Sniper
A sniper uses precisely aimed gunfire to hit a target at a distance, usually in excess of 100 yds (approx. 100m).
The word comes from the word snipe, a bird difficult for hunters to sneak up on.
Snipers in warfare
Russian and derived military doctrines include squad-level snipers. They do so because sniping capability was lost to ordinary troops when assault rifles were adopted.
Russian military doctrine uses snipers for long-distance suppressive fire and targets of opportunity, especially leaders. During World War II Russians found that military organizations find it hard to replace experienced non-commissioned officers and field officers in a war. Personnel selection, training, and doctrine can improve the cost-effectiveness of the expensive, delicate sniper rifles to levels comparable to a conventional assault rifle. Additionally, sniper duties fit women well, since good snipers are patient and merciless, avoid hand-to-hand combat, and need higher levels of aerobic conditioning than other troops.
U.S. military doctrine uses snipers in two-person teams attached to companies or brigades for anti-sniper missions, civil pacification, assassination, scouting and surveillance. U.S. snipers are usually far more highly trained than others, but doctrine limits their usefulness to small unit commands, the bread-and-butter of the Army.
Police forces use snipers in hostage rescue situations. Ideally, a police sniper kills criminals only to prevent harm to police or civilians.
Since police snipers must often break armed stand-offs, they are usually trained to shoot for the cerebellum, a remarkably difficult target at the base of the brain (literally right between the eyes (and a little below)). The theory is that if they hit the cerebellum, the criminal does not pull the trigger, and the hostage is freed without harm, even if the criminal was holding the gun to the hostage's head.
Police snipers never attempt trick shots such as shooting around corners, at non-lethal body-parts, or shooting things out of people's hands. Also, while classic military sniper training and operation extends out to and past 1000 meters, most police Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT) snipers rarely if ever operate against targets more than 300 meters away; not infrequently, their targets are as little as 100 meters distant. This range difference can mitigate some, though not all, of the difficulty inherent in taking a cerebellum shot.
In peacetime, elite police snipers like those of the FBI's Critical Intervention Resources Group (e.g. the Hostage Rescue Team) have longer terms of service, more training, and often more real mission experience than military snipers.
The current record for longest range sniper kill is 2430 m, accomplished by a Canadian sniper in 2002, during the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan.
Such a shot cannot be taken in haste. By contrast, much of the U.S./Coalition urban sniping in support of operations in Iraq in 2003 and after is at much shorter ranges, and the times to engage in such circumstances are commensurately shorter.
In the Bosnian Civil War, and for much of the Siege of Beiruit, snipers were mostly used as a means of terror against civilians. During the Siege of Sarajevo, the main street of the city became known as "Sniper Alley".
In urban combat against Soviet tank forces, some opposing forces successfully massed groups of three-person teams, each comprising one sniper, one with assault rifle or machine gun, and one with an antitank weapon such as an RPG. These swarms of small units were reported to be quite effective, though with significant casualties.
Sniper training
Good training is of paramount importance for snipers. A well-trained sniper can compensate for poor equipment. The goal of primary sniper training is to produce a sniper that can reliably place bullets in a 30 cm circle at 300 m in all weather at all angles.
Training selects personnel for talent, and then trains them over a period of several months of daily shooting with diverse ranges, angles, weather and, especially, winds. A sniper must be also able unflinchingly to kill the person in the sights, possibly while looking the person in the eye.
Snipers are trained to squeeze the trigger straight back with the ball of their finger, to avoid jerking the gun side-ways. The most accurate position is prone, with a bipod supporting the barrel, and a stock's cheek-piece against the cheek. They may use a sling wrapped around the weak arm to reduce stock movement. They hug the earth and shoot between heart-beats and breaths to reduce shaking of the point of aim from body movement. This position also reduces their silhouettes so they are harder to see.
The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit, and in the case of longer ranges, the bullet drop is calculated and the sights adjusted accordingly. Shooting "uphill" or "downhill" can require more adjustment, either by "holding off" by eye, or "dialing in" to the scope. Subtle cues to the the rate and direction of crosswinds are interpreted and used to correct the point of aim, along with "leading" to compensate for left or right motion of the target. The anticipated behavior of the target is another component of accurate shot placement.
Sniper equipment
Sniper rifles
Sniper rifles are built to more stringent specifications than any other firearm. The critical requirement for a rifle is to have a reliable cold zero. That is, when the rifle is cold, the first shot's placement must be predictable to less than a minute of arc, given controlled ammunition and a bench rest. This is because most sniper missions get one crucial shot. Once a rifle is predictable, adjusting the scope to put the reticule on zero is a trivial matter.
Armorers adjust sniper rifles to have a controlled distance (headspace) between the chamber containing the round, and the start of the barrel. This prevents bullet deformation and wobble as it enters the barrel.
It is common to countersink a smooth bore into the muzzle for 5mm or so, so that the crucial end-of-bore rifling (sometimes called the "crown") cannot be accidentally scratched or bent by hitting the muzzle against an object. Any such damage will change the rifle's point of aim, often requiring an entire new barrel to put the rifle back in the "precision" category. Such countersinking does not prevent damage from bad rifle cleaning practices.
Most rifles include lightened hammers and firing pins (sometimes of titanium), and stronger springs to reduce the time that can elapse between the trigger release and the bullet exit. This helps reduce inaccuracies from unavoidable wobbles in human hands and bodies.
Most rifles are bolt-action, firing from a closed, locked bolt, because this also increases the stability of a bullet.
Armorers carefully polish the trigger sears for a moderate, precise release point and force, usually 12 newtons (2.5 lbs). This reduces the effect of a trigger finger on the point of aim.
Sniper rifles generally have free-floating barrels that do not touch the stock or forearm (barrel housing), and therefore cannot be deformed as these parts expand or shrink; also, any effect of a change in sling tension or forearm pressure is minimized.
Some have heavy "bull" barrels. The extra mass reduces the movement circle caused by unavoidable hand-trembling. The barrel is also somewhat more sturdy.
Good rifle barrels also have precision rifling and boring. There are two basic types: button rifling, where a button is forced through the bore, and cut rifling. Both can produce excellent barrels.
Some snipers claim certain barrel alloys (the low shrinkage steels used in watch springs and sextants) change "zero" less with temperature. Some barrels are cryogenically heat-treated with the intention of reducing crystallization changes at normal temperatures or to relieve stresses produced during manufacture of the barrel.
It's common to adjust a small weight (often a flash suppressor) on the muzzle end to control barrel whip caused by resonance.
One company even sells carbon fiber barrels that weigh only one third that of steel barrels. This helps a sniper lugging a .50 calibre rifle over mountains.
Ammunition
Most snipers shoot match-grade military ammunition. Some build their own from components to more precisely control the load and bullet shape. Bullets are hard, heavy, and very aerodynamic. "boat tailed." Powder loads are only moderate to avoid stretching the gun. Noncorrosive primers are often preferred.
Gun sights
Sniper sights generally contain ranging aids based on the size of human body parts, especially the head (30 cm) and trunk (50 cm). They usually also contain windage calculation aids. Surprisingly, some sights have quite low fixed magnification, as low as 3x. In these cases, the easiest sighting aid will be a set of curves in the field of view. By matching body parts to a curve, the sniper will define the target's range. Another reticule uses a pair of dots or an oval (head sized) with a zoom adjustment and a numeric read-out of the zoom into range. Another uses a pair of dots at a standard angle, (usually 10 minutes) and trains the sniper to interpret it.
Historic military sniper rifles used to include basic, but adjustable "iron" sights in case the scope was damaged or got foggy. Modern shock-mounted dry nitrogen scopes have been far less fragile, and many modern sniper rifles no longer have iron sights. The most rugged scopes have their reticles etched into one or more of the glass surfaces.
These aids are helpful, but training is more important. A trained sniper with a deer-hunting rifle is far more accurate and dangerous than a deer hunter with a sniper rifle.
Camouflage
Good camouflauge, combined with movement discipline, is what makes snipers so hard to see and resist.
The basic camouflage item of a working sniper is a combination of cover and shelter, usually a poncho or shelter-half, preferably with attachable insulation and internal waterproofing.
The glint of the scope's optics is the only part of a sniper that cannot be camouflaged, but shine can be reduced by using a piece of fabric or a metal mesh over the scope. Snipers should avoid anything that glints or clanks, including glasses and white faces.
Snipers against well-equipped forces must camouflage themselves in IR. They use plastic foil blankets or material with a thin layer of evaporated aluminum to reflect the IR. Originally these were thermal blankets, covered with local foliage or material. The material is taken from at least 300 yards away so the sniping position's natural cover is undisturbed.
Tick suit
The best-equipped snipers use a "Tick" suit. This consists of IR-proof material that hangs in folds over the sniper, breaking up the outline on a scope. The outer layers of a tick suit resemble a ghillie suit, camouflaging the sniper in visible light.
Ghillie suit
Snipers with extreme requirements for infiltration and camouflage use a ghillie suit, a suit constructed of rough burlap flaps attached to a net poncho. The ghillie suit was originally developed by Scots deer hunters as a portable hunting blind.
A ghillie suit is usually prepared by assembling it, beating it, dragging it behind a car, and then rolling it in cow feces or burying it in mud and then letting it ferment. This makes it very much like wearable humus. As with the foil blankets mentioned above, a ghillie suit that closely matches the actual terrain of the zone of operation will stand out less, so elements of that general environment (local foliage or other matter) may also be included in the netting.
Sniper Tactics
At distances over 300 yds (~300m), snipers usually attempt body shots, aiming at the chest and depending on hydrostatic shock to make the kill. At lesser distances, snipers may attempt head shots to assure the kill.
In instant-death hostage situations, police snipers shoot for the cerebellum, a part of the brain that controls voluntary movement, that lies at the base of the skull. Some wound ballistics and neurological researchers have argued that severing the spinal column's second vertebrum is what is actually achieved, usually having the same effect of preventing voluntary motor activity, but the debate on the matter remains largely academic at the present date.
To perform civil pacification, sniper-suppression, and intelligence a sniper or pair of snipers will locate themselves in a high, concealed redoubt. They will use binoculars or a telescope to identify targets, and a radio to provide intelligence.
Since most kills in modern warfare are by crew-served weapons, reconnaisance is one of the most effective uses of snipers. They use their aerobic conditioning, infiltration skills and excellent long-distance observation equipment and tactics to approach and observe the enemy. In this role, their rules of engagement let them engage only high-value targets of opportunity.
A sniper identifies targets by their appearance and behavior. Snipers shoot people who are in high-rank uniforms, or who talk to radiomen, or who sit as passengers in a car, or who have military servants, or who talk and move their position more frequently. If possible, snipers shoot in descending order by rank, or if rank is unavailable, they shoot to disrupt communications.
Snipers use deception, in the form of camouflage, unusual angles of approach, and frequent, often slow movement to prevent accurate counter-attacks. Some snipers are able to shoot an observant target from less than 100 yards (~100m), while the target is searching for them, without being seen.
In severe civil unrest, snipers may be instructed to kill any person carrying a weapon and not in a friendly uniform.
To perform suppressive fire during an assault, a sniper locates an enemy firing loupe, times the appearance of the enemy, and shoots the enemy through the head over his own sights.
To perform suppressive fire to cover a retreat, a sniper positions his hide with a view to a large open space. When a pair of enemy squads attempts a crossing, the sniper disables one person, preferably a leader. Most often this is a hip shot, possibly followed by a jaw shot to prevent effective instruction. When the squad attempts a rescue, the sniper uses rapid fire, aiming for the trunks of enemy soldiers to kill as many as possible with hydrostatic shock. A prudent sniper leaves the area at this point, anticipating the flanking attack that normally follows. A brave or desperate sniper may ambush one of the flanks, and if possible, will move outside the flank to do so.
To demoralize enemy troops, snipers can follow predictable patterns. During the Cuban revolutionary war, the 26th of July Movement always killed the foremost man in a group of Batista's soldiers. Realizing this, none of them would walk first, as it was suicide. This effectively decreased the army's willingness to search for rebel bases in the mountains.
With heavy .50-calibre rifles, snipers can shoot turbine disks of parked jet fighters, missile guidance packages, expensive optics, or the bearings, tubes or wave guides of radar sets. Snipers on hill-tops can often shoot down scout helicopters lurking below a ridge-line. Similarly, snipers may shoot locks or hinges instead of using a door-opening charge.
Anti-sniper tactics
To defend against sniper attacks, doctrine and equipment need to prevent observable "leadership" behaviors and signs. Insignia should be low-observable camouflage colors on camouflage, battle-dress identical for all ranks, military servants and rank-based luxuries avoided in forward areas, and commands and instruction should be given in stealthy ways.
Valuable assets should be parked in sand-bagged redoubts until they are launched, a prudent tactic anyway to prevent damage from fragments.
The most effective response to a sniper is a flanking pincer by a pair of squads, through cover, or at least concealment, driving the sniper toward the group containing the targets. This decreases the chances that the sniper will find a stealthy, speedy escape route.
Another effective tactic is to use a sniper to kill a sniper. This often results in a sniper duel. Usually, the most highly trained sniper wins. The duel effectively distracts the sniper from his mission. This usually favors U.S.-style elite sniper forces.
Attitude to snipers
Generally snipers are isolated even from soldiers of their own army by the dislike of the ordinary infantry for this type of combat. During World War II, captured snipers were often shot out-of-hand by their captors.
A psychopathic or sociopathic personality is seen by some as necessary for an efficient sniper as, despite the image presented in books and films, most soldiers are not keen on killing (or being killed). The psychology of warfare is complex.
Snipers outside warfare
The use of sniping as a way to murder people outside of war is most common in the United States. The typical criminal sniper fires from a tall building or tower into the landscape below. There have been several sensational murders involving snipers in American history, including the Austin sniper incident of 1966, the John F. Kennedy assassination, and the Washington sniper serial murders of late 2002.
Sniping is also used as a method of terrorism, for example in The Troubles in Northern Ireland, where high-powered military sniper rifles were used to pick off soldiers over a period of years.
Snipers in history
There have been soldiers specially trained as elite marksmen, even before fire-arms were available.
- The first modern snipers were elite air-riflemen trained to shoot knights for France's Louis XIV. Their gun weighed more than twenty pounds, and shot a 1oz lead ball fast enough to kill through plate armor. Some authorities claim that they, alone, made heavy cavalry (knights) obsolete.
- Timothy Murphy was a rifleman in Morgan's Kentucky Riflemen in 1777. He shot and killed General Simon Fraser of the British army. Murphy was said to have taken the shot at roughly 500 yards, astounding at the time. He was using the renowned Kentucky rifle. The death of general Fraser caused the British advance to falter and the rebels to win the battle.
- During the pivotal Battle of Trafalgar, on October 21 1805, as the British flagship HMS Victory locked masts with the French Redoubtable, a sniper's bullet struck Admiral Horatio Nelson in the spine. Nelson was carried below decks and died as the battle that would make him a legend was ending in favour of the British.
- In the Napoleonic Wars, the British copied colonial weapons and tactics in a limited number of rifle companies. They dressed (unsportingly) in green to avoid visibility, and were instructed to shoot enemy officers. These were fictionalized in a BBC TV series, Sharp's Rifles.
- Colonel Hiram Berdan was the commanding officer of the 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters. Although snipers were held with low regard by both sides during the Civil War, under his tutelage, skilled Union marksmen were trained and equipped with the 52 caliber Sharps Rifle. It has been claimed that Berdan's units were responsible for killing more enemy than any other unit in the Union Army.
- On 9 May, 1864 during the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, Sgt. Grace of the 4th Georgia Infantry, sniped Major General John Sedgwick at the then incredible distance of 800 yards, with a British Whiteworth target rifle. The death of Sedgwick caused administrative delays in the Union's attack, leading to Confederate victory. Before Sedgwick was shot, he was advised by his men to take cover, and his last words were "They couldn't hit an elephant at this distance". The popular story that he said "They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist--" happens to be an urban legend — he finished his sentence and was shot a few minutes later.
- Simo Häyhä (17 Dec 1906 - 1 Apr 2002) of Finland is regarded as the most effective sniper in the history of warfare. Using a relatively primitive Mosin-Nagant Model 28, Häyhä killed 505 Russian soldiers over a 9 month period during the Winter War.
- Suko Kolkka was also a Finnish sniper during the Winter War, who sniped approximately 400 Russians, as well as another 200 with a submachinegun. Due to the superb quality of Finnish snipers, the Russians lost men at a rate of 40:1. At the end of the Winter War a Soviet General is said to have bitterly quipped, "We gained 22,000 square miles of territory. Just enough to bury our dead".
- Vasily Zaitsev was a Russian sniper who rose to prominence during the Battle of Stalingrad, credited with sniping 242 German soldiers. He became a folk hero for killing the German master sniper instructor Major Thorvald, in an extended duel. However, there are debates as to whether Thorvald actually existed, or was the invention of Soviet propaganda writers. Zaitsev was the main subject in the movie Enemy at the Gates, a fictionalized account of sniper-warfare in the Battle of Stalingrad.
- Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock of the United States Marine Corps sniped 93 North Vietnamese soldiers during that war.
- Delta Force snipers Gary Gordon and Randy Shughart were both killed in action during the Battle of Mogadishu. It is estimated that together they sniped over 100 Somalis.