Hinduism
- This article is about the Hindu religion; for other meanings of the word, see Hindu (disambiguation).
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Hinduism (Devanāgari: हिन्दू धर्म), also known as Sanatana Dharma (सनातन धर्म) and Vaidika Dharma - वैदिक धर्म) is a worldwide religious tradition that is based on the Indo-Aryan religion of the Vedas, and is among the oldest still practiced today.[1] The term Hinduism is an amorphous concept as Hinduism consists of several schools of thought. It encompasses many religious rituals that widely vary in practice, as well as many diverse sects and philosophies. Many Hindus venerate an array of deities, all as manifestations of the one Supreme monistic Cosmic Spirit Brahman. Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world with approximately 900 million adherents, most of whom are in India. The Himalayan kingdom of Nepal is the only nation in the world with Hinduism as its state religion.
Core Concepts
The Hindu faiths, practices and philosophies have evolved from the Aryan Vedic tradition (Vaidika paramparā), and from the beliefs of the other Indian peoples and philosophies, such as Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, which conversely share common philosophical and spiritual traits in varying degrees with Hinduism.
The Eternal Way
"Sanātana Dharma" (सनातन धर्म, The Eternal Values), the traditional name of Hinduism, alludes to the idea that certain spiritual principles hold eternally true, transcending man-made constructs, representing a pure science of consciousness. This consciousness is not merely that of the body or mind and intellect, but of a transcendental state that exists within and beyond our somatic existence, the unsullied Soul of all. Religion to the Hindu is the eternal search for the divine Brahman (ब्रह्मन्, pronounced as /brəhmən/, nominative singular: ब्रह्म /brəhmə/), the Supreme Immanent and Transcendent Reality or the Cosmic Spirit.
Hinduism's spiritual tradition is both monotheistic and tolerant and is expressed in the Rig Veda verse:
- एकं सत् विप्रा बहुधा वदन्ति ।
- ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti
- Truth is One, but sages call it by many name
- Rig Veda 1:164:46.
Hinduism's aspiration is best expressed in the following mantra from the Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upanishad:
- ॐ । असतो मा सद्गमय । तमसो मा ज्योतिर्गमय । मृत्योर्मामृतं गमय ।।[2]
- OM Asato mā sadgamaya, tamaso mā jyotirgamaya, mrityormāmritam gamaya
- OM (Lead me) from falsehood to truth, from darkness to light, from death to immortality.
Basic beliefs
Themes common to the value system of Hindus is the belief in Dharma (individual ethics, duties and obligations), Samsāra (Reincarnation/rebirth), Karma ("actions", leading to a cause and effect relationship), and Moksha (salvation) of every soul through a variety of paths, such as Bhakti (devotion), Karma (selfless action) and Jñāna (enlightenment, knowledge), and of course, belief in God (Īshvara). Reincarnation or the soul's transmigration through a cycle of birth and death, until it attains Mokṣha, is governed by Karma. The philosophy of Karma lays forth the results of free-willed actions, which leave their imprint on the soul or the self, called as ātman. These actions determine the course of life and the life cycle for the soul in its subsequent life. Virtuous actions take the soul closer to the Supreme Divine, and lead to a birth with higher consciousness. Evil actions hinder this recognition of the Supreme Divine, and the soul takes lower forms of worldly life. All existence, according to Hinduism, from vegetation to mankind, are subjects to the eternal Dharma, which is the natural law. Even Heaven (Svarga Loka) and Hell (Naraka Loka) are temporary. Liberation from this material existence and cycle of birth and death, to join, reach or develop a relationship with the "universal spirit" (depending on belief), is known as Mokṣha, which is the ultimate goal of all Hindus.
The other principles include the Guru-shishya tradition, the divinity of the word OM, the power of mantras and manifestations of the Divine's spirit in all forms of existence (pantheism). According to Hinduism, the essential spark of the Atman/Brahman is in every living being, the concept that all living beings are divine. Another belief is that though Hindu mythology mentions a class of evil beings (demons, called Asuras or Rākṣhasas), opposed to the celestial spirits (Devas), essential Hindu philosophy does not believe in any concept of a central Devil or Satan. This does not mean that all the evil in the world is attributed to God, but that the evil (deed or thought) is ascribed to human ignorance. Hinduism does not evangelize as do Christianity and Islam. Since the Hindu scriptures are essentially silent on the issue of religious conversion, the issue is open to interpretations. [3] That is to say, it rather depends upon the Hindu society whether they consider a foreigner, who has got a dīkṣhā into a Hindu sect, as a Hindu or not.
Practice (Yoga Dharma)
Hinduism includes a variety of practices, primarily spiritual devotion (Bhakti Yoga), selfless service (Karma Yoga), knowledge and meditation (Jñāna or Rāja Yoga). These are described in the two principal texts of Hindu Yoga: The Bhagavad Gītā and the Yoga Sūtras. The Upanishads are also important as a philosophical foundation for these practices. The Yogas provide a sort of alternate path (or faiths) that links together various Hindu beliefs, and can also be used to categorise non-Hindu beliefs that are seen as paths to mokṣha, or nirvāṇa.
The four objectives of life
Another major aspect of Hindu dharma that is common to practically all Hindus is that of the puruṣhārthas, the "four objectives of life". They are kāma, artha, dharma and mokṣha. It is said that all beings seek kāma (pleasure, physical or emotional) and artha (material wealth), but soon, with maturity, learn to govern these legitimate desires within the higher framework of dharma (righteousness). Of course, the only goal that is truly ultimate, whose attainment results in ultimate happiness, is mokṣha (salvation), also known as Mukti (spiritual liberation), Samādhi, Nirvāṇa, or escape from Samsāra (the cycle of births and deaths).
The four stages of life
Ideally (though not feasible for most of today's lay Hindus), the human life is divided into four Āshramas ("phases" or "stages"). They are Brahmacharya, Gṛihastha, Vānaprastha and Sanyāsa. The first quarter of one's life, Brahmacharya ("meditation, or study of the Brahman") is spent in celibate, controlled, sober and pure contemplation under a Guru, building up the mind for the realization of truth. Grihastha is the householder's stage, alternatively known as samsara, in which one marries and satisfies kāma and artha within one's married and professional life. Vānaprastha is gradual detachment from the material world, ostensibly giving over duties to one's children, spending more time in contemplation of the Divine, and making holy pilgrimages. Finally, in Sanyāsa, the individual goes into seclusion, often envisioned as renunciation, to find the Divine through detachment from worldly life, and peacefully shed the body for the next life (or, for liberation).
The four classes of society
Hindu society has traditionally been divided into four classes, based on profession—the Brāhmaṇas (also anglicised as Brahmins): teachers and priests; the Kṣhatriyas: warriors, kings and administrators; the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, herdsmen and businessmen; and the Shūdras: servants and labourers. Each of these classes was called a varṇa, and the system was called Varṇa Vyavasthā. It is debatable whether the varṇa system is an integral part of Hinduism or not; and whether or not it is strictly sanctioned by the scriptures. The Shruti texts make very rare mentions of this system, without providing explicit definitions. The Smṛiti texts (including the Manusmṛiti) are more explicit in their categorisation of the classes [4] and framing rather strict rules about this system. During its early development, the social structure was based upon the profession. It is noteworthy that many great sages became Brahmins. Vishvāmitra was a Kṣhatriya king before he became recognized as a great Brahmin sage. Vālmiki, once a robber, became a great sage while Veda Vyāsa was the son of a fisherwoman [5]. A hymn from the Rig Veda says :
- A bard am I, my dad's a leech, mammy lays corn upon the stones
- (Rig Veda 9.112.3).
Though historians do not agree on the specific period, the social system later became hierarchical and based upon birth, leading to the evolution of several sub-castes (along with a class of outcastes—Dalits—outside the Varṇa Vyavasthā) and the practice of social discrimination of the Shūdra and Dalit classes. Thus, it evolved to form the caste system as we know of today. However, Article 15 of the Indian Constitution prohibits discrimination on the basis of an individuals caste, while Article 17 prohibits practice of the social stigma of untouchability [6]. In contemporary India, caste differences are slowly disappearing with modernization, but occasional tensions and prejudices still remain.
Nature of God
The Vedas depict Brahman as the Ultimate Reality, the Absolute or Universal Soul (Paramātman) [7]. Brahman is the indescribable, inexhaustible, incorporeal, omniscient, omnipresent, original, first, eternal, both transcendent and immanent, absolute infinite existence. It is the ultimate principle who is without a beginning, without an end, who is hidden in all and who is the cause, source, material and effect of all creation known, unknown and yet to happen in the entire universe. Brahman (not to be confused with the deity Brahmā) is seen as a panentheistic Cosmic Spirit. Brahman may be viewed as bereft of personal attributes — Nirguṇa Brahman (except the qualities of infinite true, infinite consciousness and infinite bliss), or with manifestable attributes — Saguṇa Brahman. The former view is named as Parabrahman and the latter view is called Aparabrahman.
Perhaps the best word in Hinduism to represent the concept of God is Īshvara (literarily, the Supreme Lord) [8]. In Advaita Vedānta philosophy, Īshvara is simply the manifested form of Brahman upon human mind. According to Smārta views, the Supreme Being can be with attributes, Saguṇa Brahman, and also be viewed with whatever attributes, (e.g., a goddess) a devotee conceives [9]. For the Hindus, Īshvara, who is one and only one, is full of innumerable auspicious qualities; He is omniscient, omnipotent, perfect, just, merciful, glorious, mysterious, and yet full of love. He is the Creator, the Ruler and the Destroyer of this universe. Some believe Him to be infinite and incorporeal.
The several deities
The Hindu religion also believes in several celestial entities which are called Devas. These Devas may variously be translated into English as gods (which is rather a mistranslation), or better, as demigods, deities, celestial spirits or angels. The feminine of deva is devī. It is the worship of the devas that gives the impression that Hinduism is polytheistic. The question who or what these devas are may be analysed under the following three points:
- According to the philosophy of Advaita Vedānta, and many verses of Bhagavad Gītā, the Upaniṣhads and the Vedas, all the devas are simply the more mundane manifestations of the Supreme Lord Īshvara upon the human mind, and hence, ultimately, the different manifestations of the One Brahman that the human mind conceives.[10] In order to worship the formless Īshvara, the devotee conceives an anthropomorphic form of God in his mind for the sake of worshipping Him with love and Bhakti. A mention here could be made to one of the fundamental principles of Hinduism is depicted in the following words which have been widely accepted as true over numerous generations—ekam sat viprā bahudhā vadanti (Ṛig Veda 1.164.46) meaning “The True God is one, though the sages address him by multiple names”. Thus, most Hindus maintain that Īshvara is One and only One, although He can be viewed as having many manifestations such as Viṣhṇu or Shiva or the Mother Goddess—this view is especially true of the Smārta denomination.
- According to the philosophies of Nyāya, Vaisheṣhika, Yoga, verses from the Shrutis and certain Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts, the devas are those immortal celestial beings who are subservient to the Supreme Lord Īshvara, but are above human beings. Thus they are the angels who preside over the forces of nature and act as a link between God and the mortal world. For instance, the Yoga philosophy says that Īshvara is the father and guru of all the devas like Prajāpati and Indra, and of the Ṛiṣhis like Aṅgīras. They all derive their power from God, under whose control they always work. Again note that the Vaishnavites and the Shaivites view Vishnu or Shiva respectively to be the same as Īshvara.
- According to the philosophy of Mīmāṃsā, all the devas and devīs are the sovereign rulers of the forces of nature and there is no one Supreme Īshvara as their Lord. To do a desired action, the humans must please each or several of these devas by worshipping them with proper rituals. This kind of view could be regarded as purely polytheistic. Although the later Mīmāṃsakās retracted this view and accepted Īshvara, this view is still held today by a substantial populace of today's Hindus, especially the more illiterate and superstitious ones.
The terms Īshvara and devas must not be confused. Devas could be as numerous as 330 million [11]. Thus, it is incorrect to say that Hinduism has 330 million Gods, which are more correctly devas or celestial beings. Even the liberal Smārta denomination recognises only six forms of God to be objects of worship. Other denominations of Hinduism, such as Vaishnavism and Shaivism follows a singular concept of God, or panentheistic monotheism. More precisely, the Hindu scriptures and most Shaivite and Vaishnavite thoughts regard the devas as a combination of the first two views; e.g., Kriṣhṇa is regarded as Īshvara to whom all the demigods are subservient, and simultaneously, all the demigods are seen as mundane manifestations of Kriṣhṇa. The third view is not supported by the scriptures.
Whatever it is, the devas (also called devatās) are an integral part of the colorful Hindu culture. The 33 early Vedic devas included Indra, Agni, Soma, Varuṇa, Mitra, Savitṛ, Rudra, Prajāpati, Viṣhṇu, Aryaman and the Ashvins; important devīs were Sarasvatī, Ūṣhā and Pṛithivī. Indra is traditionally called the king of the demigods. The later Purāṇas laud the Hindu Trinity of Brahmā, Viṣhṇu and Shiva, i.e., Trimūrti, signifying respectively the creative, ruling and destroying aspects of the same One God. Note that Brahmā, Viṣhnu and Shiva are not regarded as ordinary devas but as Mahādevas. The Purāṇas also laud other devas and avatāras such as Gaṇesha, Hanumān, Rāma, Kriṣhṇa, etc. Devīs, worshipped as the mother, include Lakṣhmī and most importantly, Durgā and her forms such as Kālī. Though all the different paths of salvation are, to various extents, acknowledged by all denominations, the actual conception of Brahman and its nature is what differentiates them. It is important to note that the contemporary perception of Hinduism, influenced by Smārta traditions, depicts an inclusively monotheistic (or monistic) religion, which accordingly holds that the different deities are simply different manifestations of the One God.
Denominations
Each of the Hinduism's four major denominations share rituals, beliefs, traditions and personal deities with one another, but each sect has a different philosophy on how to achieve life's ultimate goal (Mokṣha, salvation) and on their concept of God (Īshvara). However, each denomination respects all others, and conflict of any kind is rare. In fact, many Hindus will not claim to belong to any denomination at all.
Contemporary Hinduism is now divided into four major divisions, Vaishnavism, Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. The primary differences are between the sects of Vaishnavism which conceives God as Viṣhṇu, and Shaivism which conceives God as Shiva. Vaishnavas make up the majority of Hindus in India. Shaktism worships a female divine or goddess Devī or alternatively (where it is viewed as a sub sect of Shaivism) as the power of Shiva personified. Smartism, in contrast, believes in all religions being the same and leading to a pantheistic God. A number of reform movements have also given rise to sects like Swami Dayananda Saraswati's Ārya Samāj which condemns iconolatry, veneration of multiple deities and focuses on the Vedas and the Vedic fire-sacrifices (yajña).
Hindu sacred texts
The overwhelming majority of Hindu sacred texts are composed in the Sanskrit language. Indeed, much of the morphology and linguistic philosophy inherent in the learning of Sanskrit is sometimes claimed to be inextricably linked to study of the Vedas and relevant Hindu scriptures. In her paper on role of women scholars in Hindu texts, [12] observes that debate is the single most important organizing principle in ancient Hindu scriptures, taking form of gentle conversation, friendly discussion, or formal debate between rival schools of thought. A variety of topics, ranging from vegetarianism to gender equality to the means of attaining moksha, are debated with arguments made on several sides of each question and presentation of several answers. In the end, usually, one answer emerges as the correct answer without completely invalidating other answers.
Shruti
The Vedas (वेद, literally, "Knowledge") are considered as Shruti by the Hindus. They are said to have been revealed by the Brahman to the Ṛiṣhis while the latter were in deep meditation. While the overwhelming majority of Hindus may never read the Vedas, there prevails in them a reverence for this transcendental notion of "Eternal Knowledge". The four Vedas (the Ṛig, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva Vedas) are various shākhās or branches of knowledge. Depending on the branch, different commentaries and instructions are associated with each Veda. The Ṛig Veda contains mantras to invoke the devas for the fire-sacrifice rituals, the Sāma Veda has chants to be sung there, the Yajur Veda has actual prosaic instructions for the sacrifices and the Atharva Veda comprises of semi-magical (sic) spells against enemies, sorcerers, diseases and mistakes during the sacrificing ritual. The Vedas, apart from the hymn (mantra) or the Saṃhitā (संहिता) portion, also have three layers of commentaries integrally incorporated within them. These are: the Brāhmaṇas (ब्राह्मण, not to be confused with Brahman or the caste brahmin) containing prose commentaries on the rituals, the Āraṇyakas (आरण्यक) containing the mystical explanations of the mantras, and the Upaniṣhads (उपनिषद्) containing highly philosophical and metaphysical writings about the nature of, and the relationship between the soul (ātman) and the Brahman. Each Veda also has various law books and ritual manuals loosely associated with it, like the Dharmashāstras, Grihyasūtras, etc., but most people do not consider them as an integral part of the Shruti or the Vedic literature.
The Upaniṣhads set Hindu philosophy apart with its embrace of transcendent and yet multiple immanent forces that is subjective to each individual, seen by some as an identification of unity in diversity. Modern indology suggests that while early Hinduism is most reliant on the four Vedas, Classical Hinduism, from the Yoga and Vedanta to Tantra and Bhakti streams, was moulded around the Upaniṣhads. The Vedas are full of mysticism and allegories. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage people to interpret the Vedas philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without so-called fanciful or allegorical interpretations." (Jiva Gosvami, Kṛiṣhna Sandarbha 29.26-27). The very sound of the Vedic mantras is considered as "purifying" by many Hindus, hence the rigour in learning pronunciation. The rigorous oral tradition of transmitting the Vedas has helped in its preservation.
Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gītā (भागवद् गीता), often referred to as the Gītā, is one of the more popular sacred texts of Hinduism. Unlike the Vedas, which are more esoteric and intricate, the Gītā is read by many practicing Hindus.
It is a summary of the Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and Tantric branches of philosophy. The Bhagavad Gītā, meaning "The Song of the Lord" or by others as "The Divine Song", refers to itself as a Yoga Upaniṣhad and is sometimes called Gītopaniṣad. It expounds on Karma Yoga, Bhakti Yoga and Jñāna Yoga. It is an integral part of the epic Mahābhārata, and contains philosophical sermons taught by Kṛiṣhṇa, an incarnation of Viṣhṇu, to the Pāṇḍava princes just before a great war.
While technically, it is considered as Smṛiti text, it has singularly achieved the status of Shruti, or Revealed Knowledge. The Bhagavad Gītā is described as the essence of the Vedas.
Smriti
The other Hindu texts form the latter category—the Smṛitis (lit., "memory"), all of which laud the Vedas; the most notable of them are the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa, major epics considered sacred by almost all followers of Sanātana Dharma. Their stories are arguably familiar to the vast majority of Hindus. Other texts considered important by today's Hindus include the Shrīmad Bhāgavatam, described as the spotless epic detailing devotion to Viṣhnu as the highest goal, Devī Mahātmya, an ode to Devī, and the Yoga Sūtras, a key meditative yoga text of Shri Patañjali. There are also a number of revered Hindu Tantras, the Manusmṛiti, the 18 Purāṇas which vividly describe later Hinduism's deities and mythology, and Sūtras that command the respect of various Hindu sects of different persuasion, some including the Mahanirvāṇa Tantra, Tirumantiram and Shiva Sūtras. The eighteen Purāṇas, or Ancients, are divided into three groups of six. The Purāṇas’ groups and their contents are: 1) the Brahmā Purāṇas: Brahma Purāṇa, Brahmāṇḍa Purāṇa, Brahma Vaivarta Purāṇa, Mārkaṇḍeya Purāṇa, Bhaviṣhya Purāṇa, and the Vāmana Purāṇa; 2) the Viṣhnu Purāṇas: the Viṣhnu Purāṇa, the Bhāgavata Purāṇa, the Nāradeya Purāṇa, the Garuḍa Purāṇa, the Padma Purāṇa, and the Varāha Purāṇa; and 3) the Shiva Purāṇas: the Vāyu Purāṇa, the Liṅga Purāṇa, the Skanda Purāṇa , the Agni Purāṇa, the Matsya Purāṇa, and the Karma Purāṇa. The Rāmāyaṇa, Mahābhārata and many Purāṇas are much more widely read by today's Hindus than the Vedas, and the temple and icon worship of modern Hinduism is attributable to them. It is interesting to note that the Hindus attach much more importance to the ethics and the metaphorical meanings conveyed by these texts, rather than only the literal mythology. Other important scriptures are the sectarian Hindu Āgamas which are texts related to rituals and worship and is dedicated to Viṣhnu, Shiva and Devī. The Shruti takes precedence over the Smṛiti in any matter of apparent mutual dispute. However, many Vaishnavites regard the Purāṇas to be as authoritative as the Vedas.
Origins and society
Origins of Hinduism
Hinduism is one of the world's oldest major religions in existence. From a Hindu perspective, the Sanātana Dharma propounds eternal and universal principles with no beginning or end. The Purāṇas place Lord Kṛiṣhṇa’s birth at around 3100 BCE. Kṛiṣhṇa’s incarnation was preceded by Lord Rāma’s, sometimes dated at over 5-6000 BCE, or even more than a million years ago in the Tretā Yuga according to the Rāmāyaṇa Epic. Many Hindus believe that their religious tradition was fully formed by the time of Lord Rāma, the seventh incarnation of Lord Viṣhṇu. Modern Indology dates the roots of Hinduism to about 1500-1300 BCE, based on linguistic and literary dating of the Ṛig Veda. However, this dating is rejected by those who question the validity of the Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis.
The origin of collective Hindu thought cannot be ascribed to any single founder (though most of its later schools of philosophy and belief can be), or associated with a specific time or a single place of foundation. The Vedas, the earliest Hindu scriptures, are the compilation of spiritual laws and truths binding upon all of creation. It is believed that each Veda was revealed to enlightened sages, called Ṛiṣhis, over a long period of time. Lord Viṣhṇu is believed to have transmitted the Vedas to Lord Brahmā via meditative trance at the beginning of each Creation.
Hinduism, along with Buddhism and Jainism, is regarded to be an Ārya Dharma, meaning, a noble religion.
Etymology
Though linguists and historians haven't reached a consensus, the term Hindu is generally accepted to be derived from the name of the Sindhu (सिन्धु, i.e., the Indus) river, which is known as Hindu in Persian). The term was used for people that lived around or beyond the Sindhu. In this region, the advanced Mohenjo-daro civilization flourished about five thousand years ago. Hinduism, in some form, probably existed long before that.
Until about 19th century the term Hindu implied a culture and ethnicity and not a religion. When the British government started periodic censuses and established a legal system, the need arose to define Hinduism as a distinct religion, along the lines of Christianity or Islam. Some scholars, such as Bal Gangadhar Tilak, defined it as a religion based on the Vedas, using the analogy of the Bible being the basis of Christianity and the Qur'an being the Muslim scripture.
Vedic religion
Modern Hinduism grew out of the knowledge described in the Vedas. The earliest of these, the Ṛgveda centers on worship of celestial spirits such as Indra and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. The early Indo-Aryans would perform fire-sacrifices called yajña (यज्ञ) with the chanting of the Vedic mantras, but they built no temples, idols or icons. Probably animals were also sacrificed in larger yajñas, as claimed by Buddhist and Jain texts. The Ashvamedha was the most important sacrifice described in the Yajurveda, possibly performed for the last time by Samudragupta in the 4th century CE. The age and origins of the Vedas themselves are disputed, but it is clear that they were transmitted orally for several centuries, if not several millennia. They show strong similarities to the language and religion of the Avesta (of Zoroastrianism), as well as more distantly to other Indo-European languages and religions (see Indo-Aryan migration). The Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Jovius (gen. of Jupiter)—the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Ziu in Germanic mythology.
Hindu nationalism
In the 20th century, emerging Indian nationalism began to emphasize Hinduism, in opposition to the British Raj, but also in contrast to Islam, and after Independence in connection with the territorial disputes with Pakistan. Such nationalistic Hinduism is generally termed Hindutva (lit., "Hinduness", paradoxically not a well-formed Sanskrit word, since "Hindu" is a Persian word), but the boundaries are fluid and the Indian Supreme Court ruled that 'no precise meaning can be ascribed to the terms "Hindu", "Hindutva" and "Hinduism"; and no meaning in the abstract can confine it to the narrow limits of religion alone, excluding the content of Indian culture and heritage.'[13][14] The Hindutva ideology was first enunciated by V. D. Savarkar in his seminal work Hindutva—he regarded a Hindu to be that person who considers his/her fatherland (pitṛibhūmi) as well as holy land (puṇyabhūmi) to be India (Bhārat). This Hindutva ideology rose to importance in the Indian politics in the 1980s and is chiefly associated with the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh movement. It has come to symbolize the rising bi-polarization of Indian polity in the late 1990's and the first decade of the 21st century, evident in the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in the same period. One of their short term aims is to build a temple to Rāma at the site of the controversial Babri mosque (destroyed by some Hindutva activists in 1992) in Ayodhya. Many believe that Lord Rama was born at the site, and that a Vaishnavite temple was constructed there to commemorate the birthplace. Some historians and Hindutva activists claim that the Mughal commander Mir Baki destroyed the temple and built the Babri mosque, in his alleged frenzy of iconoclasm. However, the destruction of the temple is also attributed to the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
Temples
Hindu temples inherited rich and ancient rituals and customs, and have occupied a special place in Hindu society. They are usually dedicated to a primary deity, called the presiding deity, and other subordinate deities associated with the main deity. However, some mandirs are dedicated to multiple deities. Most major temples are constructed as per the āgama shāstras and many are sites of pilgrimage. For many Hindus, the four Shankarāchāryas (the abbots of the monasteries of Joshimath, Puri, Shringeri and Dwarka) — four of the holiest pilgrimage centers — sometimes to which a fifth at Kanchi is also added) are viewed as the four highest Patriarchs of the Hindudom.
Temples are a place for darshan (vision of the Divine), pūjā, meditation, and religious congregation (though not so regular and often as among the Muslims and the Christians) — among other religious activities. Pūjā or worship, frequently uses the aid of a mūrti (statue in which divine presence is invoked) in conjunction with the singing or chanting of meditational prayer in the form of mantras. Devotional songs called bhajans (written primarily from the 14th-17th centuries), kīrtan (devotional songs), and āratī are sometimes sung in conjunction with the performance of the pūjā. This rather organic system of devotion attempts to aid the individual in connecting with God through symbolic communion.
Current geographic distribution
Of the total Hindu population of the world, vast majority of them live in India. Significant numbers of Hindus reside in Bali, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Fiji, Guyana, Nepal, Mauritius, Suriname, Singapore and Trinidad and Tobago. In Nepal and Bali, Hinduism is the major religion, and is still reflected in the traditional culture and architecture. There are also sizeable Hindu populations in Sri Lanka (1.42 million)[15], Pakistan (2 million)[16], Malaysia (1.5 million)[17], United States (766,000)[18], South Africa (654,714)[19], the Middle East (1.4 million)[20] and the United Kingdom (558,342)[21].
Hindu philosophy: the six Vedic schools of thought
The six Āstika or orthodox schools (accepting the authority of the Vedas) of Hindu philosophy are Nyāya, Vaisheṣhika, Sāṃkhya, Yoga, Pūrva Mīmāṃsā (also simply called Mīmāṃsā), and Uttara Mīmāṃsā (also called Vedānta). The non-Vedic schools are called Nāstika, or heterodox, and refer to Buddhism, Jainism and Lokāyata. The schools that continue to enrich Hinduism today are Pūrva Mīmāṃsā, Yoga, and Vedānta. See Hindu philosophy for a discussion of the historical significance of Sāṃkhya, Nyāya, and Vaisheṣhika.
Purva Mimamsa
The main objective of Pūrva (i.e., earlier)Mīmāṃsā school (also simply called Mīmāṃsā) was to firmly establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of interpretation of Vedas. Its adherents believed that true knowledge is self-evidently proven, and tried to find out the basis of the Vedic ritualism through reasoning. This school of thought forms the basis of Modern Hindu ritualism (strictly followed only by a minority), which believes in the inherent power of rituals.
Yoga
Yoga means union and is generally interpreted as union with the Divine, or integration of body, mind, and spirit. Its goal is mokṣha, or samādhi. It, like the Upaniṣhads, seeks liberation through the disunion of the spirit (Puruṣha) and the nature (Prakṛiti), through meditational, physical and spiritual practices, along with a firm belief in God (Īshvara).
The Upaniṣhads, sage Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtra and the Bhagavad Gītā are indispensable literature to the study of Yoga; they elaborate on Rāja Yoga, Bhakti Yoga, Karma Yoga and Jñāna Yoga. Of these, the Yoga Sūtra is essentially a compilation and systematization of meditational Yoga philosophy.
Uttara Mimamsa: Vedanta and its three main schools
The Uttara (lit., later) Mīmāṃsā school, also called as Vedānta, is the central pillar of Hinduism and was responsible for a new wave of philosophical and meditative enquiry, renewal and revival of Hinduism, and established a strong philosophical foundation. Primarily associated with the Upaniṣhads and their commentaries by sage Bādarāyaṇa — the Vedānta Sūtras, Vedantic principles, which according to the pre-Shankaran Buddhist sources (Āryadeva, Kamalashīla, Bhavya) was monotheistic, later split into three principal (and three other) branches, initiated by the thinking and writing of Ādi Shaṅkara. Most Hindu thought today in some way relates to changes affected by Vedantic thought, which focused on unity of the whole God. The great debate between followers the major Hindu philosophical school, Advaita and the schools such as those of Rāmānuja and Madhva, focused on the true nature of Brahman, on whether Brahman is essentially monistic, qualified non-dualistic or dualistic in nature. The world famous sect of ISKCON, worshipping Kṛiṣhṇa, follows the Vedantic philosophy of Achintya Bhedābheda by Chaitanya Mahāprabhu.
Pure monism: Advaita Vedanta
Advaita literally means "not two"; thus, this is what we refer to as a monistic (or non-dualistic) philosophy, which emphasizes the oneness of the Godhead. Its proponent was Ādi Shaṅkara (788?-820?). Ādi Shaṅkara expounded his theories largely based on previous teachings of the Upaniṣhads and his own guru Govinda Bhagavatpāda. Reality is categorised into three levels: Transcendental, Pragmatic and Apparent. As compared to Brahman (the Cosmic Spirit) which is the Supreme Reality, everything else, including the universe, the individuals and even Īshvara are not true. The universe, the individuals and Īshvara are real only in the Pragmatic level. Whereas in the transcendental level, Brahman is said to be without attributes (i.e., Nirguṇa Brahman, best described as infinite reality, infinite consciousness and infinite bliss), in the Pragmatic level, the same Brahman is viewed with auspicious attributes (Saguṇa Brahman, as God—or Īshvara).
When a human being tries to know the Cosmic Spirit (Brahman) through his mind, Brahman becomes the Supreme Lord (Īshvara), under the effect of an illusionary power of Brahman called Māyā. An analogy is given that when the reflection of Brahman falls upon the mirror of Māyā, its image is seen as Īshvara. The material universe and the appearance of the single Atman to be seen as innumerable individual souls are also because of Māyā. Note that God is still perfect and untouched by the profanity of his divine power Māyā, just as a magician is not surprized by his own magic. In the pragmatic level, God creates and rules the world with the help of his Māyā. True knowledge of the Brahman (Jñāna) is the only way to liberation; when the curtain of Māyā gets removed, the person realizes that there is absolutely no difference between the individual soul (ātman) and Brahman. However, good Karma and Bhakti are recognized as great help in attaining true knowledge. Ādi Shaṅkara had also condemned the caste system. Advaita Vedānta is one of the most influential philosophies not only of India, but also in the whole world.
Qualified monism: Vishistadvaita Bhakti-Vedanta
Rāmānuja (1040 - 1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of Sriman Nārāyaṇa as the supreme Brahman. He taught that Ultimate Reality had three aspects: Īshvara (Viṣhṇu), chit (soul) and achit (matter). Viṣhṇu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on God Viṣhṇu for their existence. Because of this qualification of Ultimate reality, Rāmānuja’s system is known as qualified non-dualism. Karma along with Bhakti for is the true path for liberation.
Like Rāmānuja, Madhva (1238 - 1317) identified God with Viṣhṇu, but his view of reality was purely dualistic in that he understood a fundamental differentiation between the ultimate Godhead and the individual soul, and the system is therefore called Dvaita (dualistic) Vedānta. Bhakti is the only way for liberation.
Alternative cultures of worship
The Bhakti schools
The Bhakti (Devotional) school takes its name from the Hindu term that signifies a blissful, selfless and overwhelming devotion of God as the beloved Father, Mother, Child, or whatever relationship finds appeal in the devotee's heart. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks to relate to the personal form of God. Seen as a form of Yoga, or union, it seeks to interlink the self with God, since consciousness of the body and limited mind as self is seen to be a limiting factor in spiritual realization. Essentially, it is God who effects all change, who is the source of all works, who acts through the devotee as love and light. 'Sins' and evil-doings of the devotee are said to fall away of their own accord through the devotion of God. The Bhakti movements rejuvenated Hinduism through their intense expression of devotion and their responsiveness to the emotional and philosophical needs of India.
Altogether, bhakti resulted in a mass of devotional literature, music and art that has enriched the world and given India renewed spiritual impetus, one eschewing elaborate rituals.
Tantra
Tantra is one of the least understood areas of Hinduism — often perceived as free sex associated with religion. A tantra literally means an act. A mantra is a hymn or sacred words associated with a deity. A mantra is associated with a Yantra, which is a mystical diagram. All acts of worship which include Mantras and Yantras are called Tantras.
Tantras can be divided into two paths - The right hand path (also known as samayāchāra or Dakṣhiṇāchāra) and the Left hand path (Vāmāchāra).
Extolled as a short-cut to self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus.
- For the benefit of men of the Kali age, men bereft of energy and dependent for existence on the food they eat, the Kaula doctrine, O auspicious one! is given, said Shiva on the Kaula school of Tantrism.
The word tantra also means "treatise" or "continuum", and is applied to a variety of mystical, occult, medical and scientific works as well as those regarded as "tantric". Most tantras were written in the Middle Ages and sprang from Hindu cosmology and Yoga.
Important themes and symbols in Hinduism
Tilaka (symbol on forehead or between eyebrows)
The tilaka (or tilak) is a tattoo worn on the forehead and other parts of the body for spiritual reasons. It is believed to symbolize the need to cultivate supramental consciousness, which is achieved by opening the mystic third eye. Although traditionally adorned, in one form or the other, by Brahmins (to denote the priestly class in Hindu society) and married women (to denote marriage and auspiciousness), in the modern context, it is most commonly seen as a decorative dot (or Bindī) worn by women on the forehead.
Hindus stress meditation to acquire knowledge beyond the mind and body, a trait that is often associated with the ascetic deity Shiva. Men, too, will bear on their foreheads the equivalent Tika (tilaka) mark, usually on religious occasions, its shape often representing particular devotion to a certain main deity: a 'U' shape stands for Vishnu, a group of three horizontal lines for Shiva. It is not uncommon for some to meld both in an amalgam marker signifying Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva indissoluble).
Ahimsa (non-violence), vegetarian diet and the cow
Ahimsa is a concept that advocates non-violence and a respect for all forms of life — human as well as animal. The term ahimsa first appears in the Upanishads, and is the first of the five Yamas, or eternal vows/restraints in Raja Yoga. In part at least, it has also been influenced from the teachings of Buddhism and Jainism.
A large section of Hindus embrace vegetarianism in a bid to respect higher forms of life. While vegetarianism is not a dogma or requirement, it is recommended as a sattwic (purifying) lifestyle. About 30% of today's Hindu population, especially in orthodox communities in South India, states like Gujarat, which has had significant Jain influence, and in many Brahmin and Marwari enclaves around the subcontinent, are lacto-vegetarian. Some avoid even onion and garlic, as they are regarded as rajasic/tamasic.
Those Hindus who do eat meat (usually chicken, goat and fish) predominantly abstain from beef. Some even avoid the use of cow's leather products. This is possibly because the largely pastoral Vedic people, and subsequent generations, relied so heavily on the cow for milk and dairy products, tilling of fields and fuel for fertilizer, that its status as a 'caretaker' led to identifying it as an almost maternal figure (hence the term gau mata, or Cow Mother). While most Hindus do not actually worship the cow (though many venerate her), it still holds an honored place in Hindu society — as the best representative of the benevolence of all animals on man.
Hindu symbolism
Among the most revered symbols in Hinduism, three are quintessentially a part of its culture, and representative of its general ethos:
Aum (or Om, ॐ) is the sacred symbol of Hinduism, and is prefixed and sometimes suffixed to all Hindu mantras and prayers. It contains a deep symbolic message of the divine primordial vibration of the Universe, representing all existence, encompassing all of nature into the One Ultimate Reality. This symbol is commonly found on necklaces worn by Hindus.
Swastika (卐) is an Arya, or noble and auspicious symbol. It stands for satya, truth, and stability within the power of Brahma or, alternatively, of Surya, the sun. Its rotation in four directions has been used to represent many ideas, but primarily describes the four directions, the four Vedas and their harmonious whole. It has been used predominantly in Hinduism since the early Vedic culture, and is still widespread in the Indian subcontinent. Many other cultures continue to hold it as auspicious, in spite of the recent association with Nazism, which used a modified version of this symbol (i.e., the arms in anti-clockwise fashion).
The Mandala of the hexagram, somewhat resembling the Star of David, is an archetypal symbol for the sacred union of opposite energies. Formed by the intertwining of the "fire" and "water" triangles (the male "blade" and the female "chalice") this symbol represents the masculine and feminine principles in perfect union.
Murtis (icons)
Whether believing in the One source as formless (nirguna brahman, without attributes) or as a personal God (saguna Brahman, with attributes), Hindus understand that the one truth may be seen as different to different people. The philosophy of Bhakti seeks contact with the personal source of Brahman, which explains the proliferation of so many Gods and Goddesses (sic) in India, often reflecting the singular inclinations of small regions or groups of people.
Worship of God is often represented symbolically through the aid of icons (murti) which are conduits for the devotee's consciousness, markers for the human mind that signify the ineffable and illimitable nature of the power and grandeur of God. They are symbols of the greater principle and according to the understanding of the worshipper, the concept or entity is sometimes presumed to be present in them (in monotheistic doctrines) and sometimes not (in monistic doctrines).
In a Hindu Temple, the divine spirit/energy is commonly invoked into the Murtis at the time of their consecration. Veneration of such Murtis is done everyday in a temple. Most practicing Hindus also maintain a Puja room like a temple in their homes for worship and meditation. The icons could be two-dimensional paintings or three-dimensional statues.
Mantra
Reciting mantras or incantations is a general practice in Hindu rituals. Many mantras are from the Vedas. Much of mantra yoga, as it is called, is done through japa (repetition, usually through a rosary). Mantras are chanted, through their meaning, sound, and chanting style, to help meditational focus for the sadhaka (practitioner). They can also be used to aid in expression of love for the deity, another facet of Bhakti yoga akin to the understanding of the murti. They often give courage in exigent times and serve to help 'invoke' one's inner spiritual strength. Indeed, Mahatma Gandhi's dying words were a two-word mantra to the Lord Rama: "Hé Ram!"'.
The most revered mantra in Hinduism is the famed Gayatri Mantra of the Rig Veda 3.62.10. Many Hindus to this day, in a tradition that has continued unbroken for at least 3,000 years, perform morning ablutions at the bank of a sacred river (especially the Ganga/Ganges) while chanting this mantra. Sanskrit is mostly used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals in the forms of hymns and mantras.
Criticism
Hinduism is criticized based on current or past regressive social customs such as Dowry, Sati and casteism.
Hinduism has also been viewed as polytheistic and promoting idol worship. It is to be noted that the term, "Hinduism" itself is an amorphous concept. Only an Advaitan or a follower of Advaita philosophy, such as Smartas believe that multiple forms of God are equivalent. For example, a Vaishnavite considers Vishnu to be the supreme God and Saivites consider Shiva respectively as the supreme God. The Hindu counter argument is that Hinduism, specifically Smarta or Advaitan Hinduism is not polytheistic, though it may present an appearance of being so to external observers not familiar with its philosophy. Monism or Monistic Theism is generally more apt definition of the Hindu worldview, with the exception of Dvaita, or dualism. The existence of numerous human forms and idols of God is an implied principle in Hindu thought. Each human form or idol is associated with an important fable, and these representations help people remember and contemplate over them more easily. Rather, criticized idol worship is in actuality veneration of an icon, where an icon is used to focus on God, rather than being the object of worship itself. [22] argues that many of these criticisms stems from a notion of religion which is too much influenced by western conceptions of what a religion is.
Hinduism, specifically, Smarta/Advaitan Hinduism has been viewed as a tolerant religion because it does not subscribe to similar ideas of false God or idolatry because this branch of Hinduism is not fixed on one concept of God. However, the other branches of Hinduism, although they are fixed on one concept of God, (i.e., Vaishnavism,) for example, they adhere to the Vedic principle: "Truth is one, the wise call by different names." A peculair evidence of this belief is visible in Indians who accept Jesus Christ as their God but still identify themselves as followers of Hinduism.[23] Many outsiders view the Hindu "gods and goddesses" and mythology as only sexuality and violence — which consequently makes the Hindu deities appear immoral. Hindus strongly condemn such interpretations, most of which, according to them, is not only a shallow analysis of the Hindu religion but also willfull and gross misinterpretation of Hindu iconography and mythology.
Notes
- ^ ranking roughly co-eval with Judaism according to Schmidt, Sager, et al. Patterns of Religion"
- ^ Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1:3:28
- ^ Jha, Dwijendra N. "Looking for a Hindu Identity". Pages 10, 39, 40
- ^ Manu Smriti Laws of Manu 1.87-1.91
- ^ Sabhlok, Prem. "Glimpses of Vedic Metaphysics". Page 21
- ^ "The Indian Constitution". Part III (Articles 15 & 17). "Fundamental Rights"
- ^ "Reality-Shift...". Page 3
- ^ Swami Krishnananda. "The Doctrine of the Upanishads". Page 7
- ^ Eaton, James. "Desmond's Fourfold Sense of Being..". Page 2
- ^ Arnold, Sir Edwin. "The Bhagvad Gita". Chapter 7 (Page 30)
- ^ "Hindu God and Goddess"
- ^ Ruth Vanita, "The self is not gendered: Sulabha's debate with King Janaka". NWSA Journal, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pg. 76, 2003.
- ^ "Hinduism and Hindutva: What Supreme Court says?", The Hindustan Times, January 8th, 1996.
- ^ Dr. Ramesh Yeshwant Prabhoo v. Shri Prabhakar Kashinath Kunte and Others, Indian Supreme Court, Appeal no. 28345/1989, December 11, 1995.
- ^ CIA factbook Srilanka
- ^ Pakistan 1998 Census
- ^ Malaysia 2000 Census
- ^ US Census p.55
- ^ PBS Country Profile: South Africa
- ^ Lexicorient, Encyclopedia of the Orient.
- ^ 2001 Great Britain National Statistics
- ^ Sweetman, W., "Hinduism" and the History of "Religion": Protestant Presuppositions in the Critique of the Concept of Hinduism", Method & Theory in the Study of Religion, Vol. 15, no. 14, 2003.
- ^ Bakker. H., "The Challenge of Churchless Christianity: An Evangelical Assessment", International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 29, p. 179, 2005.
References
- Mascaró, Juan (trans.). 2003. The Bhagavad Gita. Penguin Classics. 160-page revised edition (originally published in 1962), with preface by author and introduction by Dr. Simon Brodbeck. [1]
- Chaudhuri, Nirad C. 1979. Hinduism: A Religion to Live By. Chatto & Windus, London. ISBN 0-7011-2225-0
- Easwaran, Eknath (trans.). 1988. The Upanishads. Penguin Arkana.
- (Article on) Rigveda. Britannica Concise Encyclopedia
- Rigveda (English trans. by Griffith)
- "Hinduism" on Microsoft Encarta Online
- ^ Bhagavad Gita
- Sinha, H. S., 1993, Bhāratīya Darshan Kī Rūparekhā (Hindi), Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi–Mumbai–Varanasi.
- Acharya, S, S. (Ed. & Hindi trans.), 2004, (Shukla) Yajurveda (Sanskrit with Hindi translation), Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareily.
- Acharya, S, S. (Ed. & Hindi trans.), 2004, Brihadāranyakopanishad (Sanskrit with Hindi translation), Sanskriti Sansthan, Bareily.
See also
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Hinduism
- Contemporary Hindu movements
- Hinduism by country
- Hindu calendar
- Hindu deities
- Hindu idealism
- Hindu temples
- List of famous Hindu temples
- List of Hindu denominations
- List of Hindus
- List of Hinduism-related articles
- Sanskrit
- Vedic science
- Puja
- Hinduism and other religions
- Criticism of Hinduism
- Apostasy in Hinduism
- Evolution of Shaivism
- Forgiveness (contains section on Hinduism)
Related systems and religions
External links
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- Hinduism A Perspective Articles introducing many concepts of Hinduism.
- sankaracharya.org Advaita Vedanta and Hindu Upanishads
- Atma Jyoti Ashram Articles on aspects of Hindu spirituality.
- A Tribute To Hinduism - This site catalogs thoughts of world-renowned intellectuals regarding Hinduism, recommends books for further reading, and provides useful links for further research.
- Hinduism.co.za
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- BBC Religion and Ethics on Hinduism
- Dharma Central's facts about Hinduism
- Heart of Hinduism - Based on the widely used UK schools text.
- Hindu.org
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- Hinduism and Hinduism resources
- International Society for Krishna Consciousness - From the Vaisnava Tradition of Hinduism.
- Paper on Hinduism by Swami Vivekananda
- Sarve Samachar - Hindu news
- Ten common questions by outsiders and pertinent answers.
- VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online
- Hinduism articles Bhagavad Gita Sanatana Dharma
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