Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Heinrich Hertz

2025-06-19T18:25:02Z

Relative Humidity: /* Photo of Hertz's radio wave receiver */ new section

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==Maxwell's theory==
The article should make clear that for Hertz Maxwell's theory were just Maxwell equations and any other theory (such as L Lorenz) leading to the same equations were called by him as Maxwell equations (See Introduction of @Book{hert93,
title = {Electric waves},
publisher = {MacMillan and Co},
year = {1893},
author = {Hertz, H},
note = {Translated by D E Jones with a preface by Lord Kevin},
}
Lorenz 1861 (three years before Maxwell) have shown that light was made of transversal electromagnetic waves and gave the equation for them
@Article{lore61,
author = {Lorenz, L},
title = {XLIX. On the determination of the direction of the vibrations of polarized light by means of diffraction},
journal = {The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science},
year = {1861},
volume = {21},
number = {141},
pages = {321--331},
publisher = {Taylor \& Francis},
}
and provided the complete relation to electromagnetism by 1867 (two years after Maxwell) but without "physical hypothesis" (like the æther)
@Article{lore67,
author = {Lorenz, Ludvig},
title = {XXXVIII. On the identity of the vibrations of light with electric
al currents},
journal = {The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Jour
nal of Science},
year = {1867},
date = {June 1867},
volume = {34},
number = {230},
pages = {287--301},
publisher = {Taylor \& Francis},
}
Maxwell in his treatise recognized that Lorenz theory and his theory were identical in formulae.
In conclusion. No matter what the "official history" says, Hertz did not confirm Maxwell's theory, and Maxwell could not possible predict something that was known by formula and experiment.
It is about time to tell the truth. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/186.22.19.21|186.22.19.21]] ([[User talk:186.22.19.21#top|talk]]) 18:23, 4 February 2025 (UTC) 

== Classification ==

"A regime that classified people by race instead of religious affiliation".
First of all, I think Nazis classified people by both. Jews were persecuted for both being non-Aryan and Jew. They were called Jews by Nazis, not non-Aryans.
Secondly, Is it correct to classify people by their religion that the article says Nazis classified people by their races '''instead of''' their religions? [[User:Aminabzz|Aminabzz]] ([[User talk:Aminabzz|talk]]) 22:01, 5 August 2023 (UTC)
== "[[:Hertz (person)]]" listed at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|Redirects for discussion]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|30px]]
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hertz_(person)&redirect=no Hertz (person)] has been listed at [[Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion|redirects for discussion]] to determine whether its use and function meets the [[Wikipedia:Redirect|redirect guidelines]]. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at '''{{slink|Wikipedia:Redirects for discussion/Log/2024 January 13#Hertz (person)}}''' until a consensus is reached.  [[User:Presidentman|Presidentman]] [[User talk:Presidentman|talk]] · [[Special:Contributions/Presidentman|contribs]] ([[WP:TBACK|Talkback]]) 21:21, 13 January 2024 (UTC)

== Figures party ==

Figures are all over the place. Can we decide which to keep and which to center? [[User:ReyHahn|ReyHahn]] ([[User talk:ReyHahn|talk]]) 15:56, 1 March 2024 (UTC)

== Subject: Proposal to Include Hertz’s Contributions to Radio/Telecom in Lead ==

1. Wikipedia:Lead Section Policy
“The lead should identify the topic and summarize the most important points, including notable achievements, covered in the article body.”
— Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section

Heinrich Hertz’s most historically and scientifically significant achievement was his experimental proof of electromagnetic waves — the direct physical validation of Maxwell’s equations. This discovery is universally cited by scientific and historical sources as the foundation upon which radio, radar, television, and wireless communication technologies were built.
Therefore, per this policy, the lead must summarize this impact. Omitting that his discoveries laid the foundation for radio and telecommunications fails to reflect his most enduring legacy and undermines the purpose of the lead — which is to provide a concise, comprehensive summary of why Hertz is historically significant. (see included sources of my post)

2. Wikipedia:Due Weight
“Articles should give appropriate weight to all significant viewpoints published by reliable sources.”
— Wikipedia:Due_weight
Reliable sources such as:
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) https://www.eurekalert.org/multimedia/661899
Britannica (https://www.britannica.com/biography/Heinrich-Hertz)
NobelPrize.org
Physics history textbooks
Scientific American (https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/heinrich-hertz/)

...routinely present Heinrich Hertz’s confirmation of electromagnetic waves as the critical experimental basis for the development of radio and, more broadly, wireless telecommunications. Giving due weight to these widespread interpretations requires acknowledging this legacy prominently in the lead, not just buried in later sections.

3. Wikipedia:Verifiability
“Any material challenged or likely to be challenged must be attributed to a reliable, published source.”
— Wikipedia:Verifiability
The statement that Hertz laid the foundation for radio and modern telecommunications is well-supported by reliable, published sources and is not a fringe claim. It is a basic element of the historical and scientific consensus. Including this verifiable summary in the lead is consistent with this policy and helps ensure the article reflects scholarly consensus.

4. Wikipedia:Neutral Point of View (NPOV)
“Articles must represent fairly, proportionately, and without editorial bias, all significant views that have been published by reliable sources.”
— Wikipedia:NPOV
Failing to acknowledge Hertz’s critical role in the origin of telecommunications technology risks downplaying the scientific importance of his work, violating the NPOV requirement to fairly represent major, well-supported viewpoints. His contributions are not just of historical interest, but of foundational technological importance — and this is broadly recognized.

so I followed "If someone reverts your edit, do not simply reinstate it without attempting discussion."
— Wikipedia:Edit warring and will reinsert my edit due to all the mentions above and due to “The BRD cycle is an optional method for reaching consensus. It is not a policy or guideline. Editors are not required to follow it.”
— WP:BRD. and “Consensus is a continuing process… It does not require all editors to agree on a single version. Editors may make bold edits at any time, but must be prepared to discuss them.”
— WP:CONSENSUS so Im open to discuss my short inclusion but see myself on more than solid ground to proceed with it. [[User:BauhausFan89|BauhausFan89]] ([[User talk:BauhausFan89|talk]]) 10:14, 9 June 2025 (UTC)

:Wikipedia articles are not written in [[MOS:PUFFERY]], i.e. instead of making subjective proclamations about a subject's importance, use facts and attribution to demonstrate it. We could just as easily say Maxwell "laid the foundation for television, radio and modern telecommunications" - its a subjective proclamation that is not encyclopedic. [[User:Fountains of Bryn Mawr|Fountains of Bryn Mawr]] ([[User talk:Fountains of Bryn Mawr|talk]]) 12:38, 9 June 2025 (UTC)

== Photo of Hertz's radio wave receiver ==

I enjoyed that the article had photos of his apparatus so I went to search for higher quality copies. Deutsches Museum has a high quality copy of the very photo used in this article, and also a modern colour photo released under CC-BY-SA, but the coil appears deformed and asymmetric in that photo. Which would be best?

Both photos are here, use the dropdown or arrows to see the other: [https://digital.deutsches-museum.de/de/digital-catalogue/collection-object/40060/ Kreisförmiger Resonator mit Messingspirale von H. Hertz]

--[[User:Relative Humidity|Relative Humidity]] ([[User talk:Relative Humidity|talk]]) 18:25, 19 June 2025 (UTC)

Tcpcrypt

2025-06-18T21:08:26Z

Relative Humidity: The website has been down for a few years now

{{Short description|Transport layer communication encryption protocol}}
{{Lowercase title}}
{{Infobox software
| name = Tcpcrypt
| title =
| logo = 
| logo caption =
| screenshot = 
| caption =
| collapsible =
| author = Andrea Bittau, Mike Hamburg, [[Mark Handley (computer scientist)|Mark Handley]], David Mazières, [[Dan Boneh]] and Quinn Slack.
| developer =
| released = 
| discontinued =
| latest release version =
| latest release date = {{Start date and age|2011|05|02|df=yes/no}}
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date = 
| frequently updated = 
| status =
| programming language =
| operating system =
| platform =
| size =
| language =
| language count = 
| language footnote =
| genre = communication [[encryption]] protocol
| license =
| alexa =
| website = {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123234541/http://www.tcpcrypt.org/|title=tcpcrypt.org}}
| standard =
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}}
In [[computer networking]], '''tcpcrypt''' is a [[transport layer]] communication [[encryption]] protocol.<ref>{{cite conference |author=Andrea Bittau|date=2010-08-13 |title=The case for ubiquitous transport-level encryption |publisher=19th USENIX Security Symposium |url=http://www.usenix.org/events/sec10/tech/full_papers/Bittau.pdf |display-authors=etal}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Michael Cooney |date=2010-07-19 |title=Is ubiquitous encryption technology on the horizon? |url=http://www.networkworld.com/community/node/63871 |publisher=[[Network World]] }}</ref> Unlike prior protocols like [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]] (SSL), tcpcrypt is implemented as a [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] extension. It was designed by a team of six security and networking experts: Andrea Bittau, Mike Hamburg, [[Mark Handley (computer scientist)|Mark Handley]], David Mazières, [[Dan Boneh]] and Quinn Slack.<ref>{{cite web |title=tcpcrypt – About us |publisher=tcpcrypt.org |url=http://tcpcrypt.org/aboutus.php }}</ref> Tcpcrypt has been published as an Internet Draft.<ref name=ietf-draft>{{cite IETF |title= Cryptographic protection of TCP Streams (tcpcrypt) |draft=draft-bittau-tcpinc-01 |last=Bittau |first=A. |author2=D. Boneh |author3=M. Hamburg |author4=M. Handley |author5=D. Mazieres |author6=Q. Slack |date=21 July 2014 |publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] }}</ref> Experimental [[user-space]] implementations are available for Linux, Mac OS X, FreeBSD and Windows. There is also a [[Linux kernel]] implementation.

The TCPINC (TCP Increased Security) [[working group]] was formed in June 2014 by [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] to work on standardizing security extensions in the TCP protocol.<ref name=tcpinc>{{cite web |title=TCP Increased Security (tcpinc) |work=Charter for Working Group |accessdate=25 July 2014 |url=https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/tcpinc/charter/ }}</ref> In May 2019 the working group released {{IETF RFC|8547}} and {{IETF RFC|8548}} as an experimental standard for Tcpcrypt.

== Description ==
Tcpcrypt provides [[opportunistic encryption]] — if either side does not support this extension, then the protocol falls back to regular unencrypted TCP. Tcpcrypt also provides encryption to any application using TCP, even ones that do not know about encryption. This enables incremental and seamless deployment.<ref name=lwn />

Unlike TLS, tcpcrypt itself does not do any [[authentication]], but passes a unique "session ID" down to the application; the application can then use this token for further authentication. This means that any authentication scheme can be used, including passwords or [[public key certificate|certificates]]. It also does a larger part of the public-key connection initiation on the client side, to reduce load on servers and mitigate DoS attacks.<ref name=lwn>{{cite news |author=Jake Edge |date=2010-08-25 |title=Transport-level encryption with Tcpcrypt |publisher=[[LWN.net]] |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/401943/ }}</ref>

== History ==
The first draft of the protocol specification was published in July 2010, with [[reference implementation]]s following in August. However, after initial meetings in IETF, proponents of the protocol failed to gain traction for standardization and the project went dormant in 2011.<ref>{{cite mailing list |author=Mark Handley |date=9 September 2013 |title=Kernel patch for Linux 3.10.10? |quote=Two years ago we failed to get much traction for the takeup of tcpcrypt. |url=https://mailman.stanford.edu/pipermail/tcpcrypt-dev/2013-September/000047.html }}</ref>

In 2013 and 2014, following [[Edward Snowden]]'s [[Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)|Global surveillance disclosures]] about the [[National Security Agency|NSA]] and agencies of other governments, IETF took a strong stance for protecting Internet users against surveillance.<ref>{{cite news |author=Richard Chirgwin |date=14 May 2014 |title=IETF plans to NSA-proof all future internet protocols |publisher=[[The Register]] |url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2014/05/14/ietf_documents_start_of_its_privacy_battle/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Mark Jackson |date=13 May 2014 |title=IETF Commits to Hamper State Sponsored Mass Internet Surveillance |publisher=ISP Review |url=http://www.ispreview.co.uk/index.php/2014/05/ietf-commits-hamper-state-sponsored-mass-internet-surveillance.html }}</ref> This aligns with tcpcrypt's goals of ubiquitous transparent encryption, which revived interest in standardization of the protocol. An official IETF [[mailing list]] was created for tcpcrypt in March 2014,<ref>{{cite mailing list |title=New Non-WG Mailing List: Tcpcrypt -- Discussion list for adding encryption to TCP |date=24 March 2014 |publisher=IETF Secretariat |url=http://www.ietf.org/mail-archive/web/tcpcrypt/current/msg00000.html }}</ref> followed by the formation of the TCPINC (TCP Increased Security) [[working group]] in June<ref name=tcpinc /> and a new version of the draft specification.

== Performance ==
Tcpcrypt enforces TCP timestamps and adds its own TCP options to each data packet, amounting to 36 bytes per packet compared to plain TCP. With a mean observed packet size for TCP packets of 471 bytes,<ref name=mcreary>{{cite web |title=Trends in Wide Area IP Traffic Patterns A View from Ames Internet Exchange|author="Sean McCreary and kc klaffy"|url=http://www.caida.org/publications/papers/2000/AIX0005/}}</ref> this can lead to an overhead of 8% of useful bandwidth. This 36 bytes overhead may not be an issue for internet connections faster than 64kbs but it can be an issue for dial-up internet users.

Compared to [[Transport Layer Security|TLS/SSL]], tcpcrypt is designed to have a lower performance impact. In part this is because tcpcrypt does not have built-in authentication, which can be implemented by the application itself. Cryptography primitives are used in such a way to reduce load on the [[server (computing)|server]] side, because a single server usually has to provide services for far more clients than the reverse.<ref name=lwn />

== Implementations ==
The current user space implementations are considered experimental and are reportedly unstable on some systems. It also does not support [[IPv6]] yet, which is currently only supported by the Linux kernel version. It is expected that once tcpcrypt becomes a standard, operating systems will come with tcpcrypt support built-in, making the user space solution unnecessary.{{fact|date=March 2020}}

== See also ==
* [[DTLS]]
* [[IPsec]]
* [[Obfuscated TCP]] – an earlier failed proposal for opportunistic TCP encryption

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123234541/http://www.tcpcrypt.org/|title=tcpcrypt.org}}
* [https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/tcpinc/charter/ TCPINC Working Group Charter at IETF]
* [http://tcpcrypt.org/tcpcrypt-slides.pdf Slides from USENIX 2010 presentation, explaining basics of tcpcrypt]

{{VPN}}

[[Category:TCP extensions]]
[[Category:Internet security]]
[[Category:Cryptographic protocols]]

Category talk:Cryptographic protocols

2025-06-18T21:00:16Z

Relative Humidity: /* Cleanup */ Fix spelling

{{WikiProject banner shell|
{{WikiProject Cryptography}}
}}

== Cleanup ==

This category contains a few things that are not cryptographic protocols. Some are closely related, some are related to cryptography more broadly, and some are topics which involve cryptography at some point. I'll remove the latter kind from the category, also adding them to another crypto-related category where appropriate.

* [[3-D Secure]]
* [[Alice and Bob]]
* [[Automatic Certificate Management Environment]]
* [[Openswan]]
* [[List of Tor onion services]]
* [[Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol]]

--[[User:Relative Humidity|Relative Humidity]] ([[User talk:Relative Humidity|talk]]) 20:36, 18 June 2025 (UTC)

Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol

2025-06-18T20:59:21Z

Relative Humidity: Change category from Category:Cryptographic protocols to Category:Internet_protocols since it is not a protocol for doing cryptography, but rather for running a PKI

{{Short description|Cryptographic protocol}}

'''Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol''' (SCEP) is described by the informational {{IETF RFC|8894}}. Older versions of this [[Protocol (computing)|protocol]] became a de facto industrial standard for pragmatic provisioning of digital certificates mostly for network equipment.

The protocol has been designed to make the request and issuing of [[Public key certificate|digital certificates]] as simple as possible for any standard network user. These processes have usually required intensive input from [[network administrator]]s, and so have not been suited to large-scale deployments.

== Popularity ==
The Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol still is the most popular and widely available certificate enrollment protocol, being used by numerous manufacturers of network equipment and software who are developing simplified means of handling certificates for large-scale implementation to everyday users.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}} It is used, for example, by the [[Cisco IOS|Cisco Internetworking Operating System]] (IOS), though Cisco promotes the [[Enrollment over Secure Transport]] (EST), with additional features, and [[iPhone]]s ([[iOS]]) to enroll in enterprise [[public key infrastructure]] (PKI).<ref>[https://developer.apple.com/documentation/devicemanagement/scep Apple MDM SCEP settings]</ref> Most PKI software (specifically RA implementations) supports it, including the Network Device Enrollment Service (NDES) of [[Active Directory]] Certificate Service and [[Intune]].<ref>[https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/mem/intune/protect/certificates-scep-configure Configure infrastructure to support SCEP with Intune]</ref>

== Criticism ==
* Legacy versions of SCEP, which still are employed in the vast majority of implementations, are limited to enrolling certificates for RSA keys only.
* Due to the use of the self-signed PKCS#10 format for [[Certificate Signing Request]]s (CSR), certificates can be enrolled only for keys that support (some form of) signing. A limitation shared by other enrollment protocols based on PKCS#10 CSRs, e.g., [[Enrollment over Secure Transport|EST]] and [[Automatic Certificate Management Environment|ACME]], or even the web-based enrollment workflow of most PKI software where the requester starts by generating a key pair and a CSR in PKCS#10 format. For example [[Automatic Certificate Management Environment|ACME]], which also uses PKCS#10, issues TLS certificates which by definition must be capable of signing for the TLS handshake. However this distinction is so far mostly theoretical since in practice all algorithms commonly used with certificates support signing. This may change with post-quantum cryptography where some keys only support [[Key_encapsulation_mechanism|KEM]]. The CRMF format, as used by [[Certificate Management Protocol]] (CMP) and CMS, is more flexible here, supporting also keys that are usable for encryption only.
* Although proof-of-origin of certificate enrollment requests, i.e., authentication of the certificate requester, is the most critical security requirement, for pragmatic reasons its support is not strictly required within SCEP. Signature-based client authentication using an already existing certificate would be the preferred mechanism but in many use cases is not possible or not supported by the given deployments. As an alternative, SCEP just provides the use of a shared secret, which should be client-specific and used only once.
* The confidentiality of the shared secret optionally used for source authentication is fragile because it must be included in the 'challengePassword' field of the CSR, which is then protected by an outer encryption. It would have been more secure to use a password-based MAC algorithm such as HMAC.
* Encrypting the whole PKCS#10 structure in order to protect the 'challengePassword' field (which is used for self-contained source authentication) has a further drawback: the whole CSR becomes unreadable for all parties except the intended ultimate receiver (the CA), although most of its content is not confidential. So the PKCS#10 structure cannot be checked by intermediate agents such as an RA.

== History ==
SCEP was designed by Verisign for Cisco<ref>[https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-nourse-scep-00 SCEP: The Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol (first draft, January 2000)]</ref> as a lean alternative to [[Certificate Management over CMS]] (CMC) and the very powerful but also rather bulky [[Certificate Management Protocol]] (CMP). It had support from Microsoft early with its continuous inclusion in Windows starting with [[Windows 2000]].<ref>[https://www.pkisolutions.com/scep-and-ndes-a-brief-history/ SCEP and NDES, A Brief History]</ref> In around 2010, [[Cisco Systems|Cisco]] suspended work on SCEP and developed [[Enrollment over Secure Transport|EST]] instead. In 2015, [[Peter Gutmann (computer scientist)|Peter Gutmann]] revived the [[Internet Draft]] due to SCEP widespread use in industry and in other standards.<ref>[https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/draft-gutmann-scep/00/ draft-gutmann-scep-00 - Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol]</ref> He updated the draft with more modern algorithms and corrected numerous issues in the original specification. In September 2020, the draft was published as informational {{IETF RFC|8894}}, more than twenty years after the beginning of the standardization effort.<ref>[https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc8894 IETF Datatracker : Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol]</ref> The new version also supports enrollment of non-RSA certificates (e.g., for [[Elliptic-curve cryptography|ECC]] public keys).

==See also==
* [[Certificate Management Protocol]] (CMP)
* [[Certificate Management over CMS]] (CMC)
* [[Enrollment over Secure Transport]] (EST)
* [[Automated Certificate Management Environment]] (ACME)

==External links==
* Slide deck describing SCEP: [http://www.ietf.org/proceedings/69/slides/pkix-3.pdf pkix-3.pdf]

== References ==
<references/>

[[Category:Public key infrastructure]]
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Internet Standards]]

List of Tor onion services

2025-06-18T20:58:03Z

Relative Humidity: Removed Category:Cryptographic protocols since it's not about a security protocol, but rather a list of websites that can run over a protocol

{{short description|None}}


This is a categorized list of [[Wikipedia:Notability|notable]] '''[[onion services]]''' (formerly, '''hidden services''')<ref>{{cite web|last1=Winter|first1=Philipp|title=How Do Tor Users Interact With Onion Services?|url=https://nymity.ch/onion-services/pdf/sec18-onion-services.pdf|website=nymity.ch|access-date=27 December 2018|archive-date=28 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181228035314/https://nymity.ch/onion-services/pdf/sec18-onion-services.pdf|url-status=live }}</ref> accessible through the [[Tor (anonymity network)|Tor anonymity network]]. Defunct services and those accessed by deprecated V2 addresses are marked.

== Archive, Index and Torrent ==

* [[archive.today]]{{dash}}Is a web archiving site, founded in 2012, that saves snapshots on demand <ref>{{Cite web |title=Archive |url=https://archive.today/ |access-date=2022-11-11 |website=www.archive.ph/}}</ref>
* [[Demonoid]]{{dash}}Torrent<ref>{{Cite web |title=Demonoid |url=https://www.demonoid.is/ |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=www.demonoid.is |archive-date=2022-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912022703/https://www.demonoid.is/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Internet Archive]]{{dash}}A web archiving site

* [[KickassTorrents]] (defunct){{dash}}A [[BitTorrent]] index<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ernesto|title=KickassTorrents Enters The Dark Web, Adds Official Tor Address|url=https://torrentfreak.com/kickasstorrents-enters-the-dark-web-adds-official-tor-address-160607/|access-date=5 July 2016|date=7 June 2016|archive-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701055909/https://torrentfreak.com/kickasstorrents-enters-the-dark-web-adds-official-tor-address-160607/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Sci-Hub]]{{dash}}Search engine which bypasses [[paywall]]s to provide free access to scientific and academic research papers and articles<ref>{{cite web |author1=Van der Sar, Ernesto |date=21 November 2015 |title=Sci-Hub, BookFi and LibGen Resurface After Being Shut Down |url=https://torrentfreak.com/sci-hub-and-libgen-resurface-after-being-shut-down-151121/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151122165615/https://torrentfreak.com/sci-hub-and-libgen-resurface-after-being-shut-down-151121/ |archive-date=22 November 2015 |access-date=16 January 2016 |publisher=TorrentFreak}}</ref>
* [[The Pirate Bay]]{{dash}}A BitTorrent index<ref>{{cite news|last1=Ernesto|title=The Pirate Bay Switches on New .MS Domain|url=https://torrentfreak.com/the-pirate-bay-switches-on-new-ms-domain-160107/|access-date=5 July 2016|date=7 January 2016|archive-date=11 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611041450/https://torrentfreak.com/the-pirate-bay-switches-on-new-ms-domain-160107/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Download music, movies, games, software! The Pirate Bay – The galaxy's most resilient BitTorrent site |url=https://thepiratebay.org/index.html |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=thepiratebay.org |archive-date=2020-08-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200827215345/https://thepiratebay.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Z-Library]]{{dash}}Many instances exist.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Z-Library. The world's largest ebook library. |url=https://z-lib.org/ |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=z-lib.org |archive-date=2021-04-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210401181020/https://z-lib.org/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Commerce ==
{{See also|Darknet market}}

* [[Agora (online marketplace)|Agora]] (defunct)
* [[AlphaBay]] (defunct)
* [[Archetyp Market|Archetyp]] (defunct)
* [[Atlantis (market)|Atlantis]] (defunct)
* [[Black Market Reloaded]] (defunct)
* [[BusKill]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-21 |title=BusKill Onion Service |url=https://www.buskill.in/buskill-onion-service-tor/ |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=BusKill |language=en-US}}</ref>
* [[Dream Market]] (defunct)
* [[Evolution (marketplace)|Evolution]] (defunct)
* [[Hansa (market)|Hansa]] (defunct)
* [[Hydra Market|Hydra market]] (defunct)
* [[Sheep Marketplace]] (defunct)
* [[Silk Road (marketplace)|Silk Road]] (defunct)
* [[The Farmer's Market]] (defunct)
* [[TheRealDeal]] (defunct)
* [[Utopia (marketplace)|Utopia]] (defunct)
* [[White House Market]] (defunct)

== Communications ==

* [[Pretty Good Privacy|OpenPGP]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=keys.openpgp.org |url=https://keys.openpgp.org/about/usage |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=keys.openpgp.org |archive-date=2022-09-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909165711/https://keys.openpgp.org/about/usage |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Messaging ===


* [[Briar (software)]]{{dash}}uses onion services as address when message medium is internet<ref>{{Cite web |title=Briar User Manual {{!}} |url=https://briarproject.org/manual/ |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=briarproject.org |archive-date=2022-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922112125/https://briarproject.org/manual/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Cryptocat]]<ref>{{cite tweet|author=Cryptocat|user=cryptocatapp|number=402885544247840769|date=19 November 2013|title=Cryptocat is now accessible as a Tor Hidden Service at catmeow2zuqpkpyw.onion. Instructions for chatting via the hidden service coming.|language=en|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211221407/https://twitter.com/cryptocatapp/status/402885544247840769|archive-date=11 December 2021|url-status=live}}</ref> (defunct)
* [[Keybase]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://keybase.io/docs/command_line/tor|title=Command Line – Tor {{pipe}} Keybase Docs|website=keybase.io|access-date=2019-05-08|archive-date=2019-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508160835/https://keybase.io/docs/command_line/tor|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Ricochet (software)]]{{dash}}uses Tor network by default for message sending and receiving<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ricochet Refresh |url=https://www.ricochetrefresh.net/ |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=Ricochet Refresh |language=en |archive-date=2021-07-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707013855/https://www.ricochetrefresh.net/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[TorChat]] (defunct)

===Email providers===


* [[Bitmessage.ch]] (defunct)
* [[Guerrilla Mail]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=About TorGuerrillaMail |url=https://grr.la/mail/grrmailb3fxpjbwm.onion/about |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=grr.la |archive-date=2022-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912022702/https://grr.la/mail/grrmailb3fxpjbwm.onion/about |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Mailbox.org]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Tor exit node of mailbox.org {{!}} Knowledge Base |url=https://kb.mailbox.org/en/private/faq-article/the-tor-exit-node-of-mailbox-org |access-date=2024-06-15 |website=kb.mailbox.org |language=en |archive-date=2024-06-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615202131/https://kb.mailbox.org/en/private/faq-article/the-tor-exit-node-of-mailbox-org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Proton Mail]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://proton.me/support/tor-setup|title=Encrypted Email Over Tor Setup – Proton Mail Support|access-date=2017-01-19|archive-date=2017-08-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828055725/https://proton.me/support/tor-setup|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Riseup]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Riseup's Tor Hidden Services|url=https://riseup.net/security/network-security/tor/hs-addresses-signed.txt|publisher=Riseup Networks|access-date=6 March 2019|website=Riseup |archive-date=16 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016235125/https://riseup.net/security/network-security/tor/hs-addresses-signed.txt|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[SIGAINT]] (defunct)
* [[Tor Mail]] (defunct)

=== IRC ===

* [[Libera Chat]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-21 |title=Connecting to Libera.Chat |url=https://libera.chat/guides/connect |access-date=2024-05-23 |website=Libera Chat |language=en}}</ref>

== Events ==

* [[DebConf|Debian Conference]]<ref name=":2" />
* [[DEF CON]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tangent |first=The Dark |title=defcon.org |url=https://defcon.org/ |access-date=2022-09-07 |website=defcon.org |language=en-US |archive-date=2020-04-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430135252/https://defcon.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== File storage ==


* [[ProtonDrive]]
* [[Freedom Hosting]] (defunct){{dash}}Formerly the largest Tor-specific web host, until the arrest of its owner in August 2013.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Howell O'Neill|first1=Patrick|title=An in-depth guide to Freedom Hosting, the engine of the Dark Net|url=http://www.dailydot.com/news/eric-marques-tor-freedom-hosting-child-porn-arrest/|access-date=30 May 2015|date=4 August 2013|archive-date=30 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150430183059/http://www.dailydot.com/news/eric-marques-tor-freedom-hosting-child-porn-arrest/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Gallagher|first1=Sean|title=Alleged Tor hidden service operator busted for child porn distribution|url=https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2013/08/alleged-tor-hidden-service-operator-busted-for-child-porn-distribution/|access-date=30 May 2015|date=4 August 2013|archive-date=17 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517032824/http://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2013/08/alleged-tor-hidden-service-operator-busted-for-child-porn-distribution/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Financial ==


* [[Blockchain.info]] (V2)– A popular bitcoin blockchain explorer service<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-12-03 |title=Tor Users Can Now Connect to Blockchain.info's .onion Address Securely with SSL |url=https://www.ccn.com/tor-users-can-now-connect-blockchain-infos-onion-address-securely-ssl/ |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=CCN.com |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-06-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220625082127/https://www.ccn.com/tor-users-can-now-connect-blockchain-infos-onion-address-securely-ssl/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Grams Helix|Helix]] (defunct)

==Government==


* [[Central Intelligence Agency]]<ref>{{cite web |title=CIA's Latest Layer: An Onion Site |url=https://www.cia.gov/stories/story/cias-latest-layer-an-onion-site/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508021035/https://www.cia.gov/news-information/featured-story-archive/2019-featured-story-archive/latest-layer-an-onion-site.html |archive-date=May 8, 2019 |access-date=May 11, 2019 |website=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref>
* [[Law enforcement in the Netherlands|National Police and Public Prosecution Service of the Netherlands]]{{dash}}An official hidden service about darknet market takedown operations<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.deepdotweb.com/2016/10/31/dutch-national-prosecution-service-police-launch-hidden-service-global-darknet-enforcement-operation/|title=Dutch National Prosecution Service and police launch Hidden Service in global Darknet enforcement operation – Deep Dot Web|website=deepdotweb.com|access-date=2017-08-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831003200/https://www.deepdotweb.com/2016/10/31/dutch-national-prosecution-service-police-launch-hidden-service-global-darknet-enforcement-operation/|archive-date=2017-08-31}}</ref>
* [[Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)|The Foreign Intelligence Service of the Russian Federation]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://therecord.media/russian-intelligence-agency-svr-sets-up-dark-web-whistleblowing-platform| title = Russian intelligence agency SVR sets up dark web whistleblowing platform| last = Catalin| first = Cimpanu| date = 2021-04-21| website = The Record| publisher = | access-date = 2024-01-26| archive-date = 2024-01-26| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240126085505/https://therecord.media/russian-intelligence-agency-svr-sets-up-dark-web-whistleblowing-platform| url-status = live}}</ref>

== Hidden services directories, hosting, portals, and information ==


* [[1.1.1.1]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Introducing DNS Resolver for Tor|url=https://blog.cloudflare.com/welcome-hidden-resolver/|publisher=[[Cloudflare]]|date={{fdate|2018-06-05}}|access-date={{fdate|2018-10-01}}|archive-date=2018-10-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181002020051/https://blog.cloudflare.com/welcome-hidden-resolver/|url-status=live}}</ref>{{dash}}DNS by [[Cloudflare]]
* [[Mullvad]]{{dash}}VPN provider based in Sweden
* [[Njalla]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Njalla — Worlds most notorious privacy provider for domains, VPS' and VPNs. |url=https://njal.la/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=njal.la |archive-date=2024-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718194920/https://njal.la/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{dash}}Domain register, hosting and VPN provider
* [[Certbot]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tor Project {{!}} Onion Services |url=https://community.torproject.org/onion-services/ |access-date=2025-03-11 |website=community.torproject.org}}</ref>
* [[The Hidden Wiki]]{{dash}}ambiguously forked
* [[ToSDR]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-30 |title=Provide onion service |url=https://tosdr.community/t/provide-onion-service/1609/4?u=justinback |access-date=2024-05-23 |website=ToS;DR Community |language=en |archive-date=2024-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718194920/https://tosdr.community/t/provide-onion-service/1609/4?u=justinback |url-status=live }}</ref> (defunct){{dash}}website tracking other website's legal documents

== News and document archives ==


* [[BBC News]]<ref>{{Cite news|date=2019-10-23|title=BBC News launches 'dark web' mirror|language=en-GB|work=[[BBC]]|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-50150981|access-date=2020-07-13|archive-date=2021-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319112027/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-50150981|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Bellingcat]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Bellingcat is Banned in Russia. Here's How to Beat the Block |url=https://www.bellingcat.com/resources/2022/04/22/how-to-beat-russias-block-on-bellingcat/ |date=22 April 2022 |website=Bellingcat |access-date=11 December 2024}}</ref>
* [[BuggedPlanet]] (V2)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Buggedplanet.info:About – Buggedplanet.info |url=https://buggedplanet.info/index.php?title=Buggedplanet.info:About |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=buggedplanet.info |archive-date=2022-12-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221224172208/https://buggedplanet.info/index.php?title=Buggedplanet.info:About |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[BuzzFeed News]] (V2)<ref>{{cite tweet |author=The Tor Project |author-link=The Tor Project |user=torproject |number=1028999811402481664 |date=13 August 2018 |title=Tasty. @BuzzFeedNews now has an onion address thanks to @sricola! Download Tor Browser and give it a visit: https://t.co/G2rQPQVZ2s #onionizetheweb #security #privacy #darkweb https://t.co/RDEXsSz13m |language=en |access-date=1 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108195036/https://twitter.com/torproject/status/1028999811402481664 |archive-date=8 November 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Current Time TV]]<ref name=":1">{{cite tweet|author=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|author-link=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|user=RFERL|number=1500454303064014850|date=6 March 2022|title=5/🧵 @SvobodaRadio: https://t.co/F4iKg6eHTt @CurrentTimeTv: https://t.co/5e9ROEFHUI @krymrealii: https://t.co/QAjHs1AsMC|language=en|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315211041/https://twitter.com/rferl/status/1500454303064014850|archive-date=15 March 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[DeepDotWeb]]'' (defunct)
* [[Deutsche Welle]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Deutsche Welle websites accessible via Tor-Protocol|url=https://www.dw.com/en/deutsche-welle-websites-accessible-via-tor-protocol/a-51338328|date=2019-11-20|access-date=2020-07-13|website=Deutsche Welle|archive-date=2020-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716104156/https://www.dw.com/en/deutsche-welle-websites-accessible-via-tor-protocol/a-51338328|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Die Tageszeitung]]<ref name="Die Tageszeitung: taz">{{Cite news |date=2019-04-15 |title=Anonymer & verschlüsselter Kontakt: Briefkasten für sensible Daten |language=de |work=Die Tageszeitung: taz |url=https://taz.de/!168527/ |access-date=2022-09-08 |issn=0931-9085 |archive-date=2022-09-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908133333/https://taz.de/!168527/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{dash}}German daily
* [[Doxbin (darknet)|Doxbin]] (defunct)
* [[I'lam Foundation]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lakomy |first=Miron |date=2023-01-09 |title=Dark web jihad : exploring the militant Islamist information ecosystem on The Onion Router |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19434472.2022.2164326 |journal=Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression |volume=16 |issue=4 |language=en |pages=581–600 |doi=10.1080/19434472.2022.2164326 |issn=1943-4472 |s2cid=255683433|url-access=subscription }}</ref> (defunct)
* [[It's Going Down (website)|It's Going Down]]<ref>{{Cite news|title=It's Going Down About|url=https://itsgoingdown.org/about/|date=2018-06-19|access-date=2022-04-29|website=It's Going Down|archive-date=2018-06-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619193616/https://itsgoingdown.org/about/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[ProPublica]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tigas |first=Mike |title=A More Secure and Anonymous ProPublica Using Tor Hidden Services |url=https://www.propublica.org/nerds/a-more-secure-and-anonymous-propublica-using-tor-hidden-services |access-date=2022-09-06 |website=ProPublica |date=13 January 2016 |archive-date=2022-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901035532/https://www.propublica.org/nerds/a-more-secure-and-anonymous-propublica-using-tor-hidden-services |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Radio Free Asia]] (V2)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Radio Free Asia hosts secure mirror websites for Asian, Chinese audiences|url=https://www.usagm.gov/2020/04/17/radio-free-asia-hosts-secure-mirror-websites-for-asian-chinese-audiences/|date=2020-04-17|access-date=2020-07-13|website=USAGM|archive-date=2020-07-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713133009/https://www.usagm.gov/2020/04/17/radio-free-asia-hosts-secure-mirror-websites-for-asian-chinese-audiences/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]<ref>Multiple sources:
* {{cite tweet|author=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|author-link=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|user=RFERL|number=1500453888566169605|date=6 March 2022|title=4/🧵 Download the Tor browser to access dark web versions of our websites in English and Russian. RFE/RL English site on the dark web: https://t.co/Lis77tOKci|language=en|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315210550/https://twitter.com/rferl/status/1500453888566169605|archive-date=15 March 2022|url-status=live}}
* Staff Writer. (5 March 2022). [https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-censorship-vpn-reporting/31737775.html "How To Bypass Blocking"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230828013207/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-censorship-vpn-reporting/31737775.html |date=2023-08-28 }}. Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 28 August 2023.</ref>
* [[Shahada News Agency]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lakomy |first=Miron |date=2024 |title=In Mapping Digital Jihad: Understanding the Structure and Evolution of al-Qaeda's Information Ecosystem on the Surface Web |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27315309 |journal=Perspectives on Terrorism |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=82–99 |doi=10.19165/2024.6272 |doi-broken-date=18 December 2024 |jstor=27315309 |issn=2334-3745}}</ref>
* [[The Guardian]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-05-30 |title=Guardian launches Tor onion service |url=https://www.theguardian.com/help/insideguardian/2022/may/30/guardian-launches-tor-onion-service |access-date=2022-06-11 |website=[[The Guardian]] |language=en |archive-date=2022-10-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007132803/https://www.theguardian.com/help/insideguardian/2022/may/30/guardian-launches-tor-onion-service |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[The Intercept]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Micah |date=2021-04-28 |title=Browse The Intercept Anonymously and Securely Using Our New Tor Onion Service |url=https://theintercept.com/2021/04/28/tor-browser-onion/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=[[The Intercept]] |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-12-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208102019/https://theintercept.com/2021/04/28/tor-browser-onion/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[The New York Times]]'' (''defunct'')<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sandvik|first=Runa|date=2018-04-26|title=The New York Times is Now Available as a Tor Onion Service|url=https://open.nytimes.com/https-open-nytimes-com-the-new-york-times-as-a-tor-onion-service-e0d0b67b7482|access-date=2020-07-13|website=Medium|archive-date=2017-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028152139/https://open.nytimes.com/https-open-nytimes-com-the-new-york-times-as-a-tor-onion-service-e0d0b67b7482|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Voice of America]]

== Operating systems ==


*[[Debian]] (static [[WWW|Web]] content<ref>{{cite tweet|author=The Debian Project|user=debian|number=759413449654996992|date=30 July 2016|title=DSA announces Debian static websites are now available as Onion services. The list of services may be found on https://t.co/Hyqk3Ps12p.|language=en|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703043243/https://twitter.com/debian/status/759413449654996992|archive-date=3 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> and package repositories)<ref name=":2">{{cite web|title=onion.debian.org|url=https://onion.debian.org/|publisher=Debian Project, Software in the Public Interest|access-date=31 July 2016|date=30 July 2016|archive-date=7 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007220410/https://onion.debian.org/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author1=Richard Hartmann|title=Tor-enabled Debian mirror|url=http://richardhartmann.de/blog/posts/2015/08/24-Tor-enabled_Debian_mirror/|website=richardhartmann.de|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416083047/http://richardhartmann.de/blog/posts/2015/08/24-Tor-enabled_Debian_mirror/|archive-date=16 April 2016|date=25 August 2015}}</ref>
*[[DivestOS]]{{dash}}Security and privacy-focused [[LineageOS]] fork.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home – DivestOS Mobile |url=https://www.divestos.org/ |access-date=2023-06-22 |website=www.divestos.org |archive-date=2023-06-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230622113627/https://www.divestos.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Qubes OS]]{{dash}}Security-focused desktop operating system<ref>{{cite web|url=http://qubes-os.org|title=Qubes OS: A reasonably secure operating system|access-date=2021-08-27|archive-date=2021-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210825145847/https://www.qubes-os.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*
* [[Whonix]]{{dash}}Debian-based security distribution<ref>{{cite web|title=Verification Assets §Whonix Sites|url=https://www.whonix.org/wiki/Verification_Assets#Whonix_Sites|website=whonix.org|access-date=12 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612012519/https://www.whonix.org/wiki/Verification_Assets#Whonix_Sites|archive-date=12 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Datenschutz §Technical Information|url=https://www.whonix.org/wiki/Datenschutz#Technical_Information|website=whonix.org|access-date=12 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612012001/https://www.whonix.org/wiki/Datenschutz#Technical_Information|archive-date=12 June 2016}}</ref>

== Whistleblowing / Drop sites ==


[[SecureDrop]] and [[GlobaLeaks]] software is used in most of these whistleblowing sites. These are secure communications platform for use between journalists and sources. Both software's websites are also available as an onion service.<ref name="strongbox">[https://projects.newyorker.com/strongbox/ Strongbox] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413164430/https://projects.newyorker.com/strongbox/|date=2017-04-13}}. ''[[The New Yorker]]''. Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref><ref name="luxembourg">Biryukov, Alex; Pustogarov, Ivan; & Weinmann, Ralf-Philipp. (2013). [[arxiv:1308.6768|Content and popularity analysis of Tor hidden services]] {{Cite arXiv |title=Content and popularity analysis of Tor hidden services |eprint=1308.6768 |last1=Biryukov |first1=Alex |last2=Pustogarov |first2=Ivan |last3=Thill |first3=Fabrice |last4=Weinmann |first4=Ralf-Philipp |year=2013 |class=cs.CR }}. ''ArXiv.org'' (Cornell University Library). Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref> Websites that use secure drop are listed in a directory.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Directory |url=https://securedrop.org/directory/ |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=SecureDrop |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901061630/https://securedrop.org/directory/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[2600: The Hacker Quarterly]]
* [[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]
* [[Aftenposten]]
* [[Al Jazeera Media Network]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tips |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/tips/ |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=[[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] |archive-date=2020-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922045308/https://www.aljazeera.com/tips/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Contact Us |url=http://network.aljazeera.com/contact-us |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=Al Jazeera Media Network |language=en |archive-date=2019-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190702221716/https://network.aljazeera.com/contact-us |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Bloomberg News]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Submit a Tip to Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/tips |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=[[Bloomberg News]] |archive-date=2022-09-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903163259/https://www.bloomberg.com/tips/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Bloomberg Law]]
* [[CBC News]]
* [[CNN International]]<ref>{{Cite news |title=Send a tip to CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/tips/ |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=[[CNN]] |archive-date=2022-09-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220918223515/https://www.cnn.com/tips/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Dagbladet]]
* [[Distributed Denial of Secrets]]
* [[Financial Times]]
* [[Forbidden Stories]]
* [[HuffPost]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=How To Share Information With HuffPost |url=https://img.huffingtonpost.com/securedrop/ |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=img.huffingtonpost.com |archive-date=2022-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912031637/https://img.huffingtonpost.com/securedrop/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Lawrence Lessig]]
* [[Nawaat|NawaatLeaks]] (V2)<ref>{{Cite news |last=المقالات |first=كل |date=2014-03-27 |title=نواة تطلق موقعا خاصا و آمنا لتسريب الوثائق السرية |url=https://nawaat.org/2014/03/27/%d9%86%d9%88%d8%a7%d8%a9-%d8%aa%d8%b7%d9%84%d9%82-%d9%85%d9%88%d9%82%d8%b9%d8%a7-%d8%ae%d8%a7%d8%b5%d8%a7-%d9%88-%d8%a2%d9%85%d9%86%d8%a7-%d9%84%d8%aa%d8%b3%d8%b1%d9%8a%d8%a8-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%88%d8%ab/ |access-date=2024-05-01 |website=Nawaat |language=en-US |archive-date=2024-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718194920/https://nawaat.org/2014/03/27/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%84%D9%82-%D9%85%D9%88%D9%82%D8%B9%D8%A7-%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B5%D8%A7-%D9%88-%D8%A2%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7-%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%B3%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A8-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AB/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{dash}}An Arabic whistleblowing initiative operated by [[Nawaat]]
* [[NRK]]
* [[Politico]]
* [[Reuters]]
* [[Süddeutsche Zeitung]]
* [[TechCrunch]]
* [[Indymedia|Independent Media Center]]
* [[The Globe and Mail]]
* [[The Washington Post]]
* [[Toronto Star]]
* [[TV 2 (Denmark)]]
* [[Vice Media]]
* [[Whistleblower Aid]]
* [[Associated Whistleblowing Press#Filtrala|Filtrala]]{{dash}}A Spanish whistleblowing initiative operated by [[Associated Whistleblowing Press]]
* [[Associated Whistleblowing Press#Ljost|Ljost]]{{dash}}An Icelandic whistleblowing initiative operated by [[Associated Whistleblowing Press]]
* [[Die Tageszeitung]]<ref name="Die Tageszeitung: taz"/>{{dash}}German daily
* ''[[ProPublica]]''
*''[[The Guardian]]''<ref name=":0">{{Cite magazine|title=A Guide to the Dark Web's Lighter Side|language=en-us|magazine=[[Wired (magazine)|Wired]]|url=https://www.wired.com/2015/09/guide-dark-webs-lighter-side/|access-date=2021-02-04|issn=1059-1028|archive-date=2020-11-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108140751/https://www.wired.com/2015/09/guide-dark-webs-lighter-side/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* ''[[The Intercept]]''<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Intercept Welcomes Whistleblowers|url=https://theintercept.com/source/|access-date=2021-02-04|website=[[The Intercept]]|language=en|archive-date=2021-02-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204005345/https://theintercept.com/source/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[The Markup]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Have a Tip? – The Markup |url=https://themarkup.org/tips |access-date=2022-09-09 |website=themarkup.org |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909151138/https://themarkup.org/tips |url-status=live }}</ref>
*''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]''<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-12-14|title=Tips|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/tips#securedrop|access-date=2021-02-04|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2020-06-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609200034/https://www.nytimes.com/tips#securedrop|url-status=live}}</ref>
*''[[The New Yorker]]''<ref name=":0" />
* [[Elephant Action League#WildLeaks Project|WildLeaks]]{{dash}}A wildlife-crime [[whistleblowing]] initiative operated by [[Elephant Action League]]
* [[WikiLeaks]]<ref name=":0" /> (defunct)

== Nonprofit organizations ==


* [[Amnesty International]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.torproject.org/amnesty-international-launches-onion-service/|title=Amnesty International now available as .onion|author=isabela|date=5 December 2023|website=Tor blog|access-date=7 December 2023|archive-date=8 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208001207/https://blog.torproject.org/amnesty-international-launches-onion-service/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Courage Foundation]] (defunct)
* [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hancock |first=Alexis |date=2023-04-26 |title=EFF Now Has Tor Onions |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2023/04/eff-now-has-tor-onions |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] |language=en |archive-date=2024-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718194920/https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2023/04/eff-now-has-tor-onions |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[FragDenStaat]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-08 |title=FragDenStaat – Portal für Informationsfreiheit |url=https://fragdenstaat.de/ |access-date=2024-06-15 |website=FragDenStaat |language=de |archive-date=2024-06-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614203837/https://fragdenstaat.de/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Freedom of the Press Foundation]]
* [[Front Line Defenders]]
* [[La Quadrature du Net]] (V2)<ref>{{cite tweet|author=The Tor Project|author-link=The Tor Project|user=torproject|number=689958927044317185|date=20 January 2016|title=Our friends La Quadrature Du Net (@laquadrature/@UnGarage) now provide a #Tor onion service! https://t.co/KCw48HcCQv https://t.co/WLSrjIuzmr|language=fr|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703043220/https://twitter.com/torproject/status/689958927044317185|archive-date=3 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite tweet|author=Un Garage|user=UnGarage|number=870214983027740672|date=1 June 2017|title=Reminder, LQDN sites are available on Tor: Searx: https://t.co/RcGg2n1PjL Etherpad: https://t.co/qAcZaPqhuh Website: https://t.co/yhcpSFeboX|language=en|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212162958/https://twitter.com/UnGarage/status/870214983027740672|archive-date=12 February 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Privacy International]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Privacy International |url=https://privacyinternational.org/ |access-date=2022-09-10 |website=privacyinternational.org |archive-date=2022-09-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220909232410/https://www.privacyinternational.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Telecomix]] (V2, defunct)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://telecomix.org/|title=Main page|access-date=2016-04-01|archive-date=2011-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925204622/http://www.telecomix.org/|url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[The Tor Project]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=onion.torproject.org |url=https://onion.torproject.org/ |access-date=2022-07-20 |website=onion.torproject.org |archive-date=2022-07-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706161326/https://onion.torproject.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Pornography ==


* [[Boystown (website)|Boystown]] (defunct)
* [[Childs Play (website)|Childs Play]] (defunct)
* [[Lolita City]] (defunct)
* [[Playpen (website)|Playpen]] (defunct)
* [[Welcome to Video case|Welcome to Video]] (defunct)
* [[Kidflix]] (defunct)<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 2, 2025 |title=Grosses Pädophilen-Netzwerk ausgehoben – 79 Festnahmen, 10 davon in der Schweiz |url=https://www.watson.ch/international/digital/310438610-europol-hat-ein-grosses-paedophilen-netzwerk-ausgehoben |access-date= |website=[[Watson (newspaper)|Watson]] |language=de |quote=According to Europol, Kidflix was launched in 2021 "by a cybercriminal" and has since become one of the most popular platforms for pedophiles on the darknet. The website was operated as a “hidden service” and was only accessible via the Tor anonymization network with the associated browser.}}</ref>
* [[Pornhub]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uk.pcmag.com/old-news/124629/pornhub-is-now-available-as-a-tor-site-to-protect-users-privacy|title=Pornhub Is Now Available as a Tor Site to Protect Users' Privacy|first1=Michael|last1=Kan|date=January 23, 2020|website=PCMag UK|access-date=February 24, 2020|archive-date=February 24, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224221217/https://uk.pcmag.com/news-analysis/124629/pornhub-is-now-available-as-a-tor-site-to-protect-users-privacy|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Search engines ==


* [[Ahmia]]
* [[Brave Search]]<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2020-10-05 |title=Brave.com now has its own Tor Onion Service, providing more users with secure access to Brave |url=https://brave.com/new-onion-service/ |access-date=2022-06-24 |website=Brave Browser |language=en |archive-date=2020-10-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006004823/https://brave.com/new-onion-service/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[BTDigg]] (defunct)<ref>{{cite web |title=BTDigg DHT Search Engine: Free Search Engine for Free Torrent Content |url=https://btdigg.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602085826/http://btdigg.org/ |archive-date=2013-06-02 |access-date=2013-06-24}}</ref>
* [[DuckDuckGo#Tor access|DuckDuckGo]]
* [[Grams (search)|Grams]] (defunct)
* [[Kagi (search engine)|Kagi]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Prelovac |first=Vladimir |title=Introducing Privacy Pass authentication for Kagi Search {{!}} Kagi Blog |url=https://blog.kagi.com/kagi-privacy-pass |url-status=live |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250219103121/https://blog.kagi.com/kagi-privacy-pass |archive-date=2025-02-19 |access-date=2025-03-01 |website=blog.kagi.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[MetaGer#Features|MetaGer]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=tor hidden service – MetaGer |url=https://metager.org/tor |access-date=2022-09-11 |website=metager.org |archive-date=2022-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220829003316/https://metager.org/tor |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Searx]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Searx instances |url=https://searx.space/ |access-date=2022-09-09 |website=searx.space |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906054654/https://searx.space/ |url-status=live }}</ref>{{dash}}Individual instances use onion address
* [[Startpage.com]]<ref>[https://support.startpage.com/hc/en-us/articles/24786602537364-Startpage-s-Tor-onion-service Startpage's Tor onion service | Startpage Support]</ref>

== Social media and forums ==


* [[8chan]]{{dash}}An [[imageboard]]
* [[Dark0de]] (defunct)
* [[Dread (forum)|Dread]]<ref>{{Cite web |last1=on |first1=Darknetlive |last2=Announcements |first2=tagged |last3=words |first3=Darkweb Forums using 226 |date=2020-04-17 |title=Dread Adds "Fully Protected" v3 Onion Address |url=https://darknetlive.com/post/dread-migrates-to-v3-onion-address/ |access-date=2022-09-12 |website=Darknetlive |language=English |archive-date=2021-03-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210306112936/https://darknetlive.com/post/dread-migrates-to-v3-onion-address/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Facebook onion address]]{{dash}}[[Facebook]]<ref name="facebook">[[Facebook]] (2014, October 31). [https://www.facebook.com/notes/protect-the-graph/making-connections-to-facebook-more-secure/1526085754298237 Facebook Protect the Graph blog] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914095720/https://www.facebook.com/notes/protect-the-graph/making-connections-to-facebook-more-secure/1526085754298237|date=2015-09-14 }}. Retrieved 31 October 2014</ref>
* [[HackBB]] (defunct)
* [[Kiwi Farms|Kiwifarms]]
* [[Reddit]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Reddit Onion Service Launch |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/redditsecurity/comments/yd6hqg/reddit_onion_service_launch/ |website=Reddit |date=25 October 2022 |access-date=25 October 2022 |archive-date=25 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221025144527/https://www.reddit.com/r/redditsecurity/comments/yd6hqg/reddit_onion_service_launch/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Russian Anonymous Marketplace]] (defunct)
* [[The Hub (forum)|The Hub]] (defunct)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-03-18 |title=The Biggest Online Drug Market Just Vanished, Taking $12 Million With It |url=https://gizmodo.com/the-biggest-online-drug-market-just-vanished-taking-1-1692124463 |access-date=2022-09-11 |website=[[Gizmodo]] |language=en-us |archive-date=2022-09-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911132348/https://gizmodo.com/the-biggest-online-drug-market-just-vanished-taking-1-1692124463 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Tor Carding Forum]] (defunct)
* [[Twitter]]<ref name="twitter">{{cite tweet|last=Muffett|first=Alec|author-link=Alec Muffett|user=AlecMuffett|number=1501282223009542151|date=8 March 2022|title=This is possibly the most important and long-awaited tweet that I've ever composed. On behalf of @Twitter, I am delighted to announce their new @TorProject onion service, at: https://t.co/Un8u0AEXeE https://t.co/AgEV4ZZt3k|language=en|access-date=18 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317095154/https://twitter.com/AlecMuffett/status/1501282223009542151|archive-date=17 March 2022|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="TheVerge">[[The Verge]] (2022, March 8). [https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/8/22967843/twitter-tor-onion-service-version-launch Twitter is launching a Tor service for more secure and private tweeting] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309230513/https://www.theverge.com/2022/3/8/22967843/twitter-tor-onion-service-version-launch |date=2022-03-09 }}</ref> (defunct)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Robertson |first1=Adi |date=2023-03-07 |title=Twitter just let its privacy- and security-protecting Tor service expire |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/3/7/23629504/twitter-tor-onion-site-security-certificate-expired |website=[[The Verge]] |access-date=2023-03-16 |archive-date=2023-03-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316065239/https://www.theverge.com/2023/3/7/23629504/twitter-tor-onion-site-security-certificate-expired |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Page |first=Carly |date=2023-03-08 |title=Twitter's privacy-preserving Tor service goes dark |url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/03/08/twitter-tor-service-goes-dark/ |website=[[TechCrunch]] |access-date=2023-03-16 |archive-date=2023-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315235444/https://techcrunch.com/2023/03/08/twitter-tor-service-goes-dark/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Software ==


* [[Brave (web browser)|Brave]]<ref name=":3"/>
* [[F-Droid]]
* [[Guardian Project (software)|Guardian Project]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://guardianproject.info/fdroid/|title=Guardian Project Official App Repository|access-date=2021-01-30|archive-date=2021-03-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329040535/https://guardianproject.info/fdroid/|url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Mailpile]] (V2)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.mailpile.is/|title=Mailpile: e-mail that protects your privacy|first=Brennan|last=Novak|website=mailpile.is|access-date=2016-04-01|archive-date=2014-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140304002654/https://www.mailpile.is/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[OnionShare]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Onionshare|url=https://onionshare.org/onion.txt |website=OnionShare |access-date=2024-03-03 |archive-date=2024-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324070905/https://onionshare.org/onion.txt |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Internet|Contents/Lists}}

* [[Darknet]]
* [[Tor2web]]{{dash}}[[clearnet (networking)|Clearnet]]-to-hidden-service software

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Note ==

* To access onion links the .onion may be replaced with ".tor2web.io". However it's strongly recommended to use official [[Tor Browser]] or Onion Browser to browse these links.

== External links ==
* {{Wikibooks inline|Guide to Tor hidden services and elements of the Tor network}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Tor hidden services}}
* [https://github.com/alecmuffett/real-world-onion-sites/ Real-World Onion Sites] on [[GitHub]]

{{Tor hidden services}}

{{Tor project}}

[[Category:Tor onion services]]
[[Category:Lists of websites|Tor hidden services]]
[[Category:Underground culture|Tor (anonymity network), hidden services]]
[[Category:Tor (anonymity network)|*]]

Openswan

2025-06-18T20:54:44Z

Relative Humidity: Removed Category:Cryptographic protocols since it's not a security protocol, just an implementation. I think the other categories are adequate

{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=November 2015}}
{{notability|Products|date=November 2015}}
}}

{{Infobox software
| name = Openswan
| logo = File:Openswan Logo.gif
| screenshot =
| caption =
| author =
| developer =
| released =
| latest release version = {{wikidata|property|reference|P348}}
| latest release date = {{start date and age|{{wikidata|qualifier|P348|P577}}}}
| operating system = [[Linux]], [[FreeBSD]]
| platform =
| language = [[C (programming language)|C]]
| genre = [[IPsec]]
| license = [[GNU General Public License]]
| website = {{URL|openswan.org}}
| replaces = [[FreeS/WAN]]
}}

In the field of [[computer security]], '''Openswan''' provides a complete [[IPsec]] implementation for [[Linux]] and [[FreeBSD]].

Openswan, begun as a [[Fork (software development)|fork]] of the now-defunct [[FreeS/WAN]] project, continues to use the [[GNU General Public License]]. Unlike the FreeS/WAN project, it does not exclusively target the Linux operating system.

[[Libreswan]] forked from Openswan in 2012.<ref>{{cite web
| url=https://libreswan.org/wiki/History
| title=History of The Libreswan Project
| date=2014-07-14
| author=Paul Wouters
| access-date=2019-03-16}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Free and open-source software}}
* [[Libreswan]]
* [[strongSwan]]

==External links==
* {{Official Website|https://www.openswan.org}}
* {{GitHub|xelerance/Openswan}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{VPN}}

[[Category:Virtual private networks]]
[[Category:Software forks]]
[[Category:Free security software]]
[[Category:IPsec]]

{{linux-stub}}

Automatic Certificate Management Environment

2025-06-18T20:53:11Z

Relative Humidity: Change category from Category:Cryptographic protocols to Category:Internet_protocols since it is not a protocol for doing cryptography, but rather for running a PKI

{{Short description|Protocol to manage public key certificates}}
[[File:ACME–protocol-icon.svg|thumb|ACME logo]]
The '''Automatic Certificate Management Environment''' ('''ACME''') protocol is a [[communications protocol]] for automating interactions between [[certificate authority|certificate authorities]] and their users' servers, allowing the automated deployment of [[public key infrastructure]] at very low cost.<ref name=zdnet>{{cite web |url=https://www.zdnet.com/home-and-office/networking/securing-the-web-once-and-for-all-the-open-encryption-project/ |title=Securing the web once and for all: The Let's Encrypt Project |publisher=[[ZDNet]] |author=Steven J. Vaughan-Nichols |date=9 April 2015}}</ref><ref name="acme-spec">{{cite web |last=sh |title=ietf-wg-acme/acme-spec |url=https://github.com/ietf-wg-acme/acme/ |access-date=2017-04-05 |publisher=[[GitHub]]}}</ref> It was designed by the [[Internet Security Research Group]] (ISRG) for their [[Let's Encrypt]] service.<ref name=zdnet/>

The protocol, based on passing [[JSON]]-formatted messages over [[HTTPS]],<ref name="acme-spec"/><ref>{{cite web|url=https://threatpost.com/eff-others-plan-to-make-encrypting-the-web-easier-in-2015/109451/|title=EFF, Others Plan to Make Encrypting the Web Easier in 2015|publisher=ThreatPost|date=18 November 2014|author=Chris Brook}}</ref> has been published as an Internet Standard in {{IETF RFC|8555}}<ref>{{cite IETF |title=Automatic Certificate Management Environment (ACME) | rfc=8555 |last1=Barnes |first1=R. |last2=Hoffman-Andrews|first2=J. |first3= D. |last3 = McCarney|last4=Kasten |first4=J. |date=2019-03-12 |publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] |accessdate=2019-03-13}}</ref> by its own chartered IETF working group.<ref>{{cite web |title=Automated Certificate Management Environment (acme) |url=https://datatracker.ietf.org/wg/acme |work=IETF Datatracker |access-date=2019-03-12}}</ref>

== Client implementations ==

The ISRG provides [[Free and open-source software|free and open-source]] reference implementations for ACME: [[certbot]] is a [[Python (programming language)|Python]]-based implementation of server certificate management software using the ACME protocol,<ref>{{cite web |title=Certbot |url=https://certbot.eff.org/ |publisher=[[Electronic Frontier Foundation|EFF]] |access-date=2016-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://github.com/certbot/certbot |title=certbot/certbot |publisher=[[GitHub]] |access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://lwn.net/Articles/687308/ |title=Announcing Certbot: EFF's Client for Let's Encrypt |publisher=[[LWN.net|LWN]] |date=2016-05-13 |access-date=2016-06-02}}</ref> and ''boulder'' is a [[certificate authority]] implementation, written in [[Go (programming language)|Go]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://github.com/letsencrypt/boulder |title=letsencrypt/boulder |publisher=[[GitHub]] |access-date=2015-06-22}}</ref>

Since 2015 a large variety of client options have appeared for all operating systems.<ref name="ClientOptions">{{Cite web|url=https://letsencrypt.org/docs/client-options/|title=ACME Client Implementations - Let's Encrypt - Free SSL/TLS Certificates|website=letsencrypt.org|date=20 February 2025 }}</ref>

== API versions ==

=== API version 1 ===
API v1 specification was published on April 12, 2016. It supports issuing certificates for fully-qualified domain names, such as <code>example.com</code> or <code>cluster.example.com</code>, but not wildcards like <code>*.example.com</code>. Let's Encrypt turned off API v1 support on 1 June 2021.<ref name="acmev1-eol">{{Cite web |date=2021-05-05 |title=End of Life Plan for ACMEv1 - API Announcements |url=https://community.letsencrypt.org/t/end-of-life-plan-for-acmev1/88430/27 |access-date=2021-06-12 |website=Let's Encrypt Community Support}}</ref>

=== API version 2 ===
API v2 was released March 13, 2018 after being pushed back several times. ACME v2 is not backwards compatible with v1. Version 2 supports wildcard domains, such as <code>*.example.com</code>, allowing for many subdomains to have trusted [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]], e.g. <code><nowiki>https://cluster01.example.com</nowiki></code>, <code><nowiki>https://cluster02.example.com</nowiki></code>, <code><nowiki>https://example.com</nowiki></code>, on private networks under a single domain using a single shared "wildcard" certificate.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://letsencrypt.org/2017/06/14/acme-v2-api.html|title=ACME v2 API Endpoint Coming January 2018 - Let's Encrypt - Free SSL/TLS Certificates|website=letsencrypt.org|date=14 June 2017 }}</ref> A major new requirement in v2 is that requests for wildcard certificates require the modification of a Domain Name Service [[TXT record]], verifying control over the domain.

Changes to ACME v2 protocol since v1 include:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://community.letsencrypt.org/t/staging-endpoint-for-acme-v2/49605|title=Staging endpoint for ACME v2|date=January 5, 2018|website=Let's Encrypt Community Support}}</ref>

* The authorization/issuance flow has changed
* [[JSON Web Signature|JWS]] request authorization has changed
* The "resource" field of JWS request bodies is replaced by a new JWS header: "url"
* Directory endpoint/resource renaming
* URI → URL renaming in challenge resources
* Account creation and ToS agreement are combined into one step. Previously, these were two steps.
* A new challenge type was implemented, TLS-ALPN-01. Two earlier challenge types, TLS-SNI-01 and TLS-SNI-02, were removed because of security issues.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-08 |title=Challenge Types - Let's Encrypt Documentation |url=https://letsencrypt.org/docs/challenge-types/ |access-date=2021-05-12 |website=[[Let's Encrypt]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite IETF |title=Automatic Certificate Management Environment (ACME) | rfc=8555 |last1=Barnes |first1=R. |last2=Hoffman-Andrews|first2=J. |first3= D. |last3 = McCarney|last4=Kasten |first4=J. |date=2019-03-12 |publisher=[[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] |accessdate=2021-05-12|quote=The values "tls-sni-01" and "tls-sni-02" are reserved because they were used in pre-RFC versions of this specification to denote validation methods that were removed because they were found not to be secure in some cases.}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol]], a previous attempt at an automated certificate deployment protocol.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web | url = https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc8555 | title = Automatic Certificate Management Environment (ACME) | publisher = IETF | first1 = Richard| last1 = Barnes | first2 = Jacob | last2 = Hoffman-Andrews | first3 = James | last3 = Kasten | date = March 2019 }}
* [https://letsencrypt.org/docs/client-options/ List of ACME clients] at [[Let's Encrypt]]
* [https://acmeclients.com List of commonly used ACME clients] via acmeclients.com

{{SSL/TLS}}
[[Category:Public key infrastructure]]
[[Category:Internet security]]
[[Category:Internet_protocols]]
[[Category:Secure communication]]

Alice and Bob

2025-06-18T20:47:13Z

Relative Humidity: Change category from Category:Cryptographic protocols to Category:Cryptography since this topic is not a protocol, and is not used exclusively to describe protocols

{{Short description|Characters used in cryptography and science literature}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2019}}
{{use mdy dates|date=August 2020}}
[[File:Alice-bob-mallory.jpg|thumb|Example scenario where communication between Alice and Bob is intercepted by Mallory]]

'''Alice and Bob''' are fictional characters commonly used as placeholders in discussions about [[cryptography|cryptographic]] systems and [[Cryptographic protocol|protocols]],{{Ref RFC|4949|notes=no}} and in other science and engineering literature where there are several participants in a [[thought experiment]]. The Alice and Bob characters were created by [[Ron Rivest]], [[Adi Shamir]], and [[Leonard Adleman]] in their 1978 paper "A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems".<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Rivest |first1=Ron L. |author-link1=Ron Rivest |first2=Adi |last2=Shamir |author-link2=Adi Shamir |first3=Len |last3=Adleman |author-link3=Leonard Adleman |date=1978-02-01 |title=A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-key Cryptosystems |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=120–126 |doi=10.1145/359340.359342 |issn=0001-0782 |citeseerx=10.1.1.607.2677|s2cid=2873616 }}</ref> Subsequently, they have become common [[archetype]]s in many scientific and engineering fields, such as [[quantum cryptography]], [[game theory]] and [[physics]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Newton|first=David E.|title=Encyclopedia of Cryptography|year=1997|publisher=Instructional Horizons, Inc|location=Santa Barbara California|pages=10}}</ref> As the use of Alice and Bob became more widespread, additional characters were added, sometimes each with a particular meaning. These characters do not have to refer to people; they refer to generic agents which might be different computers or even different programs running on a single computer.

== Overview ==
[[File:Public key shared secret.svg|thumb|An example of an "Alice and Bob" used in cryptography]]

Alice and Bob are the names of fictional characters used for convenience and to aid comprehension. For example, "How can Bob send a private message M to Alice in a public-key cryptosystem?"<ref name=":0" /> is believed to be easier to describe and understand than if the hypothetical people were simply named ''A'' and ''B'' as in "How can B send a private message M to A in a [[public-key cryptosystem]]?"

The names are conventional, and where relevant may use an [[Alliteration|alliterative]] [[mnemonic]] such as "Mallory" for "malicious" to associate the name with the typical role of that person.

== History ==
Scientific papers about thought experiments with several participants often used letters to identify them: ''A'', ''B'', ''C'', etc.

The first mention of Alice and Bob in the context of cryptography was in [[Ron Rivest|Rivest]], [[Adi Shamir|Shamir]], and [[Leonard Adleman|Adleman]]'s 1978 article "A method for obtaining digital signatures and public-key cryptosystems."<ref name=":0" /> They wrote, "For our scenarios we suppose that A and B (also known as Alice and Bob) are two users of a public-key cryptosystem".<ref name=":0" />{{rp|121}} Previous to this article, cryptographers typically referred to message senders and receivers as A and B, or other simple symbols. In fact, in the two previous articles by Rivest, Shamir, and Adleman, introducing the [[RSA (cryptosystem)|RSA cryptosystem]], there is no mention of Alice and Bob.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rivest |first1=Ron L. |author-link1=Ron Rivest |first2=Adi |last2=Shamir |author-link2=Adi Shamir |first3=Len |last3=Adleman |author-link3=Leonard Adleman |title=On Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems |location=Cambridge MA |publisher=Massachusetts Institute of Technology |date=April 1977}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Rivest |first1=Ron L. |author-link1=Ron Rivest |first2=Adi |last2=Shamir |author-link2=Adi Shamir |first3=Len |last3=Adleman |author-link3=Leonard Adleman |title=Cryptographic Communications System and Method |id=4405829 |location=Cambridge MA |orig-year=1977 |date=September 20, 1983}}</ref> The choice of the first three names may have come from the film ''[[Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.networkworld.com/article/2318241/lan-wan-security-s-inseparable-couple.html |title=Security's inseparable couple: Alice & Bob |website=NetworkWorld |date=7 February 2005 |first=Bob |last=Brown}}</ref>

Within a few years, however, references to Alice and Bob in cryptological literature became a common [[trope (literature)|trope]]. Cryptographers would often begin their academic papers with reference to Alice and Bob. For instance, [[Michael O. Rabin|Michael Rabin]] began his 1981 paper, "Bob and Alice each have a secret, SB and SA, respectively, which they want to exchange."<ref>{{cite book |last=Rabin |first=Michael O. |author-link=Michael O. Rabin |title=How to exchange secrets with oblivious transfer |id=Technical Report TR-81 |publisher=Aiken Computation Lab, Harvard University |date=1981}}</ref> Early on, Alice and Bob were starting to appear in other domains, such as in [[Manuel Blum]]'s 1981 article, "Coin Flipping by Telephone: A Protocol for Solving Impossible Problems," which begins, "Alice and Bob want to flip a coin by telephone."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Blum |first=Manuel |author-link=Manuel Blum |title=Coin Flipping by Telephone a Protocol for Solving Impossible Problems |journal=ACM SIGACT News |volume=15 |issue=1 |date=November 10, 1981 |pages=23–27|doi=10.1145/1008908.1008911 |s2cid=19928725 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Although Alice and Bob were invented with no reference to their personality, authors soon began adding colorful descriptions. In 1983, Blum invented a backstory about a troubled relationship between Alice and Bob, writing, "Alice and Bob, recently divorced, mutually distrustful, still do business together. They live on opposite coasts, communicate mainly by telephone, and use their computers to transact business over the telephone."<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1145/357360.357368 |title=How to exchange (Secret) keys |year=1983 |last1=Blum |first1=Manuel |author-link=Manuel Blum |journal=ACM Transactions on Computer Systems |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=175–193|s2cid=16304470 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In 1984, John Gordon delivered his famous<ref>{{cite journal |title=Visualization of cryptographic protocols with GRACE |doi=10.1016/j.jvlc.2007.05.001 |journal=Journal of Visual Languages & Computing |volume=19 |issue=2 |date=April 2008 |pages=258–290 |first1=Giuseppe |last1=Cattaneoa |first2=Alfredo |last2=De Santisa |first3=Umberto |last3=Ferraro Petrillo}}</ref> "After Dinner Speech" about Alice and Bob, which he imagines to be the first "definitive biography of Alice and Bob."<ref>{{cite web |last=Gordon |first=John |title=The Alice and Bob After Dinner Speech |location=Zurich |date=April 1984 |url=http://downlode.org/Etext/alicebob.html}}</ref>

In addition to adding backstories and personalities to Alice and Bob, authors soon added other characters, with their own personalities. The first to be added was Eve, the "eavesdropper." Eve was invented in 1988 by Charles Bennet, Gilles Brassard, and Jean-Marc Robert, in their paper, "Privacy Amplification by Public Discussion."<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1137/0217014 |title=Privacy Amplification by Public Discussion |year=1988 |last1=Bennett |first1=Charles H. |last2=Brassard |first2=Gilles |last3=Robert |first3=Jean-Marc |journal=SIAM Journal on Computing |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=210–229|s2cid=5956782 }}</ref> In [[Bruce Schneier]]'s book ''Applied Cryptography'', other characters are listed.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schneier |first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Schneier |title=Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms and Source Code in C |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |date=2015 |isbn=978-0-471-59756-8}}</ref>

==Cast of characters==

===Cryptographic systems===
{{More citations needed section|date=May 2023}}
The most common characters are Alice and Bob. Eve, Mallory, and Trent are also common names, and have fairly well-established "personalities" (or functions). The names often use alliterative mnemonics (for example, Eve, "eavesdropper"; Mallory, "malicious") where different players have different motives. Other names are much less common and more flexible in use. Sometimes the genders are alternated: Alice, Bob, Carol, Dave, Eve, etc.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Xue|first1=Peng|last2=Wang|first2=Kunkun|last3=Wang|first3=Xiaoping|title=Efficient multiuser quantum cryptography network based on entanglement|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=7|issue=1|year=2017|page=45928|issn=2045-2322|doi=10.1038/srep45928|pmid=28374854|pmc=5379677|bibcode=2017NatSR...745928X|doi-access=free}} An example from quantum cryptography with Alice, Bob, Carol, and David.</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ''Alice'' and ''Bob''
| The original, generic characters. Generally, Alice and Bob want to exchange a message or cryptographic key.
|-
| ''Carol'', ''Carlos'' or ''Charlie''
| A generic third participant.
|-
| ''Chuck'' or ''Chad''
| A third participant, usually of malicious intent.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tanenbaum |first=Andrew S. |title=Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms |isbn=978-0-13-239227-3 | publisher=[[Pearson Prentice Hall]] |year=2007 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DL8ZAQAAIAAJ |page=171;399–402 }}</ref>
|-
| ''Craig''
| A ''[[password cracking|password cracker]],'' often encountered in situations with stored passwords.
|-
| ''Dan'', ''Dave'' or ''David'' || A generic fourth participant.
|-
| ''Erin''
| A generic fifth participant, but rarely used, as "E" is usually reserved for Eve.
|-
| {{Anchor|Eve}}''Eve'' or ''Yves''
| An ''[[Eavesdropping|eavesdropper]]'', who is usually a passive attacker. While they can listen in on messages between Alice and Bob, they cannot modify them. In [[quantum cryptography]], Eve may also represent the ''environment''.{{clarify|date=November 2018}}
|-
| ''Faythe''
| A ''trusted [[Adviser|advisor]]'', courier or intermediary. Faythe is used infrequently, and is associated with ''faith'' and ''faithfulness''. Faythe may be a repository of key service or courier of shared secrets.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}}
|-
| ''Frank''
| A generic sixth participant.
|-
| ''Grace''
| A ''government representative''. For example, Grace may try to force Alice or Bob to implement backdoors in their protocols. Grace may also deliberately weaken standards.<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint=2003.11511 |last1=Cho |first1=Hyunghoon |last2=Ippolito |first2=Daphne |author3=Yun William Yu |title=Contact Tracing Mobile Apps for COVID-19: Privacy Considerations and Related Trade-offs |year=2020 |class=cs.CR }}</ref>
|-
| ''Heidi''
| A ''mischievous designer'' for cryptographic standards, but rarely used.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fried |first1=Joshua |last2=Gaudry |first2=Pierrick |last3=Heninger |first3=Nadia |author3-link=Nadia Heninger |last4=Thomé |first4=Emmanuel |title=Advances in Cryptology – EUROCRYPT 2017 |chapter=A Kilobit Hidden SNFS Discrete Logarithm Computation |url=https://eprint.iacr.org/2016/961.pdf |publisher=University of Pennsylvania and INRIA, CNRS, University of Lorraine |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2017 |volume=10,210 |pages=202–231 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-56620-7_8 |arxiv=1610.02874 |isbn=978-3-319-56619-1 |s2cid=12341745 |access-date=2016-10-12}}</ref>
|-
| ''Ivan''
| An ''issuer'', mentioned first by Ian Grigg in the context of [[Ricardian contract]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Grigg|first=Ian|title=Ivan The Honourable|url=http://iang.org/rants/ivan_the_honourable.html| website=iang.org | date=2002-11-24}}</ref>
|-
| ''Judy''
| A ''judge'' who may be called upon to resolve a potential dispute between participants. See [[Judge Judy]].
|-
| {{Anchor|Mallory}}{{Anchor|Mallet}}{{Anchor|Trudy}}''Mallory''<ref name="Schneier1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Szabo |first=Nick |author-link=Nick Szabo |date=September 1997 |title=Formalizing and Securing Relationships on Public Networks |url=http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/548/469 |journal=First Monday|volume=2 |issue=9 |doi=10.5210/fm.v2i9.548|s2cid=33773111 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Schneier|first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Schneier |title=Who are Alice & Bob? |date=2010-09-23 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuUSi_QvFLY |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/BuUSi_QvFLY |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-05-02 |website=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> or (less commonly) ''Mallet''<ref name=Schneier1994/><ref name=Perkins2000/><ref name=LaMacchia2002/><ref name=Dolev2009/> or ''Darth''<ref name=Stallings1998/>
| A ''malicious attacker''. Associated with Trudy, an ''intruder''. Unlike the passive Eve, Mallory is an active attacker (often used in [[man-in-the-middle attack]]s), who can modify messages, substitute messages, or replay old messages. The difficulty of securing a system against a Mallory is much greater than against an Eve.
|-
| ''Michael'' or ''Mike''
| Used as an alternative to the eavesdropper Eve, from ''[[microphone]]''.
|-
| ''Niaj''
| Used as an alternative to the eavesdropper Eve in several South Asian nations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Collaborative Access Control Framework for Online Social Networks|url=http://raulpardo.net/papers/JLAMP2020.pdf}}</ref>
|-
| ''Olivia''
| An ''[[Oracle machine|oracle]]'', who responds to queries from other participants. Olivia often acts as a "[[black box]]" with some concealed state or information, or as a [[random oracle]].
|-
| ''Oscar''
| An ''opponent'', similar to Mallory, but not necessarily malicious.
|-
| ''Peggy'' or ''Pat''
| A ''prover'', who interacts with the ''verifier'' to show that the intended transaction has actually taken place. Peggy is often found in [[zero-knowledge proof]]s.
|-
| ''Rupert''
| A ''repudiator'' who appears for interactions that desire [[non-repudiation]].
|-
|-
| ''Sybil''
| A ''[[pseudonym]]ous attacker'', who usually uses a large number of identities. For example, Sybil may attempt to subvert a [[reputation system]]. See [[Sybil attack]].
|-
| ''Trent'' or ''Ted''
| A ''trusted [[arbitral tribunal|arbitrator]]'', who acts as a [[trusted third party|neutral third party]].
|-
| ''Trudy''
| An ''intruder''.
|-
| ''Victor''<ref name="Schneier1996" /> or ''Vanna''<ref>{{cite journal |year=1992 |title=Algebraic Methods for Interactive Proof Systems |journal=Journal of the ACM |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=859–868 |doi=10.1145/146585.146605 |author-link=Carsten Lund |first=Carsten |last=Lund |display-authors=etal |citeseerx=10.1.1.41.9477|s2cid=207170996 }}</ref>
| ''A verifier'', who requires proof from the ''prover''.
|-
| ''Walter''
| A ''[[prison warden|warden]]'', who may guard Alice and Bob.
|-
| ''Wendy''
| A ''[[whistleblower]]'', who is an insider with privileged access capable of divulging information.
|}

===Interactive proof systems===

For [[interactive proof system]]s there are other characters:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| ''Arthur'' and ''Merlin''
| Merlin provides answers, and Arthur asks questions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Babai |first1=László |last2=Moran |first2=Shlomo |title=Arthur-Merlin games: A randomized proof system, and a hierarchy of complexity classes |journal=[[Journal of Computer and System Sciences]] |date=April 1988 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=254–276 |doi=10.1016/0022-0000(88)90028-1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Merlin has unbounded computational ability (like the wizard [[Merlin (wizard)|Merlin]]). In interactive proof systems, Merlin claims the truth of a statement, and Arthur (like [[King Arthur]]), questions him to verify the claim.
|-
| ''Paul'' and ''Carole''
| Paul asks questions, and Carole provides answers. In the solution of the [[Twenty Questions]] problem,<ref>{{citation |doi=10.1017/S0963548300000080 |last1=Spencer |first1=Joel |author1-link=Joel Spencer |last2=Winkler |first2=Peter |author2-link=Peter Winkler |title=Three Thresholds for a Liar |url=http://math.dartmouth.edu/~pw/papers/3thresh.ps |journal=Combinatorics, Probability and Computing |year=1992 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=81–93|s2cid=45707043 }}</ref> Paul (standing in for [[Paul Erdős]]) asked questions and Carole (an [[anagram]] of "[[oracle]]") answered them. Paul and Carole were also used in [[combinatorial game theory|combinatorial games]], in the roles of pusher and chooser.<ref>{{cite book |last=Muthukrishnan |first=S. |author-link=S. Muthukrishnan (computer scientist) |title=Data Streams: Algorithms and Applications |isbn=978-1-933019-14-7 |publisher=Now Publishers |year=2005 |url=http://algo.research.googlepages.com/eight.ps |page=3 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|-
| ''Arthur'' and ''Bertha''
| Arthur is the "left", "black", or "vertical" player, and Bertha is the "right", "white", or "horizontal" player in a [[combinatorial game theory|combinatorial game]]. Additionally, Arthur, given the same outcome, prefers a game to take the fewest moves, while Bertha prefers a game to take the most moves.<ref>{{Cite book |title=On Numbers and Games |last=Conway |first=John Horton |publisher=CRC Press |year = 2000 |isbn=9781568811277 |pages=71, 175, 176}}</ref>
|}

=== Physics ===
The names Alice and Bob are often used to name the participants in thought experiments in physics.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2013/apr/16/alice-and-bob-communicate-without-transferring-a-single-photon|title=Alice and Bob communicate without transferring a single photon |website=physicsworld.com |date=16 April 2013 |language=en-GB |access-date=2017-06-19}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Frazier |first1=Matthew |last2=Taddese |first2=Biniyam |last3=Antonsen |first3=Thomas |last4=Anlage |first4=Steven M. |date=2013-02-07 |title=Nonlinear Time Reversal in a Wave Chaotic System |journal=Physical Review Letters |language=en-US |volume=110 |issue=6 |pages=063902 |doi=10.1103/physrevlett.110.063902 |pmid=23432243 |arxiv=1207.1667 |bibcode=2013PhRvL.110f3902F|s2cid=35907279 }}</ref> More alphabetical names, usually of alternating gender, are used as required, e.g. "Alice and Bob (and Carol and Dick and Eve)".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lassp.cornell.edu/lassp_data/master.pdf |title=209: Notes on Special Relativity |date=5 March 2000 |first=N. |last=David Mermin |author-link=N. David Mermin}} An example with several names.</ref>

In experiments involving robotic systems, the terms "Alice Robot" and "Bob Robot" refer to mobile platforms responsible for transmitting quantum information and receiving it with quantum detectors, respectively, within the context of the field of [[quantum robotics]].<ref>Farbod Khoshnoud, Lucas Lamata, Clarence W. De Silva, Marco B. Quadrelli, [https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/2007/2007.15249.pdf Quantum Teleportation for Control of Dynamic Systems and Autonomy], [https://www.actapress.com/PaperInfo.aspx?paperId=47550 Journal of Mechatronic Systems and Control, Volume 49, Issue 3, pp. 124-131, 2021].</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lamata |first1=Lucas |last2=Quadrelli |first2=Marco B. |last3=de Silva |first3=Clarence W. |last4=Kumar |first4=Prem |last5=Kanter |first5=Gregory S. |last6=Ghazinejad |first6=Maziar |last7=Khoshnoud |first7=Farbod |title=Quantum Mechatronics |journal=Electronics |date=12 October 2021 |volume=10 |issue=20 |pages=2483 |doi=10.3390/electronics10202483 |doi-access=free |hdl=2429/80217 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref> Farbod Khoshnoud, Maziar Ghazinejad, Automated quantum entanglement and cryptography for networks of robotic systems, IEEE/ASME International Conference on Mechatronic and Embedded Systems and Applications (MESA), IDETC-CIE 2021, Virtual Conference: August 17 – 20, DETC2021-71653, 2021.</ref><ref>{{cite conference | last1=Khoshnoud | first1=Farbod | last2=Aiello | first2=Clarice | last3=Quadrelli | first3=Bruno | last4=Ghazinejad | first4=Maziar | last5=De Silva | first5=Clarence | last6=Khoshnoud | first6=Farbod | last7=Bahr | first7=Behnam | last8=Lamata | first8=Lucas | title=Modernizing Mechatronics course with Quantum Engineering | publisher=ASEE Conferences | date=23 April 2021 | doi=10.18260/1-2--38241 |url=https://peer.asee.org/38241|conference=2021 ASEE Pacific Southwest Conference - "Pushing Past Pandemic Pedagogy: Learning from Disruption"| doi-access=free }} [https://peer.asee.org/modernizing-mechatronics-course-with-quantum-engineering.pdf PDF]</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Khoshnoud |first1=Farbod |last2=Esat |first2=Ibrahim I. |last3=de Silva |first3=Clarence W. |last4=Quadrelli |first4=Marco B. |title=Quantum Network of Cooperative Unmanned Autonomous Systems |journal=Unmanned Systems |date=April 2019 |volume=07 |issue=2 |pages=137–145 |doi=10.1142/S2301385019500055 |s2cid=149842737 |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/S2301385019500055 |access-date=7 September 2023 |language=en |issn=2301-3850}}</ref><ref>Farbod Khoshnoud, Marco B. Quadrelli, Enrique Galvez, Clarence W. de Silva, Shayan Javaherian, B. Bahr, M. Ghazinejad, A. S. Eddin, M. El-Hadedy, Quantum Brain-Computer Interface, ASEE PSW, 2023, in press.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Diffie–Hellman key exchange]]
* [[Martin Gardner]]
* [[Public-key cryptography]]
* [[Security protocol notation]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=Schneier1994>{{cite book |last=Schneier |first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Schneier |date=1994 |title=Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-59756-8 |page=44 |quote=Mallet can intercept Alice's database inquiry, and substitute his own public key for Alice's. He can do the same to Bob.}}</ref>

<ref name=Schneier1996>{{cite book |last=Schneier |first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Schneier |date=1996 |title=Applied Cryptography: Protocols, Algorithms, and Source Code in C |edition=Second |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-11709-4 |page=23 |id=Table 2.1: Dramatis Personae}}</ref>

<ref name=Perkins2000>{{cite book |author-link=Charles L. Perkins |first=Charles L. |last=Perkins |display-authors=etal |date=2000 |title=Firewalls: 24seven |publisher=Network Press |isbn=9780782125290 |page=130 |quote=Mallet maintains the illusion that Alice and Bob are talking to each other rather than to him by intercepting the messages and retransmitting them.}}</ref>

<ref name=LaMacchia2002>{{cite book |author-link=Brian LaMacchia |first=Brian |last=LaMacchia |date=2002 |title=.NET Framework Security |publisher=Addison-Wesley |isbn=9780672321849 |page=616 |quote=Mallet represents an active adversary that not only listens to all communications between Alice and Bob but can also modify the contents of any communication he sees while it is in transit.}}</ref>

<ref name=Dolev2009>{{cite book |editor-link=Shlomi Dolev |editor-first=Shlomi |editor-last=Dolev |date=2009 |title=Algorithmic Aspects of Wireless Sensor Networks |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783642054334 |page=67 |quote=We model key choices of Alice, Bob and adversary Mallet as independent random variables A, B and M [...]}}</ref>

<ref name=Stallings1998>{{cite book |last=Stallings |first=William |author-link=William Stallings |date=1998 |title=Cryptography and Network Security: Principles and Practice |publisher=Pearson |isbn=978-0133354690 |page=317 |quote=Suppose Alice and Bob wish to exchange keys, and Darth is the adversary.}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
* [http://cryptocouple.com/ History of Alice and Bob]
* [http://people.csail.mit.edu/rivest/Rsapaper.pdf A Method for Obtaining Digital Signatures and Public-Key Cryptosystems] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217101831/http://people.csail.mit.edu/rivest/Rsapaper.pdf |date=December 17, 2008 }}
* [http://downlode.org/Etext/alicebob.html The Alice and Bob After-Dinner Speech], given at the Zurich Seminar, April 1984, by John Gordon
* [http://www.catonmat.net/blog/musical-geek-friday-alice-and-bob/ Geek Song: "Alice and Bob"]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060619074924/http://rogers.phy.bris.ac.uk/denzil/denweb4.html Alice and Bob jokes] (mainly [[Quantum Computing]]-related)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070303030954/http://www.networkworld.com/news/2006/103006-bob.html A short history of Bobs (story and slideshow) in the computing industry, from Alice & Bob to Microsoft Bob and Father of Ethernet Bob Metcalfe]
* [https://xkcd.com/177/ XKCD #177: Alice and Bob]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Alice And Bob}}
[[Category:Cryptography]]
[[Category:Placeholder names]]
[[Category:Thought experiments in physics]]
[[Category:Fictional duos]]
[[Category:History of computing]]

3-D Secure

2025-06-18T20:43:00Z

Relative Humidity: Remove stray letter inserted by accident

{{Short description|Computer network protocol}}
{{distinguish|card security code}}

'''3-D Secure''' is a protocol designed to be an additional security layer for online [[credit card|credit]] and [[debit card]] transactions. The name refers to the "three domains" which interact using the protocol: the merchant/acquirer domain, the issuer domain, and the interoperability domain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.emvco.com/emv-technologies/3d-secure/|title = 3-D Secure}}</ref>

Originally developed in the autumn of 1999 by Celo Communications AB (which was acquired by Gemplus Associates and integrated into Gemplus, Gemalto and now [[Thales Group]]) for [[Visa Inc.]] in a project named "p42" ("p" from [[Pole vault]] as the project was a big challenge and [[Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#The Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything is 42|"42" as the answer]] from the book ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'').
A new updated version was developed by Gemplus between 2000-2001.

In 2001 Arcot Systems (now [[CA Technologies]]) and [[Visa Inc]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/visa-usa-tightens-security-with-arcot/|title=Visa USA tightens security with Arcot|publisher=ZDnet}}</ref> with the intention of improving the security of Internet payments, and offered to customers under the '''Verified by Visa''' brand (later rebranded as '''Visa Secure'''). Services based on the protocol have also been adopted by [[Mastercard]] as '''SecureCode''' (later rebranded as '''Identity Check'''), by [[Discover Card|Discover]] as '''ProtectBuy''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.discover.com/credit-cards/help-center/faqs/protect-buy.html |title=ProtectBuy |publisher=discover.com |access-date=2019-08-22 |archive-date=2019-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822003629/https://www.discover.com/credit-cards/help-center/faqs/protect-buy.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> by [[Japan Credit Bureau|JCB International]] as '''J/Secure''', and by [[American Express]] as '''American Express SafeKey'''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://about.americanexpress.com/news/pr/2010/safekey.aspx |title=SafeKey |publisher=AmericanExpress.com |access-date=2010-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807121352/http://about.americanexpress.com/news/pr/2010/safekey.aspx |archive-date=2011-08-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Later revisions of the protocol have been produced by [[EMV|EMVCo]] under the name '''EMV 3-D Secure'''. Version 2 of the protocol was published in 2016 with the aim of complying with new EU authentication
requirements and resolving some of the short-comings of the original protocol.<ref name="paymentssource" />

Analysis of the first version of the protocol by academia has shown it to have many security issues that affect the consumer, including a greater surface area for [[phishing]] and a shift of liability in the case of fraudulent payments.<ref name=hownot/>

== Description and basic aspects ==
The basic concept of the protocol is to tie the financial authorization process with online authentication. This additional security authentication is based on a three-domain model (hence the "3-D" in the name). The three domains are:
* Acquirer domain (the bank and the merchant to which the money is being paid),
* Issuer domain (the card issuer),
* Interoperability Domain (the infrastructure provided by the card scheme, credit, debit, prepaid or other types of a payment card, to support the 3-D Secure protocol). It includes the Internet, merchant plug-in, access control server, and other software providers.

The protocol uses XML messages sent over [[Transport Layer Security|SSL]] connections with client authentication<ref name="VisaImplementationGuide" /> (this ensures the authenticity of both peers, the server and the client, using digital certificates).

A transaction using Verified by Visa or SecureCode will initiate a redirection to the website of the card issuer to authorize the transaction. Each issuer could use any kind of authentication method (the protocol does not cover this) but typically, a password tied to the card is entered when making online purchases. The Verified by Visa protocol recommends the card issuer's verification page to load in an [[inline frame]] session. In this way, the card issuer's systems can be held responsible for most security breaches. Today it is easy to send a [[one-time password]] as part of an [[Text messaging|SMS text message]] to users' mobile phones and emails for authentication, at least during enrollment and for forgotten passwords.

The main difference between Visa and Mastercard implementations lies in the method to generate the UCAF (Universal Cardholder Authentication Field): Mastercard uses AAV (Accountholder Authentication Value) and Visa uses CAVV (Cardholder Authentication Verification Value).{{clarify|date=August 2019}}

[[File:3D Secure Flow.png|thumb|3-D Secure Flow]]

=== ACS providers ===
In the 3-D Secure protocol, the ACS (access control server) is on the card issuer side. Currently, most card issuers outsource ACS to a third party. Commonly, the buyer's web browser shows the domain name of the ACS provider, rather than the card issuer's domain name; however, this is not required by the protocol. Dependent on the ACS provider, it is possible to specify a card issuer-owned domain name for use by the ACS.

=== MPI providers ===
Each 3-D Secure version 1 transaction involves two Internet request/response pairs: VEReq/VERes and PAReq/PARes.<ref name="VisaImplementationGuide">{{Cite web|url=https://usa.visa.com/dam/VCOM/download/merchants/verified-by-visa-acquirer-merchant-implementation-guide.pdf|title=Verified by Visa Implementation Guide}}</ref> Visa and Mastercard do not permit merchants to send requests directly to their servers. Merchants must instead use MPI ([[merchant plug-in]]) providers.

== Merchants ==
The advantage for merchants is the reduction of "unauthorized transaction" [[chargeback]]s. One disadvantage for merchants is that they have to purchase a [[merchant plug-in]] (MPI) to connect to the Visa or Mastercard directory server. This is expensive{{Clarify|date=July 2013}} (setup fee, monthly fee, and per-transaction fee); at the same time, it represents additional revenue for MPI providers. Supporting 3-D Secure is complicated and, at times, creates transaction failures. Perhaps the biggest disadvantage for merchants is that many users view the additional authentication step as a nuisance or obstacle, which results in a substantial increase in transaction abandonment and lost revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.practicalecommerce.com/articles/4059-Are-Verified-by-Visa-and-MasterCard-SecureCode-Conversion-Killers |title=Are Verified by Visa and MasterCard SecureCode Conversion Killers? |date=14 June 2013 |publisher=practicalecommerce.com |access-date=2013-07-30}} This 2010 study documented increases in the number of abandoned transactions of 10% to 12% for merchants newly joining the program.</ref>

== Buyers and credit card holders ==
In most current implementations of 3-D Secure, the card issuer or its ACS provider prompts the buyer for a password that is known only to the card issuer or ACS provider and the buyer. Since the merchant does not know this password and is not responsible for capturing it, it can be used by the card issuer as evidence that the purchaser is indeed their cardholder. This is intended to help decrease risk in two ways:

# Copying card details, either by writing down the numbers on the card itself or by way of modified terminals or ATMs, does not result in the ability to purchase over the Internet because of the additional password, which is not stored on or written on the card.
# Since the merchant does not capture the password, there is a reduced risk from security incidents at online merchants; while an incident may still result in hackers obtaining other card details, there is no way for them to get the associated password.

3-D Secure does not strictly ''require'' the use of password authentication. It is said to be possible<ref>{{Cite web|title=Card authentication and 3D Secure|url=https://stripe.com/docs/payments/3d-secure|access-date=2021-08-25|website=stripe.com}}</ref> to use it in conjunction with [[card reader#Smart card readers|smart card readers]], [[security token]]s and the like. These types of devices might provide a better user experience for customers as they free the purchaser from having to use a secure password. Some issuers are now using such devices as part of the [[Chip Authentication Program]] or Dynamic Passcode Authentication schemes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is 3D Secure? Advantages for E-commerce|url=https://monei.com/blog/what-is-3d-secure-and-its-advantages-for-e-commerce/|access-date=2021-08-25|website=MONEI|language=en}}</ref>

One significant disadvantage is that cardholders are likely to see their browser connect to unfamiliar domain names as a result of vendors' MPI implementations and the use of outsourced ACS implementations by card issuers, which might make it easier to perform phishing attacks on cardholders.

== General criticism ==

=== Verifiability of site identity ===
The system involves a pop-up window or inline frame appearing during the online transaction process, requiring the cardholder to enter a password which, if the transaction is legitimate, their card issuer will be able to authenticate. The problem for the cardholder is determining if the pop-up window or frame is really from their card issuer when it could be from a fraudulent website attempting to harvest the cardholder's details. Such pop-up windows or script-based frames lack any access to any security certificate, eliminating any way to confirm the credentials of the implementation of 3-D Secure.

The Verified by Visa system has drawn some criticism,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://antiworm.blogspot.com/2006/02/verified-by-visa-veriphied-phishing.html |title=Antiworm: Verified by Visa (Veriphied Phishing?) |publisher=Antiworm.blogspot.com |date=2006-02-02 |access-date=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Muncaster |first=Phil |url=http://www.itweek.co.uk/itweek/news/2214146/industry-lays-secure |title=Industry lays into 3-D Secure - 11 Apr 2008 |publisher=IT Week |access-date=2010-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007223812/http://www.itweek.co.uk/itweek/news/2214146/industry-lays-secure |archive-date=2008-10-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2007/apr/21/creditcards.debt | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Verified by Visa scheme confuses thousands of internet shoppers | first=Miles | last=Brignall | date=2007-04-21 | access-date=2010-04-23| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100506055758/http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2007/apr/21/creditcards.debt| archive-date= 6 May 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=hownot/> since it is hard for users to differentiate between the legitimate Verified by Visa pop-up window or inline frame, and a fraudulent phishing site. This is because the pop-up window is served from a domain which is:
* Not the site where the user is shopping
* Not the card issuer
* Not visa.com or mastercard.com

In some cases, the Verified by Visa system has been mistaken by users for a phishing scam<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ambrand.com/2006/09/06/is-securesuitecouk-a-phishing-scam/ |title=Is securesuite.co.uk a phishing scam? |publisher=Ambrand.com |access-date=2010-08-11 |archive-date=2010-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616191343/http://ambrand.com/2006/09/06/is-securesuitecouk-a-phishing-scam |url-status=dead }}</ref> and has itself become the target of some phishing scams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.millersmiles.co.uk/report/3279 |title=Verified By Visa Activation – Visa Phishing Scams |publisher=MillerSmiles.co.uk |date=2006-08-22 |access-date=2010-08-11| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100708070541/http://www.millersmiles.co.uk/report/3279| archive-date= 8 July 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> The newer recommendation to use an inline frame ([[HTML element#Frames|iframe]]) instead of a pop-up has reduced user confusion, at the cost of making it harder, if not impossible, for the user to verify that the page is genuine in the first place. {{Asof|2022}}, web browsers do not provide a way to check the security certificate for the contents of an iframe. Some of these concerns about site validity for Verified by Visa are mitigated, however, as its current implementation of the enrollment process requires entering a personal message which is displayed in later Verified by Visa pop-ups to provide some assurance to the user the pop-ups are genuine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Verified by Visa FAQs|url=https://www.visa.co.uk/products/protection-benefits/verified-by-visa/faqs|website=www.visa.co.uk|access-date=6 October 2016}}</ref>

Some card issuers also use activation-during-shopping (ADS),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visaeurope.com/documents/vbv/verifiedbyvisa_activationduringshopping.pdf |title=Activation During Shopping |publisher=Visa Europe |access-date=2010-08-11}}</ref> in which cardholders who are not registered with the scheme are offered the opportunity of signing up (or forced into signing up) during the purchase process. This will typically take them to a form in which they are expected to confirm their identity by answering security questions which should be known to their card issuer. Again, this is done within an iframe where they cannot easily verify the site they are providing this information to—a cracked site or illegitimate merchant could in this way gather all the details they need to pose as the customer.

Implementation of 3-D Secure sign-up will often not allow a user to proceed with a purchase until they have agreed to sign up to 3-D Secure and its terms and conditions, not offering any alternative way of navigating away from the page than closing it, thus abandoning the transaction.

Cardholders who are unwilling to take the risk of registering their card during a purchase, with the commerce site controlling the browser to some extent, can in some cases go to their card issuer's website in a separate browser window and register from there. When they return to the commerce site and start over they should see that their card is registered. The presence on the password page of the personal assurance message (PAM) that they chose when registering is their confirmation that the page is coming from the card issuer. This still leaves some possibility of a [[man-in-the-middle attack]] if the cardholder cannot verify the TLS/SSL server certificate for the password page. Some commerce sites will devote the full browser page to the authentication rather than using a frame (not necessarily an iframe), which is a less secure object. In this case, the lock icon in the browser should show the identity of either the card issuer or the operator of the verification site. The cardholder can confirm that this is in the same domain that they visited when registering their card if it is not the domain of their card issuer.

Mobile browsers present particular problems for 3-D Secure due to the common lack of certain features such as frames and pop-ups. Even if the merchant has a mobile website, unless the issuer is also mobile-aware, the authentication pages may fail to render properly, or even at all. In the end, many{{vague|date=November 2011}} analysts have concluded that the activation-during-shopping (ADS) protocols invite more risk than they remove and furthermore transfer this increased risk to the consumer.

In some cases, 3-D Secure ends up providing little security to the cardholder, and can act as a device to pass liability for fraudulent transactions from the card issuer or retailer to the cardholder. Legal conditions applied to the 3-D Secure service are sometimes worded in a way that makes it difficult for the cardholder to escape liability from fraudulent transactions.<ref name=hownot>{{cite conference |url=http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rja14/Papers/fc10vbvsecurecode.pdf |title=Verified by Visa and MasterCard SecureCode: or, How Not to Design Authentication |access-date=2012-04-23 |first1=Steven J. |last1=Murdoch |first2=Ross |last2=Anderson |authorlink2=Ross J. Anderson |conference=Financial Cryptography and Data Security FC2010 |volume=6052 |date=25–28 January 2010 |location=Tenerife |isbn=978-3-642-14992-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-14577-3_27 |pages=336–342 |editor-last=Sion |editor-first=R. |publisher=Springer}}</ref>

===Geographic discrimination===

Card issuers and merchants may use 3-D Secure systems unevenly with regard to card issuers that issue cards in several geographic locations, creating differentiation, for example, between the domestic US- and non-US-issued cards. For example, since Visa and Mastercard treat the [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated US territory]] of [[Puerto Rico]] as a non-US international, rather than a domestic US location, cardholders there may confront a greater incidence of 3-D Secure queries than cardholders in the fifty states. Complaints to that effect have been received by [[Puerto Rico Department of Consumer Affairs]] "equal treatment" economic discrimination site.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://daco.pr.gov |title=daco.pr.gov |publisher=daco.pr.gov |access-date=2014-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812032421/http://daco.pr.gov/ |archive-date=2014-08-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===3-D Secure as strong customer authentication===

Version 2 of 3-D Secure, which incorporates one-time passcodes, is a form of software-based [[strong customer authentication]] as defined by the EU's [[Payment Services Directive#Revised Directive on Payment Services (PSD2)|Revised Directive on Payment Services (PSD2)]]; earlier variants used static passwords, which are not sufficient to meet the directive's requirements.

3-D Secure relies upon the issuer actively being involved and ensuring that any card issued becomes enrolled by the cardholder; as such, acquirers must either accept unenrolled cards without performing strong customer authentication or reject such transactions, including those from smaller card schemes which do not have 3-D Secure implementations.

Alternative approaches perform authentication on the acquiring side, without requiring prior enrollment with the issuer. For instance, PayPal's patented 'verification'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2002005224&recNum=1&maxRec=1&office=&prevFilter=&sortOption=&queryString=WO%2F2002%2F005224&tab=PCT+Biblio |title=US2001021725 System and Method for Verifying a Financial Instrument|publisher=Patentscope.wipo.int |date=2002-01-17 |access-date=2014-07-17}}</ref> uses one or more dummy transactions are directed towards a credit card, and the cardholder must confirm the value of these transactions, although the resulting authentication cannot be directly related to a specific transaction between merchant and cardholder. A patented<ref>{{cite web|url=http://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2011120098&recNum=1&docAn=AU2011000377&queryString=FP:%28PCT/AU2011/000377%29&maxRec=1 |title=AU2011000377 Methods and Systems for Verifying Transactions|publisher=Patentscope.wipo.int |access-date=2014-07-17}}</ref> system called iSignthis splits the agreed transaction amount into two (or more) random amounts, with the cardholder then proving that they are the owner of the account by confirming the amounts on their statement.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepaypers.com/e-identity-security-online-fraud/epca-payment-summit-isignthis-presents-its-authentication-service-as-an-alternative-to-3d-secure/750643-26/full |title=EPCA Payment Summit: iSignthis presents its authentication service as an alternative to 3D Secure |publisher=The Paypers |access-date=2014-07-17 |archive-date=2013-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101164256/http://www.thepaypers.com/e-identity-security-online-fraud/epca-payment-summit-isignthis-presents-its-authentication-service-as-an-alternative-to-3d-secure/750643-26/full |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===ACCC blocks 3-D Secure proposal===
A proposal to make 3-D Secure mandatory in Australia was blocked by the [[Australian Competition & Consumer Commission]] (ACCC) after numerous objections and flaw-related submissions were received.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timebase.com.au/news/2016/AT196-article.html |title=ACCC Releases Draft Determination Against Mandated Use Of 3D Secure For Online Payments}}</ref>

=== India ===
Some countries like India made use of not only CVV2, but 3-D Secure mandatory, a SMS code sent from a card issuer and typed in the browser when you are redirected when you click "purchase" to the payment system or card issuer system site where you type that code and only then the operation is accepted. Nevertheless, Amazon can still do transactions from other countries with turned-on 3-D Secure.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Amazon.in Help: About CVV and 3-D Secure|url=https://www.amazon.in/gp/help/customer/display.html?nodeId=201968790|url-status=live|access-date=2020-06-17|website=www.amazon.in|quote=3-D secure password has been made mandatory by the Reserve Bank of India to ensure safer online shopping. This will prevent misuse of a lost/stolen card as the user will be unable to proceed unless they enter the password associated with your card, created by yourself and known only to you.|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210624205419/https://www.amazon.in/gp/help/customer/display.html?nodeId=201968790 |archive-date = 2021-06-24 }}</ref>

== 3-D Secure 2.0 ==
In October 2016, EMVCo published the specification for 3-D Secure 2.0; it is designed to be less intrusive than the first version of the specification, allowing more contextual data to be sent to the customer's card issuer (including mailing addresses and transaction history) to verify and assess the risk of the transaction. The customer would only be required to pass an authentication challenge if their transaction is determined to be of a high risk. In addition, the workflow for authentication is designed so that it no longer requires redirects to a separate page, and can also activate out-of-band authentication via an institution's [[mobile app]] (which, in turn, can also be used with [[Biometrics|biometric authentication]]). 3-D Secure 2.0 is compliant with EU "[[strong customer authentication]]" mandates.<ref name="paymentssource">{{Cite web|url=https://www.paymentssource.com/opinion/merchants-cant-let-psd2-and-sca-be-vague-initials|title=Merchants can't let 'PSD2' and 'SCA' be vague initials|website=PaymentsSource|date=12 June 2019|language=en|access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.digitaltransactions.net/adyen-touts-its-3-d-secure-2-0-service-as-first-to-market/|title=Adyen Touts Its 3-D Secure 2.0 Service As "First" to Market|website=Digital Transactions|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stripe.com/en-ca/guides/3d-secure-2|title=Stripe: 3D Secure 2 - Guide to 3DS2 Authentication|first=Olivier|last=Godement|publisher=[[Stripe (company)|Stripe]]|language=en|access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Secure electronic transaction]] (SET)
* [[Merchant plug-in]] (MPI)
* [[EMV]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.americanexpress.com/icc/safekey.html American Express SafeKey] (consumer site)
*[https://network.americanexpress.com/globalnetwork/products-and-services/security/safekey/ American Express SafeKey] (global partner site)
*[http://www.visaeurope.com/en/cardholders/verified_by_visa.aspx Verified by Visa]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150518075722/https://verified.visa.com/aam/activation/landingPage.aam Activating Verified by Visa]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120223012048/https://partnernetwork.visa.com/vpn/global/home.do Verified by Visa Partner Network]
*[http://www.mastercard.com/us/personal/en/cardholderservices/securecode/index.html Mastercard SecureCode home page]
*[https://usa.visa.com/personal/security/vbv/index.html usa.visa.com]
*[https://www.discoverglobalnetwork.com/en-us/business-resources/fraud-security/products-tools/protect-buy Discover Global Network ProtectBuy]

{{DEFAULTSORT:3-D Secure}}
[[Category:Communication protocols]]
[[Category:Financial industry XML-based standards]]

3-D Secure

2025-06-18T20:42:33Z

Relative Humidity: Change category from ''Cryptographic Protocols'' to ''Communication protocols''. Perhaps a category for financial communication protocols should be created

{{Short description|Computer network protocol}}
{{distinguish|card security code}}

'''3-D Secure''' is a protocol designed to be an additional security layer for online [[credit card|credit]] and [[debit card]] transactions. The name refers to the "three domains" which interact using the protocol: the merchant/acquirer domain, the issuer domain, and the interoperability domain.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.emvco.com/emv-technologies/3d-secure/|title = 3-D Secure}}</ref>

Originally developed in the autumn of 1999 by Celo Communications AB (which was acquired by Gemplus Associates and integrated into Gemplus, Gemalto and now [[Thales Group]]) for [[Visa Inc.]] in a project named "p42" ("p" from [[Pole vault]] as the project was a big challenge and [[Phrases from The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy#The Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and Everything is 42|"42" as the answer]] from the book ''[[The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy]]'').
A new updated version was developed by Gemplus between 2000-2001.

In 2001 Arcot Systems (now [[CA Technologies]]) and [[Visa Inc]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/visa-usa-tightens-security-with-arcot/|title=Visa USA tightens security with Arcot|publisher=ZDnet}}</ref> with the intention of improving the security of Internet payments, and offered to customers under the '''Verified by Visa''' brand (later rebranded as '''Visa Secure'''). Services based on the protocol have also been adopted by [[Mastercard]] as '''SecureCode''' (later rebranded as '''Identity Check'''), by [[Discover Card|Discover]] as '''ProtectBuy''',<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.discover.com/credit-cards/help-center/faqs/protect-buy.html |title=ProtectBuy |publisher=discover.com |access-date=2019-08-22 |archive-date=2019-08-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190822003629/https://www.discover.com/credit-cards/help-center/faqs/protect-buy.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> by [[Japan Credit Bureau|JCB International]] as '''J/Secure''', and by [[American Express]] as '''American Express SafeKey'''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://about.americanexpress.com/news/pr/2010/safekey.aspx |title=SafeKey |publisher=AmericanExpress.com |access-date=2010-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807121352/http://about.americanexpress.com/news/pr/2010/safekey.aspx |archive-date=2011-08-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Later revisions of the protocol have been produced by [[EMV|EMVCo]] under the name '''EMV 3-D Secure'''. Version 2 of the protocol was published in 2016 with the aim of complying with new EU authentication
requirements and resolving some of the short-comings of the original protocol.<ref name="paymentssource" />

Analysis of the first version of the protocol by academia has shown it to have many security issues that affect the consumer, including a greater surface area for [[phishing]] and a shift of liability in the case of fraudulent payments.<ref name=hownot/>

== Description and basic aspects ==
The basic concept of the protocol is to tie the financial authorization process with online authentication. This additional security authentication is based on a three-domain model (hence the "3-D" in the name). The three domains are:
* Acquirer domain (the bank and the merchant to which the money is being paid),
* Issuer domain (the card issuer),
* Interoperability Domain (the infrastructure provided by the card scheme, credit, debit, prepaid or other types of a payment card, to support the 3-D Secure protocol). It includes the Internet, merchant plug-in, access control server, and other software providers.

The protocol uses XML messages sent over [[Transport Layer Security|SSL]] connections with client authentication<ref name="VisaImplementationGuide" /> (this ensures the authenticity of both peers, the server and the client, using digital certificates).

A transaction using Verified by Visa or SecureCode will initiate a redirection to the website of the card issuer to authorize the transaction. Each issuer could use any kind of authentication method (the protocol does not cover this) but typically, a password tied to the card is entered when making online purchases. The Verified by Visa protocol recommends the card issuer's verification page to load in an [[inline frame]] session. In this way, the card issuer's systems can be held responsible for most security breaches. Today it is easy to send a [[one-time password]] as part of an [[Text messaging|SMS text message]] to users' mobile phones and emails for authentication, at least during enrollment and for forgotten passwords.

The main difference between Visa and Mastercard implementations lies in the method to generate the UCAF (Universal Cardholder Authentication Field): Mastercard uses AAV (Accountholder Authentication Value) and Visa uses CAVV (Cardholder Authentication Verification Value).{{clarify|date=August 2019}}

[[File:3D Secure Flow.png|thumb|3-D Secure Flow]]

=== ACS providers ===
In the 3-D Secure protocol, the ACS (access control server) is on the card issuer side. Currently, most card issuers outsource ACS to a third party. Commonly, the buyer's web browser shows the domain name of the ACS provider, rather than the card issuer's domain name; however, this is not required by the protocol. Dependent on the ACS provider, it is possible to specify a card issuer-owned domain name for use by the ACS.

=== MPI providers ===
Each 3-D Secure version 1 transaction involves two Internet request/response pairs: VEReq/VERes and PAReq/PARes.<ref name="VisaImplementationGuide">{{Cite web|url=https://usa.visa.com/dam/VCOM/download/merchants/verified-by-visa-acquirer-merchant-implementation-guide.pdf|title=Verified by Visa Implementation Guide}}</ref> Visa and Mastercard do not permit merchants to send requests directly to their servers. Merchants must instead use MPI ([[merchant plug-in]]) providers.

== Merchants ==
The advantage for merchants is the reduction of "unauthorized transaction" [[chargeback]]s. One disadvantage for merchants is that they have to purchase a [[merchant plug-in]] (MPI) to connect to the Visa or Mastercard directory server. This is expensive{{Clarify|date=July 2013}} (setup fee, monthly fee, and per-transaction fee); at the same time, it represents additional revenue for MPI providers. Supporting 3-D Secure is complicated and, at times, creates transaction failures. Perhaps the biggest disadvantage for merchants is that many users view the additional authentication step as a nuisance or obstacle, which results in a substantial increase in transaction abandonment and lost revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.practicalecommerce.com/articles/4059-Are-Verified-by-Visa-and-MasterCard-SecureCode-Conversion-Killers |title=Are Verified by Visa and MasterCard SecureCode Conversion Killers? |date=14 June 2013 |publisher=practicalecommerce.com |access-date=2013-07-30}} This 2010 study documented increases in the number of abandoned transactions of 10% to 12% for merchants newly joining the program.</ref>

== Buyers and credit card holders ==
In most current implementations of 3-D Secure, the card issuer or its ACS provider prompts the buyer for a password that is known only to the card issuer or ACS provider and the buyer. Since the merchant does not know this password and is not responsible for capturing it, it can be used by the card issuer as evidence that the purchaser is indeed their cardholder. This is intended to help decrease risk in two ways:

# Copying card details, either by writing down the numbers on the card itself or by way of modified terminals or ATMs, does not result in the ability to purchase over the Internet because of the additional password, which is not stored on or written on the card.
# Since the merchant does not capture the password, there is a reduced risk from security incidents at online merchants; while an incident may still result in hackers obtaining other card details, there is no way for them to get the associated password.

3-D Secure does not strictly ''require'' the use of password authentication. It is said to be possible<ref>{{Cite web|title=Card authentication and 3D Secure|url=https://stripe.com/docs/payments/3d-secure|access-date=2021-08-25|website=stripe.com}}</ref> to use it in conjunction with [[card reader#Smart card readers|smart card readers]], [[security token]]s and the like. These types of devices might provide a better user experience for customers as they free the purchaser from having to use a secure password. Some issuers are now using such devices as part of the [[Chip Authentication Program]] or Dynamic Passcode Authentication schemes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is 3D Secure? Advantages for E-commerce|url=https://monei.com/blog/what-is-3d-secure-and-its-advantages-for-e-commerce/|access-date=2021-08-25|website=MONEI|language=en}}</ref>

One significant disadvantage is that cardholders are likely to see their browser connect to unfamiliar domain names as a result of vendors' MPI implementations and the use of outsourced ACS implementations by card issuers, which might make it easier to perform phishing attacks on cardholders.

== General criticism ==

=== Verifiability of site identity ===
The system involves a pop-up window or inline frame appearing during the online transaction process, requiring the cardholder to enter a password which, if the transaction is legitimate, their card issuer will be able to authenticate. The problem for the cardholder is determining if the pop-up window or frame is really from their card issuer when it could be from a fraudulent website attempting to harvest the cardholder's details. Such pop-up windows or script-based frames lack any access to any security certificate, eliminating any way to confirm the credentials of the implementation of 3-D Secure.

The Verified by Visa system has drawn some criticism,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://antiworm.blogspot.com/2006/02/verified-by-visa-veriphied-phishing.html |title=Antiworm: Verified by Visa (Veriphied Phishing?) |publisher=Antiworm.blogspot.com |date=2006-02-02 |access-date=2010-08-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Muncaster |first=Phil |url=http://www.itweek.co.uk/itweek/news/2214146/industry-lays-secure |title=Industry lays into 3-D Secure - 11 Apr 2008 |publisher=IT Week |access-date=2010-08-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007223812/http://www.itweek.co.uk/itweek/news/2214146/industry-lays-secure |archive-date=2008-10-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/money/2007/apr/21/creditcards.debt | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=Verified by Visa scheme confuses thousands of internet shoppers | first=Miles | last=Brignall | date=2007-04-21 | access-date=2010-04-23| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100506055758/http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2007/apr/21/creditcards.debt| archive-date= 6 May 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref name=hownot/> since it is hard for users to differentiate between the legitimate Verified by Visa pop-up window or inline frame, and a fraudulent phishing site. This is because the pop-up window is served from a domain which is:
* Not the site where the user is shopping
* Not the card issuer
* Not visa.com or mastercard.com

In some cases, the Verified by Visa system has been mistaken by users for a phishing scam<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ambrand.com/2006/09/06/is-securesuitecouk-a-phishing-scam/ |title=Is securesuite.co.uk a phishing scam? |publisher=Ambrand.com |access-date=2010-08-11 |archive-date=2010-06-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616191343/http://ambrand.com/2006/09/06/is-securesuitecouk-a-phishing-scam |url-status=dead }}</ref> and has itself become the target of some phishing scams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.millersmiles.co.uk/report/3279 |title=Verified By Visa Activation – Visa Phishing Scams |publisher=MillerSmiles.co.uk |date=2006-08-22 |access-date=2010-08-11| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100708070541/http://www.millersmiles.co.uk/report/3279| archive-date= 8 July 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref> The newer recommendation to use an inline frame ([[HTML element#Frames|iframe]]) instead of a pop-up has reduced user confusion, at the cost of making it harder, if not impossible, for the user to verify that the page is genuine in the first place. {{Asof|2022}}, web browsers do not provide a way to check the security certificate for the contents of an iframe. Some of these concerns about site validity for Verified by Visa are mitigated, however, as its current implementation of the enrollment process requires entering a personal message which is displayed in later Verified by Visa pop-ups to provide some assurance to the user the pop-ups are genuine.<ref>{{cite web|title=Verified by Visa FAQs|url=https://www.visa.co.uk/products/protection-benefits/verified-by-visa/faqs|website=www.visa.co.uk|access-date=6 October 2016}}</ref>

Some card issuers also use activation-during-shopping (ADS),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.visaeurope.com/documents/vbv/verifiedbyvisa_activationduringshopping.pdf |title=Activation During Shopping |publisher=Visa Europe |access-date=2010-08-11}}</ref> in which cardholders who are not registered with the scheme are offered the opportunity of signing up (or forced into signing up) during the purchase process. This will typically take them to a form in which they are expected to confirm their identity by answering security questions which should be known to their card issuer. Again, this is done within an iframe where they cannot easily verify the site they are providing this information to—a cracked site or illegitimate merchant could in this way gather all the details they need to pose as the customer.

Implementation of 3-D Secure sign-up will often not allow a user to proceed with a purchase until they have agreed to sign up to 3-D Secure and its terms and conditions, not offering any alternative way of navigating away from the page than closing it, thus abandoning the transaction.

Cardholders who are unwilling to take the risk of registering their card during a purchase, with the commerce site controlling the browser to some extent, can in some cases go to their card issuer's website in a separate browser window and register from there. When they return to the commerce site and start over they should see that their card is registered. The presence on the password page of the personal assurance message (PAM) that they chose when registering is their confirmation that the page is coming from the card issuer. This still leaves some possibility of a [[man-in-the-middle attack]] if the cardholder cannot verify the TLS/SSL server certificate for the password page. Some commerce sites will devote the full browser page to the authentication rather than using a frame (not necessarily an iframe), which is a less secure object. In this case, the lock icon in the browser should show the identity of either the card issuer or the operator of the verification site. The cardholder can confirm that this is in the same domain that they visited when registering their card if it is not the domain of their card issuer.

Mobile browsers present particular problems for 3-D Secure due to the common lack of certain features such as frames and pop-ups. Even if the merchant has a mobile website, unless the issuer is also mobile-aware, the authentication pages may fail to render properly, or even at all. In the end, many{{vague|date=November 2011}} analysts have concluded that the activation-during-shopping (ADS) protocols invite more risk than they remove and furthermore transfer this increased risk to the consumer.

In some cases, 3-D Secure ends up providing little security to the cardholder, and can act as a device to pass liability for fraudulent transactions from the card issuer or retailer to the cardholder. Legal conditions applied to the 3-D Secure service are sometimes worded in a way that makes it difficult for the cardholder to escape liability from fraudulent transactions.<ref name=hownot>{{cite conference |url=http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~rja14/Papers/fc10vbvsecurecode.pdf |title=Verified by Visa and MasterCard SecureCode: or, How Not to Design Authentication |access-date=2012-04-23 |first1=Steven J. |last1=Murdoch |first2=Ross |last2=Anderson |authorlink2=Ross J. Anderson |conference=Financial Cryptography and Data Security FC2010 |volume=6052 |date=25–28 January 2010 |location=Tenerife |isbn=978-3-642-14992-4 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-14577-3_27 |pages=336–342 |editor-last=Sion |editor-first=R. |publisher=Springer}}</ref>

===Geographic discrimination===

Card issuers and merchants may use 3-D Secure systems unevenly with regard to card issuers that issue cards in several geographic locations, creating differentiation, for example, between the domestic US- and non-US-issued cards. For example, since Visa and Mastercard treat the [[Unincorporated territories of the United States|unincorporated US territory]] of [[Puerto Rico]] as a non-US international, rather than a domestic US location, cardholders there may confront a greater incidence of 3-D Secure queries than cardholders in the fifty states. Complaints to that effect have been received by [[Puerto Rico Department of Consumer Affairs]] "equal treatment" economic discrimination site.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://daco.pr.gov |title=daco.pr.gov |publisher=daco.pr.gov |access-date=2014-07-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812032421/http://daco.pr.gov/ |archive-date=2014-08-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===3-D Secure as strong customer authentication===

Version 2 of 3-D Secure, which incorporates one-time passcodes, is a form of software-based [[strong customer authentication]] as defined by the EU's [[Payment Services Directive#Revised Directive on Payment Services (PSD2)|Revised Directive on Payment Services (PSD2)]]; earlier variants used static passwords, which are not sufficient to meet the directive's requirements.

3-D Secure relies upon the issuer actively being involved and ensuring that any card issued becomes enrolled by the cardholder; as such, acquirers must either accept unenrolled cards without performing strong customer authentication or reject such transactions, including those from smaller card schemes which do not have 3-D Secure implementations.

Alternative approaches perform authentication on the acquiring side, without requiring prior enrollment with the issuer. For instance, PayPal's patented 'verification'<ref>{{cite web|url=http://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2002005224&recNum=1&maxRec=1&office=&prevFilter=&sortOption=&queryString=WO%2F2002%2F005224&tab=PCT+Biblio |title=US2001021725 System and Method for Verifying a Financial Instrument|publisher=Patentscope.wipo.int |date=2002-01-17 |access-date=2014-07-17}}</ref> uses one or more dummy transactions are directed towards a credit card, and the cardholder must confirm the value of these transactions, although the resulting authentication cannot be directly related to a specific transaction between merchant and cardholder. A patented<ref>{{cite web|url=http://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/detail.jsf?docId=WO2011120098&recNum=1&docAn=AU2011000377&queryString=FP:%28PCT/AU2011/000377%29&maxRec=1 |title=AU2011000377 Methods and Systems for Verifying Transactions|publisher=Patentscope.wipo.int |access-date=2014-07-17}}</ref> system called iSignthis splits the agreed transaction amount into two (or more) random amounts, with the cardholder then proving that they are the owner of the account by confirming the amounts on their statement.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thepaypers.com/e-identity-security-online-fraud/epca-payment-summit-isignthis-presents-its-authentication-service-as-an-alternative-to-3d-secure/750643-26/full |title=EPCA Payment Summit: iSignthis presents its authentication service as an alternative to 3D Secure |publisher=The Paypers |access-date=2014-07-17 |archive-date=2013-11-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101164256/http://www.thepaypers.com/e-identity-security-online-fraud/epca-payment-summit-isignthis-presents-its-authentication-service-as-an-alternative-to-3d-secure/750643-26/full |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===ACCC blocks 3-D Secure proposal===
A proposal to make 3-D Secure mandatory in Australia was blocked by the [[Australian Competition & Consumer Commission]] (ACCC) after numerous objections and flaw-related submissions were received.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.timebase.com.au/news/2016/AT196-article.html |title=ACCC Releases Draft Determination Against Mandated Use Of 3D Secure For Online Payments}}</ref>

=== India ===
Some countries like India made use of not only CVV2, but 3-D Secure mandatory, a SMS code sent from a card issuer and typed in the browser when you are redirected when you click "purchase" to the payment system or card issuer system site where you type that code and only then the operation is accepted. Nevertheless, Amazon can still do transactions from other countries with turned-on 3-D Secure.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Amazon.in Help: About CVV and 3-D Secure|url=https://www.amazon.in/gp/help/customer/display.html?nodeId=201968790|url-status=live|access-date=2020-06-17|website=www.amazon.in|quote=3-D secure password has been made mandatory by the Reserve Bank of India to ensure safer online shopping. This will prevent misuse of a lost/stolen card as the user will be unable to proceed unless they enter the password associated with your card, created by yourself and known only to you.|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210624205419/https://www.amazon.in/gp/help/customer/display.html?nodeId=201968790 |archive-date = 2021-06-24 }}</ref>

== 3-D Secure 2.0 ==
In October 2016, EMVCo published the specification for 3-D Secure 2.0; it is designed to be less intrusive than the first version of the specification, allowing more contextual data to be sent to the customer's card issuer (including mailing addresses and transaction history) to verify and assess the risk of the transaction. The customer would only be required to pass an authentication challenge if their transaction is determined to be of a high risk. In addition, the workflow for authentication is designed so that it no longer requires redirects to a separate page, and can also activate out-of-band authentication via an institution's [[mobile app]] (which, in turn, can also be used with [[Biometrics|biometric authentication]]). 3-D Secure 2.0 is compliant with EU "[[strong customer authentication]]" mandates.<ref name="paymentssource">{{Cite web|url=https://www.paymentssource.com/opinion/merchants-cant-let-psd2-and-sca-be-vague-initials|title=Merchants can't let 'PSD2' and 'SCA' be vague initials|website=PaymentsSource|date=12 June 2019|language=en|access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.digitaltransactions.net/adyen-touts-its-3-d-secure-2-0-service-as-first-to-market/|title=Adyen Touts Its 3-D Secure 2.0 Service As "First" to Market|website=Digital Transactions|language=en-US|access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stripe.com/en-ca/guides/3d-secure-2|title=Stripe: 3D Secure 2 - Guide to 3DS2 Authentication|first=Olivier|last=Godement|publisher=[[Stripe (company)|Stripe]]|language=en|access-date=2019-07-11}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Secure electronic transaction]] (SET)
* [[Merchant plug-in]] (MPI)
* [[EMV]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.americanexpress.com/icc/safekey.html American Express SafeKey] (consumer site)
*[https://network.americanexpress.com/globalnetwork/products-and-services/security/safekey/ American Express SafeKey] (global partner site)
*[http://www.visaeurope.com/en/cardholders/verified_by_visa.aspx Verified by Visa]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150518075722/https://verified.visa.com/aam/activation/landingPage.aam Activating Verified by Visa]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120223012048/https://partnernetwork.visa.com/vpn/global/home.do Verified by Visa Partner Network]
*[http://www.mastercard.com/us/personal/en/cardholderservices/securecode/index.html Mastercard SecureCode home page]
*[https://usa.visa.com/personal/security/vbv/index.html usa.visa.com]
*[https://www.discoverglobalnetwork.com/en-us/business-resources/fraud-security/products-tools/protect-buy Discover Global Network ProtectBuy]
a
{{DEFAULTSORT:3-D Secure}}
[[Category:Communication protocols]]
[[Category:Financial industry XML-based standards]]

Category talk:Cryptographic protocols

2025-06-18T20:36:52Z

Relative Humidity: /* Cleanup */ new section

{{WikiProject banner shell|
{{WikiProject Cryptography}}
}}

== Cleanup ==

This category contains a few things that are not cryptographic protocols. Some are closely related, some are related to cryptography more broadly, and some are topics which involve cryptography at some point. I'll remove the latter kind from the category, also adding them to another crypto-related category where appropriate.

* [[3-D Secure]]
* [[Alice and Bob]]
* [[Automatic Certificate Management Environment]]
* [[Openspawn]]
* [[List of Tor onion services]]
* [[Simple Certificate Enrollment Protocol]]

--[[User:Relative Humidity|Relative Humidity]] ([[User talk:Relative Humidity|talk]]) 20:36, 18 June 2025 (UTC)

Talk:Kapo

2025-06-04T16:53:00Z

Relative Humidity: /* Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 4 June 2025 */ new section

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{{WikiProject Germany|importance=High}}
{{WikiProject European history |importance=Mid}}
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{{copied|from=Kapo|to=Prisoner functionaries}}
== Etymology ==
Wow, what is going on here? First there is no word "Lagerkapo" in the German language. This part of the article is just wrong.
But '''Ka'''meradschafts'''po'''lizist and therefore Kapo is very likely. That form of abbreviation was also used in '''Ka'''pitän'''leu'''tnant as Kaleu for the rank in the German navy during the second world war. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/2A02:8109:9540:2604:342B:E8C8:980A:BBE5|2A02:8109:9540:2604:342B:E8C8:980A:BBE5]] ([[User talk:2A02:8109:9540:2604:342B:E8C8:980A:BBE5#top|talk]]) 18:24, 10 February 2018 (UTC) 
: I agree (native German speaker). There is no word "Lagercapo" in use in German. This sentence should be deleted. If such a term occurs in some source, it was probably formed after "Kapo" was in widespread use - the "Lagerkapo" ("k", not "c") is the kapo of the camp (=Lager).

[http://metropolitician.blogs.com/scribblings_of_the_metrop/ This guy] says the name comes from Kamppolizei. --[[User:Gbleem|Gbleem]] 08:41, 19 November 2006 (UTC)

:I'd like to know his sources...--[[User:Willem Huberts|Willem Huberts]] 09:48, 19 November 2006 (UTC)

::Bullshit. German for Camp is 'Lager', not 'Kamp'. `'[[user:mikkalai|mikkanarxi]] 03:36, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

Kameradenpolizei is probably the correct origin of the word (contracted as Kapo as ''Nationalsozialismus'' is contracted in Nazi). Search engines return many occurences of that work too and Capo looks more like a backward etymology to me. --JCDM 0:44, 12 Dec 2006 (CET)

:I seriously doubt Nazis would allow an Italian word. Despite being allies, they despised Italians. [[user:mikkalai|mikkanarxi]] 03:36, 12 December 2006 (UTC)
:: It is of Italian origin, but was used in the slang of South German craftspeople. In a quick search I found it in a job offer for a ''Vorarbeiter''. --[[Special:Contributions/84.153.60.215|84.153.60.215]] ([[User talk:84.153.60.215|talk]]) 17:28, 31 December 2008 (UTC)

''Kameradenpolizei'' is most certainly not the correct origin for the word ''kapo''. The source for ''kapo'' must be found in whether the French word ''caporal'', whether the Italian word ''capo'', the latter meaning ''chief'', ''supervisor'', ''head''. Sources to be found in: Eugen Kogon, ''The SS-state'', first published in Germany, 1959. I used the Dutch translation: Eugen Kogon, ''De SS-staat: het systeem der Duitse concentratiekampen''. Paris, Amsterdam, 1968, p. 86. Another Dutch historian states that the term ''kapo'' originates from the concentration camp Dachau and that Italian labourers introduced it in the early nineteen thirties when they were employed when building roads in the south of Germany. dr. L. de Jong, ''Het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog, deel 8, gevangenen en gedeporteerden, eerste helft''. Staatsuitgeverij, 's-Gravenhage, 1978, p. 481. The hoax that it originates from the non-existant German word ''Kameradenpolizei'' can be found evereywhere on the Internet, therefore it shows up in many search engines - but by now we all know what that means.--[[User:Willem Huberts|Willem Huberts]] 06:02, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

Eugen Kogon is wrong. It has nothing to do with capo or caporal. It's simply Konzentrazionslager Arbeit POlizei (concentration camp work police). —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/72.148.239.49|72.148.239.49]] ([[User talk:72.148.239.49|talk]]) 06:35, 17 December 2009 (UTC) 

:[[Primo Levi]] wrote in one of his books about the war that it came from Kamaredenpolizei. I'd say that's a pretty good source, since he experienced the horror first-hand. --[[User:Mamour|Mamour]] 16:49, 11 March 2007 (UTC)
::I doubt in a ''Lager'' he was taught etymology. - Altenmann [[user talk:Altenmann|>t]] 19:00, 2 July 2009 (UTC)
:I always heard that it came from a mafia "rank". See [[Capodecina]]. [[Special:Contributions/138.162.128.53|138.162.128.53]] ([[User talk:138.162.128.53|talk]]) 13:56, 2 July 2009 (UTC)
::Nope. It is Italian "head". - Altenmann [[user talk:Altenmann|>t]] 19:00, 2 July 2009 (UTC)

: Oddly, the Yiddish word for "head" has not been suggested: "קאָפּ" / "kop". [[User:Jyg|Jyg]] ([[User talk:Jyg|talk]]) 22:02, 7 October 2019 (UTC)

In school in the Netherlands in the 1970s and '80s I was told by several history teachers that the word 'kapo' is a contraction of 'KampfPolizei', 'Camp Police'. While clearly incorrect as the word 'Kampf' doesn't mean 'camp' in German but 'battle', the word 'kamp' in Dutch does mean 'camp'. The word 'kapo' may thus well have been derived individually from different sources by different people. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/77.242.121.231|77.242.121.231]] ([[User talk:77.242.121.231#top|talk]]) 06:02, 27 January 2020 (UTC) 

==Konzentrazionslager Arbeitpolizei==
I noted here that '''kapo''' stands for '''K'''onzentrazionslager '''A'''rbeit'''PO'''lizei but the person who is in charge here deleted it. I also noted that the bs about kapos being killed and replaced is a confusion with Sonderkommandos. I don't remember anywhere reading about kapos being killed and replaced regularly. Why would they be? They were great henchmen for the SS and were vital for supervising work and running the camp day to day. Who is the admin here? This is very amateurish. 17 December, 2009
:""Killed and replaced" piece removed. Please provide convincing references about "Arbeit Polizei". - Altenmann [[user talk:Altenmann|>t]] 22:49, 17 December 2009 (UTC)
:: Source for acronym: The Lie of Ulysses, 1950, [[Paul Rassinier]]. You may not like the source but it is the most reliable, non-vitriolic account of the concentration camp system from a former inmate at Buchenwald and Dora. 17 December 2009
:::Rassinier writes: "I suggest another explanation...". And nothing else. He is no expert in linguistics and presents no evidence to support his opinion. Nobody seem to support his suggestion. By the way, his knowledge of German is poor: the correct German word construction would be "Arbeitspolizei". By the way, "kapo" is a regular German word. Don't tell me it originated in Nazi camps and still survives. - Altenmann [[user talk:Altenmann|>t]] 18:18, 18 December 2009 (UTC)
::::This is what Rassinier writes: "''From that day on, every morning and every evening we filed across the camp to get to the Steinbruch where we picked up a stone whose weight was what our strength could manage. We dragged it back to the camp where gangs broke it up for street pavement. Then we went back to the Block. This work was light, particularly in comparison with that of the quarry workers who excavated the stone under the insults and the blows of the Kapos, the abbreviation for Konzentrationslager Arbeitpolizei, or police in control of labor.''" He mentions that again later in the book with the same explanation. It makes a lot more sense than the other sources that are mentioned here first because it describes perfectly the nature of the kapo function and second because of the tendency of militaries, jail systems and other large organizations to have their own in-house nomenclature and terms which are many times abbreviation of official terms. That also explains the spelling with 'k', which could not be explained from the French/Italian origin which is noted in the article. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/75.102.39.206|75.102.39.206]] ([[User talk:75.102.39.206|talk]]) 22:31, 18 December 2009 (UTC) 

== Self-haters ==

I know that kapo is used to describe self-haters, or alleged self-haters, but is the best evidence of that one personal blog, as at the end of the lede currently? I think we should come up with a better citation.[[User:Bobfrombrockley|BobFromBrockley]] ([[User talk:Bobfrombrockley|talk]]) 11:29, 6 March 2009 (UTC) How about: http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id=30762 ? [[User:Bobfrombrockley|BobFromBrockley]] ([[User talk:Bobfrombrockley|talk]]) 11:30, 6 March 2009 (UTC)
:I fail to see how this ref say something about self-haters. The mentioned comparison comes closer to the idea of "[[renegade]]", or "[[race traitor]]". - 7-bubёn [[user talk:SemBubenny|>t]] 16:51, 6 March 2009 (UTC)
: Within the Jewish community, the term is typically associated with "collaborator" or torturer of his own ilk, not self-hater. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/66.148.122.108|66.148.122.108]] ([[User talk:66.148.122.108|talk]]) 12:59, 19 December 2009 (UTC) 

There is a sentence with bad citation form: "Though kapos generally had a bad reputation, many suffered guilt about their actions, both at the time and after the war, as revealed in a book about Jewish kapos.[7]"
It should probably end with "...after the war.[7]" — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/2601:8C3:4280:3140:E95F:429:E8D6:4BDB|2601:8C3:4280:3140:E95F:429:E8D6:4BDB]] ([[User talk:2601:8C3:4280:3140:E95F:429:E8D6:4BDB#top|talk]]) 18:51, 9 December 2021 (UTC) 

== Kapo or capo? ==

The caption for the Hans Wolf image describes him as a "capo". Is this correct, or should it be changed to "kapo" for consistency? --[[User:OGoncho|OGoncho]] ([[User talk:OGoncho|talk]]) 23:30, 20 July 2009 (UTC)

== Merge ==

Merged with the larger article [[Prisoner functionary]]. A discussion of the merge can be found on that article's talk page. [[User:Dionysodorus|Dionysodorus]] ([[User talk:Dionysodorus|talk]]) 23:32, 20 January 2012 (UTC)

== External links modified ==

Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Kapo (concentration camp)]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&oldid=712822801 my edit]. You may add {{tlx|cbignore}} after the link to keep me from modifying it, if I keep adding bad data, but formatting bugs should be reported instead. Alternatively, you can add {{tlx|nobots|deny{{=}}InternetArchiveBot}} to keep me off the page altogether, but should be used as a last resort. I made the following changes:
*Attempted to fix sourcing for http://kki.net.pl/~museum/rozdz13.htm

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== External links modified ==

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== Disambiguation ==

While I appreciate that Kapo (concentration camp) is unsatisfactorary because there were also kapos in extermination camps, the current name (Kapo (Holocaust)) is no better, because there were kapos in concentration camps before the war and the "Holocaust" started in 1941 (also it's debateable whether all of the concentration camps can be encompassed in the "Holocaust", depending on the definition you use). However, it seems to me based on Google searches that this is likely the primary topic for the term and if no one objects I will carry out that move. ([[User talk:Buidhe|t]] · [[Special:Contributions/Buidhe|c]]) '''[[User:buidhe|buidhe]]''' 20:10, 29 June 2020 (UTC)

:I see your point about "Holocaust" being inaccurate, but is your suggestion to move the article back to "concentration camp"? I think it would be best to come up with a more satisfactory parenthetical (maybe "Nazi Germany"?) but I won't quibble if you wanna move it back. [[User:Botterweg14|Botterweg14]] ([[User talk:Botterweg14|talk]]) 21:04, 29 June 2020 (UTC)
::I was suggesting moving this article to Kapo and Kapo -> Kapo (disambiguation). ([[User talk:Buidhe|t]] · [[Special:Contributions/Buidhe|c]]) '''[[User:buidhe|buidhe]]''' 21:15, 29 June 2020 (UTC)
:::Oh, I see! Yes, that definitely sounds like the best solution. [[User:Botterweg14|Botterweg14]] ([[User talk:Botterweg14|talk]]) 21:54, 29 June 2020 (UTC)

== Merger from Prisoner functionary ==

The two articles (this one and [[Prisoner functionary]] seem to cover exactly the same subject, therefore I propose their merger. The discussion is located on the [[Talk:Prisoner functionary|the talk page of the other article]]. [[User:Szmenderowiecki|Szmenderowiecki]] ([[User talk:Szmenderowiecki|talk]]) 19:13, 10 September 2021 (UTC)

== [[Eugen Țurcanu]] ==
I would recommend linking [[Eugen Țurcanu]] and [[Pitești Prison]] under the "See also" section. Between 1949 and 1951, Turcanu, an inmate himself, formed a group of inmates at Pitești Prison to obtain information and police the ideological beliefs of the prison population, using torture and deadly force. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/2603:8080:5101:6A00:1C6D:F9BE:77E1:568C|2603:8080:5101:6A00:1C6D:F9BE:77E1:568C]] ([[User talk:2603:8080:5101:6A00:1C6D:F9BE:77E1:568C#top|talk]]) 18:17, 16 August 2023 (UTC) 

== zionism ==

it is kind of a pov phrasing "used for those deemed insufficiently supportive of Israel". I have only seen the term used for Jewish pro-palestinians or anti-zionists
"used for anti-zionists Jews" would be more accurate. [[User:MoshiachNow|MoshiachNow]] ([[User talk:MoshiachNow|talk]]) 06:14, 31 March 2024 (UTC)

:Even if your phrasing were more accurate it would have a stronger POV than the current one, besides which the article already has a well-sourced example of the term being applied to a group which is not anti-Zionist. [[User:Ambisinistral|Ambisinistral]] ([[User talk:Ambisinistral|talk]]) 05:06, 16 December 2024 (UTC)

== [[:File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Duerr-054-17, Lettland, KZ Salaspils, jüdischer Lagerpolizist.jpg]] ==
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 101III-Duerr-054-17, Lettland, KZ Salaspils, jüdischer Lagerpolizist.jpg|thumb|A camp policeman at [[Salaspils concentration camp]] with an armband saying "Chief Jewish Camp Policeman"]]

Hi @[[User:Altenmann|Altenmann]], I was curious about this, because it's a remarkable case of [[citogenesis]] if that isn't really a picture of a kapo, such as this [[Times of Israel]] article[https://www.timesofisrael.com/post-holocaust-jewish-honor-courts-channeled-some-survivors-desire-for-revenge/], so I looked up the archive entry for this image[https://www.bild.bundesarchiv.de/dba/de/search/?query=Bild+101III-Duerr-054-17] and it lists the "Armbinde "Oberster Jüd[ischer]. Lager-Poli[zist]";" or the L.P. armband, or basically, the Jewish camp police armband. I do not actually know the answer, but how is or is this different? '''[[User:Andrevan|Andre]]'''[[User_talk:Andrevan|🚐]] 00:52, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
:There is much confusion in this respect. I started writing [[Prisoner functionaries]] article to untangle this confusion. Now I am collecting data to write up [[Lagerpolizei]]. For a quick ref you may look [https://www.jewishgen.org/forgottencamps/general/languageeng.html here]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|>talk]] 01:03, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
::Interesting. Thanks. Be sure to add this to <s>[[citogenesis]]</s>[[Wikipedia:List of citogenesis incidents]] when you're done untangling it. '''[[User:Andrevan|Andre]]'''[[User_talk:Andrevan|🚐]] 01:07, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
::Interesting. It was added in 2013 by @[[User:Cramyourspam|Cramyourspam]]. [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kapo&diff=prev&oldid=555069997] He replaced the position of another image that was there.[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kapo&diff=next&oldid=555069997] Which was later removed, I didn't find when. <s>How about this image: [[:File:Oberkapo - Armbinde.jpg]]?</s> looks like we'll need [[oberkapo]] also '''[[User:Andrevan|Andre]]'''[[User_talk:Andrevan|🚐]] 01:18, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
:::<sigh> that's the probblem with wikipedia that it is written mostly by well-meaning non-experts. The concept of [[Nazi concentration camps]] as seen by an average layman conflates many things differences in which seem unimportant. After all, both Kapos and Lagerpolizei were brutal collaborators, so who cares how they were titled. Just the same, who cares that Nazi Konzentrationslager and Arbeitslager (labor camps) were rather different things, under different command, of which situation [[Heinrich Himmler]] was not very happy. Before the idea of [[Endlösung]] was crystallized the Jews were mostly robbed, displaced into ghettos and placed into labor camps. It is well-known subject that in the [[Nazi ghetto]]s there was Jewish self-management ([[Judenrat]], complete with [[Jüdische Ghetto-Polizei]]. It is a less known subject that early Jewish [[Arbeitslager]] also had self-management ([[Lagerrat]]), as well as [[Jüdische Lagerpolizei]] ([[Jewish camp police]]). This is far not the first time I have to fill a lacuna in Wikipedia in areas way far from my professional knowledge, both [[User:Altenmann/w#Articles_I_created_in_areas_where_I_didn't_have_a_clue_and_which_are_none_of_my_business|in ye olden times]] and [[User:Altenmann/201|more recently]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|>talk]] 07:29, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
::::It's an impressive Wiki-resume, and thank you sincerely and non-sarcastically for the history lesson. I agree, they are different, and sometimes differences are important. I found a mention of the [[Herzogenbusch concentration camp|Herzogenbusch]] in [[Nikolaus Wachsmann]] where he talks about the [https://www.google.com/books/edition/KL/pPZ-BwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22jewish+camp+police%22&pg=PA306&printsec=frontcover Judischer Ordnungdienst], but it looks like that term was really used for the ghetto police not the camp police, do you think it's an error? I guess could be used for both? '''[[User:Andrevan|Andre]]'''[[User_talk:Andrevan|🚐]] 07:51, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
:::::<second, longer sigh> I will look at it. Now I am in the misdt of untangling the mess created by a well-meaning smartass, who killed the disambig [[Jewish ghetto]] (restored). --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|>talk]] 08:19, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
::::::Looks like it was done by a [[User:Wwbread|primarily Chinese editor]] in 2012. Innocent mistake, we assume. '''[[User:Andrevan|Andre]]'''[[User_talk:Andrevan|🚐]] 08:22, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
:::::::As I recall, there is no clear differentiation between the Jewish ghetto / quarter in German, as both are ''jüdischer Wohnbezirk'' with no indication of whether it's forcible. I also thought its already differentiated in English by using the name "ghettos under Nazi". So I removed the disambig page. If this created confusion, of course, it's better we clean it up and differentiate. [[User:Wwbread|WWbread]] ([[User talk:Wwbread|Open Your Mouth?]]) 09:32, 16 October 2024 (UTC)
:::::Also, the articles [[Jewish ghettos in Europe]] and [[Jewish quarter (diaspora)]] must be "unforked", being written into Wikipedia without reading Wikipedia. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|>talk]] 09:17, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
::::::Yeah, that kind of fuzzy overlap happens a lot. But, some Jewish quarters in Europe are just Jewish quarters and weren't ever actually ghettos, right? Like the [[Pletzl|Jewish quarter in Paris]] was not a ghetto but the [[Roman Ghetto|one in Rome]] was. '''[[User:Andrevan|Andre]]'''[[User_talk:Andrevan|🚐]] 09:26, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
:::::::Well, they were quarters and ghettos not just quarters, unlike, say [[Chinese Quarter]]. [https://columbian.gwu.edu/ghetto-chronicling-words-tortured-history This] is a review of a book which perfectly traces the history of the term "ghetto". Someone has really incorporate it into Wikipedia. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|>talk]] 09:37, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
::::::::I'll add to my reading list. I read [https://sapirjournal.org/resilience/2024/06/the-mystery-of-jewish-resilience/ this article] by Schwartz and really liked it. '''[[User:Andrevan|Andre]]'''[[User_talk:Andrevan|🚐]] 09:39, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
::::: While the terms "judenrat" and "Judischer Ordnungsdienst" was commonly associated with ghettos, the terms also applied to Jewish communities before their forcible ghettoization. Unfortunately I failed (lazy) to figure out whether Wachsmann used the term JOD officially used in [[Kamp Vught]] or it was a generic Ordnungsdienst (OD) term. But it seems yes. I saw this [https://theses.cz/id/2nijgw/7603147 term used] in [[Kamp Westerbork]]. --[[user:Altenmann|Altenmann]] [[user talk:Altenmann|>talk]] 09:33, 12 October 2024 (UTC)
::::::Makes sense. There seems to also have been Jewish camp police at [[Displaced persons camps in post–World War II Europe |DP camps]], but not mentioned in that article at all, but it's in the [https://www.google.com/books/edition/After_the_Holocaust/iMkkEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22jewish+camp+police%22+brenner&pg=PA12&printsec=frontcover Brenner book] '''[[User:Andrevan|Andre]]'''[[User_talk:Andrevan|🚐]] 09:37, 12 October 2024 (UTC)

== Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 4 June 2025 ==

{{edit extended-protected|Kapo|answered=no}}
The wording that the State of Israel passed a law aimed at "wiping out Jews who had served as kapos" is suspect. Not only does the term "wiping out" imply execution or violent removal, but the article on the law makes no mention of anything extreme.

I suggest changing "wiping out" to "punishing". [[User:Relative Humidity|Relative Humidity]] ([[User talk:Relative Humidity|talk]]) 16:53, 4 June 2025 (UTC)

Teatro Municipal de Lima

2025-02-12T18:09:31Z

Relative Humidity: /* Fire and reconstruction */ Remove duplicated and outdated information

{{Short description|Theatre in Peru}}
{{Infobox venue
| name = Municipal Theatre of Lima
| native_name = Teatro Municipal de Lima
| native_name_lang = es
| image = Teatro_municipal_Lima.jpg
| caption =
| former_names = Teatro Forero
| address = Block 4 of [[Jirón Ica]]
| city =
| country =
| location =
| coordinates = 
| elevation = 
| publictransit =
| parking =
| owner =
| operator =
| designation =
| type =
| capacity = 1,181 people
| built =
| opened = {{dts|1920|07|28|df=y}}
| renovated =
| closed = {{dts|1998|08|02|df=y}}
| rebuilt = {{dts|2010|10|11|df=y}}
| yearsactive =
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}}
The '''Municipal Theatre of Lima''' ({{langx|es|Teatro Municipal de Lima}}), inaugurated as the '''Teatro Forero''', is a [[theatre]] and [[concert hall]] in the [[historic centre of Lima]], [[Peru]]. It is home to the country's [[National Symphony Orchestra (Peru)|National Symphony Orchestra]].

An open space next to the theatre known as the '''Plazuela de las Artes''' (or as the '''Plazuela [[Rosa Merino (singer)|Rosa Merino]]''')<ref>{{Cite news |title=Conoce nueva Ruta de la cultura 1K en el Centro Histórico de Lima |url=https://andina.pe/agencia/noticia-conoce-ruta-de-cultura-1k-el-centro-historico-lima-989287.aspx |date=2024-06-15 |work=[[Andina (news agency)|Andina]]}}</ref> hosts open-air activities.<ref>{{Cite news |title=La Plazuela de las Artes presenta "De la calle a la plazuela" |url=https://rpp.pe/cultura/literatura/la-plazuela-de-las-artes-presenta-de-la-calle-a-la-plazuela-noticia-559814 |date=2013-01-21 |work=[[RPP Noticias]]}}</ref>

==History==
The '''Forero Theatre''' ({{langx|es|Teatro Forero}}) was built in 1915, replacing the demolished '''Olimpo Theatre''' ({{langx|es|Teatro Olimpo}}), according to the design of Manuel María Forero Osorio, born in [[Tacna]]. The [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance]]/[[Baroque architecture|Baroque]]-style theatre was inaugurated on July 28, 1920 with the start of the season of the "Grand Italian Opera Company of Adolfo Bracale" ({{langx|es|Gran Compañía de Opera Italiana de Adolfo Bracale}}), who performed [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s opera ''[[Aida]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Historia general del teatro en el Perú |last=Balta |first=Aída |publisher=[[Universidad de San Martín de Porres]] |year=2001 |isbn=9972-54-072-3 |edition=Escuela de Ciencias de la Comunicación |location=Lima |pages=145-146 |language=es |url=https://libros.fcctp.usmp.edu.pe/historia-general-del-teatro-en-el-peru/ |oclc=47705542}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Esta es la historia de los orígenes y construcción del Teatro Municipal de Lima |url=https://www.infobae.com/peru/2023/03/01/esta-es-la-historia-de-los-origenes-y-construccion-del-teatro-municipal-de-lima/ |last=Obando |first=Manoel |date=2023-03-01 |work=[[Infobae]]}}</ref> The theatre was named after its builder.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Teatro Municipal de Lima: diez imágenes que resumen sus 100 años de historia |url=https://elcomercio.pe/somos/historias/teatro-municipal-de-lima-diez-imagenes-que-resumen-sus-100-anos-de-historia-coronavirus-teatro-noticia/ |last=Chávez Noriega |first=Jorge |date=2020-07-28 |work=[[El Comercio (Peru)|Somos]]}}</ref>

Its façade displays three busts of the three most famous musicians in the history of classical music: [[Wagner]], [[Beethoven]] and [[Liszt]]; The hall has [[Neoclassical architecture|neo-classical]] columns in the [[Ionic order|Ionic style]] and the spacious lobby is accessed through two imposing staircases, in the [[Louis XVI style]], made of [[marble]]. The spectator room is in the [[Renaissance architecture|Italian Renaissance style]].

The newspaper ''[[El Comercio (Peru)|El Comercio]]'' noted the following regarding the first night of the theater:
{{Quote|It is a theater that satisfies the most demanding, beautiful, monumental, elegant, with severe elegance, comfortable and spacious; We have never had anything like it in Peru and it is one of the best theaters in South America.|author=''El Comercio'' article<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.munlima.gob.pe/actividades/cultura/teatros/municipal.html |title=Reseña de los teatros municipales |website=[[Municipalidad de Lima]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623024051/http://www.munlima.gob.pe/actividades/cultura/teatros/municipal.html |archive-date=2015-06-23}}</ref>}}

It was bought by the [[Metropolitan Municipality of Lima]] in 1929 and renamed to its current name through a Mayor's Resolution of June 15 of that year.

===Fire and reconstruction===
On August 2, 1998, during a show rehearsal, the theater was consumed by a [[Conflagration|raging fire]] that lasted two hours and destroyed part of its structure without causing definitive structural damage.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Incendio en el Teatro Municipal de Lima: el drama que no debe repetirse |url=https://elcomercio.pe/lima/patrimonio/incendio-teatro-municipal-lima-drama-debe-repetirse-noticia-542601-noticia/ |last=Paz Campuzano |first=Oscar |date=2018-08-02 |work=[[El Comercio (Peru)|El Comercio]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Un incendio destruye el histórico teatro de Lima |url=https://elpais.com/diario/1998/08/04/cultura/902181609_850215.html |last=Puertas |first=Laura |date=1998-08-04 |work=[[El País]]}}</ref> The building remained unrestored for 12 years, opening only sporadically for special performances.

The theater was eventually reconstructed following its original structural design, and it was expanded to include additional parking, anti-seismic technology and updated fireproofing. It was reinaugurated on October 11, 2010.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Teatro Municipal de Lima: A 20 años del incendio que apagó sus reflectores |url=https://rpp.pe/cultura/teatro/teatro-municipal-de-lima-a-20-anos-del-incendio-que-apago-sus-reflectores-noticia-1140910 |date=2018-08-03 |work=[[RPP Noticias]]}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Casa Fernandini, Lima]], located across the street

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{coord|12.0454|S|77.0349|W|source:wikidata|display=title}}
[[Category:Theatres in Lima]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1920]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Lima]]
[[Category:Historic Centre of Lima]]
{{Lima landmarks}}
{{Peru-struct-stub}}

LIGO

2025-02-12T17:58:23Z

Relative Humidity: /* LIGO-India */ wikilink for Aundha Nagnath

{{short description|Gravitational wave observatory site}}
{{about|LIGO observatories||LIGO Scientific Collaboration|and|Ligo (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox telescope
| coords = LIGO Hanford Observatory: {{Coord|46|27|18.52|N|119|24|27.56|W|type:landmark_dim:4000_region:US-WA|display=inline|name=LIGO Hanford Observatory}} LIGO Livingston Observatory: {{Coord|30|33|46.42|N|90|46|27.27|W|type:landmark_dim:4000_region:US-LA|display=inline|name=LIGO Livingston Observatory}}
| locmapin = no
| location = [[Hanford Site]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and [[Livingston, Louisiana|Livingston]], [[Louisiana]], US
| embedded = <div style="font-weight:normal">{{Location map many | USA|relief=1
| border=infobox
| width = 300
| float = right
| caption = LIGO observatories in the [[Contiguous United States]]
| label = LIGO Livingston Observatory
| pos = bottom
| lat_deg = 30.562894
| lon_deg = -90.774242
| label2 = LIGO Hanford Observatory
| pos2 = bottom
| lat2_deg = 46.455144
| lon2_deg = -119.407656
}}</div>
}}
The '''Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory''' ('''LIGO''') is a large-scale [[physics]] experiment and observatory designed to detect cosmic [[gravitational wave]]s and to develop gravitational-wave observations as an astronomical tool.<ref name="Physics_Today_Oct_1999">{{cite journal|last1=Barish|first1=Barry C.|last2=Weiss|first2=Rainer|title=LIGO and the Detection of Gravitational Waves|journal=Physics Today|date=October 1999|volume=52|issue=10|page=44|doi=10.1063/1.882861|bibcode = 1999PhT....52j..44B }}</ref> Prior to LIGO, all data about the universe has come in the form of [[light]] and other forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]], from limited direct exploration on relatively nearby [[Solar System]] objects such as the [[Moon]], [[Mars]], [[Venus]], [[Jupiter]] and their moons, asteroids etc, and from high energy cosmic particles. Initially, two large observatories were built in the United States with the aim of detecting gravitational waves by [[laser]] [[interferometry]]. Two additional, smaller gravity wave observatories are now operational in Japan [[KAGRA]] and Italy [[Virgo interferometer|Virgo]]. The two LIGO observatories use mirrors spaced four kilometers apart to measure changes in length—over an effective span of 1120 km—of less than one ten-thousandth the [[charge radius|charge diameter]] of a [[proton]].<ref name="LIGO-Facts">{{cite web|title=Facts|url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/facts|website=LIGO|quote=This is equivalent to measuring the distance from Earth to the nearest star to an accuracy smaller than the width of a human hair!|access-date=24 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704030142/https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/facts|archive-date=4 July 2017|url-status=dead}} (that is, to [[Proxima Centauri]] at {{val|4.0208|e=13|u= km}}).</ref>

The initial LIGO observatories were funded by the United States [[National Science Foundation]] (NSF) and were conceived, built and are operated by [[Caltech]] and [[MIT]].<ref>{{cite web|title=LIGO Lab Caltech MIT|url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=LIGO MIT|url=http://space.mit.edu/LIGO|access-date=24 June 2016}}</ref> They collected data from 2002 to 2010 but no gravitational waves were detected.

The Advanced LIGO Project to enhance the original LIGO detectors began in 2008 and continues to be supported by the NSF, with important contributions from the United Kingdom's [[Science and Technology Facilities Council]], the [[Max Planck Society]] of Germany, and the [[Australian Research Council]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Major research project to detect gravitational waves is underway|url=http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/news/latest/2015/05/gravitational-waves-28-05-15.aspx|website=University of Birmingham News|publisher=[[University of Birmingham]]|access-date=28 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shoemaker|first1=David|title=The evolution of Advanced LIGO|journal=LIGO Magazine|date=2012|issue=1|page=8|url=http://www.ligo.org/magazine/LIGO-magazine-issue-1.pdf#page=8}}</ref> The improved detectors began operation in 2015. The detection of gravitational waves was reported in 2016 by the [[LIGO Scientific Collaboration]] (LSC) and the [[Virgo Collaboration]] with the international participation of scientists from several universities and research institutions. Scientists involved in the project and the analysis of the data for [[gravitational-wave astronomy]] are organized by the LSC, which includes more than 1000 scientists worldwide,<ref>{{cite web|title=Revolutionary Grassroots Astrophysics Project "Einstein@Home" Goes Live|url=http://www.aps.org/newsroom/pressreleases/athome1.cfm|access-date=3 March 2016}}</ref><ref name="Census">{{cite web|title=LSC/Virgo Census|url=https://my.ligo.org/census.php|work=myLIGO|access-date=28 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="Nature_2015_Sept_15" /> as well as 440,000 active [[Einstein@Home]] users {{as of|2016|December|lc=yes}}.<ref name="boinc">{{cite web |url=http://boincstats.com/en/stats/projectStatsInfo |title=BOINCstats project statistics |access-date=14 December 2016}}</ref>

LIGO is the largest and most ambitious project ever funded by the NSF.<ref>Larger physics projects in the United States, such as [[Fermilab]], have traditionally been funded by the [[United States Department of Energy|Department of Energy]].</ref><ref name="nsfligo">{{cite web |title=LIGO: The Search for Gravitational Waves |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=103042 |website=www.nsf.gov |publisher=National Science Foundation |access-date=3 September 2018 |language=en |archive-date=15 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915004424/https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=103042 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2017, the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] was awarded to [[Rainer Weiss]], [[Kip Thorne]] and [[Barry C. Barish]] "for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves".<ref>{{cite web | title = The Nobel Prize in Physics 2017 | publisher = Nobel Foundation | url = https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2017/press.html}}</ref>

Observations are made in "runs". {{As of|2022|January|df=US}}, LIGO has made three runs (with one of the runs divided into two "subruns"), and made 90 [[List of gravitational wave observations|detections]] of gravitational waves.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ligo.org/news/index.php#GWTC3-TGRwebinar | title=LSC News }}</ref><ref name="GWTC3">{{Cite web | url=https://www.ligo.org/news/index.php#GWTC3 | title=LSC News }}</ref> Maintenance and upgrades of the detectors are made between runs. The first run, O1, which ran from 12 September 2015 to 19 January 2016, made the first three detections, all black hole mergers. The second run, O2, which ran from 30 November 2016 to 25 August 2017, made eight detections: seven black hole mergers and the first [[neutron star merger]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=The LIGO Scientific Collaboration|last2=the Virgo Collaboration|last3=Abbott|first3=B. P.|last4=Abbott|first4=R.|last5=Abbott|first5=T. D.|last6=Abraham|first6=S.|last7=Acernese|first7=F.|last8=Ackley|first8=K.|last9=Adams|first9=C.|last10=Adhikari|first10=R. X.|last11=Adya|first11=V. B.|date=2019-09-04|title=GWTC-1: A Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog of Compact Binary Mergers Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the First and Second Observing Runs|journal=Physical Review X|volume=9|issue=3|pages=031040|doi=10.1103/PhysRevX.9.031040|issn=2160-3308|arxiv=1811.12907|bibcode=2019PhRvX...9c1040A|s2cid=119366083}}</ref> The third run, O3, began on 1 April 2019; it was divided into O3a, from 1 April to 30 September 2019, and O3b, from 1 November 2019<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/ligo/status/1190283820228055041|title=Welcome to O3b!|last=LIGO|date=2019-11-01|website=@ligo|language=en|access-date=2019-11-11}}</ref> until it was suspended on 27 March 2020 due to [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]].<ref name="O3suspended">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/news/ligo20200326 |title=LIGO Suspends Third Observing Run (O3) |date=26 March 2020 |access-date=15 July 2020 }}</ref> The O3 run included the first detection of the merger of a neutron star with a black hole.<ref name="GWTC3"/>

Subsequent gravitational wave observatories [[Virgo interferometer|Virgo]] in Italy, and [[KAGRA]] in Japan, which both use interferometer arms 3 km long, are coordinating with LIGO to continue observations after the COVID-caused stop, and LIGO's O4 observing run started on 24 May 2023.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |date=24 May 2023 |title=Gravitational-Wave Observatory Status |url=https://gwosc.org/detector_status/ |access-date=2023-05-25 |website=Gravitational Wave Open Science Center}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Castelvecchi |first=Davide |date=2023-05-24 |title=Gravitational-wave detector LIGO is back — and can now spot more colliding black holes than ever |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-01732-4 |journal=Nature |volume=618 |issue=7963 |pages=13–14 |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-023-01732-4|pmid=37225822 |bibcode=2023Natur.618...13C |s2cid=258899900 }}</ref> LIGO projects a sensitivity goal of 160–190 Mpc for binary neutron star mergers (sensitivities: Virgo 80–115 Mpc, KAGRA greater than 1 Mpc).<ref>{{Cite web|title=LIGO, VIRGO AND KAGRA OBSERVING RUN PLANS|url=https://gwcenter.icrr.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/archives/1581|access-date=14 December 2021}}</ref>

==History==
===Background===
[[File:LIGO Hanford aerial 05.jpg|thumb|right|LIGO Hanford Observatory]]
[[File:Ligo-livingston-aerial-03 599x400.jpg|thumb|right|LIGO Livingston Observatory]]
The LIGO concept built upon early work by many scientists to test a component of [[Albert Einstein]]'s theory of [[general relativity]], the existence of gravitational waves. Starting in the 1960s, American scientists including [[Joseph Weber]], as well as Soviet scientists [[Mikhail Gertsenshtein]] and [[Vladislav Pustovoit]], conceived of basic ideas and prototypes of laser [[interferometry]],<ref name="NSF">{{cite book |publisher= National Academies Press |pages= 109–117|isbn=978-0-309-09084-1|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10895/setting-priorities-for-large-research-facility-projects-supported-by-the-national-science-foundation|bibcode= 2004splr.rept.....C|doi= 10.17226/10895 |title= Setting Priorities for Large Research Facility Projects Supported by the National Science Foundation|year= 2004|journal=|author1=}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Gertsenshtein|first= M.E.|date= 1962|title= Wave Resonance of Light and Gravitational Waves|journal= Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics|volume= 14|pages= 84}}</ref> and in 1967 [[Rainer Weiss]] of [[MIT]] published an analysis of interferometer use and initiated the construction of a prototype with military funding, but it was terminated before it could become operational.<ref>{{cite journal |date= 1972 |journal= Quarterly Progress Report of the Research Laboratory of Electronics |author=Weiss, Rainer | title=Electromagnetically coupled broadband gravitational wave antenna | volume= 105| issue= 54|pages= 84| url=https://dcc.ligo.org/P720002/public|access-date=21 February 2016}}</ref> Starting in 1968, [[Kip Thorne]] initiated theoretical efforts on gravitational waves and their sources at [[Caltech]], and was convinced that gravitational wave detection would eventually succeed.<ref name="NSF"/>

Prototype interferometric gravitational wave detectors (interferometers) were built in the late 1960s by [[Robert L. Forward]] and colleagues at [[HRL Laboratories|Hughes Research Laboratories]] (with mirrors mounted on a vibration isolated plate rather than free swinging), and in the 1970s (with free swinging mirrors between which light bounced many times) by [[Rainer Weiss|Weiss]] at MIT, and then by [[Heinz Billing]] and colleagues in [[Garching bei München|Garching]] Germany, and then by [[Ronald Drever]], [[James Hough]] and colleagues in Glasgow, Scotland.<ref>{{cite web| title=A brief history of LIGO| publisher=ligo.caltech.edu| url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/system/media_files/binaries/313/original/LIGOHistory.pdf| access-date=21 February 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170703113615/https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/system/media_files/binaries/313/original/LIGOHistory.pdf| archive-date=3 July 2017| url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1980, the NSF funded the study of a large interferometer led by MIT (Paul Linsay, [[Peter Saulson]], Rainer Weiss), and the following year, Caltech constructed a 40-meter prototype (Ronald Drever and Stan Whitcomb). The MIT study established the feasibility of interferometers at a 1-kilometer scale with adequate sensitivity.<ref name="NSF"/><ref name="buderi">{{cite journal | last=Buderi| first=Robert |date= 19 September 1988| title= Going after gravity: How a high-risk project got funded. |url= http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/9753/title/Going-After-Gravity--How-A-High-Risk-Project-Got-Funded/| journal= The Scientist |volume=2 | issue=17 |pages=1 |access-date=18 February 2016}}</ref>

Under pressure from the NSF, MIT and Caltech were asked to join forces to lead a LIGO project based on the MIT study and on experimental work at Caltech, MIT, Glasgow, and [[Garching bei München|Garching]]. Drever, Thorne, and Weiss formed a LIGO steering committee, though they were turned down for funding in 1984 and 1985. By 1986, they were asked to disband the steering committee and a single director, [[Rochus Eugen Vogt|Rochus E. Vogt]] (Caltech), was appointed. In 1988, a research and development proposal achieved funding.<ref name="NSF"/><ref name="buderi"/><ref name="jeffery">{{cite journal |last= Mervis| first= Jeffery|title= Funding of two science labs receives pork barrel vs beer peer review debate. |url= http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/12069/title/Funding-Of-Two-Science-Labs-Revives-Pork-Barrel-Vs--Peer-Review-Debate/ |journal= The Scientist |volume= 5|issue= 23|access-date=21 February 2016}}</ref><ref name="waldrop">{{cite journal |last= Waldrop| first= M. Mitchell|date=7 September 1990| title= Of politics, pulsars, death spirals – and LIGO |journal= Science |volume= 249|issue= 4973|pages= 1106–1108| doi=10.1126/science.249.4973.1106 | pmid= 17831979|bibcode = 1990Sci...249.1106W }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.ligo.org/news/detection-press-release.pdf| title=Gravitational waves detected 100 years after Einstein's prediction| date=11 February 2016| publisher=LIGO| access-date=11 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Irion| first= Robert |date= 21 April 2000| title= LIGO's mission of gravity.|journal= Science |volume= 288|issue= 5465|pages= 420–423 |doi= 10.1126/science.288.5465.420| s2cid= 119020354 }}</ref>

From 1989 through 1994, LIGO failed to progress technically and organizationally. Only political efforts continued to acquire funding.<ref name="NSF"/><ref name="cohen">{{cite web| url=http://oralhistories.library.caltech.edu/178/1/Barish_OHO.pdf| title=Interview with Barry Barish| work=Shirley Cohen| publisher=Caltech| year=1998| access-date=21 February 2016}}</ref> Ongoing funding was routinely rejected until 1991, when the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]] agreed to fund LIGO for the first year for $23 million. However, requirements for receiving the funding were not met or approved, and the NSF questioned the technological and organizational basis of the project.<ref name="jeffery"/><ref name="waldrop"/> By 1992, LIGO was restructured with Drever no longer a direct participant.<ref name="NSF"/><ref name="cohen"/><ref name="Cook">{{cite conference |last= Cook|first= Victor|date= 21 September 2001|title= NSF Management and Oversight of LIGO |conference= Large Facility Projects Best Practices Workshop |publisher=NSF}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Travis|first= John|date= 18 February 2016|title= LIGO: A$250 million gamble. |journal= Science |volume= 260|issue= 5108|pages= 612–614|doi= 10.1126/science.260.5108.612|pmid= 17812204|bibcode= 1993Sci...260..612T}}</ref> Ongoing project management issues and technical concerns were revealed in NSF reviews of the project, resulting in the withholding of funds until they formally froze spending in 1993.<ref name="NSF"/><ref name="cohen"/><ref>{{cite journal |last= Anderson|first= Christopher|date= 11 March 1994 |title= LIGO director out in shakeup |journal= Science |volume= 263| issue= 5152| pages= 1366| doi= 10.1126/science.263.5152.1366|pmid= 17776497|bibcode= 1994Sci...263.1366A}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last= Browne|first= Malcolm W.|date= 30 April 1991|title= Experts clash over project to detect gravity wave. |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/30/science/experts-clash-over-project-to-detect-gravity-wave.html?pagewanted=all |newspaper= New York Times|access-date= 21 February 2016}}</ref>

In 1994, after consultation between relevant NSF personnel, LIGO's scientific leaders, and the presidents of MIT and Caltech, Vogt stepped down and [[Barry Barish]] (Caltech) was appointed laboratory director,<ref name="NSF"/><ref name="Cook"/><ref>{{cite journal |last= Anderson|first= Christopher|date= 11 March 1994 |title= LIGO director out in shakeup |journal= Science |volume= 263|issue= 5152|pages= 1366|doi= 10.1126/science.263.5152.1366|pmid= 17776497|bibcode= 1994Sci...263.1366A}}</ref> and the NSF made clear that LIGO had one last chance for support.<ref name="cohen"/> Barish's team created a new study, budget, and project plan with a budget exceeding the previous proposals by 40%. Barish proposed to the NSF and National Science Board to build LIGO as an evolutionary detector, where detection of gravitational waves with initial LIGO would be possible, and with advanced LIGO would be probable.<ref name="Nature_2014_July_14">{{citation |title=Physics: Wave of the future|journal=Nature |volume=511 |issue=7509 |pages=278–81 |first=Alexandra |last=Witze|date=16 July 2014 |bibcode=2014Natur.511..278W |doi=10.1038/511278a |pmid=25030149 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This new proposal received NSF funding, Barish was appointed [[Principal Investigator]], and the increase was approved. In 1994, with a budget of US$395 million, LIGO stood as the largest overall funded NSF project in history. The project broke ground in Hanford, Washington in late 1994 and in Livingston, Louisiana in 1995. As construction neared completion in 1997, under Barish's leadership two organizational institutions were formed, LIGO Laboratory and LIGO Scientific Collaboration (LSC). The LIGO laboratory consists of the facilities supported by the NSF under LIGO Operation and Advanced R&D; this includes administration of the LIGO detector and test facilities. The LIGO Scientific Collaboration is a forum for organizing technical and scientific research in LIGO. It is a separate organization from LIGO Laboratory with its own oversight. Barish appointed Weiss as the first spokesperson for this scientific collaboration.<ref name="NSF"/><ref name="jeffery"/>

===Observations begin===
Initial LIGO operations between 2002 and 2010 did not detect any gravitational waves. In 2004, under Barish, the funding and groundwork were laid for the next phase of LIGO development (called "Enhanced LIGO"). This was followed by a multi-year shut-down while the detectors were replaced by much improved "Advanced LIGO" versions.<ref>{{cite web| title=Gravitational wave detection a step closer with Advanced LIGO| url=http://spie.org/newsroom/technical-articles/videos/ligo-hanford-spie-video| publisher=SPIE Newsroom| access-date=4 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Daniel Sigg: The Advanced LIGO Detectors in the era of First Discoveries|url=http://spie.org/x120637.xml|publisher=SPIE Newsroom|access-date=9 September 2016}}</ref> Much of the research and development work for the LIGO/aLIGO machines was based on pioneering work for the [[GEO600]] detector at Hannover, Germany.<ref name="GEO600 a precursor">{{cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Pallab |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-35524440 |title=Einstein's gravitational waves 'seen' from black holes |work=BBC News |date=11 February 2016 |access-date=18 February 2016 }}</ref><ref name="mpg2016">{{cite web |title=Gravitational waves detected 100 years after Einstein's prediction |url=https://www.mpg.de/9953360/gravitational-waves-detected |website=www.mpg.de |publisher=Max-Planck-Gelschaft |access-date=3 September 2018 |language=en}}</ref> By February 2015, the detectors were brought into engineering mode in both locations.<ref>{{cite web |title=LIGO Hanford's H1 Achieves Two-Hour Full Lock |url=https://www.advancedligo.mit.edu/feb_2015_news.html |date=February 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922064706/https://www.advancedligo.mit.edu/feb_2015_news.html |archive-date=22 September 2015 }}</ref>

In mid-September 2015, "the world's largest gravitational-wave facility" completed a five-year US$200-million overhaul, bringing the total cost to $620 million.<ref name="Nature_2015_Sept_15">{{citation |title=Hunt for gravitational waves to resume after massive upgrade: LIGO experiment now has better chance of detecting ripples in space-time|journal=Nature |volume=525 |issue=7569 |pages=301–302 |first=Davide |last=Castelvecchi|date=15 September 2015 |doi=10.1038/525301a |pmid=26381963 |bibcode=2015Natur.525..301C |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |first=Sarah |last=Zhang |title=The Long Search for Elusive Ripples in Spacetime |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/09/long-search-elusive-ripples-spacetime |date=15 September 2015}}</ref> On 18 September 2015, Advanced LIGO began its first formal science observations at about four times the sensitivity of the initial LIGO interferometers.<ref>{{cite news |last=Amos |first=Jonathan |title=Advanced Ligo: Labs 'open their ears' to the cosmos |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34298363 |journal=BBC News |date=19 September 2015 |access-date=19 September 2015}}</ref> Its sensitivity was to be further enhanced until it was planned to reach design sensitivity {{As of|alt=around 2021|2021|01|post=.}}<ref name="LIGO_dec_2015">{{cite web| title=Planning for a bright tomorrow: prospects for gravitational-wave astronomy with Advanced LIGO and Advanced Virgo| url=http://www.ligo.org/science/Publication-ObservingScenario/index.php| publisher=[[LIGO Scientific Collaboration]] |access-date=31 December 2015 |date=23 December 2015}}</ref>

====Detections====
On 11 February 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and [[Virgo interferometer|Virgo Collaboration]] published a paper about the [[First observation of gravitational waves|detection of gravitational waves]], from a signal detected at 09.51 [[UTC]] on 14 September 2015 of two ~30 [[solar mass]] black holes merging about 1.3 billion [[light-years]] from Earth.<ref name="PhysRevLett.116.061102">{{cite journal |title=Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=116 |issue=6 |pages=061102 |date=11 February 2016 |last=LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration |first=B. P. Abbott|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102 |pmid=26918975 |arxiv = 1602.03837 |bibcode = 2016PhRvL.116f1102A |s2cid=124959784 }}</ref><ref name="Nature_11Feb16" />

Current executive director [[David Reitze]] announced the findings at a media event in Washington D.C., while executive director emeritus Barry Barish presented the first scientific paper of the findings at CERN to the physics community.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/2131411 | title=New results on the Search for Gravitational Waves| year=2016| series=CERN Colloquium}}</ref>

On 2 May 2016, members of the [[LIGO Scientific Collaboration]] and other contributors were awarded a [[Fundamental Physics Prize|Special Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics]] for contributing to the direct detection of gravitational waves.<ref name=FPP-May2016>{{cite web|title=Fundamental Physics Prize – News|url=https://breakthroughprize.org/News/32|publisher=Fundamental Physics Prize (2016)|access-date=4 May 2016}}</ref>

On 16 June 2016 LIGO announced a [[GW151226|second signal]] was detected from the merging of two black holes with 14.2 and 7.5 times the mass of the Sun. The signal was picked up on 26 December 2015, at 3:38 UTC.<ref name="chu"/>

The detection of a third black hole merger, between objects of 31.2 and 19.4 solar masses, occurred on 4 January 2017 and was announced on 1 June 2017.<ref name = "Abbott2017">{{cite journal |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.118.221101 |pmid= 28621973 |title= GW170104: Observation of a 50-Solar-Mass Binary Black Hole Coalescence at Redshift 0.2 |journal= [[Physical Review Letters]] |date= 1 June 2017 |author=B. P. Abbott |display-authors=etal |collaboration=[[LIGO Scientific Collaboration]] and [[Virgo interferometer|Virgo Collaboration]] |volume=118 |issue= 22 |pages=221101|arxiv=1706.01812 |bibcode=2017PhRvL.118v1101A |s2cid= 206291714 }}</ref><ref name = SciNews2017.06.01>{{cite journal | last = Conover | first = E. | title = LIGO snags another set of gravitational waves | journal = [[Science News]] | date = 1 June 2017 | url = https://www.sciencenews.org/article/ligo-snags-another-set-gravitational-waves | access-date = 3 June 2017}}</ref> [[Laura Cadonati]] was appointed the first deputy spokesperson.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://news.gatech.edu/news/2017/04/20/college-sciences-professor-appointed-top-role-search-gravitational-waves | title=College of Sciences Professor Appointed to Top Role in Search for Gravitational Waves | News Center }}</ref>

A fourth detection of a black hole merger, between objects of 30.5 and 25.3 solar masses, was observed on 14 August 2017 and was announced on 27 September 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=GW170814 : A three-detector observation of gravitational waves from a binary black hole coalescence|url=https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-P170814/public/main|access-date=29 September 2017}}</ref>

In 2017, Weiss, Barish, and Thorne received the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] "for decisive contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves." Weiss was awarded one-half of the total prize money, and Barish and Thorne each received a one-quarter prize.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 2017|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2017/press.html|website=Nobelprize.org|access-date=4 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="BBC-20171003">{{cite news |last1=Rincon |first1=Paul |last2=Amos |first2=Jonathan |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-41476648|title=Einstein's waves win Nobel Prize |work=[[BBC News]] |date=3 October 2017 |access-date=3 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20171003">{{cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |title=2017 Nobel Prize in Physics Awarded to LIGO Black Hole Researchers |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/03/science/nobel-prize-physics.html |date=3 October 2017 |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=3 October 2017 }}</ref>

After shutting down for improvements, LIGO resumed operation on 26 March 2019, with Virgo joining the network of gravitational-wave detectors on 1 April 2019.<ref>{{Cite web | url= https://www.ligo.org/news/pr-O3resumes.pdf| title=LSC News}}</ref> Both ran until 27 March 2020, when the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] halted operations.<ref name="O3suspended" /> During the COVID shutdown, LIGO underwent a further upgrade in sensitivity, and observing run O4 with the new sensitivity began on 24 May 2023.<ref name=":1" />

==Mission==
[[File:LIGO detector sensitivity curve.png|thumb|300px|upright=2| Detector noise curves for Initial and Advanced LIGO as a function of frequency. They lie above the bands for space-borne detectors like the [[Laser Interferometer Space Antenna|evolved Laser Interferometer Space Antenna]] (eLISA) and [[pulsar timing array]]s such as the [[European Pulsar Timing Array]] (EPTA). The characteristic strains of potential astrophysical sources are also shown. To be detectable the characteristic strain of a signal must be above the noise curve.<ref>{{cite web |title=Gravitational Wave Detectors and Sources |url=http://rhcole.com/apps/GWplotter/ |access-date=20 April 2014 |last1=Moore |first1=Christopher |last2=Cole |first2=Robert |last3=Berry |first3=Christopher |date=19 July 2013}}</ref> These frequencies that aLIGO can detect are in the range of [[Hearing#Frequency range|human hearing]].]]

LIGO's mission is to directly observe gravitational waves of cosmic origin. These waves were first predicted by Einstein's [[general theory of relativity]] in 1916, when the technology necessary for their detection did not yet exist. Their existence was indirectly confirmed when observations of the binary pulsar [[PSR 1913+16]] in 1974 showed an orbital decay which matched Einstein's predictions of energy loss by gravitational radiation. The [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics 1993 was awarded to [[Russell Alan Hulse|Hulse]] and [[Joseph Hooton Taylor, Jr.|Taylor]] for this discovery.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1993: Russell A. Hulse, Joseph H. Taylor Jr. |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1993/ |website=nobelprize.org}}</ref>

Direct detection of gravitational waves had long been sought. Their discovery has launched a new branch of astronomy to complement [[Electromagnetic radiation|electromagnetic]] telescopes and [[neutrino]] observatories. [[Joseph Weber]] pioneered the effort to detect gravitational waves in the 1960s through his work on [[Weber bar|resonant mass bar detectors]]. Bar detectors continue to be used at six sites worldwide. By the 1970s, scientists including [[Rainer Weiss]] realized the applicability of laser [[interferometry]] to gravitational wave measurements. [[Robert Forward]] operated an interferometric detector at Hughes in the early 1970s.<ref name="obituary">{{cite web |title=Obituary: Dr. Robert L. Forward |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=9328 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130902222420/http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=9328 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 September 2013 |website=www.spaceref.com |date=21 September 2002 |access-date=3 September 2018 |language=en }}</ref>

In fact as early as the 1960s, and perhaps before that, there were papers published on wave resonance of light and gravitational waves.<ref>{{cite journal|author=M.E. Gertsenshtein|title=Wave Resonance of Light and Gravitational Waves|journal=JETP|volume=41|issue=1|pages=113–114|year=1961|url=http://www.jetp.ac.ru/cgi-bin/e/index/e/14/1/p84?a=list|access-date=19 January 2016|archive-date=6 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206055044/http://www.jetp.ac.ru/cgi-bin/e/index/e/14/1/p84?a=list|url-status=dead}}</ref> Work was published in 1971 on methods to exploit this resonance for the detection of high-frequency [[gravitational waves]]. In 1962, M. E. Gertsenshtein and V. I. Pustovoit published the very first paper describing the principles for using interferometers for the detection of very long wavelength gravitational waves.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=On the detection of low frequency gravitational waves |first1=M. E. |last1=Gertsenshtein |first2=V. I. |last2=Pustovoit |journal=[[Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Physics|JETP]] |volume=43 |pages=605–607 |date=August 1962}}</ref> The authors argued that by using interferometers the sensitivity can be 107 to 1010 times better than by using electromechanical experiments. Later, in 1965, [[Vladimir Braginsky|Braginsky]] extensively discussed gravitational-wave sources and their possible detection. He pointed out the 1962 paper and mentioned the possibility of detecting gravitational waves if the interferometric technology and measuring techniques improved.

Since the early 1990s, physicists have thought that technology has evolved to the point where detection of [[gravitational wave]]s—of significant astrophysical interest—is now possible.<ref>{{Cite journal| title= Astrophysical Sources of Gravitational Radiation |journal= [[Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science]]|volume= 44|issue= 44|pages= 655–717|doi= 10.1146/annurev.ns.44.120194.003255| doi-access=free|year= 1994|last1= Bonazzola|first1= S|last2= Marck|first2= J A|bibcode= 1994ARNPS..44..655B}}</ref>

In August 2002, LIGO began its search for cosmic gravitational waves. Measurable emissions of gravitational waves are expected from binary systems (collisions and coalescences of [[neutron star]]s or [[black holes]]), [[supernova]] explosions of massive stars (which form neutron stars and black holes), accreting neutron stars, rotations of neutron stars with deformed crusts, and the remnants of gravitational radiation created by the [[Big Bang|birth of the universe]]. The observatory may, in theory, also observe more exotic hypothetical phenomena, such as gravitational waves caused by oscillating [[cosmic string]]s or colliding [[Domain wall (string theory)|domain walls]].

==Observatories==
LIGO operates two gravitational wave observatories in unison: the LIGO Livingston Observatory ({{Coord|30|33|46.42|N|90|46|27.27|W}}) in [[Livingston, Louisiana]], and the LIGO Hanford Observatory, on the [[Hanford Site|DOE Hanford Site]] ({{Coord|46|27|18.52|N|119|24|27.56|W|}}), located near [[Richland, Washington]]. These sites are separated by 3,002 kilometers (1,865 miles) straight line distance through the earth, but 3,030 kilometers (1,883 miles) over the surface. Since gravitational waves are expected to travel at the speed of light, this distance corresponds to a difference in gravitational wave arrival times of up to ten milliseconds. Through the use of [[trilateration]], the difference in arrival times helps to determine the source of the wave, especially when a third similar instrument like [[Virgo interferometer|Virgo]], located at an even greater distance in Europe, is added.<ref>{{cite web|title=Location of the Source|url=http://www.sr.bham.ac.uk/gwastro/what-are-we-looking-for/4|website=Gravitational Wave Astrophysics|publisher=University of Birmingham|access-date=28 November 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208133633/http://www.sr.bham.ac.uk/gwastro/what-are-we-looking-for/4|archive-date=8 December 2015}}</ref>

Each observatory supports an L-shaped [[ultra high vacuum]] system, measuring four kilometers (2.5 miles) on each side. Up to five [[interferometer]]s can be set up in each vacuum system.

The LIGO Livingston Observatory houses one laser [[interferometer]] in the primary configuration. This interferometer was successfully upgraded in 2004 with an active vibration isolation system based on hydraulic actuators providing a factor of 10 isolation in the 0.1–5 Hz band. Seismic vibration in this band is chiefly due to [[microseismic]] waves and anthropogenic sources (traffic, logging, etc.).

The LIGO Hanford Observatory houses one interferometer, almost identical to the one at the Livingston Observatory. During the Initial and Enhanced LIGO phases, a half-length interferometer operated in parallel with the main interferometer. For this 2 km interferometer, the [[Fabry–Pérot]] arm cavities had the same optical finesse, and, thus, half the storage time as the 4 km interferometers. With half the storage time, the theoretical strain sensitivity was as good as the full length interferometers above 200 Hz but only half as good at low frequencies. During the same era, Hanford retained its original passive seismic isolation system due to limited geologic activity in Southeastern Washington.

==Operation==
{{gravitational_wave_observatory_principle.svg}}
The parameters in this section refer to the [[#Advanced LIGO|Advanced LIGO]] experiment. The primary interferometer consists of two beam lines of 4 km length which form a power-recycled [[Michelson interferometer]] with [[Gires–Tournois etalon]] arms. A pre-stabilized 1064 nm [[Nd:YAG laser]] emits a beam with a power of 20 W that passes through a power recycling mirror. The mirror fully transmits light incident from the laser and reflects light from the other side increasing the power of the light field between the mirror and the subsequent beam splitter to 700 W. From the beam splitter the light travels along two orthogonal arms. By the use of partially reflecting mirrors, [[Fabry–Pérot interferometer|Fabry–Pérot cavities]] are created in both arms that increase the effective path length of laser light in the arm from 4 km to approximately 1,200 km.<ref>{{cite web | title = LIGO's Interferometer | url = https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/ligos-ifo }}</ref> The power of the light field in the cavity is 100 kW.<ref name="PRL-20160211" />

When a gravitational wave passes through the interferometer, the spacetime in the local area is altered. Depending on the source of the wave and its polarization, this results in an effective change in length of one or both of the cavities. The effective length change between the beams will cause the light currently in the cavity to become very slightly out of [[Phase (waves)|phase]] (antiphase) with the incoming light. The cavity will therefore periodically get very slightly out of [[Coherence (physics)|coherence]] and the beams, which are tuned to [[Interference (wave propagation)|destructively interfere]] at the detector, will have a very slight periodically varying detuning. This results in a measurable signal.<ref>
{{cite web | author = Thorne, Kip |author1-link=Kip Thorne |title = Chapter 27.6: The Detection of Gravitational Waves (in "Applications of Classical Physics chapter 27: Gravitational Waves and Experimental Tests of General Relativity", Caltech lecture notes) |url = http://www.pmaweb.caltech.edu/Courses/ph136/yr2012/1227.1.K.pdf | year=2012 | access-date=11 February 2016}}</ref>

After an equivalent of approximately 280 trips down the 4 km length to the far mirrors and back again,<ref>{{cite web | title = LIGO's Interferometer | url = https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/ligos-ifo }}</ref> the two separate beams leave the arms and recombine at the beam splitter. The beams returning from two arms are kept out of phase so that when the arms are both in coherence and interference (as when there is no gravitational wave passing through), their light waves subtract, and no light should arrive at the [[photodiode]]. When a gravitational wave passes through the interferometer, the distances along the arms of the interferometer are shortened and lengthened, causing the beams to become slightly less out of phase. This results in the beams coming in phase, creating a [[resonance]], hence some light arrives at the photodiode and indicates a signal. Light that does not contain a signal is returned to the interferometer using a power recycling mirror, thus increasing the power of the light in the arms.

In actual operation, noise sources can cause movement in the optics, producing similar effects to real gravitational wave signals; a great deal of the art and complexity in the instrument is in finding ways to reduce these spurious motions of the mirrors.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Doughton|first1=Sandi |title=Suddenly there came a tapping: Ravens cause blips in massive physics instrument at Hanford|url=https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/science/suddenly-there-came-a-tapping-ravens-cause-blips-in-massive-physics-instrument-at-hanford/ |access-date=14 May 2018|work=The Seattle Times|date=14 May 2018}}</ref> Background noise and unknown errors (which happen daily) are in the order of 10−20, while gravitational wave signals are around 10−22. After noise reduction, a [[signal-to-noise ratio]] around 20 can be achieved, or higher when combined with other gravitational wave detectors around the world.<ref name="PhysRev2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Abbott BP, Abbott R, Abbott TD, Acernese F, Ackley K, Adams C, Adams T, Addesso P, Adhikari RX, Adya VB, Affeldt C, Afrough M, Agarwal B, Agathos M, Agatsuma K, Aggarwal N, Aguiar OD, Aiello L, Ain A, Ajith P, Allen B, Allen G, Allocca A, Altin PA, Amato A, Ananyeva A, Anderson SB, Anderson WG, Angelova SV, Antier S, Appert S, Arai K, Araya MC, Areeda JS, Arnaud N, Arun KG, Ascenzi S, Ashton G, Ast M, Aston SM, Astone P, Atallah DV, Aufmuth P, Aulbert C, AultONeal K, Austin C, Avila-Alvarez A, Babak S, Bacon P, Bader MK, Bae S, Bailes M, Baker PT, Baldaccini F, Ballardin G, Ballmer SW, Banagiri S, Barayoga JC, Barclay SE, Barish BC, Barker D, Barkett K, Barone F, Barr B, Barsotti L, Barsuglia M, Barta D, Barthelmy SD, Bartlett J, Bartos I, Bassiri R, Basti A, Batch JC, Bawaj M, 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Mukherjee S, Mukund N, Mullavey A, Munch J, Muñiz EA, Muratore M, Murray PG, Nagar A, Napier K, Nardecchia I, Naticchioni L, Nayak RK, Neilson J, Nelemans G, Nelson TJ, Nery M, Neunzert A, Nevin L, Newport JM, Newton G, Ng KK, Nguyen P, Nguyen TT, Nichols D, Nielsen AB, Nissanke S, Nitz A, Noack A, Nocera F, Nolting D, North C, Nuttall LK, Oberling J, O'Dea GD, Ogin GH, Oh JJ, Oh SH, Ohme F, Okada MA, Oliver M, Oppermann P, Oram RJ, O'Reilly B, Ormiston R, Ortega LF, O'Shaughnessy R, Ossokine S, Ottaway DJ, Overmier H, Owen BJ, Pace AE, Page J, Page MA, Pai A, Pai SA, Palamos JR, Palashov O, Palomba C, Pal-Singh A, Pan H, Pan HW, Pang B, Pang PT, Pankow C, Pannarale F, Pant BC, Paoletti F, Paoli A, Papa MA, Parida A, Parker W, Pascucci D, Pasqualetti A, Passaquieti R, Passuello D, Patil M, Patricelli B, Pearlstone BL, Pedraza M, Pedurand R, Pekowsky L, Pele A, Penn S, Perez CJ, Perreca A, Perri LM, Pfeiffer HP, Phelps M, Piccinni OJ, Pichot M, Piergiovanni F, Pierro V, Pillant G, 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SV, Theeg T, Thies F, Thomas EG, Thomas M, Thomas P, Thorne KA, Thorne KS, Thrane E, Tiwari S, Tiwari V, Tokmakov KV, Toland K, Tonelli M, Tornasi Z, Torres-Forné A, Torrie CI, Töyrä D, Travasso F, Traylor G, Trinastic J, Tringali MC, Trozzo L, Tsang KW, Tse M, Tso R, Tsukada L, Tsuna D, Tuyenbayev D, Ueno K, Ugolini D, Unnikrishnan CS, Urban AL, Usman SA, Vahlbruch H, Vajente G, Valdes G, Vallisneri M, van Bakel N, van Beuzekom M, van den Brand JF, Van Den Broeck C, Vander-Hyde DC, van der Schaaf L, van Heijningen JV, van Veggel AA, Vardaro M, Varma V, Vass S, Vasúth M, Vecchio A, Vedovato G, Veitch J, Veitch PJ, Venkateswara K, Venugopalan G, Verkindt D, Vetrano F, Viceré A, Viets AD, Vinciguerra S, Vine DJ, Vinet JY, Vitale S, Vo T, Vocca H, Vorvick C, Vyatchanin SP, Wade AR, Wade LE, Wade M, Walet R, Walker M, Wallace L, Walsh S, Wang G, Wang H, Wang JZ, Wang WH, Wang YF, Ward RL, Warner J, Was M, Watchi J, Weaver B, Wei LW, Weinert M, Weinstein AJ, Weiss R, Wen L, Wessel EK, Weßels P, Westerweck J, Westphal T, Wette K, Whelan JT, Whitcomb SE, Whiting BF, Whittle C, Wilken D, Williams D, Williams RD, Williamson AR, Willis JL, Willke B, Wimmer MH, Winkler W, Wipf CC, Wittel H, Woan G, Woehler J, Wofford J, Wong KW, Worden J, Wright JL, Wu DS, Wysocki DM, Xiao S, Yamamoto H, Yancey CC, Yang L, Yap MJ, Yazback M, Yu H, Yu H, Yvert M, Zadrożny A, Zanolin M, Zelenova T, Zendri JP, Zevin M, Zhang L, Zhang M, Zhang T, Zhang YH, Zhao C, Zhou M, Zhou Z, Zhu SJ, Zhu XJ, Zimmerman AB, Zucker ME, Zweizig J | display-authors = 6 | title = GW170817: Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Neutron Star Inspiral | journal = Physical Review Letters | volume = 119 | issue = 16 | pages = 161101 | date = October 2017 | pmid = 29099225 | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.161101 | collaboration = [[LIGO Scientific Collaboration]] & [[Virgo interferometer|Virgo Collaboration]] | arxiv = 1710.05832 | bibcode = 2017PhRvL.119p1101A | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Observations==
[[File:LIGO on Hanford Reservation.jpg|thumb|300px|Western leg of LIGO [[interferometer]] on [[Hanford Reservation]]]]
{{see also|First observation of gravitational waves|List of gravitational wave observations}}
Based on current models of astronomical events, and the predictions of the [[general theory of relativity]],{{r|Pretorius2005|CampanelliLousto2006|BakerCentrella2006}} gravitational waves that originate tens of millions of light years from Earth are expected to distort the {{convert|4|km|adj=on}} mirror spacing by about {{val|e=−18|u=m}}, less than one-thousandth the [[charge radius|charge diameter]] of a [[proton]]. Equivalently, this is a relative change in distance of approximately one part in {{10^|21}}. A typical event which might cause a detection event would be the late stage inspiral and merger of two 10-[[solar-mass]] black holes, not necessarily located in the Milky Way galaxy, which is expected to result in a very specific sequence of signals often summarized by the slogan ''chirp,'' ''burst,'' ''quasi-normal mode ringing,'' ''exponential decay.''

In their fourth Science Run at the end of 2004, the LIGO detectors demonstrated sensitivities in measuring these displacements to within a factor of two of their design.

During LIGO's fifth Science Run in November 2005, sensitivity reached the primary design specification of a detectable strain of one part in {{10^|21}} over a {{val|100|u=Hz}} bandwidth. The baseline inspiral of two roughly solar-mass neutron stars is typically expected to be observable if it occurs within about {{convert|8|e6pc|e6ly|lk=on}}, or the vicinity of the [[Local Group]], averaged over all directions and polarizations. Also at this time, LIGO and [[GEO 600]] (the German-UK interferometric detector) began a joint science run, during which they collected data for several months. [[Virgo interferometer|Virgo]] (the French-Italian interferometric detector) joined in May 2007. The fifth science run ended in 2007, after extensive analysis of data from this run did not uncover any unambiguous detection events.

In February 2007, GRB 070201, a short [[gamma-ray burst]] arrived at Earth from the direction of the [[Andromeda Galaxy]]. The prevailing explanation of most short gamma-ray bursts is the merger of a neutron star with either a neutron star or a black hole. LIGO reported a non-detection for GRB 070201, ruling out a merger at the distance of Andromeda with high confidence. Such a constraint was predicated on LIGO eventually demonstrating a direct detection of gravitational waves.<ref>{{cite press release |title=LIGO Sheds Light on Cosmic Event |first=Kathy |last=Svitil |url=http://www.caltech.edu/news/ligo-sheds-light-cosmic-event-1367 |date=2 January 2008 |access-date=14 February 2016 |publisher=[[California Institute of Technology]]}}</ref>

===Enhanced LIGO===
[[File:Northern leg of LIGO interferometer on Hanford Reservation.JPG|thumb|300px|Northern leg (x-arm) of LIGO [[interferometer]] on [[Hanford Reservation]]]]
After the completion of Science Run 5, initial LIGO was upgraded with certain technologies, planned for Advanced LIGO but available and able to be retrofitted to initial LIGO, which resulted in an improved-performance configuration dubbed Enhanced LIGO.<ref>{{cite tech report |first1=Rana |last1=Adhikari |first2=Peter |last2=Fritschel |first3=Sam |last3=Waldman |title=Enhanced LIGO |url=https://dcc.ligo.org/public/0007/T060156/001/T060156-01.pdf |id=[https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-T060156-x0/public LIGO-T060156-01-I] |date=17 July 2006}}</ref> Some of the improvements in Enhanced LIGO included:
* Increased laser power
* [[Homodyne detection]]
* Output mode cleaner
* In-vacuum readout hardware

Science Run 6 (S6) began in July 2009 with the enhanced configurations on the 4 km detectors.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ligonews.blogspot.com/2009/06/firm-date-set-for-start-of-s6.html |title=Firm Date Set for Start of S6 |first=Dave |last=Beckett |date=15 June 2009 |website=LIGO Laboratory News}}</ref> It concluded in October 2010, and the disassembly of the original detectors began.

===Advanced LIGO===
[[File:Simplified diagram of an Advanced LIGO detector.png|thumb|300px|Simplified diagram of an Advanced LIGO detector (not to scale).]]
[[File:AdvLIGO noise curve.webp|thumb|300px|Design sensitivity of Advanced LIGO interferometer with major noise sources, maximum sensitivity is around 500 Hz<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Danilishin|first1=Stefan L.|last2=Khalili|first2=Farid Ya.|last3=Miao|first3=Haixing|date=29 April 2019|title=Advanced quantum techniques for future gravitational-wave detectors|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s41114-019-0018-y|journal=Living Reviews in Relativity|language=en|volume=22|issue=1|pages=2|doi=10.1007/s41114-019-0018-y|arxiv=1903.05223|bibcode=2019LRR....22....2D|s2cid=119238143|issn=2367-3613}}</ref>]]
After 2010, LIGO went offline for several years for a major upgrade, installing the new Advanced LIGO detectors in the LIGO Observatory infrastructures.

The project continued to attract new members, with the [[Australian National University]] and [[University of Adelaide]] contributing to Advanced LIGO, and by the time the LIGO Laboratory started the first observing run 'O1' with the Advanced LIGO detectors in September 2015, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration included more than 900 scientists worldwide.<ref name="Nature_2015_Sept_15" />

The first observing run operated at a sensitivity roughly three times greater than Initial LIGO,<ref name="LIGO_sep_2015">{{cite web |title=The Newest Search for Gravitational Waves has Begun |url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/news/ligo20150918 |publisher=LIGO Scientific Collaboration |access-date=9 September 2017 |last=Burtnyk |first=Kimberly |date=18 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170704121637/https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/news/ligo20150918 |archive-date=4 July 2017 |quote=LIGO’s advanced detectors are already three times more sensitive than Initial LIGO was by the end of its observational lifetime}}</ref> and a much greater sensitivity for larger systems with their peak radiation at lower audio frequencies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aasi |first1=J |title=Advanced LIGO |journal=Classical and Quantum Gravity |date=9 April 2015 |volume=32 |issue=7 |page=074001 |doi=10.1088/0264-9381/32/7/074001 |arxiv=1411.4547 |bibcode=2015CQGra..32g4001L |s2cid=118570458 }}</ref>

On 11 February 2016, the LIGO and [[Virgo interferometer|Virgo]] collaborations announced the [[first observation of gravitational waves]].{{r|Nature_11Feb16|PRL-20160211}} The signal, named [[GW150914]],<ref name="PRL-20160211" /><ref name="Naeye">{{cite news |last=Naeye |first=Robert |url=http://www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-news/gravitational-wave-detection-heralds-new-era-of-science-0211201644/ |title=Gravitational Wave Detection Heralds New Era of Science |work=Sky and Telescope |date=11 February 2016 |access-date=11 February 2016 }}</ref> was recorded on 14 September 2015, just two days after Advanced LIGO started collecting data following the upgrade.<ref name="Nature_11Feb16" /><ref name="cho2016">{{cite journal |last1=Cho |first1=Adrian |title=Here's the first person to spot those gravitational waves |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/here-s-first-person-spot-those-gravitational-waves |journal=Science |date=2016-02-11 |doi=10.1126/science.aaf4039}}</ref><ref name="BBC_11Feb16">{{cite news|title=Gravitational waves from black holes detected|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-35524440|work=BBC News|date=11 February 2016}}</ref> It matched the [[Tests of general relativity|predictions of general relativity]]<ref name="Pretorius2005">{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Frans|title=Evolution of Binary Black-Hole Spacetimes|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=95|issue=12|page=121101|year=2005|issn=0031-9007|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.121101|pmid=16197061|arxiv = gr-qc/0507014 |bibcode = 2005PhRvL..95l1101P |s2cid=24225193}}</ref><ref name="CampanelliLousto2006">{{cite journal |last1=Campanelli |first1=M. |author-link=Manuela Campanelli (scientist) |last2=Lousto |first2=C.O. |author-link2=Carlos Lousto |last3=Marronetti |first3=P. |last4=Zlochower |first4=Y. |year=2006 |title=Accurate Evolutions of Orbiting Black-Hole Binaries without Excision |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=96 |issue=11 |page=111101 |arxiv=gr-qc/0511048 |bibcode=2006PhRvL..96k1101C |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.111101 |issn=0031-9007 |pmid=16605808 |s2cid=5954627}}</ref><ref name="BakerCentrella2006">{{cite journal|last1=Baker|first1=John G.|last2=Centrella|first2=Joan|author2-link= Joan Centrella |last3=Choi|first3=Dae-Il|last4=Koppitz|first4=Michael|last5=van Meter|first5=James|title=Gravitational-Wave Extraction from an Inspiraling Configuration of Merging Black Holes|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=96|issue=11|page=111102|year=2006|issn=0031-9007|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.111102|pmid=16605809|arxiv = gr-qc/0511103 |bibcode = 2006PhRvL..96k1102B |s2cid=23409406}}</ref> for the inward spiral and [[Stellar collision|merger]] of a [[Binary black hole|pair]] of [[black hole]]s and subsequent ringdown of the resulting single black hole. The observations demonstrated the existence of binary stellar-mass black hole systems and the first observation of a binary black hole merger.

On 15 June 2016, LIGO announced the detection of a second gravitational wave event, recorded on 26 December 2015, at 3:38 UTC. Analysis of the observed signal indicated that the event was caused by the merger of two black holes with masses of 14.2 and 7.5 solar masses, at a distance of 1.4 billion light years.<ref name="chu">{{cite news|last1=Chu|first1=Jennifer|title=For second time, LIGO detects gravitational waves|url=https://news.mit.edu/2016/second-time-ligo-detects-gravitational-waves-0615|access-date=15 June 2016|work=MIT News|publisher=MIT|date=15 June 2016}}</ref> The signal was named [[GW151226]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.ligo.org/science/Publication-GW151226/index.php |title=GW151226: Observation of Gravitational Waves from a 22 Solar-mass Binary Black Hole Coalescence |journal=Physical Review Letters |volume=116 |issue=24 |page=241103 |date=15 June 2016|bibcode=2016PhRvL.116x1103A |last1=Abbott |first1=B.P. |last2=Abbott |first2=R. |last3=Abbott |first3=T.D. |last4=Abernathy |first4=M.R. |last5=Acernese |first5=F. |last6=Ackley |first6=K. |last7=Adams |first7=C. |last8=Adams |first8=T. |last9=Addesso |first9=P. |last10=Adhikari |first10=R.X. |last11=Adya |first11=V.B. |last12=Affeldt |first12=C. |last13=Agathos |first13=M. |last14=Agatsuma |first14=K. |last15=Aggarwal |first15=N. |last16=Aguiar |first16=O.D. |last17=Aiello |first17=L. |last18=Ain |first18=A. |last19=Ajith |first19=P. |last20=Allen |first20=B. |last21=Allocca |first21=A. |last22=Altin |first22=P.A. |last23=Anderson |first23=S.B. |last24=Anderson |first24=W.G. |last25=Arai |first25=K. |last26=Araya |first26=M.C. |last27=Arceneaux |first27=C.C. |last28=Areeda |first28=J.S. |last29=Arnaud |first29=N. |last30=Arun |first30=K.G. |display-authors=3 |arxiv=1606.04855 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.241103 |pmid=27367379 |s2cid=118651851 }}</ref>

The second observing run (O2) ran from 30 November 2016<ref>{{cite web |title=VIRGO joins LIGO for the "Observation Run 2" (O2) data-taking period |date=1 August 2017 |url=http://www.virgo-gw.eu/docs/AdV_joins_O2_en.pdf |publisher=LIGO Scientific Collaboration & VIRGO collaboration |access-date=20 October 2017 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010204215/http://www.virgo-gw.eu/docs/AdV_joins_O2_en.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> to 25 August 2017,<ref name=O3_update>{{cite web |title=Update on the start of LIGO's 3rd observing run |date=24 April 2018 |url=https://www.ligo.org/news/index.php#O3updateApr18 |access-date=31 August 2018 |quote=the start of O3 is currently projected to begin in early 2019. Updates will be provided once the installation phase is complete and the commissioning phase has begun. An update on the engineering run prior to O3 will be provided by late summer 2018.}}</ref> with Livingston achieving 15–25% sensitivity improvement over O1, and with Hanford's sensitivity similar to O1.<ref>{{cite news |title=Advanced LIGO ramps up, with slight improvements |last1=Grant |first1=Andrew |date=12 December 2016 |journal=[[Physics Today]] |issue=11 |quote=The bottom line is that [the sensitivity] is better than it was at the beginning of O1; we expect to get more detections.|doi=10.1063/PT.5.9074 }}</ref> In this period, LIGO saw several further gravitational wave events: [[GW170104]] in January; [[GW170608]] in June; and [[List of gravitational wave observations|five others]] between July and August 2017. Several of these were also detected by the Virgo Collaboration.<ref>[https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-P1800307/public GWTC-1: A Gravitational-Wave Transient Catalog of Compact Binary Mergers Observed by LIGO and Virgo during the First and Second Observing Runs]</ref>{{r|Chu17}}<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/news/ligo20170927 | title=Gravitational waves from a binary black hole merger observed by LIGO and Virgo}}</ref> Unlike the black hole mergers which are only detectable gravitationally, [[GW170817]] came from the [[neutron star collision|collision of two neutron stars]] and was also detected electromagnetically by gamma ray satellites and optical telescopes.<ref name=Chu17>{{cite press release |title=LIGO and Virgo make first detection of gravitational waves produced by colliding neutron stars |url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/press-release-gw170817 |date=16 October 2017 |first=Jennifer |last=Chu |publisher=LIGO}}</ref>

The third run (O3) began on 1 April 2019<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/news/ligo20190502 |title=LIGO and Virgo Detect Neutron Star Smash-Ups}}</ref> and was planned to last until 30 April 2020; in fact it was suspended in March 2020 due to [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]].<ref name="O3suspended"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Observatory Status |url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/observatory-status |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409072730/https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/observatory-status |archive-date=2020-04-09 |url-status=live |work=LIGO |date=2020-03-23 |access-date=2020-06-23}}</ref><ref>Diego Bersanetti: [https://indico.cern.ch/event/577856/contributions/3422625/ Status of the Virgo gravitational-wave detector and the O3 Observing Run], EPS-HEP2019</ref> On 6 January 2020, LIGO announced the detection of what appeared to be gravitational ripples from a collision of two neutron stars, recorded on 25 April 2019, by the LIGO Livingston detector. Unlike GW170817, this event did not result in any light being detected. Furthermore, this is the first published event for a single-observatory detection, given that the LIGO Hanford detector was temporarily offline at the time and the event was too faint to be visible in Virgo's data.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/news/ligo20200106 |title=LIGO-Virgo network catches another neutron star collision}}</ref>

The fourth observing run (O4) was planned to start in December 2022,<ref>{{Cite web |title=LIGO Laboratory statement on long term future observing plans |url=https://www.ligo.caltech.edu/page/ligo-lab-statement-long-term-future-observing-plans |access-date=2022-03-22 |website=LIGO Lab}}</ref> but was postponed until 24 May 2023. O4 is projected to continue until February 2025.<ref name=":1" /> As of O4, the interferometers are operating at a sensitivity of 155-175 Mpc,<ref name=":1" /> within the design sensitivity range of 160-190 Mpc for binary neutron star events.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Prospects for Observing and Localizing Gravitational-Wave Transients with Advanced LIGO, Advanced Virgo and KAGRA |journal=Living Reviews in Relativity |date=24 Nov 2020 |doi=10.1007/s41114-020-00026-9 |arxiv=1304.0670 |last1=Abbott |first1=B. P. |last2=Abbott |first2=R. |last3=Abbott |first3=T. D. |last4=Abraham |first4=S. |last5=Acernese |first5=F. |last6=Ackley |first6=K. |last7=Adams |first7=C. |last8=Adya |first8=V. B. |last9=Affeldt |first9=C. |last10=Agathos |first10=M. |last11=Agatsuma |first11=K. |last12=Aggarwal |first12=N. |last13=Aguiar |first13=O. D. |last14=Aiello |first14=L. |last15=Ain |first15=A. |last16=Ajith |first16=P. |last17=Akutsu |first17=T. |last18=Allen |first18=G. |last19=Allocca |first19=A. |last20=Aloy |first20=M. A. |last21=Altin |first21=P. A. |last22=Amato |first22=A. |last23=Ananyeva |first23=A. |last24=Anderson |first24=S. B. |last25=Anderson |first25=W. G. |last26=Ando |first26=M. |last27=Angelova |first27=S. V. |last28=Antier |first28=S. |last29=Appert |first29=S. |last30=Arai |first30=K. |volume=23 |issue=1 |page=3 |pmid=33015351 |pmc=7520625 |display-authors=1 }}</ref>

The fifth observing run (O5) is projected to begin in late 2025 or in 2026.<ref name=":1" />

==Future==

===LIGO-India===
{{Main|INDIGO}}
[[LIGO-India]], or INDIGO, is a planned collaborative project between the LIGO Laboratory and the Indian Initiative in Gravitational-wave Observations (IndIGO) to create a gravitational-wave detector in India. The LIGO Laboratory, in collaboration with the [[National Science Foundation|US National Science Foundation]] and Advanced LIGO partners from the U.K., Germany and Australia, has offered to provide all of the designs and hardware for one of the three planned Advanced LIGO detectors to be installed, commissioned, and operated by an Indian team of scientists in a facility to be built in India.

The LIGO-India project is a collaboration between LIGO Laboratory and the LIGO-India consortium: Institute of Plasma Research, Gandhinagar; IUCAA (Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics), Pune and Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore.

The expansion of worldwide activities in gravitational-wave detection to produce an effective global network has been a goal of LIGO for many years. In 2010, a developmental roadmap<ref name="gwic2010">{{cite web |title=The future of gravitational wave astronomy |url=https://gwic.ligo.org/roadmap/Roadmap_100814.pdf |publisher=Gravitational Waves International Committee |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-date=30 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170730062043/https://gwic.ligo.org/roadmap/Roadmap_100814.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> issued by the [[Gravitational Wave International Committee|Gravitational Wave International Committee (GWIC)]] recommended that an expansion of the global array of interferometric detectors be pursued as a highest priority. Such a network would afford astrophysicists with more robust search capabilities and higher scientific yields. The current agreement between the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and the Virgo collaboration links three detectors of comparable sensitivity and forms the core of this international network. Studies indicate that the localization of sources by a network that includes a detector in India would provide significant improvements.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://dcc.ligo.org/cgi-bin/DocDB/ShowDocument?docid=90988 |title=Improved Source Localization with LIGO India |journal=Journal of Physics: Conference Series |volume=484 |issue=1 |pages=012007 |date=28 September 2012 |first=Stephen |last=Fairhurst |id=LIGO document P1200054-v6|bibcode=2014JPhCS.484a2007F |arxiv=1205.6611 |doi=10.1088/1742-6596/484/1/012007 |s2cid=118583506 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |arxiv=1102.5421 |title=Networks of Gravitational Wave Detectors and Three Figures of Merit |journal=Classical and Quantum Gravity |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=125023 |date=25 April 2011 |first=Bernard F. |last=Schutz|bibcode = 2011CQGra..28l5023S |doi = 10.1088/0264-9381/28/12/125023 |s2cid=119247573 }}</ref> Improvements in localization averages are predicted to be approximately an order of magnitude, with substantially larger improvements in certain regions of the sky.

The [[National Science Foundation|NSF]] was willing to permit this relocation, and its consequent schedule delays, as long as it did not increase the LIGO budget. Thus, all costs required to build a laboratory equivalent to the LIGO sites to house the detector would have to be borne by the host country.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.gravitycentre.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Science-article-about-LIGO-Australia.pdf |title=U.S. Physicists Eye Australia for New Site of Gravitational-Wave Detector |journal=Science |volume=329 |issue=5995 |page=1003 |first=Adrian |last=Cho |date=27 August 2010 |doi=10.1126/science.329.5995.1003 |bibcode=2010Sci...329.1003C |pmid=20798288 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411020012/http://www.gravitycentre.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Science-article-about-LIGO-Australia.pdf |archive-date=11 April 2013 }}</ref> The first potential distant location was at [[AIGO]] in [[Western Australia]],<ref>{{Citation |url=https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-T1000251/public |title=Report of the Committee to Compare the Scientific Cases for AHLV and HHLV |date=13 May 2010 |id=LIGO document T1000251-v1 |first1=Sam |last1=Finn |first2=Peter |last2=Fritschel |first3=Sergey |last3=Klimenko |first4=Fred |last4=Raab |first5=B. |last5=Sathyaprakash |first6=Peter |last6=Saulson |first7=Rainer |last7=Weiss}}</ref> however the Australian government was unwilling to commit funding by 1 October 2011 deadline.

A location in India was discussed at a Joint Commission meeting between India and the US in June 2012.<ref>[https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2012/06/192271.htm U.S.-India Bilateral Cooperation on Science and Technology] meeting fact sheet – dated 13 June 2012.</ref> In parallel, the proposal was evaluated by LIGO's funding agency, the NSF. As the basis of the LIGO-India project entails the transfer of one of LIGO's detectors to India, the plan would affect work and scheduling on the Advanced LIGO upgrades already underway. In August 2012, the U.S. National Science Board approved the LIGO Laboratory's request to modify the scope of Advanced LIGO by not installing the Hanford "H2" interferometer, and to prepare it instead for storage in anticipation of sending it to LIGO-India.<ref>[https://www.nsf.gov/nsb/meetings/2012/0823/major_actions.pdf Memorandum to Members and Consultants of the National Science Board] – dated 24 August 2012</ref> In India, the project was presented to the [[Department of Atomic Energy]] and the [[Department of Science and Technology (India)|Department of Science and Technology]] for approval and funding. On 17 February 2016, less than a week after LIGO's landmark announcement about the detection of gravitational waves, Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] announced that the Cabinet has granted 'in-principle' approval to the LIGO-India mega science proposal.<ref>{{cite tweet |user=PMOIndia |author=Office of the Prime Minister of India |number=699931256008511492 |title=Cabinet has granted 'in-principle' approval to the LIGO-India mega science proposal for research on gravitational waves. |date=17 February 2016}}</ref>

A site near pilgrimage site of [[Aundha Nagnath]] in the [[Hingoli district]] of state [[Maharashtra]] in [[western India]] has been selected.<ref>{{cite news |title=First LIGO Lab Outside US To Come Up In Maharashtra's Hingoli |url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/first-ligo-lab-outside-us-to-come-up-in-maharashtras-hingoli-1456355 |date=8 September 2016 |journal=[[NDTV]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucaa.in/~li_events/limma_2019/Day3_LIProj_Souradeep_LIMMA2019.pdf|title=LIGO-India: Origins & site search|last=Souradeep|first=Tarun|date=18 January 2019|page=27|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190915091406/https://www.iucaa.in/~li_events/limma_2019/Day3_LIProj_Souradeep_LIMMA2019.pdf|archive-date=15 September 2019|access-date=15 September 2019}}</ref>

On 7 April 2023, the LIGO-India project was approved by the Cabinet of Government of India. Construction is to begin in Maharashtra's Hingoli district at a cost of INR 2600 [[crore]]s.<ref name="approval">{{Cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/cabinet-clears-rs-2600-crore-ligo-india-observatory-to-come-up-in-maharashtra-will-be-part-of-global-network/articleshow/99309532.cms|title = Cabinet clears Rs 2,600-crore LIGO-India; Observatory to come up in Maharashtra, will be part of global network| newspaper=The Times of India |date = 7 April 2023}}</ref>

===A+===
Like Enhanced LIGO, certain improvements will be retrofitted to the existing Advanced LIGO instrument. These are referred to as {{em|A+}} proposals, and are planned for installation starting from 2019 until the upgraded detector is operational in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=297414|title=Upgraded LIGO to search for universe's most extreme events|website=www.nsf.gov|language=en|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref> The changes would almost double Advanced LIGO's sensitivity,<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Prospects for doubling the range of Advanced LIGO |journal=Physical Review D |volume=91 |issue=62005 |pages=062005 |date=16 March 2015 |first1=John |last1=Miller |first2=Lisa |last2=Barsotti |author-link2=Lisa Barsotti|first3=Salvatore |last3=Vitale |first4=Peter |last4=Fritschel |first5=Matthew |last5=Evans |first6=Daniel |last6=Sigg |doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.91.062005 |arxiv=1410.5882 |url=http://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/96149/PhysRevD.91.062005.pdf|bibcode=2015PhRvD..91f2005M |s2cid=18460400 }}</ref><ref>{{cite conference |title=Getting an A+: Enhancing Advanced LIGO |first=Michael E. |last=Zucker |url=https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-G1601435/public |id=LIGO-G1601435-v3 |date=7 July 2016 |conference=LIGO–DAWN Workshop II |conference-url=https://wiki.ligo.org/LSC/LIGOworkshop2016/WebHome}}</ref> and increase the volume of space searched by a factor of seven.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/space/telescopes/a26362135/ligo-gravitational-wave-observatory-update/|title=LIGO Gravitational Wave Observatory Getting $30 Million Upgrade|last=Thompson|first=Avery|website=www.popularmechanics.com|language=en-US|access-date=17 February 2019|date=15 February 2019}}</ref> The upgrades include:
* Improvements to the mirror suspension system.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47213202|title=Black hole detectors to get big upgrade|last=Ghosh|first=Pallab|date=15 February 2019|access-date=17 February 2019|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* Increased reflectivity of the mirrors.
* Using frequency-dependent [[squeezed light]], which would simultaneously decrease [[radiation pressure]] at low frequencies and [[shot noise]] at high frequencies, and
* Improved [[Optical coating|mirror coatings]] with lower mechanical loss.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-T1800042/public|title=LIGO-T1800042-v5: The A+ design curve|website=dcc.ligo.org|access-date=2020-04-09}}</ref>

Because the final LIGO output photodetector is sensitive to phase, and not amplitude, it is possible to squeeze the signal so there is less [[phase noise]] and more amplitude noise, without violating the [[Uncertainty principle|quantum mechanical limit]] on their product.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Quantum Enhanced LIGO Detector Sets New Sensitivity Record |url=http://ligo.org/science/Publication-SqueezedVacuum/index.php}}</ref> This is done by injecting a "squeezed vacuum state" into the dark port (interferometer output) which is quieter, in the relevant parameter, than simple darkness. Such a squeezing upgrade was installed at both LIGO sites prior to the third observing run.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tse|first1=M.|last2=Yu|first2=Haocun|last3=Kijbunchoo|first3=N.|last4=Fernandez-Galiana|first4=A.|last5=Dupej|first5=P.|last6=Barsotti|first6=L.|author-link6=Lisa Barsotti|last7=Blair|first7=C. D.|last8=Brown|first8=D. D.|last9=Dwyer|first9=S. E.|last10=Effler|first10=A.|last11=Evans|first11=M.|date=2019-12-05|title=Quantum-Enhanced Advanced LIGO Detectors in the Era of Gravitational-Wave Astronomy|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=123|issue=23|pages=231107|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.123.231107|pmid=31868462|bibcode=2019PhRvL.123w1107T|doi-access=free|hdl=1721.1/136579.2|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The A+ improvement will see the installation of an additional [[optical cavity]] that acts to rotate the squeezing quadrature from phase-squeezed at high frequencies (above 50 Hz) to amplitude-squeezed at low frequencies, thereby also mitigating low-frequency [[radiation pressure]] noise.

===LIGO Voyager===
A third-generation detector at the existing LIGO sites is being planned under the name "LIGO Voyager" to improve the sensitivity by an additional factor of two, and halve the low-frequency cutoff to 10 Hz.<ref name="ISWP15">{{Cite report|url=https://dcc.ligo.org/LIGO-T1500290/public|title=Instrument Science White Paper|last1=McClelland|first1=David|last2=Evans|first2=Matthew|date=8 October 2015|publisher=LIGO Scientific Collaboration|id=LIGO Document T1500290-v2|last3=Lantz|first3=Brian|last4=Martin|first4=Ian|last5=Quetschke|first5=Volker|last6=Schnabel|first6=Roman}}</ref> Plans call for the glass mirrors and [[Nd:YAG laser|1064 nm lasers]] to be replaced by even larger 160 kg silicon test masses, cooled to 123 K (a temperature achievable with [[liquid nitrogen]]), and a change to a longer laser wavelength in the 1500–2200 nm range at which silicon is transparent. (Many documents assume a wavelength of 1550 nm, but this is not final.)

Voyager would be an upgrade to A+, to be operational around 2027–2028.<ref>{{cite tech report |author=LIGO Scientific Collaboration |title=Instrument Science White Paper |url=https://dcc.ligo.org/public/0113/T1400316/004/T1400316-v5.pdf |id=LIGO-T1400316-v4 |publisher=LIGO |date=2015-02-10 |access-date=2020-06-23}}</ref>

===Cosmic Explorer===
A design for a larger facility with longer arms is called "[[Cosmic Explorer (gravitational wave observatory)|Cosmic Explorer]]". This is based on the LIGO Voyager technology, has a similar LIGO-type L-shape geometry but with 40 km arms. The facility is currently planned to be on the surface. It has a higher sensitivity than [[Einstein Telescope]] for frequencies beyond 10 Hz, but lower sensitivity under 10 Hz.<ref name=ISWP15/>

==See also==
* [[BlackGEM]]
* [[Einstein Telescope]], a European third-generation gravitational wave detector
* [[Einstein@Home]], a volunteer distributed computing program one can download in order to help the LIGO/GEO teams analyze their data
* [[GEO600]], a gravitational wave detector located in Hannover, Germany
* [[Holometer]]
* [[North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves]]
* [[Richard A. Isaacson]]
* [[PyCBC]], an open source software package to help analyze LIGO data
* [[Tests of general relativity]]
* [[Virgo interferometer]], an interferometer located close to Pisa, Italy
* [[Laser Interferometer Space Antenna|Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA)]]
* [[LISA Pathfinder]]
* [[Taiji Program in Space]], a space-based Chinese gravitational wave detector

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="PRL-20160211">{{cite journal |author=Abbott, B.P. |title=Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger |journal=[[Phys. Rev. Lett.]] |volume=116 |issue=6 |pages=061102 |year=2016 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102 |display-authors=etal|arxiv = 1602.03837 |bibcode = 2016PhRvL.116f1102A |pmid=26918975|s2cid=124959784 }}</ref>
<ref name="Nature_11Feb16">{{cite journal |title=Einstein's gravitational waves found at last |journal=Nature News|url=http://www.nature.com/news/einstein-s-gravitational-waves-found-at-last-1.19361 |date=11 February 2016 |last1=Castelvecchi |first1=Davide |last2=Witze |first2=Witze |doi=10.1038/nature.2016.19361 |s2cid=182916902|access-date=11 February 2016 }}</ref>
}}

==References==
{{refbegin|}}
* [[Kip Thorne]], ITP & Caltech. ''[http://online.kitp.ucsb.edu/online/plecture/thorne/ Spacetime Warps and the Quantum: A Glimpse of the Future.]'' Lecture slides and audio
* [[Barry C. Barish]], Caltech. ''[https://cds.cern.ch/record/304956?ln=en The Detection of Gravitational Waves.]'' Video from CERN Academic Training Lectures, 1996
* [[Barry C. Barish]], Caltech. ''[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSPki_1DI38 Einstein's Unfinished Symphony: Sounds from the Distant Universe]'' Video from IHMC Florida Institute for Human Machine Cognition 2004 Evening Lecture Series.
* [[Rainer Weiss]], ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20110721132922/http://www.ligo.caltech.edu/docs/P/P720002-00.pdf Electromagnetically coupled broad-band gravitational wave antenna]'', MIT RLE QPR 1972
* On the detection of low frequency gravitational waves, M.E. Gertsenshtein and V.I. Pustovoit – JETP Vol. 43 pp. 605–607 (August 1962) Note: This is the first paper proposing the use of interferometers for the detection of gravitational waves.
* Wave resonance of light and gravitational waves – M.E. Gertsenshtein – JETP Vol. 41 pp. 113–114 (July 1961)
* Gravitational electromagnetic resonance, V.B. Braginskii, M.B. Mensky – GR.G. Vol. 3 No. 4 pp. 401–402 (1972)
* Gravitational radiation and the prospect of its experimental discovery, V.B. Braginsky – Usp. Fiz. Nauk Vol. 86 pp. 433–446 (July 1965). English translation: Sov. Phys. Uspekhi Vol. 8 No. 4 pp. 513–521 (1966)
* On the electromagnetic detection of gravitational waves, V.B. Braginsky, L.P. Grishchuck, A.G. Dooshkevieh, M.B. Mensky, I.D. Novikov, M.V. Sazhin and Y.B. Zeldovisch – GR.G. Vol. 11 No. 6 pp. 407–408 (1979)
* On the propagation of electromagnetic radiation in the field of a plane gravitational wave, E. Montanari – gr-qc/9806054 (11 June 1998)
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite web|last1=Barish|first1=Barry C.|title=The Science and Detection of Gravitational Waves|url=https://labcit.ligo.caltech.edu/~BCBAct/talks00/Alberta/LakeLouisepaper.PDF | year = 2000}}
* {{cite book | last = Bartusiak | first = Marcia | title = Einstein's unfinished symphony : listening to the sounds of space-time | url = https://archive.org/details/einsteinsunfinis00bart_0 | url-access = registration | publisher = Joseph Henry Press | location = Washington, DC | year = 2000 | isbn = 978-0-425-18620-6 }}
* {{cite book | last = Saulson | first = Peter | title = Fundamentals of interferometric gravitational wave detectors | url = https://archive.org/details/fundamentalsofin0000saul | url-access = registration | publisher = World Scientific | location = Singapore River Edge, NJ | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-981-02-1820-1 }}
* {{cite book | last = Collins | first = Harry M. | title = Gravity's shadow the search for gravitational waves | url = https://archive.org/details/gravitysshadowse0000coll | url-access = registration | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | year = 2004 | isbn = 978-0-226-11378-4 }}
* {{cite book | last = Kennefick | first = Daniel | title = Traveling at the speed of thought : Einstein and the quest for gravitational waves | url = https://archive.org/details/travelingatspeed0000kenn | url-access = registration | publisher = Princeton University Press | location = Princeton, NJ | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-691-11727-0 }}
* [[Janna Levin]] (2016). '' Black hole blues : and other songs from outer space.'' New York: Alfred A. Knopf. {{ISBN|978-0307958198}}
* {{cite book|last=Collins|first=Harry, M.|title=Gravity's kiss: the detection of gravitational waves|publisher=MIT Press|location=Cambridge, MA & London|year=2017|isbn=978-0-262-03618-4}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|ligo}}
{{Commons category}}
* [https://www.ligo.org/magazine/ LIGO Newsletters] Excellent wide-audience newsletters published twice-yearly in March and September. From Issue 1 (September 2012) through to present day.
* [http://ligo.org LIGO Scientific Collaboration] web page
* [http://www.ligo.org/science/outreach.php LIGO outreach] webpage, with links to summaries of the Collaboration's scientific articles, written for a general public audience
* [http://www.ligo.caltech.edu LIGO Laboratory]
* [http://ligonews.blogspot.com LIGO News] blog
* [http://www.livingligo.org Living LIGO] blog: answering questions about LIGO science and being a scientist by LIGO member Amber Stuver
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101107064702/http://www.advancedligo.mit.edu/ Advanced LIGO homepage]
* [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160517170735/http://geco.phys.columbia.edu/ Columbia Experimental Gravity]
* [https://archive.today/20041206082807/http://sciencebulletins.amnh.org/astro/f/gravity.20041101/ American Museum of Natural History film and other materials on LIGO]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060907131305/http://www.ligo.caltech.edu/~ajw/40m_upgrade.html 40 m Prototype]
* [http://www.ligo-wa.caltech.edu/ligo_science/earth_motion.html Earth-Motion studies] A brief discussion of efforts to correct for seismic and human-related activity that contributes to the background signal of the LIGO detectors.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060721201701/http://elmer.tapir.caltech.edu/ph237/CourseMaterials.html Caltech's Physics 237-2002 Gravitational Waves by Kip Thorne] Video plus notes: Graduate level but does not assume knowledge of General Relativity, Tensor Analysis, or Differential Geometry; Part 1: Theory (10 lectures), Part 2: Detection (9 lectures)
* [http://www.black-holes.org/the-science/gravitational-wave-astronomy Caltech Tutorial on Relativity] – An extensive description of gravitational waves and their sources.
* [https://news.mit.edu/2016/rainer-weiss-ligo-origins-0211 Q&A: Rainer Weiss on LIGO's origins] at news.mit.edu
* [http://cerncourier.com/cws/article/cern/64361 LIGO: a strong belief], 2/11/16 CERN Courier Interview with Barry Barish (18 March 2016 publication date).
* {{YouTube|gmmD72cFOU4|Video (3:10): LIGO Orrey (1 December 2018)}}

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Upsilon

2024-12-07T16:25:35Z

Relative Humidity: /* Pronunciation */ Fix usage of templates for IPA

{{short description|Twentieth letter in the Greek alphabet}}
{{Distinguish|Epsilon}}
{{About|the Greek upsilon|the Latin upsilon|ʊ|other uses|Upsilon (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Ypsilon}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{Greek Alphabet|letter=upsilon}}

'''Upsilon''' ({{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|ʌ|p|s|ɪ|ˌ|l|ɒ|n|,_|ˈ|(|j|)|uː|p|-|,_|-|l|ən}}, {{IPAc-en|UK|(|j|)|uː|p|ˈ|s|aɪ|l|ən|,_|ʊ|p|-|,_|-|l|ɒ|n}};<ref name=Chambers>{{cite encyclopedia |title=upsilon |encyclopedia=[[Chambers Dictionary]] |publisher=[[Chambers (publisher)|Chambers]] |year=2003 |edition=9th |isbn=0-550-10105-5}}</ref><ref name=Collins>{{cite encyclopedia |title=upsilon |encyclopedia=[[Collins English Dictionary]] |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |year=2018 |edition=13th |isbn=978-0-008-28437-4}}</ref>{{refn|{{cite Merriam-Webster|access-date=2016-01-22|Upsilon}}}}{{refn|{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Upsilon |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221151730/https://www.lexico.com/definition/upsilon |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-12-21 |title=Upsilon |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} }}{{refn|{{cite Dictionary.com|access-date=2016-01-22|upsilon}}}}<ref>{{cite OED|upsilon}}</ref> uppercase '''Υ''', lowercase '''υ'''; {{langx|el|{{linktext|ύψιλον}}}} ''ýpsilon'' {{IPA-el|ˈipsilon|}}) or '''ypsilon''' {{IPAc-en|I|p|-}}<ref name="Chambers" /> is the twentieth letter of the [[Greek alphabet]]. In the system of [[Greek numerals]], {{langx|grc|Υʹ|label=none}} has a value of 400. It is derived from the [[phoenician alphabet|Phoenician]] [[Waw (letter)|waw]] [[Image:Phoenician waw.svg|20px]].

[[File:NAMA Alphabet grec.jpg|thumb|The Greek alphabet on a [[black figure]] vessel, with a V-shaped upsilon]]

==Etymology==
The name of the letter was originally just "υ" (''y;'' also called ''hy'', hence "[[Hyoid bone|hyoid]]", meaning "shaped like the letter υ"), but the name changed to "υ ψιλόν" ''u psilon'' 'plain υ' to distinguish it from οι, which had come to have the same {{IPA|[y]}} pronunciation.<ref>[[W. Sidney Allen]], ''Vox Graeca'', 3rd ed., Cambridge 1987, p. 69.</ref>

==Pronunciation==
In early [[Attic Greek]] (6th century BCE), it was pronounced {{IPAblink|u|}} (a [[close back rounded vowel]] like the English "long o͞o").<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXYDQwehOVMC&q=upsilon+%22back+vowel%22|title=Greek Writing from Knossos to Homer: A Linguistic Interpretation of the Origin of the Greek Alphabet and the Continuity of Ancient Greek Literacy|first=Roger D.|last=Woodard|date=June 12, 1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195355666|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmHsrNYoe4MC&q=upsilon+%22Close+back+rounded+vowel%22+greek&pg=PA12|title=Introduction to Attic Greek|first=Donald J.|last=Mastronarde|date=February 21, 2013|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520275713|via=Google Books}}</ref> In [[Ancient Greek language|Classical Greek]], it was pronounced {{IPAblink|y|}} (a [[close front rounded vowel]]), at least until 1030.<ref>F. Lauritzen, "Michael the Grammarian's irony about Hypsilon. A step towards reconstructing Byzantine pronunciation", ''Byzantinoslavica'', '''67''' (2009)</ref> In [[Modern Greek]], it is pronounced {{IPA|{{IPAblink|i|}}}}; in the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s {{IPA|αυ}} and {{IPA|[ευ]}}, as {{IPA|[f]}} or {{IPA|[v]}}; and in the digraph {{IPA|[ου]}} as {{IPA|[u]}}. In ancient Greek, it occurred in both [[Ancient Greek phonology#Vowels|long and short]] versions, but Modern Greek does not have a length distinction.

As an initial letter in Classical Greek, it always carried the [[rough breathing]] (equivalent to ''h'') as reflected in the many [[English words of Greek origin|Greek-derived English words]], such as those that begin with ''hyper-'' and ''hypo-''. This rough breathing was derived from an older pronunciation that used a [[Sibilant consonant|sibilant]] instead; this sibilant was not lost in Latin, giving rise to such cognates as ''super-'' (for ''hyper-'') and ''sub-'' (for ''hypo-'').

Upsilon participated as the second element in [[falling diphthong]]s, which have subsequently developed in various ways.

==Correspondence with Latin Y==
[[File:Y-like European letters.svg|thumb|left|[[U (Cyrillic)|Cyrillic '''У''']], [[Y|Latin '''Y''']] and Greek '''Υ''' and '''ϒ''' in [[w:GNU FreeFont|FreeSerif]] – one of the few typefaces that distinguish between the Latin and the Greek form]]

The usage of [[Y]] in Latin dates back to the first century BC. It was used to transcribe loanwords from Greek, so it was not a native sound of Latin and was usually pronounced {{IPA|/u/}} or {{IPA|/i/}}. The latter pronunciation was the most common in the Classical period and was used mostly by uneducated people. The [[Roman Emperor]] [[Claudius]] proposed introducing a [[Claudian letters|new letter]] into the [[Latin alphabet]] to transcribe the so-called ''sonus medius'' (a short vowel before labial consonants), but in inscriptions, the new letter was sometimes used for Greek upsilon instead.

Four letters of the [[Latin alphabet]] arose from it: and [[U]], [[Y]] and, much later, [[V]] and [[W]]. In the [[Cyrillic script]], the letters [[U (Cyrillic)|U]] (У, у) and [[izhitsa]] (Ѵ, ѵ) arose from it.

In some languages, including [[German language|German]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], the name ''upsilon'' (''Ypsilon'' in German, ''ípsilon'' in Portuguese) is used to refer to the Latin letter '''Y''' as well as the Greek letter. In some other languages, the (Latin) Y is referred to as a "Greek I" (''i griega'' in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], ''i grec'' in [[French language|French]]), also noting its Greek origin.

== Usage ==
* In [[particle physics]] the capital Greek letter ϒ denotes an [[Upsilon particle]]. Note that the symbol should always look like <math>\,\Upsilon</math> in order to avoid confusion with a Latin Y denoting the [[hypercharge]]. This may be done either with a font such as FreeSerif or with the dedicated Unicode character U+03D2 ϒ.
* Automobile manufacturer [[Lancia]] has a model called the [[Lancia Ypsilon|Ypsilon]].
* In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], the symbol {{angbr IPA|ʋ}} is used to represent a [[labiodental approximant]].
* In [[astrophysics]] and [[physical cosmology]], ϒ refers to the [[mass-to-light ratio]].<ref>Mihalas and McRae (1968), ''Galactic Astronomy'' (W. H. Freeman)</ref>
* In [[statistics]], it is sometimes used instead of v or nu to indicate [[degrees of freedom (statistics)|degrees of freedom]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Probability and Statistics for Scientists and Engineers|edition=9th|year=2017|last = Walpole|first=Ronald}}</ref>
* In the Farsi language, “one Upsilon” is used to describe a positive amount close to 0 (zero){{cn|date=November 2024}}

===Similar appearance===
* A similar symbol [[File:Aries.svg|20px]] (Unicode ♈ U+2648) is used for the [[astrological sign]] of [[Aries (astrology)|Aries]].

==Symbolism==
[[File:Geoffrey Tory Ypsilon.jpg|thumb|[[Geoffroy Tory]] Ypsilon]]
Upsilon is known as Pythagoras' letter, or the Samian letter, because [[Pythagoras]] used it as an emblem of the path of virtue or vice.<ref>Brewer, Ebenezer Cobham. ''The reader's handbook of famous names in fiction, allusions, references, proverbs, plots, stories, and poems'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=n3kjAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA956&q=%22samian%20letter%22 Vol. 2, p. 956]. Lippincott, 1899.</ref> As the Roman writer [[Persius]] wrote in ''Satire III'':
{{quote|and the letter which spreads out into Pythagorean branches has pointed out to you the steep path which rises on the right.<ref>{{cite book|author=Persius|title=Satires|year=1920|url=https://archive.org/stream/juvenalpersiuswi00juveuoft/juvenalpersiuswi00juveuoft_djvu.txt|author-link=Persius}}</ref>}}
[[Lactantius]], an early Christian author (ca. 240 – ca. 320), refers to this:
{{quote|For they say that the course of human life resembles the letter Y, because every one of men, when he has reached the threshold of early youth, and has arrived at the place "where the way divides itself into two parts," is in doubt, and hesitates, and does not know to which side he should rather turn himself.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lactatius|title=The Divine Institutes|pages=Book VI Chapter III|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Ante-Nicene_Fathers/Volume_VII/Lactantius/The_Divine_Institutes/Book_VI/Chap._III|author-link=Lactantius}}</ref>}}

==Character encodings==
Upsilon and Coptic Ua characters.<ref>Unicode Code Charts: [https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U0370.pdf Greek and Coptic (Range: 0370-03FF)]</ref>

* {{unichar|01B1|html=}}
* {{unichar|028A|html=}}
* {{unichar|038E|html=}}
* {{unichar|03A5|html=}}
* {{unichar|03AB|html=}}
* {{unichar|03B0|html=}}
* {{unichar|03C5|html=}}
* {{unichar|03CB|html=}}
* {{unichar|03CD|html=}}
* {{unichar|03D2|html=}}
* {{unichar|03D3|html=}}
* {{unichar|03D4|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D7F|html=}}
* {{unichar|1DB7|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F50|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F51|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F52|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F53|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F54|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F55|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F56|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F57|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F59|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F5B|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F5D|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F5F|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F7A|html=}}
* {{unichar|1F7B|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FE0|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FE1|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FE2|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FE3|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FE6|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FE7|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FE8|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FE9|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FEA|html=}}
* {{unichar|1FEB|html=}}
* {{unichar|2CA8|html=}}
* {{unichar|2CA9|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D6BC|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D6D6|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D6F6|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D710|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D730|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D74A|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D76A|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D784|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D7A4|html=}}
* {{unichar|1D7BE|html=}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|Υ|υ}}
{{Commons category}}
* {{cite web|last=Merrifield|first=Michael|title=Υ – Mass to Light Ratio|url=http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/masstolight.htm|work=Sixty Symbols|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]]|year=2009}}

[[Category:Greek letters]]
[[Category:Vowel letters]]

Birger Mörner

2024-09-28T22:02:21Z

Relative Humidity: fix typo

{{Short description|Swedish writer and collector}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Birger Mörner
|image = NM.0300430.jpg
|caption = Mörner in 1917
|birth_date = May 3, 1867
|birth_place =
|death_date = {{death date and age|1930|3|10|1867|5|3}}
|death_place =
|other_names =
|known_for =
|occupation =
}}

'''Karl Birger Mörner''' (May 3, 1867 – March 10, 1930) was a Swedish diplomat, author, and book collector.

==Early life==
Mörner studied at universities in Uppsala and Lund. He graduated with a law degree from the [[Uppsala University|University of Uppsala]] in 1893 and began career as a civil servant.<ref name="ed">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article175380767 |title=BOXING. |newspaper=[[Punch]] |volume=CV, |issue=2682 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=20 December 1906 |accessdate=29 September 2024 |page=41 |via=National Library of Australia}} </ref>

==Career==
He joined the Swedish-Norwegian Consulate General in Helsinki in 1899.<ref name="BM">{{cite web | last=Buschmann | first=Rainer F. | title=Diplomat, Travel Writer, and Ethnographic Collector | website=New Guinea & Oceanic Tribal Art for sale | date=2014-12-20 | url=https://oceanicart.com/PROVENANCE/Birger-Moerner/1/ | access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> He moved through positions in Genoa, Barcelona, Constantinople, and Sydney, Australia where he was the first career diplomat from Sweden, arriving in Australia in 1906.<ref name="ed" /><ref name="fin">{{cite book |title=Scandinavian emigration to Australia and New Zealand project |date=1983 |publisher=Institute of Migration |location=Turku, Finland |isbn=9519266259 |page=90 |url=https://archive.org/details/scandinavianemig0000unse/page/90/mode/2up |access-date=28 September 2024}}</ref> While in Australia he was foundational in the creation of the Wild Life Preservation Society of Australia and was a member of the Royal Zoological Society.<ref name="WPA">{{cite web | title=Australian Wildlife Society | website=About us | date=1909-05-11 | url=https://www.aws.org.au/about-us/ | access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref><ref name="nature">{{cite journal |title=Australia Preservation |journal=Nature |date=January 1931 |volume=17 |issue=1 |page=3 |url=https://archive.org/details/nature-magazine_1931-01_17_1/page/2/mode/2up |access-date=28 September 2024}}</ref> He "discovered" a species of fish which ate mosquito larva, exported some of them to Italy and received a decoration from the King of Italy.<ref name=fish">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article93272117 |title=FISH TO KILL MALARIA. |newspaper=[[The Colac Herald]] |volume=XLI, |issue=3923 |location=Victoria, Australia |date=17 January 1908 |accessdate=29 September 2024 |page=8 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref><ref name="fish2">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article28148400 |title=MOSQUITO-EATING FISHES. |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |issue=21,998 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=18 July 1908 |accessdate=29 September 2024 |page=6 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> He befriended many European inhabitants of [[German New Guinea]] and frequently traveled there while at his post.

Mörner was recalled in 1910 for opposing Scandinavian emigration which created furor in the press at the time.<ref name="no">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article163287108 |title="DON'T GO TO AUSTRALIA." |newspaper=[[The Sydney Mail And New South Wales Advertiser]] |volume=LXXXVII, |issue=2466 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=10 February 1909 |accessdate=29 September 2024 |page=9 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref><ref name="hellno">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article128663250 |title=Count Morner Angry. |newspaper=[[The Scrutineer And Berrima District Press]] |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=23 March 1910 |accessdate=29 September 2024 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> In response to the postcards by a group called 'The Immigration League of Australasia.' touting the benefits of the location, Mörner claimed that "the climate was absolutely unhealthy for Scandinavians, and that there is no country on earth where individual enterprise, work, and freedom of competition are so restricted by laws."<ref name="no" /> The [[The Evening News (Sydney)|Sydney Evening News]] called him "a gentleman who might be a very good Consul, but a very poor immigrant."<ref name="SEN">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article116057685 |title=COUNT MORNER AND IMMIGRATION. |newspaper=[[Evening News]] |issue=13,350 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=24 March 1910 |accessdate=29 September 2024 |page=3 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> He returned home where he resumed writing, publishing two novels and collections of poems.

In 1912, he purchased Mauritzberg Castle. He wrote the novel ''Bråvallhus'' while residing there, a romantic version of the house's history.<ref name="s848">{{cite web | title=The fascinating 400-year history of Mauritzberg´s Manor House in Sweden | website=Mauritzberg | date=2020-04-26 | url=https://mauritzberg.se/about-us/history-of-mauritzberg/?lang=en | access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> He sold the castle in 1918. He pursued travel writing and worked translating authors, including Jack London, into the Swedish language but was fired by his publisher for taking too many liberties with the original texts.<ref name="p602">{{cite web | title=Söderhavs-berättelser : London, Jack, 1876-1916 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive | website=Internet Archive | date=2016-10-23 | url=https://archive.org/details/sderhavsbert00lond/page/n3/mode/2up | access-date=2024-09-28}}</ref> He socialized with many European artists including [[August Strindberg]], Adolf Paul, and [[Rainer Maria Rilke]].<ref name="strin">{{cite book |last1=Strindberg |first1=August |title=Strindberg's Letters |date=1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=0226777251 |url=https://archive.org/details/strindbergslette0002stri/page/448/mode/2up |access-date=28 September 2024}}</ref><ref name="rilk">{{cite book |title=Studies in German literature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill |page=190 |url=https://archive.org/details/studiesingermanl00chap/page/190/mode/2up |access-date=28 September 2024}}</ref><ref name="sib">{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Harold |title=Silbelius |date=1959 |publisher=Faber & Faber |location=London |page=132 |url=https://archive.org/details/bwb_KT-518-758/page/132/mode/2up |access-date=28 September 2024}}</ref>

Mörner's works included poetry and historical novels and has been critiqued as having anti-semitic undertones.<ref name="anti">{{cite book |last1=Heß |first1=Cordelia |title=The Medieval Archive of Antisemitism in Nineteenth-Century Sweden |date=2021 |publisher=De Gruyter |isbn=9783110757408 |pages=122-124 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110757408/html |access-date=28 September 2024}}</ref>

==Mörner Collection==
While in Australia, Mörner assembled "a rich ethnographic collection," took many photographs, and wrote a travelogue about his time there, ''Aráfis tropiska år'' in 1914. He traveled extensively to the islands of [[Wuvulu Island|Wuvulu]] and [[Aua Island|Aua]]. While engaging in trading iron items for local artifacts, he was also somewhat critical of the German government "for their colonial intervention in the Pacific" and mildly lamented their encroachment into areas populated by indigenous people.<ref name="BM" /> As Germany moved into more of the area prior to World War One, Mörner returned home with over 1500 items. His collection was referred to in the press as "the last significant collection returned from German New Guinea before the fall of the colony during the First World War."<ref name="BM" />

He collected many old, rare, and eye-catching books. His book collection is held at the Örebro University Library. It consists of approximately 8000 books including some [[Incunable|incunabula]].<ref name="BM1">{{cite web | title=The Birger Mörner Collection | website=Örebro University | date=2023-12-01 | url=https://www.oru.se/university-library/find-and-borrow-material/find-material/special-collections/the-birger-morner-collection/ | access-date=2024-09-27}}</ref> The collection of his materials also contains correspondence with many European culture personalities as well as photographs and paintings.

==Family and legacy==
Mörner was married three times. The first time to Anna Elisabeth Brink in 1893 with whom he had three children; the couple divorced in 1908. The second time to Helene White in 1910; the couple divorced in 1913.<ref name=2nd">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17724854 |title=Family Notices |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |issue=32,203 |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=15 March 1941 |accessdate=29 September 2024 |page=14 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref><ref name=2ndb">{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article188095123 |title=AN AUSTRALIAN MARRIAGE. |newspaper=[[The Armidale Chronicle]] |location=New South Wales, Australia |date=2 July 1910 |accessdate=29 September 2024 |page=4 |via=National Library of Australia}}</ref> The third time to Gertrud Anstrin with whom he had one child. He had four children including Latin American historian Magnus Mörner and book artist and opera singer Marianne Mörner.<ref name="magnus">{{cite journal | last=Lundberg | first=Magnus | title=Magnus Mörner (1924–2012) | journal=Hispanic American Historical Review | publisher=Duke University Press | volume=92 | issue=4 | date=2012-11-01 | issn=0018-2168 | doi=10.1215/00182168-1728008 | pages=742–744}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://www.oru.se/university-library/find-and-borrow-material/find-material/special-collections/the-birger-morner-collection/ The Birger Mörner Collection]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mörner, Birger}}
[[Category:1867 births]]
[[Category:1930 deaths]]
[[Category:Swedish writers]]

History of Earth

2024-08-14T21:57:57Z

Relative Humidity: Lead: remove overly specific sentence on emerging research. An identical sentence is already present later in the article.

{{Short description|Development of planet Earth from its formation to the present day}}
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[[File:Geologic Clock with events and periods.svg|upright=2.2|thumb|Earth's history with time-spans of the [[geologic time scale|eons]] to scale. [[Year#Abbreviations yr and ya|Ma]]<nowiki/>means "million years ago".]]
The '''history of Earth''' concerns the development of [[planet]] [[Earth]] from its formation to the present day.{{r|Stanley2005|TimeScale}} Nearly all branches of [[natural science]] have contributed to understanding of the main events of Earth's past, characterized by constant [[geology|geological]] change and biological [[evolution]].

The [[Geologic time scale|geological time scale]] (GTS), as defined by international convention,<ref>"International Stratigraphic Chart". International Commission on Stratigraphy</ref> depicts the large spans of time from the beginning of the Earth to the present, and its divisions chronicle some definitive events of Earth history. Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago, approximately one-third the [[age of the universe]], by [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]] from the [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System#Formation of the planets|solar nebula]].<ref name="USGS1997" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Dalrymple |first=G. Brent |author-link=Brent Dalrymple |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Special Publications, Geological Society of London |date=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–221 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D |s2cid=130092094}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Manhesa |first1=Gérard |last2=Allègre |first2=Claude J. |last3=Dupréa |first3=Bernard |last4=Hamelin |first4=Bruno |name-list-style=amp |title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics |journal=[[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |date=1980 |volume=47 |issue= 3 |pages=370–382 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2 |bibcode=1980E&PSL..47..370M}}</ref> Volcanic [[outgassing]] probably created the primordial [[atmosphere]] and then the ocean, but the early atmosphere contained almost no [[oxygen]]. Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme volcanism. While the Earth was in its earliest stage ([[Early Earth]]), a giant impact collision with a planet-sized body named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]] is thought to have formed the Moon. Over time, the Earth cooled, causing the formation of a solid [[crust (geology)|crust]], and allowing liquid water on the surface.

The [[Hadean]] eon represents the time before a reliable (fossil) record of life; it began with the formation of the planet and ended 4.0 billion years ago. The following [[Archean]] and [[Proterozoic]] eons produced the [[Abiogenesis|beginnings of life]] on Earth and its earliest [[evolution]]. The succeeding eon is the [[Phanerozoic]], divided into three eras: the [[Palaeozoic]], an era of arthropods, fishes, and the first life on land; the [[Mesozoic]], which spanned the rise, reign, and climactic extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs; and the [[Cenozoic]], which saw the rise of mammals. Recognizable humans emerged at most 2 million years ago, a vanishingly small period on the geological scale.

The [[Earliest known life forms|earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth]] dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago,<ref name="Origin1">{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |author-link1=J. William Schopf |last2=Kudryavtsev |first2=Anatoliy B. |last3=Czaja |first3=Andrew D. |last4=Tripathi |first4=Abhishek B. |date=5 October 2007 |title=Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils |journal=[[Precambrian Research]] |location=Amsterdam |publisher=Elsevier |volume=158 |pages=141–155 |issue=3–4 |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009 |issn=0301-9268|bibcode = 2007PreR..158..141S }}</ref><ref name="Origin2">{{cite journal |last=Schopf |first=J. William |date=29 June 2006 |title=Fossil evidence of Archaean life |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] |location=London |publisher=[[Royal Society]] |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=869–885 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1834 |issn=0962-8436 |pmid=16754604 |pmc=1578735}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Raven |first1=Peter H. |author1-link=Peter H. Raven |last2=Johnson |first2=George B. |author2-link=George B. Johnson |year=2002 |title=Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/biologyrave00rave|url-access=registration |edition=6th |location=Boston, MA |publisher=[[McGraw Hill Education|McGraw Hill]] |isbn=978-0-07-112261-0 |lccn=2001030052 |oclc=45806501 |page=[https://archive.org/details/biologyrave00rave/page/68 68]}}</ref> during the [[Eoarchean]] Era, after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten [[Hadean]] [[Geologic time scale|Eon]]. There are [[microbial mat]] [[fossil]]s such as [[stromatolites]] found in 3.48 billion-year-old [[sandstone]] discovered in [[Western Australia]].<ref name="AP-20131113">{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |date=13 November 2013 |title=Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20131113/DAA1VSC01.html |work=[[Excite (web portal)|Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |access-date=2015-06-02}}</ref><ref name="TG-20131113-JP">{{cite news |last=Pearlman |first=Jonathan |date=13 November 2013 |title=Oldest signs of life on Earth found |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10445788/Oldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10445788/Oldest-signs-of-life-on-Earth-found.html |archive-date=2022-01-11 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |access-date=2014-12-15}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name="AST-20131108">{{cite journal |last1=Noffke |first1=Nora |author1-link=Nora Noffke |last2=Christian |first2=Daniel |last3=Wacey |first3=David |last4=Hazen |first4=Robert M. |author-link4=Robert Hazen |date=16 November 2013 |title=Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ''ca.'' 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia |journal=[[Astrobiology (journal)|Astrobiology]] |location=New Rochelle, NY |publisher=[[Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.]] |volume=13 |issue=12 |pages=1103–1124 |bibcode=2013AsBio..13.1103N |doi=10.1089/ast.2013.1030 |issn=1531-1074 |pmc=3870916 |pmid=24205812}}</ref> Other early physical evidence of a [[biogenic substance]] is [[graphite]] in 3.7 billion-year-old [[Metasediment|metasedimentary rocks]] discovered in southwestern [[Greenland]]<ref name="NG-20131208">{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |location=London |publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894}}</ref> as well as "remains of [[biotic life]]" found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia.<ref name="AP-20151019">{{cite news |last=Borenstein |first=Seth |title=Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |date=19 October 2015 |work=[[Excite (web portal)|Excite]] |location=Yonkers, NY |publisher=[[Mindspark Interactive Network]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023200248/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |archive-date=23 October 2015 |access-date=8 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="PNAS-20151014-pdf">{{cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Elizabeth A. |last2=Boehnike |first2=Patrick |last3=Harrison |first3=T. Mark |last4=Mao |first4=Wendy L. |display-authors=3 |date=19 October 2015 |title=Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2015/10/14/1517557112.full.pdf |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.]] |location=Washington, DC |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517557112 |issn=1091-6490 |access-date=2015-10-20 |pages=14518–14521 |pmid=26483481 |pmc=4664351 |volume=112|issue=47 |bibcode = 2015PNAS..11214518B |doi-access=free}} Early edition, published online before print.</ref> According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth … then it could be common in the [[universe]]."<ref name="AP-20151019" />

[[Photosynthetic]] organisms appeared between 3.2 and 2.4 billion years ago and began enriching the atmosphere with oxygen. [[Life]] remained mostly small and microscopic until about [[Timeline of human evolution#Unicellular life|580 million years ago]], when complex [[multicellular life]] arose, developed over time, and culminated in the [[Cambrian Explosion]] about 538.8 million years ago. This sudden diversification of life forms produced most of the major phyla known today, and divided the Proterozoic Eon from the Cambrian Period of the Paleozoic Era. It is estimated that 99 percent of all species that ever lived on Earth, over five billion,<ref name="Book-Biology">{{cite book |editor1-last=Kunin |editor1-first=W.E. |editor2-last=Gaston |editor2-first=Kevin |title=The Biology of Rarity: Causes and consequences of rare–common differences
|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=4LHnCAAAQBAJ|page=110}} |year=1996 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-412-63380-5 |access-date=26 May 2015}}</ref> have gone [[Extinction|extinct]].<ref name="StearnsStearns2000">{{cite book |last1=Stearns |first1=Beverly Peterson |last2=Stearns |first2=S.C. |last3=Stearns |first3=Stephen C. |title=Watching, from the Edge of Extinction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0BHeC-tXIB4C|year=2000 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-08469-6|page=preface x}}</ref><ref name="NYT-20141108-MJN">{{cite news |last=Novacek |first=Michael J. |title=Prehistory's Brilliant Future |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/09/opinion/sunday/prehistorys-brilliant-future.html |date=8 November 2014 |work=[[New York Times]] |access-date=2014-12-25 }}</ref> Estimates on the number of Earth's current [[species]] range from 10 million to 14 million,<ref name="MillerSpoolman2012">{{cite book |author1-first=G. |author1-last=Miller |author2-first=Scott |author2-last=Spoolman |title=Environmental Science – Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the Earth's Natural Capital |url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=NYEJAAAAQBAJ|page=62}} |date=2012 |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |isbn=978-1-133-70787-5 |page=62 |access-date=2014-12-27}}</ref> of which about 1.2 million are documented, but over 86 percent have not been described.<ref name="PLoS-20110823">{{cite journal |last1=Mora |first1=C. |last2=Tittensor |first2=D.P. |last3=Adl |first3=S. |last4=Simpson |first4=A.G. |last5=Worm |first5=B. |title=How many species are there on Earth and in the ocean? |date=23 August 2011 |journal=[[PLOS Biology]] |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |pmid=21886479 |pmc=3160336 |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=e1001127 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The Earth's crust has constantly changed since its formation, as has life since its first appearance. Species continue to [[evolution|evolve]], taking on new forms, splitting into daughter species, or going extinct in the face of ever-changing physical environments. The process of [[plate tectonics]] continues to shape the Earth's continents and oceans and the life they harbor.
{{TOC limit|3}}

== Eons ==
In [[geochronology]], time is generally measured in [[myr|mya]] (million years ago), each unit representing the period of approximately 1,000,000 years in the past. The history of Earth is divided into four great [[eon (geology)|eons]], starting 4,540 mya with the formation of the planet. Each eon saw the most significant changes in Earth's composition, climate and life. Each eon is subsequently divided into [[era (geology)|eras]], which in turn are divided into [[period (geology)|periods]], which are further divided into [[epoch (geology)|epochs]].
{|class="wikitable"
! Eon
! Time (mya)
! Description
|-
| [[Hadean]]
| 4,540–4,000
| The Earth is formed out of debris around the solar [[protoplanetary disk]]. There is no life. Temperatures are extremely hot, with frequent volcanic activity and hellish-looking environments (hence the eon's name, which comes from [[Hades]]). The atmosphere is nebular. Possible early oceans or bodies of liquid water. The Moon is formed around this time probably due to a [[Giant-impact hypothesis|protoplanet's collision into Earth]].
|-
| [[Archean]]
| 4,000–2,500
| [[Prokaryote]] life, the first form of life, emerges at the very beginning of this eon, in a process known as [[abiogenesis]]. The continents of [[Ur (continent)|Ur]], [[Vaalbara]] and [[Kenorland]] may have existed around this time. The atmosphere is composed of volcanic and greenhouse gases.
|-
| [[Proterozoic]]
| 2,500–538.8
| The name of this eon means "early life". [[Eukaryote]]s, a more complex form of life, emerge, including some forms of [[multicellular organism]]s. [[Bacteria]] begin producing oxygen, shaping the third and current of Earth's atmospheres. Plants, later animals and possibly earlier forms of fungi form around this time. The early and late phases of this eon may have undergone "[[Snowball Earth]]" periods, in which all of the planet suffered below-zero temperatures. The early continents of [[Columbia (supercontinent)|Columbia]], [[Rodinia]] and [[Pannotia]], in that order, may have existed in this eon.
|-
| [[Phanerozoic]]
| 538.8–present
| [[Complex life]], including [[vertebrate]]s, begin to dominate the Earth's ocean in a process known as the [[Cambrian explosion]]. [[Pangaea]] forms and later dissolves into [[Laurasia]] and [[Gondwana]], which in turn dissolve into the current continents. Gradually, life expands to land and familiar forms of plants, animals and fungi begin appearing, including annelids, insects and reptiles, hence the eon's name, which means "visible life". Several [[mass extinction]]s occur, among which birds, the descendants of non-avian dinosaurs, and more recently mammals emerge. Modern animals—[[human evolution|including humans]]—evolve at the most recent phases of this eon.
|-
|}

==Geologic time scale==
{{Main|Geologic time scale}}
The history of the Earth can be organized chronologically according to the [[geologic time scale]], which is split into intervals based on [[stratigraphy|stratigraphic]] analysis.{{r|TimeScale|shortTimeScale}}
{{Timeline Geological Timescale}}

==Solar System formation==
{{Main|Formation and evolution of the Solar System}}
{{See also|Planetary differentiation}}
[[File:Protoplanetary-disk.jpg|thumb|right|350px|An artist's rendering of a [[protoplanetary disk]]]]
The standard model for the formation of the [[Solar System]] (including the [[Earth]]) is the [[Nebular hypothesis|solar nebula hypothesis]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Encrenaz |first=T.|author-link=Thérèse Encrenaz |title=The solar system |date=2004 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |isbn=978-3-540-00241-3 |page=89 |edition=3rd}}</ref> In this model, the Solar System formed from a large, rotating cloud of interstellar dust and gas called the [[solar nebula]]. It was composed of [[hydrogen]] and [[helium]] created [[Recombination (cosmology)|shortly after]] the [[Big Bang]] 13.8 [[Gigaannum#SI prefix multipliers|Ga]] (billion years ago) and heavier [[chemical element|elements]] ejected by [[supernovae]]. About 4.5 [[A (year)|Ga]], the nebula began a contraction that may have been triggered by the [[shock wave]] from a nearby [[supernova]].{{r|Matson}} A shock wave would have also made the nebula rotate. As the cloud began to accelerate, its [[angular momentum]], [[Gravitation|gravity]], and [[inertia]] flattened it into a [[protoplanetary disk]] perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Small [[Perturbation (astronomy)|perturbations]] due to collisions and the angular momentum of other large debris created the means by which kilometer-sized [[protoplanet]]s began to form, orbiting the nebular center.<ref name=Goldreich1973>{{cite journal |author=P. Goldreich |author2=W.R. Ward |title=The Formation of Planetesimals |journal=[[Astrophysical Journal]] |date=1973 |volume=183 |pages=1051–1062 |bibcode=1973ApJ...183.1051G |doi=10.1086/152291|doi-access= }}</ref>

The center of the nebula, not having much angular momentum, collapsed rapidly, the compression heating it until [[nuclear fusion]] of hydrogen into helium began. After more contraction, a [[T Tauri star]] ignited and evolved into the [[Sun]]. Meanwhile, in the outer part of the nebula gravity caused [[matter]] to condense around density perturbations and dust particles, and the rest of the protoplanetary disk began separating into rings. In a process known as runaway [[accretion (astrophysics)|accretion]], successively larger fragments of dust and debris clumped together to form planets.<ref name=Goldreich1973/> Earth formed in this manner about 4.54 billion years ago (with an [[Measurement uncertainty|uncertainty]] of 1%){{r|age_earth1c|age_of_earth_faq|USGS1997}} and was largely completed within 10–20 million years.{{r|Yin}} In June 2023, scientists reported evidence that the planet Earth may have formed in just three million years, much faster than the 10−100 million years thought earlier.<ref name="WP-202130616">{{cite news |last=Patel |first=Kasha |title=Scientists have a controversial theory for how — and how fast — Earth formed |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/06/16/earth-formation-pebble-accretion-theory/ |date=16 June 2023 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20230617115127/https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2023/06/16/earth-formation-pebble-accretion-theory/ |archivedate=17 June 2023 |accessdate=17 June 2023 }}</ref><ref name="NAT-20230614">{{cite journal |author=Onyett, Isaac J. |display-authors=et al.|title=Silicon isotope constraints on terrestrial planet accretion |date=14 June 2023 |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=619 |issue=7970 |pages=539–544 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06135-z |pmid=37316662 |s2cid=259161680 |pmc=10356600 |bibcode=2023Natur.619..539O }}</ref> Nonetheless, the [[solar wind]] of the newly formed T Tauri star cleared out most of the material in the disk that had not already condensed into larger bodies. The same process is expected to produce [[accretion disks]] around virtually all newly forming stars in the universe, some of which yield [[Extrasolar planet|planets]].{{r|Kokubo2002}}

The proto-Earth grew by accretion until its interior was hot enough to melt the heavy, [[siderophile element|siderophile]] [[metal]]s. Having higher [[density|densities]] than the silicates, these metals sank. This so-called ''[[iron catastrophe]]'' resulted in the separation of a [[primitive mantle]] and a (metallic) core only 10 million years after the Earth began to form, producing the layered [[Structure of the Earth|structure of Earth]] and setting up the formation of [[Earth's magnetic field]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Charles |last=Frankel |date=1996 |title=Volcanoes of the Solar System |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=7–8 |isbn=978-0-521-47770-3}}</ref> J.A. Jacobs <ref>{{cite journal |first=J.A. |last=Jacobs |title=The Earth's inner core |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=172 |issue=4372 |pages=297–298 |date=1953 |doi=10.1038/172297a0 |bibcode=1953Natur.172..297J |s2cid=4222938}}</ref> was the first to suggest that [[Earth's inner core]]—a solid center distinct from the liquid [[Earth's outer core|outer core]]—is [[Earth's inner core#Growth|freezing]] and growing out of the liquid outer core due to the gradual cooling of Earth's interior (about 100 degrees Celsius per billion years<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Hunen |first1=J. |last2=van den Berg |first2=A.P. |title=Plate tectonics on the early Earth: Limitations imposed by strength and buoyancy of subducted lithosphere |journal=[[Lithos (journal)|Lithos]] |volume=103 |issue=1–2 |pages=217–235 |date=2007 |doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2007.09.016 |bibcode=2008Litho.103..217V}}</ref>).

== Hadean and Archean Eons ==
{{Main|Hadean|Archean}}
[[File:Earth formation.jpg|thumb|right|Artist's conception of [[Hadean Eon]] Earth, when it was much hotter and inhospitable to all forms of life.]]
The first [[eon (geology)|eon]] in Earth's history, the ''Hadean'', begins with the Earth's formation and is followed by the ''Archean'' eon at 3.8 Ga.{{r|TimeScale|page1=145}} The oldest rocks found on Earth date to about 4.0 Ga, and the oldest [[detrital]] [[zircon]] crystals in rocks to about 4.4 Ga,{{r|nature1|Lindsey|Cavosie}} soon after the formation of the Earth's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] and the Earth itself. The [[giant impact hypothesis]] for the Moon's formation states that shortly after formation of an initial crust, the proto-Earth was impacted by a smaller protoplanet, which ejected part of the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] and crust into space and created the Moon.{{r|belbruno|Carsten|moonwalk}}

From [[crater count]]s on other celestial bodies, it is inferred that a period of intense meteorite impacts, called the ''[[Late Heavy Bombardment]]'', began about 4.1 Ga, and concluded around 3.8 Ga, at the end of the Hadean.{{r|space.com-bombardment}} In addition, volcanism was severe due to the large [[heat flow]] and [[geothermal gradient]].{{r|Green}} Nevertheless, detrital zircon crystals dated to 4.4 Ga show evidence of having undergone contact with liquid water, suggesting that the Earth already had oceans or seas at that time.{{r|nature1}}

By the beginning of the Archean, the Earth had cooled significantly. Present life forms could not have survived at Earth's surface, because the Archean atmosphere lacked [[oxygen]] hence had no [[ozone layer]] to block ultraviolet light. Nevertheless, it is believed that primordial life began to evolve by the early Archean, with candidate [[fossil]]s dated to around 3.5 Ga.{{r|Taylor-2006}} Some scientists even speculate that life could have begun during the early Hadean, as far back as 4.4 Ga, surviving the possible Late Heavy Bombardment period in [[hydrothermal vents]] below the Earth's surface.{{r|reuters1}}

=== Formation of the Moon ===
{{Main|Moon|Origin of the Moon|Giant-impact hypothesis}}
[[File:Artist's concept of collision at HD 172555.jpg|thumb|right|Artist's impression of the enormous collision that probably formed the Moon]]
Earth's only [[natural satellite]], the Moon, is larger relative to its planet than any other satellite in the Solar System.{{#tag:ref|[[Pluto]]'s satellite [[Charon (moon)|Charon]] is relatively larger,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/ |title=Space Topics: Pluto and Charon |publisher=The Planetary Society |access-date=6 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218223842/http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/pluto/ |archive-date=18 February 2012}}</ref> but Pluto is defined as a [[dwarf planet]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Pluto |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021216191657/http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Pluto |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 December 2002 |title=Pluto: Overview |work=Solar System Exploration |publisher=[[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] |access-date=19 April 2012}}</ref>|group=nb}} During the [[Apollo program]], rocks from the Moon's surface were brought to Earth. [[Radiometric dating]] of these rocks shows that the Moon is 4.53 ± 0.01 billion years old,{{r|Kleine}} formed at least 30 million years after the Solar System.{{r|Halliday}} New evidence suggests the Moon formed even later, 4.48 ± 0.02 Ga, or 70–110 million years after the start of the Solar System.{{r|halliday-2008}}

Theories for the formation of the Moon must explain its late formation as well as the following facts. First, the Moon has a low density (3.3 times that of water, compared to 5.5 for the Earth{{r|earth_fact_sheet}}) and a small metallic core. Second, the Earth and Moon have the same oxygen [[isotopic signature]] (relative abundance of the oxygen isotopes). Of the theories proposed to account for these phenomena, one is widely accepted: The ''giant impact hypothesis'' proposes that the Moon originated after a body the size of [[Mars]] (sometimes named [[Theia (planet)|Theia]]{{r|Halliday}}) struck the proto-Earth a glancing blow.{{r|Stanley2005|StarChild|Canup|page1=256}}

The collision released about 100 million times more energy than the more recent [[Chicxulub crater|Chicxulub impact]] that is believed to have caused the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. It was enough to vaporize some of the Earth's outer layers and melt both bodies.{{r|StarChild|Stanley2005|page2=256}} A portion of the mantle material was [[ejecta|ejected]] into orbit around the Earth. The giant impact hypothesis predicts that the Moon was depleted of metallic material,{{r|Liu}} explaining its abnormal composition.{{r|Newsom}} The ejecta in orbit around the Earth could have condensed into a single body within a couple of weeks. Under the influence of its own gravity, the ejected material became a more spherical body: the Moon.{{r|Taylor}}

[[File:Hadean.png|thumb|right|Artist's impression of a Hadean landscape with the relatively newly formed Moon still looming closely over Earth and both bodies sustaining strong [[volcanism]].]]

=== First continents ===
[[File:North america terrain 2003 map.jpg|thumb|Geologic map of North America, color-coded by age. From most recent to oldest, age is indicated by yellow, green, blue, and red. The reds and pinks indicate rock from the [[Archean]]. |alt=Map with color and texture]]
[[Mantle convection]], the process that drives plate tectonics, is a result of heat flow from the Earth's interior to the Earth's surface.{{r|DaviesMantle|page1=2}} It involves the creation of rigid [[tectonic plate]]s at [[mid-oceanic ridge]]s. These plates are destroyed by [[subduction]] into the mantle at [[subduction zone]]s. During the early Archean (about 3.0 Ga) the mantle was much hotter than today, probably around {{convert|1600|C}},{{r|Cattermole|page1=82}} so convection in the mantle was faster. Although a process similar to present-day plate tectonics did occur, this would have gone faster too. It is likely that during the Hadean and Archean, subduction zones were more common, and therefore tectonic plates were smaller.{{r|Stanley2005|page1=258}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Davies|first=Geoffrey F.|title=Mantle convection for geologists|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-19800-4}}</ref>

The initial crust, which formed when the Earth's surface first solidified, totally disappeared from a combination of this fast Hadean plate tectonics and the intense impacts of the Late Heavy Bombardment. However, it is thought that it was [[basalt]]ic in composition, like today's [[oceanic crust]], because little crustal differentiation had yet taken place.{{r|Stanley2005|page1=258}} The first larger pieces of [[continental crust]], which is a product of differentiation of lighter elements during [[partial melting]] in the lower crust, appeared at the end of the Hadean, about 4.0 Ga. What is left of these first small continents are called [[craton]]s. These pieces of late Hadean and early Archean crust form the cores around which today's continents grew.<ref>{{cite conference |bibcode=2004AGUSM.T41C..01B |title=What is a craton? |last1=Bleeker |first1=W. |first2=B.W. |last2=Davis |date=May 2004 |publisher=American Geophysical Union |conference=Spring meeting |id=T41C-01}}</ref>

The [[Oldest dated rocks|oldest rocks]] on Earth are found in the [[North American craton]] of [[Canada]]. They are [[tonalite]]s from about 4.0 Ga. They show traces of [[metamorphism]] by high temperature, but also sedimentary grains that have been rounded by erosion during transport by water, showing that rivers and seas existed then.{{r|Lunine}} Cratons consist primarily of two alternating types of [[terrane]]s. The first are so-called [[greenstone belt]]s, consisting of low-grade metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. These "greenstones" are similar to the sediments today found in [[oceanic trench]]es, above subduction zones. For this reason, greenstones are sometimes seen as evidence for subduction during the Archean. The second type is a complex of [[felsic]] [[magmatic rock]]s. These rocks are mostly tonalite, [[trondhjemite]] or [[granodiorite]], types of rock similar in composition to [[granite]] (hence such terranes are called TTG-terranes). TTG-complexes are seen as the [[relict (geology)|relicts]] of the first continental crust, formed by partial melting in basalt.{{r|Condie|page1=Chapter 5}}

=== Oceans and atmosphere ===
{{See also|Origin of water on Earth|Prebiotic atmosphere}}

Earth is often described as having had three atmospheres. The first atmosphere, captured from the solar nebula, was composed of light ([[atmophile]]) elements from the solar nebula, mostly hydrogen and helium. A combination of the solar wind and Earth's heat would have driven off this atmosphere, as a result of which the atmosphere is now depleted of these elements compared to cosmic abundances.<ref name=Kasting93/> After the impact which created the Moon, the molten Earth released volatile gases; and later more gases were released by [[volcano]]es, completing a second atmosphere rich in [[greenhouse gas]]es but poor in oxygen. {{r|Stanley2005|page1=256}} Finally, the third atmosphere, rich in oxygen, emerged when bacteria [[Great Oxygenation Event|began to produce oxygen]] about 2.8 Ga.{{r|Gale|page1=83–84, 116–117}}

[[File:NASA-EarlyEarth-PaleOrangeDot-20190802.jpg|thumb|250px|''The pale orange dot'', an artist's impression of the [[early Earth]] which might have appeared orange through its [[haze|hazy]] [[methane]] rich [[prebiotic atmosphere|''prebiotic second atmosphere'']].<ref name="Trail Elsila Müller Lyons p. ">{{cite journal |last1=Trail |first1=Dustin |last2=Elsila |first2=Jamie |last3=Mller |first3=Ulrich |last4=Lyons |first4=Timothy |last5=Rogers |first5=Karyn |title=Rethinking the Search for the Origins of Life |journal=[[Eos]] |publisher=[[American Geophysical Union]] (AGU) |volume=103 |date=2022-02-04 |issn=2324-9250 |doi=10.1029/2022eo220065 |page= |s2cid=246620824|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Astrobiology 2017">{{cite web |title=NASA Astrobiology |website=Astrobiology |date=2017-06-05 |url=https://astrobiology.nasa.gov/news/how-hot-were-the-oceans-when-life-first-evolved/ |access-date=2022-09-13}}</ref> Earth's atmosphere at this stage was somewhat comparable to today's [[atmosphere of Titan]].<ref name="Trainer Pavlov DeWitt Jimenez pp. 18035–18042">{{cite journal |last1=Trainer |first1=Melissa G. |last2=Pavlov |first2=Alexander A. |last3=DeWitt |first3=H. Langley |last4=Jimenez |first4=Jose L. |last5=McKay |first5=Christopher P. |last6=Toon |first6=Owen B. |last7=Tolbert |first7=Margaret A. |title=Organic haze on Titan and the early Earth |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=103 |issue=48 |date=2006-11-28 |issn=0027-8424 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0608561103 |pages=18035–18042 |pmid=17101962 |pmc=1838702 |doi-access=free}}</ref>]]

In early models for the formation of the atmosphere and ocean, the second atmosphere was formed by outgassing of [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]] from the Earth's interior. Now it is considered likely that many of the volatiles were delivered during accretion by a process known as ''impact degassing'' in which incoming bodies vaporize on impact. The ocean and atmosphere would, therefore, have started to form even as the Earth formed.{{r|Kasting03}} The new atmosphere probably contained [[water vapor]], carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and smaller amounts of other gases.{{r|Kasting-2006}}

Planetesimals at a distance of 1 [[astronomical unit]] (AU), the distance of the Earth from the Sun, probably did not contribute any water to the Earth because the solar nebula was too hot for ice to form and the hydration of rocks by water vapor would have taken too long.{{r|Kasting03}}<ref name=Selsis>{{cite book |last=Selsis |first=Franck |chapter=Chapter 11. The Prebiotic Atmosphere of the Earth |title=Astrobiology: Future perspectives |series=Astrophysics and space science library |volume=305 |pages=267–286 |date=2005 |doi=10.1007/1-4020-2305-7_11 |isbn=978-1-4020-2304-0}}</ref> The water must have been supplied by meteorites from the outer asteroid belt and some large planetary embryos from beyond 2.5 AU.{{r|Kasting03|Morbidelli}} Comets may also have contributed. Though most comets are today in orbits farther away from the Sun than [[Neptune]], computer simulations show that they were originally far more common in the inner parts of the Solar System.{{r|Lunine|page1=130–132}}

As the Earth cooled, [[cloud]]s formed. Rain created the oceans. Recent evidence suggests the oceans may have begun forming as early as 4.4 Ga.{{r|nature1}} By the start of the Archean eon, they already covered much of the Earth. This early formation has been difficult to explain because of a problem known as the [[faint young Sun paradox]]. Stars are known to get brighter as they age, and the Sun has become 30% brighter since its formation 4.5 billion years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://faculty.wcas.northwestern.edu/~infocom/The%20Website/evolution.html|title=The Sun's Evolution}}</ref> Many models indicate that the early Earth should have been covered in ice.{{r|Sagan|Kasting03}} A likely solution is that there was enough carbon dioxide and methane to produce a [[greenhouse effect]]. The carbon dioxide would have been produced by volcanoes and the methane by early microbes. It is hypothesized that there also existed an organic haze created from the products of methane photolysis that caused an [[anti-greenhouse effect]] as well.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kump |first=Lee R. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/268789401 |title=The earth system |date=2010 |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |others=James F. Kasting, Robert G. Crane |isbn=978-0-321-59779-3 |edition=3rd |location=San Francisco |oclc=268789401}}</ref> Another greenhouse gas, [[ammonia]], would have been ejected by volcanos but quickly destroyed by ultraviolet radiation.{{r|Gale|page1=83}}

=== Origin of life ===
{{Life timeline}}
{{Main|Abiogenesis}}
One of the reasons for interest in the early atmosphere and ocean is that they form the conditions under which life first arose. There are many models, but little consensus, on how life emerged from non-living chemicals; chemical systems created in the laboratory fall well short of the minimum complexity for a living organism.{{r|Szathmary|Luisi}}

The first step in the emergence of life may have been chemical reactions that produced many of the simpler [[Organic chemistry|organic]] compounds, including [[nucleobases]] and [[amino acids]], that are the building blocks of life. An [[Miller–Urey experiment|experiment in 1952]] by [[Stanley Miller]] and [[Harold Urey]] showed that such molecules could form in an atmosphere of water, methane, ammonia and hydrogen with the aid of sparks to mimic the effect of [[lightning]].{{r|Lazcano}} Although atmospheric composition was probably different from that used by Miller and Urey, later experiments with more realistic compositions also managed to synthesize organic molecules.{{r|NYTimes}} [[Computer simulation]]s show that [[Abiogenesis#Observed extraterrestrial organic molecules|extraterrestrial organic molecules]] could have formed in the protoplanetary disk before the formation of the Earth.{{r|Space-20120329}}

Additional complexity could have been reached from at least three possible starting points: [[self-replication]], an organism's ability to produce offspring that are similar to itself; [[metabolism]], its ability to feed and repair itself; and external [[cell membrane]]s, which allow food to enter and waste products to leave, but exclude unwanted substances.{{r|Pereto}}

==== Replication first: RNA world ====
{{Main|RNA world}}
Even the simplest members of the [[three-domain system|three modern domains]] of life use [[DNA]] to record their "recipes" and a complex array of [[RNA]] and [[protein]] molecules to "read" these instructions and use them for growth, maintenance, and self-replication.

The discovery that a kind of RNA molecule called a [[ribozyme]] can [[catalyst|catalyze]] both its own replication and the construction of proteins led to the hypothesis that earlier life-forms were based entirely on RNA.{{r|Joyce}} They could have formed an [[RNA world]] in which there were individuals but no [[species]], as [[mutation]]s and [[horizontal gene transfer]]s would have meant that the offspring in each generation were quite likely to have different [[genomes]] from those that their parents started with.{{r|Hoenigsberg}} RNA would later have been replaced by DNA, which is more stable and therefore can build longer genomes, expanding the range of capabilities a single organism can have.{{r|Forterre}} Ribozymes remain as the main components of [[ribosome]]s, the "protein factories" of modern cells.{{r|Cech}}

Although short, self-replicating RNA molecules have been artificially produced in laboratories,{{r|Johnston}} doubts have been raised about whether natural non-biological synthesis of RNA is possible.{{r|Levy|Larralde|Lindahl}} The earliest ribozymes may have been formed of simpler [[nucleic acid]]s such as [[Peptide nucleic acid|PNA]], [[Threose nucleic acid|TNA]] or [[Glycerol nucleic acid|GNA]], which would have been replaced later by RNA.{{r|Orgel|Nelson}} Other [[Peptide-RNA world|pre-RNA replicators]] have been posited, including [[crystal]]s{{r|Dawkins-Watchmaker|page1=150}} and even quantum systems.{{r|Daviesb}}

In 2003 it was proposed that porous metal sulfide [[precipitate]]s would assist RNA synthesis at about {{convert|100|°C|°F}} and at ocean-bottom pressures near [[hydrothermal vent]]s. In this hypothesis, the proto-cells would be confined in the pores of the metal substrate until the later development of lipid membranes.{{r|Martin}}

==== Metabolism first: iron–sulfur world ====
[[File:DNA replication split.svg|thumb|upright|The replicator in virtually all known life is [[deoxyribonucleic acid]]. DNA is far more complex than the original replicator and its replication systems are highly elaborate.]]
{{Main|Iron–sulfur world hypothesis}}
Another long-standing hypothesis is that the first life was composed of protein molecules. Amino acids, the building blocks of [[proteins]], are easily synthesized in plausible prebiotic conditions, as are small [[peptides]] ([[polymers]] of amino acids) that make good catalysts.{{r|Kauffman|page1=295–297}} A series of experiments starting in 1997 showed that amino acids and peptides could form in the presence of [[carbon monoxide]] and [[hydrogen sulfide]] with [[iron(II) sulfide|iron sulfide]] and [[nickel sulfide]] as catalysts. Most of the steps in their assembly required temperatures of about {{convert|100|C}} and moderate pressures, although one stage required {{convert|250|C}} and a pressure equivalent to that found under {{convert|7|km|mi|sp=us}} of rock. Hence, self-sustaining synthesis of proteins could have occurred near hydrothermal vents.{{r|Wachtershauser}}

A difficulty with the metabolism-first scenario is finding a way for organisms to evolve. Without the ability to replicate as individuals, aggregates of molecules would have "compositional genomes" (counts of molecular species in the aggregate) as the target of natural selection. However, a recent model shows that such a system is unable to evolve in response to natural selection.{{r|Vasas}}

==== Membranes first: Lipid world ====
It has been suggested that double-walled "bubbles" of [[lipid]]s like those that form the external membranes of cells may have been an essential first step.{{r|Trevors01}} Experiments that simulated the conditions of the early Earth have reported the formation of lipids, and these can spontaneously form [[liposome]]s, double-walled "bubbles", and then reproduce themselves. Although they are not intrinsically information-carriers as nucleic acids are, they would be subject to [[natural selection]] for longevity and reproduction. Nucleic acids such as RNA might then have formed more easily within the liposomes than they would have outside.{{r|Segre}}

==== The clay theory ====
{{further|Graham Cairns-Smith#Clay hypothesis}}
Some [[clay]]s, notably [[montmorillonite]], have properties that make them plausible accelerators for the emergence of an RNA world: they grow by self-replication of their crystalline pattern, are subject to an analog of [[natural selection]] (as the clay "species" that grows fastest in a particular environment rapidly becomes dominant), and can catalyze the formation of RNA molecules.{{r|Cairns-Smith}} Although this idea has not become the scientific consensus, it still has active supporters.{{r|Ferris|Dawkins-Watchmaker|page1=150–158}}
[[File:Liposome cross section.png|thumb|upright|Cross-section through a [[liposome]]]]
Research in 2003 reported that montmorillonite could also accelerate the conversion of [[fatty acid]]s into "bubbles", and that the bubbles could encapsulate RNA attached to the clay. Bubbles can then grow by absorbing additional lipids and dividing. The formation of the earliest [[Cell (biology)|cells]] may have been aided by similar processes.{{r|Hanczyc}}

A similar hypothesis presents self-replicating iron-rich clays as the progenitors of [[nucleotide]]s, lipids and amino acids.{{r|Hartman}}

==== Last universal common ancestor ====
{{Main|Last universal common ancestor}}
It is believed that of this multiplicity of protocells, only one [[Lineage (evolution)|line]] survived. Current [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] evidence suggests that the [[last universal ancestor]] (LUA) lived during the early [[Archean]] eon, perhaps 3.5 Ga or earlier.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=TimeTree |date=2023 |title=TimeTree: the timescale of life |url=http://www.timetree.org/ |access-date=6 February 2023 |website=TimeTree: the timescale of life |publisher=Temple University}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hedges |first=SB |year=2009 |editor-last=Hedges |editor-first=SB |editor2-last=Kumar |editor2-first=S |title=Life |url=http://www.timetree.org/public/data/pdf/Hedges2009Chap05.pdf |journal=The Timetree of Life |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=89–98|doi=10.1093/oso/9780199535033.003.0005 |isbn=978-0-19-953503-3 }}</ref> This LUA cell is the ancestor of all life on Earth today. It was probably a [[prokaryote]], possessing a cell membrane and probably ribosomes, but lacking a [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] or membrane-bound [[organelle]]s such as [[mitochondrion|mitochondria]] or [[chloroplast]]s. Like modern cells, it used DNA as its genetic code, RNA for information transfer and [[protein synthesis]], and enzymes to [[Enzyme catalysis|catalyze reactions]]. Some scientists believe that instead of a single organism being the last universal common ancestor, there were populations of organisms exchanging genes by [[lateral gene transfer]].{{r|Penny-LUCA}}

[[File:Archean.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Artist's impression of Earth during the later Archean, the largely cooled [[Earth's crust|planetary crust]] and water-rich barren [[planetary surface|surface]], marked by [[volcano]]es and [[continent]]s, features already [[stromatolite|round]] [[microbialite]]s. The Moon, still orbiting Earth much closer than today and still dominating Earth's sky, produced strong [[tide]]s.<ref name="Lunar and Planetary Institute">{{cite web |title=Earth-Moon Dynamics |website=Lunar and Planetary Institute |url=https://www.lpi.usra.edu/exploration/training/illustrations/earthMoon/ |access-date=September 2, 2022}}</ref>]]

== Proterozoic Eon ==
{{Main|Proterozoic}}
The Proterozoic eon lasted from 2.5 Ga to 538.8 Ma (million years) ago.<ref name="StratChart 2022">{{cite web |title=Stratigraphic Chart 2022 |url=https://stratigraphy.org/ICSchart/ChronostratChart2022-02.pdf |publisher=International Stratigraphic Commission |date=February 2022 |access-date=22 April 2022}}</ref> In this time span, [[cratons]] grew into continents with modern sizes. The change to an oxygen-rich atmosphere was a crucial development. Life developed from prokaryotes into [[eukaryote]]s and multicellular forms. The Proterozoic saw a couple of severe ice ages called [[Snowball Earth]]s. After the last Snowball Earth about 600 Ma, the evolution of life on Earth accelerated. About 580 Ma, the [[Ediacaran biota]] formed the prelude for the [[Cambrian Explosion]].{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}

=== Oxygen revolution ===
{{Main|Great Oxidation Event}}
{{See also|Ozone layer}}
[[File:Lake Thetis-Stromatolites-LaRuth.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lithification|Lithified]] [[stromatolite]]s on the shores of [[Lake Thetis]], [[Western Australia]]. Archean stromatolites are the first direct fossil traces of life on Earth.]]
[[File:Banded Iron Formation Barberton.jpg|thumb|A [[banded iron formation]] from the 3.15 Ga [[Moodies Group]], [[Barberton Greenstone Belt]], [[South Africa]]. Red layers represent the times when oxygen was available; gray layers were formed in anoxic circumstances.]]
The earliest cells absorbed energy and food from the surrounding environment. They used [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]], the breakdown of more complex compounds into less complex compounds with less energy, and used the energy so liberated to grow and reproduce. Fermentation can only occur in an ''anaerobic'' (oxygen-free) environment. The evolution of [[photosynthesis]] made it possible for cells to derive energy from the Sun.{{r|CondieSystem|page1=377}}

Most of the life that covers the surface of the Earth depends directly or indirectly on photosynthesis. The most common form, oxygenic photosynthesis, turns carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight into food. It captures the energy of sunlight in energy-rich molecules such as ATP, which then provide the energy to make sugars. To supply the electrons in the circuit, hydrogen is stripped from water, leaving oxygen as a waste product.{{r|Leslie}} Some organisms, including [[purple bacteria]] and [[green sulfur bacteria]], use an [[anoxygenic photosynthesis|anoxygenic form of photosynthesis]] that uses alternatives to hydrogen stripped from water as [[electron donors]]; examples are hydrogen sulfide, sulfur and iron. Such [[extremophile]] organisms are restricted to otherwise inhospitable environments such as hot springs and hydrothermal vents.{{r|CondieSystem|Nisbet|page1=379–382}}

The simpler anoxygenic form arose about 3.8 Ga, not long after the appearance of life. The timing of oxygenic photosynthesis is more controversial; it had certainly appeared by about 2.4 Ga, but some researchers put it back as far as 3.2 Ga.{{r|Leslie}} The latter "probably increased global productivity by at least two or three orders of magnitude".{{r|De-Marais-photosynthesis|Olson-2006}} Among the oldest remnants of oxygen-producing lifeforms are fossil [[stromatolite]]s.{{r|De-Marais-photosynthesis|Olson-2006|Holland-2006}}

At first, the released oxygen was bound up with [[limestone]], [[iron]], and other minerals. The oxidized iron appears as red layers in geological strata called [[banded iron formations]] that formed in abundance during the [[Siderian]] period (between 2500 Ma and 2300 Ma).{{r|TimeScale|page1=133}} When most of the exposed readily reacting minerals were oxidized, oxygen finally began to accumulate in the atmosphere. Though each cell only produced a minute amount of oxygen, the combined metabolism of many cells over a vast time transformed Earth's atmosphere to its current state. This was Earth's third atmosphere.{{r|ForteyDtL|page1=50–51|Gale|page2=83–84, 116–117}}

Some oxygen was stimulated by solar ultraviolet radiation to form [[ozone]], which collected in a layer near the upper part of the atmosphere. The ozone layer absorbed, and still absorbs, a significant amount of the ultraviolet radiation that once had passed through the atmosphere. It allowed cells to colonize the surface of the ocean and eventually the land: without the ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation bombarding land and sea would have caused unsustainable levels of mutation in exposed cells.{{r|cosmic-evolution-bio1|Lunine|page2=219–220}}

[[File:Oxygenation-atm.svg|thumb|300px|Graph showing range of estimated [[partial pressure]] of atmospheric oxygen through geologic time {{r|Holland-2006}}]]

Photosynthesis had another major impact. Oxygen was toxic; much life on Earth probably died out as its levels rose in what is known as the ''[[oxygen catastrophe]]''. Resistant forms survived and thrived, and some developed the ability to use oxygen to increase their metabolism and obtain more energy from the same food.{{r|cosmic-evolution-bio1}}

=== Snowball Earth ===
{{Main|Snowball Earth}}
[[File:Snowball Huronian.jpg|thumb|250px|Artist's rendition of an oxinated fully-frozen [[Snowball Earth]] with no remaining liquid surface water.]]

The [[Stellar evolution|natural evolution of the Sun]] made it progressively more [[luminosity|luminous]] during the Archean and Proterozoic eons; the Sun's luminosity increases 6% every billion years.{{r|Lunine|page1=165}} As a result, the Earth began to receive more heat from the Sun in the Proterozoic eon. However, the Earth did not get warmer. Instead, the geological record suggests it cooled dramatically during the early Proterozoic. [[Glacial deposit]]s found in South Africa date back to 2.2 Ga, at which time, based on [[paleomagnetism|paleomagnetic]] evidence, they must have been located near the equator. Thus, this glaciation, known as the [[Huronian glaciation]], may have been global. Some scientists suggest this was so severe that the Earth was frozen over from the poles to the equator, a hypothesis called Snowball Earth.{{r|Snowball}}

The Huronian ice age might have been caused by the [[Great Oxygenation Event|increased oxygen concentration]] in the atmosphere, which caused the decrease of methane (CH4) in the atmosphere. Methane is a strong greenhouse gas, but with oxygen it reacts to form CO2, a less effective greenhouse gas.{{r|Lunine|page1=172}} When free oxygen became available in the atmosphere, the concentration of methane could have decreased dramatically, enough to counter the effect of the increasing heat flow from the Sun.{{r|SnowballCause}}

However, the term Snowball Earth is more commonly used to describe later extreme ice ages during the [[Cryogenian]] period. There were four periods, each lasting about 10 million years, between 750 and 580 million years ago, when the Earth is thought to have been covered with ice apart from the highest mountains, and average temperatures were about {{convert|-50|C}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Oxford Dictionary of Geology & Earth Sciences |editor-first=Michael |editor-last=Allaby |title=Snowball Earth |page=539 |edition=4th |year=2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-965306-5}}</ref> The snowball may have been partly due to the location of the supercontinent [[Rodinia]] straddling the [[Equator]]. Carbon dioxide combines with rain to weather rocks to form carbonic acid, which is then washed out to sea, thus extracting the greenhouse gas from the atmosphere. When the continents are near the poles, the advance of ice covers the rocks, slowing the reduction in carbon dioxide, but in the Cryogenian the weathering of Rodinia was able to continue unchecked until the ice advanced to the tropics. The process may have finally been reversed by the emission of carbon dioxide from volcanoes or the destabilization of methane [[gas hydrates]]. According to the alternative [[Slushball Earth]] theory, even at the height of the ice ages there was still open water at the Equator.<ref>{{cite book |first=Marcia |last=Bjornerud |title=Reading the Rocks: The Autobiography of the Earth |publisher=Westview Press |year=2005 |pages=131–138 |isbn=978-0-8133-4249-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Slushball-Earth-hypothesis |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Slushball Earth hypothesis}}</ref>

=== Emergence of eukaryotes ===
{{further|Eukaryote#Origin of eukaryotes}}
[[File:Plagiomnium affine laminazellen.jpeg|thumb|Chloroplasts in the cells of a moss]]
Modern [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] classifies life into three domains. The time of their origin is uncertain. The [[Bacteria]] domain probably first split off from the other forms of life (sometimes called [[Neomura]]), but this supposition is controversial. Soon after this, by 2 Ga,{{r|SciAm-eukaryote}} the Neomura split into the [[Archaea]] and the [[Eukaryota]]. Eukaryotic cells (Eukaryota) are larger and more complex than prokaryotic cells (Bacteria and Archaea), and the origin of that complexity is only now becoming known.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=Geoffrey M. |date=2000 |chapter=The Origin and Evolution of Cells |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK9841/ |title=The Cell: A Molecular Approach |publisher=Sinauer Associates |edition=2nd |language=en}}</ref> The earliest fossils possessing features typical of [[Fungus|fungi]] date to the [[Paleoproterozoic]] era, some 2.4 Ga ago; these multicellular [[benthic]] organisms had filamentous structures capable of [[anastomosis]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bengtson |first1=Stefan |last2=Rasmussen |first2=Birger |last3=Ivarsson |first3=Magnus |last4=Muhling |first4=Janet |last5=Broman |first5=Curt |last6=Marone |first6=Federica |last7=Stampanoni |first7=Marco |last8=Bekker |first8=Andrey |date=2017-04-24 |title=Fungus-like mycelial fossils in 2.4-billion-year-old vesicular basalt. |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/4883d4qh |journal=[[Nature Ecology & Evolution]] |volume=1 |issue=6 |pages=141 |doi=10.1038/s41559-017-0141 |pmid=28812648 |bibcode=2017NatEE...1..141B |hdl=20.500.11937/67718 |s2cid=25586788 |issn=2397-334X |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Around this time, the first [[proto-mitochondrion]] was formed. A bacterial cell related to today's ''[[Rickettsia]]'',{{r|Andersson}} which had evolved to [[Cellular respiration|metabolize oxygen]], entered a larger prokaryotic cell, which lacked that capability. Perhaps the large cell attempted to digest the smaller one but failed (possibly due to the evolution of prey defenses). The smaller cell may have tried to [[parasite|parasitize]] the larger one. In any case, the smaller cell survived inside the larger cell. Using oxygen, it metabolized the larger cell's waste products and derived more energy. Part of this excess energy was returned to the host. The smaller cell replicated inside the larger one. Soon, a stable [[symbiosis]] developed between the large cell and the smaller cells inside it. Over time, the host cell acquired some genes from the smaller cells, and the two kinds became dependent on each other: the larger cell could not survive without the energy produced by the smaller ones, and these, in turn, could not survive without the raw materials provided by the larger cell. The whole cell is now considered a single [[organism]], and the smaller cells are classified as [[organelle]]s called mitochondria.{{r|BerkeleyEvolution}}

A similar event occurred with [[photosynthetic]] [[cyanobacteria]]{{r|Bergland}} entering large [[heterotrophic]] cells and becoming chloroplasts.{{r|ForteyDtL|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=60–61|page2=536–539}} Probably as a result of these changes, a line of cells capable of photosynthesis split off from the other eukaryotes more than 1 billion years ago. There were probably several such inclusion events. Besides the well-established [[endosymbiotic theory]] of the cellular origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts, there are theories that cells led to [[peroxisomes]], [[spirochete]]s led to [[cilia]] and [[flagella]], and that perhaps a [[DNA virus]] led to the cell nucleus,{{r|takemura|bell}} though none of them are widely accepted.{{r|peroxisome}}

Archaeans, bacteria, and eukaryotes continued to diversify and to become more complex and better adapted to their environments. Each domain repeatedly split into multiple lineages. Around 1.1 Ga, the [[plant]], [[animal]], and [[fungi]] lines had split, though they still existed as solitary cells. Some of these lived in colonies, and gradually a [[division of labor]] began to take place; for instance, cells on the periphery might have started to assume different roles from those in the interior. Although the division between a colony with specialized cells and a multicellular organism is not always clear, around 1 billion years ago{{r|Cosmic-evolution-bio2}}, the first multicellular plants emerged, probably [[green algae]].{{r|bhattacharya}} Possibly by around 900 Ma{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=488}} true multicellularity had also evolved in animals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sperling |first1=Erik A |last2=Stockey |first2=Richard G |date=2018-10-01 |title=The Temporal and Environmental Context of Early Animal Evolution: Considering All the Ingredients of an "Explosion" |journal=[[Integrative and Comparative Biology]] |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=605–622 |doi=10.1093/icb/icy088 |pmid=30295813 |issn=1540-7063|doi-access=free }}</ref>

At first, it probably resembled today's [[sponge]]s, which have [[totipotent]] cells that allow a disrupted organism to reassemble itself.{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=483–487}} As the division of labor was completed in the different lineages of multicellular organisms, cells became more specialized and more dependent on each other.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Traxler |first1=Matthew F |last2=Rozen |first2=Daniel E |date=2022-06-01 |title=Ecological drivers of division of labour in Streptomyces |journal=Current Opinion in Microbiology |volume=67 |pages=102148 |doi=10.1016/j.mib.2022.102148 |pmid=35468363 |s2cid=248349511 |issn=1369-5274|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Supercontinents in the Proterozoic ===
{{Main|Supercontinent cycle}}
[[File:Positions of ancient continents, 550 million years ago.jpg|thumb|right|A reconstruction of Pannotia (550 Ma).]]
Reconstructions of tectonic plate movement in the past 250 million years (the Cenozoic and Mesozoic eras) can be made reliably using fitting of continental margins, ocean floor magnetic anomalies and [[paleomagnetic pole]]s. No ocean crust dates back further than that, so earlier reconstructions are more difficult. Paleomagnetic poles are supplemented by geologic evidence such as [[orogenic belt]]s, which mark the edges of ancient plates, and past distributions of flora and fauna. The further back in time, the scarcer and harder to interpret the data get and the more uncertain the reconstructions.{{r|Kearey|page1=370}}

Throughout the history of the Earth, there have been times when continents collided and formed a supercontinent, which later broke up into new continents. About 1000 to 830 Ma, most continental mass was united in the supercontinent Rodinia.{{r|Kearey|page1=370}}{{r|Torsvik2003}} Rodinia may have been preceded by Early-Middle Proterozoic continents called Nuna and Columbia.{{r|Kearey|page1=374}}<ref name="Zhao1">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00073-9 |first1=Guochun |last1=Zhao |last2=Cawood |first2=Peter A. |last3=Wilde |first3=Simon A. |last4=Sun |first4=M. |date=2002|title=Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent |journal=[[Earth-Science Reviews]] |volume=59 |issue=1–4 |pages=125–162 |bibcode=2002ESRv...59..125Z }}</ref><ref name="Zhao2">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.02.003 |first1=Guochun |last1=Zhao |last2=Sun |first2=M. |last3=Wilde |first3=Simon A. |last4=Li |first4=S.Z. |date=2004|title=A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup |journal=[[Earth-Science Reviews]] |volume=67 |issue=1–2 |pages=91–123|bibcode = 2004ESRv...67...91Z |url=http://www.gt-crust.ru/jour/article/view/518}}</ref>

After the break-up of Rodinia about 800 Ma, the continents may have formed another short-lived supercontinent around 550 Ma. The hypothetical supercontinent is sometimes referred to as [[Pannotia|Pannotia or Vendia]].{{r|McElhinny|page1=321–322}} The evidence for it is a phase of [[continental collision]] known as the [[Pan-African orogeny]], which joined the continental masses of current-day Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia. The existence of Pannotia depends on the timing of the rifting between [[Gondwana]] (which included most of the landmass now in the Southern Hemisphere, as well as the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and the [[Indian subcontinent]]) and [[Laurentia]] (roughly equivalent to current-day North America).{{r|Kearey|page1=374}} It is at least certain that by the end of the Proterozoic eon, most of the continental mass lay united in a position around the south pole.{{r|Dalziel}}

=== Late Proterozoic climate and life ===
[[File:Spriggina Floundensi 4.png|thumb|A 580 million year old fossil of ''[[Spriggina|Spriggina floundensi]]'', an animal from the [[Ediacaran]] period. Such life forms could have been ancestors to the many new forms that originated in the [[Cambrian Explosion]].]]
The end of the Proterozoic saw at least two Snowball Earths, so severe that the surface of the oceans may have been completely frozen. This happened about 716.5 and 635 Ma, in the [[Cryogenian period]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/03/100304142228.htm |title=Snowball Earth: New Evidence Hints at Global Glaciation 716.5 Million Years Ago |newspaper=Science Daily |date=Mar 4, 2010 |access-date=April 18, 2012}}</ref> The intensity and mechanism of both glaciations are still under investigation and harder to explain than the early Proterozoic Snowball Earth.<ref name="Science Daily Snowball Earth challenged">{{cite web|title='Snowball Earth' Hypothesis Challenged|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/10/111012083450.htm|access-date=29 September 2012}}</ref>
Most paleoclimatologists think the cold episodes were linked to the formation of the supercontinent Rodinia.<ref name=Hoffman /> Because Rodinia was centered on the equator, rates of [[chemical weathering]] increased and carbon dioxide (CO2) was taken from the atmosphere. Because CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, climates cooled globally.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Carbon Cycle and the Earth's Climate |url=http://www.columbia.edu/~vjd1/carbon.htm |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.columbia.edu}}</ref>

In the same way, during the Snowball Earths most of the continental surface was covered with [[permafrost]], which decreased chemical weathering again, leading to the end of the glaciations. An alternative hypothesis is that enough carbon dioxide escaped through volcanic outgassing that the resulting greenhouse effect raised global temperatures.{{r|Hoffman}} Increased volcanic activity resulted from the break-up of Rodinia at about the same time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rodinia - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/rodinia |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref>

The Cryogenian period was followed by the [[Ediacaran]] period, which was characterized by a rapid development of new multicellular lifeforms.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080103144451.htm |title=Two Explosive Evolutionary Events Shaped Early History Of Multicellular Life |newspaper=Science Daily |date=Jan 3, 2008 |access-date=April 18, 2012}}</ref> Whether there is a connection between the end of the severe ice ages and the increase in diversity of life is not clear, but it does not seem coincidental. The new forms of life, called Ediacara biota, were larger and more diverse than ever. Though the taxonomy of most Ediacaran life forms is unclear, some were ancestors of groups of modern life.{{r|Xiao}} Important developments were the origin of muscular and neural cells. None of the Ediacaran fossils had hard body parts like skeletons. These first appear after the boundary between the Proterozoic and [[Phanerozoic]] eons or Ediacaran and Cambrian periods.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McArthur |first1=J.M. |chapter=Strontium Isotope Stratigraphy |date=2020 |chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/ediacaran |title=Geologic Time Scale 2020 |pages=211–238 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-824360-2.00007-3 |access-date=2022-07-15 |last2=Howarth |first2=R.J. |last3=Shields |first3=G.A. |last4=Zhou |first4=Y. |isbn=9780128243602|s2cid=263783179 }}</ref>

== Phanerozoic Eon ==
{{Main|Phanerozoic}}
The Phanerozoic is the current eon on Earth, which started approximately 538.8 million years ago. It consists of three eras: The [[Paleozoic]], [[Mesozoic]], and [[Cenozoic]],<ref name="StratChart 2022"/> and is the time when multi-cellular life greatly diversified into almost all the organisms known today.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Dynamic Earth System |last=Patwardhan |first=A.M. |date=2010 |publisher=PHI Learning Private Limited |location=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-203-4052-7 |page=146 |url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=EOgZJZaA-Q0C}}}}</ref>

The Paleozoic ("old life") era was the first and longest era of the Phanerozoic eon, lasting from 538.8 to 251.9 Ma.<ref name="StratChart 2022"/> During the Paleozoic, many modern groups of life came into existence. Life colonized the land, first plants, then animals. Two major extinctions occurred. The continents formed at the break-up of Pannotia and Rodinia at the end of the Proterozoic slowly moved together again, forming the supercontinent [[Pangaea]] in the late Paleozoic.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pangea {{!}} Definition, Map, History, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Pangea |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Mesozoic ("middle life") era lasted from 251.9 Ma to 66 Ma.<ref name="StratChart 2022"/> It is subdivided into the [[Triassic]], [[Jurassic]], and [[Cretaceous]] periods. The era began with the [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]], the most severe extinction event in the fossil record; 95% of the species on Earth died out.{{r|bbc-permian-triassic}} It ended with the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]] that wiped out the [[dinosaur]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |title=K–T extinction {{!}} Overview & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/K-T-extinction |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The Cenozoic ("new life") era began at {{period start|Cenozoic}} Ma, and is subdivided into the [[Paleogene]], [[Neogene]], and Quaternary periods. These three periods are further split into seven subdivisions, with the Paleogene composed of The [[Paleocene]], [[Eocene]], and [[Oligocene]], the Neogene divided into the [[Miocene]], [[Pliocene]], and the Quaternary composed of the [[Pleistocene]], and Holocene.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/cenozoic/cenozoic.php |title=The Cenozoic Era |publisher=[[University of California Museum of Paleontology]] |date=June 2011 |access-date=2016-01-10}}</ref> Mammals, birds, amphibians, crocodilians, turtles, and lepidosaurs survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that killed off the non-avian dinosaurs and many other forms of life, and this is the era during which they diversified into their modern forms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GEOL 104 The Cretaceous-Paleogene Extinction: All Good Things... |url=https://www.geol.umd.edu/~tholtz/G104/lectures/104extinct.html |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.geol.umd.edu}}</ref>

=== Tectonics, paleogeography and climate ===
[[File:Pangaea continents.svg|thumb|right|[[Pangaea]] was a [[supercontinent]] that existed from about 300 to 180 Ma. The outlines of the modern continents and other landmasses are indicated on this map.]]
At the end of the Proterozoic, the supercontinent Pannotia had broken apart into the smaller continents Laurentia, [[Baltica]], [[Siberia (continent)|Siberia]] and Gondwana.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://evolution.berkeley.edu/glossary_entry/glossary.php?word=Pannotia |title=Pannotia |work=UCMP Glossary |access-date=2006-03-12}}</ref> During periods when continents move apart, more oceanic crust is formed by volcanic activity. Because young volcanic crust is relatively hotter and less dense than old oceanic crust, the ocean floors rise during such periods. This causes the [[sea level]] to rise. Therefore, in the first half of the Paleozoic, large areas of the continents were below sea level.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

Early Paleozoic climates were warmer than today, but the end of the Ordovician saw a short [[ice age]] during which glaciers covered the south pole, where the huge continent Gondwana was situated. Traces of glaciation from this period are only found on former Gondwana. During the Late Ordovician ice age, a few mass extinctions took place, in which many [[brachiopod]]s, trilobites, [[Bryozoa]] and [[coral]]s disappeared. These marine species could probably not contend with the decreasing temperature of the sea water.{{r|bbc-ordovician}}

The continents Laurentia and Baltica collided between 450 and 400 Ma, during the [[Caledonian Orogeny]], to form [[Laurussia]] (also known as Euramerica).<ref>{{cite web|last=Murphy |first=Dennis C. |url=http://www.devoniantimes.org/who/pages/euramerica.html|title=The paleocontinent Euramerica|work=Devonian Times |date=May 20, 2006 |access-date=April 18, 2012}}</ref> Traces of the mountain belt this collision caused can be found in [[Scandinavia]], [[Scotland]], and the northern [[Appalachia]]ns. In the [[Devonian]] period (416–359 Ma){{r|shortTimeScale}} Gondwana and Siberia began to move towards Laurussia. The collision of Siberia with Laurussia caused the [[Uralian orogeny|Uralian Orogeny]], the collision of Gondwana with Laurussia is called the [[Variscan Orogeny|Variscan or Hercynian Orogeny]] in Europe or the [[Alleghenian Orogeny]] in North America. The latter phase took place during the [[Carboniferous]] period (359–299 Ma){{r|shortTimeScale}} and resulted in the formation of the last supercontinent, Pangaea.{{r|Condie}}

By 180 Ma, Pangaea broke up into [[Laurasia]] and Gondwana.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

=== Cambrian explosion ===
{{Main|Cambrian explosion}}
[[File:Elrathia kingii growth series.jpg|thumb|[[Trilobites]] first appeared during the Cambrian period and were among the most widespread and diverse groups of Paleozoic organisms.]]
The rate of the evolution of life as recorded by fossils accelerated in the [[Cambrian]] period (542–488 Ma).{{r|shortTimeScale}} The sudden emergence of many new species, [[phylum|phyla]], and forms in this period is called the Cambrian Explosion. It was a form of [[adaptive radiation]], where vacant [[ecological niche|niches]] left by the extinct [[Ediacaran biota]] were filled up by the emergence of new phyla.<ref name=Wille2008>{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/nature07072|date=June 2008|author=Wille, M|author2=Nägler, T.F.|author3=Lehmann, B|author4=Schröder, S|author5=Kramers, J.D|title=Hydrogen sulphide release to surface waters at the Precambrian/Cambrian boundary|volume=453|issue=7196|pages=767–9|pmid=18509331|journal=Nature|bibcode = 2008Natur.453..767W |s2cid=4425120}}</ref> The biological fomenting in the Cambrian Explosion was unprecedented before and since that time.{{r|Lunine|page1=229}} Whereas the Ediacaran life forms appear yet primitive and not easy to put in any modern group, at the end of the Cambrian most modern phyla were already present. The development of hard body parts such as shells, [[skeleton]]s or [[exoskeleton]]s in animals like [[mollusc]]s, [[echinoderm]]s, [[crinoid]]s and [[arthropod]]s (a well-known group of arthropods from the lower Paleozoic are the [[trilobite]]s) made the preservation and [[fossil]]ization of such life forms easier than those of their Proterozoic ancestors. For this reason, much more is known about life in and after the Cambrian than about that of older periods. Some of these Cambrian groups appear complex but are seemingly quite different from modern life; examples are ''[[Anomalocaris]]'' and ''[[Haikouichthys]]''. More recently, however, these seem to have found a place in modern classification.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Welcome to CK-12 Foundation {{!}} CK-12 Foundation |url=https://www.ck12.org/section/modern-classification-systems/ |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.ck12.org}}</ref>

During the Cambrian, the first [[vertebrate]] animals, among them the first [[fishes]], had appeared.{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=357}} A creature that could have been the ancestor of the fishes, or was probably closely related to it, was ''[[Pikaia]]''. It had a primitive [[notochord]], a structure that could have developed into a [[vertebral column]] later. The first fishes with [[jaw]]s ([[Gnathostomata]]) appeared during the next geological period, the [[Ordovician]]. The colonisation of new [[Ecological niche|niches]] resulted in massive body sizes. In this way, fishes with increasing sizes evolved during the early Paleozoic, such as the titanic [[placoderm]] ''[[Dunkleosteus]]'', which could grow {{convert|7|m|ft|sp=us}} long.<ref>{{Cite web |title=placoderm {{!}} fossil fish {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/placoderm |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The diversity of life forms did not increase greatly because of a series of mass extinctions that define widespread biostratigraphic units called ''[[biomeres]]''.{{r|Runkel}} After each extinction pulse, the [[continental shelf]] regions were repopulated by similar life forms that may have been evolving slowly elsewhere.{{r|Palmer}} By the late Cambrian, the trilobites had reached their greatest diversity and dominated nearly all fossil assemblages.{{r|Hallam|page1=34}}

=== Colonization of land ===
[[File:Devonianscene-green.jpg|thumb|Artist's conception of [[Devonian]] flora]]
Oxygen accumulation from photosynthesis resulted in the formation of an ozone layer that absorbed much of the Sun's [[ultraviolet radiation]], meaning unicellular organisms that reached land were less likely to die, and prokaryotes began to multiply and become better adapted to survival out of the water. Prokaryote lineages had probably colonized the land as early as 3 Ga<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Battistuzzi |first1=Fabia U |last2=Feijao |first2=Andreia |last3=Hedges |first3=S Blair |date=2004 |title=A genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=44 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-4-44 |pmc=533871 |pmid=15535883 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Battistuzzi |first1=F. U. |last2=Hedges |first2=S. B. |date=2009-02-01 |title=A Major Clade of Prokaryotes with Ancient Adaptations to Life on Land |url=https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/molbev/msn247 |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |language=en |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=335–343 |doi=10.1093/molbev/msn247 |pmid=18988685 |issn=0737-4038}}</ref> even before the origin of the eukaryotes. For a long time, the land remained barren of multicellular organisms. The supercontinent Pannotia formed around 600 Ma and then broke apart a short 50 million years later.{{r|liebermean}} Fish, the [[prehistoric fish|earliest vertebrates]], evolved in the oceans around 530 Ma.{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=354}} A major [[Cambrian–Ordovician extinction events|extinction event]] occurred near the end of the Cambrian period,{{r|bbc-cambrian}} which ended 488 Ma.{{r|landing}}

Several hundred million years ago, plants (probably resembling [[algae]]) and fungi started growing at the edges of the water, and then out of it.{{r|Fortey|page1=138–140}} The oldest fossils of land fungi and plants date to 480–460 Ma, though molecular evidence suggests the fungi may have colonized the land as early as 1000 Ma and the plants 700 Ma.{{r|heckman}} Initially remaining close to the water's edge, mutations and variations resulted in further colonization of this new environment. The timing of the first animals to leave the oceans is not precisely known: the oldest clear evidence is of arthropods on land around 450 Ma,{{r|johnson}} perhaps thriving and becoming better adapted due to the vast food source provided by the terrestrial plants. There is also unconfirmed evidence that arthropods may have appeared on land as early as 530 Ma.{{r|macnaughton}}

=== Evolution of tetrapods ===
{{further|Evolution of tetrapods}}
[[File:Tiktaalik BW.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Tiktaalik]]'', a fish with limb-like fins and a predecessor of tetrapods. Reconstruction from fossils about 375 million years old.]]
At the end of the Ordovician period, 443 Ma,{{r|shortTimeScale}} additional [[Ordovician–Silurian extinction event|extinction events]] occurred, perhaps due to a concurrent ice age.{{r|bbc-ordovician}} Around 380 to 375 Ma, the first [[tetrapod]]s evolved from fish.{{r|clack-sa}} Fins evolved to become limbs that the first tetrapods used to lift their heads out of the water to breathe air. This would let them live in oxygen-poor water, or pursue small prey in shallow water.{{r|clack-sa}} They may have later ventured on land for brief periods. Eventually, some of them became so well adapted to terrestrial life that they spent their adult lives on land, although they hatched in the water and returned to lay their eggs. This was the origin of the [[amphibian]]s. About 365 Ma, another [[Late Devonian extinction|period of extinction]] occurred, perhaps as a result of [[global cooling]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=McGhee |first=George R. Jr. |date=1996 |title=The Late Devonian Mass Extinction: the Frasnian/Famennian Crisis |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-07504-6}}</ref> Plants evolved [[seed]]s, which dramatically accelerated their spread on land, around this time (by approximately 360 Ma).{{r|willis|waikato}}

About 20 million years later (340 Ma{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=293–296}}), the [[amniotic egg]] evolved, which could be laid on land, giving a survival advantage to tetrapod embryos. This resulted in the divergence of [[amniote]]s from amphibians. Another 30 million years (310 Ma{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=254–256}}) saw the divergence of the [[synapsid]]s (including mammals) from the [[sauropsid]]s (including birds and reptiles). Other groups of organisms continued to evolve, and lines diverged—in fish, insects, bacteria, and so on—but less is known of the details.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

[[File:Europasaurus holgeri Scene 2.jpg|thumb|[[Dinosaur]]s were the dominant terrestrial vertebrates throughout most of the [[Mesozoic]]]]
After yet another, the most severe extinction of the period (251~250 Ma), around 230 Ma, dinosaurs split off from their reptilian ancestors.{{r|bbc-new_blood}} The [[Triassic–Jurassic extinction event]] at 200 Ma spared many of the dinosaurs,{{r|shortTimeScale|bbc-triassic}} and they soon became dominant among the vertebrates. Though some mammalian lines began to separate during this period, existing mammals were probably small animals resembling [[shrew]]s.{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=169}}

The boundary between avian and non-avian dinosaurs is not clear, but ''[[Archaeopteryx]]'', traditionally considered one of the first birds, lived around 150 Ma.{{r|archaeopteryx}}

The earliest evidence for the [[Flowering plant|angiosperms]] evolving flowers is during the Cretaceous period, some 20 million years later (132 Ma).{{r|tol-angiosperms}}

===Extinctions===
The first of five great mass extinctions was the [[Ordovician-Silurian extinction]]. Its possible cause was the intense glaciation of Gondwana, which eventually led to a [[Snowball Earth]]. 60% of marine invertebrates became extinct and 25% of all families.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

The second mass extinction was the [[Late Devonian extinction]], probably caused by the evolution of trees, which could have led to the depletion of greenhouse gases (like {{CO2}}) or the [[eutrophication]] of water. 70% of all species became extinct.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Devonian extinctions {{!}} Definition & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/Devonian-extinctions |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The third mass extinction was the Permian-Triassic, or the [[Great Dying]], event was possibly caused by some combination of the [[Siberian Traps]] volcanic event, an asteroid impact, [[methane clathrate|methane hydrate]] gasification, sea level fluctuations, and a major [[anoxic event]]. Either the proposed [[Wilkes Land crater]]{{r|bbc-antarctic-crater}} in Antarctica or [[Bedout|Bedout structure]] off the northwest coast of Australia may indicate an impact connection with the Permian-Triassic extinction. But it remains uncertain whether either these or other proposed Permian-Triassic boundary craters are either real impact craters or even contemporaneous with the Permian-Triassic extinction event. This was by far the deadliest extinction ever, with about 57% of all [[Family (biology)|families]] and 83% of all [[genus|genera]] killed.<ref name="Benton">{{cite book|author=Benton M J|author-link = Michael Benton|title=When life nearly died: the greatest mass extinction of all time |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-500-28573-2 }}</ref><ref name="BergstromDugatkin2012">{{cite book|author1=Carl T. Bergstrom|author2=Lee Alan Dugatkin|title=Evolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SeaEZwEACAAJ|year=2012|publisher=Norton|isbn=978-0-393-92592-0|page=515}}</ref>

The fourth mass extinction was the [[Triassic-Jurassic extinction event]] in which almost all [[synapsids]] and [[archosaurs]] became extinct, probably due to new competition from dinosaurs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=end-Triassic extinction {{!}} Evidence & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/end-Triassic-extinction |access-date=2022-07-15 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The fifth and most recent mass extinction was the [[Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event]]. In 66 Ma, a {{convert|10|km|adj=on|sp=us}} [[asteroid]] struck Earth just off the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]—somewhere in the southwestern tip of then Laurasia—where the [[Chicxulub crater]] is today. This ejected vast quantities of particulate matter and vapor into the air that occluded sunlight, inhibiting photosynthesis. 75% of all life, including the non-avian dinosaurs, became extinct,{{r|cosmic-evolution-bio4}} marking the end of the Cretaceous period and Mesozoic era.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

===Diversification of mammals===
{{hatnote|Further information: [[Evolution of mammals]]}}
The first true mammals evolved in the shadows of dinosaurs and other large archosaurs that filled the world by the late Triassic. The first mammals were very small, and were probably nocturnal to escape predation. Mammal diversification truly began only after the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event.<ref>{{cite web |first=Bob |last=Strauss |title=The First Mammals:The Early Mammals of the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods |website=about.com |url=http://dinosaurs.about.com/od/otherprehistoriclife/a/earlymammals.htm |access-date=12 May 2015}}</ref> By the early Paleocene the Earth recovered from the extinction, and mammalian diversity increased. Creatures like ''[[Ambulocetus]]'' took to the oceans to eventually evolve into whales,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/news-posts/a-walking-whale-ambulocetus |title=A Walking Whale: Ambulocetus |publisher=American Museum of Natural History |date=2014-05-01 |access-date=2016-01-10}}</ref> whereas some creatures, like primates, took to the trees.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/early_2.htm |title=Early Primate Evolution: The First Primates |last=O'Neil |first=Dennis |publisher=Palomar College |date=2012 |access-date=2016-01-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225115518/http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyprimates/early_2.htm |archive-date=2015-12-25 }}</ref> This all changed during the mid to late Eocene when the circum-Antarctic current formed between Antarctica and Australia which disrupted weather patterns on a global scale. Grassless [[savanna]] began to predominate much of the landscape, and mammals such as ''[[Andrewsarchus]]'' rose up to become the largest known terrestrial predatory mammal ever,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibit-posts/andrewsarchus-superb-skull-of-a-gigantic-beast |title=Andrewsarchus, "Superb Skull of a Gigantic Beast," Now on View in Whales Exhibit |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]] |date=2014-05-01 |access-date=2016-01-10}}</ref> and [[Archaeoceti|early whales]] like ''[[Basilosaurus]]'' took control of the seas. {{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

The evolution of [[Poaceae|grasses]] brought a remarkable change to the Earth's landscape, and the new open spaces created pushed mammals to get bigger and bigger. Grass started to expand in the Miocene, and the Miocene is where many modern- day mammals first appeared. Giant [[ungulates]] like ''[[Paraceratherium]]'' and ''[[Deinotherium]]'' evolved to rule the grasslands. The evolution of grass also brought [[primate]]s down from the trees, and started [[human evolution]]. The first big cats evolved during this time as well.<ref>{{cite web|author=George Dvorsky |url=http://io9.com/the-worlds-first-big-cats-came-from-asia-not-africa-1463616060 |title=The world's first big cats came from Asia, not Africa |publisher=Io9.com |date=November 13, 2013 |access-date=2016-01-10}}</ref> The [[Tethys Sea]] was closed off by the collision of Africa and Europe.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.clim-past.net/9/2687/2013/cp-9-2687-2013.pdf |title=The role of eastern Tethys seaway closure in the Middle Miocene Climatic Transition (c. 14 Ma) |first1=N. |last1=Hamon |first2=P. |last2=Sepulchre |first3=V. |last3=Lefebvre |first4=G. |last4=Ramstein |journal=Climate of the Past |date=2013 |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=2687–2702 |access-date=2016-01-10 |doi=10.5194/cp-9-2687-2013|bibcode = 2013CliPa...9.2687H |s2cid=203104343 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The formation of Panama was perhaps the most important geological event to occur in the last 60 million years. Atlantic and Pacific currents were closed off from each other, which caused the formation of the [[Gulf Stream]], which made Europe warmer. The land bridge allowed the isolated creatures of South America to migrate over to North America, and vice versa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=4073|title=Isthmus of Panama|author=N.A.S.A.|work=N.A.S.A|date=31 December 2003}}</ref> Various species migrated south, leading to the presence in South America of [[llama]]s, the [[spectacled bear]], [[kinkajou]]s and [[jaguar]]s.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}

Three million years ago saw the start of the Pleistocene epoch, which featured dramatic climatic changes due to the ice ages. The ice ages led to the evolution of modern man in Saharan Africa and expansion. The mega-fauna that dominated fed on grasslands that, by now, had taken over much of the subtropical world. The large amounts of water held in the ice allowed for various bodies of water to shrink and sometimes disappear such as the North Sea and the Bering Strait. It is believed by many that a huge migration took place along [[Beringia]] which is why, today, there are [[camels]] (which evolved and became extinct in North America), [[horses]] (which evolved and became extinct in North America), and Native Americans. The ending of the last ice age coincided with the expansion of man, along with a massive die out of ice age mega-fauna. This extinction is nicknamed "[[Holocene extinction|the Sixth Extinction]]".

[[File:IceAgeEarth.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|An artist's impression of ice age Earth at glacial maximum.]]

===Human evolution===
{{Human timeline}}
{{Main|Human evolution}}
A small African ape living around 6 Ma was the last animal whose descendants would include both modern humans and their closest relatives, the [[Pan (genus)|chimpanzee]]s.<ref name=":0" />{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=100–101}} Only two branches of its family tree have surviving descendants. Very soon after the split, for reasons that are still unclear, apes in one branch developed the ability to [[bipedal|walk upright]].{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=95–99}} [[Brain]] size increased rapidly, and by 2 Ma, the first animals classified in the genus ''[[Homo]]'' had appeared.{{r|Fortey|page1=300}} Around the same time, the other branch split into the ancestors of the [[common chimpanzee]] and the ancestors of the [[bonobo]] as evolution continued simultaneously in all life forms.{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=100–101}}

The ability to control [[fire]] probably began in ''[[Homo erectus]]'' (or ''[[Homo ergaster]]''), probably at least 790,000 years ago{{r|goren-inbar}} but perhaps as early as 1.5 Ma.{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=67}} The use and discovery of controlled fire may even predate ''Homo erectus''. Fire was possibly used by the early [[Lower Paleolithic]] ([[Oldowan]]) hominid ''[[Homo habilis]]'' or strong [[australopithecine]]s such as ''[[Paranthropus]].''{{r|McClellan}}
[[File:Human evolution chart-en.svg|thumb|left|A reconstruction of human history based on fossil data.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Reed|first=David L.|display-authors=4|author2=Smith, Vincent S. |author3=Hammond, Shaless L. |author4=Rogers, Alan R. |author5= Clayton, Dale H. |title=Genetic Analysis of Lice Supports Direct Contact between Modern and Archaic Humans|journal=PLOS Biology|date=2004|volume=2|issue=11|pages=e340|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020340|pmid=15502871|pmc=521174 |doi-access=free }}</ref>]]
It is more difficult to establish the [[origin of language]]; it is unclear whether ''Homo erectus'' could speak or if that capability had not begun until ''Homo sapiens''.{{r|Dawkins-Ancestors|page1=67}} As brain size increased, babies were born earlier, before their heads grew too large to pass through the [[pelvis]]. As a result, they exhibited more [[Neuroplasticity|plasticity]], and thus possessed an increased capacity to learn and required a longer period of dependence. Social skills became more complex, language became more sophisticated, and tools became more elaborate. This contributed to further cooperation and intellectual development.{{r|McNeill|page1=7}} Modern humans (''[[Homo sapiens]]'') are believed to have originated around 200,000 years ago or earlier [[single-origin hypothesis|in Africa]]; the oldest fossils date back to around 160,000 years ago.{{r|gibbons}}

The first humans to show signs of [[spirituality]] are the [[Neanderthal]]s (usually classified as a separate species with no surviving descendants); they buried their dead, often with no sign of food or tools.{{r|hopfe|page1=17}} However, evidence of more sophisticated beliefs, such as the early [[Cro-Magnon]] [[cave painting]]s (probably with magical or religious significance){{r|hopfe|page1=17–19}} did not appear until 32,000 years ago.{{r|Chauvet}} Cro-Magnons also left behind stone figurines such as [[Venus of Willendorf]], probably also signifying religious belief.{{r|hopfe|page1=17–19}} By 11,000 years ago, ''Homo sapiens'' had reached the southern tip of [[South America]], the last of the uninhabited continents (except for Antarctica, which remained undiscovered until 1820 AD).{{r|oxford-atlas}} Tool use and communication continued to improve, and interpersonal relationships became more intricate.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}
{{Clear}}

====Human history====
{{Main|Human history|Cradle of civilization}}
{{Further|History of Africa|History of the Americas|History of Antarctica|History of Eurasia}}{{Globalize|date=July 2024|2=Africa, Europe, and Asia|section}}[[File:Da Vinci Vitruve Luc Viatour (cropped).jpg|thumb|''[[Vitruvian Man]]'' by [[Leonardo da Vinci]] epitomizes the advances in art and science seen during the Renaissance.]]
Throughout more than 90% of its history, ''Homo sapiens'' lived in small bands as [[nomad]]ic [[hunter-gatherer]]s.{{r|McNeill|page1=8}} As language became more complex, the ability to remember and communicate information resulted in a new replicator: the [[meme]].{{r|dawkins-sg}} Ideas could be exchanged quickly and passed down the generations. [[Cultural evolution]] quickly outpaced [[Evolution|biological evolution]], and [[history]] proper began. Between 8500 and 7000 [[Before Christ|BC]], humans in the [[Fertile Crescent]] in the [[Middle East]] began the systematic husbandry of plants and animals: [[agriculture]].{{r|Tudge}} This spread to neighboring regions, and developed independently elsewhere, until most ''Homo sapiens'' lived sedentary lives in permanent settlements as farmers. Not all societies abandoned nomadism, especially those in isolated areas of the globe poor in [[Domestication|domesticable]] plant species, such as [[Australia]].{{r|diamond}} However, among those civilizations that did adopt agriculture, the relative stability and increased productivity provided by farming allowed the population to expand.{{Citation needed|date=March 2016}}

Agriculture had a major impact; humans began to affect the environment as never before. Surplus food allowed a priestly or governing class to arise, followed by increasing [[Division of labour|division of labor]]. This led to Earth's [[first civilization]] at [[Sumer]] in the Middle East, between 4000 and 3000 BC.{{r|McNeill|page1=15}} Additional civilizations quickly arose in [[ancient Egypt]], at the [[Indus Valley civilisation|Indus River valley]] and in China. The invention of [[writing]] enabled complex societies to arise: record-keeping and [[library|libraries]] served as a storehouse of knowledge and increased the cultural transmission of information. Humans no longer had to spend all their time working for survival, enabling the first specialized occupations (e.g. craftsmen, merchants, priests, etc.). Curiosity and education drove the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, and various disciplines, including [[science]] (in a primitive form), arose. This in turn led to the emergence of increasingly larger and more complex civilizations, such as the first empires, which at times traded with one another, or fought for territory and resources.

By around 500 BC, there were advanced civilizations in the Middle East, Iran, India, China, and Greece, at times expanding, at times entering into decline.{{r|McNeill|page1=3}} In 221 BC, China became a single polity that would grow to spread its culture throughout [[East Asia]], and it has remained the most populous nation in the world. During this period, famous [[Hindu]] texts known as [[vedas]] came in existence in [[Indus valley civilization]]. This civilization developed in [[warfare]], [[arts]], [[science]], mathematics and [[architecture]].{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} The fundamentals of [[Western culture|Western civilization]] were largely shaped in [[Ancient Greece]], with the world's first [[democracy|democratic government]] and major advances in philosophy and [[science]], and in [[Ancient Rome]] with advances in law, government, and engineering.<ref name="Daly2013">{{cite book|author=Jonathan Daly|title=The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ|date=19 December 2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1851-6|pages=7–9}}</ref> The [[Roman Empire]] was [[Religion in ancient Rome#History of Roman religion|Christianized by Emperor Constantine]] in the early 4th century and [[Decline of the Roman Empire|declined]] by the end of the 5th. Beginning with the 7th century, [[Christianization#Christianization of Europe (6th–9th centuries)|Christianization of Europe]] began, and since at least the 4th century [[Christianity]] has played a [[Role of Christianity in civilization|prominent role]] in the [[History of Western civilization|shaping of Western civilization]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507284/Roman-Catholicism Roman Catholicism], "Roman Catholicism, Christian church that has been the decisive spiritual force in the history of Western civilization". [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref><ref name="Caltron J.H Hayas">Caltron J.H Hayas, ''Christianity and Western Civilization'' (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo–Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.</ref><ref name="Orlandis">Jose Orlandis, 1993, "A Short History of the Catholic Church," 2nd edn. (Michael Adams, Trans.), Dublin:Four Courts Press, {{ISBN|1851821252}}, preface, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=KYdbpwAACAAJ], accessed 8 December 2014. p. (preface)</ref><ref name="How The Catholic Church Built Western Civilization">[[Thomas E. Woods]] and Antonio Canizares, 2012, "How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization," Reprint edn., Washington, D.C.: Regnery History, {{ISBN|1596983280}}, see [https://books.google.com/books?id=jYvmAgAAQBAJ, accessed 8 December 2014. p. 1: "Western civilization owes far more to Catholic Church than most people—Catholic included—often realize. The Church in fact built Western civilization."]</ref><ref name="Perry2012">{{cite book |author=Marvin Perry |title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC&pg=PA33 |date=1 January 2012 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1-111-83720-4 |pages=33–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Spielvogel |first=Jackson J. |title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1715 |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-305-63347-6 |edition=Cengage Learning |page=156|publisher=Cengage Learning }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Neill |first=Thomas Patrick |title=Readings in the History of Western Civilization, Volume 2 |year=1957 |edition=Newman Press |page=224}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author-link=Gerald O'Collins|last1=O'Collins|first1=Gerald|title=Catholicism: The Story of Catholic Christianity |year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-925995-3|publisher=Oxford University Press |last2=Farrugia|first2=Maria |page=v (preface)}}</ref> In 610, [[Islam]] was founded and quickly became the dominant religion in [[Western Asia]]. The [[House of Wisdom]] was established in [[Abbasid]]-era [[Baghdad]], [[Iraq]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Bayt-al-Hikmah|title=Bayt al-Hikmah|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=November 3, 2016}}</ref> It is considered to have been a major intellectual center during the [[Islamic Golden Age]], where Muslim scholars in [[Baghdad]] and [[Cairo]] flourished from the ninth to the thirteenth centuries until the [[Mongol sack of Baghdad]] in 1258 AD. In 1054 AD the [[East–West Schism|Great Schism]] between the [[Roman Catholic Church]] and the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] led to the prominent cultural differences between [[Western Europe|Western]] and [[Eastern Europe]].<ref name="BideleuxJeffries48">{{cite book |title=A history of eastern Europe: crisis and change |last1=Bideleux |first1=Robert |last2=Jeffries |first2=Ian |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-16112-1 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U39AYJm1L94C |year=1998}}</ref>

In the 14th century, the [[Renaissance]] began in [[Italy]] with advances in religion, art, and science.{{r|McNeill|page1=317–319}} At that time the Christian Church as a political entity lost much of its power. In 1492, [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the Americas, initiating great changes to the [[new world]]. European civilization began to change beginning in 1500, leading to the [[Scientific revolution|scientific]] and [[Industrial Revolution|industrial]] revolutions. That continent began to exert political and cultural [[Hegemony|dominance]] over human societies around the world, a time known as the [[History of colonialism|Colonial era]] (also see [[Age of Discovery]]).{{r|McNeill|page1=295–299}} In the 18th century a cultural movement known as the [[Age of Enlightenment]] further shaped the mentality of Europe and contributed to its [[secularization]].{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}

{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* {{annotated link|Chronology of the universe}}
* {{annotated link|Detailed logarithmic timeline}}
* {{annotated link|Earth phase}}
* {{annotated link|Evolutionary history of life}}
* {{annotated link|Future of Earth}}
* {{annotated link|Geological history of Earth}}
* {{annotated link|Global catastrophic risk}}
* {{annotated link|Timeline of the evolutionary history of life}}
* {{annotated link|Timeline of natural history}}
{{div col end}}
{{Portal bar|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Solar System|Earth sciences|World}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

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<ref name=Kearey>{{Cite book|last=Kearey|first=Philip|author2=Keith A. Klepeis |author3=Frederick J. Vine |title=Global tectonics.|date=2009|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-0777-8|edition=3rd}}</ref>

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<ref name=CondieSystem>{{Cite book |last=Condie |first=Kent C. |title=Earth as an Evolving Planetary System |publisher=Elsevier Science |location=Burlington |isbn=978-0-12-385228-1 |edition=2nd |date=2011-08-22}}</ref>

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<ref name="diamond">{{Cite book
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<ref name="ForteyDtL">{{Cite book
| last = Fortey | first = Richard | author-link = Richard Fortey
| title = Life: A Natural History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth
| orig-year = 1997 |date=September 1999
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<ref name="Fortey">{{Cite book
| last = Fortey | first = Richard | author-link = Richard Fortey
| title = Life: A Natural History of the First Four Billion Years of Life on Earth
| orig-year = 1997 |date=September 1999
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<ref name="gibbons">{{cite journal
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| title = Oldest Members of ''Homo sapiens'' Discovered in Africa | journal = [[Science (journal)|Science]]
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</ref>

<ref name="goren-inbar">{{cite journal
| last = Goren-Inbar | first = Naama | author2 = Nira Alperson| author3 = Mordechai E. Kislev| author4 = Orit Simchoni| author5 = Yoel Melamed| author6 = Adi Ben-Nun| author7 = Ella Werker
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}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book |first=G.B. |last=Dalrymple |author-link=Brent Dalrymple |date=1991 |title=The Age of the Earth |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=California |isbn=978-0-8047-1569-0}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Dalrymple |first=G. Brent |title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved |journal=Geological Society of London, Special Publications |date=2001 |volume=190 |issue=1 |pages=205–221 |url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/190/1/205.abstract |access-date=2012-04-13 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode=2001GSLSP.190..205D |s2cid=130092094}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Dawkins |title=The Ancestor's Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life |date=2004 |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin]] Company |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-618-00583-3 |title-link=The Ancestor's Tale}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-first=F.M. |editor1-last=Gradstein |editor2-first=James George |editor2-last=Ogg |editor3-first=Alan Gilbert |editor3-last=Smith |title=A Geological Time Scale 2004 |date=2004 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-78673-7 |others=Reprinted with corrections 2006}}
* {{cite report |first1=Felix M. |last1=Gradstein |first2=James G. |last2=Ogg |first3=Martin |last3=van Kranendonk |title=On the Geological Time Scale 2008 |url=http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/nysgs/resources/images/geologicaltimescale.pdf |date=2008 |publisher=International Commission on Stratigraphy |access-date=20 April 2012 |docket=Fig. 2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028022719/http://www.nysm.nysed.gov/nysgs/resources/images/geologicaltimescale.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2012}}
* {{Cite book|last=Levin |first=H.L. |date=2009 |title=The Earth through time |publisher=Saunders College Publishing |edition=9th |isbn= 978-0-470-38774-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Lunine |first=Jonathan I. |date=1999 |title=Earth: evolution of a habitable world |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=United Kingdom |isbn=978-0-521-64423-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=McNeill |first=Willam H. |author-link=William Hardy McNeill |title=A World History |orig-year=1967 |edition=4th |date=1999 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-511615-1}}
* Melosh, H. J.; Vickery, A. M. & Tonks, W. B. (1993). ''Impacts and the early environment and evolution of the terrestrial planets'', in Levy, H. J. & Lunine, Jonathan I. (eds.): ''Protostars and Planets III'', [[University of Arizona]] Press, [[Tucson, Arizona|Tucson]], pp. 1339–1370.
* {{Cite book |last=Stanley |first=Steven M. |title=Earth system history |date=2005 |publisher=Freeman |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7167-3907-4 |edition=2nd}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Stern |first1=T.W. |last2=Bleeker |first2=W. |date=1998 |title=Age of the world's oldest rocks refined using Canada's SHRIMP: The Acasta Gneiss Complex, Northwest Territories, Canada |journal=[[Geoscience Canada]] |volume=25 |pages=27–31}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wetherill |first=G.W. |title=Occurrence of Earth-Like Bodies in Planetary Systems |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |date=1991 |volume=253 |issue=5019 |pages=535–538 |doi=10.1126/science.253.5019.535 |pmid=17745185 |bibcode=1991Sci...253..535W |s2cid=10023022}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* [[Paul Davies|Davies, Paul]]. "[https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2005/dec/20/comment.science Quantum leap of life]". ''[[The Guardian]]''. 2005 December 20. – discusses speculation on the role of quantum systems in the origin of life
* [http://www.johnkyrk.com/evolution.html Evolution timeline] (uses [[Flash Player]]). Animated story of life shows everything from the big bang to the formation of the Earth and the development of bacteria and other organisms to the ascent of man.
* [http://www.bbc.com/earth/bespoke/story/20150123-earths-25-biggest-turning-points/ 25 biggest turning points in Earth History] [[BBC]]
* [http://historystack.com/30_Major_Events_in_History_of_the_Earth Evolution of the Earth]. Timeline of the most important events in the evolution of the Earth.
* {{In Our Time|The Earth's Origins|p00547hl}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005493g Ageing the Earth], BBC Radio 4 discussion with Richard Corfield, Hazel Rymer & Henry Gee (''In Our Time'', Nov. 20, 2003)

{{Earth}}
{{Nature}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of The Earth}}
[[Category:Earth]]
[[Category:Geochronology]]
[[Category:Geology theories]]
[[Category:Historical geology|*]]
[[Category:World history]]

European Telecommunications Standards Institute

2023-11-03T12:00:38Z

Relative Humidity: Remove ™ symbol

{{Short description|European tech standards organization}}
{{distinguish|text=the ICAO code of the [[Ingolstadt Manching Airport]]}}
{{distinguish|Etsy}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox company
| name = European Telecommunications Standards Institute
| type = [[Public company|Public]]
| industry = [[Standardization]] [[organization]]
| foundation = {{start date and age|1988}}
| location = [[Sophia-Antipolis]], [[France]]
| subsid = [[Telecoms & Internet converged Services & Protocols for Advanced Networks]]
| website = {{URL|https://www.etsi.org/}}
}}
[[File:European Telecommunications Standards Institute membership.png|thumb|300px|right|{{legend|#008000|Full members}}{{legend|#00ff00|Associate members}}{{legend|#ff8040|Observers}}]]

The '''European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI)''' is an independent, not-for-profit, [[standardization]] organization in the field of [[Information and communications technology|information and communications]]. ETSI supports the development and testing of global technical standards for ICT-enabled systems, applications and services.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) - Gartner Information Technology Glossary |url=https://www.gartner.com/en/information-technology/glossary/etsi-european-telecommunications-standards-institute |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=Gartner |language=en}}</ref>

==Overview and history==
ETSI was set up in 1988 by the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations ([[European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations|CEPT]]) following a proposal from the [[European Commission]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-05 |title=Feedback from: ETSI |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=European Commission |language=en}}</ref> ETSI is the officially recognized body with a responsibility for the standardization of [[information and communication technologies]] (ICT). It is one of the three bodies officially recognized by the [[European Union]] as a [[European Standards Organization]] (ESO), the others being [[European Committee for Standardization|CEN]] and [[CENELEC]]. The role of the ESOs is to support EU regulation and policies through the production of harmonised [[European Standards]] (ENs) and other deliverables. The standards developed by ESOs are the only ones that can be recognized as ENs.

ETSI develops standards in key global technologies such as: [[GSM]], [[TETRA]], [[3G]], [[4G]], [[5G]], [[DECT]].

ETSI’s standardization activities are organized around sectors: Home & Office, Better Living with ICT, Content Delivery, Networks, [[Wireless|Wireless Systems]], Transportation, Connecting Things, Interoperability, Public Safety and Security. Technical activities are carried out in the different ETSI technical groups (Technical Committee (TC), ETSI Project (EP), ETSI Partnership Project (EPP), Industry Specification Group (ISG), and Special Committee (SC).

The organisation is located in [[Sophia-Antipolis]], in the south of [[France]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mobile Competence Centre |url=https://www.3gpp.org/about-us/mobile-competence-centre |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=3GPP |language=en-us}}</ref>

In October 2023, ETSI reported a data breach. Hackers stole a database containing information on ETSI’s online users.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Analyst |first=OODA |date=2023-10-03 |title=European Telecommunications Standards Institute Discloses Data Breach |url=https://www.oodaloop.com/cyber/2023/10/03/european-telecommunications-standards-institute-discloses-data-breach/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=OODA Loop |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-03 |title=Hackers Steal User's Database From European Telecommunications Standards Institute |url=https://gbhackers.com/hackers-steal-users-database/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=GBHackers - Latest Cyber Security News {{!}} Hacker News |language=en}}</ref>

==Membership==
ETSI has more than 900 member organizations worldwide from 65 countries and five continents. Its community is diverse and includes all the key stakeholders of the ICT sector: private companies, research entities, academia, government and public bodies as well as societal stakeholders. [[Small and Medium Enterprises]] (SMEs) and [[Micro-enterprise|Micro-Enterprises]] (MEs) represent more than a quarter of ETSI's total membership. The list of current members can be found on the ETSI website.

Membership contributions are calculated depending on the type of membership. Members' and associate members' contributions are calculated by class which is derived from the member company's annual ECRT band.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Calculation of ETSI members' contributions|url=https://www.etsi.org/membership/dues|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=|website=[[ETSI Website]]}}</ref>

==Partnerships==

ETSI works in close co-operation with the [[European Commission]] (EC) and the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA). ETSI is a European Standardization Organization (ESO) and as such provides standards and specifications to support [[European Union]] (EU) legislation and public policies. ETSI also works with European country's national standards bodies or National Standards Organizations (NSO).

NSOs are responsible for the transposition of [[European standards|European Standards]] (ENs) into national standards and for the withdrawal of any conflicting national standard.

==Education about standardization==
ETSI has developed [https://www.etsi.org/images/files/Education/Understanding_ICT_Standardization_LoResWeb_20190524.pdf a comprehensive suite of educational materials on ICT standardization in collaboration] with the [[European Commission|EC]] and [[European Free Trade Association|EFTA]]. It includes a comprehensive textbook, “Understanding ICT Standardization: Principles and Practice”, and an extensive set of over 380 slides to be used as teaching aides.

The teaching materials are targeted at third-level education, primarily for students of engineering or scientific subjects.

==See also==
* [[EN 301 549]]
* [[Radio Equipment Directive]]
* [[List of EN standards]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.etsi.org/ ETSI Official website]
*[https://portal.etsi.org/home.aspx ETSI Portal]
*[https://www.3gpp.org/ 3GPP website]
*[https://www.onem2m.org/ oneM2M website]
*[https://www.etsi.org/research ETSI Research section]
*[https://www.sbs-sme.eu/ Small Business Standards (SBS) aisbl]

{{Telecommunications}}
{{Public-sector space agencies}}
{{authority control}}

[[Category:Electrical safety standards organizations]]
[[Category:ETSI]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1988]]
[[Category:Standards organizations in France]]

Paracelsus

2023-10-06T23:49:44Z

Relative Humidity: /* Early career */ Remove excessive references to same 3 citations (from a sentence with more refs than words!)

{{Short description|Swiss physician, philosopher, theologian, and alchemist (c. 1493–1541)}}
{{other uses|Paracelsus (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era = [[Renaissance philosophy]]
| name = Paracelsus
| image = Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Wellcome V0004455.jpg
| caption = 1538 portrait by [[Augustin Hirschvogel]]
| birth_name = Theophrastus von Hohenheim
| birth_date = c. 1493<ref name=birth_date>Pagel (1982) p. 6, citing
K. Bittel, "Ist Paracelsus 1493 oder 1494 geboren?", ''Med. Welt'' 16 (1942), p. 1163, J. Strebel, ''Theophrastus von Hohenheim: Sämtliche Werke'' vol. 1 (1944), p. 38.
The most frequently cited assumption that Paracelsus was born in late 1493 is due to
Sudhoff, ''Paracelsus. Ein deutsches Lebensbild aus den Tagen der Renaissance'' (1936), p. 11.</ref>
| birth_place = Egg, near [[Einsiedeln]], [[canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]],<ref>Einsiedeln was under the jurisdiction of Schwyz from 1394 onward; see
{{HLS|710|Einsiedeln}}</ref> [[Old Swiss Confederacy]] (present-day Switzerland)
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1541|09|24|1493|11|11}}
| death_place = [[Salzburg]], [[Archbishopric of Salzburg]] (present-day Austria)
| education = {{plainlist|
* [[University of Basel]]
* [[University of Ferrara]] ([[M.D.]], 1515/16)}}
| other_names = Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus, Doctor Paracelsus
| school_tradition = [[Renaissance humanism]]
| influences = [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Neoplatonism]], [[Hermeticism]], [[Johannes Trithemius]], [[Marsilio Ficino]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jung|first=C. G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2XfBQAAQBAJ|title=The Spirit of Man in Art and Literature|date=2014-12-18|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-53356-6|pages=7|language=en}}</ref>
| influenced = [[Thomas Muffet]],<ref>Geoffrey Davenport, Ian McDonald, Caroline Moss-Gibbons (Editors), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bGPZSDzOCxYC ''The Royal College of Physicians and Its Collections: An Illustrated History''], Royal College of Physicians, 2001, p. 48.</ref> [[Franciscus Sylvius]],<ref>Digitaal Wetenschapshistorisch Centrum (DWC) – KNAW: [http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/wp-content/berkelbio/54.sylvius.pdf "Franciscus dele Boë"]</ref> [[Sir Thomas Browne]],<ref>''Manchester Guardian'', 19 October 1905</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.levity.com/alchemy/sir_thomas_browne.html|title=The physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne|website=www.levity.com}}</ref> [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]], [[Adam Haslmayr]], [[Gabriel François Venel]] (''disputed''),<ref>{{Cite book | last = Josephson-Storm | first = Jason | title = The Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences | location = Chicago | publisher = University of Chicago Press | date = 2017 |page = 55 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xZ5yDgAAQBAJ | isbn = 978-0-226-40336-6 }}</ref> [[Jane Bennett (political theorist)|Jane Bennett]],<ref name=CISSC>{{cite web|title=CISSC Lecture Series: Jane Bennett, Johns Hopkins University: Impersonal Sympathy|url=http://cissc.concordia.ca/lecturesconferencesandevents/2012-13/?share=1|publisher=Center for Interdisciplinary Studies in Society and Culture, Concordia University, Montreal|access-date=9 February 2018|date=22 March 2013|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728234301/http://cissc.concordia.ca/lecturesconferencesandevents/2012-13/?share=1|archive-date=28 July 2014}}</ref> [[Giorgio Agamben]]<ref>Josephson-Storm (2017), 238</ref>
| notable_ideas = {{plainlist|
* [[Toxicology]]
* "[[The dose makes the poison]]"}}
}}
{{Esotericism}}

'''Paracelsus''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|æ|r|ə|ˈ|s|ɛ|l|s|ə|s}}; {{IPA-de|paʁaˈtsɛlzʊs|lang}}; {{c.}} 1493<ref name=birth_date/> – 24 September 1541), born '''Theophrastus von Hohenheim''' (full name '''Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim'''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ltxLAAAAcAAJ ''Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Paracelsus, genannt Bombast von Hohenheim: ein schweizerischer Medicus, gestorben 1541''], Hilscher, 1764, p. 13.</ref><ref>The name ''Philippus'' is only found posthumously, first on Paracelsus's tombstone. Publications during his lifetime were under the name ''Theophrastus ab Hohenheim'' or ''Theophrastus Paracelsus'', the additional name ''Aureolus'' is recorded in 1538. Pagel (1982), 5ff.</ref>), was a Swiss<ref>Paracelsus self-identifies as Swiss (''ich bin von Einsidlen, dess Lands ein Schweizer'') in ''grosse Wundartznei'' (vol. 1, p. 56) and names Carinthia as his "second fatherland" (''das ander mein Vatterland''). Karl F. H. Marx, ''Zur Würdigung des Theophrastus von Hohenheim'' (1842), [https://archive.org/details/zurwrdigungdest00marxgoog/page/n31 p. 3].</ref> physician, [[alchemist]], [[lay theologian]], and philosopher of the [[German Renaissance]].<ref>Allen G. Debus, [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/hmd/pdf/paracelsus.pdf "Paracelsus and the medical revolution of the Renaissance"]—A 500th Anniversary Celebration from the National Library of Medicine (1993), p. 3.</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Paracelsus |encyclopedia=Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/442424/Paracelsus |access-date=24 November 2011}}</ref>

He was a pioneer in several aspects of the "[[Medical Renaissance|medical revolution]]" of the Renaissance, emphasizing the value of observation in combination with received wisdom. He is credited as the "father of [[toxicology]]".<ref name="toxsci.oxfordjournals.org">{{cite web|url=http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/53/1/2.full|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324033717/http://toxsci.oxfordjournals.org/content/53/1/2.full|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 March 2013|title=Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology|access-date=23 September 2014}}</ref> Paracelsus also had a substantial influence as a prophet or diviner, his "Prognostications" being studied by [[Rosicrucians]] in the 17th century. [[Paracelsianism]] is the early modern medical movement inspired by the study of his works.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/17496977.2017.1361060|title=Paracelsus and Roman censorship – Johannes Faber's 1616 report in context|journal=Intellectual History Review|volume=28|issue=2|pages=5|year=2017|last1=De Vries|first1=Lyke|last2=Spruit|first2=Leen|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Biography==

Paracelsus was born in Egg an der Sihl,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Duffin|first1=C. J|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hGpIAgAAQBAJ|title=A History of Geology and Medicine|last2=Moody|first2=R. T. J|last3=Gardner-Thorpe|first3=C.|date=2013|publisher=Geological Society of London|isbn=978-1-86239-356-1|pages=444|language=en}}</ref> a village close to the [[Etzel Pass]] in [[Einsiedeln]], [[canton of Schwyz|Schwyz]]. He was born in a house next to a bridge across the [[Sihl river]]. His father Wilhelm (d. 1534) was a chemist and physician, an illegitimate descendant of the [[Duchy of Swabia|Swabia]]n noble Georg [[Bombast von Hohenheim]] (1453–1499), [[Commander (order)|commander]] of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Order of Saint John]] in [[Rohrdorf, Baden-Württemberg|Rohrdorf]].<ref>Müller-Jahncke, Wolf-Dieter, "Paracelsus" in: ''Neue Deutsche Biographie'' 20 (2001), [http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd11859169X.html 61–64].</ref>

Paracelsus' mother was probably a native of the [[Einsiedeln]] region and a [[Indentured servitude|bondswoman]] of [[Einsiedeln Abbey]], who before her marriage worked as superintendent in the abbey's hospital.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = The Western Medical Tradition|last = Wear|first = Andrew|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1995|location = Cambridge|pages = 311}}</ref> Paracelsus in his writings repeatedly made references to his rustic origins and occasionally used ''Eremita'' (from the name of Einsiedeln, meaning "hermitage") as part of his name.<ref>
C. Birchler in ''Verhandlungen der Schweizerischen Naturforschenden Gesellschaft'' 52 (1868),
[https://books.google.com/books?id=VksWAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PA9 9f].
A letter sent in 1526 from Basel to his friend Christoph Clauser, physician in Zürich, one of the oldest extant documents written by Paracelsus, is signed ''Theophrastus ex Hohenheim Eremita''.
Karl F. H. Marx, ''Zur Würdigung des Theophrastus von Hohenheim'' (1842), [https://archive.org/details/zurwrdigungdest00marxgoog/page/n31 p. 3].</ref>

Paracelsus' mother probably died in 1502,<ref name="BBKL">{{BBKL|p/paracelsus|band=6|autor=Johannes Schaber|artikel=Paracelsus, lat. Pseudonym von {Philippus Aureolus} Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim|spalten=1502–1528}}</ref> after which Paracelsus's father moved to [[Villach]], [[Duchy of Carinthia|Carinthia]], where he worked as a physician, attending to the medical needs of the pilgrims and inhabitants of the cloister.<ref name="BBKL"/> Paracelsus was educated by his father in botany, medicine, mineralogy, mining, and natural philosophy.<ref name=":0" /> He received a profound humanistic and theological education from local clerics and the convent school of [[St. Paul's Abbey in the Lavanttal]].<ref name="BBKL" /> It is likely that Paracelsus received his early education mainly from his father.<ref name=":9">{{Cite book|last=Crone|first=Hugh D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yPYfCb9vClsC&pg=PA36|title=Paracelsus: The Man who Defied Medicine : His Real Contribution to Medicine and Science|date=2004|publisher=Albarello Press|isbn=978-0-646-43327-1|pages=36–37|language=en}}</ref> Some biographers have claimed that he received tutoring from four bishops and [[Johannes Trithemius]], abbot of [[Sponheim]].<ref name=":9" /> However, there is no record of Trithemius spending much time at [[Einsiedeln]], nor of Paracelsus visiting [[Sponheim]] or [[Würzburg]] before Trithemius's death in 1516.<ref name=":9" /> All things considered, Paracelsus almost certainly received instructions from their writings, and not from direct teaching in person.<ref name=":9" /> At the age of 16, he started studying medicine at the [[University of Basel]], later moving to Vienna. He gained his [[medical doctorate]] from the [[University of Ferrara]] in 1515 or 1516.<ref name="BBKL" /><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://web.unife.it/centro/paracelsus/archivi/c_2005_hexagon_winter2005.pdf |author1=Marshall James L |author2=Marshall Virginia R |title=Rediscovery of the Elements: Paracelsus |journal=The Hexagon of Alpha Chi Sigma |issn=0164-6109 |oclc=4478114 |issue=Winter |year=2005 |pages=71–8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928105224/http://web.unife.it/centro/paracelsus/archivi/c_2005_hexagon_winter2005.pdf |archive-date=2006-09-28 }}</ref>

===Early career===
[[File:Paracelsus.jpg|thumb|The Louvre copy of the lost portrait by [[Quentin Matsys]],<ref>Matsys' portrait may have been drawn from life, but it has been lost. At least three copies of the portrait are known to have been made in the first half of the 17th century: one by an anonymous Flemish artist, kept in the Louvre (shown here), one by [[Peter Paul Rubens]], kept in Brussels, and one by a student of Rubens', now kept in Uppsala.</ref> source of the iconographic tradition of "fat" Paracelsus<ref>Andrew Cunninghgam, "Paracelsus Fat and Thin: Thoughts on Reputations and Realities" in: Ole Peter Grell (ed.), ''Paracelsus'' (1998), 53–78 [https://books.google.com/books?id=_m1Mf52bK70C&pg=PA57 (p. 57)].</ref>]]
"Paracelsus sought a universal knowledge"<ref name=":05">{{Cite book|last=Goodrick - Clarke|first=Nicholas|title=Paracelsus Essential Readings|publisher=North Atlantic Books|year=1999|location=Berkeley, California|pages=16}}</ref> that was not found in books or faculties. Thus, between 1517 and 1524, he embarked on a series of extensive travels around Europe. His wanderings led him from Italy, France, to Spain, Portugal, to England, Germany, [[Scandinavia]], Poland, Russia, Hungary, Croatia, to [[Rhodes]], [[Constantinople]], and possibly even Egypt.<ref name=":05" /><ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Borzelleca|first=Joseph|date=January 2000|title=Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology|journal=Toxicological Sciences|volume=53|issue=1|pages=2–4|doi=10.1093/toxsci/53.1.2|pmid=10653514|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Paracelsus|title=Parcelsus|last=Hargrave|first=John G.|date=December 2019|website=Encyclopedia Britannica}}</ref> During this period of travel, Paracelsus enlisted as an army surgeon and was involved in the wars waged by [[Republic of Venice|Venice]], [[County of Holland|Holland]], Denmark, and the Tartars. Then Paracelsus returned home from his travels in 1524.<ref name=":05" /><ref name=":13"/><ref name=":22"/>

In 1524, "[a]fter visiting his father at [[Villach]] and finding no local opportunity to practice, he settled in [[Salzburg]]" as a physician,<ref name=":03">{{Cite book|last=Goodrick-Clarke|first=Nicholas|title=Paracelsus Essential Readings|publisher=North Atlantic Books|year=1999|location=Berkeley, California|pages=16}}</ref><ref name=":13"/><ref name=":22"/> and remained there until 1527.<ref name=":13" /> "Since 1519/20 he had been working on his first medical writings, and he now completed ''Elf Traktat'' and ''Volumen medicinae Paramirum'', which describe eleven common maladies and their treatment, and his early medical principles."<ref name=":03" /> While he was returning to [[Villach]] and while he worked on his first medical writings, "he contemplated many fundamental issues such as the meaning of life and death, health, the causes of disease (internal imbalances or external forces), the place of humans in the world and in the universe, and the relationship between humans (including himself) and God."<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":22" />

===Basel (1526–1528)===
[[File:11-11-24-basel-by-ralfr-035.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Basel]], where Paracelsus started working as a professor in 1527]]
In 1526, he bought the rights of citizenship in [[Strasbourg]] to establish his own practice. But soon after, he was called to [[Basel]] to the sickbed of printer [[Johann Frobenius]] and reportedly cured him.<ref name=":2" /> During that time, the [[Dutch Renaissance]] [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] [[Erasmus of Rotterdam]], also at the [[University of Basel]], witnessed the medical skills of Paracelsus, and the two scholars initiated a dialogue, exchanging letters on medical and theological subjects.<ref>{{cite journal | pmc = 2558048 | pmid=21380327 | volume=7 | issue=164 | title=Letter From Paracelsus to Erasmus | journal=Prov Med J Retrosp Med Sci | pages=142| year=1843 }}</ref>

In 1527, Paracelsus was a licensed physician in Basel with the privilege of lecturing at the [[University of Basel]]. At that time, Basel was a centre of Renaissance humanism, and Paracelsus here came into contact with [[Erasmus of Rotterdam]], [[Wolfgang Lachner]], and [[Johannes Oekolampad]]. When Erasmus fell ill while staying in Basel, he wrote to Paracelsus: "I cannot offer thee a reward equal to thy art and knowledge—I surely offer thee a grateful soul. Thou hast recalled from the shades Frobenius who is my other half: if thou restorest me also thou restorest each through the other."<ref>E.J. Holmyard (1957). ''Alchemy.'' Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, p. 162. Retrieved 22 May 2021.</ref>''

Paracelsus' lectures at Basel university unusually were given in German, not Latin.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Drago |first1=Elisabeth |title=Paracelsus, the Alchemist Who Wed Medicine to Magic |date=3 March 2020 |url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/paracelsus-the-alchemist-who-wed-medicine-to-magic |publisher=Science History Institute |access-date=6 May 2022}}</ref> He stated that he wanted his lectures to be available to everyone. He published harsh criticism of the Basel physicians and apothecaries, creating political turmoil to the point of his life being threatened. In a display of his contempt for conventional medicine, Paracelsus publicly [[Book burning|burned]] editions of the works of [[Galen]] and [[Avicenna]]. On 23 June 1527, he burnt a copy of Avicenna's ''[[Canon of Medicine]]'', an enormous tome that was a pillar of academic study, in market square.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Charles |title=Paracelsus: Medicine, Magic and Mission at the End of Time |page=13 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |year=2008 }}</ref> He was prone to many outbursts of abusive language, abhorred untested theory, and ridiculed anybody who placed more importance on titles than practice: 'if disease put us to the test, all our splendour, title, ring, and name will be as much help as a horse's tail'.<ref name=":2" /> During his time as a professor at the University of Basel, he invited [[barber-surgeon]]s, [[alchemist]]s, [[apothecary|apothecaries]], and others lacking academic background to serve as examples of his belief that only those who practised an art knew it: "The patients are your textbook, the sickbed is your study."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|first1=Arthur Edward|last1=Waite|title = The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus|publisher = James Elliott and Co|year = 1894|location = London}}</ref> Paracelsus was compared with [[Martin Luther]] because of his openly defiant acts against the existing authorities in medicine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/442424/Paracelsus/5504/Career-at-Basel|title=Paracelsus|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=23 September 2014}}</ref> But Paracelsus rejected that comparison,<ref>{{cite book |title=Paracelsus: An Introduction to Philosophical Medicine in the Era of the Renaissance| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wO244WXEBKcC&q=paracelsus+luther&pg=PA40 | page=40| isbn=9783805535182 | last1=Pagel | first1=Walter | year=1982 | publisher=Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers }}</ref> famously stating: "I leave it to Luther to defend what he says and I will be responsible for what I say. That which you wish to Luther, you wish also to me: You wish us both in the fire."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://divinity.uchicago.edu/martycenter/publications/sightings/archive_2006/1023.shtml |title=Divinity School at the University of Chicago | Publications |website=divinity.uchicago.edu |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610120041/http://divinity.uchicago.edu/martycenter/publications/sightings/archive_2006/1023.shtml |archive-date=10 June 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref> A companion during the Basel years expressed a quite unflattering opinion on Paracelsus: "The two years I passed in his company he spent in [[binge drinking|drinking]] and [[gluttony]], day and night. He could not be found [[sobriety|sober]] an hour or two together, in particular after his departure from Basel."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ball |first=Philip |title=The Devil's Doctor: Paracelsus and the World of Renaissance of Magic and Science |page=205 |publisher=William Heinemann |location=London |year=2006 }}</ref> threatened with an unwinnable lawsuit,{{clarify|date=September 2023}} he left Basel for [[Alsace]] in February 1528.

===Later career===
[[File:300704 beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracelsus-denkmal 1-480x640.jpg|thumb|Monument to Paracelsus in [[Beratzhausen]], [[Bavaria]]]]
In Alsace, Paracelsus took up the life of an [[itinerant]] physician once again. After staying in [[Colmar]] with [[Lorenz Fries]], and briefly in [[Esslingen am Neckar|Esslingen]], he moved to [[Nuremberg]] in 1529. His reputation went before him, and the medical professionals excluded him from practising.

The name ''Paracelsus'' is first attested in this year, used as a pseudonym for the publication of a ''Practica'' of political-[[astrology|astrological]] character in Nuremberg.<ref>''Practica D. Theophrasti Paracelsi, gemacht auff Europen, anzufahen in den nechstkunftigen Dreyssigsten Jar biß auff das Vier und Dreyssigst nachvolgend, Gedruckt zu Nürmberg durch Friderichen Peypus M. D. XXIX.'' [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10198676?page=5 (online facsimile)]</ref> Pagel (1982) supposes that the name was intended for use as the author of non-medical works, while his real name ''Theophrastus von Hohenheim'' was used for medical publications. The first use of ''Doctor Paracelsus'' in a medical publication was in 1536, as the author of the ''Grosse Wundartznei''. The name is usually interpreted as either a [[Latinization]] of ''Hohenheim'' (based on ''[[:wikt:celsus|celsus]]'' "high, tall") or as the claim of "surpassing [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus|Celsus]]". It has been argued that the name was not the invention of Paracelsus himself, who would have been opposed to the humanistic fashion of Latinized names, but was given to him by his circle of friends in Colmar in 1528. It is difficult to interpret but does appear to express the "paradoxical" character of the man, the prefix "[[:wikt:παρά|para]]" suggestively being echoed in the titles of Paracelsus's main philosophical works, ''Paragranum'' and ''Paramirum'' (as it were, "beyond the grain" and "beyond wonder"), a ''paramiric'' treatise having been announced by Paracelsus as early as 1520.<ref>Pagel (1982), p. 5ff.</ref>

The great medical problem of this period was [[syphilis]], possibly recently imported from the [[West Indies]] and running rampant as a [[pandemic]] completely untreated. Paracelsus vigorously attacked the treatment with [[guaiacum|guaiac wood]] as useless, a scam perpetrated by the [[Fugger]] of Augsburg as the main importers of the wood in two publications on the topic. When his further stay in Nuremberg had become impossible, he retired to [[Beratzhausen]], hoping to return to Nuremberg and publish an extended treatise on the "French sickness"; but its publication was prohibited by a decree of the Leipzig [[faculty of medicine]], represented by [[Heinrich Stromer]], a close friend and associate of the Fugger family.<ref>Ingrid Kästner,
in Albrecht Classen (ed.), ''Religion und Gesundheit: Der heilkundliche Diskurs im 16. Jahrhundert'' (2011), [https://books.google.com/books?id=_qmCqQfxLn0C&pg=PA166 p. 166].</ref>

In [[Beratzhausen]], Paracelsus prepared ''Paragranum'', his main work on [[medical philosophy]], completed 1530. Moving on to [[St. Gallen|St. Gall]], he then completed his ''Opus Paramirum'' in 1531, which he dedicated to [[Joachim Vadian]]. From St. Gall, he moved on to the land of [[Appenzell]], where he was active as [[lay preacher]] and healer among the [[peasantry]]. In the same year, he visited the mines in [[Schwaz]] and [[Hall in Tirol|Hall]] in [[County of Tyrol|Tyrol]], working on his book on miners' diseases. He moved on to [[Innsbruck]], where he was once again barred from practising. He passed [[Sterzing]] in 1534, moving on to [[Merano|Meran]], [[Veltlin]], and [[St. Moritz]], which he praised for its healing springs. In Meran, he came in contact with the socioreligious programs of the [[Anabaptist]]s. He visited [[Pfäfers Abbey]], dedicating a separate pamphlet to its baths (1535). He passed [[Kempten]], [[Memmingen]], [[Ulm]], and [[Augsburg]] in 1536. He finally managed to publish his ''Die grosse Wundartznei'' ("The Great Surgery Book"), printed in [[Ulm]], [[Augsburg]], and [[Frankfurt]] in this year.<ref>Pagel (1982), [https://books.google.com/books?id=wO244WXEBKcC&pg=PA26 p. 26].</ref>

His ''Astronomia magna'' (also known as ''Philosophia sagax'') was completed in 1537 but not published until 1571. It is a treatise on [[hermeticism]], [[astrology]], [[divination]], [[theology]], and [[demonology]] that laid the basis of Paracelsus's later fame as a "prophet". His [[motto]] ''Alterius non sit qui suus esse potest'' ("Let no man belong to another who can belong to himself") is inscribed on a 1538 portrait by [[Augustin Hirschvogel]].

===Death and legacy===
{{further|#Reception and legacy}}
In 1541, Paracelsus moved to [[Salzburg]], probably on the invitation of [[Ernest of Bavaria]], where he died on 24 September. He was buried in St. Sebastian's cemetery in Salzburg. His remains were relocated inside St. Sebastian's church in 1752.

After his death, the movement of [[Paracelsianism]] was seized upon by many wishing to subvert the traditional [[Galen]]ic physics, and his therapies became more widely known and used. His manuscripts have been lost, but many of his works which remained unpublished during his lifetime were edited by Johannes Huser of Basel during 1589 to 1591. His works were frequently reprinted and widely read during the late 16th to early 17th centuries, and although his "[[occult]]" reputation remained controversial, his medical contributions were universally recognized: a 1618 ''pharmacopeia'' by the [[Royal College of Physicians]] in London included "Paracelsian" remedies.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|title = International Year of Chemistry 2011: Paracelsus: In Praise of Mavericks|journal = Clinical Chemistry|date = 2011-06-01|issn = 0009-9147|pages = 932–934|volume = 57|issue = 6|doi = 10.1373/clinchem.2011.165894|first = Marek H.|last = Dominiczak|doi-access = free}}</ref>

The late 16th century saw substantial production of Pseudo-Paracelsian writing, especially letters attributed to Paracelsus, to the point where biographers find it impossible to draw a clear line between genuine tradition and legend.<ref>Joachim Telle, "Paracelsus in pseudoparacelsischen Briefen", ''Nova Acta Paracelsica'' 20/21 (2007), [https://books.google.com/books?id=BGY22fzhPqwC&pg=PA147 147–164].</ref>

==Philosophy==

{{Hermeticism|expand=Historical figures}}
As a physician of the early 16th century, Paracelsus held a natural affinity with the [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]], [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonic]], and [[Pythagoras|Pythagorean]] philosophies central to the Renaissance, a world-view exemplified by [[Marsilio Ficino]] and [[Pico della Mirandola]].{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} [[Astrology]] was a very important part of Paracelsus's medicine and he was a practising [[astrologer]], as were many of the university-trained physicians working at that time in Europe. Paracelsus devoted several sections in his writings to the construction of astrological talismans for curing disease. {{citation needed|date=October 2021}} He largely rejected the philosophies of [[Aristotle]] and [[Galen]], as well as the [[Humorism|theory of humours]]. Although he did accept the concept of [[the four elements]]—water, air, fire, and earth; he saw them as a foundation for other properties on which to build.<ref name="Pagel, Walter 1958">Pagel, Walter. ''Paracelsus; an Introduction to Philosophical Medicine in the Era of the Renaissance''. Basel: Karger, 1958. Print.</ref>

He often viewed fire as the [[Firmament]] that sat between air and water in the heavens. Paracelsus often uses an egg to help describe the elements. In his early model, he claimed that air surrounded the world like an egg shell. The egg white below the shell is like fire because it has a type of chaos to it that allows it to hold up earth and water. The earth and water make up a globe which, in his egg analogy, is the yolk. In ''De Meteoris'', Paracelsus claims the firmament is the heavens.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Kahn|first=Didier|title=''Unifying Heaven and Earth: Essays in the History of Early Modern Cosmology''|publisher=Universitat de Barcelona|year=2016}}</ref>

Paracelsus's approach to science was heavily influenced by his religious beliefs. He believed that science and religion were inseparable, and scientific discoveries were direct messages from God. Thus, he believed it was mankind's divine duty to uncover and understand all of His message.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Pagel|first=W.|title=''Paracelsus: An Introduction to Philosophical Medicine in the Era of the Renaissance''|publisher=S. Karger|year=1982|pages=54–57}}</ref> Paracelsus also believed that the virtues that make up natural objects are not natural, but supernatural, and existed in God before the creation of the universe. Because of this, when the Earth and the Heavens eventually dissipate, the virtues of all natural objects will continue to exist and simply return to God.<ref name=":5" /> His philosophy about the true nature of the virtues is reminiscent of [[Aristotle|Aristotle's]] idea of the natural place of elements. To Paracelsus, the purpose of science is not only to learn more about the world around us, but also to search for divine signs and potentially understand the nature of God.<ref name=":5" /> If a person who doesn't believe in God became a physician, he would not have standing in God's eyes and would not succeed in their work because he did not practice in his name. Becoming an effective physician requires faith in God.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book|last=Jacobi|first=J.|title=''Paracelsus - Selected Writings''|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1995|pages=71–73}}</ref> Paracelsus saw medicine as more than just a perfunctory practice. To him, medicine was a divine mission, and good character combined with devotion to God was more important than personal skill. He encouraged physicians to practice self-improvement and humility along with studying philosophy to gain new experiences.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|last=Borzelleca|first=J.|title=''Profiles in Toxicology - Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology''|publisher=Toxicological Sciences|year=2000|pages=2–4}}</ref>

==Contributions to medicine==
[[File:Einsiedeln IMG 6265.JPG|thumb|Memorial in [[Einsiedeln]], erected in 1941 on the occasion of the 400th anniversary of Paracelsus's death, on the initiative of art historian Linus Birchler, first president of the Swiss Paracelsus Society<ref>The sculpture shows an "Einsiedeln woman with two healthy children" (''Einsiedler Frau mit zwei gesunden Kindern'') as a symbol of "motherly health". A more conventional memorial, a [[:File:Paracelsus geburtsort gedenkstein.jpg|plaque]] showing the portrait of Paracelsus, was placed in Egg, Einsiedeln, in 1910 (now at the Teufelsbrücke, {{coord|47.1675|N|8.7668|E|}}).
The 1941 monument was harshly criticized as "dishonest kitsch" (''verlogener Kitsch'') in the service of a conservative Catholic "cult of motherhood" (''Mütterlichkeitskult'') by Franz Rueb in his (generally iconoclastic) ''Mythos Paracelsus'' (1995), p. 330.</ref>]]

=== Chemistry ===
Paracelsus was one of the first medical professors to recognize that physicians required a solid academic knowledge in the natural sciences, especially [[chemistry]]. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in [[medicine]]. From his study of the elements, Paracelsus adopted the idea of tripartite alternatives to explain the nature of medicines, which he thought to be composed of the '''{{lang|la|tria prima}}''' ('three primes'): a combustible element (sulphur), a fluid and changeable element (mercury), and a solid, permanent element (salt). The first mention of the mercury-sulphur-salt model was in the ''Opus paramirum'' dating to about 1530.<ref name="Webster, Charles 2008">Webster, Charles. Paracelsus: Medicine, Magic and Mission at the End of Time. New Haven: Yale UP, 2008. Print.</ref> Paracelsus believed that the [[principle (chemistry)|principle]]s sulphur, mercury, and salt contained the poisons contributing to all diseases.<ref name="Pagel, Walter 1958" /> He saw each disease as having three separate cures depending on how it was afflicted, either being caused by the poisoning of sulphur, mercury, or salt. Paracelsus drew the importance of sulphur, salt, and mercury from medieval alchemy, where they all occupied a prominent place. He demonstrated his theory by burning a piece of wood. The fire was the work of sulphur, the smoke was mercury, and the residual ash was salt.<ref name="Webster, Charles 2008" /> Paracelsus also believed that mercury, sulphur, and salt provided a good explanation for the nature of medicine because each of these properties existed in many physical forms. The ''tria prima'' also defined the human identity. Salt represented the body; mercury represented the spirit (imagination, moral judgment, and the higher mental faculties); sulphur represented the soul (the emotions and desires). By understanding the chemical nature of the ''tria prima'', a physician could discover the means of curing disease. With every disease, the symptoms depended on which of the three principals caused the ailment.<ref name="Webster, Charles 2008" /> Paracelsus theorized that materials which are poisonous in large doses may be curative in small doses; he demonstrated this with the examples of magnetism and static electricity, wherein a small magnet can attract much larger pieces of metal.<ref name="Webster, Charles 2008" />

He was probably the first to give the element ''[[zinc]]'' (''zincum'') its modern name,<ref>{{Cite book
|last = Habashi
|first = Fathi
|title = Discovering the 8th metal
|publisher = International Zinc Association
|url = http://www.zinc.org/general/ZP-Discovering_the_8th_Metal1.pdf
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150606210821/http://www.zinc.org/general/ZP-Discovering_the_8th_Metal1.pdf
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 2015-06-06
}}.</ref><ref>
{{Cite web
|url=http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/p/paracelsus.html
|title=Paracelsus
|author=Hefner Alan
}}</ref> in about 1526, likely based on the sharp pointed appearance of its crystals after smelting (''zinke'' translating to "pointed" in German). Paracelsus invented chemical therapy, chemical urinalysis, and suggested a biochemical theory of digestion.<ref name=":2" /> Paracelsus used chemistry and chemical analogies in his teachings to medical students and to the medical establishment, many of whom found them objectionable.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|title = Paracelsus: Herald of Modern Toxicology|journal = Toxicological Sciences|date = 2000-01-01|issn = 1096-6080|pmid = 10653514|pages = 2–4|volume = 53|issue = 1|doi = 10.1093/toxsci/53.1.2|first = Joseph F.|last = Borzelleca|doi-access = free}}</ref>

Paracelsus in the beginning of the sixteenth century had unknowingly observed [[hydrogen]] as he noted that in reaction when [[acids]] attack [[metals]], gas was a [[by-product]].<ref name="Rigden2003">{{cite book|author=John S. Rigden|title=Hydrogen: The Essential Element|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FhFxn_lUvz0C|year=2003|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01252-3|page=10}}</ref> Later, [[Théodore de Mayerne]] repeated Paracelsus's experiment in 1650 and found that the gas was flammable. However, neither Paracelsus nor de Mayerne proposed that hydrogen could be a new element.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chemicool.com/elements/hydrogen.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141007075447/http://www.chemicool.com/elements/hydrogen.html|archive-date=2014-10-07|url-status=live|title=Discovery of Hydrogen|author= Doug Stewart|publisher=Chemicool|access-date=2014-11-20}}</ref>

=== Hermeticism ===
His [[Hermeticism|hermetic]] beliefs were that sickness and health in the body relied upon the harmony of humans ([[macrocosm and microcosm|microcosm]]) and nature ([[macrocosm]]). He took a different approach from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. As a result of this hermetical idea of harmony, the universe's macrocosm was represented in every person as a microcosm. An example of this correspondence is the [[doctrine of signatures]] used to identify curative powers of plants. If a plant looked like a part of the body, then this signified its ability to cure this given anatomy. Therefore, the root of the [[orchid]] looks like a testicle and can therefore heal any testicle-associated illness.<ref>{{Cite book|title = The Western Medical Tradition|last = Wear|first = Andrew|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1995|location = Cambridge|pages = 314}}</ref> Paracelsus mobilized the [[Macrocosm and microcosm|microcosm-macrocosm]] theory to demonstrate the analogy between the aspirations to salvation and health. As humans must ward off the influence of evil spirits with morality, they must also ward off diseases with good health.<ref name="Webster, Charles 2008" />

Paracelsus believed that true anatomy could only be understood once the nourishment for each part of the body was discovered. He believed that one must therefore know the influence of the stars on these particular body parts.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = The Western Medical Tradition|last = Wear|first = Andrew|publisher = Cambridge University Press|year = 1995|location = Cambridge|pages = 315}}</ref> Diseases were caused by poisons brought from the stars. However, 'poisons' were not necessarily something negative, in part because related substances interacted, but also because only the dose determined if a substance was poisonous. Paracelsus claimed in contrast to Galen, that like cures like. If a star or poison caused a disease, then it must be countered by another star or poison.<ref name=":1" /> Because everything in the universe was interrelated, beneficial medical substances could be found in herbs, minerals, and various chemical combinations thereof. Paracelsus viewed the universe as one coherent organism that is pervaded by a uniting, life-giving spirit, and this in its entirety, humans included, was 'God'. His beliefs put him at odds with the Catholic Church, for which there necessarily had to be a difference between the creator and the created.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Alex Wittendorff |author2=Claus Bjørn |author3=Ole Peter Grell |author4=T. Morsing |author5=Per Barner Darnell |author6=Hans Bjørn |author7=Gerhardt Eriksen |author8=Palle Lauring |author9=Kristian Hvidt |title = Tyge Brahe |language=da | publisher = Gad | year = 1994 |isbn=87-12-02272-1 }} p44-45</ref> Therefore, some have considered him to be a Protestant.<ref name="Helm Winkelmann 2001 p. 49">{{cite book | last1=Helm | first1=J. | last2=Winkelmann | first2=A. | title=''Religious Confessions and the Sciences in the Sixteenth Century'' | publisher=Brill | series=Studies in European Judaism, Volume 1 | year=2001 | isbn=978-90-04-12045-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZbx3O9cVHoC&pg=PA49 | access-date=2023-02-04 | page=49}}</ref><ref name="Dorner 2004 p. 1-PA179">{{cite book | last=Dorner | first=I.A. | title=History of Protestant Theology | publisher=Wipf & Stock Publishers | year=2004 | isbn=978-1-59244-610-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rglLAwAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA179 | access-date=2023-02-04 | page=1-PA179}}</ref><ref name="Hargrave 1951 p. ">{{cite book | last=Hargrave | first=J. | title=''The Life and Soul of Paracelsus'' | publisher=Gollancz | year=1951 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0mwwAAAAYAAJ | access-date=2023-02-04 | page=}}</ref><ref name="Brockliss Jones 1997 p. ">{{cite book | last1=Brockliss | first1=L.W.B. | last2=Jones | first2=C. | title=''The Medical World of Early Modern France'' | publisher=Clarendon Press | year=1997 | isbn=978-0-19-822750-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Th9rAAAAMAAJ | access-date=2023-02-04 | page=}}</ref>

In a posthumously published book entitled, ''[[A Book on Nymphs, Sylphs, Pygmies, and Salamanders, and on the Other Spirits]]'', Paracelsus also described four [[elemental]] beings, each corresponding to one of the [[Classical elements|four elements]]: [[Salamanders in folklore and legend|Salamanders]], which correspond to fire; [[Gnomes]], corresponding to earth; [[Undines]], corresponding to water; and [[Sylphs]], corresponding to air.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Silver|first=Carole B.|title=Strange and Secret Peoples: Fairies and Victorian Consciousness|year=1999|isbn=0-19-512199-6|pages=38|publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Paracelsus|title=''Four Treatises of Theophrastus Von Hohenheim Called Paracelsus''|publisher=JHU Press|year=1996|pages=222}}</ref>

=== Discoveries and treatments ===
Paracelsus is frequently credited with reintroducing [[opium]] to [[Western Europe]] during the [[German Renaissance]]. He extolled the benefits of opium, and of a pill he called laudanum, which has frequently been asserted by others to have been an opium tincture. Paracelsus did not leave a complete recipe, and the known ingredients differ considerably from 17th-century [[laudanum]].<ref name="Sigerist">{{cite journal |last1=Sigerist |first1=H. E. |title=Laudanum in the Works of Paracelsus |journal=Bull. Hist. Med. |date=1941 |volume=9 |pages=530–544 |url=http://www.samorini.it/doc1/alt_aut/sz/sigerist-laudanum-in-the-work-of-paracelsus.pdf |access-date=5 September 2018}}</ref>

Paracelsus invented, or at least named a sort of [[liniment]], [[opodeldoc]], a mixture of [[soap]] in [[ethanol|alcohol]], to which [[camphor]] and sometimes a number of [[herb]]al essences, most notably [[Artemisia (genus)|wormwood]], were added. Paracelsus's recipe forms the basis for most later versions of liniment.<ref>Michael Quinion, ''World Wide Words'', [http://www.worldwidewords.org/weirdwords/ww-opo1.htm May 27, 2006]</ref>

His work ''Die große Wundarzney'' is a forerunner of [[antisepsis]]. This specific empirical knowledge originated from his personal experiences as an army physician in the [[Ottoman–Venetian War|Venetian wars]]. Paracelsus demanded that the application of cow dung, feathers and other noxious concoctions to wounds be surrendered in favor of keeping the wounds clean, stating, "If you prevent infection, Nature will heal the wound all by herself."<ref name=":2" /> During his time as a military surgeon, Paracelsus was exposed to the crudity of medical knowledge at the time, when doctors believed that infection was a natural part of the healing process. He advocated for cleanliness and protection of wounds, as well as the regulation of diet. Popular ideas of the time opposed these theories and suggested sewing or plastering wounds.<ref name="TO MEDICAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE J. M 1917 pp. 390-402" /> Historians of syphilitic disease credit Paracelsus with the recognition of the inherited{{clarify|date=October 2019}} character of [[syphilis]]. In his first medical publication, a short pamphlet on syphilis treatment that was also the most comprehensive clinical description the period ever produced, he wrote a clinical description of syphilis in which he maintained that it could be treated by carefully measured doses of mercury.<ref name="TO MEDICAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE J. M 1917 pp. 390-402" /> Similarly, he was the first to discover that the disease could only be contracted by contact.<ref name=":2" />

[[Hippocrates]] put forward the theory that illness was caused by an imbalance of the [[humorism|four humours]]: blood, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile. These ideas were further developed by [[Galen]] into an extremely influential and highly persistent set of medical beliefs that were to last until the mid-1850s. Contrarily, Paracelsus believed in three humors: salt (representing stability), sulphur (representing combustibility), and mercury (representing liquidity); he defined disease as a separation of one humor from the other two. He believed that body organs functioned alchemically, that is, they separated pure from impure.<ref name=":3" /> The dominant medical treatments in Paracelsus's time were specific diets to help in the "cleansing of the putrefied juices" combined with purging and [[bloodletting]] to restore the balance of the four humours. Paracelsus supplemented and challenged this view with his beliefs that illness was the result of the body being attacked by ''outside'' agents. He objected to excessive bloodletting, saying that the process disturbed the harmony of the system, and that blood could not be purified by lessening its quantity.<ref name="TO MEDICAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE J. M 1917 pp. 390-402">THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF PARACELSUS TO MEDICAL SCIENCE AND PRACTICE J. M. Stillman The Monist, Vol. 27, No. 3 (JULY, 1917), pp. 390–402</ref> Paracelsus believed that fasting helped enable the body to heal itself. 'Fasting is the greatest remedy, the physician within.' <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.targethealth.com/post/short-history-of-fasting|title = Short History of Fasting | Jun 05, 2017}}</ref>

Paracelsus gave birth to clinical diagnosis and the administration of highly specific medicines. This was uncommon for a period heavily exposed to cure-all remedies. The [[Germ theory of disease|germ theory]] was anticipated by him as he proposed that diseases were entities in themselves, rather than states of being. Paracelsus prescribed [[black hellebore]] to alleviate certain forms of [[arteriosclerosis]]. Lastly, he recommended the use of iron for "poor blood" and is credited with the creation of the terms "chemistry," "gas," and "alcohol".<ref name=":2" />

During Paracelsus's lifetime and after his death, he was often celebrated as a wonder healer and investigator of those [[Traditional medicine|folk medicines]] that were rejected by the fathers of medicine (e.g. Galen, Avicenna). It was believed that he had success with his own remedies curing the plague, according to those that revered him. Since effective medicines for serious infectious diseases weren't invented before the 19th century, Paracelsus came up with many prescriptions and concoctions on his own. For infectious diseases with fever, it was common to prescribe [[diaphoretic]]s and [[Herbal tonic|tonic]]s that at least gave temporary relief. Also many of his remedies contained the famed "[[theriac]]", a preparation derived from oriental medicine sometimes containing opium. The following prescription by Paracelsus was dedicated to the village of [[Sterzing]]:

{{Blockquote
|style=font-style: italic;
|text=Also sol das trank gemacht werden, dadurch die pestilenz im schweiss ausgetrieben wird: (So the potion should be made, whereby the pestilence is expelled in sweat:)
:eines guten gebranten weins...ein moß, (Medicinal brandy)
:eines guten tiriaks zwölf lot, (Theriac)
:myrrhen vier lot, (Myrrh)
:wurzen von roßhuf sechs lot, (Tussilago sp.)
:sperma ceti,
:terrae sigillatae ietlichs ein lot, (Medicinal earth)
:schwalbenwurz zwei lot, (Vincetoxicum sp.)
:diptan, bibernel, baldrianwurzel ietlichs ein lot (Dictamnus albus, Valerian, Pimpinella)
:gaffer ein quint. (Camphor)
Dise ding alle durch einander gemischet, in eine sauberes glas wol gemacht, auf acht tag in der sonne stehen lassen, nachfolgents dem kranken ein halben löffel eingeben... (Mix all these things together, put them into a clean glass, let them stand in the sun for eight days, then give the sick person half a spoonful...)
|author=E. Kaiser |title="Paracelsus. 10. Auflage. Rowohlt's Monographien. p. 115" |source=''Reinbek bei Hamburg. 1090-{{ISBN|3-499-50149-X}}'' (1993)
}}

One of his most overlooked achievements was the systematic study of minerals and the curative powers of alpine [[mineral spring]]s. His countless wanderings also brought him deep into many areas of the [[Alps]], where such therapies were already practiced on a less common scale than today.<ref>Natura Sophia. [http://www.naturasophia.com/Paracelsus.html Paracelsus and the Light of Nature]. Retrieved November 26, 2013</ref> Paracelsus's major work ''On the Miners' Sickness and Other Diseases of Miners'' ({{lang-de|Von der Bergaucht und anderen Bergkrankheiten}}) presented his observation of diseases of miners and the effects of various minerals and metals in the human organism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Corn|first=Jacqueline K.|date=1975|title=Historical Perspective to a Current Controversy on the Clinical Spectrum of Plumbism|url=https://www.milbank.org/wp-content/uploads/mq/volume-53/issue-01/53-1-Historical-Perspective-to-a-Current-Controversy-on-the-Clinical-Spectrum-of-Plumbism.pdf|journal=[[Milbank Quarterly]]|volume=53|issue=1|page=95|pmid=1094321|type=}}</ref>

===Toxicology===
Paracelsus extended his interest in chemistry and biology to what is now considered [[toxicology]]. He clearly expounded the concept of dose response in his ''Third Defence'', where he stated that "Solely the dose determines that a thing is not a poison." (''Sola dosis facit venenum'' "[[The dose makes the poison|Only the dose makes the poison]]")<ref>Paracelsus, dritte defensio, 1538.</ref> This was used to defend his use of inorganic substances in medicine as outsiders frequently criticized Paracelsus's chemical agents as too toxic to be used as therapeutic agents.<ref name=":3" /> His belief that diseases locate in a specific organ was extended to inclusion of target organ toxicity; that is, there is a specific site in the body where a chemical will exert its greatest effect. Paracelsus also encouraged using experimental animals to study both beneficial and toxic chemical effects.<ref name=":3" /> Paracelsus was one of the first scientists to introduce chemistry to medicine. He advocated the use of inorganic salts, minerals, and metals for medicinal purposes. He held the belief that organs in the body operated on the basis of separating pure substances from impure ones. Humans must eat to survive and they eat both pure and impure things. It is the function of organs to separate the impure from the pure. The pure substances will be absorbed by the body while the impure will exit the body as excrement.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book|last=Hanegraaf|first=W.|title=Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493-1541)|publisher=Brill|year=2007|pages=509–511}}</ref> He did not support [[Hippocrates|Hippocrate's theory of the four humours]]. Instead of four humours, Paracelsus believed there were three: salt, sulphur, and mercury which represent stability, combustibility, and liquidity respectively. Separation of any one of these humours from the other two would result in disease.<ref name=":6" /> To cure a disease of a certain intensity, a substance of similar nature but the opposite intensity should be administered. These ideas constitute Paracelsus's principles of similitude and contrariety, respectively.<ref name=":6" />

===Psychosomatism===
[[File:Swiss-Commemorative-Coin-1993-CHF-20-obverse.png|thumb|180px|Swiss [[Coins of the Swiss franc|20 franc]] coin commemorating the 500th anniversary Paracelsus' birth]]
In his work ''Von den Krankeiten'' Paracelsus writes: "Thus, the cause of the disease [[chorea]] lasciva [<nowiki/>[[Sydenham's chorea]], or St. Vitus' Dance] is a mere opinion and idea, assumed by imagination, affecting those who believe in such a thing. This opinion and idea are the origin of the disease both in children and adults. In children the case is also imagination, based not on thinking but on perceiving, because they have heard or seen something. The reason is this: their sight and hearing are so strong that unconsciously they have fantasies about what they have seen or heard."<ref>{{Citation |title=The History of Psychotherapy: From Healing Magic to Encounter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7VGgQi3NJY8C&q=their+sight+and+hearing+are+so+strong+that+unconsciously+they+have+fantasies+about+what+they+have+seen+or+heard&pg=PA200 |page=200|isbn=9780876682807 |last1=Ehrenwald |first1=Jan |year=1976 | publisher=Jason Aronson }}</ref> Paracelsus called for the humane treatment of the mentally ill as he saw them not to be possessed by evil spirits, but merely 'brothers' ensnared in a treatable malady."<ref name=":2" /> Paracelsus is one of the first physicians to suggest that mental well-being and a moral conscience had a direct effect on physical health. He proposed that the state of a person's psyche could cure and cause disease. Theoretically, a person could maintain good health through sheer will.<ref name=":6" /> He also stated that whether or not a person could succeed in their craft depended on their character. For example, if a physician had shrewd and immoral intentions then they would eventually fail in their career because evil could not lead to success.<ref name=":7" /> When it came to mental illness, Paracelsus stressed the importance of sleep and sedation as he believed sedation (with [[History of general anesthesia|sulphur preparations]]) could catalyse healing and cure mental illness.<ref name=":8" />

==Reception and legacy==
===Portraits===
[[File:Paracelsus-03.jpg|thumb|The 1540 portrait by Hirschvogel]]
[[File:Paracelsus 1567.jpg|thumb|The 1567 "Rosicrucian" portrait]]
[[File:Effigies Paracelsi Medici Celeberrimi FA 2000.001.203.jpg|thumb| Engraving by Pieter Van Sompel, before 1643; after [[Pieter Soutman]] ]]
[[File:Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus). Wellcome V0004461.jpg|thumb|Full-body portrait from the Dutch edition of [[Gottfried Arnold]]'s ''History of the Church and of Heresy'' (1701), engraving by [[Romeyn de Hooghe]]]]
The oldest surviving portrait of Paracelsus is a woodcut by [[Augustin Hirschvogel]], published in 1538, still during Paracelsus's lifetime. A still older painting by [[Quentin Matsys]] has been lost, but at least three 17th-century copies survive, one by an anonymous [[Flemish people|Flemish]] artist, kept in the [[Louvre]], one by [[Peter Paul Rubens]], kept in Brussels, and one by a student of Rubens, now kept in [[Uppsala]]. Another portrait by Hirschvogel, dated 1540, claims to show Paracelsus "at the age of 47" (''sue aetatis 47''), i.e. less than a year before his death. In this portrait, Paracelsus is shown as holding his sword, gripping the spherical pommel with the right hand. Above and below the image are the mottos ''Alterius non sit qui suus esse potest'' ("Let no man belong to another who can belong to himself") and ''Omne donum perfectum a Deo, inperfectum a Diabolo'' ("All perfect gifts are from God, [all] imperfect [ones] from the Devil"); later portraits give a German rendition in two rhyming couplets (''Eines andern Knecht soll Niemand sein / der für sich bleiben kann allein /all gute Gaben sint von Got / des Teufels aber sein Spot'').<ref>Werneck in ''Beiträge zur praktischen Heilkunde: mit vorzüglicher Berücksichtigung der medicinischen Geographie, Topographie und Epidemiologie'', Volume 3 (1836), [https://books.google.com/books?id=wW8_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA214 212–216].
''Neues Journal zur Litteratur und Kunstgeschichte'', Volume 2 (1799), [https://books.google.com/books?id=iEdMAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA249 246–256].</ref> Posthumous portraits of Paracelsus, made for publications of his books during the second half of the 16th century, often show him in the same pose, holding his sword by its pommel.

The so-called "Rosicrucian portrait", published with ''Philosophiae magnae Paracelsi'' (Heirs of Arnold Birckmann, Cologne, 1567), is closely based on the 1540 portrait by Hirschvogel (but mirrored, so that now Paracelsus's left hand rests on the sword pommel), adding a variety of additional elements: the pommel of the sword is inscribed by ''[[Azoth]]'', and next to the figure of Paracelsus, the [[Bombast von Hohenheim]] arms are shown (with an additional border of eight [[cross patty|crosses patty]]).<ref>
The von Hohenheim arms showed a blue (azure) bend with three white (argent) balls in a yellow (or) field (Julius Kindler von Knobloch, ''Oberbadisches Geschlechterbuch'' vol. 1, 1894, [http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/kindlervonknobloch1898bd1/0146 p. 142]), i.e. without the border. Franz Hartmann, ''[https://archive.org/details/lifeanddoctrine00hartgoog Life and Doctrines]'' (1887), [https://archive.org/details/lifeanddoctrine00hartgoog p. 12] describes the
arms shown on the monument in St Sebastian church, Salzburg as "a beam of silver, upon which are ranged three black balls".</ref> Shown in the background are "early [[Rosicrucian]] symbols", including the head of a child protruding from the ground (indicating rebirth). The portrait is possibly a work by [[Frans Hogenberg]], acting under the directions of Theodor Birckmann (1531/33–1586).

===Paracelsianism and Rosicrucianism===
{{further|Paracelsianism}}

Paracelsus was especially venerated by German [[Rosicrucianism|Rosicrucians]], who regarded him as a prophet, and developed a field of systematic study of his writings, which is sometimes called "[[Paracelsianism]]", or more rarely "Paracelsism". [[Francis Bacon]] warned against Paracelsus and the Rosicrucians, judging that "the ancient opinion that man was ''microcosmus''" had been "fantastically strained by Paracelsus and the alchemists".<ref>F. A. Yates, ''Rosicrucian Enlightenment'' (1972), [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXFHAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA120 p. 120].</ref>

"Paracelsism" also produced the first complete edition of Paracelsus's works. Johannes Huser of [[Basel]] (c. 1545–1604) gathered autographs and manuscript copies, and prepared an edition in ten volumes during 1589–1591.<ref>Huser quart edition (medicinal and philosophical treatises), ten volumes, Basel, 1589–1591; Huser's edition of Paracelsus's surgical works was published posthumously in Strasbourg, 1605.</ref>

The prophecies contained in Paracelsus's works on astrology and divination began to be separately edited as ''Prognosticon Theophrasti Paracelsi'' in the early 17th century. His prediction of a "great calamity just beginning" indicating the [[Eschatology|End Times]] was later associated with the [[Thirty Years' War]], and the identification of [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden]] as the "Lion from the North" is based in one of Paracelsus's "prognostications" referencing [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]] 5:6.<ref>Eugen Weber, ''Apocalypses: Prophecies, Cults, and Millennial Beliefs Through the Ages'' (2000), [https://books.google.com/books?id=nz5m0vZHYx8C&pg=PA86 p. 86].</ref>

[[Carl Gustav Jung]] studied Paracelsus. He wrote two essays on Paracelsus, one delivered in the house in which Paracelsus was born at Einsiedeln in June 1929, the other to commemorate the 400th anniversary of Paracelsus's death in 1941 at Zurich.<ref>C.W.C.G.Jung vol.15 'The Spirit of Man, Art and Literature' pub.RKP 1966</ref>

===In popular culture===
A number of fictionalised depictions of Paracelsus have been published in modern literature. The first presentation of Paracelsus's life in the form of a [[historical novel]] was published in 1830 by Dioclès Fabre d'Olivet (1811–1848, son of [[Antoine Fabre d'Olivet]]),<ref>''Un médecin d'autrefois. La vie de Paracelse'', Paris (1830), reprinted 1838, German translation by Eduard Liber as '' Theophrastus Paracelsus oder der Arzt : historischer Roman aus den Zeiten des Mittelalters '', Magdeburg (1842).</ref> [[Robert Browning]] wrote a long poem based on the life of Paracelsus, entitled ''Paracelsus'', published 1835.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_D3YCAAAAQAAJ ''Paracelsus'' (1835)]</ref> Meinrad Lienert in 1915 published a tale (which he attributed to [[Gall Morel]]) about Paracelsus's sword.<ref>The sword was said to contain the [[philosopher's stone]] in its pommel, and Morell's tale concerns Paracelsus's death (due to his being interrupted during the casting of a spell against poisoning) and his command that the sword should be thrown into the [[Sihl river]] after he dies. Meinrad Lienert, "Der Hexenmeister" in: ''Schweizer Sagen und Heldengeschichten'', Stuttgart (1915).</ref>

Paracelsus has been cited as one of the inspirations for [[Mary Shelley]]’s ''[[Frankenstein]]''.

The ''[[Fullmetal Alchemist]]'' character [[Van Hohenheim]] is named after Paracelsus.

[[Arthur Schnitzler]] wrote a verse play ''Paracelsus'' in 1899. [[Erwin Guido Kolbenheyer]] wrote a novel trilogy (''Paracelsus-Trilogie''), published during 1917–26. Martha Sills-Fuchs (1896–1987) wrote three ''[[völkisch]]'' plays with Paracelsus as the main character during 1936–1939 in which Paracelsus is depicted as the prophetic healer of the [[German people]].<ref>Udo Benzenhöfer, "Die Paracelsus-Dramen der Martha Sills-Fuchs im Unfeld des 'Vereins Deutsche Volksheilkunde' Julius Streichers" in Peter Dilg, Hartmut Rudolph (eds.), ''Resultate und Desiderate der Paracelsus-Forschun'' (1993), 163–81.</ref>
The [[cinema of Germany|German]] [[Drama (film and television)|drama film]] ''[[Paracelsus (film)|Paracelsus]]'' was made in [[1943 in film|1943]], directed by [[Georg Wilhelm Pabst]].<ref name="NY Times">{{cite web |url=https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/37218/Paracelsus/details |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218141535/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/37218/Paracelsus/details |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-02-18 |department=Movies & TV Dept. |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=2012 |title=NY Times: Paracelsus |access-date=2009-09-13}}</ref> Also in 1943, Richard Billinger wrote a play ''Paracelsus'' for the [[Salzburg Festival]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6oiD85C9HzUC&pg=PA73 p. 73].</ref>

[[Mika Waltari]]'s ''[[Mikael Karvajalka]]'' (1948) has a scene fictionalising Paracelsus's acquisition of his legendary sword. Paracelsus is the main character of [[Jorge Luis Borges]]'s short story "La rosa de Paracelso" (anthologized in ''[[Shakespeare's Memory (short story collection)|Shakespeare's Memory]]'', 1983). ''The Rose of Paracelsus: On Secrets and Sacraments'', borrowing from Jorge Luis Borges, is also a novel by [[William Leonard Pickard]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.oaktreereview.com/indigos-delivery-an-excerpt-from-the-rose-of-paracelsus/|title = Indigo's Delivery: An Excerpt from the Rose of Paracelsus|date = 16 April 2018}}</ref>

Paracelsus von Hohenheim is a caster class servant, and serves as both a minor antagonist and playable character in ''[[Fate/Grand Order]]''.

A fictionalization of Paracelsus is a featured character in the novel ''[[The Enterprise of Death]]'' (2011) by [[Jesse Bullington]].

[[A.B.A]], a [[Homunculus]] from the ''[[Guilty Gear]]'' series, wields a living, key-shaped ax which she named "Paracelsus".

In the games [[Darkest Dungeon]] and [[Darkest Dungeon II]], the predetermined name for the playable plague doctor character is "Paracelsus".

A fictionalization of “Paracelsus” is featured as the main antagonist of the show [[Warehouse 13]] in its fifth season. (2013)

In the video game "Lies of P", A character is revealed to actually be Paracelsus in the post-game cutscene

==Works==
{{wikisourcelang-inline|de|Paracelsus}}
{{library resources box|by=yes|onlinebooksby=yes|viaf=12313247}}
[[File:Aurora thesaurusque philosophorum 1577 title page.jpg|thumb|right|''Aurora thesaurusque philosophorum'', 1577]]
Because of the work of [[Karl Widemann]], who copied over 30 years the work of Paracelsus, many unpublished works survived.

; Published during his lifetime
* ''De gradibus et compositionibus receptorum naturalium'', 1526.
* ''Vom Holtz Guaico'' (on [[guaiacum]]), [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10164508?page=5 1529].
* ''Practica, gemacht auff Europen'' [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10198676?page=5 1529].
* ''Von der Frantzösischen kranckheit Drey Bücher'' (on [[syphilis]]), 1530.
* ''Von den wunderbarlichen zeychen, so in vier jaren einander nach im Hymmelgewelcke und Luft ersehen'' [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/0004/bsb00049983/images/index.html?seite=00001&l=de 1534]
* ''Von der Bergsucht oder Bergkranckheiten'' (on miners' diseases), 1534.
* ''Vonn dem Bad Pfeffers in Oberschwytz gelegen'' ([[Pfäfers Abbey|Pfäfers baths]]), 1535.
* ''Praktica Teutsch auff das 1535 Jar '' [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb10198898?page=3 1535]
* ''Die große Wundarzney'' ("Great Book of Surgery"), Ulm 1536 (Hans Varnier); Augsburg 1536 (Haynrich Stayner (=Steyner)), Frankfurt 1536 (Georg Raben/ Weygand Hanen).
* ''Prognosticatio Ad Vigesimum Quartum annum duratura '' [http://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/~db/0001/bsb00012441/images/index.html?id=00012441&groesser=&fip=qrsweayaeayafsdrwxdsydenen&no=2&seite=4 1536]

; Posthumous publications
* ''Wundt unnd Leibartznei''. Frankfurt: [[Christian Egenolff]], 1549 (reprinted 1555, 1561).
* ''Das Buch Paramirum'', Mulhouse: Peter Schmid, [https://archive.org/details/b24867330 1562].
* ''Aureoli Theophrasti Paracelsi schreiben Von Tartarjschen kranckheiten, nach dem alten nammen, Vom grieß sand vnnd [unnd] stein'', Basel, c. 1563.
* ''Das Buch Paragranvm Avreoli Theophrasti Paracelsi: Darinnen die vier Columnae, als da ist, Philosophia, Astronomia, Alchimia, vnnd Virtus, auff welche Theophrasti Medicin fundirt ist, tractirt werden'', Frankfurt, 1565.
* ''Opvs Chyrvrgicvm'', Frankfurt, 1565.
* ''[[A Book on Nymphs, Sylphs, Pygmies, and Salamanders, and on the Other Spirits|Ex Libro de Nymphis, Sylvanis, Pygmaeis, Salamandris, et Gigantibus etc.]]'' Nissae Silesiorum, Excudebat Ioannes Cruciger (1566)
* ''Von den Krankheiten so die Vernunfft Berauben''. Basel, 1567.
* ''Philosophia magna, tractus aliquot'', Cöln, 1567.
* ''Philosophiae et Medicinae utriusque compendium'', Basel, 1568.
* ''Neun Bücher Archidoxis''. Translated into Latin by [[Adam Schröter]]. Kraków: [[Maciej Wirzbięta]], 1569.
* ''Zwölff Bücher, darin alle gehaimnüß der natur eröffnet'', 1570
* ''Astronomia magna: oder Die gantze Philosophia sagax der grossen und kleinen Welt '', Frankfurt, 1571.
* '' De natura rerum libri septem: Opuscula verè aurea; Ex Germanica lingua in Latinam translata per M. Georgium Forbergium Mysium philosophiae ac medicinae studiosum'', 1573.
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=9udbAAAAcAAJ&dq=Diptan%2C+bibernel&pg=PP35 ''De Peste''], Strasbourg: Michael Toxites, Bey Niclauss Wyriot, 1574.
* ''Volumen Paramirum'', Strasbourg: Christian Mülller, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg8AAAAcAAJ 1575].
* ''Metamorphosis Theophrasti Paracelsi: Dessen werck seinen meister loben wirt'', Basel, 1574.
* ''Von der Wundartzney: Ph. Theophrasti von Hohenheim, beyder Artzney Doctoris, 4 Bücher''. Basel: Peter Perna, 1577.
* ''Kleine Wundartzney''. Basel: Peter Perna, 1579.
* ''Opus Chirurgicum, Bodenstein'', Basel, 1581.
* Huser quart edition (medicinal and philosophical treatises), ten volmes, Basel, 1589–1591; Huser's edition of Paracelsus' surgical works was published posthumously in Strasbourg, 1605.
** vol. 1, ''In diesem Theil werden begriffen die Bücher, welche von Ursprung und herkommen, aller Kranckheiten handeln in Genere.'' Basel. 1589 [VD16 P 365] {{MDZ|00022502-1}}
** vol. 2, '' Dieser Theil begreifft fürnemlich die Schrifften, inn denen die Fundamenta angezeigt werde[n], auff welchen die Kunst der rechten Artzney stehe, und auß was Büchern dieselbe gelehrnet werde, Basel.'' 1589 [VD16 P 367] {{MDZ|00022503-6}}
** vol. 3, '' Inn diesem Theil werden begriffen deren Bücher ettliche, welche von Ursprung, Ursach und Heylung der Kranckheiten handeln in Specie''. Basel, 1589 [VD16 P 369] {{MDZ|00022504-2}}
** vol. 4, '' In diesem Theil werden gleichfals, wie im Dritten, solche Bücher begriffen, welche von Ursprung, Ursach unnd Heilung der Kranckheiten in Specie handlen.'' Basel, 1589 [VD16 P 371] {{MDZ|00022505-7}}
** vol. 5, ''Bücher de Medicina Physica '' Basel, 1589 {{MDZ|10164682-7}}
** vol. 6, '' In diesem Tomo seind begriffen solche Bücher, in welchen deß mehrer theils von Spagyrischer Bereitung Natürlicher dingen, die Artzney betreffend, gehandelt wirt. Item, ettliche Alchimistische Büchlin, so allein von der Transmutation der Metallen tractiren.'' Basel, 1590 [VD16 P 375] {{MDZ|00022506-2}}
** vol. 7, '' In diesem Theil sind verfasset die Bücher, in welchen fürnemlich die Kräfft, Tugenden und Eigenschafften Natürlicher dingen, auch derselben Bereitdungen, betreffent die Artzney, beschriben, werden.'' Basel, 1590 [VD16 P 376] {{MDZ|00022507-8}}
** vol. 8, '' In diesem Tomo (welcher der Erste unter den Philosophischen) werden solche Bücher begriffen, darinnen fürnemlich die Philosophia de Generationibus & Fructibus quatuor Elementorum beschrieben wirdt.'' Basel, 1590 [VD16 P 377] {{MDZ|00022508-3}}
** vol. 9, '' Diser Tomus (welcher der Ander unter den Philosophischen) begreifft solcher Bücher, darinnen allerley Natürlicher und Ubernatürlicher Heymligkeiten Ursprung, Ursach, Wesen und Eigenschafft, gründtlich und warhafftig beschriben werden''. Basel, 1591 [VD16 P 380] {{MDZ|00022509-3}}
** vol. 10, '' Dieser Theil (welcher der Dritte unter den Philosophischen Schrifften) begreifft fürnemlich das treffliche Werck Theophrasti, Philosophia Sagax, oder Astronomia Magna genannt: Sampt ettlichen andern Opusculis, und einem Appendice.'' Basel, 1591 [VD16 P 381] {{MDZ|00022510-5}}, Frankfurt 1603
** ''Klage Theophrasti Paracelsi, uber seine eigene Discipel, unnd leichtfertige Ertzte, Darbeneben auch unterricht, wie er wil, daß ein rechter Artzt soll geschickt seyn, und seine Chur verrichten, und die Patienten versorgen, etc.; Auß seinen Büchern auff das kürtzste zusammen gezogen, Wider die Thumkünen selbwachsende, Rhumrhätige, apostatische Ertzte, und leichtfertige Alchymistische Landtstreicher, die sich Paracelsisten nennen; … jetzo zum ersten also zusammen bracht, und in Truck geben.'' 1594 [VD16 P 383] {{MDZ|00015650-2}}
* ''Kleine Wund-Artzney''. Straßburg (Ledertz), [[Benedictus Figulus]]. 1608.
* ''Opera omnia medico-chemico-chirurgica'', Genevae, Vol. 3, 1658.
* '' Prognosticon Theophrasti Paracelsi'', vol. 4 of ''VI Prognostica Von Verenderung vnd zufaelligem Glueck vnd Vnglueck der ... Potentaten im Roemischen Reich, Auch des Tuercken vnd Pabst '' ed. Henricus Neotechnus, 1620.

; Modern editions
* ''Paracelsus: Sämtliche Werke: nach der 10 Bändigen Huserschen Gesamtausgabe (1589–1591) zum erstenmal in neuzeitliches deutsch übersetzt, mit Einleitung, Biographie, Literaturangaben und erklärenden Anmerkungen.'' Edited by Bernhard Aschner. 4 volumes. Jena: G. Fisher, 1926–1932.
* ''Paracelsus: Sämtliche Werke.'' Edited by Karl Sudhoff, Wilhelm Matthiessen, and Kurt Goldammer. Part I (Medical, scientific, and philosophical writings), 14 volumes (Munich and Berlin, 1922–1933). Part II (Theological and religious writings), 7 volumes (Munich and Wiesbaden, 1923–1986).
* ''Register zu Sudhoffs Paracelsus-Ausgabe. Allgemeines und Spezialregister: Personen, Orte, Pflanzen, Rezepte, Verweise auf eigene Werke'', Bußler, E., 2018, {{ISBN|978-90-821760-1-8}}
* ''Theophrastus Paracelsus: Werke.'' Edited by Will-Erich Peuckert, 5 vols. Basel and Stuttgart: Schwabe Verlag, 1965–1968.

=== Selected English translations ===
* ''The Hermetic and Alchemical Writings of Paracelsus'', Two Volumes, translated by Arthur Edward Waite, London, 1894. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_Q0MAAAAIAAJ (in Google books)], see also a revised 2002 edition [https://books.google.com/books?id=3dgsJJkVQKkC (preview only)] Partial contents: Coelum Philosophorum; The Book Concerning The Tincture Of The Philosophers; The Treasure of Treasures for Alchemists; The Aurora of the Philosophers; Alchemical Catechism.
* ''Paracelsus: Essential Readings.'' Selected and translated by Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1999.
* ''Paracelsus: His Life and Doctrines.'' Franz Hartmann, New York: Theosophical Publishing Co., 1918
* ''Paracelsus (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1494–1541). Essential Theoretical Writings.'' Edited and translated with a Commentary and Introduction by Andrew Weeks. Leiden/Boston: Brill, 2008, {{ISBN|978-90-04-15756-9}}.
* ''Paracelsus: Selected Writings'' ed. with an introduction by Jolande Jacobi, trans. Norbert Guterman, New York: Pantheon, 1951 reprinted Princeton 1988

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Ball, Philip. ''The Devil's Doctor'' {{ISBN|978-0-09-945787-9}} (Arrow Books, Random House)
* Moran, Bruce T. (2005) ''Distilling Knowledge: Alchemy, Chemistry, and the Scientific Revolution'' (Harvard Univ. Press, 2005), Ch. 3.
* [[Walter Pagel|Pagel, Walter]] (2nd ed. 1982). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=wO244WXEBKcC Paracelsus: An Introduction to Philosophical Medicine in the Era of the Renaissance]''. Karger Publishers, Switzerland. {{ISBN|3-8055-3518-X}}.
* Webster, Charles. (2008) ''Paracelsus: Medicine, Magic, and Mission at the End of Time'' (Yale Univ. Press, 2008)
* Forshaw, Peter (2015) [https://www.academia.edu/12729126/_Morbo_spirituali_medicina_spiritualis_convenit_Paracelsus_Madness_and_Spirits] ‘“Morbo spirituali medicina spiritualis convenit”: Paracelsus, Madness, and Spirits,' in Steffen Schneider (ed.), ''Aisthetics of the Spirits: Spirits in Early Modern Science, Religion, Literature and Music'', Göttingen: V&R Press
* Senfelder, L.[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11468a.htm Theophrastus Paracelsus] [[The Catholic Encyclopedia]] (1911)
* [[Thomas Fuller]], [https://archive.org/details/holystate1642full The Holy State] (1642) [https://archive.org/details/holystate1642full p. 56]
* [[Franz Hartmann]] [https://archive.org/details/lifeanddoctrine00hartgoog The Life and the Doctrines of Paracelsus] (1910)
* {{cite journal | author = Debus Allen G. | author-link = Allen G. Debus | year = 1984 | title = History with a Purpose: the Fate of Paracelsus | journal = Pharmacy in History | volume = 26 | issue = 2| pages = 83–96 | jstor = 41109480 | pmid = 11611458 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Hargrave|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0mwwAAAAYAAJ|title=The Life and Soul of Paracelsus|date=1951|publisher=[[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]|language=en}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofparacelsus00stoduoft|title = The Life of Paracelsus|last = Stoddart|first = Anna|publisher = J. Murray|year = 1911}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Paracelsus}}
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Paracelsus |volume=20 |short=x}}

;Online bibliographies and facsimile editions
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180124070741/https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/entity/11859169X Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek (Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071013151336/http://sunny.biblio.etc.tu-bs.de:8080/FAM?PPN=492088861 Digital library, University of Braunschweig]
* [http://www.paracelsus.uzh.ch/ Zürich Paracelsus Project]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140110203211/http://www.philological.bham.ac.uk/bibliography/p.html Dana F. Sutton, ''An Analytic Bibliography of Online Neo-Latin Texts'', Philological Museum, University of Birmingham]—A collection of "digital photographic reproductions", or online editions of the [[Neo-Latin]] works of the Renaissance.
* [https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/index.html?c=autoren_werke&ab=Paracelsus&l=de Works by Paracelsus] ([[Bayerische Staatsbibliothek]])
* [http://www.cppdigitallibrary.org/items/browse?advanced%5B0%5D%5Belement_id%5D=48&advanced%5B0%5D%5Btype%5D=contains&advanced%5B0%5D%5Bterms%5D=Paracelsus%2C+1493-1541.+Prognosticatio+eximii+doctoris+Theophrasti+Paracelsi Images from ''Prognosticatio eximii doctoris Theophrasti Paracelsi'']—From The College of Physicians of Philadelphia Digital Library
* [http://www.revistaazogue.com/biblio.htm#N_3_ ''Azogue'']: A section of the e-journal ''Azogue'' with original reproductions of paracelsian texts.
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0028/html/ms_239_006.html MS 239/6 ''De tartaro et eius origine in corpore humano''] at OPenn

;Other
* [https://www.theatrum-paracelsicum.com/ Theatrum Paracelsicum]
* [http://www.paracelsus.uzh.ch/ The Zurich Paracelsus Project]
* [http://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/paracels.html Biographical notes from The Galileo Project]
* [http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/p/paracelsus.html Paracelsus (from the Mystica)]
* [http://www.alchemylab.com/paracelsus.htm Paracelsus (from Alchemy Lab)]
* [http://aquariumofvulcan.blogspot.co.uk/2016/06/paracelsus-on-interpretation-of-dreams.html Paracelsus on the interpretation of dreams]
* {{Librivox author |id=11509}}

{{Alchemy|state=expanded}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Paracelsus| ]]
[[Category:1493 births]]
[[Category:1541 deaths]]
[[Category:16th-century alchemists]]
[[Category:16th-century astrologers]]
[[Category:16th-century Latin-language writers]]
[[Category:16th-century occultists]]
[[Category:16th-century Swiss physicians]]
[[Category:16th-century Swiss scientists]]
[[Category:16th-century Swiss writers]]
[[Category:Paracelsians]]
[[Category:People from Einsiedeln]]
[[Category:Swiss alchemists]]
[[Category:Swiss astrologers]]
[[Category:Swiss non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:Swiss toxicologists]]
[[Category:University of Ferrara alumni]]
[[Category:People associated with the University of Basel]]

Berlin U-Bahn

2023-09-14T21:46:47Z

Relative Humidity: /* External links */ Clean up old, broken, or dubious external links. A better set of links is needed

{{Short description|Rapid transport system of Berlin, Germany}}
{{Infobox public transit
| box_width = auto
| name = U-Bahn Berlin
| image = U-Bahn.svg
| imagesize = 75px
| image2 = Oberbaumbrücke mit U-Bahn.jpg
| imagesize2 = 250px
| caption2 = <div style="width:250px; margin:auto">U1 crossing [[Oberbaum Bridge]]</div>
| locale = [[Berlin]]
| transit_type = [[Rapid transit]]
| began_operation = {{Start date and age|1902|1|15|df=y}}
| ended_operation =
| operator = {{Lang|de|[[Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe]]|italic=no}} (BVG)
| owner = {{Lang|de|[[Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe]]|italic=no}} (BVG)
| lines = 9 (numbered U1–U9)<ref name="bvg_u-bahn">{{cite web |url = http://www.bvg.de/index.php/en/17103/name/Underground.html |title = The Berlin underground – The largest underground system in Germany |publisher = Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG) |website = BVG.de |access-date = 2013-09-22}}</ref>
| vehicles =
| stations = 175<ref name="bvg_u-bahn" />
| ridership = 1,515,342 (average daily, 2017)<ref name="stats" />
| annual_ridership = 553.1 million (2017)<ref name="stats" />
| system_length = {{convert|155.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on}}<ref name="bvg_u-bahn" />
| website = {{url|https://www.bvg.de/en|BVG.de – Homepage}}
| track_gauge = {{RailGauge|sg}}
| el = 750 V DC [[Third rail]]
| train_length = ~{{convert|100|m|ftin}}
| top_speed = {{convert|72|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}
| average_speed = {{convert|30.7|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}<ref name="bvg_u-bahn" />
| headway = 4–5 minutes (daytime)
| end =
| map =
| character =
| chief_executive =
| caption =
| start =
| line_number =
| area served =
| alt =
| map_state =
}}
{{Berlin U-Bahn route diagram|collapse=yes}}
The '''Berlin U-Bahn''' ({{IPA-de|ˈuː baːn|lang}}; short for {{lang|de|Untergrundbahn}}, "underground railway") is a [[rapid transit]] system in [[Berlin]], the capital and largest city of [[Germany]], and a major part of the city's [[public transport]] system. Together with the [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]], a network of suburban train lines, and a [[Trams in Berlin|tram network]] that operates mostly in the eastern parts of the city, it serves as the main means of transport in the capital.

Opened in 1902, the {{lang|de|U-Bahn}} serves [[List of Berlin U-Bahn stations|175 stations]]<ref name="bvg_u-bahn" /> spread across nine lines, with a total track length of {{convert|155.4|km|mich|-1|abbr=off}},<ref>[https://unternehmen.bvg.de/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/BVG-Zahlenspiegel-2021.pdf BVG-Zahlenspiegel-2021]</ref> about 80% of which is underground.<ref name="bud_strecken">{{cite web
|url = http://www.berliner-untergrundbahn.de/strecken.htm
|title = Berlins U-Bahn-Strecken und Bahnhöfe
|access-date = 2007-09-18
|last = Schomacker
|first = Marcus
|date = 2007-03-14
|publisher = berliner-untergrundbahn.de
|language = de
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070808092816/http://www.berliner-untergrundbahn.de/strecken.htm
|archive-date = 2007-08-08
|url-status = dead
}}</ref> Trains run every two to five minutes during peak hours, every five minutes for the rest of the day and every ten minutes in the evening. Over the course of a year, U-Bahn trains travel {{convert|132|e6km|e6mi|abbr=off}},<ref name="bvg_u-bahn" /> and carry over 400 million passengers.<ref name="bvg_u-bahn" /> In 2017, 553.1 million passengers rode the U-Bahn.<ref name="stats">{{cite web |url=http://www.bvg.de/de/?section=downloads&download=2486 |title=Zahlenspiegel 2017 1. Auflage |publisher=Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG) |language=de |trans-title=Statistics 2017 1st edition |format=PDF |date=December 31, 2017 |access-date=2018-03-08}}</ref> The entire system is maintained and operated by the {{lang|de|[[Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe]]}}, commonly known as the BVG.

Designed to alleviate traffic flowing into and out of central Berlin, the U-Bahn was rapidly expanded until the city was divided into [[East Berlin|East]] and [[West Berlin]] at the end of [[World War II]]. Although the system remained open to residents of both sides at first, the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] and the subsequent restrictions imposed by [[East Germany]] limited travel across the border. The East Berlin U-Bahn lines from West Berlin were severed, except for two West Berlin lines that ran through East Berlin (U6 and U8). These were allowed to pass through East Berlin without stopping at any of the stations, which were closed. [[Berlin Friedrichstraße railway station|Friedrichstraße]] was the exception because it was used as a transfer point between U6 and the West Berlin S-Bahn system, and a border crossing into East Berlin. The system was reopened completely following the fall of the Berlin Wall and [[German reunification]].

The Berlin U-Bahn is the most extensive underground network in Germany.<ref name="bvg_u-bahn" />
In 2006, travel on the U-Bahn was equivalent to 122.2 million km (76 million mi) of car journeys.<ref name="bvg_report">
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bvg.de/index.php/de/binaries/asset/download/21735/file/1-1
|title = Geschäftsbericht 2006 der BVG
|publisher = Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG)
|language = de
|trans-title=Business Report 2006 for BVG
|format = pdf
|date = 24 May 2007
|access-date = 2007-09-06}}
</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Berlin U-Bahn}}
The Berlin U-Bahn was built in three major phases:
# Up to 1913: the construction of the {{lang|de|Kleinprofil}} (''small profile'') network in Berlin, [[Charlottenburg]], [[Schöneberg]], and [[Wilmersdorf]];
# Up to 1930: the introduction of the {{lang|de|Großprofil}} (''large profile'') network that established the first north–south lines;
# From 1953 on: further development after World War II.

In a bid to secure its own improvement, Schöneberg also wanted a connection to Berlin. The elevated railway company did not believe such a line would be profitable, so the city built the first locally financed underground in Germany (intentionally using standard of {{lang|de|Kleinprofil}}). It was opened on 1 December 1910. Just a few months earlier, work began on a fourth line to link Wilmersdorf in the southwest to the growing Berlin U-Bahn.

[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Nollendorfplatz2.JPG|thumb|left|Train entering [[Nollendorfplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Nollendorfplatz]], one of the original stations of the Berlin U-Bahn]]
[[File:Berlin U-Bahn IK at Olympia-Stadion (3).jpg|thumb|left|The latest model of Berlin's U-Bahn called 'Icke', introduced in 2015]]
The early network ran mostly east to west, connecting the richer areas in and around Berlin, as these routes had been deemed the most profitable. In order to open up the network to more of the workers of Berlin, the city wanted north–south lines to be established. In 1920, the surrounding areas were annexed to form ''Groß-Berlin'' ("Greater Berlin"), removing the need for many negotiations, and giving the city much greater bargaining power over the private ''{{lang|de|Hochbahngesellschaft}}'' ("elevated railway company"). The city also mandated that new lines would use wider carriages—running on the same, standard-gauge track—to provide greater passenger capacity; these became known as the ''Großprofil'' ("large profile") network.

[[Image:Karte ubahn berlin entwicklung.png|thumb|425px|U-Bahn development 1902–2009]]
Construction of the ''{{lang|de|Nord-Süd-Bahn}}'' ("North-South railway") connecting [[Wedding (Berlin)|Wedding]] in the north to [[Tempelhof]] and [[Neukölln]] in the south had started in December 1912, but halted for the [[World War I|First World War]]. Work resumed in 1919, although the money shortage caused by [[hyperinflation]] slowed progress considerably. On 30 January 1923, the first section opened between [[Hallesches Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hallesches Tor]] and Stettiner Bahnhof ([[Naturkundemuseum (Berlin U-Bahn)|Naturkundemuseum]]), with a continuation to [[Seestraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Seestraße]] following two months later. Desperately underfunded, the new line had to use trains from the old ''Kleinprofil'' network; the carriages exits had to be widened to fill the gap to the platforms with wooden boards that passengers jokingly referred to as ''Blumenbretter'' ("boards for flower pots"). The line branched at Belle-Alliance-Straße, now ([[Mehringdamm (Berlin U-Bahn)|Mehringdamm]]); the continuation south to [[Tempelhof (Berlin U-Bahn)|Tempelhof]] opened on 22 December 1929, the branch to [[Grenzallee (Berlin U-Bahn)|Grenzallee]] on 21 December 1930.

In 1912, plans were approved for AEG to build its own north–south underground line, named the {{lang|de|GN-Bahn}} after its termini, Gesundbrunnen and Neukölln, via Alexanderplatz. Financial difficulties stopped the construction in 1919; the liquidation of AEG-Schnellbahn-AG, and Berlin's commitment to the Nord-Süd-Bahn, prevented any further development until 1926. The first section opened on 17 July 1927 between [[Boddinstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Boddinstraße]] and [[Schönleinstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Schönleinstraße]], with the intermediate [[Hermannplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hermannplatz]] becoming the first station at which passengers could transfer between two different ''Großprofil'' lines. The completed route was opened on 18 April 1930. Before control of the U-Bahn network was handed over completely to the BVG in 1929, the Hochbahngesellschaft started construction on a final line that, in contrast to its previous lines, was built as part of the ''Großprofil'' network. The major development was stopped in 1930.

The seizure of power by the [[Nazi Party|National Socialists]] brought many changes that affected Germany, including the U-Bahn. Most notably, the new [[Flag of Germany#Nazi Germany and World War II (1933–1945)|national flag]] was hung in every station, and two of the stations were renamed. Extensive plans—mostly the work of architect [[Albert Speer]]—were drawn up that included the construction of a circular line crossing the established U-Bahn lines, and new lines or extensions to many outlying districts. Despite such grand plans, no U-Bahn development occurred. In the Nazi period the only addition to Berlin's underground railways was [[Berlin Nord-Süd Tunnel|North–South Tunnel]] of [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]], opened 1936–1939.

During the [[World War II|Second World War]], U-Bahn travel soared as car use fell, and many of the underground stations were used as [[air-raid shelter]]s; however, [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] bombs damaged or destroyed large parts of the U-Bahn system. Although the damage was usually repaired fairly quickly, the reconstructions became more difficult as the war went on. Eventually, on 25 April 1945, the whole system ground to a halt when the power station supplying the network failed. Upon unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany following the [[Battle for Berlin]] there were 437 damaged points and 496 damaged vehicles.

[[Image:East berlin public transport 1984.svg|thumb|425px|U-Bahn and [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]] network in [[East Berlin]], 1984]]

The war had damaged or destroyed much of the network; however, {{convert|69.5|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} of track and 93 stations were in use by the end of 1945, and the reconstruction was completed in 1950. Nevertheless, the consequent division of Berlin into [[East Berlin|East]] and [[West Berlin|West]] sectors brought further changes to the U-Bahn. Although the network spanned all sectors, and residents had freedom of movement, West Berliners increasingly avoided the Soviet sector and, from 1953, loudspeakers on the trains gave warnings when approaching the border, where passage of East Germans into the Western sectors also became subject to restrictions imposed by their government. There was a general strike on 17 June 1953 which closed the sections of the Berlin U-Bahn that traveled through East Berlin. Just after the strike, on the following day, train service on the line A was resumed and the service C was resumed to provide connections to Nordbahnhof and Friedrichstraße.

Between 1953 and 1955, the 200-Kilometre-Plan was drawn up, detailing the future development of the U-Bahn, which would grow to {{convert|200|km|mi|1|abbr=on}}. Extending the C line to run from [[Alt-Tegel (Berlin U-Bahn)|Tegel]] to [[Alt-Mariendorf (Berlin U-Bahn)|Alt-Mariendorf]] was considered the highest priority: the northern extension to Tegel was opened on 31 May 1958. In order to circumvent East Berlin, and provide rapid-transport connections to the densely populated areas in [[Steglitz]], [[Wedding (Berlin)|Wedding]], and [[Reinickendorf]], a third north–south line was needed. The first section of line G was built between [[Leopoldplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Leopoldplatz]] and [[Spichernstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Spichernstraße]], with the intention of extending it at both ends. It had been planned to open the G line on 2 September 1961, but an earlier opening on 28 August was forced by the announcement of the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]].

The next crisis was followed by the Berlin Wall construction on 13 August 1961, which had split the city between east and west. The U2 was split into two sections, and for the north–south lines, trains were not allowed to stop for passengers and become ''Geisterbahnhöfe'' ("[[ghost station]]s"), patrolled by armed [[East Germany|East-German]] border guards. Only at [[Berlin Friedrichstraße railway station|Friedrichstraße]], a designated border crossing point, were passengers allowed to disembark. A further consequence over the years is that most of the Berlin S-Bahn passengers boycotted the Deutsche Reichsbahn, and transferred to the U-Bahn with numerous expansion.

From 9 November 1989, following months of unrest, the travel restrictions placed upon East Germans were lifted. Tens of thousands of East Berliners heard the statement live on television and flooded the border checkpoints, demanding entry into West Berlin. [[Jannowitzbrücke (Berlin U-Bahn)|Jannowitzbrücke]], a former ghost station, was reopened two days later as an additional crossing point. It was the first station to be reopened after the opening of the Berlin Wall. Other stations, Rosenthaler Platz and Bernauer Straße on the U8 soon followed suit; and by 1 July 1990, all border controls were removed. In the decade following reunification, only three short extensions were made to U-Bahn lines.

In the 1990s some stations in the eastern portion of the city still sported bullet-riddled tiles at their entrances, a result of World War II battle damage during the [[Battle of Berlin]]. These were removed by 21 December 2004.

== U-Bahn network ==
[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin - Netzplan.svg|centre|thumb|525px|System map of the U-Bahn in 2020]]

=== Routes ===
{{Main|Berlin U-Bahn infrastructure}}
The U-Bahn has nine lines:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Line
! Route
! Opened
! Length
! Stations
! Color
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U1|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Uhlandstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Uhlandstraße]] – [[Warschauer Straße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Warschauer Straße]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1902–1926
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|8.814|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 13
| [[RAL 6018]]
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U2|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Pankow (Berlin U-Bahn)|Pankow]] – [[Ruhleben (Berlin U-Bahn)|Ruhleben]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1902–2000
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|20.716|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 29
| [[RAL 2002]]
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U3|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Krumme Lanke (Berlin U-Bahn)|Krumme Lanke]] – [[Warschauer Straße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Warschauer Straße]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1902–1929
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|18.948|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 24
| [[RAL 6016]]
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U4|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Nollendorfplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Nollendorfplatz]] – [[Innsbrucker Platz]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1910
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|2.864|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 5
| [[RAL 1023]]
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U5|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Berlin Hauptbahnhof|Hauptbahnhof]] – [[Hönow (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hönow]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1930–2020
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|22.081|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 26
| [[RAL 8007]]
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U6|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Alt-Tegel (Berlin U-Bahn)|Alt-Tegel]] – [[Alt-Mariendorf (Berlin U-Bahn)|Alt-Mariendorf]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1923–1966
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|19.888|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 29
| [[RAL 4005]]
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U7|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Rathaus Spandau (Berlin U-Bahn)|Rathaus Spandau]] – [[Rudow (Berlin U-Bahn)|Rudow]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1924–1984
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|31.760|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 40
| [[RAL 5012]]
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U8|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Wittenau (Berlin U-Bahn)|Wittenau]] – [[Hermannstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hermannstraße]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1927–1996
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|18.042|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 24
| [[RAL 5010]]
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U9|size=15}}
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: left" | [[Rathaus Steglitz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Rathaus Steglitz]] – [[Osloer Straße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Osloer Straße]]
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | 1961–1976
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | {{convert|12.523|km|mi|3|abbr=on}}
| 18
| [[RAL 2003]]
|}

=== Stations ===
{{Mainlist|List of Berlin U-Bahn stations}}

Among Berlin's 170 U-Bahn stations<ref name="bvg_u-bahn" /> there are many with especially striking architecture or unusual design characteristics:

[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Hermannplatz.JPG|thumb|left|[[Hermannplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hermannplatz]] on the [[U7 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U7]]]]
[[Image:UBahnhf-HermannplatzU8.JPG|thumb|right|[[Hermannplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hermannplatz]] on the [[U8 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U8]]]]

[[Hermannplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hermannplatz]] station resembles something of a U-Bahn cathedral. The platform area is 7 metres high, 132 metres long and 22 metres wide. It was built in connection with the construction of the first North-South Line (''Nord-Süd-Bahn''), now the U8. The architecturally important department store [[Karstadt]] adjacent to the station, was being constructed at the same time. Karstadt contributed a large sum of money towards the decoration of the station and was in return rewarded with direct access from the station to the store. Hermannplatz was also the first U-Bahn station in Berlin to be equipped with [[escalators]]. Today, Hermannplatz is a busy interchange between the U7 and U8.

[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Alexanderplatz1.JPG|thumb|right|[[Alexanderplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Alexanderplatz]] on the [[U8 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U8]] before renovation in 2004]]
[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Alexanderplatz U2.JPG|thumb|left|Alexanderplatz on the [[U2 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U2]]]]
[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Alexanderplatz U5.JPG|thumb|left|Alexanderplatz on the [[U5 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U5]]]]
[[Alexanderplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Alexanderplatz]] station is another of the more notable U-Bahn stations in Berlin, and is an important interchange between three lines (U2, U5 and U8). The first part of the station was opened in 1913 along with an extension of today's U2 line. In the 1920s [[Alexanderplatz]] was completely redesigned, both above and below ground. The U-Bahn station was expanded to provide access to the new D (today's U8) and E (today's U5) lines, then under construction. The result was a station with a restrained blue-grey tiled colour-scheme and Berlin's first underground shopping facilities, designed by [[Alfred Grenander]]. Over the last few years Alexanderplatz station has, in stages, been restored; the work was due to be finished in 2007.

[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Wittenberplatz.JPG|thumb|left|Entrance to [[Wittenbergplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Wittenbergplatz]]]]
[[Wittenbergplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Wittenbergplatz]] station is also unusually designed. It opened in 1902 as a simple station with two side platforms, designed to plans created by [[Paul Wittig]]. The station was completely redesigned by [[Alfred Grenander]] in 1912, with five platform faces, accommodating two new lines, one to [[Dahlem (Berlin)|Dahlem]] on today's (U3), and the other to Kurfürstendamm, today's [[Uhlandstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)]] on the (U1). A provision for a sixth platform was included but has never been completed. The redesign also featured a new entrance building, which blended into the grand architectural styles of Wittenbergplatz and the nearby [[KaDeWe]] department store. The interior of the entrance building was again rebuilt after considerable war damage during World War II, this time in a contemporary 1950s style. This lasted until the early 1980s when the interior was retro-renovated back into its original style. Wittenbergplatz station was presented with a London style "Roundel type" station sign in 1952, the 50th Anniversary of the Berlin U-Bahn. Today's station is an interchange station between the U1, U2 and U3 lines.

[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Gleisdreieck.JPG|thumb|right|Lower platform of [[Gleisdreieck (Berlin U-Bahn)|Gleisdreieck]] on the [[U2 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U2]]]]
[[Image:Gleisdreieck1-ubahn.jpg|thumb|left|Higher platform of [[Gleisdreieck (Berlin U-Bahn)|Gleisdreieck]] on the [[U1 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U1]]]]
The name of the [[Gleisdreieck (Berlin U-Bahn)|Gleisdreieck]] (rail triangle) station is reminiscent of a construction which can only be imagined today. The wye was built in the opening year 1902. Plans for a redesign were made soon after, because the wye was already obsolete. An accident on 26 September 1908, which claimed 18 to 21 lives, was the final straw. The redesign and expansion of the [[Interchange station|transfer station]], during which the station was still used, took until 1912. After [[World War II]] the station was put back into service on 21 October 1945 (lower platform) and 18 November 1945 (upper platform). However, service was interrupted again by the construction of the Berlin Wall. From 1972 onwards no trains ran on the lower platform, because servicing the U2 was no longer profitable due to the parallel traffic on the U1. The lower platform was reactivated in 1983, when the test line of the [[M-Bahn]] was built from the Gleisdreieck to the [[Kemperplatz]] station. It was broken down again after the fall of the Berlin Wall, since it obstructed parts of the reopened U2. Since 1993 the U1 and U2 trains both service the station again.

=== Tickets ===
[[Image:Tariffzones.jpg|thumb|[[Berlin]] and the state of [[Brandenburg]] with [[Verkehrsverbund Berlin-Brandenburg|VBB]] fare zones indicated]]

Berlin public transit passes are available from many places, automated and non-automated, from BVG, Bahn, and authorized third-parties. The Ring-Bahn Line and the other [[Berlin S-Bahn|S-Bahn]] lines are included, as are all U-Bahn lines, buses, trams, ferries, and most trains within the city limits: tickets are valid for all transportation considered part of the Berlin-Regional public transit system.

The Berlin U-Bahn mostly runs on an honor system and has been noted for its relative lack of [[turnstiles]] in its stations; instead transportation agents will inspect tickets and fine fare evaders.<ref>{{cite news|first=Daniel |last=Wighton |title=Why Berlin's public transport payment system might just be more modern than London's|work=[[The Local]] |date=3 August 2018 |url=https://www.thelocal.de/20180803/berlins-public-transport-system-might-just-be-more-modern-than-londons-and-more-efficient|publisher=The Local Europe AB|location=Stockholm, Sweden}}</ref>

Ride-passes (tickets) are available in fare classes: Adult and Reduced. Children between the ages of six and 14 and large dogs qualify for the reduced fare. Children below the age of six and small dogs travel free. There are senior discounts in the form of an annual ticket. Residents who have applied for and received a German Disability Identification card confirming 80% or more disability (ID's available from the [[Versorgungsamt]], German Disability Office), can ride without a pass, including an additional person (as a helper). The disability identification card must be in the owner's possession when traveling.

With unemployment in the east averaging 15%, another common fare class in Berlin is the S(ocial)-Class. These identification cards are cleared through the normal government offices, then fulfilled at a BVG ride-pass non-automated location. Provided either by the Job Center (Arbeitsamt) for out-of-work residents or by the Sozialamt for people who cannot work or are disabled, the S-Class ride-passes normally restrict travel to the AB zones and must be renewed (a new pass purchased at a non-automated location) on the 1st of each month.

Additional passes are available for those which want to bring a bicycle on the public transit system. A bicycle-pass is included in the Student-class ride-pass, which is provided through the universities.

For small dogs which can be carried there is no additional fare requirement. For each "large dog", a reduced fare ride-pass must be purchased. Tourist ride-passes, all-day, group passes, and season passes include a dog fare.

BVG ride-passes are issued for specific periods of time, and most require validation with a stamping machine before they are first used. The validation shows the date and time of the first use, and where the ticket was validated (in code), and therefore when the ticket expires. For example, once validated, an all-day pass allows unlimited use from the time of purchase to 3:00 am the following day. Unlike most other metro systems, tickets in Berlin are not checked before entering tram, U-Bahn or S-Bahn stations. They are however checked by the bus drivers upon entering. On the tram, S-Bahn and U-Bahn, a [[proof-of-payment]] system is used: there are random spot checks inside by plain-clothed fare inspectors who have the right to demand to see each passenger's ticket. Passengers found without a ticket or an expired/invalid ticket are fined €60 per incident. The passenger may be required to pay on the spot, and is required on the spot to give a valid address to which the relevant fine notice can be mailed (it does not have to be in Germany). On the third incident, the BVG calls the offender to court, as there is now a history of 'riding without paying'.

; Fare zones

: Berlin is a part of the [[Verkehrsverbund Berlin-Brandenburg]] (Berlin-Brandenburg Transit Authority, VBB), which means ticketing and fare systems are unified with that of the surrounding state of [[Brandenburg]]. Berlin is divided into three fare zones, known as A, B, and C. Zone A is the area in the centre of Berlin and is demarcated by the S-Bahn urban rail ring line. Zone B covers the rest of the area within the city borders, and Zone C includes the immediate surroundings of Berlin. Zone C is divided into eight parts, each belonging to an administrative district. The Potsdam-Mittelmark area is included in the city district of [[Potsdam]].

: Tickets can be bought for specific fare zones, or multiple zones. Most passengers who live in Berlin buy AB fare zone tickets, while commuters coming in from the suburbs need ABC fare zone tickets. If a ticket not valid for travel in a tariff zone is checked by a ticket inspector, the passenger is subject to a fine.

; Short-term tickets
: Single-journey tickets (''Einzeltickets'') are issued for use within specific fare zones, namely AB, BC, and ABC. They are only valid for two hours after validation, and cannot be extended. The BVG also offers single-day tickets (''Tageskarte''), which are valid for the entire day when first validated until 3 a.m. the next morning.

; Long-term tickets
: Long-term paper tickets are issued with validity periods of seven days (''7-Tage-Karte''), one month (''Monatskarten''), or one year (''Jahreskarte''). The BVG is in the process of introducing the [[plastic]] [[MetroCard (Berlin)|MetroCard]] as a yearly ticket that also has additional features. The Metrocard also permits passengers to make reservations for [[car|hire cars]] at specific times, for example on weekends. It is expected that plastic Metrocards without such features will also be made available as they are more durable and ecofriendly than the paper tickets.

; Tourist passes
; [[File:BerlinWelcomeCard VBB Preisstufe Berlin AB - 2017.jpg|thumb|BerlinWelcomeCard, 2017]]
: The BVG offers tickets directed specifically for non-resident tourists of Berlin called the WelcomeCard and CityTourCard [http://www.bvg.de/index.php/en/Bvg/Index/folder/710/name/For+Visitors]. WelcomeCards are valid for either 48 or 72 hours, and can be used by one adult and up to three children between the ages of six and 14. WelcomeCards are valid in fare zones ABC, and have the additional benefit of a reduction on entry fees to many museums and tourist attractions. See the Current Prices and Descriptions link for more information.

=== Underground facilities ===
A full [[Global System for Mobile Communications|GSM]] ([[GSM frequency ranges|GSM-900]] and [[GSM frequency ranges|GSM-1800]]) mobile phone network for Germany's four carriers is in place throughout the U-Bahn system of stations and tunnels. This system was in place by 1995 for the [[E-Plus]] network, and was one of the first metro systems in the world to allow mobile telephone use; by the late-1990s the other networks could be used in some portions as well. Since 2015, UMTS and LTE is also available for E-Plus and [[Telefónica Germany|O2]] (LTE since 2016) customers,<ref>[http://www.teltarif.de/o2-u-bahn-berlin-lte/news/64067.html O2 enables LTE service in Berlin U-Bahn] (german)</ref>  and since 2020 mobile reception in some underground sections has also been extended to [[Deutsche Telekom]] and [[Vodafone Germany]] customers, with complete reception for the latter two telcos expected to be realised by mid-2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bz-berlin.de/berlin/erste-berliner-u-bahn-abschnitte-mit-schnellem-internet-fuer-alle-anbieter|title=Erste Berliner U-Bahn-Abschnitte mit schnellem Internet für ALLE Anbieter|website=www.bz-berlin.de|date=7 February 2020 }}</ref>

Many of the carriages on the U-Bahn feature small flat screen [[Display device|displays]] that feature news headlines from [[B.Z. (newspaper)|BZ]], weekly weather forecasts, and ads for local businesses.

Most major interchange stations have large shopping concourses with banks, supermarkets, and fast food outlets.

=== Unused stations and tunnels ===
There are several stations, platforms and tunnels that were built in preparation for future U-Bahn extensions, and others that have been abandoned following planning changes. For example, platforms have already been provided for the planned "U3" at [[Potsdamer Platz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Potsdamer Platz]] on the planned line to [[Weißensee (Berlin)|Weißensee]]. It is unlikely that this line, which had the working title "U3" will ever be built, so the platforms have been partially converted into a location for events and exhibitions. The line number "U3" has been used to re-number the branch to [[Krumme Lanke (Berlin U-Bahn)|Krumme Lanke]], which had been part of "U1".

Line D, today's [[U8 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U8]], was intended to run directly under Dresdner Straße via Oranienplatz to [[Kottbusser Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Kottbusser Tor]]. This segment of tunnel was abandoned in favour of a slightly less direct route in order to provide the former [[Wertheim (department store)|Wertheim]] [[department store]] at [[Moritzplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Moritzplatz]] with a direct connection. This involved the construction of a 90-degree curve of the line between Moritzplatz and [[Kottbusser Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Kottbusser Tor]] stations. The construction of the tunnel under Dresdner Straße had only been partially completed before abandonment, leaving it with only one track. This tunnel is separated into three parts, as it was blocked by a concrete wall where it crossed the border between East and West Berlin. Another concrete wall separates this tunnel, which now houses a [[transformer]] for an electricity supplier, from the never-completed Oranienplatz Station which is located partially under the square of the same name.

[[Stralauer Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Stralauer Tor]] was a station on the eastern bank of the [[Spree (river)|Spree]] between [[Warschauer Straße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Warschauer Straße]] and [[Schlesisches Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Schlesisches Tor]] stations. It was completely destroyed in [[World War II]]. It had been opened in 1902 and was renamed ''Osthafen'' in 1924. Today, only struts on the viaduct remain to indicate its location. In the post-Second World War period it was not thought necessary to rebuild the station, due its close proximity to the Warschauer Straße station. Also its location was directly on the border between the Soviet and American sectors. Although a Berlin map dated 1946 shows the station renamed as Bersarinstraße after the Soviet General responsible for restoring civil administration of the city, this name was used later at another location.

[[Nürnberger Platz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Nürnberger Platz]] station was closed on 1 July 1959. It was replaced by two new stations on either side, Augsburger Straße and an interchange station to the U9 at Spichernstraße. Today, nothing remains of the station as a third track siding was constructed in its place.

Another tunnel, which once connected the U4 to its original depot and workshop at Otzenstraße ([[Schöneberg]]), is still in existence. The connection from Innsbrucker Platz station to the depot was severed when a deep level motorway underpass was constructed in the early 1970s; however, the continuation of the tunnel at [[Eisackstraße]] is still in existence for a distance of 270 metres and now ends at the former junction to the workshop of the Schöneberg line.

[[Image:U10 Innsbrucker Platz.jpg|thumb|[[Berlin Innsbrucker Platz station|Innsbrucker Platz]] on the [[U10 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U10]]]]

Platforms at five stations, [[Rathaus Steglitz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Rathaus Steglitz]], [[Schloßstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Schloßstraße]], [[Walther-Schreiber-Platz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Walther-Schreiber-Platz]], [[Innsbrucker Platz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Innsbrucker Platz]], and [[Kleistpark (Berlin U-Bahn)|Kleistpark]], were provided for the planned but never constructed U10. The U10 platform at Kleistpark has been converted into office space for the BVG. At Schloßstraße, U9 and U10 were planned to share two directional platforms at different levels; the would-be U10 tracks have been abandoned, leaving both platforms used by U9 trains only. The other U10 platforms remain unused and are not generally open to the public.

During the construction of Adenauerplatz (U7) station, which was built in conjunction with an underpass, platforms were also provided for a planned U1 extension from [[Uhlandstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Uhlandstraße]] to [[Theodor-Heuss-Platz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Theodor-Heuss-Platz]]. A short tunnel section was also constructed in front of the [[Internationales Congress Centrum (Berlin)|Internationales Congress Centrum]] (ICC), beneath the Messedamm/Neue Kantstraße junction. This tunnel was built concurrently with a pedestrian subway and was also intended for the planned extension of the U1. The tunnel section, approximately 60 metres long, ends at the location of the planned ''Messe'' station adjacent to Berlins central bus station (ZOB). The tunnel is used as a storage area for theater props.

At Jungfernheide station, double U-Bahn platforms similar to those at Schloßstraße were built for the planned extension of the U5. The unused platform sides are fenced off. The finished (U5) tunnel section which leads off towards [[Tegel]] airport is now used for firefighting exercises.

On 4 December 2020, the U5 extension between Alexanderplatz and Brandenburger Tor was opened. This included the new [[Unter den Linden (Berlin U-Bahn)|Unter den Linden]] station, which acts as a transfer point between the lines U5 and U6. [[Französische Straße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Französische Straße]] station on the U6 was simultaneously closed due to its short distance to the new station.

=== Future development ===
Berlin's chronic financial problems make any expansion not mandated by the ''Hauptstadtvertrag''—the document that regulates the necessary changes to the city as the capital of Germany—unlikely. Furthermore, there is still great rivalry for construction money between the U-Bahn and the S-Bahn. After the construction boom that followed the reunification of the city, enthusiasm for further growth has cooled off; many people feel that Berlin's needs are adequately met by the present U- and S-Bahn. As of 2020, the only proposals receiving serious consideration aim to facilitate travel around the existing system, such as moving [[Berlin Warschauer Straße railway station|Warschauer Straße]]'s U-Bahn station closer to its S-Bahn station.

[[Image:U55 Bundestag 2009-08-10 3.jpg|thumb|[[Bundestag (Berlin U-Bahn)|Bundestag]] station on the [[U5 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U5 line]]]]
There are several long-term plans for the U-Bahn that have no estimated time of completion, most of which involve closing short gaps between stations, enabling them to connect to other lines. This would depend on demand, and new developments in the vicinity. New construction of U-Bahn lines is frequently the subject of political discussion with the Berlin chapters of the [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]], [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|FDP]] and [[Alternative für Deutschland|AfD]] who usually advocate in favor of U-Bahn expansion while the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]], [[Alliance 90/The Greens|Die Grünen]] and [[The Left (Germany)|Die Linke]] typically advocate for tram construction instead.

After the last extension of U5 opened on 4 December 2020, there are no immediate plans to expand the metro system due to lack of budgetary conditions, although there are several extensions of railway lines that can be discussed over time:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Line
! Stretch
! Projects
|-
|U0
|Ringlinie
|U0 was announced in March 2023 as per "Express Metropolis Berlin" (BVG 2050). The route will likely go along: Pankow - Antonplatz - Lichtenberg - Tierpark - Schöneweide - Alt-Mariendorf - Rathaus Steglitz - Breitenbachplatz - Westkreuz - Kaiserdamm - Jungfernheide - Hakenfelde - Urban Tech Republic - Kurt-Schumacher-Platz - Residenzstraße - Wollankstraße - Pankow.
|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U1|size=15}}
|Heerstraße – Karow-Ost
|The segment between [[Uhlandstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Uhlandstraße]] and [[Wittenbergplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Wittenbergplatz]] might be extended to Westkreuz, Theodor-Heuss-Platz, Gatower Straße before going to Heerstraße. There's a discussion, whether the U1 should be extended towards the [[Berlin Ostkreuz]] station, the most important and frequented S-Bahn station in all of Berlin. The line may also be extended to [[Frankfurter Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Frankfurter Tor]], before connecting to Antonplatz, Weißensee and goes all the way to Karow-Ost.

|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U2|size=15}}
|Rosenthaler Weg – Stadtrandstraße
|Following the extension of the [[U2 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U2]] to [[Pankow (Berlin U-Bahn)|Pankow]] in 2000, there are plans to continue on to [[Ossietzkyplatz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Ossietzkyplatz]] and [[Rosenthaler Weg (Berlin U-Bahn)|Rosenthaler Weg]]. CDU plans has been extended to Rosenthaler Weg. In the west, an extension is planned from [[Ruhleben (Berlin U-Bahn)|Ruhleben]] to the [[U7 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U7]] terminus, [[Rathaus Spandau (Berlin U-Bahn)|Rathaus Spandau]] with five more stations to [[Stadtrandstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Stadtrandstraße]] and Falkenhagener Field. Only the extension to Rosenthaler Weg is approved in the financial scenario 2030 of the [[Berlin Senate]] and has a real chance to be realized.

|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U3|size=15}}
|Düppel-Kleinmachnow – Falkenberg
|For the southern extension it will take place within two phases. The first phase will be completed by 2026 and it will extend the U3 towards the [[Berlin Mexikoplatz station|Berlin Mexikoplatz]] station which is shorter part and is 700m. In December 2022, the State of Berlin has advertised feasibility study. A central platform west of Mexikoplatz, is planned with three-track parking and turning system connected to the platform. There are plans to integrate the transition between the two modes of transport into S-Bahn infrastructure. The second phase, although it will only happen in the far future, will be to extend the U3 to Bahnhof Düppel, Düppel-Kleinmachnow and Machnower Schleuse. There are also discussions on the U3 extension after Wittenbergplatz, to go through Potsdamer Platz and Alexanderplatz, before connecting with the S-Bahn at [[Berlin Greifswalder Straße station|Greifswalder Straße]], terminating for short [[Weißensee (Berlin U-Bahn)|Weißensee]] before going to [[Karow-Ost (Berlin U-Bahn)|Karow-Ost]] and [[Falkenberg (Berlin U-Bahn)|Falkenberg]]. This line will be operated by driverless trains in the far future.
|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U4|size=15}}
|Glambecker Ring – Appenzeller Straße
|In March 2023, there were plans to extend the line - to meet U11 at Hauptbahnhof via Magdeburger Straße, Tiergarten and goes straight to Hauptbahnhof, and proceeding to Glambecker Ring. The U4 will then continue alongside the failed U10 routing (previously was removed from the Berlin transport master plan and land use plans), to Lichterfelde and Appenzeller Straße via Drakestraße.
|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U5|size=15}}
|Hönow – Rathaus Reinickendorf
|A plan to extend the line further westward from [[Berlin Hauptbahnhof]] to [[Tegel Airport]], via [[Turmstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Turmstraße]] and [[Berlin Jungfernheide station|Jungfernheide]], postponed in the long term due to budgetary constraint and closure of the airport, was later shelved in favor of a tram line alternative. In March 2023, plans to revive the line extension went forward.
|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U6|size=15}}
|Alt-Tegel – Nahariyastraße
|After the closure of [[Tegel Airport]], the U6 will definitely have a branch from Kurt-Schumacher-Platz and continue to the west, to [[Tegel Airport]]. A feasibility study that it will work with either U65, or completely new line, "U75" from Rathaus Reinickendorf to Jungfernheide being studied in 2020, taking over the former U5 westward extension. This was succeeded by "U0" in March 2023. Plans in March 2023 were to extend the line from Alt-Mariendorf to Nahariyastraße.
|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U7|size=15}}
|Flughafen BER – Staaken
|It is planned to extend the U7 in the north-west to Staaken and Gatower Straße. Due to budgetary situation of the Berlin Senate, the extension is not expected before the year 2050.

There were discussions on U7's extension from Rudow to [[Berlin Brandenburg Airport|Berlin-Brandenburg Airport]] via Rudow-Süd for a very long time. These plans had already been shelved as the expected patronage was not deemed high enough to justify such an expansion.
|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U8|size=15}}
|Buckow-Süd – Märkisches Viertel
|In the north, an extension to the large housing estate named [[Märkisches Viertel]] is discussed. As this would only require a 1.2-kilometer extension, this would be a cheap means of expansion for the U8 past its current end point, [[Berlin-Wittenau station|Wittenau]]. However, there has been no concrete planning lately for this addition.
|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U9|size=15}}
|Buckower Chaussee – Pankow-Heinersdorf
|Plans in March 2023 were to extend the line from Rathaus Steglitz to Lankwitz and Buckower Chaussee, and also extend the line from Osloer Straße, via Pankow-Kirche to Pankow-Heinersdorf.
|-
|{{rail-interchange|berlin|U10|size=15}}
|Falkenberg – Drakestraße
|U10 was in former 200-km plans since 1955. However, the route goes from Falkenberg, to Weißensee, then to Potsdamer Platz, followed by turning towards Innsbrucker Platz and Rathaus Stegliz, in order to go Drakestraße (Lichterfelde). Planning for the U10 was officially removed from the Berlin transport master plan in 2003 (Measures 2015), and it is no longer considered part of the public transport network master plan through at least 2030. Nevertheless, the line remains part of Berlin's [[Land-use planning|Land-use plan]] since 1994, which means that new construction works along the planned route have to accommodate the eventuality of such a line.
|}

== Rolling stock ==
{{Main|Trains on the Berlin U-Bahn}}

[[Image:1019 4-Gleisdreieck-17.10.07.jpg|thumb|The HK-type U-Bahn train, introduced in 2005]]
[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Zurueckbleiben bitte.ogg|thumb|"Zurückbleiben bitte!" (''"Keep back, please!"''): the announcement made on trains before the doors close]]

The Berlin U-Bahn uses 750-volt [[direct current|DC]] [[Electric multiple unit|electric trains]] that run on [[standard gauge]] ({{RailGauge|1435mm}} ) tracks. The first trains were based on [[tram]]s; they have a width of {{convert|2.30|m|ftin|1|abbr=on|frac=16}}, and take their power from an upward facing [[third rail]]. To accommodate greater passenger numbers without lengthening the trains—which would require costly extended platforms—trains that ran on lines built after [[World War I]] were required to be wider. The original trains and lines, which continued to operate, were designated ''Kleinprofil'' (''small profile''), and the newer, wider trains and lines were designated ''Großprofil'' (''large profile''). Großprofil trains are {{convert|2.65|m|ftin|1|abbr=on|frac=16}} wide, and take their power from a downward facing [[third rail]]. This is similar to [[New York City Subway|New York City's]] [[A Division (New York City Subway)|A Division]] and [[B Division (New York City Subway)|B Division]] systems, where the B Division trains are wider than A Division trains (though B Division trains are also longer, while Großprofil trains are generally about the same length as Kleinprofil ones).

Although the two profiles are generally incompatible, Kleinprofil trains have been modified to run on Großprofil lines during three periods of economic difficulty. Between 1923 and 1927 on the Nord-Süd-Bahn, and between 1961 and 1978 on the E line, adapted Kleinprofil trains were used to compensate for the lack of new Großprofil trains: they were widened with wooden boards to reach the platforms; and had their power pickups adapted to accept power from the negatively charged downward-facing third rail, instead of positively charged upward-facing third rail. As of 2017, [[BVG Class IK|Class IK]] Kleinprofil trains are in operation on the Großprofil line [[U5 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U5]], after refurbishing the existing [[BVG Class F|F79]] rolling stock was deemed unfeasible. They were widened with metal boards by {{convert|17.5|cm|inch|1|abbr=on}} on each side and elevated by {{convert|7.5|cm|inch|1|abbr=on}} to close the gap to the platforms; their power pickups were designed reversible to work on both profiles. As of October 2019, IK rolling stock is still used on the U5; it is intended to move the trains to Kleinprofil lines once new Großprofil rolling stock has been delivered.

As of 2007, Kleinprofil trains run on the U1, U2, U3, U4 and U5 lines; and Großprofil trains operate on the U5, U55, U6, U7, U8, and U9 routes.

=== Kleinprofil (''small profile'') ===
[[Image:Tag des offenen Denkmals 2007 U-Bahn Berlin Baureihe AI Bahnhof Warschauer Strasse.jpg|thumb|An A-I train, the first type to be used by the Berlin U-Bahn.]]
Kleinprofil trains are {{convert|2.30|m|ftin|frac=16|abbr=on}} wide, and {{convert|3.10|m|ftin|frac=16|abbr=on}} high. When the U-Bahn opened in 1902, forty-two [[multiple unit]]s, and twenty-one [[railroad car]]s, with a top speed of {{convert|50|km/h|mi/h|1|abbr=on}}, had been built at the Warschauer Brücke workshop. In contrast to the earlier test vehicles, seating was placed along the walls, facing inward, which was considered more comfortable. Until 1927, U-Bahn trains had smoking compartments and third-class carriages. The trains were first updated in 1928; A-II carriages were distinguished by only having three windows, and two sliding doors.

After the division of the city, West Berlin upgraded its U-Bahn trains more rapidly than did East Berlin. The A3 type, introduced in 1960, was modelled on the Großprofil D type, and received regular modifications every few years. Meanwhile, A-I and A-II trains operated exclusively in East Berlin until 1975, when G-I trains, which had a top speed of {{convert|70|km/h|mi/h|1|abbr=on}}, started to travel the Thälmannplatz–Pankow route. These were superseded in 1988 by the G-I/1 type, which used couplings that were incompatible with the older G-I carriages.

Following reunification, the A3L type was again upgraded as the A3L92. In 2000, prototypes for a Kleinprofil variant of the H series were built; the HK, the first Kleinprofil type to use [[AC induction motor]]s like their large counterparts, differs from its Großprofil counterpart by not being fully interconnected—carriages are only interconnected within each of the two half-trains.

As of 2005, only trains of the HK, G-I/1 and A3(U/L) types are in active service.

From 2017, new IK-type trains will enter service to replace the remaining examples of type A3L71. Like HK-type trains they will be interconnected and as a result of their [[regenerative braking]] will recuperate up to 20% of the energy they require.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/bvg-die-neue-u-bahn-ist-zu-dick/9338098.html|title = Die neue U-Bahn-Zug ist zu dick|date = January 15, 2014|access-date = March 27, 2015|newspaper = Der Tagesspiegel Online|publisher = Der Tagesspiegel|last = Kurpjuweit|first = Klaus|language = de}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto;"
!style="background-color: #F0F0FF" colspan="11" |Kleinprofil train types
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
|style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" colspan="2"|1901–1945
|style="background-color: #F0F0FF" rowspan="8"| 
|style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" colspan="2"|West Berlin 1945–1990
|style="background-color: #F0F0FF" rowspan="8"| 
|style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" colspan="2"|East Berlin 1945–1990
|style="background-color: #F0F0FF" rowspan="8"| 
|style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" colspan="2"|1990—
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1901–1904
| rowspan="3" style="padding: 0 1em;" | A-I
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1960–1961
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A3-60
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1974
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | G
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1993–1995
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A3L92
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1906–1913
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1964
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A3-64
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1978–1983
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | G-I
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 2005–2006
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | [[BVG Class HK|HK]]
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1924–1926
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1966
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A3-66
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1983
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | G-II
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 2014
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | [[BVG Class IK|IK15]]
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1928–1929
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A-II
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1966
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A3L66
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1986–1989
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | G-I/1
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 2018–2019
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | [[BVG Class IK|IK18]]
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1967–1968
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A3L67
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1972–1973
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A3L71
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1982–1983
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | A3L82
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}

=== Großprofil (''large profile'') ===
[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin U7 Moeckernbruecke F92-Zug Einfahrt.ogv|thumb|An F92-type train quietly approaches [[Möckernbrücke (Berlin U-Bahn)|Möckernbrücke]]]]

Großprofil trains are {{convert|2.65|m|ftin|frac=16|abbr=on}} wide, and {{convert|3.40|m|ftin|frac=16|abbr=on}} high. The first sixteen multiple units and eight ordinary carriages entered active service on the Nord-Süd-Bahn in 1924, after a year of using modified Kleinprofil trains. Designated B-I, the cars were {{convert|13.15|m|ftin|frac=16|abbr=on}} long and each had three sliding doors; the large elliptical windows at the front of the train earned them the nickname, ''Tunneleulen'' (''tunnel owls''). Upgraded B-II trains were introduced in 1927, and continued to be used until 1969. The first {{convert|18|m|ftin|frac=16|adj=mid|-long}} C-I trains were trialled in 1926, and two upgrades were produced before the end of the decade. The first U-Bahn trains to use aluminium in their construction, the C-IV types, were introduced in 1930. Many C-type trains were seized by Soviet forces in 1945, to be used in the [[Moscow Metro]].

The first D-type trains, manufactured in 1957, were built from steel, making them very heavy and less efficient; however, the DL type that followed from 1965 used metals that were less dense, allowing a 26% reduction in weight. In East Berlin, D-type trains bought from the BVG were designated D-I. Difficulties there in trying to develop an E series of trains led, in 1962, to the conversion of S-Bahn type 168 trains for use on the E line. These E-III trains were desperately needed at the time to allow modified Kleinprofil trains to return to the increasingly busy A line but, following reunification, high running costs led to their retirement in 1994.

In West Berlin, the successor to the D-type was the F-type, which debuted in 1973. They varied from other models in having seats that were perpendicular to the sides of the train; from 1980, they also became the first U-Bahn trains to use three-phase electricity. In 1995, the original seating arrangement returned as the H series took up service. H-type trains are characterised by the interconnection of carriages throughout the length of the train; and they can only be removed from the tracks at main service depots.

As of 2005, only F, H, and a variation of the IK-type trains are in active service.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0.5em auto;"
!style="background-color: #F0F0FF" colspan="11" |Großprofil train types
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
|style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" colspan="2"|1901–1945
|style="background-color: #F0F0FF" rowspan="10"| 
|style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" colspan="2"|West Berlin 1945–1990
|style="background-color: #F0F0FF" rowspan="10"| 
|style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" colspan="2"|East Berlin 1945–1990
|style="background-color: #F0F0FF" rowspan="10"| 
|style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold;" colspan="2"|1990—
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1923–1927
| rowspan="2" style="padding: 0 1em;" | A-IK
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1955–1965
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | D
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1956–1957
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | E-I
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1990–1991
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | F90
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1945–1968
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1965–1966
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | DL65
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1962–1990
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | E-III
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1992–1993
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | F92
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1924–1928
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | B-I
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1968–1970
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | DL68
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1994–1995
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | H95
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1926–1927
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | C-I
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1970–1973
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | DL70
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1997–1999
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | H97
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1927–1929
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | B-II
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1973–1975
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | F74
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 2000–2002
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | H01
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1929
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | C-II
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1976–1978
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | F76
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 2017
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | [[BVG Class IK|IK17]]
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1930
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | C-III
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1979–1981
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | F79
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | ''2020''
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | ''[[BVG Class IK|IK20]]''
|- style="background-color: #F8F8FF"
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1930–1931
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | C-IV
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1984–1985
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | F84
|  
|  
|  
|  
|- style="background-color: #FFFFFF"
|  
|  
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em; text-align: right;" | 1987–1988
| style="padding: 0.2em 1em;" | F87
|  
|  
|  
|  
|}

=== Depots ===
{{Main|Depots on the Berlin U-Bahn}}

[[Image:Berlin - BVG-Werkstatt für U-Bahnfahrzeuge - 2016.jpg|thumb|View of the Britz service workshop (Bw Britz)]]

Depots of the Berlin U-Bahn fall into one of two classes: main workshops ({{lang-de|Hauptwerkstätten}}, abbreviated as ''Hw''); and service workshops ({{lang-de|Betriebswerkstätten}}, abbreviated ''Bw''). The main workshops are the only places where trains can be lifted from the tracks; they are used for the full inspections required every few years, and for any major work on trains. The service workshops only handle minor repairs and maintenance, such as replacing windows, or removing [[graffiti]].

As of 2005, the only dedicated Kleinprofil depot is at Grunewald (Hw Gru/Bw Gru), which opened on 21 January 1913. The first Großprofil depot opened at Seestraße (Hw See/Bw See) in 1923, to service the Nord-Süd-Bahn. It has 17 tracks—2 for the main workshop, and 15 for the service workshop—but its inner-city location prevents any further expansion. Due to BVG budget cuts, the Seestraße depot also services Kleinprofil trains. Two further Großprofil service workshops are located at Friedrichsfelde (Bw Fri), and Britz-Süd (Bw Britz).

In the past, there were other workshops. The first opened in 1901 at Warschauer Brücke, and was the construction site for most of the early U-Bahn trains. The division of the U-Bahn network on 13 August 1961 forced its closure, although it was reopened in 1995 as a storage depot. A small depot operated at Krumme Lanke between 22 December 1929 and 1 May 1968; and, while the network was split, East Berlin's U-Bahn used the S-Bahn depot at Schöneweide, along with a small service workshop at Rosa-Luxemburg-Platz, which was closed following reunification.

== Accidents ==
The Berlin {{lang|de|U-Bahn}} ranks among the safest modes of transport: its history features few accidents.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}}

[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Gleisdreieck old and new.png|thumb|Gleisdreieck: before and after its 1912 reconfiguration]]

The most severe accident occurred at the original {{lang|de|Gleisdreieck}} ''(rail triangle)'', where the main and branch lines were connected by switches that allowed the tracks to cross. On 26 September 1908, a train driver missed a stop signal. As a result, two trains collided at the junction, and one fell off the viaduct. The accident killed eighteen people, and severely injured another twenty-one. {{lang|de|Gleisdreieck}}'s triangular layout had already been deemed unsuitable for future developments; this incident—and a later, less-serious one—triggered its reconstruction as a multi-level station, starting in 1912.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}}

On 30 June 1965, a train with brake failure stopped on the G line—today's U9—between {{lang|de|Zoologischer Garten}} and {{lang|de|Hansaplatz}}. Unaware of the faulty train, a mechanic working at the {{lang|de|Zoologischer Garten}} signal tower noticed that the signal for the affected section had been set to "Stop" for a long time. Thinking it was a fault of his, after several attempts he manually overrode the signal, in defiance of regulations that strictly prohibited such actions. The following train, which had been waiting at {{lang|de|Zoologischer Garten}}, then left the station on the same track. With emergency brakes unable to prevent the accident, the two trains collided. One passenger was killed in the crash, and 97 were injured. The mechanic was fined 600,000 [[Deutsche Mark|DM]].{{citation needed|date=February 2017}}

Fires can be particularly dangerous and damaging within an underground system. In October 1972, two trains and a 200 m length of tunnel were completely destroyed when the trains caught fire; the reconstructed tunnel is clearly distinguishable from the old one. Another train burned out in the connecting tunnel between Klosterstraße and Alexanderplatz in 1987. On 8 July 2000, the last car of a GI/I train suffered a short circuit, burning out at the rear of the [[Deutsche Oper (Berlin U-Bahn)|Deutsche Oper station]]. The single exit of the station was unreachable, forcing the passengers to run through the tunnel to reach the next emergency exit. The fire also damaged the station, which remained closed until that September.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}} The [[Portugal|Portuguese]] Ambassador, João Diogo Nunes Barata, presented the BVG with {{lang|pt|[[azulejo]]s}} (tiled paintings), specially designed for the station, by the artist [[José de Guimarães]].<ref>{{cite news
| first = Rolf
| last = Brockschmidt
| title = Leuchtende Grüße aus Lissabon
| url = http://www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/;art270,2094153
| publisher = [[Der Tagesspiegel]]
| date = 2002-10-16
| access-date = 2007-09-18
| language = de
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071117015309/http://www.tagesspiegel.de/berlin/;art270,2094153
| archive-date = 2007-11-17
| url-status = dead
}}</ref> Installation of Portugal's gift to the city was completed on 30 October 2002.

[[Image:U-Bahn Berlin Viktoria-Luise-Platz.JPG|thumb|Entrance to [[Viktoria-Luise-Platz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Viktoria-Luise-Platz]] on the [[U4 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U4]]. ]]

As a consequence of the Deutsche Oper incident, BVG decided to post an employee at every station with only one exit until a second exit could be built. Over the following few years, many of those stations—including Britz-Süd, Schillingstraße, Viktoria-Luise-Platz, Uhlandstraße, and Theodor-Heuss-Platz—were retrofitted with additional exits. By June 2008, the only remaining stations with no second exit, Konstanzer Straße and Rudow, had been fitted with second exits.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.bvg.de/index.php/en/Bvg/Detail/folder/782/id/200597/name/Second+exit+for+metro+station+Konstanzer+Stra%DFe | title=Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe: BVG – Weil wir dich lieben | BVG }}</ref> Despite these changes, several passenger organisations—such as Pro Bahn, and IGEB—demand that stations with exits in the middle of the platform also be fitted with additional emergency exits. Many stations are built this way; meeting those demands would place a heavy financial burden on both the BVG and the city.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}}

The U6 saw a particularly costly, though casualty-free, incident on 25 March 2003. Scheduled repair work on the line limited the normal service to between Alt-Mariendorf and [[Kurt-Schumacher-Platz (Berlin U-Bahn)|Kurt-Schumacher-Platz]]; one train then shuttled back and forth between Kurt-Schumacher-Platz and Holzhauser Straße, sharing a platform at Kurt-Schumacher-Platz with the normal-service trains departing for their return journey to Alt-Mariendorf. Needing to pass several stop signals on the shuttle service, the driver had been given special instructions how to proceed. Unfortunately, he ignored the signal at the entry to Kurt-Schumacher-Platz, and ploughed into the side of a train heading back to Alt-Mariendorf. The impact wrecked both trains, and caused considerable damage to the tracks. Normal service did not resume for two days, and the removal of the two wrecked trains—which, surprisingly, could still roll along the tracks—also took nearly 48 hours.{{citation needed|date=February 2017}}

== Films, music and merchandising ==
The Berlin U-Bahn has appeared in numerous [[film]]s and [[music video]]s. Offering access to stations, tunnels, and trains, the BVG cooperates with film-makers, although a permit is required.<ref name="bvg_film">
{{cite web
|url = http://www.bvg.de/index.php/en/17176/name/Filming+with+the+BVG.html
|title = Filming with the BVG
|publisher = Berliner Verkehrsbetriebe (BVG)
|access-date = 2013-09-23}}</ref>

Whether set in Berlin or elsewhere, the U-Bahn has had at least a minor role in a large number of movies and television programmes, including ''[[Emil and the Detectives (2001 film)|Emil and the Detectives]]'' (2001), ''[[Otto – Der Film]]'' (1985), ''{{Interlanguage link multi|Bang! You're Dead! (1987 film)|de|3=Peng! Du bist tot!|lt=Bang! You're Dead!}}'' (1987) featuring [[Ingolf Lück]], ''[[Run Lola Run]]'' (1998), and several ''[[Tatort]]'' episodes. The previously unused Reichstag station was used to shoot scenes of the movies ''[[Resident Evil (film series)|Resident Evil]]'' and ''[[Equilibrium (film)|Equilibrium]]''. The U Bahn station Messe was used as coverage in the films ''[[Hanna (film)|Hanna]]'' and ''[[The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 2]]''.{{citation needed|date=August 2017}}

[[Image:UBahnUnderwear.jpg|thumb|"Underwear" used suggestive station names]]

''Möbius 17'', by Frank Esher Lämmer and Jo Preussler from Berlin, tells the story of an U-Bahn train that, caught in a [[Möbius strip]], travels through [[Parallel universe (fiction)|alternate universe]]s after a new line is built.

Alexanderplatz station plays an essential role in ''[[Berlin Alexanderplatz (television)|Berlin Alexanderplatz]]''—a film of thirteen hour-long chapters and one epilogue—produced in 1980 by [[Rainer Werner Fassbinder]], based on the [[Berlin Alexanderplatz|book by Döblin]]. The film's scenes feature a recreation of the station as it was in 1928—rather darker and dirtier than in the 21st century. In the surrealistic two-hour epilogue, Fassbinder transforms parts of the station into a slaughterhouse where people are killed and dissected.

Since 2001, the Berlin U-Bahn has hosted the annual short-film festival ''Going Underground''. Short films (up to 90 seconds long) are shown on the monitors found in many of the U-Bahn trains.<ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.goingunderground.de/ueber.aspx
|title=Alles über GU (All about Going Underground)
|access-date=2007-09-08
|publisher=Going Underground
|language=de
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701070040/http://www.goingunderground.de/ueber.aspx
|archive-date=2007-07-01
|url-status=dead
}}</ref> Passengers on board vote for the festival winner.

[[Sandy Mölling]], former singer of the pop band [[No Angels]], shot the video for her single "Unnatural Blonde" in the U-Bahn station Deutsche Oper. [[Kate Ryan]], [[Overground (band)|Overground]], [[Böhse Onkelz]], [[Xavier Naidoo]], [[Die Fantastischen Vier]], and the DJ duo [[Blank & Jones]] have all used the U-Bahn and its stations for their videos as well.

"[[Linie 1]]", a musical performed by Berlin's [[Grips-Theater]], is set completely in stations and trains of the Berlin U-Bahn; a movie version has also been produced.

In 2002, the BVG cooperated with design students in a project to create [[underwear]] with an U-Bahn theme, which, in English, they named "Underwear". They used the names of real stations that, in the context of underwear, appeared to be mild sexual [[double entendre]]s: men's underpants bore labels with ''Rohrdamm'' (pipe dam), ''Onkel Toms Hütte'' (Uncle Tom's Cabin), and ''Krumme Lanke'' (crooked lake); the women's had ''Gleisdreieck'' (triangle track), and ''Jungfernheide'' (virgin heath). After the first series sold out quickly, several others were commissioned, such as ''Nothammer'' ([[emergency hammer]]), and ''Pendelverkehr'' (shuttle service; though ''Verkehr'' also means "intercourse" and ''Pendel'' also means "pendulum"). They were withdrawn from sale in 2004.

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Berlin S-Bahn]]
* [[Berlin Straßenbahn]]
* [[Ghost station]]
* [[List of metro systems]]
* [[M-Bahn]]
* [[Metro systems by annual passenger rides]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin}}
* Brian Hardy: ''The Berlin U-Bahn'', Capital Transport, 1996, {{ISBN|1-85414-184-8}}
* Ulf Buschmann: ''U-Bahnhöfe Berlin. Berlin Underground Stations''. Berlin Story Verlag, Berlin 2012, {{ISBN|978-3-86368-027-5}}
* Jan Gympel: ''U-Bahn Berlin – Reiseführer''. GVE-Verlag, Berlin 2002, {{ISBN|3-89218-072-5}}
* AG Berliner U-Bahn: ''Zur Eröffnung der elektrischen Hoch-und Untergrundbahn in Berlin''. GVE-Verlag, Berlin 2002, {{ISBN|3-89218-077-6}}
* Jürgen Meyer-Kronthaler und Klaus Kurpjuweit: ''Berliner U-Bahn – In Fahrt seit Hundert Jahren''. be.bra Verlag, Berlin 2001, {{ISBN|3-930863-99-5}}
* Petra Domke und Markus Hoeft: ''Tunnel Gräben Viadukte – 100 Jahre Baugeschichte der Berliner U-Bahn''. kulturbild Verlag, Berlin 1998, {{ISBN|3-933300-00-2}}
* Ulrich Lemke und Uwe Poppel: ''Berliner U-Bahn''. alba Verlag, Düsseldorf, {{ISBN|3-87094-346-7}}
* Robert Schwandl: ''Berlin U-Bahn Album. Alle 192 Untergrund- und Hochbahnhöfe in Farbe''. Robert Schwandl Verlag, Berlin Juli 2002, {{ISBN|3-936573-01-8}}
* Jürgen Meyer-Kronthaler: ''Berlins U-Bahnhöfe – Die ersten hundert Jahre''. be.bra Verlag, Berlin 1996, {{ISBN|3-930863-16-2}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Berlin U-Bahn}}
{{Rapid transit OSM map|display=title|text=Network map}}
* {{official website|https://www.bvg.de/en}} {{in lang|en}}
* [http://berlin.bahninfo.de/E_stillg.htm VSWB – Disused Rails and Lanes in Berlin]
* [http://mic-ro.com/metro/phototour.html?city=Berlin Photo tour of U-Bahn stations including map of architectural styles]
* [http://public-transport.net/pics/main.php?g2_itemId=2892 Photos of Berlin Metro]
* [http://www.berliner-verkehr.de/ubbilder/ugleis.gif Track map of the Berlin U-Bahn]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20230131041708/https://www.ubahn.co/ Photographing the Berlin U-Bahn (archived)]

{{Public transport in Berlin}}
{{Urban public transport in Germany}}
{{Underground rapid transit in the European Union}}
{{Internationally Metro Organizations}}

[[Category:Berlin U-Bahn| ]]
[[Category:Rail transport in Berlin|U-Bahn]]
[[Category:Underground rapid transit in Germany]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:750 V DC railway electrification]]

Anting (behavior)

2023-09-08T20:56:10Z

Relative Humidity: /* History */ Restore missing beginning of sentence

{{Short description|Avian maintenance behavior}}
[[File:Black Drongo I2 IMG 5683.jpg|thumb|A [[black drongo]] in a typical anting posture]]
'''Anting''' is a [[Comfort behaviour in animals|maintenance behavior]] during which [[bird]]s rub insects, usually [[ant]]s, on their feathers and skin. The bird may pick up the insects in its bill and rub them on the body (active anting), or the bird may lie in an area of high density of the insects and perform [[dust bathing]]-like movements (passive anting). The insects secrete liquids containing chemicals such as [[formic acid]], which can act as an [[insecticide]], [[miticide]], [[fungicide]], or [[bactericide]]. Alternatively, anting could make the insects edible by removing the distasteful acid, or, possibly supplement the bird's own [[Uropygial gland|preen oil]]. Instead of ants, birds can also use [[millipede]]s. More than 200 species of bird are known to ant.<ref name=":0" /> A possibly related behaviour, [[self-anointing in animals|self-anointing]], is seen in many mammals.<ref name=":0" />

==History==

The first scientific writings of this behaviour dates back to 1831. American ornithologist [[John James Audubon]] described wild juvenile turkeys that "wallowed" in abandoned ant hills. Another description was published by a naturalist in 1847 in a manuscript called "Bird of Jamaica". In it the author describes how ants remove parasites from a tame crow, while the crow is foraging for food.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}} In 1934 an [[Alexander Hugh Chisholm]] described in ''Bird Wonders of Australia'', a strange relationship birds had with ants.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal|last1=Morozov|first1=N.S|date=July 31, 2014|title=Why do birds practice anting?|journal=Uspekhi Sovremennoi Biologii|volume=135|pages=97–112}}</ref> The behaviour was described by [[Erwin Stresemann]] in German as ''Einemsen'' in the German ornithology journal ''Ornithologische Monatsberichte'' (Volume XLIII, p. 138) in 1935. Indian ornithologist [[Salim Ali (ornithologist)|Salim Ali]] interpreted an observation by his cousin [[Humayun Abdulali]] in the 1936 volume of ''Journal of the [[Bombay Natural History Society]]'' and included a reference to the Stresemann's paper suggesting that the German term could be translated into English as "anting".<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ali, Salim|year=1936|title=Do birds employ ants to rid themselves of ectoparasites?|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/47602998|journal=[[Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society|J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.]]|volume=38|issue=3|pages=628–631}}</ref>

==Modes==
=== Active ===
[[File:Brahminy Kite Anting 01.jpg|right|thumb|A [[brahminy kite]] anting at lalbagh Botanical Garden in [[Bangalore]], [[India]]]]
Anting most commonly occurs on the ground but in some species, birds practice anting on tree branches. A bird will place the tip of its wing on the ground and rub its bill containing an ant from the tip of the wing up.<ref name=":0" /> The tail is usually tucked between the legs and under the body, which results in the bird being unstable. Birds use one ant at a time and only rub a feather once with an ant. However, there are some cases where an ant is used more than once but never exceeds three uses.<ref name=":0" /> There are some exceptions to this as [[starling]]s often take a ball of ants in their bills to be used for anting. Active anting happens very quickly and can often be mistaken for regular feather maintenance. This type of anting can last anywhere from just several minutes to half an hour. Most species of birds practice active anting and do this individually or in small groups. Birds may also use 'substitutes' in active anting. Birds have been seen to use [[snail]]s, [[grasshopper]]s, [[amphipods]] and even [[larvae]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Passive ===
Passive anting occurs when a bird rubs its wings and tail on an anthill. Once a bird has found an anthill it will then spread both of its wings forward at the same time. It will then sit on its tails which attracts the ants. Once the ants are on their wing feathers they provoke the ants by rubbing their head or beak through their feathers where the ants are. To prevent ants from crawling onto a bird's head or beak the bird will shake its head very quickly. The birds allow the ants to roam freely around its feathers. This type of anting is less common and is mostly seen in [[European robin|robin]]s and [[raven]]s.<ref name=":0" />

== Functions ==

=== Ridding of ectoparasites ===
Anting to get rid of ectoparasites is another hypothesis for anting in [[songbirds]]. This hypothesis suggests that birds use the chemical secretions that come from ants to control and rid of parasites in their feathers. [[Microorganisms]] such as [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]] can destroy a bird's feathers if their numbers get large enough. [[Formic acid]] is a commonly produced chemical by ants, and it was found to inhibit growth of feather destroying [[microorganisms]].<ref name=":1">{{cite journal|last1=Revis|first1=Hannah|date=October 1, 2004|title=Bactericidal and Fungicidal Activity of Ant Chemicals on Feather Parasites: An Evaluation of Anting Behavior as a Method of Self-Medication in Songbirds|journal=The Auk|volume=121|issue=4|pages=1262–1268|doi=10.1093/auk/121.4.1262|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, there is little evidence that chemicals from ants help to remove or deter other [[parasites]] such as [[feather lice]] and [[mites]].<ref name=":1" />

=== Feather grooming ===
[[File:Black Woodpecker taking an ant bath - HungaryCS4E4536 (15788008504).jpg|thumb|A [[Black woodpecker]] anting in Hungary]]
The hypothesis that anting is a form of [[feather maintenance]] suggests that anting brings saliva to the bird's feathers for use in [[preening (bird)|preening]]. This helps to remove old [[preen oil]] and other substances.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal|last1=Potter|first1=Eloise|s2cid=85784753|date=October 1970|title=Anting in Wild Birds, Its Frequency and Probable Purpose|journal=The Auk|volume=87|issue=4|pages=692–713|doi=10.2307/4083703|jstor=4083703}}</ref>

=== Food preparation ===
The food preparation hypothesis suggests that birds rub the ant in its feathers to remove a substance on the ant. Ants produce [[formic acid]] as an [[anti-predator adaptation]]. Thus, when an ant feels threatened, as when in the beak of a bird, it will spray formic acid. It is suggested that birds then rub the ants in their feathers to remove the harmful formic acid. The bird will then ingest the ant. This can be seen in European starlings, ''[[Sturnus vulgaris]]''.<ref name=":3">{{cite journal|last1=Judson|first1=Olivia|title='anting' as food preparation: formic acid is worse on an empty stomach|journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology|volume=31|pages=437–439}}</ref>

=== Sensory self-stimulation ===
Anting has been compared to human activities such as smoking and other external stimuli that serve no biological purpose and is just for [[self-stimulation]]. This hypothesis has been suggested as anting has no obvious function, it is non-adaptive, birds are said to achieve pleasure from anting and anting has characteristics of a [[habit]]. However, there is no definitive evidence that sensory self-stimulation is the purpose of anting in birds. There have been several studies that claim to prove this hypothesis while others say just the opposite.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Simmons|first1=K.E.L|title=Anting and the problem of self-stimulation|journal=Journal of Zoology|volume=149|issue=2|pages=145–162|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1966.tb03890.x|year=2009}}</ref>

=== Functions in molt ===
It has been found that [[passerine birds]] [[molt]] in the summer months. These birds often focus much of the anting on their wings and tails. This is where the largest feathers emerge, and it has been suggested that anting helps stimulate the growth of these feathers during molt. Not all birds that ant do so during [[molt]].<ref name=":2"/>

== Species of ants used ==
Ants that spray and produce formic acid for defense are used for anting more often than species which do not spray or produce formic acid. Species from the subfamily [[Formicinae]] are the most commonly chosen by birds. Species from [[Dolichoderinae]] and [[Myrmicinae]] subfamilies are also used for anting however, not as common as Formicinae. If given a choice a bird will choose an ant in the subfamily Formicinae over all other species.<ref name=":0" /> In total there are 24 ant species birds use for anting.<ref name=":0" />

== Substitutes of ants ==
Some birds participate in this anting behaviour but with other organisms and even objects. Some of the organisms birds use are [[Oxychilus alliarius|garlic snails]], [[amphipods]], [[millipedes]], dermapterans, [[caterpillars]], [[grasshoppers]], hemipterans, [[mealworm]] larvae, and [[wasps]].<ref name=":0" />

==Related behaviours==
{{See also|Sunning (behaviour)|label 1=Sunning}}
[[dust bath|Dusting]] with soil from ant-hills has been considered by some as equivalent to anting.<ref name=j5/>

Some birds like [[Antbird#Behaviour|antbird]]s and [[Northern flicker#Diet|flicker]]s not only ant, but also consume the ants as an important part of their diet. Other opportunist ant-eating birds include [[Old World sparrow|sparrow]]s, [[wren]]s, [[grouse]] and [[starlings]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Taber|first=Stephen Welton|title=The World of the Harvester Ants | series = W.L. Moody, jr. Natural History Series | publisher=Texas A&M University Press|year=1998|volume=23}}</ref> European honey-buzzards have been found to gather fresh maple branches on the ground and then spread themselves over it and it has been suggested that this might be a case of [[Tool use by animals|tool-use]] to attract ants for anting.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0206843|pmid=30462689|pmc=6248935|title=Non-foraging tool use in European Honey-buzzards: An experimental test|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=13|issue=11|pages=e0206843|year=2018|last1=Camacho|first1=Carlos|last2=Potti|first2=Jaime|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1306843C|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Similar to anting may be the observed habit some birds show of picking up cigarette butts, sometimes lit, and rubbing themselves with them.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Simmons, K.E.L.|title=A review of the anting-behaviour of passerine birds|journal=British Birds| volume=50| issue=10|pages=401–424| year=1957|url=https://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V50/V50_N10/V50_N10_P401_424_A060.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Goodwin, Derek|year=1955| journal=Avicultural Magazine|volume=61|pages=21–25|title=Anting}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2|refs=

<ref name=j5>{{cite journal|author1=Kelso, L. |author2=Nice, Margaret M. |year= 1963|title= A Russian contribution to anting and feather mites|journal= [[The Wilson Bulletin]] |volume=75|issue=1|pages=23–26 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v075n01/p0023-p0026.pdf}}</ref>


}}

[[Category:Bird behavior]]
[[Category:Ethology]]

2004 Cypriot Annan Plan referendums

2023-09-08T13:38:49Z

Relative Humidity: Add link to invasion of Cyprus

{{Short description|Referendum in Cyprus}}
{{Cyprus peace process}}{{Politics of Cyprus}}{{Politics of Northern Cyprus}}

A referendum on the [[Annan Plan for Cyprus|Annan Plan]] was held in the [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]] and the unrecognized [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] on 24 April 2004.<ref>[http://www.electionguide.org/election.php?ID=961 Election profile] IFES Election Guide</ref> The two communities were asked whether they approved of the fifth revision of the [[United Nations]] proposal for reuniting the island, which had been divided since 1974. While it was approved by 65% of [[Turkish Cypriots]], it was rejected by 76% of [[Greek Cypriots]]. Turnout for the referendum was high at 89% among Greek Cypriots and 87% among Turkish Cypriots, which was taken as indicative of great interest in the issue on the part of the electorates.<ref>{{cite web|title=What do the results of the referendum in Cyprus show?|url=http://www.mlkp.info/?icerik_id=34&What_do_the_results_of_the_referendum_in_Cyprus_show?|access-date=29 September 2011}}</ref>

==Background==
The referendum had originally been planned for 21 April, until the UN planners realised it was the anniversary of the coup in Athens in 1967, which set off the chain of events that led to the [[Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus|Turkish invasion of the island]] in 1974.<ref>{{cite news |author=Ewen MacAskill |author2=Helena Smith |title=New date to be set after blunder over Cyprus referendum |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2004/mar/05/turkey.eu?INTCMP=ILCNETTXT3487 |newspaper=The Guardian |date=5 March 2004 |access-date=9 December 2014}}</ref>

==Campaign==
===Republic of Cyprus===
Political leaders in the [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]] strongly opposed the plan. [[Tassos Papadopoulos]], president of the Republic of Cyprus, spoke out against the plan in a speech broadcast live on television. Two days before the referendums, Cyprus's biggest party, [[Progressive Party of Working People]], decided to reject the Annan Plan. [[List of Prime Ministers of Greece|Greek Prime Minister]] [[Kostas Karamanlis]] decided to maintain a "neutral" position over the plan, but opposition leader [[George Papandreou]] of [[Panhellenic Socialist Movement|PASOK]] urged Cypriots to vote in favour, also because the plan had been promoted by his political party while it was still in power and Papandreou had been the Foreign Minister at the time, and had claimed both communities were ready for "a final common agreement". Nevertheless, opinion polls conducted in the Republic of Cyprus over the entire period of the negotiations from start to finish had always shown around 80% opposition to the proposals. Greek Cypriots have not voted uniformly on the Annan Plan.
Their voting behaviour was strongly depended on their partisanship and their location.<ref name="psa">[http://www.polres.gr/en/sites/default/files/PSA2007.pdf Chadjipadelis, T. & Andreadis, I. (2007). Analysis of the Cyprus Referendum on the Annan Plan. 57th Political Studies Association Annual Conference]</ref>

===Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus===
Among Turkish Cypriots the plan was argued to be excessively pro-Greek, but most said they were willing to accept it as a means of ending their prolonged international isolation and exclusion from the wider [[Economy of Europe|European economy]]. However, it was opposed by their leadership, with the Turkish Cypriot President [[Rauf Denktaş]] actively advocating a no vote. However, his Prime Minister [[Mehmet Ali Talat]] favoured the plan's acceptance, while [[List of Prime Ministers of Turkey|Turkish Prime Minister]] [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] also supported it. Turkey saw a resolution of the Cyprus issue as being an essential first step to eventual Turkish membership of the EU as well as a way of defusing tensions with Greece.

The [[Grey Wolves (organization)|Grey Wolves]] (a Turkish [[right-wing]] [[nationalist]] group belonging to the [[Nationalist Movement Party|MHP]] nationalist party) actively advocated a "no" vote. There were some limited riots caused by Grey Wolves activists against pro-ratification supporters during the pre-vote period, with at least 50 such activists arriving in Northern Cyprus during the pre-voting period. However, the referendum itself was carried out peacefully and deemed free and fair.

==Referendum question==
The question put to the electorate of the two communities was:

{{quote|Do you approve the Foundation Agreement with all its Annexes, as well as the constitution of the Greek Cypriot/Turkish Cypriot State and the provisions as to the laws to be in force, to bring into being a new state of affairs in which Cyprus joins the European Union united?|Annex IX|Article 1.1}}

==Results==
{|class=wikitable style=text-align:right
!rowspan=2 style="border-top-width:6px;"|Choice
!colspan=2 style="border-top:solid 6px #2175d8; border-bottom-color:#2175d8"|Greek Cypriots
!colspan=2 style="border-top:solid 6px #e30a17; border-bottom-color:#e30a17"|Turkish Cypriots
!colspan=2 style="border-top-width:6px"|Total voters
|-
!Votes
!%
!Votes
!%
!Votes
!%
|-
|align=left|For
|99,976||24.17
|style="background-color:#f5c6c4; font-weight:bold"|77,646
|style="background-color:#f5c6c4; font-weight:bold"|64.91
|177,622||33.30
|-
|align=left|Against
|style="background-color:#a7c1e8; font-weight:bold"|313,704
|style="background-color:#a7c1e8; font-weight:bold"|75.83
|41,973||35.09||355,677||66.70
|-
|align=left|Invalid/blank votes||14,907||3.48||5,344||4.28||20,251||3.66
|-
|align=left|'''Total'''||'''428,587'''||'''100'''||'''124,963'''||'''100'''||'''553,550'''||'''100'''
|-
|align=left|Registered voters/turnout||480,564||89.18||143,636||87.00||624,200||88.68
|-
|align=left colspan=7|Source: [http://www.greeknewsonline.com/?p=1325 GreekNews], [http://www.electionguide.org/results.php?ID=961 Election Guide]
|}

==Aftermath==
Since the Greek Cypriot Community did not approve the Plan, and implementation of the Plan was dependent on its approval by ''both'' communities, the Annan Plan, according to its own terms, became null and void.

{{quote|Should the Foundation Agreement not be approved at the separate simultaneous referenda, or any guarantor fail to sign the Treaty on matters related to the new state of affairs in Cyprus by 29 April 2004, it shall be null and void, and have no legal effect.|Annex IX|Article 1.2}}

===Participation issues===
Greek Cypriots disputed the right of Turkish Cypriots who had immigrated from Turkey since the 1974 breakaway. Following the referendum, Greek Cypriot President [[Tassos Papadopoulos]] wrote to [[Kofi Annan]], complaining that:

{{quote|However, under the final Plan not only the entirety of settlers were to remain in Cyprus and the possibility for a permanent flow of settlers from Turkey was left open, but all of them were allowed to vote during the referendum. This was so, despite established international law and UN practice, and persistent repeated calls of our side to the contrary, which were utterly disregarded. The end result, is that once more the settlers have participated in formulating the will of Turkish Cypriots during the referendum of April 24, and this against every norm of international law and practice.|<ref>From {{cite web|title=Letter by the President of the Republic, Mr Tassos Papadopoulos, to the U.N. Secretary-General, Mr Kofi Annan, dated 7 June, which circulated as an official document of the U.N. Security Council|url=http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio.nsf/All/E570E4948868A105C2256EAE003CAAE0?OpenDocument|publisher=Cyprus PIO|access-date=28 September 2011|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923212446/http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/moi/pio/pio.nsf/All/E570E4948868A105C2256EAE003CAAE0?OpenDocument|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

The British [[Foreign Affairs Select Committee]] noted that while the settler population did not "swing" the vote, "as illegal immigrants they should not have been allowed to vote at all".<ref>{{cite web|title=Cyprus|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200405/cmselect/cmfaff/113/11305.htm|publisher=Select Committee on Foreign Affairs|access-date=29 September 2011}}</ref>

===Reaction===

====Greek Cypriots====
The [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]]' president, [[Tassos Papadopoulos]], said that Greek Cypriots had rejected just the Annan plan and not all solutions to the Cyprus problem. "They are not turning their backs on their Turkish Cypriot compatriots," he said soon after the results were declared. "They have simply rejected this particular solution on offer."

====Turkish Cypriots====
Turkish Cypriot President [[Rauf Denktaş]] responded to the referendum outcome by saying that, with the Annan Plan rejected, his "no" campaign had reached its objective. He rejected calls for his immediate resignation, but announced the following month that he would not be standing for a fifth presidential term in 2005.

====Greece, Turkey and the United Kingdom====
There was varied reaction from Cyprus' Guarantor Powers, [[Greece]], [[Turkey]] and the [[United Kingdom]]. Turkey's Prime Minister [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] said that he believed the result spelled an end for Turkish Cypriot isolation, and that by rejecting the Annan Plan, "southern Cyprus (was) the loser". A spokesman for the Greek government stressed that efforts to reunite Cyprus should not be halted, pointing out that in the EU framework it is "in the interest of everyone to continue efforts to reconcile Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots".

The [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|British Foreign Secretary]] [[Jack Straw]] said, "We will respect the choice which Greek Cypriots have expressed today. But I hope that they will continue to reflect on whether this choice is the right one for them." The general international reaction to the result was similar to that of Britain: one of deep disappointment, particularly among those bodies that had worked on the Annan Plan and on EU accession arrangements.

====European Union====
The European Union had been counting on approval of the Annan Plan so that Cyprus would join it as a united island, and expressed disappointment at the Greek Cypriot rejection of the Plan. It had already agreed that the Republic of Cyprus would become a member regardless of the result of the referendum, and so on May 1, 2004, Cyprus joined the European Union together with [[2004_enlargement_of_the_European_Union|nine other countries]].

With regard to the Turkish Cypriots the European Union stated the following:

{{quote|The whole of the island is in the EU. However, in the northern part of the island, in the areas in which the Government of Cyprus does not exercise effective control, EU legislation is suspended in line with Protocol 10 of the Accession Treaty 2003.<ref>{{cite web|title=Protocol No 10 On Cyprus|url=http://www.ktto.net/english/protocolno10.doc|access-date=29 September 2011}}</ref> The situation will change once a Cyprus settlement enters into force and it will then be possible for EU rules to apply over the whole of the island. However, the suspension does not affect the personal rights of Turkish Cypriots as EU citizens. They are citizens of a Member State, the Republic of Cyprus, even though they may live in the northern part of Cyprus, the areas not under government control.|<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/turkish_cypriot_community/index_en.htm |title=European Commission - Enlargement - Turkish Cypriot community - Enlargement |publisher=Ec.europa.eu |access-date=2011-01-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101210081344/http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/turkish_cypriot_community/index_en.htm |archive-date=2010-12-10 }}</ref>}}

Had the plan been ratified by both sides, Cyprus would have entered the EU as the [[Annan Plan for Cyprus|United Republic of Cyprus]].

====Other international reaction====
{{refimprove section|date=March 2014}}
*[[United Nations Secretary-General]] [[Kofi Annan]]: "A unique and historic chance to resolve the Cyprus problem has been missed."
*[[European Commission]]: "The European Commission deeply regrets that the Greek Cypriot community did not approve the comprehensive settlement of the [[Cyprus Dispute|Cyprus problem]], but it respects the democratic decision of the people."
*[[US State Department|US State Department Spokesman]] [[Richard Boucher]]: "We are disappointed that a majority of Greek Cypriots voted against the settlement plan. Failure of the referendum in the Greek Cypriot community is a setback to the hopes of those on the island who voted for the settlement and to the international community."
*[[European Commission|European Commissioner for Enlargement]] [[Günter Verheugen]]: "I feel cheated by the Greek Cypriot government… There is a shadow now over the accession of Cyprus. What we will seriously consider now is finding a way to end the economic isolation of the Turkish Cypriots."
*[[Álvaro de Soto|UN Special Envoy Álvaro de Soto]]: "This evening I'm biting my tongue."

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.oxi-no.org/ No to the Annan Plan] Campaign against the Annan Plan
*[http://www.oxistosxedioanan.com/ Oxi sto Sxedio Anan] Campaign against the Annan Plan {{in lang|el}}
*[http://unannanplan.agrino.org/ The UN Annan Plan Proposal For the settlement of the Cyprus question] legal analysis of the Annan Plan
*[http://mondediplo.com/2004/05/07cyprus Le Monde Diplomatique] Implications for the "No" Vote in Cyprus
*[http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029391638&a=KArticle&aid=1082825534795 Press Release] UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office

{{Cypriot elections}}
{{Northern Cyprus elections}}

[[Category:2004 referendums]]
[[Category:Referendums in Cyprus|Referendum]]
[[Category:Referendums in Northern Cyprus]]
[[Category:2004 in Cyprus|Referendum]]
[[Category:2000s in Cypriot politics|Referendum]]
[[Category:2004 in Northern Cyprus|Referendum]]
[[Category:Cyprus peace process]]

Iran–Contra affair

2023-08-29T21:50:01Z

Relative Humidity: /* Subsequent dealings */ Use consistent spelling for Ghorbanifar

{{Short description|1985–1987 political scandal in the U.S.}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox historical event
| Event_Name = Iran-Contra affair
| Image_Name = President Ronald Reagan meets with aides on Iran-Contra.jpg
| Imagesize =
| partof = the [[Cold War]] and the [[Iran–Iraq War]]
| Image_Alt =
| Image_Caption = Reagan meets with (left to right) Secretary of Defense [[Caspar Weinberger]], Secretary of State [[George Shultz]], Attorney General [[Ed Meese]] and Chief of Staff [[Donald Regan|Don Regan]] in the [[Oval Office]]
| Thumb_Time =
| AKA = McFarlane affair (in Iran), Iran-Contra scandal, Iran-Contra
| Participants = [[Presidency of Ronald Reagan#Administration|Reagan administration]], particularly [[Robert McFarlane (American politician)|Robert McFarlane]], [[Caspar Weinberger]], [[Hezbollah]], [[Contras]], [[Oliver North]], [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]], [[John Poindexter]], [[Manuel Antonio Noriega]]
| Location =
| Date = {{Start date|df=yes|1985|8|20}} – {{End date|df=yes|1987|3|4}}
| Result =
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The '''Iran-Contra affair''' ({{lang-fa|ماجرای ایران-کنترا}}; {{lang-es|Caso Irán-Contra}}), often referred to as the '''Iran-Contra scandal''', or simply '''Iran-Contra''', was a [[political scandal]] in the United States that occurred during the second term of the [[Reagan administration]]. Between 1981 and 1986, senior administration officials secretly facilitated the sale of arms to [[Islamic Republic of Iran|Iran]], which was the subject of an [[arms embargo]].<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/ ''The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On'']. The National Security Archive (George Washington University), 2006-11-24</ref> The administration hoped to use the proceeds of the arms sale to fund the [[Contras]], a right-wing rebel group, in [[Nicaragua]]. Under the [[Boland Amendment]], further funding of the Contras by government appropriations had been prohibited by Congress, but the loophole was to use non-appropriated funds.

The official justification for the arms shipments was that they were part of an operation to free [[Lebanon hostage crisis|seven American hostages]] being held in [[Lebanon]] by [[Hezbollah]], an Islamist paramilitary group with Iranian ties connected to the [[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps]].<ref name="reagan no-bbc" /> The idea to exchange arms for hostages was proposed by [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]], an expatriate Iranian arms dealer.<ref name="plain-and-simple"/><ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=uYZA3d2I82sC&dq=ghorbanifar+arms+hostages&pg=PA60|title=Saving the Reagan Presidency: Trust Is the Coin of the Realm|last=Abshire|first=David|year=2005|publisher=Texas A&M University Press|isbn=9781603446204}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Valentine|first1=Douglas|title=Reagan, Bush, Gorbachev: Revisiting the End of the Cold War|date=2008|publisher=Praeger Security International|isbn= 9780313352416|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=r71u_AgE7iYC&dq=ghorbanifar+arms+hostages&pg=PA82}}</ref> Some within the Reagan administration hoped the sales would influence Iran to get Hezbollah to release the hostages.

In late 1985, [[Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Oliver North]] of the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] diverted a portion of the proceeds from the Iranian weapon sales to fund the [[Contras]], a group of anti-[[Sandinista National Liberation Front|Sandinista]] rebels, in their insurgency against the [[socialist]] government of [[Nicaragua]]. North later claimed that Ghorbanifar had given him the idea for diverting profits from [[BGM-71 TOW|TOW]] and [[MIM-23 HAWK|HAWK]] missile sales to Iran to the Nicaraguan Contras.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rozen|first=Laura|url= https://prospect.org/features/front/|title=The Front|date=21 March 2005}}</ref> While President [[Ronald Reagan]] was a vocal [[United States and state-sponsored terrorism#Contras|supporter of the Contra cause]],{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=542}} the evidence is disputed as to whether he personally authorized the diversion of funds to the Contras.<ref name="reagan no-bbc">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/213195.stm|title=Reagan's mixed White House legacy|date=6 June 2004|access-date=22 April 2008|publisher=BBC}}</ref> Handwritten notes taken by Defense Secretary [[Caspar Weinberger]] on 7 December 1985 indicate that Reagan was aware of potential hostage transfers with Iran, by Israel, as well as the sale of HAWK and TOW missiles to "moderate elements" within that country.<ref name="gwu.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/14-Weinberger%20Diaries%20Dec%207%20handwritten.pdf|title=Weinberger Diaries Dec 7 handwritten|website=National Security Archive|publisher=George Washington University}}</ref> Weinberger wrote that Reagan said "he could {{not a typo|answer charges}} of illegality but he couldn't {{sic|answer charge}} that 'big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to {{not a typo|free hostages}}.{{'"}}<ref name="gwu.edu"/> After the weapon sales were revealed in November 1986, Reagan appeared on national television and stated that the weapons transfers had indeed occurred, but that the United States did not trade arms for hostages.<ref name=reaganspeech>{{cite web|last=Reagan|first =Ronald|author-link=Ronald Reagan|title=Address to the Nation on the Iran Arms and Contra Aid Controversy|publisher=Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation|date=13 November 1986|url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1986/111386c.htm|access-date=7 June 2008}}</ref> The investigation was impeded when large volumes of documents relating to the affair were destroyed or withheld from investigators by Reagan administration officials.<ref name="Excerpts from Iran-Contra Report">{{Cite news|title=Excerpts From the Iran-Contra Report: A Secret Foreign Policy|work=The New York Times|year=1994|url=https://www.nytimes.com/books/97/06/29/reviews/iran-transcript.html|access-date=7 June 2008}}</ref> On 4 March 1987, Reagan made a further nationally televised address, saying he was taking full responsibility for the affair and stating that "what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages".<ref name=reaganspeech-tower>{{cite web |last=Reagan |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Reagan|title=Address to the Nation on the Iran Arms and Contra Aid Controversy|publisher=Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation|date=1987-03-04 |url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1987/030487h.htm |access-date=7 June 2008}}</ref>

The affair was investigated by the [[U.S. Congress]] and by the three-person, Reagan-appointed [[Tower Commission]]. Neither investigation found evidence that President Reagan himself knew of the extent of the multiple programs.<ref name="reagan no-bbc"/> Additionally, [[United States Deputy Attorney General]] [[Lawrence Walsh]] was appointed [[United States Office of the Independent Counsel|Independent Counsel]] in December 1986 to investigate possible criminal actions by officials involved in the scheme. In the end, several dozen administration officials were indicted, including then-[[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Caspar Weinberger]]. Eleven convictions resulted, some of which were vacated on appeal.<ref>{{Cite news|work=Business Week |url=http://www.businessweek.com/1997/25/b353254.htm |title=Pointing a Finger at Reagan |access-date=22 April 2008 |author=Dwyer, Paula |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080416182515/http://www.businessweek.com/1997/25/b353254.htm |archive-date=16 April 2008 }}</ref>

The rest of those indicted or convicted were all pardoned in the final days of the [[presidency of George H. W. Bush]], who had been vice president at the time of the affair.<ref name="ghwbush-pardons">{{cite web |url=https://www.justice.gov/pardon/ghwbush-pardons |title=Pardons Granted by President George H. W. Bush (1989-1993) |date=12 January 2015 |access-date=22 December 2020 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |archive-date=23 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201223060117/https://www.justice.gov/pardon/ghwbush-pardons |url-status=dead }}</ref> Former Independent Counsel Walsh noted that in issuing the pardons, Bush appeared to have been preempting being implicated himself by evidence that came to light during the Weinberger trial, and noted that there was a pattern of "deception and obstruction" by Bush, Weinberger and other senior Reagan administration officials.<ref name=Firewall>{{cite book |first=Lawrence E. |last=Walsh |title=Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-up |location=New York |publisher=Norton & Company |date=1997 |page=290}}</ref> Walsh submitted his final report on August 4, 1993,{{sfn|Walsh|1993}} and later wrote an account of his experiences as counsel, ''Firewall: The Iran-Contra Conspiracy and Cover-Up''.<ref name=Firewall/>

==Background==
The United States was the largest seller of arms to Iran under [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], and the vast majority of the weapons that the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]] inherited in January 1979 were American-made.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=213}} To maintain this arsenal, Iran required a steady supply of spare parts to replace those broken and worn out. After Iranian students stormed the American embassy in Tehran in November 1979 and took 52 Americans hostage, U.S. President [[Jimmy Carter]] imposed an [[arms embargo]] on Iran.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=213}} After [[Iran–Iraq War|Iraq invaded Iran]] in September 1980, Iran desperately needed weapons and spare parts for its current weapons. After Ronald Reagan took office as president on 20 January 1981, he vowed to continue Carter's policy of blocking arms sales to Iran on the grounds that Iran supported terrorism.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=213}}

A group of senior Reagan administration officials in the Senior Interdepartmental Group conducted a secret study on 21 July 1981, and concluded that the arms embargo was ineffective because Iran could always buy arms and spare parts for its American weapons elsewhere, while at the same time the arms embargo opened the door for Iran to fall into the [[Soviet sphere of influence]] as the Kremlin could sell Iran weapons if the United States would not.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=213}} The conclusion was that the United States should start selling Iran arms as soon as it was politically possible in order to keep Iran from falling into the Soviet sphere of influence.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=213}} At the same time, the openly declared goal of Ayatollah Khomeini to export his Islamic revolution all over the Middle East and overthrow the governments of Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the [[Eastern Arabia|other states around the Persian Gulf]] led to the Americans perceiving Khomeini as a major threat to the United States.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=213}}

In the spring of 1983, the United States launched [[Operation Staunch]], a wide-ranging diplomatic effort to persuade other nations all over the world not to sell arms or spare parts for weapons to Iran.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=213}} This was at least part of the reason the Iran-Contra affair proved so humiliating for the United States when the story first broke in November 1986 that the U.S. itself was selling arms to Iran.

At the same time that the American government was considering its options on selling arms to Iran, [[Contras|Contra]] militants based in [[Honduras]] were waging a guerrilla war to topple the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front]] (FSLN) revolutionary government of [[Nicaragua]]. Almost from the time he took office in 1981, a major goal of the Reagan administration was the overthrow of the left-wing Sandinista government in Nicaragua and to support the Contra rebels.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=965}} The Reagan administration's policy towards Nicaragua produced a major clash between the executive and legislative branches as Congress sought to limit, if not curb altogether, the ability of the White House to support the Contras.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=965}} Direct U.S. funding of the Contras insurgency was made illegal through the [[Boland Amendment]], the name given to three U.S. legislative amendments between 1982 and 1984 aimed at limiting U.S. government assistance to Contra militants. By 1984, funding for the Contras had run out; and, in October of that year, a total ban came into effect. The second Boland Amendment, in effect from 3 October 1984 to 3 December 1985, stated:<blockquote>During the fiscal year 1985 no funds available to the Central Intelligence Agency, the Department of Defense or any other agency or entity of the United States involved in intelligence activities may be obligated or expended for the purpose of or which may have the effect of supporting directly or indirectly military or paramilitary operations in Nicaragua by any nation, organization, group, movement, or individual.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=965}}</blockquote> In violation of the Boland Amendment, senior officials of the Reagan administration continued to secretly arm and train the Contras and provide arms to Iran, an operation they called "the Enterprise".<ref name="Johnston">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/11/09/us/secord-is-guilty-of-one-charge-in-contra-affair.html |title=Secord Is Guilty of One Charge in Contra Affair |work=The New York Times |edition=National |at=sec. A. p. 24 |first=David |last=Johnston |access-date=19 July 2011 |date=9 November 1989}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Corn |first=David |title=Is There Really A 'Secret Team'? |work=The Nation |date=2 July 1988}}</ref> Given the Contras' heavy dependence on U.S. military and financial support, the second Boland Amendment threatened to break the Contra movement, and led to President Reagan ordering in 1984 that the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] (NSC) "keep the Contras together 'body and soul{{' "}}, no matter what Congress voted for.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=965}}

A major legal debate at the center of the Iran-Contra affair concerned the question of whether the NSC was one of the "any other agency or entity of the United States involved in intelligence activities" covered by the Boland Amendment. The Reagan administration argued it was not, and many in Congress argued that it was.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=965}} The majority of constitutional scholars have asserted the NSC did indeed fall within the purview of the second Boland Amendment, though the amendment did not mention the NSC by name.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=966}} The broader constitutional question at stake was the power of Congress versus the power of the presidency. The Reagan administration argued that because the constitution assigned the right to conduct foreign policy to the executive, its efforts to overthrow the government of Nicaragua were a presidential prerogative that Congress had no right to try to halt via the Boland Amendments.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=964}} By contrast Congressional leaders argued that the constitution had assigned Congress control of the budget, and Congress had every right to use that power not to fund projects like attempting to overthrow the government of Nicaragua that they disapproved of.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=964}} As part of the effort to circumvent the Boland Amendment, the NSC established "the Enterprise", an arms-smuggling network headed by a retired U.S. Air Force officer turned arms dealer [[Richard Secord]] that supplied arms to the Contras. It was ostensibly a private sector operation, but in fact was controlled by the NSC.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|p=966}} To fund "the Enterprise", the Reagan administration was constantly on the look-out for funds that came from outside the U.S. government in order not to explicitly violate the letter of the Boland Amendment, though the efforts to find alternative funding for the Contras violated the spirit of the Boland Amendment.{{sfn|Hicks|1996|pp=966–967}} Ironically, military aid to the Contras was reinstated with Congressional consent in October 1986, a month before the scandal broke.<ref>{{cite news |last=Lemoyne |first=James |title=Ortega, Faulting Reagan, Warns of Coming War |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/19/world/ortega-faulting-reagan-warns-of-coming-war.html |access-date=15 November 2018 |work=The New York Times |date=19 October 1986 |edition=National |at=sec. 1. p. 6}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Payton |first=Brenda |title=Is U.S. Backing Contras with Drug Funds? |work=Oakland Tribune |date=4 April 1988}}</ref>

In his 1995 memoir ''My American Journey'', General [[Colin Powell]], the U.S. [[Deputy National Security Advisor]] wrote that the weapons sales to Iran were used "for purposes prohibited by the elected representatives of the American people...in a way that avoided accountability to the President and Congress. It was wrong."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Powell|first1=Colin L.|last2=Persico|first2=Joseph E.|title=My American Journey|place=New York|publisher=Random House|year=1995|page=341|isbn=0-679-43296-5}}</ref>

In 1985, [[Manuel Noriega]] offered to help the United States by allowing Panama as a staging ground for operations against the Sandinistas, and offering to train Contras in Panama, but this would later be overshadowed by the Iran-Contra affair itself.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega's complex US ties suggest lessons for Trump era, historians say|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/panamanian-dictator-manuel-noriegas-complex-us-ties-lessons/story?id=47722429|access-date=2021-11-07|website=ABC News|language=en}}</ref>

At around the same time, the Soviet Bloc also engaged in arms deals with ideologically opponent buyers,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Plaut|first=Martin|title=Apartheid, guns and money: book lifts the lid on Cold War secrets|url=http://theconversation.com/apartheid-guns-and-money-book-lifts-the-lid-on-cold-war-secrets-105226|access-date=2021-11-07|website=The Conversation|language=en}}</ref> possibly involving some of the same players as the Iran-Contra affair.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Van Vuuren|first=Hennie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HgyXDwAAQBAJ|title=Apartheid guns and money : a tale of profit|date=2018|isbn=978-1-78738-247-3|location=London|pages=260–269|oclc=1100767741}}</ref> In 1986, a complex operation involving [[East Germany]]'s [[Stasi]] and the Danish-registered ship ''Pia Vesta'' ultimately aimed to sell Soviet arms and military vehicles to South Africa's [[Armscor (South Africa)|Armscor]], using various intermediaries to distance themselves from the deal. Manuel Noriega of Panama was apparently one of these intermediaries but backed out on the deal as the ship and weapons were seized at a Panamanian port.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|last=Plaut|first=Martin|title=The Chinese and Soviets had a bigger role in supporting apartheid than we previously knew|url=https://qz.com/africa/1449906/china-soviets-backed-both-south-africa-apartheid-and-liberation/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-06|website=Quartz|date=3 November 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Guerrero|first=Alina|date=1986-06-18|title=Danish Ship Caught Carrying Soviet-Made Weapons|work=[[Associated Press News]]|url=https://apnews.com/article/c13b61653d7e8d3204fbea0ce6308da1}}</ref><ref name=":1" /> The ''Pia Vesta'' led to a small controversy, as the Panama and Peru governments in 1986 accused the United States and each other of being involved in the East Germany-originated shipment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tyroler|first=Deborah|date=1986-12-17|title=The Pia Vesta Caper: A New Dimension To Contragate|url=https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/noticen/255|journal=NotiCen}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

==Arms sales to Iran==
{{See also|Brokers of Death arms case|Israel's role in the Iran-Iraq War}}
As reported in ''The New York Times'' in 1991, "continuing allegations that Reagan campaign officials made a deal with the Iranian Government of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in the fall of 1980" led to "limited investigations." However "limited," those investigations established that "Soon after taking office in 1981, the Reagan Administration secretly and abruptly changed United States policy." Secret Israeli arms sales and shipments to Iran began in that year, even as, in public, "the Reagan Administration" presented a different face, and "aggressively promoted a public campaign... to stop worldwide transfers of military goods to Iran." ''The New York Times'' explains: "Iran at that time was in dire need of arms and spare parts for its American-made arsenal to defend itself against Iraq, which had attacked it in September 1980," while "Israel [a U.S. ally] was interested in keeping the war between Iran and Iraq going to ensure that these two potential enemies remained preoccupied with each other." Maj. Gen. Avraham Tamir, a high-ranking Israeli Defense Ministry official in 1981, said there was an "oral agreement" to allow the sale of "spare parts" to Iran. This was based on an "understanding" with Secretary [[Alexander Haig]] (which a Haig adviser denied). This account was confirmed by a former senior American diplomat with a few modifications. The diplomat claimed that "[Ariel] Sharon violated it, and Haig backed away...". A former "high-level" CIA official who saw reports of arms sales to Iran by Israel in the early 1980s estimated that the total was about $2 billion a year – but also said, "The degree to which it was sanctioned I don't know."<ref name="israel-iran">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/12/08/world/iran-pipeline-hidden-chapter-special-report-us-said-have-allowed-israel-sell.html |title=U.S. Said to Have Allowed Israel to Sell Arms to Iran |last=Hersh |first=Seymour M. |date=8 December 1991 |work=The New York Times |edition=National |at=sec. 1. p. 1 |access-date=15 November 2018}}</ref>

On 17 June 1985, National Security Adviser [[Robert McFarlane (American politician)|Robert McFarlane]] wrote a National Security Decision Directive which called for the United States of America to begin a rapprochement with the Islamic Republic of Iran.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=213}} The paper read:

<blockquote>Dynamic political evolution is taking place inside Iran. Instability caused by the pressures of the Iraq-Iran war, economic deterioration and regime in-fighting create the potential for major changes inside Iran. The Soviet Union is better positioned than the U.S. to exploit and benefit from any power struggle that results in changes from the Iranian regime ... The U.S should encourage Western allies and friends to help Iran meet its import requirements so as to reduce the attractiveness of Soviet assistance ... This includes provision of selected military equipment.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|pp=213–214}}</blockquote>

Defense Secretary [[Caspar Weinberger]] was highly negative, writing on his copy of McFarlane's paper: "This is almost too absurd to comment on ... like asking Qaddafi to Washington for a cozy chat."{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=214}} Secretary of State [[George Shultz]] was also opposed, stating that having designated Iran a [[State Sponsor of Terrorism]] in January 1984, how could the United States possibly sell arms to Iran?{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=214}} Only the Director of the Central Intelligence Agency [[William Casey]] supported McFarlane's plan to start selling arms to Iran.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=214}}

In early July 1985, the historian [[Michael Ledeen]], a consultant of [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Adviser]] [[Robert McFarlane (American politician)|Robert McFarlane]], requested assistance from [[Prime Minister of Israel|Israeli Prime Minister]] [[Shimon Peres]] for help in the sale of arms to Iran.<ref name="JVL"/> Having talked to an Israeli diplomat [[David Kimche]] and Ledeen, McFarlane learned that the Iranians were prepared to have Hezbollah release American hostages in Lebanon in exchange for Israelis shipping Iran American weapons.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=214}} Having been designated a State Sponsor of Terrorism since January 1984,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/ct/list/c14151.htm |title=State Sponsors of Terrorism |publisher=State.gov |access-date=2014-08-18}}</ref> Iran was in the midst of the [[Iran-Iraq War]] and could find few Western nations willing to supply it with weapons.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} The idea behind the plan was for Israel to ship weapons through an intermediary (identified as [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]]) to the Islamic Republic as a way of aiding a supposedly moderate, politically influential faction within the regime of [[Ruhollah Khomeini|Ayatollah Khomeini]] who was believed to be seeking a rapprochement with the United States; after the transaction, the United States would reimburse Israel with the same weapons, while receiving monetary benefits.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=504}} McFarlane in a memo to Shultz and Weinberger wrote:

<blockquote>The short term dimension concerns the seven hostages; the long term dimension involves the establishment of a private dialogue with Iranian officials on the broader relations ... They sought specifically the delivery from Israel of 100 TOW missiles ...{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=214}}</blockquote>

The plan was discussed with President Reagan on 18 July 1985 and again on 6 August 1985.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=214}} Shultz at the latter meeting warned Reagan that "we were just falling into the arms-for-hostages business and we shouldn't do it."{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=214}}

The Americans believed that there was a moderate faction in the Islamic Republic headed by [[Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani]], the powerful speaker of the ''Majlis'' who was seen as a leading potential successor to Khomeini and who was alleged to want a rapprochement with the United States.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 253">{{cite book |last=Brogan |first=Patrick |title=The Fighting Never Stopped: A Comprehensive Guide To World Conflicts Since 1945 |location=New York |publisher=Vintage Books |date=1989 |page=253}}</ref> The Americans believed that Rafsanjani had the power to order Hezbollah to free the American hostages and establishing a relationship with him by selling Iran arms would ultimately place Iran back within the American sphere of influence.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 253"/> It remains unclear if Rafsanjani really wanted a rapprochement with the United States or was just deceiving Reagan administration officials who were willing to believe that he was a moderate who would effect a rapprochement.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 253"/> Rafsanjani, whose nickname is "the Shark" was described by the British journalist Patrick Brogan as a man of great charm and formidable intelligence known for his subtlety and ruthlessness whose motives in the Iran-Contra affair remain completely mysterious.<ref name="Brogan, Patrick page 253"/> The Israeli government required that the sale of arms meet high-level approval from the United States government, and when McFarlane convinced them that the U.S. government approved the sale, Israel obliged by agreeing to sell the arms.<ref name="JVL">{{cite web|title=The Iran-Contra Scandal|publisher=The American–Israeli Cooperative Enterprise|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/Iran_Contra_Affair.html|access-date=7 June 2008}}</ref>

In 1985, President Reagan entered [[Bethesda Naval Hospital]] for [[colon cancer]] surgery. Reagan's recovery was nothing short of miserable, as the 74-year-old President admitted having little sleep for days in addition to his immense physical discomfort. While doctors seemed to be confident that the surgery was successful, the discovery of his localized cancer was a daunting realization for Reagan. From seeing the recovery process of other patients, as well as medical “experts” on television predicting his death to be soon, Reagan's typical optimistic outlook was dampened. These factors were bound to contribute to psychological distress in the midst of an already distressing situation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Robert E. |date=2014 |title=The politics of presidential illness: Ronald Reagan and the Iran-Contra Scandal |journal=Politics and the Life Sciences |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=58–76 |doi=10.2990/33_2_58 |pmid=25901884 |s2cid=41674696}}</ref> Additionally, Reagan's invocation of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]] prior to the surgery was a risky and unprecedented decision that smoothly flew under the radar for the duration of the complex situation. While it only lasted slightly longer than the length of the procedure (approximately seven hours and 54 minutes), this temporary transfer of power was never formally recognized by the White House. It was later revealed that this decision was made on the grounds that "Mr. Reagan and his advisors did not want his actions to establish a definition of incapacitation that would bind future presidents." Reagan expressed this transfer of power in two identical letters that were sent to the speaker of the House of Representatives, Rep. Thomas P. "Tip" O'Neill, and the president pro tempore of the senate, Sen. Strom Thurmond.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Monteagudo|first=Merrie|date=Jan 8, 2021|title=From the Archives: Ronald Regan first invoked the 25th Amendment in 1985|work=The San Diego Union Tribune|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/news/local-history/story/2021-01-08/from-the-archives-ronald-regan-first-invoked-the-25th-amendment-in-1985|access-date=Mar 3, 2021}}</ref>

While the President was recovering in the hospital, McFarlane met with him and told him that representatives from Israel had contacted the [[National Security Agency]] to pass on confidential information from what Reagan later described as the "moderate" Iranian faction headed by Rafsanjani opposed to the Ayatollah's hardline anti-American policies.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=504}} The visit from McFarlane in Reagan's hospital room was the first visit from an administration official outside of Donald Regan since the surgery. The meeting took place five days after the surgery and only three days after doctors gave the news that his polyp had been malignant. The three participants of this meeting had very different recollections of what was discussed during its 23-minute duration. Months later, Reagan even stated that he "had no recollection of a meeting in the hospital in July with McFarlane and that he had no notes which would show such a meeting." This does not come as a surprise considering the possible short and long-term effects of anesthesia on patients above the age of 60, in addition to his already weakened physical and mental state.<ref name=":0" />

According to Reagan, these Iranians sought to establish a quiet relationship with the United States, before establishing formal relationships upon the death of the aging Ayatollah.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=504}} In Reagan's account, McFarlane told Reagan that the Iranians, to demonstrate their seriousness, offered to persuade the Hezbollah militants to release the seven U.S. hostages.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=505}} McFarlane met with the Israeli intermediaries;{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=chpt. 24}} Reagan claimed that he allowed this because he believed that establishing relations with a strategically located country, and preventing the [[Soviet Union]] from doing the same, was a beneficial move.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=504}} Although Reagan claims that the arms sales were to a "moderate" faction of Iranians, the Walsh Iran/Contra Report states that the arms sales were "to Iran" itself,{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=Part I}} which was under the control of the Ayatollah.

Following the Israeli–U.S. meeting, Israel requested permission from the United States to sell a small number of [[BGM-71 TOW]] antitank missiles to Iran, claiming that this would aid the "moderate" Iranian faction,{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=505}} by demonstrating that the group actually had high-level connections to the U.S. government.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=505}} Reagan initially rejected the plan, until Israel sent information to the United States showing that the "moderate" Iranians were opposed to terrorism and had fought against it.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=506}} Now having a reason to trust the "moderates", Reagan approved the transaction, which was meant to be between Israel and the "moderates" in Iran, with the United States reimbursing Israel.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=505}} In his 1990 autobiography ''[[An American Life]]'', Reagan claimed that he was deeply committed to securing the release of the hostages; it was this compassion that supposedly motivated his support for the arms initiatives. The president requested that the "moderate" Iranians do everything in their capability to free the hostages held by [[Hezbollah]].<ref name="plain-and-simple">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/11/27/books/arms-for-hostages-plain-and-simple.html |title=Arms for Hostages – Plain and Simple |date=27 November 1988 |work=The New York Times |edition=National |at=sec. 7. p. 10 |last=Butterfield |first=Fox |access-date=29 December 2018}}</ref> Reagan always publicly insisted after the scandal broke in late 1986 that the purpose behind the arms-for-hostages trade was to establish a working relationship with the "moderate" faction associated with Rafsanjani to facilitate the reestablishment of the American–Iranian alliance after the soon to be expected death of Khomeini, to end the Iran-Iraq War and end Iranian support for Islamic terrorism while downplaying the importance of freeing the hostages in Lebanon as a secondary issue.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|pp=214–215}} By contrast, when testifying before the Tower Commission, Reagan declared that hostage issue was the main reason for selling arms to Iran.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=215}}

[[File:Tow atm.jpg|thumb|A BGM-71 TOW anti-tank guided missile]]

The following arms were supplied to Iran:{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=Part I}}<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Arms, Hostages and Contras: How a Secret Foreign Policy Unraveled |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/11/19/world/iran-contra-report-arms-hostages-contras-secret-foreign-policy-unraveled.html |work=The New York Times |edition=National |date=19 November 1987 |at=sec. A. p. 12 |access-date=7 June 2008}}</ref>
*First arms sales in 1981 (see above)
*20 August 1985 – 96 [[BGM-71 TOW|TOW]] anti-tank missiles
*14 September 1985 – 408 more TOWs
*24 November 1985 – 18 [[MIM-23 Hawk|Hawk]] anti-aircraft missiles
*17 February 1986 – 500 TOWs
*27 February 1986 – 500 TOWs
*24 May 1986 – 508 TOWs, 240 Hawk spare parts
*4 August 1986 – More Hawk spares
*28 October 1986 – 500 TOWs

===First few arms sales===
The first arms sales to Iran began in 1981, though the official paper trail has them beginning in 1985 (see above). On 20 August 1985, Israel sent 96 {{Contradictory inline|reason=It says 86 above.|date=December 2022}}American-made TOW missiles to Iran through an arms dealer [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]].{{sfn|Hamilton|Inouye|1987}} Subsequently, on 14 September 1985, 408 more TOW missiles were delivered. On 15 September 1985, following the second delivery, Reverend [[Benjamin Weir]] was released by his captors, the [[Islamic Jihad Organization]]. On 24 November 1985, 18 Hawk anti-aircraft missiles were delivered.

===Modifications in plans===
Robert McFarlane resigned on 4 December 1985,<ref>{{cite web|title=Letter Accepting the Resignation of Robert C. McFarlane as Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs|url=http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1985/120485d.htm|access-date=4 December 2012|archive-date=20 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140320212108/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1985/120485d.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=chpt. 1}} stating that he wanted to spend more time with his family,{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=509}} and was replaced by Admiral [[John Poindexter]].<ref name="JP">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/profile-poindexter.php|title=Understanding the Iran-Contra Affairs - The Legal Aftermath|website=www.brown.edu}}</ref> Two days later, Reagan met with his advisors at the White House, where a new plan was introduced. This called for a slight change in the arms transactions: instead of the weapons going to the "moderate" Iranian group, they would go to "moderate" Iranian army leaders.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=510}} As each weapons delivery was made from Israel by air, hostages held by Hezbollah would be released.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=510}} Israel would continue to be reimbursed by the United States for the weapons. Though staunchly opposed by [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[George Shultz]] and [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]] [[Caspar Weinberger]], the plan was authorized by Reagan, who stated that, "We were {{em|not}} trading arms for hostages, nor were we negotiating with terrorists".{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=512}} In his notes of a meeting held in the White House on 7 December 1985, Weinberger wrote he told Reagan that this plan was illegal, writing: <blockquote>I argued strongly that we have an embargo that makes arms sales to Iran illegal and President couldn't violate it and that 'washing' transactions through Israel wouldn't make it legal. Shultz, Don Regan agreed.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=216}}</blockquote> Weinberger's notes have Reagan saying he "could {{not a typo|answer charges}} of illegality but he couldn't {{sic|answer charge}} that 'big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to {{not a typo|free hostages}}'."{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=216}} Now retired National Security Advisor McFarlane flew to London to meet with Israelis and Ghorbanifar in an attempt to persuade the Iranian to use his influence to release the hostages before any arms transactions occurred; this plan was rejected by Ghorbanifar.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=510}}

On the day of McFarlane's resignation, [[Oliver North]], a military aide to the [[United States National Security Council]] (NSC), proposed a new plan for selling arms to Iran, which included two major adjustments: instead of selling arms through Israel, the sale was to be direct at a markup; and a portion of the proceeds would go to [[Contras]], or Nicaraguan paramilitary fighters waging [[guerrilla warfare]] against the [[Sandinista National Liberation Front#1984 election|Sandinista government]], claiming power after an election full of irregularities.<ref>See ''Washington Post'' at the time.</ref>{{nonspecific|date=July 2022}} The dealings with the Iranians were conducted via the NSC with Admiral Poindexter and his deputy Colonel North, with the American historians Malcolm Byrne and Peter Kornbluh writing that Poindexter granted much power to North "...who made the most of the situation, often deciding important matters on his own, striking outlandish deals with the Iranians, and acting in the name of the president on issues that were far beyond his competence. All of these activities continued to take place within the framework of the president's broad authorization. Until the press reported on the existence of the operation, nobody in the administration questioned the authority of Poindexter's and North's team to implement the president's decisions".{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=217}} North proposed a $15 million markup, while contracted arms broker Ghorbanifar added a 41% markup of his own.{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=vol. I}} Other members of the NSC were in favor of North's plan; with large support, Poindexter authorized it without notifying President Reagan, and it went into effect.<ref name="Avery">{{cite web|last=Avery|first=Steve|title=Irangate: Iran-Contra affair, 1985–1992|publisher=U-S-History.com|year=2005|url=http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1889.html|access-date=7 June 2008}}</ref> At first, the Iranians refused to buy the arms at the inflated price because of the excessive markup imposed by North and Ghorbanifar. They eventually relented, and in February 1986, 1,000 TOW missiles were shipped to the country.<ref name="Avery"/> From May to November 1986, there were additional shipments of miscellaneous weapons and parts.<ref name="Avery"/>

Both the sale of weapons to Iran and the funding of the Contras attempted to circumvent not only stated administration policy, but also the [[Boland Amendment]]. Administration officials argued that regardless of Congress restricting funds for the Contras, or any affair, the President (or in this case the administration) could carry on by seeking alternative means of funding such as private entities and foreign governments.<ref name="Fisher">{{cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Louis |title=How Tightly Can Congress Draw the Purse Strings? |journal=American Journal of International Law |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=758–766 |year=1989 |doi=10.2307/2203364 |jstor=2203364|s2cid=147213452 }}</ref> Funding from one foreign country, [[Brunei]], was botched when North's secretary, [[Fawn Hall]], transposed the numbers of North's [[Swiss bank]] account number. A Swiss businessman, suddenly $10 million richer, alerted the authorities of the mistake. The money was eventually returned to the [[Sultan of Brunei]], with interest.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Brunei Regains $10 Million |work=The New York Times |edition=National |at=sec. A. p. 9 |agency=Associated Press |date=22 July 1987 |access-date=28 March 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/22/world/iran-contra-hearings-brunei-regains-10-million.html}}</ref>

On 7 January 1986, John Poindexter proposed to Reagan a modification of the approved plan: instead of negotiating with the "moderate" Iranian political group, the United States would negotiate with "moderate" members of the Iranian government.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=516}} Poindexter told Reagan that Ghorbanifar had important connections within the Iranian government, so with the hope of the release of the hostages, Reagan approved this plan as well.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=516}} Throughout February 1986, weapons were shipped directly to Iran by the United States (as part of Oliver North's plan), but none of the hostages were released. Retired National Security Advisor McFarlane conducted another international voyage, this one to [[Tehran, Iran|Tehran]] – bringing with him a gift of a [[Bible]] with a handwritten inscription by Ronald Reagan<ref name="Gwertzman">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/11/us/mcfarlane-took-cake-and-bible-to-teheran-ex-cia-man-says.html |work=The New York Times |first=Bernard |last=Gwertzman |title=McFarlane Took Cake and Bible to Teheran, Ex-C.I.A. Man Says |date=11 January 1987}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1987-01-28/news/mn-1439_1_rafsanjani |work=Los Angeles Times |title=Calls President Courageous but Weak : Iranian Exhibits Bible Signed by Reagan |date=28 January 1987}}</ref> and, according to [[George Cave (CIA agent)|George Cave]], a cake baked in the shape of a key.<ref name="Gwertzman"/> [[Howard Teicher]] described the cake as a joke between North and Ghorbanifar.{{sfn|Tower|Muskie|Scowcroft|1987|p=B-100}} McFarlane met directly with Iranian officials associated with Rafsanjani, who sought to establish U.S.–Iranian relations in an attempt to free the four remaining hostages.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|pp=520–521}}

The American delegation comprised McFarlane, North, Cave (a retired CIA officer who served as the group's translator), Teicher, Israeli diplomat [[Amiram Nir]] and a CIA communicator.<ref>{{cite book |author=President's Special Review Board |author-link=Tower Commission |title=Report of the President's Special Review Board |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=pur1.32754062647601;view=2up;seq=1 |date=February 26, 1987 |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |location=Washington, D.C. |page=237 |id= |oclc=15243889 |ref={{harvid|Report of the President's Special Review Board|1987}}}}</ref> They arrived in Tehran in an Israeli plane carrying forged Irish passports on 25 May 1986.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=249}} This meeting also failed. Much to McFarlane's disgust, he did not meet ministers, and instead met in his words "third and fourth level officials".{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=249}} At one point, an angry McFarlane shouted: "As I am a Minister, I expect to meet with decision-makers. Otherwise, you can work with my staff."{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=249}} The Iranians requested concessions such as Israel's withdrawal from the [[Golan Heights]], which the United States rejected.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|pp=520–521}} More importantly, McFarlane refused to ship spare parts for the Hawk missiles until the Iranians had Hezbollah release the American hostages, whereas the Iranians wanted to reverse that sequence with the spare parts being shipped first before the hostages were freed.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=249}} The differing negotiating positions led to McFarlane's mission going home after four days.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} After the failure of the secret visit to Tehran, McFarlane advised Reagan not to talk to the Iranians anymore, advice that was disregarded.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}}

===Subsequent dealings===
On 26 July 1986, [[Hezbollah]] freed the American hostage Father [[Lawrence Jenco]], former head of [[Catholic Relief Services]] in Lebanon.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} Following this, [[William Casey]], head of the CIA, requested that the United States authorize sending a shipment of small missile parts to Iranian military forces as a way of expressing gratitude.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=523}} Casey also justified this request by stating that the contact in the Iranian government might otherwise lose face or be executed, and hostages might be killed. Reagan authorized the shipment to ensure that those potential events would not occur.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=523}} North used this release to persuade Reagan to switch over to a "sequential" policy of freeing the hostages one by one, instead of the "all or nothing" policy that the Americans had pursued until then.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} By this point, the Americans had grown tired of Ghorbanifar who had proven himself a dishonest intermediary who played off both sides to his own commercial advantage.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} In August 1986, the Americans had established a new contact in the Iranian government, Ali Hashemi Bahramani, the nephew of Rafsanjani and an officer in the Revolutionary Guard.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} The fact that the Revolutionary Guard was deeply involved in international terrorism seemed only to attract the Americans more to Bahramani, who was seen as someone with the influence to change Iran's policies.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} [[Richard Secord]], an American arms dealer, who was being used as a contact with Iran, wrote to North: "My judgment is that we have opened up a new and probably better channel into Iran".{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} North was so impressed with Bahramani that he arranged for him to secretly visit Washington D.C. and gave him a guided tour at midnight of the White House.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}}

North frequently met with Bahramani in the summer and fall of 1986 in West Germany, discussing arms sales to Iran, the freeing of hostages held by Hezbollah and how best to overthrow President [[Saddam Hussein]] of Iraq and the establishment of "a non-hostile regime in Baghdad".{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} In September and October 1986 three more Americans – Frank Reed, Joseph Cicippio, and Edward Tracy – were abducted in Lebanon by a separate terrorist group, who referred to them simply as "G.I. Joe," after the popular American toy. The reasons for their abduction are unknown, although it is speculated that they were kidnapped to replace the freed Americans.{{sfn|Ranstorp|1997|pp=98–99}} One more original hostage, David Jacobsen, was later released. The captors promised to release the remaining two, but the release never happened.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|pp=526–527}}

During a secret meeting in Frankfurt in October 1986, North told Bahramani that: "Saddam Hussein must go".{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} North also claimed that Reagan had told him to tell Bahramani that: "Saddam Hussein is an asshole."{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=250}} Behramani during a secret meeting in Mainz informed North that Rafsanjani "for his own politics ... decided to get all the groups involved and give them a role to play."{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=251}} Thus, all the factions in the Iranian government would be jointly responsible for the talks with the Americans and "there would not be an internal war".{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=251}} This demand of Behramani caused much dismay on the American side as it made clear to them that they would not be dealing solely with a "moderate" faction in the Islamic Republic, as the Americans liked to pretend to themselves, but rather with all the factions in the Iranian government – including those who were very much involved in terrorism.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=251}} Despite this the talks were not broken off.{{sfn|Kornbluh|Byrne|1993|p=251}}

==Discovery and scandal==

After a leak by [[Mehdi Hashemi]], a senior official in the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, the Lebanese magazine ''[[Ash-Shiraa]]'' exposed the arrangement on 3 November 1986.<ref name="Why arms dealings failed">{{cite web |last=Cave |first=George |title=Why Secret 1986 U.S.–Iran "Arms for Hostages" Negotiations Failed | publisher = Washington Report on Middle Eastern Affairs |access-date=9 January 2007 |url=http://www.wrmea.com/backissues/0994/9409008.htm}}</ref> According to [[Seymour Hersh]], an unnamed former military officer told him that the leak may have been orchestrated by a covert team led by [[Arthur S. Moreau Jr.]], assistant to the chairman of the United States Joint Chiefs of Staff, due to fears the scheme had grown out of control.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/v41/n02/seymour-m-hersh/the-vice-presidents-men |title=The Vice President's Men |last=Hersh |first=Seymour M. |year=2019 |journal=London Review of Books |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=9–12 |access-date=18 January 2019}}</ref>

This was the first public report of the weapons-for-hostages deal. The operation was discovered only after an airlift of guns ([[Corporate Air Services HPF821]]) was downed over Nicaragua. [[Eugene Hasenfus]], who was captured by Nicaraguan authorities after surviving the plane crash, initially alleged in a press conference on Nicaraguan soil that two of his coworkers, Max Gomez and Ramon Medina, worked for the [[Central Intelligence Agency]].<ref name=nyt-has1>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/10/12/weekinreview/in-summary-nicaragua-downs-plane-and-survivor-implicates-cia.html |title=Nicaragua Downs Plane and Survivor Implicates C.I.A. |work=The New York Times |date=12 October 1986 |edition=National |page=4004001 |access-date=20 January 2019}}</ref> He later said he did not know whether they did or not.<ref name=nyt-has2>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/03/world/hasenfus-tempers-comments-on-cia.html |title=Hasenfus Tempers Comments on C.I.A. |work=The New York Times |date=3 November 1986 |edition=National |at=sec. A. p. 6 |access-date=20 January 2019}}</ref> The Iranian government confirmed the ''Ash-Shiraa'' story, and ten days after the story was first published, President Reagan appeared on national television from the [[Oval Office]] on 13 November, stating:

<blockquote>My purpose was ... to send a signal that the United States was prepared to replace the animosity between [the U.S. and Iran] with a new relationship ... At the same time we undertook this initiative, we made clear that Iran must oppose all forms of international terrorism as a condition of progress in our relationship. The most significant step which Iran could take, we indicated, would be to use its influence in Lebanon to secure the release of all hostages held there.<ref name=reaganspeech /></blockquote>

The scandal was compounded when [[Oliver North]] destroyed or hid pertinent documents between 21 November and 25 November 1986. During North's trial in 1989, his secretary, [[Fawn Hall]], testified extensively about helping North alter and shred official [[United States National Security Council]] (NSC) documents from the White House. According to ''The New York Times'', enough documents were put into a government shredder to jam it.{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=vol. I}} Hall also testified that she smuggled classified documents out of the [[Eisenhower Executive Office Building|Old Executive Office Building]] by concealing them in her boots and dress.<ref name="wapo87">[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/local/longterm/tours/scandal/fawnhall.htm washingtonpost.com: Hall Testifies of Necessity 'To Go Above Written Law']</ref> North's explanation for destroying some documents was to protect the lives of individuals involved in Iran and [[Contras|Contra]] operations.{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=vol. I}} It was not until 1993, years after the trial, that North's notebooks were made public, and only after the [[National Security Archive]] and [[Public Citizen]] sued the [[United States Office of the Independent Counsel|Office of the Independent Counsel]] under the [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]].{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=vol. I}}

{{Quote box
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|title = The diversion of funds is revealed
|quote = What is involved is that in the course of the arms transfers, which involved the United States providing the arms to Israel and Israel in turn transferring the arms -- in effect, selling the arms to representatives of Iran. Certain monies which were received in the transaction between representatives of Israel and representatives of Iran were taken and made available to the forces in Central America, which are opposing the Sandinista government there.<ref>{{cite news |author= |date=November 26, 1986 |title=Transcript of Attorney General Meese's News Conference |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/11/26/transcript-of-attorney-general-meeses-news-conference/10941dd7-8a11-47dc-b7b0-5da392366f50/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=April 23, 2023}}</ref>
|author = – [[United States Attorney General|U.S. Attorney General]] [[Edwin Meese]]
|source = White House news conference on November 25, 1986
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During the trial, North testified that on 21, 22 or 24 November, he witnessed Poindexter destroy what may have been the only signed copy of a presidential covert-action finding that sought to authorize CIA participation in the November 1985 [[MIM-23 Hawk|Hawk missile]] shipment to Iran.{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=vol. I}} [[United States Attorney General|U.S. Attorney General]] [[Edwin Meese]] admitted on 25 November that profits from weapons sales to Iran were made available to assist the Contra rebels in Nicaragua. On the same day, John Poindexter resigned, and President Reagan fired Oliver North.<ref name=sacking>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/11/26/world/white-house-shake-up-task-handed-state-dept-poindexter-north-have-limited.html |title=Poindexter and North Have Limited Options |work=The New York Times |date=26 November 1986 |edition=National |at=sec. A. p. 12 |access-date=20 January 2019}}</ref> Poindexter was replaced by [[Frank Carlucci]] on 2 December 1986.<ref name="Timeline">{{cite web|title=Timeline of Ronald Reagan's life|publisher=PBS|year=2000|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/reagan/timeline/index_5.html|access-date=7 June 2008|archive-date=21 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421212207/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/reagan/timeline/index_5.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

When the story broke, many legal and constitutional scholars expressed dismay that the NSC, which was supposed to be just an advisory body to assist the President with formulating foreign policy, had "gone operational" by becoming an executive body covertly executing foreign policy on its own.{{sfn|Canham-Clyne|1992|pp=623–624}} The [[National Security Act of 1947]], which created the NSC, gave it the vague right to perform "such other functions and duties related to the intelligence as the National Security Council may from time to time direct."{{sfn|Canham-Clyne|1992|p=623}} However, the NSC had usually, although not always, acted as an advisory agency until the Reagan administration when the NSC had "gone operational", a situation that was condemned by both the Tower Commission and by Congress as a departure from the norm.{{sfn|Canham-Clyne|1992|p=623}} The American historian John Canham-Clyne asserted that Iran-Contra affair and the NSC "going operational" were not departures from the norm, but were the logical and natural consequence of existence of the "national security state", the plethora of shadowy government agencies with multi-million dollar budgets operating with little oversight from Congress, the courts or the media, and for whom upholding national security justified almost everything.{{sfn|Canham-Clyne|1992|p=623}} Canham-Clyne argued that for the "national security state", the law was an obstacle to be surmounted rather than something to uphold and that the Iran-Contra affair was just "business as usual", something he asserted that the media missed by focusing on the NSC having "gone operational."{{sfn|Canham-Clyne|1992|p=623}}

In ''Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA 1981–1987'', journalist [[Bob Woodward]] chronicled the role of the CIA in facilitating the transfer of funds from the Iran arms sales to the Nicaraguan Contras spearheaded by Oliver North. According to Woodward, then-Director of the CIA [[William J. Casey]] admitted to him in February 1987 that he was aware of the diversion of funds to the Contras.{{sfn|Woodward|1987|p=580}} The controversial admission occurred while Casey was hospitalized for a [[stroke]], and, according to his wife, was unable to communicate. On 6 May 1987, William Casey died the day after Congress began public hearings on Iran-Contra. [[United States Office of the Independent Counsel|Independent Counsel]], [[Lawrence Walsh]] later wrote: "Independent Counsel obtained no documentary evidence showing Casey knew about or approved the diversion. The only direct testimony linking Casey to early knowledge of the diversion came from [Oliver] North."{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=chpt. 15}} Gust Avrakodos, who was responsible for the arms supplies to the Afghans at this time, was aware of the operation as well and strongly opposed it, in particular the diversion of funds allotted to the Afghan operation. According to his Middle Eastern experts, the operation was pointless because the moderates in Iran were not in a position to challenge the fundamentalists. However, he was overruled by Clair George.<ref>{{cite book |last=Crile |first=George |year=2003 |title=Charlie Wilson's War: The Extraordinary Story of How the Wildest Man in Congress and a Rogue CIA Agent Changed the History |publisher=Grove Press}}</ref>

==Tower Commission==
{{Main|Tower Commission}}
On 25 November 1986, President Reagan announced the creation of a Special Review Board to look into the matter; the following day, he appointed former Senator [[John Tower]], former Secretary of State [[Edmund Muskie]], and former National Security Adviser [[Brent Scowcroft]] to serve as members. This [[Presidential Commission (United States)|Presidential Commission]] took effect on 1 December and became known as the [[Tower Commission]]. The main objectives of the commission were to inquire into "the circumstances surrounding the Iran-Contra matter, other case studies that might reveal strengths and weaknesses in the operation of the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] system under stress, and the manner in which that system has served eight different presidents since its inception in 1947". The Tower Commission was the first presidential commission to review and evaluate the National Security Council.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Louis |last=Fisher |title=Foreign Policy Powers of the President and Congress |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=499 |year=1988 |pages=148–159 |doi=10.1177/0002716288499001012|s2cid=153469115 }}</ref>

[[File:Photograph of President Reagan receiving the Tower Commission Report in the Cabinet Room - NARA - 198581.jpg|thumb|left|President Reagan (center) receives the Tower Commission Report in the White House Cabinet Room; [[John Tower]] is at left and [[Edmund Muskie]] is at right, 1987.]]

President Reagan appeared before the Tower Commission on 2 December 1986, to answer questions regarding his involvement in the affair. When asked about his role in authorizing the arms deals, he first stated that he had; later, he appeared to contradict himself by stating that he had no recollection of doing so.<ref name="tcr-time">{{Cite news|magazine=Time|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,963668,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308070426/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,963668,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 March 2008|title=Tower of Judgement|author=Church, George J|access-date=22 April 2008 | date=1987-03-02}}</ref> In his 1990 autobiography, ''[[An American Life]]'', Reagan acknowledges authorizing the shipments to Israel.{{sfn|Reagan|1990|p=501}}

The report published by the Tower Commission was delivered to the president on 26 February 1987. The commission had interviewed 80 witnesses to the scheme, including Reagan, and two of the arms trade middlemen: [[Manucher Ghorbanifar]] and [[Adnan Khashoggi]].<ref name="tcr-time"/> The 200-page report was the most comprehensive of any released,<ref name="tcr-time"/> criticizing the actions of Oliver North, John Poindexter, Caspar Weinberger, and others. It determined that President Reagan did not have knowledge of the extent of the program, especially about the diversion of funds to the Contras, although it argued that the president ought to have had better control of the National Security Council staff. The report heavily criticized Reagan for not properly supervising his subordinates or being aware of their actions. A major result of the Tower Commission was the consensus that Reagan should have listened to his National Security Advisor more, thereby placing more power in the hands of that chair.

==Congressional committees investigating the affair==
{{Main|Congressional committees investigating the Iran-Contra affair}}
In January 1987, Congress announced it was opening an investigation into the Iran-Contra affair. Depending upon one's political perspective, the Congressional investigation into the Iran-Contra affair was either an attempt by the legislative arm to gain control over an out-of-control executive arm, a partisan "witch hunt" by the Democrats against a Republican administration or a feeble effort by Congress that did far too little to rein in the "imperial presidency" that had run amok by breaking numerous laws.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Masker |first=John Scott |title=Teaching the Iran-Contra Affair |pages=701–703 |journal=PS: Political Science & Politics |volume=29 |issue=4 |year=1996 |doi=10.2307/420797 |jstor=420797}}</ref> The Democratic-controlled [[United States Congress]] issued its own report on 18 November 1987, stating that "If the president did not know what his national security advisers were doing, he should have."<ref name="reagan no-bbc"/> The Congressional report wrote that the president bore "ultimate responsibility" for wrongdoing by his aides, and his administration exhibited "secrecy, deception and disdain for the law".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/print/0,3858,5211614-103677,00.html|title=Nixon's Empire Strikes Back|author=Blumenthal, Sidney|work=The Guardian|date=9 June 2005|access-date=6 June 2008 | location=London}}</ref> It also read that "the central remaining question is the role of the President in the Iran-Contra affair. On this critical point, the shredding of documents by Poindexter, North and others, and the death of Casey, leave the record incomplete".

==Aftermath==
Reagan expressed regret with regard to the situation in a nationally televised address from the [[Oval Office]] on 4 March 1987, and in two other speeches.<ref name="speeches">{{Cite web|url=https://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/multimedia.php|title=Understanding the Iran-Contra Affairs|website=www.brown.edu}}</ref> Reagan had not spoken to the American people directly for three months amidst the scandal,<ref name="pbs-speech">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/reagan/filmmore/reference/primary/irancontra.html|title=Speech about Iran Contra|date=4 March 1987|access-date=23 April 2008|publisher=PBS|archive-date=2 March 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302164911/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/reagan/filmmore/reference/primary/irancontra.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> and he offered the following explanation for his silence:

<blockquote>The reason I haven't spoken to you before now is this: You deserve the truth. And as frustrating as the waiting has been, I felt it was improper to come to you with sketchy reports, or possibly even erroneous statements, which would then have to be corrected, creating even more doubt and confusion. There's been enough of that.<ref name="pbs-speech"/></blockquote>

Reagan then took full responsibility for the acts committed:
<blockquote>First, let me say I take full responsibility for my own actions and for those of my administration. As angry as I may be about activities undertaken without my knowledge, I am still accountable for those activities. As disappointed as I may be in some who served me, I'm still the one who must answer to the American people for this behavior.<ref name="pbs-speech"/></blockquote>

Finally, the president acknowledged that his previous assertions that the U.S. did not trade arms for hostages were incorrect:
<blockquote>A few months ago I told the American people I did not trade arms for hostages. My heart and my best intentions still tell me that's true, but the facts and the evidence tell me it is not. As the Tower board reported, what began as a strategic opening to Iran deteriorated, in its implementation, into trading arms for hostages. This runs counter to my own beliefs, to administration policy, and to the original strategy we had in mind.<ref name="pbs-speech"/></blockquote>

Reagan's role in these transactions is still not definitively known. It is unclear exactly what Reagan knew and when, and whether the arms sales were motivated by his desire to save the U.S. hostages. [[Oliver North]] wrote that "Ronald Reagan knew of and approved a great deal of what went on with both the Iranian initiative and private efforts on behalf of the contras and he received regular, detailed briefings on both...I have no doubt that he was told about the use of residuals for the Contras, and that he approved it. Enthusiastically."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/10/20/us/north-says-reagan-knew-of-iran-deal.html |title=North Says Reagan Knew of Iran Deal |first=David |last=Johnston |date=20 October 1991 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> Handwritten notes by Defense Secretary Weinberger indicate that the President was aware of potential hostage transfers{{clarify|date=December 2017}} with Iran, as well as the sale of Hawk and TOW missiles to what he was told were "moderate elements" within Iran.<ref name="gwu.edu"/> Notes taken by Weinberger on 7 December 1985 record that Reagan said that "he could {{not a typo|answer charges}} of illegality but he couldn't {{not a typo|answer charge}} that 'big strong President Reagan passed up a chance to {{not a typo|free hostages}}{{' "}}.<ref name="gwu.edu"/> The Republican-written "Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair" made the following conclusion: <blockquote>There is some question and dispute about precisely the level at which he chose to follow the operation details. There is no doubt, however, ... [that] the President set the US policy towards Nicaragua, with few if any ambiguities, and then left subordinates more or less free to implement it.<ref>Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair, with supplemental minority and additional views, H. Doc 100–433, S. Doc 100–216, 00th Congress, 1st sess., 13 November 1987, 501</ref></blockquote>Domestically, the affair precipitated a drop in President Reagan's popularity. His approval ratings suffered "the largest single drop for any U.S. president in history", from 67% to 46% in November 1986, according to a ''[[New York Times]]''/[[CBS News]] poll.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mayer |first1=Jane |first2=Doyle |last2=McManus |title=Landslide: The Unmaking of The President, 1984–1988 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |date=1988 |pages=292, 437}}</ref> The "Teflon President", as Reagan was nicknamed by critics,<ref>{{cite news |last=Kurtz |first=Howard |date=7 June 2004 |title=15 Years Later, the Remaking of a President |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/2004/06/07/15-years-later-the-remaking-of-a-president/bc74af08-c5cf-469c-bc51-84e2c2fb885c/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |page=C01 |access-date=30 December 2018}}</ref> survived the affair, however, and his approval rating recovered.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/images/PollingUnit/857a3Reagan.pdf |title=Reagan Approval: Better in Retrospect |last=Sussman |first=Dalia |date=6 August 2001 |work=ABC News |access-date=30 December 2018}}</ref>

Internationally, the damage was more severe. [[Magnus Ranstorp]] wrote, "U.S. willingness to engage in concessions with Iran and the Hezbollah not only signaled to its adversaries that hostage-taking was an extremely useful instrument in extracting political and financial concessions for the West but also undermined any credibility of U.S. criticism of other states' deviation from the principles of no-negotiation and no concession to terrorists and their demands."{{sfn|Ranstorp|1997|p=203}}

In Iran, [[Mehdi Hashemi]], the leaker of the scandal, was executed in 1987, allegedly for activities unrelated to the scandal. Though Hashemi made a full video confession to numerous serious charges, some observers find the coincidence of his leak and the subsequent prosecution highly suspicious.<ref>{{cite book |last=Abrahamian |first=Ervand |title=Tortured Confessions: Prisons and Public Recantations in Modern Iran |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |date=1999 |pages=162–166}}</ref>

In 1994, just five years after leaving office, President Reagan announced that he had been diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease.<ref>{{Cite press release |last=Reagan |first=Ronald |title=Alzheimer's Letter |date=November 5, 1994 |via=WGBH Educational Foundation |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/reagan-alzheimers/ |access-date=2021-03-03}}</ref> Lawrence Walsh, who was appointed Independent Counsel in 1986 to investigate the transactions later implied Reagan's declining health may have played a role in his handling of the situation. However, Walsh did note that he believed President Reagan's "instincts for the country's good were right".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Iran-Contra Affair|url=https://www.history.com/topics/1980s/iran-contra-affair|access-date=2021-03-03|website=HISTORY|language=en}}</ref>

===Indictments===
[[File:Oliver North mug shot.jpg|thumb|[[Oliver North|North]]'s mugshot,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Iran-Contra Affair • Levin Center |url=https://levin-center.org/what-is-oversight/portraits/the-iran-contra-affair/ |access-date=2023-05-04 |website=Levin Center |language=en-US}}</ref> after his arrest]]
* [[Caspar Weinberger]], [[United States Secretary of Defense|Secretary of Defense]], was indicted on two counts of [[perjury]] and one count of [[obstruction of justice]] on 16 June 1992.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} Weinberger received a pardon from [[George H. W. Bush]] on 24 December 1992, before he was tried.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}
* [[Robert C. McFarlane]], National Security Adviser, convicted of withholding evidence, but after a plea bargain was given only two years of probation. Later pardoned by President [[George H. W. Bush]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Pichirallo |first=Joe |date=12 March 1988 |title=McFarlane Enters Guilty Plea Arising From Iran-Contra Affair; Former Reagan Adviser Withheld Information From Congress |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>
* [[Elliott Abrams]], Assistant [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]], convicted of withholding evidence, but after a plea bargain was given only two years probation. Later pardoned by President [[George H. W. Bush]].{{sfn|Walsh|1993|p=xxiii}}
* [[Alan D. Fiers]], Chief of the CIA's Central American Task Force, convicted of withholding evidence and sentenced to one year probation. Later pardoned by President [[George H. W. Bush]].
* [[Clair George]], Chief of Covert Ops-CIA, convicted on two charges of perjury, but pardoned by President [[George H. W. Bush]] before sentencing.{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=chpt. 17}}
* [[Oliver North]], member of the [[United States National Security Council|National Security Council]] was indicted on 16 charges.<ref name=indictment>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/03/17/world/north-poindexter-and-2-others-indicted-on-iran-contra-fraud-and-theft-charges.html |title=North, Poindexter and 2 Others Indicted on Iran-Contra Fraud and Theft Charges |last=Shenon |first=Philip |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 December 2018 |date=17 March 1988 |at=sec. A. p. 1 |edition=National}}</ref> A jury convicted him of accepting an illegal gratuity, obstruction of a Congressional inquiry, and destruction of documents. The convictions were overturned on appeal because his [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]] rights may have been violated by use of his immunized public testimony<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/07/21/us/civil-liberties-union-asks-court-to-quash-iran-contra-indictment.html |date=21 July 1988 |title=Civil Liberties Union Asks Court To Quash Iran-Contra Indictment |first=Philip |last=Shanon |work=The New York Times |edition=National |at=sec. A. p. 14 |access-date=29 December 2018}}</ref> and because the judge had incorrectly explained the crime of destruction of documents to the jury.<ref name="dc-north">{{cite court|litigants=U.S. v. North|vol=910|reporter=F.2d|opinion=843|url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/910/843/463467/|court=D.C. Cir.}}</ref>
* [[Fawn Hall]], Oliver North's secretary, was given immunity from prosecution on charges of conspiracy and destroying documents in exchange for her testimony.<ref>Hall, North Trial Testimony, 3/22/89, pp. 5311–5316, and 3/23/89, pp. 5373–5380, 5385–5387; Chapter 5 Fawn Hall 147</ref>
* Jonathan Scott Royster, Liaison to Oliver North, was given immunity from prosecution on charges of conspiracy and destroying documents in exchange for his testimony.<ref>royster, North Trial Testimony, 3/22/89, pp. 5311–5317, and 3/23/89 pp. 5373–5380, 5386–5386; Chapter 6 Scott Royster 148</ref>
* National Security Advisor [[John Poindexter]] was convicted of five counts of conspiracy, obstruction of justice, [[perjury]], defrauding the government, and the alteration and destruction of evidence. A panel of the [[United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit|D.C. Circuit]] overturned the convictions on 15 November 1991 for the same reason the court had overturned Oliver North's, and by the same 2 to 1 vote.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F2/951/369/257995/|title=United States of America v. John M. Poindexter, Appellant, 951 F.2d 369 (D.C. Cir. 1992)|website=Justia Law|accessdate=25 June 2023}}</ref> The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] refused to hear the case.<ref>{{cite news |title=Iran-Contra Appeal Refused by Court |first=Linda |last=Greenhouse |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/08/us/supreme-court-roundup-iran-contra-appeal-refused-by-court.html |newspaper=The New York Times |edition=National |at=sec. A. p. 22 |date=8 December 1992 |access-date=29 December 2018}}</ref>
* [[Duane Clarridge]]. An ex-CIA senior official, he was indicted in November 1991 on seven counts of perjury and false statements relating to a November 1985 shipment to Iran. Pardoned before trial by President [[George H. W. Bush]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Ex-C.I.A. Official Charged on Iran Arms |first=David |last=Johnston |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/27/us/ex-cia-official-charged-on-iran-arms.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=27 November 1991 |at=sec. A. p. 12 |edition=National |access-date=29 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Iran-Contra Pardons |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=JbYzAAAAIBAJ&pg=4087,3010575&dq=duane+clarridge&hl=en |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=Bangor Daily News |location=Bangor, Maine |date=24 December 1992 |page=2 |access-date=14 January 2011}}</ref>
* [[Richard V. Secord]]. Former Air Force major general, who was involved in arms transfers to Iran and diversion of funds to Contras, he pleaded guilty in November 1989 to making false statements to Congress and was sentenced to two years of probation. As part of his plea bargain, Secord agreed to provide further truthful testimony in exchange for the dismissal of remaining criminal charges against him.<ref name="The Iran-Contra Defendants">{{cite news |title=The Iran-Contra Defendants |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=4aIaAAAAIBAJ&pg=6774,768311&dq=albert+hakim+sentenced&hl=en |agency=Journal wire services |newspaper=The Milwaukee Journal |location=Milwaukee, Wisconsin |date=17 September 1991 |page=A6 |access-date=14 January 2011 }}{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Johnston" />
* [[Albert Hakim]]. A businessman, he pleaded guilty in November 1989 to supplementing the salary of North by buying a $13,800 fence for North with money from "the Enterprise," which was a set of foreign companies Hakim used in Iran-Contra. In addition, Swiss company Lake Resources Inc., used for storing money from arms sales to Iran to give to the Contras, plead guilty to stealing government property.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hakim, one company plead guilty to Iran-Contra counts |author=Pete Yost |url=https://news.google.com/newspapersid=Sx4jAAAAIBAJ&pg=1225,370748&dq=albert+hakim+pleaded+guilty&hl=en |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=The Modesto Bee |location=Modesto, CA |date=22 November 1989 |page=A-4 |access-date=14 January 2011}} {{Dead link|date=April 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Hakim was given two years of probation and a $5,000 fine, while Lake Resources Inc. was ordered to dissolve.<ref name="The Iran-Contra Defendants"/><ref name=nytimesobit>{{cite news |title=Albert Hakim, Figure in Iran-Contra Affair, Dies at 66 |work=The New York Times |date=1 May 2003 |at=sec. B. p. 8 |edition=National |access-date=28 December 2009 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/01/us/albert-hakim-figure-in-iran-contra-affair-dies-at-66.html |first=Douglas |last=Martin}}</ref>
* [[Thomas G. Clines]]. A former CIA clandestine service officer. According to Special Prosecutor Walsh, he earned nearly $883,000 helping retired Air Force Maj. Gen. Richard V. Secord and Albert Hakim carry out the secret operations of "the Enterprise". He was indicted for concealing the full amount of his Enterprise profits for the 1985 and 1986 tax years, and for failing to declare his foreign financial accounts. He was convicted and served 16 months in prison, the only Iran-Contra defendant to have served a prison sentence.{{sfn|Walsh|1993|loc=chpt. 11}}

The [[Independent Counsel]], [[Lawrence Edward Walsh|Lawrence E. Walsh]], chose not to re-try North or Poindexter.<ref name="Johnston 1992">{{cite news |date=25 December 1992 |access-date=29 December 2018 |title=Bush Pardons 6 in Iran Affair, Averting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'Cover-Up' |work=The New York Times |edition=National |at=sec. A. p. 1 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/25/us/pardons-bush-pardons-6-iran-affair-aborting-weinberger-trial-prosecutor-assails.html |last=Johnston |first=David}}</ref> In total, several dozen people were investigated by Walsh's office.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/prosecutions.php |title=The Legal Aftermath: Prosecutions |website=Understanding the Iran-Contra Affairs |publisher=Brown University |access-date=18 January 2018 }}</ref>

===George H. W. Bush's involvement===
On 27 July 1986, Israeli counterterrorism expert [[Amiram Nir]] briefed Vice President Bush in Jerusalem about the weapon sales to Iran.<ref name="apnews.com; 2 December 1988">{{cite news |author= |title=Iran-Contra Figure Killed in Plane Crash |url=https://apnews.com/article/232b2fe85361772091c0e48651f1b509 |work=apnews.com |date=2 December 1988 |access-date=5 November 2020}}</ref>

In an interview with ''The Washington Post'' in August 1987, Bush stated that he was denied information about the operation and did not know about the diversion of funds.<ref name="The Washington Post; 6 August 1987">{{cite news |last=Broder |first=David S. |author-link=David S. Broder |date=6 August 1987 |title=Bush Asserts Vindication in Iran Affair |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1987/08/06/bush-asserts-vindication-in-iran-affair/edd22f72-7177-4c22-a25a-dbba3b1524ad/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=5 November 2020}}</ref> Bush said that he had not advised Reagan to reject the initiative because he had not heard strong objections to it.<ref name="The Washington Post; 6 August 1987"/> The ''Post'' quoted him as stating, "We were not in the loop."<ref name="The Washington Post; 6 August 1987"/> The following month, Bush recounted meeting Nir in his September 1987 autobiography ''Looking Forward'', stating that he began to develop misgivings about the Iran initiative.<ref name="Los Angeles Times; 6 September 1987">{{cite news |author= |title=Bush Barred From Iran Talks, He Writes |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-09-06-mn-6282-story.html |work=Los Angeles Times |date=6 September 1987 |access-date=5 November 2020}}</ref> He wrote that he did not learn the full extent of the Iran dealings until he was briefed by Senator [[David Durenberger]] regarding a Senate inquiry into them.<ref name="Los Angeles Times; 6 September 1987"/> Bush added the briefing with Durenberger left him with the feeling he had "been deliberately excluded from key meetings involving details of the Iran operation".<ref name="Los Angeles Times; 6 September 1987"/>

In January 1988 during a live interview with Bush on ''[[CBS Evening News]]'', [[Dan Rather]] told Bush that his unwillingness to speak about the scandal led "people to say 'either George Bush was irrelevant or he was ineffective, he set himself outside of the loop.{{' "}}<ref name="NPR; 6 December 2018">{{cite news |last=Welna |first=David |date=6 December 2018 |title=George H.W. Bush's Mixed Legacy in a Reagan-Era Scandal |url=https://www.npr.org/2018/12/06/674079779/george-h-w-bushs-mixed-legacy-in-a-reagan-era-scandal |work=NPR |access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref> Bush replied, "May I explain what I mean by 'out of the loop'? No operational role."<ref name="NPR; 6 December 2018"/><ref>{{cite interview |last=Bush |first=George |subject-link=George H. W. Bush |title=Text of Dan Rather's Interview With George Bush |interviewer=[[Dan Rather]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1988/01/27/text-of-dan-rathers-interview-with-george-bush/7ae836b4-c06a-45b1-8138-24efbd59a944/ |work=CBS Evening News |date=25 January 1988 |access-date=14 November 2020 |via=The Washington Post}}</ref>

Although Bush publicly insisted that he knew little about the operation, his statements were contradicted by excerpts of his diary released by the White House in January 1993.<ref name="NPR; 6 December 2018"/><ref name="The New York Times; 16 January 1993">{{cite news |date=16 January 1993 |title=Excerpts From the Portions of Bush's Diaries Released by the White House |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/01/16/us/excerpts-from-the-portions-of-bush-s-diaries-released-by-the-white-house.html |work=The New York Times |at=sec. 1. p. 8 |access-date=14 November 2020}}</ref> An entry dated 5 November 1986 stated: "On the news at this time is the question of the hostages... I'm one of the few people that know fully the details, and there is a lot of flak and misinformation out there. It is not a subject we can talk about..."<ref name="NPR; 6 December 2018"/><ref name="The New York Times; 16 January 1993"/>

===Pardons===
On 24 December 1992, after he had been defeated for [[1992 United States presidential election|reelection]], [[lame duck (politics)|lame duck]] President George H. W. Bush pardoned five administration officials who had been found guilty on charges relating to the affair.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Jack |last=Doppler |title=No Longer News: The Trial of the Century That Wasn't |journal=ABA Journal |volume=79 |issue=1 |date=January 1993 |pages=56–59}}</ref> They were:
#[[Elliott Abrams]];
#[[Duane Clarridge]];
#[[Alan Fiers]];
#[[Clair George]]; and
#[[Robert McFarlane (American politician)|Robert McFarlane]].

Bush also pardoned [[Caspar Weinberger]], who had not yet come to trial.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bush|first=George H. W.|title=Proclamation 6518 – Grant of Executive Clemency|publisher=The American Presidency Project|url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/print.php?pid=20265|date=24 December 1992|access-date=23 April 2008}}</ref> Attorney General [[William P. Barr]] advised the President on these pardons, especially that of Caspar Weinberger.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-oral-histories/william-p-barr-oral-history-assistant-attorney-general|title=William P. Barr Oral History, Assistant Attorney General; Deputy Attorney General; Attorney General|date=2016-10-27|website=Miller Center|language=en|access-date=2019-03-26}}</ref>

In response to these Bush pardons, [[United States Department of Justice Office of Special Counsel|Independent Counsel]] [[Lawrence E. Walsh]], who headed the investigation of Reagan administration officials' criminal conduct in the Iran-Contra scandal, stated that "the Iran-Contra cover-up, which has continued for more than six years, has now been completed." Walsh noted that in issuing the pardons Bush appears to have been preempting being implicated himself in the crimes of Iran-Contra by evidence that was to come to light during the Weinberger trial, and noted that there was a pattern of "deception and obstruction" by Bush, Weinberger and other senior Reagan administration officials.<ref name="Johnston 1992" /><ref name="ghwbush-pardons" /><ref name=Firewall/>

=== Modern interpretations ===
The Iran-Contra affair and the ensuing deception to protect senior administration officials (including President Reagan) was cast as an example of [[post-truth politics]] by Malcolm Byrne of George Washington University.<ref>[http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB567-Iran-Contra-Reagan-Oliver-North-and-Post-Truth-30-years-later/ The Iran-Contra Affair 30 Years Later: A Milestone in Post-Truth Politics: Declassified Records Recall Official Deception in the Name of Protecting a Presidency] 25 November 2016; National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 567; Edited by Malcolm Byrne, Retrieved 26 November 2016.</ref>

==Reports and documents==
The 100th Congress formed a [[Joint Committee of the United States Congress]] ([[Congressional Committees Investigating The Iran-Contra Affair]]) and held hearings in mid-1987. Transcripts were published as: ''Iran-Contra Investigation: Joint Hearings Before the Senate Select Committee on Secret Military Assistance to Iran and the Nicaraguan Opposition and the House Select Committee to Investigate Covert Arms Transactions with Iran'' ([[U.S. GPO]] 1987–88). A closed Executive Session heard classified testimony from North and Poindexter; this transcript was published in a [[redaction|redacted]] format. The joint committee's final report was ''Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair With Supplemental, Minority, and Additional Views'' (U.S. GPO 17 November 1987). The records of the committee are at the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]], but many are still non-public.<ref>[https://www.archives.gov/legislative/guide/senate/chapter-18-1969-1988.html#18F-2 Iran-Contra joint committee] documents, at the National Archives.</ref>

Testimony was also heard before the [[House Foreign Affairs Committee]], [[House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]], and [[Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] and can be found in the [[Congressional Record]] for those bodies. The Senate Intelligence Committee produced two reports: ''Preliminary Inquiry into the Sale of Arms to Iran and Possible Diversion of Funds to the Nicaraguan Resistance'' (2 February 1987) and ''Were Relevant Documents Withheld from the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran-Contra Affair?'' (June 1989).<ref>The two Senate Intelligence Committee reports are online: [http://intelligence.senate.gov/pub100thcongress.html senate.gov, 100th Congress] and [http://intelligence.senate.gov/pub101stcongress.html 101st Congress]{{dead link|date=April 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The Tower Commission Report was published as the ''Report of the President's Special Review Board'' (U.S. GPO 26 February 1987). It was also published as ''The Tower Commission Report'' by Bantam Books ({{ISBN|0-553-26968-2}}).

The Office of Independent Counsel/Walsh investigation produced four interim reports to Congress. Its final report was published as the ''Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters''. Walsh's records are available at the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/research/investigations/walsh.html|title=Records of Lawrence Walsh relating to Iran/Contra|date=4 October 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|1980s}}
{{div col}}
* [[Israel–United States relations]]
* [[Israel's role in the Iran–Iraq War]]
* [[Timeline of the Iran–Contra affair]]
* [[Brokers of Death arms case]]
* [[CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking]]
* [[Congressional committees investigating the Iran–Contra affair]]
* [[Iran–Iraq relations]]
* [[Iran–Israel relations]]
* [[Iran–United States relations]]
* [[Iraq–Israel relations]]
* [[Iraq–United States relations]]
* [[Latin America–United States relations]]
* [[List of federal political scandals in the United States]]
* [[William Northrop]]
* [[1980 October Surprise theory]]
* [[Operation Tipped Kettle]] (the transfer of PLO weapons which were seized by Israel in Lebanon to the Contras)
* [[United States and state-sponsored terrorism]]
* [[United States foreign policy in the Middle East]]
* [[United States involvement in regime change in Latin America]]
{{div col end}}
==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite journal |last=Canham-Clyne |first=John |title=Business as Usual: Iran–Contra and the National Security State |pages=617–637 |journal=World Policy Journal |volume=9 |issue=4 |year=1992 |jstor=40209272}}
* {{cite report |last1=Hamilton |first1=Lee H. |last2=Inouye |first2=Daniel K. |year=1987 |title=Report of the Congressional Committees Investigating the Iran–Contra Affair |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ew_K3auTwEgC}}
* {{cite journal |last=Hicks |first=D. Bruce |title=Presidential Foreign Policy Prerogative after the Iran–Contra Affair: A Review Essay |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |year=1996 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=962–977 |jstor=27551664}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kornbluh |first1=Peter |last2=Byrne |first2=Malcolm |title=The Iran–Contra Scandal: The Declassified History |location=New York |publisher=New Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-1-56584-024-9 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/irancontrascanda00korn}}
* {{cite book |last=Ranstorp |first=Magnus |date=1997 |title=Hizb'allah in Lebanon: The Politics of the Western Hostage Crisis |location=New York |publisher=St. Martins Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Reagan |first=Ronald |author-link=Ronald Reagan |year=1990 |title=[[An American Life]] |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-69198-1}}
* {{cite news |last1=Shenon |first1=Philip |first2=Stephen |last2=Engelberg |title=Eight Important Days in November: Unraveling of the Iran–Contra Affair |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/05/world/eight-important-days-in-november-unraveling-the-iran-contra-affair.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=5 July 1987 |edition=National |at=sec. 1. p. 10}}
* {{cite report |last1=Tower |first1=John |author-link1=John Tower |last2=Muskie |first2=Edmund |author-link2=Edmund Muskie |last3=Scowcroft |first3=Brent |author-link3=Brent Scowcroft |title=Report of the President's Special Review Board |date=26 February 1987 |url=https://archive.org/details/TowerCommission |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |oclc=15243889}}
* {{cite report |last=Walsh |first=Lawrence |title=Final Report of the Independent Counsel for Iran/Contra Matters |date=4 August 1993 |url=https://archive.org/details/WalshReport |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office}}
* {{cite book |last=Woodward |first=Bob |title=Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA, 1981–1987 |url=https://archive.org/details/veilsecretwarso00wood |url-access=registration |year=1987 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |location=New York |isbn=978-0-671-60117-1}}

==External links==
* [https://www.brown.edu/Research/Understanding_the_Iran_Contra_Affair/ Understanding the Iran–Contra Affairs] at [[Brown University]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130313145043/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552513 The Iranian Arms Scandal] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20120312181034/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494/browse?type=title Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120728041441/http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552661 The Contras: a question of US Funding] from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115205405/https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* Busby, Robert (2011-02-03) [https://web.archive.org/web/20110205125404/http://www.salon.com/news/politics/war_room/2011/02/03/busby_iran_contra/index.html The scandal that almost destroyed Ronald Reagan], ''[[Salon.com]]''
* Church, George J. [http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,962858,00.html "The U.S. and Iran"] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20130824211212/https://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C962858%2C00.html Archive]). ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''. Monday 17 November 1986.
* [http://www.historycommons.org/project.jsp?project=irancontra Iran–Contra and Arms-for-Hostages Scandals] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314180714/http://www.historycommons.org/project.jsp?project=irancontra |date=14 March 2021 }} on History Commons
* [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/index.htm The Iran–Contra Affair 20 Years On]: Documents Spotlight Role of Reagan, Top Aides. By the [[National Security Archive]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070617230049/http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2007/issue2/jv11no2a5.html How the Reagan Administration Taught Iran the Wrong Lessons] – Middle East Review of International Affairs, June, 2007 article by Nathan Thrall
* [https://archive.org/details/TheSecretGovernmentTheConstitutioninCrisis Audio], [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3505348655137118430 "The Secret Government: The Constitution in Crisis"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070611090100/http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=3505348655137118430 |date=11 June 2007 }}, 1987 [[Bill Moyers]] special on the Iran–Contra Affair
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051026005928/http://www.bartleby.com/65/ir/Irancont.html Condensed article outlining Iran–Contra]
* [http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2011/11/29/the-importance-of-the-iran-contra-scandal-25-years-later/ The Importance of the Iran–Contra Scandal, 25 Years Later]
* [http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB483/ Iran–Contra: Reagan's Scandal and the Unchecked Abuse of Presidential Power] by Malcolm Byrne (University Press of Kansas, 2014)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150526131250/http://adst.org/2015/04/the-iran-contra-scandal/ Personal accounts of the U.S. Ambassador to Lebanon and other State Department officials] Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training

{{Ronald Reagan}}
{{United States intervention in Latin America}}
{{US history}}
{{Iran–United States relations}}
{{Special Prosecutors and Independent Counsels of the U.S.}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Iran-Contra Affair}}
[[Category:Iran–Contra affair| ]]
[[Category:Military–industrial complex]]
[[Category:1985 in American politics]]
[[Category:1986 in American politics]]
[[Category:20th-century scandals]]
[[Category:Nicaraguan Revolution]]
[[Category:Cover-ups]]
[[Category:CIA activities in Iran]]
[[Category:Covert operations]]
[[Category:Political scandals in the United States]]
[[Category:1986 in the United States]]
[[Category:1987 in the United States]]
[[Category:1987 in American politics]]
[[Category:Reagan administration controversies]]
[[Category:Political scandals]]

Archimedes Patti

2023-08-16T20:46:31Z

Relative Humidity: Link to an Liberty, equality, and fraternity instead of an external website

{{Short description|United States Army officer and OSS officer}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2013}}
{{Infobox military person
|width_style = person
|name = Archimedes Patti
|image = File:1945 May Patti in Kunmiing.png
|caption = OSS Maj. Archimedes Patti in his Kunming Office, May 1945
|birth_name = Archimedes Leonidas Attilio Patti
|birth_date = {{birth date|1913|07|21}}
|birth_place = [[Bronx]], [[New York City]], U.S.
|death_date = {{dda|1998|04|23|1913|07|21}}
|death_place = [[Winter Park, Florida]], U.S.
|placeofburial = [[Arlington National Cemetery]]
|allegiance = {{flagu|United States}}
|branch_label = Branch
|branch = {{army|United States}}
|serviceyears_label = Service years
|serviceyears = 1941–1957
|rank = Lieutenant colonel
|unit = [[Office of Strategic Services]]
|battles_label = Wars
|battles = [[World War II]]
}}

'''Archimedes Leonidas Attilio Patti''' (July 21, 1913 – April 23, 1998) was a lieutenant colonel in the [[United States Army]] and an [[Office of Strategic Services]] officer who headed operations in [[Kunming]] and [[Hanoi]] in 1945 when he was a Major.{{efn|name=Major-1|"This {{bracket|village near Jingxi city, Baise prefecture, Guangxi province, China, near Cao Bang province, Vietnam}} was where Ho had his first meeting with Major Archimedes Patti, Chief of the OSS in Indochina; the two men met again in autumn 1945{{emdash}}but this time in Hanoi."{{sfn|Brocheux|2007|p=89}} }}{{efn|name=Major-2|"The full group consisted of thirteen OSS officers and enlisted men under Maj. Archimedes L. A. Patti and five French officers, including
Sainteny."{{sfn|Williams|2019|p=16}} }}{{efn|"The man in charge of the American Mission to Hanoi was Capt. Archimedes Patti, whose team was greeted with the same warmth and respect that had been accorded the Deer Team earlier."{{sfn|Bartholomew-Feis|2020}} So was Patti Captain or Major{{efn|name=Major-1}}{{efn|name=Major-2}} when he arrived in Hanoi in 1945? See ''Notes on Vietnam History''{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023}} for more extensive references and analysis on this issue. }} Patti is known for having worked closely with [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]] and the [[Việt Minh]],{{sfn|Review of "OSS and Ho"}} this before{{efn|On 1945 Aug 26, Ho Chi Minh arrived in Hanoi, invited Patti for lunch, and expressed his concerns about the French and the Chinese in Tonkin. "Patti listened intently. He had met with Ho Chi Minh once before, in April 1945, in southern China, on the subject of potential OSS–Viet Minh cooperation in the struggle against Japan."{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=100}} }} and after{{efn|Ho Chi Minh became President of the Provisional Government of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] (DRV) on 1945 Aug 28{{sfn|Tú Châu (2020)}} or 29,{{sfn|Devillers|1952|p=142}} whereas Patti left Hanoi on 1945 Oct 1 "after sharing one last dinner with Ho Chi Minh".{{sfn|Brocheux|2007|p=113}} }} Ho became President of the Provisional Government of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] in 1945.{{sfn|Logevall|2012|pp=100-109}}

== Early life ==
Patti was born in [[The Bronx]], [[New York City]], on July 21, 1913 to [[Sicily|Sicilian]] immigrants. His father worked as a tailor, his mother as a dress maker.{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

He was married to Margaret Telford. They had two daughters.{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

== Career ==
The 1940 U.S. census lists Archimedes' profession as "Special Agent, U.S. War Department." In 1941, he joined the [[U.S. Army]]{{sfn|IMDb}}{{Citation needed|reason=Need more formal sources|date=June 2023}} and served in Europe, where he was in contact with various anti-Axis resistance organizations including groups in North Africa, Italy, and Yugoslavia.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

He was later transferred to the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in China after he had unknowingly volunteered for the mission in January 1944 on an assignment at [[Anzio]] with OSS Director [[William J. Donovan]].{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

=== Indochina and Vietnam ===
During his career in China and Southeast Asia, Patti met [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]], the leader of the [[Việt Minh]] who was later the leader and national hero of [[North Vietnam]]. In later interviews, Patti explained that his mission in Vietnam was to establish an intelligence network but not to assist the French in any way in their attempt to re-gain control over their former colony, a policy choice that he believed to be linked to U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s belief in the self-determination of all peoples.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

[[File:1945 Archimedes Patti Vo Nguyen Giap talk.png|thumb|left|[[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] Maj. Archimedes Patti conferred with [[Vo Nguyen Giap]], Aug 1945.]]
However, Patti, from a distance,{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}} helped to organize, train, and equip the fledgling Vietnamese forces that Ho Chi Minh was uniting and marshaling against the Japanese, which later became known as the [[People's Army of Vietnam]]. Patti worked closely with Ho Chi Minh and indeed commented on his early drafts of a Vietnamese constitution.{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

{{quote|In my opinion the [[Vietnam War]] was a great waste. There was no need for it to happen in the first place. At all. None whatsoever. During all the years of the Vietnam War no one ever approached me to find out what had happened in 1945 or in '44. In all the years that I spent in [[The Pentagon]], [[Department of State]] in the [[White House]], never was I approached by anyone in authority. However, I did prepare a large number, and I mean about, oh, well over fifteen position papers on our position in Vietnam. But I never knew what happened to them. Those things just disappeared, they just went down the dry well.|From an interview with Archimedes Patti in 1981{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}}}

Patti stated that when he arrived in [[Kunming]] in March 1945, the French colonials were either unwilling or unable to assist him in establishing an American intelligence network in [[Indochina]] and so he turned to "the only source [available]," the Viet Minh.{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

Patti was introduced to Ho Chi Minh by Colonel Austin Glass, the OSS expert in Indochina.{{Verify source|date=June 2023}} Patti met Ho Chi Minh on the Indochinese-Chinese border in late April 1945. Patti agreed to provide intelligence to the allies if he could have "a line of communication with the allies."{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}


Patti later helped to co-ordinate some small attacks{{Verify source|date=June 2023}} against the [[Japanese Imperial Army]] by using a small group of operatives known as the [[OSS Deer Team]] under the command of Major Allison K. Thomas, who worked directly with Ho Chi Minh in August 1945.{{sfn|Berube|2011}}

Patti arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mission with{{Verify source|date=June 2023}} an OSS agent, [[Carleton B. Swift]],{{efn|"Carleton Swift, a CIA employee, replaced Archimedes Patti as head of the O.S.S mission in Hanoi." In the interview,{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Swift}} "Swift recounts why he got involved with Indochina and his experiences after he took the mission over from Patti. Swift recalls his impressions of Ho Chi Minh describing him as a slight man and Swift admits to not understand how Ho Chi Minh gained so much power. Swift discusses the way the Americans dealt with the North Vietnamese and the friendships that developed." }} and a French government official, [[Jean Sainteny]].{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Swift}} His primary mission was to assist in the repatriation of allied prisoners-of-war, as the U.S. government feared reprisals against them by the Japanese after the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. His secondary mission was to gather intelligence.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

Patti met with Ho Chi Minh on August 26, 1945 over lunch at his residence in Hanoi. Several days later, Ho Chi Minh read a draft of the [[Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam|Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence]] to him.
Patti offered some corrections to the wording of the opening sentence, which Ho Chi Minh quoted from the [[U.S. Declaration of Independence]]. Ho also quoted the 1791 Declaration of the French Revolution and the motto “[[Liberty, equality, and fraternity]],” which “first appeared during the French Revolution.”{{efn|name=US-Vietnam-DoI|See the detailed analysis of the US Declaration of Independence (DoI) and the Vietnam DoI in ''Notes of Vietnam History''.{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023}} }} The [[Declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam#/media/File:Bản Tuyên ngôn độc lập của nước Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa. - Trung tâm Lưu trữ quốc gia III. Phông Phủ Thủ tướng, hồ sơ 586, tờ số 1 – 3.jpg|Vietnam Declaration of Independence]] has a similar structure as, but different in content from, the US Declaration of Independence since the histories and circumstances of the two countries were clearly different.{{efn|name=US-Vietnam-DoI}}

Indeed, Ho Chi Minh had requested an actual copy of the U.S. Declaration of Independence from Colonel Austin Glass.{{Verify source|date=June 2023}} On September 2, Ho Chi Minh declared independence, and some hours later, Patti had dinner with him. On the same day, Patti dispatched his Operational Priority communication:

<div style="text-align: center;">
'''Operational Priority'''
</div>

{{Cquote
|
[[File:1945.09.02 Archimedes Patti Operational Priority.pdf|thumb|180px|right|1945.09.02 Archimedes Patti Operational Priority communication on the same day Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam's independence.]]
{{resize|200%|{{font color|blue|❝}}}} Have had long conference with Prime Minister, Ho Chi Min and he impresses me as sensible, well balanced, politically minded individual. His demands are few and simple namely limited independence, liberation from French rule, right to live as free people in family of nations and lastly right to deal directly with outside world.

He stated that for many years missionary work of propaganda within party, training of youth and preparation for this day has made them ready not necessarily for complete independence but at least the privilege of dying for their ideals. From that I have been these people mean business and am afraid that French will have to deal with them. For that matter will all have to deal with them. French and beginning to recognize this fact and are going to be big about it by offering Viet Minh terms for their independence. On other hand Vietnam is smart enough to see through Machiavellian attitude French here especially Sainteny and have absolutely refused to deal with him.

Annamese are in unique advantage our position in as much as Japs have given them independence so they consider themselves free of any sovereign power and this includes French who have been hiding behind Jap skirts, vichy tactics and passing themselves off as friends of Americans. On whole Viet Minh has full control of situation not only in hands (unreadable) whole of 3 provinces. Their organization is well knit, program clear and their demands on outside world few. They ask they be permitted travel particularly to America particularly for education purposes and that America send technical experts to help them establish those few industries Indochina is capable of exploiting. Prime Minister particularly asked me that American exercise some control over Chinese occupation forces and that Chinese purchase materials and food rather than requisitioning it during occupation period. Furthermore he pointed out and this I have confirmed from other sources Jap and French that due to flood this year famine is imminent and should Chinese depended on Indochinese for their subsistence during occupation period they will all starve plus creating situation where Annamese will be forced to wage war upon Chinese to protect his livelihood and family.

Annamese celebrating Annamese independence day tomorrow with high solemn mass by Catholics and special ritual by Buddhists. {{resize|200%|{{font color|blue|❞}}}}

|author=Archimedes Patti
|source=[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945.09.02_Archimedes_Patti_Operational_Priority.pdf 1945.09.02 Archimedes Patti Operational Priority communication.]
}}

In the fall of 1945, French colonial forces had returned to Indochina on U.S.-manned [[Liberty ship]]s.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

Patti left Hanoi in late September 1945 after French allegations that the Americans had been fomenting a revolution.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

== Later life and death ==
Patti retired from the military in 1957. For 13 years, he was a crisis management specialist in the Office of Emergency Planning in [[Washington, DC]].

In 1981, Patti stated that [[Julia Child]], who had worked at the OSS in 1945, had allegedly submitted his position papers on Vietnam to appropriate authorities, but the way in which he had found them upon his retirement was exactly as she had sent them, and they had never been opened or read:{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

{{quote|The question rises from time to time as to whether or not the same situation doesn't apply to Iran, to Afghanistan, to El Salvador, to any other trouble spot in the world. That perhaps there are people who may know the causes that actually led to what followed and have never been approached or asked to give at least, if not their views, at least to give what facts they have. That is a question.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}}}

In retirement, he wrote several articles and completed his book on Vietnam. In 1980, he finally published his book ''Why Vietnam? Prelude to America's Albatross,''{{sfn|Patti|1980}} which described his [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]]-assigned activities with [[Ho Chi Minh]], the communist and nationalist [[Viet Minh]] leader in 1946. His book grew out of his much-shorter 1946 memoir, which was completed in the 1950s, but on which the Department of the Army had put an injunction to prevent its publication due to the anticommunist fervor of the McCarthy era, and out of concern for perceived adverse criticism of US foreign policy by military members.{{efn|Patti wrote in his book: "Our nation was embroiled in the era of McCarthyism. Sensitive to adverse criticism of American foreign policy by members of the military establishment, the Department of the Army decreed that any public disclosure of information or opinion by me on the question of American involvement in Viet Nam would be regarded with official displeasure and I would be subject to disciplinary action. Under protest I acceded to the Department's injunction."{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=xviii}} }}

He died on April 23, 1998, at the age of 84, and is buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].{{sfn|Burial detail}}

== Publications ==
* {{citebook |last=Patti |first=Archimedes |year=1980 |title=Why Viet Nam? Prelude to America's Albatross |publisher=University of California Press | location = Berkeley |isbn = 978-0520047839}}.

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}

* {{Cite web |title=Book Review: Temporary Allies: The OSS and Ho Chi Minh, Diplomatic History, E. Bruce Reynolds |url=http://www.politicalreviewnet.com/polrev/reviews/DIPH/R_0145_2096_325_1007621.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510065822/http://www.politicalreviewnet.com/polrev/reviews/DIPH/R_0145_2096_325_1007621.asp |archive-date=2012-05-10 |access-date=2013-01-01 |ref={{harvid|Review of "OSS and Ho"}} }}

* {{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0666471/|title=Archimedes Patti|website=IMDb |ref={{harvid|IMDb}} }}

* {{cite web|url=http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-bf3262-interview-with-archimedes-l-a-patti-1981|title=Vietnam: A Television History; Roots of a War; Interview with Archimedes L. A. Patti, 1981|website=openvault.wgbh.org |ref={{harvid|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}} }}

* {{cite web|url=http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-9dc948-interview-with-carleton-swift|title=Vietnam: A Television History; Interview with Carleton Swift, 1981 |website=openvault.wgbh.org |ref={{harvid|wgbh.org, Interview with Swift}} }}

* {{cite web |url=https://ancexplorer.army.mil/publicwmv/#/arlington-national/search/results/1/CgVwYXR0aRIKYXJjaGltZWRlcw--/ |title=Burial Detail: Patti, Archimedes L |ref={{harvid|Burial detail}} }} - ANC Explorer.

* {{citation |last=Bartholomew-Feis |first=Dixee |year=2006 |title=The OSS and Ho Chi Minh: Unexpected Allies in the War against Japan |publisher=University Press of Arkansas, Lawrence, Kansas}}.

* {{citation |last=Bartholomew-Feis |first=Dixee |year=2020 |title=The OSS in Vietnam, 1945: A War of Missed Opportunities |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/oss-vietnam-1945-dixee-bartholomew-feis |access-date=1 Mar 2023 |publisher=The National WWII Museum, New Orleans, Jul 15}}. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230426064106/https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/oss-vietnam-1945-dixee-bartholomew-feis Internet archived on 2023.04.26].

* {{citation |last=Berube |first=Claude G. |date=2011 |title=Ho, Giap and OSS Agent Henry Prunier |url=http://www.historynet.com/ho-giap-and-oss-agent-henry-prunier.htm |journal=Historynet.com}}, May 24. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230516035224/https://www.historynet.com/ho-giap-and-oss-agent-henry-prunier/ Internet archived on 2023.05.16].

* {{citation |last=Brocheux | first=Pierre |year=2007 |title=Ho Chi Minh: A Biography |publisher=translated by Claire Duiker, Cambridge University Press, New York}}.

* {{citation |last=Devillers |first=Philippe |year=1952 |title=Histoire du Viêt-Nam de 1940 à 1952 |publisher=Seuil, Paris.}} See also [https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Philippe Devillers (1920–2016), un secret nommé Viêt-Nam, Mémoires d'Indochine], [https://web.archive.org/web/20220629093316/https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Internet archived 2022.06.29].

* {{citation |last=Logevall | first=Fredrik |year=2012 |title=Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam |publisher=Random House, New York}}, 864 pp.

* {{cite web |author= Tú Châu |date=17 August 2020 |title= Cách mạng tháng Tám và sự ra đời của Chính phủ Lâm thời qua một số tư liệu, tài liệu lưu trữ (tiếp theo) - 08:47 AM 17/08/2020 - Lượt xem: 603 - Bài viết trình bày đôi nét về cuộc Tổng khởi nghĩa giành chính quyền mùa thu Tháng Tám năm 1945, sự ra đời của Chính phủ Lâm thời nước Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng Hoà. |url= http://luutru.gov.vn/cong-bo-gioi-thieu-tai-lieu/cach-mang-thang-tam-va-su-ra-doi-cua-chinh-phu-lam-thoi-qua-mot-so-tu-lieu-tai-lieu-luu-tru-tiep-theo.htm |accessdate=8 May 2021 |publisher= Trung tâm Lưu trữ quốc gia I (National Archives Nr. 1, Hanoi) - Cục Văn thư và Lưu trữ nhà nước (State Records And Archives Management Department Of Việt Nam).|language=vi |ref={{harvid|Tú Châu (2020)}} }}

* {{citation |last=Vu Quoc Loc |year=2023 |title=Notes on Vietnam History |url=https://archive.org/details/notes-on-vietnam-history |access-date=27 Jun 2023 |publisher=Internet Archive}}, [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC BY-SA 4.0].

* {{citation |last=Williams |first=Kenneth |year=2019 |title=The US Air Force in Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War A Narrative Chronology Volume I: The Early Years through 1959 |publisher=Air Force History and Museums Program, Washington, D.C. |url=https://media.defense.gov/2019/Feb/22/2002092352/-1/-1/1/USAF%20Vietnam%20Chronology%20v1.pdf}}

{{refend}}

== See also ==
* [[First Indochina War]]
* [[Vietnam during World War II]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patti, Archimedes}}
[[Category:People of the Office of Strategic Services]]
[[Category:American people of the Vietnam War]]
[[Category:United States Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:United States Army colonels]]
[[Category:American people of Italian descent]]
[[Category:1913 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]

User talk:Lindsey40186

2023-08-16T20:40:43Z

Relative Humidity: /* WPCleaner issue on Archimedes Patti */ new section

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| <div style="margin:0; background-color:#CEF2E0; border:1px solid #084080; text-align:left; padding-left:0.4em; padding-top:0.2em; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Hello, Lindsey40186! [[Wikipedia:Welcoming committee/Welcome to Wikipedia|Welcome]] to Wikipedia! Thank you for [[Special:Contributions/Lindsey40186|your contributions]] to this free encyclopedia. If you decide that you need help, check out ''Getting Help'' below, ask me on [[User talk:Kingturtle|my talk page]], or place '''{{tl|helpme}}''' on your talk page and ask your question there. Please remember to [[Wikipedia:Signatures|sign your name]] on talk pages by clicking [[Image:Signature icon.png]] or using four tildes (<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>); this will automatically produce your username and the date. Finally, please do your best to always fill in the [[Help:Edit summary|edit summary]] field. Below are some useful links to facilitate your involvement. Happy editing! [[User:Kingturtle|Kingturtle]] ([[User talk:Kingturtle|talk]]) 18:50, 10 July 2009 (UTC)
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=="Vandalism"==
Hello Lindsey40186. I know one cannot tell from a glance, particularly going through recent changes, but I've been an editor on Wikipedia since 2006 and made 550,000 edits. I'm not about to start creating vandalistic pages with "Fuck" in the title [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Freewave_Lucifer_Fuck_Fuck_Fuck&diff=prev&oldid=1090996855]. As acknowledged by Praxidicae removing your speedy deletion tag, it is the uncensored title of the band's upcoming album. [[User:Ss112|Ss]][[User talk:Ss112|112]] 04:49, 3 June 2022 (UTC)

== June 2022 ==

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=Information icon]] Hi Lindsey40186! I noticed that you recently marked an edit as minor that may not have been. "Minor edit" has a very specific definition on Wikipedia{{Snd}} it refers only to superficial edits that could never be the subject of a dispute, such as [[typographical error|typo corrections]] or reverting obvious [[Wikipedia:Vandalism|vandalism]]. Any edit that changes the ''meaning'' of an article is not a minor edit, even if it only concerns a single word. Please see [[Help:Minor edit]] for more information. ''Please note that addition of references isn't a minor edit.''  [[User:DrKay|DrKay]] ([[User talk:DrKay|talk]]) 13:26, 22 June 2022 (UTC)

:Apologies and noted for next time! :) [[User:Lindsey40186|Lindsey40186]] ([[User talk:Lindsey40186#top|talk]]) 16:14, 22 June 2022 (UTC)

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== Wikipedia and copyright ==

[[File:Control copyright icon.svg|30px|link=|alt=Control copyright icon]] Hello Lindsey40186! Your additions to [[:Apollo and Daphne]] have been removed in whole or in part, as they appear to have added copyrighted content without evidence that the source material is in the [[public domain]] or has been released by its owner or legal agent under a [[WP:COMPLIC|suitably-free and compatible]] copyright license. (''To request such a release, see [[Wikipedia:Requesting copyright permission]]''.) While we appreciate your contributions to Wikipedia, there are certain things you must keep in mind about using information from sources to avoid [[copyright]] and [[plagiarism]] issues.

*You can only copy/translate a ''small'' amount of a source, and you must mark what you take as a direct quotation with double [[quotation mark]]s (") and cite the source using an [[WP:IC|inline citation]]. You can read about this at [[Wikipedia:Non-free content]] in the sections on "text". See also [[Help:Referencing for beginners]], for how to cite sources here.
*Aside from limited quotation, you must put all information ''in your own words and structure'', in proper [[paraphrase]]. Following the source's words too closely can create [[derivative work|copyright problems]], so it is not permitted here; see [[Wikipedia:Close paraphrasing]]. Even when using your own words, you are still, however, asked to cite your sources to [[Wikipedia:Verifiability|verify]] the information and to demonstrate that the content is not [[Wikipedia:No original research|original research]].
*We have strict guidelines on the usage of copyrighted images. [[Fair use]] images must meet all ten of the [[WP:NFCC|non-free content criteria]] in order to be used in articles, or they will be deleted. To be used on Wikipedia, all other images must be made available under a free and open copyright license that allows commercial and derivative reuse.
*If ''you'' own the copyright to the source you want to copy or are a legally designated agent, you ''may'' be able to license that text so that we can publish it here. Understand, though, that unlike many other sites, where a person can license their content for use there and retain non-free ownership, that is not possible at Wikipedia. Rather, the release of content must be irrevocable, ''to the world'', into either the [[public domain]] (PD) or under a [[Wikipedia:FAQ/Copyright#Can I add something to Wikipedia that I got from somewhere else?|suitably-free and compatible]] copyright license. Such a release must be done in a verifiable manner, so that the authority of the person purporting to release the copyright is evidenced. See [[Wikipedia:Donating copyrighted materials]].
*Also note that Wikipedia articles may not be copied or translated without attribution. If you want to copy or translate from another Wikipedia project or article, you must follow the copyright attribution steps described at [[Wikipedia:Copying within Wikipedia]]. See also [[Help:Translation#License requirements]].

It's very important that contributors understand and follow these practices, as policy requires that people who persistently do not must be [[Wikipedia:Blocking policy|blocked]] from editing. If you have any questions about this, you are welcome to leave me a message on my talk page. Thank you.  — [[User:Diannaa|Diannaa]] ([[User talk:Diannaa|talk]]) 19:42, 28 June 2022 (UTC)

== Trump ==

Howdy. Will you please 'stop' capitalising 'president of the United States', in the intro to [[Donald Trump]]? If you don't? you'll likely end up getting topic banned or blocked. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] ([[User talk:GoodDay|talk]]) 13:28, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
:I capitalized it because it's supposed to be capitalized. It's a [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/proposal|title referring to a specific person]]. [[User:Lindsey40186|Lindsey40186]] ([[User talk:Lindsey40186#top|talk]]) 15:08, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
::Read up on [[WP:JOBTITLES]]. Though I don't like it, anymore then you do. That's the consensus at JOBTITLES, in those situations. [[User:GoodDay|GoodDay]] ([[User talk:GoodDay|talk]]) 16:02, 5 July 2022 (UTC)
:::I've read up on the WP , and though I agree it's not a great consensus, but I guess it is what it is. [[User:Lindsey40186|Lindsey40186]] ([[User talk:Lindsey40186#top|talk]]) 18:38, 6 July 2022 (UTC)

== Articles you might like to edit, from SuggestBot ==

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{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" style="text-align: center;"
|-
! scope="col" | Views/Day
! scope="col" | Quality
! scope="col" | Title
! scope="col" | Tagged with…

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:193}}
| {{Hs|1.0}} [[File:Stars310.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Low, Assessed class: B, Predicted class: Start|link=Distributary|Quality: Low, Assessed class: B, Predicted class: Start]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Distributary]] ([[Talk:Distributary|talk]])
| Add sources

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:1504}}
| {{Hs|3.0}} [[File:Stars330.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: High, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: GA|link=Viktor Orbán|Quality: High, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: GA]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Viktor Orbán]] ([[Talk:Viktor Orbán|talk]])
| Add sources

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:433}}
| {{Hs|3.0}} [[File:Stars330.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: High, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: GA|link=Rafael Cruz|Quality: High, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: GA]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Rafael Cruz]] ([[Talk:Rafael Cruz|talk]])
| Add sources

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:1644}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C|link=Faraday cage|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Faraday cage]] ([[Talk:Faraday cage|talk]])
| Add sources

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:15}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: C|link=Big Ten Conference volleyball|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Big Ten Conference volleyball]] ([[Talk:Big Ten Conference volleyball|talk]])
| Add sources

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:36}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C|link=Address to the Nation|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Address to the Nation]] ([[Talk:Address to the Nation|talk]])
| Add sources

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:464}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: B, Predicted class: B|link=Colorado State University|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: B, Predicted class: B]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Colorado State University]] ([[Talk:Colorado State University|talk]])
| Cleanup

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:683}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: C|link=Iran men's national volleyball team|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Iran men's national volleyball team]] ([[Talk:Iran men's national volleyball team|talk]])
| Cleanup

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:763}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C|link=Louise Redknapp|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Louise Redknapp]] ([[Talk:Louise Redknapp|talk]])
| Cleanup

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:33}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: B|link=Speculation about Donald Trump's Cabinet|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: B]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Speculation about Donald Trump's Cabinet]] ([[Talk:Speculation about Donald Trump's Cabinet|talk]])
| Expand

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:530}}
| {{Hs|3.0}} [[File:Stars330.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: High, Assessed class: B, Predicted class: GA|link=Kim family (North Korea)|Quality: High, Assessed class: B, Predicted class: GA]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Kim family (North Korea)]] ([[Talk:Kim family (North Korea)|talk]])
| Expand

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:266}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: B|link=College and university rankings in the United States|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: B]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[College and university rankings in the United States]] ([[Talk:College and university rankings in the United States|talk]])
| Expand

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:24}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: Start, Predicted class: C|link=Penang cuisine|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: Start, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Penang cuisine]] ([[Talk:Penang cuisine|talk]])
| Unencyclopaedic

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:82}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: Start, Predicted class: C|link=Triumph Vitesse|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: Start, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Triumph Vitesse]] ([[Talk:Triumph Vitesse|talk]])
| Unencyclopaedic

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:3}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: C|link=Chiltan Adventurers Association Balochistan|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Chiltan Adventurers Association Balochistan]] ([[Talk:Chiltan Adventurers Association Balochistan|talk]])
| Unencyclopaedic

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:197}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C|link=Pox party|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Pox party]] ([[Talk:Pox party|talk]])
| Merge

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:394}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: B, Predicted class: C|link=Nishapur|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: B, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Nishapur]] ([[Talk:Nishapur|talk]])
| Merge

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:75}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C|link=Cancer vaccine|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Cancer vaccine]] ([[Talk:Cancer vaccine|talk]])
| Merge

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:74}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: B|link=Whistleblower protection in the United States|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: B]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Whistleblower protection in the United States]] ([[Talk:Whistleblower protection in the United States|talk]])
| Wikify

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:96}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C|link=Steamboats of the Mississippi|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Steamboats of the Mississippi]] ([[Talk:Steamboats of the Mississippi|talk]])
| Wikify

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:46}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: Start, Predicted class: C|link=Health in the United States|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: Start, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Health in the United States]] ([[Talk:Health in the United States|talk]])
| Wikify

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:5}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: Start, Predicted class: C|link=Administration of Thrissur district|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: Start, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Administration of Thrissur district]] ([[Talk:Administration of Thrissur district|talk]])
| Orphan

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:2}}
| {{Hs|2.0}} [[File:Stars320.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C|link=Kauffman & Minteer Inc.|Quality: Medium, Assessed class: C, Predicted class: C]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Kauffman & Minteer Inc.]] ([[Talk:Kauffman & Minteer Inc.|talk]])
| Orphan

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:4}}
| {{Hs|1.0}} [[File:Stars310.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Low, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: Start|link=InBios|Quality: Low, Assessed class: NA, Predicted class: Start]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[InBios]] ([[Talk:InBios|talk]])
| Orphan

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:32}}
| {{Hs|1.0}} [[File:Stars310.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start|link=Lower Mississippi River|Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Lower Mississippi River]] ([[Talk:Lower Mississippi River|talk]])
| Stub

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:9}}
| {{Hs|1.0}} [[File:Stars310.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start|link=Big Ten Men's Lacrosse Tournament|Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Big Ten Men's Lacrosse Tournament]] ([[Talk:Big Ten Men's Lacrosse Tournament|talk]])
| Stub

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:109}}
| {{Hs|1.0}} [[File:Stars310.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start|link=Shirley Curry|Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Shirley Curry]] ([[Talk:Shirley Curry|talk]])
| Stub

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:5}}
| {{Hs|1.0}} [[File:Stars310.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Stub|link=Caprivi Game Park|Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Stub]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Caprivi Game Park]] ([[Talk:Caprivi Game Park|talk]])
| Stub

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:8}}
| {{Hs|1.0}} [[File:Stars310.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start|link=Henoch Leibowitz|Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Henoch Leibowitz]] ([[Talk:Henoch Leibowitz|talk]])
| Stub

|- style="text-align: center; height: 30px;"
| style="text-align: right;" | {{formatnum:6}}
| {{Hs|1.0}} [[File:Stars310.svg|60 px|alt=Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start|link=Big Ten Women's Lacrosse Tournament|Quality: Low, Assessed class: Stub, Predicted class: Start]]
| style="text-align: left;" | [[Big Ten Women's Lacrosse Tournament]] ([[Talk:Big Ten Women's Lacrosse Tournament|talk]])
| Stub
|}
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== Your [[WP:Good articles|GA]] nomination of [[Fannie Salter]] ==
Hi there, I'm pleased to inform you that I've begun reviewing the article [[Fannie Salter]] you nominated for [[WP:GA|GA]]-status according to the [[WP:WIAGA|criteria]]. [[File:Time2wait.svg|20px|link=]] This process may take up to 7 days. Feel free to contact me with any questions or comments you might have during this period.  Message delivered by [[User:Legobot|Legobot]], on behalf of [[User:Sammi Brie|Sammi Brie]] -- [[User:Sammi Brie|Sammi Brie]] ([[User talk:Sammi Brie|talk]]) 04:40, 21 July 2022 (UTC)

== Your [[WP:Good articles|GA]] nomination of [[Fannie Salter]] ==
The article [[Fannie Salter]] you nominated as a [[Wikipedia:Good article nominations|good article]] has been placed on hold [[File:Symbol wait.svg|20px|link=]]. The article is close to meeting the [[WP:GA?|good article criteria]], but there are some minor changes or clarifications needing to be addressed. If these are fixed within 7 days, the article will pass; otherwise it may fail. See [[Talk:Fannie Salter]] for issues which need to be addressed.  Message delivered by [[User:Legobot|Legobot]], on behalf of [[User:Sammi Brie|Sammi Brie]] -- [[User:Sammi Brie|Sammi Brie]] ([[User talk:Sammi Brie|talk]]) 05:21, 21 July 2022 (UTC)

==Disambiguation link notification for July 21==

Hi. Thank you for your recent edits. An automated process has detected that when you recently edited [[Algae]], you added a link pointing to the disambiguation page [[List of seaweeds of South Africa]]. Such links are [[WP:INTDABLINK|usually incorrect]], since a disambiguation page is merely a list of unrelated topics with similar titles. (Read the [[User:DPL bot/Dablink notification FAQ|FAQ]]{{*}} Join us at the [[Wikipedia:Disambiguation pages with links|DPL WikiProject]].)

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== Your [[WP:Good articles|GA]] nomination of [[Fannie Salter]] ==
The article [[Fannie Salter]] you nominated as a [[Wikipedia:Good article nominations|good article]] has passed [[File:Symbol support vote.svg|20px|link=]]; see [[Talk:Fannie Salter]] for comments about the article. Well done! If the article has not already appeared on the main page as a "Did you know" item, or as a '''bold link''' under "In the News" or in the "On This Day" prose section, you can [[Template_talk:Did_you_know#To_nominate_an_article|nominate it]] within the next seven days to appear in DYK. Bolded names with dates listed at the bottom of the "On This Day" column do not affect DYK eligibility. Message delivered by [[User:Legobot|Legobot]], on behalf of [[User:Sammi Brie|Sammi Brie]] -- [[User:Sammi Brie|Sammi Brie]] ([[User talk:Sammi Brie|talk]]) 19:42, 25 July 2022 (UTC)

== July drive bling ==


{| style="border: 2px solid gray; background-color: #FFFFF0; vertical-align: middle;"
|rowspan="2" | [[File:Goce silver barnstar.png|75 px]]
|rowspan="2"|
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;"| '''Guild of Copy Editors Leaderboard Award: Long Articles, 3rd Place'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | This Leaderboard Barnstar is awarded to '''Lindsey40186''' for copyediting 2 long articles during the [[WP:WikiProject Guild of Copy Editors/Backlog elimination drives/July 2022|GOCE July 2022 Backlog Elimination Drive]]. Congratulations, and thank you for your contributions! [[User:Miniapolis|'''''Mini''''']][[User_talk:Miniapolis|'''''apolis''''']] 23:09, 4 August 2022 (UTC)
|}

{| style="border: 2px solid gray; background-color: #FFFFF0; vertical-align: middle;"
|rowspan="2" | [[File:Goce silver barnstar.png|75 px]]
|rowspan="2"|
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;"| '''Guild of Copy Editors Leaderboard Award: Longest Article, 5th Place'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | This Leaderboard Barnstar is awarded to '''Lindsey40186''' for copyediting one of the five longest articles – 7,873 words – during the [[WP:WikiProject Guild of Copy Editors/Backlog elimination drives/July 2022|GOCE July 2022 Backlog Elimination Drive]]. Congratulations, and thank you for your contributions! [[User:Miniapolis|'''''Mini''''']][[User_talk:Miniapolis|'''''apolis''''']] 23:09, 4 August 2022 (UTC)
|}

{| style="border: 2px solid gray; background-color: #FFFFF0; vertical-align: middle;"
|rowspan="2" | [[File:Tireless Contributor Barnstar.gif|100px]]
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" |'''The Tireless Contributor Barnstar'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | This barnstar is awarded to '''Lindsey40186''' for copy edits totaling over 20,000 words (including bonus and rollover words) during the [[WP:WikiProject Guild of Copy Editors/Backlog elimination drives/July 2022|GOCE July 2022 Backlog Elimination Drive]]. Congratulations, and thank you for your contributions! [[User:Miniapolis|'''''Mini''''']][[User_talk:Miniapolis|'''''apolis''''']] 23:09, 4 August 2022 (UTC)
|}

==DYK nomination of Fannie Salter==
[[File:Symbol question.svg|25px]] Hello! Your submission of [[Fannie Salter]] at the [[Template talk:DYK|Did You Know nominations page]] has been reviewed, and some issues with it may need to be clarified. Please review the comment(s) at '''[[Template:Did you know nominations/Fannie Salter|your nomination's entry]]''' and respond there at your earliest convenience. Thank you for contributing to Did You Know!  [[User:BlueMoonset|BlueMoonset]] ([[User talk:BlueMoonset|talk]]) 01:25, 5 August 2022 (UTC)

== Prefectural governors' names from Japan (Years 1868-1912) ==
Hello, Lindsey40186, this is 124.158.97.1 asking you to help expand the articles from the years 1868 to 1912 (look below to see the prefectural governors names and the years) by adding in the prefectural governors' names from Japan from the articles of the years 1868 to 1912, if you can't talk to me talk to another user to help the user expand the articles from the years 1868 to 1912 by adding in the prefectural governors' names from Japan, please, thank you.[[Special:Contributions/124.158.97.1|124.158.97.1]] ([[User talk: 124.158.97.1|talk]]) 23:15, 28 August 2022 (UTC) (link below)

---Years in Japan---
[[1868 in Japan]]
[[1869 in Japan]]
[[1870 in Japan]]
[[1871 in Japan]]
[[1872 in Japan]]
[[1873 in Japan]]
[[1874 in Japan]]
[[1876 in Japan]]
[[1877 in Japan]]
[[1879 in Japan]]
[[1882 in Japan]]
[[1884 in Japan]]
[[1885 in Japan]]
[[1886 in Japan]]
[[1887 in Japan]]
[[1890 in Japan]]
[[1891 in Japan]]
[[1892 in Japan]]
[[1893 in Japan]]
[[1894 in Japan]]
[[1895 in Japan]]
[[1896 in Japan]]
[[1897 in Japan]]
[[1898 in Japan]]
[[1899 in Japan]]
[[1900 in Japan]]
[[1901 in Japan]]
[[1902 in Japan]]
[[1903 in Japan]]
[[1904 in Japan]]
[[1905 in Japan]]
[[1906 in Japan]]
[[1907 in Japan]]
[[1908 in Japan]]
[[1909 in Japan]]
[[1910 in Japan]]
[[1911 in Japan]]
[[1912 in Japan]]

===Governors===
*[[List of governors of Aichi Prefecture|Aichi Prefecture]]: [[]]
*Akita Prefecture: [[]]
*Aomori Prefecture: [[]]
*Ehime Prefecture: [[]]
*Fukui Prefecture: [[]]
*Fukushima Prefecture: [[]]
*Gifu Prefecture: [[]]
*Gunma Prefecture: [[]]
*[[Governors of Hiroshima Prefecture|Hiroshima Prefecture]]: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Ibaraki Prefecture|Ibaraki Prefecture]]: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Ishikawa Prefecture|Ishikawa Prefecture]]: [[]]
*Iwate Prefecture: [[]]
*Kagawa Prefecture: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Kanagawa Prefecture|Kanagawa Prefecture]]: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Kumamoto Prefecture|Kumamoto Prefecture]]: [[]]
*Kochi Prefecture: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Kyoto Prefecture|Kyoto Prefecture]]: [[]]
*Mie Prefecture: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Miyagi Prefecture|Miyagi Prefecture]]: [[]]
*Miyazaki Prefecture: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Nagano Prefecture|Nagano Prefecture]]: [[]]
*Nara Prefecture: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Niigata Prefecture|Niigata Prefecture]]: [[]]
*Oita Prefecture: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Okayama Prefecture|Okayama Prefecture]]: [[]]
*[[Governor of Okinawa Prefecture|Okinawa Prefecture]]: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Osaka|Osaka Prefecture]]: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Saga Prefecture|Saga Prefecture]]: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Saitama Prefecture|Saitama Prefecture]]: [[]]
*[[List of governors of Shiga Prefecture|Shiga Prefecture]]: [[]]
*Shiname Prefecture: [[]]
*Shizuoka Prefecture: [[]]
*Tochigi Prefecture: [[]]
*Tokushima Prefecture: [[]]
*[[Governor of Tokyo|Tokyo]]: [[]]
*Toyama Prefecture: [[]]
*Yamagata Prefecture: [[]]
*Yamaguchi Prefecture: [[]]

[https://www.worldleadersindex.org/Asia/JapanesePrefectures.html Prefectural Governors of Japan World Leaders Index]

To reply, leave a comment here and begin it with {{code|<nowiki>{{Re|</nowiki>124.158.97.1<nowiki>}}</nowiki>}}. Please remember to sign your reply with {{code|<nowiki>~~~~</nowiki>}}.[[Special:Contributions/124.158.97.1|124.158.97.1]] ([[User talk:124.158.97.1|talk]]) 23:15, 28 August 2022 (UTC)

==DYK for Fannie Salter==
{{ivmbox
|image = Updated DYK query.svg
|imagesize=40px
|text = On [[Wikipedia:Recent_additions/2022/September#6 September 2022|6 September 2022]], '''[[:Template:Did you know|Did you know]]''' was updated with a fact from the article '''''[[Fannie Salter]]''''', which you recently created, substantially expanded, or brought to good article status. The fact was ''... that '''[[Fannie Salter]]''' ''(pictured)'' was personally appointed keeper of Turkey Point Light by U.S. president Calvin Coolidge?'' The nomination discussion and review may be seen at [[Template:Did you know nominations/Fannie Salter]]. You are welcome to check how many pageviews the nominated article or articles got while on the front page ([[User:Rjanag/Pageview stats|here's how]], [//pageviews.toolforge.org/?start=2022-08-27&end=2022-09-16&project=en.wikipedia.org&pages=Fannie_Salter Fannie Salter]), and if they received a combined total of at least 416.7 views per hour (i.e., 5,000 views in 12 hours or 10,000 in 24), the hook may be added to [[Wikipedia:Did you know/Statistics|the statistics page]]. Finally, if you know of an interesting fact from another recently created article, then please feel free to suggest it on the [[:Template talk:Did you know|Did you know talk page]].
}}  — [[User:Amakuru|Amakuru]] ([[User talk:Amakuru|talk]]) 12:02, 6 September 2022 (UTC)
[[File:USPO in Susan, Virginia at dusk.jpg|thumb|Post office in Susan, Virginia]]
:Lovely work on this article - I created it ages and ages ago. Never thought there was that much to say about her beyond what was in some of the hardcore lighthouse literature. Somewhere around here I have a picture of her grave, which I ''thought'' I had uploaded to Commons, but evidently have not yet. I'll get to it in the near term, I think. Meantime have a picture of the post office in Susan, which is just down the road from the church where she's buried...it's not much, but it's a cute little building. :-)

:Happy editing! --[[User:Ser Amantio di Nicolao|Ser Amantio di Nicolao]][[User_talk:Ser Amantio di Nicolao|''Che dicono a Signa?'']][[Special:Contribs/Ser Amantio di Nicolao|Lo dicono a Signa.]] 19:01, 6 September 2022 (UTC)

:Thank you so much! I will admit that I now know more about a random lighthouse in Maryland than I ever thought I would. I'll have to pay a visit one day. Fannie seemed like a tough lady, and the more I researched her the more amazing her feats became.
:It's an adorable building! And yes, please do add a picture of her grave to the Commons when you are able. I think it would really bring tie a bow on the article. [[User:Lindsey40186|Lindsey40186]] ([[User talk:Lindsey40186#top|talk]]) 13:09, 28 March 2023 (UTC)
{{DYK views|9,827|818.9|September 2022|Fannie Salter}} [[user:theleekycauldron|theleekycauldron]] ([[user talk:theleekycauldron|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Theleekycauldron|contribs]]) (she/her) 05:33, 7 September 2022 (UTC)

== A barnstar for you! ==

{| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | [[File:Barnstar of Diligence Hires.png|100px]]
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 3px 3px 0 3px; height: 1.5em;" | '''The Barnstar of Diligence'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" | For determining the worldwide consensus on the use of the word: "cipher" in relation to the updates to the [[Cipher Department of the High Command of the Wehrmacht]] article thereby bringing the language into the modern age. Great work!! '''[[User:scope_creep|scope_creep]][[User talk:scope_creep#top|Talk]]''' 11:39, 7 September 2022 (UTC)
|}

== Your [[WP:Good articles|GA]] nomination of [[Toms River]] ==
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== Your [[WP:Good articles|GA]] nomination of [[Toms River]] ==
The article [[Toms River]] you nominated as a [[Wikipedia:Good article nominations|good article]] has been placed on hold [[File:Symbol wait.svg|20px|link=]]. The article is close to meeting the [[WP:GA?|good article criteria]], but there are some minor changes or clarifications needing to be addressed. If these are fixed within 7 days, the article will pass; otherwise it may fail. See [[Talk:Toms River]] for issues which need to be addressed.  Message delivered by [[User:Legobot|Legobot]], on behalf of [[User:Muboshgu|Muboshgu]] -- [[User:Muboshgu|Muboshgu]] ([[User talk:Muboshgu|talk]]) 18:40, 18 September 2022 (UTC)

== Your [[WP:Good articles|GA]] nomination of [[Toms River]] ==
The article [[Toms River]] you nominated as a [[Wikipedia:Good article nominations|good article]] has failed [[File:Symbol oppose vote.svg|20px|link=]]; see [[Talk:Toms River]] for reasons why the nomination failed. If or when these points have been taken care of, you may apply for a new nomination of the article.  Message delivered by [[User:Legobot|Legobot]], on behalf of [[User:Muboshgu|Muboshgu]] -- [[User:Muboshgu|Muboshgu]] ([[User talk:Muboshgu|talk]]) 21:41, 25 September 2022 (UTC)

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==Disambiguation link notification for February 16==

An automated process has detected that when you recently edited [[Eleanor of Aquitaine]], you added a link pointing to the disambiguation page [[Dieudonné]].

([[User:DPL bot|Opt-out instructions]].) --[[User:DPL bot|DPL bot]] ([[User talk:DPL bot|talk]]) 06:05, 16 February 2023 (UTC)

== Spacing ==

Please do not make edits to articles that only change the spacing in the article source code, as you recently did at [[Prime number‎]]. It makes absolutely no difference to the appearance of the article, and only serves to waste the time of other editors checking that your change did not introduce problems. —[[User:David Eppstein|David Eppstein]] ([[User talk:David Eppstein|talk]]) 18:55, 30 March 2023 (UTC)

== Thanks for the copyediting! ==

Hello! I feel a little weird thanking another edit for their edits—obviously I don't want to come across as though I think I own an article—but I thought an exception was warranted for your edits on [[1984 New York City Subway shooting]]. I'd been working on that article for a while in conjunction with a good-article reviewer, and I'm actually quite embarrassed at the "hopital" typo (which, not only did I miss, but I'm certain I ''introduced''!). But what I really wanted to give you a shoutout for was your use of two templates—[[Template:Inflation]] and [[Template:Define]]—I hadn't seen before and that I now know to use! Always exiting to learn about new tools. Great work.--[[User:Jerome Frank Disciple|Jerome Frank Disciple]] ([[User talk:Jerome Frank Disciple|talk]]) 15:01, 21 April 2023 (UTC)

:No need to thank me, though it's certainly appreciated! It's all part of being an editor. I've worked on my own Good Article not too long ago, and know that we can stare at these words for so long that we go blind to some errors. Having an outside pair of eyes give things a once over is always helpful :)
:Happy editing! [[User:Lindsey40186|Lindsey40186]] ([[User talk:Lindsey40186#top|talk]]) 16:31, 24 April 2023 (UTC)
== CS1 error on [[Ajmer]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=|link=]] Hello, I'm [[User:Qwerfjkl (bot)|Qwerfjkl (bot)]]. I have '''automatically detected''' that [[Special:Diff/1165555827|this edit]] performed by you, on the page [[:Ajmer]], may have introduced referencing errors. They are as follows:
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== CS1 error on [[Krasnopol (weapon system)]] ==
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Thanks, [[User:Qwerfjkl (bot)|Qwerfjkl (bot)]] ([[User talk:Qwerfjkl (bot)|talk]]) 23:41, 15 July 2023 (UTC)
== CS1 error on [[Alorna Fort]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=|link=]] Hello, I'm [[User:Qwerfjkl (bot)|Qwerfjkl (bot)]]. I have '''automatically detected''' that [[Special:Diff/1165560863|this edit]] performed by you, on the page [[:Alorna Fort]], may have introduced referencing errors. They are as follows:
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==All things dealing with Saint James' Day==
'''Saints Star Award'''

{| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #fdffe7;"
|rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;" | [[File:Saint Barnstar Hires.svg|100px]]
|rowspan="2" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: middle; height: 1.1em;" | '''The Saint's Star Award'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: middle; border-top: 1px solid gray;" | Thanks for the help with the All things dealing with Saint James' Day and[[Wikipedia:Recent additions/2023/July#25 July 2023|DYK]] on [[25 July]], [[2023]]
|}
--[[User:evrik|evrik]] ([[User talk:evrik|talk]]) 05:55, 24 July 2023 (UTC)

{| style="border: 1px solid gray; background-color: #fdffe7; width:100%;"
|rowspan="3" style="vertical-align:top;width:5em"| [[Image:Barnstar_of_National_Merit_Galicia.svg|50px]]
|rowspan="3" |
|style="font-size: x-large; padding: 0; vertical-align: bottom; height: 1.1em;" | '''The [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] Barnstar of National Merit'''
|-
|style="vertical-align: top; border-top: 1px solid gray; height:5em;"| Thanks for the help with the All things dealing with Saint James' Day and[[Wikipedia:Recent additions/2023/July#25 July 2023|DYK]] on [[25 July]], [[2023]]
|-
|style="vertical-align: top; border-top: 1px solid gray;" |''this WikiAward was given to Lindsey40186 by --[[User:evrik|evrik]] ([[User talk:evrik|talk]]) on 05:55, 24 July 2023 (UTC)''
|} --[[User:evrik|evrik]] ([[User talk:evrik|talk]]) 05:55, 24 July 2023 (UTC)

==DYK for Cross of Saint James==
{{ivmbox
|image = Updated DYK query.svg
|imagesize=40px
|text = On [[Wikipedia:Recent_additions/2023/July#25 July 2023|25 July 2023]], '''[[:Template:Did you know|Did you know]]''' was updated with a fact from the article '''''[[Cross of Saint James]]''''', which you recently created, substantially expanded, or brought to good article status. The fact was ''... that the '''[[Cross of Saint James]]''' is associated with the apostle's appearance at the mythical [[Battle of Clavijo]]?'' The nomination discussion and review may be seen at [[Template:Did you know nominations/Cross of Saint James]]. You are welcome to check how many pageviews the nominated article or articles got while on the front page ([[User:Rjanag/Pageview stats|here's how]], [//pageviews.toolforge.org/?start=2023-07-15&end=2023-08-04&project=en.wikipedia.org&pages=Cross_of_Saint_James Cross of Saint James]), and the hook may be added to [[Wikipedia:Did you know/Statistics/Monthly DYK pageview leaders|the statistics page]] after its run on the Main Page has completed. Finally, if you know of an interesting fact from another recently created article, then please feel free to suggest it on the [[:Template talk:Did you know|Did you know talk page]].
}} [[User:RoySmith|RoySmith]] [[User Talk:RoySmith|(talk)]] 00:04, 25 July 2023 (UTC)
== CS1 error on [[XXXX (beer)]] ==
[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=|link=]] Hello, I'm [[User:Qwerfjkl (bot)|Qwerfjkl (bot)]]. I have '''automatically detected''' that [[Special:Diff/1167617533|this edit]] performed by you, on the page [[:XXXX (beer)]], may have introduced referencing errors. They are as follows:
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== WPCleaner issue on [[Archimedes Patti]] ==

Hey Lindsey! It looks like your run of [[Wikipedia:WPCleaner|WPCleaner]] on this article misfired and broke a template tag while trying to fix a link. I fixed it already (not reverted, fixed the link as you intended), but it might be worth reporting the issue to the people who maintain that tool. Cheers! --[[User:Relative Humidity|Relative Humidity]] ([[User talk:Relative Humidity|talk]]) 20:40, 16 August 2023 (UTC)

Archimedes Patti

2023-08-16T20:35:55Z

Relative Humidity: Fix broken link introduced by WPCleaner

{{Short description|United States Army officer and OSS officer}}
{{more citations needed|date=July 2013}}
{{Infobox military person
|width_style = person
|name = Archimedes Patti
|image = File:1945 May Patti in Kunmiing.png
|caption = OSS Maj. Archimedes Patti in his Kunming Office, May 1945
|birth_name = Archimedes Leonidas Attilio Patti
|birth_date = {{birth date|1913|07|21}}
|birth_place = [[Bronx]], [[New York City]], U.S.
|death_date = {{dda|1998|04|23|1913|07|21}}
|death_place = [[Winter Park, Florida]], U.S.
|placeofburial = [[Arlington National Cemetery]]
|allegiance = {{flagu|United States}}
|branch_label = Branch
|branch = {{army|United States}}
|serviceyears_label = Service years
|serviceyears = 1941–1957
|rank = Lieutenant colonel
|unit = [[Office of Strategic Services]]
|battles_label = Wars
|battles = [[World War II]]
}}

'''Archimedes Leonidas Attilio Patti''' (July 21, 1913 – April 23, 1998) was a lieutenant colonel in the [[United States Army]] and an [[Office of Strategic Services]] officer who headed operations in [[Kunming]] and [[Hanoi]] in 1945 when he was a Major.{{efn|name=Major-1|"This {{bracket|village near Jingxi city, Baise prefecture, Guangxi province, China, near Cao Bang province, Vietnam}} was where Ho had his first meeting with Major Archimedes Patti, Chief of the OSS in Indochina; the two men met again in autumn 1945{{emdash}}but this time in Hanoi."{{sfn|Brocheux|2007|p=89}} }}{{efn|name=Major-2|"The full group consisted of thirteen OSS officers and enlisted men under Maj. Archimedes L. A. Patti and five French officers, including
Sainteny."{{sfn|Williams|2019|p=16}} }}{{efn|"The man in charge of the American Mission to Hanoi was Capt. Archimedes Patti, whose team was greeted with the same warmth and respect that had been accorded the Deer Team earlier."{{sfn|Bartholomew-Feis|2020}} So was Patti Captain or Major{{efn|name=Major-1}}{{efn|name=Major-2}} when he arrived in Hanoi in 1945? See ''Notes on Vietnam History''{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023}} for more extensive references and analysis on this issue. }} Patti is known for having worked closely with [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]] and the [[Việt Minh]],{{sfn|Review of "OSS and Ho"}} this before{{efn|On 1945 Aug 26, Ho Chi Minh arrived in Hanoi, invited Patti for lunch, and expressed his concerns about the French and the Chinese in Tonkin. "Patti listened intently. He had met with Ho Chi Minh once before, in April 1945, in southern China, on the subject of potential OSS–Viet Minh cooperation in the struggle against Japan."{{sfn|Logevall|2012|p=100}} }} and after{{efn|Ho Chi Minh became President of the Provisional Government of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] (DRV) on 1945 Aug 28{{sfn|Tú Châu (2020)}} or 29,{{sfn|Devillers|1952|p=142}} whereas Patti left Hanoi on 1945 Oct 1 "after sharing one last dinner with Ho Chi Minh".{{sfn|Brocheux|2007|p=113}} }} Ho became President of the Provisional Government of the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] in 1945.{{sfn|Logevall|2012|pp=100-109}}

== Early life ==
Patti was born in [[The Bronx]], [[New York City]], on July 21, 1913 to [[Sicily|Sicilian]] immigrants. His father worked as a tailor, his mother as a dress maker.{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

He was married to Margaret Telford. They had two daughters.{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

== Career ==
The 1940 U.S. census lists Archimedes' profession as "Special Agent, U.S. War Department." In 1941, he joined the [[U.S. Army]]{{sfn|IMDb}}{{Citation needed|reason=Need more formal sources|date=June 2023}} and served in Europe, where he was in contact with various anti-Axis resistance organizations including groups in North Africa, Italy, and Yugoslavia.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

He was later transferred to the [[Office of Strategic Services]] in China after he had unknowingly volunteered for the mission in January 1944 on an assignment at [[Anzio]] with OSS Director [[William J. Donovan]].{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

=== Indochina and Vietnam ===
During his career in China and Southeast Asia, Patti met [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]], the leader of the [[Việt Minh]] who was later the leader and national hero of [[North Vietnam]]. In later interviews, Patti explained that his mission in Vietnam was to establish an intelligence network but not to assist the French in any way in their attempt to re-gain control over their former colony, a policy choice that he believed to be linked to U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s belief in the self-determination of all peoples.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

[[File:1945 Archimedes Patti Vo Nguyen Giap talk.png|thumb|left|[[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] Maj. Archimedes Patti conferred with [[Vo Nguyen Giap]], Aug 1945.]]
However, Patti, from a distance,{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}} helped to organize, train, and equip the fledgling Vietnamese forces that Ho Chi Minh was uniting and marshaling against the Japanese, which later became known as the [[People's Army of Vietnam]]. Patti worked closely with Ho Chi Minh and indeed commented on his early drafts of a Vietnamese constitution.{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

{{quote|In my opinion the [[Vietnam War]] was a great waste. There was no need for it to happen in the first place. At all. None whatsoever. During all the years of the Vietnam War no one ever approached me to find out what had happened in 1945 or in '44. In all the years that I spent in [[The Pentagon]], [[Department of State]] in the [[White House]], never was I approached by anyone in authority. However, I did prepare a large number, and I mean about, oh, well over fifteen position papers on our position in Vietnam. But I never knew what happened to them. Those things just disappeared, they just went down the dry well.|From an interview with Archimedes Patti in 1981{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}}}

Patti stated that when he arrived in [[Kunming]] in March 1945, the French colonials were either unwilling or unable to assist him in establishing an American intelligence network in [[Indochina]] and so he turned to "the only source [available]," the Viet Minh.{{Citation needed|reason=Need formal sources|date=June 2023}}

Patti was introduced to Ho Chi Minh by Colonel Austin Glass, the OSS expert in Indochina.{{Verify source|date=June 2023}} Patti met Ho Chi Minh on the Indochinese-Chinese border in late April 1945. Patti agreed to provide intelligence to the allies if he could have "a line of communication with the allies."{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}


Patti later helped to co-ordinate some small attacks{{Verify source|date=June 2023}} against the [[Japanese Imperial Army]] by using a small group of operatives known as the [[OSS Deer Team]] under the command of Major Allison K. Thomas, who worked directly with Ho Chi Minh in August 1945.{{sfn|Berube|2011}}

Patti arrived in Hanoi on a mercy mission with{{Verify source|date=June 2023}} an OSS agent, [[Carleton B. Swift]],{{efn|"Carleton Swift, a CIA employee, replaced Archimedes Patti as head of the O.S.S mission in Hanoi." In the interview,{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Swift}} "Swift recounts why he got involved with Indochina and his experiences after he took the mission over from Patti. Swift recalls his impressions of Ho Chi Minh describing him as a slight man and Swift admits to not understand how Ho Chi Minh gained so much power. Swift discusses the way the Americans dealt with the North Vietnamese and the friendships that developed." }} and a French government official, [[Jean Sainteny]].{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Swift}} His primary mission was to assist in the repatriation of allied prisoners-of-war, as the U.S. government feared reprisals against them by the Japanese after the [[Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]]. His secondary mission was to gather intelligence.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

Patti met with Ho Chi Minh on August 26, 1945 over lunch at his residence in Hanoi. Several days later, Ho Chi Minh read a draft of the [[Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam|Vietnamese Proclamation of Independence]] to him.
Patti offered some corrections to the wording of the opening sentence, which Ho Chi Minh quoted from the [[U.S. Declaration of Independence]]. Ho also quoted the 1791 Declaration of the French Revolution and the motto “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity,” which [https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/coming-to-france/france-facts/symbols-of-the-republic/article/liberty-equality-fraternity “first appeared during the French Revolution].”{{efn|name=US-Vietnam-DoI|See the detailed analysis of the US Declaration of Independence (DoI) and the Vietnam DoI in ''Notes of Vietnam History''.{{sfn|Vu Quoc Loc|2023}} }} The [[Declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam#/media/File:Bản Tuyên ngôn độc lập của nước Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa. - Trung tâm Lưu trữ quốc gia III. Phông Phủ Thủ tướng, hồ sơ 586, tờ số 1 – 3.jpg|Vietnam Declaration of Independence]] has a similar structure as, but different in content from, the US Declaration of Independence since the histories and circumstances of the two countries were clearly different.{{efn|name=US-Vietnam-DoI}}

Indeed, Ho Chi Minh had requested an actual copy of the U.S. Declaration of Independence from Colonel Austin Glass.{{Verify source|date=June 2023}} On September 2, Ho Chi Minh declared independence, and some hours later, Patti had dinner with him. On the same day, Patti dispatched his Operational Priority communication:

<div style="text-align: center;">
'''Operational Priority'''
</div>

{{Cquote
|
[[File:1945.09.02 Archimedes Patti Operational Priority.pdf|thumb|180px|right|1945.09.02 Archimedes Patti Operational Priority communication on the same day Ho Chi Minh declared Vietnam's independence.]]
{{resize|200%|{{font color|blue|❝}}}} Have had long conference with Prime Minister, Ho Chi Min and he impresses me as sensible, well balanced, politically minded individual. His demands are few and simple namely limited independence, liberation from French rule, right to live as free people in family of nations and lastly right to deal directly with outside world.

He stated that for many years missionary work of propaganda within party, training of youth and preparation for this day has made them ready not necessarily for complete independence but at least the privilege of dying for their ideals. From that I have been these people mean business and am afraid that French will have to deal with them. For that matter will all have to deal with them. French and beginning to recognize this fact and are going to be big about it by offering Viet Minh terms for their independence. On other hand Vietnam is smart enough to see through Machiavellian attitude French here especially Sainteny and have absolutely refused to deal with him.

Annamese are in unique advantage our position in as much as Japs have given them independence so they consider themselves free of any sovereign power and this includes French who have been hiding behind Jap skirts, vichy tactics and passing themselves off as friends of Americans. On whole Viet Minh has full control of situation not only in hands (unreadable) whole of 3 provinces. Their organization is well knit, program clear and their demands on outside world few. They ask they be permitted travel particularly to America particularly for education purposes and that America send technical experts to help them establish those few industries Indochina is capable of exploiting. Prime Minister particularly asked me that American exercise some control over Chinese occupation forces and that Chinese purchase materials and food rather than requisitioning it during occupation period. Furthermore he pointed out and this I have confirmed from other sources Jap and French that due to flood this year famine is imminent and should Chinese depended on Indochinese for their subsistence during occupation period they will all starve plus creating situation where Annamese will be forced to wage war upon Chinese to protect his livelihood and family.

Annamese celebrating Annamese independence day tomorrow with high solemn mass by Catholics and special ritual by Buddhists. {{resize|200%|{{font color|blue|❞}}}}

|author=Archimedes Patti
|source=[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1945.09.02_Archimedes_Patti_Operational_Priority.pdf 1945.09.02 Archimedes Patti Operational Priority communication.]
}}

In the fall of 1945, French colonial forces had returned to Indochina on U.S.-manned [[Liberty ship]]s.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

Patti left Hanoi in late September 1945 after French allegations that the Americans had been fomenting a revolution.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

== Later life and death ==
Patti retired from the military in 1957. For 13 years, he was a crisis management specialist in the Office of Emergency Planning in [[Washington, DC]].

In 1981, Patti stated that [[Julia Child]], who had worked at the OSS in 1945, had allegedly submitted his position papers on Vietnam to appropriate authorities, but the way in which he had found them upon his retirement was exactly as she had sent them, and they had never been opened or read:{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}

{{quote|The question rises from time to time as to whether or not the same situation doesn't apply to Iran, to Afghanistan, to El Salvador, to any other trouble spot in the world. That perhaps there are people who may know the causes that actually led to what followed and have never been approached or asked to give at least, if not their views, at least to give what facts they have. That is a question.{{sfn|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}}}}

In retirement, he wrote several articles and completed his book on Vietnam. In 1980, he finally published his book ''Why Vietnam? Prelude to America's Albatross,''{{sfn|Patti|1980}} which described his [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]]-assigned activities with [[Ho Chi Minh]], the communist and nationalist [[Viet Minh]] leader in 1946. His book grew out of his much-shorter 1946 memoir, which was completed in the 1950s, but on which the Department of the Army had put an injunction to prevent its publication due to the anticommunist fervor of the McCarthy era, and out of concern for perceived adverse criticism of US foreign policy by military members.{{efn|Patti wrote in his book: "Our nation was embroiled in the era of McCarthyism. Sensitive to adverse criticism of American foreign policy by members of the military establishment, the Department of the Army decreed that any public disclosure of information or opinion by me on the question of American involvement in Viet Nam would be regarded with official displeasure and I would be subject to disciplinary action. Under protest I acceded to the Department's injunction."{{sfn|Patti|1980|p=xviii}} }}

He died on April 23, 1998, at the age of 84, and is buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].{{sfn|Burial detail}}

== Publications ==
* {{citebook |last=Patti |first=Archimedes |year=1980 |title=Why Viet Nam? Prelude to America's Albatross |publisher=University of California Press | location = Berkeley |isbn = 978-0520047839}}.

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}

* {{Cite web |title=Book Review: Temporary Allies: The OSS and Ho Chi Minh, Diplomatic History, E. Bruce Reynolds |url=http://www.politicalreviewnet.com/polrev/reviews/DIPH/R_0145_2096_325_1007621.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510065822/http://www.politicalreviewnet.com/polrev/reviews/DIPH/R_0145_2096_325_1007621.asp |archive-date=2012-05-10 |access-date=2013-01-01 |ref={{harvid|Review of "OSS and Ho"}} }}

* {{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0666471/|title=Archimedes Patti|website=IMDb |ref={{harvid|IMDb}} }}

* {{cite web|url=http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-bf3262-interview-with-archimedes-l-a-patti-1981|title=Vietnam: A Television History; Roots of a War; Interview with Archimedes L. A. Patti, 1981|website=openvault.wgbh.org |ref={{harvid|wgbh.org, Interview with Patti}} }}

* {{cite web|url=http://openvault.wgbh.org/catalog/vietnam-9dc948-interview-with-carleton-swift|title=Vietnam: A Television History; Interview with Carleton Swift, 1981 |website=openvault.wgbh.org |ref={{harvid|wgbh.org, Interview with Swift}} }}

* {{cite web |url=https://ancexplorer.army.mil/publicwmv/#/arlington-national/search/results/1/CgVwYXR0aRIKYXJjaGltZWRlcw--/ |title=Burial Detail: Patti, Archimedes L |ref={{harvid|Burial detail}} }} - ANC Explorer.

* {{citation |last=Bartholomew-Feis |first=Dixee |year=2006 |title=The OSS and Ho Chi Minh: Unexpected Allies in the War against Japan |publisher=University Press of Arkansas, Lawrence, Kansas}}.

* {{citation |last=Bartholomew-Feis |first=Dixee |year=2020 |title=The OSS in Vietnam, 1945: A War of Missed Opportunities |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/oss-vietnam-1945-dixee-bartholomew-feis |access-date=1 Mar 2023 |publisher=The National WWII Museum, New Orleans, Jul 15}}. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230426064106/https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/oss-vietnam-1945-dixee-bartholomew-feis Internet archived on 2023.04.26].

* {{citation |last=Berube |first=Claude G. |date=2011 |title=Ho, Giap and OSS Agent Henry Prunier |url=http://www.historynet.com/ho-giap-and-oss-agent-henry-prunier.htm |journal=Historynet.com}}, May 24. [https://web.archive.org/web/20230516035224/https://www.historynet.com/ho-giap-and-oss-agent-henry-prunier/ Internet archived on 2023.05.16].

* {{citation |last=Brocheux | first=Pierre |year=2007 |title=Ho Chi Minh: A Biography |publisher=translated by Claire Duiker, Cambridge University Press, New York}}.

* {{citation |last=Devillers |first=Philippe |year=1952 |title=Histoire du Viêt-Nam de 1940 à 1952 |publisher=Seuil, Paris.}} See also [https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Philippe Devillers (1920–2016), un secret nommé Viêt-Nam, Mémoires d'Indochine], [https://web.archive.org/web/20220629093316/https://indomemoires.hypotheses.org/21651 Internet archived 2022.06.29].

* {{citation |last=Logevall | first=Fredrik |year=2012 |title=Embers of War: The Fall of an Empire and the Making of America's Vietnam |publisher=Random House, New York}}, 864 pp.

* {{cite web |author= Tú Châu |date=17 August 2020 |title= Cách mạng tháng Tám và sự ra đời của Chính phủ Lâm thời qua một số tư liệu, tài liệu lưu trữ (tiếp theo) - 08:47 AM 17/08/2020 - Lượt xem: 603 - Bài viết trình bày đôi nét về cuộc Tổng khởi nghĩa giành chính quyền mùa thu Tháng Tám năm 1945, sự ra đời của Chính phủ Lâm thời nước Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng Hoà. |url= http://luutru.gov.vn/cong-bo-gioi-thieu-tai-lieu/cach-mang-thang-tam-va-su-ra-doi-cua-chinh-phu-lam-thoi-qua-mot-so-tu-lieu-tai-lieu-luu-tru-tiep-theo.htm |accessdate=8 May 2021 |publisher= Trung tâm Lưu trữ quốc gia I (National Archives Nr. 1, Hanoi) - Cục Văn thư và Lưu trữ nhà nước (State Records And Archives Management Department Of Việt Nam).|language=vi |ref={{harvid|Tú Châu (2020)}} }}

* {{citation |last=Vu Quoc Loc |year=2023 |title=Notes on Vietnam History |url=https://archive.org/details/notes-on-vietnam-history |access-date=27 Jun 2023 |publisher=Internet Archive}}, [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ CC BY-SA 4.0].

* {{citation |last=Williams |first=Kenneth |year=2019 |title=The US Air Force in Southeast Asia and the Vietnam War A Narrative Chronology Volume I: The Early Years through 1959 |publisher=Air Force History and Museums Program, Washington, D.C. |url=https://media.defense.gov/2019/Feb/22/2002092352/-1/-1/1/USAF%20Vietnam%20Chronology%20v1.pdf}}

{{refend}}

== See also ==
* [[First Indochina War]]
* [[Vietnam during World War II]]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Patti, Archimedes}}
[[Category:People of the Office of Strategic Services]]
[[Category:American people of the Vietnam War]]
[[Category:United States Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:United States Army colonels]]
[[Category:American people of Italian descent]]
[[Category:1913 births]]
[[Category:1998 deaths]]

Cable car (railway)

2023-08-12T22:44:31Z

Relative Humidity: /* Modern cable car systems */ Disambiguate link to Leitner

{{Short description|Cable-hauled mass transit system}}
{{About|ground-based mass transit|other cable railway systems|Cable railway|other uses|Cable car (disambiguation){{!}}Cable car}}

[[File:11 Cable Car on Powell St crop, SF, CA, jjron 25.03.2012.jpg|thumb|right|A [[San Francisco cable car system|San Francisco cable car]] on the Powell & Hyde line]]

A '''cable car''' (usually known as a '''cable tram''' outside North America) is a type of [[cable railway]] used for [[Public transport|mass transit]] in which rail cars are hauled by a continuously moving [[Wire rope|cable]] running at a constant speed. Individual cars stop and start by releasing and gripping this cable as required. Cable cars are distinct from [[funicular]]s, where the cars are permanently attached to the cable.

[[File:Cable car.theora.ogv|thumb|View from a cable car in San Francisco]]

== History ==
[[File:Minories stationLBR.jpg|thumb|left|Winding drums on the [[London and Blackwall Railway|London and Blackwall]] cable-operated railway, 1840]]

[[File:Cable Driving Plant, Designed and Constructed by Poole and Hunt, Baltimore, MD.jpg|thumb|Cable Driving Plant, Designed and Constructed by Poole & Hunt, Baltimore, MD. Drawing by P.F. Goist, circa 1882. The powerhouse has two horizontal single-cylinder engines. The lithograph shows a hypothetical prototype of a cable powerhouse, rather than any actual built structure.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hilton|first=George W.|title=The Cable Car in America|year=1971|publisher=Howell NorthBooks|location=Berkeley, CA.}}</ref> Poole & Hunt, machinists and engineers, was a major cable industry designer and contractor and manufacturer of gearing, sheaves, shafting and wire rope drums. They did work for cable railways in Baltimore, Chicago, Hoboken, Kansas City, New York, and Philadelphia.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Cable in Chicago: Speeding along the Streets Rapid Transit there for Miles|newspaper=The Baltimore Sun, page 8|date=Nov 9, 1889}}</ref>]]

The first cable-operated railway, employing a moving rope that could be picked up or released by a [[Cable grip|grip]] on the cars was the [[Fawdon Wagonway]] in 1826, a [[colliery railway line]].<ref>Erskine Hazard, Observations upon Rail-roads, [https://books.google.com/books?id=yrgFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA275 The Franklin Journal and American Mechanics' Magazine], Vol. III, No. 4 (April 1827); page 275.</ref><ref>Fawdon Wagonway, [http://sine.ncl.ac.uk/view_structure_information.asp?struct_id=722 Structural Images of the North East] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120902001020/http://sine.ncl.ac.uk/view_structure_information.asp?struct_id=722 |date=2012-09-02 }}, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, 26 Mar. 2004.</ref> The [[London and Blackwall Railway]], which opened for passengers in east [[London]], England, in 1840 used such a system.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Robertson|first=Andrew|date=March 1848|title=Blackwall Railway Machinery|journal=The Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal|publisher=Wiley & Putnam|location=New York|volume=11}}</ref> The rope available at the time proved too susceptible to wear and the system was abandoned in favour of [[steam locomotive]]s after eight years. In America, the first cable car installation in operation probably was the [[IRT Ninth Avenue Line|West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway]] in [[New York City]], as its first-ever [[elevated railway]] which ran from 1 July 1868 to 1870. The cable technology used in this elevated railway involved collar-equipped cables and claw-equipped cars, proving cumbersome. The line was closed and rebuilt, reopening with [[steam locomotive]]s.

In 1869 [[P. G. T. Beauregard]] demonstrated a cable car at [[New Orleans]]<ref name="St. Charles Streetcar">{{Cite book |title=St. Charles Streetcar, The: Or, the New Orleans & Carrollton Railroad |author=James Guilbeau |date =2011 |publisher =Pelican Publishing Company |isbn=9781879714021 |pages =48–49 }}</ref><ref name="The Streetcars of New Orleans">{{Cite book |title=The Streetcars of New Orleans |author=Louis C. Hennick |author2=Elbridge Harper Charlton |date = 1965 |publisher =Pelican Publishing |isbn=9781455612598 |page =16 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.asme.org/getmedia/40ef6e7c-697d-4f77-8daa-059a37f698b3/101-St-Charles-Avenue-Streetcar-Line-1835.aspx |title=St. Charles Avenue Streetcar Line, 1835 |access-date=2016-03-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220072405/https://www.asme.org/getmedia/40ef6e7c-697d-4f77-8daa-059a37f698b3/101-St-Charles-Avenue-Streetcar-Line-1835.aspx |archive-date=2016-12-20 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and was issued {{US patent|97343}}.

Other cable cars to use grips were those of the [[Clay Street Hill Railroad]], which later became part of the [[San Francisco cable car system]]. The building of this line was promoted by [[Andrew Smith Hallidie]] with design work by [[William Eppelsheimer]], and it was first tested in 1873. The success of these grips ensured that this line became the model for other cable car transit systems, and this model is often known as the ''Hallidie Cable Car''.

In 1881 the [[Dunedin cable tramway system]] opened in [[Dunedin]], [[New Zealand]] and became the first such system outside San Francisco. For Dunedin, [[George Smith Duncan]] further developed the Hallidie model, introducing the pull curve and the slot brake; the former was a way to pull cars through a curve, since Dunedin's curves were too sharp to allow coasting, while the latter forced a wedge down into the cable slot to stop the car. Both of these innovations were generally adopted by other cities, including San Francisco.

In Australia, the [[Melbourne cable tramway system]] operated from 1885 to 1940. It was one of the most extensive in the world with 1200 trams and trailers operating over 15 routes with 103 km (64 miles) of track. Sydney also had a couple of cable tram routes.

Cable cars rapidly spread to other cities, although the major attraction for most was the ability to displace [[horsecar]] (or [[mule]]-drawn) systems rather than the ability to climb hills. Many people at the time viewed horse-drawn transit as unnecessarily cruel, and the fact that a typical horse could work only four or five hours per day necessitated the maintenance of large [[stables]] of [[draft animals]] that had to be fed, housed, groomed, medicated and rested. Thus, for a period, economics worked in favour of cable cars even in relatively flat cities.

For example, the [[Chicago City Railway]], also designed by Eppelsheimer, opened in [[Chicago]] in 1882 and went on to become the largest and most profitable [[Cable cars in Chicago|cable car system]]. As with many cities, the problem in flat Chicago was not one of incline, but of transportation capacity. This caused a different approach to the combination of grip car and trailer. Rather than using a grip car and single trailer, as many cities did, or combining the grip and trailer into a single car, like San Francisco's ''California Cars'', Chicago used grip cars to pull trains of up to three trailers.

In 1883 the [[New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway]] was opened, which had a most curious feature: though it was a cable car system, it used [[steam locomotive]]s to get the cars into and out of the terminals. After 1896 the system was changed to one on which a motor car was added to each train to maneuver at the terminals, while en route, the trains were still propelled by the cable.

[[File:Cablecarpicjpg.jpg|thumb|right|A San Francisco cable car travels along California Street in the city's Financial District.]]

On 25 September 1883, a test of a cable car system was held by [[Liverpool Tramways Company]] in [[Kirkdale, Liverpool|Kirkdale]], [[Liverpool]]. This would have been the first cable car system in Europe, but the company decided against implementing it. Instead, the distinction went to the 1884 [[Highgate Hill Cable Tramway]], a route from [[Archway, London|Archway]] to [[Highgate]], north London, which used a continuous cable and grip system on the 1 in 11 (9%) climb of Highgate Hill. The installation was not reliable and was replaced by electric traction in 1909.<ref>{{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Sheila |title=The Moving Metropolis |publisher=Calmann and King |location=London |year=2001 |page=82 |isbn=1-85669-241-8}}</ref> Other cable car systems were implemented in Europe, though, among which was the [[Glasgow Subway|Glasgow District Subway]], the first underground cable car system, in 1896. ([[London]], England's first deep-level tube railway, the [[City & South London Railway]], had earlier also been built for cable haulage but had been converted to electric traction before opening in 1890.) A few more cable car systems were built in the [[United Kingdom]], [[Trams in Lisbon|Portugal]], and [[Belleville funicular tramway|France]]. European cities, having many more curves in their streets, were ultimately less suitable for cable cars than American cities.

Though some new cable car systems were still being built, by 1890 the cheaper to construct and simpler to operate [[electricity|electrically]]-powered [[tram|trolley]] or tram started to become the norm, and eventually started to replace existing cable car systems. For a while hybrid cable/electric systems operated, for example in Chicago where electric cars had to be pulled by grip cars through the loop area, due to the lack of trolley wires there. Eventually, San Francisco became the only street-running manually operated system to survive—Dunedin, the second city with such cars, was also the second-last city to operate them, closing down in 1957.

===Recent revival===
In the last decades of the 20th-century, cable traction in general has seen a limited revival as [[people mover|automatic people movers]], used in resort areas, airports (for example, [[Link Train|Toronto Airport]]), huge hospital centers and some urban settings. While many of these systems involve cars permanently attached to the cable, the [[Minimetro]] system from [[Poma]]/Leitner Group and the [[Cable Liner]] system from [[DCC Doppelmayr Cable Car]] both have variants that allow the cars to be automatically decoupled from the cable under computer control, and can thus be considered a modern interpretation of the cable car.

==Operation==
[[File:San Francisco Cable Car Power House.jpg|thumb|right|Machinery driving the San Francisco cable car system]]

[[File:Cablecar tracks in San Francisco, 1970.jpg|thumb|The cable slot lies centered between the two rails of the track, providing an ingress for the grip, 1970.]]

The cable is itself powered by a [[stationary engine]] or motor situated in a cable house or power house. The speed at which it moves is relatively constant depending on the number of units gripping the cable at any given time.

The cable car begins moving when a clamping device attached to the car, called a ''[[cable grip|grip]]'', applies pressure to ("grip") the moving cable. Conversely, the car is stopped by releasing pressure on the cable (with or without completely detaching) and applying the brakes. This gripping and releasing action may be manual, as was the case in all early cable car systems, or automatic, as is the case in some recent cable operated [[people mover]] type systems. Gripping must be applied evenly and gradually in order to avoid bringing the car to cable speed too quickly and unacceptably jarring passengers.

In the case of manual systems, the grip resembles a very large pair of [[pliers]], and considerable strength and skill are required to operate the car. As many early cable car operators discovered the hard way, if the grip is not applied properly, it can damage the cable, or even worse, become entangled in the cable. In the latter case, the cable car may not be able to stop and can wreak havoc along its route until the cable house realizes the mishap and halts the cable.<ref name="Reardon_Page_60">{{cite book |last1=Reardon |first1=Patrick T. |title=The Loop: The "L" Tracks That Shaped and Saved Chicago |date=2021 |publisher=Southern Illinois University Press |location=Carbondale, Illinois |isbn=9780809338108 |page=60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tqkJEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA60}}</ref>

One apparent advantage of the cable car is its relative energy efficiency. This is due to the economy of centrally located power stations, and the ability of descending cars to transfer energy to ascending cars. However, this advantage is totally negated by the relatively large energy consumption required to simply move the cable over and under the numerous guide rollers and around the many [[sheave]]s. Approximately 95% of the tractive effort in the San Francisco system is expended in simply moving the four cables at {{cvt|9.5|mph|order=flip}}.<ref>Source: San Francisco Municipal Railway</ref> Electric cars with [[regenerative braking]] do offer the advantages, without the problem of moving a cable. In the case of steep grades, however, cable traction has the major advantage of not depending on [[rail adhesion|adhesion between wheels and rails]]. There is also the advantage that keeping the car gripped to the cable will also limit the downhill speed of the car to that of the cable.

Because of the constant and relatively low speed, a cable car's potential to cause harm in an accident can be underestimated. Even with a cable car traveling at only {{cvt|9|mph|order=flip}}, the mass of the cable car and the combined strength and speed of the cable can cause extensive damage in a collision.

== Relation to funiculars == 
A cable car is superficially similar to a [[funicular]], but differs from such a system in that its cars are not permanently attached to the cable and can stop independently, whereas a funicular has cars that are permanently attached to the propulsion cable, which is itself stopped and started. A cable car cannot climb as steep a grade as a funicular, but many more cars can be operated with a single cable, making it more flexible, and allowing a higher capacity. During the rush hour on San Francisco's Market Street Railway in 1883, a car would leave the terminal every 15 seconds.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Evanosky |first1=Dennis |title=Lost San Francisco |date=2013 |publisher=Pavilion Books |page=60 |isbn=9781909815247 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KP-_CAAAQBAJ&pg=PT60}}</ref>

A few funicular railways operate in street traffic, and because of this operation are often incorrectly described as cable cars. Examples of such operation, and the consequent confusion, are:
* The [[Great Orme Tramway]] in [[Llandudno]], [[Wales]].
* Several street funiculars in [[Lisbon]], [[Portugal]].

Even more confusingly, a hybrid cable car/funicular line once existed in the form of the original [[Wellington Cable Car]], in the [[New Zealand]] city of [[Wellington]]. This line had both a continuous loop haulage cable that the cars gripped using a cable car gripper, and a balance cable permanently attached to both cars over an undriven pulley at the top of the line. The descending car gripped the haulage cable and was pulled downhill, in turn pulling the ascending car (which remained ungripped) uphill by the balance cable. This line was rebuilt in 1979 and is now a standard funicular, although it retains its old cable car name.

== List of cable car systems ==

=== Cities currently operating cable cars ===


==== Traditional cable car systems ====
The best-known existing cable car system is the [[San Francisco cable car system]] in the city of [[San Francisco, California]]. San Francisco's cable cars constitute the oldest and largest such system in permanent operation, and it is one of the few still functioning in the traditional manner, with manually operated cars running in street traffic. Other examples of cable powered systems can be found on the Great Orme in North Wales. and in Lisbon in Portugal. All of these however are slightly different to San Francisco in that the cars are permanently attached to the cable.

==== Modern cable car systems ====

Several cities operate a modern version of the cable car system. These systems are fully automated and run on their own reserved right of way. They are commonly referred to as [[people mover]]s, although that term is also applied to systems with other forms of propulsion, including funicular style cable propulsion.

These cities include:

* [[Oakland, California]], United States – The [[BART to OAK]] link between the [[BART]] mass transit system and [[Oakland Airport]], based on [[Doppelmayr Cable Car]]'s [[Cable Liner]] Pinched Loop
* [[Perugia]], [[Italy]] – The [[Perugia People Mover]], based on [[Leitner Ropeways|Leitner]]'s [[MiniMetro]]
* [[Shanghai]], [[China]] - The [[Bund Sightseeing Tunnel]], based on Soulé's [[SK (people mover)|SK]]
* [[Caracas]], [[Venezuela]] - The [[Cabletren Bolivariano]], based on [[Doppelmayr Cable Car]]'s [[Cable Liner]] Pinched Loop
* [[Zürich]], [[Switzerland]] - The [[Skymetro]] connects the [[Zurich Airport]]'s main Airside Center, Gates A, B and C with its mid-field Gates E, based on [[OTIS]]'s [[Otis Hovair]]

=== Cities previously operating cable cars ===

==== Australia ====
[[File:Melbourne cable tram 1905.jpg|thumb|Cable tram and trailer on the St Kilda Line in [[Melbourne]] in 1905]]
* [[Melbourne]] (1885–1940, the [[Melbourne cable tramway system]])
* [[Trams in Sydney|Sydney]] (1886–1905)

==== France ====
* [[Laon]] – The [[Poma 2000]] (service ended in 2016)<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.tul-laon.net/poma.php | title = POMA | publisher = Transports Urbain Laonnois | language = fr | access-date = 2009-04-02 }}</ref>
* [[Paris]] ([[Tramway funiculaire de Belleville]] 1873–1935)

==== Lebanon ====
* [[Beirut]] (Late 1880s until destruction during the [[Lebanese Civil War]])

==== New Zealand ====
* [[Dunedin]] (1881–1957, the [[Dunedin cable tramway system]])
* [[Wellington]] (1902–1979, the original [[Wellington Cable Car]] hybrid system)

==== Philippines ====
* [[Manila]] (Early 1900s-1930s, the Manila-Malabon railway.)

==== Portugal ====
* [[Lisbon]] (converted to regular [[Trams in Lisbon|tram]] lines in the early 20th century: ''São Sebastião'', ''Estrela'', and ''Graça'')

==== United Kingdom ====
* [[Birmingham]] ([[City of Birmingham Tramways Company Ltd]], 1888–1911, converted to [[Railway electrification system|electric traction]])
* [[Edinburgh]] ([[Edinburgh Corporation Tramways]], 1899–1923, converted to electric traction)
* [[Glasgow]] ([[Glasgow Subway]], 1896–1935, converted to electric traction)
* [[Hastings]]
* [[Liverpool]] (trial in 1883)
* [[London]], England (1884–1909, [[Highgate Hill Cable Tramway]] connecting [[Archway, London|Archway]] with [[Highgate]], the first cable car in regular operation in Europe)
* [[Matlock, Derbyshire|Matlock]] (1893–1927, the [[Matlock Cable Tramway]])

==== Isle of Man ====
* [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]] (1896–1929, the [[Upper Douglas Cable Tramway]])

==== United States ====
[[File:Cable car on Yesler Way at 3rd Avenue in 1940.gif|thumb|right|A Seattle cable car in 1940, just before service ended. Seattle was the last city in the U.S. to abandon all its street cable railways, with the last three lines all closing in 1940, leaving San Francisco as the only U.S. city where cable cars continued to operate.<ref name=hilton-p167>Hilton (1982), p. 167.</ref>]]

* [[Baltimore, Maryland]] (1890–1897)
* [[Binghamton, New York]] (trial in 1885)
* [[Brooklyn|Brooklyn, New York]]
** [[New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway]]
** [[Brooklyn Cable Company]]'s [[Park Avenue Line (Brooklyn surface)|Park Avenue Line]]
** [[Brooklyn Heights Railroad]]'s [[Montague Street Line]]
* [[Butte, Montana]] (1889–1897)
* [[Cable cars in Chicago|Chicago, Illinois]] (1882–1906)
**[[Chicago City Railway]]
**North Chicago Street Railroad
**West Chicago Street Railroad
* [[Cincinnati, Ohio]]
* [[Cleveland, Ohio]]
* [[Denver, Colorado]] (1886–1900, the [[Denver Tramway]])
* [[Grand Rapids, Michigan]]
* [[Hoboken, New Jersey]] (1886–1892, the [[North Hudson County Railway]]'s [[Hoboken Elevated]])
* [[Kansas City, Missouri]] (1885–1913), including 9th St Incline (1888–1902), 8th St. Tunnel in use (1887–1956)
* [[Los Angeles, California]] (1885–1889) [[Second Street Cable Railway]], (1886–1902) [[Temple Street Cable Railway]], (1889–1896) [[Los Angeles Cable Railway]]
* [[New York City]]
** [[West Side and Yonkers Patent Railway]]'s [[Ninth Avenue Line (Manhattan elevated)|Ninth Avenue Line]]
** [[New York and Brooklyn Bridge Railway]]
** [[Third Avenue Railroad]]'s [[125th Street Crosstown Line]]
** Third Avenue Railroad's [[Third Avenue Line (Manhattan surface)|Third Avenue Line]]
** [[Metropolitan Street Railway]]'s [[Broadway Line (Lower Manhattan surface)|Broadway Line]]
** Metropolitan Street Railway's [[Broadway and Columbus Avenue Line]]
** Metropolitan Street Railway's [[Broadway and Lexington Avenue Line]]
** [[IRT Ninth Avenue Line]] (defunct)
* [[Newark, New Jersey]] (1888–1889)
* [[Oakland, California]] (1886–1899)
* [[Omaha, Nebraska]]
* [[Philadelphia|Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Pittsburgh|Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania]]
* [[Portland, Oregon]] (1890–1904)
* [[Providence, Rhode Island]]
* [[St. Louis, Missouri]]
* [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]]
* [[San Diego]], California (1890–1892)
* [[Seattle, Washington]] (1888–1940)<ref name=hilton-p389>Hilton (1982), pp. 389–407.</ref>
* [[Sioux City, Iowa]]
* [[Spokane, Washington]] (1899–1936)
* [[Tacoma, Washington]] (1891–1938)<ref name=hilton-p465>Hilton (1982), p. 465.</ref>
* [[Tulsa, Oklahoma]]
* [[Washington, D.C.]] (1890–1899, part of the [[Streetcars in Washington, D.C.|Washington streetcar system]])
* [[Wichita, Kansas]]

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Aerial tramway]]
* [[Cable car (disambiguation)|Cable car]] – Disambiguation
* [[Cable railway]]
* [[Cable ferry]]
* [[Cable Liner]]
* [[Elevator]]
* [[Funicular]]
* [[Glasgow Subway]]
* [[Grade (slope)]]
* [[IRT Ninth Avenue Line]]
* [[List of funicular railways]]
* [[Rack railway]] (Cog railway)
* [[Reaction ferry]]
* [[San Francisco cable car system]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
;Specific
{{Reflist|30em}}

;General
* [[George Hilton (historian)|Hilton, George W.]] (1982). ''The Cable Car in America (Revised Edition)''. San Diego, California: Howell–North Books. Reprinted 1997 by [[Stanford University Press]]. {{ISBN|0-8047-3051-2}}.
* ''Of Cables and Grips: The Cable Cars of San Francisco'', by Robert Callwell and Walter Rice, published by Friends of the Cable Car Museum, first edition, 2000.
* ''Chicago Cable Cars'', by Greg Borzo, published by The History Press (2012), {{ISBN|978-1-60949-327-1}}

== External links ==
{{Commons|Cable car on rails}}
{{Commons category|Cable cars (railway)}}
{{NSRW poster|Cable-Road}}

'''Information'''
* [http://www.cablecarmuseum.com Cable Car Museum]
* [http://www.cable-car-guy.com Cable Car Guy]
* [http://www.ghidelli.net/scripophily/cal%20cable.html a scripophily based article re. the San Francisco Cal Cable and the Swiss Borel Bankers (in German)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040204085610/http://www.lostnewyorkcity.com/buildingphotos/Plate-51-b.html The Cable Building] (New York City) Broadway Cable car line.
* [http://www.cablecarmuseum.org/archive/Anat/Anat.html How Cable Cars Operate] San Francisco Cable Car Museum
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch_popup?v=NINOxRxze9k San Francisco Cable Car Movie from 1905]

'''Patents'''
* {{US patent|19736}}{{snd}}''Railroad track''
* {{US patent|110971}}{{snd}}''Endless wire ropeway''

{{Public transport}}
{{SkiLift}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cable railways| ]]
[[Category:Cable car railways| ]]
[[Category:Rail technologies]]
[[Category:Railways by type]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]

MiniMetro

2023-08-12T22:43:10Z

Relative Humidity: Add link to Leitner Ropeways

{{About|the automated people mover|all other uses|Mini Metro (disambiguation){{!}}Mini Metro}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:MiniMetro}}
[[Image:Minimetrò primopiano.jpg|thumb|Minimetrò Perugia]]
[[File:Minimetrò Perugia map.png|thumb|Map of the Minimetrò Perugia]]
[[File:90410MiniMetroPG02.JPG|thumb|Minimetro cars at the station]]
'''MiniMetro''' is a family of cable propelled [[automated people mover]] systems built by HTI Group. The vehicles either run on rails or an air cushion and have either a detachable grip (to the cable) or a fixed grip. [[Leitner Ropeways|Leitner]] has a [[Proving ground|test track]] for the vehicles in [[Vipiteno]]. The current maximum capacity of the system is around 8,000 passengers per hour. The latest system installed with the MiniMetro brand was the [[MIA e Train| Miami International Airport eTrain]] in 2016.

==Perugia People Mover==
In [[Perugia]], a {{convert|3027|m|ft mi|adj=on|sp=us}} stretch with seven stations<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.leitner-ropeways.com/en/company/references/minimetro-perugia-648/
|title=MiniMetrò Perugia
|website=Leitner AG
|access-date=2018-02-01
}}</ref> opened in February 2008 to relieve the inner city of car traffic. It consists of more than 25 vehicles of {{cvt|5|m|ftin|frac=8}} each, with a capacity of 25 passengers and a speed of up to {{convert|25|km|mi|sp=us}} per hour. The interval between successive vehicles is around 1.5 minutes. In 2013, the system carried 10,000 passengers per day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.umbria24.it/minimetro-10-mila-persone-giorno-2013-ecco-piano-triennale-societa/66231.html|title = Minimetrò, oltre 10 mila persone al giorno nel 2013. Ecco il piano triennale della società}}</ref> Plans exist for a second line.

Similar systems are under consideration in [[Bolzano]] and [[Copenhagen]].

==Other MiniMetro installations==
* [[SATUOeiras]] in [[Oeiras, Portugal|Oeiras]] ([[Portugal]]).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.poma.net/en/solutions-2/products/apm-minimetro-2/ |title=APM - MiniMetro® |website=Poma }}</ref> Its operations were ceased in 2015<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.lusoweb.co.uk/satuo.htm |title=SATUO - Sistema Automсtico de Transporte Urbano de Oeiras - The Oeiras Automatic Urban Transport System |website=Luso Pages}}</ref>
* ''Squaire Metro'' links a car park with [[The Squaire]] [[groundscraper]], next to the Frankfurt Airport<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.leitner-ropeways.com/en/company/references/minimetro-squaire-metro-710/ |title=MiniMetro Squaire Metro |website=Leitner AG}}</ref>
* [[ExpressTram]] at Detroit Metropolitan Wayne County Airport
* [[Cairo International Airport]] '''MiniMetro''' [[people mover]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://en.minimetro.com/Home/MiniMetro-on-air-cushions-at-the-Cairo-Airport |title=MiniMetro on air cushions at the Cairo Airport |publisher=LEITNER AG}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.futureairport.com/contractors/passenger-handling/leitner/ |title=Leitner and Poma - Innovative MiniMetro for international airports |website=Future Airport}}</ref>
* [[MIA e Train]] at [[Miami_International_Airport#Concourse_E|Miami International Airport]] — a MiniMetro people mover to satellite Concourse E, replaces 1980s APM (2016)<ref name="MIAliftblog">{{cite web|url=https://liftblog.com/2016/07/14/leitner-poma-minimetro-debuts-at-miami-international-airport/ |title=Leitner-Poma MiniMetro Debuts at Miami International Airport | date=July 14, 2016 | author=Peter Landsman | publisher=Lift Blog |access-date=September 30, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://en.isr.at/news-en/article/new-minimetro-train-in-miami/ |title=New MiniMetro train in Miami |website=Internationale Seilbahn-Rundschau |access-date=2018-02-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180215023530/http://en.isr.at/news-en/article/new-minimetro-train-in-miami/ |archive-date=2018-02-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[Pisa International Airport]] is connected to the ''Pisa Centrale'' — the Pisa's main railway station by ''Pisamover'' — yet another people mover under the MiniMetro trade mark.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.leitner-ropeways.com/en/company/references/mm100-pisamover-3112/ |title=MM100 PisaMover |publisher=Leitner AG |access-date=2018-02-14 |archive-date=2018-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213021647/https://www.leitner-ropeways.com/en/company/references/mm100-pisamover-3112/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=23em}}
* [[Cable car (railway)|Cable car]] (also known as ''cable tram'')
* [[Cable Liner]] — a competing system from DCC Doppelmayr with mostly larger vehicles
* Former [[Poma 2000]] in [[Laon]], [[France]] — dismantled in 2016<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.funimag.com/photoblog/index.php/20160830/la-fin-du-poma-2000-de-laon/ |title=The end of the POMA 2000 Laon |website=Funimag photoblog}}</ref>
* [[Minneapolis–St. Paul Airport Trams]]
* [[Morgantown Personal Rapid Transit]]
* [[Otis Hovair]] transit systems, for example, [[Skymetro]] at Zurich International Airport
* [[SK (people mover)|SK]] people mover — a similar system with smaller vehicles
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Minimetrò}}
* {{Official website|http://en.minimetro.com/}}
* [http://www.minimetrospa.it/ Perugia Minimetrò]
{{Automated trains and fixed-guideway transit}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Minimetro}}
[[Category:People movers]]
[[Category:Cable car railways in Italy]]
[[Category:Transport in Umbria]]
[[Category:Perugia]]

{{Italy-transport-stub}}

World Psychiatry

2023-07-17T20:37:32Z

Relative Humidity: Fix link to online access

{{Infobox journal
| title = World Psychiatry
| cover =
| editor = [[Mario Maj]]
| discipline = [[Psychiatry]]
| former_names =
| abbreviation = World Psychiatry
| language = Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian, Spanish, Turkish
| publisher = [[Wiley-Blackwell]] on behalf of the [[World Psychiatric Association]]
| country =
| frequency = Triannual
| history = 2002-present
| openaccess =
| license =
| impact = 73.3
| impact-year = 2022
| website = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)2051-5545
| link1 = https://www.wpanet.org/english
| link1-name = Online access
| link2 = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/journals/297/
| link2-name = Online archives
| JSTOR =
| OCLC = 70203966
| LCCN =
| CODEN =
| ISSN = 1723-8617
| eISSN =
}}
'''''World Psychiatry''''' is a [[medical journal]] covering research in the area of [[psychiatry]]. It is the official publication of the [[World Psychiatric Association]].<ref>{{cite web |author= |date= |url=http://www.wpanet.org/ |title=WPA OFFICIAL JOURNAL |publisher=[[World Psychiatric Association]] |accessdate=26 June 2014}}</ref> It is published by [[Wiley-Blackwell]] and the [[editor-in-chief]] is [[Mario Maj]].

==Abstracting and indexing==
According to the ''[[Journal Citation Reports]]'', the journal has a 2022 [[impact factor]] of 73.3. It is ranked no. 1 out of 155 journals in the category Psychiatry and no. 1 out of 144 journals in the [[Social Sciences Citation Index]] category.<ref name=WoS>{{cite book |year=2020 |chapter=World Psychiatry |title=2019 Journal Citation Reports |publisher=[[Clarivate Analytics]] |series=[[Web of Science]] |title-link=Journal Citation Reports }}</ref>

The journal is abstracted and indexed in [[PubMed]], [[Current Contents]]/Clinical Medicine, Current Contents/Social and Behavioral Sciences, [[Science Citation Index Expanded]], and [[Embase]].

In addition to the English edition, the journal is also available in [[Arabic]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[French language|French]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]].

==See also==
* [[List of psychiatry journals]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/(ISSN)2051-5545}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Multilingual journals]]
[[Category:Psychiatry journals]]
[[Category:Academic journals established in 2002]]
[[Category:Triannual journals]]
[[Category:Wiley-Blackwell academic journals]]
[[Category:World Psychiatric Association]]

Jack Nissenthall

2023-07-17T20:34:03Z

Relative Humidity: Fix up marker photo caption

{{Infobox military person
|name=Jack Nissen
|image=
|image_size=
|alt=
|caption=
|nickname=''The GCI King''
|birth_name=Jack Maurice Nissenthall
|birth_date={{Birth date|1919|10|9|df=y}}
|birth_place=[[Bow, London|Bow]], London, England
|death_date={{death date and age|1997|1|1|1919|10|9|df=y}}
|death_place= Canada
|placeofburial=
|allegiance=United Kingdom
|branch=[[Royal Air Force]]
|serviceyears= 1939-1945
|rank=Flight Sergeant
|unit=
|battles=[[Dieppe Raid]]
|awards=Nil
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}

'''Jack Nissenthall''' (later shortened to '''Jack Nissen''') was a British [[Royal Air Force]] electronics and radar expert who played a key role in the [[Dieppe raid]]. His actions during the operation resulted in the Allies' gaining vital intelligence about the type, density and location of German radar installations along the Channel coast. The intelligence gathered by his actions also spurred the development of Allied radar jamming countermeasures, the technology of which Nissenthall also assisted in developing after the raid. His role in radar development and his actions during the Dieppe raid were never officially acknowledged, and he received no awards.

==Early life==

Jack Maurice Nissenthall was born in [[Bow, London]], on 9 October 1919, the son of Jewish immigrants. He was educated at Malmesbury Road primary school and Mansford technical school.<ref name=BBC>{{cite web |publisher=BBC |last=Goldstein |first=Ron |title=Jack Nissenthall - The VC Hero Who Never Was (Part 1a) |date=25 May 2004 |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ww2peopleswar/stories/44/a2665244.shtml |access-date=26 August 2017}}</ref> From an early age Nissenthall had shown a great interest and aptitude in electronics and wireless, and took a position with [[EMI]] in 1935 at the age of sixteen, firstly at the EMI factory in [[Hayes, Hillingdon]] and then at their main retail outlet in [[Tottenham Court Road]]. At the same time he was enrolled at the [[Regent Street Polytechnic]] studying advanced electronics.<ref name=BBC/>

==R.A.F Apprentice and early wartime service==

In 1936, Nissenthall was talent scouted by the R.A.F and given an apprenticeship which involved him working during his free time at the experimental radar station at [[Bawdsey]] Manor in [[Suffolk]], thus involving him at a critical period in the pioneering work of [[Robert Watson-Watt]] and his team. On the outbreak of war in September 1939, Nissenthall volunteered for service in the R.A.F. His request for flight duties was refused and instead he was posted to R.A.F Yatesbury where he was assigned to the first R.D.F (Radio Direction Finding) training school in Britain. Thereafter he was posted to various radar installations across the country. His skills and his abilities were increasingly being recognised by higher authority, as indicated by his suggestions for technical improvement of equipment being regularly accepted without question.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Leasor|first1=James|title=Green Beach|date=2001|publisher=Stratus Books|location=Kelly Bray, Cornwall|isbn=0-7551-0044-1|page=4|edition=Second}}</ref> By early 1942, with the rank of sergeant, he was stationed at Hope Cove in Devon, where he had been instrumental in establishing a pioneering [[Ground-control intercept]] (G.C.I.) facility. This and his other contributions had by this time led to him being nicknamed "The G.C.I king".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Leasor|first1=James|title=Green Beach|date=2001|publisher=Stratus Books|location=Kelly Bray, Cornwall|isbn=0-7551-0044-1|page=24|edition=Second}}</ref>

==Volunteering for a special assignment==
Since being rejected for aircrew service due to the value of his technical knowledge,<ref>{{cite web |work=Defense Media Network |title=The Dieppe Raid's Success Within the Failure: The Nissenthall Mission |publisher=Faircount Media Group |last=Jon Zimmerman |first= Dwight |url=https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/the-success-within-the-failure-the-nissenthall-mission-in-the-dieppe-raid/ |date=20 August 2012 |access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref> he made it known he was prepared to be involved in special assignments where his knowledge would be of use, and would often give up his leave to pursue further training, including taking the commando course.<ref name=GB/>

In early 1942 Nissenthall was ordered to report in person for an interview in London and was asked to volunteer for a dangerous assignment.<ref name=GB>{{cite book|last1=Leasor|first1=James|title=Green Beach|date=2001|publisher=Stratus Books|location=Kelly Bray, Cornwall|isbn=0-7551-0044-1|edition=Second}}</ref>

==Operation Jubilee==
{{Main1|Dieppe Raid}}
Operation Jubilee, or the [[Dieppe Raid]], was an [[Allies of World War Two|Allied]] attack on the German-occupied port of [[Dieppe]] during the [[Second World War]]. The raid took place on the northern coast of France on 19 August 1942.
Nissenthall was selected to enter the Pourville Radar Station to gain vital intelligence on the new German ''Freya'' radar, and was escorted by a team of 11 men from the [[South Saskatchewan Regiment]], to protect him but also to prevent his capture, due to his exceptional technical knowledge.
<ref>{{cite book|last1=Atkin|first1=Ronald|title=Dieppe 1942: The Jubilee Disaster|date=1980|publisher=Book Club Associates|location=London|isbn=978-0-333-19187-3}}</ref><ref name=GB/>

He was to attempt to enter the radar station and learn its secrets, accompanied by a small unit of 11 men of the Saskatchewans as bodyguards. Nissenthall volunteered for the mission fully aware that, due to the highly sensitive nature of his knowledge of Allied radar technology, his Saskatchewan bodyguard unit was under orders to kill him if necessary to prevent him from being captured. He also carried a [[suicide pill|cyanide pill]] as a last resort.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Atkin|first1=Ronald|title=Dieppe 1942: The Jubilee Disaster|date=1980|publisher=Book Club Associates|location=London|isbn=978-0-333-19187-3|page=136}}</ref>

Nissenthall and his bodyguards failed to enter the radar station due to strong defences, but Nissenthall was able to crawl up to the rear of the station under enemy fire and cut all telephone wires leading to it. This forced the crew inside to resort to radio transmissions to talk to their commanders, transmissions which were intercepted by listening posts on the south coast of England. The Allies were able to learn a great deal about the location and density of German radar stations along the channel coast thanks to this one single act, which helped to convince Allied commanders of the importance of developing radar jamming technology. Of this small unit, only Nissenthall and one other returned safely to England.<ref>Leasor, James. ''Green Beach'' London: William Heinemann Ltd., 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-908291-10-3}}.</ref><ref name=BBC/>

Due to the clandestine nature of his mission, he was not presented any awards for his actions.<ref name=BBC/>

==Later years==
After the war, Jack Nissenthall shortened his surname to Nissen. He married and moved to South Africa.<ref name=historynet>{{cite web |publisher=historynet |title=RAF Flight Sgt. Jack Nissenthall's Secret Role in Operation Jubilee at Dieppe |date=12 June 2006 |url=http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-raf-flight-sgt-jack-nissenthalls-secret-role-in-operation-jubilee-at-dieppe.htm |access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref>

In 1978, he emigrated to Canada, where he died in 1997<ref>{{cite web |publisher=The Mirror |title=Unforgettable: Remembering war heroes in historic Dieppe |date=12 November 2012 |last=Mayhew |first=Iain |url=https://www.mirror.co.uk/lifestyle/travel/europe-short-haul/operation-jubilee-dieppe-remembering-the-fallen-1432096 |access-date=24 March 2020}}</ref>
==Historical Marker==

A historical marker recognizing and honoring Fl. Sgt. Jack Nissenthal was placed in London by the Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation (U.K. Branch) and AJEX -the (British) Association of Jewish Ex-Servicemen and Women.

[[File:Better image for Nissenthall.jpg|thumb|Fl. Sgt. Jack Nissenthal historical marker in London]]

Text:

{{block indent|1=(Star of David)

Jewish War Hero and Radar Expert of 1942 WW2 Dieppe Raid

Fl. Sgt. Jack Nissenthal, RAF

Attended the Cambridge and Bethnal Green Jewish Youth Club located at 4 Chance Street.

Be strong and of good courage (Joshua 1:9)

(Hebrew)

Jewish American Society for Historic Preservation, U.K. Branch, and AJEX (U.K.)}}

== References ==
;Citations
{{reflist}}

;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
* Atkin, Ronald. ''Dieppe 1942: The Jubilee Disaster''. London: Book Club Associates, 1980. {{ISBN|978-0-333-19187-3}}.
* Leasor, James. ''Green Beach''' London: House of Stratus, 2001. {{ISBN|978-1-908291-10-3}}.
* Nissen, Jack Maurice. ''Winning the radar war''. London : Hale, 1989 {{ISBN|978-0-709-03731-6}}.
See also his chapter in 'Fighting Back' by Martin Sugarman, Valentine Mitchell 2017
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.richardgilbert.ca/achart/public_html/articles/publications/radar.html Jack Nissen and radar]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nissenthall, Jack}}
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:People associated with radar]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:People from Bow, London]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Westminster]]
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Siegesallee

2023-06-14T15:40:00Z

Relative Humidity: Restore edits which I accidentally removed

{{Short description|Street in Berlin, Germany}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
[[Image:Siegesallee2 Berlin.JPG|thumb|300px|The Siegesallee, from a 1902 postcard. In the foreground is the statue of [[Albert I of Brandenburg]] ("Albert the Bear") (1100-1170). This was the northernmost statue on the west side. Other statues can be seen stretching away into the distance.]]
[[Image:Berlin Siegesallee Plan 1902.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Siegesallee from 1902]]

The '''Siegesallee''' ({{IPA-de|ˈziːɡəs.aˌleː|lang}}, ''Victory Avenue'') was a broad [[boulevard]] in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]. In 1895, [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm II]] ordered and financed the expansion of an existing avenue, to be adorned with a variety of marble statues. Work was completed in 1901.

About 750m in length, it ran northwards through the [[Tiergarten (park)|Tiergarten]] park from [[Kemperplatz]] (a road junction on the southern edge of the park near [[Potsdamer Platz]]), to the former site of the [[Berlin Victory Column|Victory Column]] at the [[Platz der Republik (Berlin)|Königsplatz]], close to the Reichstag. Along its length the Siegesallee cut across the Charlottenburger Chaussee (today's [[Straße des 17. Juni]], the main avenue that runs east–west through the park and leads to the [[Brandenburg Gate]]).

The marble monuments and the neobaroque ensemble were ridiculed even by its contemporaries. Berlin folklore dubbed the Kaiser ''Denkmalwilly'' (Monument Billy) for his excessive historicism.<ref>Helmut Caspar (Hrsg): ''Die Beine der Hohenzollern, interpretiert an Standbildern der Siegesallee in Primaneraufsätzen aus dem Jahre 1901, versehen mit Randbemerkungen Seiner Majestät Kaiser Wilhelm II.''. Berlin Edition, Berlin 2001, {{ISBN|3-8148-0086-9}}, 128 S., p.22</ref> Moves to have the statues demolished were thwarted after the end of the monarchy in 1919.

The Siegessäule and the figures were moved by the Nazi government to the [[Großer Stern]] in 1939 to allow for larger military parades{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}}.

Some of the monuments were lost in the aftermath of the [[Second World War]]. The allied forces (the area later belonged to the British sector) had the avenue erased and the area replanted. In a symbolic act, the [[Soviet War Memorial (Tiergarten)]] was deliberately built in its path{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}} immediately after the end of the war. The remaining figures were repaired in the [[Spandau Citadel]] and some form part of the permanent exhibition ''Enthüllt – Berlin und seine Denkmäler'' which opened in April 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zitadelle-berlin.de/en/museums/unveiled/|title = Unveiled|date = 11 April 2016}}</ref> The avenue was reconstructed as a footpath in 2006.

==History==

=== Contemporary reaction ===
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-15302, Berlin, Siegesallee im Schnee.jpg|thumb|The Siegesallee in late 1933, looking north to the original location of the Victory Column]]
On 27 January 1895, the 36th birthday of [[William II, German Emperor]] (1859–1941), the Siegesallee took on a new meaning with Emperor's commissioning of 96 white marble statues. Intended as a personal gift to the city, supposedly to make it the envy of the world, the statues were created by 27 sculptors under the direction of [[Reinhold Begas]] over a period of five years, starting in 1896. Dedicated on 18 December 1901, they consisted firstly of 32 "main" statues, each about 2.75m tall (4 to 5m including their pedestals), of former [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] royal figures of varying historical importance, in two rows of 16, evenly spaced along either side of the boulevard, while behind each one were two busts of associates or advisors mounted on a low semi-circular wall, making 96 sculptures in all.

The whole construction was widely derided by art critics, and regarded by many Berliners as grossly over-indulgent and a vulgar show of strength. It was dubbed the ″Puppenallee″ (Avenue of the Dolls), as well as the Avenue of the Puppets, Plaster Avenue, and other unsavoury titles. Even the Emperor's own wife [[Augusta Viktoria of Schleswig-Holstein|Augusta Viktoria]] (1858–1921), had reportedly been unhappy about it and had tried to persuade him not to go ahead with it, but to no avail. Just one woman was depicted, [[Elisabeth of Bavaria, Electress of Brandenburg|Elisabeth of Bavaria]] (″Schöne Else″ or Beautiful Beth) praying on her knees before her husband. The lack of women was noted by contemporaries.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Die Männergeschichte der Siegesallee. Dynastische Selbstdarstellung im wilhelminischen Deutschland {{!}} L.I.S.A. - Das Wissenschaftsportal der Gerda Henkel Stiftung|url = http://www.lisa.gerda-henkel-stiftung.de/die_maennergeschichte_der_siegesallee._dynastische_selbstdarstellung_im_wilhelminischen_deutschland?nav_id=5259|website = L.I.S.A. - Das Wissenschaftsportal der Gerda Henkel Stiftung|accessdate = 24 November 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Aufsatz Siegesallee.JPG|left|thumb|''Kaum genügend'' (just satisfactory, Schroeder) und ''auffallend vernünftig'' ''für ein solch Thema'' (strikingly reasonable for such a topic Wilhelm II.)]]

Some of the protests turned on the fact that Italian artisans in Berlin did the actual sculpting while artists of the Berliner Bildhauerschule just provided models in plaster or clay. Wilhelm's opening speech, the infamous ''Rinnsteinrede'', portrayed Modernism and Impressionism as a descent of art into the gutter (''Rinnstein'').

Karl Scheffler wrote a devastating criticism in 1907, comparing the Siegesallee to an overly patriotic out-of-tune amateur brassband concerto.<ref>Karl Scheffler: ''Moderne Baukunst''. Leipzig 1907. Quoted in Helmut Caspar ''Die Beine der Hohenzollern …'', p. 103</ref> The Siegesallee was still a popular place to stroll or relax, however.

The figures were used to teach the history of [[Brandenburg]] to pupils. A series of essays by the pupils of a prestigious school, the [[Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium]], reached the Kaiser. On behalf of Professor Otto Schroeder, the pupils had to interpret the [[contrapposto]]—the leg position of the marble leaders, and from that deduce their personalities. The Kaiser gave better marks than the teacher and provided some ironic notes. The whole affair was made public in 1960 by an East German writer, [[Rudolf Herrnstadt]] under a pseudonym.<ref>Originally R.E. Hardt: ''Die Beine der Hohenzollern.'' Rütten & Loening, Berlin 1960, see the edition of Caspar 2001</ref>

== After the monarchy ==
In 1918 and 1919, among other occasions, [[Hans Paasche]] asked to have the statues destroyed. The soldiers' and workers' council of Berlin decided to keep them. [[Kurt Tucholsky]] had written a poem, asking to keep the figures silent, as ''monuments of a great era.''<ref>{{Cite web|title = Ulk. Wochenbeilage zum Berliner Tageblatt (47.1918)|url = http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/ulk1918/0198?sid=dea1efe2d4b22b3f3873730aa8153787|website = digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de|accessdate = 24 November 2015}}</ref>

The statues remained in place until 1938, when they got in the way of the grand plan by [[Adolf Hitler]] to transform Berlin into the [[Welthauptstadt Germania]], to be realised by [[Albert Speer]]. The avenue was set to disappear under the new [[Welthauptstadt Germania#The Avenue of Splendours|North-South Axis]], the linchpin of the plan, and so on Speer's direction the entire construction was dismantled and rebuilt in another part of the Tiergarten, along a south-east to north-west running avenue called ″Großer Sternallee″ that led to the [[Großer Stern]] (literally ″Large Star″) itself, the main intersection of roads in the centre of the Tiergarten, one of the other roads being the Charlottenburger Chaussee. In its new location it was given a new name — ″Neue Siegesallee″ (New Victory Avenue).{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}} The Victory Column was also moved, to the middle of the Großer Stern (and increased in height in the process), where it remains to this day.

[[Image:Standbilder 3 Siegesallee Zitadelle.JPG|thumb|left|Statues in the [[Spandau Citadel]], August 2009]]

Many of the statues were damaged in World War II, while a few were smashed completely. Generally though, the avenue survived, more or less, while all around was a scene of devastation. Most of the Tiergarten's 200,000 trees were shattered by bombs and artillery shells and finally cut down for fuel by desperate Berliners. In the 1948 movie The Ballad of Berlin "Berliner Ballade" (film), Otto Normalverbraucher (″Otto Average-Consumer″), played by [[Gert Fröbe]], as a former German soldier returning to civilian life, gives an ironic salute to the figures.''<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Ballad of Berlin (1948)|url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0040156/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_7|website = imdb.com|accessdate = 19 June 2022}}</ref>

However, the statues were seen by the Allied powers as a symbol of Imperial Germany, and in 1947 the British Occupation Forces [[Iconoclasm#Political and revolutionary iconoclasm|dismantled the Siegesallee remains]], these apparently being bound for the [[Teufelsberg]] (Devil's Mountain), the largest of the eight huge rubble mountains around Berlin's perimeter.

[[Image:Siegesallee - Original Site, 2003.jpg|thumb|The original route of the Siegesallee in December 2003]]

State curator Hinnerk Schaper intervened, however, and buried most of the statues in the grounds of the nearby [[Schloss Bellevue]], today the official residence of the [[Federal President of Germany]], in the hope that one day, when Germany could be more accepting of monuments to its past, they might resurface. In 1979 they were rediscovered and disinterred, and many of the survivors were relocated to a museum called the Lapidarium, at Hallesches Ufer, on the north bank of the [[Landwehrkanal]], near the site of the former [[Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof|Anhalter Bahnhof]]. The museum had formerly been Berlin's first sewage pumping station. In October 2006, however, the museum closed. The building was put up for sale, and the remaining 26 Siegesallee statues and 40 sidebusts (and numerous others housed there) were moved in May 2009 to the [[Spandau Citadel]].

==Sculptors who worked on the project==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Max Baumbach]]
* [[Karl Begas]]
* [[Reinhold Begas]]
* [[Eugen Boermel]]
* [[Johannes Boese]]
* [[Peter Breuer]]
* [[Adolf Brütt]]
* [[Alexander Calandrelli]]
* [[Ludwig Cauer]]
* [[Gustav Eberlein]]
* [[Reinhold Felderhoff]]
* [[Fritz Gerth]]
* [[Johannes Götz]]
* [[Ernst Herter]]
* [[August Kraus]]
* [[Otto Lessing (sculptor)|Otto Lessing]]
* [[Harro Magnussen]]
* [[Albert Manthe]]
* [[Ludwig Manzel]]
* [[Norbert Pfretzschner]]
* [[Fritz Schaper]]
* [[Emil von Schlitz]]
* [[Walter Schott]]
* [[Rudolf Siemering]]
* [[Cuno von Uechtritz-Steinkirch]]
* [[Max Unger (sculptor)|Max Unger]]
* [[Joseph Uphues]]
* [[Martin Wolff (sculptor)|Martin Wolff]]
{{div col end}}

==See also==
* [[Wilhelminism]]

== Further reading ==
* Helmut Caspar (ed.): ''Die Beine der Hohenzollern, interpretiert an Standbildern der Siegesallee in Primaneraufsätzen aus dem Jahre 1901, versehen mit Randbemerkungen Seiner Majestät Kaiser Wilhelm II.''. Berlin Edition, Berlin 2001, {{ISBN|3-8148-0086-9}}.
* ''Die Berliner Moderne 1885–1914''. Hrsg. Jürgen Schütte, Peter Sprengel, Reclam Verlag, Ditzingen 2000, UB 8359, {{ISBN|978-3-15-008359-8}}.
* Jan von Flocken: ''Die Siegesallee. Auf den Spuren der brandenburgisch-preußischen Geschichte''. Kai Homilius Verlag, Berlin 2001, {{ISBN|3-89706-899-0}}.
* Richard George (Ed..): ''Hie gut Brandenburg alleweg! Geschichts- und Kulturbilder aus der Vergangenheit der Mark und aus Alt-Berlin bis zum Tode des Großen Kurfürsten''. Verlag von W. Pauli's Nachf., Berlin 1900
* Uta Lehnert: ''Der Kaiser und die Siegesallee. Réclame Royale''. Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin 1998, {{ISBN|3-496-01189-0}}.
* Otto Nagel: ''H. Zille''. Veröffentlichung der Deutschen Akademie der Künste. Henschelverlag, Berlin 1970.
* Max Osborn: ''Berlin''. Mit 179 Abbildungen. In der Reihe: Berühmte Kunststätten Band 43, Verlag von E. A. Seemann, Leipzig 1909.
* ''Die Siegesallee, Amtlicher Führer durch die Standbildgruppen.'' Mit Situationsplan und einem Vorwort von Kaiser Wilhelm II. Text von Koser unter Mitwirkung von Sternfeld. Herausgegeben auf Veranlassung des Königlichen Unterrichtsministeriums, Berlin, Oldenbourg um 1900.
* Cornelius Steckner: ''Die Sparsamkeit der Alten. Kultureller und technologischer Wandel zwischen 1871 und 1914 in seiner Auswirkung auf die Formgebung des Bildhauers Adolf Brütt.'' Verlag Peter D. Lang, Frankfurt/M und Bern, 1981, S. 47–52, {{ISBN|3-8204-6897-8}}
* Cornelius Steckner: ''Der Bildhauer Adolf Brütt.'' Schleswig-Holstein. Berlin. Weimar. Autobiografie und Werkverzeichnis. (Schriften der Schleswig-Holsteinischen Landesbibliothek. Hrsg. Dieter Lohmeier. Band 9), Westholsteinische Verlagsanstalt Boyens & Co., Heide 1989. {{ISBN|3-8042-0479-1}} (S. 182–191; S. 172–176).
* Peter Hahn & Jürgen Stich, ''Friedenau-Geschichte & Geschichten'', Oase Verlag, 2015, {{ISBN|978-3-88922-107-0}}.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [[:de:Liste der Figurengruppen in der Berliner Siegesallee|List on de-wp]] List with all Siegesallee-monument-groups and detailed information (German)

{{Commons|Siegesallee}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|52|30|51|N|13|22|15|E|region:DE-BE_type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:Streets in Berlin]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Berlin]]

Siegesallee

2023-06-14T15:38:16Z

Relative Humidity: Remove misplaced duplicate citation

{{Short description|Street in Berlin, Germany}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
[[Image:Siegesallee2 Berlin.JPG|thumb|300px|The Siegesallee, from a 1902 postcard. In the foreground is the statue of [[Albert I of Brandenburg]] ("Albert the Bear") (1100-1170). This was the northernmost statue on the west side. Other statues can be seen stretching away into the distance.]]
[[Image:Berlin Siegesallee Plan 1902.jpg|thumb|300px|Map of Siegesallee from 1902]]

The '''Siegesallee''' ({{IPA-de|ˈziːɡəs.aˌleː|lang}}, ''Victory Avenue'') was a broad [[boulevard]] in [[Berlin]], [[Germany]]. In 1895, [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm II]] ordered and financed the expansion of an existing avenue, to be adorned with a variety of marble statues. Work was completed in 1901.

About 750m in length, it ran northwards through the [[Tiergarten (park)|Tiergarten]] park from [[Kemperplatz]] (a road junction on the southern edge of the park near [[Potsdamer Platz]]), to the former site of the [[Berlin Victory Column|Victory Column]] at the [[Platz der Republik (Berlin)|Königsplatz]], close to the Reichstag. Along its length the Siegesallee cut across the Charlottenburger Chaussee (today's [[Straße des 17. Juni]], the main avenue that runs east–west through the park and leads to the [[Brandenburg Gate]]).

The marble monuments and the neobaroque ensemble were ridiculed even by its contemporaries. Berlin folklore dubbed the Kaiser ''Denkmalwilly'' (Monument Billy) for his excessive historicism.<ref>Helmut Caspar (Hrsg): ''Die Beine der Hohenzollern, interpretiert an Standbildern der Siegesallee in Primaneraufsätzen aus dem Jahre 1901, versehen mit Randbemerkungen Seiner Majestät Kaiser Wilhelm II.''. Berlin Edition, Berlin 2001, {{ISBN|3-8148-0086-9}}, 128 S., p.22</ref> Moves to have the statues demolished were thwarted after the end of the monarchy in 1919.

The Siegessäule and the figures were moved by the Nazi government to the [[Großer Stern]] in 1939 to allow for larger military parades{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}}.

Some of the monuments were lost in the aftermath of the [[Second World War]]. The allied forces (the area later belonged to the British sector) had the avenue erased and the area replanted. In a symbolic act, the [[Soviet War Memorial (Tiergarten)]] was deliberately built in its path{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}} immediately after the end of the war. The remaining figures were repaired in the [[Spandau Citadel]] and some form part of the permanent exhibition ''Enthüllt – Berlin und seine Denkmäler'' which opened in April 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zitadelle-berlin.de/en/museums/unveiled/|title = Unveiled|date = 11 April 2016}}</ref> The avenue was reconstructed as a footpath in 2006.

==History==

=== Contemporary reaction ===
[[Image:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-15302, Berlin, Siegesallee im Schnee.jpg|thumb|The Siegesallee in late 1933, looking north to the original location of the Victory Column]]
It was on 27 January 1895, the 36th birthday of [[William II, German Emperor]] (1859–1941), that the Siegesallee took on a whole new meaning with the commissioning by the Emperor of 96 white marble statues. Intended as a personal gift to the city, supposedly to make it the envy of the world, the statues were created by 27 sculptors under the direction of [[Reinhold Begas]] over a period of five years, starting in 1896. Dedicated on 18 December 1901, they consisted firstly of 32 "main" statues, each about 2.75m tall (4 to 5m including their pedestals), of former [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] royal figures of varying historical importance, in two rows of 16, evenly spaced along either side of the boulevard, while behind each one were two busts of associates or advisors mounted on a low semi-circular wall, making 96 sculptures in all.

The whole construction was widely derided by art critics, and regarded by many Berliners as grossly over-indulgent and a vulgar show of strength. It was dubbed the ″Puppenallee″ (Avenue of the Dolls), as well as the Avenue of the Puppets, Plaster Avenue, and other unsavoury titles. Even the Emperor's own wife [[Augusta Viktoria of Schleswig-Holstein|Augusta Viktoria]] (1858–1921), had reportedly been unhappy about it and had tried to persuade him not to go ahead with it, but to no avail. Just one woman was depicted, [[Elisabeth of Bavaria, Electress of Brandenburg|Elisabeth of Bavaria]] (″Schöne Else″ or Beautiful Beth) praying on her knees before her husband. The lack of women was noted by contemporaries.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Die Männergeschichte der Siegesallee. Dynastische Selbstdarstellung im wilhelminischen Deutschland {{!}} L.I.S.A. - Das Wissenschaftsportal der Gerda Henkel Stiftung|url = http://www.lisa.gerda-henkel-stiftung.de/die_maennergeschichte_der_siegesallee._dynastische_selbstdarstellung_im_wilhelminischen_deutschland?nav_id=5259|website = L.I.S.A. - Das Wissenschaftsportal der Gerda Henkel Stiftung|accessdate = 24 November 2015}}</ref>

[[File:Aufsatz Siegesallee.JPG|left|thumb|''Kaum genügend'' (just satisfactory, Schroeder) und ''auffallend vernünftig'' ''für ein solch Thema'' (strikingly reasonable for such a topic Wilhelm II.)]]

Some of the protests turned on the fact that Italian artisans in Berlin did the actual sculpting while artists of the Berliner Bildhauerschule just provided models in plaster or clay. Wilhelm's opening speech, the infamous ''Rinnsteinrede'', portrayed Modernism and Impressionism as a descent of art into the gutter (''Rinnstein'').

Karl Scheffler wrote a devastating criticism in 1907, comparing the Siegesallee to an overly patriotic out-of-tune amateur brassband concerto.<ref>Karl Scheffler: ''Moderne Baukunst''. Leipzig 1907. Quoted in Helmut Caspar ''Die Beine der Hohenzollern …'', p. 103</ref> The Siegesallee was still a popular place to stroll or relax, however.

The figures were used to teach the history of [[Brandenburg]] to pupils. A series of essays by the pupils of a prestigious school, the [[Joachimsthalsches Gymnasium]], reached the Kaiser. On behalf of Professor Otto Schroeder, the pupils had to interpret the [[contrapposto]]—the leg position of the marble leaders, and from that deduce their personalities. The Kaiser gave better marks than the teacher and provided some ironic notes. The whole affair was made public in 1960 by an East German writer, [[Rudolf Herrnstadt]] under a pseudonym.<ref>Originally R.E. Hardt: ''Die Beine der Hohenzollern.'' Rütten & Loening, Berlin 1960, see the edition of Caspar 2001</ref>

== After the monarchy ==
In 1918 and 1919, among other occasions, [[Hans Paasche]] asked to have the statues destroyed. The soldiers' and workers' council of Berlin decided to keep them. [[Kurt Tucholsky]] had written a poem, asking to keep the figures silent, as ''monuments of a great era.''<ref>{{Cite web|title = Ulk. Wochenbeilage zum Berliner Tageblatt (47.1918)|url = http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/ulk1918/0198?sid=dea1efe2d4b22b3f3873730aa8153787|website = digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de|accessdate = 24 November 2015}}</ref>

The statues remained in place until 1938, when they got in the way of the grand plan by [[Adolf Hitler]] to transform Berlin into the [[Welthauptstadt Germania]], to be realised by [[Albert Speer]]. The avenue was set to disappear under the new [[Welthauptstadt Germania#The Avenue of Splendours|North-South Axis]], the linchpin of the plan, and so on Speer's direction the entire construction was dismantled and rebuilt in another part of the Tiergarten, along a south-east to north-west running avenue called ″Großer Sternallee″ that led to the [[Großer Stern]] (literally ″Large Star″) itself, the main intersection of roads in the centre of the Tiergarten, one of the other roads being the Charlottenburger Chaussee. In its new location it was given a new name — ″Neue Siegesallee″ (New Victory Avenue).{{Citation needed|date=January 2019}} The Victory Column was also moved, to the middle of the Großer Stern (and increased in height in the process), where it remains to this day.

[[Image:Standbilder 3 Siegesallee Zitadelle.JPG|thumb|left|Statues in the [[Spandau Citadel]], August 2009]]

Many of the statues were damaged in World War II, while a few were smashed completely. Generally though, the avenue survived, more or less, while all around was a scene of devastation. Most of the Tiergarten's 200,000 trees were shattered by bombs and artillery shells and finally cut down for fuel by desperate Berliners. In the 1948 movie The Ballad of Berlin "Berliner Ballade" (film), Otto Normalverbraucher (″Otto Average-Consumer″), played by [[Gert Fröbe]], as a former German soldier returning to civilian life, gives an ironic salute to the figures.''<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Ballad of Berlin (1948)|url = https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0040156/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_7|website = imdb.com|accessdate = 19 June 2022}}</ref>

However, the statues were seen by the Allied powers as a symbol of Imperial Germany, and in 1947 the British Occupation Forces [[Iconoclasm#Political and revolutionary iconoclasm|dismantled the Siegesallee remains]], these apparently being bound for the [[Teufelsberg]] (Devil's Mountain), the largest of the eight huge rubble mountains around Berlin's perimeter.

[[Image:Siegesallee - Original Site, 2003.jpg|thumb|The original route of the Siegesallee in December 2003]]

State curator Hinnerk Schaper intervened, however, and buried most of the statues in the grounds of the nearby [[Schloss Bellevue]], today the official residence of the [[Federal President of Germany]], in the hope that one day, when Germany could be more accepting of monuments to its past, they might resurface. In 1979 they were rediscovered and disinterred, and many of the survivors were relocated to a museum called the Lapidarium, at Hallesches Ufer, on the north bank of the [[Landwehrkanal]], near the site of the former [[Berlin Anhalter Bahnhof|Anhalter Bahnhof]]. The museum had formerly been Berlin's first sewage pumping station. In October 2006, however, the museum closed. The building was put up for sale, and the remaining 26 Siegesallee statues and 40 sidebusts (and numerous others housed there) were moved in May 2009 to the [[Spandau Citadel]].

==Sculptors who worked on the project==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Max Baumbach]]
* [[Karl Begas]]
* [[Reinhold Begas]]
* [[Eugen Boermel]]
* [[Johannes Boese]]
* [[Peter Breuer]]
* [[Adolf Brütt]]
* [[Alexander Calandrelli]]
* [[Ludwig Cauer]]
* [[Gustav Eberlein]]
* [[Reinhold Felderhoff]]
* [[Fritz Gerth]]
* [[Johannes Götz]]
* [[Ernst Herter]]
* [[August Kraus]]
* [[Otto Lessing (sculptor)|Otto Lessing]]
* [[Harro Magnussen]]
* [[Albert Manthe]]
* [[Ludwig Manzel]]
* [[Norbert Pfretzschner]]
* [[Fritz Schaper]]
* [[Emil von Schlitz]]
* [[Walter Schott]]
* [[Rudolf Siemering]]
* [[Cuno von Uechtritz-Steinkirch]]
* [[Max Unger (sculptor)|Max Unger]]
* [[Joseph Uphues]]
* [[Martin Wolff (sculptor)|Martin Wolff]]
{{div col end}}

==See also==
* [[Wilhelminism]]

== Further reading ==
* Helmut Caspar (ed.): ''Die Beine der Hohenzollern, interpretiert an Standbildern der Siegesallee in Primaneraufsätzen aus dem Jahre 1901, versehen mit Randbemerkungen Seiner Majestät Kaiser Wilhelm II.''. Berlin Edition, Berlin 2001, {{ISBN|3-8148-0086-9}}.
* ''Die Berliner Moderne 1885–1914''. Hrsg. Jürgen Schütte, Peter Sprengel, Reclam Verlag, Ditzingen 2000, UB 8359, {{ISBN|978-3-15-008359-8}}.
* Jan von Flocken: ''Die Siegesallee. Auf den Spuren der brandenburgisch-preußischen Geschichte''. Kai Homilius Verlag, Berlin 2001, {{ISBN|3-89706-899-0}}.
* Richard George (Ed..): ''Hie gut Brandenburg alleweg! Geschichts- und Kulturbilder aus der Vergangenheit der Mark und aus Alt-Berlin bis zum Tode des Großen Kurfürsten''. Verlag von W. Pauli's Nachf., Berlin 1900
* Uta Lehnert: ''Der Kaiser und die Siegesallee. Réclame Royale''. Dietrich Reimer Verlag, Berlin 1998, {{ISBN|3-496-01189-0}}.
* Otto Nagel: ''H. Zille''. Veröffentlichung der Deutschen Akademie der Künste. Henschelverlag, Berlin 1970.
* Max Osborn: ''Berlin''. Mit 179 Abbildungen. In der Reihe: Berühmte Kunststätten Band 43, Verlag von E. A. Seemann, Leipzig 1909.
* ''Die Siegesallee, Amtlicher Führer durch die Standbildgruppen.'' Mit Situationsplan und einem Vorwort von Kaiser Wilhelm II. Text von Koser unter Mitwirkung von Sternfeld. Herausgegeben auf Veranlassung des Königlichen Unterrichtsministeriums, Berlin, Oldenbourg um 1900.
* Cornelius Steckner: ''Die Sparsamkeit der Alten. Kultureller und technologischer Wandel zwischen 1871 und 1914 in seiner Auswirkung auf die Formgebung des Bildhauers Adolf Brütt.'' Verlag Peter D. Lang, Frankfurt/M und Bern, 1981, S. 47–52, {{ISBN|3-8204-6897-8}}
* Cornelius Steckner: ''Der Bildhauer Adolf Brütt.'' Schleswig-Holstein. Berlin. Weimar. Autobiografie und Werkverzeichnis. (Schriften der Schleswig-Holsteinischen Landesbibliothek. Hrsg. Dieter Lohmeier. Band 9), Westholsteinische Verlagsanstalt Boyens & Co., Heide 1989. {{ISBN|3-8042-0479-1}} (S. 182–191; S. 172–176).
* Peter Hahn & Jürgen Stich, ''Friedenau-Geschichte & Geschichten'', Oase Verlag, 2015, {{ISBN|978-3-88922-107-0}}.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [[:de:Liste der Figurengruppen in der Berliner Siegesallee|List on de-wp]] List with all Siegesallee-monument-groups and detailed information (German)

{{Commons|Siegesallee}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Coord|52|30|51|N|13|22|15|E|region:DE-BE_type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:Streets in Berlin]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Berlin]]

User:Relative Humidity

2023-04-09T23:39:11Z

Relative Humidity: ←Created page with 'Haldo. I fix issues when I spot them.'

Haldo. I fix issues when I spot them.

User talk:Freddy Berhal

2023-04-09T23:29:10Z

Relative Humidity: /* The spelling of "centre"/"center" */ new section

== Welcome! ==

Hi Freddy Berhal! I noticed [[Special:Contributions/Freddy Berhal|your contributions]] to [[:Splatoon 3]] and wanted to welcome you to the Wikipedia community. I hope you like it here and decide to stay.

As you get started, you may find this short tutorial helpful:

{{Clickable button 2|Help:Introduction|Learn more about editing|class=mw-ui-progressive|style=margin-left: 1.6em;}}

Alternatively, the [[Wikipedia:Contributing to Wikipedia|contributing to Wikipedia]] page covers the same topics.

If you have any questions, we have a friendly space where experienced editors can help you here:

{{Clickable button 2|Wikipedia:Teahouse|Get help at the Teahouse|style=margin-left: 1.6em;}}

If you are not sure where to help out, you can find a task here:

{{Clickable button 2|Wikipedia:Task Center|Volunteer at the Task Center|style=margin-left: 1.6em;}}

Happy editing!  ― [[User:Blaze Wolf|Blaze Wolf]][[User talk:Blaze Wolf|Talk]]Blaze Wolf#6545 23:16, 9 April 2023 (UTC)

== The spelling of "centre"/"center" ==

Hey Freddy! Welcome to Wikipedia. I just saw the edits where you changed "centre" to "center". However, "centre" is the correct spelling in Canadian English, which is used on those articles. This can be a bit confusing at first, but English Wikipedia uses different spelling standards across articles. The thing we care about is using the same spelling on an article. Take a look at the guide on [[MOS:TIES|national varieties of English]]. I suggest you revert those edits. [[User:Relative Humidity|Relative Humidity]] ([[User talk:Relative Humidity|talk]]) 23:29, 9 April 2023 (UTC)

British Columbia

2023-04-09T23:17:45Z

Relative Humidity: Undid revision 1149050067 by Freddy Berhal "centres" is the correct spelling for this article

{{Short description|Province of Canada}}
{{Use Canadian English|date=April 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Infobox province or territory of Canada
| name = British Columbia
| settlement_type = [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Province]]
| other_name = {{native name|fr|Colombie-Britannique}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www4.rncan.gc.ca/search-place-names/unique/43b1b6b3ba3611d892e2080020a0f4c9 |title=Place names – British Columbia / Colombie-Britannique |last=Government of Canada |first=Natural Resources Canada |website=www4.rncan.gc.ca |access-date=April 16, 2020 |archive-date=July 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727062254/http://www4.rncan.gc.ca/search-place-names/unique/43b1b6b3ba3611d892e2080020a0f4c9 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/49333.html |title=BC Geographical Names |website=apps.gov.bc.ca |access-date=April 16, 2020 |archive-date=July 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727061058/https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/49333.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Government of Canada, Department of Justice |date=November 3, 1999 |title=Ministère de la Justice – Province de la Colombie-Britannique – Texte no 4 |url=https://www.justice.gc.ca/fra/pr-rp/sjc-csj/constitution/loireg-lawreg/p1t41.html |access-date=November 14, 2021 |website=www.justice.gc.ca |archive-date=November 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113233142/https://www.justice.gc.ca/fra/pr-rp/sjc-csj/constitution/loireg-lawreg/p1t41.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
| image_flag = Flag of British Columbia.svg
| image_shield = Coat of arms of British Columbia.svg
| motto = {{native phrase|la|Splendor Sine Occasu}} ("Splendour without diminishment")
| image_map = British Columbia in Canada 2.svg
| Label_map = yes
| coordinates = {{Coord|54|N|125|W|type:adm1st_scale:30000000_region:CA-BC|notes=<ref>{{Cite cgndb|JDAKT|British Columbia}}</ref>|display=inline,title}}
| official_lang = [[English language|English]] (''[[de facto]]'')
| Slogan = [[Beautiful British Columbia]]
| capital = [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]
| largest_city = [[Vancouver]]
| largest_metro = [[Greater Vancouver]]
| Premier = [[David Eby]]
| government_type = [[Parliamentary system|Parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]
| Viceroy = [[Janet Austin]]
| ViceroyType = Lieutenant governor
| Legislature = Legislative Assembly of British Columbia
| area_rank = 5th
| area_total_km2 = 944735
| area_land_km2 = 925186
| area_water_km2 = 19548.9
| PercentWater = 2.1
| population_demonym = British Columbian{{efn|According to the ''Oxford Guide to Canadian English Usage'' ({{ISBN|0-19-541619-8}}; p. 335), ''BCer''(''s'') is an informal demonym that is sometimes used for residents of BC}}
| population_rank = 3rd
| population_total = 5000879
| population_ref =<ref name="census2021">{{cite web |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=British%20Columbia&DGUIDlist=2021A000259&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0 |title=Data table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population – British Columbia [Province] |date=February 9, 2022 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=February 10, 2022 |archive-date=February 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210050928/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=British%20Columbia&DGUIDlist=2021A000259&GENDERlist=1&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| population_as_of = [[2021 Canadian census|2021]]
| population_est = 5399118{{increase}}
| pop_est_as_of = Q1 2023
| pop_est_ref =<ref name="StatCan2022Q3Est">{{cite web |date=June 22, 2022 |title=Population estimates, quarterly |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624174426/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901 |archive-date=June 24, 2022 |access-date=July 2, 2022 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref>
| DensityRank = 7th
| Density_km2 = 4.8<ref name="census2011">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A |title=Population and dwelling counts, for Canada, provinces and territories, 2011 and 2006 censuses |date=February 8, 2012 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=February 8, 2012 |archive-date=December 26, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226132943/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/pd-pl/Table-Tableau.cfm?LANG=Eng&T=101&S=50&O=A |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| GDP_year = 2015
| GDP_total = {{CAD|249.981 billion|link=yes}}<ref name="GDP2011">{{cite web | url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/econ15-eng.htm | title=Gross domestic product, expenditure-based, by province and territory (2015) | publisher=Statistics Canada | date=November 9, 2016 | access-date=January 26, 2017 | archive-date=September 19, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919211233/http://www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/econ15-eng.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>
| GDP_rank = 4th
| GDP_per_capita = {{CAD|53,267}}
| GDP_per_capita_rank = 8th
| HDI_year = 2019
| HDI = 0.938<ref>{{cite web|title=Sub-national HDI – Global Data Lab|url=https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/CAN/?levels=1%2B4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0|access-date=July 18, 2021|website=globaldatalab.org|archive-date=July 18, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718222007/https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/CAN/?levels=1%2B4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0|url-status=live}}</ref> — Very high
| HDI_rank = [[List of Canadian provinces and territories by Human Development Index|2nd]]
| LandBorders = Canada: Alberta, Northwest Territories, Yukon. United States: Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Washington
| AdmittanceOrder = 6th
| AdmittanceDate = July 20, 1871
| HouseSeats = 42
| SenateSeats = 6
| timezone_link = Time in Canada
| timezone1_location = Most of province{{efn|The following portions of southeastern British Columbia observe Mountain Standard and Mountain Daylight Time:

* The town of [[Golden, British Columbia|Golden]] and Electoral area A within [[Columbia-Shuswap Regional District]], excluding the part within [[Glacier National Park (Canada)|Glacier National Park]].
* The majority of [[East Kootenay Regional District]], excluding a portion of Electoral area C containing [[Ryan Provincial Park]].

The following portions of eastern British Columbia observe Mountain Standard Time year-round, and do not observe DST:

* A portion of [[East Kootenay Regional District]] Electoral area C.
* Electoral areas A, B, and C, and the town of [[Creston, British Columbia|Creston]] within [[Central Kootenay Regional District]].
* The entirety of [[Northern Rockies Regional Municipality]].
* The majority of [[Peace River Regional District]], excluding [[Kwadacha]], [[Tsay Keh Dene First Nation]], and portions of Electoral area B located west of the [[Muskwa Ranges]].

All other areas of British Columbia observe Pacific Standard and Pacific Daylight Time.}}
| timezone1 = [[Pacific Time Zone|Pacific]]
| utc_offset1 = −08:00
| timezone1_DST = Pacific DST
| utc_offset1_DST = −07:00
| timezone2_location = Southeastern
| timezone2 = [[Mountain Time Zone|Mountain]]
| utc_offset2 = −07:00
| timezone2_DST = Mountain DST
| utc_offset2_DST = −06:00
| timezone3_location = Eastern
| utc_offset3 = −07:00
| timezone3 = Mountain [no DST]
| PostalAbbreviation = BC
| PostalCodePrefix = [[List of V postal codes of Canada|V]]
| iso_code = CA-BC
| website = {{URL|https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/home|www2.gov.bc.ca}}
| flower = [[Pacific dogwood]]
| tree = [[Thuja plicata|Western red cedar]]
| bird = [[Steller's jay]]
}}

'''British Columbia''', commonly abbreviated as '''BC''', is the westernmost [[Provinces and territories of Canada|province of Canada]], situated between the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the [[Rocky Mountains]]. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, forests, lakes, mountains, inland deserts and grassy plains,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.welcomebc.ca/Choose-B-C/Explore-British-Columbia/Geography-of-B-C |title=WelcomeBC / Geography of BC - WelcomeBC |publisher=Welcomebc.ca |access-date=March 22, 2022 |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302214132/https://www.welcomebc.ca/Choose-B-C/Explore-British-Columbia/Geography-of-B-C |url-status=live }}</ref> and borders the province of [[Alberta]] to the east, the territories of [[Yukon]] and the [[Northwest Territories]] to the north, and the US states of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[Idaho]] and [[Montana]] to the south and [[Alaska]] to the northwest. With an estimated population of 5.3{{nbsp}}million as of 2022, it is Canada's [[Population of Canada by province and territory|third-most populous province]]. The capital of British Columbia is [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] and its largest city is [[Vancouver]]. Vancouver is [[List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada|the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada]]; the [[2021 Canadian census|2021 census]] recorded 2.6{{Nbsp}}million people in [[Metro Vancouver Regional District|Metro Vancouver]].<ref>{{cite web |date=February 9, 2022 |title=Data table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - Vancouver [Census metropolitan area], British Columbia |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134619/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E |archive-date=February 9, 2022 |access-date=March 1, 2022 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref>

The [[First Nations in Canada|first known]] human inhabitants of the area settled in British Columbia at least 10,000 years ago. Such groups include the [[Coast Salish]], [[Tsilhqotʼin]], and [[Haida people|Haida]] peoples, among many others. One of the earliest British settlements in the area was [[Fort Victoria (British Columbia)|Fort Victoria]], established in 1843, which gave rise to the city of Victoria, the capital of the [[Colony of Vancouver Island]]. The [[Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)]] was subsequently founded by [[Richard Clement Moody]],<ref name="Richard Clement Moody Obituary, ICE">{{Citation |last=Moody |first=Major-General Richard Clement Moody, R.E. |title=Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers |date=1887 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SLJMAAAAYAAJ |volume=90 |issue=1887 |pages=453–455 |chapter=Obituary |access-date=October 30, 2022 |author-link=Richard Clement Moody}}</ref> and by the [[Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment]], in response to the [[Fraser Canyon Gold Rush]]. Moody selected the site for and founded the mainland colony's capital [[New Westminster]].<ref name="Edward 1887 215 in New Westminster District Directory">{{cite book |last=Mallandaine |first=Edward |title=The British Columbia Directory, containing a General Directory of Business Men and Householders… |publisher=E. Mallandaine and R. T. Williams, Broad Street, Victoria, British Columbia |year=1887 |page=215 in New Westminster District Directory}}</ref><ref name="DFB Richard Clement Moody">{{cite web |title=Moody, Richard Clement |work=Dictionary of Falklands Biography |first=David |last=Tatham |url=https://www.falklandsbiographies.org/biographies/moody_richard |access-date=June 6, 2022 |archive-date=July 31, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731093900/https://falklandsbiographies.org/biographies/moody_richard |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="DNB">{{harvp|Vetch|1894|p=332}}</ref> The colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia were incorporated in 1866, subsequent to which Victoria became the [[Colony of British Columbia (1866–1871)|united colony's]] capital. In 1871, British Columbia entered [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] as the sixth province of Canada, in enactment of the ''[[British Columbia Terms of Union]]''.

British Columbia is a diverse and cosmopolitan province, drawing on a plethora of cultural influences from its [[British Canadians|British Canadian]], [[European Canadians|European]], and [[Asian Canadians|Asian]] [[diaspora]]s, as well as the [[Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast|Indigenous population]]. Though the province's ethnic majority originates from the [[British Isles]], many British Columbians also trace their ancestors to [[continental Europe]], [[East Asia]], and [[South Asia]].<ref name="2016CensusBCEthnicOrigin">{{cite web |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census - British Columbia [Province] and Canada [Country] |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=59&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=british%20columbia&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Ethnic%20origin&TABID=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713104051/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=59&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&SearchText=British+Columbia&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Ethnic%20origin&TABID=1&type=0 |archive-date=November 26, 2018 |access-date=November 25, 2018 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref> [[Indigenous peoples in Canada|Indigenous Canadians]] constitute about 6 percent of the province's total population.<ref name="indigenouspopulation2021">{{Cite web |date=September 21, 2022 |title=Indigenous identity by Registered or Treaty Indian status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810026501 |access-date=September 21, 2022 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref> [[Christianity]] is the largest religion in the region, though the majority of the population is non-religious.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/534302/religious-affiliation-of-canadian-residents-of-british-columbia/|title=Religious affiliation of Canadian residents of British Columbia 2011|website=Statista|access-date=March 3, 2022|archive-date=March 2, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302203344/https://www.statista.com/statistics/534302/religious-affiliation-of-canadian-residents-of-british-columbia/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?DGUIDlist=2021A000259&GENDERlist=1&HEADERlist=0&Lang=E&STATISTIClist=1&SearchText=British+Columbia|url-status=live |title=Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population |date=February 9, 2022 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref> [[English language|English]] is the common language of the province, although [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Mandarin Chinese]], and [[Cantonese]] also have a large presence in the Metro Vancouver region. The [[Franco-Columbian]] community is an officially recognized linguistic minority, and around one percent of British Columbians claim [[French Canadians|French as their mother tongue]].<ref name="2016CensusBCLanguage">{{cite web |date=February 8, 2017 |title=Census Profile, 2016 Census - British Columbia [Province] and Canada [Country] |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=59&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=british+columbia&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Language&TABID=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330044734/https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2016/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=PR&Code1=59&Geo2=PR&Code2=01&Data=Count&SearchText=british%20columbia&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=Language&TABID=1 |archive-date=March 30, 2019 |access-date=March 29, 2019 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref> British Columbia is home to at least 34 distinct [[Indigenous languages of the Americas|Indigenous languages]].<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2019IRR0027-000515 |title=Minister's statement on National Indigenous Languages Day | BC Gov News |date=March 28, 2019 |access-date=March 3, 2022 |archive-date=March 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302205112/https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2019IRR0027-000515 |url-status=live |publisher=Ministry of Indigenous Relations and Reconciliation}}</ref>

Major sectors of [[Economy of British Columbia|British Columbia's economy]] include [[forestry]], [[mining]], [[filmmaking]] and [[video production]], [[tourism]], [[real estate]], [[construction]], [[wholesale]], and [[retail]]. Its main exports include [[lumber]] and [[timber]], [[pulp and paper]] products, [[copper]], [[coal]], and [[natural gas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/subnational_can/british-columbia?redirect=true#:~:text=C%24%20962M).-,In%202020%20the%20top%20exports%20of%20British%20Columbia%20were%20Wood,soda%20or%20sulphate%2C...|title=British Columbia|publisher=OEC|access-date=April 21, 2022|archive-date=April 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405220050/https://oec.world/en/profile/subnational_can/british-columbia?redirect=true#:~:text=C%24%20962M).-,In%202020%20the%20top%20exports%20of%20British%20Columbia%20were%20Wood,soda%20or%20sulphate%2C...|url-status=live}}</ref> British Columbia exhibits [[real estate|high property values]] and is a significant centre for [[maritime trade]]:<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=British Columbia |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/british-columbia |access-date=May 4, 2021 |last=Robinson |first=J. Lewis |date=November 18, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210504070124/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/british-columbia |archive-date=May 4, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> the [[Port of Vancouver]] is the largest port in Canada and the most diversified port in [[North America]].<ref>{{cite web |date=March 18, 2015 |title=Cargo and terminals |url=https://www.portvancouver.com/cargo-terminals/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303042140/https://www.portvancouver.com/cargo-terminals/ |archive-date=March 3, 2022 |access-date=March 3, 2022 |publisher=[[Port of Vancouver]]}}</ref> Although less than 5 percent of the province's territory is [[arable land]], significant agriculture exists in the [[Fraser Valley]] and [[Okanagan]] due to the warmer climate.<ref>{{cite web| title=Ministry of Agriculture| url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/organizational-structure/ministries-organizations/ministries/agriculture| access-date=May 4, 2021| archive-date=May 5, 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505092236/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/organizational-structure/ministries-organizations/ministries/agriculture| url-status=live}}</ref> British Columbia is home to 45% of all publicly listed companies in Canada.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bennett |first1=Nelson |date=July 21, 2022 |title=B.C.'s capital market hit record high in 2021 |work=[[Business in Vancouver]] |url=https://biv.com/article/2022/07/bcs-capital-market-hit-record-high-2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The province's name was chosen by [[Queen Victoria]], when the [[Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)]], i.e., "the Mainland", became a British colony in 1858.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martin |first=Ged |year=1978 |title=The Naming of British Columbia |journal=Albion: A Quarterly Journal Concerned with British Studies |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=257–263 |doi=10.2307/4048132 |jstor=4048132}}</ref> It refers to the [[Columbia District]], the British name for the territory drained by the [[Columbia River]], in southeastern British Columbia, which was the namesake of the pre-[[Oregon Treaty]] [[Columbia Department]] of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]]. Queen Victoria chose ''British'' Columbia to distinguish what was the British sector of the Columbia District from the United States' ("American Columbia" or "Southern Columbia"), which became the [[Oregon Territory]] on August 8, 1848, as a result of the treaty.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Akrigg |first1=Helen B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWRSgAACAAJ |title=British Columbia Chronicle, 1847–1871: Gold & Colonists |last2=G.P.V. |publisher=Discovery Press |year=1977 |isbn=9780919624030 |edition=illustrated |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=May 13, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513061117/https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWRSgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Ultimately, the ''Columbia'' in the name ''British Columbia'' is derived from the name of the ''[[Columbia Rediviva]]'', an American ship which lent its name to the [[Columbia River]] and later the wider region;<ref>{{cite web |last=Munroe |first=Susan |date=February 12, 2019 |title=Why is the Western Region of Canada Called British Columbia? |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/british-columbia-508559 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212235259/https://www.thoughtco.com/british-columbia-508559 |archive-date=December 12, 2019 |access-date=May 17, 2017}}</ref> the ''Columbia'' in the name ''Columbia Rediviva'' came from [[Columbia (name)|the name ''Columbia'' for the New World or parts thereof]], a reference to [[Christopher Columbus]].

The governments of Canada and British Columbia recognize {{lang-fr|Colombie-Britannique|label=none}} as the French name for the province.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Colombie-Britannique |url=https://apps.gov.bc.ca/pub/bcgnws/names/49333.html/ |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=BC Geographical Names}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2020-08-07 |title=Lois constitutionelles de 1867 à 1982 (rapport de 1990) |url=https://laws.justice.gc.ca/fra/ConstRpt/TexteComplet.html |access-date=2022-12-12 |website=[[Department of Justice (Canada)|Department of Justice]] - Government of Canada}}</ref> However, as of 2021, French is the first language of a small minority of BC residents (1.2 percent). 6.7 percent of British Columbians can speak French.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=2022-02-09 |title=Profile table, Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population - British Columbia [Province] |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/index.cfm?Lang=E |access-date=2023-03-29 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of British Columbia}}
[[File:BC-relief.png|thumb|British Columbia's [[geography]] is epitomized by the variety and intensity of its physical relief, which has defined patterns of [[Human settlement|settlement]] and industry since colonization.]]
British Columbia is bordered to the west by the [[Pacific Ocean]] and the American state of [[Alaska]], to the north by [[Yukon]] and the [[Northwest Territories]], to the east by the province of [[Alberta]], and to the south by the American states of [[Washington (state)|Washington]], [[Idaho]], and [[Montana]]. The [[Canada–United States border|southern border of British Columbia]] was established by the 1846 Oregon Treaty, although its history is tied with lands as far south as [[California]]. British Columbia's land area is {{convert|944735|km2|-2}}. [[British Columbia Coast|British Columbia's rugged coastline]] stretches for more than {{convert|27000|km}}, and includes deep, mountainous fjords and about 6,000 islands, most of which are uninhabited. It is the only province in Canada that borders the [[Pacific Ocean]].

British Columbia's capital is [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]], located at the southeastern tip of [[Vancouver Island]]. Only a narrow strip of Vancouver Island, from [[Campbell River, British Columbia|Campbell River]] to Victoria, is significantly populated. Much of the western part of Vancouver Island and the rest of the coast is covered by [[temperate rainforest]].

The province's most populous city is Vancouver, which is at the confluence of the [[Fraser River]] and [[Georgia Strait]], in the mainland's southwest corner (an area often called the [[Lower Mainland]]). By land area, [[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]] is the largest city. [[Vanderhoof, British Columbia|Vanderhoof]] is near the geographic centre of the province.<ref>{{cite web |title=Vanderhoof |url=http://www.hellobc.com/en-CA/RegionsCities/Vanderhoof.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110709215521/http://www.hellobc.com/en-CA/RegionsCities/Vanderhoof.htm |archive-date=July 9, 2011 |access-date=April 26, 2007 |publisher=[[Tourism BC]]}}</ref>
[[File:Bcmap.png|alt=Outline map of British Columbia with significant cities and towns.|left|thumb|Outline map of British Columbia with significant cities and towns]]
The [[Coast Mountains]] and the [[Inside Passage]]'s many [[fjord|inlets]] provide some of British Columbia's renowned and spectacular scenery, which forms the backdrop and context for a growing outdoor adventure and [[ecotourism]] industry. 75 percent of the province is mountainous (more than {{convert|1000|m}} [[above mean sea level|above sea level]]); 60 percent is forested; and only about 5 percent is arable.

The province's mainland away from the coastal regions is somewhat moderated by the Pacific Ocean. Terrain ranges from dry inland forests and [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] valleys, to the range and canyon districts of the [[British Columbia Interior|Central and Southern Interior]], to boreal forest and subarctic prairie in the [[British Columbia Interior|Northern Interior]]. High mountain regions both north and south have [[Subalpine zone|subalpine flora]]<ref name="Subalpine">{{cite web |url=https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Bro/bro55.pdf |title=The Ecology of the Engelmann Spruce – Subalpine Fir Zone |publisher=B.C. Ministry of Forests |access-date=January 17, 2019 |archive-date=November 14, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114033349/https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/docs/Bro/bro55.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[subalpine climate]].

The [[Okanagan Valley (wine region)|Okanagan wine area]], extending from [[Vernon, British Columbia|Vernon]] to [[Osoyoos]] at the United States border, is one of several wine and [[cider]]-producing regions in Canada. Other wine regions in British Columbia include the [[Cowichan Valley]] on Vancouver Island and the [[Fraser Valley]].

The Southern Interior cities of [[Kamloops]] and [[Penticton]] have some of the warmest and longest summer climates in Canada (while higher elevations are cold and snowy), although their temperatures are often exceeded north of the [[Fraser Canyon]], close to the confluence of the Fraser and [[Thompson River|Thompson]] rivers, where the terrain is rugged and covered with desert-type flora. Semi-desert grassland is found in large areas of the [[Interior Plateau]], with land uses ranging from ranching at lower altitudes to forestry at higher ones.

The northern, mostly mountainous, two-thirds of the province is largely unpopulated and undeveloped, except for the area east of the [[Canadian Rockies|Rockies]], where the [[Peace River Country]] contains BC's portion of the [[Canadian Prairies]], centred at the city of [[Dawson Creek, British Columbia|Dawson Creek]].

British Columbia is considered part of the [[Pacific Northwest]] and the [[Cascadia (bioregion)|Cascadia bioregion]], along with the [[U.S. state|American states]] of [[Alaska]], [[Idaho]], (western) [[Montana]], [[Oregon]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]], and (northern) [[Northern California|California]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.celebratebig.com/pacific-northwest/index.htm |title=Pacific Northwest Washington Oregon British Columbia |publisher=Celebratebig.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111222031254/http://www.celebratebig.com/pacific-northwest/index.htm |archive-date=December 22, 2011 |access-date=January 24, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cooltrails.com/ |title=Northwest Hiking Trails: Washington, Oregon, Idaho |publisher=Cooltrails.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119222550/http://www.cooltrails.com/ |archive-date=January 19, 2012 |access-date=January 24, 2012}}</ref>

===Climate===
[[File:British Columbia Köppen.svg|thumb|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen climate types]] in British Columbia]]
[[File:Strait of Georgia.jpg|thumb|The [[Strait of Georgia]], near [[Vancouver]]]]
Because of the many mountain ranges and rugged coastline, British Columbia's climate varies dramatically across the province.

Coastal southern British Columbia has a mild, rainy oceanic climate, influenced by the [[North Pacific Current]], which has its origins in the [[Kuroshio Current]]. [[Hucuktlis Lake]] on [[Vancouver Island]] receives an average of {{cvt|6,903|mm|in}} of rain annually, and some parts of the area are even classified as warm-summer [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]], the northernmost occurrence in the world. In [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]], the annual average temperature is {{cvt|11.2|C|F}}, the warmest in Canada.

Due to the blocking presence of successive mountain ranges, the climate of some of the interior valleys of the province (such as the Thompson, parts of the Fraser Canyon, the southern Cariboo and parts of the Okanagan) is [[semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] with certain locations receiving less than {{convert|250|mm|0}} in annual precipitation. The annual mean temperature in the most populated areas of the province is up to {{convert|12|C}}, the mildest anywhere in Canada.

The valleys of the Southern Interior have short winters with only brief bouts of cold or infrequent heavy snow, while those in the [[Cariboo]], in the [[British Columbia Interior#Central Interior|Central Interior]], are colder because of increased altitude and latitude, but without the intensity or duration experienced at similar latitudes elsewhere in Canada. Outside of the driest valleys, the Southern and Central Interior generally have a [[humid continental climate]] with widely variable precipitation. For example, the average daily low in [[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]] (roughly in the middle of the province) in January is {{convert|-12|C}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 31, 2011 |title=Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 Station Data |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=631&lang=e&StationName=Prince+George&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208115244/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=631&lang=e&StationName=Prince+George&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |access-date=October 19, 2015 |publisher=[[Environment and Climate Change Canada]]}}</ref> Small towns in the southern interior with high elevation such as [[Princeton, British Columbia|Princeton]] are typically colder and snowier than cities in the valleys.<ref name="Princeton">{{cite web |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?searchType=stnName&txtStationName=princeton&searchMethod=contains&txtCentralLatMin=0&txtCentralLatSec=0&txtCentralLongMin=0&txtCentralLongSec=0&stnID=1056&dispBack=1 |title=Princeton A |date=September 25, 2013 |website=Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 |publisher=[[Environment Canada]] |access-date=January 15, 2018 |archive-date=January 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116200713/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?searchType=stnName&txtStationName=princeton&searchMethod=contains&txtCentralLatMin=0&txtCentralLatSec=0&txtCentralLongMin=0&txtCentralLongSec=0&stnID=1056&dispBack=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Heavy snowfall occurs in all elevated mountainous terrain providing bases for skiers in both south and central British Columbia. Annual snowfall on highway mountain passes in the southern interior rivals some of the snowiest cities in Canada,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?searchType=stnName&txtStationName=pass&searchMethod=contains&txtCentralLatMin=0&txtCentralLatSec=0&txtCentralLongMin=0&txtCentralLongSec=0&stnID=1363&dispBack=1 |title=GLACIER NP ROGERS PASS |date=September 25, 2013 |website=Canadian Climate Normals 1981–2010 Station Data |publisher=Environment Canada |access-date=January 16, 2019 |archive-date=January 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116150115/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?searchType=stnName&txtStationName=pass&searchMethod=contains&txtCentralLatMin=0&txtCentralLatSec=0&txtCentralLongMin=0&txtCentralLongSec=0&stnID=1363&dispBack=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> and freezing rain and fog are sometimes present on such roads as well.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McElroy |first=Justin |date=February 9, 2017 |title=Weather closes every highway linking Lower Mainland to rest of B.C. |work=[[CBC News]] |agency=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/weather-closes-every-highway-linking-lower-mainland-to-rest-of-b-c-1.3975497 |url-status=live |access-date=January 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116061141/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/weather-closes-every-highway-linking-lower-mainland-to-rest-of-b-c-1.3975497 |archive-date=January 16, 2019}}</ref> This can result in hazardous driving conditions, as people are usually travelling between warmer areas such as Vancouver or [[Kamloops, British Columbia|Kamloops]], and may be unaware that the conditions may be slippery and cold.<ref name="Coq">{{cite web |url=https://www.tranbc.ca/2016/12/22/what-you-need-to-know-about-winter-weather-on-the-coq/ |title=What You Need to Know About Winter Weather on the "Coq" |publisher=TranBC |access-date=January 16, 2019 |archive-date=October 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017152459/http://www.canada.com/vancouversun/news/story.html?id=3044ae3a-ed05-465b-8305-78290b1b07cb |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Shuswap Lake from Sorrento, B.C..jpg|thumb|Shuswap Lake as seen from Sorrento]]
Winters are generally severe in the Northern Interior which is generally in the [[subarctic climate]] zone, but even there, milder air can penetrate far inland. The coldest temperature in British Columbia was recorded in [[Smith River, British Columbia|Smith River]], where it dropped to {{convert|-58.9|C}} on January 31, 1947,<ref name="KCH-WD2-2002">{{cite web |url=http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2002/alm02feb.htm |title=North America's Record Cold |last=Heidorn |first=Keith C. |year=2002 |publisher=The Weather Doctor Almanac |access-date=July 14, 2012 |archive-date=July 21, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120721011243/http://www.islandnet.com/~see/weather/almanac/arc2002/alm02feb.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> one of the coldest readings recorded anywhere in North America. [[Atlin, British Columbia|Atlin]] in the province's far northwest, along with the adjoining Southern Lakes region of [[Yukon]], get midwinter thaws caused by the [[Chinook (wind)|Chinook]] effect, which is also common (and much warmer) in more southerly parts of the Interior.

During winter on the coast, [[rainfall]], sometimes relentless heavy rain, dominates because of consistent barrages of cyclonic low-pressure systems from the North Pacific. Average snowfall on the coast during a normal winter is between {{convert|25|and|50|cm|0}}, but on occasion (and not every winter) heavy snowfalls with more than {{convert|20|cm|0}} and well below freezing temperatures arrive when modified arctic air reaches coastal areas, typically for short periods, and can take temperatures below {{convert|-10|C}}, even at sea level. Arctic outflow winds can occasionally result in wind chill temperatures at or even below {{convert|-17.8|C}}.{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}}. While winters are very wet, coastal areas are generally milder and dry during summer under the influence of stable anti-cyclonic high pressure.

Southern Interior valleys are hot in summer; for example, in [[Osoyoos]], the July maximum temperature averages {{convert|31.7|C}}, making it the hottest month of any location in Canada; this hot weather sometimes spreads towards the coast or to the far north of the province. Temperatures often exceed {{convert|40|C}} in the lower elevations of valleys in the Interior during mid-summer, with the record high of {{convert|49.6|C}} being held in [[Lytton, British Columbia|Lytton]] on June 29, 2021, during [[2021 Western North America heat wave|a record-breaking heat wave that year]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Uguen-Csenge |first1=Eva |last2=Lindsay |first2=Bethany |date=June 29, 2021 |title=For 3rd straight day, B.C. village smashes record for highest Canadian temperature at 49.6 C |work=[[CBC News]] |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bc-alberta-heat-wave-heat-dome-temperature-records-1.6084203 |url-status=live |access-date=June 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210801154046/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bc-alberta-heat-wave-heat-dome-temperature-records-1.6084203 |archive-date=August 1, 2021}}</ref>

[[File:Vineyards Lake Okanagan.jpg|thumb|The [[Okanagan]] region has a climate suitable to vineyards.]]
The extended summer dryness often creates conditions that spark forest fires, from dry-lightning or man-made causes. Many areas of the province are often covered by a blanket of heavy cloud and low fog during the winter months, in contrast to abundant summer sunshine. Annual sunshine hours vary from 2200 near Cranbrook and Victoria to less than 1300 in [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia|Prince Rupert]], on the [[British Columbia Coast#North Coast|North Coast]] just south of [[Southeast Alaska]].

The exception to British Columbia's wet and cloudy winters is during the [[El Niño]] phase. During El Niño events, the jet stream is much farther south across North America, making the province's winters milder and drier than normal. Winters are much wetter and cooler during the opposite phase, [[La Niña]].

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="width:60%; font-size:95%;"
|+ Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected cities in British Columbia<ref name="Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1981–2010">{{cite web |date=October 31, 2011 |title=Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1981–2010 |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140227145147/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html |archive-date=February 27, 2014 |access-date=December 19, 2014 |publisher=[[Environment Canada]]}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 | Municipality
! colspan=2 | January
! colspan=2 | April
! colspan=2 | July
! colspan=2 | October
|-
! data-sort-type=number | Max
! data-sort-type=number | Min
! data-sort-type=number | Max
! data-sort-type=number | Min
! data-sort-type=number | Max
! data-sort-type=number | Min
! data-sort-type=number | Max
! data-sort-type=number | Min
|-
| [[Prince Rupert, British Columbia|Prince Rupert]]
| {{convert|5.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|-0.8|C|1}}
| {{convert|10.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|2.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|16.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|10.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|11.1|C|1}}
| {{convert|4.9|C|1}}
|-
| [[Tofino]]
| {{convert|8.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|2.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|11.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|4.0|C|1}}
| {{convert|18.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|10.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|13.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|6.3|C|1}}
|-
| [[Nanaimo]]
| {{convert|6.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|0.1|C|1}}
| {{convert|14.1|C|1}}
| {{convert|3.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|23.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|12.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|14.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|5.2|C|1}}
|-
| [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]
| {{convert|7.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|1.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|13.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|4.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|22.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|11.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|14.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|5.7|C|1}}
|-
| [[Vancouver]]
| {{convert|6.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|1.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|13.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|5.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|22.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|13.7|C|1}}
| {{convert|13.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|7.0|C|1}}
|-
| [[Chilliwack]]
| {{convert|6.1|C|1}}
| {{convert|0.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|15.8|C|1}}
| {{convert|5.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|25.0|C|1}}
| {{convert|12.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|15.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|6.4|C|1}}
|-
| [[Penticton]]
| {{convert|1.8|C|1}}
| {{convert|-3.0|C|1}}
| {{convert|15.7|C|1}}
| {{convert|2.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|28.7|C|1}}
| {{convert|13.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|14.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|3.2|C|1}}
|-
| [[Kamloops]]
| {{convert|0.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|-5.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|16.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|3.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|28.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|14.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|13.7|C|1}}
| {{convert|3.3|C|1}}
|-
| [[Osoyoos]]
| {{convert|2.0|C|1}}
| {{convert|-3.8|C|1}}
| {{convert|18.1|C|1}}
| {{convert|3.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|31.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|14.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|16.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|3.5|C|1}}
|-
| [[Princeton, British Columbia|Princeton]]
| {{convert|-1.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|-8.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|14.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|-0.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|26.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|9.5|C|1}}
| {{convert|13.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|0.3|C|1}}
|-
| [[Cranbrook, British Columbia|Cranbrook]]
| {{convert|-1.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|-10.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|12.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|0.3|C|1}}
| {{convert|26.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|11.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|11.7|C|1}}
| {{convert|-0.3|C|1}}
|-
| [[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]]
| {{convert|-4.0|C|1}}
| {{convert|-11.7|C|1}}
| {{convert|11.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|-1.1|C|1}}
| {{convert|22.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|9.1|C|1}}
| {{convert|9.4|C|1}}
| {{convert|-0.5|C|1}}
|-
| [[Fort Nelson, British Columbia|Fort Nelson]]
| {{convert|-16.1|C|1}}
| {{convert|-24.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|9.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|-3.6|C|1}}
| {{convert|23.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|10.9|C|1}}
| {{convert|5.2|C|1}}
| {{convert|-4.2|C|1}}
|}

===Parks and protected areas===
{{Main|List of protected areas of British Columbia|List of British Columbia Provincial Parks}}
[[File:Snow covered mountains in Mount Robson (Unsplash).jpg|thumb|[[Mount Robson]], [[Canadian Rockies]]]]
[[File:Lake O'Hara Yoho National Park.jpg|thumb|[[Odaray Mountain]] and [[Lake O'Hara]]]]
There are 14 designations of parks and protected areas in the province that reflect the different administration and creation of these areas in a modern context. There are 141 ecological reserves, 35 provincial marine parks, 7 provincial heritage sites, 6 [[National Historic Sites of Canada]], 4 [[national park]]s and 3 national park reserves. 12.5 percent of the province's area ({{convert|114000|km2|abbr=on|disp=or}}) is considered protected under one of the 14 different designations that includes over 800 distinct areas.

British Columbia contains seven of [[National Parks of Canada|Canada's national parks]] and National Park Reserves:

* [[Glacier National Park (Canada)|Glacier National Park]]
* [[Gulf Islands National Park Reserve]]
* [[Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site]]
* [[Kootenay National Park]]
* [[Mount Revelstoke National Park]]
* [[Pacific Rim National Park Reserve]]
* [[Yoho National Park]]

British Columbia contains a large number of [[provincial park]]s, run by BC Parks under the aegis of the Ministry of Environment. British Columbia's provincial parks system is the second largest parks system in Canada, the largest being Canada's National Parks system.

Another tier of parks in British Columbia are [[regional park]]s, which are maintained and run by [[List of regional districts of British Columbia|the province's regional districts]]. The Ministry of Forests operates forest recreation sites.

In addition to these areas, over {{convert|47000|km2}} of [[arable land]] are protected by the [[Agricultural Land Reserve]].

===Fauna===
[[File:Awesome Takakkaw Falls IMG 4771.JPG|thumb|[[Yoho National Park]]]]
Much of the province is undeveloped, so populations of many mammalian species that have become rare in much of the United States still flourish in British Columbia.<ref>{{cite web |first= |title=Plants, Animals & Ecosystems – Province of British Columbia |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/plants-animals-ecosystems |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212033407/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/plants-animals-ecosystems |archive-date=February 12, 2022 |access-date=February 12, 2022 |publisher=Ministry of Environment and Climate Change}}</ref> Watching animals of various sorts, including a very wide range of birds, has long been popular. Bears ([[Grizzly bear|grizzly]], [[American black bear|black]]—including the [[Kermode bear]] or spirit bear) live here, as do [[deer]], [[elk]], [[moose]], [[Reindeer|caribou]], [[Bighorn sheep|big-horn sheep]], [[mountain goat]]s, [[marmot]]s, [[beaver]]s, [[muskrat]]s, [[coyote]]s, [[Wolf|wolves]], [[mustelidae|mustelids]] (such as [[wolverine]]s, [[badger]]s and [[fisher (animal)|fishers]]), [[cougar]]s, [[eagle]]s, [[osprey]]s, [[heron]]s, [[Canada goose|Canada geese]], [[swan]]s, [[loon]]s, [[hawk]]s, [[owl]]s, [[raven]]s, [[harlequin duck]]s, and many other sorts of ducks. Smaller birds ([[American robin|robins]], [[jay]]s, [[grosbeak]]s, [[Tit (bird)|chickadees]], and so on) also abound.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 30, 2015 |title=Wildlife of British Columbia: 13 Species To Look Out For This Summer |url=https://summitlodge.com/blog/wildlife-of-british-columbia-11-species-to-look-out-for-this-summer/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212033407/https://summitlodge.com/blog/wildlife-of-british-columbia-11-species-to-look-out-for-this-summer/ |archive-date=February 12, 2022 |access-date=February 12, 2022 |website=Summit Lodge Boutique Hotel Whistler |language=en-US}}</ref> Murrelets are known from Frederick Island, a small island off the coast of [[Haida Gwaii]].<ref>{{Cite AV media |title=[[The Life of Birds]] |last=Attenborough |first=David |publisher=[[BBC]] |year=1998 |author-link=David Attenborough |isbn=0563-38792-0}}</ref>

Many healthy populations of fish are present, including [[salmonidae|salmonids]] such as several species of [[salmon]], [[trout]], and [[Salvelinus|char]]. Besides salmon and trout, sport-fishers in BC also catch [[halibut]], [[Rainbow trout|steelhead]], [[bass (fish)|bass]], and [[sturgeon]]. On the coast, [[harbour seal]]s and [[North American river otter|river otters]] are common.<ref>{{cite web |date=November 28, 2016 |title=Sealife |url=https://oceanwatch.ca/bccoast/species-habitats/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212033427/https://oceanwatch.ca/bccoast/species-habitats/ |archive-date=February 12, 2022 |access-date=February 12, 2022 |publisher=Oceanwatch BC Coast |language=en-CA}}</ref> [[Cetacea]]n species native to the coast include the [[orca]], [[humpback whale]], [[grey whale]], [[harbour porpoise]], [[Dall's porpoise]], [[Pacific white-sided dolphin]] and [[minke whale]].

[[File:Along the High note trail atop Whistler Mtn. (7958950226).jpg|thumb|[[Cheakamus Lake]] in [[Garibaldi Provincial Park]]]]
[[File:Dorsal fin of a Humpback whale 03.jpg|thumb|[[Humpback whale]] in [[Sooke]] coast]]
Some endangered species in British Columbia are: [[Vancouver Island marmot]], [[spotted owl]], [[American white pelican]], and badgers.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right"
|+ Endangered species in British Columbia<ref>BC Ministry of Sustainable Resource Management, Conservation Data Centre</ref>
! scope="col" | Type of organism
! scope="col" | Red-listed species in BC
! scope="col" | Total number of species in BC
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Freshwater fish
| 24
| 80
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Amphibians
| 5
| 19
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Reptiles
| 6
| 16
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Birds
| 34
| 465
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Terrestrial mammals
| {{small|(Requires new data)}}
| {{small|(Requires new data)}}
|-
| style="text-align: left" | Marine mammals
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| style="text-align: left" | Plants
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| style="text-align: left" | Butterflies
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| style="text-align: left" | Dragonflies
| 9
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|}

===Forests===
White spruce or [[Picea engelmannii|Engelmann spruce]] and their hybrids occur in 12 of the 14 [[biogeoclimatic zones of British Columbia]].<ref name="coates">{{Cite report |url=https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Frr/FRR220.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180221035600/https://www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Frr/FRR220.pdf |archive-date=2018-02-21 |url-status=live |title=Ecology and Silviculture of Interior Spruce in British Columbia |last1=Coates |first1=K. Dave |last2=Haeussler |first2=Sybille |date=January 1994 |publisher=Canada/British Columbia Partnership Agreement Forest Resource Development: FRDA II |issue=220 |issn=0835-0752 |last3=Lindeburgh |first3=Scott |last4=Pojar |first4=Rosamund |last5=Stock |first5=Arthur J. |access-date=October 30, 2022}}</ref> Common types of trees present in BC's forests include [[Thuja plicata|western redcedar]], [[Callitropsis nootkatensis|yellow-cedar]], [[Juniperus scopulorum|Rocky Mountain juniper]], [[Pinus contorta|lodgepole pine]], [[Pinus ponderosa|ponderosa or yellow pine]], [[Pinus albicaulis|whitebark pine]], [[Pinus flexilis|limber pine]], [[western white pine]], [[Larix occidentalis|western larch]], [[Larix laricina|tamarack]], [[Larix lyallii|alpine larch]], [[Picea glauca|white spruce]], [[Picea engelmannii|Engelmann spruce]], [[Picea sitchensis|Sitka spruce]], [[Picea mariana|black spruce]], [[Abies grandis|grand fir]], [[Abies amabilis|Amabilis fir]], [[Abies lasiocarpa|subalpine fir]], [[Tsuga heterophylla|western hemlock]], [[Tsuga mertensiana|mountain hemlock]], [[Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii|Douglas-fir]], [[Taxus brevifolia|western yew]], [[Cornus nuttallii|Pacific dogwood]], [[Acer macrophyllum|bigleaf maple]], [[Acer glabrum|Douglas maple]], [[Acer circinatum|vine maple]], [[Arbutus menziesii|arbutus]], [[Crataegus douglasii|black hawthorn]], [[Rhamnus purshiana|cascara]], [[Quercus garryana|Garry oak]], [[Malus fusca|Pacific crab apple]], [[Prunus virginiana|choke cherry]], [[Prunus pensylvanica|pin cherry]], [[Prunus emarginata|bitter cherry]], [[Alnus rubra|red alder]], [[Alnus tenuifolia|mountain alder]], [[Betula papyrifera|paper birch]], [[Betula occidentalis|water birch]], [[Populus trichocarpa|black cottonwood]], [[Populus balsamifera|balsam poplar]], [[Populus tremuloides|trembling aspen]].

===Traditional plant foods===
{{Main|Wild and medicinal plants of British Columbia}}

[[First Nations in British Columbia|First Nations peoples of British Columbia]] used plants for food, and to produce material goods like fuel and building products. Plant foods included berries, and roots like [[Camassia|camas]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biodiversitybc.org/assets/Default/BBC%20Importance%20of%20Biodiversity%20to%20First%20Peoples.pdf |title=Importance of biodiversity for First Peoples of British Columbia |last=Turner |first=Nancy |date=September 2007 |publisher=Biodiversity BC |access-date=September 21, 2014 |archive-date=November 15, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115022110/http://www.biodiversitybc.org/assets/Default/BBC%20Importance%20of%20Biodiversity%20to%20First%20Peoples.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Ecozones===
[[Environment Canada]] subdivides British Columbia into six [[Ecozones of Canada|ecozones]]:

* [[Pacific Marine Ecozone (CEC)|Pacific Marine]]
* [[Pacific Maritime Ecozone (CEC)|Pacific Maritime]]
* [[Boreal Cordillera]]
* [[Montane Cordillera]]
* [[Taiga Plains Ecozone (CEC)|Taiga Plains]]
* [[Boreal Plains Ecozone (CEC)|Boreal Plains Ecozones]].

==History==
{{Main|History of British Columbia}}

===Indigenous societies{{anchor|First_Nations_(Aboriginal)_history}}===
{{main|Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast|Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Plateau|The Canadian Crown and Aboriginal peoples}}
[[File:Namgis (Native American). Thunderbird Transformation Mask, 19th century.jpg|thumb|[['Namgis]] ''Thunderbird Transformation Mask'', 19th century]]
The area now known as British Columbia is home to First Nations groups that have a deep history with a significant number of indigenous languages. There are more than 200 First Nations in BC. Prior to contact (with non-Aboriginal people), human history is known from oral histories of First Nations groups, archaeological investigations, and from early records from explorers encountering societies early in the period.

The arrival of [[Paleoindians]] from [[Beringia]] took place between 20,000 and 12,000 years ago.<ref name="Muckle2007">{{Cite book |last=Muckle |first=Robert James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11ii63EytIYC&pg=PA18 |title=The First Nations of British Columbia: An Anthropological Survey |publisher=[[UBC Press]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7748-4010-1 |pages=18–19 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160518204848/https://books.google.com/books?id=11ii63EytIYC&pg=PA18 |archive-date=May 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Hunter-gatherer]] families were the main social structure from 10,000 to 5,000 years ago.<ref name="BastianMitchell2004">{{Cite book |last1=Bastian |first1=Dawn Elaine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsyQu1kDK-kC&pg=PA6 |title=Handbook of Native American Mythology |last2=Mitchell |first2=Judy K. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-85109-533-9 |page=6 |access-date=November 22, 2015 |archive-date=June 27, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627185953/http://books.google.com/books?id=IsyQu1kDK-kC&pg=PA6 |url-status=live }}</ref> The nomadic population lived in non-permanent structures foraging for nuts, berries and edible roots while hunting and trapping larger and small game for food and furs.<ref name="BastianMitchell2004" /> Around 5,000 years ago individual groups started to focus on resources available to them locally. Coast Salish peoples had complex land management practices linked to ecosystem health and resilience. Forest gardens on Canada's northwest coast included crabapple, hazelnut, cranberry, wild plum, and wild cherry species.<ref>{{cite news |date=April 22, 2021 |title=Ancient Indigenous forest gardens promote a healthy ecosystem: SFU study |website=SFU News |publisher=[[Simon Fraser University]] |url=https://www.sfu.ca/sfunews/stories/2021/04/ancient-indigenous-forest-gardens-promote-a-healthy-ecosystem--s.html |url-status=live |access-date=June 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612135304/https://www.sfu.ca/sfunews/stories/2021/04/ancient-indigenous-forest-gardens-promote-a-healthy-ecosystem--s.html |archive-date=June 12, 2021}}</ref> Thus with the passage of time there is a pattern of increasing regional generalization with a more [[sedentary lifestyle]].<ref name="BastianMitchell2004" /> These indigenous populations evolved over the next 5,000 years across a large area into many groups with shared traditions and customs.

To the northwest of the province are the peoples of the [[Na-Dene languages]], which include the [[Athapaskan languages|Athapaskan-speaking peoples]] and the [[Tlingit people|Tlingit]], who lived on the islands of southern Alaska and northern British Columbia. The Na-Dene language group is believed to be linked to the [[Yeniseian languages]] of Siberia.<ref name="BENGTSON" /> The [[Dene]] of the western Arctic may represent a distinct wave of migration from Asia to North America.<ref name="BENGTSON">{{cite web |last=Bengtson |first=John D. |year=2008 |title=Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene-Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages – In Aspects of Comparative Linguistics |url=http://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/dene_gr.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921181955/https://starling.rinet.ru/Texts/dene_gr.pdf |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |access-date=April 11, 2010 |publisher=Moscow- RSUH |pages=45–118 |volume=3}}</ref> The [[British Columbia Interior|Interior of British Columbia]] was home to the [[Salishan languages|Salishan language]] groups such as the [[Secwepemc|Shuswap (Secwepemc)]], [[Okanagan people|Okanagan]] and Athabaskan language groups, primarily the [[Dakelh]] (Carrier) and the [[Chilcotin people|Tsilhqot'in]].<ref name="Archives" /> The inlets and valleys of the British Columbia coast sheltered large, distinctive populations, such as the [[Haida people|Haida]], [[Kwakwaka'wakw]] and [[Nuu-chah-nulth people|Nuu-chah-nulth]], sustained by the region's abundant salmon and shellfish.<ref name="Archives" /> These peoples developed [[Complex society|complex cultures]] dependent on the [[western red cedar]] that included wooden houses, seagoing whaling and war canoes and elaborately carved [[potlatch]] items and [[totem poles]].<ref name="Archives">{{cite web |url=http://www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca/exhibits/timemach/galler07/frames/wc_peop.htm |title=First Nations – People of the Northwest Coast |year=1999 |publisher=BC Archives |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314102800/http://www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca/exhibits/timemach/galler07/frames/wc_peop.htm |archive-date=March 14, 2010 |access-date=April 11, 2010}}</ref>

Contact with Europeans brought a series of devastating epidemics of diseases from Europe the people had no immunity to.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boyd |first=Robert T. |title=Handbook of North American Indians: 7 the Northwest Coast |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |year=1990 |chapter=Demographic History, 1774–1874}}</ref> The result was a dramatic population collapse, culminating in the 1862 Smallpox outbreak in Victoria that spread throughout the coast. European settlement did not bode well for the remaining native population of British Columbia. Colonial officials deemed colonists could make better use of the land than the First Nations people, and thus the land territory be owned by the colonists.<ref name="gilmartin2009">{{Cite book |last=Gilmartin |first=Mary |title=Key Concepts in Political Geography |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |year=2009 |chapter=Colonialism/ Imperialism}}</ref>{{Citation page|page=120}} To ensure colonists would be able to settle properly and make use of the land, First Nations were forcibly relocated onto [[Indian reserve|reserves]], which were often too small to support their way of life.<ref name="gilmartin2009" />{{Citation page|page=|pages=120-121}} By the 1930s, British Columbia had over 1500 reserves.<ref name="gilmartin2009" />{{Citation page|page=121}}

===Fur trade and colonial era===
{{main|Columbia District}}
{{See also|Oregon Country|Oregon boundary dispute}}
Lands now known as British Columbia were added to the [[British Empire]] during the 19th century. Colonies originally begun with the support of the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] (Vancouver Island, the mainland) were amalgamated, then entered Confederation as British Columbia in 1871 as part of the Dominion of Canada.

During the 1770s, [[smallpox]] killed at least 30 percent of the Pacific Northwest [[First Nations in Canada|First Nations]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Lange |first=Greg |date=January 23, 2003 |title=Smallpox epidemic ravages Native Americans on the northwest coast of North America in the 1770s |url=http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=5100 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526181907/http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=5100 |archive-date=May 26, 2008 |access-date=February 22, 2011 |publisher=[[HistoryLink]]}}</ref> This devastating epidemic was the first in a series; the [[1862 Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic]] killed about half to two-thirds of the native population of what became British Columbia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=4547 |title=Plagues and Peoples on the Northwest Coast |publisher=.h-net.msu.edu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227194037/http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=4547 |archive-date=December 27, 2010 |access-date=February 22, 2011}}</ref><ref name="Boyd">{{cite book |last1=Boyd |first1=Robert Thomas |title=The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline Among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774–1874 |publisher=[[University of British Columbia Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-295-97837-6 |pages=172–201 |chapter=A final disaster: the 1862 smallpox epidemic in coastal British Columbia |access-date=February 10, 2021 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P_FdUPbmwCgC&pg=PA172 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511153639/https://books.google.com/books?id=P_FdUPbmwCgC&pg=PA172 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="lange">{{cite web |last=Lange |first=Greg |title=Smallpox Epidemic of 1862 among Northwest Coast and Puget Sound Indians |url=https://www.historylink.org/File/5171 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125204435/https://www.historylink.org/File/5171 |archive-date=January 25, 2021 |access-date=February 8, 2021 |publisher=[[HistoryLink]]}}</ref>

[[File:Spanish fort San Miguel at Nootka in 1793.jpg|thumb|left|[[Fort San Miguel]] at Nootka in 1793]]
[[File:Kwakiutl house pole InvMH975-123-1.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kwakwaka'wakw]] [[Totem pole|house pole]], second half of the 19th century]]
The arrival of Europeans began around the mid-18th century, as [[fur trade]]rs entered the area to harvest [[sea otter]]s. While it is thought [[Francis Drake|Sir Francis Drake]] may have explored the British Columbian coast in 1579, it was [[Juan José Pérez Hernández|Juan Pérez]] who completed the first documented voyage, which took place in 1774. [[Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra]] explored the coast in 1775. In doing so, Pérez and Quadra reasserted the [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] claim for the [[Pacific coast]], first made by [[Vasco Núñez de Balboa]] in 1513.

The explorations of [[James Cook]] in 1778 and [[George Vancouver]] in 1792 and 1793 established British jurisdiction over the coastal area north and west of the Columbia River. In 1793, [[Sir Alexander Mackenzie]] was the first European to journey across North America overland to the Pacific Ocean, inscribing a stone marking his accomplishment on the shoreline of [[Dean Channel]] near [[Bella Coola, British Columbia|Bella Coola]]. His expedition theoretically established British sovereignty inland, and a succession of other fur company explorers charted the maze of rivers and mountain ranges between the Canadian Prairies and the Pacific. Mackenzie and other explorers—notably [[John Finlay (fur trader)|John Finlay]], [[Simon Fraser (explorer)|Simon Fraser]], [[Samuel Black]], and [[David Thompson (explorer)|David Thompson]]—were primarily concerned with extending the [[fur trade]], rather than political considerations. In 1794, by the third of a series of agreements known as the [[Nootka Convention]]s, [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] conceded its claims of exclusivity in the Pacific. This opened the way for formal claims and colonization by other powers, including Britain, but because of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], there was little British action on its claims in the region until later.

The establishment of [[trading post]]s by the [[North West Company]] and the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), effectively established a permanent British presence in the region. The Columbia District was broadly defined as being south of 54°40 north latitude, (the southern limit of [[Russian colonization of the Americas|Russian America]]), north of Mexican-controlled California, and west of the [[Rocky Mountains]]. It was, by the [[Treaty of 1818|Anglo-American Convention of 1818]], under the "joint occupancy and use" of citizens of the United States and subjects of Britain (which is to say, the fur companies). This co-occupancy was ended with the [[Oregon Treaty]] of 1846.

The major supply route was the [[York Factory Express]] between [[Hudson Bay]] and [[Fort Vancouver]]. Some of the early outposts grew into settlements, communities, and cities. Among the places in British Columbia that began as fur trading posts are [[Fort St. John, British Columbia|Fort St. John]] (established 1794); [[Hudson's Hope]] (1805); [[Fort Nelson, British Columbia|Fort Nelson]] (1805); [[Fort St. James]] (1806); [[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]] (1807); Kamloops (1812); [[Fort Langley]] (1827); [[Fort Victoria (British Columbia)|Fort Victoria]] (1843); [[Yale, British Columbia|Yale]] (1848); and Nanaimo (1853). Fur company posts that became cities in what is now the United States include [[Vancouver, Washington]] ([[Fort Vancouver]]), formerly the "capital" of Hudson's Bay operations in the Columbia District, [[Colville, Washington]] and [[Walla Walla, Washington]] (old [[Fort Nez Percés]]).

[[File:Edward Gennys Fanshawe, Fort Rupert, Beaver Harbour, Vancouver's Island, July 23rd 1851 (Canada).jpg|thumb|left|[[Fort Rupert]], Vancouver Island, 1851]]
With the amalgamation of the two fur trading companies in 1821, modern-day British Columbia existed in three fur trading departments. The bulk of the central and northern interior was organized into the [[New Caledonia (Canada)|New Caledonia]] district, administered from Fort St. James. The interior south of the [[Thompson River]] [[drainage basin|watershed]] and north of the Columbia was organized into the Columbia District, administered from Fort Vancouver on the lower Columbia River. The northeast corner of the province east of the Rockies, known as the Peace River Block, was attached to the much larger [[District of Athabasca|Athabasca District]], headquartered in [[Fort Chipewyan]], in present-day Alberta.

Until 1849, these districts were a wholly unorganized area of [[British North America]] under the [[de facto]] jurisdiction of HBC administrators; however, unlike [[Rupert's Land]] to the north and east, the territory was not a concession to the company. Rather, it was simply granted a monopoly to trade with the First Nations inhabitants. All that was changed with the westward extension of American exploration and the concomitant overlapping claims of territorial sovereignty, especially in the southern [[Columbia River drainage basin|Columbia Basin]] (within present day Washington and [[Oregon]]). In 1846, the [[Oregon Treaty]] divided the territory along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]] to the [[Strait of Georgia]], with the area south of this boundary (excluding Vancouver Island and the [[Gulf Islands]]) transferred to sole American sovereignty. The [[Colony of Vancouver Island]] was created in 1849, with Victoria designated as the capital. New Caledonia, as the whole of the mainland rather than just its north-central Interior came to be called, continued to be an unorganized territory of British North America, "administered" by individual HBC trading post managers.

===Colony of British Columbia (1858–1866)===
{{Main|Colony of British Columbia (1858–66)|Richard Clement Moody|James Douglas (governor)}}
With the [[Fraser Canyon Gold Rush]] in 1858, an influx of Americans into New Caledonia prompted the [[Secretary of State for the Colonies|colonial office]] to designate the mainland as the Colony of British Columbia. When news of the [[Fraser Canyon Gold Rush]] reached London, Richard Clement Moody was hand-picked by the [[Colonial Office]], under [[Sir Edward Bulwer-Lytton]], to establish British order and to transform the newly established Colony of British Columbia into the British Empire's "bulwark in the farthest west"<ref name="Donald J. Hauka 2003, p.146">{{Cite book |last=Hauka |first=Donald J. |title=McGowan's War |publisher=[[New Star Books]] |year=2003 |location=Vancouver |page=146}}</ref> and "found a second England on the shores of the Pacific".{{Sfn|Barman|2007|p=71}} Lytton desired to send to the colony "representatives of the best of British culture, not just a police force": he sought men who possessed "courtesy, high breeding and urbane knowledge of the world"<ref name="scott1983">{{Cite thesis |last=Scott |first=Laura Elaine |title=The Imposition of British Culture as Portrayed in the New Westminster Capital Plan of 1859 to 1862 |publisher=Simon Fraser University |date=1983 |url=https://summit.sfu.ca/item/5945 |degree=M.A.}}</ref>{{Citation page|page=13}} and he decided to send Moody, whom the Government considered to be the "English gentleman and British Officer"<ref name="scott1983" />{{Citation page|page=19}} at the head of the [[Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment]].

Moody and his family arrived in British Columbia in December 1858, commanding the [[Royal Engineers, Columbia Detachment]].<ref name="Richard Clement Moody Obituary, ICE"/> He was sworn in as the first [[lieutenant governor of British Columbia]] and appointed Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works for British Columbia. On the advice of Lytton, Moody hired [[Robert Burnaby]] as his personal secretary.

[[File:Cuyp, Aelbert - Cattle near the Maas, with Dordrecht in the distance - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Cattle near the Maas'' by Dutch painter [[Aelbert Cuyp]]. Moody likened his vision of the nascent Colony of British Columbia to the pastoral scenes painted by Cuyp.]]
In British Columbia, Moody "wanted to build a city of beauty in the wilderness" and planned his city as an iconic visual metaphor for British dominance, "styled and located with the objective of reinforcing the authority of the crown and of the robe".<ref name="scott1983" />{{Citation page|page=26}} Subsequent to the enactment of the ''Pre-emption Act'' of 1860, Moody settled the [[Lower Mainland]]. He selected the site and founded the new capital, [[New Westminster]]. He selected the site due to the strategic excellence of its position and the quality of its port.<ref name="scott1983" />{{Citation page|page=26}} He was also struck by the majestic beauty of the site, writing in his letter to Blackwood,

{{blockquote|The entrance to the Frazer is very striking—Extending miles to the right & left are low marsh lands (apparently of very rich qualities) & yet [[Sic|fr]] the Background of Superb Mountains-- Swiss in outline, dark in woods, grandly towering into the clouds there is a sublimity that deeply impresses you. Everything is large and magnificent, worthy of the entrance to the Queen of England's dominions on the Pacific mainland.{{nbsp}}... My imagination converted the silent marshes into [[Cuyp]]-like pictures of horses and cattle lazily fattening in rich meadows in a glowing sunset.{{nbsp}}... The water of the deep clear Frazer was of a glassy stillness, not a ripple before us, except when a fish rose to the surface or broods of wild ducks fluttered away.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moody |first=Richard Clement |title=Letter of Colonel Richard Clement Moody, R.E., to Arthur Blackwood, February 1, 1859, preserved in the British Columbia Historical Quarterly (January – April 1951), ed. Willard E. Ireland, Archives of British Columbia |publisher=British Columbia Historical Association |pages=85–107}}</ref>{{Sfn|Barman|2007|p=7}}}}

[[File:Victoria, British Columbia, 1864.jpg|thumb|Victoria, 1864]]
Lord Lytton "forgot the practicalities of paying for clearing and developing the site and the town" and the efforts of Moody's engineers were continuously hampered by insufficient funds, which, together with the continuous opposition of [[James Douglas (governor)|Governor James Douglas]], "made it impossible for Moody's design to be fulfilled".<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Cite dictionary |title=Richard Clement Moody |encyclopedia=[[Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online]] |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/moody_richard_clement_11E.html |last=Ormsby |first=Margaret A. |author-link=Margaret Ormsby}}</ref><ref name="heraldicscienceheraldique.com">{{cite web|title=Heraldic Science Héraldique, Arms and Devices of Provinces and Territories, British Columbia|url=http://heraldicscienceheraldique.com/arms-and-devices-of-provinces-and-territories.html|access-date=November 3, 2016|archive-date=January 18, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200118031645/https://www.heraldicscienceheraldique.com/arms-and-devices-of-provinces-and-territories.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="scott1983" />{{Citation page|page=27}}

Moody and the Royal Engineers also built an extensive road network, including what would become [[Kingsway (Vancouver)|Kingsway]], connecting New Westminster to [[False Creek]], the North Road between [[Port Moody]] and New Westminster, and the [[Cariboo Road]] and [[Stanley Park]].<ref name="royalengineers.ca">{{cite web |url=http://www.royalengineers.ca/MoodyPostScript.html |title=Col. Richard Clement Moody – Postscript |access-date=July 4, 2016 |archive-date=September 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190908121738/http://www.royalengineers.ca/MoodyPostScript.html |url-status=live }}</ref> He named [[Burnaby Lake]] after his private secretary [[Robert Burnaby]] and named Port Coquitlam's 400-foot "Mary Hill" after his wife. As part of the surveying effort, several tracts were designated "government reserves", which included [[Stanley Park]] as a military reserve (a strategic location in case of an American invasion). The ''Pre-emption Act'' did not specify conditions for distributing the land, so large parcels were snapped up by speculators, including {{Convert|3750|acre|ha|sigfig=4|order=flip}} by Moody himself. For this he was criticized by local newspapermen for [[land grabbing]]. Moody designed the first [[coat of arms of British Columbia]]. [[Port Moody]] is named after him. It was established at the end of a trail that connected New Westminster with Burrard Inlet to defend New Westminster from potential attack from the US.

By 1862, the [[Cariboo Gold Rush]], attracting an additional 5000 miners, was underway, and Douglas hastened construction of the Great North Road (commonly known now as the [[Cariboo Wagon Road]]) up the [[Fraser Canyon]] to the prospecting region around [[Barkerville]]. By the time of this gold rush, the character of the colony was changing, as a more stable population of British colonists settled in the region, establishing businesses, opening [[sawmill]]s, and engaging in [[fishery|fishing]] and agriculture. With this increased stability, objections to the colony's absentee governor and the lack of [[responsible government]] began to be vocalized, led by the influential editor of the [[New Westminster]] ''British Columbian'' and future [[Premier of British Columbia|premier]], [[John Robson (politician)|John Robson]]. A series of petitions requesting an assembly were ignored by Douglas and the colonial office until Douglas was eased out of office in 1864. Finally, the colony would have both an assembly and a resident governor.

===Later gold rushes===
A series of gold rushes in various parts of the province followed, the largest being the [[Cariboo Gold Rush]] in 1862, forcing the colonial administration into deeper debt as it struggled to meet the extensive infrastructure needs of far-flung boom communities like [[Barkerville, British Columbia|Barkerville]] and [[Lillooet]], which sprang up overnight. The Vancouver Island colony was facing financial crises of its own, and pressure to merge the two eventually [[Colony of British Columbia (1866–71)|succeeded in 1866]], when the colony of British Columbia was amalgamated with the [[Colony of Vancouver Island]] to form the [[Colony of British Columbia (1866–1871)]], which was, in turn, succeeded by the present day province of British Columbia following the [[Canadian Confederation]] of 1871.

===Rapid growth and development===
{{Main|Amor De Cosmos|Canadian Confederation|Military history of Canada during World War I}}
{{Overly detailed|section|date=April 2022}}
{{Very long|date=April 2022|fix=Please consider moving content to the main article [[History of British Columbia]].|section}}[[File:LastSpike Craigellachie BC Canada.jpg|thumb|[[Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Lord Strathcona]] drives the [[Last Spike (Canadian Pacific Railway)|Last Spike]] of the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]], at [[Craigellachie, British Columbia|Craigellachie]], November 7, 1885. Completion of the [[transcontinental railroad]] was a condition of British Columbia's entry into [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]].]]

The Confederation League, including such figures as [[Amor De Cosmos]], [[John Robson (politician)|John Robson]], and [[Robert Beaven]], led the chorus pressing for the colony to join Canada, which had been created out of three British North American colonies in 1867 (the [[Province of Canada]], [[Nova Scotia]] and [[New Brunswick]]). Several factors motivated this agitation, including the fear of annexation to the United States, the overwhelming debt created by rapid population growth, the need for government-funded services to support this population, and the economic depression caused by the end of the gold rush.

[[File:Craigellachie (Gedenkstein).jpg|thumb|Memorial to the "last spike" in Craigellachie]]
With the agreement by the Canadian government to extend the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] to British Columbia and to assume the colony's debt, British Columbia became the sixth province to join [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] on July 20, 1871. The borders of the province were not completely settled. The Treaty of Washington sent the [[Pig War (1859)|Pig War]] San Juan Islands Border dispute to arbitration in 1871 and in 1903, the province's territory shrank again after the [[Alaska boundary dispute]] settled the vague boundary of the [[Alaska Panhandle]].

Population in British Columbia continued to expand as the province's [[mining]], [[forestry]], [[agriculture]], and [[fishery|fishing]] sectors were developed. Mining activity was particularly notable throughout the Mainland, particularly in the [[Boundary Country]], in the [[Slocan Valley|Slocan]], in the [[Kootenays|West Kootenay]] around [[Trail, British Columbia|Trail]], the East Kootenay (the southeast corner of the province), the Fraser Canyon, the [[Cariboo District|Cariboo]], the [[Omineca Country|Omineca]] and the [[Cassiar Country|Cassiar]], so much so a common epithet for the Mainland, even after provincehood, was "the Gold Colony".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belshaw|first=John Douglas|date=2015|chapter=13.9 The Gold Colony|chapter-url=https://opentextbc.ca/preconfederation/chapter/13-9-the-gold-colony/|title=Canadian History: Pre-Confederation|access-date=January 1, 2022|archive-date=January 1, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101191944/https://opentextbc.ca/preconfederation/chapter/13-9-the-gold-colony/|url-status=live}}</ref> Agriculture attracted settlers to the fertile Fraser Valley, and cattle ranchers and later fruit growers came to the drier grasslands of the Thompson River area, the Cariboo, the [[Chilcotin Country|Chilcotin]], and the Okanagan. Forestry drew workers to the lush temperate rainforests of the coast, which was also the locus of a growing fishery.

The completion of the railway in 1885 was a huge boost to the province's economy, facilitating the transportation of the region's considerable resources to the east. The milltown of Granville, known as [[Gastown]], near the mouth of the [[Burrard Inlet]] was selected as the terminus of the railway, prompting the incorporation of the city as Vancouver in 1886. The completion of the [[Port of Vancouver]] spurred rapid growth, and in less than fifty years the city surpassed [[Winnipeg]], [[Manitoba]], as the largest in [[Western Canada]]. The early decades of the province were ones in which issues of land use—specifically, its settlement and development—were paramount. This included expropriation from First Nations people of their land, control over its resources, as well as the ability to trade in some resources (such as fishing).

[[File:Statue of Queen Victoria, Victoria, Canada 02.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Statue of Queen Victoria (Victoria, British Columbia)|Statue of Queen Victoria]] outside the [[British Columbia Parliament Buildings]] in [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]]]
Establishing a [[labor force|labour force]] to develop the province was problematic from the start, and British Columbia was the locus of immigration from Europe, China, Japan and India. The influx of a non-[[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] population stimulated resentment from the dominant ethnic groups, resulting in agitation (much of it successful) to restrict the ability of [[Asian people]] to immigrate to British Columbia through the imposition of a [[head tax]]. This resentment culminated in mob attacks against Chinese and Japanese immigrants in Vancouver in 1887 and 1907. The subsequent [[Komagata Maru incident]] in 1914, where hundreds of Indians were denied entry into Vancouver, was also a direct result of the anti-Asian resentment at the time. By 1923, almost all [[Chinese Immigration Act, 1923|Chinese immigration had been blocked]] except for merchants, professionals, students and investors.

Meanwhile, the province continued to grow. In 1914, the last spike of a second transcontinental rail line, the [[Grand Trunk Pacific Railway|Grand Trunk Pacific]], linking north-central British Columbia from the [[Yellowhead Pass]] through Prince George to Prince Rupert was driven at [[Fort Fraser, British Columbia|Fort Fraser]]. This opened up the North Coast and the [[Bulkley Valley]] region to new economic opportunities. What had previously been an almost exclusively fur trade and subsistence economy soon became a locus for forestry, farming, and mining.

In [[World War I]], the province responded strongly to the call to assist the British Empire against its German foes in French and Belgian battlefields. About 55,570 of the 400,000 British Columbian residents, the highest per-capita rate in Canada, responded to the military needs. Horseriders from the province's Interior region and First Nations soldiers made contributions to Vimy Ridge and other battles. About 6,225 men from the province died in combat.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last1=Dickson |first1=Greg |last2=Forsythe |first2=Mark |date=Summer 2015 |title=From the West Coast to the Western Front: British Columbians and the Great War |magazine=British Columbia History magazine |volume=48 |issue=2}}</ref>

===1920s to 1940s===
{{Main|Canada in World War II}}
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When men returned from the [[First World War]], they discovered the recently enfranchised women of the province voted for the [[Prohibition in Canada|prohibition]] of liquor in an effort to end the social problems associated with the hard-core drinking in the province was until the war. However, with pressure from veterans, prohibition was quickly relaxed so the "soldier and the working man" could enjoy a drink, but widespread unemployment among veterans was hardened by many of the available jobs being taken by European immigrants and disgruntled veterans organized a range of "soldier parties" to represent their interests, variously named Soldier-Farmer, Soldier-Labour, and [[Labour candidates and parties in Canada|Farmer-Labour]] Parties. These formed the basis of the fractured labour-political spectrum that would generate a host of fringe leftist and rightist parties, including those who would eventually form the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] and the early [[British Columbia Social Credit Party|Social Credit]] splinter groups.

[[File:Japanese internment camp in British Columbia.jpg|thumb|[[Japanese Canadian internment|Internment camp]] for [[Japanese Canadians]] during [[World War II]]]]
The advent of [[prohibition in the United States]] created opportunities, and many found employment or at least profit in cross-border liquor smuggling. By the end of the 1920s, the end of prohibition in the U.S., combined with the onset of the [[Great Depression]], plunged the province into economic destitution during the 1930s. Compounding the already dire local economic situation, tens of thousands of men from colder parts of Canada swarmed into Vancouver, creating huge [[hobo]] jungles around [[False Creek]] and the Burrard Inlet [[Classification yard|rail yards]], including the old Canadian Pacific Railway mainline [[Right-of-way (transportation)|right-of-way]] through the heart of [[Downtown Vancouver]]. Increasingly desperate times led to intense political efforts, an occupation of the main Post Office at [[Granville Street|Granville]] and [[Hastings Street (Vancouver)|Hastings]] which was violently put down by the police and an effective imposition of [[martial law]] on the docks for almost three years due to the [[Battle of Ballantyne Pier]]. A Vancouver contingent for the [[On-to-Ottawa Trek]] was organized and seized a train, which was loaded with thousands of men bound for the capital but was met by a [[Gatling gun]] straddling train tracks at [[Mission, British Columbia|Mission]]. All the men were arrested and sent to work camps for the duration of the Depression.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schroeder |first=Andreas |title=Carved From Wood; Mission, BC, 1861–1992 |publisher=The Mission Foundation |year=1992 |isbn=978-1-55056-131-9}}</ref> There were signs of an economic return towards the end of the 1930s, however, the onset of World War II transformed the national economy and ended the Depression.

British Columbia has long taken advantage of its location on the Pacific Ocean to have close relations with [[East Asia]] and [[South Asia]]. These relations have often caused friction between cultures which has sometimes escalated into racist animosity towards those of Asian descent. This was manifest during the Second World War when many people of [[Japanese Canadian internment|Japanese descent were relocated or interned]] in the [[British Columbia Interior|Interior region]] of the province.

===Coalition and the post-war boom===
[[File:British Columbia Regiment 1940.jpg|thumb|The [[The British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught's Own)|BC Regiment (DCOR)]], marching in [[New Westminster]], 1940|alt=The BC Regiment marching in New Westminster, 1940. This image is called "Wait for me daddy".|238x238px]]
During the [[Second World War]] the mainstream [[British Columbia Liberal Party|BC Liberal]] and [[British Columbia Conservative Party|BC Conservative]] parties united in a formal [[coalition government]] under new Liberal leader [[John Hart (Canadian politician)|John Hart]], who replaced [[Thomas Dufferin Pattullo|Duff Pattullo]] when the latter failed to win a majority in the [[1941 British Columbia general election|1941 election]]. While the Liberals won the most seats, they actually received fewer votes than the socialist [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF). Pattullo was unwilling to form a coalition with the rival Conservatives led by [[Royal Maitland]] and was replaced by Hart, who formed a coalition cabinet made up of five Liberal and three Conservative ministers.<ref name="con" /> The CCF was invited to join the coalition but refused.<ref name="con" />

The pretext for continuing the coalition after the end of the Second World War was to prevent the CCF, which had won a surprise victory in [[Saskatchewan]] in 1944, from ever coming to power in British Columbia. The CCF's popular vote was high enough in the [[1945 British Columbia general election|1945 election]] that they were likely to have won three-way contests and could have formed government; however, the coalition prevented that by uniting the anti-[[socialism|socialist]] vote.<ref name="con" /> In the post-war environment the government initiated a series of infrastructure projects, notably the completion of [[British Columbia Highway 97|Highway 97]] north of Prince George to the Peace River Block, a section called the John Hart Highway and also public hospital insurance.

In 1947 the reins of the Coalition were taken by [[Byron Ingemar Johnson]]. The Conservatives had wanted their new leader [[Herbert Anscomb]] to be premier, but the Liberals in the Coalition refused. Johnson led the coalition to the highest percentage of the popular vote in British Columbia history (61 percent) in the [[1949 British Columbia general election|1949 election]]. This victory was attributable to the popularity of his government's spending programmes, despite rising criticism of corruption and abuse of power. During his tenure, major infrastructures continued to expand, such as the agreement with [[Rio Tinto Alcan|Alcan Aluminum]] to build the town of [[Kitimat, British Columbia|Kitimat]] with an aluminum smelter and the large [[Kemano Generating Station|Kemano Hydro Project]].<ref>{{Cite journal |date=June 1952 |title=Boom in the Big Triangle |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XNwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA102 |url-status=live |journal=[[Popular Mechanics]] |pages=102–107/246 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427204118/https://books.google.com/books?id=XNwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA102 |archive-date=April 27, 2016 |access-date=November 22, 2015}}</ref> Johnson achieved popularity for flood relief efforts during the 1948 flooding of the Fraser Valley, which was a major blow to that region and to the province's economy.

On February 13, 1950, a [[1950 British Columbia B-36 crash|Convair B-36B crashed]] in northern British Columbia after jettisoning a [[Mark 4 nuclear bomb|Mark IV]] [[atomic bomb]]. This was the first such [[United States military nuclear incident terminology|nuclear weapon loss]] in history.<ref>{{cite news |date=November 25, 2016 |title=Object found off British Columbia coast not missing nuke |website=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38112808 |url-status=live |access-date=August 22, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823132447/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-38112808 |archive-date=August 23, 2019}}</ref>

Increasing tension between the Liberal and Conservative coalition partners led the Liberal Party executive to vote to instruct Johnson to terminate the arrangement. Johnson ended the coalition and dropped his Conservative cabinet ministers, including [[Deputy Prime Minister|Deputy Premier]] and [[Finance minister]] Herbert Anscomb, precipitating the [[1952 British Columbia general election|general election of 1952]].<ref name="con">{{Cite book |last1=Michelmann |first1=Hans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d7iLYjWHvS8C&q=herbert+anscomb+conservative&pg=PA184 |title=Continuity And Change in Canadian Politics: Essays in Honour of David E. Smith |last2=Smith |first2=David |last3=De Clercy |first3=Cristine |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2006 |isbn=9780802090607 |page=184 |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511190609/https://books.google.com/books?id=d7iLYjWHvS8C&q=herbert+anscomb+conservative&pg=PA184 |url-status=live }}</ref> A referendum on electoral reform prior to this election had instigated an elimination ballot (similar to a [[Ranked voting systems|preferential ballot]]), where voters could select second and third choices. The intent of the ballot, as campaigned for by Liberals and Conservatives, was that their supporters would list the rival party in lieu of the CCF, but this plan backfired when a large group of voters from all major parties, including the CCF, voted for the fringe Social Credit Party, who wound up with the largest number of seats in the House (19), only one seat ahead of the CCF, despite the CCF having 34.3 percent of the vote to Social Credit's 30.18 percent.

The Social Credit Party, led by rebel former Conservative MLA [[W. A. C. Bennett]], formed a [[minority government]] backed by the Liberals and Conservatives (with 6 and 4 seats respectively). Bennett began a series of fiscal reforms, preaching a new variety of [[populism]] as well as waxing eloquent on progress and development, laying the ground for a [[1953 British Columbia general election|second election in 1953]] in which the new Bennett regime secured a majority of seats, with 38 percent of the vote. Secure with that majority, Bennett returned the province to the first-past-the-post system thereafter, which is still in use.

===1952–1960s===
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With the election of the Social Credit Party, British Columbia embarked on a phase of rapid [[economic development]]. Bennett and his party governed the province for the next twenty years, during which time the government initiated an ambitious programme of infrastructure development, fuelled by a sustained economic boom in the forestry, mining, and energy sectors.

During these two decades, the government [[nationalized]] British Columbia Electric and the British Columbia Power Company, as well as smaller electric companies, renaming the entity [[BC Hydro]]. [[West Kootenay Power and Light]] remained independent of BC Hydro, being owned and operated by [[Cominco]], though tied into the regional power grid. By the end of the 1960s, several major dams had been begun or completed in—among others—the [[Peace River (Canada)|Peace]], Columbia, and [[Nechako River]] watersheds (the Nechako Diversion to [[Kemano]], was to supply power to the [[Alcan Inc.]] aluminum smelter at [[Kitimat]], and was not part of the provincial power grid but [[Independent Power Producers in British Columbia|privately owned]]). Major transmission deals were concluded, most notably the [[Columbia River Treaty]] between Canada and the United States. The province's economy was also boosted by unprecedented growth in the forest sector, as well as oil and gas development in the province's northeast.

The 1950s and 1960s were also marked by development in the province's transportation infrastructure. In 1960, the government established [[BC Ferries]] as a [[Crown corporations of Canada|crown corporation]], to provide a marine extension of the provincial highway system, also supported by federal grants as being part of the [[Trans-Canada Highway]] system. That system was improved and expanded through the construction of new highways and bridges, and paving of existing highways and provincial roads.

Vancouver and Victoria became cultural centres as poets, authors, artists, musicians, as well as dancers, actors, and ''haute cuisine'' chefs flocked to its scenery and warmer temperatures, with the cultural and entrepreneurial community bolstered by many [[Draft dodgers]] from the United States. Tourism also played a role in the economy. The rise of Japan and other Pacific economies was a boost to British Columbia's economy, primarily because of exports of lumber products and unprocessed coal and trees.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}}

Politically and socially, the 1960s brought a period of significant social ferment. The divide between the [[Left-wing politics|political left]] and right, which had prevailed in the province since the Depression and the rise of the [[labour movement]], sharpened as so-called [[Capitalism|free enterprise]] parties coalesced into the de facto coalition represented by Social Credit—in opposition to the [[social democracy|social democratic]] [[British Columbia New Democratic Party|New Democratic Party]] (NDP), the successor to the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation. As the province's economy blossomed, so did labour-management tensions. Tensions emerged, also, from the counterculture movement of the late 1960s, of which Vancouver and Nanaimo were centres. The conflict between [[hippie]]s and [[List of mayors of Vancouver|Vancouver mayor]] [[Tom Campbell (Canadian politician)|Tom Campbell]] was particularly legendary, culminating in the [[Gastown riots]] of 1971. By the end of the decade, with social tensions and dissatisfaction with the [[status quo]] rising, the Bennett government's achievements could not stave off its growing unpopularity.

===1970s and 1980s===
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On August 27, 1969, the Social Credit Party was re-elected in a general election for what would be Bennett's final term in power. At the start of the 1970s, the economy was quite strong because of rising coal prices and an increase in annual allowable cuts in the forestry sector, but BC Hydro reported its first loss, which was the beginning of the end for Bennett and the Social Credit Party.<ref>{{cite web |year=1998 |title=Electoral History of British Columbia 1871–1986 |url=http://www.llbc.leg.bc.ca/public/PubDocs/bcdocs/37907/electoral_history.pdf |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20070614185856/http://www.llbc.leg.bc.ca/public/PubDocs/bcdocs/37907/electoral_history.pdf |archive-date=June 14, 2007 |access-date=April 26, 2007 |publisher=[[Elections BC]]}}</ref>

The Socreds were forced from power in the August 1972 election, paving the way for a provincial NDP government under [[Dave Barrett]]. Under Barrett, the large provincial surplus soon became a deficit,{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} although changes to the accounting system makes it likely some of the deficit was carried over from the previous Social Credit regime and its "[[two sets of books]]", as W. A. C. Bennett had once referred to his system of fiscal management. The brief three-year ("Thousand Days") period of NDP governance brought several lasting changes to the province, most notably the creation of the Agricultural Land Reserve, intended to protect farmland from redevelopment, and the [[Insurance Corporation of British Columbia]], a crown corporation charged with a monopoly on providing single-payer basic automobile insurance.

Perceptions the government had instituted reforms either too swiftly or that were too far-reaching, coupled with growing labour disruptions led to the ouster of the NDP in the [[1975 British Columbia general election|1975 general election]]. Social Credit, under W.A.C. Bennett's son, [[Bill Bennett]], was returned to office. Under the younger Bennett's government, 85 percent of the province's land base was transferred from Government Reserve to management by the Ministry of Forests, reporting of deputy ministers was centralized to the Premier's Office, and NDP-instigated social programs were rolled back, with then-human resources minister infamously demonstrating a golden shovel to highlight his welfare policy, although the new-era Social Credit Party also reinforced and backed certain others instigated by the NDP—notably the creation of the [[Whistler, British Columbia|Resort Municipality of Whistler]], whose special status including Sunday drinking, then an anomaly in BC.

[[File:BRITISH COLUMBIA PAVILION AT EXPO 86, VANCOUVER, B.C..jpg|thumb|British Columbia's pavilion for Expo 86, Vancouver]]
Also during the "MiniWac" regime (a reference to his father's acronym, W. A. C.) certain money-losing Crown-owned assets were "privatized" in a mass giveaway of shares in the [[British Columbia Resources Investment Corporation]], "BCRIC", with the "Brick shares" soon becoming near-worthless. Towards the end of his tenure in power, Bennett oversaw the completion of several [[megaproject]]s meant to stimulate the economy and win votes – unlike most right-wing parties, British Columbia's Social Credit actively practiced government stimulation of the economy. Most notable of these was the winning of a world's fair for Vancouver, which came in the form of [[Expo 86]], to which was tied the construction of the [[British Columbia Highway 5|Coquihalla Highway]] and Vancouver's [[SkyTrain (Vancouver)|SkyTrain]] system. The Coquihalla Highway project became the subject of a scandal after revelations the premier's brother bought large tracts of land needed for the project before it was announced to the public, and also because of graft investigations of the huge cost overruns on the project. Both investigations were derailed in the media by a still further scandal, the [[Doman Scandal]], in which the premier and millionaire backer Herb Doman were investigated for insider-trading and [[securities fraud]]. Nonetheless, the Socreds were re-elected in 1979 under Bennett, who led the party until 1986.

[[File:Coquilhalla Highway.jpg|thumb|The [[Coquihalla Highway]] was one of the legacies of the [[Expo 86]] [[world's fair]], though creation of the [[toll road|toll highway]] sparked controversy. Tolling was removed in 2008.]]
As the province entered a sustained [[recession]], Bennett's popularity and media image were in decline. On April 1, 1983, Premier Bennett overstayed his constitutional limits of power by exceeding the legal tenure of a government, and the lieutenant governor, [[Henry Pybus Bell-Irving]], was forced to call Bennett to [[Government House (British Columbia)|Government House]] to resolve the impasse, and an election was called for April 30, while in the meantime government cheques were covered by special emergency warrants as the [[Executive Council of British Columbia|Executive Council]] no longer had signing authority because of the constitutional crisis. Campaigning on a platform of moderation, Bennett won an unexpected majority.

After several weeks of silence in the aftermath, a sitting of the [[Legislative Assembly of British Columbia|House]] was finally called and in the [[speech from the throne]], Social Credit instituted a programme of fiscal cutbacks dubbed "restraint", which had been a buzzword for moderation during the campaign. The programme included cuts to "motherhood" issues of the left, including the human rights branch, the offices of the Ombudsman and Rentalsman, women's programs, environmental and cultural programs, while still supplying mass capital infusions to corporate British Columbia. This sparked a backlash, with tens of thousands of people in the streets the next day after the budget speech, and through the course of a summer repeated large demonstrations of up to 100,000 people.

This became known as the 1983 [[Solidarity Crisis]], from the name of the [[Solidarity Coalition]], a huge grassroots opposition movement mobilized, consisting of organized labour and community groups, with the [[British Columbia Federation of Labour]] forming a separate organization of unions, [[Operation Solidarity]], under the direction of [[Jack Munro]], then-president of the [[International Woodworkers of America]] (IWA), the most powerful of the province's resource unions. Tens of thousands participated in protests and many felt a [[general strike]] would be the inevitable result unless the government backed down from its policies they had claimed were only about restraint and not about recrimination against the NDP and the left. Just as a strike at [[Pacific Press Publishing Association|Pacific Press]] ended, which had limited the political management of the public agenda by the publishers of the province's major papers, the movement collapsed after an apparent deal was struck by union leader and IWA president, Jack Munro and Premier Bennett.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Palmer |first=Bryan |title=Solidarity: The Rise and Fall of an Opposition in British Columbia |publisher=New Star Books |year=1987 |location=Vancouver}}</ref>

A tense winter of blockades at various job sites around the province ensued, as among the new laws were those enabling non-union labour to work on large projects and other sensitive labour issues, with companies from Alberta and other provinces brought in to compete with union-scale British Columbia companies. Despite the tension, Bennett's last few years in power were relatively peaceful as economic and political momentum grew on the megaprojects associated with Expo, and Bennett was to end his career by hosting [[Charles III|Prince Charles]] and [[Diana, Princess of Wales|Lady Diana]] on their visit to open Expo 86. His retirement being announced, a Social Credit convention was scheduled for the Whistler Resort, which came down to a three-way shooting match between Bud Smith, the Premier's right-hand man but an unelected official, Social Credit party [[grande dame]] [[Grace McCarthy]], and the charismatic but eccentric [[Bill Vander Zalm]].

Bill Vander Zalm became the new Social Credit leader when Smith threw his support to him rather than see McCarthy win, and led the party to victory in the election later that year. Vander Zalm was later involved in a [[conflict of interest]] scandal following the sale of [[Fantasy Gardens]], a Christian and [[Culture of the Netherlands|Dutch culture]] [[Amusement park|theme park]] built by the Premier, to [[Tan Yu]], a [[Filipino Chinese]] gambling kingpin. There were also concerns over Yu's application to the government for a bank licence, and lurid stories from flamboyant realtor [[Faye Leung (businesswoman)|Faye Leung]] of a party in the "Howard Hughes Suite" on the top two floors of the [[Bayshore Inn]], where Tan Yu had been staying, with reports of a [[bag of money]] in a brown paper bag passed from Yu to Vander Zalm during the goings-on. These scandals forced Vander Zalm's resignation, and [[Rita Johnston]] became premier of the province. Johnston presided over the end of Social Credit power, calling an election which reduced the party's caucus to only two seats, and the revival of the long-defunct British Columbia Liberal Party as Opposition to the victorious NDP under former Vancouver mayor [[Mike Harcourt]].

In 1988, [[David Lam (real estate entrepreneur)|David Lam]] was appointed as British Columbia's twenty-fifth lieutenant governor, and was the province's first lieutenant governor of Chinese origin.

===1990s to present===
[[File:Vancouver 2010 Public Caldron.jpg|thumb|The cauldron of the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in Vancouver]]{{Multiple issues|{{More citations needed|section|date=September 2018}}
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Johnston lost the [[1991 British Columbia general election|1991 general election]] to the NDP, under the leadership of Mike Harcourt, a former mayor of Vancouver. The NDP's unprecedented creation of new parkland and protected areas was popular and helped boost the province's growing [[tourism]] sector, although the economy continued to struggle against the backdrop of a weak resource economy. Housing starts and an expanded service sector saw growth overall through the decade, despite political turmoil. Harcourt ended up resigning over "[[Bingogate]]"—a political scandal involving the funnelling of charity bingo receipts into party coffers in certain ridings. Harcourt was not implicated, but he resigned nonetheless in respect of constitutional conventions calling for leaders under suspicion to step aside. [[Glen Clark]], a former president of the [[British Columbia Federation of Labour|BC Federation of Labour]], was chosen the new leader of the NDP, which won [[1996 British Columbia general election|a second term in 1996]]. More scandals dogged the party, most notably the [[fast ferry scandal]] involving the province trying to develop the shipbuilding industry in British Columbia. An allegation (never substantiated) that the premier had received a favour in return for granting a gaming licence led to Clark's resignation as premier. He was succeeded on an interim basis by [[Dan Miller (Canadian politician)|Dan Miller]] who was in turn followed by [[Ujjal Dosanjh]] following a leadership convention.

In the [[2001 British Columbia general election|2001 provincial election]], [[Gordon Campbell (Canadian politician)|Gordon Campbell]]'s Liberals defeated the NDP, gaining 77 out of 79 total seats in the provincial legislature. Campbell instituted various reforms and removed some of the NDP's policies including scrapping the "fast ferries" project, lowering income taxes, and the controversial sale of [[BC Rail]] to [[Canadian National Railway]]. Campbell was also the subject of criticism after he was arrested for [[driving under the influence]] during a vacation in Hawaii, but he still managed to lead his party to victory in the [[2005 British Columbia general election|2005 provincial election]] against a substantially strengthened NDP opposition. Campbell won a third term in the [[2009 British Columbia general election|2009 provincial election]], marking the first time in 23 years a premier has been elected to a third term.

The province won a bid to host the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in Vancouver and Whistler. As promised in his 2002 re-election campaign, Vancouver Mayor Larry Campbell staged a non-binding civic referendum regarding the hosting of the Olympics. In February 2003, Vancouver's residents voted in a referendum accepting the responsibilities of the host city should it win its bid. Sixty-four percent of residents voted in favour of hosting the games.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wallechinsky |first1=D. |title=The Complete Book of the Winter Olympics: 2010 Edition |last2=Loucky |first2=J. |year=2010 |page=12}}</ref>

After the Olympic joy had faded, Campbell's popularity started to fall. His management style, the implementation of the [[Harmonized Sales Tax]] (HST) against election promises and the cancelling of the [[BC Legislature Raids|BC Rail corruption trial]] led to low approval ratings and loss of caucus support. He resigned in November 2010 and called on the party to elect a new leader.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/b-c-premier-campbell-stepping-down-1.911669 |title=BC Premier Campbell stepping down |date=November 3, 2010 |access-date=May 22, 2014 |publisher=[[CBC News]] |archive-date=March 29, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329100656/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/b-c-premier-campbell-stepping-down-1.911669 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In early 2011, former deputy premier [[Christy Clark]] became leader of the Liberal Party. Though she was not a sitting MLA, she went on to win the seat left vacant by Campbell. For the next two years, she attempted to distance herself from the unpopularity of Campbell and forge an image for [[2013 British Columbia general election|the upcoming 2013 election]]. Among her early accomplishments were raising the minimum wage, creating a new statutory holiday in February called "Family Day", and pushing the development of BC's [[liquefied natural gas]] industry. In the lead-up to the 2013 election, the Liberals lagged behind the NDP by a double-digit gap in the polls, but were able to achieve a surprise victory on election night, winning a majority and making Clark the first woman to lead a party to victory in a general election in BC.<ref>{{Cite news |date=May 15, 2013 |title=Christy Clark leads BC Liberals to surprise majority |work=[[CBC News]] |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/christy-clark-leads-b-c-liberals-to-surprise-majority-1.1315526 |url-status=live |access-date=April 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407132113/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/christy-clark-leads-b-c-liberals-to-surprise-majority-1.1315526 |archive-date=April 7, 2014}}</ref> While Clark lost her seat to NDP candidate [[David Eby]], she later won a by-election in the riding of [[Westside-Kelowna]]. Her government went on to balance the budget, implement changes to liquor laws and continue with the question of the proposed [[Enbridge Northern Gateway Pipelines]].

In [[2017 British Columbia general election|the 2017 election]], the NDP formed a minority government with the support of the Green Party through a [[Confidence and supply|confidence and supply agreement]]. The NDP and Green caucuses together controlled 44 seats, compared to the Liberals' 43. On July 18, 2017, NDP leader John Horgan was sworn in as the premier of British Columbia. He was the province's first NDP premier in 16 years. Clark resigned shortly thereafter, and [[Andrew Wilkinson]] was voted to become leader of the BC Liberals. In late 2020, Horgan called an early election. In the [[2020 British Columbia general election]], the NDP won 57 seats and formed a majority government, making Horgan the first NDP premier to be re-elected in the province. Wilkinson resigned as the leader of the BC Liberals two days later.

British Columbia was significantly affected by demographic changes within Canada and around the world. Vancouver (and to a lesser extent some other parts of British Columbia) was a major destination for many of the immigrants from [[Hong Kong]] who left the former UK colony (either temporarily or permanently) in the years immediately prior to its [[Transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong|handover]] to [[China]]. British Columbia has also been a significant destination for internal Canadian migrants. This has been the case throughout recent decades,{{when|date=January 2019}} because of its natural environment, mild climate and relaxed lifestyle, but has been particularly true during periods of economic growth.{{citation needed|date=January 2019}} British Columbia has moved from approximately 10 percent of Canada's population in 1971 to approximately 13 percent in 2006. Trends of urbanization mean the [[Greater Vancouver]] area now includes 51 percent of the province's population, followed by [[Greater Victoria, British Columbia|Greater Victoria]] with 8 percent. These two metropolitan regions have traditionally dominated the demographics of BC.

By 2018, housing prices in Vancouver were the second-least affordable in the world, behind only Hong Kong.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kwan |first=Shawna |date=January 21, 2019 |title=Hong Kong Housing Is World's Least Affordable for 9th Year |website=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-21/hong-kong-housing-ranked-world-s-least-affordable-for-9th-year |url-status=live |access-date=September 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012033331/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-01-21/hong-kong-housing-ranked-world-s-least-affordable-for-9th-year |archive-date=October 12, 2020}}</ref> Many experts point to evidence of money-laundering from mainland China as a contributing factor. The high price of residential real estate has led to the implementation of an empty homes tax, a housing speculation and vacancy tax, and a foreign buyers' tax on housing.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://news.gov.bc.ca/files/Gaming_Final_Report.pdf |title=Dirty Money: An Independent Review of Money Laundering in Lower Mainland Casinos conducted for the Attorney General of British Columbia |last=German |first=Peter M. |publisher=Government of British Columbia |date=March 31, 2018 |access-date=June 27, 2021 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181116102035/https://news.gov.bc.ca/files/Gaming_Final_Report.pdf |archive-date=November 16, 2018 }}</ref>

The net number of people coming to BC from other provinces in 2016 was almost four times larger than in 2012. BC was the largest net recipient of [[Interprovincial migration in Canada|interprovincial migrants in Canada]] in the first quarter of 2016 with half of the 5,000 people coming from [[Alberta]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Carman |first=Tara |date=August 5, 2016 |title=Canadians flock to B.C. in search of jobs |website=[[Vancouver Sun]] |url=https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/canadians-flock-to-b-c-in-search-of-jobs |url-status=live |access-date=April 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170511211232/http://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/canadians-flock-to-b-c-in-search-of-jobs |archive-date=May 11, 2017}}</ref>

By 2021, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] had had [[COVID-19 pandemic in British Columbia|a major effect on the province]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Engagement|first1=Government Communications and Public|last2=Health|first2=Ministry of|title=British Columbia's Response to COVID-19|url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/covid-19/info/response|access-date=January 1, 2022|website=www2.gov.bc.ca|archive-date=December 31, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231233932/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/covid-19/info/response|url-status=live}}</ref> with over 2,000 deaths and 250,000 confirmed cases. However, the [[COVID-19 vaccine]] reduced the spread of the virus, with 78 percent of people in BC over the age of five having been fully vaccinated.

In 2021, the [[Canadian Indian residential school gravesites|unmarked gravesites of hundreds of Indigenous children]] were discovered at three former [[Canadian Indian residential school system|Indian residential schools]] ([[Kamloops Indian Residential School|Kamloops]], [[Kootenay Indian Residential School|St. Eugene's Mission]], [[Kuper Island Indian Residential School|Kuper Island]]).<ref>{{Cite news |title=Remains of 215 children found at former Kamloops, B.C. residential school |work=[[The Globe and Mail]] |agency=[[The Canadian Press]] |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-remains-of-215-children-found-at-former-residential-school-in-british/ |url-status=live |access-date=June 3, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618213750/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-remains-of-215-children-found-at-former-residential-school-in-british/ |archive-date=June 18, 2021}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{cite news |date=July 13, 2021 |title=Former Native Residential School: Over 160 Graves Found on Kuper Island |website=The Canadian |url=https://thecanadian.news/2021/07/13/former-native-residential-school-over-160-graves-found-on-kuper-island/ |url-status=dead |access-date=July 13, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713014746/https://thecanadian.news/2021/07/13/former-native-residential-school-over-160-graves-found-on-kuper-island/ |archive-date=July 13, 2021}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of British Columbia}}
{{See also|List of cities in Canada#British Columbia|List of communities in British Columbia|List of municipalities in British Columbia}}

===Population===
[[File:Canada British Columbia Density 2016.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Population density map of British Columbia, with regional district borders shown]]
Statistics Canada's [[2021 Canadian census]] recorded a population of 5,000,879 — making British Columbia Canada's third-most populous province after [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]].<ref name="census2021"/><ref name="census2021ByProvincesAndTerritories">{{cite web |date=February 9, 2022 |title=Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000101 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134802/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000101 |archive-date=February 9, 2022 |access-date=February 13, 2021 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref>
{{Graph:Chart
| width = 300
| height = 100
| type = line
| interpolate = basis
| xAxisAngle = -40
| xAxisMin = 1851
| xAxisMax = 2021
| yAxisTitle = Population
| yAxisMin = 0
| yAxisMax = 5500000
| yGrid = yes
| linewidth = 2
| x = 1851, 1861, 1871, 1881, 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921, 1931, 1941, 1951, 1956, 1961, 1966, 1971, 1975, 1981, 1986, 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, 2011, 2016, 2021
| y = 55000, 51524, 36247, 49459, 98173, 178657, 392480, 524582, 694263, 817861, 1165210, 1398464, 1629082, 1873674, 2184620, 2466610, 2744467, 2883370, 3282061, 3724500, 3907738, 4113487, 4400057, 4648055, 5000879
| colors = #f47f28
}}
<ref>{{cite web |title=Statistics Canada – Population |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo62k.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060519055145/http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo62k.htm |archive-date=May 19, 2006 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Canada's population |url=http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/060927/d060927a.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081104230200/http://www.statcan.ca/Daily/English/060927/d060927a.htm |archive-date=November 4, 2008 |access-date=September 28, 2006 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref>

====Cities====
{{See also|List of cities in British Columbia|List of metropolitan areas in British Columbia|List of municipalities in British Columbia|List of regional districts of British Columbia}}
[[File:Concord Pacific Master Plan Area.jpg|thumb|The Vancouver skyline]]
Half of all British Columbians live in the [[Metro Vancouver Regional District]], which includes Vancouver, [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]], [[Burnaby]], [[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]], [[Coquitlam]], [[Langley, British Columbia (district municipality)|Langley (district municipality)]], [[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]], [[North Vancouver (district municipality)]], [[Maple Ridge, British Columbia|Maple Ridge]], [[New Westminster]], [[Port Coquitlam]], [[North Vancouver (city)]], [[West Vancouver]], [[Port Moody]], [[Langley, British Columbia (city)|Langley (city)]], [[White Rock, British Columbia|White Rock]], [[Pitt Meadows]], [[Bowen Island]], [[Anmore]], [[Lions Bay, British Columbia|Lions Bay]], and [[Belcarra]], with adjacent unincorporated areas (including the [[University Endowment Lands]]) represented in the regional district as the [[List of regional district electoral areas in British Columbia|electoral area]] known as [[Greater Vancouver Electoral Area A, British Columbia|Greater Vancouver Electoral Area A]]. The metropolitan area has [[List of First Nations governments in British Columbia|seventeen Indian reserves]], but they are outside of the regional district's jurisdiction and are not represented in its government.

The second largest concentration of British Columbia population is at the southern tip of Vancouver Island, which is made up of the 13 municipalities of Greater Victoria, [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]], [[Saanich, British Columbia|Saanich]], [[Esquimalt, British Columbia|Esquimalt]], [[Oak Bay, British Columbia|Oak Bay]], [[View Royal, British Columbia|View Royal]], [[Highlands, British Columbia|Highlands]], [[Colwood, British Columbia|Colwood]], [[Langford, British Columbia|Langford]], [[Central Saanich, British Columbia|Central Saanich]]/[[Saanichton, British Columbia|Saanichton]], [[North Saanich, British Columbia|North Saanich]], [[Sidney, British Columbia|Sidney]], [[Metchosin, British Columbia|Metchosin]], [[Sooke, British Columbia|Sooke]], which are part of the [[Capital Regional District]]. The metropolitan area also includes several [[Indian reserve]]s (the governments of which are not part of the regional district). Almost half of the Vancouver Island population is in Greater Victoria.
{{clear}}
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-break|width=40%}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+ Ten largest metropolitan areas by population<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/popdwell/Table-CMA-P.cfm?T=1&SR=1&PR=59&S=3&O=D |title=Population and Dwelling Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations |year=2002 |publisher=Statistics Canada |access-date=April 26, 2007 |archive-date=February 20, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220141922/http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/popdwell/Table-CMA-P.cfm?T=1&SR=1&PR=59&S=3&O=D |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{efn|Indian reserve populations are not included in these figures}}
!#
!Metropolitan area
!2021<ref name="census2021BySubdivisions">{{cite web|date=February 9, 2022|title=Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories, and census subdivisions (municipalities)|url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000202|access-date=February 9, 2022|website=Statistics Canada|archive-date=February 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209152451/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000202|url-status=live}}</ref>
!2016
!2011
|-
| 1
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Greater Vancouver|Vancouver]]
| style="text-align: right;" |2,642,825
| style="text-align: right;" |2,463,431
| style="text-align: right;" |2,313,328
|-
| 2
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Greater Victoria|Victoria]]
| style="text-align: right;" |397,237
| style="text-align: right;" |367,770
| style="text-align: right;" |344,615
|-
| 3
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Kelowna]]
| style="text-align: right;" |222,162
| style="text-align: right;" |194,882
| style="text-align: right;" |179,839
|-
| 4
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
| style="text-align: right;" |195,726
| style="text-align: right;" |180,518
| style="text-align: right;" |170,191
|-
| 5
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Nanaimo]]
| style="text-align: right;" |115,459
| style="text-align: right;" |104,936
| style="text-align: right;" |98,021
|-
| 6
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Kamloops]]
| style="text-align: right;" |114,142
| style="text-align: right;" |103,811
| style="text-align: right;" |98,754
|-
| 7
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Chilliwack]]
| style="text-align: right;" |113,767
| style="text-align: right;" |101,512
| style="text-align: right;" |92,308
|-
| 8
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]]
| style="text-align: right;" |89,490
| style="text-align: right;" |86,622
| style="text-align: right;" |84,232
|-
| 9
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Greater Vernon|Vernon]]
| style="text-align: right;" |67,086
| style="text-align: right;" |61,334
| style="text-align: right;" |58,584
|-
| 10
| style="text-align: left;" |[[Courtenay, British Columbia|Courtenay]]
| style="text-align: right;" |63,282
| style="text-align: right;" |54,157
| style="text-align: right;" |55,213
|}

{{Col-break|width=30%}}

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="margin-left:20px;"
|+ Ten largest municipalities by population
!#
!Municipality
!2021<ref name="census2021BySubdivisions"/>
!2016
!2011
|-
| 1
| [[Vancouver]]
| 662,248
| 631,486
| 603,502
|-
| 2
| [[Surrey, British Columbia|Surrey]]
| 568,322
| 517,887
| 468,251
|-
| 3
| [[Burnaby]]
| 249,125
| 232,755
| 223,218
|-
| 4
| [[Richmond, British Columbia|Richmond]]
| 209,937
| 198,309
| 190,473
|-
| 5
| [[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]
| 153,524
| 141,397
| 133,497
|-
| 6
| [[Coquitlam]]
| 148,625
| 139,284
| 126,456
|-
| 7
| [[Kelowna]]
| 144,576
| 127,380
| 117,312
|-
| 8
| [[Langley, British Columbia (district municipality)|Langley]]
| 132,603
| 117,285
| 104,177
|-
| 9
| [[Saanich, British Columbia|Saanich]]
| 117,735
| 114,148
| 109,752
|-
| 10
| [[Delta, British Columbia|Delta]]
| 108,455
| 102,238
| 99,863
|}

{{Col-break|width=33%}}

{{Col-end}}

===Cultural origins===
British Columbia is the most diverse province in Canada; as of 2016, the province had the highest proportion of [[visible minority|visible minorities]] in the country. The five largest [[Panethnicity|pan-ethnic]] groups in the province are [[European Canadians|Europeans]] (64 percent), [[East Asian Canadians|East Asians]] (15 percent), [[South Asian Canadians|South Asians]] (8 percent), [[Aboriginal Canadian|Aboriginals]] (6 percent) and [[Southeast Asia]]ns (4 percent).<ref name="2016CensusBCEthnicOrigin" />

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Top ethnic origins in BC (2016 census)<ref name="2016CensusBCEthnicOrigin" />{{Efn|Note: Statistics represent both single (for example, "German") and multiple (for example, "Chinese-English") responses to the 2016 Census, and thus do not add up to 100 percent. All items are self-identified.}}
|-
!#
!Ethnic origin
!Population
!Percent
|-
| 1
| [[English people|English]]
| 1,203,540
| 26.39%
|-
| 2
| [[Canadians|Canadian]]
| 866,530
| 19%
|-
| 3
| [[Scottish people|Scottish]]
| 860,775
| 18.88%
|-
| 4
| [[Irish people|Irish]]
| 675,135
| 14.80%
|-
| 5
| [[Ethnic German|German]]
| 603,265
| 13.23%
|-
| 6
| [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]
| 540,155
| 11.84%
|-
| 7
| [[French people|French]]
| 388,815
| 8.53%
|-
| 8
| [[Indo-Canadian|Indian]]
| 309,315
| 6.78%
|-
| 9
| [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]]
| 229,205
| 5.03%
|-
| 10
| [[Indigenous Canadian]]
| 220,245
| 4.83%
|}

===Religion===
According to the [[2021 Canadian census|2021 census]], religious groups in British Columbia included:<ref name="2021censusB">{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Statistics Canada |date=October 26, 2022 |title= Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?Lang=E&SearchText=British%20Columbia&DGUIDlist=2021A000259&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1&HEADERlist=0 |access-date=November 9, 2022 |website=www12.statcan.gc.ca}}</ref>
*[[Irreligion in Canada|Irreligion]] (2,559,250 persons or 52.1%)
*[[Christianity in Canada|Christianity]] (1,684,870 persons or 34.3%)
*[[Sikhism in Canada|Sikhism]] (290,870 persons or 5.9%)
*[[Islam in Canada|Islam]] (125,915 persons or 2.6%)
*[[Buddhism in Canada|Buddhism]] (83,860 persons or 1.7%)
*[[Hinduism in Canada|Hinduism]] (81,320 persons or 1.7%)
*[[Judaism in Canada|Judaism]] (26,850 persons or 0.5%)
*[[Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous spirituality]] (11,570 persons or 0.2%)
*Other (51,440 persons or 1.0%)

===Language===
[[File:Vancouver Welcome Sign 0139.jpg|thumb|A Vancouver [[welcome sign]] in both English and French]]
As of the [[2021 Canadian census|2021 Canadian Census]], the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (4,753,280 or 96.69%), French (327,350 or 6.66%), Punjabi (315,000 or 6.41%), Mandarin (312,625 or 6.36%), Cantonese (246,045 or 5.01%), Spanish (143,900 or 2.93%), Hindi (134,950 or 2.75%), Tagalog (133,780 or 2.72%), German (84,325 or 1.72%), and Korean (69,935 or 1.42%).<ref name="language2021">{{Cite web |date=August 17, 2022 |title=Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Profile table British Columbia [Province] |url=https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/dp-pd/prof/details/page.cfm?LANG=E&GENDERlist=1,2,3&STATISTIClist=1,4&DGUIDlist=2021A000259&HEADERlist=,15,13,18,12,16,14,17&SearchText=British%20Columbia |access-date=August 17, 2022 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref> The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.

Of the 4,648,055 population counted by the 2016 census, 4,598,415 people completed the section about language. Of these, 4,494,995 gave singular responses to the question regarding their [[first language]]. The languages most commonly reported were the following:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Most common reported mother tongue in BC (2016)<ref name="2016CensusBCLanguage" />
|-
!#
!Language
!Population
!Percent
|-
| 1
| [[English language|English]]
| 3,170,110
| 70.52%
|-
| 2
| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| 198,805
| 4.42%
|-
| 3
| [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]]
| 193,530
| 4.31%
|-
| 4
| [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]]
| 186,325
| 4.15%
|-
| 5
| [[Tagalog language|Tagalog (Filipino)]]
| 78,770
| 1.75%
|-
| 6
| [[German language|German]]
| 66,885
| 1.49%
|-
| 7
| [[French language|French]]
| 55,325
| 1.23%
|-
| 8
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
| 52,160
| 1.17%
|-
| 9
| [[Spanish language|Spanish]]
| 47,010
| 1.05%
|-
| 10
| [[Persian language|Persian]]
| 43,470
| 0.97%
|}

While these languages all reflect the last centuries of colonialism and recent immigration, British Columbia is home to 34 [[Pacific Northwest languages|Indigenous languages]].<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://news.gov.bc.ca/19289 |title=Minister's statement on National Indigenous Languages Day |date=March 28, 2019 |access-date=December 25, 2020 |publisher=Government of British Columbia |archive-date=July 16, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220716200018/https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2019IRR0027-000515 |url-status=live }}</ref> They are spoken by about 6000 people in total,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nelsonstar.com/news/60-per-cent-of-all-canadian-indigenous-languages-are-in-b-c/ |title=60 per cent of all Canadian Indigenous languages are in B.C. |work=Nelson Star |date=April 1, 2019 |access-date=December 25, 2020 |first=Nick |last=Murray |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511160614/https://www.nelsonstar.com/news/60-per-cent-of-all-canadian-indigenous-languages-are-in-b-c/ |url-status=live }}</ref> with 4000 people fluent in their Indigenous languages. They are members of the province's [[#First Nations (Aboriginal) history|First Nations]]. One of the main Indigenous languages in BC is [[Kwakʼwala]], the language of the [[Kwakwakaʼwakw|Kwakwakaʼwakw First Nations]].

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of British Columbia}}
[[File:Canada Place with Downtown Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Masson.jpg|thumb|[[Canada Place]] in Downtown Vancouver]]
[[File:Telus Garden Entrance 201807.jpg|thumb|Entrance to [[Telus Garden]]]]
BC's economy is diverse, with service-producing industries accounting for the largest portion of the province's GDP.<ref>{{cite web |date=July 2014 |title=2014 British Columbia Financial and Economic Review, 74th Edition April 2013 – March 2014 |url=http://www.fin.gov.bc.ca/tbs/F&Ereview14.pdf |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312064953/http://www.fin.gov.bc.ca/tbs/F%26Ereview14.pdf |archive-date=March 12, 2016 |access-date=March 11, 2016 |publisher=BC Ministry of Finance}}</ref> It is the terminus of two transcontinental railways, and the site of 27 major marine cargo and passenger terminals. Though less than 5 percent of its vast {{convert|944735|km2}} land is [[arable land|arable]], the province is agriculturally rich (particularly in the [[Fraser Valley|Fraser]] and [[Okanagan]] valleys), because of milder weather near the coast and in certain sheltered southern valleys. Its climate encourages [[outdoor recreation]] and [[tourism]], though its economic mainstay has long been [[resource extraction]], principally logging, farming, and mining. Vancouver, the province's largest city, serves as the headquarters of many western-based natural resource companies. It also benefits from a strong housing market and a per capita income well above the national average. While the coast of British Columbia and some valleys in the south-central part of the province have mild weather, the majority of its land mass experiences a cold-winter-temperate climate similar to the rest of Canada. The [[Interior of British Columbia|Northern Interior]] region has a [[subarctic climate]] with very cold winters. The climate of Vancouver is by far the mildest winter climate of the major Canadian cities, with nighttime January temperatures averaging above the freezing point.<ref>{{cite web |date=October 31, 2011 |title=Canadian climate normals 1981–2010 Vancouver International Airport |url=http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=889&lang=e&StationName=Vancouver&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518084829/http://climate.weather.gc.ca/climate_normals/results_1981_2010_e.html?stnID=889&lang=e&StationName=Vancouver&SearchType=Contains&stnNameSubmit=go&dCode=1 |archive-date=May 18, 2015 |access-date=October 3, 2015 |publisher=[[Environment Canada]]}}</ref>

British Columbia has a history of being a resource dominated economy, centred on the forestry industry but also with fluctuating importance in mining. Employment in the resource sector has fallen steadily as a percentage of employment, and new jobs are mostly in the construction and retail/service sectors. It now has the highest percentage of service industry jobs in the west, constituting 72 percent of industry (compared to 60 percent Western Canadian average).<ref>{{cite book |last=Roach |first=Robert |url=http://cwf.ca/pdf-docs/publications/StateWest2010_Chapter_9.pdf |title=State of the West 2010 {{!}} Western Canadian Demographic and Economic Trends |website=State of the West 2010 |publisher=[[Canada West Foundation]] |year=2010 |pages=103–109 |chapter=Economic output in the West |access-date=September 21, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812195015/http://cwf.ca/pdf-docs/publications/StateWest2010_Chapter_9.pdf |archive-date=August 12, 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The largest section of this employment is in finance, insurance, real estate and corporate management; however, many areas outside of metropolitan areas are still heavily reliant on resource extraction. With its film industry known as [[Hollywood North]], the Vancouver region is the third-largest feature film production location in North America, after [[Los Angeles]] and [[New York City]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vancouvereconomic.com/key_sectors/film_tv.htm |title=Film and TV |year=2005 |publisher=Vancouver Economic Development |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070101014505/http://vancouvereconomic.com/key_sectors/film_tv.htm |archive-date=January 1, 2007 |access-date=April 26, 2007}}</ref>

The economic history of British Columbia is replete with tales of [[Business cycle|dramatic upswings and downswings]], and this [[boom and bust]] pattern has influenced the politics, culture and business climate of the province. Economic activity related to mining in particular has widely fluctuated with changes in commodity prices over time, with documented costs to community health.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.publicaffairs.ubc.ca/ubcreports/2005/05oct06/mining.html |title=Hard on Health of Mining Communities |last=Thomson |first=Hilary |date=October 6, 2005 |publisher=University of British Columbia |issue=10 |volume=51 |access-date=April 26, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070415163741/http://www.publicaffairs.ubc.ca/ubcreports/2005/05oct06/mining.html |archive-date=April 15, 2007}}</ref>

In 2020, British Columbia had the third-largest GDP in Canada, with a GDP of $309 billion and a GDP per capita of $60,090.<ref>{{cite web |date=May 30, 2018 |title=Add/Remove data – Gross domestic product, expenditure-based, provincial and territorial, annual |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3610022201 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209181508/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3610022201 |archive-date=December 9, 2021 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020 |title=2020 Sub-Provincial Population Estimates Highlights |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/data/statistics/people-population-community/population/pop_sub-provincial_population_highlights.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/data/statistics/people-population-community/population/pop_sub-provincial_population_highlights.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |publisher=Government of BC}}</ref> British Columbia's [[debt-to-GDP ratio]] is edging up to 15.0 percent in [[fiscal year]] 2019–20, and it is expected to reach 16.1 percent by 2021–22.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lovely |first1=Warren |last2=Maltais |first2=Catherine |date=February 19, 2019 |title=British Columbia 2019 Budget |url=https://www.nbc.ca/content/dam/bnc/en/rates-and-analysis/economic-analysis/british-columbia-budget.pdf#targetText=Total%20taxpayer%2Dsupported%20debt%20looks,eliminated%20as%20of%202018%2D19.&targetText=Taxpayer%2Dsupported%20debt%20is%20projected,16.1%25%20by%202021%2D22. |url-status=deviated |journal=National Bank of Canada Financial Markets |pages=1–3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224035120/https://www.nbc.ca/content/dam/bnc/en/rates-and-analysis/economic-analysis/british-columbia-budget.pdf#targetText=Total%20taxpayer%2Dsupported%20debt%20looks,eliminated%20as%20of%202018%2D19.&targetText=Taxpayer%2Dsupported%20debt%20is%20projected,16.1%25%20by%202021%2D22. |archive-date=December 24, 2019 |access-date=September 19, 2019 |via=National Bank of Canada}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.rbc.com/economics/economic-reports/pdf/canadian-fiscal/prov_fiscal.pdf |title=Canadian Federal and Provincial Fiscal Tables |date=January 14, 2020 |website=Economic Reports |publisher=Royal Bank of Canada |access-date=January 18, 2020 |archive-date=February 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200205160447/http://www.rbc.com/economics/economic-reports/pdf/canadian-fiscal/prov_fiscal.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> British Columbia's economy experienced strong growth in recent years with a total growth rate of 9.6% from 2017 to 2021, a growth rate that was second in the country.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 14, 2012 |title=Gross domestic product (GDP) at basic prices, by industry, provinces and territories, growth rates |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610040202 |access-date=July 21, 2022 |publisher=[[Statistics Canada]]}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Politics of British Columbia|Government of British Columbia|List of regional districts of British Columbia|Monarchy in British Columbia}}
[[File:British Columbia Parliament Buildings - Pano - HDR.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3|The British Columbia Parliament Buildings in [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]]]]
{{clear}}
[[File:Janet Austin Escutcheon.png|thumb|upright|Coat of arms' [[escutcheon (heraldry)|escutcheon]] of the current [[Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia|lieutenant governor]]]]
The [[Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia|lieutenant governor]], [[Janet Austin]], is the Crown's representative in the province. During the absence of the lieutenant governor, the Governor in Council ([[Cabinet of Canada|federal Cabinet]]) may appoint an administrator to execute the duties of the office. This is usually the [[British Columbia Court of Appeal|chief justice of British Columbia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Constitution Act |url=https://www.bclaws.gov.bc.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/96066_01 |access-date=July 20, 2022 |website=www.bclaws.gov.bc.ca}}</ref> British Columbia is divided into ''[[regional district]]s'' as a means to better enable municipalities and rural areas to work together at a regional level.

British Columbia has an 87-member elected Legislative Assembly, elected by the [[plurality voting system]], though from 2003 to 2009 there was significant debate about switching to a [[single transferable vote]] system called [[BC-STV]]. The government of the day appoints ministers for various portfolios, what are officially part of the [[Executive Council of British Columbia|Executive Council]], of whom the premier is chair.
[[File:David Eby - 2022 (52507022370) (cropped).png|left|thumb|[[David Eby]] is [[Premier of British Columbia|premier]], BC's [[head of government]].]]
The province is currently governed by the [[British Columbia New Democratic Party]] (BC NDP) under Premier [[David Eby]]. The 2017 provincial election saw the Liberal Party take 43 seats, the NDP take 41, and the [[British Columbia Green Party]] take 3. No party met the minimum of 44 seats for a majority, therefore leading to the first minority government since 1953. Following the election, the Greens entered into negotiations with both the Liberals and NDP, eventually announcing they would support the current NDP minority. Previously, the right-of-centre [[British Columbia Liberal Party]] governed the province for 16 years between 2001 and 2017, and won the largest landslide election in British Columbia history in 2001, with 77 of 79 seats. The legislature became more evenly divided between the Liberals and NDP following the 2005 (46 Liberal seats of 79) and 2009 (49 Liberal seats of 85) provincial elections. The NDP and its predecessor the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) have been the main opposition force to right-wing parties since the 1930s and have ruled with majority governments in 1972–1975 and 1991–2001. The Green Party plays a larger role in the politics of British Columbia than Green parties do in most other jurisdictions in Canada. After a breakthrough election in 2001 (12.39 percent), the party's vote share declined (2005 – 9.17 percent, 2009 – 8.09 percent, 2013 – 8.13 percent) before increasing again to a record high of 16.84 percent at the 2017 election.

The British Columbia Liberal Party is not related to the federal Liberal Party and does not share the same ideology. Instead, the BC Liberal party is a rather diverse coalition, made up of the remnants of the Social Credit Party, many [[Liberal Party of Canada|federal Liberals]], [[Conservative Party of Canada|federal Conservatives]], and those who would otherwise support right-of-centre or free enterprise parties. Historically, there have commonly been [[third party (politics)|third parties]] present in the legislature (including the Liberals themselves from 1952 to 1975); the [[Green Party of British Columbia|BC Green Party]] are the current third party in British Columbia, with three seats in the legislature.

Prior to the rise of the Liberal Party, British Columbia's main political party was the British Columbia Social Credit Party which ruled British Columbia for 20 continuous years. While sharing some ideology with the current Liberal government, they were more right-wing although undertook nationalization of various important monopolies, notably BC Hydro and BC Ferries.

[[File:BC-Legislative-Assembly-Chamber.jpg|thumb|The meeting chamber of the Legislative Assembly]]
British Columbia is known for having politically active labour [[trade union|unions]] who have traditionally supported the NDP or its predecessor, the CCF.

British Columbia's political history is typified by scandal and a cast of colourful characters, beginning with various colonial-era land scandals and abuses of power by early officials (such as those that led to [[McGowan's War]] in 1858–59). Notable scandals in Social Credit years included the [[Robert Bonner (politician)|Robert Bonner]] Affair and the [[Fantasy Gardens]] scandal which forced Premier Bill Vander Zalm to resign and ended the Social Credit era. NDP scandals included Bingogate, which brought down NDP Premier Mike Harcourt, and the alleged scandal named Casinogate which drove NDP Premier Glen Clark to resign. A variety of scandals plagued the 2001–2017 Liberal government, including Premier Gordon Campbell's arrest for drunk driving in Maui and the resignation of various cabinet ministers because of conflict-of-interest allegations. A [[BC Legislature Raids|raid on the Parliament Buildings]] on December 28, 2003,<ref>{{cite news |date=September 14, 2004 |title=INDEPTH: B.C. RAIDS |website=[[CBC News]] |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/bcraids/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924205051/http://www.cbc.ca/news2/background/bcraids/ |archive-date=September 24, 2015}}</ref> in Victoria, including the Premier's Office, resulted in charges only for ministerial aides, although key cabinet members from the time have since resigned. The case, currently in preliminary hearings in the courts and relating to the sale of BC Rail to CN Rail, may not reach trial because of the mass of evidence and various procedural problems.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}{{Update inline|date=February 2020}} Campbell eventually resigned in late 2010 due to opposition to his government's plan to introduce a [[Harmonized Sales Tax]] (HST) and was replaced by [[Christy Clark]] as premier in a 2011 BC Liberal leadership election.

British Columbia is underrepresented in the [[Senate of Canada]], leading Premier Christy Clark to refuse to cooperate with the federal government's reforms for senate appointments to be made based on the recommendations of a new advisory board that would use non-partisan criteria. Hours after that plan was unveiled in Ottawa on December 3, 2015, Clark issued a statement that it did "not address what's been wrong with the Senate since the beginning".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Galloway |first=Gloria |date=December 3, 2015 |title=Liberals to set up advisory board for Senate nominees, but BC won't take part |work=[[The Globe and Mail]] |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/liberals-setting-up-advisory-board-to-fill-empty-senate-seats/article27577333/ |url-status=live |access-date=December 4, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204072945/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/politics/liberals-setting-up-advisory-board-to-fill-empty-senate-seats/article27577333/ |archive-date=December 4, 2015}}</ref>

The imbalance in representation in that House is apparent when considering population size. The six senators from BC constitute only one for every 775,000 people vs. one for every 75,000 in P.E.I. which has four senators. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick have much smaller populations than BC, yet each has ten senators according to a Global News summary.<ref name="Baldrey">{{cite news |last=Baldrey |first=Keith |date=December 3, 2015 |title=Why Christy Clark is rejecting Justin Trudeau's reform of the Senate |website=[[Global News]] |publisher=Shaw Media Inc. |url=http://globalnews.ca/news/2379480/why-christy-clark-is-rejecting-justin-trudeaus-reform-of-the-senate/ |url-status=live |access-date=December 4, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204035421/http://globalnews.ca/news/2379480/why-christy-clark-is-rejecting-justin-trudeaus-reform-of-the-senate/ |archive-date=December 4, 2015}}</ref> Correcting this imbalance would require a constitutional amendment, but that is unlikely to be supported by the Atlantic provinces.<ref name="Baldrey" />

===Official symbols===
[[File:Dogwood Blooms (3629970675).jpg|thumb|The flower of the Pacific dogwood is often associated with British Columbia.]]
The government of British Columbia has designated several [[Symbols of British Columbia|official symbols]]:<ref name="Act">{{cite web |url=http://www.bclaws.ca/Recon/document/ID/freeside/00_96380_01#section1 |title=Provincial Symbols and Honours Act |year=1996 |publisher=Her Majesty the Queen in Right of British Columbia |access-date=August 8, 2014 |archive-date=April 2, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402160754/http://www.bclaws.ca/Recon/document/ID/freeside/00_96380_01#section1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

* Flag: [[Flag of British Columbia]]
* Coat of arms: [[Coat of arms of British Columbia]]
* Floral emblem: [[Pacific dogwood]]
* Mineral emblem: [[Jade]]
* Tree emblem: [[Western red cedar]]
* Bird emblem: [[Steller's jay]]
* Mammal emblem: [[Kermode bear|"Spirit" or Kermode bear]]
* Fish emblem: [[Pacific salmon]]
* Tartan emblem: [[Regional tartans of Canada#British Columbia|British Columbia Tartan]]

==Transportation==
Transportation played a huge role in British Columbia's history. The Rocky Mountains and the ranges west of them constituted a significant obstacle to overland travel until the completion of the transcontinental railway in 1885. The Peace River Canyon through the Rocky Mountains was the route the earliest explorers and fur traders used. Fur trade routes were only marginally used for access to British Columbia through the mountains. Travel from the rest of Canada before 1885 meant the difficulty of overland travel via the United States, around [[Cape Horn]] or overseas from Asia. Nearly all travel and freight to and from the region occurred via the Pacific Ocean, primarily through the ports of Victoria and New Westminster.

Until the 1930s, rail was the only means of overland travel to and from the rest of Canada; travellers using motor vehicles needed to journey through the United States. With the construction of the Inter-Provincial Highway in 1932 (now known as the [[Crowsnest Highway|Crowsnest Pass Highway]]), and later the [[Trans-Canada Highway]], road transportation evolved into the preferred mode of overland travel to and from the rest of the country.

{{as of|2021}}, the number of [[Plug-in electric vehicles in British Columbia|electric vehicles sold in British Columbia]] (as a percentage of total vehicle sales) was the highest of any Canadian province or U.S. state.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.vancouverisawesome.com/highlights/bc-tops-quebec-and-california-as-ev-capital-of-north-america-5224158|title=B.C. tops Quebec and California as EV capital of North America|work=Vancouver is Awesome|date=2022-04-01|access-date=2022-04-20|first=Stefan|last=Labbé}}</ref>

===Roads and highways===
{{Main|List of British Columbia provincial highways}}
[[File:Alex Fraser Bridge from below.jpg|thumb|The [[Alex Fraser Bridge]] on [[British Columbia Highway 91|Highway 91]] between Richmond and Delta]]
Because of its size and rugged, varying topography, British Columbia requires thousands of kilometres of provincial highways to connect its communities. British Columbia's roads systems were notoriously poorly maintained and dangerous until a concentrated programme of improvement was initiated in the 1950s and 1960s. There are now [[controlled-access highway|freeways]] in Greater Victoria, the Lower Mainland, and Central Interior of the province. Much of the rest of the province, where traffic volumes are generally low, is accessible by well-maintained generally high-mobility two-lane [[arterial road|arterial highways]] with additional passing lanes in mountainous areas and usually only a few stop-controlled intersections outside the main urban areas.

[[File:Highway 1, Burnaby.jpg|thumb|British Columbia Highway 1 near Brentwood, Burnaby]]
A couple of busy intercity corridors outside Greater Vancouver feature more heavily signalized limited-mobility arterial highways that are mostly four-lane and often divided by portable median [[traffic barrier]]s. [[British Columbia Highway 1|Highway 1]] on [[Vancouver Island]] and Highway 97 through the [[Okanagan Valley]] are medium- to high-volume roadways with variable posted speeds that range from {{convert|50|km/h|mph|abbr=on}} to maximums just slightly lower than the principal [[grade-separated]] highways. Numerous [[traffic light]]s operate in place of [[interchange (road)|interchanges]] on both arterials as long-term cost-cutting measures. Signalization along both these highways is heaviest through urban areas and along inter-urban sections where traffic volumes are similar to and sometimes higher than the freeways, but where funding is not available for upgrades to interchanges or construction of high-mobility alternative routes or bypasses. The building and maintenance of provincial highways is the responsibility of the [[Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure (British Columbia)|British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure]].<ref name="BC highways">{{cite web |year=2013 |title=BC highways |url=http://www.gov.bc.ca/tran/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020112834/http://www.gov.bc.ca/tran/ |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |access-date=October 24, 2013 |publisher=[[British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure]]}}</ref>

There are only five major routes to the rest of Canada. From south to north they are: [[British Columbia provincial highway 3|BC Highway 3]] through the [[Crowsnest Pass]], the [[Vermilion Pass]] (Highway 93 in both [[British Columbia Highway 93|British Columbia]] and [[Alberta Highway 93|Alberta]]), the [[Kicking Horse Pass]], the latter being used by the Trans-Canada Highway entering Alberta through [[Banff National Park]], the [[Yellowhead Highway]] (16) through [[Jasper National Park]], and [[British Columbia Highway 2|Highway 2]] through [[Dawson Creek]]. There are also several highway crossings to the adjoining American states of Washington, Idaho, and Montana. The longest highway is Highway 97, running {{convert|2081|km}} from the British Columbia-Washington border at [[Osoyoos, British Columbia|Osoyoos]] north to [[Watson Lake, Yukon]] and which includes the British Columbia portion of the [[Alaska Highway]].

===Public transit===
[[File:Mark III SkyTrain near Nanaimo station.jpg|thumb|[[SkyTrain (Vancouver)|SkyTrain]] is the rail rapid transit system that serves Metro Vancouver.]]
[[File:Flyer trolleybuses on the Granville Mall in 2019.jpg|thumb|[[Trolley buses in Vancouver]]]]
Prior to 1979, surface [[public transport|public transit]] in the Vancouver and Victoria metropolitan areas was administered by BC Hydro, the provincially owned electricity utility. Subsequently, the province established [[BC Transit]] to oversee and operate all municipal transportation systems. In 1998, the Greater Vancouver Transportation Authority, now [[TransLink (British Columbia)|TransLink]], a separate authority for routes within the Greater Vancouver Regional District, was established. Some smaller island communities, such as [[Gabriola Island]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://gabriolacommunitybus.com/about/history/ |title=History: GERTIE: Gabriola's Environmentally Responsible Trans Island Express |website=GERTIE |access-date=November 13, 2018 |archive-date=July 27, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727015217/https://gabriolacommunitybus.com/about/history/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> and, formerly, [[Pender Island]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://penderbus.org/about |title=About the Bus |website=Pender Island Community Bus |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113210800/http://penderbus.org/about |archive-date=November 13, 2018 |access-date=November 13, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://penderbus.org/routes/alerts#alert-23 |title=Community Bus Pilot Project Ending |website=Pender Island Community Bus |publisher=Pender Island Community Bus |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110235046/http://penderbus.org/routes/alerts#alert-23 |archive-date=January 10, 2019 |access-date=January 10, 2019}}</ref> operate routes independent of BC Transit or TransLink. BC Transit has recently expanded to provide intercity routes,<ref>{{Cite news |last=McElroy |first=Justin |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bc-northern-bus-transit-may-2018-1.4683199 |title=B.C. government launches new bus service for northern half of the province |date=May 29, 2018 |access-date=November 13, 2018 |publisher=CBC |agency=CBC |archive-date=November 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102040048/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/bc-northern-bus-transit-may-2018-1.4683199 |url-status=live }}</ref> particularly in the Northern region of British Columbia. Other intercity routes were introduced connecting southern communities in preparation of the cancellation of [[Greyhound Canada]]'s pullout from Western Canada,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://bctransit.com/kamloops/schedules-and-maps/health-connections |title=Health Connections |website=BC Transit Kamloops |publisher=BC Transit |access-date=November 13, 2018 |archive-date=November 13, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113210647/https://bctransit.com/kamloops/schedules-and-maps/health-connections |url-status=live }}</ref> though options for intercity bus travel are still extremely limited.

Public transit in British Columbia consists mainly of diesel buses, although Vancouver is also serviced by a fleet of [[trolley bus]]es. Several experimental buses are being tested such as [[hybrid electric vehicle|hybrid]] buses that have both gasoline and electric engines. Additionally, there are CNG-fuelled buses being tested and used in Nanaimo and Kamloops systems.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Fleet |url=http://bctransit.com/*/about/fleet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818214911/https://bctransit.com/*/about/fleet |archive-date=August 18, 2017 |access-date=April 21, 2017 |publisher=[[BC Transit]]}}</ref> British Columbia also tested a fleet of Hydrogen-fuelled buses for the Vancouver-Whistler Winter Olympics in 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chfca.ca/say-h2i/cars-and-buses/bc-transit-fuel-cell-bus-fleet |title=Case Study – BC Transit Fuel Cell Bus Fleet |publisher=Chfca.ca |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170330182706/http://www.chfca.ca/say-h2i/cars-and-buses/bc-transit-fuel-cell-bus-fleet |archive-date=March 30, 2017 |access-date=April 21, 2017}}</ref> TransLink operates [[SkyTrain (Vancouver)|SkyTrain]], an automated [[rapid transit|metro]] system serving the cities of Vancouver, Burnaby, New Westminster, Surrey, Richmond, Coquitlam, and Port Moody. In 2009, the Canada Line SkyTrain was completed, linking Vancouver International Airport and the city of Richmond to downtown Vancouver bringing the total to three operating metro lines.

A new extension to Coquitlam and [[Port Moody]] (the [[Evergreen Extension]] of the [[Millennium Line]]) was completed in December 2016. Construction of an extension of the Millennium Line westwards through Vancouver to Arbutus Street began in February 2021,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chan |first=Kenneth |date=February 2, 2021 |title=Demolition begins ahead of Broadway Subway's major construction work |url=https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/broadway-subway-demolition-work-february-2021 |access-date=August 18, 2022 |website=Daily Hive}}</ref> with future plans to extend the line farther west from [[Arbutus station]] to the [[University of British Columbia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/skytrain-extension-ubc-1.5021463|title=Metro Vancouver mayors vote yes on SkyTrain extension to UBC | date=February 15, 2019 |work=CBC News |access-date=February 16, 2019}}</ref> Fare gates have been added to all existing stations, though in the past, SkyTrain used a proof of payment honour system. In the capital city of Victoria, BC Transit and the provincial government's infrastructure ministry are working together to create a bus rapid transit from the Westshore communities to downtown Victoria.<ref>{{cite web |title=Victoria Region Transit Priority Corridors |url=http://bctransit.com/victoria/transit-future/victoria-transit-priority-corridors |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509141533/http://bctransit.com/victoria/transit-future/victoria-transit-priority-corridors |archive-date=May 9, 2016 |access-date=May 17, 2017 |publisher=[[BC Transit]]}}</ref> In [[Kamloops]], there is a bus rapid transit GPS trial underway to see how bus rapid transit affects smaller cities, rather than larger ones, like Victoria and Vancouver.<ref>{{cite news|title=Firm selected to study fixed-link rapid transit for North Shore – Kamloops.me|url=https://kamloops.me/2019/10/03/firm-selected-to-study-fixed-link-rapid-transit-for-north-shore/,%20https://news.gov.bc.ca/releases/2019TRAN0173-001910/|access-date=February 14, 2021|website=kamloops.me|language=en-US}}{{Dead link|date=March 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Rail===
{{see also|Canadian Pacific Railway in British Columbia}}

[[File:Eastbound over SCB.jpg|thumb|upright|CPR train traversing the [[Stoney Creek Bridge]]]]
Rail development expanded greatly in the decades after the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]] was completed, in 1885, and was the chief mode of long-distance surface transportation until the expansion and improvement of the provincial highways system began in the 1950s. Two major routes through the [[Yellowhead Pass]] competed with the Canadian Pacific Railway – the [[Grand Trunk Pacific]], terminating at Prince Rupert, and the [[Canadian Northern Railway]], terminating at Vancouver.

The [[British Columbia Electric Railway]] provided rail services in Victoria and Vancouver between the nineteenth century and mid twentieth century.

The [[Pacific Great Eastern]] line supplemented this service, providing a north–south route between interior resource communities and the coast. The Pacific Great Eastern (later known as British Columbia Railway and now owned by Canadian National Railway) connects Fort St James, Fort Nelson, and [[Tumbler Ridge, British Columbia|Tumbler Ridge]] with [[North Vancouver (city)|North Vancouver]]. The E&N Railway, rebranded as [[Southern Railway of Vancouver Island]], formerly served the commercial and passenger train markets of Vancouver Island. Service along the route is now minimal. Vancouver Island was also host to the [[Englewood Railway|last logging railway in North America]] until its closure in 2017.

Current passenger services in British Columbia are limited. [[Via Rail Canada]] operates 10 long-distance trains per week on two lines.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.viarail.ca/sites/all/files/media/pdfs/schedules/VIARail_Timetable.pdf |title=Via Rail Timetable |website=Via Rail Canada |publisher=Via Rail Canada |access-date=January 10, 2019 |archive-date=December 18, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181218103920/https://www.viarail.ca/sites/all/files/media/pdfs/schedules/VIARail_Timetable.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Local services are limited to two regions, with [[TransLink (British Columbia)|TransLink]] providing rapid transit and commuter services in the [[Lower Mainland]] and by the [[Seton Lake Indian Band]] South of [[Lillooet]] with the [[Kaoham Shuttle]]. [[Amtrak]] runs international passenger service between Vancouver, [[Seattle]], and intermediate points.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Train Schedules |url=https://www.amtrakcascades.com/our-train-schedules |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111055035/https://www.amtrakcascades.com/our-train-schedules |archive-date=January 11, 2019 |access-date=January 10, 2019 |website=[[Amtrak Cascades]] |publisher=[[Washington State Department of Transportation]]}}</ref>

Several [[heritage railway]]s operate within the province, including the [[White Pass & Yukon Route]] that runs between [[Alaska]] and the [[Yukon]] via British Columbia.

===Water===
[[File:Spirit of Vancouver Island.jpg|thumb|''Spirit of Vancouver Island'' S-class ferry]]
[[BC Ferries]] was established as a provincial crown corporation in 1960 to provide passenger and vehicle ferry service between Vancouver Island and the Lower Mainland as a cheaper and more reliable alternative to the service operated by the Canadian Pacific Railway and other private operators. It now operates 25 routes among the [[List of islands of British Columbia|islands of British Columbia]], as well as between the islands and the mainland. Ferry service to Washington is offered by the [[Washington State Ferries]] (between [[Sidney, British Columbia|Sidney]] and [[Anacortes, Washington|Anacortes]]) and [[MV Coho|Black Ball Transport]] (between Victoria and [[Port Angeles, Washington]]). Ferry service over inland lakes and rivers is provided by the [[British Columbia Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure|Ministry of Transportation and Infrastructure]]. Various other coastal ferries are operated privately.

Commercial ocean transport is of vital importance. Major ports are at Vancouver, [[Roberts Bank]] (near [[Tsawwassen, British Columbia|Tsawwassen]]), Prince Rupert, and Victoria.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cosbc.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=909&Itemid=98 |title=International Shipping in British Columbia |publisher=Chamber of Shipping of BC |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729172613/http://www.cosbc.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=909&Itemid=98 |archive-date=July 29, 2013 |access-date=September 21, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cosbc.ca/images/docs/BCPortsHandbook2014.pdf |title=''BC Ports handbook'' |publisher=Chamber of Shipping of BC |access-date=November 21, 2019 |archive-date=February 24, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224184116/http://www.cosbc.ca/images/docs/BCPortsHandbook2014.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Vancouver, Victoria, and Prince Rupert are also major ports of call for [[cruise ship]]s. In 2007, a large maritime [[Containerization|container port]] was opened in Prince Rupert with an inland sorting port in Prince George.

===Air===
{{Main|List of airports in British Columbia}}
There are over 200 airports throughout British Columbia, the major ones being the [[Vancouver International Airport]], the [[Victoria International Airport]], the [[Kelowna International Airport]], and the [[Abbotsford International Airport]], the first three of which each served over 1,000,000 passengers in 2005. {{As of|2017}}, Vancouver International Airport is the [[List of the busiest airports in Canada|2nd busiest airport]] in the country and the second biggest International Gateway on the west coast (after Los Angeles) with an estimated 26.4 million travellers passing through in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chan |first=Kenneth |date=February 3, 2022 |title=Record 26.4 million passengers at Vancouver International Airport in 2019 {{!}} Urbanized |language=en |website=[[Daily Hive]] |url=https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/vancouver-international-airport-2019-passenger-statistics |url-status=live |access-date=November 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201127072233/https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/vancouver-international-airport-2019-passenger-statistics |archive-date=November 27, 2020}}</ref>

==Arts and culture==
{{See also|List of museums in British Columbia}}

===Visual arts===
{{See also|Northwest Coast art}}
[[File:Emily Carr - Indian Church.jpg|thumb|[[The Indian Church (painting)|''Church at Yuquot Village'']] by Emily Carr (1929)]]
The earliest known [[visual art]] produced in the [[Pacific Northwest]], and what would become British Columbia, was by First Nations such as the Coast Salish, Haida, Heiltsuk, and Tsimshian, among others. Such Indigenous work comes particularly in the form of [[woodcarving]], as seen in [[totem poles]], [[transformation mask]]s, and [[canoes]], as well as [[textile arts]] like [[Chilkat weaving]] and [[button blankets]]. Traditional Indigenous art of the Pacific Northwest is typically distinguished by the [[formline art|formline style]], which is defined as "continuous, flowing, curvilinear lines that turn, swell and diminish in a prescribed manner. They are used for figure outlines, internal design elements and in abstract compositions."<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/northwest-coast-aboriginal-art|title=Northwest Coast Indigenous Art|author=Marjorie M. Halpin|encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|publisher=[[Historica Canada]]|date=March 4, 2015|access-date=7 February 2023}}</ref>

[[Western art|Western styles and forms]] were introduced to the region through the establishment of British North American settlements in the late 18th century. Notable English-Canadian artists of 19th and early 20th century British Columbia include architect [[Francis Rattenbury]], designer [[James Blomfield]], and painter [[Emily Carr]].

Vancouver’s [[art scene]] was dominated by [[lyrical abstraction]] and [[surrealist art|surrealist]] landscape painting in the mid-20th century through such artists as [[B. C. Binning]], [[Jack Shadbolt]], [[Gordon A. Smith]], [[Takao Tanabe]], [[Don Jarvis]], and [[Toni Onley]]. In the following decades, the city would undergo more artistic diversification with the emergence of [[conceptual art]], [[communication design|communication art]], [[video art]], and [[performance art]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/painting-modern-movements|title=Painting: Modern Movements|author=Ihor Holubizky|encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|publisher=[[Historica Canada]]|date=9 March 2017|access-date=7 February 2023}}</ref>

The [[Vancouver School]] of [[conceptual photography]] encompasses a cohort of Vancouver-based artists who gained notoriety in the 1980s. This school is generally considered to include artists [[Jeff Wall]], [[Ian Wallace (artist)|Ian Wallace]], [[Ken Lum]], [[Roy Arden]], [[Stan Douglas]], and [[Rodney Graham]].{{fact|date=February 2023}}

Vancouver maintains roughly 350 works of outdoor public art.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.destinationvancouver.com/activities/sightseeing/public-art-mini-guide/|title=Public Art Mini Guide|work=Destination Vancouver|access-date=7 February 2023}}</ref> Some notable works include ''[[A-maze-ing Laughter]]'', ''[[Digital Orca]]'', ''[[Girl in a Wetsuit]]'', ''[[Angel of Victory]]'', ''[[The Birds (sculpture)|The Birds]]'', and the [[Brockton Point]] totem poles.

===Performing arts===
[[File:VSO Group Portrait.jpg|thumb|The Vancouver Symphony Orchestra at the Orpheum concert hall (2019)]]
British Columbia is home to the [[Vancouver Opera]], the [[City Opera of Vancouver]], [[Ballet BC]], [[contemporary dance]] companies [[Holy Body Tattoo]], [[Kidd Pivot]], [[Jennifer Mascall|Mascall Dance Society]], and [[butoh]] dance troupe [[Kokoro Dance]].{{fact|date=February 2023}} It is also the home province for a plethora of independent [[theatre companies]], including the [[Arts Club Theatre Company]], the [[Shakespearean]] [[Bard on the Beach]], and [[Theatre Under the Stars (Vancouver)|Theatre Under the Stars]]. Performing arts venues include the [[Queen Elizabeth Theatre]], the [[Orpheum (Vancouver)|Orpheum Theatre]], and the [[Royal Theatre (Victoria, British Columbia)|Royal Theatre]], among others.{{fact|date=February 2023}}

====Music====
{{See also|Music of Vancouver}}
British Columbia is the third largest music-producing province in Canada and the local music industry generates an estimated yearly revenue of $265{{Nbsp}}million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.musicexportcanada.ca/canada/province/british-columbia/#:~:text=BC%20is%20the%20third%20largest,and%20many%20still%20record%20here.|title=British Columbia|work=Music Export Canada|access-date= 7 February 2023}}</ref> The province is home to the [[Vancouver Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Okanagan Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Vancouver Metropolitan Orchestra]], the [[Vancouver Youth Symphony Orchestra]], the [[Richmond Delta Youth Orchestra]], and the [[Victoria Symphony]]. Some important [[popular music]] acts include bands such as [[Spirit of the West]], [[Theory of a Deadman]], [[Trooper (band)|Trooper]], [[Gob (band)|Gob]], and [[The New Pornographers]], and solo artists such as [[Bryan Adams]], [[Carly Rae Jepsen]], [[Mac DeMarco]], [[Michael Bublé]], [[Nelly Furtado]], and [[Diana Krall]]. [[Music festivals]] include the [[Squamish Valley Music Festival]], [[Shambhala Music Festival]], and [[Pemberton Music Festival]].{{fact|date=February 2023}}

===Cuisine===
{{See also|Canadian cuisine|Cuisine of the Pacific Northwest|Rocky Mountain cuisine}}
[[File:BC Roll.jpg|thumb|The B.C. Roll is a kind of sushi containing barbecued salmon and cucumber]]
British Columbian cuisine is commonly associated with healthy living, [[fusion cuisine|fusion]], fresh local ingredients, and innovation.<ref name="Iconic Foods of British Columbia">{{cite web|url=https://www.eatthistown.ca/iconic-foods-of-canada-british-columbia/|title=Iconic Foods of British Columbia|work=Eat This Town|date=August 24, 2017 |access-date=13 February 2023}}</ref> It can be divided into two broadly-defined traditions: [[Pacific Northwest cuisine|cuisine associated with the west coast]], which incorporates a variety of [[seafood]] elements, and [[Rocky Mountain cuisine|cuisine associated with the interior of the province]], which embraces local [[game meat]], [[farm-to-table]] produce, and methods of [[Curing (food preservation)|curing]] and [[Smoking (cooking)|smoking]].{{fact|date=February 2023}} Seafood is an important staple of the province's local food culture due to its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, as well as the region's numerous rivers and lakes. BC is known for several unique dishes and is a producer of fruit, wine, and cheese.{{fact|date=February 2023}}

Seafoods of British Columbia include [[sushi]] ([[BC roll]], [[dynamite roll]], [[California roll]]), [[dungeness crab]] (boiled, [[tacos]]), [[Pandalus platyceros|spot prawns]], wild [[pacific salmon]] (smoked, candied, [[teriyaki]], [[chowder]], [[sandwich]]) , and [[halibut]] ([[baked]], lemon ginger), as well as [[delicacy|delicacies]] like [[white sturgeon]] [[caviar]] and [[geoduck]]<ref name="Must Try British Columbia Recipes">{{cite web|url=https://www.foodnetwork.ca/article/must-try-british-columbia-recipes/|title=Must Try British Columbia Recipes|work=Food Network|date=October 20, 2016 |access-date=13 February 2023}}</ref><ref name="Iconic Foods of British Columbia"/><ref name="Taste Atlas">{{cite web|url=https://www.tasteatlas.com/most-popular-food-in-british-columbia|title=Most Popular Food in British Columbia|work=Taste Atlas|access-date=13 February 2023}}</ref>
[[File:Nanaimo bar detail.jpg|Nanaimo bars originate from the city of [[Nanaimo]] and consist of a crumb and nut base, [[custard]] middle, and [[ganache]] top layer|thumb]]
British Columbia is also home to numerous unique non-seafood culinary staples. Some dishes include [[Doukhobour]] [[borscht]], [[Salt Spring Island]] [[lamb (food)|lamb]], [[Japadog]] [[street food]], and [[Butter chicken]] [[pizza]]. Some unique pastries include apple cranberry [[cinnamon buns]], [[Nanaimo bars]], and Victoria creams.<ref name="Iconic Foods of British Columbia"/><ref name="Must Try British Columbia Recipes"/><ref name="British Columbia Food and Drink">{{cite web|url=https://www.worldtravelguide.net/guides/north-america/canada/british-columbia/food-and-drink/|title=British Columbia Food and Drink|work=World Travel Guide|access-date=13 February 2023}}</ref> British Columbia also produces several distinct local cheeses, such as kabritt, Castle Blue, and Comox Brie.<ref name="Taste Atlas"/> The [[London fog (beverage)|London Fog]] tea [[latte]] was invented in Vancouver and remains a popular beverage among coffee shops in the Pacific Northwest and Western Canada; it is referred to as a "Vancouver Fog" in Scotland.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://eatnorth.com/katelyn-marchyshyn/canadian-dyk-london-fog-tea-latte-was-invented-vancouver|title=Canadian DYK: The London Fog tea latte was invented in Vancouver|author=Katelyn Marchyshyn|date=June 9, 2020 |access-date=13 February 2023}}</ref>

The [[Okanagan]] produces many unique fruits originating from the region, including [[Ambrosia apple|Ambrosia]] and [[Spartan apple|Spartan]] apples, [[Stella cherry|Stella]] and [[Skeena cherry|Skeena]] cherries, and [[Coronation (grape)|Corontation]] grapes. Other fruits grown in the province include [[peaches]], [[pears]], [[plums]], [[apricots]], [[strawberries]], [[blackberries]], [[cranberries]], and [[loganberries]].<ref name="British Columbia Food and Drink"/>

British Columbia is renowned for its wine production. The primary wine-producing regions include the Okanagan, the [[Similkameen Valley]], Vancouver Island, the [[Gulf Islands]], and the [[Fraser Valley]]. As of November 2014, there are 280 licensed grape wineries and 929 vineyards.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.winesofcanada.com/bc.html|title=British Columbia Wineries|work=Wines of Canada|access-date=13 February 2023}}</ref>

==Outdoor life and athletics==
[[File:Whistler ice sailor.jpg|thumb|Ice sailing in [[Whistler, British Columbia|Whistler]]]]
[[File:Holland Point Shoreline Trail, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada 05.jpg|thumb|Shoreline Trail in Victoria]]
Given its varied mountainous terrain and its coasts, lakes, rivers, and forests, British Columbia has long been enjoyed for pursuits like hiking and camping, [[rock climbing]] and mountaineering, [[hunting]] and [[fishing]].

Water sports, both motorized and non-motorized, are enjoyed in many places. [[Sea kayak]]ing opportunities abound on the British Columbia coast with its [[fjord]]s. [[Whitewater rafting]] and [[kayak]]ing are popular on many inland rivers. [[Sailing]] and [[Windsurfing|sailboarding]] are widely enjoyed.

In winter, [[Cross-country skiing|cross-country]] and [[telemark skiing]] are much enjoyed, and in recent decades high-quality [[Alpine skiing|downhill]] [[skiing]] has been developed in the Coast Mountain range and the Rockies, as well as in the southern areas of the Shuswap Highlands and the [[Columbia Mountains]]. [[Snowboarding]] has mushroomed in popularity since the early 1990s. The [[2010 Winter Olympics]] downhill events were held in [[Whistler Blackcomb]] area of the province, while the indoor events were conducted in the Vancouver area.

In Vancouver and Victoria (as well as some other cities), opportunities for [[jogging|joggers]] and bicyclists have been developed. Cross-country bike touring has been popular since the [[Bicycle gearing|ten-speed]] bike became available many years ago. Since the advent of the more robust [[mountain bike]], trails in more rugged and wild places have been developed for them. A 2016 poll on global biking website Pinkbike rated BC as the top destination mountain bikers would like to ride.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Felton |first=Vernon |date=August 26, 2016 |title=Where would you go, if you could road trip anywhere? – Pinkbike Poll |work=Pinkbike |url=https://www.pinkbike.com/news/where-would-you-go-if-you-could-road-trip-anywhere-pinkbike-poll-2016.html |url-status=live |access-date=March 2, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170303045620/https://www.pinkbike.com/news/where-would-you-go-if-you-could-road-trip-anywhere-pinkbike-poll-2016.html |archive-date=March 3, 2017}}</ref> Some of the province's retired rail beds have been converted and maintained for hiking, biking, and cross-country skiing. [[Longboarding]] is also a popular activity because of the hilly geography of the region.

[[Equestrianism|Horseback riding]] is enjoyed by many British Columbians. Opportunities for [[trail riding]], often into especially scenic areas, have been established for tourists in numerous areas of the province.

British Columbia also has strong participation levels in many other sports, including [[golf]], [[tennis]], [[Association football|soccer]], [[ice hockey|hockey]], [[Canadian football]], [[rugby union]], [[lacrosse]], [[baseball]], [[softball]], [[basketball]], [[curling]], [[disc golf]], [[Ultimate Canada|Ultimate]] and [[figure skating]]. British Columbia has produced many outstanding athletes, especially in aquatic and [[winter sports]].

Consistent with both increased tourism and increased participation in diverse recreations by British Columbians has been the proliferation of [[Resort hotel|lodges]], [[chalet]]s, [[bed and breakfast]]s, motels, hotels, fishing camps, and park-camping facilities in recent decades.

In certain areas, there are businesses, non-profit societies, or municipal governments dedicated to promoting [[ecotourism]] in their region. A number of British Columbia farmers offer visitors to combine tourism with farm work, for example, through the [[WWOOF]] Canada program.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://wwoof.ca/|title=WWOOF Canada|website=wwoof.ca|access-date=April 11, 2020|archive-date=April 12, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200412231039/https://wwoof.ca/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Sports===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ List of sport teams in British Columbia
|-
! Team !! City !! League
!Stadium/arena
|-
|[[Abbotsford Canucks]]|| [[Abbotsford, British Columbia|Abbotsford]]|| [[American Hockey League]]
|[[Abbotsford Centre]]
|-
| [[BC Lions]]|| [[Vancouver]]|| [[Canadian Football League]]
|[[BC Place]]
|-
|[[Kamloops Blazers]]|| [[Kamloops]]|| [[Canadian Hockey League]]
|[[Sandman Centre]]
|-
|[[Kelowna Rockets]]|| [[Kelowna]]|| Canadian Hockey League
|[[Prospera Place]]
|-
|[[Pacific FC]] || [[Langford, British Columbia|Langford]] || [[Canadian Premier League]]
|[[Starlight Stadium]]
|-
|[[Prince George Cougars]]|| [[Prince George, British Columbia|Prince George]]|| Canadian Hockey League
|[[CN Centre]]
|-
|[[Vancouver Bandits]]|| [[Township of Langley|Langley]]|| [[Canadian Elite Basketball League]]
|[[Langley Events Centre]]
|-
|[[Vancouver Canucks]]|| Vancouver|| [[National Hockey League]]
|[[Rogers Arena]]
|-
|[[Vancouver Giants]] || [[Township of Langley|Langley]] || Canadian Hockey League
|[[Langley Events Centre]]
|-
|[[Vancouver Warriors]] || Vancouver || [[National Lacrosse League]]
|Rogers Arena
|-
|[[Vancouver Whitecaps]] || Vancouver || [[Major League Soccer]]
|BC Place
|-
|[[Victoria Royals]] || [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria]] || Canadian Hockey League
|[[Save-On-Foods Memorial Centre]]
|}
{{Further|List of professional sports teams in British Columbia}}

==Education==
[[File:Hatley Castle BC.jpg|thumb|[[Hatley Castle]] on the campus of [[Royal Roads University]]]]

===K-12 education===
{{See also|Education in British Columbia}}
British Columbia is home to a comprehensive education system consisting of public schools and independent schools that is overseen by the provincial Ministry of Education. The public school system is divided in 59 anglophone school districts and one francophone school district, the ''[[Conseil scolaire francophone de la Colombie-Britannique]],'' which operates French-language public schools throughout the province.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jacquet |first=Marianne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQPnUO4z0XkC |title=Educators' Discourses on Student Diversity in Canada: Context, Policy, and Practice |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |year=2008 |isbn=9781551303468 |editor-last=Gérin-Lajoie |editor-first=Diane |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WQPnUO4z0XkC&pg=PA54 54] |chapter=The Discourse on Diversity in British Columbia Public Schools: From Difference to In/Difference |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQPnUO4z0XkC&pg=PA51 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319141154/https://books.google.com/books?id=WQPnUO4z0XkC&pg=PA54 |archive-date=March 19, 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> The anglophone school districts are governed by school board trustees who are directly elected by the school district's residents. Although 86 percent of students are enrolled in the public school system, British Columbia has one of the highest shares of independent school enrolment among Canadian province, at 14 percent of the student population, due to its relatively generous funding model; most independent schools receive 50 percent of the operating funding that their public counterparts receive from the government. A very small percentage (less than 1 percent) of students are home schooled.

Like most other provinces in Canada, education is compulsory from ages 6 to 16 (grades 1–10), although the vast majority of students remain in school until they graduate from high school ([[Twelfth grade|grade 12]]) at the age of 18. In order to graduate with a graduation certificate, known as a Dogwood Diploma in BC, students must take a minimum of 80 course credits during grades 10 to 12. These credits include a variety of required courses (e.g. in language arts, social studies, mathematics, and science), as well as elective courses.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Care |first=Ministry of Education and Child |title=Graduation Requirements – Province of British Columbia |url=https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/k-12/administration/legislation-policy/public-schools/graduation-requirements |access-date=July 21, 2022 |website=www2.gov.bc.ca}}</ref>

Academic achievement in British Columbia is relatively good, although it has been slipping in recent years by some measures. In 2020, 86 percent of students in British Columbia graduated from high school within six years of entering grade 8.<ref>{{Cite report |title=B.C. Education System Performance – B.C. Public School Results School District: Completion Rates |url=https://studentsuccess.gov.bc.ca/school-district/099/report/completion-rates |access-date=July 21, 2022 |website=studentsuccess.gov.bc.ca}}</ref> According to the 2018 Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) scores, students in British Columbia scored the second highest in reading ability, fourth highest in mathematic prowess, and fourth highest in science knowledge of the 10 Canadian provinces, although these scores have declined significantly since the 2000 and 2015 assessments.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Richards |first=John |date=December 2021 |title=Student Performance in PISA 2018: Nettlesome Questions for Canada |url=https://www.cdhowe.org/sites/default/files/2021-12/Commentary_576.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.cdhowe.org/sites/default/files/2021-12/Commentary_576.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

====International students====
In September 2014, there were 11,000 international students in BC public K-12 schools and about 3,000 international students in other BC K-12 schools.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sherlock |first1=Tracy |last2=Chiang |first2=Chuck |last3=Shaw |first3=Rob |date=September 12, 2014 |title=BC school shutdown has China 'concerned' |work=[[Vancouver Sun]] |url=https://vancouversun.com/business/school+shutdown+China+concerned/10193719/story.html |access-date=December 25, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225125955/http://www.vancouversun.com/business/school+shutdown+china+concerned/10193719/story.html |archive-date=December 25, 2018}}</ref> [[File:SFU Aerial.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[Simon Fraser University]] in Burnaby]]

===Higher education===
{{see also|Higher education in British Columbia}}
[[File:Quest University Canada Aerial View.jpg|thumb|upright|Quest University Canada Academic Building, aerial view]]
British Columbia has diverse array of higher educational institutions, ranging from publicly funded universities, colleges, and institutes, to private universities, colleges, seminaries, and career institutes. Public institutions receive approximately half of their funding from grants from the provincial government, with the remaining revenue stemming from tuition charges and philanthropic donations.<ref>{{Cite report |last=Auditor General |date=2008 |title=Government's post-secondary expansion: 25,000 seats by 2010 |url=http://www.aud.gov.bc.ca/PUBS/2006-07/Report7/PostSecondaryExp2006.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aud.gov.bc.ca/PUBS/2006-07/Report7/PostSecondaryExp2006.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> Each post-secondary institution sets its own admission requirements, although the standard requirement is the completion of high school.

Public universities and colleges include:

{{col div}}

* [[University of British Columbia]]
* [[Simon Fraser University]]
* [[University of Victoria]]
* [[University of Northern British Columbia]]
* [[Vancouver Island University]]
* [[British Columbia Institute of Technology]]
* [[Kwantlen Polytechnic University]]
* [[Thompson Rivers University]]
* [[Emily Carr University of Art and Design]]
* [[Royal Roads University]]
* [[Capilano University]]
* [[University of the Fraser Valley]]
* [[Douglas College]]
* [[Camosun College]]
* [[Langara College]]
* [[Selkirk College]]
* [[College of New Caledonia]]
* [[College of the Rockies]]
* [[Okanagan College]]
* [[Coast Mountain College]]
* [[Justice Institute of BC]]

{{col div end}}

British Columbia is also home to 11 [[List of private universities in Canada|private colleges and universities]] located throughout the province, including:

* [[Quest University]]
* [[Trinity Western University]]
* [[Alexander College]]
* [[University Canada West]]
* [[Columbia College (British Columbia)|Columbia College]]
* [[Coquitlam College]]
* [[Tamwood International College]]
* [[Ashton College]]
* [[Blanche Macdonald]]
* [[Vanwest College]]

Two American universities ([[Fairleigh Dickinson University]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Vancouver Campus |url=https://www.fdu.edu/campuses/vancouver-campus/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200427130010/https://www.fdu.edu/campuses/vancouver-campus/ |archive-date=April 27, 2020 |access-date=April 28, 2020 |website= |publisher=[[Fairleigh Dickinson University]]}}</ref> and [[Northeastern University]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Boston's Northeastern University to open new campus in downtown Vancouver {{!}} Urbanized |website=[[Daily Hive]] |url=https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/northwestern-university-400-west-georgia-street-vancouver |url-status=live |access-date=April 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200503093615/https://dailyhive.com/vancouver/northwestern-university-400-west-georgia-street-vancouver |archive-date=May 3, 2020}}</ref>) also have degree-granting campuses located in [[Vancouver]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Pacific Northwest|Canada}}
* [[Index of British Columbia–related articles]]
* [[Outline of British Columbia]]
* [[Symbols of British Columbia]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite bcgnis |id = 39106 |title = British Columbia }}
* {{cite book |chapter-url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Moody,_Richard_Clement |title=Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900 |volume=38 |last=Vetch |first=Robert Hamilton |authorlink=Robert Hamilton Vetch |year=1894 |chapter=Moody, Richard Clement (1813–1887)}}
* {{cite book |last=Barman |first=Jean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JbYe6fCOSTAC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=The West beyond the West: a history of British Columbia |publisher=Univ. of Toronto Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8020-9309-7|author-link=Jean Barman |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511142701/https://books.google.com/books?id=JbYe6fCOSTAC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Main list|Bibliography of British Columbia}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Akrigg |first1=G. P. V. |last2=Akrigg |first2=Helen B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9IP4V-Hyt-4C&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=British Columbia place names |publisher=Univ. of British Columbia Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-7748-0636-2 |ref=none |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511142700/https://books.google.com/books?id=9IP4V-Hyt-4C&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Dawson |first=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LMzgxL7WhzAC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=Selling British Columbia: Tourism and Consumer Culture, 1890–1970 |publisher=Univ. of British Columbia Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7748-1055-5 |ref=none |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511160611/https://books.google.com/books?id=LMzgxL7WhzAC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Foster |first=Leslie T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c598qbT6gBMC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=People, politics, and child welfare in British Columbia |publisher=Univ. of British Columbia Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7748-1372-3 |ref=none |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511164732/https://books.google.com/books?id=c598qbT6gBMC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Harris |first=R. Cole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TzvH3MCYTm4C&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=The Resettlement of British Columbia : Essays on Colonialism and Geographical Change |publisher=Univ. of British Columbia Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-7748-0588-9 |ref=none |author-link=Cole Harris |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511114604/https://books.google.com/books?id=TzvH3MCYTm4C&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=McKee |first=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=51FVXiNA7okC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=Treaty talks in British Columbia: negotiating a mutually beneficial future |publisher=Univ. of British Columbia Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-7748-0824-1 |ref=none |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511142702/https://books.google.com/books?id=51FVXiNA7okC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=McGillivray |first=Brett |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MWL_6b7dUrkC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=Geography of British Columbia: people and landscapes in transition |publisher=Univ. of British Columbia Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-7748-0784-9 |ref=none |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511153641/https://books.google.com/books?id=MWL_6b7dUrkC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last=Muckle |first=Robert James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8zBQ951iVncC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=The First Nations of British Columbia: an anthropological survey |publisher=Univ. of British Columbia Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-7748-0663-X |ref=none |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511164733/https://books.google.com/books?id=8zBQ951iVncC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1=Thirkell |first1=Fred |last2=Scullion |first2=Bob |url=https://archive.org/details/britishcolumbia10000thir |title=British Columbia 100 years ago: portraits of a province |publisher=Heritage House Pub |year=2002 |isbn=1-894384-49-0 |quote=British Columbia. |url-access=registration |ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Ver Berkmoes |first1=Ryan |last2=Lee |first2=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yfFTSXftIOcC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |title=Guide to "British Columbia" |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-74104-584-0 |ref=none |access-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511182433/https://books.google.com/books?id=yfFTSXftIOcC&q=British%20Columbia&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=British Columbia|collapsible=collapsed}}
* {{Official website|name=Official government website}}
* [https://www.hellobc.com/ Tourism British Columbia official website]
* [https://bcweathercams.ca BC Weathercams: Webcams showing realtime conditions across the province] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331092606/http://www.bcweathercams.ca/ |date=March 31, 2022 }}
* [https://news.gov.bc.ca/ BC government news]
* {{curlie|Regional/North_America/Canada/British_Columbia}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca/index.htm |title=Provincial Archives including online photo database |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20021013074240/http%3A//www.bcarchives.gov.bc.ca/index.htm |archive-date=October 13, 2002 |access-date=May 15, 2019}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.vpl.vancouver.bc.ca/find/cat/C393/ |title=Vancouver Public Library; Historical Photographs of BC & the Yukon |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324042144/http://www.vpl.vancouver.bc.ca/find/cat/C393/ |archive-date=March 24, 2009 |access-date=March 10, 2009}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/vpl |title=BC Multicultural Photographs from the Vancouver Public Library – searchable photo database |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121205230512/http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/vpl |archive-date=December 5, 2012 |access-date=June 5, 2008}}
* [https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/data/geographic-data-services/web-based-mapping/map-services BC government online map archive]

{{Subdivisions of British Columbia}}
{{Topics on British Columbia}}
{{Provinces and territories of Canada}}
{{Canada topics}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:British Columbia| ]]
[[Category:1871 establishments in Canada]]
[[Category:Provinces and territories of Canada]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1871]]
[[Category:Geography of the Pacific Northwest]]
[[Category:Western Canada]]

Stratovolcano

2023-04-09T23:10:07Z

Relative Humidity: Undid revision 1149055922 by Elmohasanak47 (talk) Vandalism

{{Short description|Type of conical volcano composed of layers of lava and tephra}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2022}}

[[File:Rainier20200906.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Mount Rainier]], a {{convert|14411|ft|m|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} stratovolcano, the highest point in the US state of Washington]]
[[File:Broken Top rock layers.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Exposed internal structure of alternating layers of [[lava]] and [[pyroclastic rock]] in the [[Erosion|eroded]] [[Broken Top]] stratovolcano in [[Oregon]]]]

A '''stratovolcano''', also known as a '''composite volcano''', is a [[Volcanic cone|conical]] [[volcano]] built up by many layers (strata) of hardened [[lava]] and [[tephra]].<ref>{{USGS|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/types.html|title=Principal Types of Volcanoes|access-date=2009-01-19}}</ref> Unlike [[shield volcano]]es, stratovolcanoes are characterized by a steep profile with a summit crater and periodic intervals of [[explosive eruption]]s and [[effusive eruption]]s, although some have collapsed summit craters called [[caldera]]s. The lava flowing from stratovolcanoes typically cools and hardens before spreading far, due to high viscosity. The magma forming this lava is often [[felsic]], having high-to-intermediate levels of [[silica]] (as in [[rhyolite]], [[dacite]], or [[andesite]]), with lesser amounts of less-viscous [[Igneous rock#Mineralogical classification|mafic]] magma.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783642258923|title=Teide Volcano: Geology and Eruptions of a Highly Differentiated Oceanic Stratovolcano|date=2013|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-3-642-25892-3|editor-last=Carracedo|editor-first=Juan Carlos|series=Active Volcanoes of the World|location=Berlin Heidelberg|language=en|editor-last2=Troll|editor-first2=Valentin R.}}</ref> Extensive felsic lava flows are uncommon, but have travelled as far as {{Convert|15|km|mi|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/volcanoes/cat/feature_garibaldi_e.php |title=Garibaldi volcanic belt: Garibaldi Lake volcanic field |work=Catalogue of Canadian volcanoes |publisher=[[Geological Survey of Canada]] |date=2009-04-01 |access-date=2010-06-27 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090626082839/http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/volcanoes/cat/feature_garibaldi_e.php |archive-date=June 26, 2009 }}</ref>

Stratovolcanoes are sometimes called composite volcanoes because of their composite stratified structure, built up from sequential outpourings of erupted materials. They are among the most common types of volcanoes, in contrast to the less common shield volcanoes.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schmincke |first1=Hans-Ulrich |title=Volcanism |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |isbn=9783540436508 |page=71}}</ref> Two famous examples of stratovolcanoes are [[Krakatoa]] in [[Indonesia]], known for its [[1883 eruption of Krakatoa|catastrophic eruption in 1883]], and [[Vesuvius]] in [[Italy]], whose [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79|catastrophic eruption in AD 79]] buried the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]]. Both eruptions claimed thousands of lives. In modern times, [[Mount St. Helens]] in [[Washington (state)|Washington State]], US, and [[Mount Pinatubo]] in the [[Philippines]] have erupted catastrophically, but with fewer deaths.

The existence of stratovolcanoes on other bodies of the [[Solar System]] has not been conclusively demonstrated.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Barlow|first1=Nadine|title=Mars : an introduction to its interior, surface and atmosphere|date=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge, UK|isbn=9780521852265}}</ref> One possible exception is the existence of some isolated [[massif]]s on Mars, for example the Zephyria Tholus.<ref name=mars>{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=Emily M.|last2=Head|first2=James W.|title=Ancient Martian volcanoes in the Aeolis region: New evidence from MOLA data|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research|date=1 August 2001|volume=106|issue=E8|pages=17505|doi=10.1029/2000JE001322|bibcode=2001JGR...10617505S|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Creation==
{{see also|Igneous rock}}
[[File:Subduction-en.svg|thumb|Cross-section of subduction zone and associated stratovolcanoes]]

Stratovolcanoes are common at [[subduction zone]]s, forming chains and clusters along plate tectonic boundaries where [[oceanic crust]] is drawn under [[continental crust]] (continental arc volcanism, e.g. [[Cascade Range]], [[Andes]], [[Campanian volcanic arc|Campania]]) or another oceanic plate ([[island arc]] volcanism, e.g. [[Japan]], [[Philippines]], [[Aleutian Islands]]). The magma forming stratovolcanoes rises when water trapped both in hydrated minerals and in the porous [[basalt]] rock of the upper oceanic crust is released into [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] rock of the [[asthenosphere]] above the sinking oceanic slab.{{sfn|Schmincke|2003|pp=113–126}} The release of water from hydrated minerals is termed "dewatering", and occurs at specific pressures and temperatures for each mineral, as the plate descends to greater depths.<ref>{{cite journal |bibcode= 2001AGUFM.T41C0871S|title= How Large a Feedback Effect Does Slab Dewatering Have on Itself ?|last1= Schmidt|first1= A.|last2= Rüpke|first2= L. H.|last3= Morgan|first3= J. P.|last4= Hort|first4= M.|journal= AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts|year= 2001|volume= 2001|pages= T41C–0871}}</ref> The water freed from the rock lowers the [[melting point]] of the overlying mantle rock, which then undergoes partial melting, rises (due to its lighter density relative to the surrounding mantle rock), and pools temporarily at the base of the [[lithosphere]]. The magma then rises through the [[Crust (geology)|crust]], incorporating silica-rich crustal rock, leading to a final [[intermediate composition]]. When the magma nears the top surface, it pools in a [[magma chamber]] within the crust below the stratovolcano.{{sfn|Schmincke|2003|pp=113–126}}

The processes that trigger the final eruption remain a question for further research. Possible mechanisms include:{{sfn|Schmincke|2003|pp=51–56}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cañón-Tapia |first1=Edgardo |title=Volcanic eruption triggers: A hierarchical classification |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |date=February 2014 |volume=129 |pages=100–119 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.11.011|bibcode=2014ESRv..129..100C }}</ref>

* Magma differentiation, in which the lightest, most silica-rich magma and volatiles such as water, halogens, and sulfur dioxide accumulate in the uppermost part of the magma chamber. This can dramatically increase pressures.{{sfn|Schmincke|2003|p=52}}

* [[Fractional crystallization (geology)|Fractional crystallization]] of the magma. When anhydrous minerals such as [[feldspar]] crystallize out of the magma, this concentrates volatiles in the remaining liquid, which can lead to ''second boiling'' that causes a gas phase (carbon dioxide or water) to separate from the liquid magma and raise magma chamber pressures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wech |first1=Aaron G. |last2=Thelen |first2=Weston A. |last3=Thomas |first3=Amanda M. |title=Deep long-period earthquakes generated by second boiling beneath Mauna Kea volcano |journal=Science |date=15 May 2020 |volume=368 |issue=6492 |pages=775–779 |doi=10.1126/science.aba4798|pmid=32409477 |bibcode=2020Sci...368..775W |s2cid=218648557 }}</ref>

* Injection of fresh magma into the magma chamber, which mixes and heats the cooler magma already present. This could force volatiles out of solution and lower the density of the cooler magma, both of which increase pressure. There is considerable evidence for magma mixing just before many eruptions, including magnesium-rich olivine crystals in freshly erupted silicic lava that show no reaction rim. This is possible only if the lava erupted immediately after mixing since olivine rapidly reacts with silicic magma to form a rim of pyroxene.{{sfn|Schmincke|2003|p=54}}

* Progressive melting of the surrounding [[country rock (geology)|country rock]].{{sfn|Cañón-Tapia|2014}}

These internal triggers may be modified by external triggers such as [[sector collapse]], [[earthquake]]s, or [[Phreatomagmatic eruption|interactions with groundwater]]. Some of these triggers operate only under limited conditions. For example, sector collapse (where part of the flank of a volcano collapses in a massive landslide) can trigger eruption only of a very shallow magma chamber. Magma differentiation and thermal expansion also are ineffective as triggers for eruptions from deep magma chambers.{{sfn|Cañón-Tapia|2014}}

Whatever the precise mechanism, the pressure in the magma chamber increases to a critical point where the roof of the magma chamber fractures, and the contents of the magma chamber are provided with a path to the surface through which to erupt.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

==Hazards==
[[File:Etna from 2900m.jpg|thumb|Mount Etna on the island of [[Sicily]], in southern Italy]]
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Mt.Fuji from misaka pass 2.jpg
| caption1 =
| image2 = Fugendake 04.JPG
| caption2 =
| footer = [[Mount Fuji]] on [[Honshu]] (top) and [[Mount Unzen]] on [[Kyushu]] (bottom), two of [[Japan]]'s stratovolcanoes
| pos = left
}}

In [[recorded history]], explosive eruptions at subduction zone (convergent-boundary) volcanoes have posed the greatest hazard to civilizations.<ref name="dynearth">{{USGS|title=Plate tectonics and people|last1=Kious|first1=W. Jacquelyne|last2=Tilling|first2=Robert I.|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/tectonics.html}}</ref> Subduction-zone stratovolcanoes, such as [[Mount St. Helens]], [[Mount Etna]] and [[Mount Pinatubo]], typically erupt with explosive force: the magma is too stiff to allow easy escape of volcanic gases. As a consequence, the tremendous internal pressures of the trapped volcanic gases remain and intermingle in the pasty magma. Following the breaching of the vent and the opening of the crater, the magma degasses explosively. The magma and gases blast out with high speed and full force.<ref name="dynearth"/>

Since 1600 [[Common Era|CE]], nearly 300,000 people have been killed by volcanic eruptions.<ref name="dynearth"/> Most deaths were caused by [[pyroclastic flow]]s and [[lahar]]s, deadly hazards that often accompany explosive eruptions of subduction-zone stratovolcanoes. Pyroclastic flows are swift, avalanche-like, ground-sweeping, incandescent mixtures of hot volcanic debris, fine ash, fragmented lava, and superheated gases that can travel at speeds over {{convert|160|km/h|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}. Around 30,000 people were killed by pyroclastic flows during the 1902 eruption of [[Mount Pelée]] on the island of [[Martinique]] in the Caribbean.<ref name="dynearth"/> During March and April of 1982, three explosive eruptions of [[El Chichón]] in the State of [[Chiapas]], in southeastern Mexico, caused the worst volcanic disaster in that country's history. Villages within {{convert|8|km|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} of the volcano were destroyed by pyroclastic flows, killing more than 2,000 people.<ref name="dynearth"/>

Two [[Decade Volcanoes]] that erupted in 1991 provide examples of stratovolcano hazards. On June 15, Mount Pinatubo spewed an ash cloud {{convert|40|km|abbr=on}} into the air and produced huge pyroclastic surges and [[lahar]] floods that devastated a large area around the volcano. Pinatubo, located in [[Central Luzon]] just {{convert|90|km|abbr=on}} west-northwest of [[Manila]], had been dormant for six centuries before the 1991 eruption, which ranks as one of the largest eruptions in the 20th century.<ref name="dynearth"/> Also in 1991, Japan's [[Unzen Volcano]], located on the island of Kyushu about {{convert|40|km|abbr=on}} east of Nagasaki, awakened from its 200-year slumber to produce a new [[lava dome]] at its summit. Beginning in June, the repeated collapse of this erupting dome generated ash flows that swept down the mountain's slopes at speeds as high as {{convert|200|km/h|abbr=on}}. Unzen is one of more than 75 active volcanoes in Japan; an eruption in 1792 killed more than 15,000 people—the worst volcanic disaster in the nation's history.<ref name="dynearth"/>

The [[eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79]] completely smothered the nearby ancient cities of [[Pompeii]] and [[Herculaneum]] with thick deposits of [[pyroclastic surge]]s and [[lava flow]]s. Although the death toll has been estimated at between 13,000 and 26,000 people, the exact number is still unclear. Vesuvius is recognized as one of the most dangerous of the world’s volcanoes, due to its capacity for [[Plinian eruption|powerful explosive eruptions]] coupled with the high population density of the surrounding [[Metropolitan City of Naples|Metropolitan Naples]] area (totaling about 3.6 million inhabitants).{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

===Ash===
{{main|Volcanic ash}}
[[File:Ashfall from Pinatubo, 1991.jpg|thumb|Snow-like blanket of [[Mount Pinatubo]]'s ashfall deposits in a parking lot on [[Clark Air Base]] (June 15, 1991)]]

In addition to potentially affecting the climate, volcanic clouds from explosive eruptions pose a serious hazard to aviation.<ref name="dynearth"/> For example, during the 1982 eruption of [[Galunggung]] in [[Java]], [[British Airways Flight 9]] flew into the ash cloud, causing it to sustain temporary engine failure and structural damage. During the past two decades, more than 60 airplanes, mostly commercial airliners, have been damaged by in-flight encounters with volcanic ash. Some of these encounters have resulted in the loss of power in all engines, necessitating emergency landings. Luckily, to date no crashes have happened because of jet aircraft flying into volcanic ash.<ref name="dynearth"/> [[Volcanic ash|Ashfall]]s are a threat to health when inhaled and ash is also a threat to property with enough accumulation. An accumulation of {{convert|30|cm|abbr=on}} is sufficient to cause most buildings to collapse.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} Dense clouds of hot volcanic ash can be expelled due to the collapse of an [[Eruption column|eruptive column]], or laterally due to the partial collapse of a volcanic edifice or lava dome during explosive eruptions. These clouds can generate devastating pyroclastic flows or surges, which can sweep up everything in their paths.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

===Lava===
{{main|Lava}}
[[File:Mayon 0052.jpg|right|thumb|[[Mayon|Mayon Volcano]] extruding lava flows during its eruption on December 29, 2009]]

Lava flows from stratovolcanoes are generally not a significant threat to humans or animals because the highly [[viscosity|viscous]] lava moves slowly enough for everyone to flee away from the path of flow. The lava flows are more of a threat to property. However, not all stratovolcanoes erupt viscous and sticky lava. [[Nyiragongo]] is very dangerous because its [[magma]] has an unusually low silica content, making it quite fluid. Fluid lavas are typically associated with the formation of broad shield volcanoes such as those of Hawaii, but Nyiragongo has very steep slopes down which lava can flow at up to {{convert|100|km/h|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}. Lava flows could melt down ice and glaciers that accumulated on the volcano's crater and upper slopes, generating massive [[lahar]] flows. Rarely, generally fluid lava could also generate massive lava fountains, while lava of thicker viscosity can solidify within the vent, creating a [[volcanic plug]] which can result in highly explosive eruptions.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

===Volcanic bombs===
{{main|Volcanic bomb}}

Volcanic bombs are extrusive [[igneous rock]]s ranging from the size of books to small cars, that are explosively ejected from stratovolcanoes during their climactic eruptive phases. These "bombs" can travel over {{convert|20|km|mi|abbr=on}} away from the volcano, and present a risk to buildings and living beings while shooting at very high speeds (hundreds of kilometers/miles per hour) through the air. Most bombs do not themselves explode on impact, but rather carry enough force to have destructive effects as if they exploded.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

===Lahar===
{{main|Lahar}}

Lahars (from a [[Javanese language|Javanese]] term for volcanic mudflows) are mixtures of volcanic debris and water. Lahars usually come from two sources: rainfall or the melting of snow and ice by hot volcanic elements, such as lava. Depending on the proportion and temperature of water to volcanic material, lahars can range from thick, gooey flows that have the consistency of wet concrete to fast-flowing, soupy floods.<ref name="dynearth"/> As lahars flood down the steep sides of stratovolcanoes, they have the strength and speed to flatten or drown everything in their paths. Hot ash clouds, lava flows and pyroclastic surges ejected during [[Armero tragedy|1985 eruption]] of [[Nevado del Ruiz]] in [[Colombia]] melted snow and ice atop the {{convert|5321|m|ft|abbr=on}} high Andean volcano. The ensuing lahar flooded the city of [[Armero]] and nearby settlements, killing 25,000 people.<ref name="dynearth"/>

==Effects on climate and atmosphere==
[[File:Paluweh2013labeled.jpg|thumb|[[Paluweh]] eruption as seen from space]]

As per the above examples, while the Unzen eruptions have caused deaths and considerable local damage in the historic past, the impact of the June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo was global. Slightly cooler-than-usual temperatures were recorded worldwide, with brilliant sunsets and intense sunrises attributed to the [[Atmospheric particulate matter|particulates]]; this eruption lofted particles high into the [[stratosphere]]. The [[aerosol]]s that formed from the [[sulfur dioxide]] (SO2), [[carbon dioxide]] (CO2), and other gases dispersed around the world. The SO2 mass in this cloud—about 22 million tons—combined with water (both of volcanic and atmospheric origin) formed droplets of [[sulfuric acid]], blocking a portion of the sunlight from reaching the [[troposphere]] and ground. The cooling in some regions is thought to have been as much as 0.5 °C (0.9 °F).<ref name="dynearth"/> An eruption the size of Mount Pinatubo tends to affect the weather for a few years; the material injected into the stratosphere gradually drops into the [[troposphere]], where it is washed away by rain and cloud precipitation.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

A similar, but extraordinarily more powerful phenomenon occurred in the cataclysmic April 1815 eruption of [[Mount Tambora]] on [[Sumbawa]] island in [[Indonesia]]. The Mount Tambora eruption is recognized as the most powerful eruption in recorded history. Its eruption cloud lowered global temperatures by as much as 3.5 °C (6.3 °F).<ref name="dynearth"/> In the year following the eruption, most of the Northern Hemisphere experienced sharply cooler temperatures during the summer. In parts of Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, 1816 was known as the "[[Year Without a Summer]]", which caused a considerable agricultural crisis and a brief but bitter famine, which generated a series of distresses across much of the affected continents.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

==List==
{{main|List of stratovolcanoes}}

==See also==
* {{annotated link|Cinder cone}}
* {{annotated link|Mountain formation}}
* {{annotated link|Orogeny}}
* {{annotated link|Pyroclastic shield}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Volcanoes}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Stratovolcanoes| ]]
[[Category:Volcanic landforms]]

Adeola Ariyo

2023-02-22T11:22:42Z

Relative Humidity: Undid revision 1140893559 by Dellyberry (talk) Writing style not suitable for article on a living person

{{short description|Ambassador}}
{{Orphan|date=November 2020}}

{{Infobox pageant titleholder
| name= Adeola Ariyo
|image=Adeola Ariyoo on NdaniTV in S Africa (cropped).png
| alias= AdeolaAriyo
| education = B.A Psychology and Criminology from University of South Africa
| birth_date = [[1980s]]
| birth_place = [[Lagos, Nigeria|Lagos]]
| birth_name = Adeola Ariyo
| height = 1.75m
}}

'''Adeola Ariyo''' is a [[Nigerians|Nigerian]] born model who became [[Elizabeth Arden, Inc.|Elizabeth Arden]]'s first ever African Ambassador in 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Zoe Efstathiou |date=2015-03-27|title=Elizabeth Arden appoints Adeola Ariyo as African Ambassador|url=https://www.globalcosmeticsnews.com/elizabeth-arden-appoints-adeola-ariyo-as-african-ambassador/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-11-12|website=Global Cosmetics News|language=en-GB}}</ref> She began her modelling career at the age of 13 after being scouted for and participating in the London Fashion Week.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Rey|first=Sola|date=2016-08-20|title=Model: Adeola Ariyo|url=http://solarey.net/model-adeola-ariyo/|access-date=2020-11-12|website=Sola Rey|language=en-US}}</ref> Adeola is sometimes referred to as a Nigerian-Ghanaian because of her mixed heritage.<ref name=":0" /> She is born to a [[Ghanaian people|Ghanaian]] Mother and Nigerian Father.

==Early life==
Adeola was born in [[Lagos State|Lagos]] to a Ghanaian Mother and a Nigerian Father. She grew up in Nigeria but sometimes travel to London with her father. Her participation in the [[London Fashion Week]] at the age of 13 was made possible when she went shopping with her father in [[London]].<ref>{{Cite web|first=|date=|title=Adeola Ariyo becomes first African brand ambassador for Elizabeth Arden|url=https://cosmeticsbusiness.com/news/article_page/Adeola_Ariyo_becomes_first_African_brand_ambassador_for_Elizabeth_Arden/95918|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-11-12|website=cosmeticsbusiness.com}}</ref> While she spend most of her time in [[Cape Town]], [[South Africa]], Adeola also travel to Lagos and London.<ref name="Boss Models Cape Town">{{Cite web|last=Boss Models Cape Town|first=|date=|title=Adeola Ariyo {{!}} Women {{!}} Mainboard Mgmt {{!}} Boss Models Cape Town - Women and Men for South African and International Bookings|url=https://www.bossmodels.co.za/capetown/women/mainboard-mgmt/507257/adeola-ariyo|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-11-12|website=Boss Models Cape Town|language=en}}</ref>

==Modelling==
Adeola Modelling career began at the early age of 13 when she met [[Alek Wek]] and [[Kate Moss]] just after being signed by the London Fashion Week agency.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|last=BLANCK|first=Abiodun|date=2019-07-22|title=THE INTERVIEW: ADEOLA ARIYO ON THE AFRICAN MODELLING INDUSTRY|url=https://www.blanckdigital.com/the-interview-adeola-ariyo-on-the-african-modelling-industry/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-11-12|website=Blanck Digital|language=en}}</ref> In 2005, she participated in the Nokia Face of Africa Competition<ref name="Boss Models Cape Town"/> and since then, she has been very active in the international modelling scene. Aside featuring in the London Fashion Week, Adeola has also featured in other fashion weeks. Notable among them are the Johannesburg Fashion Week, Mozambique Fashion Week, Cape Town Fashion Week, Arise Fashion Week Lagos and the London Fashion Week.<ref name=":1" /> She spent several years modelling in South Africa before securing the Elizabeth Arden appointment in February 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|last=The Cut off|first=Adiree|date=|title=Adeola Ariyo for Elizabeth Arden|url=https://africafashionweek.com/magazine/adeola-ariyo-for-elizabeth-arden/|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-11-12|website=|language=en}}</ref> Aside featuring in different fashion weeks, Adeola also featured for a number of fashion publications such as Marie Claire, True Love and Fair Lady, Cosmopolitan and Glamour.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Odusola|first=Abiodun|date=2019-07-22|title=THE INTERVIEW: ADEOLA ARIYO ON THE AFRICAN MODELLING INDUSTRY|url=https://www.blanckdigital.com/the-interview-adeola-ariyo-on-the-african-modelling-industry/|access-date=2020-11-12|website=Blanck Digital|language=en}}</ref>

==Other works==
Being an African personality, Adeola has also been involved in a number of charity works and awareness creation projects. Notable among her charity projects is her involvement with "[[The Lunchbox Fund]]", a project aimed at providing daily meal for vulnerable school children and orphan in South Africa. Adeola was also involved in other Elizabeth Arden project like the "Make a Visible Difference” Campaign.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Adeola Ariyo {{!}} Women {{!}} Mainboard Mgmt {{!}} Boss Models Cape Town - Women and Men for South African and International Bookings|url=https://www.bossmodels.co.za/capetown/women/mainboard-mgmt/507257/adeola-ariyo|access-date=2020-11-12|website=Boss Models Cape Town|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Ariyo, Adeola}}
[[Category:21st-century Nigerian businesspeople]]
[[Category:Beauty pageant contestants from Lagos]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Lagos]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:University of South Africa alumni]]
[[Category:Nigerian fashion businesspeople]]
[[Category:Nigerian female models]]
[[Category:Models from Lagos]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Yoruba beauty pageant contestants]]
[[Category:Yoruba female models]]
[[Category:Nigerian people of Ghanaian descent]]
[[Category:Nigerian child models]]
[[Category:People from Lagos State]]
[[Category:Yoruba people]]