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General Motors EV1

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General Motors EV1
EV1
Overview
ManufacturerGeneral Motors
Production1996-1999 (1,117 units)
AssemblyGM Lansing Craft Centre, Lansing, Michigan
DesignerGeneral Motors
Body and chassis
ClassBattery electric vehicle
Body style2 seat Subcompact
LayoutFF layout
Powertrain
Engine3-phase AC Induction
Transmissionsingle speed reduction integrated with motor and differential
Chronology
PredecessorImpact (prototype)
SuccessorN/A
"EV1" redirects here. For other uses, see EV1 (disambiguation).

The EV1 was the first purpose-built battery electric vehicle produced by General Motors (GM) in the United States and, at the time, was the only vehicle in the history of the company to bear the "General Motors" badge.

The EV1 electric cars were available in California and Arizona only and could be serviced at designated Saturn retailers.

History

Origins

The predecessor of the EV1, the Impact, driven into the Los Angeles Auto Show, ironically led to the Zero Emission Vehicle ("ZEV") mandate in 1990 which was intended to force GM to produce the EV1.[citation needed] Other members of what was then the American Automobile Manufacturers Association, plus Toyota, Nissan and Honda, were forced to produce a prototype ZEV.[citation needed].

Release

GM never offered the EV1 for public sale. It was only available to consumers under a lease program that had no clause allowing for purchase at the conclusion of the lease. 650 EV1s were produced for the 1997 model year, using lead acid batteries; each found a lessee. In 1999, GM switched the EV1 to a nickel metal hydride battery; 465 were produced, all were leased.

In 1999, the original 650 1997 EV1s were all returned to GM because of a "voluntary recall" to repair a cable from the charge port that GM claimed would lead to heat buildup and even fire.

In 2000, about 200 of the 1997 EV1s were re-issued to their original lessees on revised two-year leases.

Over the next 18 months, the remaining 200-odd 1999 EV1s were released, a few at a time, to selected lessees, mostly high-profile celebrities and politicians.

All EV1 leases required return of the vehicle at lease end, upon which GM sent them straight off to Mesa, Arizona, where the tires and batteries were removed, they were subjected to an 18" crush, and then trucked back to a smelter near Fontana, California. GM charged former lessees for excess wear and for scratches on the EV1s, and insisted on billing ex-lessees for these charges, even reporting non-payment as a charge-off. GM consistently refused offers to purchase or re-lease any EV1s. All the 1999 EV1s, with the exception of a few retained in Michigan proving grounds, were destroyed. All the donated EV1s are the original 1997 version, disabled by removal of the controller and batteries.

Program cancellation

In late 2003, GM officially cancelled the EV1 program.[1][2] Despite unfulfilled waiting lists and positive feedback from the lessees, GM stated that it could not sell enough of the cars to make the EV1 profitable. In fact, during the latter stages of development for the car, GM officials claimed that they stood no chance of ever making a profit on the EV1 itself.

Instead, the company hoped that the EV1 would prove their technology and establish a "leadership" position within the electric vehicle market. GM itself did not expect to turn a profit on electric vehicles for perhaps ten years after bringing the EV1 to market. [citation needed] The end came when GM decided it was cheaper to sue the State of California to roll back clean vehicle regulations than it was to build electric vehicles. GM believed the price of oil would remain low and people would always want SUVs[3] rather than small electric cars.

GM stated that they spent over US$1 billion developing and marketing the EV1, though a portion of this cost was defrayed by the Clinton Administration's US$1.25 billion Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV) project. [4][5][6] All manufacturers seeking to produce electric cars for market consumption also benefitted from matching government funds committed to the United States Advanced Battery Consortium. The estimated research and development costs for the EV1 program to production (prior to marketing and sale costs) was pegged by General Motors as "slightly less than US$500 million".

When canceling the program, GM also cited a lack of demand for the two-seater, particularly in light of its limited range and its suitability to "warm weather" states only.[citation needed] During the EV1's development phase, several Northeastern states moved to pass ZEV laws similar to those adopted in California.[citation needed] General Motors, along with many other prospective EV manufacturers, opposed this movement despite the likelihood that such legislation would have vastly increased the market for the vehicle[citation needed]. While this may seem a sinister position to have taken, GM's internal research showed very clearly that the EV1's already perilously low range would be reduced by as much as 50% for use in cold-weather states.[citation needed] This was due chiefly to the effect of ambient temperature on both the batteries performance and the special low rolling resistance tires. [citation needed]

In 2001, the California Air Resources Board modified the ZEV mandate[7] to allow manufacturers to claim partial ZEV credit for hybrid vehicles. General Motors and DaimlerChrysler then sued the state of California and CARB, alleging that the new ZEV rules violated a federal law barring states from regulating fuel economy.[8] In response, CARB removed the requirement for electric vehicles from the ZEV mandate in 2003, and GM - having produced a product for a mandate and market that no longer existed - cancelled the EV1 program soon after.[9]

The last private EV1 lease expired in August of 2004. Upon lease expiration, the cars were put into storage at a facility in Burbank, California. GM donated a small number of the returned EV1s to colleges and universities for engineering students, and to several museums including the Smithsonian Institution. However, most of the vehicles were quietly destroyed, much to the protest of their former drivers. By March 15, 2005 the last 78 in storage had been transferred to the GM Desert Proving Grounds in Mesa, Arizona for disposal. The EV1s sent to this site were stripped of their recyclables and crushed.

Over 100 people offered to purchase the electric cars and waive such liability as they were able under American consumer product laws. GM refused, stating that they would be subject to ongoing product liability from both the purchasers and any future owners, and that their internal customer support policies would require them to provide service and replacement parts for the EV1s for at least ten years.[10] GM's suppliers stopped making replacement parts because of low demand, making it impossible to repair the vehicles.[11] Of particular concern to the company was the likelihood that each leased car's battery packs would require replacement at 25-35,000 mile intervals, and that the very low volumes involved would necessitate the corporation's subsidy of spare parts to private owners, perhaps on an indefinite basis. (As an example, the wholesale, or in house, cost of the battery pack to GM was still in the US$2000-3000 region during the production phase of the EV1 program. Including delivery and installation, GM thought it unlikely an EV1 could be repowered for less than US$6000-7000 per unit.)

Reaction

The EV1 has been called a failure by business publications such as the Wall Street Journal.[12] GM believes that the electric car venture was not a failure, and that the EV1 was doomed when the expected breakthrough in battery technology did not take place.[13] In fact, the NiMH battery packs (or Ovonic Battery) that were expected to dramatically improve range came with their own set of problems; GM had to use a less-efficient charging algorithm (lengthening charge times) and waste power on air conditioning to prevent the battery packs from overheating.[14] In addition, the elimination of the environmental mandate that led to the car's creation was, as previously mentioned, a huge factor in the program's cancellation. The EV1 could not have been created without the looming CARB 2% ZEV mandate in California. It is clear that once the mandate was eliminated, the car would not continue to be produced.

The view of the EV1 as failure is a controversial one in itself. When viewed as an attempt to produce a commercially viable EV for market consumption, it seems clear the car did not succeed (the car could not be produced or maintained at a cost that consumers would have considered acceptable). If one considers the vehicle from GM's perspective, as a technological showpiece—a production electric car that actually could replace a petrol powered vehicle—the program's outcome is less clear. The EV1 was produced for the consumer market, and many lessees found driving an EV1 to be a favorable experience. On that basis, EV1 would qualify as the most successful electric car ever built.

Some analysts have suggested that it is inappropriate to compare the EV1 with existing gasoline powered commuter cars as the EV1 is, in effect, a completely new product and had no equivalent vehicles to be judged against. Perhaps the largest disappointment to consumers is that, having invested the research time and money to invent the technology required to produce the EV1, GM did not continue development of future EV designs. Effectively, the technological advantage GM built through this program was squandered.

It has recently been theorized by the documentary Who Killed the Electric Car? that the EV1 program was eliminated because it threatened the oil industry and because it required virtually no maintenance and therefore threatened GM's profitability by undermining the replacement parts aftermarket as well as the company's strategy of planned obsolescence. Some still speculate about the role the oil industry played in canceling the EV1 program, although we will probably never know the real story behind the cancellation. GM responded to the film's claims, before actually having seen the movie, laying out several reasons why the EV1 was not commercially viable at the time.[15]

Costs

The price for the car used to compute lease payments was US $33,995 to US $43,995, which made for lease payments of US $299 to over US $574 per month. One industry official said that each EV1 cost the company about US $80,000, including research, development and other associated costs.[16] The vehicle's lease prices also depended on available state rebates. At the time of purchase, the cost for the electricity used to power the car was computed to be 1/3 to 1/2 the cost of the equivalent amount of gasoline[17], and since that time increases in gas prices may have made electricity relatively even less expensive (depending on customer location, recharging time and electricity billing variations (some utilities have variable billing for peak vs non-peak usage rates)).

Technology

The EV1 was a 'purpose built' electric vehicle, not a conversion of an existing vehicle or drivetrain. The program was initially administered by Kenneth Baker, a GM Engineer who had previously managed the Electrovette program in the 1970s. This program had been intended as an in-factory conversion of the Chevrolet Chevette to electric power, but did not reach production owing to technical and production cost difficulties.

General Motors used many advanced technologies in developing the EV1. These included:

Most of these technologies were included to improve the overall efficiency of the EV1.

The first generation EV1s used lead-acid batteries in 1996 (as model year 1997) and a second generation batch with nickel metal hydride batteries in 1999. Some of the Gen 1 EV1s were refurbished and upgraded to Panasonic Lead Acid batteries.

The Gen 1 cars got 55-to-75 miles (90-to-120 km) per charge with the Delco-manufactured lead-acid batteries, 75-to-100 miles (120-to-160 km) with the Gen 2 Panasonic lead-acid batteries, and 75-to-150 miles (120 to 240 km) per charge with Gen 2 Ovonic nickel-metal hydride batteries. Recharging took as much as eight hours for a full charge (although one could get an 80% charge in two to three hours). The battery pack consisted of 26 12-volt lead-acid batteries holding 67.4 MJ (18.7 kWh) of energy or 26 13.2-volt nickel-metal hydride batteries which held 95.1 MJ (26.4 kWh) of energy.

The EV1 was directly based on a prototype vehicle created by AeroVironment called the GM Impact. The Impact in turn was based on design ideas first tested out in a record-breaking race car called the Sunraycer, a solar-electric vehicle the company created in 1987 specifically to win the World Solar Challenge, a trans-Australia race open to solar powered cars only.

A modified EV1 prototype set a land speed record for production electric vehicles of 183 mph (295 km/h) in 1994.

Consumer experience

The EV1 driving and ownership experience was unlike a conventional gasoline (petrol) or diesel vehicle. The EV1 had the lowest aerodynamic drag coefficient of any production vehicle in history, with a Cd of 0.195, while typical production cars have Cd's in the 0.3 to 0.4 range.[18] As a result, at highway speeds, the only audible noise was often the steady thrum of the tires, with nothing from wind or motors. At lower speeds, and at stoplights, there was no noise at all, save for a slight whine from the single-speed gear reduction unit. With its smooth shape and rear fender skirts it had a very distinctive appearance.

The EV1 could accelerate from 0-60 mph in the 8 second range. The car's top speed was limited to 80 MPH due to gearing that was a design compromise between low-speed acceleration, vehicle top speed and motor speed and torque ranges. Vehicle operating information instrumentation was displayed by digital readouts spanning a thin curved strip just under the windshield and well above the dashboard.

The home charger installation (required for "fast recharge") was about 1.5'x2'x5' with integrated heatsinks and resembled a gasoline pump. Charging itself was entirely inductive, and accomplished by placing a MagneCharge paddle in the front port of the EV1, although GM also offered a convenience charger (110/115/120VAC) that could be used in conjunction with any standard North American receptacle to slow charge the battery pack.

EV1 drivetrain prototypes

EV1 shown plugged into charging station

General Motors revealed several prototype variants of the EV1 drivetrain at the 1998 Detroit Auto Show. The models included diesel/electric parallel hybrid, gas turbine/electric series hybrid, fuel cell/electric version and compressed natural gas low emission internal combustion engine version.[19] In addition, during this period, GM reorganized their electronics divisions (amongst them Hughes Electronics and Delco Divisions) into Delco Propulsion Systems in order to attempt to commercialize this technology in niche markets. Several non-affiliated companies purchased inverter and drivetrain systems from DPS for vehicle/fleet conversion purposes.

The new platform was a four-passenger variant of the EV1, lengthened by 19". This design was based on an internal (GM) program for a more "marketable" EV begun during the proof of concept phase of the EV1's development. During the original EV1 R&D period, focus groups indicated one of the major market limiting factors of the original EV1 was its two seater configuration. GM investigated the possibility of making the EV1 a four seater, but ultimately determined that the increased length and weight of the four seater would reduce vehicle's already limited range to 40-50 miles - placing the first ground up electric car's performance squarely in the pack of aftermarket gas vehicle conversions. Understandably, the company elected to produce the lighter two seater design.

For hybrid and electric vehicles, the battery pack was upgraded to 44 NiMH cells, arranged in "I" formation down the centerline, which could fully recharge in just 2 hours using onboard 220 V induction charger; additional power units were installed in the trunk, thus complementing the 3rd generation 137 hp AC Induction electric motor installed in the hood. Hybrid modifications retained the capability of all-electric ZEV propulsion for up to 40 miles (64.4 km).

EV1 CNG

The compressed natural gas (CNG) variant was the only non-electric vehicle in the line-up, even though it employed the same up-stretched platform. It used a modified Suzuki 1.0-liter turbocharged 3-cylinder all-aluminum OHC engine installed under the hood. Due to the high octane rating of the CNG (allowing for a greater compression ratio), this small engine was able to deliver 72hp at 5500 rpm.

The batteries were replaced with two CNG tanks capable of maximum operating pressure of 3000 psi. The tanks could be refueled from a single nozzle in only 4 minutes. In-tank solenoids shut off the fuel during refueling and engine idle, and a pressure relief device safeguarded against excessive temperature and pressure. With the help of a continuously variable transmission, the car accelerated 0 to 60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 11 seconds. The maximum range was 350 to 400 miles, and fuel economy was 60 mpg (in gasoline equivalent).

EV1 series hybrid

EV1 series hybrid prototype at EVS-16 in Beijing, 1999

The series hybrid prototype[20] had a gas turbine engine APU placed in the trunk. A single-stage, single-shaft, recuperated gas turbine unit with a high-speed permanent-magnet AC generator was provided by Williams International; it weighed 220 lb (99.8 kg), measured 20 inches (50.8 cm) in diameter by 22 inches (55.9 cm) long and was running between 100,000 and 140,000 rpm. The turbine could run on multiple fuels, from reformulated gasoline to compressed natural gas. The APU started automatically when the battery charge dropped below 40% and delivered 40 kW of electrical power, enough to achieve speeds up to 80 mph (128.8 km/h) and to return the car's 44 NiMH cells to a 50% charge level.

A fuel tank capacity of 6.5 gallons (24.6 l) and fuel economy of 60 to 100 mpg (3.9 to 2.4 L/100 km) in hybrid mode, depending on the driving conditions, allowed for a highway range of more than 390 miles (627.6 km). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds.

There was also a research program[21] that powered the series hybrid Gen2 version from Stirling engine based generator. The program demonstrated the technical feasibility of such drivetrain, but concluded that commercial viability was out of reach at that time.

EV1 parallel hybrid

The parallel hybrid variant featured 1.3 L turbocharged DTI diesel engine from Isuzu delivering 75 hp, installed in the trunk along with an additional 6.5 hp DC motor/generator; the two motors drove the rear wheels through an electronically controlled transaxle. When combined with the AC induction motor which powered the front wheels, all three power units delivered a total output of 219 hp, accelerating the car to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 7 seconds. A single tank of diesel fuel could keep the car running for 550 miles with a fuel economy of 80 mpg.

A similar technology is used in the 2005 Opel Astra Diesel Hybrid concept.

EV1 fuel cell

This variant extended all-electric propulsion capabilities with a methanol-powered fuel cell system (developed by Daimler-Benz/Ballard for the Mercedes-Benz NECAR), again installed in the trunk. The system consisted of a fuel processor, an expander/compressor and the fuel cell stack. The highway range was about 300 miles, with a fuel economy of 80 mpg (in a gasoline equivalent). The car accelerated to 0-60 mph (96.6 km/h) in 9 seconds.

Controversy

File:Evcrushed.jpg
EV1s crushed by General Motors

On June 30, 2006, a documentary film debuted entitled Who Killed the Electric Car?. The subject of the film is the demise of the EV1. Much of the film accounts for GM's efforts to demonstrate to California that there was no demand for their product, and then to reclaim every last EV1 and dispose of them. A few vehicles were disabled and given to museums and universities, but almost all were found to have been crushed.

According to the film, many EV1 lessees offered to purchase their vehicles from GM at lease-end for the residual price. For instance, US $1.9 million was offered for the remaining 78 cars in a Burbank storage lot. Apparently GM did not entertain any of these offers. Subsequently, the film depicts nearly all of the EV1's being decommissioned by GM, crushed and recycled as scrap metal. These are some of the reasons why many analysts question GM's motives.

Several weeks before the debut of the film, the Smithsonian Institution announced that its EV1 display was being permanently removed and the EV1 car put into storage. Although GM is a major financial contributor to the museum, both parties denied that this sponsorship contributed to the removal of the display.[22] According to the museum, the removal of the EV1 from display was a necessary aspect of its renovation.[23] The space where the EV1 stood has been filled by Stanley, an unmanned Volkswagen Touareg SUV.[24]

Many consumers and government officials questioned General Motors' commitment to the EV1 program. Concerns over inadequate marketing and limited vehicle supply have led some to believe that GM intended the EV1 program to fail. One theory is that GM intended to demonstrate that electric vehicles were not commercially viable with 1990's technology. GM's stated position was to spend US $500 million to produce a workable electric vehicle that could compete and win "heads up" in the marketplace. The company said that if they could have recouped their investment by selling the vehicles commercially, they certainly would have done so. GM never responded to the leasees offer to pay the residual lease value.

Ardent supporters of electric vehicles have been very vocal about the EV1 program's demise. Of particular interest is the leasing program which formally required the vehicles to be returned to GM at lease expiry. General Motors stated reason for the lease-only option was that, as the modern era's first ground-up electric vehicle, the EV1 could not be expected to maintain its performance level (or affordability in regard to maintenance) over the long run. GM also had significant concerns over long term liability issues relating to the vehicle. This was partly due to the relatively short R&D period the car was designed and produced under, and the high percentage of "invented on schedule" technology employed in the car as compared with a standard gasoline powered vehicle. While many lessees and prospective owners have complained about the lease-only availability of the EV1, it is important to note that each leased vehicle was in effect heavily subsidized by General Motors. The car was very popular with its lessees, but it is not known if anyone would have purchased a new electric vehicle had it been offered for sale even at a "break even" price of US $35,000-40,000. A higher production volume would have been required for the production cost to be reduced, (see:economy of scale).

The process of obtaining an EV1 was difficult when compared to the purchase of any other commuter car. The vehicle could not be purchased outright. Instead, General Motors offered a closed-end three year lease, with no renewal or residual purchase option. The EV1 was only available from Saturn dealerships (then less prevalent than they are today), and only in California and Arizona (for technical reasons).

Before reviewing lease options, a potential lessee would be taken through a 'pre-qualification' process in order to learn how the EV1 was different from other vehicles (a similar 'buyer familiarization process' was standard for all Saturn buyers). Following this, prospective lessees would be placed on a waiting list with no scheduled delivery date. After an average wait of between two and six months, the lessee would be allotted a vehicle. Installation of a home charger took one to two weeks and cost an additional US $2500 (on average).

According to GM Chairman and CEO Rick Wagoner, the worst decision of his tenure at GM was "axing the EV1 electric-car program and not putting the right resources into hybrids. It didn’t affect profitability, but it did affect image."[25] According to the March 13, 2007 issue of Newsweek, "GM R&D chief Larry Burns . . . now wishes GM hadn't killed the plug-in hybrid EV1 prototype his engineers had on the road a decade ago: 'If we could turn back the hands of time,' says Burns, 'we could have had the Chevy Volt 10 years earlier.'" [26]

An EV1 is still on display at The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan. Interestingly, this vehicle is the one previously owned by film director Chris Paine, director of the aforementioned Who Killed the Electric Car?. [27]

See also

References

  1. ^ Welch, David. "The Eco-Cars". Business Week. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Taylor, Michael (April 24, 2005). "Owners charged up over electric cars, but manufacturers have pulled the plug". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved 2007-01-07.
  3. ^ Ostrov, Rick. "Hope For Humanity: New Solutions For the 21st Century". Education Press. Retrieved 2007-03-08. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ Sissine, Fred (February 28, 1996). "The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles". Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 2007-01-09. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ "Remarks by the President at a Clean Car event" (Press release). White House Press Secretary. September 29, 1993. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  6. ^ "Accomplishments of the National Science and Technology Council". National Science and Technology Council. 1996. Retrieved 2007-01-08.
  7. ^ "Amendments to the California Zero Emission Vehicle Program Regulations" (PDF). State of California Environmental Protection Agency. December 2001. Retrieved 2007-01-08.
  8. ^ "Air Wars: California's Auto Emissions Laws". Public Broadcasting Service. April 15, 2005. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ "Calif. Buckles on Zero Emissions". Reuters. August 12, 2003. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Landess, Josh (November 24, 2002). "EV1 : Victim of Liability Laws?". EV World. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ "GM'S FORWARD PROGRESS: FACTS VERSUS FICTION". GM. June 23, 2006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |notes= ignored (help)
  12. ^ "GM, Toyota Keep Hybrid Bets Alive". Wall Street Journal. December 12, 2006. pp. D7. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |notes= ignored (help)
  13. ^ The Arizona Republic, March 15th, 2005
  14. ^ Adams, Noel (December 2, 2001). "Why is GM Crushing Their EV-1s?". Electrifying Times. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  15. ^ "GM'S FORWARD PROGRESS: FACTS VERSUS FICTION". GM. June 23, 2006. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |notes= ignored (help)
  16. ^ Schneider, Greg (October 22, 2003). "The Electric-Car Slide". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) That would put GM's total investment at US $89 million, as 1115 cars were produced.
  17. ^ .[original research?]Fuel costs can be estimated as follows: this article states the nickel-metal hydride batteries held 26.4 kWh of energy. According to the Wikipedia article on Electricity retailing the average cost of electricity is approximately US $0.106 per kWh. Therefore it would cost 26.4 x US $0.106 or US $2.80 to fully charge the batteries, neglecting any losses in the charging system. The range of the vehicle was 75-150 miles, so it could travel approximately 100 miles at an electric cost of US $2.80. If gasoline costs US $2/gallon and a similar car gets 30 miles/gallon then gasoline fuel costs are US $6.67 to travel 100 miles. The electric "fuel cost" is approximately 41% of the gasoline fuel cost in this example
  18. ^ "The Ins and Outs of Innovation". American Plastics Council. Retrieved 2007-01-08.
  19. ^ Windbergs, Thor (1998). "Motoring into the New Millennium". Colorado Engineer Magazine. Retrieved 2007-01-08.
  20. ^ "AutoWorld EV1 Electric: Series Hybrid".
  21. ^ Roland, Gravel. "The General Motors/HEV Is Targeted for Consumer Acceptance" (PDF). Office of Transportation Technologies. Retrieved 2007-06-07.
  22. ^ "Smithsonian dumps electric car exhibit". Associated Press. June 19, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ "National Museum of American History Announces Major Renovation" (Press release). National Museum of American History. April 12, 2006. Retrieved 2006-01-08. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ Hales, Linda (June 16, 2006). "An Electric Car, Booted". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2007-01-08. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ Motor Trend, June 2006, p. 94
  26. ^ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17437402/site/newsweek/page/4/
  27. ^ In the movie Who Killed the Electric Car? EV1 Sales Specialist Chelsea Sexton mentions that she gave up her, would be personal, EV1 to Chris Paine the director of the movie. Later in the Henry Ford Museum scene she encounters "her" red EV1, given to Chris, in storage as she verifies it's VIN.
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