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Chinese space program

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The space program of China was initiated soon after the founding of the PRC. It was the fruit of the Cold War with its technological, military and geopolitical races. China was launched into the space race in order to thwart nuclear blackmail from the United States that only a nuclear deterrent could counter. [1] Eventually, this space program would cover anti-ballistic missile system, anti-satellite weaponries, reconnaissance and intelligence satellites, manned spacecrafts, space laboratories, space stations and spaceplanes, culminating after the end of the Cold War with plans for Moon bases and extraterrestrial exploration[citation needed]. As a result, after half a century of endeavours, China ranks third among the space-faring nations[citation needed].

History and recent developments


Although the black powder, the rocket, the manned rocket propelled flight concept and the flight to the Moon theme were all first mastered in ancient China, it is not until after the proclamation of the PRC that a space program was started.

During the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship period

For having been under American nuclear bombing threats during the Korean War as early as October 1951, and then again during the Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1954-1955, Chairman Mao was forced to admit that the human waves doctrine had reached its limit and decided that only a nuclear deterrent of its own would guarranty the security of the newly founded PRC. Thus, Chairman Mao announced for the first time his decision to develop China's own strategic weapons including nuclear bombs and associated missile vector for the warheads during a Chinese Communist Party Central Committee meeting held on January 15th, 1955. The Chinese nuclear weapons program was designated by the codename of "02".

我们不但要有更多的飞机大炮，而且还要有原子弹。

在今天这个世界上，我们要不受人家欺侮，就不能没有这个东西。

We not only need more aircrafts and pieces of artillery, we also need the Bomb.

In today's word, if one doesn't want to be a bully, one must have it.

— Chairman Mao[1]

The Fifth Academy of the Defence Ministry (国防部第五研究院) was founded on October 8, 1956 with Qian Xueshen who was just deported from the United States after being accused of being a communist during the red scare, as director, starting the development of the first ballistic missile program, adopted on March 1st, 1956 known as the first Twelve-Year-Plan for Chinese aerospace. [2]

After the launch of mankind's first artificial satellite Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, Chairman Mao decided during the National Congress of the CCP on May 17th 1958 to make China an equal with the superpowers (“我们也要搞人造卫星”), by adopting Project 581 with the objective of placing a satellite in orbit by 1959. [3] This goal would be achieved in three phases: developing sounding rockets first, then launching small satellites and in the final phase large size satellites.

The construction of China's first missile test base code-named Base 20 (西北综合导弹试验基地) started on April 1958, and entered service on October 20th of the same year.

During the cordial Sino-Soviet relations of the 1950s, the USSR engaged in a cooperative technology transfer program with the PRC under which they trained Chinese students and provided the fledgling program with a sample R-2 rocket.

The first Chinese missile was built in October 1958 as a reverse-engineered copy of the Soviet R-2 SRBM, itself an upgraded version of a German V-2 rocket. Its range was 590 km, weighting 20.5 tons, propelled with liquid oxygen and alcohool.

China first ever T-7M sounding rocket was successfully launched from Nanhui launch site on February 19th, 1960. [4]

China started to develop MRBM in July 1960, with increased range double of that of the R-2.

But as Khrushchev was denounced as revisionist, Chairman Mao asserting that there had been a counter-revolution in the Soviet Union, and that capitalism had been restored, the friendly relation between the two countries turn to confrontation. As a consequence, all Soviet technological assistances were abruptly withdrawn after the 1960 Sino-Soviet split.

After the Sino-Soviet split

Only 17 days after the last Soviet expert had left China, a first Soviet built R-2 rocket fuelled with Chinese made propellant was launched with success on September 10th, 1960.

The first successful launch of a Chinese 1059 SRBM missile copy of the R-2 was conducted only two months later on November 5th, 1960. The missile was also designated DF-1.

Thus the first DF-2 MRBM was tested on March 21st, 1962 but failed.

With the Cold War ever escalating nuclear blackmail, the decision is taken by Chairman Mao Zedong in December 1963 to give China a missile defence system capacity. During a conference held in February 2, 1964, directive 640 （640指示）is adopted latter known as Project 640. [5]

Development eventually continued with the redesigned DF-2A MRBM which was successfully tested on June 29th, 1964. It would enter service by the end of 1966.

The first successful flight of a biological experimental T-7A(S1) sounding rocket transporting eight white mice was launched and recovered on July 19, 1964 from Base 603（安徽广德誓节渡中国科学院六○三基地）.

The first successful Chinese atomic bomb, code-named 596, was detonated on October 16, 1964.

China started to develop the DF-5 ICBM program in August 1965. It carries a single nuclear warhead and has a maximum range of 12000 km.

The building of a second missile test site in the Shanxi Province, farther away from the northern border to support the country’s ballistic missile programme was decided in November 1966, called Northern Missile Test Site (华北导弹试验场).

On October 27th, 1966, a nuclear-tipped DF-2A missile was launched from Jiuquan and the 20 kilotons yield nuclear warhead exploded at the height of 569 meters over the target in Lop Nor or Base 21 situated 894 km away.

In December 26th, 1966, China tested its first indigenously developed DF-3 IRBM with success. With a single-stage, single-warhead and a maximum range of 2500 km.

The JL-1 SLBM development was initiated in March 1967 for the Type 092 SSBN also in development.

In June 17th, 1967, China successfully detonated its first thermonuclear device.

The development of the DF-4 IRBM began in 1967 in parallel with the single-stage DF-3.

As the space race between the two superpowers reached its climax with the conquest of the Moon, Chairman Mao decided in 1968 that the PRC should not be left behind by starting China's own manned space program. China first manned spacecraft was named Shuguang-1 (曙光一号) in January 1968. China's Space Medical Institute (航天医学工程研究所) was founded on April 1, 1968, and the selection of astronauts started. Space medical research were also conducted.

As part of the "third line" effort to relocate critical defense infrastructure in the relatively remote interior, the construction of a new space center code-named Base 27 for supporting the manned space program in the mountainous region of Xichang in the Sichuan province was decided, located farther from the Soviet border, thus safer. Major nuclear and space research centers were all relocated in these regions buried in deep facilities, such as China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center (中国空气动力研究与发展中心), home of Asia's largest wind tunnels facilities, China Academy of Engineering Physics (中国工程物理研究院) known as the 9th Academy in charge of nuclear weapon design both located in Mianyang, Yibin Nuclear Fuels Factory (宜宾核燃料元件厂) known as Plant 812 engaged in the fabrication of plutonium fuel rod, production and processing of plutonium for nuclear weapons, the production of tritium and Li-6 deuterium, or Guangyuan plutonium production reactor (广源县核工业部821工厂) known as Plant 821, China’s largest plutonium separation facility. With Chairman Mao’s slogan calling for people to dig deeper, massive underground cities (北京地下城) also called the Underground Great Wall were dug nation wide to shelter the population from nuclear holocaust, linking for instance Beijing to Tianjin. [6]

A first liquid-propellant DF-3 medium-range ballistic missile was successfully launched from the Northern Missile Test Site on December 18th, 1968, inauguring the test site.

The first DF-4 liquid-propellant with two-stage, single-warhead IRBM was tested with success on January 30th, 1970. The addition of a second-stage allowed the missile to increased its range to over 4750 km.

The DF-4 was used to develop the Long March-1 SLV, which eventually sent the PRC's first satellite Dong Fang Hong I (The East Is Red I), on April 24, 1970, allowing the PRC to join the USSR, United States, France, and Japan as the fifth spacefaring nation. The PRC went on to launch 55 satellites in the Dong Fang Hong series over the following three decades.

The first screening process of astronauts ended on March 15th, 1971, with 19 astronauts chosen.

Thus, with the newly aquired confidence following the milestone technological achievement of Two bombs and one satellite projects (“两弹一星”), the first manned space program known as Project 714, was officially adopted in April 1971 with the goal of sending two astronauts into space by 1973 aboard the Shuguang spacecraft. By that date, the program was already cancelled due to political turmoil.

A first flight test of the DF-5 ICBM was carried out in October 1971.

Following the acomplishment of such techological prowess, the new prestige gained in the world stage allowed China to enter the club of Great powers. Consequently, on October 25, 1971, Resolution 2758 was passed by the United Nation General Assembly, withdrawing recognition of the ROC as the legitimate government of China, and recognising the PRC as the sole legitimate government of China.

The first recoverable satellite (返回式卫星) was launched on November 26, 1975 and recovered three days later, thus making China the only third country in the world to master this technology.

After expansion works, the Northern Missile Test Site was upgraded as a test base in January 1976 to become the Northern Missile Test Base (华北导弹试验基地) known as Base 25.

After Chairman Mao's death

Then came a serie of disparitions among key Chinese leaders mostly heavily involved and essential to the space program. First the mysterious death of Lin Biao on September 13th, 1971. Soon followed by Zhou Enlai on January 8th, 1976 and only a few months later by Zhu De on July 6th, 1976. Finally, Chairman Mao himself was struke on September 9th, 1976. As a consequence, his rival Deng Xiaoping denounced during the Cultural Revolution as reactionary and therefore forced to retire from all his offices, slowly re-emerged as China's new leader in 1978, starting at first to slow down all further developments. Then several key projects deemed unnecessary were simply cancelled such as the Fanji ABM system, the Xianfeng Anti-Missile Super Gun, the intercontinental ballistic missiles Early Warning Network 7010 Tracking Radar and the land-based high-power anti-missile laser program.

The first Yuanwang-class space tracking ship was commissioned in 1979, making China the only fourth country to possess such a vessel.

The first full-range test of the DF-5 ICBM was conducted on May 18th, 1980. The payload reached its target located 9300 km away in the South Pacific (117° 33' East, 7° 0' South). The payload was retrieved only five minutes later by helicopter.

China mastered the technology of multiple satellites launch with a single rocket （「一箭三星」）on September 20, 1981, with the success of Feng Bao-11 （风暴十一号） sending three satellites into orbit (SJ-2, SJ-2A and SJ-2B).

Further development of the Long March rocket series allowed the PRC to initiate a commercial launch program in 1985, which has since launched over 30 foreign satellites, primarily for European and Asian interests.

The next manned space program was even more ambitious and proposed in March 1986, as Astronautics plan 863-2. This consisted of a manned spacecraft (Project 863-204) used to ferry astronaut crews to a space station (Project 863-205). Several spaceplanes designs were rejected two years latter and a simplier space capsule was choosen instead. Although the project did not achieve its goals, it would ultimately evolve into the 1992 Project 921.

China Ministry of Aerospace Industry was founded on July 5th, 1988.

On September 15th, 1988 a JL-1 SLBM was launched from a Type 092 SSBN with success. The maximum range of the SLBM is 2150 km.

China mastered the technology of neutron bomb by testing a low-yield neutron device on September 29th, 1988.

After the end of the Cold War

The final Chinese manned space program was adopted on 21 September 1992. This would basically achieve the previously proposed manned spacecraft, space laboratory and space station concepts to be developed in three phases.

In June of 1993, China Aerospace Industry Corporation (National Space Bureau) was founded in Beijing.

History's worst space accident occurred on February 15, 1996 during the flight of the first Long March 3 B heavy carrier rocket carrying Intelsat 708. After veerind off course 22 seconds after launch, it crashed 1850 meters away from the launch pad in a nearby mountain village destroying 80 houses according to the official count, and killing more than 500 civilians according to unofficial Chinese sources. [7]

China became the third country in the world to master manned space capsule technology by launching the Shenzhou 1 spacecraft on November 20, 1999 and recovering it after a flight of 21 hours. The country became the third in the world again by sending an astronaut into space aboard Shenzhou 5 on October 15, 2003 for more than 21 hours.

China conducted on January 11, 2007 a very successful anti-satellite missile test with a SC-19 ASAT weapon, making the country the only third in the world to master ASAT technologies.

After this milestone success in the manned space program, China turned its focus on extraterrestrial exploration starting with the Moon. The first Chinese Lunar Exploration Program un-manned lunar orbiter Chang'e 1 was successfully launched on October 24, 2007, making China the fifth nation in the world to master this technology.

The planet Mars should follow soon with the Chinese Mars exploration program. The Yinghuo-1 orbiter is scheduled to be launch in October 2009 in the joint Phobos-Grunt mission with Russia.

The United States government has long been resistant to the use of PRC launch services by American industry due to concerns over technology transfer, and in 2000 announced an official embargo. The PRC has continued to improve their rocket designs.

The PRC is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and a signatory to all United Nations treaties and conventions on space.

Organization

Initially the space program of the PRC was organized under the People's Liberation Army, particularly the Second Artillery Corps. In the 1990s, however, the PRC reorganized the space program as part of a general reorganization of the defense industry to make it resemble Western defense procurement.

The China National Space Administration, an agency within the Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense currently headed by Sun Laiyan, is now responsible for launches. The Long March rocket which is produced by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology, and satellites are produced by the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation. The latter organizations are state-owned enterprises; however, it is the intent of the PRC government that they not actively be state managed and that they behave much as private companies would in the West.

Universities & institutes

The space program also has close links with:

Space Cities

  • Dongfeng space city （东风航天城），also known as Base 20（二十基地）or Dongfeng base（东风基地）[8]

Suborbital Launch Sites

  • Nanhui （南汇县老港镇东进村）First successful launch of a T-7M sounding rocket on February 19, 1960. [11]
  • Base 603 （安徽广德誓节渡中国科学院六〇三基地）Also known as Guangde Launch Site（广德发射场）. [12] The first successful flight of a biological experimental T-7A(S1) sounding rocket transporting eight white mice was launched and recovered on July 19, 1964. [13]

Satellite Launch Centers

The PRC operates 4 Satellite Launch Centers:

Monitoring and Control Centers

Domestic Tracking Stations
  • New integrated land-based space monitoring and control network stations, forming a large triange with Kashi in the north-west of China, Jiamusi in the north-east and Sanya in the south. [18]
  • Weinan Station
  • Changchun Station
  • Qingdao Station
  • Zhanyi Station
  • Nanhai Station
  • Tianshan Station
  • Xiamen Station
  • Lushan Station
  • Jiamusi Station
  • Dongfeng Station
  • Hetian Station
Overseas Tracking Stations
  • Karachi Station
  • Tarawa Station
  • Malindi Station
  • Swakopmund Station

Plus shared space tracking facilities with France, Brazil, Sweden and Australia.

Manned Spacecraft Landing Site

Manned spaceflight programs

Project 714

PRC's manned spaceflight programs started as top secret as early as 1968, when it was founded by Tsien Hsue-Shen of the Space Flight Medical Research Centre. Project 714 aimed to put two people into space by 1973 with the Shuguang spacecraft. Nineteen PLAAF pilots were selected for this goal on March 1971. The Shuguang-1 spacecraft to be launched with the CZ-2A rocket was designed to carry a crew of two. The program was officially cancelled on May 13, 1972 for economic reasons, though the internal politics of the Cultural Revolution likely motivated the closure.

The short-lived second manned program was based on the successful implementation of landing technology (third in the World after USSR and USA) by FSW satellites. It was announced in 1978 with the open publishing of some details including photos, but then was abruptly canceled in 1980. It has been argued that the second manned program was created solely for propaganda purposes, and was never intended to produce results.[19]

Project 863

A new manned space program was proposed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in March 1986, as Astronautics plan 863-2. This consisted of a manned spacecraft (Project 863-204) used to ferry astronaut crews to a space station (Project 863-205). In September of that year, astronauts in training were presented by the Chinese media. The various proposed manned spacecrafts were mostly spaceplanes. It will ultimately evolve into the 1992 Project 921.

Project 921

Main article: Shenzhou program

In 1992, authorization and funding was given for Project 921, which was a plan to launch a manned spacecraft. The Shenzhou program had four unmanned test flights. The first one was Shenzhou 1 on November 20, 1999. On January 9, 2001 Shenzhou 2 launched carrying test animals. Shenzhou 3 and Shenzhou 4 were launched in 2002, carrying test dummies. Following these was the successful Shenzhou 5, China's first manned mission in space on October 15, 2003, which carried Yang Liwei in orbit for 21 hours and made China the third nation to launch a human into orbit. Shenzhou 6 followed two years later. At least two more Shenzhou missions, with multiple crew members, space walks, and dockings, remain in planning. Missions are launched on the Long March 2F rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center.

Space station

Main article: Project 921-2

The PRC initially designed the Shenzhou ships with docking equipment suitable for the International Space Station (ISS) and built its launching platforms in the appropriate latitude for a rendezvous. Following the success of Shenzhou 5, the PRC formally requested to join the ISS, but the United States strongly opposed the plan. The PRC in turn announced its intention to build its own space station via program named Project 921-2. The unofficial websites suggest that Shenzhou 8 (an unmanned space lab) Shenzhou 9 (unmanned) and a manned Shenzhou 10 will be docked in late 2010 to form a primitive space station, much like the Soviet Union's early Salyut program. The PRC has now turned its diplomatic attention to establishing further joint programs with the European Space Agency and Russia.

Shenzhou 5 re-entry module

Moon landing

In February 2004, the PRC formally started the implementation phase of its unmanned Moon exploration project. According to Sun Laiyan, administrator of the China National Space Administration, the project will involve three phases: orbiting the Moon; landing; and returning samples. The first phase planned to spend 1.4 billion renminbi (approx. US$170 million) to orbit a satellite around the Moon before 2007, which is ongoing. Phase two involves sending a lander before 2010. Phase three involves collecting lunar soil samples before 2020.

On November 27, 2005, the deputy commander of the manned spaceflight program announced that the PRC planned to complete a space station and a manned mission to the Moon by 2020, assuming funding was approved by the government. Towards that end they intended to perfect space walking and docking by 2012.

On December 14, 2005, it was reported "an effort to launch lunar orbiting satellites will be supplanted in 2007 by a program aimed at accomplishing an unmanned lunar landing. A program to return unmanned space vehicles from the moon will begin in 2012 and last for five years, until the manned program gets underway" in 2017, with a manned Moon landing some time after that. [1]

Nonetheless, the decision to develop a totally new moon rocket able to launch a 500 tons payload has been discussed in a 2006 conference by academician Zhang Guitian (张贵田), a liquid propellant rocket engine speciallist, who developed the CZ-2 and CZ-4A rockets engines. [20] [21] [22]

On June 22, 2006, Long Lehao, deputy chief architect of the lunar probe project, laid out a schedule for China's lunar exploration. He set 2024 as the date of China's first moonwalk [2].

Yang Liwei declared at the 16th Human in Space Symposium of International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) in Beijing, on May 22, 2007 that building a lunar base was a crucial step to realize a flight to Mars and farther planets.[23]

According to practice, since the whole project is only at a very early preparatory researches phase, no official manned Moon program has been announced yet by the authorities. But its existence is nonetheless revealed by regular intentional leaks in the media.[24]

Mission to Mars and beyond

Sun Laiyan, administrator of the China National Space Administration, said on July 20, 2006, that China would start deep space exploration focusing on Mars over the next five years, during the 11th Five-Year (2006-2010) Program period.[25]

The first unmanned Mars exploration program should take place between the 2014-2033 period, followed by a manned phase in 2040-2060.[26]

Moreover, in order to make manned flight in deep space toward Mars safer, a space weather forecast system will be completed by 2012 with the Kuafu[27] mission satellites placed at the Lagrangian Point L1.[28]

The Chief designer of the Shenzhou spacecraft has stated in 2006 in an interview that:


搞航天工程不是要达成升空之旅，

而是要让人可以正常在太空中工作，
为将来探索火星、土星等作好准备。

The Chinese manned space program is not aimed at sending tourists into space,

But instead at preparing for the manned exploration of Mars and Saturn.

— CAS Academician Qi Faren[29]

Goals

PRC's space program has several goals. The China National Space Administration policy white paper lists short term goals as:

  • build a long term earth observation system
  • set up an independent satellite telecommunications network
  • establish an independent satellite navigation and positioning system
  • provide commercial launch services
  • set up a remote sensing system
  • study space science such as microgravity, space materials, life sciences, and astronomy
  • plan for exploration of the moon

Among their stated longer term goals are:

  • improve their standing in the world of space science
  • establish a manned space station.
  • manned missions to the moon
  • establish a manned lunar base.

List of Projects

Satellites and science

  • Deep Space Tracking Network with the completion of the FAST, the world largest single dish radio antenna of 500 m in Guizhou, and a 3000 km VLBI radio antenna [34]

Satellite Launch Center

  • Hainan Spaceport Fourth and southernmost space center, will be upgraded to suit the new CZ-5 Heavy ELV and manned lunar missions

Launch vehicles

  • SLV Small Launch Vehicle, with short launch preparation period, low cost and high reliability, to meet the launch need of small satellites up to 500 kg to 700 km SSO [35]
  • Air-Launched SLV Able to place a 50 kilogram plus payload to 500 km SSO [36]
  • Kaituozhe-1, KT-2, KT-2A New all-solid orbital launch vehicles
  • CZ-1D Based on a CZ-1, but with a new N2O4/UDMH second stage
  • CZ-2E(A) Intended for launch of Chinese space station modules. Payload capacity up to 14 tons in LEO, 9000 (kN) liftoff thrust developed by 12 rocket engines, with enlarged fairing of 5.20 m in diameter and lenght of 12.39 m to accommodate large spacecraft [37]
  • CZ-2F/G Modified CZ-2F without escape tower specially used for launching unmanned mission such as Shenzhou cargo and space laboratory module, with payload capacity up to 11.2 tons in LEO [38]

Space exploration

File:Exploration of the Moon, People's Republic of China.jpg
Insignia of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (CLEP).
  • Deep space exploration — spacefaring through the entire Solar system

Research

The Center for Space Science and Applied Research (CSSAR), was founded in 1987 by merging the former Institute of Space Physics (i.e. the Institute of Applied Geophysics founded in 1958) and the Center for Space Science and Technology (founded in 1978). The research fields of CSSAR mainly cover 1. Space Engineering Technology; 2. Space Weather Exploration, Research, and Forecasting; 3. Microwave Remote Sensing and Information Technology.

See also

References

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