History of Tamil Nadu

The History of Tamil Nadu dates back to early prehistory. As a region with continuous human inhabitation since prehistoric times, the history Tamil Nadu and the civilisation of the Tamil people are among the oldest in the world. Throughout its history, spanning from the early Palaeolithic age to the modern time, this region has maintained the uniqueness of its culture and practices while absorbing and coexisting with various external cultures and influences. Except for a few relatively short periods during its history, kings who were natives of the region ruled Tamil Nadu.

A temple from the Chola period. The Cholas united most of the south Indian peninsula under a single administration during the tenth and the eleventh century CE.

The three Tamil dynasties of Chera, Chola and Pandya were of very ancient origins. Together they ruled over a land with a unique culture and language, contributing to the growth of some of the oldest extant literatures in the world. They had extensive maritime trade contacts with the Roman empire. These three dynasties were in constant struggle with each other vying for hegemony over the land. Invasion by the Kalabhras during the third century disturbed the traditional order of the land by displacing the three ruling dynasties. They were eventually overthrown by the resurgence of the Pandyas and the Pallavas, who restored the traditional kingdoms. The Cholas, who re-emerged from obscurity in the ninth century by defeating the Pallavas and the Pandyas, rose to become a great power and extended their empire over the entire southern peninsula. At its height it had spread from Bengal in the northeast to Sri Lanka in the south. The Chola navy held sway over the Sri Vijaya kingdom in Southeast Asia.

Rapid changes in the political situation of the rest of India due to incursions of Muslim armies from the northwest marked a turning point in the history of Tamil Nadu. With the decline of the three ancient dynasties during the fourteenth century the Tamil country eventually became part of the Vijayanagara Empire. Under this empire the Nayak governors ruled the Tamil land. The brief appearance of the Marathas gave way to the European trading companies, who began to appear during the seventeenth century and eventually assumed greater sway over the indigenous rulers of the land. The Madras Presidency comprising of most of southern India was created in the eighteenth century and was ruled directly by the East India Company. After the independence of India, the Tamil Nadu state was created based on linguistic boundaries.

Pre-historic period

See also: South Asian Stone Age

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Acheulian handaxe found at Attirampakkam

Although the history of the Tamil people is ancient, there is very little concrete historical evidence that have been found for the period prior to 600CE. However, various legends became prevalent after the tenth century CE regarding the antiquity of the Tamil people. According to Iraiyanar Agapporul, a tenth/eleventh century annotation on the Sangam literature, the Tamil country extended southwards beyond the natural boundaries of the Indian peninsula comprising of 49 ancient nadus (divisions). The land was supposed to have been destroyed by a deluge. The Sangam legends also added to the antiquity of the Tamil people by claiming tens of thousands of years of continuous literary activity during three Sangams. However there have been no direct archaeological finds supporting these legends.

The prehistoric period during which the Palaeolithic civilisations existed in the Tamil Nadu region has been estimated to span the from about 500,000 BCE until around 3000 BCE. For most part of the lower Palaeolithic stage, man lived close to river valleys with sparse forest cover or in grassland environments. The population density was very low and so far only two localities of this lower Palaeolithic culture have been found in south India. One of these is in Attirampakkam valley in the northwest of Chennai in Tamil Nadu. Archaeological research has uncovered evidence of fossil remains of animals and primitive stone implements around the northern Tamil Nadu that could be dated to belong to around 300,000 BCE. Man in South India, belonging to the species of Homo erectus, lived in this primitive 'old stone age' (Palaeolithic) for quite a long time, using only crude implements such as hand axes and choppers and subsisting on food he hunted and gathered instead of actively growing it according to his needs.

The ancestor of modern man (Homo sapiens sapiens) who appeared around 50,000 years ago was more developed and could fabricate thinner flake tools and blade-like tools using a variety of stones. From about 10,000 years ago, he made still smaller tools called Microlithic tools. The material used by the early man to make these tools were jasper, agate, flint, quartz, etc. In 1949, researchers found such microliths in Tirunelveli district. Archaeological evidence suggests that the micorlithic period lasted between 6000 – 3000 BCE.

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Tamil brahmi inscription

In Tamil Nadu, the Neolithic period had its advent around 2500 BCE. Humans of the Neolithic period made their stone tools in finer shapes by grinding and polishing. Recently archaeologists have found a Neolithic axe head with ancient writing on it. The Neolithic stage man lived mostly on small flat hills or on the foothills in small, more or less permanent settlements but for periodical migration for grazing purposes. He gave the dead proper burials within urns or pits. The Neolithic man was also starting to use copper for making certain tools of weapons.

Man started using iron for making tools and weapons. The Iron Age culture in peninsular India is marked by Megalithic burial sites, which are found in several hundreds of places. On the basis of some excavations, and on the basis of the typology of the burial monuments, it has been suggested that there was a gradual spread of the Iron Age sites from the north to the south. The earliest clear evidence of the presence of the megalithic urn burials are those dating from around 1000 BCE, which have been discovered at various places in Tamil Nadu, notably at Adichanallur. Recent excavations at these sites have also provided samples of early Tamil writing, dating back to at least 500 BCE.

Early history (300 BCE – 300 CE)

See also: Tamil history from Sangam literature

Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela

There were three monarchical states, headed by kings called Ventar and several tribal chieftaincies, headed by the chiefs called by the general denomination Vel or Velir. Still lower at the local level there were clan chiefs called kizar or mannar. During the third century BCE, the Deccan was part of the Mauryan kingdom, and from the middle of the first century BCE to second century CE the same area was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty. The Tamil area had an independent existence outside the control of these northern empires. The Tamil kings and chiefs were always in conflict with each other mostly over property. The royal courts were mostly places of social gathering rather than places of dispensation of authority; they were centres for distribution of resources. Gradually the rulers came under the spell of north Indian influence and Vedic ideology, which encouraged performance of sacrifices to enhance the status of the ruler.

The names of the three dynasties, Cholas, Pandya, and Chera are mentioned in the Pillars of Ashoka (inscribed 273 - 232 BCE) inscriptions, where they are mentioned among the kingdoms which, though not subject to Ashoka, were on friendly terms with him. The king of Kalinga, Kharavela, who ruled around 150 BCE, mentioned in the famous Hathigumpha inscription of the confederacy of the Tamil kingdoms that had existed for over 100 years.

Karikala Chola was the most famous early Chola. He is mentioned in a number of poems in the Sangam poetry. In later times Karikala was the subject of many legends found in the Cilappatikaram and in inscriptions and literary works of the eleventh and twelfth centuries. They attribute to him the conquest of the whole of India up to the Himalayas and the construction of the flood banks of Kaveri with the aid of his feudatories. These legends however are conspicuous by their absence in the works of Sangam. Kocengannan was another famous early Chola king who has been extolled in a number of poems of the Sangam period. He was even made a Saiva saint during the medieval period.

Ancient map of south India created after Ptolomy, probably following his cartography.

Pandyas ruled initially from Korkai, a sea port on the southern most tip of the Indian peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyas are also mentioned in Sangam Literature, as well as by Greek and Roman sources during this period. Megasthenes in his Indika mentions the Pandyan kingdom. The Pandyas excelled in trade and learning. They controlled the present districts of Madurai, Tirunelveli, and part of south Kerala. The Pandyas had trading contacts with Greece and Rome. Various Pandya kings find mention in a number of poems in the Sangam literature. Among them Nedunjeliyan, 'the victor of Talaiyalanganam', yet another Nedunjeliyan 'the conqueror of the Aryan army' and Mudukudimi Peruvaludi 'of several sacrifices' deserve special mention. Besides several short poems found in the Akananuru and the Purananuru collections, there are two major works - Mathuraikkanci and the Netunalvatai (in the collection of Pattupattu) give a glimpse into the society and commercial activities in the Pandyan kingdom during the Sangam age. The early Pandyas went into obscurity at the end of the third century CE during the incursion of the Kalabhras.

The kingdom of the Cheras comprised of the modern state of Kerala, along the western or Malabar Coast of southern India. Their proximity to the sea favoured trade with Africa. The current Indian state of Kerala, which constitutes the ancient territories of the Cheras, although distinct today physically and culturally, was part of the Tamil country in the early historic period. The people spoke the same language and had extensive interaction with the rest of the Tamil country. It was only towards the ninth or the tenth centuries CE, their individual identity and language began to evolve.

Dark age (300 – 600)

Rock-cut images of Jain saints found near Gingee, Tamil Nadu. c. fifth century CE

After the close of the Sangam era, from about 300 to about 600 CE, there is an almost total lack of information regarding occurrences in the Tamil land. Some time about 300 CE, the whole region was upset by the appearance of the Kalabhras. These people are described in later literature as 'evil rulers' who overthrew the established Tamil kings and got a strangle hold of the country. Information about their origin and details about their reign is scarce. They did not leave many artefacts or monuments. The only source of information on them is the scattered mentions in Buddhist and Jain literature.

Historians speculate that these people followed Buddhist or Jain faiths and were antagonistic towards the Hindu and Brahminical religions adhered by the majority of inhabitants of the Tamil region during the early centuries C.E. As a result Hindu scholars and authors who followed their decline in the 7th and 8th century may have expunged any mention of them in their texts and generally tended to paint their rule in a negative light. It is perhaps due to this reason, the period of their rule is known as a 'Dark Age' – an interregnum. Some of the ruling families migrated northwards and found enclaves for themselves away from the Kalabhras. Jainism and Buddhism, took deep roots in the society, giving birth to a large body of ethical poetry.

Writing became very widespread and vatteluttu evolved from the Tamil Brahmi became a mature script for writing Tamil. While several anthologies were compiled by collecting bardic poems of earlier centuries, several epic poems (Cilappatikaram, etc.) and ethical works were also written in this period. The Jain and Buddhist scholars authored most of this literature. In the field of dance and music, the elite started patronizing new polished styles, partly influenced by northern ideas, in the place of the folk styles. A few of the earliest rock-cut temples belong to this period. Brick temples (known as kottam, devakulam, and palli) dedicated to various deities are referred to in literary works. Kalabhras were displaced around the 7th century by the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.

Age of empires (600 - 1300)

The medieval period of the history of the Tamil country saw the rise and fall of many kingdoms, some of whom went on to the extent of empires, exerting influences both in India and overseas. The Cholas who were very active during the Sangam age were entirely absent during the first few centuries. The period started with the rivalry between the Pandyas and the Pallavas which in turn caused the revival of the Cholas. The Cholas went on to becoming a great power. Their decline saw the brief resurgence of the Pandyas. This period was also that of the re-invigorated Hinduism during which temple building and religious literature were at their best.

The Hindu sects Saivism and Vaishnavism became dominant, replacing the prevalance of Jainism and Buddhism of the previous era. Saivism was patronised more by the Chola kings and became more or less a state religion. Temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu received liberal donations of money, jewels, animals, and land, and thereby became powerful economic institutions.

Tamil script replaced the vatteluttu script throughout Tamil Nadu for writing Tamil. Both secular and religious literature flourished during the period. The greatest epic in Tamil, Kambar’s Ramayanam, was written in the 13th century. The secular literature was mostly court poetry devoted to the eulogy of the rulers. The religious poems of the previous period were collected and systematized into several anthologies. Sanskrit was patronized by the elite groups for religious rituals and other ceremonial purposes.

Pallavas

Main article: Pallavas

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Shore Temple at Mamallapuram built by th Pallavas. (c. eight century)

The seventh century Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Pallavas under Mahendravarman I and his son Mamalla Narasimhavarman I. The Pallavas were not a recognised political power before the second century. It has been widely accepted by scholars that they were originally executive officers under the Satavahana kings. After the fall of the Satavahanas, they began to get control over parts of Andhra and the Tamil country. The Pallavas were at their finest during the reigns of Narasimhavarman I and Pallavamalla Nandivarman II.

During the sixth and the seventh centuries , the western Deccan saw the rise of the Chalukyas based in Vatapi. Pulakesi II (c.610 - 642) invaded the Pallava kingdom in the reign of Mahendravarman I. Narasimhavarman who succeeded Mahendravarman mounted a counter invasion of the Chalukya country and took Vatapi. The rivalry between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas continued for another 100 years until the demise of the Chalukyas around 750. The Chalukyas and Pallavas fought numerous battles and the Pallava capital Kanchipuram was occupied by Vikramaditya II during the reign of Nandivarman II. Nandivarman II had a very long reign (732-796). He led an expedition to the Ganga kingdom (south Mysore) in 760. Pallavas were also in constant conflict with the Pandyas and their frontier shifted along the river Kaveri. The Pallavas had the more difficult existence of the two as they had to fight on two fronts - against the Pandyas as wells as the Chalukyas.

Pandyas

Main article: Pandyas

Pandya Kadungon (560 - 590) is credited with the overthrow of the Kalabhras in the south. Kadungon and his son Maravarman Avanisulamani revived the Pandya power. Pandya Cendan extended their rule to the Chera country. His son Arikesari Parantaka Maravarman (c. 650 - 700) had a long and prosperous rule. He fought many battles and extended the Pandya power.

After some decades of expansion, the Pandya kingdom was large enough to pose a serious threat to the Pallava power. Pandya Maravarman Rajasimha aligned with the Chalukya Vikramaditya II and attacked the Pallava king Nandivarman II. Varagunan I defeated the Pallavas in a battle on the banks of the Kaveri. The Pallava king Nandivarman sought to restrain the growing power of the Pandyas and went into an alliance with some monor chieftains of Kongu and Chera countries. The armies met in several battles and the Pandya forces scored decisive victories in them. Pandyas under Srimara Srivallaba also invaded Sri Lanka and devastated the northern provinces in 840.

The Pandya power continued to grow under Srimara and encroached further into the Pallava territories. The Pallavas were now facing a new threat in the form of the Rashtrakutas who had replaced the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. However the Pallavas found an able monarch in Nandivarman III, who with the help of his Ganga and the Chola allies defeated Srimara at the battle of Tellaru. The Pallava kingdom again extended up to the Vaigai. The Pandyas suffered further defeats in the hands of the Pallava Nripatunga at Arisil (c 848). From then the Pandyas had to accept the overlordship of the Pallavas.

Cholas

Main article: Chola dynasty

Around 850 , out of obscurity rose Vijayalaya, made use of an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas, captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas. Vijayalaya revived the Chola dynasty and his son Aditya I helped establish their independence. He invaded Pallava kingdom in 903 and killed the Pallava king Aparajita in battle, ending the Pallava reign. The Chola kingdom under Parantaka I expanded to cover the entire Pandya country. However towards the end of his reign he suffered several reverses by the Rashtrakutas who had extended their territories well into the Chola kingdom.

Extent of Chola empire c.1014

The Cholas went into a temporary decline during the next few years due to weak kings, palace intrigues and succession disputes. Despite a number of attempts the Pandya country could not be completely subdued and the Rashtrakutas were still a powerful enemy in the north. However the Chola revival begain with the accession of Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja The Great). Under him and his son Rajendra Chola I, Cholas rose as a notable military, economic and cultural power in Asia. The Chola territories stretched from the islands of Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the river Ganges in Bengal. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of Maldives. Rajendra Chola extended the Chola conquests to the Malayan archipelago by defeating the Srivijaya kingdom. He defeated Mahipala, the king of Bihar and Bengal, and to commemorate his victory he built a new capital called Gangaikonda Cholapuram (the town of Cholas who conquered the Ganges). At its peak the Chola Empire extended from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzernity. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago. Chola armies exacted tribute from Thailand and the Khmer kingdom of Cambodia.

Detail of the main gopura (tower) of the Thanjavur Temple

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever resilient Sinhalas trying to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes trying to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. The history of this period was one of constant warfare between the Cholas and of these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas and there was a tacit acceptance of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom. The Cholas and Chalukyas fought many battles and both kingdoms were exhausted by the endless battles and a stalemate existed.

Marital and political alliances between the Eastern Chalukya kings based around Vengi located on the south banks of the river Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Virarajendra Chola's son Athirajendra Chola was assassinated in a civil disturbance in 1070 and Kulothunga Chola I ascended the Chola throne starting the Chalukya Chola dynasty. Kulothunga was a son of the Vengi king Rajaraja Narendra. The Chalukya Chola dynasty saw very capable rulers in Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola, however the eventual decline of the Chola power practically started during this period. The Cholas lost control of the island of Lanka and were driven out by the revival of Sinhala power. Around 1118 they also lost the control of Vengi to Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI and Gangavadi (southern Mysore districts) to the growing power of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana, a Chalukya feudatory. In the Pandya territories, the lack of a controlling central administration caused a number of claimants to the Pandya throne to cause a civil war in which the Sinhalas and the Cholas were involved by proxy. During the last century of the Chola existence, a permanent Hoysala army was stationed in Kanchipuram to protect them from the growing influence of the Pandyas. Rajendra Chola III was the last Chola king. The Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I even captured Rajendra and held him prisoner. At the close of Rajendra’s reign, the Pandyan Empire was at the height of prosperity and had completely absorbed the Chola kingdom.

Pandya revival

After being overshadowed by the Pallavas and Cholas for centuries, Pandya glory was briefly revived by Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan in 1251 and the Pandya power extended from the Telugu countries on banks of the Godavari river to the northern half of Sri Lanka. When Maaravaramban Kulasekara Pandyan I died in 1308 , a conflict stemming from succession disputes arose amongst his sons. Sundara Pandya and Vira Pandya fought each other for the throne. Soon Madurai fell into the hands of the invading armies of the Delhi Sultanate. Malik Kafur, a general of the Delhi Sultan Alauddin Khilji invaded and sacked Madurai in 1311. Pandyas and their descendants where confined to a small region around Thirunelveli for a few more years. Ravivarman Kulasekara (1299-1314), a Chera feudatory of Kulasekara Pandya, staked his claim to the Pandya throne. Ravivarman Kulasekhara, utilising the unsettled nature of the country, quickly overran the southern Tamil Nadu and brought the entire region from Kanyakumari to Kanchipuram, under the Chera kingdom. His inscription was found in Punaamalli, a suburb of Madras.

Vijayanagar and Nayak period (1300 - 1650)

Main articles: Vijayanagara Empire, Madurai Nayaks, and Tanjore Nayaks

The Meenakshi Hindu temple in the Tamil Nadu city of Madurai in southern India built by the Nayak king.

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Serfoji II, King of Thanjavur (1798 - 1832)

The fourteenth century invasion by the Delhi Sultans caused a retaliatory reaction from the Hindus, who rallied to build a new kingdom, called the Vijayanagara Empire. Bukka, with his brother Hakka founded the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire based in the city of Vijayanagara in Karnataka. Under Bukka the empire prospered and continued to expand towards the south. Bukka and his son Kampana conquered most of the kingdoms of southern India. In 1371 the Vijayanagar empire defeated the short lived Madurai Sultanate, which had been established by the remnants of the invading Khilji army. Eventually the empire covered the entire south India. Vijayangara empire established local governors called Nayaks to rule in the various territories of the empire.

The Vijayanagar empire declined in 1564 defeated by the Deccan sultans in the battle of Talikota. The local Nayak governors declared their independence and started their rule. The Nayaks of Madurai and Thanjavur were the most prominent of them. Ragunatha Nayak (1600 - 1645) was the greatest of the Tanjavur Nayaks. Raghunatha Nayak encouraged trade and permitted a Danish settlement in 1620 at Danesborg at Tarangambadi This laid the foundation of future European involvement in the affairs of the country. The success of the Dutch inspired the English to seek trade with Thanjavur, which was to lead to far-reaching repercussions. Vijaya Raghava (1631 - 1675) was the last of the Thanjavur Nayaks. Nayaks reconstructed some of the oldest temples in the country and their contributions can be seen even today. Nayaks expanded the existing temples with large pillared halls, and tall gateway towers was a striking feature in the religious architecture of this period.

In 1675, a column of Bijapur army came to Thanjavur to help Vijayaraghava and retrieved Vallam from the Madurai Nayak. However the same army subsequently killed Vijayaraghava Nayak and Ekoji managed to ascend the throne of Thanjavur kingdom. Thus began the Maratha rule of Thanjavur. After Ekoji, his three sons namely Shaji, Serfoji I, Thukkoji alias Thulaja I ruled Thanjavur. The greatest of the Maratha rulers was Serfoji II (1798-1832 ). Serfoji devoted his life to the pursuit of culture and Thanjavur became renowned as a seat of learning. Serfoji's patronised art and literature and built the Saraswati Mahal Library at his palace.

In Madurai, Thirumalai Nayak was the most famous Nayak ruler. He patronised art and architecture creating new structures and expanding the existing landmarks in and around Madurai. On Thirumalai Nayak's death in 1659, the Madurai Nayak kingdom began to break up. His successors were weak rulers and invasions of Madurai recommenced. Shivaji Bhonsle, the great Maratha Ruler, invaded the south, as did Chikka Deva Raya of Mysore and other Muslim Rulers, resulting in chaos and instability. Rani Mangammal, a local ruler, tried to resist these invasions showing great courage.

European colonisation (1650 - 1850)

Main article: British East India Company

Fort St. George, Chennai. 18 century sketch.

With the demise of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1707, his empire dissolved amidst numerous succession wars and the vassals of the empire began to assert their independence. This turned the political situation in the Tamil country and in South India in general into confusion and chaos. The European traders found themselves in a situation where they could exploit the prevailing confusion to their own advantage.

European settlements began to appear in the Tamil country during the Vijayanagara Empire. In 1605, the Dutch established trading posts in the Coromandel Coast near Gingee and in Pulicat. The British East India Company built a 'factory' (warehouse) at Armagaon (Durgarazpatnam), a village around 35 miles North of Pulicat, as the site in 1626. In 1639, Francis Day, one of the officers of the company, secured the rights over a three-mile long strip of land a fishing village called Madraspatnam from the Damarla Venkatadri Nayakudu, the Nayak of Vandavasi. The East India Company built Fort St George and castle on an approximate 5 square kilometre sand strip. This was the start of the town of Madras. The coromandel coast was ruled by the Rajah of Chandragiri, a descendant of the Vijayanagara kings. With his approval the English began to exercise sovereign rights over their strip of land.

Anglo French Conflicts

The French were relative newcomers to India. The French East India Company was formed in 1664 and in 1666, the French representatives obtained Aurangzeb’s permission to trade in India. French soon setup trading posts in Pondicherry on the Coromandal coast. They occupied Karaikkal in 1739 and Dupleix was appointed Governor of Pondicherry. In Europe the War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 and eventually the English and the French forces in India were caught up in the conflict. There were numerous naval battles between the two navies along the Coromandal coast. The French led by La Bourdonnais attacked the poorly defended Fort St. George in Madras in 1746 and occupied it. Robert Clive was one of the prisoners of war from this battle. The war in Europe ended in 1748 and with the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle Madras was restored to the English.

Mohamed Ali Khan Wallajah, (1717 - 1795)

The conflict between the British and the French continued, this time in political rather than military terms. The positions of Nawab of the Carnatic and Nizam of Hyderabad were both taken by rulers who were strongly sympathetic to the French. The Nawab of the Carnatic, Chanda Sahib, had been made Nawab with Dupleix's assistance, while the British had taken up the cause of the previous incumbent, Mahommed Ali Wallajah. In the resultant battle between the rivals, Clive assisted Mohammed Ali by attacking Chanda Sahib's fort in Arcot and took procession of it in 1751. The French assisted Chanda Sahib in his attempts to drive Clive out of Arcot. However the large Arcot army assisted by the French was defeated by the English. The Treaty of Paris (1763) formally confirmed Mahommed Ali as the Nawab of the Carnatic. It was a result of this action and the increased British influence that in 1765 the Emperor of Delhi issued a farman (decree) recognizing the British possessions in southern India.

British Government Control

Although the Company was becoming increasingly bold and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was getting clearer day by day that the Company was incapable of governing the vast expanse of the captured territories. Opinion amongst the members of the British Parliament urged the government to control the activities of the Company. The Company's financial position was also bad and it had to apply for a loan from the Parliament. Seizing this opportunity, the Parliament passed the Regulating Act (also known as East India Company Act) in 1773. The act set down regulations to control the Company Board and created the position of the Governor General. Warren Hastings was appointed the first Governor-General. In 1784 Pitt's India Act made the Company subordinate to the British Government.

The next few decades were of rapid growth and expansion in the territories controlled by the English. The Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1766 to 1799 and the Anglo-Maratha Wars of 1772 to 1818 put the Company in control of most of India. In 1798 Marques Wellessley became the Governor-General. In the course of the next six years Wellesley made vast conquests and doubled the Company's territory. He shut out the French from further acquitions in India destroyed several ruling powers in the Deccan and the Carnatic, took the Mughal Emperor under the company's protection and compelled Serfoji, the king of Thanjavur to cede control of his kingdom. The Madras Presidency was established so that the territory under direct Company control could be administered effectively. The direct administration began to cause resentment among the people. As a sign of things to come, in 1806 the soldiers of the Vellore cantonment rebelled when William Bentinck, the Governor of Madras decreed that all caste marks should be abandoned by the native soldiers. Fearing this act to be an attempt of forceful conversion to Christianity, the soldiers mutinied. The rebellion was suppressed which resulted in 114 British officers killed and several hundred mutineers executed. Bentinck was recalled in disgace.

End of Company rule

The simmering discontent in the various districts of the company territories exploded in 1857 into the Sepoy war. Although the rebellion had a huge impact on the state of the colonial power in India, Tamil Nadu was mostly unaffected by it. In consequence of the war, the British Government enacted the Act of 1858 to abolish the powers of the Company and transfer the government to the Crown.

British rule (1850 – 1947)

Main article: British Raj

Madras Presidency, 1909

In 1858 the British Crown assumed direct rule in India. During the early years the government was autocratic in every sense of the word. The opinion of Indians in their own affairs was not considered by Briton as important. However, in due course the British Raj began to allow Indians participation in local government. Viceroy Ripon passed a resolution in 1884, which gave a greater and more real share in local government to the people. Further legislations such as the 1892 Indian councils Act and the 1909 "Minto-Morley Reforms" eventually led to the establishment of the Madras Legislative Council. The non-cooperation movement started under Mahatma Gandhi's leadership led the British government to pass the Government of India Act (also known as Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms) of 1919. First elections were held for the local assemblies in 1921.

Independence struggle

The growing desire for independence began to gradually gather pace in the country and its influence in Tamil Nadu generated a number of volunteers to the fight against the British colonial power in the struggle for Independence. Notable amongst these are Tiruppur Kumaran, who was born in 1904 in a small village near Erode. Kumaran lost his life during a protest march against the British. The location of the French colony of Pondicherry, offered a place of refuge for the fugitives freedom fighters trying to flee the British Police. Aurobindo was one such living in Pondicherry in 1910. The poet Subramanya Bharathi was a contemporary of Aurobindo. Bharathi wrote numerous poems in Tamil extolling the revolutionary cause. He also published the journal India from Pondicherry. Both Aurobindo and Bharathi were associated with other Tamil revolutionaries such as V.V.S.Aiyar and V. O. Chidambaram Pillai. Tamils formed a significant percentage of the members of the Indian National Army (INA), founded by Netaji to fight the British occupation in India. Lakshmi Sahgal from Tamil Nadu was a prominent leader in the INA.

In 1916 Dr. T.M. Nair and Rao Bahadur Thygaraya Chetty released the Non-Brahmin Manifesto sowing the seeds for the Dravidian movements. During the 1920s, two movements focussed mainly on regional politics began in Tamil Nadu. One was the Justice Party, which won the local legislative elections held in 1921 and captured government. The Justice Party was not focussed on the Indian independence movement, rather on the local issues such as affirmative action for socially backward groups. The other main movement was the anti-hindu, reformist movement led by E.V. Ramasami Naicker. Further steps towards eventual self-rule were taken in 1935 when the British Government passed the All-India Federation Act of 1935. Fresh local elections were held and in Tamil Nadu the Congress party captured power defeating the Justice party. In 1938, Ramasami Naicker with C. N. Annadurai launched an agitation against the Congress ministry's decision to introduce the teaching of Hindi in schools.

Post Independence period

The political state of Tamil Nadu in India was created in 1969 when erstwhile Madras State was renamed.

The trauma of the partition did not impact Tamil Nadu when India was granted Independence in 1947. There were no sectarian violence against various religions. There had always been an atmosphere of mutual respect and peaceful coexistence between all religions in Tamil Nadu. Congress formed the first ministry in the Madras Presidency. C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji) was the first Chief Minister.

Evolution of regional politics

File:Mgrk.jpg

M. G. Ramachandran and M. Karunanidhi with a portrait of C. N. Annadurai in the backdrop - the three dominated Dravidian politics for over 50 years.

Annadurai formed the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in 1949 after splitting from Dravidar Kazhagam. DMK also decided to oppose the 'expansion of the Hindi culture' in Tamil Nadu and started the demand for a separate homeland for the Dravidians in the South. The demand was for an Independent state called Dravida Nadu or Dravidistan (country of Dravidians) comprising of Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra, Karnataka and Kerala. During the fifties and the sixties, several political changes led to the change of the nature of DMK and it began to get involved in electoral policies and abandon its secessionist agenda. In 1953, the Tamil Nadu state came in to being based on linguistic borders. In 1965 and 1968, DMK led widespread anti-Hindi agitations in the state against the plans of the Union Government to introduce Hindi in the state schools. The Dravidian movement attracted its following from devotees who were predominantly from middle or low-income families. DMK’s support for literature and language also attracted numerous well-educated Tamil scholars and academics. Some of the policies of the Dravidian movement were adopted and implemented. Affirmative action in employment and educational institutions were pioneered in Tamil Nadu based on the demands of the Dravidian movement. The leadership of the Dravidian movement had very capable authors and literati in Annadurai and Karunanidhi, who assiduously utilised the popular media of stage plays and movies to spread the messages of Tamil nationalism. MG Ramachandran (MGR) who later became the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, was one of the stage and movie actors of the Dravidian movement.

In 1967 DMK won the state election. DMK split in to two in 1971, with MGR forming the splinter AIADMK. Since then the politics of Tamil Nadu has been dominated by these two parties. AIADMK, under MGR retained control of the State Government over three consecutive assembly elections in 1977, 1980 and 1984. After MGR's death AIADMK was split over the succession between various contenders. Eventually J. Jayalalithaa took over the leadership of AIADMK.

On going ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka saw large numbers of Tamils fleeing to Tamil Nadu. The plight of Tamil refugees caused a surge of support from most of the Tamil political parties. They exerted pressure on the Indian government to intercede with the Sri Lankan government on behalf of the Sri Lankan Tamilians. However, LTTE lost much of its support from Tamil Nadu following the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi on 21 May 1991 by an LTTE operative for the former Prime Ministers's role in sending Indian peacekeepers to Sri Lanka to disarm the LTTE.

See also

• Chronology of Tamil history
• Chola dynasty
• Pandya
• Pallavas
• Chera

References

• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2000). A History of South India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Prasad, Durga (1988). History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D. [3]. Guntur, India: P. G. Publishers. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); External link in |title= (help)
• Codrington, Humphrey William (1926). A Short History of Lanka. St Martin's Street, London: Macmillan and Co., Limited. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• "Religious Traditions of the Tamils". Veluppillai, Prof. A.,. Retrieved 2006-05-15.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• "63 Nayanmars". Sri Swami Sivananda, The Divine Life Trust Society. Retrieved 2006-05-16.
• Nilakanta Sastri, K.A. (2000). Advanced History of India. New Delhi: Allied Publishers Ltd. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Read, Anthony (1997). The Proudest Day - India's Long Ride to Independence. London: Jonathan Cape. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Chandra, Bipin (1999). The India after Independence. New Delhi: Penguin. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Kulke, Hermann (2004). A History of India. Routledge (UK). 0415329191. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• McDowell, Chris. A Tamil Asylum Diaspora: Sri Lankan Migration, Settlement and Politics in Switzerland. New York: Berghahn Books. 1571819177. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Shanti Pappu, Yanni Gunnell, Maurice Taieb, Jean-Philippe Brugal, K. Anupama, Raman Sukumar & Kumar Akhilesh. "Excavations at the Palaeolithic Site of Attirampakkam, South India". Antiquity. 77 (297).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

External links

• "Archaeobotany of Early Historic sites in Southern Tamil Nadu". Retrieved 2006-05-15.
• "Harappa And Tamil Culture". Retrieved 2006-05-15.
• "Vellore Revolt 1806". Retrieved 2006-05-15.
• "Historical Atlas of South India-Timeline". French Institute of Pondicherry. Retrieved 2006-05-15.
• "Excavations at Arikamedu". Retrieved 2006-05-16.
• "Roman Maps and the Concept of Indian Gems". Retrieved 2006-05-16.
• "The State Legislature - Origin and Evolution". Retrieved 2006-10-16.
• "The Changing Politics Of Tamil Nadu In The 1990s". John Harriss and Andrew Wyatt, Conference on State Politics in India in the 1990s: Political Mobilisation and Political Competition, December 2004. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
• "The Roots of South Indian Cinema". By S. Theodore Baskaran, The Journal of the International Institute. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
• "Passions of the Tongue - Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970". Sumathi Ramaswamy University Of California Press. Retrieved 2006-06-14.
• "Is the Dravidian movement dying?". Subramanian Swamy, Frontline, Vol 20, Issue 12, June 2003. Retrieved 2006-06-14. {{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |work= (help)
• "Tamil Coins- a study - Online Book". R. Nagaswamy. Retrieved 2006-06-16.
• "The Political Situation In Pondicherry 1910-1915". Retrieved 2006-10-12.
• "Sowing The Seeds Of A Policy For Free India and the Anti-Hindi Agitation in the South 1910-1915". M. S. Thirumalai, Ph.D.,. Retrieved 2006-10-16.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• "The Demand for Dravida Nadu". Nambi Arooran, K. Retrieved 2006-10-16.
• "A history of agitational politics". Viswanathan, S. Retrieved 2006-10-17.
• "Community, Class and Conservation:Development Politics on the Kanyakumari Coast" (PDF). Ajantha Subramanian. Retrieved 2006-10-17.
• "The History Of Reservations In India From The 1800s To The 1950s" (PDF). Cynthia Stephen. Retrieved 2006-10-17.
• "The Global Dimensions of Conflict in Sri Lanka" (PDF). Rajesh Venugopal, Queen Elizabeth House, University of Oxford. Retrieved 2006-10-17.