Gangs in Canada: Difference between revisions

Gangs in Canada are mostly present in the major urban areas of Canada, although their activities are not confined to large cities.

Gang prevention

Currently in Canada, steps are being taken to ensure public safety related to gangs. To be specific, the Brampton-Springfield MP, Parm Gill, is in the process of having his private members bill, Bill C-394, pass all steps before becoming a law. Bill C-394 is slated to make gang recruitment a federal crime, and committing the crime can result in years in prison.

Ethnic breakdown of youth gangs

Police-reported ethnic breakdown of youth gang members. One thing to note is that this survey of ethnicity of gang members is not as accuarate as it would be today as this survey by Astwood Canadian Police Survey was taken in 2002 and the biggest change would mostly in Alberta and not as much as in other provinces.

Canada

African-Caribbean 25%

First Nations 22%

Caucasian 18%

Indian/Pakistani/Sri Lankan 14%

Asian 12%

Hispanic 6%

Middle Eastern 3%

British Columbia

Asian 37% (Mainly Metro-Vancouver/Kelowna{Mainly Chinese Street Gangs and Chinese Criminal Triad Gangs and Vietnamese Street Gangs and International Vietnamese Crime Organization) The main criminal activities of the Asian urban gangs tend to be the production of drugs, drug distribution, and trafficking.

Caucasian 22% (Mainly Outlaw Biker Gangs, Neo-Nazi/Skinhead/Racist, & Mixed Ethnicity Street Gangs{Prevalent All Over BC Urban areas but most Prevalent Widespread across BC IN Smaller Cities Kamloops/Kelowna/Prince George/Victoria}). There appear to be few exclusively Caucasian urban gangs in the Vancouver area. Caucasians who are involved in urban gangs tend to be part of other, more ethnically diverse gangs.

Indian/Pakistani 14% (Mainly In Metro-Vancouver/Kelowna/Fraser Valley/Vancouver Island and Extremely Prevalent Surrey, BC [Majority Punjabi/Sikh] But Prevalent Pakistani and other Indian gangs. The South Asian community in BC has lost many men to gang related violence with around 80-100 South Asian men most of whom Punjabi/Sikh killed in gang related violence since the early 1990s to present day. Reference: Indo-Canadian organized crime South Asian gangs appear to engage in violent crime more frequently than the other urban gangs particularly in regard to shootings. Offences, insults, and disrespect toward a South Asian gang can elicit a violent response in retaliation, and can result in violence between gangs

First Nations 10% (Prevalent All Over BC Mainly in Smaller Cities Around Reservations {Kamloops/Kelowna/Prince George/Prince Rupert}). Aboriginal urban gangs are predominately made up of youth who have moved away from reservations.

Hispanic 8% (North/Central/South American Cartels Involved In Drug Trafficking in Vancouver Ports and Main Trafficking Routes Across North America and Urban/Honduran/El Salvadorian/Guatemalan/Colombian Gangs),

Middle Eastern 5% (Majority Iranian/Turkish) Gangs with Most Prevalent Presence in New- Westminster,BC and North & West Vancouver and smaller presences in other Metro Vancouver cities)

African-Caribbean 5% (Majority Somali/Caribbean Gangs Mainly Prevalent in Surrey, BC and Currently in a Deadly Turf War With South Asian Gangs That Dominate Drug Trade In That Area)

Alberta

Ethnicity is much more mixed presently then back in the early 2000s and many ethnic gangs exist in Alberta today rather than predominantly First Nations and Hispanic gangs more than a decade ago.

First Nations 58% (Prevalent In All Major Cities In Alberta and in Smaller Cities Near Reservations{Majority Street Gangs in Lower Lever-Mid Level Drug Trafficking and Dealing As Part Of Named Official Crime Origination ex.Bloods})

Hispanic 33% (Mainly Colombian Drug Syndicates and Mexican drug cartels That Are Believed To Have Connections With Central/South American Drug Cartels That Import From Vancouver as-well as Mainly Colombian and Central American Street Gangs Prevalent Mostly In Calgary And Edmonton)

Caucasian 8% (Majority Are Racist Outlaw Biker Gangs That Are Extremely Prevalent in Small Alberta Cities as-well as Major Ones also Racist Skinhead/Neo-Nazi/ Gangs are extremely prevalent in both Drug and Hate Crimes, Majority Of Hate Crimes Pointed Towards: Muslim-Canadians,Indo-Canadians,African-Americans,-Asian-Americans & First Nations, also prevalent Mixed Ethnicity Gangs in Calgary With Large Caucasian Populations.)

Other gangs

African/Caribbean (Mainly Somali/Sudanese/ Caribbean (most Jamaican)) Gangs Majority Only Prevalent in Calgary & Edmonton higher relevance in Edmonton They Mainly Work as unnamed Independent Drug Syndicates With Known Drug/Turf Rivalries with Outlaw Biker Gangs, Afghani/Lebanese Gangs & Pakistani/Punjabi Gangs. A Smaller Fraction of Jamaican/Guyanese Gangs in Alberta Have Made A Presence.)

Middle Eastern & South Asian (Mainly Lebanese/Kurdish/Afghan/Iraqi) & (Pakistani/Kashmiri/some Punjabis). The South Asian crime groups in Calgary are much made up of Pakistani gang members and a favorable amount of Punjabi gang members that work for the Pakistani gangs, however many of these groups have members of different ethnicity (Kashmiri, Black, Somali, Vietnamese, and White) The majority of South Asian crime groups were formed in the ward 5 area (S.A mostly in the neighborhoods of Falconridge, Castleridge, Taradale, while the Lebanese crime groups formed in Forest Lawn, Rundle, Whitehorn). The gangs tend to work In unnamed Individual Groups That Tend To Have Both Rivalries and alliances With Each other and are considered the least organized however are more prone to using violence. Middle-Eastern/South Asian Gangs are believed to be the Key Piece In Calgary's Recent Turf War (2015) its believed Over a Hundred Individuals In Independent Crime Gangs are Responsible For The Recent Violence Causing as of Nov. 14 2015 over 85 Shootings 30 which took place in Calgary's ward 5. An example of the rivalry was the death of a South Asian (Punjabi) youth Steven Sharda who was shot multiple times along with a friend by armed Lebanese youth, Steven Sharda succumbed to his injuries and died but his friend had recovered. It must be noted that although this is a conflict involving one side being predominately Middle Easterners and the other South Asian there is however no racial undertone involved and these conflicts are due to crime groups from different neighborhoods trying to take control of the drug trade

Asian ( Mostly Vietnamese Gangs That Have Prevalent Crime Syndicates All Over Alberta but Street Gangs Are Most Prevalent in Edmonton and Calgary Where They Are Known To Join Named Criminal Street Gangs or Work As Independent Movements Usually With North American Wide Connection as well as Connections to Other Countries also Smaller Amount Of Chinese Street Gangs that mainly have a Presence in More White-collar Crimes and major Drug Trafficking Organization Not quite qualifying As A Street Gang.

Saskatchewan

First Nations 96% Indian Posse, Saskatchewan Warriors and over 20 more Native gangs around Saskatchewan

Caucasian 2% Hells Angels mainly

Hispanic 2% Hispanic American gang members from the United States are drug cartels coming from Alberta distributing drugs across the province.

Manitoba

First Nations 58% There are very many First Nations gangs in the province and there is a rising trend to the overgrowing gang problem in the Aboriginal community in Winnepeg where continued discrimination and poverty has led to Aboriginal having less options and choosing gang life as a resolution. The main gangs that operate in the province are Indian Posse, Native Syndicate, Manitoba Warriors, and Redd Alert

Caucasian 26% (Mainly made up of biker gang members, mostly Hells Angels, The Rock Machine, Redlined Support Club). The Hells Angels’ expansion into Manitoba began with a relationship with Los Bravos, a local motorcycle club. In 2000 Los Bravos were “patched over,” becoming a full-fledged Hells Angels chapter.

African-Caribbean 9% Black gangs in Manitoba are made up of recent African immigrants from their troubled countries who find themselves only helpful leading to gang life. The most prominent of the black gangs is the African Mafia and Mad Cowz.

Hispanic 3% Drug cartels from all over North America entering the Manitoba drug trade.

Indian/Pakistani 3% Independent Soldiers and other Indian/Punjabi/Pakistani gangs involved in Winnepegs gang conflict.

Asian Asian Bomb Squad, and Filipino gangs involved with Native gangs.

Ontario

African-Caribbean 36% Many Black gangs in Ontario are made of Jamaican youth who have created nuisance and are diapportianetly involved in the gun violence within the cities of Ottawa and especially Toronto within the province. The Jamaican Posse and other Jamaican gangs control much of the Greater Toronto area but are mainly found in the city of Toronto and the subhurbs of Brampton and Markham. Somali gangs have made up a huge precense and drug trafficking is a known trait of Somalian gang members but are not seen as a big threat as they are in Alberta were over 30 Somalian men from Ontario originally have been murdered in the province in the past couple of years mostly in Edmonton, Calgary and Fort McMurray. North York and areas of Rexdale are ruled by Somalian Gangs.

Indian/Pakistani/Sri Lankan 21% Tamil organized crime groups or Guerillas have had much promise in the 1990s but have been mostly abolished by police agencies. Tamil gangs still exist but do not show gang signs or their names as they did with the infamous Tamil Tigers, AK Kannan and VVT. East Scarborough, South Scarborough and Markham are strong holds for Tamil Gangs. Tamil gangs are considered more violent than their other South Asian counterparts. Other South Asian gangs such as Punjabi and Pakistani gangs have connections with each other and pay more attention to getting cash rather than promoting violence and will only perform violence when it is necessary. Not like the violence seen by Punjabi gangs in British Columbia's Lower Mainland and Pakistani/Punjabi gangs in Alberta mostly in Calgary. The Brampton, Mississauga, and Rexdale area is a strong hold for many Punjabi-Canadian gangs especially the Punjabi Mafia. Indian Hindu gangs are not known for violence or making cash but are mostly immigrant youth who have no support from parents and choose gang life as a sign of support.

'Caucasian 21% Caucasian gangs in the province are made up of two set pieces the Italian Mafia and Eastern European bratvas. Italian gangs have started family connections in the province for years notably in Hamilton and Eastern European Mafias have been getting within power with Post Soviet Union ethnic groups (Most of them Russian). Biker gangs are also within Ontario such as Hells Angels and other biker gangs which are predominately Caucasian. Various hate groups also exist in Ontario but not as noticeable as Western provinces.

Asian 8% (Vietnamese, Chinese, Filipino). Asian Triads have been around since the 1970s which distribute drugs around the province from Asia (China and Vietnam). The Asian Assasins and Big Circle Boys have also have had a quite a big presence in the Toronto area but have lost members and power witin the province over the years. The Asian gangs prevail in the downtown China Town and North Scarborough.

Hispanic 6% Central/South American drug cartels have had a lot of police media attention as they distribute their drugs from the USA to Ontario across its borders. Hispanic American gangs like the Latin Kings, MS 13, Surenos, etc. have had prominence. There are few homebred Hispanic Canadian gangs in Toronto.

Middle Eastern 4% Middle Eastern gangs have been gaining strength over the years as violence has erupted all over the Greater Toronto area. Iranian gangs such as the Persian Pride, Afghan gangs such as the AFG (Afghan For Life), and other Arab gangs can be seen anywhere in Metro Toronto municipalities.

First Nations 4% Native gangs in Ontario are not as present as Western and Prairie provinces but are well seen in Native reservations and smaller Ontario cities, towns and villages. Native gangs are present in both Ottawa and Toronto but are not as visible as other ethnic gangs because of its low population in both cities.

Quebec

African-Caribbean 51%

Caucasian 21%

Hispanic 12%

Asian 9%

Middle Eastern 5%

Indian/Pakistani 2%

Nova Scotia

African-Caribbean 48%

Caucasian 47%

First Nations 5%

Types

The most prevalent gangs in Canada include:

• Street gangs
• Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs
• Mafias and Organized crime groups, including Aboriginal Based Organized Crime, Punjabi organized crime, and Asian organized crime
• Drug cartels

According to a 2004 police report, "The Hells Angels remain some of the largest and most powerful motorcycle gangs in the country, with growing influence in British Columbia and Ontario. Its presence has declined in other provinces due to police efforts, internal conflict and increased competition from other crime groups."

The same report stated that Aboriginal street gangs are not as highly organized as other criminal organizations in Canada, but are amongst the most violent. Aboriginal people also constitute a significant portion of prison populations throughout Canada, and the number of First Nation inmates continues to rise at a considerable rate. As of 2005 it is believed over 1000 Aboriginal youths were members of street gangs.

According to the Criminal Intelligence Service Canada (CISC), "The established, well-financed and -connected Hong Kong Triad groups and crime syndicates remain, to our mind, the biggest long-term threat to Canadian law enforcement and society."

In addition to Triad Societies, other Asian criminal groups, such as The Big Circle Gang, have also established national networks based in the major cities of Canada.

The Indo-Canadian community has faced a wave of gang violence across the country especially in the Western province in British Columbia which has claimed the lives of 100 Indo-Canadian males since the 1990s to present day who are disapportinately from the Jat Sikh community. The Indo-Canadian community in BC has experienced a wave of gang and drug related crime- the kind not seen in any community in Canada before.

By city

Abbotsford

Known crime groups in Abbotsford involve Punjabi street gangs, various Asian crime groups, motorcycle gangs, and multicultural street gangs. Abbotsford is also home to one of the most diverse gangs in the world, for example the United Nations which is a gang made up of primarily Caucasians, Asians, Indo-Canadians, Persians, and with smaller amounts of other ethnicities.

According to the Abbotsford Youth Crime Prevention Project the groups of people who are most vulnerable to become part of a gang in the city are first the street entrenched, sexually exploited or homeless youth at risk of gang and criminal involvement. The second are South Asian (Punjabi) youth who are at risk of joining or who already participate in gangs, gang like behaviour and/or criminal activity.

Calgary

Known crime groups in Calgary include Aboriginal street gangs, Aryan Nation groups, Chinese street gangs, Vietnamese gangs, South Asian, Pakistani/Punjabi mixed gangs (there gangs are not really ethnic based, they are multiethnic), Lebanese street gangs, Afro-Caribbean street gangs, Somali/Sudanese gangs, multicultural street gangs, Mexican drug cartels, and outlaw motorcycle gangs.

Between 2002-2009 there was a bloody gang war between two rival Asian gangs the FK and FOB gangs which resulted in 25 gang related murders of not only Asians but of gang members of European and (East) Indian descent. Calgary is still a safe place to live.

But Worries of a new Turf war has made worries a reality as of December 15, 2015, 94 Shootings have Occurred in Calgary where most of those shootings took place in Calgary's Northeast and majority in 4 Neighbourhoods: Whitehorn, Temple, Pineridge, Rundle and were all drug related.

Mainly Middle-Eastern, South Asian, Somali/Sudanese, Vietnamese gangs and to less extent Caucasian gangs are part of this conflict (Mainly South Asian & Middle-Eastern) has created more gang violence in Calgary's NE/SE quadrant of the city, both heavily populated by Named Ethnicities. Those identified by police are mostly young men of Middle Eastern descent (many of whom are Lebanese) — although like the Asian street gangs of the early 2000s, they're not exclusively one ethnicity.

Edmonton

Known crime groups in Edmonton include Aboriginal street gangs,mixed racial street gangs, Aryan Nation groups, Chinese street gangs, Middle Eastern street gangs, Hispanic street gangs, Vietnamese drug clans, Central-East African street gangs, Persian gangs, South Asian (Punjabi/Indian & Pakistani) gangs namely in Millwoods area, Afro-Caribbean street gangs, Central European organized crime groups, Colombian and Mexican drug cartels, Bloods, Crips, Belmead Avenue, multicultural street gangs and outlaw motorcycle gangs.

However recently the arrival of Mexican drug traffickers, along with increased activity by outlaw motorcycle gangs, is changing the face of organized crime in Alberta especially in the major cities of Edmonton along with Calgary.

Halifax

Biker gangs have, at various points, played a major role in Halifax's crime scene, particularly during the 1980s and 1990s. However, a crackdown on biker gang activity throughout Eastern Canada, in the wake of the Quebec Biker War. Most biker gangs are composed of extended families or of close associates, providing little scope for recruitment or promotion from outside. The notorious Bloods and Crips have been a big part of Halifax's gang problem as well.

Hamilton

Once home to organized crime figure Rocco Perri Canada's Al Capone, and Johnny Pops Papilia. The Musitano Bros. who were convicted of the hit on Papalia, returned to their James North cafe but later moved when the art scene overtook the street they have since lived a low key life. Much of the gang activity is within the inner city, mostly within the downtown and east end, and mainly attributed to smaller street gangs. Areas affected by gang activity include: Grandville, the North End, Oriole Crescent neighborhoods, and much of the downtown sector. The Hells Angels operate out of a clubhouse on Gage Ave North.

Montreal

See also: Category:Organized crime in Montreal

Biker gangs operate from clubhouses based in Montreal. Over the years numerous members have been arrested, firearms and homicide charges. Between 1994 and 2002 a biker war between gangs led to a period of increased violence which would become known as the Quebec Biker war. Traditional organized crime has had a presence in the city since the early 1900s, mainly in the form of the Irish mob and the Italian mafia.

Gangs in Montreal are mostly Caucasian but there are minority gangs which are mostly of Jamaican, Haitian or Hispanic descent.

United smaller street gangs made up of mostly youths are pocketed in different areas of the Montreal area, particularly in Montréal-Nord, Sud-Ouest, St-Michel, Parc-Extension, West Island, St-François, Côte-des-Neiges, NDG, Ville St-Laurent (St-Low), Rivière-des-Prairies and St-Léonard neighbourhoods.

The city's largest street gangs in 2006 were:

• the Crips located in Saint-Michel, Pierrefonds, Villeray, Ahuntsic, Parc-Extension, Lasalle, Lachine, NDG, Little Burgundy, and Côte-des-Neiges.
• the Bloods located in Côte-des-Neiges, Montréal-Nord, Rivière-des-Prairies, Laval, St-Léonard, and Ville St-Laurent (St-Lo 64).

Ottawa

Despite the National Capital Region being patrolled by five police forces (Ottawa Police, Ontario Provincial Police (OPP), Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Gatineau Police, Quebec Provincial Police (SQ)), the city of Ottawa is still home to a number of gangs, ranging from minor neighbourhood street gangs, to well organized crime families. Most street level gangs in Ottawa are located in the city's south side and the west end between the Debra area, and Lincoln Heights. The two most prominent street gangs in Ottawa are the "Bloods" and "Crips". Ottawa is also home to the biker gangs, Italian Mafia, however, major police operations resulted in the arrest of the groups hierarchy. To a lesser extent, there is also a presence of Asian, Black, and Hispanic gangs in the city. There is also a rising tide of Caucasian gangs in the city.

Gang activity in Ottawa spiked in the 1990s with many high profile brazen crimes including a daytime jewelry store robbery/shoot out in the Rideau Centre, a busy downtown shopping mall, and a random drive-by shooting murder of a British student on a busy downtown street. Today drive by shootings are rare and most gang activity includes narcotic distribution.

Saskatchewan

Adult gangs in Saskatchewan are almost entirely aboriginal based. The largest gang activity is in Regina and Saskatoon. There is also a branch of the Hells Angels in the province. Youth gangs are also almost entirely aboriginal based. Saskatchewan had the highest concentration of gang membership in Canada at 1.34 per 1000 in 2002 The website insideprisons.com lists 108 street gangs for the Prairie region.

Greater Toronto Area (GTA)

See also: Crime in Toronto

Certain neighbourhoods in Toronto have experienced gang and organized crime activity including human trafficking, firearm trafficking, drug trafficking, robbery, and Mafia/mob activity,. A police survey found that most youth gangs in Ontario are ethnically Afro-Caribbean, Caucasian/white, and East Indian/Pakistani.

Toronto has a strong Italian Mafia presence along with Jamaican Posses, Asian Triads, Tamil Guerillas, Outlaw Biker Gangs, Punjabi Mafia (sometimes called Indo-Canadian Mafia but has majority Punjabi-Canadian members), Eastern European Mafias, and Central/South American Drug Cartels.

Gangs active in Toronto are Black (Jamaican/Somali/Guyanese/Trinidadian), South Asian (Pakistani/Tamil/Sri Lankan/Indian/Punjabi), Asian (Chinese/Vietnamese/Filipino), European (Italian/Portuguese/Russian), and Middle Eastern (Jewish/Afghan/Persian). There are also a few Latino/Hispanic gangs that operate in the U.S.A. that are active in the Toronto area and a small minority of Aboriginal gangs from the Prairie provinces and Ontario reservations.

Although Toronto's murder rate remains low, there has been a recent rise in gun violence in the downtown core of the greater Toronto area. The two most focal incidents were the Boxing Day shooting, a shootout between rival gangs that resulted in the death of 15-year-old bystander Jane Creba on December 26, 2005 on Yonge Street, and a mall food court shooting at the Eaton Centre on June 2, 2012, which left two dead and injured seven others, including a 13-year-old boy. Hassan was considered to be the targeted victim and is considered to be gang-affiliated while others were considered innocent bystanders.

Several police raids in the city have targeted gangs in the neighbourhoods of Malvern, Jane and Finch, Driftwood, Falstaff, Galloway, and Rexdale.

Scarborough

Known crime groups in Scarborough include Asian street gangs, Tamil street gangs, Black street gangs, Indian/Pakistani street gangs, Afghan street gangs, White street gangs, and multicultural street gangs.

Brampton

Known crime groups in Brampton include mainly South Asian and Black gangs but there are a few Caucasian/Portuguese and Filipino gangs in the city. For South Asian gang members in Brampton 80% were (Indian/Punjabi/Gujarati), 15% Pakistan, and 5% Tamil. Most areas are claimed by the Punjabi gangs. Racial tensions between gang members in the city are mostly between South Asians and Blacks with less extent with Afghans 3% battling with Pakistanis.

Mississauga

Known crime groups in Mississauga include Black, Chinese, South Asian (Indian, Punjabi, Pakistani, Tamil), Hispanic and Arab street gangs.

Malton area of Missisauga is considered to be the most violent areas in the Toronto area. The Malton region host some of the deadliest gang members in the city. Malton has a very deep gang influence. Gangs in Malton vary from South Asians (Punjabi, Tamil, Pakistani) to Black gang members. Polish and Italian gangs have had some prominence in past years but have lost significance over the years.

Metro Vancouver

See also: Category:Gangs in Vancouver

Known crime groups in Vancouver include Punjabi street gangs, Aboriginal street gangs, motorcycle gangs, Iranian gangs, Hispanic street gangs, Vietnamese gangs, Chinese street gangs, Korean street gangs, Filipino criminal groups, and "multicultural" street gangs.

Vancouver has a growing Italian mafia presence, and various Eastern European bratvas are also known to be active in the Lower Mainland.

According to law enforcement agencies, the most powerful of these crime groups in Vancouver, are the motorcycle gangs, Indo-Canadian street gangs, and East Asian street gangs. However, in recent years, "multicultural" street gangs have grown significantly in power and prominence, and have attained much media attention due to their involvement in numerous shootings and slayings throughout the city. including the 2009 Vancouver gang war.

According to the Combined Forces Special Enforcement Unit of British Columbia the ethnicities of people who died from a total of 160 gang related deaths within British Columbia between January 2006 to March 2014 were:

▸ Caucasian (74 victims; 46.3%)

▸ South Asian (34 victims; 21.3%)

▸ Asian (33 victims; 20.6%)

▸ Middle Eastern (10 victims; 6.3%)

▸ First Nations (6 victims; 3.8%)

▸ Hispanic (3 victims; 1.9%)

Surrey

Gangs that operate in Surrey, British Columbia are South Asian (Punjabi) drug gangs, Vietnamese street gangs, Asian Triads, and biker gangs such as the Hells Angels.

Recently there has been an areival of Somali gangs that are engaged in a turf war with Indo-Canadians (most of whom Punjabi) over territorial disputes that has led to dozens of shootings.

Now reports show homicides and attempted homicides have climbed compared with last year in Surrey, which Staff Sgt. Lindsey Houghton saying it is mostly due to the gang conflict this spring in Surrey and Delta.

Houghton says shootings appear to have ended, mostly because some of the suspects have fled to India, while others have decided the police and media spotlight was too bright to remain involved.

Burnaby

Gangs in Burnaby are the most multicultural out of all of Metro Vancouver and possibly all Canadian cities and those that are within the city that are often involved are White street gangs, Filipino gangs, Chinese gangs, Punjabi/Sikh street gangs, Indian/Hindu gangs, Pakistani gangs, African street gangs, Afghan gangs, Iranian gangs, Vietnamese gangs, and a few Malaysian gangs.

Winnipeg

Winnipeg's gang activity involves mainly Aboriginal gangs. There are also smaller numbers of African and Asian gangs in the city. Throughout the 1990s, the city was and still is the Aboriginal gang capital of Canada.

See also

• Crime in Canada

References

Book: William O'Grady, Crime in Canadian Context, 2nd Ed (Canada: Oxford University Press, 2011) > Chicago/Turabian Citation