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Shamanism in Siberia

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Siberia is regarded as the locus classicus of shamanism.[1] It is inhabited by many different ethnic groups. Many of its Uralic, Altaic, and Paleosiberian peoples observe shamanistic practices even in modern times. Many classical ethnographic sources of “shamanism” were recorded among Siberian people.

Grouped by linguistic relatedness

This classification used here may ignore possible ethnographical considerations, cultural influences. Besides that, possible language shifts etc. may make some cases more complex, see Sami people or Sayan Samoyedic peoples for example.

The coloring of these linguistic maps does not denote shamanistic practice necessarily, neither should it suggest directly a thematic map of concrete ethnographical features!
Uralic language family, together with language isolate Yukaghir whose hypothetical relatedness to Uralic was assumed by some[2]
Turkic languages, including also North Siberian Yakuts (but Dolgans are omitted), South Siberian areas, and also Central Asia
Eskimo branch of the Eskimo-Aleut language family

Uralic

Uralic languages are proven to form a genalogical unit, a language family. The two main branches of Uralian family are Samoyedic and Finno-Ugric.

Not all Uralic peoples live in Siberia or have shamanistic features any more. Saami people had kept living shamanistic practice for a long time. They live in Europe, they practiced shamanism till cca the 18th century.[3] Most other Finno-Ugric peoples (e.g. Hungarian, Finnic, Mari) have only remnant elements of shamanism.[4] Majority of Uralic population lives outside Siberia. Some of them used to live in Siberia, have wandered to their present locations since then. The original location of the Proto-Uralic peoples (and its extent) is debated. Combined phytogeographical and linguistic considerations (distribution of various tree species and the presence of their names in various Uralic languages) suggest that this area was north of Central Ural Mountains and on lower and middle parts of Ob River.[5]

Samoyedic

Among several Samoyedic peoples shamanism was a living tradition also in modern times, especially at groups living in isolation until recent times (Nganasans).[6] Enets people, Selkups There were distinguished several types of shamans among Nenets people,[7] Enets people,[8] Selkups.[9] (The Nganasan shaman used three different crowns, according to the situaton: one for upper world, one for underneath word, one for occasion of childbirth.)[10]

Nenets people, Enets people, Nganasan people speak Northern Samoyedic languages. They live in North Siberia (Nenets live also in Euoropean parts), they provide classical examples. Selkups are the only ones who speak Southern Samoyedic languages nowadays. They live more to the south, shamanism was in decline also at the beginning of 20th century, although folklore memories could be recorded even in the 1960s.[9] Other Southern Samoyedic languages were spoken by some peoples living in the Sayan Mountains, but language shift has finished completly, making all these languages extinct.[11][12]

Nenests
Main article: Tadibya

Thee were several types of shamans distinguishing ones contacting upper world, ones contacting underneath world, ones contacting the dead.[7]

Nganasan

The isolated location of Nganasan people enabled that shamanism was a living phenomenon among them even in the beginning of 20th century,[13] the last notable Nganasan shaman's seances could be recorded on film in the 1970s.[13][14]

One of the occasions in which the shaman partook was the clean tent rite. held after the polar night, including sacrifice.[6][15]

Sayan Samoyedic

Some peoples of the Sayan Mountains spoke once Southern Samoyedic languages. Most of them underwent a language shift in the beginning and middle of the 19th century, borrowing the language of neighboring Turkic peoples. The Kamassian language survived longer: 14 old peoples spoke it yet in 1914. In the late 20th century, some old people had passive or uncertain knowledge of the language, but collecting reliable scientific data was no longer possible.[16][17] Today Kamassian is regarded as extinct.

The shamanism of Samoyedic peoples in the Sayan Mountains survived longer (if we regard Karagas as a Samoyedic people,[18][16][17] although such approaches have been refined: the problem of their origin may be more complex[19]). Diószegi Vilmos could record not only folklore memories in the late 1950s, but he managed also to talk personally to (no longer practicing) shamans, record their personal memories, songs, some of their paraphernalia.[20]

A interesting question here: is this shamanism borrowed entirely from neighboring Turkic peoples, or does it have some ethnic features, maybe remnant of Samoyedic origin? Comparative considerations suggest, that

  • certainly, there are influences. Karagas shamanism is affected by Abakan-Turkic and Buryat influence.[21] Among the various Soyot cultures, the central Soyot groups, keeping cattle and horses, show Khalkha-Mongolian phenomena in their shamanism,[22] the shamanism of Western Soyots, living on the steppe, is similar to that of Altai Turkic peoples.[23] A shaman story narrates contacts between Soyots and Abakan Turkic peoples in a mythical form.[24]
  • Karagas and Eastern (reindeer-breeding, mountain-inhabiting) Soyots. have many similarities in their culture[25] and shamanism.[26] It was these two cultures who presented some ethnic features, phenomena lacking among neighboring Turkic peoples. E.g, the structure of their shamanic drum showed such peculiarity: it had two transoms.[27] It was also these two cultures who showed some features, which could be possibly of Samoyedic origin: the shaman's headdress, dress and boots has the effigies symbolizing human organs, mostly bones[28] in the case of headdress, representation of human face.[29] Also the dress-initiating song of the Karagas shaman Kokuyev contained the expression “my shamanic dress with seven vertebrae”.[30] Hoppál interprets the skeleton-like overlay of the Karagas shaman-dress as symbol of shamanic rebirth,[31] similar remark applies for the skeleton-like iron ornamentation of the (not Samoyedic, but genealogically unclassified, Paleosiberian) Ket shamanic dress.[32] (The theory of Ket origin of the Karagas has already been mentioned above[19].)

Finno-Ugric

As mentioned, not all Finno-Ugric peoples practiced shamanism in the modern times. Many of Finno-Ugric peoples (includig those of the largest population: Hungarian people, Finnish people) live outside Siberia. Others live in the western part of Siberia (if we define this area in the broadest sense).

Sami
Sami shaman with his drum
Main article: Noaide

Sami people live outside Siberia. They practiced shamanism till cca the second half of 18th century, when both proselytism and economical changes weakened it.[3][33] A noaide could ensure hunting luck, abundance of game for the community,[34] protect it from disasters, this figure can be compared in many aspects to a Siberian shaman.[35] Mythology reflects the belief that noaides could stand in war with each other.[36][37]

Ugric

Obi-Ugric

Although folklore narratives preserved many memories of shamanism, but its practice remained only in fragments by in 1930s among Khanty people, Mansi people. There was more types of shamans.[38]

Hungarian
Main article: Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore

Hungarian people have wandered to from the Proto-Uralic area to the Pannonian Basin, thus they have they left Siberia. Shamanism is no more a widespread living practice among them, but some remnants have been reserved as fragments of folklore. Comparative methods can reveal, that some motifs of folktales, some fragments of songs or rhymes of folk customs preserved fragments of the old belief system. Some records narrate us about shaman-like figures directly. Shamanistic remnants in Hungarian folklore was researched among others by Diószegi Vilmos, based on ethnographic records of Hungarian and neighboring peoples, and comparative works with various shamanisms of some Siberian peoples.[39] Hoppál continued his work of studying Hungarian shamanistic belief remnants,[40] comparing shamanistic beliefs of Uralic peoples[41] with those of several non-Uralic Siberian peoples as well.[42][43]

Turkic

Further information: Turkic mythology

Turkic shamanism has been widely amalgamated with Islam, but there are surviving traditions among the Tuvans, Tofalar and related peoples.

Tungusic

Among the Tungusic peoples of Siberia, shamanism is also widespread.

Eskimo

Yup'ik shaman exorcising evil spirits from a sick boy, Nushagak, Alaska, 1890s.
Main article: Shamanism among Eskimo peoples

Eskimo groups comprise a huge area stretching from Eastern Siberia through Alaska and Northern Canada (including Labrador Peninsula) to Greenland. Shamanistic practice and beliefs have been recorded at several parts of this vast area crosscutting continental borders.[44][45][46]

Like Eskimo cultures themselves, shamanistic practices reveal diversity. Some mosaic-like examples from various cultures: the soul concepts of the various cultures were diverse as well, some groups believed that the young child had to be taken for by guardian names inherited from a recently deceased relative. Among some groups, this belief amounted to a kind of reincarnation. Also shamanism might include beliefs in soul dualism, where the free-soul of the shaman could fly to celestial or underneath realms, contacting mythological beings, negotiating with them in order to cease calamities or achieve succes in hunt. If their wrath was believed to be caused by taboo breaches, the shaman asked for confessions by members of the community.

In most cultures, shamanism could be refused by he candidate: calling could be felt by visions, but genarally, becoming a shaman followed conscious considerations.

Unsettled classifications or complex problematics of origin

An Altai Kizhi or Khakas shaman woman — it cannot be decided exactly from the image alone, which of the two is the exact origin of the shaman. Early 20th century.[47]

The problem of origin of peoples of the Sayan Mountains has already been metioned above (Sayan Samoyedic). Also some other peoples living near the Altai may have some relatedness to Uralic (namely Ugric, Samoyedic), Ket, Mongolic peoples.[48][49][50] There may be also ethnographic traces of such past of these nowadays Turkic-speaking peoples of the Altai. For example, some of them have phallic-erotic fertility rites, and that can be compared to similar rites of Obi-Ugric peoples.[49][50]

The linguistical grouping used in this article does not include unsettled classifications, like Altaic and Paleosiberian hypotheses.

Demographics

The 2002 census of the Russian Federation reports 123,423 (0.23% of the population) people of ethnic groups which dominantly adhere to "traditional beliefs"

Traditional beliefs in Russia, based on 2002 Russian Census and Ethnic Group predominant religion
Ethnic Group Population (2002)
Evenks 35,527
Nanais 12,160
Evens 19,071
Chukchi 15,767
Mansi 11,432
Koryak 8,743
Nivkh 5,162
Itelmeni 3,180
Ulchs 2,913
Eskimo 1,750
Udege 1,657
Ket 1,494
Chuvans 1,087
Tofalar 837
Nganasans 834
Orochs 686
Aleut 540
Oroks 346
Enets 237
Total 123,423

Notes

  1. ^ Hoppál 2005:13
  2. ^ Vaba, Lembit. "The Yukaghirs". The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire. NGO Red Book.
  3. ^ a b Hoppál 2005:84
  4. ^ Hoppál 2005:84
  5. ^ Hajdú 1975:35
  6. ^ a b Hoppál 2005:92–93
  7. ^ a b Hoppál 2005:88
  8. ^ Hoppál 2005:89
  9. ^ a b Hoppál 2005:94
  10. ^ Hoppál 2005:207–208
  11. ^ Hajdú 1975:12
  12. ^ Hajdú 1982:10
  13. ^ a b Hoppál 2005:92
  14. ^ Hoppál 1994:62
  15. ^ The Clean Tent Rite
  16. ^ a b Hajdú 1975:12
  17. ^ a b Hajdú 1982:10
  18. ^ Diószegi 1960:102,154,243
  19. ^ a b Viikberg, Jüri. "The Tofalars". The Peoples of the Red Book of the Imperial Russia. NGO Red Book. ISBN 9985-936922.
  20. ^ Diószegi 1960
  21. ^ Diószegi 1960:243
  22. ^ Diószegi 1960:226
  23. ^ Diószegi 1960:238
  24. ^ Diószegi 1960:62–63
  25. ^ Diószegi 1960:242
  26. ^ Diószegi 1960:164
  27. ^ Diószegi 1960:198,243
  28. ^ Diószegi 1960:128,188,243
  29. ^ Diószegi 1960:110,113
  30. ^ Diószegi 1960:130
  31. ^ Hoppál 1994:75
  32. ^ Hoppál 1994:65
  33. ^ Voigt 1966:294
  34. ^ Voigt 1966:140
  35. ^ Voigt 1966:296
  36. ^ Voigt 1966:140
  37. ^ Voigt 1966:296
  38. ^ Hoppál 2005:96
  39. ^ Diószegi 1998
  40. ^ Hoppál 1998
  41. ^ Hoppál 1975
  42. ^ Hoppál 2005
  43. ^ Hoppál 1994
  44. ^ Kleivan & Sonne 1985
  45. ^ Merkur 1985
  46. ^ Gabus 1970
  47. ^ Hoppál 2005:77,287
  48. ^ "The Altaics". The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire.
  49. ^ a b Vajda, Edward J. "The Altai Turks".
  50. ^ a b Hoppál 2005:106

References

  • Balzer, M. M. (ed) (1990). Shamanism: Soviet Studies of Traditional Religion in Siberia and Central Asia. Armonk NY. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  • Diószegi, Vilmos (1960). Sámánok nyomában Szibéria földjén. Egy néprajzi kutatóút története. Budapest: Magvető Könyvkiadó. The title means: “Tracing shamans in Siberia”.
  • Diószegi, Vilmos (1998) [1958]. A sámánhit emlékei a magyar népi műveltségben (in Hungarian) (1. reprint kiadás ed.). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 963 05 7542 6. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help) The title means: “Remnants of shamanistic beliefs in Hungarian folklore”.
  • Gabus, Jean (1970). A karibu eszkimók (in Hungarian). Budapest: Gondolat Kiadó. Translation of the original: (1944) Vie et coutumes des Esquimaux Caribous. Libraire Payot Lausanne.
  • Hajdú, Péter (1975). "A rokonság nyelvi háttere". In Hajdú, Péter (ed.). Uráli népek. Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai (in Hungarian). Budapest: Corvina Kiadó. pp. 11–43. ISBN 963 13 0900 2. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help) The title means: “Uralic peoples. Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives”; the chapter means “Linguistical background of the relationship”.
  • Hajdú, Péter (1982) [1968]. Chrestomathia Samoiedica (in Hungarian) (Second edition ed.). Budapest: Tankönyvkiadó. ISBN 963 17 6601 2. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
  • Hoppál, Mihály (1975). "Az uráli népek hiedelemvilága és a samanizmus". In Hajdú, Péter (ed.). Uráli népek / Nyelvrokonaink kultúrája és hagyományai (in Hungarian). Budapest: Corvina Kiadó. pp. 211–233. ISBN 963 13 0900 2. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help) The title means: “Uralic peoples / Culture and traditions of our linguistic relatives”; the chapter means “The belief system of Uralic peoples and the shamanism”.
  • Hoppál, Mihály (1994). Sámánok, lelkek és jelképek (in Hungarian). Budapest: Helikon Kiadó. ISBN 963 208 298 2.
  • Hoppál, Mihály (2005). Sámánok Eurázsiában (in Hungarian). Budapest: Akadémiai Kiadó. ISBN 963-05-8295-3 2. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help) The title means “Shamans in Eurasia”, the book is written in Hungarian, but it is published also in German, Estonian and Finnish. Site of publisher with short description on the book (in Hungarian)
  • Kleivan, I. (1985). Eskimos: Greenland and Canada. Iconography of religions, section VIII, "Artic Peoples", fascicle 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Institute of Religious Iconography • State University Groningen. E.J. Brill. ISBN 90-04-07160-1. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  • Merkur, Daniel (1985). Becoming Half Hidden: Shamanism and Initiation among the Inuit. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. {{cite book}}: Text "series: Acta Universitatis Stockholmiensis / Stockholm Studies in Comparative Religion" ignored (help)
  • Rubcova, E. S. (1954). Materials on the Language and Folklore of the Eskimoes (Vol. I, Chaplino Dialect) (in Russian). Moscow • Leningrad: Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Original data: Рубцова, Е. С. (1954). Материалы по языку и фольклору эскимосов (чаплинский диалект). Москва • Ленинград: Академия Наук СССР.
  • Vitebsky, Piers (2001). The Shaman: Voyages of the Soul - Trance, Ecstasy and Healing from Siberia to the Amazon. Duncan Baird. ISBN 1-903296-18-8.
  • Vitebsky, Piers (1996). A sámán (in Hungarian). Budapest: Magyar Könyvklub • Helikon Kiadó. Translation of the original: Vitebsky, Piers (1995). The Shaman (Living Wisdom). Duncan Baird.
  • Voigt, Vilmos (1966). A varázsdob és a látó asszonyok. Lapp népmesék. Népek meséi (in Hungarian). Budapest: Európa Könyvkiadó. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |accessyear=, |origmonth=, |accessmonth=, |month=, |chapterurl=, |origdate=, and |coauthors= (help) The title means: “The magic drum and the clairvoyant women. Sami folktales”, the series means: “Tales of folks”.

See also

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