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Vaccine hesitancy

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A vaccine controversy is a dispute over the morality, ethics, effectiveness, or safety of vaccination. The mainstream medical opinion is that the benefits of preventing suffering and death from serious infectious diseases greatly outweigh the risks of rare adverse effects following immunization.[1][2] Vaccination critics say that vaccines are ineffective against disease[3] and that vaccine safety studies are inadequate.[2][3] Some religious groups oppose vaccination as a matter of doctrine, and some political groups oppose mandatory vaccination on the grounds of individual liberty.

Arguments for widespread vaccination

A number of arguments regarding the benefits of mass vaccination have been advanced:

  • Mass vaccination campaigns were essential components of strategies that led to the eradication of smallpox, which once killed as many as every seventh child in Europe,[4] and the near-eradication of polio.[5] As a more modest example, incidence of invasive disease with Haemophilus influenzae, a major cause of bacterial meningitis and other serious disease in children, has decreased by over 99% in the U.S. since the introduction of a vaccine in 1988.[6]
  • Vaccines are a cost-effective and preventive way of promoting health, compared to treatment of manifest disease. In the U.S. during the year 2001, routine childhood immunizations against seven diseases were estimated to save over $40 billion per birth-year cohort in overall health care and social costs, and the societal benefit-cost ratio for these vaccinations was estimated to be 16.5.[7]
  • Unvaccinated populations are at risk for disease. When vaccination against polio was halted in northern Nigeria in 2004, the number of cases rose significantly, and hundreds of children died from measles in Nigeria after vaccination rates dropped in the early 2000s.[8] A recent measles outbreak, in 2005 in Indiana, was attributed to children whose parents had refused to have them vaccinated.[9] Most cases of pediatric tetanus in the U.S. occur in children whose parents objected to their vaccination.[10]
  • Incomplete vaccine coverage increases the risk of disease for the entire population, including those who have been vaccinated. One study found that doubling the number of unvaccinated individuals would increase the risk of measles in vaccinated children anywhere from 5–30%.[11] A second study provided evidence that the risk of measles and pertussis increased in vaccinated children proportionally to the number of unvaccinated individuals among them, again highlighting the evident efficacy of widespread vaccine coverage for public health.[12]
  • If individual or multiple vaccinations were to "weaken the immune system", as some vaccine critics contend, then one would expect an increase in hospitalizations for other infections following immunization. A large epidemiological study, involving all 805,206 children born in Denmark between 1990 and 2001, found no evidence that multiple-antigen vaccines, nor the increasing number of vaccinations given to children, led to a higher rate of infections.[13]
  • In a study of the vaccination moratorium period that occurred when Sweden suspended vaccination against whooping cough (pertussis) from 1979 to 1996, Swedish physicians found that 60% of the country's children contracted the potentially fatal disease before the age of ten years, but that close medical monitoring kept the death rate from whooping cough at about one per year during the period.[14] In the United States, where vaccination has been practiced since the 1940s, the majority of deaths from whooping cough are in infants under three months of age. However, prior to mass vaccination, pertussis was "a major cause of childhood mortality in the United States." Pertussis continues to be a major health problem in developing countries (where mass vaccination is not practiced), with over 290,000 deaths resulting from the disease in 2002.[15]

Events following reductions in vaccination

In several countries since 1960, reductions in the use of some vaccines were followed by increases in the diseases' morbidity and mortality.

Rubella fell sharply when immunization was introduced. CDC
UK, DPT 1970s–80s

A 1974 report ascribed 36 reactions to pertussis vaccine, a prominent public-health academic claimed that the vaccine was only marginally effective and questioned whether its benefits outweigh its risks, and extended television and press coverage caused a scare. Vaccine uptake in the UK decreased from 81% to 31% and pertussis epidemics followed, leading to deaths of some children. Mainstream medical opinion continued to support the effectiveness and safety of the vaccine; public confidence was restored after the publication of a national reassessment of vaccine efficacy. Vaccine uptake then increased to levels above 90% and disease incidence declined dramatically.[16]

Netherlands, measles (1999–2000)

An outbreak at a religious community and school in The Netherlands illustrates the effect of measles in an unvaccinated population.[17] The population in the several provinces affected had a high level of immunization with the exception of one of the religious denominations who traditionally do not accept vaccination. The three measles-related deaths and 68 hospitalizations that occurred among 2961 cases in the Netherlands demonstrate that measles can be severe and may result in death even in industrialized countries.

Ireland, measles (2000)

From late 1999 until the summer of 2000, there was a measles outbreak in North Dublin, Ireland. At the time, the national immunization level had fallen below 80%, and in part of North Dublin the level was around 60%. There were more than 100 hospital admissions from over 300 cases. Three children died and several more were gravely ill, some requiring mechanical ventilation to recover.[18][19]

Nigeria, polio, measles, diphtheria (2001–)

In the early 2000s, conservative religious leaders in northern Nigeria, suspicious of Western medicine, advised their followers to not have their children vaccinated with oral polio vaccine. The boycott was endorsed by the governor of Kano State, and immunization was suspended for several months. Subsequently, polio reappeared in a dozen formerly polio-free neighbors of Nigeria, and genetic tests showed the virus was the same one that originated in northern Nigeria: Nigeria had become a net exporter of polio virus to its African neighbors. People in the northern states were also reported to be wary of other vaccinations, and Nigeria reported over 20,000 measles cases and nearly 600 deaths from measles from January through March 2005.[8] Outbreaks continued thereafter; for example, in June, 2007, more than fifty children died and another 400 were hospitalized in Borno State after a measles outbreak, and low immunization rates also contributed to outbreaks of diphtheria.[20] In 2006 Nigeria accounted for over half of all new polio cases worldwide.[21]

Criticism of widespread vaccine policy

The practice of vaccination has been opposed by some since its inception in the late 18th century, but criticism has become more visible in the U.S. and some other developed countries in recent years, roughly paralleling the development of the Internet.[22] While positions vary from outright rejection of the practice to calls for more selective and cautious use of vaccination, one or several of the following arguments are typically invoked:

  • Critics claim that the public health benefits of vaccinations are exaggerated. They further claim that the mortality rates of some illnesses were already dramatically reduced before vaccines were introduced, and argue that further reductions cannot immediately be attributed to vaccines.[citation needed]
  • Vaccination critics question whether vaccinations actually create immunity against specific targeted diseases, since a few people who have been vaccinated still contracted the illness.[who?]
  • Children who survive diseases like diphtheria develop a natural immunity that lasts longer than immunity developed via vaccination. Even though the overall mortality rate is much lower with vaccination, the percentage of adults protected against the disease may also be lower.[23] Vaccination critics argue that for diseases like diphtheria the extra risk to older or weaker adults may outweigh the benefit of lowering the mortality rate among the general population.[3]
  • Although there are now various national databases (for example, the Vaccine Safety Datalink), where reported reactions can be recorded, vaccination critics claim that passive surveillance systems (for example, the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System), established for tracking serious adverse events, have allowed vaccine injuries to be grossly under-reported.[citation needed]


Effectiveness

Some vaccine critics claim that there have never been any benefits to public health from vaccination.[24][25] They argue that all the reduction of communicable diseases which were rampant in conditions where overcrowding, poor sanitation, almost non-existent hygiene and a yearly period of very restricted diet existed, are reduced because of changes in conditions excepting vaccination.[25] Some similarly claim that 90% of the decline in infectious disease incidence occurred before the application of specific vaccines.[citation needed]

Vaccine critics argue that large smallpox epidemics have occurred in highly vaccinated populations, presenting figures from 1905 in the Philippines. Historians note that the Philippine-American War, between 1899 and 1913, caused major disruptions to medical facilities, which were noted to damage the effectiveness of vaccines.

Assertions that immunization cannot work, simply because the theory on which it is presumed to work is incorrect, have been made, sometimes citing Bechamp's older theory.[citation needed]

Safety

Few deny the vast improvements vaccination has made to public health; a more common concern is their safety.[26] All vaccines may cause side effects, and immunization safety is a real concern. Controversies in this area revolve around the question of whether the risks of adverse events following immunization outweigh the benefits of saving children from tragic outcomes of common diseases.[1] Critics point out that lack of evidence of harm is not the same as evidence of safety.[3]

Two recent major vaccine controversies occurred in the U.S. and the UK, concerning hypotheses linking vaccines to autistic spectrum disorders: the vaccine preservative thiomersal, and the combined (trivalent), attenuated virus MMR vaccine. Other concerns include:

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services set up a trust fund in 1988 to compensate people damaged by vaccination. By 2007, the fund had paid out $1.8 billion to 1,500 claimants. The vaccines covered by the compensation scheme are those aimed at protecting against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whooping cough), measles, mumps, rubella (German measles), polio, hepatitis B, varicella (chicken pox), Hemophilus influenzae type b, and rotavirus. Pneumococcal vaccine is expected to be covered soon.[27]

Thiomersal

Main article: Thiomersal controversy

It has been suggested that the organic mercury content of thiomersal in child vaccines might contribute to autism, and thousands of parents in the U.S. have lodged claims for compensation from a federal fund, alleging a vaccine-autism link.[28]

In July 1999 the CDC and the AAP asked vaccine makers to remove thiomersal from vaccines as quickly as possible, and thiomersal has been phased out of most U.S. and European vaccines.[29] However, the 2004 Institute of Medicine panel favoured rejecting any causal relationship between thiomersal-containing vaccines and autism.[30] The notion that thiomersal contributes to autism has diverted attention and resources away from efforts to determine the causes of autism.[29]

MMR vaccine

Main article: MMR vaccine controversy

In the UK, the MMR vaccine was the subject of controversy after publication of a 1998 paper by Andrew Wakefield, et al., reporting a study of twelve children mostly with autism spectrum disorders with onset soon after administration of the vaccine.[31] During a 1998 press conference, Wakefield suggested that giving children the vaccines in three separate doses would be safer than a single jab. This suggestion was not supported by the paper, and several subsequent peer-reviewed studies have failed to show any association between the vaccine and autism.[32] Wakefield has been heavily criticized on scientific grounds and for triggering a decline in vaccination rates,[33] as well as on ethical grounds for the way the research was conducted.[34]

In 2004 the MMR-and-autism interpretation of the paper was formally retracted by ten of Wakefield's twelve co-authors.[35] The Centers for Disease Control,[36] the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences,[37] and the UK National Health Service[38] have all concluded that there is no evidence of a link between the MMR vaccine and autism. A systematic review by the Cochrane Library concluded that there is no credible link between the MMR vaccine and autism, that MMR has prevented diseases that still carry a heavy burden of death and complications, that the lack of confidence in MMR has damaged public health, and that design and reporting of safety outcomes in MMR vaccine studies are largely inadequate.[2]

Compulsory vaccinations and individual liberty

Further information: Vaccination policy

Compulsory vaccination policies have provoked opposition at various times from people who say that governments should not infringe on the freedom of an individual to choose medications, even if the choice increases the risk of disease to others.

Since the reversion from compulsory immunization in the UK, opposition has continued at a lower level. After 1993, several national organizations critical of mass vaccination programs have appeared on the Web.

Opposition no longer focuses primarily on the right to determine what is done to one's children. With the rapid expansion in the number of new vaccines given to children, and the addition of a wide variety of preservatives, adjuvants, and components in vaccines, vaccine opponents now argue that vaccine programs have negative, rather than beneficial effects, or that although each particular immunization might have a beneficial effect in the short term, any benefit may be negated by cumulative, long-term, negative consequences, or that epidemiological studies are often considered a poor means of determining vaccine injury risks. These changes have resulted in arguments based upon hypotheses that are susceptible to disproof, according to vaccine proponents, rather than philosophical questions of the relationship of individuals to state or deity.

Vaccines and religion

Main article: Vaccination and religion

Vaccination has been opposed on religious grounds ever since it was introduced. Early Christian opponents argued that if God had decreed that someone should die of smallpox, it would be a sin to thwart God's will via vaccination.[39] Opposition continues to the present day, on various grounds. For example, the Family Research Council, a conservative U.S. Christian group, opposes mandatory vaccination for diseases typically spread via sexual contact, arguing that the possibility of disease deters sexual promiscuity.[40] Many governments allow parents to opt out of their children's otherwise-mandatory vaccinations for religious reasons; some parents falsely claim religious beliefs to get vaccination exemptions.[41]

History of anti-vaccinationism

After the introduction of vaccination in 1796, the first anti-vaccination society was formed in 1798.[citation needed] In the 19th and early 20th centuries, various organizations declared their opposition to vaccination. Until Pasteur and Lister demonstrated the basis of infection and how to prevent it, vaccinations were as dangerous as other surgical treatments of the time. The view of the British government throughout was that vaccination was safer than variolation, and this is not generally disputed; variolation was safer than random infection with smallpox, but potentially spread smallpox infection itself.

Portrait of Jenner

After the work of Edward Jenner, vaccination became widespread in the United Kingdom in the early 1800s.[42] Variolation, which had preceded vaccination, was banned in 1840 because of its greater risks. Public policy and successive Vaccination Acts first encouraged vaccination and then made it mandatory, with the highest penalty for refusal being a prison sentence. This was a significant change in the relationship between the British state and its citizens, and there was a public backlash. Initially this was focused against compulsory vaccination, and later included arguments that vaccination was dangerous and ineffective.

In the 19th century, the city of Leicester in the UK achieved a high level of isolation of smallpox cases and great reduction in spread compared to other areas. The mainstay of Leicester's approach to conquering smallpox was to decline vaccination and put their public funds into sanitary improvements.[43][44] Bigg's account of the public health procedures in Leicester, presented as evidence to the Royal Commission, refers to erysipelas, an infection of the superficial tissues which was a complication of any surgical procedure.

In the U.S., President Thomas Jefferson took a close interest in vaccination, alongside Dr. Waterhouse, chief physician at Boston. Jefferson encouraged the development of ways to transport vaccine material through the Southern states, which included measures to avoid damage by heat, a leading cause of ineffective batches. Smallpox outbreaks were contained by the latter half of the 19th century, a development widely attributed to vaccination of a large portion of the population.[45] Vaccination rates fell after this decline in smallpox cases, and the disease again became epidemic in the 1870s (see smallpox).

Anti-vaccination activity increased again in the U.S. in the late 19th century. After a visit to New York in 1879 by William Tebb, a prominent British anti-vaccinationist, the Anti-Vaccination Society of America was founded. The New England Anti-Compulsory Vaccination League was formed in 1882, and the Anti-Vaccination League of New York City in 1885.

Historical arguments against vaccination

The first arguments against vaccination were theological.[46] Some anti-vaccinationists still base their stance against vaccination with reference to the Bible.[47]

In a 2002 paper in the British Medical Journal, two medical historians suggest that the arguments made against the safety and effectiveness of vaccines in the 21st century are similar to those of the early anti-vaccinationists.[22] Another author, in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine(2005) describes the differences between contemporary opposition to mass vaccination programs to that which took place before 1907.[48]

Even before Pasteur's work on the nature of infection, there was evidence that contagions spread from person to person, even though microscopes were not yet available and the nature of the contagion (microorganisms) could not be elucidated. Subsequently, as demonstrated by Ignaz Semmelweis, Joseph Lister and others, the knowledge that there were specific modes of cross-infection and that these could be avoided diffused through the population. One argument presented by some modern vaccine critics (for example, Generation Rescue and SafeMinds) is that Pasteur's theory was incorrect and Antoine Bechamp's germ theory[49] better represented the transmission of disease.

Historical membership in anti-vaccinationist organizations

The historian Nadja Durbach[48] notes that in the early 19th century, the anti-vaccination movement drew members from across a wide range of society. Fitzpatrick, in his review, adds that in recent years, it has been reduced to a predominantly middle-class phenomenon.

References

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  2. ^ a b c Demicheli V, Jefferson T, Rivetti A, Price D (2005). "Vaccines for measles, mumps and rubella in children". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 19 (4). doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004407.pub2. PMID 16235361. {{cite journal}}: External link in |laysummary= (help); Unknown parameter |laydate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysource= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |laysummary= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ a b c d Halvorsen R (2007). The Truth about Vaccines. Gibson Square. ISBN 9781903933923.
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  5. ^ Sutter RW, Maher C (2006). "Mass vaccination campaigns for polio eradication: an essential strategy for success". Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 304: 195–220. PMID 16989271.
  6. ^ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2002). "Progress toward elimination of Haemophilus influenzae type b invasive disease among infants and children—United States, 1998–2000". MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 51 (11): 234–7. PMID 11925021.
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  8. ^ a b Clements CJ, Greenough P, Schull D (2006). "How vaccine safety can become political – the example of polio in Nigeria" (PDF). Curr Drug Saf. 1 (1): 117–9. Retrieved 2007-07-28.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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  10. ^ Fair E, Murphy TV, Golaz A, Wharton M (2002). "Philosophic objection to vaccination as a risk for tetanus among children younger than 15 years". Pediatrics. 109 (1): E2. PMID 11773570.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Salmon DA, Haber M, Gangarosa EJ, Phillips L, Smith NJ, Chen RT (1999). "Health consequences of religious and philosophical exemptions from immunization laws: individual and societal risk of measles". JAMA. 282 (1): 47–53. PMID 10404911.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Feikin DR, Lezotte DC, Hamman RF, Salmon DA, Chen RT, Hoffman RE (2000). "Individual and community risks of measles and pertussis associated with personal exemptions to immunization". JAMA. 284 (24): 3145–50. PMID 11135778.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Hviid A, Wohlfahrt J, Stellfeld M, Melbye M (2005). "Childhood vaccination and nontargeted infectious disease hospitalization". JAMA. 294 (6): 699–705. PMID 16091572.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Arthur Allen, Bucking the Herd, The Atlantic Monthly, September 2002. [1]
  15. ^ "Chapter 7: Pertussis" Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases Centers for Disease Control (February 2007)[2]
  16. ^ Gangarosa EJ, Galazka AM, Wolfe CR; et al. (1998). "Impact of anti-vaccine movements on pertussis control: the untold story". Lancet. 351 (9099): 356–61. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(97)04334-1. PMID 9652634. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ "Measles Outbreak ---- Netherlands, April 1999--January 2000". Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 49 (14): 299–303. April 14, 2000. Retrieved 2006-11-02.
  18. ^ Measles outbreak feared (30 May, 2000) BBC Fulltext
  19. ^ McBrien J, Murphy J, Gill D, Cronin M, O'Donovan C, Cafferkey M (2003). "Measles outbreak in Dublin, 2000". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 22 (7): 580–4. PMID 12867830.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. ^ "Children dying needlessly from measles and other preventable diseases". IRIN. 2007-07-11. Retrieved 2007-07-28. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. ^ "Wild poliovirus weekly update". Global Polio Eradication Initiative. 2007-07-25. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
  22. ^ a b Wolfe R, Sharp L (2002). "Anti-vaccinationists past and present". BMJ. 325 (7361): 430–2. doi:10.1136/bmj.325.7361.430. PMID 12193361.
  23. ^ Galazka AM, Robertson SE (1995). "Diphtheria: changing patterns in the developing world and the industrialized world". Eur J Epidemiol. 11 (1): 107–17. PMID 7489768.
  24. ^ Dr. med. Gerhard Buchwald (Ref: The Vaccination Nonsense. ISBN 3-8334-2508-3 page 108. Asserts that vaccination has never provided any benefit.
  25. ^ a b Canadian Medical Association Journal. "eLetters: Vaccination: the wider picture?". Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  26. ^ The Lancet Infectious Diseases (2007). "Tackling negative perceptions towards vaccination". Lancet Infect Dis. 7 (4): 235. doi:10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70057-9. PMID 17376373.
  27. ^ "About the National Vaccine Injury Compensation Program", United States Department of Health and Human Services.
  28. ^ Sugarman SD (2007). "Cases in vaccine court—legal battles over vaccines and autism". N Engl J Med. 357 (13): 1275–7. PMID 17898095.
  29. ^ a b Offit PA (2007). "Thimerosal and vaccines—a cautionary tale". N Engl J Med. 357 (13): 1278–9.
  30. ^ Immunization Safety Review Committee (2004). Immunization Safety Review: Vaccines and Autism. The National Academies Press. ISBN 0-309-09237-X.
  31. ^ Wakefield A, Murch S, Anthony A; et al. (1998). "Ileal-lymphoid-nodular hyperplasia, non-specific colitis, and pervasive developmental disorder in children". Lancet. 351 (9103): 637–41. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(97)11096-0. PMID 9500320. Retrieved 2007-09-05. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ National Health Service (2004). "MMR: myths and truths". Retrieved 2007-09-03.
  33. ^ "BBC News, Doctors issue plea over MMR jab". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessdaymonth= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ [3]BBC news article
  35. ^ Murch SH, Anthony A, Casson DH; et al. (2004). "Retraction of an interpretation". Lancet. 363 (9411): 750. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15715-2. PMID 15016483. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. ^ Autism and Vaccines Theory, from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control. Accessed June 13 2007.
  37. ^ Immunization Safety Review: Vaccines and Autism. From the Institute of Medicine of the National Academy of Sciences. Report dated May 17 2004; accessed June 13 2007.
  38. ^ MMR Fact Sheet, from the United Kingdom National Health Service. Accessed June 13 2007.
  39. ^ Andrew Dickson White (1896). "Theological opposition to inoculation, vaccination, and the use of anæsthetics". A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom. Appleton. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ Danny Fortson (2006-06-11). "Moral majority take on GSK and Merck over cancer drugs". The Independent. Retrieved 2006-11-02. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. ^ LeBlanc S (2007-10-17). "Parents use religion to avoid vaccines". Associated Press. Retrieved 2007-10-17. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  42. ^ Ellner P (1998). "Smallpox: gone but not forgotten". Infection. 26 (5): 263–9. PMID 9795781.
  43. ^ Eddy TP (1992). "The Leicester anti-vaccination movement". Lancet. 340 (8830): 1298. PMID 1359363.
  44. ^ Fourth and other reports of the Royal Commission into smallpox and Leicester 1871 et seq
  45. ^ (U.S.) Center for Disease Control
  46. ^ Andrew Dickson White (1896). "Chapter X. Theological Opposition To Inoculation, Vaccination, And The Use Of Anaesthetics.". A History Of The Warfare Of Science With Theology In Christendom. New York: Appleton & Co. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
  47. ^ "Vaccination - A Crime Against Humanity". The Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accesasdate= ignored (help)
  48. ^ a b J. Royal Soc Medicine. Review: The Anti-vaccination Movement in England, 1853-1907. Nadja Durbach ISBN 0-8223-3423-2 Duke University Press. Review by Dr Michael Fitzpatrick. Cite error: The named reference "AVME-ND" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  49. ^ Walene James. "Germ Theories". NewTreatments.org. Retrieved 2006-11-02.

Further reading

Anti-vaccinationist publications
  • 1884 Compulsory Vaccination in England by William Tebb
  • 1885 The Story of a Great Delusion by William White
  • 1898 Vaccination A Delusion by Alfred Russel Wallace
  • 1936 The Case Against Vaccination by M. Beddow Bayly M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.
  • 1951 The Truth About Vaccination and Immunization by Lily Loat
  • 1957 The Poisoned Needle by Eleanor McBean
  • 1990 Universal Immunization: Miracle or Masterful Mirage by Dr. Raymond Obomsawin
  • 1993 Vaccination: 100 years of orthodox research shows that vaccines represent an assault on the immune system by Viera Scheibner. ISBN 0-646-15124-X
  • 2000 Behavioural Problems in Childhood by Viera Scheibner. ISBN 0-9578007-0-3
  • 2004 The Vaccination Nonsense by Dr. med. Gerhard Buchwald ISBN 3-8334-2508-3
Supportive of vaccines
  • CDC.gov - "Mercury and Vaccines (Thimerosal)", Centers for Disease Control
Critical of vaccines
MMR controversy
Critical of anti-vaccinationism
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