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Attempted schisms in the Baháʼí Faith

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The Bahá'í Faith has had challenges to leadership at the death of every head of the religion. The majority of Bahá'ís have followed a line of authority from Bahá'u'lláh to `Abdu'l-Bahá to Shoghi Effendi to the Custodians to the Universal House of Justice. Divergences from this line of leadership have had relatively little success, and today represent less than 1 percent of the followers of Bahá'u'lláh.

Because the Bahá'í scriptures define a Covenant regarding succession which is intended to keep the Bahá'ís unified, challenges to legitimate succession are seen as very harmful. Unsuccessful claimants have been expelled as Covenant-breakers, though such claimants sometimes define the successful claimant in the same way, and the followers of each are required to shun the other, according to the Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá. Bahá'í divisions deals with the various succession challenges in the history of these religions, and the major arguments on each side.

A separate entry discusses the Bahá'í/Bábí split.

`Abdu'l-Bahá and Mírzá Muhammad `Alí's Schism

Bahá'u'lláh remained in the Akka-Haifa area house arrest until his death in 1892. According to the terms of his will, his eldest son `Abdu'l-Bahá was named the centre of authority; Mírzá Muhammad `Alí, the eldest son from Bahá'u'lláh's second marriage was assigned an inferior position.

The Will of the divine Testator is this: It is incumbent upon the Aghsán, the Afnán and My Kindred to turn, one and all, their faces towards the Most Mighty Branch. Consider that which We have revealed in Our Most Holy Book: 'When the ocean of My presence hath ebbed and the Book of My Revelation is ended, turn your faces toward Him Whom God hath purposed, Who hath branched from this Ancient Root.' The object of this sacred verse is none other except the Most Mighty Branch [`Abdu'l-Bahá]. Thus have We graciously revealed unto you Our potent Will, and I am verily the Gracious, the All-Powerful. Verily God hath ordained the station of the Greater Branch [Muhammad Ali] to be beneath that of the Most Great Branch [`Abdu'l-Bahá]. He is in truth the Ordainer, the All-Wise. We have chosen 'the Greater' after 'the Most Great', as decreed by Him Who is the All-Knowing, the All-Informed.
(Tablets of Bahá'u'lláh, p. 221)

In fulfilment of his role as Centre of the Covenant, `Abdu'l-Bahá asserted absolute leadership. Soon Muhammad 'Ali complained that `Abdu'l-Bahá was not sharing authority and started working against his elder brother. Most members of the families of Bahá'u'lláh's second and third wives supported Muhammad `Alí but there were very few outside of Haifa who followed him. Muhammad 'Ali's supporters called themselves "Unitarian Bahá'ís" but no permanent schism was created. Muhammad 'Ali was plotting to have `Abdu'l-Bahá hanged for treason against the Ottoman authorities in 1918. According to Shoghi Effendi, `Abdu'l-Bahá was due to be hung on Mount Carmel near Haifa, but upon hearing of his death warrant, Lord Curzon pressured the British Cabinet to quickly capture the Haifa region from the Ottomans, and thereby rescued `Abdu'l-Bahá.

When `Abdu'l-Bahá died, his will went into great detail about how Muhammad-'Alí had been unfaithful to the Covenant, labelling him a Covenant-breaker, and appointing Shoghi Effendi as leader of the Faith instead, with the title of Guardian. Much of `Abdu'l-Bahá's argument centred around Muhammad `Alí's apparently jealous nature and inability to remain submissive to `Abdu'l-Bahá, the designated leader of the religion. Here he first used the term Covenant-breaker and excommunicated members of Bahá'u'lláh's second and third wives' families. Whole books within Bahá'í literature have been printed to refute the claims of Muhammad-'Alí. This represented what is often described as the most testing time for the Bahá'í Faith.

The schism caused by Muhammad 'Ali does not exist anymore. In the Akka area, the followers of Muhammad-Ali have been reduced to at most six families who have no common organized religious activities.[1] (Cohen)

Shoghi Effendi as Guardian of the Faith

Appointment

At 24, Shoghi Effendi was particularly young when he assumed leadership of the religion in 1921, as provided for by `Abdu'l-Bahá in his Will and Testament. He had received a Western education at the American University of Beirut and later at Balliol College, Oxford. Aside from the opposition of Muhammad-'Alí's group, there were no challenges to his authority before 1932 when his great aunt, Bahiyyih Khanum died; she was greatly respected and had instructed all to follow Shoghi Effendi. Moreover, `Abdu'l-Bahá had written in his Will and Testament, "For he is, after `Abdu'l-Bahá, the Guardian of the Cause of God, the Afnan, the Hands (pillars) of the Cause and the beloved of the Lord must obey him and turn unto him...."

Family Members Expelled

Main article: Covenant-breaking in Shoghi Effendi's immediate family

However, some family members disapproved of his marriage to a Westerner in 1937, Mary Maxwell, the daughter of one of the foremost disciples of `Abdu'l-Bahá. They claimed that Shoghi Effendi introduced innovations beyond the Iranian roots of the Faith. This gradually resulted in his siblings and cousins disobeying Shoghi Effendi's instructions and marrying into the families of Covenant-breakers, many of whom were expelled as Covenant-breakers themselves. However, these disagreements within Shoghi Effendi's family resulted in no attempts to create a schism around an alternative leader.

American Disputes

Another division occurred primarily within the American Bahá'í community, which increasingly consisted of non-Persians with an interest in alternative spiritual pursuits. Many had been attracted by the spiritual teachings of the Bahá'í Faith or regarded it as an ecumenical society to which all persons of goodwill--regardless of religion--might join (and indeed were already secretly members). When Shoghi Effendi made clear his position that the Bahá'í Faith was an independent religion with its own distinct administration through local and national spiritual assemblies, some felt that he had overstepped the bounds of his authority. Most prominent among them was a New York Bahá'í group called the "New History Society," which heard lectures by such luminaries as Albert Einstein and Helen Keller. Shoghi Effendi expelled its leaders as Covenant-breakers. Although they argued that his act was meaningless because the Faith could not be institutionalized, Bahá'ís would argue that obedience to the head of the Faith is one of the requirements of the Covenant of Bahá'u'lláh. This subgroup is also extinct.

The founding of Universal House of Justice and Mason Remey's claim to Guardianship

Passing of Shoghi Effendi

When Shoghi Effendi passed away in 1957, he left no will, and had not explicitly appointed a successor Guardian. The Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá cautioned the Bahá'ís to avoid the troubles that had accompanied his father's passing, stipulated the criteria and form for selecting future Guardians, and specfied the authority of the Hands of the Cause.

Beware, beware, lest the days after the ascension (of Bahá'u'lláh) be repeated when the Center of Sedition (Muhammad 'Alí) waxed haughty and rebellious and with Divine Unity for his excuse deprived himself and perturbed and poisoned others. No doubt every vainglorious one that purposeth dissension and discord will not openly declare his evil purposes, nay rather, even as impure gold, will he seize upon divers measures and various pretexts that he may separate the gathering of the people of Bahá. My object is to show that the Hands of the Cause of God must be ever watchful and so soon as they find anyone beginning to oppose and protest against the Guardian of the Cause of God, cast him out from the congregation of the people of Bahá and in no wise accept any excuse from him. How often hath grievous error been disguised in the garb of truth, that it might sow the seeds of doubt in the hearts of men!
O ye beloved of the Lord! It is incumbent upon the Guardian of the Cause of God to appoint in his own life-time him that shall become his successor, that differences may not arise after his passing. He that is appointed must manifest in himself detachment from all worldly things, must be the essence of purity, must show in himself the fear of God, knowledge, wisdom and learning. Thus, should the first-born of the Guardian of the Cause of God not manifest in himself the truth of the words: -- "The child is the secret essence of its sire," that is, should he not inherit of the spiritual within him (the Guardian of the Cause of God) and his glorious lineage not be matched with a goodly character, then must he, (the Guardian of the Cause of God) choose another branch to succeed him.
The Hands of the Cause of God must elect from their own number nine persons that shall at all times be occupied in the important services in the work of the Guardian of the Cause of God. The election of these nine must be carried either unanimously or by majority from the company of the Hands of the Cause of God and these, whether unanimously or by a majority vote, must give their assent to the choice of the one whom the Guardian of the Cause of God hath chosen as his successor. This assent must be given in such wise as the assenting and dissenting voices may not be distinguished (i.e., secret ballot).
...Should any, within or without the company of the Hands of the Cause of God disobey and seek division, the wrath of God and His vengeance will be upon him, for he will have caused a breach in the true Faith of God.
(`Abdu'l-Bahá, The Will and Testament, p. 12)

As Shoghi Effendi had no children, and all other living male descendants of Bahá'u'lláh (Aghsan) had been expelled as covenant-breakers, the Hands of the Cause felt it impossible to legitimately recognize and assent to a successor. The Bahá'í community was in a situation not dealt with in the provisions of the Will and Testament of `Abdu'l-Bahá. Furthermore, the Bahá'í institution authrorized to decide on matters not covered by the sacred text had not yet been elected. This apparent ambiguity resulted in the first serious challenge to the Covenant since the passing of `Abdu'l-Bahá. The different views on this are described in the following sections.

Role of the Hands of the Cause

Main article: Hands of the Cause of God

The Hands of the Cause (Hands) signed a unanimous proclamation on November 25, 1957, shortly after the passing of Shoghi Effendi, stating that he had passed away without naming a successor; and that the executive authority of the Guardian would be assumed by nine Hands elected to assist the Guardian according to the Will and Testament of `Abdul-Bahá. This body of nine Hands became known as the Custodians. (See the specific provisions of the Will and Testament of `Abdul-Bahá, p.12, and the full text of the proclamation, Ministry of the Custodians, p. 28.)

That same day the Hands passed a unanimous resolution that clarifying who would have authority over various executive areas. Among these were:

  • "That the entire body of the Hands of the Cause, ... shall determine when and how the International Bahá'í Council shall pass through the successive stages outlined by Shoghi Effendi culminating in the election of the Universal House of Justice"
  • "That the authority to expel violators from the Faith shall be vested in the body of nine Hands [The Custodians.], acting on reports and recommendations submitted by Hands from their respective continents."

(See full text, Ministry of the Custodians, p. 34.)

In the Custodians' deliberations following Shoghi Effendi's passing they determined that they were not in a position to appoint a successor, only to ratify one, so they advised the Bahá'í community that the Universal House of Justice would consider the matter after it was established per the goals of the Ten Year Crusade.

Upon the election of the Universal House of Justice in 1963 (the ending point of Shoghi Effendi's ten-year plan) the Custodians closed their office and turned to the House. (Ministry of the Custodians, p. 433)

Mason Remey

Main article: Mason Remey

In 1960, Mason Remey publically proclaimed that he was the second Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, by virtue of having been appointed in 1951 by Shoghi Effendi to the post of President of the first International Bahá'í Council which was described by Shoghi Effendi as the "embryonic Universal House of Justice". Mason Remey's reasoning was that since, according to Bahá'í scripture, a Guardian leads the Universal House of Justice, Shoghi Effendi was appointing Mason Remey to be the future Guardian. Remey referred to letters and public statements of `Abdu'l-Bahá calling him "my son" as evidence that he had been implicitly adopted fulfilling the requirement that Guardians should be appointed from male descendants of Bahá'u'lláh, of which Remey was not biologically.

Citing the Will and Testament of `Abdul-Bahá, and the unanimous joint resolutions of November 25, 1957, as their authority, along with the fact that Remey was not a physical descentant of Bahá'u'lláh as the Bahá'í scriptures required, the Hands of the Cause expelled Mason Remey and his small group of followers for Covenant-breaking. In Remey's Proclamation as the second Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, he countered that the Hands of the Cause had no authority to "seize the helm of their Faith", but that their only function was to serve the Guardian. He declared that what the Hands had done after the passing of Shoghi Effendi was Covenant-breaking, and that all those who went along with them would be considered Covenant-breakers as well.

Remey went on to establish what came to be known as the Orthodox Bahá'ís Under the Hereditary Guardianship, which later broke into several other divisions based on succession within the group that followed Remey.

Decision of the Universal House of Justice

Main article: Universal House of Justice

With the exception of Remey's followers, the worldwide Bahá'í community pledged their loyalty to the Hands of the Cause, who dedicated the next few years to completing Shoghi Effendi's Ten Year Crusade, ending in 1963. It was to culminate in the establishment of the Universal House of Justice as the supreme elected body of the Bahá'í community.

After its election in 1963, the Custodians officially passed off their authority as the head of the Faith to the Universal House of Justice, which soon announced that it could not legislate to make possible the appointment of a successor to Shoghi Effendi.

"After prayerful and careful study of the Holy Texts... and after prolonged consideration of the views of the Hands of the Cause of God residing in the Holy Land, the Universal House of Justice finds that there is no way to appoint or to legislate to make it possible to appoint a second Guardian to succeed Shoghi Effendi."
(The Universal House of Justice, Messages 1963 to 1986, p. 14)

A few years later it elaborated on the situation:

"This situation, in which the Guardian died without being able to appoint a successor, presented an obscure question not covered by the explicit Holy Text, and had to be referred to the Universal House of Justice. The friends should clearly understand that before the election of the Universal House of Justice there was no knowledge that there would be no Guardian. There could not have been any such foreknowledge, whatever opinions individual believers may have held. Neither the Hands of the Cause of God, nor the International Bahá'í Council, nor any other existing body could make a decision upon this all-important matter. Only the House of Justice had authority to pronounce upon it."
(The Universal House of Justice, 1965 Mar 09, Appointment of Guardian)

Further development of Remey's followers

Among the Bahá'ís who accepted Mason Remey as the second Guardian, several further divisions have occurred, some of which are described below. The Universal House of Justice published this document covering what happened to these groups. The Encyclopædia Iranica reports the following:

"Remey died in 1974, having appointed a third Guardian, but the number of adherents to the Orthodox faction remains extremely small. Although successful in Pakistan, the Remeyites seem to have attracted no followers in Iran. Other small groups have broken away from the main body from time to time, but none of these has attracted a sizeable following."
(Denis M. MacEoin, Encyclopædia Iranica , p. 448, (link))

Orthodox Bahá'í Faith

Main article: Orthodox Bahá'í Faith

Orthodox Bahá'ís accept Joel Bray Marangella as the Third Guardian; and believe he was the successor of Charles Mason Remey.

Joel B. Marangella had been President of the National Spiritual Assembly of France in 1961, which was the only NSA to accept Remey as the Second Guardian. When this happened, the Custodians declared certain members of the NSA of France to be covenant-breakers, and sent one of the Hands to change the locks on the French National Bahá'í Center. The Custodians were able to gain control of the National Bahá'í Center; including the funds and mailing lists, and the great majority of French Bahá'ís sided with the Custodians. Donald Harvey and Jacques Soghomonian were amongst the members of the NSA of France declared as covenant-breakers by the Hands of the Cause.

After Charles Mason Remey made his proclamation he appointed a second International Bahá'í Council; with Joel Bray Marangella as President, and 8 vice presidents. Remey insisted that these members not meet in the same city, nor be on the same airplane, at the same time; for fear that if something happened the line of Guardians would cease. In 1962 Remey gave Marangella a sealed envelope, with instructions to open it when the time was right. In 1965 Mason Remey called for the Council to become active. Marangella then openned the sealed letter, which was a hand-written note by Mason appointing Marangella as his successor. Marangella looks upon that time as the time of his official appointment. Remey then changed his mind and deactivated the International Bahá'í Council. Remey's behavior became very disjointed after that time; with some of his followers (including Marangella) concluding that Remey had gone senile. In 1967 Remey appointed Donald Harvey as his successor; without excommunicating Marangella. Marangella proclaimed himself the Third Guardian in 1969; saying that Remey was no longer mentally able to fuction as Guardian. He also claimed that when Remey activated the Coucil he ceased to be the Guardian at that moment, since, Marangella claimed, there couldn't be two Guardians alive at the same time. Remey did not relinquish his title as Guardian, but he did not "declare" Marangella a covenant-breaker either.

The Orthodox Bahá'í Community under the leadership of Marangella continues today with an estimated 1000 members worldwide, although its leadership does not publish membership data. Almost all reside in the U.S. and India.

Bahá'ís Under the Provisions of the Covenant

Main article: Bahá'ís Under the Provisions of the Covenant

Dr. Leland Jensen claimed that Remey's adopted son Joseph Pepe Remey was the only valid appointment of Remey's, since niether of his other two appointees were sons. He went on to form his own group, the Bahá'ís Under the Provisions of the Covenant (BUPC).

In 1963 Remey set up a National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of the United States, which lost several legal battles for naming rights[2] became known as the "National Assembly... under the Hereditary Guardianship". Among the members elected to the National Assembly were Leland Jensen and Reginald King, who both went on to develop groups of their own based on their individual beliefs regarding succession of leadership. After the dissolving of their National Assembly in 1964, Jensen moved to Missoula, Montana. In 1969 he was convicted of a "lewd and lascivious act" against a 14 year old female patient he was treating, and served 4 of a 20 year sentence in the Montana State Prison.

It was in prison that Jensen claimed to be visited by an angel, and converted several dozen inmates to his ideas of being the "Establisher" of the Bahá'í Faith. According to Jenson, this title signified a status higher than that of the Guardian, but lower than a Manifestation of God. After the death of Remey he founded the BUPC, whose specific beliefs include natural and manmade disasters predicted in the Bible, prophecies he believed were encoded in the Great Pyramid of Giza, and that the Guardians could only be from Bahá'u'lláh's lineage of King David.

Jensen established the Second International Bahá'í Council (sIBC) in 1991. Believing Pepe Remey was the third Guardian, he invited him to be its president, which Pepe declined, and a long series of debates ensued. After the death of Jensen in 1996 the leadership of the BUPC passed to the council with Neal Chase as its President, who now claims to be the fourth Guardian. Chase announced in 2001 that he had received private letters from Pepe, before his death in 1994, indicating that he (Pepe) acknowledged being the third Guardian, and that he was adopting and appointing Chase to be the next Guardian.

This action caused a schism in the BUPC in 2001 following Chase's proclamation that he was the Third Aghsan Guardian of the Baha'i Faith, and his subsequent claim to the Presidency of the Second International Bahá'í Council (sIBC). The sIBC, filed a complaint in District Court of Missoula, MT, against Chase. The complaint alleged Chase used corporate property for his own use, including funds on deposit in the corporation’s bank account. Chase made a motion for summary judgement to dismiss the case. In 2003, the District Court approved summary judgement deeming that it lacked the authority to inquire into, interpret, and apply religious doctrine. This summary judgment was over-turned by the Montana Supreme Court and remanded to the District Court for trial. (See the Montana Supreme Court decision.)

Membership data is not published by the BUPC leadership. Most are known to reside in Montana, Alaska, and Colorado. The highest estimate gives them at "1,000 or so".[3]

Tarbiyat Bahá'í Community

The Orthodox Bahá'í Faith Under the Regency was founded by Reginald King, who was a very successful Bahá'í teacher who had converted hundreds to the Faith and became a "Knight of Bahá'u'lláh". When Remey declared himself the Second Guardian in 1960, King accepted him, and was elected to become the first Secretary of the National Assembly set up by Remey in 1963

After conflicts with several of Remey's followers, including Marangella, King decided that "neither Mason Remey nor Joel Marangella had in truth ever been guardians... because of the lack of lineal descendancy". What Remey had actually been, King said, was "a regent", and King came to the realization that he himself "was in actuality the Second Regent...." King's argument was that Remey was senile in old age and didn't know what he was doing. Following his death in 1977, King left leadership of the community to a Council of Regents, who reorganized as the Tarbiyat Bahá'í Community.

The Regency Bahá'ís do not claim the authority to declare Covenant-breakers, so they try to freely associate with other Bahá'ís. The Council of Regents, which consists of King's family, tries to "maintain the integrity of the Cause of Bahá'u'lláh until such time as the Second Guardian makes himself known and claims his rightful office."[4] They also still maintain that "the Faith will never be permanently split into factions or denominations as has happened in all previous religions", with an emphasis on permanently. Membership figures are not published for the Tarbiyat Bahá'í Community. They appear to be restricted to a single community in Las Vegas, New Mexico.

The Remey Society

The Charles Mason Remey Society followed Donald Harvey as the 'third Guardian'. In 1967 Charles Mason Remey appointed Donald Harvey as his successor to the Guardianship. Remey did not bother to defrock or expel Joel Bray Marangella; whom he had appointed his successor in 1961. This caused confusion. It is possible that Remey wanted two lines of Guardians as an added assurance for the continuation of the Guardianship. Most of Remey's followers supported Joel Bray Marangella. After Remey's death Donald Harvey refused to organize his followers; which caused many of them to return to the mainstream Bahá'í Faith or join the Orthodox Bahá'í Faith under Marangella.

Francis Spataro of New York City, a supporter of Harvey, independently organized "The Remey Society". Spataro published books about Charles Mason Remey, and at one time had a newsletter with about 400 recipients. But Spataro began to preach that Charles Mason Remey was a "Prophet"; this was blasphemous to Bahá'ís, and Harvey then cut all ties to Spataro, who continued to promote the life and works of Charles Mason Remey. In 1995 Francis Spataro became an Old Catholic priest and left the Bahá'í religion altogether. The Remey Society no longer exists.

The Man

The House of Mankind and the Universal Palace of Order followed Jamshid Ma'ani and John Carré, but appear now to be defunct. In the early 1970s a Persian man named Jamshid Ma'ani claimed he was "The Man"; or a new Manifestation of God. He gained a few dozen Iranian Bahá'í followers. John Carré heard of Jamshid, and wrote a book about him; trying to get other Bahá'ís to accept him as a new Manifestation. Carré even invited "The Man" to live in his home in California, but soon concluded, after living with "The Man" for four months, that "The Man" was not at all godly or spiritual and certainly not a Manifestation of God. "The Man" went back to Iran, and Carré ended all association with him. Carré then continued as an "independent Bahá'í" and eventually wrote a book that proclaimed a new Bahá'í Prophet (minor prophet but not a Manifestation) would arise in the year 2001. A Bahá'í from North Carolina named Eric Stetsen wrote an online book in the same style of Bahá'u'lláh; proclaiming (in 2001) that he was that "Prophet". However, Stetson concluded about a year of so later that he was not a "Prophet" and that he had been mistaken about the Bahá'í Faith. Stetson lost faith in Bahá'u'lláh, and became a born-again Christian. A copy of Carré's book outlining his belief that all the disputes regarding the Guardianship were wrong and that a new prophet would arise in America in 2001 can be found at the following site run by an ex-Bahá'í [5].

Bahá'í Loyal to the Fouth Guardian

After Harvey's death in 1991, leadership devolved to Jacques Soghomonian of France. There are several dozen followers of Jacques Soghomonian throughout the world; mostly in the U.S., who believed he is the Fourth Guardian; since he was the chosen successor of Donald Harvey. However, Soghomonian has resisted efforts by his small band of followers to organize or to actively proselytize. Soghomonian apparently believes that the mainstream Bahá'í Faith will one day "see the light" and reinstate the Guardianship with himself or (more likely) one of his successors as Guardian; and thus there is no need for two competing organizations. Soghomonian believes that organization is not important, but what is important is to assure that the Guardianship continues, and thus the living Guardian needs only one follower (to act as successor) to continue the line of Guardians who shall one day, perhaps far in the future, return to Head the Bahá'í Faith worldwide. Soghomonian's most active and prolific follower seems to be Brent Reed; a former member of the Orthodox Bahá'í Faith who left the group to follow Soghomonian. Reed manages the Heart of the Bahá'í Faith newsgroup online. Although the followers of Jacques Soghomonian have no formal organization, Brent Reed has coined the name "Bahá'ís Loyal to the Fourth Guardian, Jacques Soghomonian".

Independent Bahá'ís

There are individuals who call themselves "Bahá'í" but who do not belong to any organization. They usually refer to themselves as "Unenrolled Bahá'ís" (one must "enroll" to become a member of the mainstream Bahá'í Community) or the "Independent Bahá'ís". These are individuals who feel that the administrative order led by the House of Justice is too coercive, or too fundamentalist. Independent Bahá'ís believe that to be a "Bahá'í" does not mean one has to agree with the administration.

Conclusion

One key Bahá'í doctrine is that the Faith cannot break into sects, Bahá'u'lláh having gone to some trouble to guard against the possibility. An obvious question then arises concerning the divisions described on this page.

The generality of Bahá'ís tend to point out that, while small groups or individuals have left the Faith, or been told to leave, these have generally not been as successful attracting followers, or had as widespread effect, as the mainstream Bahá'í community. Indeed, they assert, the vast majority of such schismatic groups are already extinct and those remaining have few followers, especially when contrasted with the Bahá'í Faith's adherents, now numbering about seven million. Members of many of the smaller groups described here have a similar view, seeing the Faith as experiencing a temporary division which will certainly be healed, though their beliefs on the manner of its resolution varies. Outright opponents of the Bahá'í Faith have, on the other hand, latched on to the divisions described on this page as evidence of the falsehood of Bahá'í claims and beliefs.

The views listed above notwithstanding, the activity of the various smaller Bahá'í sects causes no apparent change to the internal and external activities of the larger group. By contrast, the external activities of the smaller groups seem strongly oriented (with some recent exception) around the fact and meaning of the schisms that defined the separate community. This is undersandable and is often the case in communities with a large majority and several smaller minorities. The secure majority simply pays less attention, since the division is not present and visible in their immediate context. Given the Bahá'í doctrine on avoiding contact with Covenant-Breakers, mainstream Bahá'ís simply do not interact with the minority groups.

By any current measurement of the population of these groups, some 99.99% or more are members of the Bahá'í community led by the Universal House of Justice in Haifa. That community and its institutions are recognized by most nations and the United Nations, and other churches. While such a fact does not resolve the actual question of technical legitimacy, it provides the mainstream Bahá'í community with a credibility. In short, the Bahá'í community is seen by the wider community to be intact despite the divisions described here.

Internet-based activists' conflict with institutional Bahá'í authorities

During the late 1980's and early 1990's, a certain friction developed between liberal Bahá'ís--among them several respected scholars of Middle Eastern Studies--and the national institutions in the United States and Canada. This process may be said to have begun in 1980 when British academic Dr. Denis MacEoin, who had recently completed a PhD thesis on Babism, left the movement. He expressed concern of a totalitarianism, bias and inaccuracy in Bahá'í historical texts, and lack of freedom of speech and publication in the Bahá'í Faith. He later published several books and numerous articles on Bábí and Bahá'í history and texts, many of them critical of the standard of scholarship among Bahá'ís. MacEoin has maintained a wholly secular identity since departing Bahá'ísm, but from time to time contributes articles to historical and other debates.

Some later activists (academics and non-academics) argued for various reforms including allowing women to serve on the Universal House of Justice; allowing candidates to stand for election (the current system forbids nomination, campaigning, and discussion of individual personalities); and putting an end to the current requirement of publication review (under which any Bahá'í who wishes to publish on the faith must first seek permission from their national Bahá'í committee). The House of Justice has declared that it is not yet time to drop `Abdu'l-Bahá's institution of the pre-publication review process, which was continued by Shoghi Effendi. It has also emphasized that there is no way that the scriptural exclusion of women from the House of Justice can be altered by any Bahá'í agency.

An internet mailing list, Talisman came about in the mid-90s as a forum for discussion of once taboo issues, whether historical or political. This led to arguments about whether posting on the internet constituted "publication" for purposes of the review requirement. The House of Justice has ruled that it does not, but many adherents were upset by the ideas being presented. In spring 1996, the House of Justice launched an investigation into six of the most prominent of these intellectual posters, including Juan Cole, Professor of History at the University of Michigan. In the course of the investigation, they were warned that if they did not cease promoting their ideas, they would be "in direct conflict with the Covenant".[6] Four of them resigned their membership in the Bahá'í Faith, and Cole, in particular, became an outspoken critic of the Bahá'í administration and of individuals that were involved in the investigation. Some sympathizers who felt that it was an unwarranted intrusion into individual conscience also resigned.

Some of those who have either resigned or been removed from the rolls as a result of this conflict have maintained a Bahá'í identity in spite of their lack of official membership, calling themselves "unenrolled Bahá'ís". While they do not constitute an organized splinter group, they do represent an alternative form of adherence from the mainstream. The Universal House of Justice does not recognize them as being either Bahá'ís or covenant-breakers, regarding them simply as non-Bahá'ís. As such they are not subject to shunning.

In other internet forums, some of the dissidents chafed under the restrictions of a moderated discussion format. After campaigning for the formation of a non-moderated Bahá'í forum at Usenet (talk.religion.bahai), and several years posting messages critical of the mainstream Bahá'ís Frederick Glaysher announced that he was forming The Reform Bahá'í Faith[7] in August 2004. He sent a post to talk.religion.bahai entitled "The 95 Theses of the Reform Bahá'í Faith", modelled on Martin Luther's declaration for reform of the Catholic Church which eventually lead to the formation of Protestant Christian denominations. He now claims members in five countries and in each time zone of the United States, though this has not been independently validated.

In 2000 Alison Marshall was expelled from the New Zealand Bahá'í community, and she wrote about the situation relating to her expulsion on her webpage. Other people who left or disenrolled include, John Walbridge and Linda Walbridge, both scholars of Middle Eastern Studies, and Michael McKenny, a children's book author. Sen McGlinn was disenrolled at the end of 2005, for remarks in a book where he made statements stating he was a Bahá'í theologian and regarding a future Bahá'í theocracy. The Bahá'í Faith does not recognizes that anyone can be a "Bahá'í theologian" and does not use the term.

References

  • Erik Cohen, The Bahá'í Community of Acre, Folklore Research Center Studies 3 (1972).
  • Amatu'l-Baha Ruhiyyih Khanum, The Ministry of the Custodians 1957-1963, World Centre Publications, ISBN: 0-85398-350-X
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