Singlish

Singlish, a portmanteau of the words Singaporean and English, is the English-based creole spoken colloquially in Singapore.

Although it is a "dialect of English," Singlish may be difficult to understand for a speaker of another dialect of English, such as British English, American English or even Australian English. The main difficulties in understanding are Singlish's unique slang and syntax, which are more pronounced in informal speech.

Overview

Singlish originated with the arrival of the British and the establishment of English language schools in Singapore. Soon, English filtered out of schools and onto the streets, to be picked up by non-English-speakers in a pidgin-like form for communication purposes. After some time, this new form of English, now loaded with substantial influences from Indian English, Baba Malay, and the southern varieties of Chinese, became the language of the streets and began to be learned "natively" in its own right. Creolization occurred, and Singlish then became a fully-formed, stabilized, and independent English creole.

Singlish shares substantial linguistic similarities with Malaysian English (Manglish) in Malaysia, although distinctions can be made, particularly in vocabulary. One noticeable difference is that "don't know" in Singlish is "donno", whereas in Manglish, "don't know" is used, although neither is confined entirely to one country or the other.

Initially, "Singlish" and "Manglish" were essentially the same language, when Singapore and peninsular Malaysia were a single geographic entity — Malaya. In old Malaya, English was the language of the British administration whilst Malay was spoken as the lingua franca of the street. Thus, even the Chinese would revert to Malay when speaking to Chinese people who did not speak the same Chinese dialect.

After Singapore's independence in 1965, and successive "Speak Mandarin" campaigns, a subtle language shift among the post-'65 generation became more and more pronounced as Malay idiomatic expressions were, and continued to be, displaced by idioms borrowed from Chinese spoken varieties, such as Hokkien.

The English language in Singapore is a sociolect continuum. The continuum runs through the following varieties:

Acrolectal: This is the "highest-class" form of speech, used by the well-educated in formal situations. Acrolectal Singaporean English is roughly the same as formal British English, with the exception of some pronunciation differences that occur due to the influence of Singlish pronunciation. Acrolectal Singaporean English does exhibit, however, a much smaller degree of Singlish pronunciation features than do Mesolectal, Basilectal, and pidgin variants of Singlish. For example, speakers of acrolectal Singaporean English attempt to restore the phonemes /θ/ and /ð/ (as in thin and then).

Mesolectal: This is more "middle-class", and is used in formal and semi-formal situations. At this level, features not found in other forms of English begin to emerge.

Basilectal: This is the colloquial speech used by everyone, educated or not, in informal settings, and is the speech usually referred to as "Singlish". Here can be found all of the unique phonological, lexical, and grammatical features of Singlish. Many of these features can be attributed to Asian languages such as the Chinese languages, Malay, or Indian languages such as Tamil, though some cannot.

Pidgin: This is the "pidgin" level of Singlish, which is probably a good representative of an earlier stage of Singlish, before creolization took place and solidified Singlish as a fully-formed creole. Like all pidgins, speakers at the pidgin level speak another language as a first language, and Singlish as a second language. However, since many people today learn Singlish natively, the number of speakers at the "pidgin" level of Singlish is dwindling. This is because by definition, a pidgin is not learned natively.

The coexistence of basilectal Singlish and acrolectal Standard English can also be analyzed as a diglossia, which is a split between a "high" formal language and a "low" informal language.

**The Sociolect Continuum of Singaporean English**
Basilect ("Singlish") "Dis guy Singrish si bey powdehfoo wan. Hoh seh!"			Mesolect "Dis guy Singlish very powerful one."			Acrolect ("Standard") "This guy's Singlish is very good."

The phenomenon of code switching, or the alternation between multiple languages within the same conversation, further complicates the linguistic situation in Singapore. Since many Singaporeans can speak English at multiple points along the sociolect spectrum, code switching can occur very frequently between acrolectal and basilectal Singaporean English. In addition, as many Singaporeans are also speakers of the Chinese languages, Malay, or Indian languages such as Tamil, code switching between English and other languages also occurs very frequently.

Usage in society

Due to its origins, Singlish shares many similarities with pidgin varieties of English, and can easily give off the impression of "broken English" or "bad English" to a speaker of some other, less divergent variety of English. In addition, the profusion of Singlish features, especially loanwords from Asian languages, mood particles, and topic-prominent structure, can easily make Singlish downright incomprehensible to a Briton or American. As a result, the use of Singlish is greatly frowned on by the government, and two former prime ministers, Lee Kuan Yew and Goh Chok Tong, have publicly declared that Singlish is substandard English that handicaps Singaporeans, presents an obstacle to learning good English, and renders the speaker incomprehensible to everyone except another local. In the interest of promoting equality and better communication with the rest of the world, the government has launched the Speak Good English Movement to eradicate it, at least from formal usage. In spite of this, in recent years the use of Singlish on television and radio has proliferated as localized Singlish continues to be popular among most Singaporeans.

Singlish is strongly discouraged in Singaporean schools at a governmental level as it is believed to hinder the proper learning of standard English, and so faces a situation of diglossia. The use of Singlish when speaking in classes or to teachers, however officially frowned upon, is rather inevitable given that many teachers themselves are comfortable with the dialect. For many students, using Singlish is also inevitable when interacting with their peers, siblings, parents and elders. In polytechnics, students feel the greater need to socialise with their peers in a learning environment less rigid than primary or secondary school, and as a result Singlish is popular. The government continues to wage an uphill battle in discouraging students from developing a Singlish-speaking habit.

Singaporean men find speaking Singlish necessary during their time in the military, or national service, as Singlish has replaced Hokkien as the standard vernacular in the Singapore Armed Forces. The informality of Singlish fits well in stressful training situations, and are used among soldiers regardless of ethnic groups and level of education. Many phrases originating in the military have filtered into the lexicon over the years and they have become a method of distinguishing those who have undergone NS.

In most workplaces, Singlish is avoided in formal settings, especially at job interviews, meetings with clients, presentations or meetings. Nonetheless, select Singlish phrases are sometimes injected into discussions to build rapport or for a humorous effect, especially when the audience consists mainly of locals.

In other informal settings, such as during conversation with friends, or transactions in kopi tiams (coffee shops) and shopping malls, Singlish is used without restriction. The only exception is that that it may be considered impolite to speak Singlish when a foreigner is present, as it is likely that he or she will have difficulty comprehending what is being said.

It should also be noted that Singlish itself consists of a diverse continuum ranging from an acrolect that is very similar to British or American English, to a mesolect that is more divergent, to a basilect that is nearly incomprehensible to the average native speaker of English. In a formal situation, the acrolect may be acceptable, while the basilect would be unacceptable; in an informal situation, the situation may be reversed with the acrolect being too stiff and the basilect more acceptable.

Phonology

Singlish pronunciation, while built on a base of British English, is also heavily influenced by Chinese and Malay.

There is variation within Singlish, both geographically and ethnically. Chinese, Malays, Indians, Eurasians, and other ethnic groups in Singapore all have distinct accents.

The East Coast area, particularly the districts that stretch from Siglap to Katong, is renowned as a residential and cultural mecca of sorts for the Peranakan and the Eurasian communities. The teaching professions, especially teaching English, was a popular option in the Eurasian community form the beginning of the last century up till the 1970's. As a result, whole generations of school children in the Siglap/Katong districts were taught English with a Eurasian accent. For example, words like "door" and "four" were pronounced as "doe" and "foe".

The phonology of Singlish:

Consonants

	Bilabial	Labiodental	Dental	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stops	p b			t d			k g
Affricates					tʃ dʒ
Fricatives		f (v)	(θ ð)	s (z)	ʃ (ʒ)			h
Nasals	m			n			ŋ
Laterals				l
Approximants	w			r		j

(See International Phonetic Alphabet for an in-depth guide to the symbols.)

In general:

The unvoiced stops and affricate—/p/ pat, /t/ tin, /k/ come, /tʃ/ chin—are sometimes unaspirated, especially among Malay Singaporeans. (Aspiration refers to the strong puff of air that may accompany the release of these stop consonants.) In other varieties of English, these phonemes are usually aspirated, especially at the beginning of a word. The general effect of this is that, the Singlish pronunciation of pat, tin and come may sometimes seem closer to bat, din, and gum than other varieties of English.

The voiced fricatives—/v/ very, /z/ zero, /ʒ/ vision—are unstable at the basilectal level, and may be substituted with other phonemes, e.g. bery for very, gero for zero. (This is much rarer outside the basilectal level.) In syllable-final positions they merge with their unvoiced counterparts—see point 6 below.

The dental fricatives—/θ/ thin and /ð/ then—merge into /t/ and /d/, so that three = tree and then = den. /θ/ is often replaced with a strongly aspirated /t/: [tʰ]. When put at the end of a word, -th are pronounced as -f, for example, with or path is read as wiff and paff respectively. Under the influence of "with", without is often pronounced with /v/ in place of /ð/. The dental fricatives are restored in acrolectal speech.

The distinction between /l/ and /r/ is not stable at the basilectal level, as evinced by TV personality Phua Chu Kang's oft-repeated refrain to "Use your blain!".

/l/ at the end of a syllable, pronounced as a velarized "dark l" in British or American English, is often so velarized in Singlish that it approaches the Close-mid back unrounded vowel [ɤ], e.g. sale [seɤ]. /l also tends to be lost after /ɔ/, /o/, /u/, and for some basilectal speakers, /ə/. Hence pall = paw, roll = row, tool = two, and for some, pearl = per.

Syllabic consonants never occur. Hence taken [tekən] and battle [bɛtəɤ], never [tekn̩] or [bɛtl̩].

[ʔ], the glottal stop, is inserted at the beginning of all words starting with a vowel, similar to German. As a result, final consonants do not experience liaison, i.e. run onto the next word. For example, "run out of energy" would be "run-nout-to-venergy" in most dialects of English, but "run 'out 'of 'energy" in Singlish.

Plosives are "geminate" (or double-length) if occurring in the middle of a word. Hence better [bɛt:ə], enter [ɛnt:ə]. To speakers of other dialects of English, this sounds like a short pause: "beh - (pause) - ter".

[ɾ] is used instead of /t/ or /d/ in intervocalic position (i.e. between vowels), predominantly among Indian Singaporeans. This is reminiscent of American English.

[ʔ] replaces final plosive consonants of syllables in regular- to fast-paced speed speech, especially stops: Goodwood Park becomes Gu'-wu' Pa' . Fricative consonants like /s/ may be lost entirely. The plural -s, for example, is often omitted. This may also be the result of influence from Chinese, which does not distinguish between single and plural nouns.

In slower speech, final consonants are pronounced fully (though stops are not released, like American English -t and -d). However, voicing distinction—i.e. /p/ & /b/, /t/ & /d/, etc.—are usually not kept in final consonants. This affects fricatives more than stops. As a result, peace = peas, let = led, and so forth. This leads to some mergers of noun/verb pairs, such as belief with believe.

Final consonant clusters simplify, especially fast speech. In general, stops, especially /t/ and /d/, are lost if they come after another consonant: bent = Ben, act = ack, nest = Ness. /s/ is also commonly lost at the end of a consonant cluster: relax = relac.

Vowels

Monophthongs

	Front	Central	Back
Close	[[close front unrounded vowel\|i]]		[[close back rounded vowel\|u]]
Close-mid	[[close-mid front unrounded vowel\|e]]	[[mid central vowel\|ə]]	[[close-mid back rounded vowel\|o]]
Open-mid	[[open-mid front unrounded vowel\|ɛ]]	[[mid central vowel\|ə]]	[[open-mid back rounded vowel\|ɔ]]
Open		[[open back unrounded vowel\|ɑ]]

Diphthongs

ai	au	ɔi	iə	uə

The vowel system of Singlish can be generally derived by merging vowel phonemes in the British Received Pronunciation vowel system. The following describes a typical system. Some speakers may further merge /e/ and /ɛ/; other speakers make a distinction between /i/ and /ɪ/, /ɛ/ and /ɛə/, or /ɑ/ and /ʌ/.

At the acrolectal level, the merged vowel phonemes are distinguished to an extent, and elements from American English are introduced, such as rhotic vowels (pronouncing the "r" in bird, port, etc.)

Singlish phoneme	RP phoneme(s)	as in
/i/	/iː/	meet
/i/	/ɪ/	pit
/e/	/eɪ/	day
/e/	/ɛ/	leg
/ɛ/	/ɛ/	set
	/æ/	map
	/ɛə/	hair
/ɑ/	/ɑː/	car
		pass
		father
	/ʌ/	bus
	/aɪ/ (before /l/)	mile
/ɔ/	/ɒ/	mock
	/ɔː/	thought
	/ɔː/	court
/o/	/əʊ/	low
/u/	/uː/	room
/u/	/ʊ/	put
/ə/ - see below	/ɜː/	bird
	/ə/	idea
	/ə/	better
/ai/	/aɪ/	my
/au/	/aʊ/	mouth
/ɔi/	/ɔɪ/	boy
/jə/	/ɪə/	here
/wə/	/ʊə/	tour
/jɔ/	/jʊə/	cure
/ai jə/	/aɪə/	fire
/au wə/	/aʊə/	power

/ɛ/ remains /ɛ/ in Singlish, except when followed by a voiced plosive (/b/, /d/, or /g/), in which case it becomes /e/ among some speakers. /ai/ remains /ai/ in Singlish, except when followed by /l/, in which case it monophthongizes to /ɑ/.

Examples of words have idiosyncratic pronunciations:
flour /flɑ/ (expected: /flɑ wə/ = flower)
their /djɑ/ (expected: /dɛ/ = there)
Flour/flower and their/there are therefore not homophones in Singlish.

In general, Singlish vowels are tenser — there are no lax vowels (which RP has in pit, put, and so forth). The diphthongs are pronounced with less glide than the diphthongs in RP. The vowels of day and low are pronounced as monophthongs—i.e. vowels with no glide.

In addition, where other varieties of English have an unstressed /ə/, reduced from another vowel, Singlish tends to restore the full vowel based on orthography. This is because Singlish de-emphasizes the role of stress. This can be seen in words such as accept /ɛksɛp/, example /ɛ(k)sɑmpəl/, purchase /pətʃes/, maintenance /mentɛnəns/, presentation /prisɛnteʃən/, and so on.

In loanwords from Hokkien that contain nasal vowels, the nasalization is often kept - one prominent example being the mood particle hor, pronounced as /hɔ~/—somewhat like the vowel in French dent.

Prosody

One of the most prominent and noticeable features of Singlish is its unique intonation pattern, which is quite unlike British, American English or Australasian English, etc. For example:

Singlish is syllable-timed compared to other varieties of English (which are mostly stress-timed). This in turn gives Singlish a very rhythmic and staccato feel.

Pitch contours are more well-defined and distinct in Singlish than in other varieties of English. This makes Singlish sound as if it has the tones of Chinese.
- Singlish has a tendency to use a low tone for single-syllable "function" words like prepositions and conjunctions.
- Singlish has a tendency to start words on a lower tone and gradually "step" the tone up at each syllable, ending it on a high tone, or a falling tone if the word ends on a plosive (unless the plosive is lost).
- Singlish tends to use flat pitches across each syllable, and abrupt changes in pitch between syllables.
- The position of the stress in stress-based dialects of English (e.g. British and American) is de-emphasized. It can however be marked by a sharp "step-up" of tone at that syllable.
- Singlish tends to preserve the tones of loan words from Mandarin and other Chinese languages.

File:Coxford Singlish Dictionary.jpg

Coxford Singlish Dictionary, a published book on Singlish

Grammar

The grammar of Singlish has been heavily influenced by other languages and dialects in the region, such as Malay and Chinese, with some structures being identical to ones in Mandarin and other Chinese languages. As a result, Singlish has acquired some unique features, especially at the basilectal level. Note that all of the features described below disappear at the acrolectal level, as people in formal situations tend to adjust their speech towards accepted norms found in other varieties of English.

Topic prominent

Singlish is topic-prominent, like Chinese and Japanese. This means that Singlish sentences often begin with a topic (or a known reference of the conversation), followed by a comment (or new information). Compared to other varieties of English, the semantic relationship between topic and comment is not important; moreover, nouns, verbs, adverbs, and even entire subject-verb-object phrases can all serve as the topic:

Dis country weather very hot, one. — In this country, the weather is very warm.
Dat person there cannot trust. — That person over there is not trustworthy.
Tomorrow doh need bring camera. — You don't need to bring a camera tomorrow.
He play soccer very good also one leh. — He's very good at playing soccer too.

The above constructions can be translated analogously into Chinese, with little change to the word order.

The topic can be omitted when the context is clear, or shared between clauses. This results in constructions that appear to be missing a subject to a speaker of British, American, Asutralian or New Zealand English:

Not good one lah. — This isn't good.
Cannot liddat go one lah. — You/it can't go just like that.
How come never show up? — Why didn't you/he/it show up? (See the use of never in place of didn't under the "Past tense" section.)
I like badminton, dat's why go play every weekend. — I like badminton, so I go play every weekend.
He not feeling well, so decide to stay home and sleep. — He's not feeling well, so he decided to stay home and sleep.

Nouns

Nouns are optionally marked for plurality. Articles are also optional:

He can play piano.
I like to read storybook.
Your computer got virus arnot? (Does your computer have viruses?)

It is more common to mark the plural in the presence of a modifier that implies plurality, such as "many" or "both".

He got many apples.

To be

The copula, which is the verb "to be" in most varieties of English, is treated somewhat differently in Singlish:

When occurring with an adjective, "to be" tends to drop out, and is often replaced by an adverb, such as "very". The use of an adverb as the copula is strongly reminiscent of Chinese usage:

Dis house very nice.
Dat car not worth the money.

When occurring with "-ing" to form the continuous aspect, "to be" may similarly drop out, leaving the "-ing" form as the independent continuous form:

How come so late in the night you still playing music, ar?
You looking for trouble, izzit?

Slightly less common is the dropping out of "to be" when used as an equative between two nouns, or as a locative:

Dis boy the class monitor. (=class president)
His house in Ang Mo Kio.

In general, "to be" drops out more behind nouns and pronouns (except "I", "he", and "she"), and much less behind a clause (what I think is...) or a demonstrative (this is...).

The past tense

Past tense marking is optional in Singlish. Marking of the past tense occurs most consistently in strong verbs (or irregular verbs), as well as verbs ending on -t and -d, such as:

I went to Orchard Road yesterday.
He accepted in da end.

Due to consonant cluster simplification, the past tense is unmarked when it is part of a complex consonant cluster:

He talk for so long, never stop, not even when I ask him.

The past tense tends to be unmarked if the verb in question goes on for an extended period, rather than as an isolated event (compare French imperfect):

When I was young, ar, I go to school every day.
When he was in school, he always get good marks one.
Last night I mug so much, so sian already. (mug = cram for exam. sian = bored/tired.)

Change of state

Instead of the past tense, a change of state can be expressed by adding already or liao (/liɑ̂u/) to the end of the sentence, analogous to Chinese 了 (le). This is not the same as the past tense, as it does not cover past habitual or continuous occurrences, and can refer to a real or hypothetical change of state in the past, present or future:

He throw it liao. - (He has already thrown it away.)
Aiyah, cannot wait any more, must go oreddy. (Oh dear, I cannot wait any longer. I must leave immediately.)
I eat liao. (I ate or I have eaten.)
Yesterday, dey go there oreddy. (They already went there yesterday.)
This new game, you play liao or not? (As for this new game, have you played it yet?)
Ah Song kena sai oreddy, then how? (If Ah Song were to get in trouble, what would you do?)

Negation

Negation works in general like English, with not added after "to be", "to have", or modals, and don't before all other verbs. Contractions (can't, shouldn't) are used alongside their uncontracted forms.

However, due to final cluster simplification, the -t drops out from negative forms, and -n may also drop out after nasalizing the previous vowel. This makes nasalization the only mark of the negative.

I do ([dõ]) want. — I don't want to.

Another effect of this is that in the verb "can", its positive and negative forms are distinguished only by vowel:

I can /kɛn/ do this lah.
I can't /kɑn/ do this lah.

Also, never is used as a negative past tense marker, and does not have to carry the English meaning. In this construction, the negated verb is never put into the past-tense form:

How come today you never (=didn't) hand in homework?
How come he never (=didn't) pay just now?

Interrogative

In addition to the usual way of forming yes-no questions, Singlish uses two more constructions:

In a construction similar (but not identical) to Chinese, or not is appended to the end of sentences to form yes/no questions. Or not cannot be used with sentences already in the negative:

This book you want or not? — Do you want this book?
Can or not? — Is this possible / permissible?

The phrase is it is also appended to the end of sentences to form yes-no questions. It is generic like the French n'est-ce pas?, regardless of the actual verb in the sentence. Is it implies that the speaker is simply confirming something he/she has already inferred:

They never study, is it? (No wonder they fail!)
You don't like that, is it? (No wonder you had that face!)
Alamak, you guys never read newspaper is it? — "What, haven't you guys ever read a newspaper?" (No wonder you aren't up to date!)

Asking a question in a form of statement.

You eat already ah ( Have you eaten?)
You want ah (Would you like to have this?)

There are also many discourse particles, such as hah, hor, meh, ar, that are used in questions. (See the "Discourse particles" section further down in this article.)

Reduplication

Another feature strongly reminiscent of Chinese and Malay, verbs are often repeated (e.g., TV personality Phua Chu Kang's "don't pray-pray!" pray = play.) In general verbs are repeated twice to indicate the delimitative aspect (that the action goes on for a short period), and three times to indicate greater length and continuity:

You go tink tink a little bit, maybe den you will get answer. (Go and think over it for a while, and then you might understand.)
So what I do was, I sit down and I tink tink tink, until I get answer lor. (So I sat down, thought, thought and thought, until I understood.)

The use of verb repetition also serve to provide a more vivid description of an activity:

Want to go Orcher walk walk see see or not? (Let's go shopping/sightseeing at Orchard Road.)
Dun anyhow touch here touch there leh. (Please don't mess with my things.)

In another usage reminiscent of Chinese, nouns referring to people can be repeated for intimacy. Only monosyllabic nouns can be repeated:

My boy-boy is going to Primary One already. (My son is about to enter Grade Two.)
We two friend-friend one. (We are close friends.)

Adjectives of one or two syllables can also be repeated for intensification:

You go take the small-small one. (Retrieve the smaller item, please.)

Due to the frequent use of these repetitions on short words, Singlish expressions often sound as if they are spoken by children, which non-Singlish speakers find quite amusing. This partly explains Singlish's popularity as an informal, simple and sometimes intimate language.

Kena

Kena is used as an auxiliary to mark the passive voice, in addition to "to be" and "to get". It is derived from the Malay word with the same spelling that means to encounter or to come into physical contact. Kena can be used with either the infinitive or the past participle. It must be used with a verb that affects the subject in a negative way, and is similar in this respect to passive markers in Chinese, such as Hokkien tio or Mandarin 被 bèi:

He was scolded. = He got scolded. = He kena scolded. = He kena scold.

Not:

*He kena praised.

When the context is given, Kena may be used without a verb:

Better clean the room, otherwise you kena. (You will be punished if you don't tidy the room.)

Other Singlish phrases with Kena

kena arrow: be assigned an undesirable task
kena hantam: be hit by something, such as a ball, or to be beaten up
kena sabo: become a victim of sabotage or a practical joke
kena sai: literally "hit by shit"; be harmed by an unpleasant event or object
kena tekan: tekan means "press", as in "pressure", in Malay; the phrase means to be physically tortured
kena whack: be beaten badly, in games or in physical fights

One

The word one is used to emphasize the predicate of the sentence by implying that it is unique and characteristic. It is analogous to the use of particles like 嘅 ge in Cantonese, 啲 e in Hokkien, or 的 de in southern-influenced Mandarin. One used in this way does not correspond to any use of the word "one" in British, American English, Australasian English, etc:

Wah lau! So stupid one! - Oh my gosh! He's so stupid!
I do everything by habit one. - I always do everything by habit.
He never go to school one. - He doesn't go to school (unlike other people).

Under the influence of southern-influenced Mandarin, de can also be used in place of one.

Discourse particles

Particles in Singlish are highly comparable to Chinese. In general, discourse particles occur at the end of a sentence. Their presence change the meaning or the tone of the sentence, but not its grammaticality.

Particles are noted for keeping their tones regardless of the remainder of the sentence. Most of the particles are directly borrowed from southern Chinese varieties, with the tones intact.

Lah

The ubiquitous word lah (/lɑ́/ or /lɑ̂/) is used at the end of a sentence. Lim (2004) describes it as a particle that simultaneously asserts a position and entices solidarity.

Note that 'lah' is often written after a comma for clarity, but there is never a pause before a lah. This is because in the original Malay, 'lah' is appended to the end of the word and is not a separate word by itself.

In Malay, 'lah' is used to change a verb into a command or to soften its tone, particularly when usage of the verb may seem impolite. To drink is minum, but 'Here, drink!' is minumlah. Similarly, 'lah' is frequently used with imperatives in Singlish:

Drink, lah! (Come on, drink!)

'Lah' also occurs frequently with "Yah" and "No" (hence "Yah lah" and "No lah"). The results sound less brusque and facilitate the flow of conversation.

Lah is often used with brusque, short, negative responses:

Dun have, lah! (Brusque response to, "Lend me some money, can?")
Dun know oreddy, lah! (Brusque response to someone fumbling with an explanation.)

Lah is also used for reassurance:

Dun worry, he can one lah. Don't worry, he can [do it].
It's okay lah. It's all right.

Lah can also be used to emphasize items in a spoken list, appearing after each item in the list.

Although lah can appear nearly anywhere, it cannot appear with a yes-no question. Another particle should be used instead:

Where are you ar?

Wat

The particle wat (/wɑ̀t/), also spelled what, is used to remind or contradict the listener, especially when strengthening another assertion that follows from the current one:

But he very good at sports what. (Shouldn't you know this already, having known him for years?)
You never give me what! (Or else I would have gotten it, right?)

Mah

Mah (/mɑ́/) is used to assert that something is obvious and final, and is usually used only with statements that are already patently true. This may seem condescending to the listener:

This one also can work one mah! — Can't you see that this choice will also work?!

Lor

Lor (/lɔ́/), also spelled lorh or loh, is a casual, sometimes jocular way to assert upon the listener either direct observations or obvious inferences. It also carries a sense of resignation, that "it happens this way and can't be helped":

If you don't do the work, then you die-die lorh! — If you don't do the work, then you're dead!
Okay lorh, you do what you want. — Fine, go ahead and do what you want.

Leh

Leh (/lɛ́/) is used to soften a command, request, claim or complaint that may be brusque otherwise:

Gimme leh. (Give it to me)
How come you don't give me leh?
The tix are seriously ex leh. — The tickets are seriously expensive.
But I belief safe is better than sorry leh.

Hor

Hor (/hɔ̃ˇ/), also spelled horh, is used to ask for the listener's attention and consent/support:

Then horh, another person came out of the house.
This shopping center also very nice horh.

Ar

Ar (/ɑ̌/), also spelled arh or ah, is inserted between topic and comment (often to give a negative tone):

Dis boy arh, always so naughty one! — This boy is always so naughty!

Ar (/ɑ̌/) with a rising tone is used to reiterate a rhetorical question:

How come lidat one, arh? — Why is it like that? / Why are you like that?

Ar (/ɑ̄/) with a mid-level tone, on the other hand, is used to mark a genuine question that does require a response: ('or not' can also be used in this context.)

You going again ar? — "Are you going again?"

Hah

Hah (/hɑ̌/), also spelled har, is used to express disbelief or used in a questioning manner.

Har! He really ponteng class yesterday ar? - What? Is it true that he played truant (=ponteng) yesterday?
Har? How come like that one? End up kena caning! - What? How did he end up being caned?

Meh

Meh (/mɛ́/) is used to form questions expressing surprise or skepticism:

They never study meh? (I thought they do?)
You don't like that meh? (I thought you do?)
Really meh? (Is that really so?)

Siah

/sjɑ̀/, also spelled Sia, is used to express envy and for emphasis. The term "siah" is derived from the Malay word "sial" which means unlucky or damned. The term sial is still used extensively in the Malay context.

He very solid siah. — He's damn capable.
Wahlau, very heng siah. — Goodness me (=Wahlau)! That was a close shave (=heng)!

Nia

Nia is the short form for "Only ah". Used to show that something is diminutive or of a paltry amount. "Ah" in this case can either be used to question or be used to answer a question.

Liddat nia? (Liddat only ah?) "You mean that's it?"
Abit nia. (Abit only ah) "There's only a bit."

Wah

Wah is used as a form of exclamation, usually followed by another sound to denote the kind of exclamation.

Wah! Cool leh! (Wow! Cool leh!) "Wow! That's cool!"
Wah kao! So ex! (What! Why so expensive?) "What! Why is it so expensive?"
Wah piang eh! Damn hard ah, the exam. (Bloody hell, the exam is so hard lor.) "The exam was really difficult."
Wah lau! Eat leh... (Come on, eat!) "Come come! Dig in!"
Wah seh! Chio leh! (Wow, very beautiful leh!) "Wow, that(she)'s so beautiful!"

Summary

Summary of discourse and other particles:

Function	Example	Meaning
(Nothing)	Can.	"It can be done."
Solidarity	Can lah.	"Rest assured, it can be done."
Seeking attention / support (implicit)	Can hor / huh.	"It can be done I guess."
Characteristic	Can one / de.	"This can be done, really."
(Vividness?)	Very nice lidat.	"This really appeared to be very nice."
Acceptance / Resignation	Can lor.	"It can be done, for goodness sake."
Assertion (implies that listener should already know)	Can wat.	"It can be done... shouldn't you know this?"
Assertion (strong)	Can mah.	"See?! It can be done!"
Assertion (softened)	Can leh.	"Can't you see that it can be done?"
Yes / No question	Can or not?	"Can it be done?"
Yes / No question (confirmation)	Can is it?	"It can be done, right?"
Yes / No question (scepticism)	Can meh?	"Um... are you sure it can be done?"
Confirmation	Can ar (low).	"So... it can really be done?"
Rhetorical	Can ar (rising).	"Alright then, don't come asking for help if problems arise."
Change of state	Can already / liao.	"It's done!"
(Indifference?)	Can huh (low tone).	"It can be done..."

Miscellaneous

"There is"/"there are" and "has"/"have" are both expressed using got, so that sentences can be translated in either way back into British / American / Australasian English. This is equivalent to the Chinese 有 yǒu (to have):

Got question? Is there a question? / Do you have a question?
Yesterday ar, East Coast Park got so many people one! There were so many people at East Coast Park yesterday. / East Coast Park had so many people [there] yesterday.
This bus got air-con or not? Is there air-conditioning on this bus? / Does this bus have air-conditioning?
Where got!? lit. Where is there [this]?, or less politely, There isn't/aren't any! also more loosely, What are you talking about?; generic response to any accusation.

Can is used extensively as both a question particle and an answer particle. The negative is cannot.

Gimme lah, can? Give it to me, OK?
Can! Sure!
Cannot. No way.

Can can be repeated for greater emphasis or to express enthusiasm:

Boss: "Can you send me the report by this afternoon?" Employee: "Can Can!" (No problem!)

The Malay word with the same meaning boleh can be used in place of can to add a greater sense of multiculturalism in the conversation. The person in a dominant position may prefer to use boleh instead:

Employee:"Boss, tomorrow can get my pay check or not?" Boss:"Boleh lah ..." (sure/possibly)

The phrase like that is commonly appended to the end of the sentence to emphasize descriptions by adding vividness and continuousness. Due to its frequency of use, it is often pronounced lidat (lye-dat):

He so stupid lidat. - He's pretty stupid, you know.
He acting like a little kid lidat. - He's really acting like a little kid, you know.

Like that can also be used as in British or American English:

Why he acting lidat?

In British/American English, "also" is used before the predicate, while "too" is used after the predicative at the end of the sentence. In Singlish, "also" (pronounced oso, see phonology section above) can be used in either position.

I oso like dis one. (I also like this one.)
I like dis one oso. (I like this one too.)

"Also" is also used as a conjunction. In this case, "A also B" corresponds to "B although A". This stems from Chinese, where the words 也 (yě), 還 (hái) or 都 (dōu) (meaning also, usage depends on dialect or context) would be used to express these sentences.

I try so hard oso cannot do. (I tried so hard, and still I can't do it. OR I can't do it even though I tried so hard.)

The order of the verb and the subject in an indirect question is the same as a direct question.

"Eh, you know where is he?" "Excuse me, do you know where he is?"

"Ownself" is often used in place of "yourself", or more accurately, "yourself" being an individual, in a state of being alone.

"Har? He ownself go party yesterday for what?" "Why did he go to the party alone yesterday?"

Not all expressions with the -self pronouns should be taken literally, but as the omission of "by":

Wah, hungry liao! You eat yourself, we eat ourself, can? (Hey, I/you should be hungry by this time! Let's go Dutch, i.e. each person should pay for himself or herself at the restaurant.) - but this may also mean 'Let's split up and eat.' (then meet up again)

Vocabulary

Singlish formally takes after British English (in terms of spelling and abbreviations), although naming conventions are in a mix of American and British ones (with American ones on the rise). For instance, local media have "sports pages" (sport in British English) and "soccer coverage" (the use of the word "soccer" is not common in British media). Singlish also uses many words borrowed from Hokkien, the Chinese dialect native to more than 75% of the Chinese community in Singapore, and from Malay. In many cases, English words take on the meaning of their Chinese counterparts, resulting in a shift in meaning. This is most obvious in such cases as "borrow"/"lend", which are functionally equivalent in Singlish and mapped to the same Mandarin word, "借" (jiè), which can mean to lend or to borrow. ("Oy, seow-eh, can lend me your calculator?")

The following list of examples is far from complete, as new Singlish words appear once in a while, usually due to a certain fad or a casual utterance by an individual.

Examples:

ah - eh? huh?
Ah Beng - gangster
aiyah! (Hokkien) or ayoh! - (Malay oh, no!)
alamak! - an expression of surprise/shock, literally means "oh my mother (Mary)!" (Portuguese)
ang moh - white person, Caucasian (red hair, Hokkien - probably a reference to the Dutch invaders to China in the late Ming to Qing dynasty)
ang moh gui - (red hair devil, 红毛鬼, Hokkien)
ang moh gao - (red hair monkey, 红毛猴, Hokkien); both phrases are highly pejorative and should not be used in civilized company
angkat bola - to bootlick (literal Malay "to carry balls")
anything lah! - In answer to a query: 'I have no preference; it's up to you, don't bother me!' or rather 'whatever!' See also "chin chye lah!"
Arer - the letter "R"
blanket party - to cover someone with a blanket and beat him up. Usually horseplay and used as an initiation rite in the past in schools.
bloody/ bloody hell - emphasizing on dislike/an exclaimation of frustration or shock; from British English, but with a Singlish pronunciation (bl-uh-dee, instead of bl-o-dee)
buaya - lit. crocodile (Malay), fig. a womanizer, flirt
bodoh - ignorant (from the Malay word, meaning "stupid")
boleh - can (Malay)
chachat - derived from a Malay word meaning retarded. "My boyfriend so chachat one! Always want to buy checkered shirt one. So uncle."
chin chye lah! - In answer to a query: 'I have no preference; it's up to you, don't bother me!'
Chinese helicopter - pidgin for "Chinese educated"
chio bu - good-looking female (Hokkien)
cao chicken - a watered down version of the Hokkien vulgarity "chao cheebye," literally "smelly cunt"
chong sua - 'gung ho' (literal Hokkien 'to charge up a hill')
chop - rubber stamp, the act of stamping (from Malay cap, or the sound made when stamping) - "Immigration will chop your passport."
chope - reserve - "Don't take this seat, I choped it already."
Cockanadan/Cockster - 'Refers to an individual who is confused or when he does something stupid'.. Eg. Eh, Don't be a cockster leh! I will not fall for him.
Dey! - 'Hey!' (Indian)
Dinch - "didn't." Sometimes used sarcastically.
Dunch - "don't." Used when someone has a short tongue. "I dunch noe"
Dubyou - the letter "W"
English helicopter - pidgin for "English educated"
Elleh - the letter 'L'
Fee-lim - the word 'film'
Gabra - very confused or very disorganized
garang - gungho (literal Malay "fierce")
gostan - go backward (Pidgin English) this actually originates from the nautical phrase "go astern"
heng - lucky, fortunate
Jakun - (Malay for "aborigine", sometimes pronounced yakun) - 'natives from the jungle' and implies that one is a mountain tortoise, country bumpkin or unsophisticated person and easily impressed by things they've never seen.
Jiak - (Hokkien) 'to eat'.
Jiak jua - (Hokkien) 'to eat snake' - refers to a skiver, or the act of skiving.
Jiak hong - (Hokkien) 'to eat air' - "To go on vacation", eg "John and Mary take 3 weeks leave go Australia jiak hong"
Jia Lat - (Hokkien) literally, 'sapping strength' - used to describe a terrible situation, eg "Ah! You broke your leg!? Jia lat ah! How you play soccer later?"
Jilo - the number 'zero'
Kilat - excellent - army term referring to someone who shines his boots well. See also "solid"
Lay-lio - the word 'radio'
Leh-bin - the word 'ribbon'
Luan hoot! - (Hokkien) 'randomly hit' - means "to bark up the wrong tree." or to "cast a wide net hoping to catch something"
KayPoh - Refer to a person that is nosey parker or busybody. Eg 'Eh, Don't be so kaypoh leh!'
kepala bunga - genital warts; gonorrhea.
kiah su/kiasu - (literally "scared to lose/of loss") somebody who fears losing out (from Hokkien 惊输)
kiah si/kiasi - (literally "scared to die/of death") somebody who fears losing out (from Hokkien 惊死)
kena, sometimes kana - to be afflicted with, to suffer (from) (Malay passive auxiliary)
kope - to take without permission "eh, don't kope my homework leh"
Kopi - coffee (Malay)
kopitiam - 'coffee shop' derived from 'kopi' (Malay) and 'tiam' (Hokkien)
kuku - stupid/silly; unfashionable
mai hiam la - 'don't be picky' or 'please stop your complaining.'
mai xiao lah! - (hokkien) Don't be crazy! 'úsed in response to: eh wan to steal dat car anot?'
mah-ziam - to resemble something in a certain way.
makan - eat (from Malay) See also "Jiak"
mata - police (from Malay for Eye)
mati - die, be doomed (Malay/Persian)
Orbit/Obiang - 'Someone or something that is gaudy or overly flamboyant in taste.'
or-leng - the word 'orange'
OTOT - 'own time/ own target - army reference meaning "to do as you please."'
oy! or rather oi! - to call someone from a distance or is said when one is annoyed; origins British English, but with Singlish pronunciation (oh-y instead of or-y)
pantang - bad luck, being superstitious, superstitions, (Malay)
sakar - (probably from Malay meaning 'sugar', which may have been derived from Hindi 'sakar' or 'sakkar' meaning 'sugar' and 'sweet words', and ultimately from Persian 'shakar' meaning 'sugar', 'sweet') to flatter, to lick one's boots: see also 'tripod' in the section 'English words with different meanings in Singlish' below.
sekali (pronounced SCAR-ly) - lest, what if "Skali no way to go out, then how?" (from Malay, sekali)
shiok - Great! An expression of satisfaction (Punjabi "shauk")
sian - bored, tired, sick of something (Hokkien)
sotong - lit. squid (Malay), fig. stupid (see also "blur")
suaku - uninformed or backward - a country bumpkin (lit. Hokkien "mountain tortoise")
suay - unlucky (Hokkien)
sup sup sui - something that is insignificant or easy to do (literal Cantonese "a little drop of water")
tua pai - a big shot (Hokkien) - e.g. So you think you're a majority share holder means you damn tua pai is it?
ulu - rural, remote (Malay)
wah! - wow! (Hokkien)
what! - (Indian English) No apparent meaning. Close to "alright" in American slang.
xiao eh! - (Hokkien) refers to either 'crazy' "in response to: you wan to go the haunted hospital tonight anot?" or an offensive term used to address a friend when calling out "xiao eh! wan to go clubbing tonight anot?"
yi si beh si - 'foolhardy' (Hokkien "not afraid to die; never die before")

Ordering at a coffee shop

Drinks

Teh - (Hokkien) Tea
Teh-O - (Hokkien) Tea without milk
Teh-C - (Hokkien) Tea with evaporated milk. The C here means the "Carnation" brand of evaporated milk.
Teh-Peng - (Hokkien) Tea with ice.
Teh-Poh - Weak or thin tea.
Teh-kah-dai - Tea with more sugar.
Teh-siu-dai - Tea with less sugar.
"Teh-packet" or "Teh-pao" - Tea to go.
Teh-Tarik - 'Pulled' tea with milk, a Malay speciality.

Kopi - (Hokkien) Coffee
Kopi-O - (Hokkien) Coffee without milk
Kopi-C - (Hokkien) Coffee with evaporated milk. The C here means the "Carnation" brand of evaporated milk.
Kopi-Peng - (Hokkien) Coffee with ice.
Kopi-packet or Kopi-pao - Coffee to go.
Kopi-gao - Thick coffee.
Kopi-poh - Weak or thin coffee.
Kopi-kah-dai - Coffee with more sugar.
Kopi-siu-dai - Coffee with less sugar.

Yuan yang - Coffee mixed with tea.

Meelo-sio - Hot Milo
Milo-Peng - Iced Milo
Horlick-sio - Hot Horlicks
Horlick-peng - Iced Horlicks

Roti - Toasted bread (only place orders for 2 or more slices).
Kaya-roti - Toasted bread with Kaya (only place orders for 2 or more slices).
"Neng" or "Half-boiled eggs" - Half boiled eggs, usually served uncooked. Wait about 5 minutes for the eggs to be half boiled before cracking it on the plate. Usually eaten with toasted bread with Kaya.

Food

Cai Dow Kway - Fried Carrot Cake. Fried steamed rice cakes with eggs, small turnip and white carrot pieces. Can be ordered plain or with black sweet sauce, with or without chilli.
Char Kway Teow - Fried flat rice noodles with bean sprouts, chinese sausages, eggs and cockles, in black sweet sauce, with or without chilli.
Hum - Cockles. Boiled or raw. Served with chilli.
Hang her - BBQ sting ray in sambal chilli.

Jia Hiam Jio - Add Chilli
Hiam Jio Gao - More Chilli
Mai Hiam Jio - No Chilli

Pang Keo Chap - Add ketchup
Keo Chap Gao - More Ketchup

Mai Chong - No Spring Onions
Mai Zar Chong - No Fried Onions

Da Bao - Take away

English words with different meanings in Singlish

arrow - pinpoint/pick on; To assign someone to an unwanted duty; "Why he arrow me to do this?"
blur - confused, disorientated
choose - browse - "Choose, choose, choose, but never buy, is it?"
chop - to stamp (with a rubber stamp) - "eh, your passport got kena chop or not ah?"
cock (it) up - to make a mistake or to mess up - "Don't cock up your evaluations." "This job is important, don't cock it up."
ever - once - I ever see him - from Malay "pernah"
follow - to come along/accompany - Can I follow?
heartlander - person from working class HDB estate
having here - "to eat in at a restaurant. The antonym is "take away" or "tah-bao"."
help, lah - please, do lend me a hand by desisting from whatever it is you are doing - "Help lah, stop hitting on my sister"
keep - put away - "Please keep your notes"
on, off - to switch on/off "I on the TV"
on ah - 'It's settled then?'
open - to turn on a light - "I open the light." (Derived from Chinese, which uses the verb "to open" in this manner. Use of "open" to mean "turn on" is limited specifically to lamps or lights.)
pass up - to hand in "Pass up your assignments"
scully - what if - "scully, we win this game?"
send - to take somebody to somewhere - "I'll send you to the airport."
shagged - tired (derived from the British colloquialism "shagged out" which means roughly the same thing. Note that this is the only use of the word "shag" in Singaporean English and it does not have the same sexual connotation that it does in British English. A young lady might say I am so shagged after last night's party without implying any sex was involved.) Shagged may also be pronounced as 'shacked' or 'shack', again similar to the colloquialism "shacked up".
solid/steady - excellent - "Solid sia, that movie." See also "Kilat"
sabo - short for "sabotage", also meaning to betray or jeopardise - "Because he sabo me, now boss mad at me!"
spoil - to be damaged "This one, spoil."
stay - to live (in a place) - from Malay "tinggal". "She stay in Ang Mo Kio."
shy (don't shy!) - come on! - from Malay "jangan malu-malu!"
stoned - to daze out
tripod - (from the similarity in sound between the Malay word 'sakar' and the Hokkien 'sar kar' ('three legs'): the word can be gestured by pointing the thumb, index and little fingers upward with the middle and ring fingers closed towards the palm) - a person who seeks favor by flattering people of influence; a sycophant, a toady
upgrade - to improve, renovated - "The service has been upgraded."
what? - eh? huh? - "You never give me, what?"
trow/throw - to dispose of "I trow it already."
tailong/chetti/chettia - One who lends money at exorbitant interest rates, especially one financed and supported by an organized crime network.
tok kok - (talk cock) - Probably from the English "cock and bull story". Talking senselessly/rubbish; "Don't tok kok lah!"

Expressions

Aboden/Abuden (ah-buh-den) - replacement phrase for - "isn't it obvious?" thrown in response to remarks stating the obvious Sometimes shortened to "Aboh?". Derived from "and then...?" as if to say "need I say more?" It is equivalent to the usage of the word "Duh"
Eat snake - commonly used in workplace environment. An action directed to a person who is not performing his job duties. "Oh, you eat snake ah? I'm going to tell boss."
Eye-power - 'refers to someone who sits back and watches others do the work. The comic book character "Cyclops" of the X-Men is sometimes synonymous with the idiom "Eye-power".'
Don't fly my kite - a singlish expression which means 'Please do not go back on your words'
return back - give back
Taiji king/queen - 'A buck-passer, someone adept at handing off responsibility.'
toast bread - toast
no fish prawn oso can - accepting a lesser alternative (direct translation of the Hokkien idiom "bo hir hay mah hoh.")
You think, I thought, who confirm? - army expression used during organisational foul ups.
You want 10 sen? - 'Means to "buzz off!" Refers to public phones that require 10 cents per call.
My England not powderful! - 'A sarcastic response made when a Singlish speaker is being corrected for his grammar, or lack thereof.'
Last time police wear short pants! - a retort made to someone who refers to how policies were made in the past. Refers to the British colonial police forces who wore three-quarter khaki pants in the 1950's and 60's.
Why you so liddat, ar? - (English - Why are you so "like that"?) 'an appeal made to someone who is being unreasonable.'
He still small boy one - 'a remark (Often offensive) made against someone who is not of a legally median age allowed by the law.'
Got problem is it? - 'an aggressive, instigatory challenge.'
You got telephone me that time? - replacement phrase for - "Did you call me some time ago?"
ORD loh! - ORD (Operationally Ready Date) is the date on which a National Serviceman completes his 2-year term of service. A favourite exultation of those nearing their particular ORD.

Singlish in pop culture

Movie

Musical

Oi! Sleeping Beauty

Television

Literature

These published works are generally in English, but they describe the prevalence of Singlish in Singapore, and use many Singlish terms such as in dialogue.

Chiang, Michael, Army Daze (Singapore: Times Books International, 1987) ISBN 9813002123
Chong, C.S., NS: An Air-Level Story (Singapore: Times Books International, 1994) ISBN 9812043128

References

Ho, Mian Lian and Platt, John Talbot (1993). Dynamics of a contact continuum: Singapore English. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-824828-8.
Lim, Lisa (2004). Singapore English: a grammatical description. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. ISBN 1-58-811576-3.
Newbrook, Mark (1987). Aspects of the syntax of educated Singaporean English: attitudes, beliefs, and usage. Frankfurt am Main; New York: P. Lang. ISBN 3-82-049886-9.
Platt, John Talbot and Weber, Heidi (1980). English in Singapore and Malaysia: status, features, functions. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-580438-4.

External links

	Front	Central	Back
Close	[[close front unrounded vowel\|i]]		[[close back rounded vowel\|u]]
Close-mid	[[close-mid front unrounded vowel\|e]]	[[mid central vowel\|ə]]	[[close-mid back rounded vowel\|o]]
Open-mid	[[open-mid front unrounded vowel\|ɛ]]	[[mid central vowel\|ə]]	[[open-mid back rounded vowel\|ɔ]]
Open		[[open back unrounded vowel\|ɑ]]