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Luo teaching

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Luoism (Chinese: 羅教; pinyin: Luójiào; lit. 'Luo's teaching') or Luozuism (Chinese: 羅祖教; pinyin: Luózǔjiào; lit. 'Patriarch Luo's teaching'), originally known as Wuweiism (Chinese: 无为教; pinyin: Wúwéijiào; lit. 'religion of non-action'),[1][note 1] refers to a stream of sect organisations within the Chinese folk religion, which trace their origins back to the preacher Luo Qing alias Luo Menghong (1443-1527[3]), or Luozu ("Patriarch Luo") and the revelation contained in his scripture, the Wǔbùliùcè (五部六册 "Five Instructions in Six Books").[4]

Patriarch Luo and the movement he started is considered the most important influence within the Chinese tradition of salvation sects.[5] A wide range of sects can be traced to Luoism; their names are numerous and have changed over the centuries.[6] Some of them have remained close to the original teaching of Luo as transmitted in his scriptures, while other ones have developed other beliefs only preserving the name of the founding master.[7]

History

As long as Patriarch Luo was alive, his personality guaranteed the unity of the movement.[8] While some of his disciples may have established separate communities, they didn't contest Luo's position as teacher and leader of Wuweiism.[9] Then, when Luo passed away, apparently without having chosen a successor to the leadership, Wuweiism started to split into different branches all claiming to continue Luo's tradition.[10] The original Wuweiist movement of Luo Menghong became the starting point of various sect traditions.[11]

After little more than half a century after the death of Luo, the activities of Luoist sects began to raise the suspicion of state officials.[12] Just after 1584 several warnings were presented to the throne, against the influence of "Wuweiism" or "Luoism", linking them to the earlier White Lotus movement, a label which by that time had become a derogatory designation used by official historians to demonise religious groups considered heretical.[13]

In the same years, Buddhist critics denounced the sects, highlightening that they were known by different names, "Dachengism" (Dachengjiao) and "Wunianism" (Wunianjiao) in addition to the names already known.[14] The sources show that at the end of the 16th century Luoist sects had spread widely in northern China, and they were known by different names.[15]

Also the Luo family contributed to the transmission of Luo's teaching.[16] Within the original movement, Luo's wife and two children, Fozheng and Foguang, occupied relevant positions.[17] Successively, Luo's wife continued the teaching according to the original tradition.[18] She founded a branch named "Yuandun Zhengism" (Yuandun zhengjiao, "orthodox teaching of complete and sudden enlightenment"), reappearing as "Yuandunism" (Yuandunjiao) in the late Ming period but with no relation to Luo's wife.[19]

Fozheng continued the male line of the Luo family.[20] His grandson Wenju is mentioned in the imprint of the 1615 edition of the Wubuliuce, printed in Nanjing.[21] Luo Congshan, the fourth generation patriarch, lived at the beginning of the 17th century.[22] A century later, official records testify that there were still male descendants of Luo active as sect leaders.[23] The centre of the family was in Miyun, where the tomb of Luo Menghong still existed.[24] It was destroyed on official order in 1768.[25]

In the 18th century, the eighth patriarch was Luo Mingzhong, and the religion had been spread from Hebei to Zhejiang and Fujian, reportedly by three persons surnamed Qiang, Wen and Pan, with many congregation temples (an) in the area.[26] After the ninth patriarch the line of hereditary leadership came to an end.[27] An investigation of 1816 testifies that the male descendants of Luo no longer practiced the religion of the forefather.[28]

Meanwhile, in the early 17th century Yao Wenyu from Zhejiang originated a wave of branches that successfully spread to Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Fujian, Anhui and Guangdong.[29] The religion was now known as Lingshan zhengpai ("orthodox school of the Numinous Mountain"), later in the 18th century as "Laoguan Zhaiism" (Laoguan zhaijiao).[30] A popular one of many offshoots of the Yao lineage was "Longhuaism" (Longhuajiao, "teaching of the Dragon Flower"), that still exists in Taiwan.[31] Other names for Luoism in the 18th century were Yaoism or Yaozuism (Yaozujiao, "teaching of Patriarch Yao"), Dachengism (Dachengjiao, "Great Vehicle") and Sanchengism (Sanchengjiao, "Third Vehicle"), the latter two after the transmission of Wu Zixiang, who incorporated his own scripture Dacheng dajie jing ("Book of the Great Precepts of the Great Vehicle").[32]

Another wave of branches that started with Yin Ji'nan, contributed to the incorporation of Maitreya and Wusheng Laomu symbolism into the original Luoist dictrines.[33] Another important branching is that started by Sun Zhenkong.[34]

Doctrine

Xukong—Wusheng Laomu

In the context of Luoist sects, the absolute principle of the universe is the central focus of meaning and worship. In the original scriptures of Luo the origin is represented as Xukong, "Emptiness",[35] or Zhenkong, "True Emptiness".[36] It is commonly personified through the symbol of a goddess, Wusheng Laomu, the "Unborn Ancient Mother".[37] Other symbols of the source of all being, also common to other traditions, are Wuji (the "Undetermined"), Zhenkong ("True Emptiness"), Zhen (the "Truth", "True Reality"), Gufo (the "Ancient Buddha [Awakening]"), Zu (the "Patriarch").[38]

These symbols are commonly combined together in sect baojuan (writings) to express the impersonal absolute principle (for example Wuji Zhenkong, "Limitless True Emptiness") or its personal representation (for example Wusheng Laomu or Wuji Gufo, the "Limitless Ancient Buddha [Awakening]").[39] The source of all being is also associated to the Big Dipper asterism.[40]

Luo Menghong's original revelation emphasises the impersonal representation of the absolute principle, using symbols such as Zhenkong.[41] However, he also talks of Wuji Shengzu ("Limitless Holy Patriarch") or in other occasions uses the symbol "Mother" (Mu or Niang).[42] Patriarch Luo was considered an incarnation of God, Wuji Shengzu, by his followers.[43]

Eschatology—the Three Yang

The Three Yang (sanyang) eschatological doctrine places itself in a sect tradition flourishing at least since the Ming dynasty.[44] It can be traced back to a Taoist school named Hunyuan, from the concept of hunyuan ("original chaos") that existed before hundun ("still chaos") and is the beginning of primordial qi (yuanqi) according to some Taoist cosmologies.[45] Although originally Taoist, these concepts became part of the folk tradition and were incorporated in the sect milieu.[46]

In the earliest sects of the Ming period, the Lord of Original Chaos (Hunyuan Zhu) represents the origin of the universe developing through three stages, yang, or cosmic periods.[47] In most sect scriptures, these three periods are known as Green Yang, Red Yang and White Yang.[48] Otherwise they are known by other names, variations originated by oral transmission of the teaching.[49]

The earliest written evidence of this doctrine can be found in the Huangji jieguo baojuan, published in 1430.[50] In this text the three stages are already associated to the three buddhas Dipankara, Gautama and Maitreya.[51]

Practice and salvation

In Luoist sects' baojuan (writings) the symbol of wusheng ("unborn") is used in the abstract sense of realising the state of "no-birth-no-death", that is enlightenment.[52] Wusheng Laomu or Wuji Gufo are personifications of this state.[53] In Luoist traditions, as written for example in the Longhuajing, meditation has a crucial role as the path to salvation, that is the "return to the Mother", the wusheng state.[54] Salvation is the realisation of one's true nature.[55]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Alsu Wuwei fa ("law of non-action") or Wuwei miaofa ("wonderful law of non-action").[2]

References

  1. ^ Ma, Meng. 2011. p. 169
  2. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 236
  3. ^ Nadeau 2012. p. 230
  4. ^ Seiwert, 2003. pp. 214-215
  5. ^ Seiwert, 2003. pp. 214-215
  6. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 215
  7. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 215
  8. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 235
  9. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 235
  10. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 235
  11. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 235
  12. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 236
  13. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 235
  14. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 236
  15. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 236
  16. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 236
  17. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 236
  18. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 236
  19. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 237
  20. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 237
  21. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 237
  22. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 237
  23. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 237
  24. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 237
  25. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 237
  26. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 238
  27. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 237
  28. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 238
  29. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 257
  30. ^ Seiwert, 2003. pp. 258-259
  31. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 259
  32. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 259
  33. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 264
  34. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 505
  35. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 331
  36. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 387
  37. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 331
  38. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 387
  39. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 387
  40. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 387
  41. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 387
  42. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 387
  43. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 387
  44. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 326
  45. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 326
  46. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 327
  47. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 327
  48. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 327
  49. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 327
  50. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 328
  51. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 328
  52. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 390
  53. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 390
  54. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 390
  55. ^ Seiwert, 2003. p. 390

Sources

  • Hubert Michael Seiwert. Popular Religious Movements and Heterodox Sects in Chinese History. Brill, 2003. ISBN 9004131469
  • Xisha Ma, Huiying Meng. Popular Religion and Shamanism. BRILL, 2011. ISBN 9004174559
  • Randall L. Nadeau. The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
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