Chinese space program
The space program of China was initiated soon after the founding of the PRC. It was the fruit of the Cold War with its technological, military and geopolitical races. China was launched into the space race in order to thwart nuclear blackmail from the United States that only a nuclear deterrent could counter. [1] Eventually, this space program would cover anti-ballistic missile system, anti-satellite weaponries, reconnaissance and intelligence satellites, manned spacecrafts, space laboratories, space stations and spaceplanes, culminating after the end of the Cold War with plans for Moon bases and extraterrestrial exploration[citation needed]. As a result, after half a century of endeavours, China ranks third among the space-faring nations[citation needed].
History and recent developments
![]() |
Although the black powder, the rocket, the manned rocket propelled flight concept and the flight to the Moon theme were all first mastered in ancient China, it is not until after the proclamation of the PRC that a space program was started.
During the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship period
For having been under American nuclear bombing threats during the Korean War as early as October 1951, and then again during the Taiwan Strait Crisis of 1954-1955, Chairman Mao was forced to admit that the human waves doctrine had reached its limit and decided that only a nuclear deterrent of its own would guarranty the security of the newly founded PRC. Thus, Chairman Mao announced for the first time his decision to develop China's own strategic weapons including nuclear bombs and associated missile vector for the warheads during a Chinese Communist Party Central Committee meeting held on January 15th, 1955. The Chinese nuclear weapons program was designated by the codename of "02".
我们不但要有更多的飞机大炮,而且还要有原子弹。
在今天这个世界上,我们要不受人家欺侮,就不能没有这个东西。
We not only need more aircrafts and pieces of artillery, we also need the Bomb.
In today's word, if one doesn't want to be a bully, one must have it.
The Fifth Academy of the Defence Ministry (国防部第五研究院) was founded on October 8, 1956 with Qian Xueshen who was just deported from the United States after being accused of being a communist during the red scare, as director, starting the development of the first ballistic missile program, adopted on March 1st, 1956 known as the first Twelve-Year-Plan for Chinese aerospace. [2]
After the launch of mankind's first artificial satellite Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, Chairman Mao decided during the National Congress of the CCP on May 17th 1958 to make China an equal with the superpowers (“我们也要搞人造卫星”), by adopting Project 581 with the objective of placing a satellite in orbit by 1959. [3] This goal would be achieved in three phases: developing sounding rockets first, then launching small satellites and in the final phase large size satellites.
The construction of China's first missile test base code-named Base 20 (西北综合导弹试验基地) started on April 1958, and entered service on October 20th of the same year.
During the cordial Sino-Soviet relations of the 1950s, the USSR engaged in a cooperative technology transfer program with the PRC under which they trained Chinese students and provided the fledgling program with a sample R-2 rocket.
The first Chinese missile was built in October 1958 as a reverse-engineered copy of the Soviet R-2 SRBM, itself an upgraded version of a German V-2 rocket. Its range was 590 km, weighting 20.5 tons, propelled with liquid oxygen and alcohool.
China first ever T-7M sounding rocket was successfully launched from Nanhui launch site on February 19th, 1960. [4]
China started to develop MRBM in July 1960, with increased range double of that of the R-2.
But as Khrushchev was denounced as revisionist, Chairman Mao asserting that there had been a counter-revolution in the Soviet Union, and that capitalism had been restored, the friendly relation between the two countries turn to confrontation. As a consequence, all Soviet technological assistances were abruptly withdrawn after the 1960 Sino-Soviet split.
After the Sino-Soviet split
Only 17 days after the last Soviet expert had left China, a first Soviet built R-2 rocket fuelled with Chinese made propellant was launched with success on September 10th, 1960.
The first successful launch of a Chinese 1059 SRBM missile copy of the R-2 was conducted only two months later on November 5th, 1960. The missile was also designated DF-1.
Thus the first DF-2 MRBM was tested on March 21st, 1962 but failed.
With the Cold War ever escalating nuclear blackmail, the decision is taken by Chairman Mao Zedong in December 1963 to give China a missile defence system capacity. During a conference held in February 2, 1964, directive 640 (640指示)is adopted latter known as Project 640. [5]
Development eventually continued with the redesigned DF-2A MRBM which was successfully tested on June 29th, 1964. It would enter service by the end of 1966.
The first successful flight of a biological experimental T-7A(S1) sounding rocket transporting eight white mice was launched and recovered on July 19, 1964 from Base 603(安徽广德誓节渡中国科学院六○三基地).
The first successful Chinese atomic bomb, code-named 596, was detonated on October 16, 1964.
China started to develop the DF-5 ICBM program in August 1965. It carries a single nuclear warhead and has a maximum range of 12000 km.
The building of a second missile test site in the Shanxi Province, farther away from the northern border to support the country’s ballistic missile programme was decided in November 1966, called Northern Missile Test Site (华北导弹试验场).
On October 27th, 1966, a nuclear-tipped DF-2A missile was launched from Jiuquan and the 20 kilotons yield nuclear warhead exploded at the height of 569 meters over the target in Lop Nor or Base 21 situated 894 km away.
In December 26th, 1966, China tested its first indigenously developed DF-3 IRBM with success. With a single-stage, single-warhead and a maximum range of 2500 km.
The JL-1 SLBM development was initiated in March 1967 for the Type 092 SSBN also in development.
In June 17th, 1967, China successfully detonated its first thermonuclear device.
The development of the DF-4 IRBM began in 1967 in parallel with the single-stage DF-3.
As the space race between the two superpowers reached its climax with the conquest of the Moon, Chairman Mao decided in 1968 that the PRC should not be left behind by starting China's own manned space program. China first manned spacecraft was named Shuguang-1 (曙光一号) in January 1968. China's Space Medical Institute (航天医学工程研究所) was founded on April 1, 1968, and the selection of astronauts started. Space medical research were also conducted.
As part of the "third line" effort to relocate critical defense infrastructure in the relatively remote interior, the construction of a new space center code-named Base 27 for supporting the manned space program in the mountainous region of Xichang in the Sichuan province was decided, located farther from the Soviet border, thus safer. Major nuclear and space research centers were all relocated in these regions buried in deep facilities, such as China Aerodynamics Research and Development Center (中国空气动力研究与发展中心), home of Asia's largest wind tunnels facilities, China Academy of Engineering Physics (中国工程物理研究院) known as the 9th Academy in charge of nuclear weapon design both located in Mianyang, Yibin Nuclear Fuels Factory (宜宾核燃料元件厂) known as Plant 812 engaged in the fabrication of plutonium fuel rod, production and processing of plutonium for nuclear weapons, the production of tritium and Li-6 deuterium, or Guangyuan plutonium production reactor (广源县核工业部821工厂) known as Plant 821, China’s largest plutonium separation facility. With Chairman Mao’s slogan calling for people to dig deeper, massive underground cities (北京地下城) also called the Underground Great Wall were dug nation wide to shelter the population from nuclear holocaust, linking for instance Beijing to Tianjin. [6]
A first liquid-propellant DF-3 medium-range ballistic missile was successfully launched from the Northern Missile Test Site on December 18th, 1968, inauguring the test site.
The first DF-4 liquid-propellant with two-stage, single-warhead IRBM was tested with success on January 30th, 1970. The addition of a second-stage allowed the missile to increased its range to over 4750 km.
The DF-4 was used to develop the Long March-1 SLV, which eventually sent the PRC's first satellite Dong Fang Hong I (The East Is Red I), on April 24, 1970, allowing the PRC to join the USSR, United States, France, and Japan as the fifth spacefaring nation. The PRC went on to launch 55 satellites in the Dong Fang Hong series over the following three decades.
The first screening process of astronauts ended on March 15th, 1971, with 19 astronauts chosen.
Thus, with the newly aquired confidence following the milestone technological achievement of Two bombs and one satellite projects (“两弹一星”), the first manned space program known as Project 714, was officially adopted in April 1971 with the goal of sending two astronauts into space by 1973 aboard the Shuguang spacecraft. By that date, the program was already cancelled due to political turmoil.
A first flight test of the DF-5 ICBM was carried out in October 1971.
Following the acomplishment of such techological prowess, the new prestige gained in the world stage allowed China to enter the club of Great powers. Consequently, on October 25, 1971, Resolution 2758 was passed by the United Nation General Assembly, withdrawing recognition of the ROC as the legitimate government of China, and recognising the PRC as the sole legitimate government of China.
The first recoverable satellite (返回式卫星) was launched on November 26, 1975 and recovered three days later, thus making China the only third country in the world to master this technology.
After expansion works, the Northern Missile Test Site was upgraded as a test base in January 1976 to become the Northern Missile Test Base (华北导弹试验基地) known as Base 25.
After Chairman Mao's death
Then came a serie of disparitions among key Chinese leaders mostly heavily involved and essential to the space program. First the mysterious death of Lin Biao on September 13th, 1971. Soon followed by Zhou Enlai on January 8th, 1976 and only a few months later by Zhu De on July 6th, 1976. Finally, Chairman Mao himself was struke on September 9th, 1976. As a consequence, his rival Deng Xiaoping denounced during the Cultural Revolution as reactionary and therefore forced to retire from all his offices, slowly re-emerged as China's new leader in 1978, starting at first to slow down all further developments. Then several key projects deemed unnecessary were simply cancelled such as the Fanji ABM system, the Xianfeng Anti-Missile Super Gun, the intercontinental ballistic missiles Early Warning Network 7010 Tracking Radar and the land-based high-power anti-missile laser program.
The first Yuanwang-class space tracking ship was commissioned in 1979, making China the only fourth country to possess such a vessel.
The first full-range test of the DF-5 ICBM was conducted on May 18th, 1980. The payload reached its target located 9300 km away in the South Pacific (117° 33' East, 7° 0' South). The payload was retrieved only five minutes later by helicopter.
China mastered the technology of multiple satellites launch with a single rocket (「一箭三星」)on September 20, 1981, with the success of Feng Bao-11 (风暴十一号) sending three satellites into orbit (SJ-2, SJ-2A and SJ-2B).
Further development of the Long March rocket series allowed the PRC to initiate a commercial launch program in 1985, which has since launched over 30 foreign satellites, primarily for European and Asian interests.
The next manned space program was even more ambitious and proposed in March 1986, as Astronautics plan 863-2. This consisted of a manned spacecraft (Project 863-204) used to ferry astronaut crews to a space station (Project 863-205). Several spaceplanes designs were rejected two years latter and a simplier space capsule was choosen instead. Although the project did not achieve its goals, it would ultimately evolve into the 1992 Project 921.
China Ministry of Aerospace Industry was founded on July 5th, 1988.
On September 15th, 1988 a JL-1 SLBM was launched from a Type 092 SSBN with success. The maximum range of the SLBM is 2150 km.
China mastered the technology of neutron bomb by testing a low-yield neutron device on September 29th, 1988.
After the end of the Cold War
The final Chinese manned space program was adopted on 21 September 1992. This would basically achieve the previously proposed manned spacecraft, space laboratory and space station concepts to be developed in three phases.
In June of 1993, China Aerospace Industry Corporation (National Space Bureau) was founded in Beijing.
History's worst space accident occurred on February 15, 1996 during the flight of the first Long March 3 B heavy carrier rocket carrying Intelsat 708. After veerind off course 22 seconds after launch, it crashed 1850 meters away from the launch pad in a nearby mountain village destroying 80 houses according to the official count, and killing more than 500 civilians according to unofficial Chinese sources. [7]
China became the third country in the world to master manned space capsule technology by launching the Shenzhou 1 spacecraft on November 20, 1999 and recovering it after a flight of 21 hours. The country became the third in the world again by sending an astronaut into space aboard Shenzhou 5 on October 15, 2003 for more than 21 hours.
China conducted on January 11, 2007 a very successful anti-satellite missile test with a SC-19 ASAT weapon, making the country the only third in the world to master ASAT technologies.
After this milestone success in the manned space program, China turned its focus on extraterrestrial exploration starting with the Moon. The first Chinese Lunar Exploration Program un-manned lunar orbiter Chang'e 1 was successfully launched on October 24, 2007, making China the fifth nation in the world to master this technology.
The planet Mars should follow soon with the Chinese Mars exploration program. The Yinghuo-1 orbiter is scheduled to be launch in October 2009 in the joint Phobos-Grunt mission with Russia.
The United States government has long been resistant to the use of PRC launch services by American industry due to concerns over technology transfer, and in 2000 announced an official embargo. The PRC has continued to improve their rocket designs.
The PRC is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and a signatory to all United Nations treaties and conventions on space.
Organization
Initially the space program of the PRC was organized under the People's Liberation Army, particularly the Second Artillery Corps. In the 1990s, however, the PRC reorganized the space program as part of a general reorganization of the defense industry to make it resemble Western defense procurement.
The China National Space Administration, an agency within the Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense currently headed by Sun Laiyan, is now responsible for launches. The Long March rocket which is produced by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology, and satellites are produced by the China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation. The latter organizations are state-owned enterprises; however, it is the intent of the PRC government that they not actively be state managed and that they behave much as private companies would in the West.
Universities & institutes
The space program also has close links with:
- School of Aerospace, Tsinghua University
- School of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Zhejiang University
- Institute of Aerospace Science and Technology, Shanghai Jiaotong University
- College of Aeronautics, Harbin Institute of Technology
- School of Automation Science and Electrical Engineering, Beihang University
Space Cities
- Dongfeng space city (东风航天城),also known as Base 20(二十基地)or Dongfeng base(东风基地)[8]
- Beijing space city (北京航天城)
- Wenchang space city (文昌航天城)
- Shanghai space city (上海航天城)
- Yantai space city (烟台航天城)[9] [10]
Suborbital Launch Sites
- Base 603 (安徽广德誓节渡中国科学院六〇三基地)Also known as Guangde Launch Site(广德发射场). [12] The first successful flight of a biological experimental T-7A(S1) sounding rocket transporting eight white mice was launched and recovered on July 19, 1964. [13]
Satellite Launch Centers
The PRC operates 4 Satellite Launch Centers:
- Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center (JSLC)
- Xichang Satellite Launch Center (XSLC)
- Taiyuan Satellite Launch Center (TSLC)
- Wenchang Satellite Launch Center (WSLC)
Monitoring and Control Centers
- Beijing Aerospace Command and Control Center (BACCC)
- Xian Satellite Monitor and Control Center (XSCC) also known as Base 26(二十六基地)
- Fleet of six Yuanwang-class space tracking ships. [14]
- Data relay satellite (数据中继卫星) Tianlian I (天链一号), specially developed to increase the communication time between the Shenzhou 7 spaceship and the ground, it will also improve the amount of data that can be transferred. The current orbit coverage of 12 percent will thus be increased to a total of about 60 percent. [15][16]
- Deep Space Tracking Network composed with radio antennas in Beijing, Shanghai, Kunming, Urumuqi and forming a 3000 km VLBI(甚长基线干涉). [17]
Domestic Tracking Stations
- New integrated land-based space monitoring and control network stations, forming a large triange with Kashi in the north-west of China, Jiamusi in the north-east and Sanya in the south. [18]
- Weinan Station
- Changchun Station
- Qingdao Station
- Zhanyi Station
- Nanhai Station
- Tianshan Station
- Xiamen Station
- Lushan Station
- Jiamusi Station
- Dongfeng Station
- Hetian Station
Overseas Tracking Stations
- Karachi Station
- Tarawa Station
- Malindi Station
- Swakopmund Station
Plus shared space tracking facilities with France, Brazil, Sweden and Australia.
Manned Spacecraft Landing Site
Manned spaceflight programs
Project 714
PRC's manned spaceflight programs started as top secret as early as 1968, when it was founded by Tsien Hsue-Shen of the Space Flight Medical Research Centre. Project 714 aimed to put two people into space by 1973 with the Shuguang spacecraft. Nineteen PLAAF pilots were selected for this goal on March 1971. The Shuguang-1 spacecraft to be launched with the CZ-2A rocket was designed to carry a crew of two. The program was officially cancelled on May 13, 1972 for economic reasons, though the internal politics of the Cultural Revolution likely motivated the closure.
The short-lived second manned program was based on the successful implementation of landing technology (third in the World after USSR and USA) by FSW satellites. It was announced in 1978 with the open publishing of some details including photos, but then was abruptly canceled in 1980. It has been argued that the second manned program was created solely for propaganda purposes, and was never intended to produce results.[19]
Project 863
A new manned space program was proposed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in March 1986, as Astronautics plan 863-2. This consisted of a manned spacecraft (Project 863-204) used to ferry astronaut crews to a space station (Project 863-205). In September of that year, astronauts in training were presented by the Chinese media. The various proposed manned spacecrafts were mostly spaceplanes. It will ultimately evolve into the 1992 Project 921.
Project 921
In 1992, authorization and funding was given for Project 921, which was a plan to launch a manned spacecraft. The Shenzhou program had four unmanned test flights. The first one was Shenzhou 1 on November 20, 1999. On January 9, 2001 Shenzhou 2 launched carrying test animals. Shenzhou 3 and Shenzhou 4 were launched in 2002, carrying test dummies. Following these was the successful Shenzhou 5, China's first manned mission in space on October 15, 2003, which carried Yang Liwei in orbit for 21 hours and made China the third nation to launch a human into orbit. Shenzhou 6 followed two years later. At least two more Shenzhou missions, with multiple crew members, space walks, and dockings, remain in planning. Missions are launched on the Long March 2F rocket from the Jiuquan Satellite Launch Center.
Space station
The PRC initially designed the Shenzhou ships with docking equipment suitable for the International Space Station (ISS) and built its launching platforms in the appropriate latitude for a rendezvous. Following the success of Shenzhou 5, the PRC formally requested to join the ISS, but the United States strongly opposed the plan. The PRC in turn announced its intention to build its own space station via program named Project 921-2. The unofficial websites suggest that Shenzhou 8 (an unmanned space lab) Shenzhou 9 (unmanned) and a manned Shenzhou 10 will be docked in late 2010 to form a primitive space station, much like the Soviet Union's early Salyut program. The PRC has now turned its diplomatic attention to establishing further joint programs with the European Space Agency and Russia.
Moon landing
In February 2004, the PRC formally started the implementation phase of its unmanned Moon exploration project. According to Sun Laiyan, administrator of the China National Space Administration, the project will involve three phases: orbiting the Moon; landing; and returning samples. The first phase planned to spend 1.4 billion renminbi (approx. US$170 million) to orbit a satellite around the Moon before 2007, which is ongoing. Phase two involves sending a lander before 2010. Phase three involves collecting lunar soil samples before 2020.
On November 27, 2005, the deputy commander of the manned spaceflight program announced that the PRC planned to complete a space station and a manned mission to the Moon by 2020, assuming funding was approved by the government. Towards that end they intended to perfect space walking and docking by 2012.
On December 14, 2005, it was reported "an effort to launch lunar orbiting satellites will be supplanted in 2007 by a program aimed at accomplishing an unmanned lunar landing. A program to return unmanned space vehicles from the moon will begin in 2012 and last for five years, until the manned program gets underway" in 2017, with a manned Moon landing some time after that. [1]
Nonetheless, the decision to develop a totally new moon rocket able to launch a 500 tons payload has been discussed in a 2006 conference by academician Zhang Guitian (张贵田), a liquid propellant rocket engine speciallist, who developed the CZ-2 and CZ-4A rockets engines. [20] [21] [22]
On June 22, 2006, Long Lehao, deputy chief architect of the lunar probe project, laid out a schedule for China's lunar exploration. He set 2024 as the date of China's first moonwalk [2].
Yang Liwei declared at the 16th Human in Space Symposium of International Academy of Astronautics (IAA) in Beijing, on May 22, 2007 that building a lunar base was a crucial step to realize a flight to Mars and farther planets.[23]
According to practice, since the whole project is only at a very early preparatory researches phase, no official manned Moon program has been announced yet by the authorities. But its existence is nonetheless revealed by regular intentional leaks in the media.[24]
Mission to Mars and beyond
Sun Laiyan, administrator of the China National Space Administration, said on July 20, 2006, that China would start deep space exploration focusing on Mars over the next five years, during the 11th Five-Year (2006-2010) Program period.[25]
The first unmanned Mars exploration program should take place between the 2014-2033 period, followed by a manned phase in 2040-2060.[26]
Moreover, in order to make manned flight in deep space toward Mars safer, a space weather forecast system will be completed by 2012 with the Kuafu[27] mission satellites placed at the Lagrangian Point L1.[28]
The Chief designer of the Shenzhou spacecraft has stated in 2006 in an interview that:
搞航天工程不是要达成升空之旅,
而是要让人可以正常在太空中工作,
为将来探索火星、土星等作好准备。The Chinese manned space program is not aimed at sending tourists into space,
But instead at preparing for the manned exploration of Mars and Saturn.
Goals
PRC's space program has several goals. The China National Space Administration policy white paper lists short term goals as:
- build a long term earth observation system
- set up an independent satellite telecommunications network
- establish an independent satellite navigation and positioning system
- provide commercial launch services
- set up a remote sensing system
- study space science such as microgravity, space materials, life sciences, and astronomy
- plan for exploration of the moon
Among their stated longer term goals are:
- improve their standing in the world of space science
- establish a manned space station.
- manned missions to the moon
- establish a manned lunar base.
List of Projects
Satellites and science
- Space-Based ASAT System Small and nano-satellites developed by the Small Satellite Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Space Technology [30]
- Double Star Mission joint with ESA
- Dong Fang Hong series of satellites
- Tianlian 2 (天链二号) Next generation data relay satellite (DRS) system based on the DFH-4 satellite bus, with two satellites providing up to 85% coverage. [31]
- Beidou navigation system or Compass Navigation Satellite System, composed of 60 to 70 satellites, during the "11th Five-Year Plan" period (2006-2010) [32]
- Astrophysics research, with the launch of the world's largest Solar Space Telescope in 2008, and a Space Hard X-Ray Modulation Telescope by 2010.
- Kuafu mission satellites for space weather forecast, will be completed by 2012 [33]
- Deep Space Tracking Network with the completion of the FAST, the world largest single dish radio antenna of 500 m in Guizhou, and a 3000 km VLBI radio antenna [34]
Satellite Launch Center
- Hainan Spaceport Fourth and southernmost space center, will be upgraded to suit the new CZ-5 Heavy ELV and manned lunar missions
Launch vehicles
- SLV Small Launch Vehicle, with short launch preparation period, low cost and high reliability, to meet the launch need of small satellites up to 500 kg to 700 km SSO [35]
- Air-Launched SLV Able to place a 50 kilogram plus payload to 500 km SSO [36]
- Kaituozhe-1, KT-2, KT-2A New all-solid orbital launch vehicles
- CZ-1D Based on a CZ-1, but with a new N2O4/UDMH second stage
- CZ-2E(A) Intended for launch of Chinese space station modules. Payload capacity up to 14 tons in LEO, 9000 (kN) liftoff thrust developed by 12 rocket engines, with enlarged fairing of 5.20 m in diameter and lenght of 12.39 m to accommodate large spacecraft [37]
- CZ-2F/G Modified CZ-2F without escape tower specially used for launching unmanned mission such as Shenzhou cargo and space laboratory module, with payload capacity up to 11.2 tons in LEO [38]
- CZ-3B(A) More powerful Long March rockets using larger-size liquid propellant strap-on motors, with payload capacity up to 13 tons in LEO
- CZ-3C Launch vehicle combining CZ-3B core with two boosters from CZ-2E
- Chang Zheng 5 Second generation ELV with more efficient and non toxic propellents (25 tonnes in LEO)
- Chang Zheng 6 Second generation Heavy ELV for lunar and deep space trajectory injection (70 tonnes in LEO), capable of supporting a Soviet L1/L3-like lunar landing mission [39]
- Project 921-3 Space Shuttle — Second generation manned spacecraft Shenlong Spaceplane
- HTS Maglev Launch Assist Space Shuttle New second generation manned reusable spacecraft
- Moon rocket Able to launch a 500 tons payload, development discussed in a 2006 conference by academician Zhang Guitian [20] [21] [22]
Space exploration
- Project 921-1 — Shenzhou spacecraft
- Project 921-2 — Chinese Space Laboratory and Chinese Permanent Space Station short term and then permanent occupation [40][41]
- Shenzhou Cargo (货运飞船)— unmanned version of the Shenzhou spacecraft to resupply the Chinese Permanent Space Station
- Chinese Lunar Exploration Program
- Chang'e program — unmanned lunar probe (first phase lunar program)
- Second phase lunar program — first settlements and lunar resources exploitation
- Third phase lunar program — permanent lunar bases and full scale exploitation
- Chinese Mars exploration program — Yinghuo-1 orbiter scheduled for launch in October 2009 in the joint Phobos-Grunt mission with Russia. Further planned missions include rover landers and possible manned missions in the far future. Anatoly Perminov, head of the Russian Space Agency has revealed in September 2006 in RIA Novosti that China was about to sign a contract by the end of 2006 to participate in a Russian project to bring soil back to Earth from Phobos, one of Mars two moons.[42] The mission will also collect samples on Mars, according to Xinhua.[43]
- Deep space exploration — spacefaring through the entire Solar system
Research
The Center for Space Science and Applied Research (CSSAR), was founded in 1987 by merging the former Institute of Space Physics (i.e. the Institute of Applied Geophysics founded in 1958) and the Center for Space Science and Technology (founded in 1978). The research fields of CSSAR mainly cover 1. Space Engineering Technology; 2. Space Weather Exploration, Research, and Forecasting; 3. Microwave Remote Sensing and Information Technology.
See also
References
- ^ a b "酒泉,缔造"中国第一"". 新华网. 2007-07-25.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "中国航天大事记(1956~2005)". 国家航天局网. 2006-05-17.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "赵九章与中国卫星". 中国科学院. 2007-10-16.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "中国第一枚自行设计制造的试验 探空火箭T-7M发射场遗址". 南汇医保信息网. 2006-06-19.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "解密——640工程:中国超级反导大炮项目 图". 第三媒体. 2006-09-02.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "北京地下城". 北青网. 2008-07-07.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "96年火箭发射失控爆炸全过程". 大旗网. September 15, 2007. Retrieved June 13.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
and|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "航天科技游圣地——东风航天城". 新华网内蒙古频道. 2007-12-05.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "烟台航天城"起航"了 力争成我国航天技术发展基地". 水母网. 2005-04-02.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "烟台大众网--神舟六号专题:513所简介". 烟台大众网. 2007-06-06.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "中国第一枚自行设计制造的试验 探空火箭T-7M发射场遗址". 南汇医保信息网. 2006-06-19.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "军事史话(第七部) 导弹部队史话". 蓝田玉PDF小说网. 2008-03-01.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "贝时璋院士:开展宇宙生物学研究". 新浪. 2006-11-15.
{{cite web}}
: Unknown parameter|accessmonthday=
ignored (help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "远望六号航天测量船交付将执行神七任务". 人 民 网. 2008-04-14. Retrieved April 15.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "我国首颗中继卫星发射成功 将测控神七飞行". 人 民 网. 2008-04-26. Retrieved April 27.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "天链一号01星发射现场DV实录". 新浪. 2008-04-27. Retrieved May 5.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "精密测轨嫦娥二号 "即拍即显"". 上海科技. 2008-06-18. Retrieved June 18.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "海南省三亚市新型综合航天测控站建成并投入使用". 中国政府网. 2008-04-25. Retrieved April 25.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Chinese Manned Capsule 1978". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved 2007-08-17.
- ^ a b "针对我们国家登月火箭的猜测". 虚幻军事天空. Retrieved 2007-11-20.
- ^ a b "中国载人登月火箭及其动力系统设想". 国家航天局网. 2006-07-25. Retrieved May 9.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ a b "河北院士联谊". 河北院士联谊会秘书处. Retrieved 2007-11-20.
- ^ "Astronauts share their experiences". People Daily. 2007-05-22. Retrieved May 22.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ . Xinhua. 2007-11-26 http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-11/26/content_7149107.htm. Retrieved June 10.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Missing or empty|title=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ People's Daily Online - Roundup: China to develop deep space exploration in five years
- ^ 中国嫦娥探月工程进展顺利 进度将有望加快-军事频道-中华网-中国最大职业人士门户
- ^ 我国目光超越月球 "夸父计划"雄心勃勃-科技-人民网
- ^ People's Daily Online - China plans new space project probing Sun-Earth environment
- ^ "戚发韧:神六后中国航天面临极大挑战". 人 民 网. 2006-01-15. Retrieved May 13.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "中国深空前沿:军事潜力巨大的小卫星研究(组图)". 腾讯新闻. 2004-07-19. Retrieved May 3.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "我国现役和研制中的卫星与飞船谱系图:上排右一会不会是TL-2 ?". 虚幻天空. 2008-06-08. Retrieved June 8.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "China constructs space information "highway"". People Daily. 2007-05-23. Retrieved May 23.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "夸父计划进入技术攻关 将发射3颗测日卫星". 新华网. 2008-04-16. Retrieved April 21.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "500米口径球面射电望远镜(FAST)". 中科院大科学装置办公室. 2008-04-21. Retrieved June 23.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "国际空间大学公众论坛关注中国航天(3)". People Daily. 2007-07-11. Retrieved July 13.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "空射运载火箭亮相珠海航展". 新华网. 2006-11-01. Retrieved May 3.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "CZ-2EA地面风载试验". 中国空气动力研究与发展中心. 2008-02-04. Retrieved June 30.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "独家:"神八"将用改进型火箭发射 2010年左右首飞". 人民网. June 25, 2008. Retrieved June 26.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
and|date=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Chinese Manned Space Program: The Future". Go Taikonauts!. 2006-02-04. Retrieved August 2.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "中国空间实验室". 虚幻军事天空. 2006-02-13. Retrieved July 9.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "中国航天921-III计划". 虚幻军事天空. 2008-07-15. Retrieved April 28.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "Russia, China could sign Moon exploration pact in 2006". RIA Novosti. 2006-09-11. Retrieved September 12.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help) - ^ "China and Russia to launch joint mission to Mars". PhysOrg.com. 2006-08-23. Retrieved September 11.
{{cite web}}
: Check date values in:|accessdate=
(help); Unknown parameter|accessyear=
ignored (|access-date=
suggested) (help)
External links
- Center for Space Science and Applied Research — Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS)
- 《宇航学报》 的免费电子版 — Journal of Astronautics published by the Chinese Society of Astronautics
- Go Taikonauts! - An Unofficial Chinese Space Website
- Mark Wade 's Encyclopedia Astronautica
- CNN.com timeline of China space program
- China's Space Ambitions, analysis by Joan Johnson-Freese, IFRI Proliferation Papers n° 18, 2007
- US Senate testimony on Chinese space program, given by James Oberg.
- Excerpts from Senate Q&A period on Chinese space program
- Dragon Space - China's civilian, military and manned space programs
- Chinese Threat to American Leadership in Space - Analysis by Gabriele Garibaldi
- Chinese Astronaut Biographies
- Scientific American Magazine (October 2003 Issue) China's Great Leap Upward
- White paper on china space activities the coming 5 years (released 2006)
News
- Scientist Targets 2024 for China's First Moon Walk Associated Press (via SPACE.com) 20 June 2006 11:59 am ET