Qing dynasty

The Qing Dynasty (Manchu: daicing gurun; Chinese: 清朝 1636-1911; Wade-Giles: Ch'ing Dynasty), also called the Manchu Dynasty, was the ruling dynasty of China, officially the Empire of the Great Qing (大淸帝國), between 1644 and 1911. It followed the Ming Dynasty and preceded the Republic of China. The Qing Dynasty was founded by the Aisin-Gioro (in Chinese: Aixinjueluo, 愛新覺羅 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2) family of the Manchus.

Overview of Manchu rule

Although the Manchus were not Han Chinese and were strongly resisted, especially in the south, they had assimilated a great deal of Chinese culture before conquering China Proper. Realizing that to dominate the empire they would have to do things the Chinese way, the Manchus retained many institutions of Ming and earlier Chinese derivation. They continued the Confucian court practices and temple rituals, over which the emperors had traditionally presided.

The Manchus continued the Confucian civil service system. Although Chinese were barred from the highest offices, Chinese officials predominated over Manchu officeholders outside the capital, except in military positions. The Neo-Confucian philosophy, emphasizing the obedience of subject to ruler, was enforced as the state creed. The Manchu emperors also supported Chinese literary and historical projects of enormous scope; the survival of much of China's ancient literature is attributed to these projects.

Ever suspicious of Han Chinese, the Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing the absorption of the Manchus into the dominant Han Chinese population. Han Chinese were prohibited from migrating into the Manchu homeland, and Manchus were forbidden to engage in trade or manual labor. Intermarriage between the two groups was forbidden. In many government positions a system of dual appointments was used--the Chinese appointee was required to do the substantive work and the Manchu to ensure Han loyalty to Qing rule.

The Qing regime was determined to protect itself not only from internal rebellion but also from foreign invasion. After China Proper had been subdued, the Manchus conquered Outer Mongolia in the late 17th century. In the 18th century they gained control of Central Asia as far as the Pamir Mountains and established a protectorate over the area the Chinese call Xizang but commonly known in the West as Tibet. The Qing thus became the first dynasty to eliminate successfully all danger to China Proper from across its land borders. Under Manchu rule the empire grew to include a larger area than before or since; Taiwan, the last outpost of anti-Manchu resistance, was also incorporated into China for the first time. In addition, Qing emperors received tribute from the various border states.

Rise of the Qing

In the early 1600s Aixinjueluo Nurgachi formed the nomadic Manchu State known as Manchuo (满洲). He united four of the Manchu Flagged Factions that and later collected power of all eight of the flagged factions. In the later periods of his reign, he moved the capital to Shenyang(Mukdenin Manchu).

When Lingdan Khan, the last grand-Khan of the Mongols, died on his way to Tibet in 1634, his son Ejei surrendered to the Manchu and gave the great seal of the Yuan Emperor to Hong Taiji. As a result, Hong Taiji established the new dynasty of Qing as the successor of the Yuan Dynasty in 1636.

After years of civil unrest, the Ming capital Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by one Li Zhicheng (李自成). The Ming Dynasty officially came to an end when the last Ming Emperor committed suicide by hanging himself on a tree on the hill overlooking the Forbidden City. After taking Beijing in April 1644, Li Zhicheng led an army of 60,000 strong to confront Wu Sangui (吴三桂), the general commanding Ming's 100,000 strong garrison stationed at Shanhaiguan (山海关). Shanhaiguan is the pivotal northeastern pass of the Great Wall of China located fify miles northeast of Beijing and for years its defenses were what kept the Manchus at bay and out of China. Wu caught between two enemies decided to cast his lots with the Manchus and made an alliance with Dorgon, regent to the then six-year old Shunzhi, son of Hong Taiji who had passed away the year before.

Together the two armies met Li Zhicheng's rebel forces in battle on May 27, 1644. Even though the rebel forces were routed, Wu's army was so weakened by the day's fighting that he had no choice but to join the Manchus forces as they captured Beijing on June 6 and began their conquest of the whole of China. The process took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists, pretenders and rebels. The last Ming pretender Prince Gui sort refuge in Burma but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary force headed by Wu Sangui who had him brought back to Yunan province and executed in early 1662.

Revolt of the Three Feudatories

The Manchus found controlling their newly won empire a daunting task. The vastness of China's territory meant that there were only enough banner troops to garrison key cities forming the backbone of a defence network that relied heavily on surrendered Ming soldiers.

In addition, three surrendered Ming generals were singled out for their contributions to the Qing imperial cause, ennobled as feudal princes (藩王), and given governorships over vast territories in Southern China. The chief of whom was Wu Sangui who was given the provinces Yunan (云南), and Guizhou (贵州). While generals Shang Kexi (尚可喜) and Di Zhongming (耿仲明) were given Guangdong (广东) and Fujian (福建) provinces respectively.

As the years went by, these Princes and their territories became increasingly autonomous from the central government. Finally in 1673 Shang Kexi petitioned emperor Kangxi stating his desire to retire to his home town in Liaodong (辽东) province and nominated his son in place for succession. The young Kangxi emperor granted his retirement but denied the hereditary of his fief. In reaction, the two other generals decided to petition for their own retirements to test Kangxi's resolve thinking that he wouldn't risk offending them. The move backfried as the young emperor called their bluff by accepting their requests and ordered all three feudatories to be revert back to the crown.

Faced with the stripping of their powers, Wu sangui felt he had no choice but to revolt. He was later joined by Di Zhongming and Shang Kexi's son Shang Zhixin (尚之信). The ensuing rebellion lasted for eight years. At the peak of the rebels' fortunes, they managed to extend their territories to as far north as the river Changjiang (长江). But ultimately, the Qing government was able to put down the rebellion and exert control over all of southern China.

Power Consolidation by Kangxi

Kangxi (r. 1662 - 1722) personally led China to a series of military campaigned against Tibet, the Zunghars, and later Russia. By the end of the 17th Century China was at its highest point of power since the early Yuan Dynasty.

Taiwan, a colony of the Dutch at the time was also taken by Qing forces in the early 1780s.

Kangxi had also handled many Jesuit Missionaries that have come to China in hope for mass conversion. Although that attempt had failed Kangxi still peacefully kept the missionaries in Beijing.

Civil Order and the recognization by the people of the Qing was the biggest agenda on Kangxi's mind.

Yongzheng & Qianlong

Yongzheng (r. 1723 - 1735) and his son Qianlong (r. 1735 - 1796) and their reigns were at the height of Qing power.

After Kangxi's death in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Yinzhen (later to be known as Emperor Yongzheng) succeeded. Yongzheng remained a controversial character because of rumours about him usurping the throne. Nonetheless Yongzheng was a very hardworking ruler. His first big step towards a stronger regime came when he brought the State Examination System back to its original standards. He was also very hard on corrupt officials, of which many where executed or jailed duing his reign.

The 19th century

One common view of the 19th century was that it was an era in which Qing control weakened, and prosperity diminished. China suffered massive social strife, economic stagnation, explosive population growth, and Western penetration and influence. Britain's desire to continue its illegal opium trade with China collided with imperial edicts prohibiting the addictive drug, and the First Opium War erupted in 1840. China lost the war; subsequently, Britain and other Western powers, including the United States, forcibly occupied "concessions" and gained special commercial privileges. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain in 1842 under the Treaty of Nanjing. In addition, the Taiping rebellion and Nian rebellions, along with a Russian-supported Muslim independence movement in Xinjiang, drained Chinese resources and almost toppled the dynasty. .

The First Opium War and colonialism

Roughly between the Congress of Vienna and the Franco-Prussian War, Britain reaped the benefits of being the world's sole modern, industrial nation. Following the defeat of Napoleon, Britain was the 'workshop of the world', meaning that its finished goods were no longer produced so efficiently and cheaply that they could often undersell comparable, locally manufactured goods in almost any other market. If political conditions in a particular overseas markets were stable enough, Britain could its economy through free trade alone without having to resort to formal rule or mercantilism. Britain was even supplying half the needs in manufactured goods of such nations as Germany, France, Belgium, and the United States. As these other newly industrial powers, the United States, and Japan after the Meiji Restoration began industrializing at a rapid rate, however, Britain's comparative advantage in trade of any finished good began diminishing.

Sovereign areas already hospitable to informal empire largely avoided formal rule during the shift to New Imperialism. China, for instance, was not a backward country unable to secure the prerequisite stability and security for western-style commerce, but a highly advanced empire unwilling to admit western (often drug-pushing) commerce, which may explain the West's contentment with informal 'Spheres of Influences'. China, unlike tropical Africa, was a securable market without formal control. Following the First Opium War, British commerce, and later capital invested by other newly industrializing powers, was securable with a smaller degree of formal control than in Southeast Asia, West Africa, and the Pacific. But in many respects, China was a colony and a large-scale receptacle of Western capital investments. Western powers did intervene military there to quell domestic chaos, such as the horrific Taiping Rebellion and the anti-imperialist Boxer Rebellion. For example, General Gordon, later the imperialist 'martyr' in the Sudan, is often accredited as having saved the Manchu dynasty from the Taiping insurrection.

The fall of the Manchus

By the 1860s, the Qing dynasty had put down the rebellions with the help of militia organized by the Chinese gentry. The Qing dynasty then proceeded to deal with problem of modernization, which it attempted with the Self-Strengthening Movement. Several modernized armies were formed including the much renowned "Beiyang" militia; however the fleets of "Beiyang" were annihilated in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), which produced calls for greater and more extensive reform. After the start of the 20th century, the Qing Dynasty was in a dilemma. It could proceed with reform and thereby alienate the conservative gentry or it could stall reform and thereby alienate the revolutionaries. The Qing Dynasty tried to follow a middle path, but proceed to alienate everyone.

In the late 19th Century another leader emerged in the Qing to finally bring the dynasty to an end. Empress Dowager Cixi, who was the mother of child emperor Tongzhi, successfully controlled the Qing government and was the de facto leader of China for close to 40 years.

10 years into the reign of Guangxu, western pressure was so big on China that she forcefully gave up all sorts of power. Guangxu had attempted reform but the ideals were stifled by Cixi and Guangxu was jailed in his own palace. Cixi, on the other hand, only concentrated on her own power and good being. At the occasion of her 50th Birthday she spend over 30 million taels of silver for the decorations & events, an unthinkable amount even by today's terms.

Mass civil disorder had also begun and continuously grown. Factions such as Taiping began campaigns to bring down the corrupe Qing government. Although such revolutions were unsuccessful at first, they led to mass violence and pressure that was dismatling the central regime to a point where, finally and unexpectedly by most, in 1911, Sun Yat-sen and his alliance successfully brought down the powerless Qing Regime.

Society

Manchu males had the custom of braiding hair into pigtail. During Qing Dynasty, the Manchus enforced this custom onto the Han population. Any male who was seen without pigtail outdoor was to be beheaded.

Politics

The most important administrative body of the Qing dynasty was the Grand Council which was a body composed of the emperor and high officials.

The Qing dynasty was characterized by a system of dual appointments by which each position in the central government had a Manchu and a Han Chinese assigned to it.

With respect to Mongolia, Tibet and Eastern Turkestan, the Qing Dynasty maintained a loose system of control, with the Qing emperor acting as Mongol Khan, patron of Tibetan Buddhism and supporter of Muslims and keeping a loose system of control.

How this system is best described remains a strong point of controversy because of its current political implications. Supporters of Chinese nationalism argue that Qing rule over these areas is best described as an extremely high degree of autonomy within a single nation-state, while supporters of Tibetan independence argue that the Qing dynasty was a personal union between many nation-states.

However, Qing policy changed with the establishment of Xinjiang province in 1884 marked the turning point of the Qing Dynasty. In response to British and Russian military action in Xinjiang and Tibet, the Qing sent New Army units which performed remarkably well against British units.

The abdication of the Manchu Emperor, who had integrated the Empire, inevitably led to the controversy about the status of the Qing outer territories. It was and remains the the position of Mongol and Tibetan nationalists, that because they owed allegiance to the Qing monarch in a personal capacity, that with the abdication of the Qing, they owed no allegiance to the Chinese state. This position was rejected by the new Republic of China and subsequent People's Republic of China which have claimed that these areas remained integral parts of China. The Western powers accepted the latter theory, largely in order to prevent a scramble for China.

Notable Figures:

Military

The development of Qing's military system can be divided into two broad periods seperated by the Taiping rebellion (1850 - 64). The early Qing imperial military system was a continuation of the Manchu bannermen system developed by Nurhachi and refined by Hong Taiji. These were supplemented by the Green Standard Army (lüyingbing|绿营兵) which outnumbered the banner troops three to one. The Green Standard Army was made up of ethnic Han Chinese troops who had surrendered to the Manchus during their conquest of China, and led by a mixture of Banner and Green Standard officers. Both the banner troops and Green Standard were standing army, paid for by central government. In addition, regional governments down to village level maintained their own militias for local security purposes and disaster relieve. These militias usually received a small annual stipend, and very limited military drill. They are not considered combat troops.

The Banner troops consisted of seperate branches divided along ethnic lines, namely Manchurian and Mongolian. There was also a third branch of Chinese Bannermen consisted of those who had joined the Manchus before their conquest of China. However the Chinese bannermen were not regarded as equal to the other two branches due to their late addition to the Manchu cause, and their ethnic Han Chinese backgrounds. The socio-military nature of the Banner system dictated that population within each branch and their sub-division into eight banners were hereditary and rigid, and only under special circumstances were social movements between banners permitted. As time passed, the Green Standard Army too became somewhat hereditary, as vacancies were filled out by members of soldiers' families. As China proper enjoyed a long period of peace during the 18th century, soldiering simply became merely a form of supplementary income as soldiers and commanders alike neglected training and turned to other activities to secure income for their families.

After the conquest, the approximately 200,000 Manchu Banner troops were evenly divided, half being designated as Beijing garrison, these became known as the Forbidden Army (Jinjün|禁军) while the rest distributed to key cities in China as Territorial Army (Duzhudajün|囤驻大军). Because Qing rulers are aware of their minority status, a policy of segregating Manchus and Mongols from Han Chinese was instituted for fear of their being assimilated by Han culture. This policy applies directly to the Banner garrisons which usually occupied a seperate walled zone within the cities they are stationed in. In certain cases when there was a limitation of space such as in Qingzhou (青州), a new fortified city was erected to house the Banner garrison. Beijing being the imperial seat was a special case. Dorgon ordered the entire chinese population forcibly relocated to the southern suburbs. The walled city was then portioned out to the banners, each being responsibled for guarding a section of the city surrounding the Forbidden city (紫禁城).

Militarily the Manchu and Mongolian banner troops specialized in calvary operations, while the Chinese banner troops and Green standards filled the roles of infantry, musketeers, artillery, and sappers which they are better suited for. The purpose of employing Banner troops as garrison was to inspire awe in the Chinese population even though this usage as well, as the geography of China proper nullified their military advantage as mobile troops. As a result, after a century of peace and stability the Manchu banner troops began to deteriorate in their combat worthiness. This is mirrored by a similar deteriotation in the Green Stadard army. When the Taiping Rebellion broke out in 1850 the Qing Court found out belately that both the Banner and Green Stanard troops could no longer be counted on even for putting down internal rebellions let alone keeping the foreign 'barbarians' at bay.

After a string of military disasters cumulating in the lost of Nanjing (南京) to the Taipings resulting in the massacre of the entire Manchu city population, and rebel incursion as far north as the suburbs of Tianjin (天津), the Qing court ordered a Chinese scholar Zhen Goufan (曾國藩)to reorganize the regional and village militias (tuanyong|团勇,xianyong|乡勇) for defence against the Taiping rebels. The force Zhen created was known as Xian Army (Xianjün|湘军), after the region it was raised. Xian Army was a hybrid between regional militias and the standing armies of Banner troops and Green Standard Army. It was better trained and led than local militias, but was paid for by regional coffers and whatever funds its commander could muster. In effect Xian Army and the other militia armies that came after collectively called Yongying (勇营) were dependent on their commander than on central authority. So even though they managed to quell the various rebellions and stabilized the regime, in the long run it laid the seed to Qing dynasty's eventual downfall and warlordism.

By late 1800s, conservative as the Qing court had become, it could no longer ignore China's military weakness in contrast to the "babarians" literally beating on it's gates. Attempts were made to reform the military institutions and to train certain units in westernized drills, tactics and weaponry. These units were called the New Model Army (Xingshilujün|新式陆军). The most successful became what's known as the Beiyangjün (北羊军) under the overall supervision and control of the future warlord, republic president and abortive emperor, Yuan Shikai (袁世凯).

**Qing Dynasty 1616-1911**
Temple Names ( Miao Hao 廟號 miao4 hao4)	Posthumous Names ( Shi Hao 諡號 )	Born Names	Period of Reigns	Era Names (Nian Hao 年號) and their according range of years	Convention
All first names in bold.
Convention: use "Qing" + era names except the first two emperors. For example, Kangxi Emperor (Kangxi Di)\|康熙帝 kang1 xi1 di4..
Tai Zu\|太祖 tai4 zu3	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Nu-er-ha-chi\|愛新覺羅努爾哈赤 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 nu3 er3 ha1 chi4	1616-1626	Tianming (天命 tian1 ming4) or Abkai fulingga 1616-1626	Ai-xin-jue-luo Nurgachi (Nu-er-ha-chi)
Tai Zong (太宗 tai4 zong1)	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Huang-tai-ji\|愛新覺羅皇太極 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 huang2 tai4 ji2	1627-1643	Tiancong (天聰 tian1 cong1) or Abkai sure 1627-1636 Chongde (崇德 chong2 de2) or Wesihun erdemungge 1636-1643	Ai-xin-jue-luo Abahai, honorific title: Huang-tai-ji
Shi Zu\|世祖 shi4 zu3	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Fu-lin\|愛新覺羅福臨 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 fu2 lin2	1644-1661	Shunzhi (順治 shun4 zhi4) or Ijishūn dasan 1644-1661	Shunzhi Emperor of China
Sheng Zu\|聖祖 sheng4 zu3	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Xuan-ye\|愛新覺羅玄燁 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 xuan2 ye4	1662-1722	Kangxi (康熙 kang1 xi1) or Elhe taifin 1662-1722	Kangxi Emperor of China
Shi Zong\|世宗 shi4 zong1	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Yin-zhen\|愛新覺羅胤禛 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 yin4 zhen1	1723-1735	Yongzheng (雍正 yong1 zheng4) or Hūwaliyasun tob 1723-1735	Yongzheng Emperor of China
Gao Zong\|高宗 gao1 zong1	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Hong-li\|愛新覺羅弘曆 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 hong2 li4	1735-1795	Qianlong (乾隆 qian2 long2) or Abkai wehiyehe 1736-1795	Qianlong Emperor of China
Ren Zong\|仁宗 ren2 zong1	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Yong-yan\|愛新覺羅顒琰 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 yong2 yan3	1796-1820	Jiaqing (嘉慶 jia1 qing4) or Saicungga fengšen 1796-1820	Jiaqing Emperor of China
Xuan Zong\|宣宗 xuan1 zong1	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Min-ning\|愛新覺羅旻寧 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 min2 ning2	1821-1850	Daoguang (道光 dao4 guang1) or Doro eldengge 1821-1850	Daoguang Emperor of China
Wen Zong\|文宗 wen2 zong1	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Yi-zhu\|愛新覺羅奕詝 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 yi4 zhu3	1851-1861	Xianfeng (咸豐 xian2 feng1) or Gubci elgiyengge 1851-1861	Xianfeng Emperor of China
Mu Zong\|穆宗 mu4 zong1	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Zai-chun\|愛新覺羅載淳 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 zai4 chun2	1862-1874	Tongzhi (同治 tong2 zhi4) or Yooningga dasan 1862-1874	Tongzhi Emperor of China
De Zong\|德宗 de zong1	Too tedious thus not used when referring to this sovereign	Ai-xin-jue-luo Zai-tian\|愛新覺羅載湉 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 zai4 tian2	1875-1908	Guangxu (光緒 guang1 xu4) or Badarangga doro 1875-1908	Guangxu Emperor of China
Convention: for this sovereign only* use Xuantong Emperor (宣統帝 xuan1 tong3 di4) or born name.*
Did not exist	Mo Di\|末帝 mo4 di4	Ai-xin-jue-luo Pu-yi\|Ai-xin-jue-luo Pu-yi 愛新覺羅溥儀 ai4 xin1 jue2 luo2 pu3 yi2	1908-1911	Xuantong (宣統 xuan1 tong3) or Gehungge yoso 1909-1911	Xuantong Emperor of China

Preceded by:
Ming Dynasty

Timeline of Chinese history

Succeeded by:
Republic of China