Knowledge

Knowledge is understanding something or being able to do something. The things we know are variously called facts, truths or information. Obtaining knowledge is called learning. This article looks at the philosophical study of knowledge, epistemology; it then looks at how knowledge is manipulated in organizations, and at the social character of knowledge.

Definition

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"Knowledge" is related to such concepts as meaning, information, instruction, communication, representation, learning and mental stimulus.

Knowledge is distinct from simple information. Both knowledge and information consist of true statements, but knowledge is information that has a purpose or use.* Philosophers would describe this as information associated with intentionality.

In epistemology a common definition of knowledge is that it consists of justified true belief. This definition derives from Plato's Theaetetus. It is considered to set out necessary, but not sufficient, conditions for some statement to count as knowledge.

What constitutes knowledge, certainty and truth are controversial issues. These issues are debated by philosophers, social scientists, and historians. Ludwig Wittgenstein wrote "On Certainty" - aphorisms on these concepts - exploring relationships between knowledge and certainty. A thread of his concern has become an entire field, the philosophy of action.

Some question the requirement for "purpose or use".

Problem of justification

For most of philosophical history, "knowledge" was taken to mean a belief that was justified as true to an absolute certainty. Any less justified beliefs were called mere "probable opinion." Philosophers often define knowledge as a justified, true belief; the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge is called epistemology.

But how do we show that our beliefs are knowledge? Justification and evidence are both epistemic features of belief. They are, in other words, both qualities that indicate that the belief is true. We could try out other epistemic features in the definition of knowledge, if we wanted to. Instead of "justified true belief" or "true belief with evidence," we could say that knowledge is "rational true belief" or "warranted true belief." For our purposes, the differences between these different options don't matter. The whole point is that, to be knowledge, a belief has to have some positive epistemic feature; it can't be arbitrary or random or irrational. The Theory of justification deals with these issues in more detail.

A problem with defining knowledge is known as the "Gettier problem". The Gettier problem arises when we give certain kinds of counterexamples to the JTB (justified true belief) definition. A counterexample is a case where the definition applies, but the word defined doesn't; or a case where the word defined applies, but the definition doesn't. Gettier counterexamples are examples where the definition, justified, true belief applies; but one nevertheless still doesn't have knowledge, so the word "knowledge" doesn't apply in that case.

Skepticism

When scientists or philosophers ask "Is knowledge possible?", they mean to say "Am I ever sufficiently justified in believing something in order to have knowledge?" Adherents of Philosophical skepticism often say "no". Philosophical skepticism is the position which critically examines whether the knowledge and perceptions people have is true; adherents of this position hold that one can never obtain true knowledge, since justification is never certain. This is a different position from Scientific skepticism, which is the practical stance that one should not accept the veracity of claims until solid evidence is produced.

Knowledge management

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Knowledge management seeks to understand the way in which knowledge is used and traded within organisations and treats knowledge as self-referential and recursive. This recursion means that the definition of knowledge is in a state of flux. Knowledge management treats knowledge as a form of information which is impregnated with context based on experience. Information is data which causes a difference to an observer because of its observer-specific relevance. Data can be observed, but does not need to be.

Sociology of knowledge

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Aspects of knowledge exhibit a social character. For instance, Knowledge is a form of social capital. Sociology of Knowledge examines the way in which Society and Knowledge interact.

Through experience, observation, and inference, individuals and cultures gain knowledge. The spread of this knowledge is examined by diffusion. Diffusion of innovations theory explores the factors that lead people to become aware, try, and adopt new ideas and practices -- this can help to explain development of knowledge.

Other definitions

Knowledge is "information combined with experience, context, interpretation, and reflection. It is a high-valueform of information that is ready to apply to decisions and actions." T. Davenport et al., 1998

"Explicit or codified knowledge refers to knowledge that is transmittable in formal, systematic language. On the other hand, tacit knowledge has a personal quality, which makes it hard to formalize and communicate." I. Nonaka, 1994ĤÂ

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Damism

Damism is a belief system developed between 1996 and 2000, by Rev. Damian Mark Patrick Stephen David Boland, which states that the Universe as we understand it is comprised of three fundamental elements: 1) Physical matter 2) Physical energy 3) Etheric (or spiritual) energy.

According to the Laws of Physics (which form the central core of Damism), there is a finite amount of physical matter in the Universe (unlike the Multiverse, which is infinite). Matter cannot be created, nor can it be destroyed. It may only be converted. The same applies to physical energy (heat, light, sound, etc...). Therefore, by definition of living in a finite Universe, there is a finite amount of etheric energy, which also cannot be created, or destroyed, but merely converted.

Thusly, when a person dies, their physical matter returns to the Universe ("Ashes to ashes. Dust to dust!") along with their physical energy. Likewise, their etheric energy (or soul) returns to a collective pool of energy, in which they become part of the Oneness of the Universe. The next generation born then draws its etheric energy from this 'pool', to form new souls, which in turn, return to the 'pool' (or Ghia), bearing the experiences that they have learned. In this way, as each generation's understanding of themselves and the nature of existence grows, so does the fundamental consciousness of the Universe as a whole.

Damist followers therefore have only two rules: 1) Do nothing to harm another with deliberate intent (as this harms the collective) 2) Experience everything you possibly can to further your own consciousness, and in turn, the Universe as a whole.

This is only a brief description. Fellowship and ordination require three years study.

The current Head of the Damist faith in the United Kingdom is the Very Reverend, Damian M P S D Boland.

The current Global Head of the Damist faith is the Most Reverend, Ezekial Mordecai Kiss. He can be approached for further insight via '[email protected]'.

References

Creath, Richard, "Induction and the Gettier Problem", Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, Vol.LII, No.2, June 1992.
Feldman, Richard, "An Alleged Defect in Gettier Counterexamples", Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 52 (1974): 68-69.
Gettier, Edmund, "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", Analysis 23 (1963): 121-23.
Goldman, Alvin I., "Discrimination and Perceptual Knowledge", Journal of Philosophy, 73.20 (1976), 771-791.
Hetherington, Stephen, "Actually Knowing", The Philosophical Quarterly, Vol.48, No. 193, October 1998.
Lehrer, Keith and Thomas D. Paxon, Jr., "Knowledge: Undefeated Justified True Belief", The Journal of Philosophy, 66.8 (1969), 225-237.
Levi, Don S., "The Gettier Problem and the Parable of the Ten Coins", Philosophy, 70, 1995.
Swain, Marshall, "Epistemic Defeasibility", American Philosophical Quarterly, Vol.II, No.I, January 1974.