Toward that end, only vandals that are currently vandalizing and that have already been properly warned should be reported to AIV. Don't think that I'm upset with you, or anything of the sort. I'm just letting you know how you can help make anti-vandal work more efficient. Regards, [[User:Parsecboy|Parsecboy]] ([[User talk:Parsecboy|talk]]) 02:13, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

==CfD nomination of [[:Category:Tastes like chicken]]==
I have nominated {{lc|Tastes like chicken}} for deletion. Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at [[Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Log/2008 July 17#Category:Tastes like chicken|the discussion page]]. Thank you. — [[User talk:Jwillbur|jwillbur]] 17:36, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

:Your <nowiki>[[:Category:Tastes like chicken]]</nowiki>, while amusing, might be considered [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]] in some quarters, and has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]]. Thanks for the laugh, tho. Cool username, too. (Do you run on [[spotted owl]]s?) =] [[User:Trekphiler|TREKphiler]] [[User talk:Trekphiler|hit me ♠ ]] 21:05 & 21:06, 17 July 2008 (UTC)
::Thanks! I took the name from [[Rice University]] and my course of study there. Thanks for the input about the category, too -- I'm glad it was at least good for a laugh, because I didn't expect it to be so useless to Wikipedia itself. Hopefully it won't take too long to fix :-) [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm#top|talk]]) 22:56, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

:::I admire your nerve. I've been tempted to leave cute stuff, but there are so many humorless trolls who won't even leave (half-serious!) gags in article footnotes.... [[User:Trekphiler|TREKphiler]] [[User talk:Trekphiler|hit me ♠ ]] 00:03, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

== July 2008 ==

<s>[[Image:Information.png|25px]] The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fried_spider?diff=226326495 recent edit] you made to [[:Fried spider]] constitutes [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]], and has been reverted. Please do not continue to vandalize pages; use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] for testing. Thanks.  [[User:MattieTK|Mattie]][[User talk:MattieTK|TK]] 21:42, 17 July 2008 (UTC)</s>
Hi mate. I've stricken the warning from the record as the edit you made did not really constitute [[WP:VANDALISM|vandalism]]. However, it did introduce problems with [[WP:NPOV|POV]] which you should always aim to address in future edits. In case you have not already checked there is also a reply regarding you category on my talk page. Thanks again, [[User:MattieTK|Mattie]][[User talk:MattieTK|TK]] 22:08, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

==Barnstars 'R' U==
{| style="border: 1px solid {{{border|gray}}}; background-color: {{{color|#fdffe7}}};"
|rowspan="2" valign="middle" | [[Image:Original_Barnstar.png|100px]]
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Hidden Page Barnstar'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | I award '''you''' one for finding [[User:Trekphiler|Trekphiler]]'s page for people who always think that "new message" bar is real. Aren't you glad you checked your mail? [[User:Trekphiler|TREKphiler]] [[User talk:Trekphiler|hit me ♠ ]] 00:03, 18 July 2008 (UTC)
|} 

== Welcome ==

You've got quite a few things on your talk page already, but no explicit Welcome. The links in the regular welcome template might be helpful to you, so I've put it below.

'''Welcome!'''

Hello, {{BASEPAGENAME}}, and [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome]] to Wikipedia! Thank you for [[Special:Contributions/{{BASEPAGENAME}}|your contributions]]{{#if:|, especially what you did for [[{{{art}}}]]|}}. I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Here are some pages that you might find helpful:
*[[Wikipedia:Five pillars|The five pillars of Wikipedia]]
*[[Wikipedia:Tutorial|Tutorial]]
*[[Wikipedia:How to edit a page|How to edit a page]]
*[[Wikipedia:Article development|How to write a great article]]
*[[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|Manual of Style]]
I hope you enjoy editing here and being a [[Wikipedia:Wikipedians|Wikipedian]]! Please [[Wikipedia:Signatures|sign]] your messages on [[Wikipedia:talk page|discussion page]]s using four [[tilde]]s (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>); this will automatically insert your username and the date. If you need help, check out [[Wikipedia:Questions]], ask me on {{#if:|[[user talk:{{{1}}}|my talk page]]|my talk page}}, or ask your question on this page and then place <code><nowiki>{{helpme}}</nowiki></code> before the question. Again, welcome!  - [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] ([[User talk:Enuja|talk]]) 02:36, 18 July 2008 (UTC)

I noticed your edits to [[Alligator]] in the first place because I have it [[Help:Watching pages|watched]]. Therefore, I also saw your recent edit [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AAlligator&diff=226374185&oldid=224502499]. In the future, please try to avoid deleting any comments on [[WP:Talk|talk pages]]. It is possible to [[WP:Archive|archive]] old talk instead. I didn't revert your edit because, in this case, it really doesn't matter, but please keep this in mind in the future. - [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] ([[User talk:Enuja|talk]]) 03:11, 18 July 2008 (UTC)
:Thank you for pointing this out. I am embarrassed that there are so many things I don't know! I am learning to contribute content, which is new for me because I have previously only made minor edits like spelling and grammar (although I didn't even mark them "minor" because I didn't know to...). Anyway, thank you for these hints and for the links to the tutorials, which I am going to read so I won't keep causing trouble. Thank you! [[User:Owlgorithm|Owlgorithm]] ([[User talk:Owlgorithm#top|talk]]) 18:32, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

Talk:Alligator

2008-07-18T02:51:45Z

Owlgorithm: /* Vandalism */ question has been addressed

{{AARTalk
|class=B
|importance=Mid
|small=no
|needs-taxobox=no
|needs-photo=no
|attention=no
}}
{{WPCD-animals}}
{{WP1.0|v0.7=pass|class=B|category=Natsci|importance=|small=yes}}

== ziz-zag myth ==

"There is no documented evidence of alligators running after human beings to prey upon them. Also, there is no basis to the myth that you should run in zig-zag patterns to avoid a charging alligator. If you do find yourself in the extremely unlikely position of avoiding a lunging alligator, you should run in a straight line away from the alligator and it's habitat, which is where the alligator will most likely retreat to."

[http://myfwc.com/gators/faq.htm Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission FAQ]

OKAY. IF YOU HAVE TO RUN FROM AN ALLIGATOR, YOU SHOULD BE AT LEAST 11 FEET AWAY FROM IT TO BEGIN WITH BECAUSE THEY CAN JUMP(LUNGE) 10 FEET. AND YES.. RUN IN A STRAIGHT LINE.

== rant ==

There should be some standard for articles.

== Added Farming Paragraph ==
I am no longer "with it" on Wiki editing rules. Will some kind expert continue to improve my efforts? Thanks
[[User:Phillipsacp|Phil]] [[User talk:Phillipsacp|talk]] 20:42, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Sorry but the how to survive an aligator attack is just stupid.

My favorite line:

"Alligators' mouths are covered in '''rotting flesh'''', making them breeding grounds for deadly pathogens. '''To avoid gangrene or other maladies, ingest powerful antibiotics, or, if unavailable, cauterize your wounds with fire.'''"

Why go to the hospital when i can down a bottle of cipro and burn off my arm.

Tomorrow I'm gonna write add an article on '''fart burning'''

== needs work ==

It would be great to have some information like: where they live, what they eat, how long they live, social and/or family structure, etc. The bit on surving an alligator attack might belong in a long article (if it was totally rewritten), but let's get some basic information before the sensationalistic crap.

Stupid question :I heard they are dinosaurus?

2nd question . What is the difference with crocs?

A1: They were around with the dinos, but they are not.

A2: Different families, jaw shape, other, see [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/natsci/herpetology/brittoncrocs/cbd-faq-q1.htm interesting article].

How dangerous are alligators? Are they less dangerous than sea crocodiles? What is the alligator population of Florida? Other states? How about an article on alligator wrastlin'.

Question 1 - The males are called 'bitches'. What are female and young alligators called?

A1: Bulls.

They're defintely NOT dinosaurs, and believe it or not, ''birds'' ''ARE'' dinosaurs! And see the crocodile talk pages for a list differences I wrote. [[User:211.72.108.19|211.72.108.19]] 07:21, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

== How do gators manage to find their way? ==

How do gator every now and then manage to find their way into the Metro Atlanta area? Some say they make it up the fall line, other say through irrigation systems.

== Were's the diet? ==

There is no paragraph on diet, why is that?
I stand corrected.What are they talking about!!!

== biggness? ==
are they reallty as big as the article says? seems hard to swalow--[[Image:Flag of Texas.svg|20px]][[User:TexYokal|'''Tex''']][[User talk:TexYokal|talk]] 16:21, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

:Record size animals are far from the norm. Male American alligators are typically closer to 4 m (13 foot) and females around 3 m (10 foot) at maximum size... of course, there are many more smaller animals than those at maximum growth, so the average size is probably much lower. The Chinese alligator is even smaller, at 2 m (6.5 foot). -[[User:Dawson|Dawson]] 17:35, 10 June 2006 (UTC)

the article is way off as far as average "mean" sizes go...at 8 foot femal is way above average and a 10 foot male is fully grown, dont get me wrong they get bigger but those are average LARGE gators the average gator making up most of the2-4 million gator population is about 5-6 feet with that size going down every year. These are florida numbers by the way, Check Myfwc.com for more information abou alligators and crocs and living with them

== Sewers ==

culverts and under road ways yes its true they are under the roads

:No. See snopes: [http://www.snopes.com/critters/lurkers/gator.htm Snopes]. :) -[[User:Dawson|Dawson]] 06:50, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

== Removed text about Alligators using their tails to push humans towards their jaws ==
I removed this reference because it is not supported by either of the references listed for the article, or by any other reference I could find and I found it less than credible.
[[User:Rusty Cashman|Rusty Cashman]] 03:03, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

== Adding on ==

Alligators tails are for swimming, NOT pushing prey toward thier mouths.They would bite thier tails.(Ouch!)

== Farming ==
Added this paragraph. I am not "with in" on Wiki editing. Please dress it up. Thanks

== Suspect Fact in the Habitat Section ==
This section states that only the USA has both crocodiles and alligators. I think that what it means is that only in the USA do crocodiles and alligators live in the same areas, because China also has both alligators and crocodiles, albeit in different regions. I'll change it.
:Now it says "There are only two countries on Earth that have alligators: the United States and China." That must be false, since alligators are found in many Latin American countries. —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:163.1.16.63|163.1.16.63]] ([[User talk:163.1.16.63|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/163.1.16.63|contribs]]){{#if:{{{2|}}}| {{{2}}}|}}.
::The current language which you've quoted is factually correct. There are members of [[Alligatoridae]] in South and central america, but they are caiman instead of alligators. [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] 19:38, 26 May 2007 (UTC)

===Bite me===
How many teeth have they got? More or fewer than [[crocodile|croc]]s? [[User:Trekphiler|Marlin Perkins]] 19 February 2007 (UTC)

==Citation needed==

I cleaned up a somewhat clumsy paragraph on the age that gators can reach, but was unable to find a citation in English for the part regarding a 70-year-old alligator in the Belgrade Zoo. I left the item and added a citation needed tag. Anybody have any ideas? [[User:Woodstein52|Where Anne hath a will, Anne Hathaway.]] 00:23, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

== Differentiation ==

The section on the differences between alligators and crocodiles needs to be much improved. To say that they are as different as humans are to gorillas is saying nothing. They are of the same family, right? So, tell me how they are different. [[User:JohnJHenderson|JJ]] 23:38, 20 April 2007 (UTC)

Do they have the same physiology as crocodiles? i.e. four chambered heart, diaphragm Etc.--[[User:Teletran|Teletran]] 04:17, 27 April 2007 (UTC)
:JohnJHenderson (JJ) is referring to an addition to [[Alligatoridae]], not to anything on this page. But, to answer your question, yes, the basic physiology of crocodilians is the same. In fact, comparative physiologists do studies on the most convient speices, not on any species in particular, although the only source I know of for their cardiac similarity is
::Webb, G.J.W. (1979). Comparative cardiac anatomy of the Reptilia. III. The heart of crocodilians and an hypothesis on the completion of the interventricular septum of crocodilians and brids. ''Journal of Morphology.'' 161, 221-240.
:However, none of them have a diaphragm; they do have a muscle that is analogous to the diaphragm, but it's called the "diaphramaticus" because it isn't homologous to the diaphragm. In other words, it has a separate evolutionary origin. Also, the function of the diaphramaticus is still under study. [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] 16:07, 27 April 2007 (UTC)

==A Question==

This page is repeatedly -- and I mean, repeatedly, almost every day -- vandalized with childish sexual innuendo and webspeak. These edits are, of course, always done by anons. I mean, it gives me something to do, but might it be worth it to try and get this page protected from anonymous editing for a little while? I'm not really sure how that is done or if this even qualifies for such measures. Please feel free to chime in. Thanks. [[User:Woodstein52|Where Anne hath a will, Anne Hathaway.]] 06:36, 2 May 2007 (UTC)

==Vandalism==

== Alligator Question ==

If lightning were to strike the water surface near an alligator, is the alligator harmed? Is there evidence of alligator deaths due to lightning strikes?

Bob —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment was added by [[User:69.19.14.25|69.19.14.25]] ([[User talk:69.19.14.25|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/69.19.14.25|contribs]]){{#if:14:13, 6 July 200| 14:13, 6 July 200|}}.

==Apex?==
The article says that alligators are the apex predator in their habitat and that they sometimes prey on bears and cougers. This is misleading as Black Bears prey on quite sizeable alligators pretty regularly. I know this from talking to Everglades guides thirty years ago but I doubt that this has changed all that much. Will in New Haven [[User:71.234.42.229|71.234.42.229]] 19:11, 4 August 2007 (UTC)

== alligators in memphis? ==

How about people stop putting storiess which are just amazing phenomonoms in the article. Alligators have a hard time sustaining life in SE Arkansas and Central MS, every year their range will fluxuate by winter temperatures. The University of Georgia did a great research project on this. Once believed that alligators could not live in the Southern piedmont region(includes most of Atlanta Metro) because the increase in elevation from the fall line. Now the region expierences milder winters comparable to that of central MS but however it was extremly rare to find any alligators until well south of Macon. From the years of 1997 to 2005, 6 alligator sightings were reported in and around the Metro Atlanta area. What had happened in those year the area saw avg winter temps. running 5 to 10 degrees above normal. Memphis is just to cold to sustain alligators, have you forgot how common small bodies of water freeze over from dec.- early march in the Memphis area. Snow and temps. that hover below 20 will kill an alligator. Living in Memphis that happened every year, a string of mild winters will allow alligators to move further and further north. Think back to the fire ants issue. They had been living in areas from Southern Virginia to the Dallas area way before they got to memphis. I'll have to find that project and post a link to it, but in the mean time correct it. {{unsigned|168.18.147.67|17:54, 16 August 2007}}
:To me, the current language in the article does indicate that alligators in Memphis are strange as opposed to normal, and there are references included. A published scientific article reference would be better, and feel free to edit the article yourself, using the reference and altering the language in the article, but I'm not going to edit that section for you. [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] 18:29, 16 August 2007 (UTC)

== Eyes ==
At the beginning of the article, it says the eyes of adult alligators glow red, while those of the young glow green. However, in the section on differences between alligators and crocodiles, its says crocs have green eyes while alligators have brown. Contradiction?

Also, the second paragraph in the reproduction section makes no sense. If older alligators kill the babies as stated earlier, why would there be more babies if the hunting of alligators has been outlawed? [[User:Mapjc|Mapjc]] 14:27, 28 August 2007 (UTC)
:Feel free to remove all contributions, and leave (or add) facts cited to reliable sources. I keep meaning to go through and edit the article, but I keep not getting to it. As your listing of contradictions shows, it needs some serious help. [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] 02:20, 29 August 2007 (UTC)

:I'm doubting that alligators' eyes ''glow'' - I expect, as with many animal species, they shine or reflect light. But I really doubt they actually glow. Under normal light, they may have green or brown eyes, but if you've ever seen an animal at night, their eyes normally reflect - usually silverish - but they could look reddish due to the blood in the eye, and may appear to glow. It's not an independent light source - they don't shine without a light source. I don't know about alligators - I've never seen one at night, and I'm not suggesting any non-wiki type independent research. [[User:Skritek|gnomelock]] 02:52, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

Have Alligators really brown eyes and Crocodiles green eyes?

==Speed ==
There has been some recent editing activity about the top speed of alligators. I said I'd find a reference for their top land speed, but I'm not having a lot of luck, and I even found a website that said "we know of no one who has measured the land speed of alligators." This wikipedia article recently said that their top speed was 30 mph, and it cited as a reference an everglades national park webpage [http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/gator.htm#size]. That website has numerous errors. The NPS site says the top speed of alligators is "30 miles per hour (38 kph)" but 30 mph = 48kph. It also says "Alligators feed most often when temperatures are between 73-90°F (20-23°C). " but, of course, 90F is 32C. The NPS page (and this article, until recently) said that an alligator's fastest gait is the "high walk" but peer reviewed literature (Stephen M. Reilly and Jason A. Elias 1998. Locomotion in ''Alligator mississippiensis'': kinematic effects of speed and posture and their relevance to the sprawling-to-erect paradigm. The Journal of Experimental Biology 201, 2559–2574) says that alligator's fastest gait is the gallop. I can't find anyone measureing a top galloping speed for alligators, but [[Freshwater Crocodile|''Crocodylus johnstoni'']] has been clocked at 17mph, and, while I haven't read that paper (it is in the peer reviewed literature) that was a top speed. I don't think it passes wikipedia's reliable source guideline, but the crocodilian biology database has an excellent page on just this issue. [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/cnhc/cbd-faq-q4.htm]. Any ideas on how we should address alligator speed? Personally, I'd just leave it out, but, especially as it appears that there is a lot of false information around about alligator speed, it probably makes sense to put something in. [[User:Enuja|Enuja]] [[User talk:Enuja|(talk)]] 05:22, 1 September 2007 (UTC)
Gators may have green yellow or blood red eyes when they are shinned at night it all depends on the animal —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/65.33.73.228|65.33.73.228]] ([[User talk:65.33.73.228|talk]]) 15:45, 3 December 2007 (UTC) 

"Southwest Oklahoma. . . "?——"American Alligators are found in the subtropical southeast US: all of Florida and Louisiana; the southern parts of Georgia, Alabama and Mississipi; coastal South and North Carolina; Southeastern Texas and in extreme southwest Oklahoma and Arkansas." Uh, no. They are in southeastern Oklahoma, conceivably, where the rivers run on down into Louisiana, but never in southwestern Oklahoma.~~ —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Landrumkelly|Landrumkelly]] ([[User talk:Landrumkelly|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Landrumkelly|contribs]]) 05:08, 29 December 2007 (UTC) 

== ''While alligators are often confused with crocodiles, they belong to two quite separate taxonomic families, and are as distinct from one another as humans are from gorillas.'' ==

???????????? [[User:Noahwoo|Noahwoo]] ([[User talk:Noahwoo|talk]]) 19:35, 29 December 2007 (UTC)

Per discussion on [[Talk:Crocodile]], it is proposed to split the differences between A & C section of into a separate article which can be linked from both articles. I'll do it if enough people agree. [[User:Mfield|Mfield]] ([[User talk:Mfield|talk]]) 21:22, 23 May 2008 (UTC)

:Their a bit more distinct than we are from gorillas. The croc-alligator divergence is about as deep as the human-whale split! [[User:Mark t young|Mark t young]] ([[User talk:Mark t young|talk]]) 21:29, 23 May 2008 (UTC)

== Etymology and Shakespeare ==

Mention first written use of 'alligator' was by Shakespeare? http://www.bartleby.com/61/22/A0212200.html among other sources some that even claim Shakespeare invented the anglicized version. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/68.127.29.206|68.127.29.206]] ([[User talk:68.127.29.206|talk]]) 02:53, 9 February 2008 (UTC) 

== Far too many images ==

This article now contains far too many images, a lot of which are unencyclopedic and duplicate each other. Also the formatting has been destroyed by people adding them in inappropriate places. I'm gonna go through it and rationalize them. The rest can be/are linked via the wikimedia commons link. [[User:Mfield|Mfield]] ([[User talk:Mfield|talk]]) 21:52, 7 May 2008 (UTC)

Golden Raspberry Awards

2008-07-18T02:39:32Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ add link to Darwin Awards

{{Infobox award
| name =
| image = GoldenRazzie_Logo.PNG
| imagesize = 159px
| caption = Razzie Award Logo
| current_awards =
| description = Worst in [[film]]
| presenter = Golden Raspberry Award Foundation
| country = [[United States]]
| year = 1981
| website = http://www.razzies.com/
}}
The '''Golden Raspberry Awards''' or '''Razzies''', first awarded in [[1981]], were created by [[John Wilson (Golden Raspberry)|John Wilson]] in [[1980]], intended to counterpoint the [[Academy Award]]s by dishonoring the worst acting, screenwriting, songwriting, directing, and films that the film industry had to offer. It usually takes the form of a plastic raspberry spray-painted gold and mounted on a plastic base - nominally valued at approximately $4.89 (£2.48).<ref>[http://www.razzies.com/history/28thNoms.asp Razzies© 2007 Nominees]</ref>
Current awards are voted upon by the membership of the Golden Raspberry Award Foundation (GRAF), and membership is openly available to the public, as opposed to the Academy Awards. Traditionally, nominations are announced one day before the Motion Picture Academy announces its Oscar nominations, and the awards are presented one day before the Oscar ceremony, as a complement to the Oscars.

The term ''[[wiktionary:raspberry|raspberry]]'' is used in its irreverent sense, as in "[[blowing a raspberry]]."

== Categories ==

The Official Categories of the '''Razzies''' are:
* '''[[Razzie Award for Worst Picture|Worst Picture]]'''
* '''Worst Director'''
* '''[[Razzie Award for Worst Actor|Worst Actor]]'''
* '''[[Razzie Award for Worst Actress|Worst Actress]]'''
* '''Worst Supporting Actor'''
* '''Worst Supporting Actress'''
* '''Worst Screen Couple'''
* '''Worst Screenplay'''
* '''Worst Prequel or Sequel'''
* '''Worst Remake or Rip-off'''
* '''Worst New Star''' (This category is now rarely awarded.)
* '''Worst Original Song''' (This category is now rarely awarded.)

=== Special categories ===
Over the years, Special categories have also been introduced and are handed out only once for the year it was introduced. Such special awards include Worst Reckless Disregard for Human Life and Public Property (1997), Most Flatulent Teen-Targeted Movie (2002), Worst Excuse for an Actual Movie (All Concept/No Content!) (2003), Most Tiresome Tabloid Targets (2005), Worst Excuse For Family Entertainment (2006), Worst Excuse for a Horror Movie (2007) and others.

== Other types of awards ==
Over the years, the Golden Raspberry Awards have awarded special awards next to the actual Razzie Awards as well.

=== Worst Career Achievement Award ===
This award was given only four times, in 1981, 1983, 1985, and 1987, to [[Ronald Reagan]], [[Linda Blair]], [[Irwin Allen]], and "Bruce the Rubber Shark" from [[Jaws (film)|''Jaws'']].<ref>http://razzies.com/asp/content/XcNewsPlus.asp?cmd=view&articleid=14, visited 2007-04-30.</ref> 

=== Governor's Award ===
This is a special award given by Razzie Award Governor John Wilson to an individual whose achievements are not covered by the Razzie's other categories. It was awarded in 2003 to Travis Payne for "Distinguished Under-Achievement in Choreography" in the film ''[[From Justin to Kelly]]''.

==Stars who have accepted the award==
Many actors, directors, and producers have been awarded a Golden Raspberry. In a few cases, some of the winners have accepted their award in person, although only three have done so at the award ceremony itself:

* [[1987 in film|1987]]: [[Bill Cosby]] won three Razzie Awards for Worst Picture, Worst Actor, and Worst Screenplay for ''[[Leonard Part 6]]'', a botched spoof of spy flicks that Cosby himself had condemned on several talk shows. With the condition that his trophies be made of 24 carat gold and Italian marble,<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0093405/trivia ''Leonard - Part 6''] trivia at the Internet Movie Database</ref> Cosby became the first person to personally accept his Razzies, which he did a few weeks after the actual ceremony on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]'s ''The Late Show''.

* [[1992 in film|1992]]: [[Tom Selleck]] accepted his Razzie for Worst Supporting Actor for his performance as King Ferdinand of Spain in ''[[Christopher Columbus: The Discovery]]'' during an episode of ''[[The Chevy Chase Show]]''.

* [[1995 in film|1995]]: Director [[Paul Verhoeven]] became the first actual winner to show up at the Razzie ceremony, when he personally accepted his award for Worst Director for the film ''[[Showgirls]]''. He also accepted the Worst Picture Award for ''[[Showgirls]]''.

* [[1997 in film|1997]]: [[Screenwriter]] [[Brian Helgeland]] became the first person to win a Razzie and an Oscar in the same year. He won the [[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Best Adapted Screenplay]] Academy Award for ''[[L.A. Confidential (film)|L.A. Confidential]]'' and the Razzie for Worst Screenplay for [[Kevin Costner]]'s ''[[The Postman (film)|The Postman]]''. He did not attend the Razzie ceremony, but wanted to have the Razzie to display it next to his Oscar to remind him of "the quixotic nature" of Hollywood. He was later officially presented his Razzie at his offices on the [[Warner Bros.]] lot.

* [[1999 in film|1999]]: ''[[Wild Wild West]]'' earned five Razzies (including Worst Picture) that year. [[Robert Conrad]], who starred in the 1960s ''[[The Wild Wild West]]'' television series and despised the film version, accepted three of the five Razzies.

* [[2000 in film|2000]]: Although he didn't officially accept the award, [[Barry Pepper]] stated (after the fact) that had he known he was going to win the 2000 Razzie Award for Worst Supporting Actor (which he did win, for ''[[Battlefield Earth (film)|Battlefield Earth]]''), he would have gladly shown up at the Razzie ceremony and accepted the honor in person. <ref>[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0001608/bio Barry Pepper - Biography]</ref>

* [[2001 in film|2001]]: [[Tom Green]] accepted all five of his Razzie Awards, including Worst Picture, for ''[[Freddy Got Fingered]]''. He declared, "I want to say I didn't deserve this any more than anyone else here... dear God, I want to say that. I don't think it would be true, though." He turned up in a white Cadillac and brought his own length of [[red carpet]]. Green's speech included a never-ending piece of music played on the harmonica, and he was eventually dragged off stage.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/entertainment/2002/oscars_2002/1889555.stm ''Green gets fingered for Razzies''] at BBC News</ref>

* [[2003 in film|2003]]: [[Ben Affleck]], after winning Worst Actor for his work in ''[[Gigli]]'', ''[[Daredevil (film)|Daredevil]]'', and ''[[Paycheck (film)|Paycheck]]'', asked why he did not get his trophy. He was presented the Razzie live on ''[[Larry King Live]]'' a week later, which he promptly broke. The broken Razzie was sold on [[eBay]] for enough money to cover the hall rental for the next year's ceremonies.

* [[2004 in film|2004]]: [[Halle Berry]] gave an acceptance speech at the Razzie ceremony, clutching her Oscar ([[2002]] Best Actress for ''[[Monster's Ball]]'') in one hand and her Razzie in the other.<ref>[http://video.bravotv.com/player/?id=171874#videoid=171506 Interview with Halle Berry] explaining why she attended the ceremony.</ref> Berry had won the award for worst actress for her performance in ''[[Catwoman (film)|Catwoman]]''. Shortly afterwards, John Wilson released a statement to the press praising Halle Berry's other performances and stating that he looks forward to Berry giving other [[Academy Award|Oscar]]-worthy performances.

==Razzie/Oscar connection==

* The only two actors to be nominated for an Oscar and Razzie for the same performance are [[James Coco]] for ''[[Only When I Laugh (film)|Only When I Laugh]]'' in [[1982 in film|1982]] and [[Amy Irving]] for ''[[Yentl]]'' in [[1984 in film|1984]]. Neither won either award.

* [[Jack Nicholson]] was nominated for Worst Actor (for both ''[[Hoffa]]'' and ''[[Man Trouble (film)|Man Trouble]])'' in 1992. That same year, he was also nominated for Best Supporting Actor at the Oscars for ''[[A Few Good Men]]''.

* [[Uma Thurman]] was nominated for Worst Actress (for ''[[Even Cowgirls Get the Blues (film)|Even Cowgirls Get the Blues]]'') in 1994. That same year, she was also nominated for Best Supporting Actress at the Oscars for ''[[Pulp Fiction (film)|Pulp Fiction]]''.

* [[Daryl Hannah]] won the Razzie for Worst Supporting Actress for her role in ''[[Wall Street (film)|Wall Street]]'' in 1987. Her co-star [[Michael Douglas]], meanwhile, won the Oscar for Best Actor for his role in that film.

*[[Tom Cruise]] starred in the Worst Picture winner ''[[Cocktail (film)|Cocktail]]'' and co-starred in the Best Picture Oscar winner ''[[Rain Man]]'' in 1988.

* [[Christopher Walken]] and [[Alec Baldwin]] were both nominated for an Oscar for Best Supporting Actor and a Razzie for Worst Supporting Actor in the same year, although for different films. Walken was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 2002 for ''[[Catch Me if You Can]]'' and Worst Supporting Actor for ''[[The Country Bears]]''. Baldwin was nominated for Best Supporting Actor in 2003 for ''[[The Cooler]]'' and Worst Supporting Actor for ''[[The Cat in the Hat (film)|The Cat in the Hat]]''.

* The actors to have won both a Razzie and an Oscar for acting are [[Faye Dunaway]], [[Marlon Brando]], [[Charlton Heston]], [[Laurence Olivier]], [[Roberto Benigni]], [[Halle Berry]], and [[Liza Minnelli]], as well as [[Nicole Kidman]] (worst screen couple with [[Will Ferrell]] for ''[[Bewitched (film)|Bewitched]]'' in 2005) who won Best Actress for ''The Hours'' in 2002. In addition [[Sofia Coppola]], [[Ben Affleck]], [[Kevin Costner]] and [[Prince (musician)|Prince]] are also Oscar and Razzie winners, but only one of the two awards was in acting.

* Filmmaker [[James Cameron]] won the Worst Screenplay Razzie in 1986 for his role in the writing of ''[[Rambo: First Blood Part II]]''. He would later go on to win three Oscars for ''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]''.

* Songwriter [[Diane Warren]] earned both Razzie and [[Academy Award|Oscar]] nominations for the songs "[[I Don't Want To Miss A Thing]]" from the movie ''[[Armageddon (1998 film)|Armageddon]]'' and "[[How Do I Live]]" from the movie ''[[Con Air]]''; she didn't win either of the two awards.

*''[[Rambo: First Blood Part II]]'', ''[[Pearl Harbor (film)|Pearl Harbor]]'' and ''[[Norbit]]'' were all nominated for an Academy Award and a Razzie. ''Rambo'' lost at the Oscars in the category of Best Sound Effects Editing but won the Razzie for Worst Picture, Worst Actor and Worst Screenplay. ''Pearl Harbor'' won an [[74th Academy Awards|Oscar]] for Best Sound Effects Editing while getting shut out at the Razzies, and ''Norbit'' saw Eddie Murphy winning three of the four Acting Razzies (see Razzie Records below) while getting shut out at the Oscars.

* The 2003 film ''[[Gigli]]'' became the first, and only film so far, to win all the top five categories at the Razzies, (Worst Picture, Actor, Actress, Director and Screenplay) basically making it the Razzie equivalent of 1934's ''[[It Happened One Night]]'', which was the first film to win the Oscar grand slam (Best Picture, Actor, Actress, Director and Screenplay).

==Razzie records==
* ''[[I Know Who Killed Me]]'' (2007) has received the most Razzie awards, at 8 wins, in a single awards year. ''[[Showgirls (film)|Showgirls]]'' (1995) and ''[[Battlefield Earth (film)|Battlefield Earth]]'' (2000) won seven in their respective years and a special in later editions (the former won [[20th Golden Raspberry Awards|Worst Movie of the 1990s]], the latter [[25th Golden Raspberry Awards|Worst Drama of Razzie's 25 Years]]). It is also the only movie to have an actress win worst actress award twice, both of [[Lindsay Lohan]]'s characters tied for the honor.

* Actor [[Sylvester Stallone]] has received 30 nominations and ten wins and is the actor with the largest number of nominations and wins. He was nominated for the Worst Actor award for nine consecutive years from 1984 to 1992, winning four times.

* Actor [[Ben Stiller]] was nominated for [[Razzie Award for Worst Actor|Worst Actor]] in 2004 for a record five titles in one year. Stiller was nominated for his work in ''[[Along Came Polly]]'', ''[[Anchorman: The Legend of Ron Burgundy|Anchorman]]'', ''[[Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story|Dodgeball]]'', ''[[Envy (film)|Envy]]'' and ''[[Starsky & Hutch (film)|Starsky & Hutch]]''.

* Actor [[Eddie Murphy]] received a single-year record five nominations in 2007 for ''[[Norbit]]'': three acting nominations (one for each character he played), one for Worst Couple (again, relating to his playing multiple characters) and one for Worst Screenplay. He went on to win all three acting nominations, becoming the first person ever to win a Razzie for both male and female performances in a single film.

==See also==
* [[List of films considered the worst]]
* [[The Golden Turkey Awards]]
* [[Ig Nobel Prize]]
* [[Pigasus Award]]
* [[Darwin Award]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.razzies.com Golden Raspberry Official Website]
*[http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Razzie_Awards/ Razzie Awards] page on the [[Internet Movie Database]]

{{Golden Raspberry Award Years}}

[[Category:Ironic and humorous awards]]
[[Category:American film awards]]
[[Category:Golden Raspberry Awards| ]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1980]]
[[Category:Worst in film]]

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[[zh:金草莓奖]]

Ig Nobel Prize

2008-07-18T02:38:54Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ you need not die to get a Darwin :-)

[[Image:Frog diamagnetic levitation.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Flying frog. A live frog is [[Magnetic levitation|magnetically levitated]], an experiment that earned André Geim from the [[University of Nijmegen]] and Sir [[Michael Berry]] from [[Bristol University]] the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize in physics.]]

The '''Ig Nobel Prizes''' are a [[parody]] of the [[Nobel Prize]]s and are given each year in early October — around the time the recipients of the genuine Nobel Prizes are announced — for ten achievements that "first make people laugh, and then make them think." Organized by the scientific humor magazine ''[[Annals of Improbable Research]]'' (''AIR''), they are presented by a group that includes genuine [[Nobel Laureate]]s at a ceremony at [[Harvard University]]'s [[Sanders Theater]].

==History==
The first Ig Nobels were awarded in 1991, at that time for discoveries "that cannot, or should not, be reproduced." Ten prizes are awarded each year in many categories, including the Nobel Prize categories of physics, chemistry, physiology/medicine, literature, and peace, but also other categories such as public health, engineering, biology, and interdisciplinary research. With the exception of three prizes in the first year ([[Administratium]], [[Josiah Carberry]], and [[Paul DeFanti]]), the Ig Nobel Prizes are for genuine achievements. (See [[List of Ig Nobel Prize winners]])

The awards are sometimes veiled criticism, as in the two awards given for [[homeopathy]] research, prizes in "science education" to [[Kansas]] and [[Colorado]] state boards of education for their stance regarding the teaching of [[evolution]], and the prize awarded to ''[[Social Text]]'' after the [[Sokal Affair]]. Most often, however, they draw attention to scientific articles that have some humorous or unexpected aspect. Examples range from the discovery that the presence of [[humans]] tends to sexually arouse [[ostrich]]es, to the statement that [[black hole]]s fulfill all the technical requirements to be the location of [[Hell]], to research on the "[[five-second rule]]," a tongue-in-cheek belief that food dropped on the floor won't become contaminated if it is picked up within five seconds.

== Name ==
The name is a play on the word ''[[wikt:ignoble|ignoble]]'' and the name "Nobel" after [[Alfred Nobel]]. The official pronunciation used during the ceremony is {{IPAEng|ˌɪɡnoʊˈbɛl}} ("ig no-BELL"). It is not pronounced like the word ''ignoble'' ({{IPAEng|ɪɡˈnoʊbəl}}, "ig-NOH-buhl").

In [[Grade (education)#Sweden|Swedish]], IG is short for "icke godkänt", a [[grade (education)|grade]] in school similar to F, or fail.

In [[Russian language|Russian]], the name is usually translated as ''"Шнобелевская премия" (Shnobel Prize).'' ''Shnobel'' is a slang term for a large nose, evoking an image of [[Pinocchio]].

== Ceremony ==
The prizes are presented by genuine Nobel Laureates, originally at a ceremony in a lecture hall at [[MIT]] but now in Harvard University's [[Sanders Theatre]]. The ceremony is followed a few days later by the Ig Informal Lectures at the [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], in which laureates have the opportunity to explain their achievements and their relevance to the general public. If such explanations become too longwinded, they are interrupted by the cries of Miss Sweety Poo (or Sweety-Poo), a little girl who repeatedly cries out "Please stop. I'm bored" in a high-pitched voice.<ref>[http://education.guardian.co.uk/egweekly/story/0,,1588824,00.html guardian.co.uk] - Infinity and so much more</ref> The awards ceremony is traditionally closed with the words: "If you didn't win a prize — and especially if you did — better luck next year!"

The ceremony is co-sponsored by the [[Harvard Computer Society]], the [[Harvard-Radcliffe Science Fiction Association]] and the [[Harvard-Radcliffe Society of Physics Students]].

Throwing [[paper airplane]]s onto the stage was a long-standing tradition at the Ig Nobels, changed at the 2006 ceremony because of "security concerns." In past years, physics professor [[Roy Glauber]] has swept the stage clean of the airplanes as the official "Keeper of the Broom". In 2005, Glauber could not attend the awards as he was traveling to [[Stockholm]] to claim a genuine [[Nobel Prize in Physics]].

The "Parade of Ignitaries" brings various supporting groups into the hall. At the 1997 ceremonies, a team of "cryogenic sex researchers" distributed a pamphlet titled "Safe Sex at [[Liquid Helium|Four Kelvin]]". Delegates from the [[Museum of Bad Art]] are often on hand to display some pieces from their collection, showing that bad art and bad science go hand in hand.

Actor [[Russell Johnson]], known for his portrayal of [[The Professor (Gilligan's Island)|The Professor]] on the TV series ''[[Gilligan's Island]]'', once participated in the award presentation ceremony as "The Professor [[Emeritus]] of Gilligan's Island".

== Tours and outreach ==
The ceremony is recorded and broadcast on [[National Public Radio]] and is shown live over the Internet. The recording is broadcast every year, on the Friday after U.S. [[Thanksgiving (United States)|Thanksgiving]], on the public radio program ''[[Science Friday]]''. In recognition of this, the audience will repeatedly chant the first name of the radio show's host, [[Ira Flatow]].

Two books have been published [[as of 2006]] with write ups on some of the winners: ''The Ig Nobel Prize'' (2002, US paperback ISBN 0-452-28573-9, UK paperback ISBN 0-7528-4261-7) and ''The Ig Nobel Prize 2'' (2005, US hardcover ISBN 0-525-94912-7, UK hardcover ISBN 0-7528-6461-0) which was later retitled ''The Man Who Tried to Clone Himself'' (ISBN 0-452-28772-3).

An Ig Nobel Tour has traveled to the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Australia]] several times.

== Criticism ==
In 1995, [[Robert May, Baron May of Oxford]], the chief scientific adviser to the British government, requested that the organizers no longer award Ig Nobel prizes to British scientists, claiming that the awards risked bringing "genuine" experiments into ridicule. However, many British researchers dismissed Lord May's pronouncements, and the British journal ''[[Chemistry and Industry]]'' in particular printed an article rebutting his arguments.

== See also ==
* [[List of Ig Nobel Prize winners]]

;Other mock awards:
* [[Golden Raspberry Awards]] for bad film work
* [[Darwin Awards]] for sublimely idiotic self-removal from the gene pool
* [[Pigasus Award]] for paranormal fraud (U.S.)
* [[Bent Spoon Award]] for paranormal fraud (Australia)
* [[Stella Award]]s for outrageous lawsuits

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://improbable.com/ig/ Ig Nobel home page]
* [http://www.improb.com/ig/ig-pastwinners.html List of past winners, with reasons for prize]

[[Category:Ironic and humorous awards]]

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[[uk:Іґнобелівська премія]]
[[zh:搞笑諾貝爾獎]]

Tastes like chicken

2008-07-18T02:29:45Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ add link to mopane worms (its citation is not currently strong, however)

[[Image:Rooster crowing.jpg|right|thumb|Many meats appear to '''taste like chicken''']]
When trying to describe the flavor of [[meat]] the listener has never eaten, a common declaration is that it '''tastes like chicken'''. The expression has been used so often that it has become somewhat of a [[cliché]]. As a result, the phrase also sometimes gets used for incongruous [[humor]], by being deployed for foods or situations to which it has no real relevance.

The expression has made its way into popular culture in a variety of contexts. The phrase has made modern appearances in the media, such as in [[The Lion King]], [[Six Days Seven Nights]], ''[[The Matrix]]'', ''[[Stargate (film)|Stargate]]'', [[Surf's Up]], [[Babylon 5]] (where it is found to taste nothing like [[Spoo]]), and the initial season of the [[reality television]] show ''[[Survivor: Borneo|Survivor]]''.

As an explanation of why unusual meats would taste more like [[chicken]] than common alternatives such as [[beef]] or [[pork]], different possibilities have been offered. One suggestion is that chicken has a bland taste because [[fat]] contributes more flavor than [[muscle]] (especially in the case of a lean cut such as a skinless chicken breast), making it a generic choice for comparison. Also, chicken reportedly has lower levels of [[glutamate]]s that contribute to the "savory" aspect of [[taste]] sometimes known as [[umami]]; processing or tenderizing other meats would also lower glutamate levels and make them taste more like chicken.

Another suggestion, made by Joe Staton of the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], is that meat flavors are fixed based on the [[evolution]]ary origin of the animal. Accordingly, [[bird]]s (the most numerous form of meat by type) would naturally taste more like chicken than [[mammal]]s. Furthermore, based on evidence for [[dinosaur]]s as the ancestors of birds, [[reptile]] meat might also taste somewhat like chicken. [[Seafood]], however, would logically have a more distinctive flavor. Staton's study of the question was published in the [[Annals of Improbable Research]].

==See also==
*[[Alligator]]
*[[Fried spider]]
*[[Frog legs]]
*[[Green iguana]]
*[[Huhu beetle]]
*[[Mopane worms]]
*[[Mountain chicken]]
*[[Opossum]]
*[[Rabbit]] (especially [[Domestic rabbit|domestic rabbit]])
*[[Rattlesnake]]
*[[Squirrel]]

==References==
*Spice, Byron. "[http://www.post-gazette.com/healthscience/20000717chicken1.asp Mmm, tastes like chicken: Common ancestors could account for phenomenon]". ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', [[July 17]], [[2000]].
*Staton, Joe. "[http://www.improb.com/airchives/paperair/volume4/v4i4/chicken.htm Tastes Like Chicken?]" ''Annals of Improbable Research'' 4:4, 1998.

[[Category:Chicken]]
[[Category:Clichés]]

Tastes like chicken

2008-07-18T02:27:42Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ added link to "fried spider"

[[Image:Rooster crowing.jpg|right|thumb|Many meats appear to '''taste like chicken''']]
When trying to describe the flavor of [[meat]] the listener has never eaten, a common declaration is that it '''tastes like chicken'''. The expression has been used so often that it has become somewhat of a [[cliché]]. As a result, the phrase also sometimes gets used for incongruous [[humor]], by being deployed for foods or situations to which it has no real relevance.

The expression has made its way into popular culture in a variety of contexts. The phrase has made modern appearances in the media, such as in [[The Lion King]], [[Six Days Seven Nights]], ''[[The Matrix]]'', ''[[Stargate (film)|Stargate]]'', [[Surf's Up]], [[Babylon 5]] (where it is found to taste nothing like [[Spoo]]), and the initial season of the [[reality television]] show ''[[Survivor: Borneo|Survivor]]''.

As an explanation of why unusual meats would taste more like [[chicken]] than common alternatives such as [[beef]] or [[pork]], different possibilities have been offered. One suggestion is that chicken has a bland taste because [[fat]] contributes more flavor than [[muscle]] (especially in the case of a lean cut such as a skinless chicken breast), making it a generic choice for comparison. Also, chicken reportedly has lower levels of [[glutamate]]s that contribute to the "savory" aspect of [[taste]] sometimes known as [[umami]]; processing or tenderizing other meats would also lower glutamate levels and make them taste more like chicken.

Another suggestion, made by Joe Staton of the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], is that meat flavors are fixed based on the [[evolution]]ary origin of the animal. Accordingly, [[bird]]s (the most numerous form of meat by type) would naturally taste more like chicken than [[mammal]]s. Furthermore, based on evidence for [[dinosaur]]s as the ancestors of birds, [[reptile]] meat might also taste somewhat like chicken. [[Seafood]], however, would logically have a more distinctive flavor. Staton's study of the question was published in the [[Annals of Improbable Research]].

==See also==
*[[Alligator]]
*[[Fried spider]]
*[[Frog legs]]
*[[Green iguana]]
*[[Huhu beetle]]
*[[Mountain chicken]]
*[[Opossum]]
*[[Rabbit]] (especially [[Domestic rabbit|domestic rabbit]])
*[[Rattlesnake]]
*[[Squirrel]]

==References==
*Spice, Byron. "[http://www.post-gazette.com/healthscience/20000717chicken1.asp Mmm, tastes like chicken: Common ancestors could account for phenomenon]". ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', [[July 17]], [[2000]].
*Staton, Joe. "[http://www.improb.com/airchives/paperair/volume4/v4i4/chicken.htm Tastes Like Chicken?]" ''Annals of Improbable Research'' 4:4, 1998.

[[Category:Chicken]]
[[Category:Clichés]]

Fried spider

2008-07-18T02:26:41Z

Owlgorithm: added two links from "chicken" and "cod"

[[Image:Fried spiders Skuon Cambodia.jpg|thumbnail|right|300px|Fried spiders for sale at the market in Skuon]]
A '''fried spider''' is a regional [[delicacy]] in [[Cambodia]]. In the Cambodian town of [[Skuon]], locals eat fried [[spider]]s as an everyday snack. Spiders are also available elsewhere in Cambodia — in [[Phnom Penh]] for instance — but Skuon, a market town on the highway {{convert|75|km}} from the capital, is the centre of their popularity.<ref name="rigby">Rigby, Rhymer (2002). "[http://www.rhymer.net/cutsE.htm Tuck into a Tarantula]". Sunday Telegraph. URL retrieved [[11 September]] [[2006]].</ref> The spiders are bred in holes in the ground in villages north of Skuon, or foraged for in nearby forestland, and fried in oil. It is not clear how this practice started, but some have suggested that the population might have started eating spiders out of desperation during the years of [[Khmer Rouge]] rule, when food was in short supply.<ref name="Ray">Ray, Nick (2002), ''Lonely Planet Cambodia'', Lonely Planet Publications, ISBN 1-74059-111-9. p. 308.</ref>

The spiders are a species of [[tarantula]] called "a-ping" in [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and are about the size of a human palm.<ref name="abc">ABC News Online ([[2 September]] [[2002]]). "[http://abc.net.au/news/indepth/featureitems/s664704.htm Spiderwomen serve up Cambodia's creepy caviar]. URL retrieved [[11 September]] [[2006]].</ref> The snacks cost about 300 [[riel (currency)|riel]] each in 2002, or about [[United States dollar|US$]]0.08.<ref name="abc"/> One travel book identifies them as ''[[Haplopelma|Haplopelma albostriatum]]'', also known as the Thai zebra tarantula, and notes that the same species' common name has been the "edible spider" for more than a hundred years. The popularity of the dish is, however, a recent phenomenon, starting perhaps as late as the 1990s.<ref name="freeman33">Freeman, Michael (2004), ''Cambodia'', Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189-186-5. p. 33.</ref> The same book details a recipe: the spiders are tossed in a mixture of [[monosodium glutamate|MSG]], sugar, and salt; crushed [[garlic]] is fried in oil until fragrant, then the spiders are added and fried alongside the garlic until "the legs are almost completely stiff, by which time the contents of the abdomen are not so runny."<ref name="Freeman34">Freeman p. 34.</ref>

The taste has been described as bland, "rather like a cross between [[chicken]] and [[cod]]"<ref name="rigby"/>, with a contrast in texture from a crispy exterior to a soft centre. The legs contain little flesh, while the head and body have "a delicate white meat inside".<ref name="rigby"/> There are certainly those who might not enjoy the abdomen, however, as it contains a brown paste consisting of organs, possibly eggs, and excrement. Some call it a delicacy while others recommend not eating it.<ref name="rigby"/>

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Cambodian cuisine]]
[[Category:Spiders]]
[[Category:Arthropods as food]]

Fried spider

2008-07-18T02:25:38Z

Owlgorithm: inserted more information from an already-cited reference

[[Image:Fried spiders Skuon Cambodia.jpg|thumbnail|right|300px|Fried spiders for sale at the market in Skuon]]
A '''fried spider''' is a regional [[delicacy]] in [[Cambodia]]. In the Cambodian town of [[Skuon]], locals eat fried [[spider]]s as an everyday snack. Spiders are also available elsewhere in Cambodia — in [[Phnom Penh]] for instance — but Skuon, a market town on the highway {{convert|75|km}} from the capital, is the centre of their popularity.<ref name="rigby">Rigby, Rhymer (2002). "[http://www.rhymer.net/cutsE.htm Tuck into a Tarantula]". Sunday Telegraph. URL retrieved [[11 September]] [[2006]].</ref> The spiders are bred in holes in the ground in villages north of Skuon, or foraged for in nearby forestland, and fried in oil. It is not clear how this practice started, but some have suggested that the population might have started eating spiders out of desperation during the years of [[Khmer Rouge]] rule, when food was in short supply.<ref name="Ray">Ray, Nick (2002), ''Lonely Planet Cambodia'', Lonely Planet Publications, ISBN 1-74059-111-9. p. 308.</ref>

The spiders are a species of [[tarantula]] called "a-ping" in [[Khmer language|Khmer]], and are about the size of a human palm.<ref name="abc">ABC News Online ([[2 September]] [[2002]]). "[http://abc.net.au/news/indepth/featureitems/s664704.htm Spiderwomen serve up Cambodia's creepy caviar]. URL retrieved [[11 September]] [[2006]].</ref> The snacks cost about 300 [[riel (currency)|riel]] each in 2002, or about [[United States dollar|US$]]0.08.<ref name="abc"/> One travel book identifies them as ''[[Haplopelma|Haplopelma albostriatum]]'', also known as the Thai zebra tarantula, and notes that the same species' common name has been the "edible spider" for more than a hundred years. The popularity of the dish is, however, a recent phenomenon, starting perhaps as late as the 1990s.<ref name="freeman33">Freeman, Michael (2004), ''Cambodia'', Reaktion Books, ISBN 1-86189-186-5. p. 33.</ref> The same book details a recipe: the spiders are tossed in a mixture of [[monosodium glutamate|MSG]], sugar, and salt; crushed [[garlic]] is fried in oil until fragrant, then the spiders are added and fried alongside the garlic until "the legs are almost completely stiff, by which time the contents of the abdomen are not so runny."<ref name="Freeman34">Freeman p. 34.</ref>

The taste has been described as bland, "rather like a cross between chicken and cod"<ref name="rigby"/>, with a contrast in texture from a crispy exterior to a soft centre. The legs contain little flesh, while the head and body have "a delicate white meat inside".<ref name="rigby"/> There are certainly those who might not enjoy the abdomen, however, as it contains a brown paste consisting of organs, possibly eggs, and excrement. Some call it a delicacy while others recommend not eating it.<ref name="rigby"/>

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Cambodian cuisine]]
[[Category:Spiders]]
[[Category:Arthropods as food]]

Tastes like chicken

2008-07-18T02:16:17Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ add link to alligator

[[Image:Rooster crowing.jpg|right|thumb|Many meats appear to '''taste like chicken''']]
When trying to describe the flavor of [[meat]] the listener has never eaten, a common declaration is that it '''tastes like chicken'''. The expression has been used so often that it has become somewhat of a [[cliché]]. As a result, the phrase also sometimes gets used for incongruous [[humor]], by being deployed for foods or situations to which it has no real relevance.

The expression has made its way into popular culture in a variety of contexts. The phrase has made modern appearances in the media, such as in [[The Lion King]], [[Six Days Seven Nights]], ''[[The Matrix]]'', ''[[Stargate (film)|Stargate]]'', [[Surf's Up]], [[Babylon 5]] (where it is found to taste nothing like [[Spoo]]), and the initial season of the [[reality television]] show ''[[Survivor: Borneo|Survivor]]''.

As an explanation of why unusual meats would taste more like [[chicken]] than common alternatives such as [[beef]] or [[pork]], different possibilities have been offered. One suggestion is that chicken has a bland taste because [[fat]] contributes more flavor than [[muscle]] (especially in the case of a lean cut such as a skinless chicken breast), making it a generic choice for comparison. Also, chicken reportedly has lower levels of [[glutamate]]s that contribute to the "savory" aspect of [[taste]] sometimes known as [[umami]]; processing or tenderizing other meats would also lower glutamate levels and make them taste more like chicken.

Another suggestion, made by Joe Staton of the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], is that meat flavors are fixed based on the [[evolution]]ary origin of the animal. Accordingly, [[bird]]s (the most numerous form of meat by type) would naturally taste more like chicken than [[mammal]]s. Furthermore, based on evidence for [[dinosaur]]s as the ancestors of birds, [[reptile]] meat might also taste somewhat like chicken. [[Seafood]], however, would logically have a more distinctive flavor. Staton's study of the question was published in the [[Annals of Improbable Research]].

==See also==
*[[Alligator]]
*[[Frog legs]]
*[[Green iguana]]
*[[Huhu beetle]]
*[[Mountain chicken]]
*[[Opossum]]
*[[Rabbit]] (especially [[Domestic rabbit|domestic rabbit]])
*[[Rattlesnake]]
*[[Squirrel]]

==References==
*Spice, Byron. "[http://www.post-gazette.com/healthscience/20000717chicken1.asp Mmm, tastes like chicken: Common ancestors could account for phenomenon]". ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', [[July 17]], [[2000]].
*Staton, Joe. "[http://www.improb.com/airchives/paperair/volume4/v4i4/chicken.htm Tastes Like Chicken?]" ''Annals of Improbable Research'' 4:4, 1998.

[[Category:Chicken]]
[[Category:Clichés]]

Alligator

2008-07-18T02:15:48Z

Owlgorithm: /* Farming */ incorrectly formatted link

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{otheruses}}
:''for differences between Alligators and Crocodiles please see [[Crocodilia#Differences_between_alligators_and_crocodiles|Crocodilia]]''
{{Taxobox
| name = Alligators
| image = Two american alligators.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[reptile|Sauropsida]]
| ordo = [[Crocodilia]]
| familia = [[Alligatoridae]]
| genus = '''''Alligator'''''
| genus_authority = [[Francois-Marie Daudin|Daudin]], 1809
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[American Alligator|Alligator mississippiensis]]'' 
''[[Chinese Alligator|Alligator sinensis]]''
}}
An [[alligator]] is a [[crocodilian]] in the [[genus]] '''''Alligator''''' of the [[family]] [[Alligatoridae]]. The name ''alligator'' is an [[anglicization|anglicized]] form of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''el lagarto'' (the lizard), the name by which early [[Spain|Spanish]] explorers and settlers in [[Florida]] called the alligator. There are two living alligator [[species]]: the [[American Alligator]] (''Alligator mississippiensis'') and the [[Chinese Alligator]] (''Alligator sinensis'').

== Description ==
The Alligator has been described as 'a living fossil from the Age of Reptiles, having survived on earth for 200 million years'.<ref>http://www.fws.gov/species/species_accounts/bio_alli.html</ref>

An average American alligator's weight and length is 800 lbs (360 kg) and 13 feet (4 m) long. According to the Everglades National Park website, the largest alligator ever recorded in Florida was 17 feet 5 inches long (5.3 m), although according to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission web site the Florida state record for length is a 14 foot 5/8 inch male from Lake Monroe in Seminole County.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} The Florida record for weight is a 1,043 pound (13 feet 10 1/2 inches long) male from Orange Lake in Alachua County. The largest alligator ever recorded in Alabama measured 12 feet 08 inches (3.7 m). The largest alligator ever recorded measured 19 feet 2 inches (5.8 m) and was found on Marsh Island, Louisiana. Few of the giant specimens were weighed, but the larger ones could have exceeded a ton in weight. The Chinese Alligator is smaller, rarely exceeding 7 feet (2 m) in length.

An alligator's lifespan is usually estimated in the range of 50 years or more. A specimen named Muja has resided in the [[Belgrade]] Zoo in [[Serbia]] since 1937, making it at least 71 years old. Another specimen, [[Čabulītis]], in [[Riga Zoo]], Latvia died in 2007 being more than 72 years old.

== Habitat ==
Alligators are native to only two countries: the [[United States]] and [[China]]. In the Southeast U.S., Alligators are found in most freshwater and brackish areas.

== Location ==
American Alligators are found in the subtropical southeast US: all of Florida and Louisiana; the southern parts of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; coastal South and North Carolina; Southeastern Texas and in extreme southeastern Oklahoma and Arkansas. The majority of American Alligators inhabit Florida and Louisiana, with over a million alligators in each state.
American Alligators live in [[freshwater]] environments, such as [[pond]]s, [[marsh]]es, [[wetland]]s, [[river]]s, [[lakes]], and [[swamp]]s, as well as brackish environments. Southern Florida is the only place where both alligators and crocodiles live side by side{{Fact|date=December 2007}}.

The Chinese alligator currently is found only in the [[Yangtze River]] valley and is extremely endangered, with only a few dozen believed to be left in the wild. Indeed, far more Chinese alligators live in zoos around the world than can be found in the wild. For example, [[Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge]] in southern Louisiana has several in captivity in an attempt to preserve the species. Miami-Dade County Zoo in Miami,FL also has a breeding pair of Chinese alligators.

== Behavior ==
[[Image:Swimming gator.jpg|150px|right|thumb|A baby alligator swimming.]]
Large male alligators are [[solitary]], [[territory (animal)|territorial]] animals. Smaller alligators can often be found in large numbers in close proximity to each other. The largest of the species (both males and females), will defend prime territory; smaller alligators have a higher tolerance of other alligators within a similar size class.
[[Image:Gators mouth.jpg|right|200px|thumb|An alligator showing the inside of his mouth.]]
Although alligators have heavy bodies and slow [[metabolism]]s, they are capable of short bursts of speed, especially in very short lunges. Alligators' main prey are smaller animals that they can kill and eat with a single bite. Alligators may kill larger prey by grabbing it and dragging it in the water to drown. Alligators consume food that cannot be eaten in one bite by allowing it to rot or by biting and then spinning or convulsing wildly until bite-size pieces are torn off. This is referred to as the "death roll." A hard-wired response developed over millions of years of evolution, even juvenile alligators execute death rolls when presented with chunks of meat. Critical to the alligator's ability to initiate a death roll, the tail must flex to a significant angle relative to its body. Immobilizing an alligator's tail incapacitates its ability to begin a death roll. <ref>[Death roll of the alligator: mechanics of twist feeding in water. Frank E. Fish, Sandra A. Bostic, Anthony J. Nicastro and John T. Beneski, The Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 210, pages 2811-2818 (2007).]</ref>

Most of the muscle in an alligator's jaw is intended for biting and gripping prey. The muscles that close the jaws are exceptionally powerful, however the muscles for opening their jaws are relatively weak in comparison. As a result, an adult man can hold an alligator's jaw shut with his bare hands. In general, a strip of [[duct tape]] is enough to prevent an adult alligator from opening its jaws and is one of the most common methods used when alligators are to be captured and/or transported.<ref>[http://crocodilian.com/crocfaq/faq-3.html Crocodilian Captive Care FAQ: How to properly handle/transport crocodilians etc.]</ref>
Alligators are generally timid towards humans and tend to walk or swim away if one approaches. Unfortunately, this has led some people to the practice of approaching alligators and their nests in a way that may provoke the animals into attacking. There are federal laws that prohibit feeding of the alligators in several locations where they can be found; however, some people choose to ignore these. If fed, the alligators will eventually lose their fear of humans and may, in turn, choose to approach human settlements rather than moving away.

== Diet ==
When young they eat fish, insects, [[snails]], [[crustaceans]], and [[worm]]s. As they grow, they take progressively larger prey items, including larger fish such as [[gar]], turtles, various mammals, birds, antelope and other [[reptiles]]. Their stomachs also often contain [[gastrolith]]s. They will even consume [[carrion]] if they are sufficiently hungry. Adult alligators can take razorbacks and deer and are well known to kill and eat smaller alligators. In some cases, larger alligators have been known to hunt the [[Florida panther]] and [[bear]]s, making it the [[apex predator]] throughout its distribution. As humans encroach onto their habitat, attacks on humans are few but not unknown. Alligators, unlike the large crocodiles, do not immediately regard a human upon encounter as prey, but may still attack in self-defense if provoked.

=== Attacks on humans ===
Human deaths caused by alligators have increased. While there were only nine fatal attacks in the U.S.A. between 1970 and 2000, eleven people were killed by alligators in the five years between 2001 and 2006 alone. {{Fact|date=November 2007}}

Alligators do tend to be wary of humans, but overconfidence has led some people to enter the animals' habitat in ways that provoke aggression. Aggressive behavior by alligator males can increase in the Spring during mating season.

== Reproduction ==
[[Image:Alligator eggs and young alligators.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alligator eggs and young]]
[[Image:Crocnest.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Alligators of various ages in [[Everglades National Park]]]]
Alligators generally mature at a length of six feet (1.8 m). The mating season is in early spring. The female builds a nest of vegetation where the decomposition of the vegetation provides the heat needed to incubate the eggs. The sex of the offspring is determined by the temperature in the nest and is fixed within 7 to 21 days of the start of incubation. Incubation temperatures of 30 °C (86 °F) or lower produce a clutch of females; those of 34 °C (93 °F) or higher produce entirely males. Nests constructed on levees are hotter than those constructed on wet marsh and, thus, the former tend to produce males and the latter, females. The natural sex ratio at hatching is five females to one male. Females hatched from eggs incubated at 30 °C weigh significantly more than males hatched from eggs incubated at 34 °C.[3] The mother will defend the nest from predators and will assist the hatchlings to water. She will provide protection to the young for about a year if they remain in the area. The largest threat to the young are adult alligators. Predation by adults on young can account for a mortality rate of up to fifty percent in the first year. In the past, immediately following the outlawing of alligator hunting, populations rebounded quickly due to the suppressed number of adults preying upon the new recruits, increasing survival among the young alligators. The mother keeps the young for one year.

== Farming ==
Alligator farming is a big and growing industry in Georgia, Florida, Texas and Louisiana. These states produce a combined annual total of some 45,000 alligator hides. Alligator hides bring good prices and hides in the 6-7 foot (1.8-2 m) range have sold for $300 each, though the price can fluctuate considerably from year to year. The market for alligator meat is growing and approximately 300,000 pounds (140 000 kg) of meat is produced annually. According to the Florida Department of Agriculture, raw alligator meat contains roughly 200 calories per 3oz (85 g) serving size, of which 27 calories come from fat.<ref>[http://www.annecollins.com/calories/calories-alligator.htm Calories in Alligator Meat]</ref>

Many individuals liken the taste of alligator meat to that of [[chicken]] or [[rabbit]], and alligator meat is sometimes used in [[jambalaya|jambalayas]], [[soup|soups]], and [[stew|stews]]<ref name="taste">{{cite web|url=http://exoticmeats.com/docs/ExoticMeats-What-things-taste-like.pdf|title=Exotic Meats: What Things Taste Like||date=2008|accessdate=2008-07-17}}</ref>.

== Media ==
{{Commonscat|Alligator}}
{{multi-listen start}}

{{multi-listen item |
filename=Alligatorbellowedit.ogg|
title=Alligator bellow|
description=Alligator bellow, [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=27alligator2bellow.ogg |
title=Another alligator bellow|
description=Alligator bellow, [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=alligatorhiss.ogg|
title=Alligator hiss|
description=Alligator hiss [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen end}}

== See also ==
*[[List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States by decade]]

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
*[http://www.crocodilian.com Crocodilian Online]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/alligators/index.cfm Photo exhibit on Alligators in Florida; made available by the State Archives of Florida]
*[http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/gator.htm Everglades National Park Alligators]
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v296/n5860/abs/296850a0.html Temperature of egg incubation determines sex]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/folklife/sound_pod.cfm Interview Seminole alligator wrestler; made available for public use by the State Archives of Florida]

{{Crocs}}

[[Category:Crocodiles]]
[[Category:Spanish loanwords]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Florida culture]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Southeastern United States]]
[[bg:Алигатори]]
[[da:Alligator]]
[[de:Echte Alligatoren]]
[[el:Αλιγάτορας]]
[[es:Alligator]]
[[eo:Aligatoro]]
[[fr:Alligator]]
[[hr:Pravi aligatori]]
[[ko:앨리게이터속]]
[[io:Aligatoro]]
[[id:Alligator]]
[[he:אליגטור]]
[[la:Alligator]]
[[lt:Aligatoriai]]
[[ja:アリゲーター属]]
[[nl:Alligator]]
[[no:Alligatorer]]
[[nn:Alligatorar]]
[[ru:Аллигаторы]]
[[simple:Alligator]]
[[tl:Buwaya (aligator)]]
[[th:แอลลิเกเตอร์]]
[[uk:Алігатор]]
[[yi:אליגעיטאר]]
[[zh:短吻鱷屬]]

Alligator

2008-07-18T02:15:19Z

Owlgorithm: /* Farming */ remove extra period

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{otheruses}}
:''for differences between Alligators and Crocodiles please see [[Crocodilia#Differences_between_alligators_and_crocodiles|Crocodilia]]''
{{Taxobox
| name = Alligators
| image = Two american alligators.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[reptile|Sauropsida]]
| ordo = [[Crocodilia]]
| familia = [[Alligatoridae]]
| genus = '''''Alligator'''''
| genus_authority = [[Francois-Marie Daudin|Daudin]], 1809
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[American Alligator|Alligator mississippiensis]]'' 
''[[Chinese Alligator|Alligator sinensis]]''
}}
An [[alligator]] is a [[crocodilian]] in the [[genus]] '''''Alligator''''' of the [[family]] [[Alligatoridae]]. The name ''alligator'' is an [[anglicization|anglicized]] form of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''el lagarto'' (the lizard), the name by which early [[Spain|Spanish]] explorers and settlers in [[Florida]] called the alligator. There are two living alligator [[species]]: the [[American Alligator]] (''Alligator mississippiensis'') and the [[Chinese Alligator]] (''Alligator sinensis'').

== Description ==
The Alligator has been described as 'a living fossil from the Age of Reptiles, having survived on earth for 200 million years'.<ref>http://www.fws.gov/species/species_accounts/bio_alli.html</ref>

An average American alligator's weight and length is 800 lbs (360 kg) and 13 feet (4 m) long. According to the Everglades National Park website, the largest alligator ever recorded in Florida was 17 feet 5 inches long (5.3 m), although according to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission web site the Florida state record for length is a 14 foot 5/8 inch male from Lake Monroe in Seminole County.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} The Florida record for weight is a 1,043 pound (13 feet 10 1/2 inches long) male from Orange Lake in Alachua County. The largest alligator ever recorded in Alabama measured 12 feet 08 inches (3.7 m). The largest alligator ever recorded measured 19 feet 2 inches (5.8 m) and was found on Marsh Island, Louisiana. Few of the giant specimens were weighed, but the larger ones could have exceeded a ton in weight. The Chinese Alligator is smaller, rarely exceeding 7 feet (2 m) in length.

An alligator's lifespan is usually estimated in the range of 50 years or more. A specimen named Muja has resided in the [[Belgrade]] Zoo in [[Serbia]] since 1937, making it at least 71 years old. Another specimen, [[Čabulītis]], in [[Riga Zoo]], Latvia died in 2007 being more than 72 years old.

== Habitat ==
Alligators are native to only two countries: the [[United States]] and [[China]]. In the Southeast U.S., Alligators are found in most freshwater and brackish areas.

== Location ==
American Alligators are found in the subtropical southeast US: all of Florida and Louisiana; the southern parts of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; coastal South and North Carolina; Southeastern Texas and in extreme southeastern Oklahoma and Arkansas. The majority of American Alligators inhabit Florida and Louisiana, with over a million alligators in each state.
American Alligators live in [[freshwater]] environments, such as [[pond]]s, [[marsh]]es, [[wetland]]s, [[river]]s, [[lakes]], and [[swamp]]s, as well as brackish environments. Southern Florida is the only place where both alligators and crocodiles live side by side{{Fact|date=December 2007}}.

The Chinese alligator currently is found only in the [[Yangtze River]] valley and is extremely endangered, with only a few dozen believed to be left in the wild. Indeed, far more Chinese alligators live in zoos around the world than can be found in the wild. For example, [[Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge]] in southern Louisiana has several in captivity in an attempt to preserve the species. Miami-Dade County Zoo in Miami,FL also has a breeding pair of Chinese alligators.

== Behavior ==
[[Image:Swimming gator.jpg|150px|right|thumb|A baby alligator swimming.]]
Large male alligators are [[solitary]], [[territory (animal)|territorial]] animals. Smaller alligators can often be found in large numbers in close proximity to each other. The largest of the species (both males and females), will defend prime territory; smaller alligators have a higher tolerance of other alligators within a similar size class.
[[Image:Gators mouth.jpg|right|200px|thumb|An alligator showing the inside of his mouth.]]
Although alligators have heavy bodies and slow [[metabolism]]s, they are capable of short bursts of speed, especially in very short lunges. Alligators' main prey are smaller animals that they can kill and eat with a single bite. Alligators may kill larger prey by grabbing it and dragging it in the water to drown. Alligators consume food that cannot be eaten in one bite by allowing it to rot or by biting and then spinning or convulsing wildly until bite-size pieces are torn off. This is referred to as the "death roll." A hard-wired response developed over millions of years of evolution, even juvenile alligators execute death rolls when presented with chunks of meat. Critical to the alligator's ability to initiate a death roll, the tail must flex to a significant angle relative to its body. Immobilizing an alligator's tail incapacitates its ability to begin a death roll. <ref>[Death roll of the alligator: mechanics of twist feeding in water. Frank E. Fish, Sandra A. Bostic, Anthony J. Nicastro and John T. Beneski, The Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 210, pages 2811-2818 (2007).]</ref>

Most of the muscle in an alligator's jaw is intended for biting and gripping prey. The muscles that close the jaws are exceptionally powerful, however the muscles for opening their jaws are relatively weak in comparison. As a result, an adult man can hold an alligator's jaw shut with his bare hands. In general, a strip of [[duct tape]] is enough to prevent an adult alligator from opening its jaws and is one of the most common methods used when alligators are to be captured and/or transported.<ref>[http://crocodilian.com/crocfaq/faq-3.html Crocodilian Captive Care FAQ: How to properly handle/transport crocodilians etc.]</ref>
Alligators are generally timid towards humans and tend to walk or swim away if one approaches. Unfortunately, this has led some people to the practice of approaching alligators and their nests in a way that may provoke the animals into attacking. There are federal laws that prohibit feeding of the alligators in several locations where they can be found; however, some people choose to ignore these. If fed, the alligators will eventually lose their fear of humans and may, in turn, choose to approach human settlements rather than moving away.

== Diet ==
When young they eat fish, insects, [[snails]], [[crustaceans]], and [[worm]]s. As they grow, they take progressively larger prey items, including larger fish such as [[gar]], turtles, various mammals, birds, antelope and other [[reptiles]]. Their stomachs also often contain [[gastrolith]]s. They will even consume [[carrion]] if they are sufficiently hungry. Adult alligators can take razorbacks and deer and are well known to kill and eat smaller alligators. In some cases, larger alligators have been known to hunt the [[Florida panther]] and [[bear]]s, making it the [[apex predator]] throughout its distribution. As humans encroach onto their habitat, attacks on humans are few but not unknown. Alligators, unlike the large crocodiles, do not immediately regard a human upon encounter as prey, but may still attack in self-defense if provoked.

=== Attacks on humans ===
Human deaths caused by alligators have increased. While there were only nine fatal attacks in the U.S.A. between 1970 and 2000, eleven people were killed by alligators in the five years between 2001 and 2006 alone. {{Fact|date=November 2007}}

Alligators do tend to be wary of humans, but overconfidence has led some people to enter the animals' habitat in ways that provoke aggression. Aggressive behavior by alligator males can increase in the Spring during mating season.

== Reproduction ==
[[Image:Alligator eggs and young alligators.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alligator eggs and young]]
[[Image:Crocnest.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Alligators of various ages in [[Everglades National Park]]]]
Alligators generally mature at a length of six feet (1.8 m). The mating season is in early spring. The female builds a nest of vegetation where the decomposition of the vegetation provides the heat needed to incubate the eggs. The sex of the offspring is determined by the temperature in the nest and is fixed within 7 to 21 days of the start of incubation. Incubation temperatures of 30 °C (86 °F) or lower produce a clutch of females; those of 34 °C (93 °F) or higher produce entirely males. Nests constructed on levees are hotter than those constructed on wet marsh and, thus, the former tend to produce males and the latter, females. The natural sex ratio at hatching is five females to one male. Females hatched from eggs incubated at 30 °C weigh significantly more than males hatched from eggs incubated at 34 °C.[3] The mother will defend the nest from predators and will assist the hatchlings to water. She will provide protection to the young for about a year if they remain in the area. The largest threat to the young are adult alligators. Predation by adults on young can account for a mortality rate of up to fifty percent in the first year. In the past, immediately following the outlawing of alligator hunting, populations rebounded quickly due to the suppressed number of adults preying upon the new recruits, increasing survival among the young alligators. The mother keeps the young for one year.

== Farming ==
Alligator farming is a big and growing industry in Georgia, Florida, Texas and Louisiana. These states produce a combined annual total of some 45,000 alligator hides. Alligator hides bring good prices and hides in the 6-7 foot (1.8-2 m) range have sold for $300 each, though the price can fluctuate considerably from year to year. The market for alligator meat is growing and approximately 300,000 pounds (140 000 kg) of meat is produced annually. According to the Florida Department of Agriculture, raw alligator meat contains roughly 200 calories per 3oz (85 g) serving size, of which 27 calories come from fat.<ref>[http://www.annecollins.com/calories/calories-alligator.htm Calories in Alligator Meat]</ref>

Many individuals liken the taste of alligator meat to that of [[chicken]] or [[rabbit]], and alligator meat is sometimes used in [[jambalaya|jambalayas]], [soup|soups]], and [[stew|stews]]<ref name="taste">{{cite web|url=http://exoticmeats.com/docs/ExoticMeats-What-things-taste-like.pdf|title=Exotic Meats: What Things Taste Like||date=2008|accessdate=2008-07-17}}</ref>.

== Media ==
{{Commonscat|Alligator}}
{{multi-listen start}}

{{multi-listen item |
filename=Alligatorbellowedit.ogg|
title=Alligator bellow|
description=Alligator bellow, [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=27alligator2bellow.ogg |
title=Another alligator bellow|
description=Alligator bellow, [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=alligatorhiss.ogg|
title=Alligator hiss|
description=Alligator hiss [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen end}}

== See also ==
*[[List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States by decade]]

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
*[http://www.crocodilian.com Crocodilian Online]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/alligators/index.cfm Photo exhibit on Alligators in Florida; made available by the State Archives of Florida]
*[http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/gator.htm Everglades National Park Alligators]
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v296/n5860/abs/296850a0.html Temperature of egg incubation determines sex]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/folklife/sound_pod.cfm Interview Seminole alligator wrestler; made available for public use by the State Archives of Florida]

{{Crocs}}

[[Category:Crocodiles]]
[[Category:Spanish loanwords]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Florida culture]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Southeastern United States]]
[[bg:Алигатори]]
[[da:Alligator]]
[[de:Echte Alligatoren]]
[[el:Αλιγάτορας]]
[[es:Alligator]]
[[eo:Aligatoro]]
[[fr:Alligator]]
[[hr:Pravi aligatori]]
[[ko:앨리게이터속]]
[[io:Aligatoro]]
[[id:Alligator]]
[[he:אליגטור]]
[[la:Alligator]]
[[lt:Aligatoriai]]
[[ja:アリゲーター属]]
[[nl:Alligator]]
[[no:Alligatorer]]
[[nn:Alligatorar]]
[[ru:Аллигаторы]]
[[simple:Alligator]]
[[tl:Buwaya (aligator)]]
[[th:แอลลิเกเตอร์]]
[[uk:Алігатор]]
[[yi:אליגעיטאר]]
[[zh:短吻鱷屬]]

Alligator

2008-07-18T02:14:35Z

Owlgorithm: /* Farming */ de-opinionate POV content about taste

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{otheruses}}
:''for differences between Alligators and Crocodiles please see [[Crocodilia#Differences_between_alligators_and_crocodiles|Crocodilia]]''
{{Taxobox
| name = Alligators
| image = Two american alligators.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[reptile|Sauropsida]]
| ordo = [[Crocodilia]]
| familia = [[Alligatoridae]]
| genus = '''''Alligator'''''
| genus_authority = [[Francois-Marie Daudin|Daudin]], 1809
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
''[[American Alligator|Alligator mississippiensis]]'' 
''[[Chinese Alligator|Alligator sinensis]]''
}}
An [[alligator]] is a [[crocodilian]] in the [[genus]] '''''Alligator''''' of the [[family]] [[Alligatoridae]]. The name ''alligator'' is an [[anglicization|anglicized]] form of the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] ''el lagarto'' (the lizard), the name by which early [[Spain|Spanish]] explorers and settlers in [[Florida]] called the alligator. There are two living alligator [[species]]: the [[American Alligator]] (''Alligator mississippiensis'') and the [[Chinese Alligator]] (''Alligator sinensis'').

== Description ==
The Alligator has been described as 'a living fossil from the Age of Reptiles, having survived on earth for 200 million years'.<ref>http://www.fws.gov/species/species_accounts/bio_alli.html</ref>

An average American alligator's weight and length is 800 lbs (360 kg) and 13 feet (4 m) long. According to the Everglades National Park website, the largest alligator ever recorded in Florida was 17 feet 5 inches long (5.3 m), although according to the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission web site the Florida state record for length is a 14 foot 5/8 inch male from Lake Monroe in Seminole County.{{Fact|date=February 2008}} The Florida record for weight is a 1,043 pound (13 feet 10 1/2 inches long) male from Orange Lake in Alachua County. The largest alligator ever recorded in Alabama measured 12 feet 08 inches (3.7 m). The largest alligator ever recorded measured 19 feet 2 inches (5.8 m) and was found on Marsh Island, Louisiana. Few of the giant specimens were weighed, but the larger ones could have exceeded a ton in weight. The Chinese Alligator is smaller, rarely exceeding 7 feet (2 m) in length.

An alligator's lifespan is usually estimated in the range of 50 years or more. A specimen named Muja has resided in the [[Belgrade]] Zoo in [[Serbia]] since 1937, making it at least 71 years old. Another specimen, [[Čabulītis]], in [[Riga Zoo]], Latvia died in 2007 being more than 72 years old.

== Habitat ==
Alligators are native to only two countries: the [[United States]] and [[China]]. In the Southeast U.S., Alligators are found in most freshwater and brackish areas.

== Location ==
American Alligators are found in the subtropical southeast US: all of Florida and Louisiana; the southern parts of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi; coastal South and North Carolina; Southeastern Texas and in extreme southeastern Oklahoma and Arkansas. The majority of American Alligators inhabit Florida and Louisiana, with over a million alligators in each state.
American Alligators live in [[freshwater]] environments, such as [[pond]]s, [[marsh]]es, [[wetland]]s, [[river]]s, [[lakes]], and [[swamp]]s, as well as brackish environments. Southern Florida is the only place where both alligators and crocodiles live side by side{{Fact|date=December 2007}}.

The Chinese alligator currently is found only in the [[Yangtze River]] valley and is extremely endangered, with only a few dozen believed to be left in the wild. Indeed, far more Chinese alligators live in zoos around the world than can be found in the wild. For example, [[Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge]] in southern Louisiana has several in captivity in an attempt to preserve the species. Miami-Dade County Zoo in Miami,FL also has a breeding pair of Chinese alligators.

== Behavior ==
[[Image:Swimming gator.jpg|150px|right|thumb|A baby alligator swimming.]]
Large male alligators are [[solitary]], [[territory (animal)|territorial]] animals. Smaller alligators can often be found in large numbers in close proximity to each other. The largest of the species (both males and females), will defend prime territory; smaller alligators have a higher tolerance of other alligators within a similar size class.
[[Image:Gators mouth.jpg|right|200px|thumb|An alligator showing the inside of his mouth.]]
Although alligators have heavy bodies and slow [[metabolism]]s, they are capable of short bursts of speed, especially in very short lunges. Alligators' main prey are smaller animals that they can kill and eat with a single bite. Alligators may kill larger prey by grabbing it and dragging it in the water to drown. Alligators consume food that cannot be eaten in one bite by allowing it to rot or by biting and then spinning or convulsing wildly until bite-size pieces are torn off. This is referred to as the "death roll." A hard-wired response developed over millions of years of evolution, even juvenile alligators execute death rolls when presented with chunks of meat. Critical to the alligator's ability to initiate a death roll, the tail must flex to a significant angle relative to its body. Immobilizing an alligator's tail incapacitates its ability to begin a death roll. <ref>[Death roll of the alligator: mechanics of twist feeding in water. Frank E. Fish, Sandra A. Bostic, Anthony J. Nicastro and John T. Beneski, The Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 210, pages 2811-2818 (2007).]</ref>

Most of the muscle in an alligator's jaw is intended for biting and gripping prey. The muscles that close the jaws are exceptionally powerful, however the muscles for opening their jaws are relatively weak in comparison. As a result, an adult man can hold an alligator's jaw shut with his bare hands. In general, a strip of [[duct tape]] is enough to prevent an adult alligator from opening its jaws and is one of the most common methods used when alligators are to be captured and/or transported.<ref>[http://crocodilian.com/crocfaq/faq-3.html Crocodilian Captive Care FAQ: How to properly handle/transport crocodilians etc.]</ref>
Alligators are generally timid towards humans and tend to walk or swim away if one approaches. Unfortunately, this has led some people to the practice of approaching alligators and their nests in a way that may provoke the animals into attacking. There are federal laws that prohibit feeding of the alligators in several locations where they can be found; however, some people choose to ignore these. If fed, the alligators will eventually lose their fear of humans and may, in turn, choose to approach human settlements rather than moving away.

== Diet ==
When young they eat fish, insects, [[snails]], [[crustaceans]], and [[worm]]s. As they grow, they take progressively larger prey items, including larger fish such as [[gar]], turtles, various mammals, birds, antelope and other [[reptiles]]. Their stomachs also often contain [[gastrolith]]s. They will even consume [[carrion]] if they are sufficiently hungry. Adult alligators can take razorbacks and deer and are well known to kill and eat smaller alligators. In some cases, larger alligators have been known to hunt the [[Florida panther]] and [[bear]]s, making it the [[apex predator]] throughout its distribution. As humans encroach onto their habitat, attacks on humans are few but not unknown. Alligators, unlike the large crocodiles, do not immediately regard a human upon encounter as prey, but may still attack in self-defense if provoked.

=== Attacks on humans ===
Human deaths caused by alligators have increased. While there were only nine fatal attacks in the U.S.A. between 1970 and 2000, eleven people were killed by alligators in the five years between 2001 and 2006 alone. {{Fact|date=November 2007}}

Alligators do tend to be wary of humans, but overconfidence has led some people to enter the animals' habitat in ways that provoke aggression. Aggressive behavior by alligator males can increase in the Spring during mating season.

== Reproduction ==
[[Image:Alligator eggs and young alligators.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alligator eggs and young]]
[[Image:Crocnest.JPG|thumb|right|200px|Alligators of various ages in [[Everglades National Park]]]]
Alligators generally mature at a length of six feet (1.8 m). The mating season is in early spring. The female builds a nest of vegetation where the decomposition of the vegetation provides the heat needed to incubate the eggs. The sex of the offspring is determined by the temperature in the nest and is fixed within 7 to 21 days of the start of incubation. Incubation temperatures of 30 °C (86 °F) or lower produce a clutch of females; those of 34 °C (93 °F) or higher produce entirely males. Nests constructed on levees are hotter than those constructed on wet marsh and, thus, the former tend to produce males and the latter, females. The natural sex ratio at hatching is five females to one male. Females hatched from eggs incubated at 30 °C weigh significantly more than males hatched from eggs incubated at 34 °C.[3] The mother will defend the nest from predators and will assist the hatchlings to water. She will provide protection to the young for about a year if they remain in the area. The largest threat to the young are adult alligators. Predation by adults on young can account for a mortality rate of up to fifty percent in the first year. In the past, immediately following the outlawing of alligator hunting, populations rebounded quickly due to the suppressed number of adults preying upon the new recruits, increasing survival among the young alligators. The mother keeps the young for one year.

== Farming ==
Alligator farming is a big and growing industry in Georgia, Florida, Texas and Louisiana. These states produce a combined annual total of some 45,000 alligator hides. Alligator hides bring good prices and hides in the 6-7 foot (1.8-2 m) range have sold for $300 each, though the price can fluctuate considerably from year to year. The market for alligator meat is growing and approximately 300,000 pounds (140 000 kg) of meat is produced annually. According to the Florida Department of Agriculture, raw alligator meat contains roughly 200 calories per 3oz (85 g) serving size, of which 27 calories come from fat.<ref>[http://www.annecollins.com/calories/calories-alligator.htm Calories in Alligator Meat]</ref>

Many individuals liken the taste of alligator meat to that of [[chicken]] or [[rabbit]], and alligator meat is sometimes used in [[jambalaya|jambalayas]], [soup|soups]], and [[stew|stews]].<ref name="taste">{{cite web|url=http://exoticmeats.com/docs/ExoticMeats-What-things-taste-like.pdf|title=Exotic Meats: What Things Taste Like||date=2008|accessdate=2008-07-17}}</ref>.

== Media ==
{{Commonscat|Alligator}}
{{multi-listen start}}

{{multi-listen item |
filename=Alligatorbellowedit.ogg|
title=Alligator bellow|
description=Alligator bellow, [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
}}
{{multi-listen item |
filename=27alligator2bellow.ogg |
title=Another alligator bellow|
description=Alligator bellow, [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
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{{multi-listen item |
filename=alligatorhiss.ogg|
title=Alligator hiss|
description=Alligator hiss [[ogg]]/[[Vorbis]] format). |
format=[[Vorbis]]
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== See also ==
*[[List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States by decade]]

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
*[http://www.crocodilian.com Crocodilian Online]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/PhotographicCollection/photo_exhibits/alligators/index.cfm Photo exhibit on Alligators in Florida; made available by the State Archives of Florida]
*[http://www.nps.gov/ever/eco/gator.htm Everglades National Park Alligators]
*[http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v296/n5860/abs/296850a0.html Temperature of egg incubation determines sex]
*[http://www.floridamemory.com/Collections/folklife/sound_pod.cfm Interview Seminole alligator wrestler; made available for public use by the State Archives of Florida]

{{Crocs}}

[[Category:Crocodiles]]
[[Category:Spanish loanwords]]
[[Category:Cuisine of the Southern United States]]
[[Category:Florida culture]]
[[Category:Fauna of the Southeastern United States]]
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[[de:Echte Alligatoren]]
[[el:Αλιγάτορας]]
[[es:Alligator]]
[[eo:Aligatoro]]
[[fr:Alligator]]
[[hr:Pravi aligatori]]
[[ko:앨리게이터속]]
[[io:Aligatoro]]
[[id:Alligator]]
[[he:אליגטור]]
[[la:Alligator]]
[[lt:Aligatoriai]]
[[ja:アリゲーター属]]
[[nl:Alligator]]
[[no:Alligatorer]]
[[nn:Alligatorar]]
[[ru:Аллигаторы]]
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[[tl:Buwaya (aligator)]]
[[th:แอลลิเกเตอร์]]
[[uk:Алігатор]]
[[yi:אליגעיטאר]]
[[zh:短吻鱷屬]]

Tastes like chicken

2008-07-18T02:07:29Z

Owlgorithm: /* See also */ added more links to previous members of category "Tastes like chicken"

[[Image:Rooster crowing.jpg|right|thumb|Many meats appear to '''taste like chicken''']]
When trying to describe the flavor of [[meat]] the listener has never eaten, a common declaration is that it '''tastes like chicken'''. The expression has been used so often that it has become somewhat of a [[cliché]]. As a result, the phrase also sometimes gets used for incongruous [[humor]], by being deployed for foods or situations to which it has no real relevance.

The expression has made its way into popular culture in a variety of contexts. The phrase has made modern appearances in the media, such as in [[The Lion King]], [[Six Days Seven Nights]], ''[[The Matrix]]'', ''[[Stargate (film)|Stargate]]'', [[Surf's Up]], [[Babylon 5]] (where it is found to taste nothing like [[Spoo]]), and the initial season of the [[reality television]] show ''[[Survivor: Borneo|Survivor]]''.

As an explanation of why unusual meats would taste more like [[chicken]] than common alternatives such as [[beef]] or [[pork]], different possibilities have been offered. One suggestion is that chicken has a bland taste because [[fat]] contributes more flavor than [[muscle]] (especially in the case of a lean cut such as a skinless chicken breast), making it a generic choice for comparison. Also, chicken reportedly has lower levels of [[glutamate]]s that contribute to the "savory" aspect of [[taste]] sometimes known as [[umami]]; processing or tenderizing other meats would also lower glutamate levels and make them taste more like chicken.

Another suggestion, made by Joe Staton of the [[Museum of Comparative Zoology]], is that meat flavors are fixed based on the [[evolution]]ary origin of the animal. Accordingly, [[bird]]s (the most numerous form of meat by type) would naturally taste more like chicken than [[mammal]]s. Furthermore, based on evidence for [[dinosaur]]s as the ancestors of birds, [[reptile]] meat might also taste somewhat like chicken. [[Seafood]], however, would logically have a more distinctive flavor. Staton's study of the question was published in the [[Annals of Improbable Research]].

==See also==
*[[Frog legs]]
*[[Green iguana]]
*[[Huhu beetle]]
*[[Mountain chicken]]
*[[Opossum]]
*[[Rabbit]] (especially [[Domestic rabbit|domestic rabbit]])
*[[Rattlesnake]]
*[[Squirrel]]

==References==
*Spice, Byron. "[http://www.post-gazette.com/healthscience/20000717chicken1.asp Mmm, tastes like chicken: Common ancestors could account for phenomenon]". ''Pittsburgh Post-Gazette'', [[July 17]], [[2000]].
*Staton, Joe. "[http://www.improb.com/airchives/paperair/volume4/v4i4/chicken.htm Tastes Like Chicken?]" ''Annals of Improbable Research'' 4:4, 1998.

[[Category:Chicken]]
[[Category:Clichés]]

Squirrel

2008-07-18T02:06:41Z

Owlgorithm: /* External links */ removing category "tastes like chicken", moving POV content to tastes like chicken

{{this|the animal}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Squirrel
| image = Eastern Grey Squirrel in St James's Park, London - Nov 2006 edit.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Eastern Gray Squirrel]], ''Sciurus carolinensis''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Rodent]]ia
| familia = '''[[Sciuridae]]'''
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision = Many, see the article [[Sciuridae]].
}}
A '''squirrel''' is any one of the many small or medium-sized [[rodent]]s in the family [[Sciuridae]]. In the [[English language|English]]-speaking world, "squirrel" commonly refers to members of this family's [[genus|genera]] ''[[Sciurus]]'' and ''[[Tamiasciurus]]'', which are [[tree squirrels]] with large bushy tails, indigenous to [[Asia]], the [[Americas]] and [[Europe]]. Similar [[Genus|genera]] are found in [[Africa]]. The Sciuridae family also include [[flying squirrel]]s, as well as [[ground squirrel]]s such as the [[chipmunk]]s, [[prairie dog]]s, and [[woodchuck]]s. Members of the family [[Anomaluridae]] are sometimes misleadingly referred to as "scaly-tailed flying squirrels" although they are not closely related to the true squirrels.

== Etymology ==
The word ''squirrel'', first attested in 1327, comes via [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] ''esquirel'' from the [[Old French language|Old French]] ''escurel'', the reflex of a [[Latin language|Latin]] word which was itself borrowed from [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]].<ref name="etymonline">{{cite web | url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=squirrel | title=Squirrel | work=Online Etymology Dictionary | accessdate=2008-02-07}}</ref> The native [[Old English language|Old English]] word, ''ācweorna'', only survived into [[Middle English language|Middle English]] (as ''aquerna'') before being replaced.<ref name="etymonline"/>
The word itself comes from the Greek word ''skiouros'', which means shadow-tailed, because they use their tail to shade their whole body.

== Background ==
[[Image:blacksquirrelrev.jpg|thumb|280 px|right|Several species of squirrels have [[melanism|melanistic]] phases. The most common variety seen in urban areas is the melanistic form of the Eastern Grey Squirrel]]
Common squirrels include the [[Fox Squirrel]] (''S. niger''); the [[Western Gray Squirrel]] (''S. griseus''); the [[Douglas Squirrel]] (''Tamiasciurus douglasii''); the [[American Red Squirrel]] ''T. hudsonicus''; and the [[Eastern Grey Squirrel]] (''S. carolinensis''), of which the "[[Black Squirrel]]" is a variant.

Unlike [[rabbits]] or [[deer]], squirrels cannot digest [[cellulose]] and must rely on foods rich in [[protein]], [[carbohydrates]], and [[fat]]. In temperate regions early spring is the hardest time of year for squirrels, since buried nuts begin to sprout and are no longer available for the squirrel to eat, and new food sources have not become available yet. During these times squirrels rely heavily on the buds of trees. Squirrels are [[omnivores]]; they eat a wide variety of plant food, including [[nut (fruit)|nut]]s, [[seed]]s, [[conifer cone]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[fungi]] and green [[vegetation]], as well as [[insect]]s. Ground and tree squirrels are typically [[Diurnality| diurnal]], while flying squirrels tend to be [[Nocturnality| nocturnal]] – except for lactating flying squirrels and their offspring, who have a period of diurnality during the summer.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Törmälä | first=Timo | coauthors=Vuorinen, Hannu; Hokkanen, Heikki | year=1980 | title=Timing of circadian activity in the flying squirrel in central Finland | journal=Acta Theriologica | volume=25 | issue=32-42 | pages=461–474 | url=http://acta.zbs.bialowieza.pl/contents/?art=1980-025-32-42-0461 | accessdate=2007-07-11}}</ref>

Predatory behavior by various species of ground squirrels, particularly the [[thirteen-lined ground squirrel]], has been noted.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Friggens | first=M. | coauthors= | title=Carnivory on Desert Cottontails by Texas Antelope Ground Squirrels | journal=The Southwestern Naturalist | volume=47 | issue=1 | pages=132–133 | year=2002 | doi=10.2307/3672818}}</ref> Bailey, for example, observed a thirteen-lined ground squirrel preying upon a young chicken.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bailey | first=B. | coauthors= | title=Meat-eating propensities of some rodents of Minnesota | journal=Journal of Mammalogy | volume=4 | issue= | pages=129 | month= | year=1923 | url= | accessdate=}}</ref> Wistrand reported seeing this same species eating a freshly-killed snake.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Wistrand | first=E.H. | coauthors= | title=Predation on a Snake by ''Spermophilus tridecemlineatus'' | journal=American Midland Naturalist | volume=88 | issue=2 | pages=511–512 | year=1972 | doi=10.2307/2424389}}</ref> Whitaker examined the stomachs of 139 thirteen-lined ground squirrels, and found bird flesh in four of the specimens and the remains of a short-tailed shrew in one;<ref>{{cite journal | last=Whitaker | first=J.O. | title=Food and external parasites of ''Spermophilus tridecemlineatus'' in Vigo County, Indiana | journal=Journal of Mammalogy | volume=53 | issue=3 | pages=644–648 | year=1972 | doi=10.2307/1379067}}</ref> Bradley, examining [[white-tailed antelope squirrel]]s' stomachs, found at least 10% of his 609 specimens' stomachs contained some type of vertebrate — mostly lizards and rodents.<ref>{{cite journal | last=Bradley | first=W. G. | coauthors= | title=Food habits of the antelope ground squirrel in southern Nevada | journal=Journal Of Mammalogy | volume=49 | issue=1 | pages=14–21 | doi=10.2307/1377723 | year=1968}}</ref> Morgart (1985) observed a white-tailed antelope squirrel capturing and eating a [[Perognathus|silky pocket mouse]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Morgart | first=J.R. | coauthors= | title=Carnivorous behavior by a white-tailed antelope ground squirrel ''Ammospermophilus leucurus'' | journal=The Southwestern Naturalist | volume=30 | issue=2 | pages=304–305 | doi=10.2307/3670745 | month=May | year=1985}}</ref>Black squirrels in Russia have been accused of pack behavior in the murder and consumption of a dog.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4489792.stm|publisher=[[BBC News]]|date=2005-12-01|accessdate=2008-07-07|title=Russian squirrel pack 'kills dog'}}</ref>

== Relationship with humans ==
[[Image:Lightmatter wild squirrel.jpg|thumb|250px|Squirrel eating a nut]]
Squirrels are generally clever and persistent animals. In residential neighborhoods, they are notorious for eating out of bird feeders, digging in planting pots and flower beds to pull out bulbs which they chew on or to either bury or recover seeds and nuts and for inhabiting sheltered areas including [[attic]]s and [[basement]]s. Squirrels use their keen sense of smell to locate buried nuts and can dig extensive holes in the process. Birds, especially crows, will watch a squirrel bury a nut and will dig it up as soon as the squirrel leaves. Although expert climbers, and primarily [[arboreal]], squirrels also thrive in urban environments that are largely free of trees.

Squirrels are sometimes considered [[pest (animal)|pest]]s because of their propensity to chew on various edible and inedible objects. This characteristic trait aids in maintaining sharp [[teeth]], and because their teeth grow continuously, prevents over-growth. Homeowners in areas with a heavy squirrel population must keep attics and basements carefully sealed to prevent property damage caused by nesting squirrels. A squirrel nest is called a "[[drey]]". Some homeowners resort to more interesting ways of dealing with this problem, such as collecting and planting fur from pets such as domestic [[domestic cat|cats]] and [[dog]]s in attics. This fur will indicate to nesting squirrels that a potential predator roams and will encourage evacuation. Fake [[owl]]s and [[scarecrow]]s are generally ignored by the animals, and the best way to prevent chewing on an object is to coat it with something to make it undesirable: for instance a soft cloth or [[chili pepper]] paste or powder. Squirrel [[Trapping (Animal)|trapping]] is also practiced to remove them from residential areas.

[[Image:Japanese Squirrel edit2.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Japanese Squirrel]]]]
Squirrels can be trained to be hand-fed. Because they are able to cache surplus food, they will take as much food as is available. Squirrels living in parks and [[campus]]es in cities have learned that humans are typically a ready source of food. Hand feeding is not recommended, however, because squirrels may carry [[Bubonic plague|plague]]{{Fact|date=May 2008}} or other animal-borne diseases. Even if they do not carry disease, they often have a hard time telling fingertips from food, and bites are painful. Squirrels are occasionally kept as household pets, provided they are selected young enough and are hand raised in a proper fashion. They can be taught to do tricks, and are said to be as intelligent as dogs in their ability to learn behaviors. In these cases, a large cage and a balanced diet with good variety will keep a pet squirrel healthy and happy. As a pet, the owner must be aware of "spring fever" at which time a female pet squirrel will become very defensive of her cage, thinking of it as her nest, and will become somewhat aggressive to defend the area.

Squirrels are often the cause of [[electricity|power]] outages. They can readily climb a power pole and crawl across a power line. The animals will climb onto [[transformer]]s or [[capacitor]]s looking for food. If they touch a high voltage conductor and a grounded portion of the device at the same time, they are then [[electrocuted]] and cause a [[short circuit]] that shuts down equipment. Squirrels have brought down the high-tech [[NASDAQ]] stock market twice and were responsible for a spate of power outages at the [[University of Alabama]].<ref>{{cite web | author=K. Muston | work=Daily Kos: | title=Getting Squirrely | url=http://www.dailykos.com/story/2007/9/22/10818/1400 | accessdate=2008-02-07}}</ref> They will often chew on tree branches to sharpen their teeth but cannot tell the difference between a tree branch and a live power line. Rubber plates (''squirrel guards'') are sometimes used to prevent access to these facilities.

Squirrels are blamed for economic losses to homeowners, nut growers, forest managers in addition to damage to electric transmission lines. These losses include direct damage to property, repairs, lost revenue and public relations. While dollar costs of these losses are sometimes calculated for isolated incidents, there is no tracking system to determine the total extent of the losses.<ref>[http://hgic.clemson.edu/pdf/pcwdtree_squirrels.pdf Tree Squirrels - University of Georgia]</ref>

Squirrels are also responsible for burrowing into sensitive earthworks such as dams and levees, causing a loss of structural integrity which requires diligent maintenance and prevention. Squirrel burrowing activity has sometimes resulted in catastrophic failures of these structures.<ref>{{cite web | author= | title=Levee Safety Program: Burrowing Animals | url=http://www.valleywater.org/water/watersheds_-_streams_and_floods/Taking_care_of_streams/Levee_safety/Burrowing_animals.shtm | publisher=Santa Clara Valley Water District | date=2006 | accessdate=2008-02-07}}</ref>

[[Image:Westerngraysquirrel.jpg|thumb|250px|Western Gray Squirrel in Los Angeles, California]]Urban squirrels have learned to get a great deal of food from over-generous humans. One of the more common and inexpensive foods fed to squirrels is [[peanut]]s. Recent studies however have shown that raw peanuts contain a [[trypsin]] inhibitor that prevents the absorption of protein in the intestines, therefore offering peanuts that have been roasted is the better option.<ref>{{cite web | author=Jon Gottshall | title=Jon's World o' Squirrels | url=http://www.gottshall.com/squirrels/fhtml04e.htm#0 | work=Jon's World o' Squirrels | accessdate=2007-02-07}}</ref> However, wildlife rehabilitators in the field have noted that neither raw and roasted peanuts or sunflower seeds are good for squirrels, since they are deficient in several essential nutrients. This type of deficiency has been found to cause [[Metabolic Bone Disease]], a somewhat common ailment found in malnourished squirrels.<ref>{{cite web | author=Susan Saliga | title=Backyard Squirrel Feeding Tips | work=Wisconsin Squirrel Connection | url=http://home.wi.rr.com/frettchen/BACKYARD%20SQUIRREL%20FEEDING%20TIPS.htm | accessdate=2007-02-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author=Sara Rowe | title=Squirrel Tales: Care Instructions For Infant Squirrels | work=Squirreltales | url=http://www.squirreltales.org/#Section-H | accessdate=2007-02-07}}</ref>

=== Hunting and food ===
[[Image:grey squirrel in rye.jpg|right|thumb|A grey squirrel eating a nut]]
Squirrel meat is considered a favored meat in certain regions of the United States where it can be listed as [[wild game]]. This is evidenced by extensive recipes for its preparation found in cookbooks, including older copies of ''[[The Joy of Cooking]]''. Squirrel meat can be exchanged for [[rabbit]] or [[chicken]] in recipes although squirrel meat is more tender than the latter. Squirrels can often become prey to different dogs that have the speed and agility to catch them. Its light red or pink flesh has only a slight game taste. In many areas of the U.S., particularly areas of the [[Southern United States|American South]], squirrels are hunted for food. However, the [[American Heart Association]] has found squirrels to be high in [[cholesterol]].<ref name=cookbook>{{cite encyclopedia| title=Squirrel | encyclopedia=Oxford Companion to Food | last=Davidson | first=Alan | volume=| pages=p. 750| publisher=Oxford University Press | date=1999 | isbn=0192115790}}</ref>

In June 2008 Britain's [[The Daily Telegraph]] reported that squirrel was among the most popular meats to cook with and serve at dinner parties. Specifically, they are cooking with the [[Western gray squirrel|gray squirrel]], which is being praised for its low fat content and the fact that it comes from [[free range]] sources. Some British are eating the gray squirrel as a direct attempt to help the native [[red squirrel]] which has been dwindling since the introduction of the gray squirrel in the 19th century.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/portal/main.jhtml?xml=/portal/2008/05/28/ftsquirrel128.xml First, catch your squirrel...]</ref>

=== Popular culture ===
[[Image:1461020875 b2d3bf60fc o.jpg|thumb|Squirrel carrying nut, [[Brooklyn]] ]]
Despite periodic complaints about the animal as a pest, general public opinion towards the animal is favorable, thanks to its agreeable appearance, intelligence and its eating styles and habits. Squirrels are arguably the most successful wild urban animal species. Squirrels are popular characters in [[cartoon]]s and other forms of media, such as the works of [[Beatrix Potter]], [[Redwall]] (including [[Jess Squirrel]] and numerous other squirrels), the squirrel Pattertwig in [[C. S. Lewis]]'s book [[Prince Caspian]], the Starwife and her subjects from [[Robin Jarvis]]'s Deptford novels, [[Scrat]] from [[Ice Age (film)| Ice Age]], [[Slappy Squirrel]] of ''[[Animaniacs]]'', [[Sandy Cheeks]] from [[SpongeBob SquarePants]], Hammy from [[Over The Hedge]], Benny in ''[[The Wild]]'', Rodney from [[Squirrel Boy]], [[Secret Squirrel]], [[Screwy Squirrel]], [[Conker the Squirrel]] from [[Rare Ltd.|Rare]]'s [[Conker (series)|Conker]] series of video games, the squirrel-themed super-heroine [[Squirrel Girl]], Foamy the Squirrel of [[Neurotically Yours]], [[Nutty (Happy Tree Friends)|Nutty]] from [[Happy Tree Friends]], and [[Rocky the Flying Squirrel|Rocky]], [[Bullwinkle J. Moose|Bullwinkle]]'s partner in adventures.
Grace from the webcomic [[El Goonish Shive]] is often pictured as an anthropomorphic squirrel since it is her most natural and favored form.

==== Albino squirrels ====
[[Image:UNTalbinosquirrel.jpg|thumb||right|Albino squirrel at [[University of North Texas|UNT]] (Note the squirrel's pink-colored eye)]]
[[Image:Non-albino White Squirrel.JPG|thumb|Non-albino white squirrel (The squirrel's eye is brown)]]
The [[Albino Squirrel Preservation Society]] was founded at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] in 2001, and its sister chapter at [[University of North Texas]] (UNT) petitioned for an election to name their albino squirrel as the university's secondary mascot. The student body narrowly rejected the call.<ref>{{cite journal | title='Baby' is no more | journal=North Texan | publisher=University of North Texas | volume=56 | issue=3 | month=Fall | year=2006 | url=http://www.unt.edu/northtexan/archives/f06/untnews.htm | accessdate=2008-02-07}}</ref>

[[Olney, Illinois]], is home of the world's largest known albino-squirrel colony. [[Kenton, Tennessee]], is home to about 200 albino squirrels. [[Brevard, North Carolina]] and [[Marionville, Missouri]] have a substantial population of white (not albino) squirrels. [[Western Kentucky University]] has a locally famous population of white squirrels. [[Exeter, Ontario]] in Canada is known for having non-albino white squirrels, believed to be the result of a genetic mutation in the early 20th century. White squirrels are also commonly seen in [[Dayton, Ohio]] on the main campus of [[Ohio State University]] in [[Columbus, Ohio]] and on the campus of [[Youngstown State University]] in [[Youngstown, Ohio]]. The snow belt in Western and Central New York ([[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]], [[Rochester, New York|Rochester]], and [[Syracuse, New York|Syracuse]]), also has a significant white squirrel population{{Fact|date=April 2008}}.

==== Red and grey squirrels in the UK ====
[[Image:Squirrel in London UK.JPG|thumb|Squirrel being fed in [[St. James's Park]], [[London]], near [[Buckingham Palace]].]]
A decline of the [[Red Squirrel|red squirrel]] and the rise of the eastern grey squirrel has been widely remarked upon in British popular culture. It is mostly regarded as the invading greys driving out the native red species.<ref>{{cite web | author= | title=The Grey/Red Debate | work=Save our Squirrels | url=http://www.saveoursquirrels.org.uk/red-squirrel-information/the-greyred-debate | publisher=Red Alert North England | date= | accessdate=2008-02-07}}</ref> Evidence also shows that Grey squirrels are vectors of the [[Squirrel parapoxvirus]] for which no vaccine is presently available and which is deadly to red squirrels but does not seem to affect the host.<ref>{{cite web| author = BBC | title = Virus threatens UK's red squirrels | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2829015.stm| date = | accessdate=2008-05-30}}</ref> Currently the red squirrel only resides in a few isolated areas of the UK, notably in Scotland, and in England the [[Lake District]] and the [[Isle of Wight]]. Special measures are in place to contain and remove any infiltration of grey squirrels into these areas

Under British law, the eastern grey squirrel is regarded as vermin, and it is illegal to release any into the wild; any caught must be either killed or kept captive.

== See also ==
* [[Squirrel fishing]]
* [[Twiggy the Water-Skiing Squirrel]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/Lane/4033/index.html The Scholarly Squirrel]
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4489792.stm Russian squirrel pack 'kills dog' - BBC News]
*[http://www.livescience.com/animals/071227-squirrels-snakes.html California squirrels defend themselves]

[[Category:Rodents]]
[[Category:Squirrels| ]]
[[Category:Hunting in the United States]]

[[ang:ācweorna]]
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Rattlesnake

2008-07-18T02:05:49Z

Owlgorithm: /* External links */ removing category "tastes like chicken", moving POV content to tastes like chicken

{{Taxobox
| name = Rattlesnake
| image = Crotalus atrox (2).jpg
| image_caption = ''Crotalus atrox''
| image_width = 240px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordata]]
| classis = [[Reptile|Reptilia]]
| ordo = [[Squamata]]
| subordo = [[Serpentes]]
| familia = [[Viperidae]]
| subfamilia = [[Crotalinae]]
| genus = '''''Crotalus'''''
| genus_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| genus2 = '''''[[Sistrurus]]'''''
| genus2_authority = [[Samuel Garman|Garman]], 1883
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision =
27 species; see [[list of rattlesnake species and subspecies]].
}}
'''Rattlesnakes''' are a group of [[venomous snake|venomous]] [[snakes]], [[genus|genera]] ''[[Crotalus]]'' and ''[[Sistrurus]]''. They belong to the class of venomous snakes known commonly as [[Crotalinae|pit viper]]s. Rattlesnakes are characterized by the presence of a "rattle" at the tip of the tail used to warn off predators and threats.

==Overview==
There are approximately fifty [[List of rattlesnake species and subspecies|species of rattlesnake]], with numerous subspecies. They receive their name for the [[rattle]] located at the tip of their tails. The rattle is used as a warning device when threatened. The scientific name ''Crotalus'' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]], ''κρόταλον'', meaning "[[castanet]]". The name ''Sistrurus'' is the [[Latin language|Latinized]] form of the [[Greek language|Greek]] word for "tail rattler" (''Σείστρουρος, Seistrouros'') and shares its root with the ancient [[Egypt]]ian musical instrument, the [[sistrum]], a type of rattle.

Most rattlesnakes mate in the spring. All species give [[live birth]], rather than laying eggs. The young are self-sufficient from birth. As they do not need their mother after birth, the mother does not remain with her young.

==Prey==
Rattlesnakes consume rodents and other small animals, such as rabbits, rats, and mice, subduing their prey quickly with a venomous bite as opposed to [[constriction|constricting]]. Rattlesnakes have also been known to eat small mammals, like foxes, cats or dogs.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} The venom stuns or kills typical rattlesnake prey immediately. A rattlesnake will follow prey that does not quickly succumb to the venom and attempts to escape. They are specially known to strike at distances up to two-thirds their body length.

== Predators ==

Rattlesnakes are prey for [[kingsnake]]s, [[Roadrunner (bird)|roadrunner]]s, [[pig]]s,[http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rattlesnake] [[hawk]]s, and [[eagle]]s. They have been harvested as human food, such as at the [[Rattlesnake Round-Up]] in [[Sweetwater, Texas]].

==Reproduction==
Although many kinds of snakes are oviparous (lay eggs), rattlesnakes are ovoviviparous -- the female retains the eggs in her body until they hatch and the young emerge alive. Baby snakes are ready to go as soon as they are hatched or born. There is little to no parental care of the newborn snakes.

==The rattle==
[[Image:rattle.jpg|thumb|left|The rattle of a rattlesnake.]]The rattle is composed of a series of nested, hollow beads which are actually modified scales from the tail tip. Each time the snake sheds its skin, a new rattle segment is added. They may shed their skins several times a year depending on food supply and growth rates. The rattle may break; there is little truth to the claim that one can tell a rattlesnake's age from the number of beads in its rattle. Newborn rattlesnakes do not have functional rattles; it isn't until after they have shed their skin for the first time that they gain an additional bead, which beats against the first bead, known as the button, to create the rattling sound. Adult snakes may lose their rattles on occasion, but more appear at each [[molt]]ing. If the rattle absorbs enough water in wet weather, it will not make noise.

== Paleontology ==
The earliest [[fossil]] found which can be definitively identified as a rattlesnake was discovered near Driftwood Creek in [[Hitchcock County, Nebraska]], U.S.A. An exact age of the specimen is indeterminate. The fossilized remains usually consist of ribs, which makes accurate specie identification problematic, as even many species of modern rattlesnakes have nearly identical vertebral characteristics. One extinct species, of which fossils were discovered in Allen Cave in [[Citrus County]], was given the name ''Croeus''. Though it had many characters in common with the modern ''Crotalus adamanteus'', it was a much larger animal, probably attaining lengths in excess of {{convert|12|ft|m}}. In general, the fossil record for rattlesnakes is quite limited, and their exact route of evolution from the more primitive true vipers to their current form is not well understood.<ref name="Klauber56">Klauber, Laurence M. 1956. ''Rattlesnakes, Their Habits, Life Histories, and Influence on Mankind''. Volume I. Second E</ref>

==Safety and identification==
[[Image:Crotalus viridis Southern Pacific Rattlesnake Juvenile.jpg|thumb|Juvenile [[Southern Pacific Rattlesnake]] in [[California]].]]

Different species of rattlesnake vary significantly in size, territory, markings, and temperament. If the rattlesnake is not cornered or imminently threatened, it will usually attempt to flee from encounters with humans, but will not always do so. Bites often occur when humans startle the snake or provoke it. Those bitten while provoking rattlesnakes have usually underestimated the range (roughly two-thirds of its total length) and speed with which a coiled snake can strike (literally faster than the human eye can follow). This can be particularly surprising since the snakes can strike without pulling their body back. Some rattle snakes have been seen striking up to an hour after death.{{Fact|date=July 2008}} This reflex hasn't been recorded in any other species. Heavy boots and long pants reinforced with leather or canvas are recommended for hikers in areas known to harbor rattlesnakes.

Guides are available through booksellers, libraries, and local conservation and wildlife management agencies that aid hikers and campers in identifying rattlesnakes. The advice given is to avoid contact with rattlesnakes by remaining observant and not approaching the animals. Hikers are advised to be particularly careful when negotiating fallen logs or boulders and when near rocky outcroppings and ledges where rattlesnakes may be hiding or sunning themselves. However, snakes will occasionally sun themselves in the middle of a trail, so such areas are not the only places where they are encountered. When encountering a rattlesnake on a trail, you are advised to keep your distance and allow the snake room to retreat.

==Rattlesnake bites==
[[Image:Rattlesnakesign.jpg|thumb|left|A rattlesnake warning sign]]
Rattlesnakes are born with fully functioning fangs capable of injecting venom and can regulate the amount of venom they inject when biting. Generally they deliver a full dose of venom to their prey, but may deliver less venom or none at all when biting defensively. A frightened or injured snake may not exercise such control. Young snakes are to be considered more dangerous, as they have less control over the amount of venom they inject. A young rattlesnake will often simply inject all its venom, which is a deadly amount.
===Toxicity===
Most species of rattlesnakes have [[hemotoxin|hemotoxic]] venom, destroying tissue, degenerating organs and causing [[coagulopathy]] (disrupted blood clotting). Some degree of permanent scarring is very likely in the event of a venomous bite, even with prompt, effective treatment, and a severe envenomation, combined with delayed or ineffective treatment, can lead to the loss of a limb and, rarely, death. Thus, a rattlesnake bite is always a potentially serious or even fatal injury. Untreated rattlesnake bites, especially from larger species, are very often fatal. However, antivenin, when applied in time, reduces the death rate to less than 4%.
Around 8,000 people are bitten by venomous snakes in the United States each year[http://www.aphis.usda.gov/mrpbs/safety_security/library/snake_bites.pdf]. On average, fewer than 15 snakebite deaths are reported.

Some rattlesnakes, especially the tropical species, have [[neurotoxin|neurotoxic]] venom. A bite from these snakes can interfere with the function of the heart, paralyze the lungs, and shut down parts of the nervous system.

The Common [[Kingsnake]] (''Lampropeltis getula''), a [[constrictor]], is famous for being largely [[immune]] to the venom of rattlesnakes and other [[viper]]s,<ref>[http://www.desertusa.com/magfeb98/feb_pap/du_kingsnake.html Common Kingsnake (DesertUSA)]</ref> and therefore rattlesnakes form part of this snake's natural diet in the wild.

[[Image:Crotalus horridus (1).jpg|thumb|300px|[[Timber Rattlesnake]] (''Crotalus horridus'')]]

===First aid===
When a bite occurs, the amount of venom injected cannot be gauged easily. Symptoms and swelling may occur quickly, and may cause death easily but in some cases hours may pass before serious effects appear.

Experienced health workers typically gauge envenomation in stages ranging from 0, when there is no evident venom, to 5, when there is a life-threatening amount of venom present. The stages reflect the amount of bruising and swelling around the fang marks and the speed with which that bruising and swelling progresses. In more severe envenomation cases (stage 4 or 5) there may also be proximal symptoms, such as lip-tingling, dizziness, bleeding, vomiting, or shock. Difficulty breathing, paralysis, drooling, and massive hemorrhaging are also common symptoms.

Quick medical attention is critical, and treatment typically requires [[antivenom|antivenin/antivenom]] to block the tissue destruction, nerve effects, and blood-clotting disorders common with rattlesnake venom, Most medical experts recommend keeping the area of the bite below the level of the heart. It is important to keep a snake bite victim calm in order to avoid elevating their heart rate and accelerating the circulation of venom within the body. Untrained individuals should not attempt to make incisions at or around bite sites, or to use tourniquets, as either treatment may be more destructive than the envenomation itself.

Any bite from a rattlesnake should be regarded as a life-threatening [[medical emergency]] that requires immediate hospital treatment from trained professionals.

==Rattlesnakes as food==
Rattlesnakes are also a popular food in some southeastern and southwestern American cuisines and are sometimes sold in speciality meat shops. It has a flavor that has been described as [[Tastes like chicken|similar to chicken]] or frog legs and a chewy texture similar to alligator.[http://www.rattlesnakerecipe.us/]

==Rattlesnakes in captivity==
There are fairly obvious risks with private ownership of rattlesnakes. A bite can result in a large bill [http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/305] for emergency medical care or death. Some jurisdictions outlaw the possession of venomous snakes. Where it is legal, some form of license or insurance policy may be required.

==Media==
{{Listen|filename=Rattlesnake.ogg|title=Rattlesnake|description=sound of a rattlesnake|format=[[Ogg]]}}

== See also ==
* [[List of crotaline species and subspecies]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
*Manny Rubio; <cite>Rattlesnake: A Portrait of a Predator</cite>; Smithsonian Institute Press; ISBN 1-56098-808-8 (hardcover, 1998)
*R. Burton, MD; Emergency Medicine. Lectures on Venom and Toxins. 1989.

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{commons|Crotalus}}
*[http://www.crotalusco.com/ Breeder of rattlesnakes ]
*[http://www.wildernessutah.com/brain/snakebites.html J. Jones, MD; Dispelling The Snakebite Myth]
*[http://venom-center.com/species/crotalinae/crotalus/ Rattlesnakes: A Species Photo Index]
*[http://www.desertusa.com/may96/du_rattle.html Desert USA article]
*[http://www.rattlesnakes.com/ American International Rattlesnake Museum] [[Albuquerque, New Mexico|Albuquerque,]] [[New Mexico]]
*[http://reptilesofaz.com/herp-snakes.html Rattlesnakes of Arizona] Good descriptions of many species with ranges
*[http://venom-center.com/species/crotalinae/crotalus/atrox.html Crotalus atrox Western Diamondback]
*[http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/305 Victim's account of rattlesnake bite - Crotalus scutulatus]
*[http://www.venomousreptiles.org/articles/345 Victim's account of rattlesnake bite - Crotalus horridus]

{{Link_FA|de}}

[[Category:Crotalus by common name]]

{{Link FA|de}}
[[de:Klapperschlangen]]
[[eo:Krotalo]]
[[fr:Crotale]]
[[he:נחש הפעמונים]]
[[la:Serpentes tintinnabulati]]
[[nl:Ratelslangen]]
[[ja:ガラガラヘビ]]
[[pl:Grzechotniki]]
[[pt:Cascavel]]
[[zh:响尾蛇]]

Rabbit

2008-07-18T02:03:40Z

Owlgorithm: /* External links */ removing category "tastes like chicken", moving POV content to tastes like chicken

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{otheruses}}
{{Redirect|Bunny}}
{{Taxobox
| name = Rabbit
| image = Sylvilagus_floridanus.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = [[Eastern Cottontail]] (''Sylvilagus floridanus'')
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Lagomorpha]]
| familia = [[Leporidae]] in part
| subdivision_ranks = Genera
| subdivision =
''[[Pentalagus]]'' 
''[[Bunolagus]]'' 
''[[Nesolagus]]'' 
''[[Romerolagus]]'' 
''[[Brachylagus]]'' 
''[[Sylvilagus]]'' 
''[[European Rabbit|Oryctolagus]]'' 
''[[Poelagus]]''
}}
'''Rabbits''' are small [[mammal]]s in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Leporidae]] of the order [[Lagomorpha]], found in several parts of the world. There are seven different [[genus|genera]] in the family [[taxonomy|classified]] as rabbits, including the [[European rabbit]] (''Oryctolagus cuniculus''), [[Cottontail rabbit]] (genus ''Sylvilagus''; 13 [[species]]), and the [[Amami rabbit]] (''Pentalagus furnessi'', [[endangered species]] on [[Amami Ōshima]], [[Japan]]). There are many other species of rabbit, and these, along with pikas and [[hare]]s, make up the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Lagomorpha]].

==Location and habitat==
Rabbits are ground dwellers that live in [[habitat|environment]]s ranging from [[desert]] to [[tropical forest]] and [[wetland]]. Their natural geographic range encompasses the middle latitudes of the Western Hemisphere. In the Eastern Hemisphere rabbits are found in [[Europe]], portions of Central and Southern [[Africa]], the Indian subcontinent, [[Sumatra]], and [[Japan]]. The [[European rabbit]] (''Oryctolagus cuniculus'') has been introduced to many locations around the world, and all breeds of domestic rabbit originate from the European. <ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/>

==Characteristics and anatomy==
The long ears of rabbits are most likely an adaptation for detecting [[predator]]s. In addition to their prominent ears, which can measure more than {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} long, rabbits have long, powerful hind legs and a short tail. Each foot has five digits (one reduced); rabbits move about on the tips of the digits in a fashion known as digitigrade locomotion. Full-bodied and egg-shaped, wild rabbits are rather uniform in body proportions and stance. The smallest is the [[Pygmy Rabbit|pygmy rabbit]] (''Brachylagus idahoensis''), at only 20 cm in length and 0.4 kg (0.9 pound) in weight, while the largest grow to 50 cm and more than 2 kg. The fur is generally long and soft, and its color ranges through shades of brown, gray, and buff. Exceptions are the black [[Amami rabbit]] (''Pentalagus furnessi'') of [[Japan]] and two black-striped species from Southeast Asia. The tail is usually a small puff of fur, generally brownish but white on top in the cottontails (genus ''Sylvilagus'') of [[North America|North]] and [[South America]].<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia | title = rabbit | encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | publisher = [[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] | location = Chicago | edition = Standard Edition | date = 2007}}</ref>

===Cecal pellets===
Rabbits are [[hindgut]] digesters. This means that most of their digestion takes place in their [[large intestine]] and [[cecum]]. In rabbits, the cecum is approximately 10 times bigger than the stomach, and it, along with the large intestine, makes up roughly 40% of the rabbit's digestive tract.<ref>"Feeding the Pet Rabbit"</ref> [[Cecotropes]], sometimes called "night feces", come from the cecum and are high in [[mineral]]s, [[vitamin]]s and [[protein]]s that are necessary to the rabbit's health. Rabbits eat these in order to meet their nutritional requirements. This process allows rabbits to extract the necessary nutrients from their food.<ref>Dr. Byron de la Navarre's "Care of Rabbits"</ref><ref>Dr. Susan A. Brown, DVM's "Overview of Common Rabbit Diseases: Diseases Related to Diet"</ref>

==Diet and eating habits==
[[Image:Rabbit In Country Lane.jpg|200px|thumb|A wild rabbit in an [[England|English]] country [[lane]].]]
Rabbits are [[herbivore]]s who feed by grazing on [[grass]], forbs, and leafy weeds. In addition, their diet contains large amounts of cellulose, which is hard to digest. Rabbits solve this problem by passing two distinct types of feces: hard droppings and soft black viscous pellets, the latter of which are immediately eaten. Rabbits [[coprophagia|reingest their own droppings]] (rather than [[Ruminant|chewing the cud]] as do cows and many other herbivores) in order to fully digest their food and extract sufficient nutrients. <ref>[http://www.scottveterinaryclinic.co.uk/rabbits.html rabbits]</ref> <ref>[http://www.oaktreevet.co.uk/Pages/leaflets/rabbit%20general.htm rabbits general]</ref>

Rabbits graze heavily and rapidly for roughly the first half hour of a grazing period (usually in the late afternoon), followed by about half an hour of more selective feeding. In this time, the rabbit will also excrete many hard faecal pellets, being waste pellets that will not be reingested. If the environment is relatively non-threatening, the rabbit will remain outdoors for many hours, grazing at intervals. While out of the burrow, the rabbit will occasionally reingest its soft, partially digested pellets; this is rarely observed, since the pellets are reingested as they are produced. Reingestion is most common within the burrow between 8 o'clock in the morning and 5 o'clock in the evening, being carried out intermittently within that period.

Hard pellets are made up of hay-like fragments of plant cuticle and stalk, being the final waste product after redigestion of soft pellets. These are only released outside the burrow and are not reingested. Soft pellets are usually produced several hours after grazing, after the hard pellets have all been excreted. They are made up of micro-organisms and undigested plant cell walls.

The chewed plant material collects in the large cecum, a secondary chamber between the large and small intestine containing large quantities of symbiotic bacteria that help with the digestion of cellulose and also produce certain B vitamins. The pellets are about 56% bacteria by dry weight, largely accounting for the pellets being 24.4% protein on average. These pellets remain intact for up to six hours in the stomach, the bacteria within continuing to digest the plant carbohydrates. The soft feces form here and contain up to five times the vitamins of hard feces. After being excreted, they are eaten whole by the rabbit and redigested in a special part of the stomach. This double-digestion process enables rabbits to utilize nutrients that they may have missed during the first passage through the gut and thus ensures that maximum nutrition is derived from the food they eat. <ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> This process serves the same purpose within the rabbit as [[rumination]] does in cattle and sheep. <ref>''The Private Life of the Rabbit'', R. M. Lockley, 1964. Chapter 10.</ref> 

Rabbits are incapable of [[vomiting]] due to the [[physiology]] of their digestive system.<ref name="rabbit.org2">
{{Cite web
|url = http://www.rabbit.org/fun/answer11.html
|title = True or False? Rabbits are physically incapable of vomiting. (Answer to Pop Quiz)}}</ref>

==Behavior==
[[Image:Rabbit side view.JPG|200px|thumb|A rabbit's side view.]]
While the European rabbit is the best-known species, it is probably also the least typical, as there is considerable variability in the natural history of rabbits. Many rabbits dig burrows, but cottontails and hispid hares do not. The European rabbit constructs the most extensive burrow systems, called warrens. Nonburrowing rabbits make surface nests called forms, generally under dense protective cover. The European rabbit occupies open landscapes such as fields, parks, and gardens, although it has colonized habitats from stony deserts to subalpine valleys. It is the most social rabbit, sometimes forming groups in warrens of up to 20 individuals. However, even in European rabbits social behaviour can be quite flexible, depending on habitat and other local conditions, so that at times the primary social unit is a territorial breeding pair. Most rabbits are relatively solitary and sometimes territorial, coming together only to breed or occasionally to forage in small groups. During territorial disputes rabbits will sometimes “box,” using their front limbs. Rabbits are active throughout the year; no species is known to hibernate. Rabbits are generally nocturnal, and they also are relatively silent. Other than loud screams when frightened or caught by a predator, the only auditory signal known for most species is a loud foot thump made to indicate alarm or aggression. Notable exceptions are the [[Amami rabbit]] and the volcano rabbit of Mexico, which both utter a variety of calls. <ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/>

Instead of sound, scent seems to play a predominant role in the communication systems of most rabbits; they possess well-developed glands throughout their body and rub them on fixed objects to convey group identity, sex, age, social and reproductive status, and territory ownership. Urine is also used in chemical communication. When danger is perceived, the general tendency of rabbits is to freeze and hide under cover. If chased by a predator, they engage in quick, irregular movement, designed more to evade and confuse than to outdistance a pursuer. Skeletal adaptations such as long hind limbs and a strengthened pelvic girdle enable their agility and speed (up to 48 km [30 miles] per hour). <ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/>

==Reproduction==
Most rabbits produce many offspring each year, although scarcity of resources may cause this potential to be suppressed. A combination of factors allows the high rates of reproduction commonly associated with rabbits. Rabbits generally are able to breed at a young age, and many regularly conceive litters of up to seven young, often doing so four or five times a year due to the fact that a rabbit's gestation period is only 28 to 31 days.<ref name="rabbit.org">
{{Cite web
|title = What's the gestation period of a rabbit? (Answer to Pop Quiz)
|url = http://www.rabbit.org/fun/answer3.html}}</ref>. In addition, females exhibit [[induced ovulation]], their ovaries releasing eggs in response to copulation rather than according to a regular cycle. They can also undergo [[postpartum estrus]], conceiving immediately after a litter has been born. <ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/>

Newborn rabbits are naked, blind, and helpless at birth ([[altricial]]). Mothers are remarkably inattentive to their young and are almost absentee parents, commonly nursing their young only once per day and for just a few minutes. To overcome this lack of attention, the milk of rabbits is highly nutritious and among the richest of that of all mammals. The young grow rapidly, and most are weaned in about a month. Males (bucks) do not assist in rearing the kittens. <ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> The mother rabbit is able to become pregnant again 4 days after the birth of her kittens.{{Fact|date=May 2008}}

==Diseases of rabbits==
*[[Coccidiosis]] (of the liver and the intestines)
*[[Pasteurellosis]]

==Differences from hares==
{{main|Hare}}
Rabbits are clearly distinguished from hares in that rabbits are [[altricial]], having young that are born blind and hairless. In contrast, hares are generally born with hair and are able to see ([[precocial]]). All rabbits except the cottontail rabbit live underground in [[burrow]]s or warrens, while hares live in simple nests above the ground (as does the [[cottontail rabbit]]), and usually do not live in groups. Hares are generally larger than rabbits, with longer ears, and have black markings on their fur. Hares have not been [[domesticated]], while rabbits are often kept as house pets. In gardens, they are typically kept in [[hutch (animal cage)|hutches]]—small, wooden, house-like boxes—that protect the rabbits from the environment and predators.

==Rabbits as pets==
{{main|House rabbit|}}
Pet rabbits kept indoors are referred to as [[house rabbit]]s. House rabbits typically have an indoor pen or cage and a rabbit-safe place to run and exercise, such as an exercise pen, living room or family room. Rabbits can be trained to use a litter box and some can learn to come when called. [[Domestic rabbit]]s that do not live indoors can also often serve as companions for their owners, typically living in an easily accessible hutch outside the home. Some pet rabbits live in outside hutches during the day for the benefit of fresh air and natural daylight and are brought inside at night.

Whether indoor or outdoor, pet rabbits' pens are often equipped with enrichment activities such as shelves, tunnels, balls, and other toys. Pet rabbits are often provided additional space in which to get exercise, simulating the open space a rabbit would traverse in the wild. Exercise pens or lawn pens are often used to provide a safe place for rabbits to run.

A pet rabbit's diet typically consists of unlimited [[Timothy hay]], a small amount of pellets, and a small portion of fresh vegetables.

Rabbits are social animals. Rabbits as pets can find their companionship with a variety of creatures, including humans, other rabbits, [[guinea pig]]s, and sometimes even [[cat]]s and [[dog]]s. Rabbits do not make a good pets for small children because they do not know how to stay quiet, calm, and gentle around rabbits. As prey animals, rabbits are alert, timid creatures that startle easily. They have fragile bones, especially in their backs, that require support on the belly and bottom when picked up. Children 10 years old and older usually have the maturity required to care for a rabbit.

The service and therapy animals organization [http://www.deltasociety.org/AnimalsHealthChildrenChildren.htm Delta Society] has used pet rabbits as therapy for adults and children since the 1970s.

==Rabbits as food and clothing==
{{seealso|Domestic rabbit}}


[[Image:Rabbit skins.jpg|thumb|A load of rabbit skins, [[Northern Tablelands, New South Wales]]]]
[[Leporidae|Leporids]] such as European rabbits and [[hare]]s are a food meat in Europe, South America, North America, some parts of the Middle East, and China, among other places.

Rabbit is still commonly sold in UK butchers and markets, although not frequently in supermarkets. At farmers markets and the famous [[Borough Market]] in London, rabbits will be displayed dead and hanging unbutchered in the traditional style next to braces of [[pheasant]] and other small game. Rabbit meat was once commonly sold in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]], the sellers of which giving the name to the [[rugby league]] team the [[South Sydney Rabbitohs]], but quickly became unpopular after the disease [[myxomatosis]] was introduced in an attempt to wipe out the feral rabbit population (see also [[Rabbits in Australia]]).

When used for food, rabbits are both hunted and bred for meat. [[Trapping (Animal)|Snare]]s or [[gun]]s along with dogs are usually employed when catching wild rabbits for food. In many regions, rabbits are also bred for meat, a practice called [[cuniculture]]. Rabbits can then be killed by hitting the back of their heads, a practice from which the term ''[[rabbit punch]]'' is derived. Rabbit meat is a source of high quality protein.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Factsheets/Rabbit_from_Farm_to_Table/index.asp |title=Rabbit: From Farm to Table}}</ref> It can be used in most ways chicken meat is used. In fact, well-known chef [[Mark Bittman]] says that domesticated rabbit [[tastes like chicken]] because both are blank palettes upon which any desired flavors can be layered <ref name="bittman">{{cite web|url=http://www.howtocookeverything.tv/htce/TakeOnTheRecipes/detail/recipeId-24.html|title=How to Cook Everything :: Braised Rabbit with Olives ||date=2008|accessdate=2008-07-17}}</ref>. Rabbit meat is leaner than beef, pork, and chicken meat. Rabbit products are generally labeled in three ways, the first being Fryer. This is a young rabbit between 1½ and 3½ pounds and up to 12 weeks in age. This type of meat is tender and fine grained. The next product is a Roaster; they are usually over 4 pounds and over 8 months in age. The flesh is firm and coarse grained and less tender than a fryer. Then there are giblets which include the liver and heart. One of the most common types of rabbit to be bred for meat is [[New Zealand white rabbit]].

There are several health issues associated with the use of rabbits for meat, one of which is [[Tularemia]] or Rabbit Fever.<ref>[http://health.utah.gov/epi/fact_sheets/tularem.html Tularemia (Rabbit fever)]</ref> Another is so-called [[rabbit starvation]], due most likely to essential [[amino acid]] deficiencies in rabbit meat and synthesis limitations in human beings.

Rabbits are a favorite food item of large pythons, such as Burmese pythons and reticulated pythons, both in the wild, as well as pet pythons. A typical diet for example, for a pet Burmese python, is a rabbit once a week.{{Fact|date=January 2008}}

Rabbit [[pelt]]s are sometimes used in for clothing and accessories, such as scarves or hats. Rabbits are very good producers of manure; additionally, their urine, being high in nitrogen, makes lemon trees very productive. Their milk may also be of great medicinal or nutritional benefit due to its high protein content.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}

==Environmental problems==
[[Image:MyxoRabbit.JPG|thumb|right|A [[European Rabbit]] afflicted by [[Myxomatosis]] in [[England]].]]
{{seealso|Rabbits in Australia}}
Rabbits have been a source of environmental problems when introduced into the wild by humans. As a result of their appetites, and the rate at which they breed, wild rabbit depredation can be problematic for agriculture. [[Gas]]sing, barriers (fences), shooting, snaring, and [[ferret]]ing have been used to control rabbit populations, but the most effective measures are diseases such as [[myxomatosis]] (myxo or mixi, colloquially) and [[Rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus|calicivirus]]. In Europe, where rabbits are farmed on a large scale, they are protected against myxomatosis and calicivirus with a genetically modified virus. The virus was developed in Spain, and is beneficial to rabbit farmers. If it were to make its way into wild populations in areas such as Australia, it could create a population boom, as those diseases are the most serious threats to rabbit survival. Rabbits in Australia are considered to be such a pest that land owners are legally obliged to control them.

==Classifications==
Rabbits and hares were formerly classified in the order [[Rodent]]ia (rodent) until 1912, when they were moved into a new order [[Lagomorpha]]. This order also includes [[pika]]s.

Order '''[[Lagomorpha]]'''
*Family '''[[Leporidae]]'''
**Genus ''[[Amami Rabbit|Pentalagus]]''
***[[Amami Rabbit|Amami Rabbit/Ryūkyū Rabbit]], ''Pentalagus furnessi''
**Genus ''[[Bushman Rabbit|Bunolagus]]''
***[[Bushman Rabbit]], ''Bunolagus monticularis''
**Genus ''[[Sumatra Short-Eared Rabbit|Nesolagus]]''
***[[Sumatran Striped Rabbit]], ''Nesolagus netscheri''
***[[Annamite Striped Rabbit]], ''Nesolagus timminsi''
**Genus ''[[Volcano Rabbit|Romerolagus]]''
***[[Volcano Rabbit]], ''Romerolagus diazi''
**Genus ''[[Pygmy Rabbit|Brachylagus]]''
***[[Pygmy Rabbit]], ''Brachylagus idahoensis''
**Genus ''[[Sylvilagus]]''
***[[Forest Rabbit]], ''Sylvilagus brasiliensis''
***[[Dice's Cottontail]], ''Sylvilagus dicei''
***[[Brush Rabbit]], ''Sylvilagus bachmani''
***[[San Jose Brush Rabbit]], ''Sylvilagus mansuetus''
***[[Swamp Rabbit]], ''Sylvilagus aquaticus''
***[[Marsh Rabbit]], ''Sylvilagus palustris''
***[[Eastern Cottontail]], ''Sylvilagus floridanus''
***[[New England Cottontail]], ''Sylvilagus transitionalis''
***[[Mountain Cottontail]], ''Sylvilagus nuttallii''
***[[Desert Cottontail]], ''Sylvilagus audubonii''
***[[Omilteme Cottontail]], ''Sylvilagus insonus''
***[[Mexican Cottontail]], ''Sylvilagus cunicularis''
***[[Tres Marias Rabbit]], ''Sylvilagus graysoni''
**Genus ''[[European Rabbit|Oryctolagus]]''
***[[European Rabbit]], ''Oryctolagus cuniculus''
**Genus ''[[Central African Rabbit|Poelagus]]''
***[[Central African Rabbit]], ''Poelagus marjorita''
**Three other genera in family, regarded as [[hare]]s, not rabbits

==Naming==
Rabbits are often known affectionately by the pet name ''bunny'' or ''bunny rabbit'', especially when referring to young, domesticated rabbits. Originally, the word for an adult rabbit was ''coney '' or ''cony'', while ''rabbit'' referred to the young animals. More recently, the term ''kit'' has been used to refer to a young rabbit. A group of young rabbits is referred to as a ''kindle''. Young hares are called ''leverets'', and this term is sometimes informally applied to any young rabbit. Male rabbits are called ''bucks'' and females ''does''. A group of rabbits or hares is often called a ''fluffle'' in parts of Northern [[Canada]].

==Rabbits in culture and literature==
{{seealso|List of fictional rabbits}}
[[Image:Ts'ui Po 001.jpg|thumb|right|200px|''Rabbit and Acorn Jay Birds'', a [[Song Dynasty]] era painting by [[Chinese art]]ist [[Cui Bai]], painted in 1061 AD.]]
Rabbits are often used as a symbol of [[fertility]] or rebirth, and have long been associated with [[Spring (season)|spring]] and [[Easter]] as the [[Easter Bunny]]. The species' role as a prey animal also lends itself as a symbol of innocence, another Easter connotation. Additionally, rabbits are often used as symbols of playful [[Human sexuality|sexuality]], which also relates to the human perception of innocence, as well as its reputation as a prolific breeder.{{See|Playboy Bunny}}

===Folklore and mythology===
The rabbit often appears in folklore as the [[trickster]] [[archetype]], as he uses his cunning to outwit his enemies.
*In [[Aztec mythology]], a pantheon of four hundred rabbit gods known as [[Centzon Totochtin]], led by [[Ometotchtli]] or Two Rabbit, represented fertility, parties, and drunkenness.
*In [[Central Africa]] "Kalulu" the rabbit is widely known as a tricky character, getting the better of bargains. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}
*In [[Chinese literature]], rabbits accompany [[Chang'e (mythology)|Chang'e]] on the Moon. Also associated with the [[Chinese New Year]] (or [[Lunar New Year]]), [[Rabbit (zodiac)|rabbits]] are also one of the twelve celestial animals in the [[Chinese Zodiac]] for the [[Chinese calendar]]. It is interesting to note that the Vietnamese lunar new year replaced the rabbit with a cat in their calendar, as rabbits did not inhabit Vietnam.
*In the [[folklore of the United States]], a [[rabbit's foot]] is frequently carried as an [[amulet]], and is often used on [[keychain]]s, where it is thought to bring luck. The practice derives from the system of [[African-American]] [[magic (paranormal)|folk magic]] called ''[[hoodoo]].''
*In [[Culture of Japan|Japanese tradition]], rabbits live on the [[Moon]] where they make [[Mochi (food)|mochi]], the popular snack of mashed [[Glutinous rice|sticky rice]]. This comes from interpreting the pattern of dark patches on the moon as a rabbit standing on tiptoes on the left pounding on an [[usu]], a Japanese mortar (See also: [[Moon rabbit]]). A popular culture manifestation of this tradition can be found in the character title character of [[Sailor Moon]], whose name is [[Usagi Tsukino]], a [[Japanese language|Japanese]] pun on the words "rabbit of the moon."
*In [[Jewish folklore]], rabbits (shfanim) are associated with cowardice.
*A [[Korea]]n myth similar to the Japanese counterpart presents rabbits living on the moon making rice cakes ([[Tteok]] in Korean).
*In [[Native American]] [[Ojibwe]] mythology, [[Nanabozho]], or Great Rabbit, is an important deity related to the creation of the world.
*In [[Ugandan]] folklore, Shufti the rabit was the leader of the peoples when the [[sun]] [[God]] burnt the crops to the ground after the [[skull]] of the golden [[albatross]] was left out on the plains on the first day of the year.
*A [[Vietnam]]ese mythological story portrays the rabbit of innocence and youthfulness. The Gods of the myth are shown to be hunting and killing rabbits to show off their power.

On the [[Isle of Portland]] in Dorset, UK, the rabbit is said to be unlucky and speaking its name can cause upset with older residents. This is thought to date back to early times in the quarrying industry, where piles of extracted stone (not fit for sale) were built into tall rough walls (to save space) directly behind the working quarry face; the rabbit's natural tendency to burrow would weaken these "walls" and cause collapse, often resulting in injuries or even death.

The name rabbit is often substituted with words such as “long ears” or “underground mutton”, so as not to have to say the actual word and bring bad luck to oneself. It is said that a public house (on the island) can be cleared of people by calling out the word rabbit and while this was very true in the past, it has gradually become more fable than fact over the past 50 years.

===Other fictional rabbits===
The rabbit as [[trickster]] appears in American popular culture; for example the [[Br'er Rabbit]] character from African-American folktales and [[Disney]] animation; and the [[Warner Brothers]] [[cartoon]] character [[Bugs Bunny]].
Anthropomorphized rabbits have appeared in a [[List of fictional rabbits|host of works]] of film, literature, and technology, notably the [[White Rabbit]] and the [[March Hare]] in [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]''; in the popular novel ''[[Watership Down]],'' by [[Richard Adams (author)|Richard Adams]] (which has also been made into a movie) and in [[Beatrix Potter]]'s [[Peter Rabbit]] stories. Rabbits are also the subject of one of the first children's stories ''[[The Velveteen Rabbit]]'' by [[Margery Williams]], as well as the [[Little Golden Books]] story "''The Lively LIttle Rabbit''". They also appear as [[Rabbid]]s in the [[Ubisoft]] game ''[[Rayman Raving Rabbids]]'' and ''[[Rayman Raving Rabbids 2]]''. In the movie ''[[Monty Python and the Holy Grail]]'', there is the ''Killer [[Rabbit of Caerbannog]]'' which is killed by the ''[[Holy Hand Grenade of Antioch]]''. Rabbits are featured in both ''[[The Goodies (TV series)|The Goodies]]'' episodes ([[Invasion of the Moon Creatures]] and [[Animals (Goodies episode)|Animals]]). The [[Pokémon]] franchise has also released two new rabbit Pokémon, [[Buneary]] and its evolution [[Lopunny]]. The ''[[Sonic the Hedgehog (series)|Sonic the Hedgehog]]'' video game series features the character [[Cream the Rabbit]], daughter to [[Vanilla the Rabbit]].

===Urban legends===
{{main|Rabbit test}}
It was commonly believed that [[pregnancy test]]s were based on the idea that a rabbit would die if injected with a [[pregnancy|pregnant]] woman's [[urine]]. This is not true. However, in the 1920s it was discovered that if the urine contained the [[human chorionic gonadotropin|hCG]], a hormone found in the bodies of pregnant women, the rabbit would display ovarian changes. The rabbit would then be killed to have its [[ovaries]] inspected, but the death of the rabbit was not the indicator of the results. Later revisions of the [[Rabbit Test|test]] allowed technicians to inspect the ovaries without killing the animal. A similar test involved injecting [[Frogs in research|Xenopus frogs]] to make them lay eggs, but animal assays for pregnancy have been made obsolete by faster, cheaper, and simpler modern methods.

==See also==
*[[Cecotrope]]
*[[Cuniculture]]
*[[Domestic rabbit]]
*[[Dwarf rabbits]]
*[[European Rabbit]]
*[[House rabbit]]
*[[Jackalope]]
*[[List of fictional rabbits]]
*[[Rabbit hopping]]
*[[Rabbits in Australia]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons|Rabbit}}
{{cookbook}}
*[http://www.arba.net/ American Rabbit Breeders Association] an organization which promotes all phases of rabbit keeping.
*[http://www.rabbit.org/ House Rabbit Society] an activist organization which promotes keeping rabbits indoors.
*[http://www.rabbitshows.com/ RabbitShows.com] an informational site on the hobby of showing rabbits.
*[http://www.muridae.com/rabbits/rabbittalk.html The (mostly) silent language of rabbits]
*[http://world-rabbit-science.org/ World Rabbit Science Association] an international rabbit-health science-based organization.

{{Lagomorpha|L.}}
{{North American Game}}
{{English Game}}

[[Category:Rabbits and hares]]
[[Category:Meat]]

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