Kannada literature

The earliest full length Kannada inscription – The Halmidi inscription dated 450 CE

Kannada literature (Kannada:ಕನ್ನಡ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ) refers to the body of literature written in the Kannada language, a language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka. The Kannada script is the writing system used in Kannada literature. It boasts of a rich and ancient body of literature spanning fifteen hundred years. Kannada literature consists of writings from the medieval socio-religious developments of Jainism, Virashaivism and Vaishnavism, writings on secular subjects, and modern literature.

Evidence from edicts of Ashoka the Great discovered in Karnataka suggests that the Kannada literature may have been derived from Buddhist traditions prompting some historians to claim a Buddhist era in Kannada literature prior to the Jain period between the 4th and 12th centuries. The oldest surviving literary work, Kavirajamarga (ಕವಿರಾಜಮಾರ್ಗ-"Royal Path for Poets"), a writing on rhetoric, poetics and grammar has been dated to 850 CE, though it is widely accepted that a considerable volume of literature must have come into existence in the centuries prior.

Medieval Jain writers wrote about Jain Tirthankars and other personages important to the Jain religion. The Jain period was followed by a profusion of Virashaiva writers and their Vachana sahitya (Vachana literature) advanced the Lingayat philosophy of Basavanna and his contemporaries. This was followed by a period of Vaishnava dominance of Kannada literature -- writers wrote on the great epics: the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Vedanta and other subjects which drew from the Hindu puranic traditions. Haridasas, a sect of peripatetic Dvaita saints, heralded the birth of Dasa sahitya (Dasa literature), a style of Bhakti literature which they propagated by using music as the medium. Dasa sahitya along with Vachana sahitya form one of the high points of medieval Kannada literature.

Apart from literature steeped in religious mores, various literary genres such as romance, fiction, erotica, satire, folk songs, fables and parables were also common. A wealth of secular literature dealing in subjects like mathematics, sciences like astronomy and meteorology, medicine, astrology, grammar, logic, philosophy, poetry, prosody, drama, rhetoric, lexicon, history, veterinary science and cookery are also available.

Modern Kannada literature has been the most successful among contemporary Indian vernacular literatures, having been awarded the Jnanpith awards seven times. The Sahitya Academy award, the highest state award for literature, has been conferred upon Kannada writers fifty times by the Government of India since the award's inception in 1954. The history of Kannada literature is usually studied under three phases: ancient, medieval and modern Kannada.

Early literature

The earliest example of full length Kannada writing in the verse form can be found in the Halmidi inscription dated 450 CE, indicating the authors of the inscription had a good sense of the language structure. The earliest available record of Kannada poetry in tripadi metre (three line verse) is the Kappe Arabhatta record of 7th century, indicating the verse form of writing was in vogue.

References are made in the Kavirajamarga to earlier writers and their composition styles: Vimalachandra (777), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu and King Durvinita (6th century) as writers of prose; Sri Vijaya, Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirti (634) and Lokapala as writers of poetry; and the compositions that were peculiar to Kannada; the chattana and the bedande (poems comprising several stanzas which were meant to be sung, the use of a musical instrument being optional).

Apart from those mentioned in the Kavirajamarga, later Kannada writers frequently mention three probable poets in the language; Samantabhadra (2nd to 6th century), Kavi Parameshthi (3rd - 4th century) and Pujyapada (also called Devanandi, 5th to 7th century) as being eminent among their predecessors, though no Kannada works of these writers have been specifically mentioned. However, names and works of other Kannada writers of the early medieval period are known from references. Syamakundacharya (650) wrote the Prabhrita and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier) wrote the Chudamani ("Crest Jewel"), a 96,000 verse commentary on logic.

The Gajashtaka, an extinct ashtaka (eight line verse) composition was authored by King Shivamara II in 800. However, its popularity in its time is known from its use as two folk songs, the ovanige and the onakevadu, compositions which were meant to be sung either while pounding corn or to entice wild elephants into a pit (ovam) Around 900, Gunavarma I wrote the Sudraka and the Harivamsa. He is known to have been patronised by King Ereganga Neetimarga II whom he favourably compared, in the Sudraka, to King Sudraka of ancient times.

Digambara Jain poet, Asaga (or Asoka) of 9th century, authored among other writings, the Karnata Kumarasambhava Kavya and the Varadamana Charitra. His works have been eulogised by later poets, though none of his works are available today. A prosody called the Gunagankiyam of the same period, perhaps dedicated to the Eastern Chalukya king Vijayaditya III, has been referenced in a Tamil work (Yapparungalakkarigai by Amritasagara). Gunanandi, circa 900, is known have been an expert in logic, Kannada grammar and prose.

Medieval era

See also: Medieval Kannada literature

Inscribed handwriting of 10th century poet Ranna reads Kavi Ratna (gem among poets) in Shravanabelagola

In the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, writers were mostly of the Jain and Virashaiva traditions. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature which they dominated till the 12th century, though a few works by Virashaivas are available. Between the 13th and 15th centuries, numerous Virashaiva and some Vaishnava writers became active with a proportional decline in Jain writings. Thereafter, Kannada literature has been dominated by Virashaiva and Vaishnava writers. Writings on secular subjects have remained popular throughout this period.

Literary metres indigenous to Kannada language are the tripadi (three line verse, 7th century), the shatpadi (six line verse, 1165), the ragale (lyrical narrative compositions, 1160), the sangatya (composition meant to be sung with a musical instrument, 1232) and the akkara. The most popular Sanskritic metre from the 9th century onwards is the champu-kavyas or just champu (poems in verse of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose). Other meters that have been employed are the dwipadi (two line verse), the chowpadi (four line verse), the saptapadi (seven line verse), the ashtaka (eight line verse) and shataka (hundred verse).

Though literature generally refers to writings on conventional material such as palm leaf manuscripts and paper, inscriptions on stone (shilashasana) and copper plates (tamarashasana) and to a lesser extent on gold, silver and even pottery are an important source of history, giving researchers clues about the lifestyle and literary developments. The poetic Atkur inscription of 950 has a sentimental touch while describing the bravery of a Ganga King Butuga and his soldier Manelera, the Kurikyala inscription of 945 immortalizes the achievements of the great Kannada poet Adikavi Pampa, and the Jura (Jabalpur) inscription of King Krishna III (964) is regarded as an epigraphical landmark of classical Kannada literary composition, with charming poetic diction in polished kanda (group of stanzas or chapters) metre.

Elegiac poetry in Kannada on hundreds of hero stones (virgal) written by unknown poets in the kanda and the vritta (commentary) metre mourn the death of heroes who sacrificed their lives in battle for their kings, or in conflict protecting the honor of their women or while safeguarding their cattle against marauders. Some inscriptions describe the bravery of women (mastigal) who performed sati (burning themselves on the funeral pyre of their husbands).

Classical period

See also: Rashtrakuta literature, Western Ganga literature, and Western Chalukya literature

Inscribed handwriting of 10th century Kannada poet Chavundaraya in Shravanabelagola

Rashtrakuta period

It was during the reign of the imperial Rashtrakuta Empire and their powerful feudatory, the Western Ganga Dynasty, that Kannada literature came into its own and produced many famous writers under royal patronage.

Kavirajamarga, the oldest surviving work, is a treatise on Kannada poetry, the Kannada language and Kannada speaking people in general, a portion of which describes defective and corrective examples (the "Do's and Dont's") of versification, indicating a prior rich tradition of literature. Though some historians credit Kavirajamarga to the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I, a widely held view is that the book may have been inspired by him and co-authored or authored in full by Sri Vijaya, a court poet and the author of the extinct 9th century writing, the Chandraprabha Purana.

The earliest available prose piece in old Kannada is the Vaddaradhane ("Worship of Elders", 9th century) by Shivakotiacharya. A priceless work, it contains nineteen lengthy stories, some in the form of fables and parables, such as the "Sage and the Monkey". Inspired by the earlier Sanskrit writing Brihatkatha Kosha, it is about Jain tenets and describes issues of rebirth, karma, the plight of humans on earth, and social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstitions and the condition of women in society.

This is followed by the 10th century Jain writers who heralded the age of classical Kannada; Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna are collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature". Pampa, a native of Vengi, though he may have grown up in Banavasi, received his education in Puligere (modern Lakshmeshwar). Widely regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers, he became famous for writing the Adipurana in 941. Written in champu style, it narrates the life history of the first Jain Thirtankar Rishabhadeva (also known as Adinatha). In this unique work of spiritual heroism, the soul moves through a series of births before attaining emancipation. The quest in this spiritual saga, as in many others, is the liberation of the soul from the cycle of life and death. Pampa's other notable work, written a few months later, was Vikramarjuna Vijaya (or Pampa Bharata, 941), which is the author's version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata. The story differs from other earlier versions of the epic in that Arjuna alone is the hero, not the other Pandava brothers, and Draupadi is solely Arjuna's wife. The author underplays the role of the Hindu God Krishna and favourably compares his patron king Chalukya Arikesari (a Rashtrakuta feudatory) to Arjuna, while successfully casting a lofty and noble image of Karna and the Kaurava prince Duryodhana.

Sri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III became famous for, among other writings, his biography of the 16th Jain Tirthankar Shantinatha in his writing entitled the Santipurana. He earned the title "supreme poet in two languages" (Ubhaya Kavichakravathi) for his command of Kannada and Sanskrit. However, despite his boasts of "hundred fold" superiority over the renowned Sanskrit poet Kalidasa, Sri Ponna borrowed significantly from Kalidasa's earlier works, though he does elevate Santipurana to the level of an important Jain purana.

The Ganga minister, commander, builder and poet, Chavundaraya wrote the Chavundaraya Purana (also called Trishashtilakshana mahapurana, 978). The prose contains a summary of the Sanskrit writings, Adipurana and Uttarapurana which were written a century earlier. It narrates the legends of sixty-three Jain philosophers in lucid Kannada and was mainly meant for the common man, avoiding any reference to complicated elements of Jain doctrines and philosophy.

Poetic Inscription in old Kannada by Jain poet Boppana (1180 CE) at Shravanabelagola

Western Chalukya period

From the late 10th century, Kannada literature made considerable progress under the patronage of the new overlords of the Deccan, the Western Chalukyas and their feudatories: the Hoysalas, the southern Kalachuris and the Seuna Yadavas.

Ranna, born in a family of bangle sellers (in Mudhol, modern Bagalkot district), was the court poet of Western Chalukya kings Tailapa II and Satyasraya. He was also patronised by a devout Jain lady called Attimabbe. Ranna is famous for writing Ajitha purana (993), which recounts the life of the second Jain Tirthankar Ajitanatha. However, it is in Sahasa Bhima Vijaya (also called Gada Yudda or "Conflict of Clubs'", 982) that he reaches his zenith of poetic grace while describing the conflict between Pandava Bhima and Kaurava prince Duryodhana in his version of the epic Mahabharata.

Unlike Pampa who glorified Arjuna and Karna in his writing, Ranna eulogises his patron King Satyasraya and favourably compares him to Bhima, whom he coronates at the end of the Mahabharata war. He calls Bhima's adversary Duryodhana "a great person" (mahanubhava). Perhaps the most poignant piece of elegiac verse in all of ancient Kannada literature is one that describes the heart rendering lamentation of Duryodhana (called karuna rasa or "sentiment of pathos") on seeing the slain bodies of his brother Duhshasana, his inseparable friend in joy and sorrow, Karna, and Arjuna's valorous son Abhimanyu. The dramatic effect given to the writing, the powerful language, the diction and the style maintained through out the narration has earned Ranna a place among the immortals of Kannada literature. Ascribed also to Ranna is the earliest known dictionary in Kannada called the Rannakanda (990), though only eleven verses of this writing has come down to us. He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by his patron king.

Among grammarians, Nagavarma-II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of the Chalukya king Jagadhekamalla II made significant contributions. His works in grammar, poetry, prosody, and vocabulary are standard authorities and their importance to the study of Kannada language is well acknowledged. Among his other writings, the Kavyavalokana on grammar and rhetoric and the Karnataka Bhashabhushana (1145) on grammar are important. Vardhamana Puranam (1042) is a recent discovery which has been ascribed to Nagavarma II. This discovery has created uncertainty about the poet's actual lifetime since it suggests that he may have lived a century earlier and been patronised by King Jayasimha II.

Hoysala period

See also: Hoysala literature

Hero stone (virgal) with old Kannada elegiac inscription (1220) at the Ishwara temple in Arasikere, Karnataka

In the late 12th century, the Hoysalas, a powerful hill tribe from the Malnad region in modern southern Karnataka, exploited the political uncertainty in the Deccan to emerge as masters of the region south of Krishna river, in southern India. A new chronological era was adopted, imperial titles were claimed and Kannada literature flourished with such noted scholars as Janna, Harihara, Rudrabhatta, Raghavanka, Keshiraja and others. Even the Kannada epigraphs inscribed by the Hoysalas were often written in polished poetic style, on inscriptions decorated with floral designs.

In 1209, the Jain scholar and army commander Janna wrote among other classics, Yashodhara Charite, a unique set of stories dealing with perversion. In one of his stories, a king intends to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to Mariamma, a local deity. Taking pity on the boys, the king releases them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice. In another, the poet narrates the infatuation of a man for his friend's wife. Having killed his friend, the man abducts the wife who dies of grief. Overcome by repentance, he burns himself on the funeral pyre of the woman. In honour of this work, Janna received the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavichakravarthi) from King Veera Ballala II. His other classic Anathanatha Purana (1230) deals with the life of the fourteenth Tirthankar Ananthanatha.

Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin (believer of monistic philosophy), was the earliest well known Brahminical writer whose patron was Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II. Based on the earlier work of Vishnu Purana, he wrote Jagannatha Vijaya (1180) in the champu style relating the life of Lord Krishna leading up to his fight with the demon Banasura.

Harihara (or Harisvara), who came from a family of accountants (karnikas), was one of the earliest Virashaiva writers who was not part of the Vachana literary tradition and the patron of King Narasimha I. He wrote the Girijakalyana in the Kalidasa tradition, employing the old Jain champu style, with the story leading to the marriage of Shiva and Parvati in ten sections. In a deviation from the norm, Harihara avoided glorifying saintly mortals. His is credited with more than one hundred poems in ragale metre, called the Nambiyanana ragale (1160) after the saint Nambiyana (or Shivaganada ragale) and praising Virupaksha (a form of Hindu god Shiva) with an ability to express emotions as few poets could. For his poetic talent, he has earned the honorific "poet of exuberance" (utsava kavi).

His nephew, Raghavanka (1165), was the first to introduce the shatpadi metre into Kannada literature in his Harishchandra Kavya, which is considered a classic even though it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar. A dramatist writing an epic, Raghavanka brings out in an awe-inspiring manner the clash of personalities; between sage Vishvamitra and sage Vashisht and between Harishchandra and Vishvamitra. It is believed that in no other language has the story of King Harishchandra been dealt with this interpretation. The writing is an original both in tradition and inspiration fully utilizing the potential of the shatpadi metre. A noteworthy piece of elegiac verse here is the mourning of Chandramati over the death of her young son Lohitashva, from snake bite, while gathering firewood for his Brahmin taskmaster. His other famous writing is the Siddharama Charitra, a eulogy of the dynamic and compassionate Virashiava saint Siddharama of the 12th century.

The next great writer and grammarian of the 13th century, one who came from a family of famous poet-writers, was Keshiraja (1260). Keshiraja's grandfather, Sumanobana, was poet laureate to King Narasimha I and his father Mallikarjuna also graced the Hoysala court. Though five of Keshiraja's writings are not traceable, his enduring work on Kannada grammar, Shabdamanidarpana ("Mirror of Word Jewels") is available and testifies to his scholarly acumen and literary taste. True to his wish that his writing on grammar should "last as long as the sun, the moon, the oceans and the Meru mountain lasted", Shabdamanidharpana is popular even today. It is considered a standard authority on old Kannada grammar and is prescribed as a text book for students of graduate and post graduate level studies in Kannada. Though Keshiraja followed the model of Sanskrit grammar of the Katantra school and that of earlier writings on Kannada grammar, his work has a originality of its own.

Vijayanagara period

See also: Vijayanagara Empire Literature

Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (1398)

Major political changes were taking place in southern India in the early 14th century, with the decline of the regional Hindu kingdoms and the impending threat of Muslim invasions from the north. The Vijayanagara Empire, with their capital at Vijayanagara, successfully repulsed these invaders and created an atmosphere conducive to the fine arts. In a golden age of Kannada literature, competition between Vaishnava and Virashaiva writers of this era came to the fore and literary disputations between the two sects were common, especially in the court of King Deva Raya II. Acute rivalry led to "organised processions" in honour of the classics written by poets of the respective sects.

Kumara Vyasa (whose real name was Naranappa), is one the most influential of Vaishnava poets in Kannada. He wrote the Gadugina Bharata in 1450 in the Vyasa tradition. The writing is so called because the author lived in Gadugu (modern Gadag), but it also goes by the names Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari or Kumaravyasa Bharata. It is a dedication to the deity of Gadag and a translation of the first ten chapters of the epic Mahabharata, emphasising the divinity and grace of the Hindu God Krishna. In this writing, the poet successfully portrays all characters with the exception of Krishna as deeply human with foibles. An interesting aspect of the work is the sense of humor exhibited by the poet and his hero, Krishna. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old to modern and heralds a new age combining poetic perfection with religious inspiration. Particularly known for his use of sophisticated metaphors, Kumara Vyasa earned the title "Emperor of the land of Metaphors" (Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti). The remaining chapters (parvas) of the epic was translated by Timmanna Kavi (1510) in the court of King Krishnadevaraya. The poet named his work the Krishnaraya Bharata after his patron king.

The first complete brahminical adaptation of the epic Ramayana was by Kumara Valmiki (1500) and is called the Torave Ramayana, after the place Torave where it was written. The author begins the story by devotedly stating that he is merely recounting what was related by Shiva to his consort Parvati. This writing, steeped in the author's devotion for the Hindu God Rama, has remained popular for centuries and inspired folk theatre such as the Yakshagana, which has made use of its verses while enacting episodes from the great epic. In this version of the epic, King Ravana is one of the suitors at Sita's Swayamvara (literally a ceremony of "choice of a husband"). Failure at winning the bride's hand sprouts jealousy in his heart towards Rama, the eventual bridegroom. As the story progresses, Hanuman, for all his services, is heaped with encomium and is exalted place to the status of "the next creator". At the end of the story, during the war with Rama, Ravana realizes that Rama is none other than the God Vishnu and hastens to die at his hands to achieve salvation. The chapter narrating the war (Yuddhakanda) is given prominence over all other chapters.

Chamarasa, a Virashaiva poet, was a rival of Kumara Vyasa in the court of Devaraya II. His work, the Prabhulinga Lile (1430) which was later translated into Telugu and Tamil at the behest of his patron king, was a eulogy of Saint Allama Prabhu. In the story, the saint is considered an incarnation of Hindu God Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi.

Mystic literature

See also: Haridasa, Haridasas and Carnatic music, Dasa Sahitya, Lingayatism, and Basavanna

Mausoleum (Samadhi) of 12th century Kannada poet Basavanna at Kudala Sangama

In the later part of the 12th century, the Kalachuris' succeeded in overthrowing their overlords and annexing Kalyani, the capital. A unique and native form of poetic literature in free verse (non-metrical verse) called Vachana developed during this brief yet turbulent time, a result of the spread of a new religious faith called Lingayatism. This body of literature is called Vachana Sahitya (ವಚನ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ, "Vachana literature") or Sharana Sahitya ("literature of the devotees") .

Basavanna (or Basava, 1160), the prime minister of southern Kalachuri King Bijjala II, is generally regarded as the inspiration for this movement. Though born of Brahmin parents (in Basavana Bagewadi in modern Bijapur district), he rejected the ritual "thread ceremony" (upanayanam) and spearheaded this new faith which taught absolute devotion towards God Shiva. A centre of religious discussions called "Anubhava Mantapa" ("hall of experience") in Kalyani became the conclave where devotees gathered to discuss their mystic experiences. Here, they expressed their devotion to Shiva in simple poems called Vachanas. These poems were spontaneous utterances of rhythmic, epigrammatical, satirical prose emphasising the valuelessness of riches, rituals and book learning with a dramatic quality reminiscent of the dialogues of Plato

Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Devara Dasimayya, Chennabasava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama (1150), Konaguli Kesiraja are the best known among more than three hundred poets (called vachanakaras) in this genre, including thirty-three women poets. Apart from poems, Akka Mahadevi is credited with two short writings, Mantrogopya and Yogangatrividhi. Credited to Siddharama are writings in tripadi metre and 1379 extant poems (though he has claimed authorship of 68,000 poems). The assassination of King Bijjala and eviction of the devotees (called sharanas) from Kalyani caused a temporary set back to this order, which however had set roots in the Kannada soil and regained popularity in the 15th century under the patronage of the rulers of the Vijayanagara Empire.

Initially, these poems were recorded on palm leaf manuscripts but were later collected by a group of anthologists in the 15th and 16th centuries, to avoid destruction by the Muslim invaders. Because of the cryptic nature of the poems, the anthologists subjoined them with commentaries, thus providing their hidden meaning and esoteric significance. Well known among these anthologies are the Ganabhasita Ratnamale by Kallumathada Prabhudeva (1430), Visesanubhava Satsthala by Channaviracharya (16th century), Bedagina Vachanagalu by Siddha Basavaraja (1600) and the Shunyasampadane (the 'mystical zero' symbolizing the supreme soul) by various anthologists.

Towards the beginning of 15th century, Kannada literature saw another spurt of mystic literature, an attempt to synthesize the Virashaiva and advaitha (monistic) philosophies in a trend that continued up to the 19th century. The pioneer among these mystics was Nijaguna Shivayogi who composed devotional songs collectively known as the Kaivalya sahitya (or Tattva Padagalu, literally meaning "songs of the pathway to emancipation"). Shivayogi's songs were reflective, philosophical and concerned with Yoga. Among his other writings, a scientific encyclopaedia called the Vivekachintamani is important, an indication of which is its translation into Marathi language in 1604 and Sanskrit language in 1652 and again in the 18th century. The writing categorizes 1500 topics based on subject and covers a wide array such as poetics, dance and drama (natyasastra), musicology and erotics.

Other well known poet saints were Muppina Sadakshari, a contemporary of Shivayogi, whose collection of songs are called the Subodhasara, Chidananda Avadhuta of the 17th century, Sarpabhushana Shivayogi of the 18th century and others. So vast is this body of literature that much of it still needs to be studied.

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Stamp released in the memory of Purandara Dasa

The Vaishnava Bhakti (devotional) movement involving well known haridasas (devotee saints) of that time made an indelible imprint on Kannada literature; the result of this movement was a body of literature called Haridasa Sahtiya (ಹರಿದಾಸ ಸಾಹಿತ್ಯ, "Haridasa literature"). Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas' conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through simple Kannada language to the common man in the form of devotional songs (devaranamas and kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vadirajatirtha and Purandara Dasa, Kanaka Dasa and others.

A wandering bard, Purandara Dasa's (1484–1564) songs were spontaneous, blended with sweet music and ended with a salutation to his deity Purandara Vittala. According to contemporary accounts, he is believed to have composed 475,000 songs in the Kannada and Sanskrit languages. However, of these, only about 1000 are known today. His compositions presented the essence of the Upanishads and the Puranas in simple, yet expressive language. Purandara Dasa is one of the most prominent composers in Carnatic music (Karnataka Sangita Shastra). His compositions are featured in various ragas. For the purpose of imparting this musical knowledge to the common man, he codified the svaravalis, alankaras, geethams, prabhandas and the kriti art forms. Owing to these contributions, he has earned the honorific "Father of Carnatic Music" (Karnataka Sangeeta Pitamaha).

Kanaka Dasa (whose birth name was Thimmappa Nayaka, 1509–1609) of Kaginele (in modern Haveri district) was a wondering ascetic and spiritual seeker, who according to historical accounts came from a family of shepherds (Kuruba) or hunters (beda). He authored important writings such as Mohanatarangini ("River of Delight") which narrates the story of the Hindu God Krishna in sangatya metre, Nrisimhastava is a work dealing with glory of God Narasimha, Nalacharita noted for its narration, and Hari Bhaktisara, a spontaneous writing on devotion in shatpadi metre. The latter writing which is on morals (niti), devotion (bhakti) and renunciation (vairagya) has found popularity as a standard book of learning for children. A unique allegorical poem titled Ramadhanya Charitre ("Story of Rama's Chosen Grain") which exalts ragi over rice was authored by Kanaka Dasa. In this poem, a quarrel arises between ragi, the food grain of the poor, and rice, that of the rich, as to which is superior. Rama decides that ragi is superior because it does not rot when preserved. This is one of the earliest poetic expressions of class struggle in the Kannada language. Apart from these classics, about 240 songs written by the Kanaka Dasa are available today.

The haridasa movement became active again from the 17th century through 19th century, producing as many as 300 poets in this genre, famous among who are Vijaya Dasa (1682-1755), Gopala Dasa (1721-1769), Jagannatha Dasa (1728-1809), Mahipathi Dasa (1750), Helavanakatte Giriamma and others. Over a period of time, these devotional songs inspired a form of religious and didactic performing art of the Vaishnava people called the Harikatha ("Stories of Hari"), a composite art comprising music, dialogue, monologue, acting and a scholarly discourse on Vishnu or one of his saintly devotees. This art form is considered a by-product of the carnatic music which was standardized by Purandara Dasa in the 16th century. The performer of a Harikatha is called a Harikatha Vidhwan. Similar developments were seen among the followers of the Virashaiva faith who popularised the Shivakatha ("Stories of Shiva") where the performer is called a Kirtankar.

Mysore period

See also: Literature of the Kingdom of Mysore and Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore

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King and poet, Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar (1673 – 1714)

With the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Kingdom of Mysore gained power in the southern Karnataka region. The Mysore court was adorned by famous writers and composers and the kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions. A wave of writings in such new genres as chronicle (vamshavali), biography, historical, encyclopaedia, novel, drama, treatises on music and musical compositions became popular. A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity in the 18th century.

King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673 – 1704), the earliest composer of the dynasty, received the honorific Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam for his interest in the fine arts. To him is ascribed a famous treatise on music called Geetha Gopala. Though inspired by Jayadeva's Sanskrit writing Geetha Govinda, it had an originality of its own and was written in saptapadi metre. This is the first writing to propagate the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language.

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King and poet-Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794 – 1868)

Famous writers in Kannada literature not from royalty include, among others, the brahmin poet Lakshmisa, the Jain grammarian Bhattakalanka Deva and the Virashaiva poet Sarvajna. Bhattakalanka Deva was the last of the three notables who wrote comprehensively on old Kannada grammar. A native of South Canara, he was an expert in Sanskrit grammar as well. Though his writing, Karnataka Sabdanusasanam, is modelled on the lines of Sanskrit grammar, his emphasis on the importance of Kannada language and its rich literary history is evident.

A mendicant poet and moralist whose origin is shrouded in mystery, Sarvajna, (literally "The all knowing") has left his mark on Kannada literature and the Kannada speaking people. Some clues in the first fourteen of a series of poems written by him ("Reminiscences of Birth") give an indication about his birth, parentage and his reasons for leaving home at an early age. It is believed he was born in Ambalur (Abbalur in modern Haveri district) to an illicit relationship between a Brahmin man called Basavarasa and Mali, the wife of a potter named Mala. Davasale Sarvajna as he calls himself in one of these poems, grew up to be a candid and outspoken boy. Alarmed that he may someday reveal her extra-marital relationship to her husband, his mother may have sent Sarvajna out of the house. Unable to bear the taunts of society, he may have become a drifter. His poems after the 14th focus on his spiritual quest.

Scholars place him between the 15th and 18th centuries based on other literary evidence. A few of his poems give more hints about his adulthood, his Guru and a possible unsuccessful marriage. After the death of his guru, Sarvajna may have taken to asceticism, acquiring knowledge from the world rather than from formal education, writing poems about the nature of people and places. His witty poems, numbering about 2000, are his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world, written in a simple tripadi metre popular in folk literature. A tomb in Hirekerur (modern Haveri district) it is said, is his final resting place. Neither was he patronized by royalty nor did he write for fame, his main aim was to instruct people about morality. All his poems end with his name "Sarvajna".

Lakshmisa's Jaimini Bharata, the poets Kannada version of the epic Mahabharata, written in shatpadi metre is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period. A superb story-teller and a dramatist, the author was a native of Devanur in Kadur taluk and writing is dated to the middle of 16th or late 17th century. A collection of stories, the poem contains the famous tale of the Sita Parityaga ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author has succeeded in converting a religious story into a very human tale, making it popular even in modern times.

King and writer, Jayachamaraja Wodeyar (1940–1947) with Queen Elizabeth II

Evidence from inscriptions and epics confirms that Kannada theatre existed from the 12th century or earlier. Names of actors, auditoriums and other theatrical requirements are available. However, modern Kannada drama started with the Yakshagana (a type of field play) whose manuscripts which are available from the 16th century. However, it is the rule of King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1673 – 1714) that heralded the golden age of Yakshagana compositions. A polyglot, he authored fourteen Yakshaganas in various languages though all are written in the Kannada script. He is credited with the earliest Yakshaganas that included music (sangita), drama (nataka) and dance (natya).

King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794 – 1868) was a prolific writer for which he was called Abhinava Bhoja. Over forty writings are attributed to him of which a poetical romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two versions, a sangatya and a drama, are popular. Here, the author imaginatively narrates the story of the sage Durvasa who curses Devendra (the Hindu god Indra) to be born as Sucharitra, the son of Sugandharaya, the king of Ratnapuri. Devendra's wife Shachidevi takes birth as Sougandhika and marries Sucharitra. The king wrote three landmark musical treatises called Sri Tatwanidhi (with iconography), Swara Chudamani and Sara Sangraha Bharata.

Modern period

See also: Modern Kannada literature

19th century

Ferdinand Kittel (1832 – 1903), Christian missionary and Kannada writer

The nascent beginnings of modern Kannada literature can be traced to the early 19th century under the stewardship of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and court poets who attempted to steer away from the ancient champu form of prose and popularize prose renderings of Sanskrit epics and plays. Kempu Narayana's Mudramanjusha ("Seal Casket", 1823) can be considered the first modern novel, anterior to English influence on Kannada. Though inspired by Visakhadatta's Sanskrit original Mudrarakshasa, the work displays a creativity of its own.

The impetus to modern literature came from a western style education and the Christian missionaries who relied on the local language to propagate their gospel. The arrival of the printing press was a catalyst to this process. Among the several early Kannada publications, the first Kannada-English dictionary by Ferdinand Kittel (1894) is noteworthy. B.L. Rice edited and published ancient Kannada classics and compiled a brief history of Kannada literature while J.H. Fleet compiled a collection of folk ballads including the well known Sangoli Rayana Dange ("The Revolt of Sangolli Raya"). The most outstanding lyrical poet of this period, whose poems were reminiscent of the medieval mystic Kannada poetry, was Sisunala Sharief.

In the latter half of the 19th century, progress towards original works in prose narratives initially gained momentum through translations from Sanskrit, English (Yatrikana Sanchara from "The Pilgrims Progress", 1847), Marathi (Yamuna Paryatana) and Bengali languages (Durgesanandini). Early dramatic literatures were translations from Sanskrit (Shakuntala, 1869) and English (Macbeth, King Lear and Romeo and Juliet).

Father of modern Kannada literature, B.M. Srikantaiah (1881 – 1946)

With the standardization of modern prose, the earliest original social fictions were Suryakantha by Lakshman Gadagkar (1892) and Indira Bai by Gulvadi Venkata Rao (1899). With the theme being reform, the latter work critically examines social issues, reflecting an awakening. Original plays carrying the same theme include, among others, the Iggappa Heggadeya Vivaha Prahasana by Suri Venkataramana Sastri (1887). Nanadalike Lakshminarayana ('Muddanna') wrote two important prose pieces; Adbhuta Ramayana (1895) and Ramaswamedham (1898). What makes the latter writing historically important is that the epic Ramayana is looked at from a modern sensibility with the author as the narrator and his wife as the listener, the narration being interrupted at various stages with humorous exchanges between the couple, resulting from questions rised by the listener. The transition from the age of verse to prose may be summed up with Muddanna's proclamation "poetry deserves killing whereas prose reaches the heart" ("Padyam Vadyam, Gadyam Hridyam").

1900-1925

Lyricist, D.R. Bendre (1896 – 1981)

With the turn of the century, B.M. Srikantaiah ('B.M. Sri'), regarded by some as the "Father of modern Kannada literature", gave the call for writing originals in modern Kannada, emancipating the language from ancient courtly classics and stressing the need for the influence of English literature. This period can be considered a seed time, for a golden age to come. His adaptation of lyrics from English were effective, the best known among his works being the English Geethagalu ("English Songs"), a seminal work that set the trend for "Navodaya" (new birth) Kannada poetry to come. Other notable poets who were able to evolve new metrics out of old ones were Masti Venkatesh Iyengar in his poem of love and tragedy, the Madalingana Kanive ("Madalinga's Valley", 1924) and Govinda Pai in the Kavitavatara (1916).

Though Panje Manjesh Rao (1900) is considered a pioneer in the field of short stories, it is Masti Venkatesh Iyengar who is credited for laying the foundation for a generation of short-story tellers with his Kelavu Sanna Kathegalu ("A few Short Stories", 1920) and Sanna Kathegalu ("Short Stories", 1924).

The consolidation of modern drama was pioneered by T.P. Kailasam, a towering personality in the field, with his Tollu Gatti ("The Hollow and the Solid", 1918). In contrast to the earlier Indira Bai (1899), this work examines the modern education system from a Gandhian viewpoint. Kailasam followed this with Tali Kattoke Cooline ("Wages for tying the Mangalsutra"), a story that criticizes the dowry system in marriage. Kailasam's plays were mainly concerned with problems effecting middle class Brahmin families; the dowry system, religious persecution, woes in the extended family system and exploitation of women. He represented for the first time in Kannada theatre, a spokesperson for liberal values and is thus considered by some as the one who laid the foundation of amateur Kannada theatre.

Summarizing the earlier historicals written in English by B.L.Rice, J.H. Fleet, Robert Sewell and Bhandarkar, Alur Ventaka Rao wrote the novel Karnataka Ghatavaibhava (1917). The work was intended to re-kindle pride among Kannadigas about their glorious past and bring awareness about the great rulers, poets and saints who had originated from Karnataka, its traditions and its heritage in arts and architecture.

1925 – 1950

Navodaya

Epic writer & novelist, Kuvempu (1904 – 1994), Karnataka Ratna ("Gem of Karnataka")

The Navodaya period saw the rise of acclaimed lyricists who combined mystic poetry of the Vachanas and Kirthanas of medieval times and the native folk songs of oral traditions with influences from modern English romantics. Best known among them are D. R. Bendre, Gopalakrishna Adiga, K.V.Puttappa (Kuvempu), Shivarama Karanth, V.K. Gokak, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar, D.V. Gundappa ('DVG'), P.T. Narasimhachar, M.V.Seetharamiah, G.P. Rajaratnam, K.S. Narasimhaswamy and Adya Rangacharya ('Sri Ranga') and Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar .

Bendre is perhaps the most outstanding of modern Kannada lyricists, authoring a collection of 27 poems, including such masterpieces as Gari ("Wing", 1932), Nadaleela (1938) and Sakhigeetha (1940). His poems had a transcendental quality about them which were neither narrative or dramatic. They cover a wide range of themes including patriotism, love of nature, conjugal love, transcendental experiences and sympathy for the poor. The Sakhigeetha is a autobiographical poem about his married life and personal experiences. Bendre had sworn that, in his poetry, he would "rather sow stars in Kannada soil than brillian jewels".

The beauty and grandeur of the Malnad hills strongly influenced Kuvempu, one of Kannada's doyen poets, in his Kalki (1933) in which the poet describes the life of the agrarian community. He further showed his brilliance in using the blank verse in his masterpiece and magnum opus that took him nine years to write, the Sri Ramayana Darshanam (1949) which contains 22,284 lines, divided into 50 cantos. This work marks the beginning of modern Kannada epic poetry. While the poem follows the Valmiki tradition, Kuvempu puts a stamp of originality on it, bringing together the Indian and western epic traditions.

In a departure from the original epic, Lanka (Ceylon) does not burn in the war nor does Sita enter the fire alone (called Agni Pravesha), but rather is followed by Rama. Both however reappear from the fire unscathed giving the mortals a glimpse of their divinity. Not only is Sita's chastity proven, so is Rama's fidelity towards her. Like medieval poet Nagachandra, Kuvempu portrays Ravana as an "evolving soul". He pays homage to all the great poets of the world, including the sage Valmiki, thus placing himself in the tradition of world epic poetry. The work abounds in metaphors and similes and brings home the thought that all living beings will eventually evolve into perfect beings. In the words of a historian, "No one could have imagined that the Kannada language is capable of this complex musical quality, for the first time in this century was Kannada made a language worthy of the gods".

Short story writer, Masti Venkatesh Iyengar (1891 – 1986)

Govinda Pai succeeded in depicting an authentic Christian ambience in the Golgotha (1931). Considered an unique Christian work in Indian literature, Pai narrates in detail, starting from the Christ being taken to Pontius Pilate by a hostile group of Jews demanding his death and the events leading to his crucification at Golgotha. The success of this work encouraged Pai to follow with three panegyrics in 1947; Vaishakhi, Prabhasa and Dehali, narrating the last days of the Buddha, God Krishna and Gandhi respectively. Gilivindu is his first collection of poems. Forty-six in all, they bring out his love for nature, his country and Kannada language while the Nandadeepa, a collection of 37 poems are about devotion to god.

The influence of the west inspired a new genre in writing, the essay. Here, A.N. Murthy Rao's Hagaluganasugalu ("Day Dreams", 1937) is best known.

M.V. Seetharamiah came to limelight during the peak of the Navodaya period and was inspired by such well known writers as B.M Srikantaiah and Masti Venkatesh Iyengar. A man of many talents, he was a renowned poet (Hakki Hadu or "Bird Song"), novelist ("Robinson Crusoe"), short story writer (Maargadharshaka), painter, musician, literary critic, researcher, dramatist (Swayamvara or "Choice of a Husband"), essayist (Hidi Hoovu or "Handful of flowers") and biographer (Kavi Ranna or "Poet Ranna"). To his credit are twelve collections of poems, ten collections of short stories, nine novels, four collections of essays, and nine plays.

All of Seetharamiah's contributions carry a liberal message of love for his surroundings, nature and mankind. An authority on Kannada grammar and literary history, it is to his credit for researching and establishing that the true author of the 9th century Kannada classic Kavirajamarga may have been poet Sri Vijaya in the court of King Amoghavarsha I. He established a research foundation in the name of his mentor, B.M. Srikantaiah ("B.M. Srikantaiah Prathishtana").

Perhaps the closest in comparison to the wisdom poems of the late medieval poet Sarvajna is the Mankuthimmana Kagga ("Dull Thimma's Rigmarole", 1943) by D.V. Gundappa. A successful journalist, he was known for his command over the Kannada language and its classics, with a knowledge of Sanskrit as well, despite his limited education which was limited to matriculation only. These qualities and experiences were to serve him well as a writer. Attributed to him are 60 writings in just about every genre of modern Kannada with the exception of the novel. His adaptation of Shakespeare's Macbeth into Kannada is well acclaimed.

The celebrated writer of conjugal love poems, who is known to have been inspired by Robert Burns, K.S. Narasimhaswamy won critical acclaim for Mysore Mallige ("Mysore Jasmine", 1942), a description of the bliss of everyday marital life. In later years, his poems were more metaphysical and included contemporary events in Dominion Janana and the Samsara Rajyanga.

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Poet, playwright & novelist, Shivarama Karanth (1902 – 1997)

Eminent poets produced inspiring poetic dramas, B.M. Srikantiah being the trailblazer with his Gadayuddha Natakam ("The War of Clubs", 1925), a modern version of Ranna's 982 classic and Aswaththaman, a native version of the Greek play Ajax by Sophocles. This was the beginning of tragic drama in Kannada, and a new way portraying ancient local heroes.

Govinda Pai's Hebberalu ("Thumb", 1946) dramatizes the story of Drona and Ekalavya, characters from the epic Mahabharata. Kailasam and his worthy contemporary, A.N. Swamy Venkatadri Iyer ('Samsa') continued to produce fine dramas. Samsa is credited with writing twenty-three plays, of which only six have survived. Of these, a trilogy on the Mysore King Ranadhira Kanteerava are well known; Vigada Vikramarya ("The Wicked Vikramarya", 1928), Vijayanarasimha (1936) and Mantrashakti in (1938).

Sri Ranga was a dominating and complete authority as a playwright, though he has penned poems and novels as well. In a period of forty years, he authored more than 40 full length plays and more than 100 one-act plays. His plays, filled with wit and satire, are divided over two periods, the first between 1930 and 1952 where they mostly concerned with social issues. He wrote on Gandhian values and the decadence caused by the caste system in his Harijanwara ("The Harijan week", 1934), the Sandhyakala (1939) and the Sokachakra (1952).

The wit and satire in Kailasam's language, Kannada laced with English, and the social reformer in him are best exemplified in his plays Bahishkara (1929) which focusses on religious practices, and Soole ("Prostitute", 1945), which dwells on social problems.

The 1930s saw the rise of another major figure in Kannada literature, Shivarama Karanth, who debuted in play Garbhagudi ("Sanctum", 1932), which decries the exploitation of society in the name of religion. A series of successful novels were written by him in this period, best known among which are Chomana Dudi ("Choma's Toil", 1933) which describes the plight of a harijan in Indian society, Kanur Subbamma Heggadithi ("Subbamma Heggadithi of Kanur", 1936) which is about an educated protagonist in a conservative society, Marali Mannige ("Back to the Soil", 1942), a story about rural life on the west coast centred on a family's evolution over three generations, during a time of change brought about by westernization.

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Poet, playwright & novelist, V.K. Gokak (1909 – 1992)

V.K. Gokak, who was educated in Oxford, established himself as an important contributor to poetics, criticism, drama and the novel in Kannada, with no less than 55 books to his credit. In addition, he was a distinguished critic of Indo-English literature. His other interests included culture, religion, philosophy and education. His first novel, Ijjodu ("Misalliance", 1935) dwells on marital problems caused by sexual incompatibility. His short stay in England helped confirm his love for his native country and language, resulting in the generation of Samudragitegalu ("Sea songs", 1940) and Samudradacheyinda ("From Beyond the Seas", 1940), the latter being a travelogue on his experiences there. His real epic, Bharata Sindhu Rashmi runs into 35,000 lines with the introduction in English.

Masti Venkatesh Iyengar continued to dominate in short stories with such classics as Kakana Kote ("Kaka's Fort", 1938), a novel that remained obscure for some time. Set in a tribal atmosphere, the story brings out the life of a tiny hamlet which eventually merges with a feudal chiefdom. Masti's description of their life, love and society is authentic and natural.

Whether P.T. Narasimhachar wrote an essay, a play or a poem, the poet in him was always evident. He has three collection of essays to his credit; Rathasaprami (1935), Ecchalumarada Kelage (1949) and Dhenukapurana (1969).

Other notable writers of this period were Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar and Ajjampur Sitaram ('Ananda'). Gorur gave up studies to join the freedom struggle at the age of 17 and came under the enduring influence of Mahatma Gandhi whom he knew personally. He was active in the promotion of the "Cottage Industry" at the village level in the erstwhile Mysore state. A marvelous story teller, his first book Halliya Chitrgalu ("Village Vignettes", 1930) won him many laurels for his keen observation and narration of the beauty of rustic life. He followed this with several stories, describing on one hand the casteism and superstitions of rural communities and on the other the simplicity and charm in these communities. In addition to stories, he has to his credit essays, skits, travelogues and novels. In fact among the first novels ever to be written on the independence struggle was penned by him and is titled Merevanige ("Procession", 1948). Ananda's outstanding book, Nanu Konda Hudugi ("The Girl I Killed") is a tragedy centred on a girl who commits suicide after social disgrace.

Gopalakrishna Adiga describes the joy of political independence in Kattuvevu Navu ("We Shall Built", 1948), a longing for spiritual values in Mohana Murali (1944) and the importance of individual freedom in Samaja Bhairava.

1950 – 1975

Late Navodaya

This period saw the emergence of new trends such as the Navya (modernist) and Pragatishila (progressive) though the legends of the previous era continued to produce notable works in the older Navodaya style. In poetry, D.R. Bendre's Naku Tanti ("Four Strings", 1964) and Kuvempu's Aniketana (1964) are well known. Gokak brought out the innate insufficiencies in the more advanced western cultures in Indilla Nale (1965).

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Romance poet, K.S. Narasimhaswamy (1915 – 2003)

The Navodaya style novels continued to be successful with such noteworthy works as Shivarama Karanth's Mookajjiya Kanasugalu ("Mookajji's Visions", 1968), where the author explores the origins of mans' faith in the mother goddess and the stages of evolution of civilization. Kuvempu's Malegallali Madumagalu ("The Bride of the Hills", 1967) is about loving relationships that exist in every strata of society. Being a playwright, Sri Ranga gave a dramatic touch to his Purushartha (1947) where the entire action is on the 15th of August, 1947, and the protagonist and his three friends reminisce about the past.

Masti Ventakesh Iyengar's two classic novels of this era were the Channabasavanayaka (1950), which describes the overthrow of Bidanur's chief Channabasava Nayaka (on Karnataka's coast) by Haider Ali in the late 18th century, and Chickavirarajendra (1950), which describes the fall of the tiny kingdom of Coorg ruled by King Chikka Virarajendra into the hands of the British East India Company. Masti describes the social, economic, political and cultural situation at that time and the methods used by the British to gain territorial control. The common theme in both works is the despotism and tyranny of the incumbent native rulers resulting in the intervention of a foreign power, which appears on the scene to restore order, but has its own imperialistic intentions.

Masti's other important stories are Navaratri ("Nine Nights") and his epic Sri Rama Pattabhishekha ("Rama's Coronation", 1972). The latter story begins with the end of the Ramayana war and the return of Rama, Sita and Lakshmana to Ayodhya. Rama, who is coronated as King of Ayodhya is elevated to the level of a "perfect man", who has overcome extreme difficulties, his personage being described through the viewpoint of several people who have been in close association with him.

A charismatic young writer, S.L. Bhyrappa made his presence felt from the 1960s with his first novel Dharmasri, though it was his Vamsavriksha ("Family Tree", 1966) that put him in the spotlight as one of Kannada's most popular novelists. It is a story of a respected scholar, Srinivasa Srotri, his family and their long held values. The protagonist's young and widowed daughter-in-law wishes to re-marry, putting his family tradition at risk. His best was yet to come with the Grihabhanga ("Breaking of a Home", 1970), a story of a woman who tries in vain to survive under tragic circumstances. The characters in the story are rustic and often use vulgar language. Other important novels are Datu ("Crossing", 1973) which portrays a harijan who revolts against the caste system, and Parva, a major work in Kannada fiction and an admirable attempt at recreating life on the sub-continent during the time of the epic Mahabharata.

Important women writers of the time were Tirumalamba, the first woman novelist; Anasuya Shankar (popularly known as Triveni), who authored the famous novel Sharapanjara or "Cage of Arrows"; and M. K. Indira, who offered insight into womens' problems.

Pragatishila

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Playwright, Girish Karnad

For a short while, a simplistic form of fiction literature called Pragatishila (progressive), meant for the common man, gained popularity. The earliest writing in this style is ascribed to A.N. Krishna Rao ('An Ka Ru') who portrayed an idealistic musician in Sandhyaraga (1935). The best-known writers in this class are Basavaraj Kattimani who celebrated the heroes of the Quit India Movement in Madi Madidavaru ("Those Who Did and Died"), the tenacity of a journalist in Jwalamuhkiyamele ("On the Volcano", 1951), and the rural atmosphere in Mannu mattu hennu ("Soil and Women"). His Mohada Baleyalli ("Caught in Passion") describes immorality in religious institutions.

T.R. Subba Rao dropped out of school to join the freedom struggle but later came under the influence of well known journalist S.K. Sharma and the passionate Kannada writer A.N. Krishna Rao. After a short stint as a journalist, Subba Rao took to writing short stories though his talent and consequent popularity was due to his novels. Subba Rao's numerous stories are intense and full of idealism but always with a human face. His early novels, Purushavatara and Munjavininda Munjavu concerned the problems of the underprivileged, the downtrodden and the outcaste.

A native of Chitradurga, many of Subba Rao's stories have this region as the backdrop, drawing on its rich history and the heroics of its Palegar chiefs. His later novels show an inclination towards philosophy, in contrast to his earlier atheist beliefs. Best known among his novels are Masanada Hoovu ("Flower from a Cemetery") a story about the plight of prostitutes, and historicals such as Durgasthamana and Hamsa Gite ("Swan Song"), a story about a dedicated musician of the late 18th century during annexation of Chitradurga by Tipu sultan.

Navya

It was Gokak who gave the call that the Navya (modernist) poetic era had arrived, with his Navya kavitegalu ("Modern Poems", 1950). With the passing of the Gandhi era and the influences it had upon the minds of people, a new era in which to express modern sensibilities had arrived. Gopalakrishna Adiga is considered the father of this expression with his Nadedu Banda Dari ("The Path Traversed", 1952) where he sought inspiration from T.S.Eliot and Auden. His other famous poems are Gondalapura ("Pandemonium", 1954), Bhoota (1959) and others.

Novelist, U.R.Ananthamurthy

Though he belonged to the earlier Navodaya generation in the Gokak mould, G.S. Shivarudrappa made his mark in the Navya period too. His Mumbai Jataka ("A Horoscope of Bombay", 1966) takes a closer look at urbanized society in Mumbai. A protege of Kuvempu, Shivarudrappa gained fame at the peak of the popularity of romantic poems with his Samagma ("Songs of Equanimity", 1951), poems which are known to have an idealistic bend. He continued to produce more poems in the same vein, such as Cheluvu Olavu ("Beauty and Truth", 1953) and Devashilpa ("Divine Sculpture", 1959), though in his later poems a gradual shift to social issues with a streak of admiration for god's creation is seen. As a critic, Shivarudrappa has authored several books, some about Kannada poets and others a comparison of eastern and western cultures, such as Vimarsheya Purva Paschima (1961), a critique on attitudes; Soundarya Samikshe (1969), on aesthetic values; and Mahakavya Swarupa (1971), on the practice of the epic form. His critical essay, Anuranana (1980), is about the Vachana poets of the 12th century, their tradition, style and influence on later poets.

K.S. Narasimhaswamy continued to be prominent in this era writing such landmark poems as Silalate ("The Sculptured Creeper", 1958), Tereda Bagilu ("The Open Door", 1972), Malligeya Male ("Jasmine Garland", 1986), Idadiru Nanna Ninna Simhasanada Mele ("Place me not on your Throne") and Gadiyaradangadiya Munde ("Before the Clock Shop"). Among the most well-known of later generation Navya poets are Chandrashekhara Kambar, Chandrashekar Patil, P. Lankesh, and K.S. Nissar Ahmed.

Modernist poet, Gopalkrishna Adiga (1918 – 1992)

In the late 1950s, Sri Ranga produced several well known dramas focussing more on the creator of society (man), in a dramatic style, than on social problems in his Kattale Belaku ("Darkness and Light", 1959) and Kelu Janamejaya ("Listen Janamejaya", 1960). In his effort to take his original plays to audiences outside Karnataka, he was helped by theatrical troupes such as the Karnataka Theatre of Bombay, Kannada Amateurs of Dharwad and even well known director-producers such B.V. Karanth.

Other outstanding playwrights from this period are Girish Karnad, P. Lankesh, Chandrashekara Kambar and Chandrashekar Patil. Karnad's Tughlaq (1964) portrays violence created by idealism gone astray. Considered an important creation in Kannada theatre, the play depicts the 14th century Sultan of Delhi, Mohammad Tughlaq in contrasting styles. On one hand the Sultan is a tyrannical and whimsical ruler, and on the other, an idealist who seeks the best for his subjects. Most plays written by Karnad have either history or mythology as their theme, with a focus on their relevance to modern society.

Kambara's Jokumaraswamy (1973) is perhaps the most popular amateur play in the language. It presents the conflict between a ruthless power and the popular revolt, leading to the death of the protagonist, the soil tiller. Kambara is best known for his insight and his ability to bring the folk element into his plays. Lankesh's Sankranthi (1973) brings out the tumultuous events of the late 12th century, during the rise of the Lingayat faith and the struggle of Brahminism in this period. The presentation includes disputations between the saint-poet Basavanna and his patron King Bijalla II.

Novelist, Poornachandra Tejaswi (1938 – 2007)

The Navya novel was launched by Shantinath Desai with his Mukti (1961) which narrates the protagonist's quest for an independent identity, liberation from his dependence on a friend and his infatuation for the friend's sister. Veena Shanteswar brings feminine sensibilities to her novels, notable among them being Mullugalu ("Throns", 1968) and Koneya Dari ("The Final Choice", 1972)

However, the most acclaimed classic in this genre was the Samaskara by U.R.Anantha Murthy (1965). The novel narrates the search for a new identity and values by the protagonist, a Brahmin, who has sexual intercourse with the untouchable mistress of his heretic adversary. Another notable work is the Swarupa (1966) by Poornachandra Tejaswi.

In the genre of short stories, writers who are best known are U.R. Anantha Murthy, Yashwant Chittal, P. Lankesh, Ramachandra Sharma, Shantinath Desai, Rajalakshmi Rao and K.Sadashiva. Anantha Murthy's Prasne (1963) contains his best collection of short stories including Ghatashraddha, which describes from a boy's point of view the tragedy that befalls a young pregnant widow. His collection Mouni (1973) includes the stories Navilugulu ("Peacocks") and Clip Joint. In addition, using his strong background in English literature, Anantha Murthy has made useful contributions as a poet, a playwright and most influentially, as a critic in shaping the direction of modern Kannada criticism.

Navyottara

From the early 1970s, a change is seen in the output of novels and stories, an anti-Navya reaction by writers, many of who were themselves Navya writers. This genre, called Navyottara (post modernist), sought to fulfill a more socially responsible role. Most well known in this form of writing are Poornachandra Tejaswi and Devanur Mahadeva. Tejaswi moved away from his initial foray in poetry to writing novels, a move that won him accolades in the form of the "most creative novel of the year" for his Karvalo in 1980 and Chidambara Rahasya in 1985. His most well-known short stories are Abachurina Post office ("The Post Office at Abachur", 1970) narrating the repercussions of setting up a post office at Abachur, Kubi mattu Iyala which is about a doctor who combats the superstitions of villagers and the Tabarana Kathe ("Tabara's Story") which decries bureaucracy. Most of his literature is related to nature, conservation and the farmers. Mahadeva's Marikondavaru ("Those who sold themselves") and Mudala Seemeli Kole Gile Ityadi ("Murder in the Eastern Region") effectively portray a realistic account of the life of dalits.

Appreciation

The pre-Kavirajamarga history of Kannada literature has been of much interest to historians. Analysis of this important writing has not only brought to light the formative growth of Kannada as a language of literary culture, but also the part played by the writing in the complex process of bridging the vernacular (desi or local) with the cosmopolitan (marga or mainstream) culture. In other words, Kavirajamarga played a decisive role in legitimizing the literary culture in Kannada while at the same time fixing the outer limits of the enterprise. It is generally accepted, based on evidence in the writing, that literary works prior to Kavirajamarga are lost, the reasons being not just natural (such as fire, decay and neglect) but also orthopraxis.

Evident from the writing is that a successful attempt was made to exorcise existing native traditions, denying them royal patronage and a place in courtly literature, a sort of compromise between culture and polity. While existing literary forms were removed, it made way for a more formal literature. The writing however, does try to offer an analysis of local poetics and its multiplicity of forms. This formal literary tradition had its heyday for about four centuries, till the rise of the bhakti movement of the Virashaivas (Vachana literature) followed by that of the Haridasas (Vaishnava literature). An important change here was the casting aside of the concept of court literature and the rise in popularity of shorter genres such as the vachana and kirthane, traditions that were more acceptable to the common man.

The age of writing classics eulogizing kings, commanders, spiritual heroes was on the wane with a proportional increase in the use of local genres. From the 12th century onwards, Kannada literature moved closer to the spoken and sung folk traditions, with singability being its hallmark, though some poets continued to use the ancient champu form of writing (such as Shadaksharadeva of 17th century). These poets however are generally not considered trailblazers in a period of increasing vernacularization.

The process of evolution from old Kannada literature to one that satisfied modern sensibilities gained momentum in the early 19th century. Kannada writers were initially influenced by modern literatures in other languages, especially English. Modern English education and liberal democratic values were mainly responsible for this change. Subjected to criticism by Christian missionaries, writers were quick to see weaknesses in the ancient Hindu society. This resulted in a longing for social change, while the need to cling to all that was good in the past tradition was very evident. Modernization of Kannada prose resulted in new genres such as the short story, the novel, the literary criticism, the essay and the dramatic literature. Over the past two centuries, writers in Kannada have produced works of outstanding national and international merit, resulting in numerous prestigious awards.

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