Hero's journey
The monomyth (often referred to as the Hero's Journey) is the cyclical journey undertaken by the standard mythological hero, as described by Joseph Campbell in his book The Hero with a Thousand Faces (1948) or the journey called Haft-khân (Seven Stages) undertaken by the Persian hero Rustam in the monumental epos Shahnama. The core concept of the monomyth is: "A hero ventures forth from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder: fabulous forces are there encountered and a decisive victory is won: the hero comes back from this mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow men."
The pattern of the monomyth, which Campbell claimed literally every hero myth exhibited to some degree, can be found in contemporary mythology as well. The pattern was followed by George Lucas in the original Star Wars trilogy (and followed more loosely in the prequel trilogy.) Other examples of the monomyth cycle are Disney's The Lion King in 1994 and the Wachowski brothers' The Matrix in the 2000s. The Harry Potter series uses a monomyth structure for each installment, and many contemporary Hollywood superhero films more or less deliberately conform to the general architecture.
Campbell's account of the monomyth explains its ubiquity through a mixture of Jungian Archetypes, unconscious forces of mind from the Freudian conception, and profound narrative symbolism that may be consciously registered. Since these accounts of psychology have been largely discredited, no one has offered any alternate explanations for the power of the monomyth, and Campbell's works, despite owing much to seemingly fallacious psychological models, nonetheless uniquely stand on their own.
Structure
The Monomyth is divided into three sections: Departure (sometimes called Separation), Initiation and Return.
This was laid out by Joseph Campbell in the first part of The Hero with a Thousand Faces, "The Adventure of the Hero." His thesis was that all myths follow this structure to at least some extent. To take three examples: the Christ story follows this structure almost exactly, whereas the Odyssey features frequent repetitions of the Initiation section and the Cinderella story follows this structure somewhat more loosely.
Departure deals with the hero venturing forth on his quest. Initiation deals with the hero's various adventures along his or her way. And Return deals with the hero's return home with knowledge and powers he or she has acquired along the way.
Departure (or Separation)
The Call to Adventure
The quest begins with the hero in a state of neurotic anguish. The quest is often announced to the hero by another character who acts as a 'herald'.
In Star Wars, Luke Skywalker, the hero, begins the story in frustration over being unable to leave home. The heralds are the two droids who carry a message from Princess Leia. In The Matrix, the call comes in the form of Morpheus and his followers who encourage the hero, Neo, to question reality. In The Lord of the Rings, Gandalf acts as the herald who gives Frodo his mission to destroy the One Ring. Aragorn, in a separate hero's journey, is told by Elrond of his true name and lineage as the Heir of Isildur and rightful heir to the throne of Gondor when he is 20 years of age. In Ender's Game Graff, head of the Battle School informs Ender that he has been chosen to be trained to fight the Alien Race known as Formics who intend to destroy the human race.
Refusal of the Call
In many stories, the hero initially refuses the call to adventure. When this happens, the hero suffers somehow, and eventually chooses the quest.
In The Matrix, Neo refuses to take the window washing equipment to escape and is captured by the Agents. In Star Wars, Luke is reluctant to leave his uncle's moisture farm in order to join Ben Kenobi on his journey; he returns to find the farm destroyed and his family killed. In The Lord of the Rings, Frodo is unwilling to set out on an adventure. Because of his delay he is nearly captured by the Ringwraiths. In Ender's Game Ender is reluctant to leave the Earth because he knows he will not see his sister Valentine Wiggin for many years.
Supernatural Aid
Along the way, the hero often encounters a helper, usually a wise old man, who gives the hero both psychological and physical weapons.
In the Christ story, this role is filled by John the Baptist. In Star Wars, Luke encounters the Jedi Master Obi-wan Kenobi who presents Luke with a lightsaber and teaches him the Force. In The Lord of the Rings Frodo and Sam Gamgee receive help early in their journey from several figures, notably Tom Bombadil, Bilbo and Gandalf. In the James Bond series of movies, the character of Q, acting as a Shaman, gives Agent 007 gadgets, tools, and cautionary advice, and the character of M acts in the role of Mentor, offering 007 guidance. Hannibal Lecter, in The Silence of the Lambs gives Agent Starling many psychological weapons. In Ender's Game, Mazer Rackham the hero of the second buggers' invasion returns from a light speed journey that kept him alive in order to train Ender.
The Crossing of the First Threshold
The hero eventually must cross into a dark underworld, where he will face evil and darkness, and thereby find true enlightenment. Before this can occur, however, the hero must cross the threshold between his home world and the new world of adventure. Often this involves facing off against and quelling a 'threshold guardian'.
In Star Wars, the threshold is Mos Eisley, a spaceport that acts as a doorway between Luke's home planet and the wider universe; Luke must avoid capture by the threshold guardians, the imperial stormtroopers. In The Matrix, Neo takes the "red pill". In The Lord of the Rings, Frodo finally accepts his mission in Rivendell and crosses the threshold once he leaves there. Also in Rivendell, Aragorn meets Boromir who tells of the plight that Gondor is now in while at the same time confronting those present for not aiding Gondor; Aragorn sees that he must now save Gondor and claim the kingship. In The Odyssey, Odysseus must pass the island of the Sirens. In The Silence of the Lambs, Agent Starling must enter not only Lecter's hospital, guarded by the semen-flinging guardian, but also the second threshold of the sealed storage facility Lecter directs her to.
The Belly of the Whale
Having defeated the threshold guardian, the hero finds himself in a place of darkness where he begins his true adventure, perhaps discovering his true purpose. This 'belly of the whale' may be an ambiguous place of dream-like forms. The name for this stage of the monomyth is based upon the story of Jonah.
In Star Wars, it is the Death Star, in which Luke is engulfed and in which he learns how to be a hero. In The Lord of the Rings, the Fellowship passes through the abandoned mines of Moria. In The Matrix, Neo finds himself waking up in a bio-electric cell where he is one of the humans being harvested by the machines. In The Silence of the Lambs, Starling finds the serial killer Buffalo Bill's first victim within the dark, womblike storage facility.
Initiation
The Road of Trials
Once in the other world, the hero is repeatedly challenged with mental and physical obstacles that must be overcome. Often these take the form of a test, by which the hero improves his skills and proves his worth.
In The Empire Strikes Back, Luke undergoes his training with Yoda. Aragorn, after the loss of Gandalf in Moria, must now take the position of leader of the Fellowship, and struggles to lead them as well as Gandalf wanted to. In The Nightmare Before Christmas, Jack Skellington, after finally grasping the difference between traditional Christmas and his well-intentioned take-over of the holiday, now must face ridicule and ill treatment. In The Silence of the Lambs, Starling must deal with sexism and her own fear while investigating Buffalo Bill.
The Meeting with the Goddess
After overcoming the Road of Trials, the hero often encounters a goddess-like woman: beautiful, queenlike, or motherly. The hero faces the goddess and in doing so, faces his anima. By uniting with the goddess, he becomes a whole person, reconciling his feminine nature with his masculine nature. This can also be a negative encounter when the goddess is replaced by The Temptress (see next section). Campbell cites the lure of the woman, leading the hero astray. Other cultural mytholgists broaden this to include all temptation, and sometimes lump this stage in with the Road of Trials.
Examples: In The Matrix Reloaded, Neo takes Trinity as a lover. In The Lord of the Rings, Frodo meets Galadriel, who shows him the future. Aragorn also meets Galadriel, who counsels him on his future actions. In Shrek, Shrek tells Fiona he loves her. In The Silence of the Lambs, Buffalo Bill kidnaps a senator's daughter and the female senator initially appears as a benevolent, matriarchal force. In Garden State, the actress Natalie Portman plays an epileptic young woman named Sam who helps the hero, Large, feel and live again.
Woman as Temptress
In some Hero's Quests, the hero will encounter the goddess, but before he can unite with her, he must prove his worthiness by overcoming the temptation of the Woman as Temptress. As stated in the section above, this stage is often lumped into the Road of Trials by many scholars because the hero, if he doesn't resist temptation, will be plunged back into the Belly of the Whale.
Examples: The Matrix Reloaded, Persephone attempts to seduce Neo. In The Odyssey, the temptress is the nymph Calypso. Interestingly, in Star Wars, there is tension between Luke and Han Solo over their love for Princess Leia -- this is resolved in Episode VI, Return of the Jedi when Luke finds out that Leia is actually his sister. Luke is also tempted by the dark side itself, as demonstrated by his vision in the cave on Dagobah. In this way, George Lucas broke away from the Campbellian model and put the Woman as Temptress into the Road of Trials category. In The Lord of the Rings, Frodo is tempted to give the Ring to Galadriel and forsake his mission. In the Christ story, Satan takes this role (though he would traditionally be considered a temptor, rather than a temptress). In The Silence of the Lambs, Starling's offer of a reduced sentence for Hannibal Lecter, supposedly authorized by the senator, is revealed as a trick. In the recent miniseries of Hercules (2005), he falls in love with the nymph Deianeira.
Interesting twists on this theme can be found in love stories, love-based dramas, and romantic comedies. For example, in the movie Almost Famous, the character of William Miller must give in to the temptation of the band groupies to prove to Penny Lane that he is worldly enough to love her.
Atonement with the Father
The hero may encounter a father-like figure of patriarchal authority. 'Father' and 'son' are often pitted against each other for mastery of the universe. To understand the father, and ultimately himself, the hero must reconcile with this ultimate authority figure.
In The Empire Strikes Back, Luke confronts Darth Vader and learns that he is his father; in Return of the Jedi, he is reconciled with the reformed Vader. In The Matrix Reloaded, Neo meets The Architect, a program who identifies himself as the father of the Matrix. In The Lord of the Rings, Aragorn must face the legacy of his ancestor Isildur, by rising above the darkness where he failed. Aragorn directly faces this legacy most clearly when he decides to ride the Paths of the Dead and gain the allegiance of the Army of the Dead, a feat which only the true Heir of Isildur can perform. In The Silence of the Lambs, Starling comes to terms with the death of her father through Hannibal Lecter.
Apotheosis
The Hero's Ego is disintegrated in a breakthrough expansion of consciousness. Quite frequently his/her idea of reality is changed, he/she may find him/herself able to do new things or able to see a larger point of view, allowing him/her to sacrifice self.
In The Empire Strikes Back, Luke sacrifices himself rather than turn to the dark side. In The Matrix Reloaded, Neo destroys several Sentinels in the real world using only his mind. Aragorn gains command of the immortal Army of the Dead, making his forces undefeatable. In The Silence of the Lambs after atonement, Starling gains knowledge from Lecter and must challenge Buffalo Bill on her own. In While You Were Sleeping, Sandra Bullock gives up her dream of the perfect man (Peter Gallagher), and also gives up the real perfect man that she's met (Bill Pullman), and the perfect family she could have had with one of them, the perfect life, everything that she ever wanted.
The Ultimate Boon
Having reconciled with the father and achieved personal enlightenment, the hero's psychological forces are again balanced. His new found knowledge, or boon, also has potential to benefit society.
In the Christ story, Jesus surrenders himself to the Romans, setting in motion his ultimate fate of crucifixion. In The Lord of the Rings, all of the hobbits gain wisdom and experience during their journey which allows them to easily set things right in the Shire on their return. By calling upon his heritage as the Heir of Isildur to take command of the Army of the Dead, Aragorn is now more in tune with his true nature and purpose as rightful heir to the throne of Gondor than ever before. In The Silence of the Lambs Starling graduates into an agent, her psychological forces balanced despite Lecter's escape.
Return
Refusal of the Return
Having found bliss and enlightenment in the underworld, the hero may not want to return with the boon.
iN Ender's Game Ender and Valetine choose to leave the Earth forever and fly at light speed to slow their aging.
In Revenge of the Sith, Anakin resists Padme's pleas to run away.
In Lord of the Rings, Frodo chooses to leave Middle Earth with the elves, because he feels like he is unable to have a normal life in the Shire
The Magic Flight
A mad dash is made by the hero to return with the prize.
In The Matrix Revolutions, Neo takes a ship to the Machine City. In The Lord of the Rings Frodo and Sam are rescued from the slopes of Mt. Doom by Gandalf and the Eagles (which is also a "Rescue from Without"). Aragorn, after exiting the Paths of the Dead with his new invincible Shadow Army, must now make a mad dash across Gondor in a race against time to liberate the coast from an invasion of Corsairs, then lead the Southern army of Gondor north to save Minas Tirith from destruction, all in only six days.
Rescue from Without
The hero may need to be rescued from without by humanity.
In the Christ story, Judas betrays Jesus to the Romans. In The Matrix Revolutions, Trinity, Morpheus, and Seraph must rescue Neo from his imprisonment in the train station. In The Lord of the Rings, Frodo is ultimately unable to destroy the Ring without Gollum's unwilling help.
The Crossing of the Return Threshold
Before the hero can return to the real world, he must confront another threshold guardian. The first threshold was a symbolic death; this is now a symbolic rebirth.
In The Matrix Revolutions, Neo again confronts Smith. In Return of the Jedi, Luke again confronts Darth Vader. In The Lord of the Rings, the final threshold for the hobbits re-entering the Shire is guarded by Saruman and his Ruffians. For Aragorn, this means making a final confrontation with Sauron's forces in a suicidal attack on his massive army at the Black Gate.
Master of Two Worlds
Once the final threshold is crossed, the hero is now free to move back and forth between the two worlds at will. He has mastered the conflicting psychological forces of the mind.
In Return of the Jedi, Luke becomes a Jedi. In the Christ story, Jesus is resurrected. In The Lord of the Rings, Aragorn is crowned King of Gondor and Arnor, and has defeated Mordor (later re-destributing its conquered lands to the former slaves that tilled the fields in its southern regions). Aragorn then marries Arwen, daughter of his father-figure Elrond, uniting the worlds of Elf and Man. Finally, Aragorn finds a new sapling of the White Tree of Gondor, and Gandalf informs him that he is now leaving Middle-earth now that Sauron is defeated: Gandalf now officially "passes the torch" of responsibility for protecting Middle-earth and its peoples from himself on to Aragon and his descendants.
Freedom to Live
With the journey now complete, the hero has found true freedom, and can turn his efforts to helping or teaching humanity.
In The Lord of the Rings, the hobbits become prominent citizens of the Shire with the wisdom they have gained. Aragorn reigns as King for many decades and ushers in a new age of peace and the rebuilding of Middle Earth. He then starts a family with Arwen, his Queen.
Criticism
American novelist Kurt Vonnegut satirized Campbell's views on the monomyth as being excessively baroque by offering his interpretation, called the 'In The Hole' theory; loosely defined as "The hero gets into trouble. The hero gets out of trouble.'