Historicity of King Arthur
The existence of King Arthur continues to be hotly debated among medieval historians. However, it cannot be denied that there is some historical basis for King Arthur and the other parts of his legend.
Deities and Legends
The word arth is modern Welsh for "bear", and among Continental Celts (although not in Britain) there were several bear gods named Artos or Artio. King Arthur was supposedly referred to by some writers as the Bear of Britain.
It has also been suggested that Arthur was originally a Celtic or prehistoric demigod, whose legends were gradually adapted to fit historical fact as a means of keeping the Celtic legends alive after Christianity was introduced. An example would be the sea-god Llyr, who became the legendary King Lear.
Still another theory is that Arthur was a completely legendary person, the hero of Celtic bards meant to inspire and enthrall listeners, similar to the Germanic stories of Beowulf (or, in some stories, Bodvar Biarki). In fact, Beowulf was composed (c. late 8th Century) by Saxon settlers in Britain around the time of the first stories of Arthur were emerging, and Arthur and Beowulf share several similarities: both were brave war-leaders who later became king; both carried magical swords; both were betrayed by their men; and both died without an heir. Dragons figure prominently in both stories, and like Arthur, the name Beowulf means "bear" (the alternate name for Beowulf, Bodvar Biarki, means "battle bear").
It is conceivable that Beowulf could have provided at least some influence on the emerging legends of King Arthur, or vice-versa, or both; Beowulf is set in the 6th Century, the time period of the early Arthurian legends. Even if the earliest spoken form of the Anglo-Saxon legends did not influence the early stories of Arthur, the written version – first transcribed by monks (who Christianized it, just as they Christianized earlier Celtic legends) in England in the 10th Century, could have influenced later Arthurian writers such as Geoffrey of Monmouth (who wrote in Wales in the 12th Century).
Lucius Artorius Castus
Lucius Artorius Castus was a Roman general who lived in the late Second Century AD. He was dux (commander) of several legions in Britannia, where Emperor Commodus sent him in the year 181. Along with his personal legion, he guarded Hadrian's Wall (the border between Britannia, or Roman England, and Caledonia, or barbarian Scotland) with a contingent of 5,500 Sarmatian (south Ukrainian) heavy cavalry. Castus’ standard was a large red dragon pennant.
From 183-185, the Caledonians overran Hadrian’s Wall, and Castus led the defense of Britannia. In 185, when his legion collapsed, Castus returned to the northern city of Eboracum, and was then sent by the governor of Britannia to lead cavalry cohorts against an uprising in northwest Gaul.
Etymological links can be made tracing the name Arthur to Artorius; it is also true that no other recorded person in Britain, Ireland, or Scotland bears a name similar to Arthur until after Castus’ tour of duty in Britannia was over. Arthur’s pendant is said to be the Pendragon, a red dragon similar to the modern Welsh flag, while Castus’ was a large red dragon, worn on helmets and streamers. In the earliest descriptions of Arthur, he is not a king, but is referred to as a dux bellorum or "commander of war"; Castus held the Roman rank of dux.
In the Historia Britonum, written shortly after AD 820, there is a list of twelve battles Arthur is stated to have been victorious in. About three centuries later, Geoffrey of Monmouth in his History of the Kings of Britain, places these twelve battles in the north against barbarians. Seven of these battles can, with little stretching, be matched to battles Castus fought. Geoffrey also adds that Arthur fought a civil war, and twice took troops across the sea to Armorica, once to support the Roman emperor and once to deal with his own rebels. Castus’ own legion mutinied against him, and he was sent to lead cavalry units in northwest Gaul – the location of the region of Armorica – both against rebels and in support of the Roman emperor.
Earlier sources also place Arthur’s headquarters not at Camelot but at Caerleon, the "Fortress of Legions". Eboracum, sometimes referred to as Urbe Legionum or the "City of the Legion", was the headquarters of both Castus and of legions patrolling Hadrian’s Wall.
The legends of the Sarmatians themselves – whose numbers made up a majority of Castus’ army – also are relevant to King Arthur. Sarmatians held great, near religious fondness, for their swords, and were buried with their swords sticking out of the ground at the head of the grave – which could have given rise to the legend of the sword in the stone by which Arthur was named king in response to a prophecy by Merlin the wizard. The fact that the Sarmatians were heavy cavalry could also be seen as earlier versions of knights.
In addition, the Sarmatian folklore have stories about a warrior named Batraz, who rides with an elite group of warriors called Narts who engage in quests. Batraz has a magical sword that, according to the stories, is cast back into the ocean just before his death. Batraz could be Arthur, his magical sword could be Excalibur – which was thrown into a lake just before Arthur died – the Narts could be the Knights of the Round Table, and their quests can easily have inspired the tales of the Arthurian Grail Quest. After their tour of duty was up, many of the Sarmatian cavalry remained in Britannia, settling in a colonia (city established for retired legionnaires), where their stories could easily have spread to the local Celtic populace.
Although they lived hundreds of years too early, Lucius Artorius Castus and his Sarmatian cavalry were undoubtedly remembered in some form, and could have helped to create the basis for the early tales of King Arthur.
Magnus Maximus and Other Western Emperors
As the Western Roman Empire crumbled in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries, a number of ambitious generals in command of provincial armies rebelled and proclaimed themselves emperor. In 383, the Roman dux of Britannia, Magnus Maximus (aka Maximinius or Macsen Wledig) proclaimed himself emperor and crossed, with his army, into Gaul. He quickly defeated and killed the Western Emperor Gratian, and for the next five years ruled the Western Empire, until Theodosius defeated and executed him in 388.
The connections that the title dux and the crossing into Gaul to battle with a Roman emperor have to Arthur already been made. In addition, according to Medieval Welsh texts, Arthur is described not as a king or a dux, but as an amerauder (Welsh for "emperor", from the Latin imperator). Maximianus himself was Celtic, although from the continent (having been born to a family of Celtiberian descent in Hispania). According to Geoffrey, Maximianus was one of the kings of the Britons to precede Arthur, and was the nephew of Old King Coel, who was also Arthur's ancestor. With the name Macsen Wledig, Maximianus is featured in a story of the Mabinogion, a collection of Medieval Welsh texts that also feature two stories on Arthur and one on Taliesin.
As the Roman Empire continued to decay, there were numerous generals in Britannia who were raised to the purple, if even for a short time. One such was Constantine III, who ruled for four years before being executed; according to Geoffrey, Constantine III was Arthur's grandfather.
Riothamus
Riothamus (aka Rigothamus or Riotimus) was a historical figure who ancient sources listed as "a king of the Britons". He lived in the late 5th Century, and the most of the stories about him were recorded in the Byzantine historian Jordanes’ The Origin and Deeds of the Goths, written in the mid 6th Century, only about 80 years after the presumed death of Riothamus.
Circa 460, the Roman diplomat and bishop Gaius Sollius Modestus Sidonius Apollinaris sent a letter to Riothamus, asking his help to quell unrest among the Brettones, British colonists living in Armorica. This letter still survives.
In the year 470, the Western Emperor Anthemius began a campaign against Euric, king of the Visigoths who were invading Gaul. Anthemius requested help from Riothamus, and Jordanes wrote that he crossed the ocean into Gaul with 12,000 warriors. The location of Riothamus’s army was betrayed to the Visigoths by the jealous Praetorian Prefect of Gaul, and Euric defeated him in a battle in Burgundy. Riothamus was last seen retreating near a town called Avallon.
As said earlier, Arthur was said by the early sources to have crossed into Gaul twice, once to help a Roman emperor and once to subdue a civil war. Assuming that Riothamus was a king in Britain as well as Armorica, he did both. Arthur was also said to have been betrayed by one of his advisors, and Riothamus was betrayed by one of his supposed allies. Finally, it is well known how King Arthur was carried off to Avalon (which Geoffrey of Monmouth spells "Avallon") before he died; Riothamus, escaping death, was last known to have been in the vicinity of a town called Avallon.
It is unknown whether Riothamus was a king in Britain, or of Armorica; as Armorica was a British colony and Jordanes wrote that Riothamus "crossed the ocean", it is possible both are correct. The name Riothamus itself means "highest king", and so may just have been a title, perhaps worn by someone named Artorius or Arthur.
Ambrosius Aurelianus
Ambrosius Aurelianus (also sometimes referred to as Aurelius Ambrosius) was a powerful Celto-Roman leader of Britain. He is believed to have been the British commander at the Battle of Badon Hill.
According to Gildas (an early British historian and priest who may have been born during Aurelianus’ lifetime) in his sermon, On the Ruin of Britain, following a massive Saxon invasion, Aurelianus was the only person who stayed calm (despite the fact that his parents and most other Roman settlers, had supposedly been killed in the attacks). Subsequently, Aurelianus became leader of the remaining British (according to the Major Chronicle Annals, he entered power in 479), organized them, and led them in their first victory against the Saxons, although subsequent battles went both ways. Gildas also wrote that Aurelianus’ parents "wore the purple", and thus were apparently descendent from Roman emperors. The Aurelii were a noted Roman senatorial family, and it is possible that Ambrosius was descended from them.
Badon Hill, depending on varying sources and archeological evidence, was fought sometime between 491 and 516 (Gildas, born in 494, wrote that the battle took place at the year of his birth) with most scholars believing about 500 to be the right time. The location of the battle is thought to have been in southwest England, perhaps near the town on Bath (called Badon by the Saxons) or the nearby Solsbury Hill, where an ancient hillfort existed. However, some believe that Badon Hill is actually somewhere to the north, near or in modern Scotland.
Badon Hill was fought between the British and the invading Saxons, believed to have been the South Saxons under their Bretanwealda (Lord of Britain, also spelled Bretwalda) Aelle, whose reign was 477-c. 514. The Saxons were utterly defeated by the British (it is theorized that Aelle may have died in the battle) and did not again attack the Celts until 571; even by the 590s the Celts were still inflicting large defeats on the Saxon kingdoms, leaving a final "golden age" for Celtic civilization in Britain.
According to the Welsh bard Taliesin, who lived approximately 534-599, the British commander at Badon was the "chief giver of feasts" (supreme commander, perhaps related to dux) Arthur. Owing to a possible mistranslation of a word from Gildas, describing Aurelianus as either the "ancestor" or the "grandfather" of his descendents of Gildas’ generation, it is possible that Aurelianus lived the generation before the Battle of Badon.
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the Kings of Britain also states that Arthur led the forces at Badon; on the other hand, Geoffrey is notoriously unreliable and much of what he wrote is incompatible with factual history. However, Geoffrey made Aurelianus a king of Britain, and older brother of Uther Pendragon, the father of King Arthur, thus relating Aurelianus and Arthur. He also states that Aurelianus was the son of the usurper emperor Constantine III, although it is extremely unlikely to have actually been true.
Arthnou
Arthnou was a prince of Tintagel, who ruled in the 6th Century. Not much else is known of him. A piece of slate (the "Arthur stone"), apparently originally built to dedicate a building or other public works, was discovered in excavations at a 6th-Century fortress in Tintagel. The slate states, in Latin, that "Artognou, father of a descendant of Coll, has had this built". Artognou was the Latin form of a name that would be pronounced Arthnou, meaning "bear-like" and certainly linked to the name Arthur.
Also from the fort at Tintagel were pieces of expensive pottery from Mediterranean civilizations of that time, showing that whoever ruled Tintagel then was rich, powerful, and notable, and had trade with the rest of the world that the rest of Britain did not have.
According to Geoffrey of Monmouth and numerous other stories, King Arthur was born at Tintagel. It also said by Geoffrey that Arthur is a distant descendent of Old King Coel, whose name can also be spelled Coll.
Aedan mac Gabran
Aedan mac Gabran was a king of the Dalriada Scotti from c. 574 to c. 608. He was not British, but could have been an influence on Arthur nonetheless; some theories say that Arthurian legends began in the north, and spread south. It has also been said that the Battle of Badon Hill, supposedly commanded by Arthur, was fought in the north.
Aedan was crowned on the island of Iona by St. Columba. Iona was the center of Scottish Christianity and the place where the first Christian church in Scotland was built, and Columba the priest who brought Christianity to Scotland. Thus, Iona and Columba can be compared to the southern Avalon and Joseph of Arimathea, both of which are important in Arthurian legend. Iona and Avalon are even similarly named. As a matter of interest, Columba was educated by a priest taught by Gildas, the chronicler of the Battle of Badon Hill.
Aedan sought to make Dalriada independent from the Irish whose support Dalraida had previously required, and in 603 went to war against the pagan Saxon kingdom of Northumbria. The resulting Battle of Degsastan (whose location, like Badon Hill, is unknown) could have helped fuel the northern Badon Hill theory, although Aedan lost to the Saxons.
In 608, Aedan died and was buried on Iona, similar to how Arthur was supposedly buried on Avalon. Aedan also had a son named Artuir (almost certainly connected to the British name of Arthnou), although he died c. 590 and was of little consequence.
Other Arthurian Characters and Locations
As the center of the early Christian Church in Britannia, Avalon is definitively connected with Glastonbury. However, Avalon as the location of Arthur's burial is still unknown; for theories, please look to this article.
Possible locations for Camelot can be found here.
The Battle of Camlann may possibly be fictional; however, it is recorded in the Cambrian Annals, and several sites in Britain have been associated with it.
As he is recorded in the Cambrian Annals and other early sources, Mordred may have been a real person, although his relation with Arthur (if either actually existed) is almost certainly fictitious.
Morgan le Fay, Arthur's half-sister of legend, was possibly based off of the Celtic goddesses Morrigan or Modron.
The Fisher King may be based on the legend of Joseph of Arimathea or the Celtic god Avalloc. As a matter of interest, in Celtic legend Avalloc was the father of Modron.
As explained above, the Grail Quest may have been largely influenced by the Sarmatian folklore of Batraz and his Narts. However, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon traditions also are filled with quests by heroes, and in Celtic folklore there are tales of a magical cup with healing powers. These tales undoubtedly were adapted to refer to the Holy Grail as Britain became Christianized.
Bedivere is, along with Arthur and Merlin, one of the oldest characters in Arthurian legend, and thus, is more likely to have been a real person than newer additions. He appears in the Mabinogion and is connected with the Welsh Finddu dynasty; his father, Pedrod, may have been the historical Welsh monarch Pedr.
Merlin was the name given to two historical figures, Myrddin Wyllt ("Wild Merlin") and Myrddin Emrys ("Majestic Merlin"), combined by Geoffrey of Monmouth into one. The former was a bard who went mad after his king was killed by two rivals (one of whom was the above-mentioned Pedrod) and went to live in a forest. Merlin may also have been influenced by Taliesin. However, both Merlins and Taliesin all lived in the late 6th Century, after the time of most of the above-listed historical Arthurs.
Vortigern, the usurper king who, according to legend, invited the Saxons to land in Britain as mercenaries before being killed by Uther Pendragon, was a historical person, as were Hengest and Horsa, the Saxon leaders who rebelled against him. Vortigern itself (like Riothamus) apparently means "highest king", and he could possibly have been named something else.