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public schools that offer alternative views of citizenship to that of JROTC."</ref> and the [[Project on Youth and Nonmilitary Opportunities|Project on Youth and Non-Military Opportunities]], actively oppose the JROTC for a number of reasons, including:
public schools that offer alternative views of citizenship to that of JROTC."</ref> and the [[Project on Youth and Nonmilitary Opportunities|Project on Youth and Non-Military Opportunities]], actively oppose the JROTC for a number of reasons, including:
*'''Military Recruiting''' -- Some organizations campaigning against the JROTC have alleged that it is essentially a dressed-up Military Recruitment program. The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors cites the fact that large numbers of program graduates enlist in the military; the Navy JROTC, for example, has a 50% enlistment rate.<ref>[http://www.objector.org/jrotc/jrotcrecruits.html]</ref>
*'''Military Recruiting''' -- Some organizations campaigning against the JROTC have alleged that it is essentially a dressed-up Military Recruitment program. The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors cites the fact that large numbers of program graduates enlist in the military; the Navy JROTC, for example, has a 50% enlistment rate.<ref>[http://www.objector.org/jrotc/jrotcrecruits.html]</ref>
*'''Discrimination''' -- While the armed services officially have a "don't ask, don't tell" policy about gays, lesbians, and bisexuals, the JROTC does not. Potential instructors are screened for homosexuality, which is a breach of federal anti-discrimination laws. JROTC policy also prohibits those with disabilities and those without legal immigration papers from being instructors or participants in the program, both of which are violations of federal law.[http://www.objector.org/jrotc/discriminates.html]
*'''Discrimination''' -- While the armed services officially have a "don't ask, don't tell" policy about gays, lesbians, and bisexuals, the JROTC does not. Potential instructors are screened for homosexuality, which is a breach of federal anti-discrimination laws (All instructors by law are retired military personel). JROTC policy also prohibits those with disabilities and those without legal immigration papers from being instructors or participants in the program, both of which are violations of federal law.[http://www.objector.org/jrotc/discriminates.html]
*'''Cost''' -- The [[American Friends Service Committee]] has found that local school districts end up paying substantially more than the cost estimate the military provides, and that a JROTC program costs more on a per-pupil basis than academic, non-military instruction.<ref>{{cite web
*'''Cost''' -- The [[American Friends Service Committee]] has found that local school districts end up paying substantially more than the cost estimate the military provides, and that a JROTC program costs more on a per-pupil basis than academic, non-military instruction.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://webarchive.afsc.org/youthmil/jrotc/jrotcost.htm
| url = http://webarchive.afsc.org/youthmil/jrotc/jrotcost.htm

Revision as of 19:24, 29 January 2007

The Junior Reserve Officers' Training Corps (JROTC) is a program sponsored by the United States Armed Forces in high schools across the United States. The program was originally created as part of the National Defense Act of 1916 and was later expanded under the 1964 ROTC Vitalization Act.[1]

Role and purpose

According to Title 10, Section 2031 of the United States Code, the purpose of the JROTC is "to instill in students in United States secondary educational institutions the values of citizenship, service to the United States, and personal responsibility and a sense of accomplishment." [2] The Army has stated that although JROTC is "not a recruiting program" it will inform "about the opportunities available in the military" and "may help motivate young Americans toward military service"[3]. An Army policy memorandum states that JROTC is not precluded from "facilitating the recruitment of young men and women into the U.S. Army", directing instructors to "actively assist cadets who want to enlist in the military [and] emphasize service in the U.S. Army; facilitate recruiter access to cadets in JROTC program and to the entire student body...[and] work closely with high school guidance counselors to sell the Army story." [4] Former US Defense Secretary William Cohen has referred to JROTC as "one of the best recruitment programs we could have".[5]

General Colin Powell admitted in his 1995 autobiography that "the armed forces might get a youngster more inclined to enlist as a result of Junior ROTC", but added that "Inner-city kids, many from broken homes, found stability and role models in Junior ROTC."[6] US Congress found in the Recruiting, Retention, and Reservist Promotion Act of 2000 that JROTC and similar programs "provide significant benefits for the Armed Forces, including significant public relations benefits". [7]

Organization

Army JROTC Insignia

Each branch of the US Armed Forces maintains a Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, organized into units. As of June 2006, there are a total of 3,229 units:

  • 1555 Army AJROTC units[1]
  • 794 Air Force AFJROTC units[8]
  • 619 Navy NJROTC units[9]
  • 260 Marine Corps MCJROTC units[10]
  • 1 Coast Guard JROTC unit[11]

In 1967, Congress increased the total number of units authorized to be established from 1,200 to 1,600. In 1992, Congress expanded the maximum number of JROTC units to 3,500; The statutory limitation on the number of units was struck from the law in 2001[12].

File:USMCJROTC.png
Marine Corps JROTC Insignia
File:Afjrotc.JPG
Air Force JROTC Insignia
Coast Guard JROTC Insignia

Units are set up according to the layout of their parent service. Army and Marine Corps JROTC units follow the battalion structure. Air Force JROTC units are composed structurally based on size (wing if more than 251 cadets, group if more than 101, squadron if more than 51). Navy JROTC also typically follows the company (100-149 cadets), battalion (150-299 cadets), or regiment (300+ cadets) structure depending on the size of the unit.

File:NJROTC.png
Navy JROTC Insignia

JROTC is partly funded by the United States Department of Defense in the Operation and Maintenance account of the defense budget[13]. The Federal Government subsidizes instructor salaries, cadet uniforms, equipment and textbooks for use in military science classes. The instructors, usually retired military personnel, continue to receive retirement pay from the Federal government, but in addition, the schools pay the difference from what the instructors would receive if they were on active duty. The service concerned then reimburses the school for approximately one-half of the amount paid by the school to the instructor. The school has to pay for any health benefits that the retired service member will recieve and the security systems required to store firearms on school campuses.[3]

Although active duty officers may be assigned, most instructors are retired from the sponsoring branch of the Armed Forces. In the Army JROTC program, the cadet unit at each school is directed by at least one retired commissioned officer (in the grade of Second Lieutenant through Colonel) or a warrant officer (WO1 through CW5) and at least one retired noncommissioned officer (in the grade of Sergeant First Class through Sergeant Major). In certain situations there may be additional instructors. Retired general or flag officers are generally not permitted to work as JROTC instructors.[citation needed] Neither are retired National Guard personnel permitted to work as JROTC instructors.[citation needed] A new provision from the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007 (Section 540) was signed into law in October 2006, permitting retired Reserve officers and noncommissioned officers to be hired as instructors.

There are no national requirements that JROTC instructors have the teaching credential required by other teachers in public high school [4]. In at least one jurisdiction (California), the government requires JROTC instructors to have at least four years of military experience and possess a high school diploma or equivalent[14]. AJROTC instructors need to be within one year of retirement or retired from active military service for three or fewer years [5]. MCJROTC instructors need to have graduated from high school, have at least 20 years of active military service and be physically qualified according to Marine Corps standards [6]. AFJROTC requires minimum 20 years of active duty; Officer instructors need to have a minimum of a bachelors degree, while a high school diploma or equivalent is sufficient for enlisted instructors [7]. NJROTC also requires a minimum of 20 years of active military duty; the minimum education requirement for an instructor is a high school diploma or equivalent, with a baccalaureate degree from an accredited college or university required for a senior instructor [8]. The Navy requires that JROTC instructors be employees of the school and that they are accorded the same status as other school faculty members[15].

In public schools, JROTC is usually an elective course with membership limited to US citizens and legal foreign nationals, those who will graduate with their 9th grade corhort, and have not experienced an out of school suspension during the preceding 6 month period. Boarding schools or (pre-college) military schools may offer JROTC programs, with some requiring participation as a condition for acceptance to the school. Often, students will participate for one year receive credit in lieu of a physical education class. Students who excel in the first year of JROTC can apply for a second year. Most schools offer three to four years of JROTC training.

The National Defense Cadet Corps (NDCC) offers similar programs as JROTC. NDCC units differ from JROTC in that they receive little or no financial support from the Armed Forces; uniforms, equipment, other materials and instructor salaries must normally be furnished by the school hosting an NDCC program. Except for the funding aspects, JROTC and NDCC programs are virtually identical, although the cadet corps is not limited by the federal statute that restricts JROTC to offering courses only for students in ninth through 12th grades.[9] The California Cadet Corps includes students in the middle school and elementary grades; The Naval Sea Cadet Corps (NSCC) is officially supported by the Navy League of the United States, and is endorsed by the United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, and United States Coast Guard; A younger version of the NSCC, the Navy League Cadet Corps (NLCC), exists for youths between the ages of 11 and 13; Per 2005, Chicago had 26 Middle School Cadet Corps enlisting more than 850 kids [10], overseen by the JROTC program[11]; The USAF CAP is another Cadet program for middle schools.

Activities

The curriculum of the JROTC program stresses military discipline and study of military history. Cadets typically wear their uniforms once or twice a week, usually standing for inspection, with the exception being those cadets who attend a JROTC-based military academy. Many cadets participate in extracurricular activities such as a drill, color guard, marksmanship, rocketry or orienteering. During the school year, there are regional competitions between JROTC units, with testing in all areas of military, naval and aerospace science. Some units organize special visits to US military bases during school breaks. There are also many summertime "leadership academies" for cadets hosted by various military installations.

File:NYMA AFI Marching.jpg
New York Military Academy Army JROTC cadets at Annual Formal Inspection in Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York.

Many units also host an annual military ball where cadets put on their best dress uniforms (see related article mess dress) and gather together for a formal dinner. Usually awards are presented, speeches are given, and in many respects the occasion is like a second "prom" for juniors and seniors; sophomores and freshman are also allowed to attend the Military Ball. Female cadets are generally not required to wear the dress uniform for military ball, but some do so voluntarily.

Sometimes units also have a separate awards ceremony, which is attended by the instructors, guests, and parents. Fraternal organizations, such as the American Legion, often give out awards for military excellence, academics, and citizenship, in addition to the standard awards given by the JROTC program.

The year may be finished with a change of command ceremony, where the new unit commander, executive officer, and other unit officers are named and take command from the current officers. Mid-level officers are also named. Some units choose the next year's NCO and junior officer corps based on officer and NCO candidate schools, usually held immediately following the end of the school year.

Successful completion of the program (usually 2-4 years of classes) can lead to advanced rank upon enlistment in the Armed Forces. For example, upon completion of 4 years of Air Force JROTC, cadets may at their instructor's discretion enlist in the Air Force at the rank of Airman First Class (E-3). Though as many as 50% of Army JROTC students continue with Army programs, 70% of that group enlists directly into the lowest rank of the military, Private. [12] Many JROTC instructors encourage their cadets to apply to one or more of the United States military academies and/or college ROTC programs[citation needed], causing some to call the organization a "recruiting tool". However, JROTC participation incurs no obligation to join the military.

Opposition to JROTC

Controversy has erupted in the recent years about JROTC and militarism in schools. The JROTC has come under heavy criticism for a variety of reasons, including indoctrination of students and draining school funds. Because of these issues, the JROTC is a fairly controversial program, and has been banned in several cities[citation needed] including San Francisco.

The American Friends Service Committee, the Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors, Veterans for Peace[16][17] and the Project on Youth and Non-Military Opportunities, actively oppose the JROTC for a number of reasons, including:

  • Military Recruiting -- Some organizations campaigning against the JROTC have alleged that it is essentially a dressed-up Military Recruitment program. The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors cites the fact that large numbers of program graduates enlist in the military; the Navy JROTC, for example, has a 50% enlistment rate.[18]
  • Discrimination -- While the armed services officially have a "don't ask, don't tell" policy about gays, lesbians, and bisexuals, the JROTC does not. Potential instructors are screened for homosexuality, which is a breach of federal anti-discrimination laws (All instructors by law are retired military personel). JROTC policy also prohibits those with disabilities and those without legal immigration papers from being instructors or participants in the program, both of which are violations of federal law.[13]
  • Cost -- The American Friends Service Committee has found that local school districts end up paying substantially more than the cost estimate the military provides, and that a JROTC program costs more on a per-pupil basis than academic, non-military instruction.[19] Some cities have to pay as much as $136,000 annually per unit to finance their JROTC programs.[14]
  • Local Control -- The Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors also cites lack of local control as an issue. The curriculum is dictated by military, and the military controls all of the screening processes for instructors. If a school feels that there is a problem with the curriculum or an instructor, there is nothing they can do to remedy the problem other than stop the program. [15]
  • Low-Quality curriculum -- Another concern is that the content of the JROTC textbooks is substandard learning material, with factual distortions and outdated methods of teaching.[16] An American Friends Service Committee report cites several examples of statements in the curriculum that are discriminatory towards minority groups, such as Arabs, Native Americans, and homosexuals.[17] A majority of groups campaigning against the JROTC also state that the curriculum narrows the viewpoint of the students, encourage blind following rather than critical thinking, and indoctrinate students in militaristic authoritarian loyalty and passivity. [18] Veterans for Peace resolved that teaching students that the government gives the citizens its rights "is a complete perversion of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence" [19].
  • Violence and Abuse -- Promotion of violence is one of the biggest objections many groups have to the JROTC. These groups cite examples where gangs formed by JROTC members have engaged in crime sprees, robbery, vandalism, and even murder. There have also been several cases of isolated students or pairs committing violent acts, such as an Arizona JROTC member and his friend who dressed in fatigues and killed 9 Buddhist monks after looting their temple.[20] Critics have reported significant amounts of hazing and abuse within the program as well, including one incident in which 26 students were hospitalized after being ordered to stand in the sun for extended periods of time.[21] Many groups are also concerned about hazing activities that are common in JROTC groups.[22]

JROTC supporters find these arguments weak[citation needed]because violence is in all schools and the fact that schools without the program still have violence, gangs, & shootings. Supporters also say that JROTC has few bad or homicidal children who seem to stray from JROTC.[citation needed] Also, scholarships that don't require much scholastics give young people a better chance for a successful life.[citation needed] Finally supporters argue[citation needed] that the stereotype of violence in JROTC isn't correct and that the program does not introduce violence.[citation needed]

The Coalition Against Militarism in Our Schools, formed by more than 50 teachers in the Los Angeles Unified School District[20], aims to "eliminate the Junior Reserves Officer Training Corp in our High Schools."[21] The group claims 2006 showed a reduction in JROTC enrollment in Los Angeles, with a drop of one third or approximately 1,500 students, suggesting part of the explanation is efforts to stop the involuntary enrollment of students into JROTC.[23]

In a controversial decision, the San Francisco School Board voted in November 2006 to eliminate JROTC altogether in the entire city within two years[22], stating that "armed forces should have no place in public schools, and the military's discriminatory stance on gays makes the presence of JROTC unacceptable."[23] In response, many supporters have spoken up, including Mayor Gavin Newsom who expressed great disappointment at the school boards decision[24]. Editorials supporting JROTC were published in both of San Francisco's major newspapers[25][26]. An online non-scientific poll conducted by the San Francisco Chronicle through their website on November 5, 2006 showed support of retaining JROTC by about 79% of the self-selected participants[27].

Selected JROTC units

See also

References

  1. ^ a b United States Army. "Army Junior ROTC History". Retrieved 2006-12-29.
  2. ^ 10 U.S.C. § 2031
  3. ^ United States Army. "US Army Posture Statement FY01 Chapter 5: Meeting the Recruiting Challenge". Retrieved 2006-12-29.
  4. ^ United States Army Cadet Command (1999-03-30). "Cadet Command Policy memorandum 50" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ Huet-Vaughn, Emiliano (2001). "School: A place to teach or to recruit?" (PDF). The Human Quest. pp. 10–11. Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. ^ Stodghill, Ron (2002). "Class Warfare". Time Magazine. Retrieved 2006-12-30. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |day= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  7. ^ Recruiting, Retention, and Reservist Promotion Act of 2000 (HR 4208)
  8. ^ Air Force Officer Accession and Training Schools. AFJROTC History "AFJROTC History". Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  9. ^ United States Navy Naval Service Training Command. NJROTC Basic Facts "NJROTC Basic Facts". Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help)
  10. ^ United States Marine Corps. "History of Marine Corps JROTC Program". Retrieved 2006-12-29.
  11. ^ MAST Academy in Miami, Florida
  12. ^ Amendments to 10 U. S.C. § 102 (2005-01-03). Retrieved on 2006-12-29.
  13. ^ Office of the Secretary of Defense (2006). "Operation and Maintenance Overview Fiscal Year (FY) 2007 Budget Estimates" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  14. ^ California Commission on Teacher Credentialing (2004). "Designated Subjects Special Subjects Teaching Credentials (Leaflet CL-699)". Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  15. ^ United States Navy Naval Service Training Command (2001). "School Administrator Guidelines for Hiring NJROTC Instructors". Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  16. ^ Approved at the 2000 VFP convention: "That VFP opposes Junior Reserve Officer Training (JROTC) in the public schools of the U.S. and calls for their discontinuance." [1]
  17. ^ Approved at the 2005 national convention: "Veterans For Peace National encourages its members to work with like minded organizations and people to develop resources and classes in public schools that offer alternative views of citizenship to that of JROTC."
  18. ^ [2]
  19. ^ The American Friends Service Committee (1999). "Trading Books for Soldiers: The True Cost of JROTC Report Summary". Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: External link in |author= (help)
  20. ^ Pogash, Carol (2005). "Mr. Miller Goes to War". Edutopia Magazine. Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  21. ^ The Coalition Against Militarism In Our Schools. "Military Infiltration of Our Public Schools". Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: External link in |author= (help)
  22. ^ Achs Freeling, Nicole (2006-11-15). "School Board Notes 11.14.06". [GreatSchools.net GreatSchools.net]. Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ Tucker, Jill (2006-11-15). "School board votes to dump JROTC program". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ Hall, Carol T. (2006-11-20). "Newsom tries to find solution to rescue JROTC". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ "A school board war on JROTC". San Francisco Chronicle. 2006-11-13. Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  26. ^ Mattimore, Patrick (2006-11-27). "Let's pink-slip the school board". The San Francisco Examiner. Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ "This week's question". San Francisco Chronicle. 2006-11-12. Retrieved 2006-12-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
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