Java Man - Revision history

Anthropophoca at 08:42, 4 June 2025

2025-06-04T08:42:06Z

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	[[Category:Homo erectus fossils]]		[[Category:Homo erectus fossils]]
	[[Category:Prehistoric Indonesia]]		[[Category:Prehistoric Indonesia]]
			[[Category:Fossils of Indonesia]]
	[[Category:Subspecies]]		[[Category:Subspecies]]
	[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1892]]		[[Category:Fossil taxa described in 1892]]

OAbot: Open access bot: url-access updated in citation with #oabot.

2025-05-23T13:10:59Z

Open access bot: url-access updated in citation with #oabot.

217.180.219.160: /* Control of fire */

2025-04-26T14:37:35Z

Control of fire

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:37, 26 April 2025
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	=== Control of fire ===		=== Control of fire ===
	The [[control of fire by early humans\|control of fire by ''Homo erectus'']] is generally accepted by archaeologists to have begun some 400,000 years ago,<ref name="James" /> with claims regarding earlier evidence finding increasing scientific support.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Evidence That Human Ancestors Used Fire One Million Years Ago \|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120402162548.htm \|access-date=2013-10-27 \|last=Luke \|first=Kim \|quote=An international team led by the University of Toronto and Hebrew University has identified the earliest known evidence of the use of fire by human ancestors. Microscopic traces of wood ash, alongside animal bones and stone tools, were found in a layer dated to one million years ago}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last=Miller \|first=Kenneth \|date=16 December 2013 \|title=Archaeologists Find Earliest Evidence of Humans Cooking With Fire \|work=Discover \|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2013/may/09-archaeologists-find-earliest-evidence-of-humans-cooking-with-fire#.UpHIM2tYCSN}}</ref> Burned wood has been found in layers that carried the Java Man fossils in [[Trinil]], dating to around from 500,000 to 830,000 BP. However, because Central Java is a volcanic region, the charring may have resulted from natural fires, and there is no conclusive proof that ''Homo erectus'' in Java controlled fire.<ref name="James">{{cite journal \|last=James \|first=Steven R. \|date=February 1989 \|title=Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene: A Review of the Evidence \|journal=Current Anthropology \|volume=30 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–26 \|url=http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/Publications/Hearths/Hominid%20Use%20of%20Fire%20in%20the%20Lower%20and%20Middle%20Pleistocene.pdf \|doi=10.1086/203705 \|s2cid=146473957 \|access-date=2012-04-04 \|archive-date=2015-12-12 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212084645/http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/Publications/Hearths/Hominid%20Use%20of%20Fire%20in%20the%20Lower%20and%20Middle%20Pleistocene.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref> It has been proposed that Java Man ~~was~~ ~~aware~~ of ~~the~~ ~~use~~ of ~~fire,~~<ref>{{cite book \|last=Alsberg \|first=Paul \|title=In Quest of Man: A Biological Approach to the Problem of Man's Place in Nature\|date=2013\|publisher=Elsevier\|isbn=9781483151557 \|page=149}}</ref> ~~and that the frequent presence of natural fires may have allowed Java Man "opportunistic use [... that] did not create an archeologically visible pattern".~~<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Roebroeksa \|first1=Wil \|last2=Villa \|first2=Paola \|title=On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\|volume=108\|issue=13 \|pages=5209–14 \|pmc=3069174\|year=2011\|pmid=21402905 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.1018116108 \|doi-access=free \|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.5209R}}</ref>		The [[control of fire by early humans\|control of fire by ''Homo erectus'']] is generally accepted by archaeologists to have begun some 400,000 years ago,<ref name="James" /> with claims regarding earlier evidence finding increasing scientific support.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Evidence That Human Ancestors Used Fire One Million Years Ago \|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120402162548.htm \|access-date=2013-10-27 \|last=Luke \|first=Kim \|quote=An international team led by the University of Toronto and Hebrew University has identified the earliest known evidence of the use of fire by human ancestors. Microscopic traces of wood ash, alongside animal bones and stone tools, were found in a layer dated to one million years ago}}</ref><ref>{{cite web \|last=Miller \|first=Kenneth \|date=16 December 2013 \|title=Archaeologists Find Earliest Evidence of Humans Cooking With Fire \|work=Discover \|url=http://discovermagazine.com/2013/may/09-archaeologists-find-earliest-evidence-of-humans-cooking-with-fire#.UpHIM2tYCSN}}</ref> Burned wood has been found in layers that carried the Java Man fossils in [[Trinil]], dating to around from 500,000 to 830,000 BP. However, because Central Java is a volcanic region, the charring may have resulted from natural fires, and there is no conclusive proof that ''Homo erectus'' in Java controlled fire.<ref name="James">{{cite journal \|last=James \|first=Steven R. \|date=February 1989 \|title=Hominid Use of Fire in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene: A Review of the Evidence \|journal=Current Anthropology \|volume=30 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–26 \|url=http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/Publications/Hearths/Hominid%20Use%20of%20Fire%20in%20the%20Lower%20and%20Middle%20Pleistocene.pdf \|doi=10.1086/203705 \|s2cid=146473957 \|access-date=2012-04-04 \|archive-date=2015-12-12 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212084645/http://faculty.ksu.edu.sa/archaeology/Publications/Hearths/Hominid%20Use%20of%20Fire%20in%20the%20Lower%20and%20Middle%20Pleistocene.pdf \|url-status=dead }}</ref> It has been proposed that frequent natural fires may have allowed Java Man "opportunistic use [... that] did not create an archeologically visible pattern".<ref>{{cite book \|last=Alsberg \|first=Paul \|title=In Quest of Man: A Biological Approach to the Problem of Man's Place in Nature \|date=2013 \|publisher=Elsevier \|isbn=9781483151557 \|page=149}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Roebroeksa \|first1=Wil \|last2=Villa \|first2=Paola \|title=On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe \|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\|volume=108\|issue=13 \|pages=5209–14 \|pmc=3069174\|year=2011\|pmid=21402905 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.1018116108 \|doi-access=free \|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.5209R}}</ref>

	==See also==		==See also==

69.1.198.17 at 12:04, 19 April 2025

2025-04-19T12:04:18Z

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	{{Good article}}		{{Good article}}
	{{Subspeciesbox		{{Subspeciesbox
	\| fossil_range = {{~~Geological~~ range~~/linked~~\|~~Pleistocene~~}}		\| fossil_range = {{Fossil range\|1.49\|0.7}}[[Pleistocene]]
	\| image = Pithecanthropus_erectus-PeterMaas_Naturalis.jpg		\| image = Pithecanthropus_erectus-PeterMaas_Naturalis.jpg
	\| image_caption = The [[syntype]] fossils of Java Man (''H. e. erectus''), at [[Naturalis]], [[Leiden]]		\| image_caption = The [[syntype]] fossils of Java Man (''H. e. erectus''), at [[Naturalis]], [[Leiden]]

Ira Leviton: Fixed a reference. Please see Category:CS1 errors: dates.

2025-04-18T22:20:57Z

Fixed a reference. Please see Category:CS1 errors: dates.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 22:20, 18 April 2025
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	}}		}}

	'''Java Man''' ('''''Homo erectus erectus''''', formerly also '''''Anthropopithecus erectus''' or'' '''''Pithecanthropus erectus''''') is an [[early human]] fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of [[Java]] (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old<ref>{{Cite book \|last=~~Dr.~~ Uetrakulwit \|first=~~Dr.~~ Prasit Uetrakulwit \|title=Basic History 2008 For students ~~\|date=2008/??/??~~ \|publisher=Aimphan press co. Ltd. \|year=2020 \|isbn=~~ISBN~~ 978 616 07 1454 4 \|edition=1st \|location=Nonthaburi Province, Thailand, Pak Kret District, Ban Mai Subdistrict, Phra Mae Karun Alley \|language=Thai}}</ref>, it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest [[hominid]] fossil ever found, and it remains the [[type specimen]] for ''[[Homo erectus]]''.		'''Java Man''' ('''''Homo erectus erectus''''', formerly also '''''Anthropopithecus erectus''' or'' '''''Pithecanthropus erectus''''') is an [[early human]] fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of [[Java]] (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old,<ref>{{Cite book \|last= Uetrakulwit \|first=Prasit Uetrakulwit \|title=Basic History 2008 For students \|publisher=Aimphan press co. Ltd. \|year=2020 \|isbn=978-616-07-1454-4 \|edition=1st \|location=Nonthaburi Province, Thailand, Pak Kret District, Ban Mai Subdistrict, Phra Mae Karun Alley \|language=Thai}}</ref> it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest [[hominid]] fossil ever found, and it remains the [[type specimen]] for ''[[Homo erectus]]''.

	Led by [[Eugène Dubois]], the excavation team uncovered a [[tooth]], a [[Calvaria (skull)\|skullcap]], and a [[femur\|thighbone]] at [[Trinil]] on the banks of the [[Solo River]] in [[East Java]]. Arguing that the fossils represented the "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links\|missing link]]" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the [[scientific name]] ''[[Anthropopithecus]] erectus'', then later renamed it ''Pithecanthropus erectus''. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a [[Transitional fossil\|transitional form]] between apes and humans.{{Sfn\|Swisher\|Curtis\|Lewin\|2000\|p=70}} Some dismissed the fossils as [[ape]]s and others as [[Anatomically modern humans\|modern human]]s, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that ''Pithecanthropus'' was built like a "giant [[gibbon]]", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between Java Man and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' ([[Peking Man]]) led [[Ernst Mayr]] to rename both ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in 1950, placing them directly in the human [[Phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].		Led by [[Eugène Dubois]], the excavation team uncovered a [[tooth]], a [[Calvaria (skull)\|skullcap]], and a [[femur\|thighbone]] at [[Trinil]] on the banks of the [[Solo River]] in [[East Java]]. Arguing that the fossils represented the "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links\|missing link]]" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the [[scientific name]] ''[[Anthropopithecus]] erectus'', then later renamed it ''Pithecanthropus erectus''. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a [[Transitional fossil\|transitional form]] between apes and humans.{{Sfn\|Swisher\|Curtis\|Lewin\|2000\|p=70}} Some dismissed the fossils as [[ape]]s and others as [[Anatomically modern humans\|modern human]]s, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that ''Pithecanthropus'' was built like a "giant [[gibbon]]", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between Java Man and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' ([[Peking Man]]) led [[Ernst Mayr]] to rename both ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in 1950, placing them directly in the human [[Phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].

Citation bot: Add: chapter, bibcode. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Jay8g | Category:CS1 errors: dates | #UCB_Category 176/315

2025-04-18T00:48:40Z

Add: chapter, bibcode. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Jay8g | Category:CS1 errors: dates | #UCB_Category 176/315

← Previous revision		Revision as of 00:48, 18 April 2025
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	Java Man was about {{convert\|5\|ft\|8\|in\|cm\|abbr=on\|order=flip}} tall and his thighbones show that he [[walking\|walked erect]] like modern humans.<ref name="EB"/> The femur is thicker than that of a modern human, indicating he was engaging in a lot of running.<ref name="Athena"/> The skull was characterized by thick bones and a retreating forehead. The large teeth made the jaw large and jutting, with the lower lips overhanging the lower margin of the mandible, giving the impression of no chin. The [[supraorbital ridge\|browridges]] were straight and massive. At 900 cm<sup>3</sup>, his [[Brain size\|cranial capacity]] was smaller than that of later ''H. erectus'' specimens. However, he had humanlike teeth with large canines.<ref name="EB"/>		Java Man was about {{convert\|5\|ft\|8\|in\|cm\|abbr=on\|order=flip}} tall and his thighbones show that he [[walking\|walked erect]] like modern humans.<ref name="EB"/> The femur is thicker than that of a modern human, indicating he was engaging in a lot of running.<ref name="Athena"/> The skull was characterized by thick bones and a retreating forehead. The large teeth made the jaw large and jutting, with the lower lips overhanging the lower margin of the mandible, giving the impression of no chin. The [[supraorbital ridge\|browridges]] were straight and massive. At 900 cm<sup>3</sup>, his [[Brain size\|cranial capacity]] was smaller than that of later ''H. erectus'' specimens. However, he had humanlike teeth with large canines.<ref name="EB"/>

	Judging from anatomical and archeological aspects as well as Java Man's ecological role, meat from vertebrates was likely an important part of their diet. Java Man, like other ''Homo erectus'', was probably a rare species.<ref>{{cite journal\|last=Storm \|first=Paul \|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251700566 \|title=A carnivorous niche for Java Man? A preliminary consideration of the abundance of fossils in Middle Pleistocene Java \|journal=[[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences\|Comptes Rendus Palevol]] \|volume=11 \|issue=2–3 \|year=2012 \|pages=191–202 \|doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2011.04.002}}</ref> There is evidence that Java Man used shell tools to cut meat.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Choi \|first1=Kildo \|first2=Dubel \|last2=Driwantoro \|title=Shell tool use by early members of ''Homo erectus'' in Sangiran, central Java, Indonesia: cut mark evidence \|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science \|volume=34 \|issue=1 \|date=January 2007 \|pages=48–58 \|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.03.013}}</ref> Java Man's dispersal through Southeast Asia coincides with the extirpation of the giant turtle ''[[Megalochelys]]'', possibly due to overhunting as the turtle would have been an easy, slow-moving target which could have been stored for quite some time.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book\|url=http://www.iucn-tftsg.org/cbftt/\|title=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises\|date=2015-04-16\|publisher=Chelonian Research Foundation\|isbn=978-0-9653540-9-7\|editor-last=Rhodin\|editor-first=Anders\|edition=First\|series=Chelonian Research Monographs\|volume=5\|doi=10.3854/crm.5.000e.fossil.checklist.v1.2015\|editor-last2=Pritchard\|editor-first2=Peter\|editor-last3=van Dijk\|editor-first3=Peter Paul\|editor-last4=Saumure\|editor-first4=Raymond\|editor-last5=Buhlmann\|editor-first5=Kurt\|editor-last6=Iverson\|editor-first6=John\|editor-last7=Mittermeier\|editor-first7=Russell\|page=15}}</ref>		Judging from anatomical and archeological aspects as well as Java Man's ecological role, meat from vertebrates was likely an important part of their diet. Java Man, like other ''Homo erectus'', was probably a rare species.<ref>{{cite journal\|last=Storm \|first=Paul \|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251700566 \|title=A carnivorous niche for Java Man? A preliminary consideration of the abundance of fossils in Middle Pleistocene Java \|journal=[[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences\|Comptes Rendus Palevol]] \|volume=11 \|issue=2–3 \|year=2012 \|pages=191–202 \|doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2011.04.002\|bibcode=2012CRPal..11..191S }}</ref> There is evidence that Java Man used shell tools to cut meat.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Choi \|first1=Kildo \|first2=Dubel \|last2=Driwantoro \|title=Shell tool use by early members of ''Homo erectus'' in Sangiran, central Java, Indonesia: cut mark evidence \|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science \|volume=34 \|issue=1 \|date=January 2007 \|pages=48–58 \|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.03.013\|bibcode=2007JArSc..34...48C }}</ref> Java Man's dispersal through Southeast Asia coincides with the extirpation of the giant turtle ''[[Megalochelys]]'', possibly due to overhunting as the turtle would have been an easy, slow-moving target which could have been stored for quite some time.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book\|url=http://www.iucn-tftsg.org/cbftt/\|title=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises\|chapter=Turtles and Tortoises of the World During the Rise and Global Spread of Humanity: First Checklist and Review of Extinct Pleistocene and Holocene Chelonians \|date=2015-04-16\|publisher=Chelonian Research Foundation\|isbn=978-0-9653540-9-7\|editor-last=Rhodin\|editor-first=Anders\|edition=First\|series=Chelonian Research Monographs\|volume=5\|doi=10.3854/crm.5.000e.fossil.checklist.v1.2015\|editor-last2=Pritchard\|editor-first2=Peter\|editor-last3=van Dijk\|editor-first3=Peter Paul\|editor-last4=Saumure\|editor-first4=Raymond\|editor-last5=Buhlmann\|editor-first5=Kurt\|editor-last6=Iverson\|editor-first6=John\|editor-last7=Mittermeier\|editor-first7=Russell\|page=15}}</ref>

	== Material culture ==		== Material culture ==
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	* {{Citation\|last=Gould\|first=Stephen Jay.\|author-link=Stephen Jay Gould\|year=1993\|title=Eight Little Piggies: Reflections in Natural History\|location=New York and London\|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company \|url=https://archive.org/details/eightlittlepiggi00goul\|isbn=978-0-393-03416-5}}.		* {{Citation\|last=Gould\|first=Stephen Jay.\|author-link=Stephen Jay Gould\|year=1993\|title=Eight Little Piggies: Reflections in Natural History\|location=New York and London\|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company \|url=https://archive.org/details/eightlittlepiggi00goul\|isbn=978-0-393-03416-5}}.
	* {{Citation\|last1=Hetherington\|first1=Renée\|last2=Reid\|first2=Robert G. B.\|year=2010\|title=The Climate Connection: Climate Change and Modern Human Evolution\|location=Cambridge and New York\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAja8FTPF6QC\|isbn=978-0-521-19770-0}}. {{ISBN\|978-0-521-14723-1}} (paperback).		* {{Citation\|last1=Hetherington\|first1=Renée\|last2=Reid\|first2=Robert G. B.\|year=2010\|title=The Climate Connection: Climate Change and Modern Human Evolution\|location=Cambridge and New York\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAja8FTPF6QC\|isbn=978-0-521-19770-0}}. {{ISBN\|978-0-521-14723-1}} (paperback).
	* {{citation\|last1=Huffman\|first1=O. Frank\|first2=Y.\|last2=Zaim\|first3=J.\|last3=Kappelman\|first4=D. R. Jr. \|last4=Ruez \|first5=J. \|last5=de Vos \|first6=Y. \|display-authors=et al. \|last6=Rizal \|year=2006 \|title=Relocation of the 1936 Mojokerto skull discovery site near Perning, East Java\|journal=Journal of Human Evolution\|volume=50\|issue=4 \|pages=431–51\|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.11.002 \|ref={{harvid\|Huffman et al.\|2006}} \|pmid=16386780 \|citeseerx=10.1.1.468.1840 }}.		* {{citation\|last1=Huffman\|first1=O. Frank\|first2=Y.\|last2=Zaim\|first3=J.\|last3=Kappelman\|first4=D. R. Jr. \|last4=Ruez \|first5=J. \|last5=de Vos \|first6=Y. \|display-authors=et al. \|last6=Rizal \|year=2006 \|title=Relocation of the 1936 Mojokerto skull discovery site near Perning, East Java\|journal=Journal of Human Evolution\|volume=50\|issue=4 \|pages=431–51\|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.11.002 \|ref={{harvid\|Huffman et al.\|2006}} \|pmid=16386780 \|bibcode=2006JHumE..50..431H \|citeseerx=10.1.1.468.1840 }}.
	* {{citation\|author=Kaifu, Yousuke \|author2=Indriati, Etty \|author3=Aziz, Fachroel \|author4=Kurniawan, Iwan \|author5=Baba, Hisao \|year=2010\|chapter=Cranial Morphology and Variation of the Earliest Indonesian Hominids \|title=Asian Paleoanthropology: From Africa to China and Beyond\|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series\|editor=Christopher J. Norton \|editor2=David R. Braun\|location=Dordrecht \|publisher=Springer\|pages=143–57\|isbn=978-90-481-9093-5\|id=(online) \|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9094-2_11\|ref={{harvid\|Kaifu et al.\|2010}}}}		* {{citation\|author=Kaifu, Yousuke \|author2=Indriati, Etty \|author3=Aziz, Fachroel \|author4=Kurniawan, Iwan \|author5=Baba, Hisao \|year=2010\|chapter=Cranial Morphology and Variation of the Earliest Indonesian Hominids \|title=Asian Paleoanthropology: From Africa to China and Beyond\|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series\|editor=Christopher J. Norton \|editor2=David R. Braun\|location=Dordrecht \|publisher=Springer\|pages=143–57\|isbn=978-90-481-9093-5\|id=(online) \|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9094-2_11\|ref={{harvid\|Kaifu et al.\|2010}}}}
	* {{citation\|last=Mayr\|first=Ernst. \|year=1950\|author-link=Ernst Mayr\|title=Taxonomic Categories in Fossil Hominids\|journal=Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology\|volume=15\|pages=109–18 \|doi=10.1101/sqb.1950.015.01.013 \|pmid=14942702 }}.		* {{citation\|last=Mayr\|first=Ernst. \|year=1950\|author-link=Ernst Mayr\|title=Taxonomic Categories in Fossil Hominids\|journal=Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology\|volume=15\|pages=109–18 \|doi=10.1101/sqb.1950.015.01.013 \|pmid=14942702 }}.

History012 at 14:48, 17 April 2025

2025-04-17T14:48:01Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:48, 17 April 2025
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	'''Java Man''' ('''''Homo erectus erectus''''', formerly also '''''Anthropopithecus erectus''' or'' '''''Pithecanthropus erectus''''') is an [[early human]] fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of [[Java]] (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old, it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest [[hominid]] fossil ever found, and it remains the [[type specimen]] for ''[[Homo erectus]]''.		'''Java Man''' ('''''Homo erectus erectus''''', formerly also '''''Anthropopithecus erectus''' or'' '''''Pithecanthropus erectus''''') is an [[early human]] fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of [[Java]] (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old<ref>{{Cite book \|last=Dr. Uetrakulwit \|first=Dr. Prasit Uetrakulwit \|title=Basic History 2008 For students \|date=2008/??/?? \|publisher=Aimphan press co. Ltd. \|year=2020 \|isbn=ISBN 978 616 07 1454 4 \|edition=1st \|location=Nonthaburi Province, Thailand, Pak Kret District, Ban Mai Subdistrict, Phra Mae Karun Alley \|language=Thai}}</ref>, it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest [[hominid]] fossil ever found, and it remains the [[type specimen]] for ''[[Homo erectus]]''.

	Led by [[Eugène Dubois]], the excavation team uncovered a [[tooth]], a [[Calvaria (skull)\|skullcap]], and a [[femur\|thighbone]] at [[Trinil]] on the banks of the [[Solo River]] in [[East Java]]. Arguing that the fossils represented the "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links\|missing link]]" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the [[scientific name]] ''[[Anthropopithecus]] erectus'', then later renamed it ''Pithecanthropus erectus''. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a [[Transitional fossil\|transitional form]] between apes and humans.{{Sfn\|Swisher\|Curtis\|Lewin\|2000\|p=70}} Some dismissed the fossils as [[ape]]s and others as [[Anatomically modern humans\|modern human]]s, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that ''Pithecanthropus'' was built like a "giant [[gibbon]]", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between Java Man and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' ([[Peking Man]]) led [[Ernst Mayr]] to rename both ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in 1950, placing them directly in the human [[Phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].		Led by [[Eugène Dubois]], the excavation team uncovered a [[tooth]], a [[Calvaria (skull)\|skullcap]], and a [[femur\|thighbone]] at [[Trinil]] on the banks of the [[Solo River]] in [[East Java]]. Arguing that the fossils represented the "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links\|missing link]]" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the [[scientific name]] ''[[Anthropopithecus]] erectus'', then later renamed it ''Pithecanthropus erectus''. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a [[Transitional fossil\|transitional form]] between apes and humans.{{Sfn\|Swisher\|Curtis\|Lewin\|2000\|p=70}} Some dismissed the fossils as [[ape]]s and others as [[Anatomically modern humans\|modern human]]s, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that ''Pithecanthropus'' was built like a "giant [[gibbon]]", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between Java Man and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' ([[Peking Man]]) led [[Ernst Mayr]] to rename both ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in 1950, placing them directly in the human [[Phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].

Steel1943: /* Reclassification as ''Homo erectus'' */ fix common MOS:REFSPACE spacing errors, replaced: {{sfn| → {{sfn|

2025-03-20T00:48:30Z

Reclassification as ''Homo erectus'': fix common MOS:REFSPACE spacing errors, replaced: {{sfn| → {{sfn|

← Previous revision		Revision as of 00:48, 20 March 2025
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	===Reclassification as ''Homo erectus''===		===Reclassification as ''Homo erectus''===
	{{further\|Homo erectus}}		{{further\|Homo erectus}}
	Based on Weidenreich's work and on his suggestion that ''Pithecanthropus erectus'' and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' were connected through a series of [[interbreeding]] populations, German biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] reclassified them both as being part of the same species: ''[[Homo erectus]]''. {{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon \|2004\|pp=66–67}} Mayr presented his conclusion at the [[Cold Spring Harbor Symposium]] in 1950,{{sfn\|Schmalzer\|2008\|p=98. The original paper is {{harvnb\|Mayr\|1950}}}} and this resulted in Dubois's ''erectus'' species being reclassified under the [[genus]] ''Homo''. As part of the reclassification, Mayr included not only ''Sinanthropus'' and ''Pithecanthropus'', but also ''Plesianthropus'', ''Paranthropus'', ''Javanthropus'', and several other genera as [[Synonym (taxonomy)\|synonyms]], arguing that all human ancestors were part of a single genus (''Homo''), and that "never one more than one species of man existed on the earth at any one time".{{sfn\|Delisle\|2007\|p=298, citing Mayr's 1950 paper}} A "revolution in taxonomy", Mayr's single-species approach to human evolution was quickly accepted.{{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon\|2004 \|p=67}} It shaped [[paleoanthropology]] in the 1950s and lasted into the 1970s, when the African genus ''[[Australopithecus]]'' was accepted into the human [[phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Schmalzer\|1y=2008\|1p=98 ["the "single-species" thesis to which he was committed became the theoretical foundation for paleoanthropology for years to come"]\|2a1=Boaz\|2a2=Ciochon\|2y=2004\|2p=67 ["was to sweep anthropology in the 1950s" ... "Thus was born the single-species hypothesis, a powerful model that endured until the late 1970s when fossil discoveries in Africa disproved it, at least for the early part of the hominid fossil record"]}}		Based on Weidenreich's work and on his suggestion that ''Pithecanthropus erectus'' and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' were connected through a series of [[interbreeding]] populations, German biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] reclassified them both as being part of the same species: ''[[Homo erectus]]''.{{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon \|2004\|pp=66–67}} Mayr presented his conclusion at the [[Cold Spring Harbor Symposium]] in 1950,{{sfn\|Schmalzer\|2008\|p=98. The original paper is {{harvnb\|Mayr\|1950}}}} and this resulted in Dubois's ''erectus'' species being reclassified under the [[genus]] ''Homo''. As part of the reclassification, Mayr included not only ''Sinanthropus'' and ''Pithecanthropus'', but also ''Plesianthropus'', ''Paranthropus'', ''Javanthropus'', and several other genera as [[Synonym (taxonomy)\|synonyms]], arguing that all human ancestors were part of a single genus (''Homo''), and that "never one more than one species of man existed on the earth at any one time".{{sfn\|Delisle\|2007\|p=298, citing Mayr's 1950 paper}} A "revolution in taxonomy", Mayr's single-species approach to human evolution was quickly accepted.{{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon\|2004 \|p=67}} It shaped [[paleoanthropology]] in the 1950s and lasted into the 1970s, when the African genus ''[[Australopithecus]]'' was accepted into the human [[phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Schmalzer\|1y=2008\|1p=98 ["the "single-species" thesis to which he was committed became the theoretical foundation for paleoanthropology for years to come"]\|2a1=Boaz\|2a2=Ciochon\|2y=2004\|2p=67 ["was to sweep anthropology in the 1950s" ... "Thus was born the single-species hypothesis, a powerful model that endured until the late 1970s when fossil discoveries in Africa disproved it, at least for the early part of the hominid fossil record"]}}

	In the 1970s, a tendency developed to regard the Javanese variety of ''H. erectus'' as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', with the Chinese variety being referred to as ''Homo erectus pekinensis''.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Sartono \|first=S. \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejsyIZMsC9oC&pg=PA327 \|chapter=Implications arising from Pithecanthropus VIII\|title=Paleoanthropology: Morphology and Paleoecology \|editor=Russell H. Tuttle \|publisher=Mouton & Co. \|date=1975 \|isbn=978-90-279-7699-4 \|page=328}}</ref>		In the 1970s, a tendency developed to regard the Javanese variety of ''H. erectus'' as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', with the Chinese variety being referred to as ''Homo erectus pekinensis''.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Sartono \|first=S. \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejsyIZMsC9oC&pg=PA327 \|chapter=Implications arising from Pithecanthropus VIII\|title=Paleoanthropology: Morphology and Paleoecology \|editor=Russell H. Tuttle \|publisher=Mouton & Co. \|date=1975 \|isbn=978-90-279-7699-4 \|page=328}}</ref>

Ictinos4: small formatting edits

2025-02-12T15:40:53Z

small formatting edits

← Previous revision		Revision as of 15:40, 12 February 2025
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	Based on Weidenreich's work and on his suggestion that ''Pithecanthropus erectus'' and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' were connected through a series of [[interbreeding]] populations, German biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] reclassified them both as being part of the same species: ''[[Homo erectus]]''. {{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon \|2004\|pp=66–67}} Mayr presented his conclusion at the [[Cold Spring Harbor Symposium]] in 1950,{{sfn\|Schmalzer\|2008\|p=98. The original paper is {{harvnb\|Mayr\|1950}}}} and this resulted in Dubois's ''erectus'' species being reclassified under the [[genus]] ''Homo''. As part of the reclassification, Mayr included not only ''Sinanthropus'' and ''Pithecanthropus'', but also ''Plesianthropus'', ''Paranthropus'', ''Javanthropus'', and several other genera as [[Synonym (taxonomy)\|synonyms]], arguing that all human ancestors were part of a single genus (''Homo''), and that "never one more than one species of man existed on the earth at any one time".{{sfn\|Delisle\|2007\|p=298, citing Mayr's 1950 paper}} A "revolution in taxonomy", Mayr's single-species approach to human evolution was quickly accepted.{{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon\|2004 \|p=67}} It shaped [[paleoanthropology]] in the 1950s and lasted into the 1970s, when the African genus ''[[Australopithecus]]'' was accepted into the human [[phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Schmalzer\|1y=2008\|1p=98 ["the "single-species" thesis to which he was committed became the theoretical foundation for paleoanthropology for years to come"]\|2a1=Boaz\|2a2=Ciochon\|2y=2004\|2p=67 ["was to sweep anthropology in the 1950s" ... "Thus was born the single-species hypothesis, a powerful model that endured until the late 1970s when fossil discoveries in Africa disproved it, at least for the early part of the hominid fossil record"]}}		Based on Weidenreich's work and on his suggestion that ''Pithecanthropus erectus'' and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' were connected through a series of [[interbreeding]] populations, German biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] reclassified them both as being part of the same species: ''[[Homo erectus]]''. {{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon \|2004\|pp=66–67}} Mayr presented his conclusion at the [[Cold Spring Harbor Symposium]] in 1950,{{sfn\|Schmalzer\|2008\|p=98. The original paper is {{harvnb\|Mayr\|1950}}}} and this resulted in Dubois's ''erectus'' species being reclassified under the [[genus]] ''Homo''. As part of the reclassification, Mayr included not only ''Sinanthropus'' and ''Pithecanthropus'', but also ''Plesianthropus'', ''Paranthropus'', ''Javanthropus'', and several other genera as [[Synonym (taxonomy)\|synonyms]], arguing that all human ancestors were part of a single genus (''Homo''), and that "never one more than one species of man existed on the earth at any one time".{{sfn\|Delisle\|2007\|p=298, citing Mayr's 1950 paper}} A "revolution in taxonomy", Mayr's single-species approach to human evolution was quickly accepted.{{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon\|2004 \|p=67}} It shaped [[paleoanthropology]] in the 1950s and lasted into the 1970s, when the African genus ''[[Australopithecus]]'' was accepted into the human [[phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Schmalzer\|1y=2008\|1p=98 ["the "single-species" thesis to which he was committed became the theoretical foundation for paleoanthropology for years to come"]\|2a1=Boaz\|2a2=Ciochon\|2y=2004\|2p=67 ["was to sweep anthropology in the 1950s" ... "Thus was born the single-species hypothesis, a powerful model that endured until the late 1970s when fossil discoveries in Africa disproved it, at least for the early part of the hominid fossil record"]}}

	In the 1970s a tendency developed to regard the Javanese variety of ''H. erectus'' as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', with the Chinese variety being referred to as ''Homo erectus pekinensis''.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Sartono \|first=S. \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejsyIZMsC9oC&pg=PA327 \|chapter=Implications arising from Pithecanthropus VIII\|title=Paleoanthropology: Morphology and Paleoecology \|editor=Russell H. Tuttle \|publisher=Mouton & Co. \|date=1975 \|isbn=978-90-279-7699-4 \|page=328}}</ref>		In the 1970s, a tendency developed to regard the Javanese variety of ''H. erectus'' as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', with the Chinese variety being referred to as ''Homo erectus pekinensis''.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Sartono \|first=S. \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejsyIZMsC9oC&pg=PA327 \|chapter=Implications arising from Pithecanthropus VIII\|title=Paleoanthropology: Morphology and Paleoecology \|editor=Russell H. Tuttle \|publisher=Mouton & Co. \|date=1975 \|isbn=978-90-279-7699-4 \|page=328}}</ref>

	==Post-discovery analysis==		==Post-discovery analysis==
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	Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}		Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}

	Though this view is still widely accepted, in the 1980s a group of Dutch [[paleontology\|paleontologists]] used Dubois's collection of more than 20,000 animal fossils to reassess the date of the layer in which Java Man was found.{{sfn\|Kaifu et al.\|2010\|p=145}} Using only fossils from Trinil, they called that new faunal assemblage the [[Trinil H. K. Fauna]], in which H. K. stands for ''Haupt Knochenschicht'', or "main fossil-bearing layer".{{sfnm\|1a1=de Vos\|1y=2004\|1pp=275–76 [explanation of the Trinil H. K. Fauna]\|2a1=Zaim\|2y=2010 \|2p=103 [Trinil H. K. Fauna, citing {{harvnb\|de Vos et al.\|1982}} and {{harvnb\|de Vos\|Sondaar\|1994}}]}} This assessment dates the fossils of Java Man to between 900,000 and 1,000,000 years old.{{sfn\|Dennell\|2010 \|p=155}} On the other hand, work published in 2014 gives a "maximum age of 0.54 ± 0.10 million years and a minimum age of 0.43 ± 0.05 million years" for Ar-Ar and luminescence dating of sediment in human-predated shell material from Trinil.<ref>{{cite journal \|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving \|last=Joordens \|first=J. C. A. \|display-authors=et al.<!--Josephine C A Joordens, Francesco d'Errico, Frank P Wesselingh, Stephen Munro, John de Vos, Jakob Wallinga, Christina Ankjærgaard, Tony Reimann, Jan R Wijbrans, Klaudia F Kuiper, Herman J Mücher, Hélène Coqueugniot, Vincent Prié, Ineke Joosten, Bertil van Os, Anne S Schulp, Michel Panuel, Victoria van der Haas, Wim Lustenhouwer, John J G Reijmer, Wil Roebroeks--> \|orig-year= Epub: 2014 Dec 3 \|journal=Nature \|date=2015-02-12 \|volume=518 \|issue=7538 \|pages=228–31 \|pmid=25470048 \|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J \|s2cid=4461751 }}</ref> Work continues on assessing the dating of this complex site.		Though this view is still widely accepted, in the 1980s, a group of Dutch [[paleontology\|paleontologists]] used Dubois's collection of more than 20,000 animal fossils to reassess the date of the layer in which Java Man was found.{{sfn\|Kaifu et al.\|2010\|p=145}} Using only fossils from Trinil, they called that new faunal assemblage the [[Trinil H. K. Fauna]], in which H. K. stands for ''Haupt Knochenschicht'', or "main fossil-bearing layer".{{sfnm\|1a1=de Vos\|1y=2004\|1pp=275–76 [explanation of the Trinil H. K. Fauna]\|2a1=Zaim\|2y=2010 \|2p=103 [Trinil H. K. Fauna, citing {{harvnb\|de Vos et al.\|1982}} and {{harvnb\|de Vos\|Sondaar\|1994}}]}} This assessment dates the fossils of Java Man to between 900,000 and 1,000,000 years old.{{sfn\|Dennell\|2010 \|p=155}} On the other hand, work published in 2014 gives a "maximum age of 0.54 ± 0.10 million years and a minimum age of 0.43 ± 0.05 million years" for Ar-Ar and luminescence dating of sediment in human-predated shell material from Trinil.<ref>{{cite journal \|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving \|last=Joordens \|first=J. C. A. \|display-authors=et al.<!--Josephine C A Joordens, Francesco d'Errico, Frank P Wesselingh, Stephen Munro, John de Vos, Jakob Wallinga, Christina Ankjærgaard, Tony Reimann, Jan R Wijbrans, Klaudia F Kuiper, Herman J Mücher, Hélène Coqueugniot, Vincent Prié, Ineke Joosten, Bertil van Os, Anne S Schulp, Michel Panuel, Victoria van der Haas, Wim Lustenhouwer, John J G Reijmer, Wil Roebroeks--> \|orig-year= Epub: 2014 Dec 3 \|journal=Nature \|date=2015-02-12 \|volume=518 \|issue=7538 \|pages=228–31 \|pmid=25470048 \|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J \|s2cid=4461751 }}</ref> Work continues on assessing the dating of this complex site.

	Other fossils attest to the even earlier presence of ''H. erectus'' in Java. [[Sangiran 2]] (named after [[Sangiran\|its discovery site]]) may be as old as 1.66 [[Megaannum\|Ma]] (million years). The controversial [[Mojokerto child]], which Carl C. Swisher and [[Garniss Curtis]] once dated to 1.81 ± 0.04 Ma, has now been convincingly re-dated to a maximum age of 1.49 ± 0.13 Ma, that is, 1.49 million years with a margin of error of plus or minus 130,000 years.{{sfnm\|Dennell\|2009\|1p=155 ["The maximum age of this specimen is thus 1.49 million years, and not 1.81 million years, as implied by {{harvnb\|Swisher et al.\|1994}}"]\|Ciochon\|2010\|2p=112 ["As the relocated discovery bed proved to be ~20 m above the horizon that {{harvnb\|Swisher et al.\|1994}} dated, the skull is certainly younger than had been previously reported" ({{harvnb\|Huffman et al.\|2006}})"]\|Rabett\|2012\|3p=26 ["the 1994 estimate of its age has now been credibly refuted ({{harvnb\|Huffman et al.\|2006}})"]\|4a1=Dennell\|4y=2010\|4p=266 ["the recent re-discovery of the precise provenance of the Mojokerto cranium that is now dated to a maximum of 1.49 Ma ({{harvnb\|Morwood et al.\|2003}}) clarifies long-standing uncertainties over the age of this important specimen"]}}		Other fossils attest to the even earlier presence of ''H. erectus'' in Java. [[Sangiran 2]] (named after [[Sangiran\|its discovery site]]) may be as old as 1.66 [[Megaannum\|Ma]] (million years). The controversial [[Mojokerto child]], which Carl C. Swisher and [[Garniss Curtis]] once dated to 1.81 ± 0.04 Ma, has now been convincingly re-dated to a maximum age of 1.49 ± 0.13 Ma, that is, 1.49 million years with a margin of error of plus or minus 130,000 years.{{sfnm\|Dennell\|2009\|1p=155 ["The maximum age of this specimen is thus 1.49 million years, and not 1.81 million years, as implied by {{harvnb\|Swisher et al.\|1994}}"]\|Ciochon\|2010\|2p=112 ["As the relocated discovery bed proved to be ~20 m above the horizon that {{harvnb\|Swisher et al.\|1994}} dated, the skull is certainly younger than had been previously reported" ({{harvnb\|Huffman et al.\|2006}})"]\|Rabett\|2012\|3p=26 ["the 1994 estimate of its age has now been credibly refuted ({{harvnb\|Huffman et al.\|2006}})"]\|4a1=Dennell\|4y=2010\|4p=266 ["the recent re-discovery of the precise provenance of the Mojokerto cranium that is now dated to a maximum of 1.49 Ma ({{harvnb\|Morwood et al.\|2003}}) clarifies long-standing uncertainties over the age of this important specimen"]}}

CheeseyHead at 17:20, 29 May 2024

2024-05-29T17:20:29Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 17:20, 29 May 2024
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	}}		}}

	'''Java Man''' ('''''Homo erectus erectus''''', formerly also ''Anthropopithecus erectus'', ''Pithecanthropus erectus'') is an [[early human]] fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of [[Java]] (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old, it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest [[hominid]] fossil ever found, and it remains the [[type specimen]] for ''[[Homo erectus]]''.		'''Java Man''' ('''''Homo erectus erectus''''', formerly also '''''Anthropopithecus erectus''' or'' '''''Pithecanthropus erectus''''') is an [[early human]] fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of [[Java]] (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old, it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest [[hominid]] fossil ever found, and it remains the [[type specimen]] for ''[[Homo erectus]]''.

	Led by [[Eugène Dubois]], the excavation team uncovered a [[tooth]], a [[Calvaria (skull)\|skullcap]], and a [[femur\|thighbone]] at [[Trinil]] on the banks of the [[Solo River]] in [[East Java]]. Arguing that the fossils represented the "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links\|missing link]]" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the [[scientific name]] ''[[Anthropopithecus]] erectus'', then later renamed it ''Pithecanthropus erectus''. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a [[Transitional fossil\|transitional form]] between apes and humans.{{Sfn\|Swisher\|Curtis\|Lewin\|2000\|p=70}} Some dismissed the fossils as [[ape]]s and others as [[Anatomically modern humans\|modern human]]s, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that ''Pithecanthropus'' was built like a "giant [[gibbon]]", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between ~~''Pithecanthropus erectus'' (~~Java Man) and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' ([[Peking Man]]) led [[Ernst Mayr]] to rename both ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in 1950, placing them directly in the human [[Phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].		Led by [[Eugène Dubois]], the excavation team uncovered a [[tooth]], a [[Calvaria (skull)\|skullcap]], and a [[femur\|thighbone]] at [[Trinil]] on the banks of the [[Solo River]] in [[East Java]]. Arguing that the fossils represented the "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links\|missing link]]" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the [[scientific name]] ''[[Anthropopithecus]] erectus'', then later renamed it ''Pithecanthropus erectus''. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a [[Transitional fossil\|transitional form]] between apes and humans.{{Sfn\|Swisher\|Curtis\|Lewin\|2000\|p=70}} Some dismissed the fossils as [[ape]]s and others as [[Anatomically modern humans\|modern human]]s, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that ''Pithecanthropus'' was built like a "giant [[gibbon]]", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between Java Man and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' ([[Peking Man]]) led [[Ernst Mayr]] to rename both ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in 1950, placing them directly in the human [[Phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].

	To distinguish Java Man from other ''Homo erectus'' populations, some scientists began to regard it as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', in the 1970s. [[Early hominids in Southeast Asia\|Other fossils]] found in the first half of the twentieth century in Java at [[Sangiran]] and [[Mojokerto]], all older than those found by Dubois, are also considered part of the species ''Homo erectus''. The fossils of Java Man have been housed at the [[Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie]] and later [[Naturalis]] in the [[Netherlands]] since 1900.		To distinguish Java Man from other ''Homo erectus'' populations, some scientists began to regard it as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', in the 1970s. [[Early hominids in Southeast Asia\|Other fossils]] found in the first half of the twentieth century in Java at [[Sangiran]] and [[Mojokerto]], all older than those found by Dubois, are also considered part of the species ''Homo erectus''. The fossils of Java Man have been housed at the [[Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie]] and later [[Naturalis]] in the [[Netherlands]] since 1900.
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	{{further\|Stratigraphy (archaeology)}}		{{further\|Stratigraphy (archaeology)}}
	[[Image:The most ancient skeletal remains of man Plate 1.png\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|The locality of the ''Pithecanthropus'' find, on the [[Solo River]], near [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. The two white squares show where the femur (left) and the skullcap (right) were discovered. Their discovery near flowing water was one of the many sources of controversy that surrounded the fossils.]]		[[Image:The most ancient skeletal remains of man Plate 1.png\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|The locality of the ''Pithecanthropus'' find, on the [[Solo River]], near [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. The two white squares show where the femur (left) and the skullcap (right) were discovered. Their discovery near flowing water was one of the many sources of controversy that surrounded the fossils.]]
	[[File:Homo Erectus shell with geometric incisions circa 500,000 BP, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands (with detail).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]], found near ~~the~~ Java Man and dated to circa 500,000 BP, contains the earliest known geometric engravings. From [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. Now in the [[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]], [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Joordens2015">{{Cite journal\|last1=Joordens\|first1=Josephine C. A.\|last2=d’Errico\|first2=Francesco\|last3=Wesselingh\|first3=Frank P.\|last4=Munro\|first4=Stephen\|last5=de Vos\|first5=John\|last6=Wallinga\|first6=Jakob\|last7=Ankjærgaard\|first7=Christina\|last8=Reimann\|first8=Tony\|last9=Wijbrans\|first9=Jan R.\|last10=Kuiper\|first10=Klaudia F.\|last11=Mücher\|first11=Herman J.\|date=2015\|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962\|journal=Nature\|language=en\|volume=518\|issue=7538\|pages=228–231\|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|pmid=25470048\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J\|s2cid=4461751\|issn=1476-4687}}</ref>]]		[[File:Homo Erectus shell with geometric incisions circa 500,000 BP, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands (with detail).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]], found near Java Man and dated to circa 500,000 BP, contains the earliest known geometric engravings. From [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. Now in the [[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]], [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Joordens2015">{{Cite journal\|last1=Joordens\|first1=Josephine C. A.\|last2=d’Errico\|first2=Francesco\|last3=Wesselingh\|first3=Frank P.\|last4=Munro\|first4=Stephen\|last5=de Vos\|first5=John\|last6=Wallinga\|first6=Jakob\|last7=Ankjærgaard\|first7=Christina\|last8=Reimann\|first8=Tony\|last9=Wijbrans\|first9=Jan R.\|last10=Kuiper\|first10=Klaudia F.\|last11=Mücher\|first11=Herman J.\|date=2015\|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962\|journal=Nature\|language=en\|volume=518\|issue=7538\|pages=228–231\|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|pmid=25470048\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J\|s2cid=4461751\|issn=1476-4687}}</ref>]]

	Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}		Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}

← Previous revision		Revision as of 00:48, 18 April 2025
Line 89:		Line 89:
	Java Man was about {{convert\|5\|ft\|8\|in\|cm\|abbr=on\|order=flip}} tall and his thighbones show that he [[walking\|walked erect]] like modern humans.<ref name="EB"/> The femur is thicker than that of a modern human, indicating he was engaging in a lot of running.<ref name="Athena"/> The skull was characterized by thick bones and a retreating forehead. The large teeth made the jaw large and jutting, with the lower lips overhanging the lower margin of the mandible, giving the impression of no chin. The [[supraorbital ridge\|browridges]] were straight and massive. At 900 cm<sup>3</sup>, his [[Brain size\|cranial capacity]] was smaller than that of later ''H. erectus'' specimens. However, he had humanlike teeth with large canines.<ref name="EB"/>		Java Man was about {{convert\|5\|ft\|8\|in\|cm\|abbr=on\|order=flip}} tall and his thighbones show that he [[walking\|walked erect]] like modern humans.<ref name="EB"/> The femur is thicker than that of a modern human, indicating he was engaging in a lot of running.<ref name="Athena"/> The skull was characterized by thick bones and a retreating forehead. The large teeth made the jaw large and jutting, with the lower lips overhanging the lower margin of the mandible, giving the impression of no chin. The [[supraorbital ridge\|browridges]] were straight and massive. At 900 cm<sup>3</sup>, his [[Brain size\|cranial capacity]] was smaller than that of later ''H. erectus'' specimens. However, he had humanlike teeth with large canines.<ref name="EB"/>

	Judging from anatomical and archeological aspects as well as Java Man's ecological role, meat from vertebrates was likely an important part of their diet. Java Man, like other ''Homo erectus'', was probably a rare species.<ref>{{cite journal\|last=Storm \|first=Paul \|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251700566 \|title=A carnivorous niche for Java Man? A preliminary consideration of the abundance of fossils in Middle Pleistocene Java \|journal=[[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences\|Comptes Rendus Palevol]] \|volume=11 \|issue=2–3 \|year=2012 \|pages=191–202 \|doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2011.04.002}}</ref> There is evidence that Java Man used shell tools to cut meat.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Choi \|first1=Kildo \|first2=Dubel \|last2=Driwantoro \|title=Shell tool use by early members of ''Homo erectus'' in Sangiran, central Java, Indonesia: cut mark evidence \|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science \|volume=34 \|issue=1 \|date=January 2007 \|pages=48–58 \|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.03.013}}</ref> Java Man's dispersal through Southeast Asia coincides with the extirpation of the giant turtle ''[[Megalochelys]]'', possibly due to overhunting as the turtle would have been an easy, slow-moving target which could have been stored for quite some time.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book\|url=http://www.iucn-tftsg.org/cbftt/\|title=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises\|date=2015-04-16\|publisher=Chelonian Research Foundation\|isbn=978-0-9653540-9-7\|editor-last=Rhodin\|editor-first=Anders\|edition=First\|series=Chelonian Research Monographs\|volume=5\|doi=10.3854/crm.5.000e.fossil.checklist.v1.2015\|editor-last2=Pritchard\|editor-first2=Peter\|editor-last3=van Dijk\|editor-first3=Peter Paul\|editor-last4=Saumure\|editor-first4=Raymond\|editor-last5=Buhlmann\|editor-first5=Kurt\|editor-last6=Iverson\|editor-first6=John\|editor-last7=Mittermeier\|editor-first7=Russell\|page=15}}</ref>		Judging from anatomical and archeological aspects as well as Java Man's ecological role, meat from vertebrates was likely an important part of their diet. Java Man, like other ''Homo erectus'', was probably a rare species.<ref>{{cite journal\|last=Storm \|first=Paul \|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251700566 \|title=A carnivorous niche for Java Man? A preliminary consideration of the abundance of fossils in Middle Pleistocene Java \|journal=[[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des sciences\|Comptes Rendus Palevol]] \|volume=11 \|issue=2–3 \|year=2012 \|pages=191–202 \|doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2011.04.002\|bibcode=2012CRPal..11..191S }}</ref> There is evidence that Java Man used shell tools to cut meat.<ref>{{cite journal\|last1=Choi \|first1=Kildo \|first2=Dubel \|last2=Driwantoro \|title=Shell tool use by early members of ''Homo erectus'' in Sangiran, central Java, Indonesia: cut mark evidence \|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science \|volume=34 \|issue=1 \|date=January 2007 \|pages=48–58 \|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.03.013\|bibcode=2007JArSc..34...48C }}</ref> Java Man's dispersal through Southeast Asia coincides with the extirpation of the giant turtle ''[[Megalochelys]]'', possibly due to overhunting as the turtle would have been an easy, slow-moving target which could have been stored for quite some time.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book\|url=http://www.iucn-tftsg.org/cbftt/\|title=Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises\|chapter=Turtles and Tortoises of the World During the Rise and Global Spread of Humanity: First Checklist and Review of Extinct Pleistocene and Holocene Chelonians \|date=2015-04-16\|publisher=Chelonian Research Foundation\|isbn=978-0-9653540-9-7\|editor-last=Rhodin\|editor-first=Anders\|edition=First\|series=Chelonian Research Monographs\|volume=5\|doi=10.3854/crm.5.000e.fossil.checklist.v1.2015\|editor-last2=Pritchard\|editor-first2=Peter\|editor-last3=van Dijk\|editor-first3=Peter Paul\|editor-last4=Saumure\|editor-first4=Raymond\|editor-last5=Buhlmann\|editor-first5=Kurt\|editor-last6=Iverson\|editor-first6=John\|editor-last7=Mittermeier\|editor-first7=Russell\|page=15}}</ref>

	== Material culture ==		== Material culture ==
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	* {{Citation\|last=Gould\|first=Stephen Jay.\|author-link=Stephen Jay Gould\|year=1993\|title=Eight Little Piggies: Reflections in Natural History\|location=New York and London\|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company \|url=https://archive.org/details/eightlittlepiggi00goul\|isbn=978-0-393-03416-5}}.		* {{Citation\|last=Gould\|first=Stephen Jay.\|author-link=Stephen Jay Gould\|year=1993\|title=Eight Little Piggies: Reflections in Natural History\|location=New York and London\|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company \|url=https://archive.org/details/eightlittlepiggi00goul\|isbn=978-0-393-03416-5}}.
	* {{Citation\|last1=Hetherington\|first1=Renée\|last2=Reid\|first2=Robert G. B.\|year=2010\|title=The Climate Connection: Climate Change and Modern Human Evolution\|location=Cambridge and New York\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAja8FTPF6QC\|isbn=978-0-521-19770-0}}. {{ISBN\|978-0-521-14723-1}} (paperback).		* {{Citation\|last1=Hetherington\|first1=Renée\|last2=Reid\|first2=Robert G. B.\|year=2010\|title=The Climate Connection: Climate Change and Modern Human Evolution\|location=Cambridge and New York\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AAja8FTPF6QC\|isbn=978-0-521-19770-0}}. {{ISBN\|978-0-521-14723-1}} (paperback).
	* {{citation\|last1=Huffman\|first1=O. Frank\|first2=Y.\|last2=Zaim\|first3=J.\|last3=Kappelman\|first4=D. R. Jr. \|last4=Ruez \|first5=J. \|last5=de Vos \|first6=Y. \|display-authors=et al. \|last6=Rizal \|year=2006 \|title=Relocation of the 1936 Mojokerto skull discovery site near Perning, East Java\|journal=Journal of Human Evolution\|volume=50\|issue=4 \|pages=431–51\|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.11.002 \|ref={{harvid\|Huffman et al.\|2006}} \|pmid=16386780 \|citeseerx=10.1.1.468.1840 }}.		* {{citation\|last1=Huffman\|first1=O. Frank\|first2=Y.\|last2=Zaim\|first3=J.\|last3=Kappelman\|first4=D. R. Jr. \|last4=Ruez \|first5=J. \|last5=de Vos \|first6=Y. \|display-authors=et al. \|last6=Rizal \|year=2006 \|title=Relocation of the 1936 Mojokerto skull discovery site near Perning, East Java\|journal=Journal of Human Evolution\|volume=50\|issue=4 \|pages=431–51\|doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.11.002 \|ref={{harvid\|Huffman et al.\|2006}} \|pmid=16386780 \|bibcode=2006JHumE..50..431H \|citeseerx=10.1.1.468.1840 }}.
	* {{citation\|author=Kaifu, Yousuke \|author2=Indriati, Etty \|author3=Aziz, Fachroel \|author4=Kurniawan, Iwan \|author5=Baba, Hisao \|year=2010\|chapter=Cranial Morphology and Variation of the Earliest Indonesian Hominids \|title=Asian Paleoanthropology: From Africa to China and Beyond\|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series\|editor=Christopher J. Norton \|editor2=David R. Braun\|location=Dordrecht \|publisher=Springer\|pages=143–57\|isbn=978-90-481-9093-5\|id=(online) \|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9094-2_11\|ref={{harvid\|Kaifu et al.\|2010}}}}		* {{citation\|author=Kaifu, Yousuke \|author2=Indriati, Etty \|author3=Aziz, Fachroel \|author4=Kurniawan, Iwan \|author5=Baba, Hisao \|year=2010\|chapter=Cranial Morphology and Variation of the Earliest Indonesian Hominids \|title=Asian Paleoanthropology: From Africa to China and Beyond\|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series\|editor=Christopher J. Norton \|editor2=David R. Braun\|location=Dordrecht \|publisher=Springer\|pages=143–57\|isbn=978-90-481-9093-5\|id=(online) \|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9094-2_11\|ref={{harvid\|Kaifu et al.\|2010}}}}
	* {{citation\|last=Mayr\|first=Ernst. \|year=1950\|author-link=Ernst Mayr\|title=Taxonomic Categories in Fossil Hominids\|journal=Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology\|volume=15\|pages=109–18 \|doi=10.1101/sqb.1950.015.01.013 \|pmid=14942702 }}.		* {{citation\|last=Mayr\|first=Ernst. \|year=1950\|author-link=Ernst Mayr\|title=Taxonomic Categories in Fossil Hominids\|journal=Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology\|volume=15\|pages=109–18 \|doi=10.1101/sqb.1950.015.01.013 \|pmid=14942702 }}.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 15:40, 12 February 2025
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	Based on Weidenreich's work and on his suggestion that ''Pithecanthropus erectus'' and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' were connected through a series of [[interbreeding]] populations, German biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] reclassified them both as being part of the same species: ''[[Homo erectus]]''. {{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon \|2004\|pp=66–67}} Mayr presented his conclusion at the [[Cold Spring Harbor Symposium]] in 1950,{{sfn\|Schmalzer\|2008\|p=98. The original paper is {{harvnb\|Mayr\|1950}}}} and this resulted in Dubois's ''erectus'' species being reclassified under the [[genus]] ''Homo''. As part of the reclassification, Mayr included not only ''Sinanthropus'' and ''Pithecanthropus'', but also ''Plesianthropus'', ''Paranthropus'', ''Javanthropus'', and several other genera as [[Synonym (taxonomy)\|synonyms]], arguing that all human ancestors were part of a single genus (''Homo''), and that "never one more than one species of man existed on the earth at any one time".{{sfn\|Delisle\|2007\|p=298, citing Mayr's 1950 paper}} A "revolution in taxonomy", Mayr's single-species approach to human evolution was quickly accepted.{{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon\|2004 \|p=67}} It shaped [[paleoanthropology]] in the 1950s and lasted into the 1970s, when the African genus ''[[Australopithecus]]'' was accepted into the human [[phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Schmalzer\|1y=2008\|1p=98 ["the "single-species" thesis to which he was committed became the theoretical foundation for paleoanthropology for years to come"]\|2a1=Boaz\|2a2=Ciochon\|2y=2004\|2p=67 ["was to sweep anthropology in the 1950s" ... "Thus was born the single-species hypothesis, a powerful model that endured until the late 1970s when fossil discoveries in Africa disproved it, at least for the early part of the hominid fossil record"]}}		Based on Weidenreich's work and on his suggestion that ''Pithecanthropus erectus'' and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' were connected through a series of [[interbreeding]] populations, German biologist [[Ernst Mayr]] reclassified them both as being part of the same species: ''[[Homo erectus]]''. {{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon \|2004\|pp=66–67}} Mayr presented his conclusion at the [[Cold Spring Harbor Symposium]] in 1950,{{sfn\|Schmalzer\|2008\|p=98. The original paper is {{harvnb\|Mayr\|1950}}}} and this resulted in Dubois's ''erectus'' species being reclassified under the [[genus]] ''Homo''. As part of the reclassification, Mayr included not only ''Sinanthropus'' and ''Pithecanthropus'', but also ''Plesianthropus'', ''Paranthropus'', ''Javanthropus'', and several other genera as [[Synonym (taxonomy)\|synonyms]], arguing that all human ancestors were part of a single genus (''Homo''), and that "never one more than one species of man existed on the earth at any one time".{{sfn\|Delisle\|2007\|p=298, citing Mayr's 1950 paper}} A "revolution in taxonomy", Mayr's single-species approach to human evolution was quickly accepted.{{sfn\|Boaz\|Ciochon\|2004 \|p=67}} It shaped [[paleoanthropology]] in the 1950s and lasted into the 1970s, when the African genus ''[[Australopithecus]]'' was accepted into the human [[phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Schmalzer\|1y=2008\|1p=98 ["the "single-species" thesis to which he was committed became the theoretical foundation for paleoanthropology for years to come"]\|2a1=Boaz\|2a2=Ciochon\|2y=2004\|2p=67 ["was to sweep anthropology in the 1950s" ... "Thus was born the single-species hypothesis, a powerful model that endured until the late 1970s when fossil discoveries in Africa disproved it, at least for the early part of the hominid fossil record"]}}

	In the 1970s a tendency developed to regard the Javanese variety of ''H. erectus'' as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', with the Chinese variety being referred to as ''Homo erectus pekinensis''.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Sartono \|first=S. \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejsyIZMsC9oC&pg=PA327 \|chapter=Implications arising from Pithecanthropus VIII\|title=Paleoanthropology: Morphology and Paleoecology \|editor=Russell H. Tuttle \|publisher=Mouton & Co. \|date=1975 \|isbn=978-90-279-7699-4 \|page=328}}</ref>		In the 1970s, a tendency developed to regard the Javanese variety of ''H. erectus'' as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', with the Chinese variety being referred to as ''Homo erectus pekinensis''.<ref>{{cite book \|last=Sartono \|first=S. \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ejsyIZMsC9oC&pg=PA327 \|chapter=Implications arising from Pithecanthropus VIII\|title=Paleoanthropology: Morphology and Paleoecology \|editor=Russell H. Tuttle \|publisher=Mouton & Co. \|date=1975 \|isbn=978-90-279-7699-4 \|page=328}}</ref>

	==Post-discovery analysis==		==Post-discovery analysis==
Line 78:		Line 78:
	Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}		Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}

	Though this view is still widely accepted, in the 1980s a group of Dutch [[paleontology\|paleontologists]] used Dubois's collection of more than 20,000 animal fossils to reassess the date of the layer in which Java Man was found.{{sfn\|Kaifu et al.\|2010\|p=145}} Using only fossils from Trinil, they called that new faunal assemblage the [[Trinil H. K. Fauna]], in which H. K. stands for ''Haupt Knochenschicht'', or "main fossil-bearing layer".{{sfnm\|1a1=de Vos\|1y=2004\|1pp=275–76 [explanation of the Trinil H. K. Fauna]\|2a1=Zaim\|2y=2010 \|2p=103 [Trinil H. K. Fauna, citing {{harvnb\|de Vos et al.\|1982}} and {{harvnb\|de Vos\|Sondaar\|1994}}]}} This assessment dates the fossils of Java Man to between 900,000 and 1,000,000 years old.{{sfn\|Dennell\|2010 \|p=155}} On the other hand, work published in 2014 gives a "maximum age of 0.54 ± 0.10 million years and a minimum age of 0.43 ± 0.05 million years" for Ar-Ar and luminescence dating of sediment in human-predated shell material from Trinil.<ref>{{cite journal \|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving \|last=Joordens \|first=J. C. A. \|display-authors=et al.<!--Josephine C A Joordens, Francesco d'Errico, Frank P Wesselingh, Stephen Munro, John de Vos, Jakob Wallinga, Christina Ankjærgaard, Tony Reimann, Jan R Wijbrans, Klaudia F Kuiper, Herman J Mücher, Hélène Coqueugniot, Vincent Prié, Ineke Joosten, Bertil van Os, Anne S Schulp, Michel Panuel, Victoria van der Haas, Wim Lustenhouwer, John J G Reijmer, Wil Roebroeks--> \|orig-year= Epub: 2014 Dec 3 \|journal=Nature \|date=2015-02-12 \|volume=518 \|issue=7538 \|pages=228–31 \|pmid=25470048 \|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J \|s2cid=4461751 }}</ref> Work continues on assessing the dating of this complex site.		Though this view is still widely accepted, in the 1980s, a group of Dutch [[paleontology\|paleontologists]] used Dubois's collection of more than 20,000 animal fossils to reassess the date of the layer in which Java Man was found.{{sfn\|Kaifu et al.\|2010\|p=145}} Using only fossils from Trinil, they called that new faunal assemblage the [[Trinil H. K. Fauna]], in which H. K. stands for ''Haupt Knochenschicht'', or "main fossil-bearing layer".{{sfnm\|1a1=de Vos\|1y=2004\|1pp=275–76 [explanation of the Trinil H. K. Fauna]\|2a1=Zaim\|2y=2010 \|2p=103 [Trinil H. K. Fauna, citing {{harvnb\|de Vos et al.\|1982}} and {{harvnb\|de Vos\|Sondaar\|1994}}]}} This assessment dates the fossils of Java Man to between 900,000 and 1,000,000 years old.{{sfn\|Dennell\|2010 \|p=155}} On the other hand, work published in 2014 gives a "maximum age of 0.54 ± 0.10 million years and a minimum age of 0.43 ± 0.05 million years" for Ar-Ar and luminescence dating of sediment in human-predated shell material from Trinil.<ref>{{cite journal \|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving \|last=Joordens \|first=J. C. A. \|display-authors=et al.<!--Josephine C A Joordens, Francesco d'Errico, Frank P Wesselingh, Stephen Munro, John de Vos, Jakob Wallinga, Christina Ankjærgaard, Tony Reimann, Jan R Wijbrans, Klaudia F Kuiper, Herman J Mücher, Hélène Coqueugniot, Vincent Prié, Ineke Joosten, Bertil van Os, Anne S Schulp, Michel Panuel, Victoria van der Haas, Wim Lustenhouwer, John J G Reijmer, Wil Roebroeks--> \|orig-year= Epub: 2014 Dec 3 \|journal=Nature \|date=2015-02-12 \|volume=518 \|issue=7538 \|pages=228–31 \|pmid=25470048 \|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J \|s2cid=4461751 }}</ref> Work continues on assessing the dating of this complex site.

	Other fossils attest to the even earlier presence of ''H. erectus'' in Java. [[Sangiran 2]] (named after [[Sangiran\|its discovery site]]) may be as old as 1.66 [[Megaannum\|Ma]] (million years). The controversial [[Mojokerto child]], which Carl C. Swisher and [[Garniss Curtis]] once dated to 1.81 ± 0.04 Ma, has now been convincingly re-dated to a maximum age of 1.49 ± 0.13 Ma, that is, 1.49 million years with a margin of error of plus or minus 130,000 years.{{sfnm\|Dennell\|2009\|1p=155 ["The maximum age of this specimen is thus 1.49 million years, and not 1.81 million years, as implied by {{harvnb\|Swisher et al.\|1994}}"]\|Ciochon\|2010\|2p=112 ["As the relocated discovery bed proved to be ~20 m above the horizon that {{harvnb\|Swisher et al.\|1994}} dated, the skull is certainly younger than had been previously reported" ({{harvnb\|Huffman et al.\|2006}})"]\|Rabett\|2012\|3p=26 ["the 1994 estimate of its age has now been credibly refuted ({{harvnb\|Huffman et al.\|2006}})"]\|4a1=Dennell\|4y=2010\|4p=266 ["the recent re-discovery of the precise provenance of the Mojokerto cranium that is now dated to a maximum of 1.49 Ma ({{harvnb\|Morwood et al.\|2003}}) clarifies long-standing uncertainties over the age of this important specimen"]}}		Other fossils attest to the even earlier presence of ''H. erectus'' in Java. [[Sangiran 2]] (named after [[Sangiran\|its discovery site]]) may be as old as 1.66 [[Megaannum\|Ma]] (million years). The controversial [[Mojokerto child]], which Carl C. Swisher and [[Garniss Curtis]] once dated to 1.81 ± 0.04 Ma, has now been convincingly re-dated to a maximum age of 1.49 ± 0.13 Ma, that is, 1.49 million years with a margin of error of plus or minus 130,000 years.{{sfnm\|Dennell\|2009\|1p=155 ["The maximum age of this specimen is thus 1.49 million years, and not 1.81 million years, as implied by {{harvnb\|Swisher et al.\|1994}}"]\|Ciochon\|2010\|2p=112 ["As the relocated discovery bed proved to be ~20 m above the horizon that {{harvnb\|Swisher et al.\|1994}} dated, the skull is certainly younger than had been previously reported" ({{harvnb\|Huffman et al.\|2006}})"]\|Rabett\|2012\|3p=26 ["the 1994 estimate of its age has now been credibly refuted ({{harvnb\|Huffman et al.\|2006}})"]\|4a1=Dennell\|4y=2010\|4p=266 ["the recent re-discovery of the precise provenance of the Mojokerto cranium that is now dated to a maximum of 1.49 Ma ({{harvnb\|Morwood et al.\|2003}}) clarifies long-standing uncertainties over the age of this important specimen"]}}

← Previous revision		Revision as of 17:20, 29 May 2024
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	}}		}}

	'''Java Man''' ('''''Homo erectus erectus''''', formerly also ''Anthropopithecus erectus'', ''Pithecanthropus erectus'') is an [[early human]] fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of [[Java]] (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old, it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest [[hominid]] fossil ever found, and it remains the [[type specimen]] for ''[[Homo erectus]]''.		'''Java Man''' ('''''Homo erectus erectus''''', formerly also '''''Anthropopithecus erectus''' or'' '''''Pithecanthropus erectus''''') is an [[early human]] fossil discovered in 1891 and 1892 on the island of [[Java]] (Indonesia). Estimated to be between 700,000 and 1,490,000 years old, it was, at the time of its discovery, the oldest [[hominid]] fossil ever found, and it remains the [[type specimen]] for ''[[Homo erectus]]''.

	Led by [[Eugène Dubois]], the excavation team uncovered a [[tooth]], a [[Calvaria (skull)\|skullcap]], and a [[femur\|thighbone]] at [[Trinil]] on the banks of the [[Solo River]] in [[East Java]]. Arguing that the fossils represented the "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links\|missing link]]" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the [[scientific name]] ''[[Anthropopithecus]] erectus'', then later renamed it ''Pithecanthropus erectus''. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a [[Transitional fossil\|transitional form]] between apes and humans.{{Sfn\|Swisher\|Curtis\|Lewin\|2000\|p=70}} Some dismissed the fossils as [[ape]]s and others as [[Anatomically modern humans\|modern human]]s, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that ''Pithecanthropus'' was built like a "giant [[gibbon]]", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between ~~''Pithecanthropus erectus'' (~~Java Man) and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' ([[Peking Man]]) led [[Ernst Mayr]] to rename both ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in 1950, placing them directly in the human [[Phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].		Led by [[Eugène Dubois]], the excavation team uncovered a [[tooth]], a [[Calvaria (skull)\|skullcap]], and a [[femur\|thighbone]] at [[Trinil]] on the banks of the [[Solo River]] in [[East Java]]. Arguing that the fossils represented the "[[Transitional fossil#Missing links\|missing link]]" between apes and humans, Dubois gave the species the [[scientific name]] ''[[Anthropopithecus]] erectus'', then later renamed it ''Pithecanthropus erectus''. The fossil aroused much controversy. Within a decade of the discovery almost eighty books or articles had been published on Dubois's finds. Despite Dubois's argument, few accepted that Java Man was a [[Transitional fossil\|transitional form]] between apes and humans.{{Sfn\|Swisher\|Curtis\|Lewin\|2000\|p=70}} Some dismissed the fossils as [[ape]]s and others as [[Anatomically modern humans\|modern human]]s, whereas many scientists considered Java Man as a primitive side branch of evolution not related to modern humans at all. In the 1930s Dubois made the claim that ''Pithecanthropus'' was built like a "giant [[gibbon]]", a much misinterpreted attempt by Dubois to prove that it was the "missing link". Eventually, similarities between Java Man and ''Sinanthropus pekinensis'' ([[Peking Man]]) led [[Ernst Mayr]] to rename both ''[[Homo erectus]]'' in 1950, placing them directly in the human [[Phylogenetic tree\|evolutionary tree]].

	To distinguish Java Man from other ''Homo erectus'' populations, some scientists began to regard it as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', in the 1970s. [[Early hominids in Southeast Asia\|Other fossils]] found in the first half of the twentieth century in Java at [[Sangiran]] and [[Mojokerto]], all older than those found by Dubois, are also considered part of the species ''Homo erectus''. The fossils of Java Man have been housed at the [[Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie]] and later [[Naturalis]] in the [[Netherlands]] since 1900.		To distinguish Java Man from other ''Homo erectus'' populations, some scientists began to regard it as a subspecies, ''Homo erectus erectus'', in the 1970s. [[Early hominids in Southeast Asia\|Other fossils]] found in the first half of the twentieth century in Java at [[Sangiran]] and [[Mojokerto]], all older than those found by Dubois, are also considered part of the species ''Homo erectus''. The fossils of Java Man have been housed at the [[Rijksmuseum van Geologie en Mineralogie]] and later [[Naturalis]] in the [[Netherlands]] since 1900.
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	{{further\|Stratigraphy (archaeology)}}		{{further\|Stratigraphy (archaeology)}}
	[[Image:The most ancient skeletal remains of man Plate 1.png\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|The locality of the ''Pithecanthropus'' find, on the [[Solo River]], near [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. The two white squares show where the femur (left) and the skullcap (right) were discovered. Their discovery near flowing water was one of the many sources of controversy that surrounded the fossils.]]		[[Image:The most ancient skeletal remains of man Plate 1.png\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|The locality of the ''Pithecanthropus'' find, on the [[Solo River]], near [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. The two white squares show where the femur (left) and the skullcap (right) were discovered. Their discovery near flowing water was one of the many sources of controversy that surrounded the fossils.]]
	[[File:Homo Erectus shell with geometric incisions circa 500,000 BP, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands (with detail).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]], found near ~~the~~ Java Man and dated to circa 500,000 BP, contains the earliest known geometric engravings. From [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. Now in the [[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]], [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Joordens2015">{{Cite journal\|last1=Joordens\|first1=Josephine C. A.\|last2=d’Errico\|first2=Francesco\|last3=Wesselingh\|first3=Frank P.\|last4=Munro\|first4=Stephen\|last5=de Vos\|first5=John\|last6=Wallinga\|first6=Jakob\|last7=Ankjærgaard\|first7=Christina\|last8=Reimann\|first8=Tony\|last9=Wijbrans\|first9=Jan R.\|last10=Kuiper\|first10=Klaudia F.\|last11=Mücher\|first11=Herman J.\|date=2015\|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962\|journal=Nature\|language=en\|volume=518\|issue=7538\|pages=228–231\|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|pmid=25470048\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J\|s2cid=4461751\|issn=1476-4687}}</ref>]]		[[File:Homo Erectus shell with geometric incisions circa 500,000 BP, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands (with detail).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]], found near Java Man and dated to circa 500,000 BP, contains the earliest known geometric engravings. From [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. Now in the [[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]], [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Joordens2015">{{Cite journal\|last1=Joordens\|first1=Josephine C. A.\|last2=d’Errico\|first2=Francesco\|last3=Wesselingh\|first3=Frank P.\|last4=Munro\|first4=Stephen\|last5=de Vos\|first5=John\|last6=Wallinga\|first6=Jakob\|last7=Ankjærgaard\|first7=Christina\|last8=Reimann\|first8=Tony\|last9=Wijbrans\|first9=Jan R.\|last10=Kuiper\|first10=Klaudia F.\|last11=Mücher\|first11=Herman J.\|date=2015\|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962\|journal=Nature\|language=en\|volume=518\|issue=7538\|pages=228–231\|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|pmid=25470048\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J\|s2cid=4461751\|issn=1476-4687}}</ref>]]

	Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}		Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}

← Previous revision		Revision as of 13:10, 23 May 2025
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	{{further\|Stratigraphy (archaeology)}}		{{further\|Stratigraphy (archaeology)}}
	[[Image:The most ancient skeletal remains of man Plate 1.png\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|The locality of the ''Pithecanthropus'' find, on the [[Solo River]], near [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. The two white squares show where the femur (left) and the skullcap (right) were discovered. Their discovery near flowing water was one of the many sources of controversy that surrounded the fossils.]]		[[Image:The most ancient skeletal remains of man Plate 1.png\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|The locality of the ''Pithecanthropus'' find, on the [[Solo River]], near [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. The two white squares show where the femur (left) and the skullcap (right) were discovered. Their discovery near flowing water was one of the many sources of controversy that surrounded the fossils.]]
	[[File:Homo Erectus shell with geometric incisions circa 500,000 BP, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands (with detail).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]], found near Java Man and dated to circa 500,000 BP, contains the earliest known geometric engravings. From [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. Now in the [[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]], [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Joordens2015">{{Cite journal\|last1=Joordens\|first1=Josephine C. A.\|last2=d’Errico\|first2=Francesco\|last3=Wesselingh\|first3=Frank P.\|last4=Munro\|first4=Stephen\|last5=de Vos\|first5=John\|last6=Wallinga\|first6=Jakob\|last7=Ankjærgaard\|first7=Christina\|last8=Reimann\|first8=Tony\|last9=Wijbrans\|first9=Jan R.\|last10=Kuiper\|first10=Klaudia F.\|last11=Mücher\|first11=Herman J.\|date=2015\|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962\|journal=Nature\|language=en\|volume=518\|issue=7538\|pages=228–231\|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|pmid=25470048\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J\|s2cid=4461751\|issn=1476-4687}}</ref>]]		[[File:Homo Erectus shell with geometric incisions circa 500,000 BP, Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Netherlands (with detail).jpg\|thumb\|upright=1.5\|[[Pseudodon shell DUB1006-fL]], found near Java Man and dated to circa 500,000 BP, contains the earliest known geometric engravings. From [[Trinil]], [[Java]]. Now in the [[Naturalis Biodiversity Center]], [[Netherlands]].<ref name="Joordens2015">{{Cite journal\|last1=Joordens\|first1=Josephine C. A.\|last2=d’Errico\|first2=Francesco\|last3=Wesselingh\|first3=Frank P.\|last4=Munro\|first4=Stephen\|last5=de Vos\|first5=John\|last6=Wallinga\|first6=Jakob\|last7=Ankjærgaard\|first7=Christina\|last8=Reimann\|first8=Tony\|last9=Wijbrans\|first9=Jan R.\|last10=Kuiper\|first10=Klaudia F.\|last11=Mücher\|first11=Herman J.\|date=2015\|title=Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature13962\|journal=Nature\|language=en\|volume=518\|issue=7538\|pages=228–231\|doi=10.1038/nature13962\|pmid=25470048\|bibcode=2015Natur.518..228J\|s2cid=4461751\|issn=1476-4687\|url-access=subscription}}</ref>]]

	Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}		Dubois's complete collection of fossils were transferred between 1895 and 1900 to what is now known as [[Naturalis]], in [[Leiden]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{cite web\|last1=de Vois\|first1=John\|title=The Dubois collection: a new look at an old collection\|url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/43875 \|website=Naturalis.nl\|access-date=3 December 2014}}</ref> The main fossil of Java Man, the skullcap cataloged as "Trinil 2", has been dated [[biostratigraphy\|biostratigraphically]], that is, by correlating it with a group of fossilized animals (a "[[faunal assemblage]]") found nearby on the same [[horizon (geology)\|geological horizon]], which is itself compared with assemblages from other layers and classified chronologically. Ralph von Koenigswald first assigned Java Man to the [[Trinil Fauna]], a faunal assemblage that he composed from several Javanese sites.{{sfn\|de Vos\|2004\|p=275}} He concluded that the skullcap was about 700,000 years old, thus dating from the beginning of the [[Middle Pleistocene]].{{sfnm\|1a1=Kaifu et al.\|1y=2010\|1p=145\|2a1=de Vos\|2y=2004\|2pp=274–75}}
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	* {{citation\|author=Kaifu, Yousuke \|author2=Indriati, Etty \|author3=Aziz, Fachroel \|author4=Kurniawan, Iwan \|author5=Baba, Hisao \|year=2010\|chapter=Cranial Morphology and Variation of the Earliest Indonesian Hominids \|title=Asian Paleoanthropology: From Africa to China and Beyond\|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series\|editor=Christopher J. Norton \|editor2=David R. Braun\|location=Dordrecht \|publisher=Springer\|pages=143–57\|isbn=978-90-481-9093-5\|id=(online) \|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9094-2_11\|ref={{harvid\|Kaifu et al.\|2010}}}}		* {{citation\|author=Kaifu, Yousuke \|author2=Indriati, Etty \|author3=Aziz, Fachroel \|author4=Kurniawan, Iwan \|author5=Baba, Hisao \|year=2010\|chapter=Cranial Morphology and Variation of the Earliest Indonesian Hominids \|title=Asian Paleoanthropology: From Africa to China and Beyond\|series=Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology Series\|editor=Christopher J. Norton \|editor2=David R. Braun\|location=Dordrecht \|publisher=Springer\|pages=143–57\|isbn=978-90-481-9093-5\|id=(online) \|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9094-2_11\|ref={{harvid\|Kaifu et al.\|2010}}}}
	* {{citation\|last=Mayr\|first=Ernst. \|year=1950\|author-link=Ernst Mayr\|title=Taxonomic Categories in Fossil Hominids\|journal=Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology\|volume=15\|pages=109–18 \|doi=10.1101/sqb.1950.015.01.013 \|pmid=14942702 }}.		* {{citation\|last=Mayr\|first=Ernst. \|year=1950\|author-link=Ernst Mayr\|title=Taxonomic Categories in Fossil Hominids\|journal=Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology\|volume=15\|pages=109–18 \|doi=10.1101/sqb.1950.015.01.013 \|pmid=14942702 }}.
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