Post-classical history: Difference between revisions

14th century illustration of Mongol warriors. The Mongol Empire linked Europe and Asia through one of the most massive empires in history. As a result, trade and the spread of cultures (as well as disease) flourished.

The Postclassical Era refers to the historical period of time that immediately followed the Iron Age, generally during the years between 200-600 CE and 1200-1500 CE, depending on the continent. The era is named for the more Eurocentric Classical Era, although the Postclassical Era refers to a more global outline. It is marked by several developments across the world.

In Western Europe, a new form of civilization was reconstructed after the fall of the Western Roman Empire which plunged it into the Dark Ages; during this time the area was generally controlled by the Catholic Church. Their later developments were marked by manorialism, feudalism, and evolved into the prosperous High Middle Ages which culminated in the Renaissance. In Eastern Europe, the Eastern Roman Empire survived as what we now call the Byzantine Empire. Ruled by a religious Christian Orthodox emperor, Byzantium flourished as the leading power and trade center in its region until it was overshadowed by the Islamic Empires.

The introduction of Islam in the Middle East was a major development, inspiring a large empire ruled by the caliphate and conquering all of the Middle East, North Africa, Spain, and parts of India and Southeast Asia. The newfound empire made significant scientific advancements and salvaged older works as well as spreading science, culture (including religion), and trade between the Asian, African, and European continents. East Asia experienced the full establishment of power of China, which pulled out of chaos to establish several prosperous dynasties that would conquer large amounts of territory. As a result, Chinese satellites such as Korea, Vietnam, and Japan were heavily influenced, especially in the spread of religions such as Buddhism and Neo-Confucianism. Gunpowder developed in this era and would quickly lead to its use in warfare and spread around the world. The Mongol Empire greatly affected much of Europe and Asia, the latter of which was conquered in many areas. The Mongols were able to create safe trade and stability between the two regions, but inadvertently encouraged the spread of the Black Plague.

The Americas would remain undiscovered by the Old World throughout this time. The developments of Maya, the Aztec, and the Inca in this time were especially notable amongst the American peoples, but only reached a level of prowess comparable to the Classical Age of the Old World. Therefore, the traditional Postclassical Era time period (approx. 500 CE-1450 CE) could be considered the Classical stage of development in the Americas.

Main trends

The Postclassical Era drastically changed the world from what was the Classical civilizations to the Modern Period, and thus experienced several important developments and trends that directed the world into becoming what it is today.

First, there was the expansion and growth of civilization into new areas across Asia, Africa, Europe, Mesoamerica, and western South America. In Asia, we saw that China continued its historic dynastic cycle and became more complex, improving its bureaucracy. Places like Japan, Vietnam, Korea, and India continued to develop their own societies as well. The creation of the Islamic Empires established a new power in the Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia. Africa created the Songhai and Mali kingdoms in the West. The fall of Roman civilization not only left a power vacuum for the Mediterranean and Europe, but forced certain areas to build what some historians might call new civilizations entirely. An entirely different political system was applied in Western Europe (i.e. feudalism), as well as a different society (i.e. manorialism), and there was the general loss of many past scientific and technological innovations, one of the most prominent being aqueducts. But the once East Roman Empire, Byzantium, retained many features of old Rome, as well as Greek and Persian similarities. Kiev Rus' and subsequently Russia began development in Eastern Europe as well. In the isolated Americas, Mesoamerica saw the building of the Aztec Empire, while the Andean region of South America saw the establishment of the Inca Empire.

The growth and geographical spread of major world religions also occurred, with Islam being the most successful religion during this time. Christianity continued its spread into Scandinavia, the Baltic area, and the British Isles—ousting the old pagan religions; an attempt was even made to incur upon the Middle East during the Crusades. The split of the Catholic Church in Western Europe and the Orthodox Church in Eastern Europe encouraged religious and cultural diversity in Eurasia as well. Additionally, Buddhism spread from India into China and flourished there briefly before using it as a hub to spread to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam; a similar effect occurred with Confucian revivalism in the later centuries. Once again, however, the most prominent world religion at the time was Islam. Starting in the Arabian Peninsula, it unified the warring Bedouin clans and through conquest, trade, and missionaries, spread to Persia, Indonesia, Central Asia, India, North Africa, and the Iberian Peninsula.

Finally, communication and trade all across Afro-Eurasia increased rapidly. The Silk Road continued to spread cultures and ideas through trade and throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa. Trade networks were established between West Europe, Byzantium, early Russia, the Islamic Empires, and the Far Eastern civilizations. The Islamic Empires adopted many Greek, Roman, and Indian advances and spread them through the Islamic sphere of influence, allowing these developments to reach Europe, North and West Africa, and Central Asia. Islamic sea trade helped connect these areas, including those in the Indian Ocean and in the Mediterranean, replacing Byzantium in the latter region. The Christian Crusades into the Middle East (as well as Muslim Spain and Sicily) brought Islamic science, technology, and goods to Western Europe. Western trade into East Asia was pioneered by Marco Polo. Importantly, China began the sinicization (or Chinese influence) of regions like Japan, Korea, and Vietnam through trade and conquest. Finally, the growth of the Mongol Empire in Central Asia established such safe trade as to allow goods, cultures, ideas, and disease spread between Asia, Europe, and Africa.

Europe

Main article: Middle Ages

The Postclassical Era takes place in Western history between 500 and 1500 CE, following the fall of the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean region, or more specifically, the Western Roman Empire. The European Postclassical Era coincides with and is more commonly known as the Middle Ages.

Western

14th century miniature of serfs harvesting wheat with reaping-hooks.

Early Middle Ages

Main article: Early Middle Ages

After the fall of the classical western empires (in this case the Roman Empire), independent civilizations soon arose to fill the power vacuum. This was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages, a dark period lasting from around 400 CE to 1000 CE and characterized by its stagnant culture, economy, and science as well as its declining population size. In 449, the British Isles were invaded by the Anglo-Saxons, who would fully control the region for the next six hundred years. Since 413, the Romans had lost control of the Franks, and the latter established Francia (also known as the Frankish Kingdom), a precursor to modern-day France. Once Clovis I of the Merovingian dynasty was crowned king of Francia in 481, he expanded the kingdom to much of France's current region (although it would quickly split amongst his sons). The Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal) was ruled by the Visigoths during this period, establishing the Visigothic Kingdom.

The first development of medieval Western Europe was the establishment of a new society with the creation of the manorial system. This meant that peasants called serfs would be bound to the land they farmed and have to pay tribute to aristocratic lords who owned the large regions these serfs inhabited. Serf farmers would use crop rotation, developing from a two-field system to a three-field system. Another major institution was the Catholic Church, a driving force in West European politics and the only immediate organization left after the fall of the Romans. Saint Benedict's book of precepts for monks, written in the early 6th century, was fundamental in establishing West European monasticism. A hierarchy was utilized that put the Pope at the head, followed by Bishops, and then Priests. The Church spread Christianity northward, and set up monasteries which improved education, cultivation, and spirituality amongst the peasantry and elite. By 597, missionaries arrived in England to convert pagans. Very little education or culture developed in the earlier centuries, with science and literature confined to Catholic monks who simply copied older manuscripts.

The division of the Carolingian Empire after the Treaty of Verdun in 843.

Power struggles began to shift in the 8th century. In 711, Umayyad Muslims conquer Iberia and establish the Moorish kingdom of Al-Andalus. By the late 700s Viking expansion appears. The migrations of Scandinavian merchants and pirates both prospered in and ravaged several parts of Europe in a period known as the Viking Age. While the raids of these so-called "barbarians" may have had destructive short-term effects, Vikings established ports and villages that would grow into towns and cities, catalyzing medieval urban life. In 768, Charlemagne of the Carolingian dynasty is crowned king of the Franks. An extremely adept ruler, he would gain large amounts of territory in Central Europe and Spain, unifying much of Western Europe. In 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne the first Emperor since the fall of Western Rome. Charlemagne helps found feudalism — a system where vassals serve lords and lords serve kings — and thus would allow smaller kingdoms to develop after his fall. The collapse and division of the Carolingians would lead to the Treaty of Verdun in 843, establishing West Francia which would quickly grow into the Kingdom of France; East Francia, which would become the Kingdom of Germany; and Middle Francia, which would divide into smaller kingdoms. In England, the gradual unification of various kingdoms into the Kingdom of England was completed in 927 by King Æthelstan. The mantle of the Holy Roman Empire would be taken up again with the crowning of the king of Germany Otto I as Holy Roman Emperor in 962.

13th century heaume in stone effigy of Sir Thomas Fitzwilliam.

High Middle Ages

Main article: High Middle Ages

The war-like nature and bloodline of the Vikings would also create great warriors of Europe. This would kick off the glorious High Middle Ages, a period of medieval prosperity from about 1000 to 1300. One of the most famous examples of these warriors was William the Conqueror of Normandy. William would go on to conquer England in 1066 and help establish a feudal kingdom there. With expansionist impulses running high, the Holy Roman Empire increased its territory from the Kingdom of Germany to the Polish region and the Kingdoms of Bohemia, Italy, and Burgundy by 1050. The sudden revival of Muslim invasions by the Seljuq Turks in Anatolia (now Turkey), caused Pope Urban II to launch the first of the Crusades in 1096. The Christian Reconquista of Iberia from the Muslim state Al-Andalus intensifies and the second and third crusades occur with failure and relative success, respectively. One major break in this line of monarchic successes, however, is the uprising of English barons against King John of England's fiscal policies and treatment of the nobility after an unsuccessful war against Normandy, resulting in the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215, limiting the King's power and setting a precedent for years to come. Six more crusades would bring Muslim treasures, scientific advances, and other influences until the Ninth Crusade and the fall of Acre in 1272.

Late Middle Ages

Main article: Late Middle Ages

Then with arrival of year 1300, prosperity suddenly slowed. The Late Middle Ages began, marked by several hardships and tragedies from 1300 to 1500. The Western Schism of the Catholic church occurred around this time, caused by two men both claiming the title of pope in 1378. Although it was resolved in 1417, the scandal damaged the reputation of the papacy. The Hundred Years' War between England and France over territorial disputes in 1337, also started in this period and brought to fame Joan of Arc. The war would add to the many famines already occurring due to overpopulation. Epidemics also began to spread, including the infamous Black Death, which began to spread throughout Europe in 1347, as a direct result of increased trade between Europe and Asia due to the Mongol Empire's secured travel and their catapulting of infected corpses into besieged cities. Ships coming from the Crimea put into port at Messina, Sicily in early October 1347, bringing with them rats in their cargo. These rodents carried fleas infected with the bacillus Yersinia pestis in the form of the bubonic plague. The disease cut the European population by 30 to 60 percent — killing between 75 to 200 million people.

However, the aftermath of these issues would lead to a cultural and scientific revival, the Renaissance. The significantly decreased population from the black plague allowed for a greater relative supply of food for the people and higher wages for farmers, ending manorialism and popularizing the use of tenant farmers. Additionally, the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1450 revolutionized communication. The Hundred Years' War ended in 1453 — its effects would lead to the War of the Roses in England. Maritime explorers like Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus would receive funding from Henry the Navigator and the newfound Spanish Empire respectively.

Eastern

The Byzantine Empire at the height of its power in the 6th century. The areas in purple were conquered by Justinian I and were later lost to Western Europe and the Islamic Empires, as well the southeastern territories.

While the Western Roman Empire collapsed in the 5th century, the Eastern Roman Empire retained a stable government and was considered the only actual continuation of the original Roman Empire. The Byzantine Empire was the most powerful state in eastern Europe during the Postclassical age, dominating the Balkans. Its capital, Constantinople, was built on the old grounds of the ancient Greek city Byzantium, lending to the term Byzantine. The Byzantine Empire would last for over a thousand years, and remain the dominant force in Eastern Europe for most of that time. In contrast, the northern territories were occupied by the Slavs, who had formed small kingdoms and principalities even before the fall of the Romans.

Mosaic of Empress Zoe and Emperor Constantine IX standing beside Christ and adorned with halos.

Byzantine Society and Culture

Since its beginnings, Constantinople and the Byzantines were ruled by a simultaneously political and religious emperor. The emperor was surrounded by extravagant ceremonies and considered to have had divine kingship. The government used a bureaucracy that was occupied by both scholars and aristocrats, similar to China at the time. Additionally, intrigue and violent rival factions were present in politics, the latter of which often used corrupt methods such as spies to tip power in their favor. Women held a somewhat higher role in the Byzantine Empire, as evidenced by the rules of Empress Theodora, or Empress Zoe. Byzantine culture was defined by its Greek influences, stemming simply from the Empire's nearby geographical location; this was despite the fact that the Byzantines thought themselves Roman, a view shared by foreign states at the time as well. Mosaics were a significant style of Byzantine art.

At the height of its power, in 555, the Eastern Roman Empire held power over Italy, Greece, Turkey, southern Spain, and the northern coast of Africa. Byzantium also dominated the Mediterranean islands, as well as their trade in the earlier centuries. This was primarily due to the military campaigns set by Emperor Justinian I.

Mosaic of Justinian I from before 547.

Trade in Eastern Europe

Growing trade expanded contact between Asia, Europe, and the Middle East, effectively connecting Eurasia. Scandinavian traders (i.e. Vikings known in Eastern Europe as Varangians) moved into what is now eastern Russia, in the 6th and 7th centuries. The Scandinavians were militarily dominant amongst the local Slavic peoples. They sailed in boats from north to south through various rivers, particularly the Dnieper. This led to trade with Byzantium, which had Scandinavians exchanging furs and raw materials for luxuries from both the Byzantines and, indirectly, Arabs. The latter was achieved primarily due to the heavy trade between Byzantium and the Middle East; this developed into a rivalry as the Islamic Empires' power grew. The rivalry was especially focused on control of the Silk Road, which facilitated trade from East Asia — an important source of goods. In later centuries, the Seljuqs would take control of this route — a factor in the slow decline of the Byzantines.

East-West Schism and the Spread of Religion

It is important to note that by the beginning of the postclassical period, Christianity had become the official religion in Roman territories. However, since the 300s CE, many differences in culture, language, politics, and theology greatly contrasted the Christian clergy in Western Europe and Eastern Europe. The innate Greek culture of the Byzantines played a part in this difference: for example, Latin was considered barbaric among the Byzantines and they instead spoke Greek. Theological disputes also arose, such as what type of bread should be used in the Eucharist, whether priests ought to be celibate, and the source of the Holy Spirit, filioque. Rivalry between the Western Pope and the Eastern Patriarchs also contributed to the estrangement, as well as Byzantine loyalty to the Ecumenical Patriarch rather than the Pope, rejecting Papal supremacy. This eventually culminated in the East-West Schism which officially began in 1054 with the excommunication of Patriarch Michael Cerularius by Cardinal Humbert, when the Cerularius refused to submit to Rome. Cardinal Humbert was subsequently excommunicated by Michael Cerularius. The dispute would intensify until the formation of the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church, and many attempts to reunify the churches would fail.

Nevertheless, the Byzantines spread their distinct religion and culture northward as West Europeans did, building many Christian churches and converting the Balkans peoples and the Slavs. Missionaries like Saints Cyril and Methodius, who were sent to the Czech and Slovak regions in 864, worked to assimilate the West Slavs. The two brothers created Cyrillic script based on Greek and Glagolithic characters in order to help assimilate the foreign peoples. However, rival Catholic missionaries managed to convert the Czech and Slovak regions in opposition to the Orthodox missionaries; the people in the Polish region and the Hungarian region also adopted Catholicism as their primary religion. Additionally, Jewish immigrants began to move into Eastern Europe in order to escape discrimination in the Middle East and Western Europe, adding to the religious diversity as well as local commerce, education, and literature.

Early Russia

With the influx of Varangians in the East Slavic region and the state-building of the local Slavs, the state of Kievan Rus' was eventually formed in the late 9th century. This was catalyzed by the rule of prince Rurik, who established the Rurik dynasty. The monarchy became a federation of multiple East Slavic tribes and came to cover much of what is now Ukraine and European Russia. The Rus held trade with the Byzantine Empire, the former gaining certain characteristics of the latter. Byzantine influence intensified from 867 through 1056 during the Macedonian dynasty of Byzantium. In 988, Vladimir the Great of Kiev adopted Orthodox Christianity, and began to start mass conversions that developed into the Russian Orthodox Church).

The Middle East

The Arabian peninsula and the surrounding Near East regions saw dramatic change during the Postclassical Era caused primarily by the spread of Islam and the establishment of the Arabian Empires.

Pre-Islam

Prior to the spread of Islam, the Middle East was separated into small, weak states; the two most prominent were the Sassanid Empire of the Persians in what is now Iran, and the Byzantine Empire in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). In the Arabian peninsula (now Saudi Arabia), the nomadic Bedouin tribes dominated the desert, where they worshipped idols and remained in small clans tied together by kinship. Urbanization and agriculture was very limited, save for a few regions near the coast. Mecca and Medina were two such cities that were important hubs for trade between Africa and Eurasia. This commerce was central to city-life, where most inhabitants were merchants.

Islamic Empires

The Prophet Muhammad in a Mosque. The artist depicted Muhammad in very long sleeves so as to avoid showing his hands.

Muhammad and the Rashidun Caliphate

Main articles: Muhammad in Medina and Rashidun Caliphate

From 613 CE to 630 CE the prophet Muhammad spread the Islam faith in the Arabian desert, culminating in his victory at Mecca. He then unified the idolatrous tribes into an Islamic Empire, ruled by a religious and political leader, the caliph. They would proceed to conquer the Sassanids, and modern-day Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Libya. An Arabic navy was created that soon dominated the Mediterranean, crippled the Byzantine Empire, and put it under siege for centuries to come. Issues in deciding the caliphs to succeed Muhammad led to the Ridda wars, in which rebels refused to submit to Abu Bakr. This would begin the Shia–Sunni split, a rift between two sects of Islam. One group, the Sunni, believe that Abu Bakr was the rightful successor to Muhammad, and another group, the Shia, believe it was Ali. Eventually the Bakr and the Sunni gained control and begun the Rashidun Caliphate. The Rashidun, or "Rightly Guided" caliphs, continued expansion of the Islamic empire until the establishment of the Umayyad, a former idolatrous tribe of Arabia.

Umayyad Caliphate

Main article: Umayyad Caliphate

The Umayyad were centered at their capital, Damascus in what's now Syria. With the Umayyad came more conquest, giving them rule over central Asia, most of northern Africa, and from there, the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal). Little conversion occurred at this time due to the disrespect non-Arab Muslims, or mawali (Arabic: موالي), received from the Umayyad. Christians and Jews were treated with more respect as dhimmi (Arabic: ذمي), specifically the Ahl al-Kitab (Arabic: أهل الكتاب) or "people of the book," referring to the Holy Bible which they all shared. During the Umayyad age, women's position also improved from that of pre-Islamic Arabia; Muhammad's teachings banned adultery, encouraged marriage and kindness to wives and daughters, and proclaimed equality of women and men "in the eyes of God."

Abbasid Caliphate

Main article: Abbasid Caliphate

Further information: Fatimid Caliphate and Caliphate of Córdoba

The Abbasid Empire at its greatest extent

The Umayyad Empire began to decline in the early 700's CE when its leaders became more and more detached from their people, especially the warriors who had fought for their conquest. A new political group, the Abbasids, joined the upset warriors, Shia, and mawali, and overthrew the Umayyad in 750 CE during the Battle of the Zab. The remaining Umayyads fled to Iberia, and established the independent, Muslim Caliphate of Córdoba. The establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate started with moving the capital to Baghdad in Persia (now Iraq) in 762 CE and with this came the application of certain Persian political institutions. This included the creation of an absolute monarchy, which ruled without question, as well as an improved bureaucracy, led by the wazir who took most of the political and administrative responsibilities the caliph previously had. The Abbasid also experienced a boom in trade, specifically that at sea, sending dhows continued expansion, first by sending merchants and missionaries to India and Southeast Asia. Eventually conflict would arise due to a piracy issue in India, and the Abbasid would begin to conquer the western area of India which they traded with. The first expedition was led by Turkish general Qutb-ud-din Aybak and established the Mamluk Sultanate in 1206 CE, ruled by the sultan (Arabic: سلطان) which means "authority."

Christian Crusaders before Saladin in Jerusalem

However, the Abbasid government soon fell to the same vices as the Umayyad. Different factions in the royal court would fight for power, especially various groups of the Turkic peoples. The caliph began to rely on advisors from wealthy families, which would sometimes render him a mere puppet. This happened when the Persian Buyid dynasty was established in 934 CE. The Shia government lasted only a little over a century. They were quickly overpowered by the Turkish people who would create the Seljuq dynasty by 1051 CE, reestalishing the Sunni government. Nevertheless, succession issues and the squabbling factions would continue through the First Crusade, launched by Christian western Europeans in 1095 CE, which was largely ignored by the more powerful Muslim princes despite its success at capturing Jerusalem. The next eight Crusades would succeed to varying degrees, and the Christians would lose considerable ground when the Muslims were united under Saladin in the late 1100s CE. By 1291, after the final crusade and the fall of Acre, the Christians had lost all of the territory they originally gained.

The increasingly divided regions of the Abbasid caliphate would face new challenges in the early 1200s CE, during the invasion of the central Asian nomadic peoples, the Mongols; led by the infamous Genghis Khan, the Mongols raided much of the eastern empire. In 1258, Genghis Khan's grandson Hulegu Khan would finish his grandfather's work with the sacking of Baghdad and the death of the caliph. The Mongols eventually retreated, but the chaos that ensued throughout the empire deposed the Seljuq Turks. In 1401, the weak and limping caliphate was further plagued by the Turko-Mongol, Timur, and his ferocious raids. By then, another group of Turks had arisen as well, the Ottomans. Based in Anatolia, by 1566 they would conquer the Mesopotamia region, the Balkans, Greece, Byzantium, most of Egypt, most of north Africa, and parts of Arabia, unifying them under the Ottoman Empire. The rule of the Ottoman sultans marked the end of the Postclassical Era in the Middle East.

Religion, Culture, and Science

Main articles: Islamic culture and Science in the medieval Islamic world

The interior of the former mosque of Córdoba, showing its distinctive arches.

Religion always played a prevalent role in Middle Eastern culture, affecting learning, architecture, and the ebb and flow of cultures. When Muhammad introduced Islam, it jump-started Middle Eastern culture, inspiring achievements in architecture, the revival of old advances in science and technology, and the formation of a distinct way of life. Islam primarily consisted of the five pillars of belief, including confession of faith, the five prayers a day, to fast during the holy month of Ramadan, to pay the tax for charity (the zakāt), and the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca (the hajj). Islam also created the need for spectacularly built mosques which created a distinct form of architecture. Some of the more magnificent mosques include the Al-Aqsa Mosque and the former Mosque of Cordoba. Islam unified the Middle East and helped the empires there to remain stable. Missionaries and warriors spread the religion from Arabia to North and Sudanic Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Mesopotamia area. This created a mix of cultures, especially in Africa, and the mawali demographic. Although the mawali would experience discrimination from the Umayyad, they would gain widespread acceptance from the Abbasids and it was because of this that allowed for mass conversions in foreign areas. “People of the book” or dhimmi were always treated well; these people included Christians, Jews, Hindus, and Zoroastrarians. However, the crusades started a new thinking in the Islamic empires, that non-Islamic ideas were immoral or inferior; this was primarily perpetrated by the ulama (Arabic: علماء) scholars.

Arabian culture took off during the early Abbasid age, despite the prevalent political issues. Muslims saved and spread Greek advances in medicine, algebra, geometry, astronomy, anatomy, and ethics that would have been lost to the Dark Ages of Europe. The works of Aristotle, Galen, Hippocrates, Ptolemy, and Euclid were saved and distributed throughout the empire (and eventually into Europe) in this manner. Muslim scholars also discovered the Indian numerical system in their conquests of south Asia. The use of this system in Muslim trade and political institutions allowed for the eventual popularization of it around the world; this number system would be critical to the Scientific revolution in Europe. Muslim intellectuals would become experts in chemistry, optics, and mapmaking during the Abbasid Caliphate. In the arts, Abbasid architecture expanded upon Umayyad architecture, with larger and more extravagant mosques. Persian literature grew based on ethical values. Astronomy was stressed in art. Much of this learning would find its way to the West. This was especially true during the crusades, as warriors would bring back Muslim treasures, weapons, and medicinal methods.

Africa

Main Article: Postclassical Africa

Prior to the migration and conquest of Muslims into Africa, much of the continent was dominated by diverse, stateless societies. These consisted of a king or a council of elders who would control a small group of people. Most of these peoples practiced spiritual, animistic religions. Africa was culturally separated between Saharan Africa (which consisted of north Africa and the Sahara Desert) and Sub-Saharan Africa (everything south of Saharan Africa). A large amount of people in Sub-Saharan Africa spoke the Bantu language and were therefore referred to as the Bantu peoples.

During the Postclassical Era, Africa was both culturally and politically affected by the introduction of Islam and the Arabic empires. This was especially true in the north, the Sudan region, and the east coast. The Umayyad Empire conquered northern Africa, making it part of the Islamic world, and a useful area for trading in the Mediterranean Sea. Muslim merchants and invaders brought the idea of nation-states and it is around this time that the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire developed.

In the east coast of Africa, Arabic ports were established where gold, spices, and other commodities were traded. This allowed Africa to join the Southeast Asia trading system bringing it contact with Asia; this, along with Muslim culture, resulted in the Swahili culture.

South and Southeast Asia

Vietnam was also conquered by China, although they often resisted and would occasionally regain their independence. Nonetheless, a sort of begrudging sinicization occurred. By the end of the Postclassical Era, Vietnam would be in control of its own Nguyen Dynasty.

East Asia

During this period, the Eastern world empires continued to expand through trade, migration and conquests of neighboring areas. Japan and Korea went under the process of sinicization, or the impression of Chinese cultural and political ideas. This was partly due to conquest, specifically in Korea; Japan sinicized mostly because the emperor and other leaders at the time were largely impressed by China's bureaucracy. The major influences China had on these countries were the spread of Confucianism, the spread of Buddhism, and the establishment of a bureaucracy (although it was vulnerable to favoritism towards the wealthy).

China

Postclassical China saw the rise and fall of the Tang and Song dynasties and therefore improvements in its bureaucracy, the spread of Buddhism, and the advent of Neo-Confucianism.

Sui Dynasty

Main article: Sui Dynasty

A new powerful dynasty began to rise in the 580's CE, amidst the divided Six Dynasties period. This was started when a aristocrat named Yang Jian married his daughter into the Northern Zhou Dynasty. He proclaimed himself Emperor Wen of Sui and appeased the nomadic military by increasing aristocratic power. Emperor Wen soon led the conquest of the southern Chen Dynasty and united China once more under the Sui Dynasty. The emperor lowered taxes and constructed granaries that he used to prevent famine and control the market. The Sui Dynasty laid down the foundation for long-lasting political reform and additionally finalized the construction of the Grand Canal systems. Later, Wen's son would speed his father's death for the throne and declare himself Emperor Yang of Sui. Emperor Yang revived the Confucian scholars and the bureaucracy, much to anger of the aristocrats and nomadic military leaders. Yang became an excessive leader who overused China's resources for personal luxury and perpetuated exhaustive attempts to reconquer Korea. His military failures and neglect of the empire forced his own ministers to assassinate him in 618 CE, ending the brief Sui Dynasty.

Tang Dynasty

Main article: Tang Dynasty

Tang Dynasty circa 700 CE

Miniature statue of Buddha from the Tang Dynasty

Fortunately, one of Yang's most respectable advisors, Li Yuan, was able to claim the throne quickly, preventing a chaotic collapse. He proclaimed himself Emperor Gaozu, and established the Tang Dynasty in 623 CE. The Tang saw expansion of China through conquest of Tibet in the west, Vietnam in the south, and Manchuria in the north. In addition to extending the bureaucracy itself and its powers, Tang emperors also improved the education of its scholars. The Ministry of Rites was established and the examination system was improved to better qualify scholars for their jobs. Aristocrats continued to hold some power, however. In addition, Buddhism became popular in China with two different strains between the peasantry and the elite, the Pure Land and Zen strains, respectively. Empress Wu was a great advocate for Buddhism, supporting Buddhist monasteries, great stone or cast-iron statues, and the like. However, Buddhism would also experience some backlash, especially from Confucianists and Taoists. This would usually involve criticism about how it was costing the state money, since the government was unable to tax Buddhist monasteries, and additionally sent many grants and gifts to them. This culminated with Emperor Wuzong's policies forcing Buddhists to convert to Confucianism or Taoism.

The Neo-Confucian scholar and philosopher, Zhu Xi.

The Tang dynasty began to decline under the rule of Emperor Xuanzong, who began to neglect the economy and military and caused unrest amongst the court officials due to the excessive influence of his concubine, Yang Guifei, and her family. This eventually sparked a revolt in 755 CE. Although the revolt failed, subduing it required involvement with the unruly nomadic tribes outside of China and distributing more power to local leaders—leaving the government and economy in a degraded state. The Tang dynasty officially ended in 907 CE and various factions led by the aforementioned nomadic kingdoms and regional leaders would fight for control of China in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period.

Song Dynasties

Main article: Song Dynasty

In 960, the dominant general Zhao Kuangyin declared himself Emperor Taizu of Song, reuniting most of China under the Song Dynasty. The Song, however, lost territories in the north and could not defeat one of the nomadic tribes there—the Liao Dynasty ruled by the highly sinicized Khitan people. From 1004 on, the Song would have to pay tribute to avoid invasion and thus set the precedent for other nomadic kingdoms to oppress them. The embarrassing tribute of the Song damaged their economy. Thus, chief minister Wang Anshi attempted economic reform in the 1070s through irrigation projects, raised taxes, and a greater army. Much of this improvement was reversed when his patron emperor was succeeded in 1080 by an emperor who rejected Wang's policies. Instead, this emperor would start the revival of Confucianism in the form of Neo-Confucianism. This had the effect of putting the Confucian scholars at a higher status than aristocrats or Buddhists; another major result was the decline in women's position, with neo-Confucian values emphasizing men's superiority and encouraging foot-binding. One of Neo-Confucianism's most prominent philosophers was Zhu Xi. The Song would also see improvements in agriculture, technology, and commerce (especially with the introduction of paper money), as well as scholarly and artistic refinement.

Eventually the Liao Dynasty in the north was overthrown by the Jin Dynasty ruled by the Jurchen nomads. The new Jin kingdom invaded northern China, leaving the Song to flee farther south and creating the Southern Song Dynasty in 1126. There, cultural life flourished until the conquest of China under the Mongols, completed in 1279, which established the foreign-ruled Yuan Dynasty.

Japan

Japan's medieval history begins with the Asuka period, from around 600 CE to 710 CE. The time is characterized by the Taika Reform and imperial centralization, both of which were a direct result of growing Chinese contact and influences. In 603 CE, Prince Shōtoku of the Yamato dynasty begins significant political and cultural changes. The bureaucracy becomes more merit-based and most power is directed towards the emperor. Buddhism was especially advocated by Shōtoku and This eventually leads to the Nara period (c. 710 CE to c. 794 CE), with the moving of the Japanese capital to Nara in Honshu. This period sees the culmination of Chinese-style writing, etiquette, and architecture in Japan along with Confucian ideals to supplement the already present Buddhism. The latter philosophy becomes the state religion, and the government orders the construction many Buddhist temples, monasteries, and statues. The lavish spending combined with the fact that many aristocrats did not pay taxes, put a heavy burden on peasantry that caused poverty and famine. Eventually the Buddhist position got out of control, threatening to seize imperial power and causing Emperor Kammu to move the capital to Heian-kyō, starting the Heian period and ending Taika reform.

Korea

Korea was fought between the three local kingdoms: Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo. This continued until the Silla allied with Tang China to conquer all of Korea. Attempts at sinicization occurred.

Central Asia

The Silk Road

Main article: Silk Road

The Silk Road was a Eurasian trade route that played a large role in global communication and interaction. It stimulated cultural exchange; encouraged the learning of new languages; resulted in the trade of many goods, such as silk, gold, and spices; and also spread religion and disease. It is even claimed by some historians — such as Andre Gunder Frank, William Hardy McNeill, Jerry H. Bentley, and Marshall Hodgson — that the Afro-Eurasian world was loosely united culturally, and that the Silk Road was fundamental to this unity. This major trade route began with the Han Dynasty of China, connecting it to the Roman Empire and any regions in between or nearby. At this time, Central Asia exported horses, wool, and jade into China for the latter's silk; the Romans would trade for the Chinese commodity as well, offering wine in return. The Silk Road would often decline and rise again in trade from the Iron Age to the Postclassical Era. Following one such decline, it was reopened in Central Asia by General Ban Chao during the 1st century.

The Silk Road was also a major factor in spreading religion across Afro-Eurasia. Muslim teachings from Arabia and Persia reached East Asia. Buddhism spread from India, to China, to Central Asia. One significant development in the spread of Buddhism was the carving of the Gandhara School in the cities of Taxila and the Peshwar, allegedly in the mid 1st century.

The Silk Road flourished in the 13th century during the reign of the Mongol Empire, which through conquest had brought stability in Central Asia comparable to the Pax Romana. It was claimed by a Muslim historian that Central Asia, "enjoyed such a peace that a man might have journeyed from the land of sunrise to the land of sunset with a golden platter upon his head without suffering the least violence from anyone." As such, trade and communication between Europe, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East required little effort. Handicraft production, art, and scholarship prospered, and wealthy merchants enjoyed cosmopolitan cities.

Finally, the Silk Road trade played a role in spreading the infamous Black Death. Originating in China, the bubonic plague was spread by Mongol warriors catapulting diseased corpses into enemy towns in the Crimea. The disease, spread by rats, was carried by merchant ships sailing across the Mediterranean that brought the plague back to Sicily, causing an epidemic in 1347. Nevertheless, after the 15th century, the Silk Road disappeared from regular use. This was primarily a result from the growing sea travel pioneered by Europeans, which allowed the trade of goods by sailing around the southern tip of Africa and into the Indian Ocean.

Mongol Empire

Main article: Mongol Empire

The Americas

Main article: Classic stage

For the postclassical stage of the Americas from 1400-1700 CE, see Post-Classic stage

The Postclassical Era of the Americas can be considered set at a different time span from that of Afro-Eurasia. As the developments of Mesoamerican and Andean civilization differ greatly from that of the Old World, as well as the speed at which it developed, the Postclassical Era in the traditional sense does not take place until near the end of the Medieval Age in Afro-Eurasia. As such, for the purposes of this article, the Classic stage of the Americas will be discussed here, which takes place from about 400 CE to 1400 CE.

Mesoamerica

The Classic Period of Mesoamerican civilization begins with the decline and fall of the Toltec civilization. The resulting anarchy in the modern-day Mexico region consisted of various tribes and factions fighting for power. At the time, a small band of violent, religious radicals called the Aztecs began minor raids throughout the area. Eventually they began to claim connections with the Toltec civilization, and insisted they were the rightful successors. They began to grow in numbers and conquer large areas of land. Fundamental to their conquest, was the use of political terror in the sense that the Aztec leaders and priests would command the human sacrifice of their subjugated people as means of humility and coercion. Most of the Mesoamerican region would eventually fall under the Aztec Empire. The Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, was founded 1325 CE on a small island in the of Lake Texcoco. This was in accordance with a legend stating wherever an eagle was seen devouring a snake on a cactus, a great city must be built. Its religion was based on several gods some of which would affect nature, and some of which required sacrifice. According to Aztec religion, the gods supported the universe, and human blood supported the gods; if there was not a steady flow of sacrifice, the universe would die. Aztec developments expanded cultivation, applying the use of chinampas, irrigation, and terrace agriculture; important crops included maize, sweet potatoes, and avocadoes. Aztecs spoke the Nahuatl language.

Andean region

In the Andean region of South America, another civilization began to rise as well, the Inca Empire. Led by their, sun-god king, Sapa Inca, they slowly conquered what is now Peru, and built their society there. Although the Incas spoke the Quechua languages, they did not have any writing system but relied on a series of knotted strings to communicate messages. Incas have also been known to have used abacuses to calculate mathematics. The Inca Empire is known for some of its magnificent structures, such as Machu Picchu in the Cusco region.

North America

Although no distinct political states developed in northern North America, many hunter-gatherer and agricultural societies thrived in the diverse region. Native American tribes varied greatly in characteristics, but most lacked developed technology and lived a simple life of sustenance.

End of Period

As the Postclassical era draws to a close in the 15th century, many of the empires established throughout the period begin to decline and fall.

The Byzantine Empire would soon be overshadowed in the Mediterranean by the Islamic Empires. Additionally, they would suffer losses from West Europe, losing territory in Italy. The Byzantines would face repeated attacks from the Islamic Empires and westerners during the Fourth Crusade, until the capture of their capital by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE.

Nearing the discovery of the Americas in 1492, the Aztec had already began to experience a decline in power, partly due to general dissent stemming from Aztec brutality. The Incas would also face decline, deteriorating due to their overextension of the empire.

See also

• Iron Age - preceding global time period.
• Early modern period - succeeding global time period.
• Classical antiquity - centered in the Mediterranean Basin, the interlocking civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome
• Late Antiquity (aka: Dark Ages) - mainland Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, transition from Classical Antiquity to the Middle Ages.
• History by period

References

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• Fortescue, Adrian (1912), "The Eastern Schism", The Catholic Encyclopedia, vol. 13, New York City: Robert Appleton Company
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• Stearns, Peter N. (2011), World Civilizations: The Global Experience (6th ed.), One Lake St., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458: Longman, ISBN 978-0-13-136020-4 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: location (link)
• Thompson, John M. (2009), The Medieval World: An Illustrated Atlas, Washington DC: National Geographic Society, ISBN 978-1-4262-0533-0 {{citation}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)