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'''Hippocrates of Cos II.''' or '''Hippokrates of Kos''' (c. [[460 BC]] — c. [[370 BC]], [[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Ἱπποκράτης}}) was an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[physician]] of the [[Age of Pericles]], considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of [[medicine]]. He is often referred to as "[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|The Father of Medicine]]" for his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the '''Hippocratic school of medicine''' which revolutionized [[medicine in ancient Greece]], separating the field from the other disciplines (notably [[theurgy]] and [[philosophy]]) and making a profession of it.<ref name=garrison9293> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=92–93}} </ref><ref name=nuland5> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=5}} </ref>
'''Hippocrates of Cos II.''' or '''Hippokrates of Kos''' (c. [[460 BC]] — c. [[370 BC]], [[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Ἱπποκράτης}}) was an [[Ancient Greece|ancient Greek]] [[physician]] of the [[Age of Pericles]], considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of [[medicine]]. He is often referred to as "[[List of people known as the father or mother of something|The Father of Medicine]]" for his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the '''Hippocratic school of medicine''' which revolutionized [[medicine in ancient Greece]], separating the field from the other disciplines (notably [[theurgy]] and [[philosophy]]) and making a profession of it.<ref name=garrison9293> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=92–93}} </ref><ref name=nuland5> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=5}} </ref>


The [[Hippocratic Corpus]], the collection of works produced by the Hippocratic school, is largely responsible for Hippocrates's renown. But the Hippocratic Corpus, however vast, is greatly limited in what it can tell us of history because of its ambiguous authorship and a dearth of historical context. As such, the achievements of the writers of the Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine and Hippocrates himself are often commingled; very little is known about what Hippocrates himself actually thought, wrote and did. Nevertheless, today people hold up Hippocrates as the paragon of the ancient physician. In particular, they credit him with greatly advancing clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing good [[Habituation|habit]]s for physicians.<ref name=garrison9293> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=92–93}} </ref><ref> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=96}} </ref>
The [[Hippocratic Corpus]], the collection of works produced by the Hippocratic school, is largely responsible for Hippocrates's renown. But the Hippocratic Corpus, however vast, is greatly limited in what it can tell us of history because of its ambiguous authorship and a dearth of historical context. As such, the achievements of the writers of the Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine and Hippocrates himself are often commingled; very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote and did. Nevertheless, people support Hippocrates as the paragon of the ancient physician. In particular, they credit him with greatly advancing clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing good [[Habituation|habit]]s for physicians.<ref name=garrison9293> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=92–93}} </ref><ref> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=96}} </ref>


==Biography==
==Biography==
[[Image:Kos Asklepeion.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''[[Asklepieion]]'' on [[Kos]]]]
[[Image:Kos Asklepeion.jpg|thumb|right|350px|''[[Asklepieion]]'' on [[Kos]]]]
Historians accept that Hippocrates actually existed, was born near the year 460 BC on the island of [[Kos]] and was a famous physician and teacher of medicine; all other biographical information is, however, probably apocryphal (''See [[Hippocrates#Legends|Legends]]''). As no real biography was available until centuries after his death, those that are available today must be based on hundreds of years of oral tradition and are thus unreliable.<ref name=nuland4> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=4}} </ref>
Historians accept that Hippocrates existed, was born near the year 460 BC on the island of [[Kos]], and was a famous physician and teacher of medicine; however, all other biographical information is probably apocryphal (''See [[Hippocrates#Legends|Legends]]''). As no real biography was available until centuries after his death, those that are available today must be based on hundreds of years of oral tradition and are thus unreliable.<ref name=nuland4> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=4}} </ref>


[[Soranus of Ephesus]], also a mysterious figure, was Hippocrates's first biographer and is the source of most information, however unreliable, on Hippocrates's person. Soranus stated that Hippocrates's father, a physician, was Heraclides, and his mother, daughter of Phenaretis, was named Praxitela. Hippocrates also supposedly had two sons, Thessalus and Draco, and a son-in-law, Polybus. All three were his students, but Polybus was Hippocrates’s true successor according to Galen, a later physician, who also stated that Thessalus and Draco each had a son named Hippocrates.<ref name=adams19> {{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=19}} </ref><ref name=mar66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}} </ref> Other biographers in addition to Soranus and Galen were [[Suidas]], [[John Tzetzes]], and [[Aristotle]].<ref name=garrison9293> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=92-93}} </ref><ref name=nuland7> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=7}} </ref>
[[Soranus of Ephesus]], also a mysterious figure, was Hippocrates's first biographer and is the source of most information, however unreliable, on Hippocrates's person. Soranus stated that Hippocrates's father, a physician, was Heraclides; his mother, daughter of Phenaretis, was named Praxitela. Hippocrates also supposedly had two sons, Thessalus and Draco, and a son-in-law, Polybus. All three were his students, but Polybus was Hippocrates’s true successor according to Galen, a later physician, who also stated that Thessalus and Draco each had a son named Hippocrates.<ref name=adams19> {{Harvnb|Adams|1891|p=19}} </ref><ref name=mar66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}} </ref> Additional biographers were [[Suidas]], [[John Tzetzes]], and [[Aristotle]].<ref name=garrison9293> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=92-93}} </ref><ref name=nuland7> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=7}} </ref>


Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather, and other subjects by [[Democritus]] and [[Gorgias]]. Hippocrates could have trained at the [[Healing temple|Asklepieion]] of [[Kos]], and taken lessons from [[Herodicus|Herodicus of Selymbria]]: [[Plato]], Hippocrates's only contemporary to mention him, describes him as an [[Asclepiad (Greek)|Asklepiad]].<ref name=marti86> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=86–87}} </ref>
Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather, and other subjects by [[Democritus]] and [[Gorgias]]. Hippocrates could have trained at the [[Healing temple|Asklepieion]] of [[Kos]], and taken lessons from [[Herodicus|Herodicus of Selymbria]]; [[Plato]], Hippocrates's only contemporary to mention him, describes him as an [[Asclepiad (Greek)|Asklepiad]].<ref name=marti86> {{Harvnb|Martí-Ibáñez|1961|p=86–87}} </ref>


Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his long life, traveling significantly to do so, at least as far as [[Thessaly]], [[Thrace]], and the [[Sea of Marmara]].<ref name=mar66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}} </ref> He may have died in [[Larissa]] at the age of 83, 90, 100 or even later; many different accounts of his death exist.<ref name=mar66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}} </ref>
Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his long life, traveling at least as far as [[Thessaly]], [[Thrace]], and the [[Sea of Marmara]].<ref name=mar66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}} </ref> He may have died in [[Larissa]] at the age of 83, 90, 100 or even later; many different accounts of his death exist.<ref name=mar66> {{Harvnb|Margotta|1968|p=66}} </ref>


==Hippocratic theory==
==Hippocratic theory==
Line 34: Line 34:
|source= ''On the Sacred Disease''<ref>[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html Translation by Adams] </ref>
|source= ''On the Sacred Disease''<ref>[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/mirror/classics.mit.edu/Hippocrates/sacred.html Translation by Adams] </ref>
}}
}}
Hippocrates is credited as the first physician to reject the divine origin and superstition of all sicknesses. He separated the discipline of medicine from philosophy and religion, believing and proffering that disease was not punishment of the [[Greek gods|gods]] but due to environmental factors, diet and living habits. Indeed, there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. Hippocrates did not, however, hold entirely scientific beliefs; he had many pseudo-scientific convictions based on bad anatomy and physiology, such as [[Humorism]].<ref name=jones11> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=11}}</ref><ref name=nuland8> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=8–9}} </ref><ref name=garrison9394> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=93–94}} </ref>
Hippocrates is credited as the first physician to reject the divine origin and superstition of sicknesses. He separated the discipline of medicine from philosophy and religion, believing and proffering that disease was not punishment of the [[Greek gods|gods]] but due to environmental factors, diet and living habits. Indeed, there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. Hippocrates did not, however, hold entirely scientific beliefs; he had many pseudo-scientific convictions based on bad anatomy and physiology, such as [[Humorism]].<ref name=jones11> {{Harvnb|Jones|1868|p=11}}</ref><ref name=nuland8> {{Harvnb|Nuland|1988|p=8–9}} </ref><ref name=garrison9394> {{Harvnb|Garrison|1966|p=93–94}} </ref>


Indeed, Greek medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]] because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of animals. Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on how to deal with this. The [[Knidos|Knidian]] school of medicine focused on diagnosis, but, dependent upon faulty assumptions about the human body, failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms.<ref name=adams15> {{Harvnb|Adam|1891|p=15}} </ref>
Indeed, Greek medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human [[anatomy]] and [[physiology]] because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of animals. Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on how to deal with this. The [[Knidos|Knidian]] school of medicine focused on diagnosis, but, dependent upon faulty assumptions about the human body, failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms.<ref name=adams15> {{Harvnb|Adam|1891|p=15}} </ref>

Revision as of 02:23, 14 December 2006

For other uses of the name Hippocrates, see Hippocrates (disambiguation).
Hippocrates
OccupationPhysician

Hippocrates of Cos II. or Hippokrates of Kos (c. 460 BC — c. 370 BC, Greek: Template:Polytonic) was an ancient Greek physician of the Age of Pericles, considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is often referred to as "The Father of Medicine" for his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine which revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, separating the field from the other disciplines (notably theurgy and philosophy) and making a profession of it.[2][3]

The Hippocratic Corpus, the collection of works produced by the Hippocratic school, is largely responsible for Hippocrates's renown. But the Hippocratic Corpus, however vast, is greatly limited in what it can tell us of history because of its ambiguous authorship and a dearth of historical context. As such, the achievements of the writers of the Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine and Hippocrates himself are often commingled; very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote and did. Nevertheless, people support Hippocrates as the paragon of the ancient physician. In particular, they credit him with greatly advancing clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing good habits for physicians.[2][4]

Biography

Asklepieion on Kos

Historians accept that Hippocrates existed, was born near the year 460 BC on the island of Kos, and was a famous physician and teacher of medicine; however, all other biographical information is probably apocryphal (See Legends). As no real biography was available until centuries after his death, those that are available today must be based on hundreds of years of oral tradition and are thus unreliable.[5]

Soranus of Ephesus, also a mysterious figure, was Hippocrates's first biographer and is the source of most information, however unreliable, on Hippocrates's person. Soranus stated that Hippocrates's father, a physician, was Heraclides; his mother, daughter of Phenaretis, was named Praxitela. Hippocrates also supposedly had two sons, Thessalus and Draco, and a son-in-law, Polybus. All three were his students, but Polybus was Hippocrates’s true successor according to Galen, a later physician, who also stated that Thessalus and Draco each had a son named Hippocrates.[6][7] Additional biographers were Suidas, John Tzetzes, and Aristotle.[2][8]

Soranus said that Hippocrates learned medicine from his father and grandfather, and other subjects by Democritus and Gorgias. Hippocrates could have trained at the Asklepieion of Kos, and taken lessons from Herodicus of Selymbria; Plato, Hippocrates's only contemporary to mention him, describes him as an Asklepiad.[9]

Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his long life, traveling at least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara.[7] He may have died in Larissa at the age of 83, 90, 100 or even later; many different accounts of his death exist.[7]

Hippocratic theory

"It is thus with regard to the disease called Sacred: it appears to me to be nowise more divine nor more sacred than other diseases, but has a natural cause from the originates like other affections. Men regard its nature and cause as divine from ignorance and wonder..."

On the Sacred Disease[10]

Hippocrates is credited as the first physician to reject the divine origin and superstition of sicknesses. He separated the discipline of medicine from philosophy and religion, believing and proffering that disease was not punishment of the gods but due to environmental factors, diet and living habits. Indeed, there is not a single mention of a mystical illness in the entirety of the Hippocratic Corpus. Hippocrates did not, however, hold entirely scientific beliefs; he had many pseudo-scientific convictions based on bad anatomy and physiology, such as Humorism.[11][12][13]

Indeed, Greek medicine at the time of Hippocrates knew almost nothing of human anatomy and physiology because of the Greek taboo forbidding the dissection of animals. Ancient Greek schools of medicine were split (into the Knidian and Koan) on how to deal with this. The Knidian school of medicine focused on diagnosis, but, dependent upon faulty assumptions about the human body, failed to distinguish when one disease caused many possible series of symptoms.[14]

The Hippocratic school or the Koan school, however, was more successful for its general diagnoses and passive treatments. Its focus was on patient care and prognosis, but not diagnosis. It could effectively treat diseases and allowed for a great development in clinical practice.[15][16]

Yet, Hippocratic medicine and philosophy, for all of its advances, is far removed from modern medicine. Today, the physician focuses on specific diagnosis and specialized treatment, which are much more of the Knidian ideals. Because of this, Hippocratic methods have seen some serious criticism in the past two millennia, often focusing on the passivity of Hippocratic practice. M. S. Houdart, a French doctor, called Hippocratic treatment a "meditation upon death", for example.[17]

Humorism

Main article: Humorism

The Hippocratic school held that illness was the result of an imbalance in the body of the four humours, fluids which were naturally equal in proportion (pepsis).[18] When the four humours, blood, black bile, yellow bile and phlegm, were not in balance (dyscrasia, meaning "bad mixture"), a person would become sick and remain that way until the balance was somehow restored. Hippocratic therapy was directed towards this end, perhaps utilizing citrus, for instance, if there was thought to be an overabundance of phlegm.[19]

Crisis

An important concept in Hippocratic medicine was that of a crisis, a point in the progression of disease at which either the illness would begin triumph and the patient would move to die, or the opposite, and natural processes would make the patient recover. After a crisis, a relapse might follow, and then another deciding crisis. By this doctrine, crises occur on critical days, which were supposed to be a fixed time after the contraction of a disease. If a crisis occurs on a day far from a critical day, a relapse may be expected. Galen believed that this idea originated with Hippocrates, though it is possible that it predated him.[20]

Hippocratic therapy

Vis medicatrix naturae

Another important precept of Hippocratic doctrine was based on "the healing power of nature", or in Latin, vis medicatrix naturae. According to this doctrine, the body contains within itself the power to re-balance the four humours and heal itself (physis).[18] Hippocratic therapy focused on simply easing this natural process. To this end, Hippocrates believed "rest and immobilization [were] of capital importance".[21] By these beliefs, he was reluctant to administer drugs and engage in specialized treatment that could be wrong; generalized therapy followed a generalized diagnosis.[22][23]

Methods of treatment

A drawing of a Hippocratic bench from a Byzantine edition of Galen's work in the 2nd century A.D.

Hippocratic medicine was humble and passive. Whenever possible it was very kind to the patient: sterile and gentle. For example, only clean water or wine were ever used on wounds, though "dry" treatment was preferable. Soothing balms, too, were often employed.[22] There were, however, times when potent drugs were used.[24]

Hippocratic method was very successful in treating simple ailments such as broken bones which required traction to stretch the skeletal system and relieve pressure on the injured area. The Hippocratic bench, which preceded the torture device rack, and other devices were used to this end.[25]

As was mentioned, one of the strengths of Hippocratic medicine was in its prognosis. At this time, medicinal therapy was quite immature, and often the best that physicians could do was evaluate an illness and induce the likely progression of it based upon data collected in detailed case histories.[13][26]

Professionalism

A number of ancient Greek surgical tools. On the left is a trephine; on the right, a set of scalpels. Hippocratic medicine made good use of these tools.[27]

Despite all of its advancements in medical theory, it was truly in discipline, strict professionalism and rigorous practice that Hippocratic medicine excelled.[28]

The Hippocratic work On the physician recommends that physicians always be well-kempt, honest, calm, understanding, and serious. The Hippocratic physician paid careful attention to all aspects of his practice.[29] He followed detailed specifications for, "lighting, personnel, instruments, positioning of the patient, and techniques of bandaging and splinting" in the ancient operating room. He even kept his fingernails to a precise length.[30]

The Hippocratic School is famous for its clinical doctrines of observation. These dictate that physicians record their findings and their medicinal methods in a very clear and objective manner, so that these records may be passed down and employed by other physicians.[31] Hippocrates made careful, regular note of many symptoms including complexion, pulse, fever, pains, movement, and excretions.[26] He might have even measured a patient's pulse when taking a case history to know if the patient lied.[32]

Hippocrates extended clinical observations into family history and environment in accordance with this theory.[33] "To him medicine owes the art of clinical inspection and observation"[13] For this reason, he may termed only the "Father of Clinical Medicine".[34]

Direct contributions to medicine

Hippocrates and his followers identified many diseases and medical conditions for the first time. He also began to categorize illnesses as acute, chronic, endemic and epidemic. Other medical terms that he introduced were, "exacerbation, relapse, resolution, crisis, paroxysm, peak, and convalescence."[26][35]

Great contributions of Hippocrates may be found in his descriptions of the symptomatology, physical findings, surgical treatment and prognosis of thoracic empyema, i.e. suppuration of the lining of the chest cavity.His teachings remain relevant to contemporary students of pulmonary medicine and surgery.[36] Hippocrates was the first documented chest surgeon and his findings are still valid.[36]

He is also given credit for the first description of clubbing of the fingers, an important diagnostic sign in chronic supperative lung disease, lung cancer and cyanotic heart disease. For this reason, clubbing is sometimes termed "Hippocratic fingers".[37] Hippocrates was also the first one to diagnose Hippocratic face in Prognosis. Shakespeare famously alludes to this description when writing of Falstaff's death in Act II, Scene iii. of Henry V.[38][39]

Legacy

The Plane Tree of Hippocrates, under which Hippocrates is said to have worked.

For all of these above achievements, Hippocrates is widely considered the first great physician; however, for a long time, he was also the last. He is readily named the most important influence on medicine for over a thousand years, yet after him there was a dearth of medical advancement.[40] Medical practitioners who followed him sometimes moved backwards. For instance, "after the Hippocratic period, the practice of taking clinical case-histories died out...", according to Fielding Garrison.[41]

After Hippocrates, the next significant physician was Galen, a Greek who lived from 129 -200 AD. Galen perpetuated Hippocratic medicine, moving both forward and backward.[42] In the Middle Ages, Arabs too, adopted Hippocratic methods.[43] After the European Renaissance, Hippocratic methods were revived in Europe and even further expanded upon in the 1800s. Others that employed Hippocrates's rigorous clinical techniques were Sydenham, Heberden, Charcot and Osler. Henri Huchard, a French physician, said that these revivals make up "the whole history of internal medicine".[44]

Image

An image of Hippocrates on the floor of the Asclepieion of Kos, with Asklepius in the middle.

According to Aristotle's testimony, Hippocrates was known as "the Great Hippocrates".[45] So revered was Hippocrates at the time of his death that honey (from a beehive) on his grave was believed to have healing powers. But so revered was he that, after him, no significant advancements were made for a long time: his teachings were largely taken as too great to be improved upon.[9][21]

Concerning his disposition, Hippocrates was first portrayed as a, "kind, dignified, old country doctor'" and later as, "stern and forbidding".[9] He is certainly considered wise, of very great intellect and especially as very practical. Indeed, Francis Adams (translator) describes him as "strictly the physician of experience and common sense".[14]

His image as the wise, old doctor is reinforced by busts of him, which wear large beards on a wrinkled face. However idealized, these images are probably probably close to true, as many physicians of the time wore their hair in the style of Jove and Asklepius. Accordingly, the busts of Hippocrates that we have could be only altered versions of portraits of these deities.[40] As is demonstrated by his mythical busts, Hippocrates and the beliefs that he embodied are considered medical ideals. "He is, above all, the exemplar of that flexible, critical, well-poised attitude of mind, ever on the lookout for sources of error, which is the very essence of the scientific spirit".(Garrison)[44] "His figure... stands for all time as that of the ideal physician”(Singer and Underwood), inspiring the medical profession since his death.[46]

Legends

"Life is short, [the] art long, opportunity fleeting, experiment treacherous, judgment difficult."

Aphorisms i.1.

Some stories of Hippocrates's life are likely to be untrue because they are considered inconsistent with other historical evidence. Even during his life, Hippocrates's renown was great, and stories of miraculous cures arose. For example, Hippocrates was supposed to have aided in the healing of Athenians during the Plague of Athens by lighting great fires as "disinfectants".There is a story of Hippocrates curing Perdiccas, a Macedonian king of "love sickness". Neither of these accounts is corroborated by any historians and they are thus unlikely to have ever occurred.[47][48]

One more probable legend concerns how Hippocrates rejected a formal request to visit the court of Artaxerxes, the King of Persia.[49] The validity of this is accepted by ancient sources, denied by some modern ones and is thus under contention.[50] In another tale, Democritus was supposed to be mad because he laughed at everything, and so he was sent to Hippocrates to be cured. Hippocrates diagnosed him as having a merely happy disposition. Democritus has since been called "the laughing philosopher".[51]

Of course, not all stories of Hippocrates were positive. Indeed, in one, Hippocrates did his traveling only after he set fire to a healing temple in Greece; he fled from his crime. Soranus, the source of this story, names the temple as the one of Knidos. Tzetzes writes, however, that it was his own Temple of Cos that was burned; that he did it to maintain a monopoly of medical knowledge. This account is very much in conflict with traditional estimations of Hippocrates's personality.[47]Cite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).

Genealogy

A conventionalized image in a Roman "portrait" bust (19th century engraving)

Hippocrates's legendary genealogy traces his paternal heritage directly to Asklepius and his maternal ancestry to Hercules.[24] The ahnentafel of Hippocrates II. is, according to Tzetzes’s Chiliades:[52]

1. Hippocrates II. “The Father of Medicine”
2. Heraclides
4. Hippocrates I.
8. Gnosidicus
16. Nebrus
32. Sostratus III.
64. Theodorus II.
128. Sostratus, II.
256. Thedorus
512. Cleomyttades
1024. Crisamis
2048. Dardanus
4096. Sostatus
8192. Hippolochus
16384. Podalirius
32768. Asklepius

Namesakes

Ancient

Modern

Notes

  1. ^ National Library of Medicine Link
  2. ^ a b c Garrison 1966, p. 92–93 Cite error: The named reference "garrison9293" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  3. ^ Nuland 1988, p. 5
  4. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 96
  5. ^ Nuland 1988, p. 4
  6. ^ Adams 1891, p. 19
  7. ^ a b c Margotta 1968, p. 66
  8. ^ Nuland 1988, p. 7
  9. ^ a b c Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 86–87 Cite error: The named reference "marti86" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  10. ^ Translation by Adams
  11. ^ Jones 1868, p. 11
  12. ^ Nuland 1988, p. 8–9
  13. ^ a b c Garrison 1966, p. 93–94
  14. ^ a b Adam 1891, p. 15
  15. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 67
  16. ^ Leff & Leff 1956, p. 51
  17. ^ Jones 1868, p. 12–13
  18. ^ a b Garrison 1966, p. 99
  19. ^ Boylan 2006
  20. ^ Jones 1868, p. 46,48,59
  21. ^ a b Margotta 1968, p. 73
  22. ^ a b Garrison 1966, p. 98
  23. ^ Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 35
  24. ^ a b Britannica 1911
  25. ^ Lahanas
  26. ^ a b c Garrison 1966, p. 97 Cite error: The named reference "garrison97" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  27. ^ Adam 1891, p. 17
  28. ^ Garrison 1966
  29. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 64
  30. ^ Rutkow, p. 24–25
  31. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 66
  32. ^ Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 88
  33. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 68
  34. ^ Leff & Leff 1956, p. 45
  35. ^ Martí-Ibáñez 1961, p. 90
  36. ^ a b Major 1965
  37. ^ eMedicine 2006
  38. ^ Underwood 1962, p. 40
  39. ^ Margotta 1968, p. 70
  40. ^ a b Garrison 1966, p. 100 Cite error: The named reference "garrison100" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  41. ^ Garrison 1966, p. 95
  42. ^ Jones 1868, p. 35
  43. ^ Leff & Leff 1956, p. 102
  44. ^ a b Garrison 1966, p. 94
  45. ^ Jones 1868, p. 38
  46. ^ Singer & Underwood 1962, p. 29
  47. ^ a b Adams 1891, p. 10–11
  48. ^ Jones 1868, p. 37
  49. ^ Pinault 1992, p. 1
  50. ^ Adams 1891, p. 12–13
  51. ^ IEP
  52. ^ Adams 1891

References

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Further reading

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