Religious pluralism

Religious pluralism refers to theological attempts to overcome religious differences between different religions, as well as to theological attempts to overcome religious differences between different denominations of the same religion.

Different forms of religious pluralism

Most forms of pluralism do not claim that all religions are equally true. Since different religions make certain claims that logically contradict each other, this obviously would be impossible. (e.g. It is not possible for it to be equally true that Jesus is the son of God, and that Jesus was just a mortal human being.) Rather most religious pluralists hold that no religion can claim to teach the only or absolute truth. This position is held because religion is not literally the word of God, but rather is mankind's attempt to describe the word of God. Given man's finite and fallible nature, no religious text can absolutely describe God and God's will in absolute precision. Thus, the argument goes, no religion is completely true. In this perspective, there is an infinite Reality, or God, that is beyond the ability of any single religion to accurately capture with total accuracy. Instead, all religions make an attempt at capturing this Reality, but this always occurs within a cultural and historical context that affects the viewpoints of the faith's holders.

A recent theological innovation, held by some religious liberals, is the maximal form of religious pluralism. This viewpoint holds that that all religions are equally valid and equally true. This form has become held by some who hold by some forms of post-modern philosophy, especially deconstructionism. Critics of this viewpoint hold that this claim is self-contradictory.

In the last century, liberal forms of Judaism and Christianity have modified some of their religious positions. Religious liberals in these faiths no longer claim that their religion is complete and of absolute accuracy; rather the Jews teach that their faith is only the most complete and accurate revelation of God to humanity that we have; similarly, the Christians teach the same thing; the Unitarian-Universalists teach the same thing. The liberal aspect of this positon is that it allows a religious believer to admit that other faiths also have common ground with their faith, and that they may even appreciate some other aspect of God that they might not. Adherents of this religiously liberal position argue that just as scientists must have intellectual humility in order for them to find the truth about a physical law, religions must have theological humility, and admit that they do not have a exclusive path to God. Religious conservatives in Christianity reject these claims outright, and hold that only their path allows a person to reach God. Many if not most of these same conservatives would acknowledge that some expressions of faith will vary from culture to culture and from time period to time period, and new cultures may indeed shed new light on old dogmas.

Many people hold that it is both permissible, and imperative, for people of all faiths to develop some form of religious pluralism. It is intellectualy valid for us to do so because since biblical times, our understanding of man's place in the natural world has changed radically, due to advances in science; since biblical times, philosophers of all era have challeneged us to rethink our notion of truth, and the very way that we use language itself; advances in travel and communication rule out isolationism; and advances in weaponry and warfare rule out religious intolerance, as this can now lead to mass-murder on scales previously unimaginable.

Inter-religious pluralism (between different religions)

Classical Greek and Roman pagan religious views

The ancient Greeks were polytheists; pluralism in that historical era meant accepting the existence of and validity of other faiths, and the gods of other faiths. Greeks and Romans easily accomplished this task by subsuming the entier set of gods from other faiths into their own religion; this was done on rare occasion by adding a new god to their own pantheon; on most occasions they identified another religion's gods with their own.

Jewish views

Classical Jewish views

The Jewish belief in the exclusivity of their religion's truth did not preclude a belief that God would enter into relationships with other peoples. Judaism held that although only Judaism was true, God had entered into a covenant with all mankind, and that any person had the ability to have a relationship with God, even if they were not a Jew. The Tanach (Hebrew Bible, Old Testament) speaks of prophets that existed outside the community of Israel.

Jews believe that God chose the Jewish people to be in a unique covenant with God; the description of this covenant is the Torah itself. Contrary to popular belief, Jewish people never simply say that "God chose the Jews." This claim exists nowhere in the Tanach (the Jewish Bible) or the Siddur (the Jewish prayerbook). Such a claim would imply that God loves only the Jewish people, that only Jews can be close to God, and that only Jews can have a heaavenly reward (if one exists at all.) The actual claim made is that the Jews were chosen for a specific mission; to be a light unto the nations, and to have a covenant with God as described in the Torah.

The religious works of the Jewish faith contain many statements illustrating the belief that God is God of all peoples, and not just the Jews. Moses calls God "God of the spirits of all flesh" (Numbers 27:16). The Mishnah teaches that "Humanity was produced from one man, Adam, to show God's greateness. When a man mints a coin in a press, each coin is identical. But when the King of Kings, the Holy One, blessed be He, creates people in the form of Adam not one is similar to any other." (Mishnah, Sanhedrin, 4:5)

Some rabbis in the Talmud view Christianity as a form of idolatry prohibited not only to Jews, but to gentiles as well. Rabbis with these views did not claim that it was idolatry in the same literal sense as pagan idolaters in Biblical times, but that it relied on idolatrous forms of worship (i.e. to a Trinity of gods and to statues and saints.) (Babylonian Talmud, Hullin, 13b) Other rabbis disagreed, and did not hold it to be idolatry. By the middle ages a new consensus was reached in the Jewish community in which Christianity was generally not held to be idolatry. ("Exclusiveness and Tolerance", Jacob Katz, Oxford Univ. Press, 1961, Ch.10)

The Talmud contains a list of seven commandments that Jews believe God to hold incumbent upon the children of Noah, i.e. all humanity. These laws are: (1) to establish laws, (2) prohibition against idolatry, (3) blasphemy, (4) prohibition against sexual immorality, (5) prohibition against bloodshed (violence, murder), (6) prohibition against theft, and (7) the prohibtion against tearing a limb from a living animal. Jewish law holds that only these laws are necessary for gentiles to live by in order to be considered moral. There is no demand for others to convert to Judaism; they implicitly allow non-Jews to have their own religions. Many Orthodox rabbis teach that the second law implicitly is a positive commandment to believe in God, but the some historians counter that this isn't the original meaning of ther verse. The rabbis spent more time defining and prohibiting idolatry then they did describing God and demanding belief in a specific theology. In a surprisingly liberal and pluralistic view for the third century, one sage in the Talmud states "Whoever denies idolatry is called a Yehudi (Jew)." (Babylonian Talmud, Megilla, 13a). Even earlier, in the second century the Tosefta declared "the righteous of all nations have a share in the world to come." (Tosefta, Sanhedrin 13)

Maimonides, held by Jews to be the most imporant theologian and halakhist (legal expert) of his age, explained in detail the theological reasons why Jesus was wrong to create Christianity and why Mohammed was wrong to create Islam; he laments the pains that have to Jews as a result of persecution from followers of these new faiths that attempted to surplant Judaism. However, Maimonides then goes on to say that both faiths help God redeem the world.

Jesus was instrumental in changing the Torah and causing the world to err and serve another beside God. But it is beyond the human mind to fathom the designs of our Creator, for our ways are not God's ways, neither are our thoughts His. All these matters relating to Jesus of Nazareth, and the Ishmaelite (Mohammed) who came after him, only served to clear the way for the King Messiah to prepare the whole world to worship God with one accord, as it is written 'For then will I turn to the peoples a pure language, that they all call upon the name of the Lord to serve Him with one consent.' (Zephaniah 3:9). Thus the messianic hope, and the Torah, and the commandments have become familiar topics of conversation among those evn on far isles, and among many people, uncircumcized of flesh and heart.

Source - "Mishneh Torah", Maimonides, XI.4. This paragraph used to be censored from many printed versions of the Mishneh Torah because it contained verses explicitly critical of Jesus.

Based on the Tanach's statements that gentiles can be prophets, some rabbis theorized that "God permitted to every people something he forbade to others...God sends a prophet to every people according to their own language." This is the view of Nethanel ibn Fayyumi, a Yemenite Jewish theologian (12th century). ("The Garden of Wisdom", translated D. Levene, Columbia Univ. Press, 1907/1966.)

Rabbi Profressor Norman Solomon points out that three basic concepts underlie the Tanach (Hebrew Bible, Old Testament).

Universality - The book of Genesis stresses the unity of all humanity. King Solomon's dedication of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem stresses that it is to be a religious center for all mankind. The Pslams (especially Pslam 117) extol all the nations of the world to join in the worship of God, without demanding that others convert to Judaism.

Non-exclusiveness - The Tanach teaches that gentiles (non-Jews). Non-Israelite Biblical characters such as Melchizedek, Jethro and Na'aman recognize the God of the Bible, without being members of the Israelite faith or community.

Demarcation, or Distinction - While God cares for all humanity, that does not mean that God considers all forms of worship acceptable. The Tanach repeatedly states that the practice of idolatry is abhorrent to God, whether practiced by Jew or gentile. The Tanach gives multiple examples of the abominable acts committed by the idolaters of the time, and shows how some of them worshipped stone or wood idols in a literal sense; the Tanach describes pagans who believed that the idols themselves were gods.

Modern (post-enlightenment era) Jewish views

Rabbi Lord Immanuel Jakobovits, former Chief Rabbi of the United Synagogue of Great Britain, describes the mainstream Jewish view on this issue: "Yes, I do believe that the Chosen people concept as affirmed by Judaism in its holy writ, its prayers, and its milennial tradition. In fact, I believe that every people - and indeed, in a more limited way, every individual - is "chosen" or destined for some distinct purpose in advancing the designs of Providence. Only, some fulfill their mission and others do not. Maybe the Greeks were chosen for their unique contributions to art and philosophy, the Romans for their pioneering services in law and government, the British for bringing parlimentary rule into the world, and the Americans for piloting democracy in a pluralistic society. The Jews were chosen by God to be 'peculiar unto Me' as the pioneers of religion and morality; that was and is their national purpose."

The German-Jewish philosopher Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) taught that "According to the basic principles of my religion I am not to seek to convert anyone not born into our laws....We believe that the other nations of the Earth are directed by God to observe only the law of nature and the religion of the Patriarchs...I fancy that whosoever leads men to virtue in this life cannot be damned in the next."

Recently, over fifty rabbis from the non-Orthodox branches of Judaism signed a document called Dabru Emet ("Speak the Truth") that has since been used in Jewish education programs across the U.S. Some Modern Orthodox rabbis have made statements in agreement with this document as well, but have not signed. This is because Orthodox Judaism is more strict than the other denominations in regards to the Jewish religious prohibition against inter-religion theological dialogue. (In the past, (many? all?) such dialogues were forced, and (always?) had as their sole motive the conversion of Jews to other faiths.) While affirming that there are substantial theological differences between these two religions, the purpose of Dabru Emet is to point out the common ground between these two religions. It is not an official document of any of the Jewish denominations per se, but it is representative of what many religious Jews feel.

A small number of modern Jewish theologians such as Yehezkel Kaufman and Joseph H. Hertz have suggested that perhaps only the Israelites were forbidden to worship idols, but perhaps such worship was permissible for members of other religions. (Yehezkel Kaufman, "The Religion of Israel", Univ. of Chicago Press, 1960; J. H. Hertz, "Pentateuch and Haftorahs" Soncino Press, 1960, p.759). Most Jewish theologians disagree, saying that the original meaning of the text was to condemn idolatry in toto. However, a growing number of Jewish theologians question whether Hindus and Buddhists today should be considered idolaters in the Biblical sense of the term. Their reasons are that modern day Buddhists, Hindus and others (a) do not literally worship "sticks and stones", as the idolaters in the Tanach were described doing. Their beliefs have far more theological depth than ancient pagans, and they are well aware that icons they worship are only symbols of a deeper level of reality, (b) they do not practice child sacrifice, (c) they are of high moral character, and (d) they are not anti-Semitic. As such, some Jews argue that not only does God have a relationship with all gentile monotheists, but that God also maintains a relationship with Hindus, Buddhists and other polytheists.

"Emet Ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism"

As Conservative Jews, we acknowledge without apology the many debts which Jewish religion and civilization owe to the nations of the world. We eschew triumphalism with respect to other ways of serving God. Maimonides believed that other monotheistic faiths ? Christianity and Islam ? serve to spread knowledge of, and devotion to, the God and the Torah of Israel throughout the world. Many modern thinkers, both Jewish and gentile, have noted that God may well have seen fit to enter covenants with many nations. Either outlook, when relating to others, is perfectly compatible with a commitment to one?s own faith and pattern of religious life.

If we criticize triumphalism in our own community, then real dialogue with other faith groups requires that we criticize triumphalism and other failings in those quarters as well. In the second half of the twentieth century, no relationship between Jews and Christians can be dignified or honest without facing up frankly to the centuries of prejudice, theological anathema, and persecution that have been thrust upon Jewish communities, culminating in the horrors of the Shoah (Holocaust). No relationship can be nurtured between Jews and Muslims unless it acknowledges explicity and seeks to combat the terrible social and political effects of Muslim hostility, as well as the disturbing but growing reaction of Jewish anti-Arabism in the Land of Israel. But all of these relationships, properly pursued, can bring great blessing to the Jewish community and to the world. As the late Professor Abraham Joshua Heschel put it, ?no religion is an island.?

Christian views

Classical Christian views

Christianity teaches that on their own, it is impossible for any person to have a relationship with God, and that the result of a lack of such a relationship is damnation. To avoid such a fate, Christianity teaches that Jesus Christ was God made flesh in a literal manner, and that by accepting various beliefs about Jesus and God, a person could then have a meaningful relationship with God and avoid damnation, and earn eternal life in Heaven. All non-Christians, especially Jews, are specifically pointed to as destined for damnation; they complain that such teachings may be considered hateful or anti-Semitic. Christians respond by teaching that it is not they who teach these things or passing judgement, it is God Himself who passes final judgment. Christians teach that the consequence of self-separation from the triune God, who they view as the ultimate source of all life, is eternal death. In Christianity, all humanity shares a common fallen nature and a common predicament. Christians sometimes view their faith as a form of egalitarianism, because it teaches that all humanity potentially has equal access to salvation: a person simply has to renounce their faith and sincerely adopt Christianity.

Christians have traditionaly argued that religious pluralism is an invalid or self-contradictory concept. Maximal forms of religious pluralism claim that all religions are equally true, or that one religion can be true for some and another for others. This Christians hold to be logically impossible. (Most Jews and Muslims similarly reject this maximal form of pluralism.) Christianity insists it is the fullest and most complete revelation of God to Man, that God exists as a Trinity, and that the person of Jesus Christ is not just the best but the only way to encounter God the Father and God the Holy Spirit. If Christianity is true, than Judaism, Hinduism, Islam, and so forth cannot be equally true, although they may contain lesser revelations of God that are true. So the pluralist must either distort Christianity to make it pluralistic, or reject it and acknowledge that one cannot be a complete pluralist.

One image of the Church that was often used by the Church fathers was that of a hospital. In this analogy the doctor does not always care for a patient in the way the patient would like, but in the way best suited to bring about healing to the patient. (Entry into the hospital should of course be voluntary.) Doing what pluralists ask would be somewhat akin to accomodating the false "pillow prophets" of the Old Testament who prophesied to the king what he wanted to hear, predictions of victory, rather than God's words of certain defeat that could only be avoided through thorough repentance. Thus, Christianity must preach salvation through the Church to all outside the Church, in order to help people realize that through conversion to Christianity one will achieve salvation.

To these Christians, it appears to be a contradiction for non-Christians to acknowledge the validity of Christian prayers or sacraments, but continue to deny the beliefs which underlie those prayers and sacraments. The central sacrament, the Eucharist, for example, is believed to be the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ; belief in its efficacy is based on the belief that it really and truly is. If a person were to deny that the Eucharist is Christ's body and blood, that would amount to denying that it unites us to God, imparts grace, or administers any other benefit, save possibly through a sort of psychological placebo effect.

Modern (post-enlightenment era) Christian views

Many modern day Christians, including many Catholics and some liberal Protestants, have developed a view of the New Testament as an extended covenant; They believe that Jews are still in a valid relationship with God, and that Jews can avoid damnation and earn a heavenly reward. For these Christians, the New Testament extended God's original covenant to cover non-Jews.

A large Protestant Christian group, the Alliance of Baptists, has broken with traditional Christian theology vis-a-vis the Jewish people. In March 1995 they issued "A Baptist Statement on Jewish-Christian Relations". This document stated that the Holocaust could only have come about because of "centuries of Christian teaching and church-sanctioned action directed against the Jews simply because they were Jews. As Baptist Christians we are the inheritors of and, in our turn, have been the transmitters of a theology which lays the blame for the death of Jesus at the feet of the Jews...a theology which has valued conversion over dialogue, invective over understanding, and prejudice over knowledge...". They then confessed their sins of "of complicity...of silence...of indifference and inaction to the horrors of the Holocaust." Finally, they issues a series of reccomended actions that they asked all Christians to join them in, namely:

"Affirming the teaching of the Christian Scriptures that God has not rejected the community of Israel, God's covenant people (Romans 11:1-2), since 'the gifts and calling of God are irrevocable' (Romans 11:29);

Renouncing interpretations of Scripture which foster religious stereotyping and prejudice against the Jewish people and their faith;

Seeking genuine dialogue with the broader Jewish community, a dialogue built on mutual respect and the integrity of each other's faith;

Lifting our voices quickly and boldly against all expressions of anti-Semitism;

Educating ourselves and others on the history of Jewish-Christian relations from the first century to the present, so as to understand our present by learning from our past."

The United Church of Canada issued a statement in May 1998 entitled "Bearing Faithful Witness: United Church-Jewish Relations Today." This position paper goes further than most other liberal Christians groups, and calls upon Christians to:

Stop trying to convert Jews to Christianity; Reject Biblical interpretations which negatively stereotype Jews, as this leads to anti-Semitism; Reject the idea that Christianity is superior to, or a replacement for, Judaism; recognize that anti-Semitism is an element of historic Christianity, but not an inherent part of it - therefore one can remove it from Christianity and still remain faithful to Christianity.

Many smaller Christian groups in the US and Canada have come into being over the last 40 years, such as "Christians for Israel". Their website says that they exist in order to "expand Christian-Jewish dialogue in the broadest sense in order to improve the relationship between Christians and Jews, but also between Church and Synagogue, emphasizing Christian repentance, the purging of anti-Jewish attitudes and the false 'Replacement' theology rampant throughout Christian teachings."

A number of large Christian groups, including the Catholic Church and several large Protestant churches, have publicly declared that they will no longer proselytize Jews.

Note that most Christians, including most Orthodox Christians and most conservative Protestants, reject the idea of the New Testament as an extended covenant, and retain the traditional, classical Christian view as described above.

Muslim views

Classical Muslim views

Modern (post-enlightenment era) Muslim views

Intra-religious pluralism (between different denominations within the same religion)