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[[Image:Mingojunction.jpg|thumb|Downtown Mingo Junction in September 2006. Wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel Corporation's South Plant at Mingo is shown in the background. Commercial Street is seen in the foreground and is downtown Mingo's main street.]]
{{History of China}}
[[Image:OHMap-doton-Mingo_Junction.png|right|Location of Mingo Junction, Ohio]]
The '''Song Dynasty''' ({{zh-cp|c=宋朝|p=Sòng cháo}}) was a ruling [[Chinese dynasty|dynasty]] in [[China]] from [[960]] until [[1279]] [[AD]]. It came after the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]] era, and came just before the [[Yuan Dynasty]]. It was marked both by cultural explosion, as well as military and natural disasters. The Song Dynasty was also the first government in world history to issue paper-printed money (see [[Banknote]]), and the first Chinese [[polity]] to establish a permanent standing [[navy]] (although China had a long naval history prior to the Song, see [[Naval history of China]]).
'''Mingo Junction''' is a village in [[Jefferson County, Ohio|Jefferson County]], [[Ohio]], along the [[Ohio River]]. The population was 3,631 at the [[United States Census 2000|2000 census]]. In [[1900]], its only manufacturing plant was a [[steel mill]] owned by [[Carnegie Steel Company]]. Past population figures are: [[1900]], 2,954; [[1910]], 4,049; [[1940]], 5,192.


==Geography==
[[Image:China 11a.jpg|left|thumb|238px|Northern Song in 1111 AD.]]
Mingo Junction is located at {{coor dms|40|19|12|N|80|36|44|W|city}} (40.319869, -80.612240){{GR|1}}.
From the [[10th century]] to [[11th century]], the population of China increased dramatically, as the Northern Song Dynasty held a population of some 100 million people (as opposed to the previous [[Han Dynasty|Han]] and [[Tang Dynasty]], each of which boasted roughly 50 million inhabitants). This came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, along with Chinese farmers producing abundant yields of food beyond self-sufficiency, hence their ability to sell greater amount of food for the market.


According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the village has a total area of 6.6 [[km²]] (2.5 [[square mile|mi²]]), all land.
During the Song Dynasty, many groups threatened China's northern borders, namely the [[Khitans]] of the [[Liao Dynasty]], the [[Tanguts]] of the [[Western Xia Dynasty]], and the [[Jurchens]] of the [[Jin Dynasty, 1115–1234|Jin dynasty]]. The Song dynasty itself can be divided into two distinct periods: the Northern Song and Southern Song. The '''Northern Song''' ({{zh-c|c=北宋}}, [[960]]–[[1127]]) signifies the time when the Song capital was in the northern city of [[Kaifeng]] and the dynasty controlled most of inner China. The '''Southern Song''' ({{zh-c|c=南宋}}, [[1127]]–[[1279]]) refers to the time after the Song lost control of northern China to the Jurchen Jin dynasty. The Song court retreated south of the [[Yangtze River]] and made their capital at [[Hangzhou]]. Although weakened, the Southern Song Dynasty built considerable naval strength to defend its own waters, borders, and maritime missions abroad. The Song Dynasty of China was renowned throughout the Arab, Persian, Hundu-Indian, and South East Asian regions of the world for the legacy of its overseas trade and fine exported luxury goods. To fight back the Jin (and then the Mongols), they also featured new use of revolutionary military technology. This included the inventions or developments of [[gunpowder]], the [[cannon]], and the [[flamethrower]] (as did the Byzantines with [[Greek fire]], see also [[Pen Huo Qi]]) in China.


==Demographics==
The Jin Dynasty was conquered by the [[Mongol Empire]] in [[1234]], which subsequently took control of northern China and maintained uneasy relations with the Southern Song court. [[Mongke Khan]], the fourth [[Great Khan]] of the Mongol Empire, was killed during a military campaign against the Southern Song. His successor [[Kublai]] unified the throne, recalled the Mongol armies from the Middle East, and finally conquered the Song Dynasty in [[1279]]. China was once more unified, but this time as part of the vast Mongol Empire.
As of the [[census]]{{GR|2}} of 2000, there were 3,631 people, 1,542 households, and 1,062 families residing in the village. The [[population density]] was 551.9/km² (1,430.7/mi²). There were 1,691 housing units at an average density of 257.0/km² (666.3/mi²). The racial makeup of the village was 95.35% [[White (U.S. Census)|White]], 3.00% [[African American (U.S. Census)|African American]], 0.17% [[Native American (U.S. Census)|Native American]], 0.03% [[Asian (U.S. Census)|Asian]], 0.11% [[Pacific Islander (U.S. Census)|Pacific Islander]], 0.39% from [[Race (United States Census)|other races]], and 0.96% from two or more races. [[Hispanic (U.S. Census)|Hispanic]] or [[Latino (U.S. Census)|Latino]] of any race were 0.77% of the population.


There were 1,542 households out of which 25.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.8% were [[Marriage|married couples]] living together, 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.1% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.84.
==Founding of the Song==
[[image:Northern Song Jun Ware Planter, stoneware with Jun glaze, early 12th century.jpg|thumb|250|right|A Northern Song Dynasty Jun Ware planter, stoneware with Jun glaze, early [[12th century]]. From the [[Freer Gallery of Art]].]]
The [[Later Zhou Dynasty]] was the last of the [[Five Dynasties]] that had controlled power in northern China after the fall of the [[Tang Dynasty]] in [[907]]. [[Zhao Kuangyin]], later known as [[Emperor Taizu of Song|Emperor Taizu]] (r. [[960]] - [[976]]), usurped the throne with the support of army commanders. Upon taking the throne in [[960]], he had as his first goal the reunification of [[China]]. This consisted of [[Jingnan|Nanping]], [[Wu-Yue]], [[Southern Han]], [[Later Shu]], and [[Southern Tang]] in the south as well as the [[Northern Han]] and the [[Sixteen Prefectures]] in the north. <ref> [Mote p. 68,69] </ref>


In the village the population was spread out with 21.1% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 26.8% from 45 to 64, and 20.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 87.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.8 males.
Consolidation in the south was completed in [[978]] with the conquest of [[Wu-Yue]]. The army then turned north and conquered the Northern Han in [[979]]. However, efforts to take the [[Sixteen Prefectures]] never succeeded, as they were incorporated earlier into the Liao state based in Manchuria to the immediate north. <ref> [Mote p. 69] </ref>


The median income for a household in the village was $30,196, and the median income for a family was $40,326. Males had a median income of $37,969 versus $20,809 for females. The [[per capita income]] for the village was $16,062. About 10.8% of families and 12.8% of the population were below the [[poverty line]], including 19.0% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.
==Relations with the Liao==
{{see|Liao Dynasty}}
[[image:liaodyanstyguanyin.jpg|thumb|left|280px|[[Liao Dynasty]] polychrome wood carving of [[Guan Yin]], [[Shanxi Province]], China, (907 - 1125 AD)]]
During the first couple of decades relations between the Song and Liao (led by the [[Khitans]]) were relatively peaceful, the two outstanding issues of the [[Northern Han]] and [[Sixteen Prefectures]] notwithstanding. In [[974]], the two began exchanging embassies on [[Lunar New Year|New Years Day]]. However, this peace was an illusion as the Song was more concerned with consolidating the south. In [[979]], the Song moved against the [[Northern Han]], long under the protection of the [[Liao Dynasty]]. The Liao emperor succeeded in bringing the Northern Han into the fold, but when marching on the Liao Southern Capital (present-day [[Beijing]],) in the [[Sixteen Prefectures]], Song forces were humiliated at the [[Battle of the Gaoliang River]]. <ref> [Mote, p. 69] </ref>


==Trivia==
Relations between the two remained tense and in [[986]], the Song sent three armies against the Liao in an effort to take advantage of an infant emperor. However, the Liao defeated all three armies. Following this, diplomatic relations were resumed. <ref> [Mote, p. 69] </ref>
* Mingo Junction served as the Pennsylvania steel mill town in the movie ''[[The Deer Hunter]]'', which won the 1978 Best Picture Oscar. and starred [[Robert DiNiro]], [[Meryl Streep]], and the late [[John Cazale]]. Many of the scenes that took place in and around a steel mill were filmed in Mingo Junction.

* The [[Crawford expedition]], a battle during the [[American Revolutionary War]], started at Mingo Junction.
However, relations between the two worsened in the 990s, and in [[999]] the Liao began annual attacks on Song positions, though with no breakthrough victories. However, in [[1004]], the Liao marched deep into Song territory, camping out in [[Shanyuan]], about 100 kilometers (60 miles) north of the Song capital of [[Kaifeng]]. The following negotiations resulted in the [[Treaty of Shanyuan]], signed in January [[1005]] (some sources cite [[1004]] due to the Chinese Lunar Calendar.) The treaty required annual [[tribute]] payments to the Liao and recognition of Liao equality with the Song. <ref> [Mote, p. 70-71]</ref> The tribute consisted of 100 thousand ounces of silver along with 200 thousand bolts of silk, with an increased amount to 500 thousand units by [[1042]] (Ebrey, 154). However, even with the increase in tribute by 1042, the Song Dynasty economy was not damaged extensively. The [[bullion]] holding of the Liao Dynasty did not increase with the tribute bearing, since the Song exported many goods annually to the Liao Dynasty, which usually dwarfed the amount of imports that Song purchased from Liao (Ebrey, 154). Ultimately, this meant that much of the silver sent to Liao as tribute was used to pay for Song Chinese goods, hence the silver wound up back into the hands of Chinese merchants and the Song government.
* Mingo Junction is the home of [[Andrea DeShong]], a former [[United States|U.S.]] [[women's boxing|female boxer]].

* [[Woody Hayes]] served as the assistant coach in Mingo Junction early in his career.
Until the Song Dynasty took advantage of a large rebellion within the Liao Kingdom in [[1125]], the Liao Dynasty had to be dealt with somewhat cordially. Skilled ambassadors were sent on missions to court the Liao Dynasty and maintain peace, ambassadors such as the renowned horologist and state minister [[Su Song]]. The Song also prepared for armed conflict if necessary, increasing the overall size of the armed forces to 1 million soldiers by [[1022]] AD (Ebrey, 154). By that time, however, the military was consuming three-quarters of the tax revenues gathered by the state, compared to a mere 2 or 3 percent of state income that would be consumed by just providing the Liao with tribute (Ebrey, 154). Due to these circumstances, intense political rivalries would later arise in the Song court over how to handle these issues and others.
* [[Wild Cherry]] was born in Mingo.

==Culture, Economy, Technology, and Society==
The founder of the Song Dynasty, [[Emperor Taizu]], built an effective centralized [[bureaucracy]] staffed with civilian scholar-officials. Regional military governors and their supporters were replaced by centrally appointed officials. This system of civilian rule led to a greater concentration of power in the emperor and his palace bureaucracy than had been achieved in the previous dynasties. In the early 11th century AD, there was some 30,000 men who took the prefectural exams (see Chinese [[Imperial Examination]]), which steadily increased to roughly 80,000 by the end of the century, and to a whopping 400,000 exam takers during the [[13th century]] (Ebrey, 160). Although new municipal governments were often established, the same number of prefectures and provinces were in place. This meant that although more people were taking exams, roughly the same number were being accepted into the government as in previous periods, making the civil service exams very competitive amongst aspiring students and scholars.

[[Image:Jiao zi.jpg|thumb|right|250|[[Jiaozi]], the world's first paper-printed [[currency]], an innovation of the Song Dynasty.]]
The Song Dynasty is notable for the development of cities not only for administrative purposes but also as centers of trade, industry, and maritime commerce. The [[Gentry (China)|landed scholar-officials]], sometimes collectively referred to as the gentry, lived in the provincial centers alongside the shopkeepers, artisans, and merchants. A new group of wealthy commoners - the mercantile class - arose as printing and artists spread (also with intensified merchant travels abroad to areas of the South East Pacific and Indian Ocean, in order to partake in foreign maritime trade during the Southern Song Dynasty). Private trade grew and a market economy began to link the coastal provinces with the interior. Landholding and government employment were no longer the only means of gaining wealth and prestige. [[Printing]] technology ([[movable type]], see [[Bi Sheng]]) increased literacy with the mass production of printed materials, which meant that parents could encourage sons to learn to read and write and therefore be able to take the [[imperial examination]] and become part of the growing learned bureaucracy. The world's first development of printed paper money (see [[Jiaozi (currency)|Jiaozi]]) on a massive scale and a unified tax system meant the development of a true nationwide market system in China.

The root of the development of paper money goes back to the the earlier Tang Dynasty, when the government outlawed the use of bolts of [[silk]] as currency, which increased the use of [[copper]] coinage for a means of money. However, by [[1085]] the output of copper currency had reached 6 billion coins a year, as the Song economy was much larger than the preceding Tang (as it fit a larger population with a more unified market system) (Ebrey, 156). For Tang-era merchants, avoiding the weight and bulk of so many copper coins in each transaction, this led them to using trading receipts from deposit shops where goods or money were left previously. The later Song government soon saw the economic advantage of this, issuing a [[monopoly]] right of several of these deposit shops to the issuance of these certificates of deposit, and by the 1120s the government stepped in, producing the world's first paper printed money (Ebrey, 156).

Accompanying this was the beginnings of what one might term the Chinese [[industrial revolution]]. For example the historian [[Robert Hartwell]] has estimated that per capita [[iron]] output rose sixfold between 806 and 1078, such that, by 1078 China was producing 125,000 tons of iron per year, a per capita consumption of roughly 1.5 kg of iron per year (compared to 0.5 kg in Europe). This iron was used to mass produce [[plough]]s, hammers, needles, pins, and [[cymbal]]s among other routine items for an indigenous mass market and for trade with the outside world, which also expanded greatly at this time. The merchant class (mentioned above) also became more sophisticated and organized. Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais state that:

<blockquote>
''[Song Dynasty Chinese] set up partnerships and joint stock companies, with a separation of owners (shareholders) and managers. In the large cities, merchants were organized into guilds according to the type of product sold; they periodically set prices and arranged sales from wholesalers to shop owners. When the government requisitioned goods or assessed taxes, it dealt with the guild heads'' (Ebrey, 157).
</blockquote>

[[Image:Luohan Laundering, by Lin Tinggui, 1178 AD, Southern Song.jpg|thumb|240px|left|''Luohan Laundering'', by Song-era painter [[Lin Tinggui]], [[1178]] AD.]]
According to the most common estimates, the [[gross national product|GDP per capita income]] with [[purchasing power parity]] under the Song Dynasty was estimated to be over $600 in 1990 [[international dollar]]s, whereas western Europe had a per capita income of roughly $550 by 1000 CE. However, western Europe started to become slightly wealthier in per capita income than China after 1300 AD. Sea trade abroad to the South East Pacific, the Hindu world, the Islamic world, and the East African world brought merchants great fortune, but there was risk involved in such long overseas ventures. In order to reduce the risk of losing money instead of gaining it on maritime trade missions abroad:

<blockquote>
''[Song era] investors usually divided their investment among many ships, and each ship had many investors behind it. One observer thought eagerness to invest in overseas trade was leading to an outflow of copper cash. He wrote, "People along the coast are on intimate terms with the merchants who engage in overseas trade, either because they are fellow-countrymen or personal acquaintances...[They give the merchants] money to take with them on their ships for purchase and return conveyance of foreign goods. They invest from ten to a hundred strings of cash, and regularly make profits of several hundred percent,"'' (Ebrey, 159).
</blockquote>

As a result of these new practices and innovations (and the concurrent agricultural revolution with increased rice cultivation) China boasted some of the largest cities of the world at this time. For example it has been estimated that the Southern Song's capital at [[Hangzhou]] had more than 400,000 inhabitants by [[1200]]: far larger than any European city (besides perhaps [[Constantinople]]); in [[western Europe]], only [[Paris]] and [[Venice]] had populations of over 100,000. This was due to many factors, since the new Song court was established there after [[1127]], but also because it was located at the southern tail end of the Grand Canal, making it a formidable trade center as well. Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais note that during the 13th century, the city's population soared further, to an astounding 1 million people (Ebrey, 167). The city was renowned throughout China for its efficiency to produce and maintain in every affair. For example, to combat the spread of fires started in the city, the government issued two thousand soldiers of fourteen established [[fire station]]s within the city (and more in the outlying suburbs) (Ebrey, 167). However, fires weren't the only problems facing the Song era Chinese who lived in the more crowded of cities. Far more than the rural countryside, [[poverty]] was widespread, and became a major issue of debate at the central court and in local governments. To handle poverty, the Song government took on many initiatives, including the distribution of [[alms]] to the poor, the establishment of public [[clinic]]s, the establishment of old age homes, as well as [[pauper]]s' graveyards (Ebrey, 167).

[[image:Ladies Playing Double-Sixes, original by Zhou Fang (c. 730-800 AD), 10th-11th century Song Dynasty.jpg|thumb|268px|left|''Ladies Playing Double-Sixes'', original by [[Zhou Fang]] (c. [[730]] - [[800]] AD), a [[10th century]] - [[11th century]] remake of the Song period; [[Freer Gallery of Art]]]]
The Song Dynasty was a culturally-rich and sophisticated age for China. [[Chinese painting]] reached new heights of sophistication, such as the matured development of Chinese [[landscape painting]]. There were also many prominent figures of Chinese history during this time. [[Polymath]] personalities such as [[Shen Kuo]] and [[Su Song]] embodied the spirit of early [[empirical]] [[science]] and [[technology]] in this age. Shen Kuo was most famous for discovering the concept of [[true north]] (with [[magnetic]] declination towards the [[North Pole]]) while [[navigation|navigating]] with a [[compass]] (although Shen was also famous for his description of [[Bi Sheng]], the inventor of [[movable type]] print). Su Song wrote a famous treatise on [[botany]], [[zoology]], and [[minerology]] (including the outlined use of [[ephedrin]] as a [[pharmaceutical]] drug), but was most famous for his [[horological]] treatise on the [[astronomical]] [[clock tower]] (crowned with a mechanically-driven [[armillary sphere]]) he had erected in the capital Kaifeng. His clock tower also employed the [[verge escapement]] mechanism, two centuries before it was applied to [[clock]]s in [[Europe]]. The cases of the latter two men display the eagerness that the Song state had to draft highly skilled officials whom were knowledgeable in the various sciences which could ultimately benefit the administration, the military, the economy, and the people.

Culturally, the Song refined many of the developments of the previous centuries. This included refinements of the [[Tang Dynasty|Tang]] ideal of the universal man, who combined the qualities of scholar, poet, painter, and statesman, but also historical [[Chinese classic texts|writings]], [[Chinese painting|painting]], [[East Asian calligraphy|calligraphy]], hard-glazed [[porcelain]] and [[Chinese inkstones]]. Song intellectuals sought answers to all philosophical and political questions in the [[Confucian Classics#Pre-Qin texts (before 221 BCE)|Confucian Classics]]. This renewed interest in the Confucian ideals and society of ancient times coincided with the decline of [[Buddhism]], which the Chinese regarded as foreign and offering few practical guidelines for the solution of political and other mundane problems. However, Buddhism in this period continued as a cultural underlay to the more accepted Confucianism and even [[Daoism]]. This can be seen with strong evidence by achievements in the arts, such as the 100 painting set of the ''Five Hundred Luohan'', completed by [[Lin Tinggui]] and [[Zhou Jichang]] in [[1178]]. Ever since the ancient [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]] period, painting became an art of high sophistication that was associated with the gentry class as one of their main pasttimes. During the Song period there were avid art collectors that would often meet in groups to discuss their own paintings, as well as rate those of their colleauges and friends. The poet and statesman [[Su Shi]] and his accomplice [[Mi Fu]] often partook in these affairs, often borrowing art pieces to study and copy, or if they really admired the art piece then a persuasion to make a trade for it was often proposed. In addition, many social clubs for affluent Chinese during this period became popular. In [[1235]], a text mentions that in Hangzhou City alone, there was the West Lake Poetry Club, the Buddhist Tea Society, the Physical Fitness Club, the Anglers' Club, the Occult Club, the Young Girls' Chorus, the Exotic Foods Club, the Plants and Fruits Club, the Antique Collectors' Club, the Horse-Lovers' Club, and the Refined Music Society (Ebrey, 167).

[[image:Song-Imperial-Garden1.jpg|thumb|290px|right|The Imperial Gardens of [[Kaifeng]], Song era painting by an anonymous artist.]]
The Song [[Neo-Confucian]] philosophers, finding a certain purity in the originality of the ancient classical texts, wrote commentaries on them. The most influential of these philosophers was [[Zhu Xi]] (1130-1200), whose synthesis of Confucian thought and Buddhist, [[Taoism|Taoist]], and other ideas became the official imperial ideology from late Song times to the late 19th century. As incorporated into the imperial examination system, Zhu Xi's philosophy evolved into a rigid official creed, which stressed the one-sided obligations of obedience and compliance of subject to ruler, child to father, wife to husband, and younger brother to elder brother. The effect was to inhibit the societal development of pre-modern China, resulting both in many generations of political, social, and spiritual stability and in a slowness of cultural and institutional change up to the 19th century. Neo-Confucian doctrines also came to play the dominant role in the intellectual life of [[Korea]], [[Vietnam]], and [[Japan]] until modern times.

As mentioned in the introduction, the number of exam takers far outmatched the actual number of scholar-officials that were accepted and given official appointments under the Song Dynasty. This led to a great atmosphere of intellectual competition between aspiring Confucian scholars, as rich families were eager to gather tons of published books in their own personal libraries, with everything from Confucian classics (and other philosophical works), mathematical treatises, pharmaceutical documents, Buddhist sutras, and other books aimed at the gentry class in mind. The Imperial Examinations of the Song era were fairly objective, employing the use of clerics who would recopy students' exams by hand before handing them to graders (so that those grading would not recognize anyone's distinct handwriting, whether it be someone they favor or dislike personally, instead focusing on the content of the exam and the quality of the students' essays). [[Meritocracy]] and a greater sense of [[social mobility]] was also prevalent through the Civil Service and Imperial Examination during the Song period, as the government held a list of all examination graduates, showing that only roughly half of those who passed had a father, or grandfather, or great-grandfather who served as a government official (Ebrey, 162). However, families who already had members that were officials of government had the advantage of early education and experience, often appointing their sons to various posts. The Song era poet [[Su Dong-bo]] (Wade-Giles: Su Tung-po, [[1036]] - [[1101]] AD) once wrote a poem called ''On the Birth of My Son'', poking fun at the situation of affluent children having the upper edge in taking the exams over bright children of lower status:


''Families, when a child is born''

''Want it to be intelligent.''

''I, through intelligence''

''Having wrecked my whole life,''

''Only hope the baby will prove''

''Ignorant and stupid.''

''Then he will crown a tranquil life''

''By becoming a Cabinet Minister.''


The elite aristocrats of Su Dong-bo's day did not find poems such as this amusing, but later Chinese would give it praise.

==Partisanship of Political Factions: Reformers and Conservatives==

[[image:Wang Anshi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A portrait painting of Chancellor Wang]]
After students passed the often difficult, bureaucratic, and heavily-demanding Imperial Exams, as they became officials, they did not always see eye to eye with others that had passed the same examination. Even though they were fully-fledged graduates ready for government service, there was always the factor of competition with other officials. Promotion to a higher post, higher salary, additional honors, and selection for choice assignment responsibilities were often uncertain, as young new officials often needed higher-ranking officials to recommend them for their services. Once an official would rise to the upper echelons of central administration based in the capital, they would often compete with others over influence of the emperor's official adoption of state policies. Officials with different opinions on how to approach administrative affairs often sought out other officials for support, leading to pacts of rivaling officials lining up political allies at court to sway the emperor against the faction they disagreed with.

Factional strife at court first became apparent during the 1040s AD, with a new state reform initiated by [[Fan Zhongyan]]. Fan was a capable military leader (with successful battles in his record against the [[Tanguts]] of Xi-Xia) but as a minister of state he was known as an idealist, once saying that a well-minded official should be one that was "first in worrying about the world's troubles and last in enjoying its pleasures," (Ebrey, 163). When Fan rose to the seat of [[Chancellor]], there was a growing opposition to him within the older and more conservative crowd. They disliked his pushing for reforms for the recruitment system, higher pay for minor local officials to discourage against corruption, and wider sponsorship programs to ensure that officials were drafted more on the basis of their intellect and character. However, his reforms were cancelled within a year's time, since many older officials who were halfway through their careers were not keen on making changes that could affect their comfortably-set positions.

After Fan Zhongyan, there was Chancellor [[Wang Anshi]] ([[1021]] - [[1086]]). The new nineteen-year-old [[Emperor Shenzong of Song]] had an instant liking of Wang Anshi when he submitted a long [[memorial]] to the throne that criticized the practices of state schools and the examination system itself. With Wang as his new [[Chancellor]], he quickly implemented Wang's New Policies, which evoked some heated reaction from the conservative base. The New Policies included:

*Low-cost loans for farmers and replaced the labor service with a tax instead, hoping this would ultimately help the workings of the entire economy and state (as he directly linked state income to the level of prosperity of rural peasants who owned farms, produced goods for the market, and paid the land tax).
*Government monopolies on tea, salt, and wine in order to raise state revenues (although this would now limit the merchant class).
*Instituting a more up-to-date land survey system in order to properly assess the land tax.
*Introduction of a local militia in order to lessen the budget of expenses paid for upholding the official standing army, which had grown dramatically to roughly 1 million soldiers by 1022.
*Introduction of the Finance Planning Commission, created in mind to speed up the reform process so that dissident Conservatives would have less time to react and oppose reforms.
*The poetry requirement of the civil service examination was scrapped in order to seek out men with more practical experience and knowledge. (Ebrey, 164)

In addition, Wang Anshi had his own commentaries on Confucian classics made into a standard and required reading for students hoping to pass the state examinations. This and other reforms of Wang's were too much for some officials to bear idly, as there were many administrative disagreements, along with many personal interests at stake. In any case, the rising Conservative faction against the Reformer Wang Anshi blasted him as an inferior-intellect who was not up to par with their principles of governance (likewise, the Reformers branded Conservatives in the same labeled fashion). Taking the example of earlier Fan Zhongyan in mind, Wang was not about to allow ministers who opposed his reforms to have sway at court. Those who were seen as obstructive to the implementation of Wang's reforms were not all dismissed from the capital to other places (since the emperor needed some critical feedback), but many were. A more extreme example would be "obstructionist" officials sent far to the south to administer regions that were largely tropical, keeping in mind that northern Chinese were often susceptible to [[malaria]] found in the deep south of China. The worst-case scenario of persecution, though, came with [[Su Shi]] in [[1079]] AD, where he was arrested and forced into five weeks of interrogation. Finally, he confessed under guarded watch that he had slandered the emperor in his poems. One of them read:

[[Image:Sima Guang.jpg|200px|left|thumb|A drawing of Sima Guang.]]
''An old man of seventy, sickle at his waist,''

''Feels guilty the spring mountain bamboo''

''and bracken are sweet.''

''It's not that the music of Shao has made''

''him lose his sense of taste.''

''It's just that he's eaten his food for three''

''months without salt.''

(Ebrey, 164)

This poem can be interpreted as a criticizing of the failure of the salt monopoly established by Wang Anshi, embodied in the persona of a hard-working old man who was cruelly denied his means to flavor his food, with the severity of the laws and the only salt available being charged at rates that were too expensive. After his confession, Su Shi was found guilty in court, and was summarily exiled to [[Hubei]] Province. More than thirty of his associates were also given minor punishments for not reporting his slanderous poems to authorities before they were widely circulated to the educated public.

Emperor Shenzong died in [[1085]], an abrupt death since he was in his mid 30s. His successor [[Emperor Zhezong of Song]] was only ten years old when he ascended to the throne, so his powerful grandmother served as [[regent]] over him. She disliked Wang's reforms from the beginning, and sought to appoint more Conservative officials at court who would agree to oppose the Reformists. She found her greatest political ally to be [[Sima Guang]], who was made the next Chancellor. Undoing what Wang had implemented, Sima dismissed the New Policies, and forced the same treatment upon Reformers that Wang had earlier meted out to his opponents: dismissal to lower or frontier posts of governance, or even exile. However, there was still mounted opposition to Sima Guang, as many had favored some of the New Policies, including the substitution of tax instead of forced labor service to the state. Sure enough, when Emperor Zhezong's grandmother died in [[1093]], Zhezong was quick to sponsor the Reformists like his predecessor Shenzong had done. The Conservatives once more were ousted from political dominance at court. When Zhezong suddenly died in his twenties, his younger brother [[Emperor Huizong of Song]] (r. [[1100]] - [[1125]] AD) succeeded him, and also supported the Reformers at court. Huizong banned the writing of Sima Guang and his lackeys while elevating Wang Anshi to near revered status, having a statue of Wang erected in a Confucian temple alongside a statue of [[Mencius]]. To further this image of Wang as a great and honorable statesman, printed and painted pictures of him were circulated throughout the country. Yet this cycle of revenge and partisanship continued after Zhezong and Huizong, as Reformers and Conservatives continued their infighting. Huizong's successor, [[Emperor Gaozong of Song]], abolished once more the New Policies, and favored ministers of the Conservative faction at court.

==Southern Song's resistance against the Jin==
===From North to South===
[[Image:China 11b.jpg|right|thumb|280px|Southern Song in [[1142]].]]
Before the arrival of the [[Jurchens]] the Song Dynasty was for centuries engaged in a stand-off against the [[Western Xia]] and the [[Khitan]] [[Liao Dynasty]]. This balance was disrupted when the Song Dynasty developed a [[military alliance]] with the Jurchens for the purpose of annihilating the Liao Dynasty. This balance of power disrupted, the Jurchens then turned on the Song Dynasty, resulting in the fall of the Northern Song and the subsequent establishment of the Southern Song.

[[Emperor Huizong of Song]], besides his partaking in state affairs that favored the Reformist party, was a cultured leader who spent much of his time admiring the arts. He was a collector of paintings, calligraphies, and antiques of previous Chinese eras, building huge collections of each for his amusement. He wrote poems of his own, was known as an avid painter, created his own calligraphy style, had interests in architecture and garden design, and even wrote treatises on medicine and Daosim. He assembled an entourage of court painters that were first pre-screened in an examination to enter as official artists of the court, and made reforms to court music that was played. Like many learned men of his age, he was quite a polymath personality. However, special attention of his was not given to foreign affairs, which were made drastic by the end of his reign.

During the reign of Huizong, the Jurchen tribe to the north (once subordinates to the Liao), revolted against their Khitan masters. The Jurchen community already had great clout in their own region of the Liao and [[Sungari]] rivers, as they were positioned in an ideal location for horse raising, and were known to muster ten thousand horses a year to sell annually to the Khitans of the Liao Dynasty (Ebrey, 165). From the Jurchen Wanyan clan, a prominent leader [[Wanyan Aguda]] ([[1068]] - [[1123]] AD) challenged Liao authority, establishing their own Jin Dynasty (or 'Golden Dynasty') in [[1115]] AD. The Song government took notice of the political dissidence of the Jurchens in Liao's territory, as Council of State [[Tong Guan]] ([[1054]] - [[1126]] AD) suggested to the emperor that a military alliance with the Jurchens would be favorable in crushing the Liao once and for all. In a secret alliance and mission of envoys across the borders, an agreement was reached between the Jurchens and the Song government to divide Liao's territory (while the Song would ultimately get their coveted prize: the [[Sixteen Prefectures]]).

The Liao Dynasty was ultimately crushed by Jin and Song forces in [[1125]] AD. However, the Jurchens discovered weaknesses about the Song military based in the north (as the Chinese for so long had been sending tribute to the Liao Dynasty instead of actually fighting them). Banking on the possibility that the Song were weak enough to be destroyed, the Jurchens made a sudden and unprovoked attack against the Song Dynasty in the north. Soon enough, even the capital at Kaifeng was under siege by Jin forces, only staved off when an enormous bribe was handed over to them. However, the Jin returned again in [[1127]], this time with a reasonable amount of siege machinery to scale the city's layer of walls and penetrate the heart of the central government to topple the entire empire. Thousands were taken captive, including Huizong and many of his relatives, craftsmen, and female entertainers to label some. In the end, the Jin controlled Manchuria and northern China, while the Chinese Song court fled south to reestablish central control at a new capital of [[Hangzhou]].

This new triangular arrangement between the Southern Song, Jin, and Western Xia continued the age of conflict. The Southern Song deployed several military commanders, among them [[Yue Fei]] and [[Han Shizhong]], to resist the Jin as well as recapture territory, which proved successful at times. Yue Fei in particular had been preparing to recapture [[Kaifeng]] (or Bianjing as the city was known during the Song period), the former capital of the Song dynasty and the then southern capital of the Jin dynasty, after a streak of uninterrupted military victories. The possible defeat of the Jurchens however threatened the power of the new emperor of the Southern Song, [[Emperor Gaozong of Song|Gaozong]] and his premier [[Qin Kuai]]. The reason for this was that [[Emperor Qinzong of Song|Qinzong]], the last emperor of the Northern Song was living in Jin-imposed [[exile]] in [[Manchuria]] and had a good chance of being recalled to the throne should the Jin Dynasty be destroyed. Emperor Gaozong signed the [[Treaty of Shaoxing]] in 1141, which conceded most of the territory regained through the efforts of Yue Fei. Yue Fei was executed under the terms of the treaty in 1142. However, the later [[Emperor Xiaozong of Song]] honored Yue Fei as a national hero in [[1162]]. As a means to shame those who had pressed for his execution (Qin Hui and his wife), iron statues of them were crafted to kneel before the tomb of Yue Fei, located at the [[West Lake]] in [[Hangzhou]].

===China's First Standing Navy===

[[image:Southern Song Dynasty lacquer with mother-of-pearl inlay, 13th century.jpg|thumb|250px|left|A Southern Song Dynasty [[lacquer]]-ware dish with mother-of-[[pearl]] inlay, design of birds on tree branches, [[13th century]], housed in the [[Freer Gallery of Art]].]]

As the once great Indian Ocean maritime power of the [[Chola Dynasty]] in medieval [[India]] had waned and declined, the Chinese began to increase their own maritime activity in South East Asia and into the Indian Ocean. Even during the earlier Northern Song period, when it was written in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] inscriptions under the reign of [[Rajendra Chola I]] that [[Srivijaya]] had been completely taken in [[1025]] by Chola's naval strength, the succeeding king of Srivijaya managed to send tribute to the Chinese Northern Song court in [[1028]] AD. There were other tributary payers from other regions of the world as well. The [[Fatimid]]-era [[Egyptians|Egyptian]] sea captain [[Domiyat]] traveled to a Buddhist site of pilgrimage in [[Shandong]] in [[1008]] AD, where he presented the Chinese [[Emperor Zhenzong of Song]] with gifts from his court, establishing diplomatic relations between Egypt and China that had been lost during the collapse of the [[Tang Dynasty]] in [[907]] (while the Fatimid state was established three years later in [[910]]). During the Northern Song Dynasty, [[Quanzhou]] was already a bustling port of call visited by a plethora of different foreigers, from [[Muslim]] Arabs, Persians, Egyptians, [[Hindu]] Indians, Middle-Eastern [[Jews]], [[Nestorian]] Christians from the [[Near East]], etc. To regulate this enormous commercial center, in [[1087]] the Northern Song government established an office in Quanzhou for the sole purpose of handling maritime affairs and commercial transactions. Quanzhou soon rivaled [[Guangzhou]] (the greatest maritime port of the earlier Tang Dynasty) as a major trading center during the late Northern Song. However, Guangzhou had not fully lost its importance. The medieval Arab maritime captain [[Abu Himyarite]] from [[Yemen]] toured Guangzhou in [[993]] AD, as an avid visitor to China. Already during the Northern Song Dynasty, the Chinese had also established fortified trade bases in the [[Philippines]].

When the Song capital was removed far south to [[Hangzhou]], with masses of people from the north moving into the areas of mountainous terrain and innumerable rivers of the south (largely inhospitable to widespread agriculture), the Southern Song took on a unique [[maritime]] presence that was largely unseen in earlier dynasties. Commercial cities (located along the coast and by internal rivers), backed by patronage of the state, dramatically increased [[shipbuilding]] activity. [[Navigation]] at sea was made easier by the invention of the [[compass]] and Shen Kuo's treatise of the 11th century on the concept of [[true north]] (with [[magnetic]] declination towards the [[North Pole]]). With military defense and economic policy in mind, the Southern Song Dynasty established China's first standing [[navy]]. China had a long naval history before that point (example, [[Battle of Chibi]] in 208 AD), and even during the Northern Song era there were concerns with naval matters, as seen in examples such as the Chinese official [[Huang Huaixin]] of the Xining Reign ([[1068]] - [[1077]]) outlining a plan of employing a [[drydock]] for repair of 'imperial dragon boats' (Levathes, 77). However, it was still the Southern Song court that was the first to create a large, permanent naval institution for China. The new headquarters of the Southern Song Chinese admiralty was based at [[Dinghai]], the office labeled as the Yan Hai Zhi-Zhi Shi-Si (Imperial Commissariat for the Control and Organization of Coastal Areas).

Capturing the essence of the day, the Song era writer Zhang Yi once wrote in [[1131]] that China must regard the Sea and the River as her [[Great Wall]], and substitute [[warship]]s for [[watchtowers]]. Indeed, the court administration at Hangzhou lived up to this ideal, and were successful for a time in employing their navy to defend their interests against an often hostile neighbor to the north. In his ''Science and Civilization in China'' series, [[Joseph Needham]] writes:
[[Image:SongJunk.jpg|thumb|320px|A Song era [[Junk (ship)|junk]] ship, [[13th century]]; Chinese ships of the Song period featured [[hull]]s with [[Ship floodability|watertight compartments]].]]
<blockquote>
From a total of 11 [[squadron]]s and 3,000 men [the Song navy] rose in one century to 20 squadrons totalling 52,000 men, with its main base near [[Shanghai]]. The regular striking force could be supported at need by substantial merchantmen; thus in the campaign of +1161 (AD) some 340 ships of this kind participated in the battles on the [[Yangtze]]. The age was one of continual innovation; in +1129 (AD) [[trebuchet]]s throwing gunpowder bombs were decreed standard equipment on all warships, between +1132 (AD) and +1183 (AD) a great number of treadmill-operated [[Paddle steamer|paddle-wheel]] craft, large and small, were built, including stern-wheelers and ships with as many as 11 paddle-wheels a side (the invention of the remarkable engineer Kao Hsuan), and in +1203 (AD) some of these were armored with iron plates (to the design of another outstanding shipwright Chhin Shih-Fu)...In sum, the navy of the Southern Sung held off the [Jurchen Jin] and then the Mongols for nearly two centuries, gaining complete control of the East China Sea (Needham, 476).
</blockquote>

During the reign of [[Emperor Xiaozong of Song]], the Chinese increased maritime influence in the Indian Ocean where Arab and Hindu influence was once dominant. The Chinese sailed regularly to Korea and Japan in the Far East, westwards towards India and Sri Lanka, and into the [[Persian Gulf]], and the [[Red Sea]]. The Chinese were keen to import goods such as rare woods, precious metals, gems, spices, and ivory, while exporting goods such as silk, ceramics, lacquer-ware, copper cash, dyes, and even books (Paludan, 142). In [[1178]], the Guangzhou customs officer [[Zhou Qufei]] wrote of an island far west in the Indian Ocean (possibly [[Madagascar]]), from where people with skin "as black as lacquer" and with frizzy hair were captured and purchased as slaves by Arab merchants (Levathes, 37). As an important maritime trader, China appeared also on geographical maps of the Islamic world. In [[1154]], the [[Moroccan]] [[geographer]] [[Al-Idrisi]] published his ''Geography'', where he described the Chinese seagoing vessels as having aboard goods such as iron, swords, leather, silk, [[velvet]], along with textiles from [[Aden]] (modern-day Yemen), the [[Indus River]] region, and [[Euphrates River]] region (modern-day [[Iraq]]). He also commended the silk manufactured at Quanzhou as being unparalleled in the world for its quality, while the Chinese capital at Hangzhou was best known throughout the Islamic world for being a major producer of [[glass]] wares (Shen, 159-161).

==Kaifeng as the Jin capital==

[[image:Song Dynasty, jade cup, 12th-13th century.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A jade-carved libation cup from the Southern Song period, 12th-13th century, [[Freer Gallery of Art]].]]
In [[1153]], Jin Emperor ''Wányán Liàng'' (完顏亮) moved the empire's capital from [[Huining Fu]] in northern Manchuria (south of present-day [[Harbin]]) to Zhongdu (now [[Beijing]]). Four years later in [[1157]], he razed Beijing, including the nobles’ residences, and moved the [[Jurchen]] “southern” capital from Beijing to Kaifeng, former seat of the Song Dynasty, and began to reconstruct it (since its sack in 1127).[http://www.san.beck.org/AB3-China.html#9]

Emperor [[Wányán Liàng]] established a military campaign against the [[Southern Song]] in [[1161]], assembling his naval forces to meet that of Song's in a large invasion. Meanwhile, two simultaneous rebellions of [[Jurchen]] nobles, led by soon-to-be crowned Jin Emperor Wányán Yōng (完顏雍), and [[Khitan]] tribesman erupted in [[Manchuria]], forcing the Jin Dynasty to withdraw its troops from southern China to quell the uprisings. At the [[Battle of Caishi]] along the Yangtze River, Jin forces were defeated by the Southern Song. Again, the Jin were dealt another defeat at the [[Battle of Tangdao]]. In these battles, the Jin navy was wiped out by a smaller Song fleet because of their use of gunpowder, the first recorded use in military history (refer to the naval section above). Emperor Wányán Liàng failed in taking the Southern Song and was assassinated by his own generals in December of [[1161]]. His son and heir was also assassinated in [[Kaifeng]]. Although crowned in October, Emperor Wányán Yōng was not officially recognized as the 5th successive Jin Emperor until the murder of Wányán Liàng’s heir.[http://www.san.beck.org/AB3-China.html#9]

The Khitan uprising was not suppressed until 1164; their horses were confiscated so that the rebels had to take up farming. Other Khitan and [[Xia]] cavalry units had been incorporated into the Jin army. The [[Treaty of Lóngxīng]] (隆興和議) was signed in 1164 and ushered in 44 years of peace between the two empires.[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Song/song-event.html]

In the early 13th century, the Jin state was under attack by Mongols from the north, led first by [[Genghis Khan]]. After years of conflict, the Jin finally fell in defeat to the Mongols in [[1234]], while the Song Dynasty persisted for several decades over the southern half of China.

==Mongol Invasion and End of the Song==

Following the death of Gaozong and the emergence of the Mongols, the Song Dynasty formed a military alliance with the [[Mongols]] in the hope of finally defeating the Jin Dynasty. Several tens of thousands of carts of grain were sent to the Mongol army during the siege. Following the destruction of the Jurchens, the Southern Song generals broke the alliance, proceeding to recapture the three historical capitals of [[Kaifeng]], [[Luoyang]] and [[Chang'an]].

However the cities, ravaged by years of warfare, lacked economic capacity and yielded little defensibility. The Mongols eventually gained the upper hand, and in [[1276]] the Southern Sòng court fled to [[Guangdong]] (廣東) by boat. [[Emperor Gong of Song China]] was left behind. Any hope of resistance was centered on two young princes, Emperor Gong's brothers. The older boy, [[Zhao Shi]] , who was nine years old, was declared emperor (端宗); and in 1277, the imperial court sought refuge in [[Silvermine Bay]] (or [[Mui Wo]]) on [[Lantau Island]] and later in what is today [[Kowloon City]], [[Hong Kong]] (see also [[Sung Wong Toi]]).

The older brother became ill and died, and was succeeded by the younger, [[Emperor Bing of Song|Zhao Bing]], aged seven. On [[March 19]], [[1279]] the Song army was defeated in its last battle, the [[Battle of Yamen]], fought against the Mongols in the [[Pearl River Delta]]; subsequently a high official is said to have taken the boy emperor in his arms and jumped from a clifftop into the sea, drowning both of them (See: [[Sung Wong Toi]]). [[Hau Wong]], an official from this court, is still revered as a god in Hong Kong.

Despite the fact the Southern Song was conquered, they had fought the longest against the Mongols out of any other nations and despite its relatively close geographical location, and remained one of the last places the Mongols successfully invaded. During a military campaign in southern China, the Mongols suffered one of their most humiliating defeats, notably the death of [[Mongke Khan]], the first and only khan ever to die during an invasion. Mongke's death in 1259 led to the recall of the main Mongol armies in the Middle East and a joint invasion of southern China which finally succeeded in 1279. With the collapse of the Song, [[Kublai Khan]] established the [[Yuan Dynasty]] over China.

==Sòng dynasty emperors==
''Convention: "Sòng" + temple name or posthumous name except last emperor who was revered as [[Song Di Bing]]'' (''Sòng Dì Bǐng'' 宋帝昺).

===Bei (Northern) Sòng dynasty, 960- 1127===

<table class="wikitable" width="100%">

<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef; width:20%">Temple Names <br>([[Miao Hao]] 廟號 Miào Hào)</th>
<th style="background:#efefef; width:20%">Posthumous Names<br>([[Shi Hao]] 諡號)</th>
<th style="background:#efefef; width:20%">Birth Names</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Period<br>of Reigns</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Era Names ([[Nian Hao]] 年號) and their according range of years</th>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Taizu of Song China|Taizu (太祖 Tàizǔ)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Kuangyin (趙匡胤 Zhào Kuāngyìn)</td>
<td>[[960]]-[[976]]</td>
<td>
*Jianlong (建隆 Jiànlóng) 960-963
*Qiande (乾德 Qiándé) 963-968
*Kaibao (開寶 Kāibǎo) 968-976
</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Taizong of Song China|Taizong (太宗 Tàizōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Kuangyi (趙匡義 Zhào Kuāngyì) or Zhao Guangyi (趙光義 Zhào Guāngyì)</td>
<td>976-997</td>
<td>
*Taipingxingguo (太平興國 Tàipíngxīngguó) 976-984
*Yongxi (雍熙 Yōngxī) 984-987
*Duangong (端拱 Duāngǒng) 988-989
*Chunhua (淳化 Chúnhuà) 990-994
*Zhidao (至道 Zhìdào) 995-997
</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Zhenzong of Song China|Zhenzong (真宗 Zhēnzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Heng (趙恆 Zhào Héng)</td>
<td>997-1022</td>
<td>
*Xianping (咸平 Xiánpíng) 998-1003
*Jingde (景德 Jǐngdé) 1004&ndash;1007
*Dazhongxiangfu (大中祥符 Dàzhōngxiángfú) 1008&ndash;1016
*Tianxi (天禧 Tiānxǐ) 1017&ndash;1021
*Qianxing (乾興 Qiánxīng) 1022
</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Renzong of Song China|Renzong (仁宗 Rénzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Zhen (趙禎 Zhào Zhēn)</td>
<td>1022&ndash;1063</td>
<td>
*Tiansheng (天聖 Tiānshèng) 1023&ndash;1032
*Mingdao (明道 Míngdào) 1032&ndash;1033
*Jingyou (景祐 Jǐngyòu) 1034&ndash;1038
*Baoyuan (寶元 Bǎoyuán) 1038&ndash;1040
*Kangding (康定 Kāngdìng) 1040&ndash;1041
*Qingli (慶曆 Qìnglì) 1041&ndash;1048
*Huangyou (皇祐 Huángyòu) 1049&ndash;1054
*Zhihe (至和 Zhìhé) 1054&ndash;1056
*Jiayou (嘉祐 Jiāyòu) 1056&ndash;1063
</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Yingzong of Song China|Yingzong (英宗 Yīngzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Shu (趙曙 Zhào Shù)</td>
<td>1063&ndash;1067</td>
<td>
*Zhiping (治平 Zhìpíng) 1064&ndash;1067
</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Shenzong of Song China|Shenzong (神宗 Shénzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Xu (趙頊 Zhào Xū)</td>
<td>1067&ndash;1085</td>
<td>
*Xining (熙寧 Xīníng) 1068&ndash;1077
*Yuanfeng (元豐 Yuánfēng) 1078&ndash;1085
</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Zhezong of Song China|Zhezong (哲宗 Zhézōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Xu (趙煦 Zhào Xǔ)</td>
<td>1085&ndash;1100</td>
<td>
*Yuanyou (元祐 Yuányòu) 1086&ndash;1094
*Shaosheng (紹聖 Shàoshèng) 1094&ndash;1098
'''*Yuanfu''' (元符 Yuánfú) 1098&ndash;1100
</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Huizong of Song China|Huizong (徽宗 Huīzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Ji (趙佶 Zhào Jí)</td>
<td>1100&ndash;1125</td>
<td>
*Jianzhongjingguo (建中靖國 Jiànzhōngjìngguó) 1101
*Chongning (崇寧 Chóngníng) 1102&ndash;1106
*Daguan (大觀 Dàguān) 1107&ndash;1110
*Zhenghe (政和 Zhènghé) 1111&ndash;1118
*Chonghe (重和 Chónghé) 1118&ndash;1119
*Xuanhe (宣和 Xuānhé) 1119&ndash;1125
</td>
</tr>

<tr>
<td>[[Emperor Qinzong of Song China|Qinzong (欽宗 Qīnzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Huan (趙桓 Zhào Huán)</td>
<td>1126&ndash;1127</td>
<td>
*Jingkang (靖康 Jìngkāng) 1125&ndash;1127
</td></tr></table>

===Nan (Southern) Song dynasty, 1127-1279===

<table class="wikitable" width="100%">

<tr>
<th style="background:#efefef; width:20%">Temple Names <br>([[Miao Hao]] 廟號 Miào Hào)</th>
<th style="background:#efefef; width:20%">Posthumous Names<br>([[Shi Hao]] 諡號)</th>
<th style="background:#efefef; width:20%">Born Names</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Period<br>of Reigns</th>
<th style="background:#efefef;">Era Names ([[Nian Hao]] 年號) and their according range of years</th>
</tr>

<tr><td>[[Emperor Gaozong of Song China|Gaozong (高宗 Gāozōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Gou (趙構 Zhào Gòu)</td>
<td>1127&ndash;1162</td>
<td>
*Jingyan (靖炎 Jìngyán) 1127&ndash;1130
*Shaoxing (紹興 Shàoxīng) 1131&ndash;1162
</td></tr>

<tr><td>[[Emperor Xiaozong of Song China|Xiaozong (孝宗 Xiàozōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Shen (趙昚 Zhào Shèn)</td>
<td>1162&ndash;1189</td>
<td>
*Longxing (隆興 Lóngxīng) 1163&ndash;1164
*Qiandao (乾道 Qiándào) 1165&ndash;1173
*Chunxi (淳熙 Chúnxī) 1174&ndash;1189
</td></tr>

<tr><td>[[Emperor Guangzong of Song China|Guangzong (光宗 Guāngzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Dun (趙惇 Zhào Dūn)</td>
<td>1189&ndash;1194</td>
<td>
*Shaoxi (紹熙 Shàoxī) 1190&ndash;1194
</td></tr>

<tr><td>[[Emperor Ningzong of Song China|Ningzong (寧宗 Níngzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Kuo (趙擴 Zhào Kuó)</td>
<td>1194&ndash;1224</td>
<td>
*Qingyuan (慶元 Qìngyuán) 1195&ndash;1200
*Jiatai (嘉泰 Jiātài) 1201&ndash;1204
*Kaixi (開禧 Kāixǐ) 1205&ndash;1207
*Jiading (嘉定 Jiādìng) 1208&ndash;1224
</td></tr>

<tr><td>[[Emperor Lizong of Song China|Lizong (理宗 Lǐzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Yun (趙昀 Zhào Yún)</td>
<td>1224&ndash;1264</td>
<td>
*Baoqing (寶慶 Bǎoqìng) 1225&ndash;1227
*Shaoding (紹定 Shàodìng) 1228&ndash;1233
*Duanping (端平 Duānpíng) 1234&ndash;1236
*Jiaxi (嘉熙 Jiāxī) 1237&ndash;1240
*Chunyou (淳祐 Chúnyòu) 1241&ndash;1252
*Baoyou (寶祐 Bǎoyòu) 1253&ndash;1258
*Kaiqing (開慶 Kāiqìng) [[1259]]
*Jingding (景定 Jǐngdìng) 1260&ndash;1264
</td></tr>

<tr><td>[[Emperor Du of Song China|Duzong (度宗 Dùzōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Qi (趙祺 Zhào Qí)</td>
<td>1264&ndash;1274</td>
<td>
*Xianchun (咸淳 Xiánchún) 1265&ndash;1274
</td></tr>

<tr><td>[[Emperor Gongzong (恭宗 Gōngzōng)]]</td>
<td>[[Emperor Gong of Song China|Gong Di (恭帝 Gōngdì)]]</td>
<td>Zhao Xian (趙顯 Zhào Xiǎn)
</td>
<td>1275</td>
<td>
*Deyou (德祐 Déyòu) 1275&ndash;1276
</td></tr>

<tr><td>[[Emperor Duanzong of Song China|Duan Zong (端宗 Duān Zōng)]]</td>
<td>''too tedious; thus, not used when referring to this sovereign''</td>
<td>Zhao Shi (趙昰 Zhào Shì)</td>
<td>1276&ndash;1278</td>
<td>
*Jingyan (景炎 Jǐngyán) 1276&ndash;1278
</td></tr>

<tr><td>''did not exist''</td>
<td>[[Emperor Bing of Song China|Di (帝 Dì) or Wei Wang (衛王 Wèiwáng)]]</td>
<td>Zhao Bing (趙昺 Zhào Bǐng)</td>
<td>1278&ndash;1279</td>
<td>
*Xiangxing (祥興 Xiángxīng) 1278&ndash;1279
</td></tr></table>


{{Start box}}
{{Succession box|title=Song Dynasty|before=[[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period|Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms]]|after=[[Yuan Dynasty]]|years=960–1279}}
{{end box}}

==Other notes==
*During the reign of the Song Dynasty the world population grew from about 250 million to approximately 330 million, a difference of 80 million.

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book |last=Gascoigne |first=Bamber |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Dynasties of China: A History |year=2003 |publisher=Carroll & Graf |location=New York |id=ISBN 1-84119-791-2 }}
*{{cite book |last=Gernet |first=Jacques |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=A history of Chinese civilization |year=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |id=ISBN 0-521-24130-8 }}
*{{cite book |last=Kruger |first=Rayne |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=All Under Heaven: A Complete History of China |year=2003 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |id=ISBN 0-470-86533-4 }}
*{{cite book |last=Paludan|first=Ann|title=Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors|year=1998|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London|id=ISBN 0500050902}}
*{{cite book |last=Levathes|fist=Louise|title=When China Ruled the Seas|year=1994|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|id=ISBN 0-671-70158-4}}
*Needham, Joseph (1986). ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Part 3''. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd.
*Ebrey, Walthall, Palais, (2006). ''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.


==See also==
==See also==
*[[List of cities and towns along the Ohio River]]
{{Commonscat|Song Dynasty}}
{{ChineseText}}
*[[Chinese sovereign]]
*[[Wang Anshi]]
*[[Battle of Xiangyang]]
*[[Yue Fei]]
*[[Sima Guang]]
*[[Zhou Tong (Shaolin Monk)]]
*[[Wen Tianxiang]]
*[[Treaty of Shaoxing]]
*[[Bao Qingtian]]

<!-- (Northern Song) -->
<!-- [[ja:南宋]] (Southern Song) -->


==External links==
[[Category:Song Dynasty|Song Dynasty]]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|40.319869|-80.61224}}
[[Category:History of China]]
{{Jefferson County, Ohio}}
[[Category:960 establishments]]
[[Category:1279 disestablishments]]


[[ca:Dinastia Song]]
[[Category:Villages in Ohio]]
[[Category:Jefferson County, Ohio]]
[[da:Song-dynastiet]]
[[de:Song-Dynastie]]
[[es:Dinastía Song]]
[[eo:Dinastio Song]]
[[fr:Dynastie Song]]
[[hr:Dinastija Sung]]
[[ko:송나라]]
[[id:Dinasti Song]]
[[it:Dinastia Song]]
[[nl:Song-dynastie]]
[[ja:北宋]]
[[no:Song-dynastiet]]
[[nn:Song-dynastiet]]
[[pl:Dynastia Song]]
[[pt:Dinastia Sung]]
[[ro:Dinastia Song]]
[[ru:Сун (династия)]]
[[fi:Song-dynastia]]
[[sv:Songdynastin]]
[[vi:Nhà Tống]]
[[zh:宋朝]]{{link FA|zh}}
[[zh-classical:宋]]

Revision as of 22:08, 29 March 2007

Downtown Mingo Junction in September 2006. Wheeling-Pittsburgh Steel Corporation's South Plant at Mingo is shown in the background. Commercial Street is seen in the foreground and is downtown Mingo's main street.
Location of Mingo Junction, Ohio
Location of Mingo Junction, Ohio

Mingo Junction is a village in Jefferson County, Ohio, along the Ohio River. The population was 3,631 at the 2000 census. In 1900, its only manufacturing plant was a steel mill owned by Carnegie Steel Company. Past population figures are: 1900, 2,954; 1910, 4,049; 1940, 5,192.

Geography

Mingo Junction is located at 40°19′12″N 80°36′44″W / 40.32000°N 80.61222°W / 40.32000; -80.61222Invalid arguments have been passed to the {{#coordinates:}} function (40.319869, -80.612240)Template:GR.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 6.6 km² (2.5 mi²), all land.

Demographics

As of the censusTemplate:GR of 2000, there were 3,631 people, 1,542 households, and 1,062 families residing in the village. The population density was 551.9/km² (1,430.7/mi²). There were 1,691 housing units at an average density of 257.0/km² (666.3/mi²). The racial makeup of the village was 95.35% White, 3.00% African American, 0.17% Native American, 0.03% Asian, 0.11% Pacific Islander, 0.39% from other races, and 0.96% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.77% of the population.

There were 1,542 households out of which 25.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 51.8% were married couples living together, 12.9% had a female householder with no husband present, and 31.1% were non-families. 27.6% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.84.

In the village the population was spread out with 21.1% under the age of 18, 6.5% from 18 to 24, 25.6% from 25 to 44, 26.8% from 45 to 64, and 20.0% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43 years. For every 100 females there were 87.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 84.8 males.

The median income for a household in the village was $30,196, and the median income for a family was $40,326. Males had a median income of $37,969 versus $20,809 for females. The per capita income for the village was $16,062. About 10.8% of families and 12.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.0% of those under age 18 and 8.1% of those age 65 or over.

Trivia

See also

Template:Mapit-US-cityscale

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