The Mongol Empire was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206. At its height, it was arguably the largest contiguous empire in human history, stretching from Southeast Asia to Europe, covering 13.8 million square miles or more than 35 million square kilometers. According to some sources, the empire encompassed almost 50% of the world population, including the most advanced and populous nations of that time: China and many of the main contemporary states of the Islamic world in Iraq, Persia, and Asia Minor.
Formation of Mongol Empire
Genghis Khan, through political manipulation and force of will, had united the Mongol tribes under his banner by 1206. He quickly came into conflict with the Jin empire of the Jurchen and the Western Xia in Northern China, and, under the provocation of the Khwarezmid Empire, moved into Central Asia, devastating Transoxiana and eastern Persia, and raiding into southern Russia and the Caucasus. While engaged in a final war against the Western Xia, Genghis fell ill and died.
Organization of Mongol Empire
The Mongol Empire was governed by a specific laws created by Genghis Khan, which is called Yasa and the stiff penalty that resulted from breaking Yasa made Mongol Empire one of the safest and the most effective institution that the Mongols never imagined to be.
All throughout the empire, an extensive postal system and trade routes (Yam) were revived and created, which was used by many merchants, messengers and travellers from China, Middle East and Europe to have cultural exchange and a safer trade network on all sides. The Mongol Empire, as stated in Yasa, had religious tolerance and an extremely clear rule of governance in which the great Khan was in direct administration of the Empire. Specifically a general assembly similar to the parliament of modern times, called Kurultai, was the meeting of Mongol chiefs and the Khan himself to discuss domestic and foreign policies that were crucial during that time, exhibiting clear and unified administration.
Also, according to Yasa, chiefs and generals were selected based on meritocracy, and there was supposed to be no random vandalizing of civilian populations and thievery in any form or shape. For example in some accounts, travellers from Europe were amazed by the organization and strict discipline of the people within the Mongol Empire; for example, according to legends, a woman carrying a sack of gold from one end of the Empire to another could travel safely.
Genghis Khan also created a national seal; made a universal written language; exempted teachers, lawyers, and artists from taxes; and outlawed all forms of torture and humiliation in the empire.
The Mongols themselves had an extreme sense of dedication, loyalty, and endurance for their Mongol Empire, and especially to the great Khan himself.
The Empire after Genghis Khan
After Genghis' death in 1227, his successors, under the second khan Ögedei Khan, continued the expansion. They expanded into Persia, finished off the Xia and the remnants of the Khwarezmids, and came into conflict with the Song Dynasty of China, starting a war that would not end until 1279 with the complete occupation of that country, and the assumption of Chinese rule by the Mongols. In the late 1230s, the Mongols under Batu invaded Russia, reducing most of its principalities to vassalage, and pressed on into Eastern Europe. In 1241 the Mongols may have been ready to invade Western Europe as well, having defeated the last Polish and Hungarian armies at the Battle of Legnica and the Battle of Mohi. They returned home, however, to participate in the election of the next khan.
During the 1250s, Genghis’ grandson Hulegu, operating from the Mongol base in Persia, destroyed the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad and destroyed the cult of the Assassins, moving into Palestine towards Egypt. The khan Möngke having died, however, he hastened to return for the election, and the force that remained in Palestine was destroyed by the Mamluks under Baibars in 1260 at Ayn Jalut.
Disintegration
Already during the reign of Kublai Khan, the empire was in the process of splitting into a number of smaller khanates. Kublai concentrated on the war with the Song, assuming the mantle of ruler of China, while the more western khanates gradually drifted away.
Inter-family rivalry (compounded by the complicated politics of succession, which twice paralyzed military operations as far off as Hungary and the borders of Egypt, crippling their chances of success) and the tendencies of some of the khans to drink themselves to death fairly young (causing the aforementioned succession crises) hastened the disintegration of the empire.
Another contributing factor to the disintegration was lowering of morale when the capital was moved from Kharakhorum to the modern day Beijing by Kublai Khan, because Kublai Khan associated more with Chinese culture and also perhaps he revived and concentrated more on the conquest of southern China and complete the unification of China to the Mongol Empire.
Some of these descendant empires include the Mongol-founded Yuan Dynasty in China, and the Golden Horde that controlled Central Asia and Russia.
Also, many of the Mongol's weapons were very advanced for their times. An example of this is the recursive bow. This bow is similar in design to the English Longbow.
Legacy
The Mongol Empire was the largest contigious empire in the human history, and it was built during the times between 12th and 13th century, as some people say it, during the "Age of the Mongols." Tamerlane tried to unify the Mongol Empire latter at time and the identity of the empire transpired to the lesser Mongol khanates. The Mongol armies during that time were extremely well governed.
Mongolians of the present day are proud of the empire and the sense of identity that it gave to them.
The death toll of the thirteenth century Mongol wars of conquest according to various sources, whether it be battle deaths, massacres, and/or famine, is about 40 million.