Superstition in China
As an ancient civilization with a long history and rich cultural traditions, China's "superstition" phenomenon is not only deeply rooted in people's daily lives, but also closely linked to national governance, religious development and social structure evolution. The origin of superstition can be traced back to primitive society. Its early forms were nature worship, totem beliefs and shamanic rituals. These religious prototypes left a large number of archaeological traces in the Yangshao culture, such as painted pottery totems and sacrificial sites. With the replacement of the Xia, Shang and Zhou dynasties, the belief in ghosts and gods and destiny was gradually institutionalized and became an important tool for political legitimacy and moral education.[citation needed]
With the changes and development of the times and the spread and development of Taoism and Buddhism, superstition gradually merged with religious beliefs, imperial power ideas and social behavior patterns. It shows a strong political and ideological color. The pursuit of immortality and destiny prophecy in the Qin Shihuang era is a typical example of superstitious culture serving the power structure. In the later period of the development of the times, folk customs such as feng shui, eight characters, and sacrifices, which were regarded as superstitions, gradually became common among the people.[citation needed]
The origin of Chinese superstition
[edit]The origin of Chinese superstition can be traced back to ancient times and is closely related to primitive society's nature worship, belief in spirits and deities, and shamanistic culture.[1]
Totem beliefs in primitive Chinese society
[edit]Yangshao culture
[edit]The Yangshao Culture (circa 5000–3000 BCE) was one of the core cultures of China's Neolithic period. Its painted pottery designs, settlement remains, and burial customs contain rich traces of totemic beliefs.[2]
A totem is a form of belief in which a primitive clan regards a certain animal, plant, or natural object as its ancestor or guardian deity. Archaeological discoveries from the Yangshao Culture provide important evidence for studying early totem worship in China.[3]
Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties: Belief in Ghosts and Gods and the Mandate of Heaven (2070 BC–256 BC)
[edit]xia
[edit]During the Xia Dynasty, religious beliefs mainly continued the witchcraft tradition of primitive religion, emphasizing the mysterious connection between man, nature and ancestors. Sacrificial activities were frequent, and ancestor worship became an important part of the national religion. The Analects of Confucius: Taibo records that Xia Yu "showed filial piety to ghosts and gods", indicating that the belief in ghosts and gods had been incorporated into the national ritual system at that time.[4]
"Book of Rites: Biaoji" records: "The Xia Dynasty respected destiny, served ghosts, revered gods but kept them at a distance, and was close to people but loyal to them." This shows that although the Xia Dynasty respected gods, it emphasized human affairs and morality more, and advocated "respecting ghosts and gods but keeping them at a distance", which reflected the awe of gods while paying attention to practical human relations.[5]
Shang
[edit]The Shang Dynasty worshipped the "Emperor" as the supreme god. The "Emperor" had extensive powers. He not only controlled the wind, clouds, thunder and rain in nature, but also controlled the disasters and blessings in the world. With the development of civilization and the improvement of productivity, the worship of the supreme god "Emperor" was replaced by the worship of ancestor gods. The concept of human king gradually became clear and prominent.[5]
Zhou
[edit]The Zhou people proposed the concept of "Heaven's Mandate", believing that "Heaven" was the supreme god who gave the monarch the legitimacy of rule. "The Book of Documents: Zhoushu" states: "Heaven's Mandate is not constant, only virtue is its support." This emphasizes that virtue is the key to obtaining Heaven's Mandate, reflecting the combination of politics and morality. The Zhou Dynasty also developed a ritual system, using the ritual and music system to regulate social order, institutionalizing and ethicalizing the concept of Heaven's Mandate.[6]
Qin and Han Dynasties to Tang and Song Dynasties: Fusion of Taoism, Buddhism and Folk Beliefs (221 BC–1279)
[edit]Qin
[edit]After Qin Shihuang unified the six kingdoms, he strongly advocated the concept of divine authority and destiny to consolidate the legitimacy of his rule. He frequently offered sacrifices to the heavens, the earth, and the mountains, and sent alchemists such as Xu Fu to the east to seek immortality, trying to achieve immortality through the protection of the gods. At the same time, the theory of "prophecy"[7]was prevalent during the Qin Dynasty, that is, to prove the destiny of the imperial power through mysterious prophecies and auspicious signs.
As a cultural phenomenon that combines mysterious prophecies and political propaganda, prophecy showed a strong function of social mobilization and public opinion guidance during the Qin Dynasty. Although the Qin Dynasty was short-lived, it produced a large number of prophecies of the country's demise. These prophecies are mainly divided into three categories: curse type, deification type, and vague type. They were spread by cursing Qin Shihuang, deifying anti-Qin figures, and implicitly hinting at the ownership of the future regime, which played an important role in inciting people to resist and gathering anti-Qin forces.[8]
From the Ming and Qing Dynasties to Modern Times: The Solidification and Variation of Folk Superstition (1368–20th Century)
[edit]Customs regarded as superstitions
[edit]Feng Shui
[edit]
Feng Shui, also known as Kan Yu,[9] is an ancient Chinese philosophy of environmental planning and spatial arrangement, aimed at harmonizing the relationship between humans and their natural surroundings to attract good fortune and avoid misfortune. It originated from the observation of natural laws and integrates concepts such as Yin and Yang, the Five Elements, the Bagua (Eight Trigrams), and the flow of qi (energy). Feng Shui is defined as an environmental healing art based on the flow and balance of qi, rather than merely a technique for arranging furniture or buildings. It emphasizes that Feng Shui is not just about adjusting external spaces, but also a means to achieve holistic harmony of the body, mind, and spirit.[10]
Ba Zi
[edit]Bazi, also known as the Four Pillars of Destiny, is an important tool in traditional Chinese metaphysics used to analyze a person's fate and character. The term "Bazi" refers to the eight characters derived from the year, month, day, and hour of a person's birth, with each time point consisting of one Heavenly Stem and one Earthly Branch. Therefore, it is called "Bazi" or "Eight Characters."[11]
Sacrifice
[edit]Sacrifice, originating from the belief in the harmonious coexistence of heaven and earth, is rooted in ancient faith. According to the findings of modern anthropology and archaeology, the two most primitive beliefs in human history are the belief in heaven and earth, and the belief in ancestors. These beliefs arose from early humans' reverence for nature and their ancestors, which led to various forms of worship and sacrificial rituals. Festivals like the Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Qingming Festival, and Chongyang Festival are holidays that originated from these primitive beliefs, dedicated to sacrificing to the gods of heaven and earth and to ancestors.[12]The grand sacrificial ceremonies to heaven and earth are, in the ultimate sense of human thinking, a spiritual experience of communication between humans and deities, connecting the upper and lower realms, and realizing the harmonious coexistence of humans, deities, and nature. Sacrificial activities involve offerings, burning incense, and bowing with solemnity and precision. The rituals and offerings have specific guidelines. Traditional customs dictate that offerings are presented to deities or ancestors as a sign of reverence, seeking their protection and blessings.[13]
How beliefs have evolved in the 20th–21st centuries
[edit]In urban areas, especially first-tier cities, traditional superstitions such as feng shui, fortune-telling, and choosing auspicious dates are considered "superstitious" by many young people, but they still play a role in important moments such as real estate design, weddings, and business openings. Some entrepreneurs and decision makers still consult feng shui masters or fortune-telling experts before making major business decisions, showing the deep connection between traditional beliefs and modern economic behavior.[14]
In rural or remote areas, traditional sacrificial rituals and worship of gods are still regarded as important community activities, which not only have cultural inheritance functions, but also strengthen the cohesion within the village. For example, on important festivals such as Qingming Festival and Spring Festival, ancestor worship, burning paper, and offerings are still indispensable rituals for many families. In some places, phenomena such as "inviting gods", "exorcism", and "feng shui masters going to the village" still have a certain social influence.[15]
References
[edit]- ^ "Traditional and modern Chinese superstitions: Ghosts, gods, fate, and wedding dates". Daxue Consulting. 27 July 2020.
Originating from feudal society, these superstitious beliefs evolved into customs and religions but vary by region. The traditional secular superstition is mainly to believe that certain activities, ceremonies, numbers, natural phenomena, and dates will bring good luck, and taboo certain numbers and phenomena. For example, Chinese choose auspicious wedding dates according to the lunar calendar, because they believe that selected date can bring joy and harmony to marriage.
- ^ Yuan, Kai Kuo (2020). "龙图腾：考古学视野下中华龙的起源、认同与传承" [Dragon Totem: The Origin, Identity and Inheritance of the Chinese Dragon from an Archaeological Perspective]. www.sinoss.net/ (in Chinese).
- ^ Wang, Di (2021). "联播+｜百年发掘 揭秘"仰韶文化"-新华网" [A century of excavation reveals the secrets of the "Yangshao Culture"]. www.xinhuanet.com. Retrieved 2025-04-02.
- ^ Chen, Lai (2017-09-07). "殷商的祭祀宗教与西周的天命信仰" [The sacrificial religion of the Shang Dynasty and the belief in the Mandate of Heaven of the Western Zhou Dynasty]. www.chinafolklore.org/.
- ^ a b Lin, Ming (2013-12-25). "商周信仰崇拜的演变" [The Evolution of Beliefs and Worship in Shang and Zhou Dynasties]. doi:10.7666/d.J0075013.
- ^ Xie, NaiHe (15 March 2024). "周秦之际天命观的多重内涵及其演变" [The Multiple Connotations and Evolution of the Concept of Heaven's Mandate during the Zhou and Qin Dynasties]. 华东师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版). 56 (2): 72. doi:10.16382/j.cnki.1000-5579.2024.02.007.
- ^ Gu, ZHEGANG (1988). 中国上古史研宄讲义 [Lecture Notes on the Study of Ancient Chinese History] (in Chinese). 中華書局. p. 233. ISBN 978-7-101-00025-2.
- ^ Li, Shu Jia (2024) [2024-03-25]. ""不问苍生问鬼神" ——浅析"谶纬"对秦灭亡的影响" ["Don't ask about the common people, ask about ghosts and gods" ——A brief analysis of the impact of "prophecies and divinations" on the fall of Qin]. history.qdu.edu.cn/.
- ^ "风水观念弥漫地方官场 成官商勾结新载体--时政--人民网" [Feng Shui concepts permeate local bureaucracy, becoming a new vehicle for collusion between officials and businessmen]. politics.people.com.cn. 2013. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
- ^ Ole, Bruun (2002). Fengshui in China : geomantic divination between state orthodoxy and popular religion. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 9780824826727. OCLC 1081045752.
- ^ Serge, Augier (2017). Ba zi, the four pillars of destiny : understanding character, relationships and potential through Chinese astrology. ISBN 978-1-84819-290-4. OCLC 1391169014.
- ^ Liu, Xiao Chun. "弘扬优秀传统文化视野下的春节习俗研究" [Study on Spring Festival customs from the perspective of promoting excellent traditional culture]. epaper.gmw.cn. Retrieved 2025-05-03.
- ^ Tan, YanJia (January 2015). Ritual Tradition and Local Cultural Construction (Historical Anthropology Research on Guangxi Shanglin Master) [Ritual Tradition and Construction of Local culture：A study of Historical Anthropology of the Shigong in Shanglin Guangxi] (in Chinese). 社会科学文献出版社. ISBN 978-7509785423.
- ^ Tsang, Eric W. K. (July 2004). "GPCR Internalization Studies". doi:10.1177/0170840604042405.
- ^ Ren, Youcao; and Woudstra, Jan (2022-07-03). "Between Fengshui and Neighbors: Case Studies of Participant-Led House-Making in Rural East China". Architecture and Culture. 10 (3): 512–533. doi:10.1080/20507828.2022.2110779. ISSN 2050-7828.