Jump to content

චිලී

සබැඳි සංස්කරණය කරන්න
විකිපීඩියා වෙතින්
(Chile වෙතින් යළි-යොමු කරන ලදි)

චිලී,[a] නිල වශයෙන් චිලී ජනරජය,[b] යනු බටහිර දකුණු ඇමරිකාවේ පිහිටි රටකි. එය ලෝකයේ දකුණු දිගම රට වන අතර ඇන්ටාක්ටිකාවට ආසන්නතම රට වන අතර ඇන්ඩීස් කඳුවැටිය සහ පැසිෆික් සාගරය අතර පටු බිම් තීරුවක් දිගේ විහිදී ඇත. 2017 දී කරන ලද නවතම සංගණනයට අනුව චිලීයේ ජනගහනය මිලියන 17.5 ක් වූ අතර එහි භෞමික භූමි ප්‍රමාණය වර්ග කිලෝමීටර් 756,102 (වර්ග සැතපුම් 291,933) වන අතර,[2] උතුරින් පේරු, ඊසාන දෙසින් බොලිවියාව, නැගෙනහිරින් ආර්ජන්ටිනාව සහ දකුණින් ඩ්‍රේක් මාර්ගය සමඟ මායිම් බෙදා ගනී. ජුවාන් ෆර්නැන්ඩස්, ඉස්ලා සලාස් වයි ගෝමස්, ඩෙස්වෙන්ටුරාඩාස් සහ ඊස්ටර් දූපත ඇතුළු පැසිෆික් දූපත් කිහිපයක් ද මෙම රට පාලනය කරන අතර ඇන්ටාක්ටිකාවේ වර්ග කිලෝමීටර් 1,250,000 (වර්ග සැතපුම් 480,000) පමණ චිලී ඇන්ටාක්ටික් ප්‍රදේශය ලෙස ප්‍රකාශ කරයි.[nb 2] චිලීහි අගනුවර සහ විශාලතම නගරය සන්තියාගෝ වන අතර ජාතික භාෂාව ස්පාඤ්ඤ වේ.

ස්පාඤ්ඤය 16 වන සියවසේ මැද භාගයේදී ඉන්කා පාලනය වෙනුවට කලාපය යටත් කර ගෙන යටත් විජිතයක් බවට පත් කළේය; කෙසේ වෙතත්, දැන් දකුණු-මධ්‍යම චිලී ලෙස හඳුන්වන ප්‍රදේශයේ වාසය කළ ස්වාධීන ගෝත්‍රික මාපුචේ ජනතාව යටත් කර ගැනීමට ඔවුන් අසමත් විය. 1818 දී ස්පාඤ්ඤයෙන් නිදහස ප්‍රකාශ කිරීමෙන් පසු 1830 ගණන්වල චිලී සාපේක්ෂව ස්ථාවර ඒකාධිපති ජනරජයක් ලෙස මතු විය. 19 වන සියවසේදී, චිලී සැලකිය යුතු ආර්ථික හා භෞමික වර්ධනයක් අත්විඳි අතර, 1880 ගණන්වල මාපුචේ ප්‍රතිරෝධයට තිත තැබූ අතර පැසිෆික් යුද්ධයේදී (1879–83) පේරු සහ බොලිවියාව පරාජය කිරීමෙන් එහි වර්තමාන උතුරු ප්‍රදේශය ලබා ගත්තේය.[3][4] 20 වන සියවසේදී, 1970 දශකය දක්වා, චිලී රාජ්‍යය ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රීකරණ ක්‍රියාවලියකට භාජනය වූ අතර[5][6] වේගවත් ජනගහන වර්ධනයක් සහ නාගරීකරණයක් අත්විඳින අතර,[7] එහි ආර්ථිකයට සහාය වීම සඳහා තඹ කැණීම්වලින් අපනයනය කිරීම මත වැඩි වැඩියෙන් විශ්වාසය තැබීය.[8][9] 1960 සහ 1970 දශකවලදී, රට දැඩි වාම-දකුණු දේශපාලන ධ්‍රැවීකරණයකින් සහ කැලඹීමකින් සලකුණු වූ අතර, එය 1973 චිලී කුමන්ත්‍රණයෙන් අවසන් වූ අතර එය සැල්වදෝර් ඇලෙන්ඩේගේ ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදීව තේරී පත් වූ වාමාංශික රජය පෙරලා දැමීය. මෙයින් පසුව ඔගස්ටෝ පිනෝචෙට් යටතේ වසර 16 ක දක්ෂිණාංශික හමුදා ආඥාදායකත්වයක් ඇති වූ අතර, එහිදී 1980 චිලී ආණ්ඩුක්‍රම ව්‍යවස්ථාව ඔර්ටුසාර් කොමිසමේ උපදේශනය සමඟ[10] මෙන්ම දේශපාලන හා ආර්ථික ප්‍රතිසංස්කරණ කිහිපයක් ද සිදු කරන ලද අතර, එහි ප්‍රතිඵලයක් ලෙස මරණ හෝ අතුරුදහන් වීම් 3,000 කට වඩා සිදු විය.[11] 1988 දී ජනමත විචාරණයකින් පසුව, 1990 දී පාලන තන්ත්‍රය අවසන් වූ අතර, එය 2010 දක්වා පාලනය කළ මධ්‍ය-වාම සන්ධානයක් විසින් අනුප්‍රාප්තික විය.

චිලී යනු ඉහළ ආදායම් ලබන ආර්ථිකයක් වන අතර දකුණු ඇමරිකාවේ ආර්ථික වශයෙන් සහ සමාජීය වශයෙන් වඩාත්ම ස්ථාවර ජාතීන්ගෙන් එකකි.[12] රාජ්‍යයේ තිරසාරභාවය සහ ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදී සංවර්ධනය අතින් ද චිලී කලාපය තුළ හොඳින් ක්‍රියා කරයි.[13] චිලී එක්සත් ජාතීන්ගේ සංවිධානය, ලතින් ඇමරිකානු සහ කැරිබියානු රාජ්‍ය ප්‍රජාව (CELAC) සහ පැසිෆික් සන්ධානයේ ආරම්භක සාමාජිකයෙකු වන අතර 2010 දී OECD හා එක් විය.

නිරුක්තිය

[සංස්කරණය]

චිලී යන වචනයේ ආරම්භය පිළිබඳව විවිධ මත තිබේ. 17 වන සියවසේ ස්පාඤ්ඤ වංශකතාකරුවෙකු වන ඩියාගෝ ද රොසාලෙස්ට අනුව,[14] ඉන්කාවරු 15 වන සියවසේ ඉන්කා යටත් විජිත සමයේදී එම ප්‍රදේශය පාලනය කළ ටිලී නම් පිකුංචේ ගෝත්‍රික ප්‍රධානියෙකුගේ (කැසික්) නම විකෘති කිරීමෙන් ඇකොන්කාගුවා චිලී නිම්නය ලෙස හැඳින්වූහ.[15][16] තවත් න්‍යායක් පෙන්වා දෙන්නේ ඇකොන්කාගුවා නිම්නය පේරු හි කැස්මා නිම්නය හා සමාන බවයි, එහිදී චිලී නමින් නගරයක් සහ නිම්නයක් තිබුණි.[16]

වෙනත් න්‍යායන් පවසන්නේ චිලී යන නම 'පෘථිවියේ කෙළවර' හෝ 'මුහුදු ගුල්ලන්' යන අර්ථය ඇති ස්වදේශික ඇමරිකානු වචනයකින් ලබා ගත හැකි බවයි;[17] 'භූමිය අවසන් වන තැන' යන අර්ථය ඇති මාපුචේ වචනයෙන් චිලී,[18] හෝ කෙචුවා චිරි,[19] 'සීතල',[20] 'හිම'[20][21] යන අර්ථය ඇති හෝ 'පෘථිවියේ ගැඹුරුම ස්ථානය' යන අර්ථය ඇති ට්චිලි වලින් ලබා ගත හැකිය.[22] මිරිස් වලට ආරෝපණය කරන ලද තවත් සම්භවයක් වන්නේ ඔනොමැටොපොයික් චීල්-චීල් ය - දේශීයව ට්‍රයිල් ලෙස හැඳින්වෙන කුරුල්ලෙකුගේ වෝර්බල් හි මාපුචේ අනුකරණයයි.[18][23]

ස්පාඤ්ඤ ජයග්‍රාහකයින් මෙම නම ගැන ඉන්කාවරුන්ගෙන් අසා ඇති අතර, 1535-36 දී පේරු සිට දකුණට ඩියාගෝ ද අල්මාග්‍රෝගේ පළමු ස්පාඤ්ඤ ගවේෂණයෙන් දිවි ගලවා ගත් කිහිප දෙනෙකුගෙන් ඔවුන් තමන්ව "චිලී මිනිසුන්" ලෙස හැඳින්වූහ.[18] අවසානයේ, මැපොචෝ නිම්නය එසේ නම් කිරීමෙන් පසු චිලී යන නම විශ්වීයකරණය කිරීමේ ගෞරවය ඇල්මාග්‍රෝට හිමි වේ.[16] පැරණි අක්ෂර වින්‍යාසය ඉංග්‍රීසියෙන් "චිලී" භාවිතයේ පැවතුනි. 20 වන සියවසේ මුල් භාගය දක්වා සහ "චිලී" ලෙස පරිවර්තනය වීමට පෙර.[24]

ඉතිහාසය

[සංස්කරණය]

මුල් ඉතිහාසය

[සංස්කරණය]
පැරණිතම චින්චොරෝ මමී, ක්‍රි.පූ. 5050 පමණ සිට පැවත එන්නකි.

Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón and the Pali-Aike Crater's lava tube.[25]

The Incas briefly extended their empire into what is now northern Chile, but the Mapuche (or Araucanians as they were known by the Spaniards) successfully resisted many attempts by the Inca Empire to subjugate them, despite their lack of state organization.[26] They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army. The result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river.[27]

ස්පාඤ්ඤ යටත් විජිතකරණය

[සංස්කරණය]
චිලී ඉතිහාස ලේඛනයට අනුව 1775 දී චිලී රාජධානිය. ඊළඟ වසරේදී රියෝ ඩි ලා ප්ලාටා හි උප රාජකීයත්වය නිර්මාණය කරන ලද අතර මෙන්ඩෝසා සහ සැන් ජුවාන් නගරවල භූමි ප්‍රදේශ චිලියේ සිට නව ආයතනයට මාරු කරන ලදී.[28][29][30][31]

In 1520, while attempting to circumnavigate the globe, Ferdinand Magellan discovered the southern passage now named after him (the Strait of Magellan) thus becoming the first European to set foot on what is now Chile. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, who came from Peru in 1535 seeking gold. The Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting.[27]

The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarro's lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the extensive gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chile's central valley, and Chile became part of the Spanish Empire.[27]

Conquest took place gradually, and the Europeans suffered repeated setbacks. A massive Mapuche insurrection that began in 1553 resulted in Valdivia's death and the destruction of many of the colony's principal settlements. Subsequent major insurrections took place in 1598 and in 1655. Each time the Mapuche and other native groups revolted, the southern border of the colony was driven northward. The abolition of slavery by the Spanish crown in 1683 was done in recognition that enslaving the Mapuche intensified resistance rather than cowing them into submission. Despite royal prohibitions, relations remained strained from continual colonialist interference.[32]

Cut off to the north by desert, to the south by the Mapuche, to the east by the Andes Mountains, and to the west by the ocean, Chile became one of the most centralized, homogeneous territories in Spanish America. Serving as a sort of frontier garrison, the colony found itself with the mission of forestalling encroachment by both the Mapuche and Spain's European enemies, especially the English and the Dutch. Buccaneers and pirates menaced the colony in addition to the Mapuche, as was shown by Sir Francis Drake's 1578 raid on Valparaíso, the colony's principal port. Chile hosted one of the largest standing armies in the Americas, making it one of the most militarized of the Spanish possessions, as well as a drain on the treasury of the Viceroyalty of Peru.[33]

පේද්‍රෝ ලීරා විසින් 1888 දී හුලේන් හිල් හි පේද්‍රෝ ද වැල්ඩිවියා විසින් සන්තියාගෝ පිහිටුවීමේ සිතුවම

The first general census was conducted by the government of Agustín de Jáuregui between 1777 and 1778; it indicated that the population consisted of 259,646 inhabitants: 73.5% of European descent, 7.9% mestizos, 8.6% indigenous peoples and 9.8% blacks. Francisco Hurtado, Governor of the province of Chiloé, conducted a census in 1784 and found the population consisted of 26,703 inhabitants, 64.4% of whom were whites and 33.5% of whom were natives. The Diocese of Concepción conducted a census in areas south of the Maule river in 1812, but did not include the indigenous population or the inhabitants of the province of Chiloé. The population is estimated at 210,567, 86.1% of whom were Spanish or of European descent, 10% of whom were indigenous and 3.7% of whom were mestizos, blacks and mulattos.[34]

A 2021 study by Baten and Llorca-Jaña shows that regions with a relatively high share of North European migrants developed faster in terms of numeracy, even if the overall number of migrants was small. This effect might be related to externalities: the surrounding population adopted a similar behavior as the small non-European immigrant group, and new schools were created. Ironically, there might have been positive spillover effects from the educational investment made by migrants, at the same time numeracy might have been reduced by the greater inequality in these regions. However, the positive effects of immigration were apparently stronger.[35]

නිදහස සහ ජාතිය ගොඩනැගීම

[සංස්කරණය]
ඇන්ඩීස් තරණය කරන අතරතුර ජෙනරාල්වරුන් වන ජෝස් ද සැන් මාටින් (වමේ) සහ බර්නාඩෝ ඕ'හිගින්ස් (දකුණේ)

In 1808, Napoleon's enthronement of his brother Joseph as the Spanish King precipitated the drive by Chile for independence from Spain. A national junta in the name of Ferdinand – heir to the deposed king – was formed on 18 September 1810. The Government Junta of Chile proclaimed an autonomous government for Chile within the Spanish monarchy (in memory of this day, Chile celebrates its National Day on 18 September each year).

After these events, a movement for total independence, under the command of José Miguel Carrera (one of the most renowned patriots) and his two brothers Juan José and Luis Carrera, soon gained a wider following. Spanish attempts to re-impose arbitrary rule during what was called the Reconquista led to a prolonged struggle, including infighting from Bernardo O'Higgins, who challenged Carrera's leadership.

Intermittent warfare continued until 1817. With Carrera in prison in Argentina, O'Higgins and anti-Carrera cohort José de San Martín, hero of the Argentine War of Independence, led an army that crossed the Andes into Chile and defeated the royalists. On 12 February 1818, Chile was proclaimed an independent republic. The political revolt brought little social change, however, and 19th-century Chilean society preserved the essence of the stratified colonial social structure, which was greatly influenced by family politics and the Roman Catholic Church. A strong presidency eventually emerged, but wealthy landowners remained powerful.[27] Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the Philippines from Spain and incorporating the islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in a letter dated 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquer Guayaquil, the Galapagos Islands, and the Philippines. There were preparations, but the plan did not push through because O'Higgins was exiled.[36]

1879 මැයි 21 වන දින ඉක්වික් සටන. පැසිෆික් යුද්ධයේදී චිලී ලැබූ ජයග්‍රහණය නව භූමි ප්‍රදේශ දක්වා ව්‍යාප්ත වීමට ඉඩ සැලසීය.

Chile slowly started to expand its influence and to establish its borders. By the Tantauco Treaty, the archipelago of Chiloé was incorporated in 1826. The economy began to boom due to the discovery of silver ore in Chañarcillo, and the growing trade of the port of Valparaíso, which led to conflict over maritime supremacy in the Pacific with Peru. At the same time, attempts were made to strengthen sovereignty in southern Chile intensifying penetration into Araucanía and colonizing Llanquihue with German immigrants in 1848. Through the founding of Fort Bulnes by the Schooner Ancud under the command of John Williams Wilson, the Magallanes Region started to be controlled by country in 1843, while the Antofagasta Region, at the time in dispute with Bolivia, began to fill with people.

After the Chilean Civil War of 1829–1830 in which the conservatives won, under the Joaquín Prieto Administration, the Chilean Constitution of 1833 was written and put into effect with high influence from the triple minister Diego Portales. Two other civil wars happened in Chile in the 1850s, one in 1851 and the other one in 1859.

චිලී ඉතිහාස ලේඛනයට අනුව චිලී ජනරජයේ භෞමික පාඩු (නීතිය අනුව)[37]

Toward the end of the 19th century, the government in Santiago consolidated its position in the south by the Occupation of Araucanía. The Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina confirmed Chilean sovereignty over the Strait of Magellan but also made the country to renounce to its claims in the rest of East Patagonia after a dispute that started in 1842.[38] As a result of the War of the Pacific with Peru and Bolivia (1879–83), Chile expanded its territory northward by almost one-third, eliminating Bolivia's access to the Pacific, and acquired valuable nitrate deposits, the exploitation of which led to an era of national affluence. Chile had joined the stand as one of the high-income countries in South America by 1870.[39]

On 9 September 1888, Chile took possession of Easter Island by the signing of a mutual will agreement with the local king, thanks to the efforts of the Bishop of Tahiti, Monsignor José María Verdier since the island was constantly attacked by slave merchants. The naval officer Policarpo Toro represented the Chilean Government and Atamu Tekena was the head of the Council of Rapanui. The Rapa Nui elders ceded sovereignty, without renouncing their titles as chiefs, the ownership of their lands, the validity of their culture and traditions on equal terms. The Rapa Nui sold nothing and were integrated in equal conditions into Chile.[40]

The 1891 Chilean Civil War brought about a redistribution of power between the President and Congress, and Chile established a parliamentary style democracy. However, the Civil War had also been a contest between those who favored the development of local industries and powerful Chilean banking interests, particularly the House of Edwards which had strong ties to foreign investors. Soon after, the country engaged in a vastly expensive naval arms race with Argentina amid escalating geopolitical competition and the Puna de Atacama dispute.

The War of the Pacific (1879–1883) against Peru and Bolivia resulted in Chile annexing resource-rich territory from both countries and further consolidating its status as a regional power. It subsequently emerged as a leading naval power in the Americas, even sending a ship to protest United States involvement in the Panama crisis of 1885. Chile potentially threatened U.S. hegemony in the Western Hemisphere, with the two countries almost going to war during the Baltimore crisis in 1891.[41]

20 වන සියවස

[සංස්කරණය]
1921 දී චිලියේ අල්මිරන්ට් ලැටෝරේ ඩ්‍රෙඩ්නෝට්

The early 20th century saw Chile fully consolidate its territory and resolve long-running diplomatic and territorial disputes. Its current borders with Argentina were finalized through British arbitration in 1902 and a bilateral settlement of the Puna de Atacama dispute the following year. In 1904, Chile and Bolivia signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship which clarified the border between both countries.

The Chilean economy partially degenerated into a system protecting the interests of a ruling oligarchy. By the 1920s, the emerging middle and working classes were powerful enough to elect a reformist president, Arturo Alessandri, whose program was frustrated by a conservative congress. In the 1920s, Marxist groups with strong popular support arose.[27]

A military coup led by General Luis Altamirano in 1924 set off a period of political instability that lasted until 1932. Of the ten governments that held power in that period, the longest lasting was that of General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, who briefly ruled as de facto dictator in 1925 and then again between 1927 and 1931. These authoritarian governments were comparatively less harsh and corrupt than counterparts elsewhere in Latin America.[42][43]

By relinquishing power to a democratically elected successor, Ibáñez del Campo retained the respect of a large enough segment of the population to remain a viable politician for more than thirty years, in spite of the vague and shifting nature of his ideology. When constitutional rule was restored in 1932, a strong middle-class party, the Radicals, emerged. It became the key force in coalition governments for the next 20 years. During the period of Radical Party dominance (1932–52), the state increased its role in the economy. In 1952, voters returned Ibáñez del Campo to office for another six years. Jorge Alessandri succeeded Ibáñez del Campo in 1958, bringing Chilean conservatism back into power democratically for another term.

The 1964 presidential election of Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva by an absolute majority initiated a period of major reform. Under the slogan "Revolution in Liberty", the Frei administration embarked on far-reaching social and economic programs, particularly in education, housing, and agrarian reform, including rural unionization of agricultural workers. By 1967, however, Frei encountered increasing opposition from leftists, who charged that his reforms were inadequate, and from conservatives, who found them excessive. At the end of his term, Frei had not fully achieved his party's ambitious goals.[27]

සැල්වදෝර් අයියන්ඩේ

In the 1970 election, Senator Salvador Allende of the Socialist Party of Chile (then part of the "Popular Unity" coalition which included the Communists, Radicals, Social-Democrats, dissident Christian Democrats, the Popular Unitary Action Movement, and the Independent Popular Action),[27] achieved a partial majority in a plurality of votes in a three-way contest, followed by candidates Radomiro Tomic for the Christian Democrat Party and Jorge Alessandri for the Conservative Party. Allende was not elected with an absolute majority, receiving fewer than 35% of the votes.

The Chilean Congress conducted a runoff vote between the leading candidates, Allende and former president Jorge Alessandri, and, keeping with tradition, chose Allende by a vote of 153 to 35. Frei refused to form an alliance with Alessandri to oppose Allende, on the grounds that the Christian Democrats were a workers' party and could not make common cause with the right wing.[44][45]

An economic depression that began in 1972 was exacerbated by capital flight, plummeting private investment, and withdrawal of bank deposits in response to Allende's socialist program. Production fell and unemployment rose. Allende adopted measures including price freezes, wage increases, and tax reforms, to increase consumer spending and redistribute income downward.[46] Joint public-private public works projects helped reduce unemployment.[47] 

 [page needed] Much of the banking sector was nationalized. Many enterprises within the copper, coal, iron, nitrate, and steel industries were expropriated, nationalized, or subjected to state intervention. Industrial output increased sharply and unemployment fell during the Allende administration's first year.[47]

Allende's program included advancement of workers' interests,[47][48] replacing the judicial system with "socialist legality",[49] nationalization of banks and forcing others to bankruptcy,[49] and strengthening "popular militias" known as MIR.[49] Started under former President Frei, the Popular Unity platform also called for nationalization of Chile's major copper mines in the form of a constitutional amendment. The measure was passed unanimously by Congress. As a result,[50] the Richard Nixon administration organized and inserted secret operatives in Chile, in order to swiftly destabilize Allende's government.[51] In addition, US financial pressure restricted international economic credit to Chile.[52]

The economic problems were also exacerbated by Allende's public spending, financed mostly through printing money, and by poor credit ratings given by commercial banks.[53] Simultaneously, opposition media, politicians, business guilds and other organizations helped to accelerate a campaign of domestic political and economical destabilization, some of which was backed by the United States.[52][54] By early 1973, inflation was out of control. On 26 May 1973, Chile's Supreme Court, which was opposed to Allende's government, unanimously denounced Allende's disruption of the legality of the nation. Although illegal under the Chilean constitution, the court supported and strengthened Pinochet's soon-to-be seizure of power.[49][55]

පිනොචේ යුගය (1973–1990)

[සංස්කරණය]
1973 චිලී කුමන්ත්‍රණය අතරතුර ලා මොනේඩා ජනාධිපති මන්දිරයට බෝම්බ හෙලන ප්‍රහාරක ජෙට් යානා

On 11 September 1973, a military coup overthrew Allende, who apparently committed suicide as the armed forces bombarded the presidential palace.[56][57] The degree to which the United States was involved in the coup remains debated; after Allende was overthrown, U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger told U.S. president Richard Nixon that the United States had "helped" the coup indirectly.[58] Historian Sebastián Hurtado contends there is no documentary evidence to support that the U.S. government was actively involved in the coordination and execution the coup; however, upon Allende's election in 1970, Kissinger had stated "I don't see why we need to stand by and watch a country go Communist due to the irresponsibility of its own people",[59][60] while Nixon had expressed that the Allende government should not be consolidated and acted decisively to destabilize his government.[60][61]

A military junta, led by General Augusto Pinochet, took control of the country. His regime was marked by widespread human rights violations. Chile initiated and actively participated in Operation Condor, a U.S.-backed campaign to suppress leftists and their sympathizes.[62] In October 1973, at least 72 people were murdered by the Caravan of Death.[63] According to the Rettig Report and Valech Commission, during the Pinochet regime's 15-year rule, at least 2,115 were killed,[64] and at least 27,265[65] were tortured (including 88 children younger than 12 years old);[65] many were detained, tortured, and executed at the national stadium. In 2011, Chile recognized an additional 9,800 victims, bringing the total number killed, tortured or imprisoned for political reasons to 40,018.[66] Among the victims was internationally known poet-singer Víctor Jara.

ඔගස්ටෝ පිනෝචෙට්

A new Constitution was approved by a controversial plebiscite on 11 September 1980, and General Pinochet became president of the republic for an eight-year term. After Pinochet obtained rule of the country, several hundred committed Chilean revolutionaries joined the Sandinista army in Nicaragua, guerrilla forces in Argentina or training camps in Cuba, Eastern Europe and Northern Africa.[67]

In the late 1980s, largely as a result of events such as the 1982 economic collapse[68] and mass civil resistance in 1983–88, the government gradually permitted greater freedom of assembly, speech, and association, to include trade union and political activity.[69] The government launched market-oriented reforms with Hernán Büchi as Minister of Finance. Chile moved toward a free market economy that saw an increase in domestic and foreign private investment, although the copper industry and other important mineral resources were not opened to competition. In a plebiscite on 5 October 1988, Pinochet was denied a second eight-year term as president (56% against 44%). Chileans elected a new president and the majority of members of a bicameral congress on 14 December 1989. Christian Democrat Patricio Aylwin, the candidate of a coalition of 17 political parties called the Concertación, received an absolute majority of votes (55%).[70] President Aylwin served from 1990 to 1994, in what was considered a transition period.

21 වන සියවස

[සංස්කරණය]
චිලී රාජ්‍යයේ ද්විශත සංවත්සරය සමරමින්, එහි ප්‍රජාතන්ත්‍රවාදයට සංක්‍රමණය වීමෙන් පසු (1990–2022) චිලී රාජ්‍යයේ පළමු ජනාධිපතිවරුන් පස් දෙනා

In December 1993, Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle, the son of previous president Eduardo Frei Montalva, led the Concertación coalition to victory with an absolute majority of votes (58%).[71] Frei Ruiz-Tagle was succeeded in 2000 by Socialist Ricardo Lagos, who won the presidency in an unprecedented runoff election against Joaquín Lavín of the rightist Alliance for Chile.[72] In January 2006, Chileans elected their first female president, Michelle Bachelet Jeria, of the Socialist Party, defeating Sebastián Piñera, of the National Renewal party, extending the Concertación governance for another four years.[73][74] In January 2010, Chileans elected Sebastián Piñera as the first rightist President in 20 years, defeating former President Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle of the Concertación, for a four-year term succeeding Bachelet. Due to term limits, Sebastián Piñera did not stand for re-election in 2013, and his term expired in March 2014 resulting in Michelle Bachelet returning to office.[75] Sebastián Piñera succeeded Bachelet again in 2018 as the President of Chile after winning the December 2017 presidential election.[76][77]

On 27 February 2010, Chile was struck by an 8.8 Mw earthquake, the fifth largest ever recorded at the time. More than 500 people died (most from the ensuing tsunami) and over a million people lost their homes. The earthquake was also followed by multiple aftershocks.[78] Initial damage estimates were in the range of US$15–30 billion, around 10% to 15% of Chile's real gross domestic product.[79]

Chile achieved global recognition for the successful rescue of 33 trapped miners in 2010. On 5 August 2010, the access tunnel collapsed at the San José copper and gold mine in the Atacama Desert near Copiapó in northern Chile, trapping 33 men 700 මීටරs (2,300 ft) below ground. A rescue effort organized by the Chilean government located the miners 17 days later. All 33 men were brought to the surface two months later on 13 October 2010 over a period of almost 24 hours, an effort that was carried on live television around the world.[80]

සන්තියාගෝ හි ප්ලාසා බැකෙඩානෝ දෙසට 2019–2022 චිලී විරෝධතාවල දර්ශනයක්

From 2019 to 2022, Chile endured a series of nationwide protests in response to a rise in the Santiago Metro's subway fare, the increased cost of living, privatization, and inequality.[81] On 15 November, most of the political parties represented in the National Congress signed an agreement to call a national referendum in April 2020 regarding the creation of a new Constitution, later postponed to October due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[82] On 25 October 2020, Chileans voted 78.28 percent in favor of a new constitution, while 21.72 percent rejected the change; voter turnout was 51 percent. An election for the members of the Constitutional Convention was held in Chile between 15 and 16 May 2021;[83] the results saw a complete rearrangement of the political system established since the end of Pinochet's dictatorship in 1990, with various independent and leftist candidates performing strongly relative to conventional center-right and center-left parties.

On 19 December 2021, a leftist candidate, the 35-year-old former student protest leader Gabriel Boric, won Chile's presidential election to become the country's youngest leader.[84] On 11 March 2022, Boric was sworn in as president to succeed outgoing President Sebastian Piñera.[85] The majority of Boric's Cabinet—14 out of 24—are women, which is a first in the Western Hemisphere.[86]

On 4 September 2022, voters rejected the new constitution proposal in the constitutional referendum, which was put forward by the left-leaning Constitutional Convention.[87] On 17 December 2023, voters rejected a second new constitution proposal in a new constitutional referendum, written by the conservative-led Constitutional Council.[88][89][90]

භූගෝලය

[සංස්කරණය]
Page 'චිලී හි භූගෝලය' not found

භූගෝල විද්‍යාව

[සංස්කරණය]

දේශගුණය සහ ජල විද්‍යාව

[සංස්කරණය]

ජෛව විවිධත්වය

[සංස්කරණය]

රජය සහ දේශපාලනය

[සංස්කරණය]
Page 'චිලී හි රජය සහ දේශපාලනය' not found

විදේශ සබඳතා

[සංස්කරණය]

හමුදා

[සංස්කරණය]

පරිපාලන අංශ

[සංස්කරණය]

ජාතික සංකේත

[සංස්කරණය]

ආර්ථිකය

[සංස්කරණය]
Page 'චිලී හි ආර්ථිකය' not found

ඛනිජ සම්පත්

[සංස්කරණය]

කෘෂිකර්මය

[සංස්කරණය]

සංචාරක ව්‍යාපාරය

[සංස්කරණය]

ප්‍රවාහනය

[සංස්කරණය]

අන්තර්ජාලය සහ විදුලි සංදේශ

[සංස්කරණය]

බලශක්තිය

[සංස්කරණය]

ජන විකාශනය

[සංස්කරණය]
Page 'චිලී හි ජන විකාශනය' not found

පෙරටුගාමීන් සහ ජනවාර්ගිකත්වය

[සංස්කරණය]

නාගරිකකරණය

[සංස්කරණය]

ආගම

[සංස්කරණය]

භාෂා

[සංස්කරණය]

සෞඛ්‍යය

[සංස්කරණය]

අධ්‍යාපනය

[සංස්කරණය]

සංස්කෘතිය

[සංස්කරණය]
Page 'චිලී හි සංස්කෘතිය' not found

සංගීතය සහ නැටුම්

[සංස්කරණය]

සාහිත්‍යය

[සංස්කරණය]

ආහාර පිසීම

[සංස්කරණය]

ජනකතා

[සංස්කරණය]

ක්‍රීඩා

[සංස්කරණය]

සංස්කෘතික උරුමය

[සංස්කරණය]

සටහන්

[සංස්කරණය]
  1. ^ අසන්නi/ˈtʃɪli/ CHIL-ee or /ˈtʃɪleɪ/ CHIL-ay,[1] ස්පාඤ්ඤ: [ˈtʃile]),[nb 1]
  2. ^ ස්පාඤ්ඤ: República de Chile [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈtʃile] ⓘ.
  1. ^ In Chilean Spanish, pronunciation ranges from [ˈʃile] ~ [ˈt͡ʃiːle] on a spectrum from lower to upper classes, respectively, the former being a somewhat-stigmatized basilect. See the "Sample" section for an IPA-transcribed text in a lower-class form of the dialect.
  2. ^ Since 1961, all claims to Antarctic land are de jure suspended under the Antarctic Treaty System

යොමු කිරීම්

[සංස්කරණය]
  1. ^ Wells, John C. (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3 වන ed.). Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
  2. ^ "Resutados Censo 2017" (PDF). National Statistics Institute. 1 January 2018. 9 October 2022 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත (PDF). සම්ප්‍රවේශය 18 January 2017.
  3. ^ "Elecciones, sufragio y democracia en Chile (1810–2012)". Memoria Chilena (Spanish බසින්). National Library of Chile. 6 June 2021 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 20 June 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  4. ^ "Sufragio femenino universal". Memoria Chilena (Spanish බසින්). National Library of Chile. 27 June 2021 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 20 June 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  5. ^ Salazar, Gabriel; Pinto, Julio (2002). Historia contemporánea de Chile III. La economía: mercados empresarios y trabajadores. LOM Ediciones. සැකිල්ල:ISBN?. Pages 124–125.
  6. ^ Villalobos, Sergio; Silva, Osvaldo; Silva, Fernando; Estelle, Patricio (1974). Historia De Chile (14th ed.). Editorial Universitaria. ISBN 956-11-1163-2. Pages 773–775.
  7. ^ "Desarrollo y dinámica de la población en el siglo XX". Memoria Chilena (Spanish බසින්). National Library of Chile. 11 July 2021 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 20 June 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link)
  8. ^ "Cómo se construyó la Constitución de 1980". Pauta. 30 November 2019. 12 January 2025 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 12 January 2025.
  9. ^ "History of our constitutions". Government of Chile. 24 July 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 12 January 2025.
  10. ^ Ffrench-Davis, Ricardo (2002). Economic reforms in Chile: from dictatorship to democracy. Ann Arbor, Mich: Univ. of Michigan Press. ISBN 9780472112326.
  11. ^ "Country profile: Chile". BBC News. 16 December 2009. 14 January 2010 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 31 December 2009.
  12. ^ "Human and income poverty: developing countries". UNDP. 12 February 2009 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
  13. ^ "World Development Indicators". World Bank. 17 April 2012. 26 December 2018 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 12 May 2012.
  14. ^ "La Incógnita Sobre el Origen de la Palabra Chile". Chile.com. 15 June 2000. 15 April 2009 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 17 December 2009.
  15. ^ "Picunche (people)". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/459648/Picunche. ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 17 December 2009. 
  16. ^ a b c Encina, Francisco A.; Leopoldo Castedo (1961). Resumen de la Historia de Chile. Vol. I (4th ed.). Santiago: Zig-Zag. p. 44. 5 February 2009 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
  17. ^ "Chile". Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online. 2005. http://ea.grolier.com. ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 2 March 2005. "The name Chile is of Native American origin, meaning possibly 'ends of the earth' or simply 'sea gulls'.". 
  18. ^ a b c Hudson, Rex A., ed. (1995). "Chile: A Country Study". GPO for the Library of Congress. 25 June 2015 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 27 February 2005.
  19. ^ "chiri in English - Quechua-English Dictionary". Glosbe.
  20. ^ a b
     
    This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: 
    Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). "Chile". එන්සයික්ලොපීඩියා බ්‍රිටැනිකා (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. 
  21. ^ "Chile (república)". Enciclopedia Microsoft Encarta Online. 2005. http://es.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761572974_4/Chile.html. ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 26 February 2005. "The region was then known to its native population as Tchili, a Native American word meaning 'snow'.". 
  22. ^ Pearson, Neale J. (2004). "Chile". Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia. Scholastic Library Publishing. http://gme.grolier.com. ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 2 March 2005. "Chile's name comes from an Indian word, Tchili, meaning 'the deepest point of the Earth'.". 
  23. ^ de Olivares, Miguel; González, SJ (1864) [1736]. "Historia de la Compañía de Jesús en Chile". Colección de historiadores de Chile y documentos relativos a la historia nacional. Vol. 4. Santiago: Imprenta del Ferrocarril.
  24. ^ Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of noteworthy events of the year: 1900. New York: Appletons. p. 87.
  25. ^ Bower, Bruce (26 December 2015). "People roamed tip of South America 18,500 years ago". Science News. p. 10. 10 May 2020 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 26 December 2015.
  26. ^ Insight Guides: Chile. Langenscheidt Publishing Group. 2002. p. 27. ISBN 978-981-234-890-6. 21 February 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  27. ^ a b c d e f g "Development and Breakdown of Democracy, 1830–1973". Country Studies. Library of Congress. 31 March 1994. 9 July 2011 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 21 April 2009.
  28. ^ Eyzaguirre, Jaime (1967). Breve historia de las fronteras de Chile. Editorial Universitaria.
  29. ^ Lagos Carmona, Guillermo (1985). Los Títulos Históricos: Historia de Las Fronteras de Chile. Andrés Bello. (p. 197) We note that the Loa river is at 22 degrees and that Baleato, in 1793, indicated 21.5 degrees for the beginning of the Kingdom of Chile, with the Loa at its mouth in the Pacific. (...) (p. 540) According to the Map of Cano y Olmedilla, the limit of the Kingdom of Chile "(...) through the desert of Atacama (...) From here it turns to the S., S.E., S.E., and S., keeping in general this last course until near the 29° parallel, from where it takes a S.E. direction. SE. and S., generally keeping this last course until the vicinity of the 29° parallel, from where it takes a S.E. direction, skirting to the east the 'Province of Cuyo' which, of course, appears to be included in the territory of the Kingdom of Chile. In the latitude of 32°30' the line turns to the S.W. until reaching the Quinto river, which, as the legend says 'communicates by channels with the Saladillo in time of floods'. It follows the river down to the meridian 316°, counting to the E. of Tenerife, where it turns a stretch until it reaches the Hueuque-Leuvu river (or Barrancas river) at 371/2° latitude. From here it runs along the river for a stretch to the S.E., and then turns to the E. and falls into the Atlantic Sea in the vicinity of parallel 37° between Cape Lobos and Cape Corrientes", "a little north of the current Mar del Plata". (...) (p. 543) In this document it is seen that those of the province of Cuyo end to the south at the source of the Diamante River, and that from that point to the east, the dividing line goes to the point where the Quinto River crosses the road that goes from Santiago to Buenos Aires.
  30. ^ Amunátegui, Miguel Luis (1985). Títulos de la República de Chile a la soberanía i dominio de la Estremidad. 12 November 2022 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 November 2022.
  31. ^ Morla Vicuña, Carlos (1903). Estudio histórico sobre el descubrimiento y conquista de la Patagonia y de la Tierra del Fuego. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus.
  32. ^ Caivano, Tommaso (1 April 1882). "Storia della guerra d'America fra Chilì, il Perù e la Bolivia" (ඉතාලි බසින්). Torino: Ermanno Loescher – via Internet Archive.
  33. ^ Hudson, Rex A., ed. (1995). "Chile: A Country Study". GPO for the Library of Congress. 25 June 2015 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 27 February 2005.
  34. ^ Silva Castro, Raúl (1953). Censo de 1813. Santiago: Imprenta Chile. p. 370. 18 August 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 18 August 2024 – via Biblioteca Nacional de Chile.
  35. ^ Baten, Joerg; Llorca-Jaña, Manuel (2021). "Inequality, Low-Intensity Immigration and Human Capital Formation in the Regions of Chile, 1820–1939" (PDF). Economics and Human Biology. 43: 101030. doi:10.1016/j.ehb.2021.101030. ISSN 1570-677X. PMID 34171763. S2CID 219382958. 9 October 2022 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත (PDF).
  36. ^ Intercolonial Intimacies: Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines. 1898-1964 By Paula C. Park සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 1 නොවැම්බර් 2022 at the Wayback Machine (INTRODUCTION: Residual Intercolonial Intimacies across the "Hispanic" Pacific)
  37. ^ Eyzaguirre, Jaime (1967). Breve historia de las fronteras de Chile (ස්පාඤ්ඤ බසින්). Editorial Universitaria.
  38. ^ Mateo Martinic Beros (1971). Presencia de Chile en la Patagonia austral 1843 – 1879 (ස්පාඤ්ඤ බසින්). Editorial Andrés Bello. 31 March 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය December 8, 2022.
  39. ^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 137. ISBN 9781107507180.
  40. ^ "Historia de la Isla de Pascua: Su Incorporación y Su Conflicto Con La Williamson & Balfour. Daños Patrimoniales, Pretensiones Internacionales e Independentismos". 21 March 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 26 January 2024.
  41. ^ William Sater, Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict, Athens, GA; University of Georgia Press, ISBN 0-8203-1249-5 p.51
  42. ^ Fowler, Will (1996). Authoritarianism in Latin America since independence. University of Virginia: Greenwood Press. pp. 30–96. ISBN 0-313-29843-2.
  43. ^ Frazier, Lessie Jo (17 July 2007). Salt in the Sand: Memory, Violence, and the Nation-State in Chile, 1890 to the Present. Duke University Press. pp. 163–184. ISBN 978-0-8223-4003-4. 29 November 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  44. ^ Mares, David; Francisco Rojas Aravena (2001). The United States and Chile: Coming in from the Cold. Routledge. p. 145. ISBN 978-0-415-93125-0. 29 November 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  45. ^ Trento, Joseph J. (2005). The Secret History of the CIA. Carroll & Graf Publishers. p. 560. ISBN 978-0-7867-1500-8. 19 March 2015 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  46. ^ Lois Hecht Oppenheim (2007). Politics in Chile: Socialism, Authoritarianism, and Market Democracy. Westview Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-7867-3426-9. 29 November 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  47. ^ a b c De Vylder, Stefan (5 March 2009). Allende's Chile: The Political Economy of the Rise and Fall of the Unidad Popular. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-10757-0.
  48. ^ "Allende wins the elections: first coup attempt". Grace.evergreen.edu. 7 January 2008 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 17 December 2009.
  49. ^ a b c d Friedman, Norman (1 March 2007). The Fifty-Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the Cold War. Naval Institute Press. pp. 367–368. ISBN 978-1-59114-287-4. 29 November 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  50. ^ Qureshi, Lubna Z. (2009). Nixon, Kissinger, and Allende: U.S. Involvement in the 1973 Coup in Chile. Lexington Books. pp. 86–97. ISBN 978-0-7391-2655-4. 29 November 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  51. ^ "Report on CIA Chilean Task Force activities". Chile and the United States: Declassified Documents relating to the Military Coup, 1970–1976. The National Security Archive: Electronic Briefing Books (George Washington University). 11 February 2010 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 11 March 2010.
  52. ^ a b "Covert Action In Chile 1963–1973, Staff Report Of The Select Committee To Study Governmental Operations With Respect To Intelligence Activities". Federation of American Scientists. 3 October 2009 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 17 December 2009.
  53. ^ "Tightening the Belt". Time. 7 August 1972. 22 October 2010 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
  54. ^ "Equipo Nizkor – CIA Activities in Chile – September 18, 2000". Derechos.org. 13 May 2008 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 17 December 2009.
  55. ^ "Transition to Democracy in Latin America: The Role of the judiciary" (PDF). Yale University. 19 August 2013 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
  56. ^ Soto, Óscar (1999). El último día de Salvador Allende. Aguilar. ISBN 978-956-239-084-2.[page needed]
  57. ^ Ahumada, Eugeno. Chile: La memoria prohibida.[page needed]
  58. ^ "Kissinger and Chile: the Declassified Record". The National Security Archive. 16 September 2013. 17 September 2013 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 16 September 2013.
  59. ^ Lewis, Anthony (1975-02-27). "The Kissinger Doctrine". The New York Times. 12 September 2022 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 2024-05-08.
  60. ^ a b Juan Paulo Iglesias (25 August 2023). "Sebastián Hurtado, historiador: "Estados Unidos no tuvo participación directa en el Golpe, pero sí quería que Allende cayera"" (ස්පාඤ්ඤ බසින්). La Tercera. 12 September 2024 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 12 January 2025.
  61. ^ Hurtado, Sebastián (10 October 2016). "Chile y Estados Unidos, 1964-1973. Una nueva mirada". Nuevo Mundo Mundos Nuevos (ස්පාඤ්ඤ බසින්). doi:10.4000/nuevomundo.69698.
  62. ^ Dinges, John. "Operation Condor". latinamericanstudies.org. Columbia University. 22 July 2018 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 6 July 2018.
  63. ^ "Flashback: Caravan of Death". BBC. 25 July 2000. 26 February 2008 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 11 March 2008.
  64. ^ Ministerio del Interior (3 August 1999). "Ministerio del Interior, Programa de Derechos Humanos – ddhh_rettig". Ddhh.gov.cl. 23 December 2009 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 17 December 2009.
  65. ^ a b "Sintesis Ok" (PDF). 27 July 2007 දින මුල් පිටපත (PDF) වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 17 December 2009.
  66. ^ Eva Vergara (18 August 2015). Chile Recognizes 9,800 More Pinochet Victims සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 31 දෙසැම්බර් 2015 at the Wayback Machine. The Associated Press via The Huffington Post. Retrieved 25 August 2015.
  67. ^ Pamela Constable; Arturo Valenzuela (1993). A Nation of Enemies: Chile Under Pinochet. W W Norton & Company Incorporated. p. 150. ISBN 978-0-393-30985-0.
  68. ^ Klein, Naomi (1 April 2010). The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism. Henry Holt and Company (2007). p. 85. ISBN 978-1-4299-1948-7. 29 November 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  69. ^ Huneeus, Carlos (3 September 2009). "Political Mass Mobilization against Authoritarian Rule: Pinochet's Chile, 1983–88". In Adam Roberts; Timothy Garton Ash (eds.). Civil Resistance and Power Politics:The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present. Oxford University Press. pp. 197–212. ISBN 978-0-19-161917-5. 29 November 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 July 2013.
  70. ^ Christian, Shirley (16 December 1989). "Man in the News: Patricio Aylwin; A Moderate Leads Chile". The New York Times. 29 July 2018 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 28 July 2018.
  71. ^ "Chile elects new leader Late president's son wins big". Encyclopedia.com. 12 December 1993. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-8257609.html. ප්‍රතිෂ්ඨාපනය 14 July 2013. 
  72. ^ "Moderate socialist Lagos wins Chilean presidential election". CNN. 16 January 2000. 6 May 2008 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී.
  73. ^ "Chile elects first woman president". NBC News. 12 January 2006. 9 November 2013 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 10 November 2019.
  74. ^ Reel, Monte (12 March 2006). "Bachelet Sworn in As Chile's President". The Washington Post. 1 July 2017 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 22 August 2017.
  75. ^ "Michelle Bachelet sworn in as Chile's president". BBC News. 11 March 2014. 12 March 2014 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 12 August 2021.
  76. ^ "Chile election: Conservative Piñera elected president". BBC News. 18 December 2017. 18 December 2017 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 12 August 2021.
  77. ^ "Pinera, a conservative billionaire, is sworn in as president of Chile". Yahoo! News. Agence France Presse. 11 March 2018. 1 August 2021 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 12 August 2021.
  78. ^ "US ready to help Chile: Obama". The Australia Times. 27 April 2011 දින මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂණය කරන ලදී. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 3 March 2010.
  79. ^ More Quakes Shake Chile's Infrastructure, Adam Figman, Contract, 1 March 2010 සංරක්ෂණය කළ පිටපත 14 නොවැම්බර් 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  80. ^ "Background Note: Chile". Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, United States Department of State. 16 December 2011. 21 January 2017 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 19 March 2012.
  81. ^ Naomi Larsson (26 October 2019). "Chile protests: More than one million bring Santiago to a halt". Al Jazeera. 26 October 2019 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 19 November 2019.
  82. ^ Sandra Cuffe (19 November 2019). "One month on: Protests in Chile persist despite gov't concessions". Al Jazeera. 17 March 2020 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 19 November 2019.
  83. ^ "Presidente Piñera promulga reforma que posterga elecciones al 15 y 16 de mayo". El Mostrador (ස්පාඤ්ඤ බසින්). 6 April 2021. 5 May 2021 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 7 April 2021.
  84. ^ "Leftist Gabriel Boric to become Chile's youngest ever president". BBC News. 20 December 2021. 20 December 2021 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 21 December 2021.
  85. ^ "Gabriel Boric, 36, sworn in as president to herald new era for Chile". The Guardian (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). 11 March 2022. 12 March 2022 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 15 March 2022.
  86. ^ "Chile's president-elect names progressive, majority-women cabinet". The Guardian (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). 21 January 2022. 25 January 2022 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 15 March 2022.
  87. ^ "Chile constitution: Voters overwhelmingly reject radical change". BBC News. 5 September 2022. 5 September 2022 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 14 September 2022.
  88. ^ Villegas, A. (18 December 2023). "Chileans reject conservative constitution to replace dictatorship-era text". Reuters. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 18 December 2023.
  89. ^ "Chilean voters reject conservative constitution, after defeating leftist charter last year". AP News (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). 17 December 2023. 18 December 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 18 December 2023.
  90. ^ "Chile rejects second attempt to renew constitution". dw.com (ඉංග්‍රීසි බසින්). 18 December 2023 දින පැවති මුල් පිටපත වෙතින් සංරක්ෂිත පිටපත. සම්ප්‍රවේශය 19 December 2023.
දකුණු ඇමරිකාවේ ස්වෛරී රාජ්‍යයන් සහ පරායත්ත භූමි ප්‍රදේශ ලැයිස්තුව
"https://si.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=චිලී&oldid=749909" වෙතින් සම්ප්‍රවේශනය කෙරිණි