Anti-Japanese sentiment
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Anti-Japanese sentiment is a tendency, common in parts of East Asia and found elsewhere in the world as well, to view Japan with suspicion or hostility. In its milder manifestations it is limited to a certain level of animosity towards Japanese policies or actions; it can also be more extremely manifested as disdain for Japanese culture as well as racism against the Japanese people.
Anti-Japanese sentiment is often believed to stem from Japanese military aggression in the early 20th century and the subsequent atrocities commited by the Imperial Japanese Army during and before World War II. In more recent times, such sentiments may have been exacerbated by subsequent failures of the Japanese government to apologize for these acts as well as perceived incidents of historical revisionism and nationalism by certain segments of the Japanese society. However, the Japanese believe it also to be caused by the ethnocentrism, propaganda campaigns, and economic jealousy of neighbouring countries towards Japan.
China
The origins of anti-Japanese sentiment in China is most directly traced to the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), which was one theatre of World War II. As a direct consequence of the war, China suffered a total of 3.22 million military casualties, plus 9.13 million civilians caught by crossfire, and 8.4 million civilians as non-military casualties. In addition, the war inflicted 383,301.3 million US dollars of damage on China, and created 95 million refugees. Manchuria was split off, starting from 1931, as a puppet regime by the name of Manchukuo; many major cities, including Nanjing, Shanghai, and Beijing came under occupation from 1937. Notable atrocities committed by the invading Japanese forces included the Nanjing Massacre, which refers to the first three months of the Japanese occupation of Nanjing during which 260,000 - 350,000 people died in the ensuing tide of looting, raping, torturing, and executing as well as the actions of Unit 731, a medical unit of the Japanese army that researched biological warfare by experimenting upon Chinese civilians.
The origins of anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea is most directly traced to the Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945, during which Japan mercilessly persecuted, killed, exploited, and oppressed the Korean people.
In addition, comfort women from many Asian countries, including China and Korea, forcibly served in military brothels under Japanese occupation.
There is also a perception among some Chinese that the United States, Japan, and Taiwan are attempting to contain China. Anti-Japanese sentiment in China is also highlighted by the branding of several prominant Taiwanese politicians (especially those who support Taiwan independence) as being "Japanese running dogs" by the state run media.
Traditional role of China in East Asia
China had been a regional superpower for thousands of years and developed her own system of philosophy that influenced the development of East Asia. Because of this, China saw itself as the center of civilization, and its name for itself is, etymologically, "Middle Kingdom". In addition, many countries were tributary states to China, including Japan. For example, during the Tang Dynasty, Japan sent emissaries to China (遣唐使 literally "Messengers to Tang") and Korea to learn Chinese/Korean culture, technology, and Buddhism; much of subsequent Japanese culture was the result of imitation and expansion upon Chinese models.
The sinocentrism that characterized ancient China pitted her against other groups, as they were regarded as uncultivated people. This can be observed through China's referring of foreign cultures as barbarians throughout history. In the 19th and 20th century, this sentiment became magnified by Japan's aggressive conduct in China, and many Chinese regarded the Japanese invasions as her betrayal of Chinese tutelage.
During the Asian Cup 2004, the Japanese team had to endure booing from Chinese audiences during the playing of the Japanese national anthem not only during the game with China, but with Bahrain and Thailand. Except for the match against Bahrain, supporters of the Japanese team were ordered by the local police not to use "banners, flags, musical instruments, or wear team uniforms" and were asked to refrain from cheering. The person responsible for organizing the practice field for the Japanese team claimed, "I was ordered to not let the Japanese team to use the practice field, the changing room, or even the toilet." When asked to give the reason for this order, he quizically claimed "I won't be working tommorow." The flight to Beijing, the place of the final match against China, was delayed by two hours due to complications caused by Chinese protesters in Beijing's international airport. After the final match with China, the Japanese ambassador's car was severely damaged. (to be completed)
Korea
Anti-Japanese sentiment in the Korean Peninsula is often traced to Japanese occupation of Korea from 1910 to 1945, during which time Korea was savagely exploited. In addition, some historians indicate that anti-Japanese sentiments in Korea also exist due to the Japanese government's attempts to play down or even deny its alleged historical wrongdoings. Many Korean people believe that Japan has tried to conceal its imperial past, which can be contrasted with Germany`s policy of admitting to alleged atrocities such as the Holocaust, and believe that Korean people should play a key role in revealing the negative aspects of Japanese rule. Many Koreans believe that the only way that true reconciliation can be reached between Japan and Korea is for Japan to fully admit her wrongdoings in the past. Koreans much like the Chinese just feel betrayed by the Japanese. Prince Akhito of Japan has made several acknowledgements of Japans Imperial family being descended from Korea. According to the chronicles of Japan II (續日本紀), Emperor Kammu of Japan was a descendant of King Muryeong of Baekje, Korea. Japan sent emissaries to Korea to learn Korean culture, technology, and Buddhism. This close relation from the past adds to the sense of betrayal.
US
In the United States, anti-Japanese sentiment had its beginnings before World War II. In the early 20th Century many Americans regarded Japan as an enlightened country in the Far East that had success in emulating the West and exerting itself as a colonial power, much like many powerful European countries at the time. However, this perception began to change as more reports of Japanese brutalities in its conquered territories began to pour into the American press and helped change public opinion on Japan. Its invasion of China in 1931 and subsequent annexation of Manchuria certaintly did not do much to reverse this trend. In addition, efforts by the China lobby to plea the United States to help strengthen China to push Japan out of China also played a role in shaping American foreign policy. As more and more unfavorable reports of Japan came to the attention of American government, embargoes on oil and other supplies were placed on Japan, partly out of genuine concern for the Chinese populace and partly of American interest in the Pacific. Furthermore, the American population became very pro-China and anti-Japan, an example being a grass-roots campaign for women to stop buying nylon stockings, because the material was procured from Japan through its colonies. When the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937, American public opinion was decidely pro-China, with witness reports by Western journalists on various atrocities committed against Chinese civilians further strenghthening anti-Japanese emotion.
However, the most immediate cause of anti-Japanese sentiment had its beginning in the Attack on Pearl Harbor, which propelled the country into World War II. Many Americans to this day regard the surprise attack as a cowardly act of aggression and the Japanese government's refusal to apologize for the attack itself certaintly continues to exacerbate the problem, and many see Japan's apology for "delayed" declaration of war before the attack as utterly inexcusable and insincere and only serves to enforce this negative feeling. In addition, many U.S. veterans who fought in the Pacific theater have witnessed the brutalities of the Japanese army and have profound memories of the experience. In addition, this can be extremely harrowing for those who survived Japanese POW camps and other incidents such as the Death March of Bataan.
More recently, anti-Japanese sentiment have focused on Japan's economic growth and its dominance over several industries, particularly in the late 70s and 80s. Many feel aversion towards America's policy of strengthening Japanese economy and exporting American technology at the expense of American domestic industries, and the increasing presence of Japanese economic power on American soil. Prominent examples include the listing of SONY on the US stock markets and the buying of famous American commerical and cultural symbols such as Columbia Records, Columbia Pictures, and the Rockefeller Center building. Most importantly, many Americans grew resentful of losing their jobs to Japanese companies, particularly in the automobile industry. Because American companies needed to compete with lower-priced Japanese products, many of these companies moved their factories abroad to find cheaper labor, laying off workers within the country. This resentment culminated in several public smashings of Japanese cars in the 80s and in the murder of Vincent Chin, a Chinese American beaten to death when he was mistaken as Japanese.
A number of prominent books critical of Japan or the Japanese have been published in the United States, including:
Other nations
In Europe, countries like United Kingdom and Netherland have a strong anti-Japanese sentiment from having been "stripped" of their Asian colonies and due to persistent racism. Several hundred POWs have been demanding personal compensations for being imprisoned. In Russia, Tanaka Memorial is still considered by many to be a genuine document. Stalin ordered enslavement of over 600,000 Japanese male POWs and massacre of Japanese in Manchuria. After World War I, in Germany Japanese were a target of discrimination along with Jews, as many Germans resented the seizure by Japan of its its colonies in the Pacific. In Mein Kampf, Japanese are treated as a second grade populace. "The White Australia policy" in Australia was perhaps inspired by wartime fears of Australians that Japan might attempt an invasion of Australia itself. Charles Lindbergh wrote in his memoir that he saw Japanese prisoners dropped from a cargo plane by Australian troops. (to be added)
Yasukuni Shrine
The Yasukuni Shrine is a Shinto shrine in Tokyo, Japan. It is the resting of place of thousands of Japanese soldiers killed in various wars, including war criminals such as Hideki Tojo and Hirota Koki, who were convicted for their roles in the Japanese invasion of China and other parts of East Asia.
In recent years the Yasukuni Shrine has become a sticking point in the relations of Japan and her neighbours. The very enshrinement of war criminals as martyrs has greatly angered the people of various invaded countries; in addition, the shrine published a pamphlet stating that "[war] was necessary in order for us to protect the independence of Japan and to prosper together with Asian neighbors" and that the war criminals were "cruelly and unjustly tried as war criminals by a sham-like tribunal of the Allied forces". The current prime minister of Japan, Junichiro Koizumi, has visited the shrine 4 times; every visit causes an uproar in China and Korea.
Japanese politicians have responded by saying that the shrine, as well as visits to it, are protected by the constitutional right of freedom of religion.
Derogatory terms
China and Korea have a variety of derogatory terms referring to Japan. Japanese people view these terms as racist. However, these terms do not necessarily refer to the Japanese race as a whole; they can also refer to specific policies, or specific time periods in history.
China
- 小日本 (xiǎo rìběn) - Literally "Little Japan". This term is so common that it has very little impact left. The term can be used to refer to either Japan or individual Japanese. It may be contrasted with "大中華" (lit. Big China). "小", or the word "little", is usually construed as "puny" or "lowly", not "spunky".
- 日本鬼子 (rì běn guǐ zi) - Literally "Japanese demons". This is used mostly in the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when Japan invaded and occupied large areas of China. (There is an analogous term that refers to "American Devils" that was used during the Korean War, but this term is rare and would be considered quaint today.)
- 倭 (wō) - This is the term that ancient Japanese used to describe their country. Today, its usage in Chinese is always intended to give a negative connotation. The character is graphically similar to "矮" lit. short in height.
- 倭寇 () - Originally referred to Japanese pirates and armed sea merchants who raided the Chinese coastline during the Ming Dynasty. Qi Jiguang, an admiral who fought against these pirates, is today a national hero. The term has been generalized to refer to all Japanese people in extremely negative contexts.
- 豬 (zhū) and 屠殺 - Literally "pig" and "massacre". A pig is considered a stupid animal in China and they are always massacred by a human. Calling someone (such as Japanese people) "pigs" is among the most extreme forms of insult possible. Extremist Chinese nationalists held up banners saying "屠殺小日本!" ("Massacre little Japanese!") during Asian Cup 2004.
United States
Especially prevalent during World War II, the word "Jap" has been used in the United States as a derogatory word for Japanese.
External links
Reporters without Borders - Reports on the freedom of press in Asia.
See also
- chauvinism
- comfort women
- demographics of Japan
- ethnic stereotype
- Gentlemen's Agreement
- Immigration Act of 1965
- Japanese American
- Japanese American Internment
- Japanese Canadian
- Japanese Peace Bell
- Japanese people
- list of ethnic slurs
- Manzanar War Relocation Center
- master race
- Nanjing Massacre
- Nazism
- racial profiling
- racism
- reverse discrimination
- Sansei Japanese American
- stereotype
- United States Executive Order 9066
- Unit 731