Quakers

The Religious Society of Friends (commonly known as Quakers or Friends) is a loose knit religious or spiritual movement founded in England in the 17th century by people who were dissatisfied with the existing denominations and sects of Christianity. Traditionally George Fox has been credited as the founder or the most important early figure. The Society of Friends is counted among the historic peace churches. Since its beginnings in England, Quakerism has spread to other countries, chiefly the United States, Kenya, and Bolivia. The number of Quakers in the world is relatively small (approximately 600,000), although there are places, such as Pennsylvania, particularly Philadelphia, in which Quaker influence is concentrated.

Unlike other groups that emerged from Christianity, the Religious Society of Friends has tended not to have a hierarchical structure, a creed, or paid clergy. Therefore, there are several branches of Friends, which can be roughly divided into two main groups—the unprogrammed tradition and the programmed tradition. The various branches have widely divergent beliefs and practices, but the central concept to many Friends, especially those from the unprogrammed tradition, may be the Inner Light or "that of God within". Some contemporary Friends speak of the Inner Light as a guiding force within each person, as part of the individual human personality, but early Friends beginning with George Fox identified the Light with Christ and emphasized that the Light comes from God and is given in order to show people how to live in harmony with God's will. ^[1]

Many Quakers feel their faith does not fall into the traditional categories of Catholic, Orthodox or Protestant, but rather it is an expression of another way to experience Christianity. Although Quakers throughout most of their history, and in most parts of the world today, have considered Quakerism to be a Christian movement, there are some Friends today (principally in the unprogrammed Meetings of the United States and the United Kingdom) who consider themselves atheist, universalist or who do not accept any religious label. This phenomenon has become increasingly evident during the latter half of the 20th century and the opening years of the 21st century, but it is still controversial and the subject of much discussion and debate among Friends.

Beliefs and practices of Friends

Experiencing God

George Fox and the other early Quaker preachers believed that direct experience of God was available to all people, without any mediation (e.g. through a pastor, or through outward sacraments). Fox described this by writing in his journal several times that "Christ was come to teach his people himself." ^[2]

Modern Friends, particularly from unprogrammed meetings, often express this belief by referring to "that of God in Everyone", "Inner light", "inward Christ", "the spirit of Christ within", and many other terms. Early Friends more often spoke of "Truth", "the Seed", "the Pure Principle", and similar terms and expected that each person would be transformed and Christ formed in them.

Since Friends believe that everyone contains "that of God" within, much of the Quaker perspective is based on trying to hear what God is saying and to allow the Spirit free action in the heart. Isaac Penington put it this way in 1670: "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing - to feel him my root, my life, my foundation..." ^[3]

Mysticism

Quakerism is often termed a mystical religion because of its emphasis on the personal experience of God, but it differs from other mystical religions in two important ways.

First, Quaker mysticism is primarily group-oriented rather than focused on the individual. The Friends' traditional meeting for worship (see Unprogrammed worship below) may be considered an expression of that group mysticism, where all the members of the meeting can together listen for "the Spirit" and, ideally the Spirit moves people to speak. Often disparate comments are later seen to be part of a larger theme or idea.

Second, Quaker mysticism includes a strong emphasis on its outwardly directed activism. Rather than seeking withdrawal from the world, the Quaker mystic translates his or her mysticism into action. Action, in turn, leads to greater spiritual understanding — both by individuals and by the Meeting as a whole.

The Bible

Early Friends believed that Christ, instead of the Bible, was the Word of God; for example, Robert Barclay wrote in this Apology that the scriptures "are only a declaration of the fountain, and not the fountain itself, therefore they are not to be esteemed the principal ground of all Truth and knowledge, nor yet the adequate primary rule of faith and manners" ^[4].

Early Friends did believe that Christ would never lead them in ways that contradicted the Bible, and so making the Bible subordinate to the spirit prevented conflicts between Friends' leadings and their understanding of the Bible.

As time passed, conflicts between what the Bible appeared to teach and how Friends believed they were being led by the Spirit began to arise. Some Friends decided that in these cases the Bible should be authoritative; for example, the Richmond Declaration of 1887 declared, among other things, that any action "contrary to the Scriptures, though under profession of the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, must be reckoned and accounted a mere delusion"^[5]. Today Evangelical Friends believe that the Bible is authoritative and that personal leadings are not true if they are contradictory to its teachings.

Other Friends, partly under the influence of movements such as liberal Protestantism, decided that it was possible to be truly led in ways contrary to scripture, and that in such cases scripture should give way. Still other Friends rejected (or began to neglect) the Christian Bible altogether; hence in many liberal (usually unprogrammed) Friends meetings one will encounter non-Christian Friends or those who question some of the traditional doctrines of traditional Christianity.

In nearly all cases, modern Friends believe in the necessity of being continually guided by God. Divine revelation is therefore not restricted to the Bible, but rather continues even today; this doctrine is known as continuing revelation.

Over time, a common set of beliefs emerged, which became known as testimonies. (see Testimonies for a list and description of them.) Although rooted in the immediate experience of the community of Friends, these Testimonies are based on what Friends believe are verified in the Bible, especially as described in the Gospels regarding the life and teachings of Jesus.

Creeds

Quakerism has generally had no creed. George Fox dismissed theologians as "notionists", and modern Quakerism is generally less concerned with theology than many other faiths^[6]. This lack of authoritative doctrines has resulted in a broad range of theologies from fundamentalist Christian to universalist.

Most Friends believe a formal creed would be an obstacle — both to authentic listening and to the recognition of new insight. On the other hand, some Friends have enumerated and subscribed to a set of doctrines, such as the Richmond Declaration discussed in the preceding section or the official doctrines of the Evangelical Friends International.

Sacraments

Early Friends did not believe in the practice of the outward rites and sacraments, believing that holiness can exist in all the activities of one's life—all of life is sacred. They experienced baptism by the Holy Spirit as an inward, transforming experience and knew communion with Christ in the midst of gathered worship in the expectant silence. Thus they did not perform baptism as a rite of membership, and their method of worship was considered unorthodox and heretical. Friends also believe that any meal with others can be a form of communion and therefore have no such rite in their worship.

Plainness

Friends have practiced "plainness" in their dress and outward appearance as well as in their speech.

Quakers wore plain clothes in order to address three concerns: the vanity and superiority associated with fanciness, the conformity associated with wearing the latest fashions, and the wastefulness of frequently buying new styles and other adornments. At one time this practice of plainness allowed other people to identify Friends easily. Many people are still familiar with the image of the Quaker man in a gray or brown suit with a flat broad-brimmed hat, and the Quaker woman in a plain dress and bonnet. The traditional forms of this practice were dropped by most Friends when many Friends felt that they had become vain about their dress despite their intentions. Some Friends continue the plain tradition in clothing and some in speech.

Plainness in speech addressed other concerns: honesty, class distinction, and vestiges of paganism. These principles were put into practice by affirming rather than swearing oaths, setting fixed prices for goods, avoiding the use of honorific titles, using numbers rather than names for the days of the week and the months of the year, and using familiar forms for the second person pronoun. The latter practice has resulted in a degree of confusion, since English speakers broadly abandoned familiar pronouns in the 18th and 19th century.

Like many aspects of Quaker life, the practice of plainness has evolved over time, although it is based on principles that have been a lasting part of Quaker thought. These principles are now part of the Testimonies of Simplicity, Equality, and Integrity.

Egalitarianism

For more information about Quaker Egalitarianism see Testimony of Equality

Early Quakerism included a strong sense of spiritual egalitarianism, including a belief in the spiritual equality of the sexes—remarkable for that time. Both women and men were granted equal authority to speak in meetings for worship. George Fox's wife, Margaret Fell, was as vocal and literate as her husband, publishing several tracts in Quakerism's early days.

Beliefs and practices regarding education

Friends favor modern education, as exemplified by their founding of many schools and colleges. Many Friends hold advanced degrees.

Oaths and fair-dealing

For more information on this topic see Testimony of Integrity

Early Friends believed that an important part of Jesus' message was how we treat our fellow human beings. They felt that honest dealing with others meant more than just not telling lies. Friends continue to believe that it is important not to mislead others, even if the words used are all technically truthful. Early Friends refused to swear oaths, even in courtrooms, believing that one must speak truth at all times, and the act of swearing to it implied otherwise. This doctrine is attributed to Jesus in Matthew 5.

Quaker terminology

Though the practices of plain dress and speech made them known as a "peculiar people", for the most part modern Quakers dress and speak in a manner indistinguishable from others^[7]. Some Friends do retain the use of "thou" and "thee" with other Friends. Friends also use certain distinctive terms when describing their theology and practices:

Birthright Friend: a historical term for those Friends born into families that are members of a Friends Meeting. (This is no longer officially recognized by most Friends.)
Clearness: a process undergone to discern rightness of action, similar to consensus (when applied to group decision-making), but guided, according to Quaker belief, by the Holy Spirit or Inner light. Friends often work with Clearness committees when struggling with a difficult issue.
Concern: Anyone may feel that they are called by God to serve in a special way. Friends consider carrying out a concern to be a form of ministry. Often there will be a meeting for clearness to test the concern after which the meeting may well support the person in their concern. Many well-known organisations, such as the American Friends Service Committee, Don't Make a Wave Committee (the predecessor organisation to Greenpeace), Oxfam and Amnesty International, have been founded by Friends ‘acting under concern’.
Convincement: the process of a non-Friend deciding to become a Friend.
Gathered Meeting: A meeting for worship, where those present feel that they were particularly in turn with the leadings of the Spirit.
Hold in the Light: think about, pray for, or hold special thoughts about another person.
I hope so: (British term) during a meeting for worship for business, when the clerk asks those present if they agree with a minute, Friends will usually say “I hope so” rather than “yes”. It is meant in the sense of “I hope that this is the true guidance of the Holy Spirit”.
Lay down: the action properly taken upon a committee that is no longer needed, i.e. you disband it.
Leading: a course of action that a Friend feels is divinely inspired.
Ministry: the act of speaking during a meeting for worship. (Many Friends use the term more broadly to mean living their testimonies in everyday life.)
Notion: An unfounded, unspiritual position. (Not so amongst British Friends)
Proceed as Way Opens: to undertake a service or course of action without prior clarity about all the details but with confidence that divine guidance will make these apparent and assure an appropriate outcome.
Recorded minister: A person whose vocal ministry (spoken contribution in meeting) - or another spiritual gift - is recognised as helpful and probably faithful to Divine leading, by the body of Friends to which they belong and formally recorded by that body. Not all Friends' organisations record ministers.
Right ordering: has to do with proper conduct of a meeting for business. The term is often used in the negative, that is, if someone senses that something about the conduct of the meeting is not proper, they may object that ‘this meeting is not in right ordering’.
Speaks to my condition or Friend speaks my mind: directly addresses my personal understanding.
That of God in everyone: the belief in the presence of God within all people. Also referred to as the Inner Light.
Weighty Friend: a Friend, often (though not always) older and experienced in various commitees, whose opinion or ministry is especially valued. Occasionally used as a derogatory term for a Friend who drowns out the views of others, or insists on giving input where it isn't needed.

Quaker worship

Friends treat all functions of the church as a form of worship, including business, marriage, and memorial services, in addition to regular worship services. There are two main styles of Quaker worship, programmed and unprogrammed.

Unprogrammed worship

Unprogrammed worship is the more traditional style of worship among Friends and remains the norm in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and parts of the United States. During an unprogrammed meeting for worship, Friends gather together in "expectant waiting" for divine leadings. Usually for most of the meeting they wait in silence. When a member feels led to share a message with the gathered meeting, they will generally rise and share (give "ministry").

Typically, messages, testimonies, ministry, or other speech are unprepared, and members are called on to discern the source of their inspiration—whether divine or self. Sometimes a meeting is entirely silent, sometimes quite a few people speak. Generally meeting for worship lasts about an hour (although it can be shorter or longer depending on the group gathered).

Unprogrammed worship is generally deemed to start as soon as the first participant is seated, the others entering the room in silence. The Meeting for Worship ends when a usually predetermined person (generally an "elder") shakes the hand of his or her neighbor. All the members of the assembly then shake hands with their neighbors, after which one member (often the "clerk") usually rises and extends greetings and makes announcements. Many meetings serve coffee or tea after meeting, which gives everyone an opportunity to catch up with friends and chat with visitors.

Programmed worship

Programmed worship arose among Friends in the United States in the 19th century in response to large numbers of converts to Quakerism during the national spiritual revivalism of the time. Worship at a Friends Church resembles a typical Protestant worship service in the United States. Typically there are readings from scripture, hymns, and a sermon from the pastor. A period of silence is also included in most Programmed Friends worship services. Most Friends in the southern and central United States worship in this way.

The Friends churches started in Africa were generally started by Friends from programmed elements of the society, therefore most African Friends worship in a programmed style.

Some Friends also hold what is termed Semi-Programmed Worship, which brings programmed elements like hymns and scripture readings into an otherwise unprogrammed worship service.

While the different styles of worship generally reflect the theological splits within US Quakerism, with unprogrammed meetings generally being more theologically liberal and programmed Friends churches more theologically conservative, this is not a strict rule.

Quaker weddings

See main article on Quaker weddings.

Traditionally in a Friends Meeting when a couple decides to get married they declare their intentions to marry to the meeting. A traditional wedding ceremony in a Friends meeting is similar to any other unprogrammed Meeting for Worship, and therefore are often very different from the experience expected by non-Friends. There is no priest or high official to conduct the ceremony and sanction the union. The pair marry one another before God and gathered witnesses.

In recent years Friends in Australia, Britain and some meetings in North America have celebrated weddings between members of the same sex.

Decision making among Friends

A business meeting being held at Britain Yearly Meeting 2005 in York University

Business decisions on a local level are conducted at a monthly "Meeting for Worship with a concern for business", or simply "business meeting". A meeting for business is a form of worship, and all decisions are reached so that they are consistent with the guidance of the Spirit (called "unity" or "sense of the meeting").

There is no voting. Instead, the Business Meeting attempts to gain a sense of God's will for the community. Each member of the meeting is expected to listen to that of God within themselves and, when led, to contribute it to the group for reflection and consideration. Each member listens to others' contributions carefully.

A decision is reached when the meeting as a whole feels that the "way forward" has been discerned. Occasionally, some members of the Meeting will "stand aside" on an issue, meaning that these members do not share in the general sense of unity but are willing to allow the group to move forward. In still other cases a meeting may reach a sense of unity notwithstanding that some members remain opposed, although the meeting would proceed only after considerable time was spent in discernment to ensure that the concerns of the dissenting members have been heard and the sense of the meeting is clear.

The business procedure of Friends can seem impractical. While the process can be frustrating and slow, at its best it works very well. By the time a decision is made, all the issues have been worked out and the group is ready to implement the decision. Making decisions by the sense of the meeting has been a centerpiece of the Religious Society of Friends for over 350 years, at times seeing them through extremely difficult decisions. Quaker-style decision making has been adapted for use in secular settings in recent years (see Consensus decision-making).

Memorial services

Quaker memorial services are also held as a form of worship. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the person who has died. Memorial services often last over an hour, particularly if there are a large number of people in attendance. Memorial services give everyone a chance to remember the lost individual in their own way, thus bringing comfort to those present. Many Quaker meetings remind families of the testimonies related to "plainness" in the context of choosing a grave marker.

Basic divisions and organization

Like many movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into various smaller subgroups. It is difficult to describe the Religious Society of Friends without making numerous qualifications and listing exceptions.

In Great Britain

In Britain there has been a high level of organizational unity throughout the history of the Society. The local Friends meetings there are called preparative meetings. Several local meetings are part of a monthly meeting. Several monthly meetings are organized into a general meeting. Formerly, general meetings were called quarterly meetings, and, while they continue to meet up to three times per year, they usually play no direct role in Quaker structures. Monthly meetings are represented directly in Meeting for Sufferings, which meets in between Yearly meetings. (For further information, see Quaker Faith and Practice, published by Britain Yearly Meeting.)

In the United States

Friends in the United States are more divided, although they are still united by many common bonds. Along with the division of worship style come several differences of theology and vocabulary.

A local congregation in the unprogrammed tradition is called a meeting, or a monthly meeting (e.g., Smalltown Meeting or Smalltown Monthly Meeting). Since there is no paid pastor, although various committees and individuals may be appointed to fulfill important duties typically handled by pastors in other settings. These people are often called "ministry and oversight committee", "ministry and counsel committee", "elders", or "overseers." Usually a "clerk" is appointed, who is responsible for many of the administrative and coordination duties. Several local monthly meetings are part of a regional group called a quarterly meeting, which is usually part of an even larger group called a yearly meeting.

In programmed traditions, the local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches". Most Yearly meeting that are made up of programmed churches do not include a Quarterly Meeting as part of their organization.

Names

George Fox played an important part in founding the Religious Society of Friends

Various names have been used for the Friends movement and its adherents. These include:

Children of the light
Friends
Friends of the Truth
Quakers
Religious Society of Friends
Saints
Seekers
Society of Friends

In the first few years of the movement, Quakers thought of themselves as part of the restoration of the true Christian church after centuries of apostasy. For this reason, during this period they often referred to themselves as simply the "saints" or the "children of light". Another common name was "Friends of the Truth", reflecting the central importance in early Quaker theology of Christ as an Inner light that shows you your true condition.

The name "Quaker" was first used in 1650, when preacher George Fox was brought before Justice Bennet of Derby on a charge of blasphemy. According to Fox's journal, Bennet "called us Quakers because we bid them tremble at the word of God."^[8] Indeed, early Friends did tremble and shake at their meetings, and spent many pamphlets defending "quaking" as a biblical phenomenon. Some Friends (including Fox) disliked the name, but it began to stick nonetheless. There was apparently an attempt after a 1654 meeting in Leicestershire to become known as the "children of light", but this was not successful.

The name "Religious Society of Friends" came many years later, in the 18th century. This remains the official name to this day, although often "Quakers" is added in parentheses for the sake of clarity. Also, there are some Friends, usually in unprogrammed meetings, who object to the word "religious" and refer to themselves as part of the "Society of Friends". There are some monthly meetings that for this reason do not include "religious" in their name, while most larger Quaker organizations, such as yearly meetings, use the full name.

History

The Quakers began in England in the early 1650s, as a Nonconformist breakaway movement from Anglicanism. As the movement expanded, it faced opposition and persecution. Quakers were imprisoned and beaten in both the British Isles and the British colonies. In the Massachusetts Bay colony, Quakers were banished on pain of death--some Quakers (most famously Mary Dyer) were put to death for returning to preach their beliefs. Quakers were effectively banned from sitting in Parliament at Westminster from 1698-1833. The state of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, as a safe place for Quakers to live and practice their faith. Despite persecution, the movement grew steadily into a strong and united society.

During the 19th century Friends in Ireland and the United States suffered a number of separations.

Hicksite-Orthodox Split

In 1827 Elias Hicks was expelled for expressing universalist views. The next year, a number of Friends in sympathy with him separated to form a parallel system of yearly meetings in America, referred to as Hicksite. The Quakers who did not follow Hicks are called Orthodox.

Gurneyite-Wilburite Split

The Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic dispute between Joseph John Gurney of England and John Wilbur of Rhode Island. Gurney emphasized scriptural authority and favored working closely with other Christian groups. Wilbur, in response, defended the authority of the Holy Spirit, i.e. the Inner light, as primary and worked to prevent the dilution of Friends tradition of Spirit-led ministry. Wilbur was expelled from his yearly meeting in a questionable proceeding in 1842. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite-Gurneyite separations occurred. (See A short history of Conservative Friends for further information.)

Beanites

Joel Bean was an Orthodox Friend who opposed the extreme evangelicalism that was creeping into his branch of Quakerism. He (unwillingly) formed a new branch of Quakerism in the western part of the United States when his membership was terminated and his meeting was laid down by (one of several) Iowa Yearly Meeting(s).

The "Beanite", or independent, Quakers resemble an amalgam of Hicksite and Wilburite Quakerism, some of them adopting the label "Christ-Centered Universalism".

Davidites, a breakaway group

In Canada, the Toronto meeting of Quakers split in two in 1812, with the losing faction, led by charismatic American immigrant David Willson rejecting the term "Quaker" altogether. They called themselves The Children of Peace and founded the colony of Hope north of Toronto. Davidites partially rejected the doctrine of plainness and were known for their elaborate musical concerts and compositions, and particularly for their ziggurat-like meeting house, the Sharon Temple. Meetings continued to be held in the Quaker fashion, and the group placed a high emphasis on charity. Davidites do not seem to have been strict pacifists, and were known for their role in the 1837 Rebellion, on the side of the rebels. Samuel Lount, a member of the group, was one of two people in Ontario executed for their role in the Rebellion. After Willson's death in 1866, the sect declined and eventually collapsed in 1886.

Testimonies

Quaker testimonies are the traditional statements of Quaker belief. Testimonies are not formal static documents, but rather a shared collection or view of how Quakers relate to God and the world. Testimonies cannot easily be taken one at a time, as they are interrelated. As a philosophical system, they can be seen as coherent even outside of Christian theology. Individually (and sometimes corporately) Friends have not always been consistent with their stated values, but these statements of belief have provided strong guidance to Friends through much of their history.

While the list of testimonies is evolving (see Quaker Testimonies leaflet), like all aspects of Friends theology, the following is a generally accepted list.

The Peace Testimony
The Testimony of Equality
The Testimony of Integrity
The Testimony of Simplicity

Some Friends also include Unity and/or Community in this list.

The Peace Testimony

See main article on the Peace Testimony.

The Peace Testimony is the most static testimony; it is also the best known testimony of Friends. The belief that violence is always wrong has persisted to this day, and many conscientious objectors, advocates of non-violence and anti-war activists are Friends. Because of the peace testimony, Friends are often considered as one of the historic peace churches. In 1947 Quakerism was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the prize was accepted by the American Friends Service Committee and Friends Service Council.

The Testimony of Equality

See main article on the Testimony of Equality.

A female Quaker preaches at a meeting in London in the 18th century

Friends believe that all people are created equal in the eyes of God. Since all people embody the same divine spark all people deserve equal treatment. Friends were some of the first to value women as important ministers and to campaign for women's rights, they became leaders in the anti-slavery movement, and were among the first to pioneer humane treatment for the mentally ill and for prisoners.

The Testimony of Integrity

See main article on the Testimony of Integrity.

Also known as the Testimony of Truth, or Truth Testimony, the essence of the Testimony of Integrity is placing God at the center of one's life and refusing to place things other than God there—whether it be oneself, possessions, the regard of others, belief in principles or something else. To Friends integrity is in choosing to follow the leading of the Spirit despite the challenges and urges to do otherwise.

This testimony has led to Friends having a reputation for being honest and fair in their dealings with others. It has led them to give proper credit to others for their contributions and to accept responsibility for their own actions.

The Testimony of Simplicity

See main article on Testimony of Simplicity.

Simplicity to Friends has generally been a reference to material possessions and is often referred to as plainness. Friends traditionally limited their possessions to what they needed to live their lives, rather than pursuing luxuries. Recently this testimony is often taken to have an ecological dimension: that Friends should not use more than their fair share of the Earth's resources.

Quaker organizations

Throughout their history, Quakers have founded organizations for many causes they felt are in keeping with their faith. There are many schools around the world founded by Friends (for a list of such schools with links to other articles, see List of Friends Schools).

There are various organizations associated with Friends including: a US lobbying organization based in Washington, DC called the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); several service organizations like the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, and the Friends Committee on Scouting.

Additionally Friends have founded organizations to help maintain order and communication within the society. Some yearly meetings belong to larger organizations, the three chief ones being Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends International (EFI). (In each of these three groups, most member organizations are from the United States.) FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while EFI is the most conservative. FUM is the largest of the three. Some monthly meetings belong to more than one of these larger organizations, while others are independent. Since 1937 the Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization which loosely unifies the diverse groups of Friends. FWCC brings together the largest variety of Friends in the world.

References

^ See for example the opening paragraphs of Some Principles of the Elect People of God In Scorn Called Quakers by George Fox.
^ Fox made several similar statements in his journal. Including in Chapter 5 stating: "God was come to teach His people himself" and Chapter 6 "Christ was come to teach people Himself". Fox frequently used the words God and Christ interchangably.
^ Isaac Penington to Thomas Walmsley (1670)
^ Quotation from the third Proposition of Barclay's apology.
^ Quotation from Richmond Declaration section on Holy Scriptures
^ There are several examples of Fox referring to people as notionists in his journal. One is in Chapter 5: "After a while there came a priest to visit him, with whom also I had some discourse concerning the Truth. But his mouth was quickly stopped, for he was nothing but a notionist, and not in possession of what he talked of."
^ For more discussion of this nickname see New England Yearly Meeting's Peculiar People Synthesis/
^ Quotation from Chapter 4 of George Foxes journal (also see footnote). Here Fox would have meant Christ by "word of God"; see Beliefs and practices of Friends.

External links

Information on Quakers and Quakerism

Quaker organizations

Quaker study centres

Quaker links

Swarthmoor Hall, birth place of quakerism, UK
Online Meeting for Worship
Quakers Reunited
Quakerfinder.org: find unprogrammed Meetings in U.S. & Canada
Find Meetings in Great Britain
"Quaker E-mail lists"
QuakerQuaker.org (A Guide to the Quaker Blogosphere)

Quaker books and writings

Online Faith & Practice
Philadelphia Yearly Meeting: Faith & Practice
Britain Yearly Meeting: Faith & Practice
Quakerbooks: Friends General Conference bookstore
Barclay Press (Evangelical Friends)
Quaker Electronic Archive
Quaker Heritage Press Online Texts
Advices and Queries

Beliefs and practices of Friends

Experiencing God

Mysticism

The Bible

Creeds

Sacraments

Plainness

Egalitarianism

Beliefs and practices regarding education

Oaths and fair-dealing

Quaker terminology

Quaker worship

Unprogrammed worship

Programmed worship

Quaker weddings

Decision making among Friends

Memorial services

Basic divisions and organization

In Great Britain

In the United States

Names

History

Hicksite-Orthodox Split

Gurneyite-Wilburite Split

Beanites

Davidites, a breakaway group

Testimonies

The Peace Testimony

The Testimony of Equality

The Testimony of Integrity

The Testimony of Simplicity

Quaker organizations

See also

References

Recommended reading

External links

Information on Quakers and Quakerism

Quaker organizations

Quaker study centres

Quaker links

Quaker books and writings