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United States military aid

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Main article: United States foreign aid

The United States government first recognized the usefulness of foreign aid as a tool of diplomacy in World War II. It was believed that it would promote liberal capitalist models of development in other countries and that it would enhance national security.[1]

The United States is the largest contributor of military aid to foreign countries in the world, with its Department of Defense providing funding and/or American military hardware aid to over 150 countries annually for defense purposes.

History

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Pre-1914-

Before the onset of the twentieth century, the United States government had not engaged in any official, large-scale distribution of military aid to foreign allies. From its declaration of independence until the outbreak of the First World War, the US armed forces practiced direct military interventions, both in its continental expansion westward and its overseas expansion, for example during the 1898 War with the Spanish Empire. Whilst some distribution and facilitation of military aid did occur, such as provisions to Filipino insurgents in that conflict, this was small-scale, indirect and subsidiary to its own ongoing military operations; one has to look to the Great War to see the first example of large-scale American military aid to foreign allies.

World War One-

Upon outbreak of war in 1914, America declared its neutrality, and public opinion was firmly against intervention.[2] However, the prevailing feeling of both the public and government was relatively pro-Entente, particularly after the sinking of RMS Lusitania in May 1915. The Allies increasingly looked to American aid; this was primarily financial in nature before 1917 (such as loans brokered by J.P Morgan), but matériel was also sold through private companies. However, during this period there was no official military aid sent-this changed after America’s formal declaration of war in April 1917. Government-backed financial aid for Allied military spending was introduced, alongside America’s mobilisation of its own economy and armed forces to join the campaign in Europe.[3] This more assertive foreign policy was driven by President Woodrow Wilson, who held an almost providential sense of his and his nation’s role in the world. American interventionism on the global stage was seen by Wilson as essential for global (and American) prosperity and democracy; this concept would be pursued rigorously by his successors in following generations. However, this particular aid would continue only until the Armistice in 1918, after which the US, its public rather weary of and disillusioned with the war, retreated back into a more isolationist state. This would interrupt the trend of American interventionism (as shown by its levels of military aid) for a generation.

Interwar Period-

After the war, the US did not provide military aid to foreign countries as its relative isolationism on the global geopolitical stage meant it had no formal allies that would and could realistically be provided with aid of that nature. The Great Depression furthered America’s lack of both willingness and capacity for military aid provision; even as European tensions rose in the 1930s, America vehemently opposed any kind of military interventionism. Minimal non-lethal aid was provided to countries such as Spain during its civil war and to China in the wake of Japan’s invasion, but official policy (as per the four Neutrality Acts of the 1930s) before the Second World War prohibited the arming of foreign belligerent powers.[4]

World War Two-

Even with the antipathies of the American government and people to the fascist states of Germany and Italy, prevailing opinion was strongly anti-war in its early years. However, numerous factors, such as the rapid territorial expansion of the Axis powers, led to a marked shift. US foreign policy followed this trend, increasingly abandoning its long-standing policy of neutrality. This can be seen most clearly through its Lend-Lease programme, which can be seen as the first true example of US military aid as the tool of diplomacy it is today. Passed in March 1941 and ending in September 1945, the Act provided $50.1 billion ($672 billion in 2023 adjusted for inflation) worth of lethal and non-lethal military aid to the Allies, the majority going to Britain and the Soviet Union.[5] It was crucial to the wider Allied war effort, with Nikita Khrushchev later claiming Soviet leader Joseph Stalin had privately admitted that American military aid had been decisive in holding back Germany’s onslaught.[6] This massive distribution of aid provided a blueprint for US foreign policy, and it became a hallmark of American diplomacy as it assumed an interventionist role at the centre of the global stage during the ensuing Cold War.

Cold War-

Out of World War Two, the United States emerged alongside the Soviet Union as global superpowers and leaders of their respective blocs. A cornerstone of its policy of the containment and later rollback of communism, and the expansion of their own sphere of influence, America provided vast amounts of military aid to its allies throughout the conflict. First seen in Europe in the wake of the establishment of NATO in 1949, the passing of the Mutual Defense Assistance Act re-equipped and revitalised depleted European militaries.[7] Designed to counter communist influence and ensure Europe’s protection against Soviet attacks, the act and those that followed it set the precedent of US interventionism on the continent. In the so-called Third World, American military aid provision followed the foreign policy blueprint set out in the top-secret NSC-68 document of 1950.[8] In Asia, America demonstrated this most clearly with its military involvement and interventions in Korea and Vietnam, states that were strategically vital to their national interests as per the Domino Theory.[9] In the Middle East, this was shown through its strategic partnership with Israel, seen as a counterweight to Soviet influence in the region.[10] In Africa, this was seen in aid sent to Mobutu’s Zaire among various other states and non-state actors, and in Latin America, among the most infamous examples was Reagan’s backing of the Nicaraguan Contras against the ruling Sandinistas. These countries (and many others) were on the receiving end of this critical tool of American diplomacy, one that was at the heart of America’s prosecution of the frozen conflict.

Post-Cold War-

Post-1991, American military aid is still provided to numerous countries, reflective of a less ideologically-driven global geopolitical stage. For example, alongside the wider Coalition intervention, the Afghan National Security Forces were provided arms, training and logistical support by the United States in the war against the Taliban before its defeat in 2021.[11] As of March 12, in the ongoing War in Ukraine around $66.5B worth of US military aid has been sent to Ukraine, and since October 7th 2023, Israel has been sent an estimated $18B in aid for its war against Hamas and its allies.[12] [13] These are just some examples of the weight America continues to attach to military aid as a tool for the furtherance of its geopolitical and strategic interests.

Military funding programs

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There are three main programs where military funding is allocated:

  1. Foreign Military Financing (FMF) provides grants for the acquisition of U.S. defense equipment, services, and training. These grants enable friends and allies to improve their defense capabilities.[14][2][15][16] FMF is allowed under the Arms Export Control Act (AECA), which as amended [22 U.S.C. 2751, et. seq.], authorizes the President to finance procurement of defense articles and services for foreign countries and international organizations.[3] The goals of FMF are:[17][4][18]
    • Promoting national security by contributing to regional and global stability
    • Strengthening military support for democratically elected governments and containing transnational threats, including terrorism and trafficking in narcotics, weapons, and persons
    • Fostering closer military relationships between the U.S. and recipient nations
  2. Peacekeeping Operations (PKO) provide voluntary support for international peacekeeping activities. These funds support non-U.N. operations and training in response to a nation’s crisis.[5] The goals of PKO are:
    • Promoting increased involvement of regional organizations in conflict resolution
    • Helping leverage support for multinational efforts in the event of a nation's crisis
  3. The International Military Education and Training program (IMET) offers military training on a grant basis to foreign military officials.[19] The goals of IMET are:
    • Encouraging effective defense relationships
    • Promoting interoperability with U.S. and coalition forces
    • Exposing foreign civilian and military officials to democratic values, military professionalism, and international norms of human rights

Some examples of this would include the United States' efforts in Colombia and South Korea. Military aid has been successful in stopping insurgency, providing stability, and ending conflicts within the region. In South Korea, US military aid has been beneficial for the maintenance of national security, economic and social development, and civilization as a whole.[6]

In many other cases, military aid has laid the groundwork for other forms of aid. This aid includes building schools to promote education, providing clean drinking water, and further stabilizing food production. Without military aid, this development would have been impossible.[citation needed]

Criticisms

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Particular targets of criticism include

  • Funds appropriated to the State Department and Defense Department represent the vast majority of unclassified military aid and assistance.[7]
  • The United States gives the same amount of money to its top five aid recipients as they give to the rest of the world.[8]
  • Generally, increasing levels of US military aid significantly reduces cooperative foreign policy behavior with the United States.[11]

Table

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The following table shows which countries does the United States provide military aid or assistance, per USAID.[12]

Countries by U.S. Military Aid
Country/Region 2022 2023
 Afghanistan No No
 Albania Yes Yes
 Algeria Yes Yes
 Angola Yes Yes
 Antigua and Barbuda Yes Yes
 Argentina Yes Yes
 Armenia Yes Yes
 Azerbaijan Yes Yes
 Bahamas Yes Yes
 Bahrain Yes Yes
 Bangladesh Yes Yes
 Barbados Yes Yes
 Belarus No No
 Belize Yes Yes
 Benin Yes Yes
 Bhutan No Yes
 Bolivia No No
 Bosnia and Herzegovina Yes Yes
 Botswana Yes Yes
 Brazil Yes Yes
 Bulgaria Yes Yes
 Burkina Faso No No
 Burundi No No
 Cambodia No No
 Cameroon Unknown or unclear Yes
 Cape Verde Yes Yes
 Central African Republic No Yes
 Chad Yes Unknown or unclear
 Chile Yes Yes
 China No No
 Colombia Yes Yes
 Comoros Yes Yes
 Congo Yes Yes
 Costa Rica Yes Yes
 Croatia Yes Yes
 Cuba No No
 Cyprus Yes Yes
 Czech Republic Yes Yes
 Democratic Republic of the Congo Yes Yes
 Djibouti Yes Yes
 Dominica Yes Yes
 Dominican Republic Yes Yes
 East Timor Yes Yes
 Ecuador Yes Yes
 Egypt Yes Yes
 El Salvador Yes Yes
 Equatorial Guinea Yes Yes
 Eritrea No No
 Estonia Yes Yes
 Eswatini Yes Yes
 Ethiopia Yes No
 Fiji Yes Yes
 Gabon Yes Yes
 Gambia Yes Yes
 Georgia Yes Yes
 Germany Yes Yes
 Ghana Yes Yes
 Greece Yes Yes
 Grenada Yes Yes
 Guatemala Yes Yes
 Guinea No No
 Guinea-Bissau Yes Yes
 Guyana Yes Yes
 Haiti Yes Yes
 Honduras Yes Yes
 Hungary Yes Yes
 India Yes Yes
 Indonesia Yes Yes
 Iran No No
 Iraq Yes Yes
 Israel Yes Yes
 Ivory Coast Yes Yes
 Jamaica Yes Yes
 Jordan Yes Yes
 Kazakhstan Yes Yes
 Kenya Yes Yes
 Kosovo Yes Yes
 Kyrgyzstan Yes Yes
 Laos Yes Yes
 Latvia Yes Yes
 Lebanon Yes Yes
 Lesotho Yes Yes
 Liberia Yes Yes
 Libya No No
 Lithuania Yes Yes
 Madagascar Yes Yes
 Malawi Yes Yes
 Malaysia Yes Yes
 Maldives Yes Yes
 Mali No No
 Malta Yes Yes
 Mauritania Yes Yes
 Mauritius Yes Yes
 Mexico Yes Yes
 Moldova Yes Yes
 Mongolia Yes Yes
 Montenegro Yes Yes
 Morocco Yes Yes
 Mozambique Yes Yes
 Myanmar No No
 Namibia Yes Yes
   Nepal Yes Yes
 Nicaragua No No
 Niger Yes Yes
 Nigeria Yes Yes
 North Korea No No
 North Macedonia Yes Yes
 Oman Yes Yes
 Pakistan[a] Unknown or unclear No
 Palau Unknown or unclear Yes
 Palestine No No
 Panama Yes Yes
 Papua New Guinea Yes Yes
 Paraguay Yes Yes
 Peru Yes Yes
 Philippines Yes Yes
 Poland Yes Yes
 Romania Yes Yes
 Russia No No
 Rwanda Yes Unknown or unclear
 Saint Kitts and Nevis Unknown or unclear Yes
 Saint Lucia Yes Yes
 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Yes Yes
 São Tomé and Principe Yes Yes
 Saudi Arabia Unknown or unclear Unknown or unclear
 Senegal Yes Yes
 Serbia Yes Yes
 Seychelles Yes Yes
 Sierra Leone Yes Yes
 Slovakia Yes Yes
 Slovenia Yes Yes
 Solomon Islands No No
 Somalia Yes Yes
 South Africa Yes Yes
 South Sudan Yes No
 Sri Lanka Yes Yes
 Sudan No No
 Suriname Yes Yes
 Syria No No
 Taiwan Yes Yes
 Tajikistan Yes Yes
 Tanzania Yes Yes
 Thailand Yes Yes
 Togo Yes Yes
 Tonga Yes Yes
 Trinidad and Tobago Yes Yes
 Tunisia Yes Yes
 Turkey Yes Yes
 Turkmenistan Yes Yes
 Uganda Yes Yes
 Ukraine Yes Yes
 Uruguay Yes Yes
 Uzbekistan Yes Yes
 Vanuatu Yes Yes
 Venezuela No No
 Vietnam Yes Yes
 Western Sahara[b] No No
 Yemen No Yes
 Zambia Yes Yes
 Zimbabwe No No

Notes

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  1. ^ Currently, the United States aid to Pakistan only includes civilian assistance, and military assistance has been terminated since 2018.[20][21]
  2. ^ The United States does not recognize the Sahrawi Republic established by the Polisario Front. In the late 2020, the United States officially recognized Morocco's sovereignty over Western Sahara.[22]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Foreign Aid. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
  2. ^ a b "Foreign Military Financing (FMF)". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  3. ^ a b "Foreign Military Financing (FMF) | The Official Home of the Defense Security Cooperation Agency". www.dsca.mil. Retrieved 2018-12-28.
  4. ^ a b Axelrod, Matthew Craig (April 2011). "Aid as Leverage? Understanding the U.S.-Egypt Military Relationship" (PDF). The Lauder Institute, University of Pennsylvania. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  5. ^ a b Foreign Aid: An Introductory Overview of U.S. Programs and Policy (PDF). Retrieved 2011-03-01.
  6. ^ a b Choi, Tae Young (1989). "Effect Analysis of U.S. Military Aid to the Republic of Korea" (PDF). Naval Postgraduate School Monterey, California. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 24, 2020.
  7. ^ a b A Citizen's Guide to Understanding U.S. Foreign Military Aid. Retrieved 2011-03-01.
  8. ^ a b Noah GrantJust the Facts: Foreign Aid vs. Military Spending. Retrieved 2011-02-24.
  9. ^ Leeson, Peter T., Dean, Andrea, 'The Democratic Domino Theory'. American Journal of Political Science 53.3 (2009), p. 533–551.
  10. ^ "How did the Cold War impact the formation of Israel? | TutorChase". www.tutorchase.com. Retrieved 2025-05-30.
  11. ^ a b Sullivan, Patricia; Tessman, Brock; Li, Xiaojun (2011). "US Military Aid and Recipient State Cooperation". Foreign Policy Analysis. 7 (3): 275–294. doi:10.1111/j.1743-8594.2011.00138.x.
  12. ^ a b "Foreign Assistance". Office of U.S. Foreign Assistance Resources. Retrieved 2024-05-31.
  13. ^ Merrow, Jonathan Masters,Will. "U.S. Aid to Israel in Four Charts | Council on Foreign Relations". www.cfr.org. Retrieved 2025-05-27.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Foreign Military Financing Account Summary. Retrieved 2011-03-01.
  15. ^ "Security Assistance Team". U.S. Department of State. 24 January 2007. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  16. ^ "Foreign Military Financing (FMF)". Defense Security Cooperation Agency. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  17. ^ "About Us - Office of Security Assistance". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  18. ^ Tarnoff, Curt; Lawson, Marian L. (29 January 2016). "Foreign Aid: An Introduction to U.S. Programs and Policy" (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved 15 May 2024.
  19. ^ IMET Assessment Project 2007-2008. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009. Retrieved 2011-03-01.
  20. ^ Michael, Peel (January 29, 2018). "Pakistan turns to Russia and China after US military aid freeze". The Financial Times. Retrieved 2024-03-24.
  21. ^ Arshad, Mehmood. "Pakistan requests renewed US military aid as it launches fresh counterterrorism effort". Ynetnews. Retrieved 2024-07-15.
  22. ^ "Morocco". World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2 August 2022. Archived from the original on 2 December 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
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