Ensemble coding - Revision history

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	==Theory==		==Theory==
	Extensive amounts of information are available to the [[visual system]]. Ensemble coding is a theory that suggests that people process the general gist of their complex visual surroundings by grouping objects together based on shared properties. The world is filled with redundant information of which the human [[visual system]] has become particularly sensitive.<ref name="Whitney_2014" /><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors = Whitney D, Haberman J, Sweeny T \| date = 2014 \| chapter = From textures to crowds: multiple levels of summary statistical perception. \| title = In The New Visual Neuroscience \| veditors = Werner JS, Chalupa LM \| pages = 695–710 \| location = Cambridge, MA \| publisher = MIT Press }}</ref> The brain exploits this redundancy and condenses the information. For example, the leaves of a tree or blades of grass give rise to the percept of 'tree-ness' and 'lawn-ness'.<ref name="Haberman_2012">{{cite book \|last1=Haberman \|first1=Jason \|last2=Whitney \|first2=David\| name-list-style = vanc \| chapter = Ensemble Perception \|date = May 2012 \| title = From Perception to Consciousness \|pages=339–349 \|editor-last=Wolfe \|editor-first=Jeremy \|editor2-last=Robertson \|editor2-first=Lynn \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199734337.003.0030 \|isbn=978-0-19-973433-7}}</ref> It has been demonstrated that individuals have the ability to quickly and accurately encode ensembles of objects, like leaves on a tree, and gather summary statistical information (like the mean and variance) from groups of stimuli.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal\| vauthors = Alt NP, Goodale B, Lick DJ, Johnson KL \|date= March 2019 \|title=Threat in the Company of Men: Ensemble Perception and Threat Evaluations of Groups Varying in Sex Ratio\|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science\|volume=10 \|issue=2 \|pages=152–159 \|doi=10.1177/1948550617731498 \|s2cid= 149407595 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Alvarez GA \| title = Representing multiple objects as an ensemble enhances visual cognition \| language = en-US \| journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences \| volume = 15 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 122–31 \| date = March 2011 \| pmid = 21292539 \| doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.003 \| s2cid = 2752461 \| url = https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/41364280 }}</ref> Some research suggests that this process provides rough visual information from the entire [[visual field]], giving way to a complete and accurate picture of the visual world.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Chong SC, Treisman A \| title = Representation of statistical properties \| journal = Vision Research \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 393–404 \| date = February 2003 \| pmid = 12535996 \| doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5 \| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Seeing the mean: ensemble coding fo">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Haberman J, Whitney D \| title = Seeing the mean: ensemble coding for sets of faces \| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance \| volume = 35 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 718–34 \| date = June 2009 \| pmid = 19485687 \| pmc = 2696629 \| doi = 10.1037/a0013899 }}</ref> Although the individual details of this accurate picture might be inaccessible, the 'gist' of the scene remains accessible.<ref name="Haberman_2012" /> Ensemble coding is an adaptive process that lightens the [[cognitive load]] in the processing and storing of visual representations through the use of [[heuristic]]s.<ref name="Seeing the mean: ensemble coding fo"/><ref name="Wolfe_2011">{{cite book \|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Kw9pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA339 \|title=From Perception to Consciousness: Searching with Anne Treisman \|last1=Wolfe \|first1=Jeremy \|last2=Robertson \|first2=Lynn \| name-list-style = vanc \|date= December 2011 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-990984-1\|language=en}}</ref>		Extensive amounts of information are available to the [[visual system]]. Ensemble coding is a theory that suggests that people process the general gist of their complex visual surroundings by grouping objects together based on shared properties. The world is filled with redundant information of which the human [[visual system]] has become particularly sensitive.<ref name="Whitney_2014" /><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors = Whitney D, Haberman J, Sweeny T \| date = 2014 \| chapter = From textures to crowds: multiple levels of summary statistical perception. \| title = In The New Visual Neuroscience \| veditors = Werner JS, Chalupa LM \| pages = 695–710 \| location = Cambridge, MA \| publisher = MIT Press }}</ref> The brain exploits this redundancy and condenses the information. For example, the leaves of a tree or blades of grass give rise to the percept of 'tree-ness' and 'lawn-ness'.<ref name="Haberman_2012">{{cite book \|last1=Haberman \|first1=Jason \|last2=Whitney \|first2=David\| name-list-style = vanc \| chapter = Ensemble Perception \|date = May 2012 \| title = From Perception to Consciousness \|pages=339–349 \|editor-last=Wolfe \|editor-first=Jeremy \|editor2-last=Robertson \|editor2-first=Lynn \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199734337.003.0030 \|isbn=978-0-19-973433-7}}</ref> It has been demonstrated that individuals have the ability to quickly and accurately encode ensembles of objects, like leaves on a tree, and gather summary statistical information (like the mean and variance) from groups of stimuli.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal\| vauthors = Alt NP, Goodale B, Lick DJ, Johnson KL \|date= March 2019 \|title=Threat in the Company of Men: Ensemble Perception and Threat Evaluations of Groups Varying in Sex Ratio\|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science\|volume=10 \|issue=2 \|pages=152–159 \|doi=10.1177/1948550617731498 \|s2cid= 149407595 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Alvarez GA \| title = Representing multiple objects as an ensemble enhances visual cognition \| language = en-US \| journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences \| volume = 15 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 122–31 \| date = March 2011 \| pmid = 21292539 \| doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.003 \| s2cid = 2752461 \| url = https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/41364280 \| url-access = subscription }}</ref> Some research suggests that this process provides rough visual information from the entire [[visual field]], giving way to a complete and accurate picture of the visual world.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Chong SC, Treisman A \| title = Representation of statistical properties \| journal = Vision Research \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 393–404 \| date = February 2003 \| pmid = 12535996 \| doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5 \| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Seeing the mean: ensemble coding fo">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Haberman J, Whitney D \| title = Seeing the mean: ensemble coding for sets of faces \| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance \| volume = 35 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 718–34 \| date = June 2009 \| pmid = 19485687 \| pmc = 2696629 \| doi = 10.1037/a0013899 }}</ref> Although the individual details of this accurate picture might be inaccessible, the 'gist' of the scene remains accessible.<ref name="Haberman_2012" /> Ensemble coding is an adaptive process that lightens the [[cognitive load]] in the processing and storing of visual representations through the use of [[heuristic]]s.<ref name="Seeing the mean: ensemble coding fo"/><ref name="Wolfe_2011">{{cite book \|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Kw9pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA339 \|title=From Perception to Consciousness: Searching with Anne Treisman \|last1=Wolfe \|first1=Jeremy \|last2=Robertson \|first2=Lynn \| name-list-style = vanc \|date= December 2011 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-990984-1\|language=en}}</ref>

	== Operational definition ==		== Operational definition ==
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	=== Limited visual capacity ===		=== Limited visual capacity ===
	[[Vision science]] has noted that although humans take in large amounts of visual information, adults are only able to process, attend to, and retain up to roughly four items from the visual environment.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Alvarez GA, Cavanagh P \| title = The capacity of visual short-term memory is set both by visual information load and by number of objects \| language = en-US \| journal = Psychological Science \| volume = 15 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 106–11 \| date = February 2004 \| pmid = 14738517 \| doi = 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01502006.x \| s2cid = 2286443 \| url = http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:41302706 }}</ref><ref name="Luck_1998">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Luck SJ, Vogel EK \| title = The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions \| journal = Nature \| volume = 390 \| issue = 6657 \| pages = 279–81 \| date = November 1997 \| pmid = 9384378 \| doi = 10.1038/36846 \| bibcode = 1997Natur.390..279L \| s2cid = 205025290 }}</ref> Furthermore, scientists have found that this visual upper limit capacity exists across various phenomena including [[change blindness]],<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=O'Regan \|first1=J. Kevin \|last2=Deubel \|first2=Heiner \|last3=Clark \|first3=James J. \|last4=Rensink \|first4=Ronald A. \| name-list-style = vanc \|date=2000-01-01\|title=Picture Changes During Blinks: Looking Without Seeing and Seeing Without Looking\|journal=Visual Cognition\|volume=7\|issue=1–3\|pages=191–211\|doi=10.1080/135062800394766\|s2cid=18034759 \|issn=1350-6285}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Simons DJ, Chabris CF \| s2cid = 1073781 \| title = Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events \| journal = Perception \| volume = 28 \| issue = 9 \| pages = 1059–74 \| date = 1999-09-01 \| pmid = 10694957 \| doi = 10.1068/p281059 }}</ref> object tracking,<ref name="Scholl_1999">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Scholl BJ, Pylyshyn ZW \| s2cid = 17447994 \| title = Tracking multiple items through occlusion: clues to visual objecthood \| journal = Cognitive Psychology \| volume = 38 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 259–90 \| date = March 1999 \| pmid = 10090804 \| doi = 10.1006/cogp.1998.0698 }}</ref> and feature representation.<ref name="Luck_1998"/>		[[Vision science]] has noted that although humans take in large amounts of visual information, adults are only able to process, attend to, and retain up to roughly four items from the visual environment.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Alvarez GA, Cavanagh P \| title = The capacity of visual short-term memory is set both by visual information load and by number of objects \| language = en-US \| journal = Psychological Science \| volume = 15 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 106–11 \| date = February 2004 \| pmid = 14738517 \| doi = 10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.01502006.x \| s2cid = 2286443 \| url = http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:41302706 \| url-access = subscription }}</ref><ref name="Luck_1998">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Luck SJ, Vogel EK \| title = The capacity of visual working memory for features and conjunctions \| journal = Nature \| volume = 390 \| issue = 6657 \| pages = 279–81 \| date = November 1997 \| pmid = 9384378 \| doi = 10.1038/36846 \| bibcode = 1997Natur.390..279L \| s2cid = 205025290 }}</ref> Furthermore, scientists have found that this visual upper limit capacity exists across various phenomena including [[change blindness]],<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=O'Regan \|first1=J. Kevin \|last2=Deubel \|first2=Heiner \|last3=Clark \|first3=James J. \|last4=Rensink \|first4=Ronald A. \| name-list-style = vanc \|date=2000-01-01\|title=Picture Changes During Blinks: Looking Without Seeing and Seeing Without Looking\|journal=Visual Cognition\|volume=7\|issue=1–3\|pages=191–211\|doi=10.1080/135062800394766\|s2cid=18034759 \|issn=1350-6285}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Simons DJ, Chabris CF \| s2cid = 1073781 \| title = Gorillas in our midst: sustained inattentional blindness for dynamic events \| journal = Perception \| volume = 28 \| issue = 9 \| pages = 1059–74 \| date = 1999-09-01 \| pmid = 10694957 \| doi = 10.1068/p281059 }}</ref> object tracking,<ref name="Scholl_1999">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Scholl BJ, Pylyshyn ZW \| s2cid = 17447994 \| title = Tracking multiple items through occlusion: clues to visual objecthood \| journal = Cognitive Psychology \| volume = 38 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 259–90 \| date = March 1999 \| pmid = 10090804 \| doi = 10.1006/cogp.1998.0698 }}</ref> and feature representation.<ref name="Luck_1998"/>

	=== Low resolution representations and limited capacity ===		=== Low resolution representations and limited capacity ===

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	Throughout its history, ensemble coding been known by many names. Interest in the theory began to emerge in the early 20th century.<ref name="Wolfe_2011" /> In its earliest years, ensemble coding was known as [[Gestalt grouping rules\|Gestalt grouping]].<ref name="Wolfe_2011" /> In 1923, Max Wertheimer, a [[Gestalt psychology]] theorist, was addressing how humans perceive their visual world holistically rather than individually.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Wertheimer M \| title = Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt. II. \| trans-title = Investigations into the teaching of the form \| language = German \| journal = Psychological Research \| date = January 1923 \| volume = 4 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 301–50 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00410640 \| s2cid = 143510308 }}</ref> Gestaltists argued that in object perception, the individual object features were either lost or difficult to perceive and therefore the grouped object was the favored percept.<ref>Koffka, K. (1935). The Principles of Gestalt Psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.</ref> Although Gestaltists helped define some of the central principles of object perception, research into modern ensemble coding did not occur until many years later.{{cn\|date=December 2019}}		Throughout its history, ensemble coding been known by many names. Interest in the theory began to emerge in the early 20th century.<ref name="Wolfe_2011" /> In its earliest years, ensemble coding was known as [[Gestalt grouping rules\|Gestalt grouping]].<ref name="Wolfe_2011" /> In 1923, Max Wertheimer, a [[Gestalt psychology]] theorist, was addressing how humans perceive their visual world holistically rather than individually.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Wertheimer M \| title = Untersuchungen zur Lehre von der Gestalt. II. \| trans-title = Investigations into the teaching of the form \| language = German \| journal = Psychological Research \| date = January 1923 \| volume = 4 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 301–50 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00410640 \| s2cid = 143510308 }}</ref> Gestaltists argued that in object perception, the individual object features were either lost or difficult to perceive and therefore the grouped object was the favored percept.<ref>Koffka, K. (1935). The Principles of Gestalt Psychology. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.</ref> Although Gestaltists helped define some of the central principles of object perception, research into modern ensemble coding did not occur until many years later.{{cn\|date=December 2019}}

	In 1971, [[Norman H. Anderson\|Norman Anderson]] was one of the earliest to conduct explicit ensemble coding research.<ref name="Haberman_2012" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal\|last=Anderson\|first=Norman H.\|date=1971\|title=Integration theory and attitude change.\|journal=Psychological Review\|language=en\|volume=78\|issue=3\|pages=171–206\|doi=10.1037/h0030834\|issn=0033-295X}}</ref> Anderson's research into social ensemble coding showed that individuals described by two positive terms were rated more favorably than individuals described by two positive terms and two negative terms.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Anderson\|first=Norman H.\|date=1965\|title=Averaging versus adding as a stimulus-combination rule in impression formation.\|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology\|language=en\|volume=70\|issue=4\|pages=394–400\|doi=10.1037/h0022280\|pmid=5826027\|issn=0022-1015}}</ref> This research on [[impression formation]] demonstrated that a weighted mean or average captures how information is integrated rather than the summation.<ref name=":0" /> Additional research during this time explored ensemble coding in group attractiveness,<ref>Anderson, N. H., Lindner, R., & Lopes, L. L. (1973). Integration Theory Applied to Judgments of Group Attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26(3), 400-408.</ref> shopping preferences,<ref>Levin, I. P. (1974). Averaging Processes in Ratings and Choices Based on Numerical Information. Memory & Cognition, 2(4), 786-790.</ref> and the perceived badness of criminals.<ref>Leon, M., Oden, G. C., & Anderson, N. H. (1973). Functional Measurement of Social Values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(3), 301-310.</ref>		In 1971, [[Norman H. Anderson (psychologist)\|Norman Anderson]] was one of the earliest to conduct explicit ensemble coding research.<ref name="Haberman_2012" /><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal\|last=Anderson\|first=Norman H.\|date=1971\|title=Integration theory and attitude change.\|journal=Psychological Review\|language=en\|volume=78\|issue=3\|pages=171–206\|doi=10.1037/h0030834\|issn=0033-295X}}</ref> Anderson's research into social ensemble coding showed that individuals described by two positive terms were rated more favorably than individuals described by two positive terms and two negative terms.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal\|last=Anderson\|first=Norman H.\|date=1965\|title=Averaging versus adding as a stimulus-combination rule in impression formation.\|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology\|language=en\|volume=70\|issue=4\|pages=394–400\|doi=10.1037/h0022280\|pmid=5826027\|issn=0022-1015}}</ref> This research on [[impression formation]] demonstrated that a weighted mean or average captures how information is integrated rather than the summation.<ref name=":0" /> Additional research during this time explored ensemble coding in group attractiveness,<ref>Anderson, N. H., Lindner, R., & Lopes, L. L. (1973). Integration Theory Applied to Judgments of Group Attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 26(3), 400-408.</ref> shopping preferences,<ref>Levin, I. P. (1974). Averaging Processes in Ratings and Choices Based on Numerical Information. Memory & Cognition, 2(4), 786-790.</ref> and the perceived badness of criminals.<ref>Leon, M., Oden, G. C., & Anderson, N. H. (1973). Functional Measurement of Social Values. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27(3), 301-310.</ref>

	== The current era ==		== The current era ==

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	Additional research has uncovered that in as little as 75 milliseconds, participants are able to derive the average sex ratio of an ensemble of faces.<ref name=":5" /> Furthermore, within that 75 milliseconds, participants were able to form impressions based on the perceived sex ratio and make inferences about the group's perceived threat.<ref name=":5" /> Specifically, this research found that groups were judged as more threatening as the ratio of men to women increased.<ref name=":5" />		Additional research has uncovered that in as little as 75 milliseconds, participants are able to derive the average sex ratio of an ensemble of faces.<ref name=":5" /> Furthermore, within that 75 milliseconds, participants were able to form impressions based on the perceived sex ratio and make inferences about the group's perceived threat.<ref name=":5" /> Specifically, this research found that groups were judged as more threatening as the ratio of men to women increased.<ref name=":5" />

			In 2023, researchers found that people can accurately gauge the average trustworthiness of multiple faces presented together, even at very brief exposure times (as short as 250 ms). The findings suggest that our brains efficiently extract a summary statistic of facial features from crowds, enabling quick social judgments that may influence behavior.<ref>{{Cite web \|last=Dolan \|first=Eric W. \|date=2024-02-24 \|title=Ensemble perception: Trust judgments of crowds of faces happen at the blink of an eye \|url=https://www.psypost.org/ensemble-perception-trust-judgments-of-crowds-of-faces-happen-at-the-blink-of-an-eye/ \|access-date=2024-02-29 \|website=PsyPost - Psychology News \|language=en-US}}</ref>

	== References ==		== References ==

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	== Operational definition ==		== Operational definition ==
	David Whitney and Allison Yamanashi Leib have developed an operational and flexible definition stating that ensemble coding should cover the following five concepts:<ref name="Whitney_2014">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Whitney D, Yamanashi Leib A \| title = Ensemble Perception \| journal = Annual Review of Psychology \| volume = 69 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 105–129 \| date = January 2018 \| pmid = 28892638 \| doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044232 \| s2cid = 39630841 }}</ref>		David Whitney and Allison Yamanashi Leib have developed an operational and flexible definition stating that ensemble coding should cover the following five concepts:<ref name="Whitney_2014">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Whitney D, Yamanashi Leib A \| title = Ensemble Perception \| journal = Annual Review of Psychology \| volume = 69 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 105–129 \| date = January 2018 \| pmid = 28892638 \| doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044232 \| s2cid = 39630841 \| doi-access = free }}</ref>

	* Ensemble perception is the ability to discriminate or reproduce a statistical moment.		* Ensemble perception is the ability to discriminate or reproduce a statistical moment.

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Operational definition

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	== Operational definition ==		== Operational definition ==
	David Whitney and Allison Yamanashi ~~Lieb~~ have developed an operational and flexible definition stating that ensemble coding should cover the following five concepts:<ref name="Whitney_2014">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Whitney D, Yamanashi Leib A \| title = Ensemble Perception \| journal = Annual Review of Psychology \| volume = 69 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 105–129 \| date = January 2018 \| pmid = 28892638 \| doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044232 \| s2cid = 39630841 }}</ref>		David Whitney and Allison Yamanashi Leib have developed an operational and flexible definition stating that ensemble coding should cover the following five concepts:<ref name="Whitney_2014">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Whitney D, Yamanashi Leib A \| title = Ensemble Perception \| journal = Annual Review of Psychology \| volume = 69 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 105–129 \| date = January 2018 \| pmid = 28892638 \| doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-010416-044232 \| s2cid = 39630841 }}</ref>

	* Ensemble perception is the ability to discriminate or reproduce a statistical moment.		* Ensemble perception is the ability to discriminate or reproduce a statistical moment.

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	=== Independence of low- and high-level information ===		=== Independence of low- and high-level information ===
	Some findings suggest lower-level and higher-level information may be processed by independent cognitive mechanisms<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Haberman \|first1=Jason \|last2=Brady \|first2=Timothy F \|last3=Alvarez \|first3=George A \|title=Independent ensemble processing mechanisms for high-level and low-level perceptual features \|journal=Journal of Vision \|date=August 2014 \|volume=14 \|issue=1322 \|page=1322 \|doi=10.1167/14.10.1322 \|url=https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2145200\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Sama \|first1=Marco A \|last2=Nestor \|first2=Adrian \|last3=Cant \|first3=Jonathan S \|title=Independence of viewpoint and identity in face ensemble processing \|journal=Journal of Vision \|date=May 2019 \|volume=19 \|issue=2 \|page=10.1167/19.5.2 \|doi=10.1167/19.5.2 \|s2cid=145822839 \|url=https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2733024}}</ref>		Some findings suggest lower-level and higher-level information may be processed by independent cognitive mechanisms<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Haberman \|first1=Jason \|last2=Brady \|first2=Timothy F \|last3=Alvarez \|first3=George A \|title=Independent ensemble processing mechanisms for high-level and low-level perceptual features \|journal=Journal of Vision \|date=August 2014 \|volume=14 \|issue=1322 \|page=1322 \|doi=10.1167/14.10.1322 \|url=https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2145200\|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Sama \|first1=Marco A \|last2=Nestor \|first2=Adrian \|last3=Cant \|first3=Jonathan S \|title=Independence of viewpoint and identity in face ensemble processing \|journal=Journal of Vision \|date=May 2019 \|volume=19 \|issue=2 \|page=10.1167/19.5.2 \|doi=10.1167/19.5.2 \|s2cid=145822839 \|url=https://jov.arvojournals.org/article.aspx?articleid=2733024\|doi-access=free }}</ref>

	== Social vision and ensemble coding ==		== Social vision and ensemble coding ==

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	==Theory==		==Theory==
	Extensive amounts of information are available to the [[visual system]]. Ensemble coding is a theory that suggests that people process the general gist of their complex visual surroundings by grouping objects together based on shared properties. The world is filled with redundant information of which the human [[visual system]] has become particularly sensitive.<ref name="Whitney_2014" /><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors = Whitney D, Haberman J, Sweeny T \| date = 2014 \| chapter = From textures to crowds: multiple levels of summary statistical perception. \| title = In The New Visual Neuroscience \| veditors = Werner JS, Chalupa LM \| pages = 695–710 \| location = Cambridge, MA \| publisher = MIT Press }}</ref> The brain exploits this redundancy and condenses the information. For example, the leaves of a tree or blades of grass give rise to the percept of 'tree-ness' and 'lawn-ness'.<ref name="Haberman_2012">{{cite book \|last1=Haberman \|first1=Jason \|last2=Whitney \|first2=David\| name-list-style = vanc \| chapter = Ensemble Perception \|date = May 2012 \| title = From Perception to Consciousness \|pages=339–349 \|editor-last=Wolfe \|editor-first=Jeremy \|editor2-last=Robertson \|editor2-first=Lynn \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199734337.003.0030 \|isbn=978-0-19-973433-7}}</ref> It has been demonstrated that individuals have the ability to quickly and accurately encode ensembles of objects, like leaves on a tree, and gather summary statistical information (like the mean and variance) from groups of stimuli.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal\| vauthors = Alt NP, Goodale B, Lick DJ, Johnson KL \|date= March 2019 \|title=Threat in the Company of Men: Ensemble Perception and Threat Evaluations of Groups Varying in Sex Ratio\|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science\|volume=10 \|issue=2 \|pages=152–159 \|doi=10.1177/1948550617731498 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Alvarez GA \| title = Representing multiple objects as an ensemble enhances visual cognition \| language = en-US \| journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences \| volume = 15 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 122–31 \| date = March 2011 \| pmid = 21292539 \| doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.003 \| url = https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/41364280 }}</ref> Some research suggests that this process provides rough visual information from the entire [[visual field]], giving way to a complete and accurate picture of the visual world.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Chong SC, Treisman A \| title = Representation of statistical properties \| journal = Vision Research \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 393–404 \| date = February 2003 \| pmid = 12535996 \| doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5 }}</ref><ref name="Seeing the mean: ensemble coding fo">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Haberman J, Whitney D \| title = Seeing the mean: ensemble coding for sets of faces \| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance \| volume = 35 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 718–34 \| date = June 2009 \| pmid = 19485687 \| pmc = 2696629 \| doi = 10.1037/a0013899 }}</ref> Although the individual details of this accurate picture might be inaccessible, the 'gist' of the scene remains accessible.<ref name="Haberman_2012" /> Ensemble coding is an adaptive process that lightens the [[cognitive load]] in the processing and storing of visual representations through the use of [[heuristic]]s.<ref name="Seeing the mean: ensemble coding fo"/><ref name="Wolfe_2011">{{cite book \|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Kw9pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA339 \|title=From Perception to Consciousness: Searching with Anne Treisman \|last1=Wolfe \|first1=Jeremy \|last2=Robertson \|first2=Lynn \| name-list-style = vanc \|date= December 2011 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-990984-1\|language=en}}</ref>		Extensive amounts of information are available to the [[visual system]]. Ensemble coding is a theory that suggests that people process the general gist of their complex visual surroundings by grouping objects together based on shared properties. The world is filled with redundant information of which the human [[visual system]] has become particularly sensitive.<ref name="Whitney_2014" /><ref>{{cite book \| vauthors = Whitney D, Haberman J, Sweeny T \| date = 2014 \| chapter = From textures to crowds: multiple levels of summary statistical perception. \| title = In The New Visual Neuroscience \| veditors = Werner JS, Chalupa LM \| pages = 695–710 \| location = Cambridge, MA \| publisher = MIT Press }}</ref> The brain exploits this redundancy and condenses the information. For example, the leaves of a tree or blades of grass give rise to the percept of 'tree-ness' and 'lawn-ness'.<ref name="Haberman_2012">{{cite book \|last1=Haberman \|first1=Jason \|last2=Whitney \|first2=David\| name-list-style = vanc \| chapter = Ensemble Perception \|date = May 2012 \| title = From Perception to Consciousness \|pages=339–349 \|editor-last=Wolfe \|editor-first=Jeremy \|editor2-last=Robertson \|editor2-first=Lynn \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|doi=10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199734337.003.0030 \|isbn=978-0-19-973433-7}}</ref> It has been demonstrated that individuals have the ability to quickly and accurately encode ensembles of objects, like leaves on a tree, and gather summary statistical information (like the mean and variance) from groups of stimuli.<ref name=":5">{{cite journal\| vauthors = Alt NP, Goodale B, Lick DJ, Johnson KL \|date= March 2019 \|title=Threat in the Company of Men: Ensemble Perception and Threat Evaluations of Groups Varying in Sex Ratio\|journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science\|volume=10 \|issue=2 \|pages=152–159 \|doi=10.1177/1948550617731498 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Alvarez GA \| title = Representing multiple objects as an ensemble enhances visual cognition \| language = en-US \| journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences \| volume = 15 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 122–31 \| date = March 2011 \| pmid = 21292539 \| doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2011.01.003 \| url = https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/41364280 }}</ref> Some research suggests that this process provides rough visual information from the entire [[visual field]], giving way to a complete and accurate picture of the visual world.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Chong SC, Treisman A \| title = Representation of statistical properties \| journal = Vision Research \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 393–404 \| date = February 2003 \| pmid = 12535996 \| doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5 \| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Seeing the mean: ensemble coding fo">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Haberman J, Whitney D \| title = Seeing the mean: ensemble coding for sets of faces \| journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology. Human Perception and Performance \| volume = 35 \| issue = 3 \| pages = 718–34 \| date = June 2009 \| pmid = 19485687 \| pmc = 2696629 \| doi = 10.1037/a0013899 }}</ref> Although the individual details of this accurate picture might be inaccessible, the 'gist' of the scene remains accessible.<ref name="Haberman_2012" /> Ensemble coding is an adaptive process that lightens the [[cognitive load]] in the processing and storing of visual representations through the use of [[heuristic]]s.<ref name="Seeing the mean: ensemble coding fo"/><ref name="Wolfe_2011">{{cite book \|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Kw9pAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA339 \|title=From Perception to Consciousness: Searching with Anne Treisman \|last1=Wolfe \|first1=Jeremy \|last2=Robertson \|first2=Lynn \| name-list-style = vanc \|date= December 2011 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-990984-1\|language=en}}</ref>

	== Operational definition ==		== Operational definition ==
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	Findings by [[Dan Ariely]] in 2001 were the first data to support the modern theories of ensemble coding. Ariely used novel experimental paradigms, which he labeled "mean discrimination" and "member identification", to examine how sets of objects are perceived. He conducted three studies involving shape ensembles that varied in size. Across all studies, participants were able to accurately encode the mean size of the ensemble of objects, but they were inaccurate when asked if a certain object was a part of the set. Ariely's findings were the first that found statistical summary information emerge in the visual perception of grouped objects.<ref name="Ariely_2001">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Ariely D \| s2cid = 6435925 \| title = Seeing sets: representation by statistical properties \| journal = Psychological Science \| volume = 12 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 157–62 \| date = March 2001 \| pmid = 11340926 \| doi = 10.1111/1467-9280.00327 \| jstor = 40063604 }}</ref>		Findings by [[Dan Ariely]] in 2001 were the first data to support the modern theories of ensemble coding. Ariely used novel experimental paradigms, which he labeled "mean discrimination" and "member identification", to examine how sets of objects are perceived. He conducted three studies involving shape ensembles that varied in size. Across all studies, participants were able to accurately encode the mean size of the ensemble of objects, but they were inaccurate when asked if a certain object was a part of the set. Ariely's findings were the first that found statistical summary information emerge in the visual perception of grouped objects.<ref name="Ariely_2001">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Ariely D \| s2cid = 6435925 \| title = Seeing sets: representation by statistical properties \| journal = Psychological Science \| volume = 12 \| issue = 2 \| pages = 157–62 \| date = March 2001 \| pmid = 11340926 \| doi = 10.1111/1467-9280.00327 \| jstor = 40063604 }}</ref>

	Consistent with Ariely's findings,<ref name="Ariely_2001" /> follow-up research conducted by Sang Chul Chong and Anne Treisman in 2003 provided evidence that participants are engaging in summary statistical processes. Their research revealed that participant's maintained high accuracy in encoding the mean size of the stimuli even with short stimuli presentations as low as 50 milliseconds, memory delays, and object distribution differences.<ref name="Chong_2003">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Chong SC, Treisman A \| title = Representation of statistical properties \| journal = Vision Research \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 393–404 \| date = February 2003 \| pmid = 12535996 \| doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5 }}</ref>		Consistent with Ariely's findings,<ref name="Ariely_2001" /> follow-up research conducted by Sang Chul Chong and Anne Treisman in 2003 provided evidence that participants are engaging in summary statistical processes. Their research revealed that participant's maintained high accuracy in encoding the mean size of the stimuli even with short stimuli presentations as low as 50 milliseconds, memory delays, and object distribution differences.<ref name="Chong_2003">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Chong SC, Treisman A \| title = Representation of statistical properties \| journal = Vision Research \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 393–404 \| date = February 2003 \| pmid = 12535996 \| doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(02)00596-5 \| doi-access = free }}</ref>

	Additional research has demonstrated that ensemble coding is not limited to the mean size of objects in the ensemble,<ref name="Ariely_2001" /> but that additional content is extracted, such as average line orientation,<ref name="Dakin_1997">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Dakin SC, Watt RJ \| title = The computation of orientation statistics from visual texture \| journal = Vision Research \| volume = 37 \| issue = 22 \| pages = 3181–92 \| date = November 1997 \| pmid = 9463699 \| doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(97)00133-8 }}</ref> average spatial location,<ref name="Alvarez_2008">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Alvarez GA, Oliva A \| title = The representation of simple ensemble visual features outside the focus of attention \| journal = Psychological Science \| volume = 19 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 392–8 \| date = April 2008 \| pmid = 18399893 \| pmc = 2587223 \| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02098.x }}</ref> average number,<ref name="Halberda_2006">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Halberda J, Sires SF, Feigenson L \| title = Multiple spatially overlapping sets can be enumerated in parallel \| journal = Psychological Science \| volume = 17 \| issue = 7 \| pages = 572–6 \| date = July 2006 \| pmid = 16866741 \| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01746.x }}</ref> and statistical summaries such as the variances<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Solomon JA, Morgan M, Chubb C \| title = Efficiencies for the statistics of size discrimination \| journal = Journal of Vision \| volume = 11 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 13 \| date = October 2011 \| pmid = 22011381 \| pmc = 4135075 \| doi = 10.1167/11.12.13 }}</ref> are detected. Observers are also able to extract accurate perceptual summaries of high-level features such as the average direction of eye gaze of grouped faces<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sweeny\|first1=Timothy D.\|last2=Whitney\|first2=David\|date=October 2014\|title=Perceiving Crowd Attention: Ensemble Perception of a Crowd's Gaze\|journal=Psychological Science\|language=en\|volume=25\|issue=10\|pages=1903–1913\|doi=10.1177/0956797614544510\|issn=0956-7976\|pmc=4192023\|pmid=25125428}}</ref> and the average walking direction of a crowd.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sweeny\|first1=Timothy D.\|last2=Haroz\|first2=Steve\|last3=Whitney\|first3=David\|date=2013\|title=Perceiving group behavior: Sensitive ensemble coding mechanisms for biological motion of human crowds.\|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance\|language=en\|volume=39\|issue=2\|pages=329–337\|doi=10.1037/a0028712\|pmid=22708744\|issn=1939-1277}}</ref>		Additional research has demonstrated that ensemble coding is not limited to the mean size of objects in the ensemble,<ref name="Ariely_2001" /> but that additional content is extracted, such as average line orientation,<ref name="Dakin_1997">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Dakin SC, Watt RJ \| title = The computation of orientation statistics from visual texture \| journal = Vision Research \| volume = 37 \| issue = 22 \| pages = 3181–92 \| date = November 1997 \| pmid = 9463699 \| doi = 10.1016/S0042-6989(97)00133-8 \| doi-access = free }}</ref> average spatial location,<ref name="Alvarez_2008">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Alvarez GA, Oliva A \| title = The representation of simple ensemble visual features outside the focus of attention \| journal = Psychological Science \| volume = 19 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 392–8 \| date = April 2008 \| pmid = 18399893 \| pmc = 2587223 \| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02098.x }}</ref> average number,<ref name="Halberda_2006">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Halberda J, Sires SF, Feigenson L \| title = Multiple spatially overlapping sets can be enumerated in parallel \| journal = Psychological Science \| volume = 17 \| issue = 7 \| pages = 572–6 \| date = July 2006 \| pmid = 16866741 \| doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01746.x }}</ref> and statistical summaries such as the variances<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Solomon JA, Morgan M, Chubb C \| title = Efficiencies for the statistics of size discrimination \| journal = Journal of Vision \| volume = 11 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 13 \| date = October 2011 \| pmid = 22011381 \| pmc = 4135075 \| doi = 10.1167/11.12.13 }}</ref> are detected. Observers are also able to extract accurate perceptual summaries of high-level features such as the average direction of eye gaze of grouped faces<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sweeny\|first1=Timothy D.\|last2=Whitney\|first2=David\|date=October 2014\|title=Perceiving Crowd Attention: Ensemble Perception of a Crowd's Gaze\|journal=Psychological Science\|language=en\|volume=25\|issue=10\|pages=1903–1913\|doi=10.1177/0956797614544510\|issn=0956-7976\|pmc=4192023\|pmid=25125428}}</ref> and the average walking direction of a crowd.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sweeny\|first1=Timothy D.\|last2=Haroz\|first2=Steve\|last3=Whitney\|first3=David\|date=2013\|title=Perceiving group behavior: Sensitive ensemble coding mechanisms for biological motion of human crowds.\|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance\|language=en\|volume=39\|issue=2\|pages=329–337\|doi=10.1037/a0028712\|pmid=22708744\|issn=1939-1277}}</ref>

	== Levels of ensemble coding ==		== Levels of ensemble coding ==