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Creationism

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This article describes the political, religious, and allegedly scientific movement known as creationism. There are separate Wikipedia pages for creation beliefs, the theological side of creationism, and creation vs. evolution debate

Creationism is the belief that the universe and all life were created by the miraculous and creative act of a Deity. In the English-speaking world, the discussion usually centers on creationism founded in Abrahamic religions, i.e., the belief that God created living organisms "after their kind", as described in the biblical book of Genesis.

Creationism encompasses a range of beliefs, including some who believe that God created life exactly as described in Genesis, others who believe that God created life using the mechanism of evolution (Theistic Evolutionism), and others who assert merely that there is empirical evidence that some intelligent force designed life (Intelligent Design). In asserting that life was created, however, all strands of creationism stand in contrast to any belief which asserts that life arose through naturalistic means alone, without the involvement of any intelligent Deity or Designer.

The creation account(s) in Genesis

Main Article: Creation account(s) in Genesis

The opening chapters of Genesis give the Biblical account of creation. There are a variety of interpretations regarding the text.

  • Some scholars interpret the text as indicating two separate accounts: the first, from Genesis 1:1 - 2:3, indicating that God created the universe in six days and rested on the seventh, with Man created after plants; the second, from 2:4-24, indicating that God created Man before he created plants. They argue that while the two accounts are consistent within themselves, they are inconsistent with each other, as they describe a different chronology.
  • Other scholars interpret the text as giving a single, consistent account of creation; with the first segment of the account describing the creation of the Earth, and the second segment describing the creation of the Garden of Eden. They note that the segment from 2:4 - 2:24 refers not to the creation of all plants (which would make it inconsistent with 1:2 - 2:3), but to the creation of plants of the field and herbs of the field, i.e. domesticable plants and herbs, which God created after He created Man, and specifically for Man.

Types of creationist beliefs

Within the broader term creationist, there is no single set of beliefs, but a few general categories do exist.

Classification based on interpretation of the text

  • Some creationists interpret the passage literally, as meaning that God created the Earth exactly as described. The prime example is Young Earth Creationists.
  • Some creationists interpret the passage literally, but interpret small parts of the text with slight variation. Examples include "Day-Age" creationists (who believe that "day" should be interpretted as "age", implying that creation took place over long periods), and "Gap" creationists (who interpret 1:2 as meaning that the Earth became void, indicating that the original creation was destroyed, left void for a significant period of time, and then restored.).
  • Some creationists interpret the passage figuratively, as meaning that God created the Earth and Life by his own power, that he created it Good, that he entrusted it to Humankind; since they see such power in the allegory, they see no reason to necessarily interpret the passage literally. Examples include Theistic Evolutionists and those that ascribe to Intelligent Design.

Classification based on beliefs about the age of the Earth

  • Young Earth creationists believe that the Earth was created by God around 6,000 years ago, usually as described in the Ussher-Lightfoot Calendar.
  • Old Earth creationists believe that the Earth is millions or billions of years old. Old Earth creationism comes in two flavors:
    • Gap creationism, also called Restitution creationism — the view that life was immediately created on a pre-existing old Earth. This group generally translates Genesis 1:2 as “The earth became without form and void,” indicating a destruction of the original creation by some unknown cataclysm.
    • Day-age creationism — the view that the “six days” of Genesis are not ordinary twenty-four-hour days, but rather much longer periods (for instance, each “day” could be the equivalent of millions of years of modern time).

Classification based on the means by which organisms were created

History of creationism

Main Article: History of creationism

Up to and including most of the 19th century, most scientists in Western countries were creationists. With the advent of Charles Darwin's book, The Origin of Species (1859), the idea that natural selection could account for the evolution of living things become increasingly accepted, while creationism declined in prominence. Today, the majority of scientists believe in evolution, while a minority of scientists are creationist. Only a very small number of scientists reject evolution entirely.

In Europe, after a brief period of controversy, the majority of the population began ascribing to evolutionism. In the United States, however, creationism emerged as a movement to oppose evolutionism, and reassert creationism. As a result of this movement, the creation-evolution debate continued much longer than in the United States, and continues in some circles today.

The reasons for the rise of creationism in the United States are disputed. Some assert that creationism was and is a reactionary movement grounded in fundamentalist Christianity that steadfastly chooses dogma and unscientific claims over overwhelming scientific evidence. Others assert that creationism was and is a principled, reasoned, and broad-based school of thought regarding theories of origins.

Expressions of creationism today

Creationism finds expression in a variety of movements today.

  • Biblical Literalist creationism finds expression in the creation science movement. Advocates of creation science offer a variety of evidence and interpretations of evidence which seem to indicate that one of the models of creation actually took place. Creation scientists also offer a variety of evidence that atheistic evolution is scientifically untenable. Acceptance of such interpretations, however, is generally limited to creationists themselves.
  • Theistic Evolution and Intelligent Design find expression by articulating a variety of evidence that while belief in evolution may be empirically justifiable, it seems improbable without the some intelligent Creator or Designer to begin and/or guide the process.

Distribution of creationist views

The distribution of creationist and evolutionist views varies widely with georgraphy. In some areas, such as Europe, evolution has achieved near-universality. In other areas, such as the Middle East, creationism is nearly universal. Finally, in places such as the United States, opinions are widely mixed, and the debate rages in educational, political, and some scientific circles.

United States

In the United States, creationism remains popular among the general population, and opinion is split in the academic community. According to a 2001 Gallup evolution poll, 72% of Americans believe in some form of creationism (as defined above). About 45% of Americans ascribe to the more Biblically literal creationism, believing that “God created man pretty much in his present form at one time within the last 10,000 years.”.

Among the scientific community, opinion is split: According to a 1997 Gallup poll, 55% of scientists ascribe to atheistic evolution, leaving almost half who either ascribe to some form of creationism or state no opinion. Belief in biblically literal creation, however, is confined to a tiny minority of the academic community. In 1987, Newsweek reported: “By one count there are some 700 scientists with respectable academic credentials (out of a total of 480,000 U.S. earth and life scientists) who ascribed to Biblically literal creationism. No figures were collected as to how many scientists believe in other forms of creationism.

These data have remained relatively stable over time.

While a solid majority of the American population believes in some form of creation, statistics show that most Americans support the teaching of evolution in schools. A 2000 poll by People for the American Way examined the question of popular support for evolution and creationism in schools, and showed that a majority of 83% supported the teaching of the theory of evolution [1].

The western world outside the United States

Because most vocal creationists are from the United States, it is generally assumed that creationist views are not as common within the Western world. Statistics are not clear on the issue.

According to a PBS documentary on evolution, Australian creationists claimed that “five percent of the Australian population now believe that Earth is thousands, rather than billions, of years old.” The documentary further states that “Australia is a particular stronghold of the creationist movement.” Taking these claims at face value, “young-earth” creationism is very much a minority position in Western countries other than the USA.

In Europe, creationism is a less well defined phenomenon, and regular polls are not available; however, the option of teaching creationism in school has never been seriously considered in any Western European country. In Roman Catholic-majority countries, papal acceptance of evolution as worthy of study has essentially ended debate on the matter for many people. Nevertheless, creationist groups such as the German Studiengemeinschaft Wort und Wissen[2] are actively lobbying there as well. In the United Kingdom the Emmanuel Schools Foundation (previously the Vardy Foundation), which owns two colleges in the north of England and plans to open several more, teaches that creationism and evolution are equally valid “faith positions.”

Of particular note for Eastern Europe, Serbia suspended the teaching of evolution for 2004, under education minister Ljiljana Colic, only allowing schools to reintroduce evolution into the curriculum if they also taught creationism. [3] "After a deluge of protest from scientists, teachers and opposition parties," says the BBC report, Ms. Colic's deputy made the statement, "I have come here to confirm Charles Darwin is still alive," and announced that the decision was reversed. [4] Ms. Colic resigned after the government said that she had caused "problems that had started to reflect on the work of the entire government". [5]

Islamic creationism

In the Islamic world, due to the continued prevalence of religious belief, the theory of evolution has not yet taken hold, and traditional Islamic beliefs regarding creation remain dominant. However, several liberal movements within Islam, which are generally partial to secular scientific thought, ascribe to evolution.

In recent years, however, due to increased contact between Islamic and Western cultures, the arguments of “intelligent design”-style creationism have grown in popularity in parts of the Islamic world and among Muslim immigrants in the Western diaspora.

The centre of the Islamic creationist movement is Turkey. Its main exponent is the writer Harun Yahya (or. Adnan Oktar, b. 1956) who uses the Internet for the propagation of his ideas. His BAV (Bilim Araştırma Vakfı/ Science Research Foundation) organizes conferences with leading American creationists. Another leading advocate of Islamic creationism is Fethullah Gülen (b. 1941).

The movement seems to have a considerable following in Indonesia and Malaysia whereas interest seems to be low in the Arabic countries and Iran. As in the Western context, the theory of evolution is held responsible for a materialist worldview that is the alleged base of many societal problems and negative political developments.

Creation and evolution in public education

Main article: Creation and evolution in public education

The legal status of creation and evolution in public education has been the subject of a great deal of debate and litigation over the course of the past 80 years in America. By the establishment clause of the Constitution's first amendment, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." Under current constitutional law, states may not pass laws which ban the teaching of evolution, or require the teaching of creation whenever evolution is taught. Most recently, the Supreme Court has held in their ruling of Edwards_v._Aguillard that a variety of theories of origins may be taught in public schools, as long as they are taught with the secular intent of enhancing a scientific education, and not motivated by religious conviction or agenda.

The creation vs. evolution debate

Main Article: Creation vs. evolution debate

Pitting "creationism" against "evolution" creates something of a false dichotomy. Strictly speaking, creationism refers only to the belief that the universe in general and life in particular were created by some divine agency, while evolution refers only to the belief that species differentiate over time through the process of mechanism of mutation and natural selection. The two are therefore not mutually exclusive: Theistic Evolutionists, for example, believe that God created life, and that species differentiated by means of the mechanism of evolution.

The debate, therefore, centers on two issues:

  • First, the issue of abiogenesis: that is, the origin of life, and whether it was brought about by purely naturalistic processes, or a divine, creative act;
  • Second, the issue of differentiation: that is, whether or not families, genera, and species developed naturally through the mechanism of mutation and natural selection.

People hold a variety of opinions regarding these two issues.

  • "Atheistic evolutionists" believe that both life originated and differentiated through purely naturalistic means;
  • "Theistic evolutionists" or "Evolutionary creationists" believe that life originated through Divine creative act, and differentiated through mutation and natural selection;
  • "Special creationists" believe both that God created the basic "kinds" of life through divine creative act, and not through abiogenesis nor evolution.

Creationism and philosophical naturalism

Certain tenets of creationism are opposed to philosophical naturalism and materialism:

  1. The universe in general and life in particular originated through the direct and creative act of God.
  2. Sentience, perception, self-awareness, and the capacities for knowledge and understanding, are not reducible to physical processes alone, but were granted to living and intelligent creatures by the direct creative act of God.
  3. Life may be described in part through physics, but may only be fully understood with reference to some divine and creative agency.

A general response to the modern creationism controversy has been articulated by creationist Phillip E. Johnson, Professor of Law at the University of California, Berkeley, who argues that the entire issue of biological origins has been framed in terms of naturalism, and that natural science per se is not identical with naturalism. According to him, the statement, “Science has nothing to say about whether or not there exists a supernatural realm,” is true and based on the fact that rigorous physical science is naturalistic, but the statement, “Science holds that there is no supernatural realm,” is false because it is beyond the scope of natural science to make such an assertion, but is instead a philosophical position. According to Johnson, this distinction opens the possibility of natural science and creationism being non-contradictory. However, such an assertion is problematic when trying to reconcile natural science with certain types of creationism that do make specific claims about the natural realm.

Noted Paleontologist and writer, Stephen J. Gould, in his book Rocks of Ages [6], argues that acceptance of evolution and belief in God are not mutually exclusive despite rigourous assertions from the extremes that they are. A notable example of an evolutionary scientist who also believes in God is Ashley Montagu.

See also


Young Earth creationism

Old Earth creationism

Intelligent design

Evolution

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