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Kachin people

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Kachin peoples
Jingpo women in traditional dress
Jingpo women in traditional dress
Regions with significant populations
Myanmar
(Jingpo, Lashi/Lachik, Lhao Vo/Maru, Zaiwa, Lisu, Rawang)
Languages
Jingpo, Lashi, Lhao Vo/Maru, Zaiwa, Lisu, Rawang, Burmese, Shan
Religion
Christianity, animism
Related ethnic groups
Other Tibeto-Burman peoples

The Kachin peoples (Kachin: Ga Hkyeng, lit. 'red soil'; Burmese: ကချင်လူမျိုး, pronounced [kətɕɪ̀ɰ̃ lù mjó]) are a collection of diverse ethnolinguistic groups inhabiting the Kachin Hills in northern Myanmar's Kachin State, as well as Yunnan Province in China, and the northeastern Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam. Approximately 1.5 million Kachin people live in this region.

In contemporary usage, the Kachin peoples typically refer to a specific grouping of four to six ethnicities: the Jingpo, the Zaiwa, the Lashi/Lachik, the Lawngwaw/Maru, and to a lesser extent, the Rawang and the Lisu.[1] Kachin identity is heterogenous and diverse, as it encompasses various ethnolinguistic groups who share overlapping territories, but do not all share coherent cultural practices and integrated social structures.[2] Some definitions distinguish Kachin and Shan (Tai) peoples though some Kachin people have demonstrated the over-simplicity of the concept of lineage-based ethnic identity by culturally "becoming Shans".[3]

The most widely spoken Kachin language is Jingpho, which serves as a regional lingua franca. Jingpho has a number of dialects and is written using a Latin-based script developed in the late 19th century. A version in Burmese script was later created. Various dialects are also spoken in southwestern China and northeastern India, where it is called Singpho.[4] In neighbouring China, "Kachin" is interchangeably used with "Jingpo", who comprise the largest subgroup.

Ethnonyms

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Below are common ethnonyms used by the Kachin subgroups:[5]

Myanmar China Exonyms
Jinghpaw Jingpo Kachin
Zaiwa Zaiwa Atsi
Lhaovo Langsu Maru
Lacid Leqi Lashi
Rawang Nung
Lisu Lisu Yawyin

Exonyms

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The etymology of the ethnonym "Kachin" is unclear, but it likely predates British colonial rule.[2] Burmese and Shan speakers used the term as an exonym to refer to the Jingpo, the largest Kachin subgroup.[2] During the colonial era, "Kachin" became a broad administrative label for all non-Shan and non-Burmese speakers in the Kachin Hills.[2] As the British developed formal classifications, they used language as a key criterion, which led to inconsistencies—some groups labeled as Kachin were not linguistically, ethnically, or racially related to others.[2]

This ambiguity raised questions about whether "Kachin" meant one community and language, many communities with one language, or simply a geographical designation.[2] In the post-independence era, the Burmese government continued to adopt this exonym. The Burmese government classifies the Kachin as one of the country's 8 national races.[6] Today, the Burmese government recognises 12 groups within the "Kachin " national race:[6]

  1. Kachin
  2. Tarone
  3. Dalaung[7]
  4. Jinghpaw
  5. Guari[7]
  6. Hkahku, a subgroup of the Jingpo
  7. Duleng
  8. Maru (Lawgore)
  9. Rawang
  10. Lashi (La Chit)
  11. Zaiwa (Atsi)
  12. Lisu

Endonyms

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The Kachin peoples lack a collectively agreed endonym.[8] Some Christian institutions, which tend to be dominated by Jingpo speakers, have proposed the term "Jinghpaw Wunpawng" (lit. 'Jingpo confederation') or "Jinghpaw," while the Kachin Independence Organisation uses the term "Wunpawng."[8] These terms remain contested by non-Jingpo ethnic groups that reject a Kachin identity premised on Jingpo identity and culture.[8]

History

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British colonial rule and Burmese independence

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A Burmese depiction of the Kachin people in the early 1900s

British rule in Burma began in 1824 after the first Anglo-Burmese War. Due to the remote location of Kachin State and its rugged landscape, however, Kachin peoples were relatively untouched by British rule. American missionaries were the first to heavily interact with Kachin and they converted large tracts of the population from animism to Christianity.[9] During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the British started replacing ethnic Burmans in the military with Chin, Kachin, and Karen soldiers. This exclusion of ethnic Burmans from the British military was formally adopted in 1925 when policy was written only allowing ethnic minorities to enlist in the army. Due to this change in military composition, many ethnic Burmans began associating the ethnic minorities with British oppression.[10]

Following the Japanese invasion of Burma in 1942, many Burmese soldiers rallied together to form the Burmese Independence Army (BIA) and fight against the British alongside the Japanese. The Kachin, however, were recruited by the British and the United States to fight against Japanese forces with the promise of autonomy after the war.[11] After the end of World War II and British rule in the region, the Kachin agreed to join the Union of Burma at the 1947 Panglong Conference. The conference brought together Kachin, Chin, and Shan leaders - along with the Burman leader at the time General Aung San. Together they signed the Panglong Agreement which granted the ethnic border states autonomy in local administration and equal treatment by the State.[12] The assassination of General Aung San, however, reduced government support for the agreement and led to feelings of betrayals on the part of Kachin.[11]

Kachin conflict

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Main article: Kachin conflict
Flag of the Kachin Independence Army

In 1960, some several Jingpo leaders established the Kachin Independence Organization (KIO) because they felt marginalised by the central Burmese government.[13] A year later, KIO established an armed wing, the Kachin Independence Army (KIA). In 2010, KIA commanders indicated an army 10,000 strong with another 10,000 in reserves.[14] Both the KIO and KIA are funded with the trade of jade, timber, and other raw materials with China.[15]

In 1994, after 33 years of insurgency, the KIO signed a ceasefire agreement with the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), ending all military missions instigated by both the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Army) and the KIO. The ceasefire primarily ended military activity but also included stipulations that the Myanmar government fund development projects in Kachin State. At the time of signing, the KIO was facing increased military pressure from the Tatmadaw and decreasing support from foreign actors to continue warfare against the Burmese government.[16]

Following the 1994 ceasefire, the State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC) and State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) engaged in land-grabs across the Kachin State. Leveraging weak land governance policies, SLORC and SPDC invited foreign actors to invest in mining, logging, dam construction, and other infrastructure projects in lands traditionally owned by Kachin People. Furthermore, the Kachin State is rich in natural resources, particularly jade, which the Tatmadaw (Myanmar Army) and KIO fight for control over.[17] Throughout the late 1900s and early 2000s, the Tatmadaw established military presence in areas designated for commercial development, eroding the control of land under the governance of the KIO.[18]

Prior to the 2010 elections, the Tatmadaw implored government officials to covert the KIA, along with other ethnic insurgent groups, into militia forces under the jurisdiction of the Tatmadaw.[17] The order stemmed from a military-drafted 2008 Constitution mandating all armed forces surrender their weapons, fall under the central authority of the Tatmadaw, and rebrand as Border Guard Forces (BGF).[19] The KIO refused to transform into a BGF and instead provided a counter-proposal which would rebrand the KIA as the Kachin Regional Guard Force (KRGF). The proposal was rejected by the Burmese military.

2011–2013 conflict in Kachin State

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Following the 2011 election of Thein Sein as President of Myanmar additional ceasefires were signed with many of the largest ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) signaling reconciliation.[17] However, on June 9, 2011, Tatmadaw forces broke the 17-year ceasefire and launched an armed offensive against the KIO along the Taping River near a hydroelectric plant.[20] During the attack, Tatmadaw forces abducted KIO Lance Corporal Chang Ying only to return his tortured body days later. The move prompted retaliation from KIO and began a series of deadly skirmishes between the two.[21]

Ongoing conflict between the KIA and Tatmadaw has led to a large-scale refugee crisis with over 100,000 Kachin people displaced. These internally displaced people (IDPs) often attempt to cross the border into neighboring China. In 2011, however, Kachin IDPs were forcibly sent back to Myanmar and denied refugee status by the Chinese government.[22] This lack of recognition as refugees or asylum seekers has forced many Kachin peoples to form large IDP camps in Myanmar. Only IDP camps in Tatmadaw controlled areas, however, are provided access to UN convoys and international aid. International actors attempting to provide aid in KIA controlled areas are often denied access by the Myanmar government on the basis of security.[23]

By 2012 fighting between KIA and Tatmadaw forces escalated to all regions of the Kachin state. After multiple rounds of discussion, President Thein Sein declared a temporary ceasefire in May 2013 against the desires of Tatmadaw commanders on the ground.[24] By the end of the two year conflict, an estimated 100,000 Kachin people were displaced.[25]

Military situation in Myanmar as of 4 May 2025

Amid the ongoing conflict, the Kachin peoples have been particularly vulnerable to human trafficking.[26] The Tatmadaw and KIA have committed human rights violations against the Kachin peoples, including rape and sexual assault, extrajudicial killings, forced labor, torture, physical abuse, and many other forms of discrimination or outright violence. KIA has In 2014, the Women's League of Burma documented over 100 rapes in Kachin State. In another incident, a Kachin civilian was tortured and subsequently forced to guide Tatmadaw soldiers through combat areas in the Mansi Township.[23]

Disillusionment with KIO

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Members of the Jingpo subgroup dominate the top ranks of the KIO and KIA.[8] Over the decades, members of several Kachin subgroups have splintered from KIA and formed their own ethnic armed organisations, including the Lacid-led Kachin Border Guard Force (previously the New Democratic Army – Kachin); the Rawang Khawnglanghpu militia, and the Lisu and Lhaovo People's Militias.[8]

Culture and traditions

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Sociocultural convergence over centuries of contact among Kachin subgroups has led to the rise of a shared "public sphere."[2] In the early 20th century, Christianity drove the development of a common Kachin identity, mirroring what happened with the Karen peoples.[2] Many Kachin subgroups now share marriage and burial rituals, an overarching clan and kinship system, common cultural traditions, religion, and myths of common origin and descent, particularly among the Jingpo, Lawngwaw, Lachick and Zaiwa subgroups.[2] By contrast, the Lisu and Rawang peoples remain at the periphery of a pan-Kachin identity; both groups assert a distinct identity and often contest their presence in the Kachin category.[2]

The Kachin peoples are traditionally known for their disciplined fighting skills, complex clan inter-relations, craftsmanship, herbal healing and jungle survival skills. The Kachin peoples are distinguished from their lowland counterparts, the Shan peoples, as the former are highlanders who traditionally practice slash-and-burn agriculture in non-irrigated fields.[5]

Religion

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In recent decades, the Kachin have abandoned animist and Buddhist beliefs in favour of Christianity. Various sources estimate that between approximately two-thirds to 90-95% of the Kachin peoples identify as Christians, particularly as Baptists and Catholics.[27][28][29] Many animist rituals, such as the annual Manau festival in Myitkyina, are celebrated as folk traditions.[30][31] Many Kachin profess a belief in evil and good spirits (see nat and phi), including a merciful spirit called Karai Kasang.[27] The Kachin also have spirit intermediaries that make offerings, mediate and perform animal sacrifices.[27]

Cuisine

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Main article: Kachin cuisine

Kachin cuisine is typified by its use of cold-climate ingredients like potatoes, wild game (e.g., venison and wild boar), and foraged herbs and vegetables.[27] The traditional staple is rice, which is traditionally cultivated in hillside fields.[27]

Languages

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The Kachin peoples speak a diverse set of Tibeto-Burman languages, with Jingpo as a common lingua franca.[5] The Zaiwa, Lhaovo, Lacid, and Lisu peoples all speak Lolo-Burmese languages, while the Jingpo speak a Sal language, and the Rawang speak a Rung language.[5] Jingpo is more closely related to Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in northeastern India, like the Northern Naga languages, and has a number of dialects, including Gauri, Hkahku, Duleng, Turung, and Numhpuk.[5] Zaiwa, Lhaovo, and Lacid are closely related to the Burmese language.[5]

Jingpo has significantly influenced the lexico-semantics of Zaiwa, Lhaovo, and Lacid, and to a lesser extent, Rawang and Lisu.[5]

Multilingualism is common among the Kachin, and many Kachin speak one or more of the Kachin languages, in addition to Burmese in Myanmar, Standard Chinese in China, Assamese in India, and Shan as a trade language.[5]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Sadan, Mandy (1 January 2007), "Translating Gumlau: History, the 'Kachin' and Edmund Leach", Social Dynamics in the Highlands of Southeast Asia, Brill, pp. 67–87, doi:10.1163/ej.9789004160347.i-331.24, ISBN 978-90-474-2062-0, retrieved 8 May 2025
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Liu, Amy H.; Selway, Joel (12 March 2024). State Institutions, Civic Associations, and Identity Demands: Regional Movements in Greater Southeast Asia. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-90341-2.
  3. ^ Leach, Edmund Ronald (1993). Political systems of highland Burma: a study of Kachin social structure. London school of economics monographs on social anthropology. London Atlantic Highlands (N.J.): The Athlone press. ISBN 978-0-485-19644-3.
  4. ^ "Jingpho Language (KAC)". Ethnologue. Retrieved 8 May 2025.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Kurabe, Keita (9 August 2021), Sidwell, Paul; Jenny, Mathias (eds.), "20 Typological profile of the Kachin languages", The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia, De Gruyter, pp. 403–432, doi:10.1515/9783110558142-020, ISBN 978-3-11-055814-2, retrieved 8 May 2025
  6. ^ a b "Composition of the Different Ethnic Groups". Embassy of the Republic of the Union of Myanmar Brussels. Archived from the original on 10 April 2020. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
  7. ^ a b "Ethnologue". Archived from the original on 13 October 2011. Retrieved 1 May 2006.
  8. ^ a b c d e Ring, Zung (9 December 2024). "Guest Column | KIO/KIA's Unspoken Objective in Myanmar's Revolution: Uniting the Kachin Into a Nation". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 8 May 2025.
  9. ^ Nash, Ed (30 November 2020). "The Long War Pt. 4; The Kachin Independence Army (KIA)". Military Matters. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  10. ^ Walton, Matthew (November–December 2008). "Ethnicity, Conflict, and History in Burma: The Myths of Panglong". Asian Survey. 48 (6): 889–910. doi:10.1525/as.2008.48.6.889.
  11. ^ a b Jaquet, Carine (3 July 2018), "Kachin history, perceptions, and beliefs: contextual elements", The Kachin Conflict : Testing the Limits of the Political Transition in Myanmar, Carnets de l'Irasec, Bangkok: Institut de recherche sur l'Asie du Sud-Est contemporaine, pp. 17–32, ISBN 978-2-35596-015-4, retrieved 29 March 2021
  12. ^ Kipgen, Nehginpao (2015). "Ethnic Nationalities and the Peace Process in Myanmar". Social Research: An International Quarterly. 82 (2): 399–425. doi:10.1353/sor.2015.0027. ISSN 1944-768X.
  13. ^ Hlaing., Ganesan, N. (Narayanan), 1958- Kyaw Yin (2007). Myanmar : state, society, and ethnicity. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-981-230-434-6. OCLC 124063677.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ "Burma's Kachin army prepares for civil war". 22 February 2010. Retrieved 8 May 2025.
  15. ^ Sun, Yun. China, the United States and the Kachin conflict. OCLC 872666485.
  16. ^ Dukalskis, Alexander (3 October 2015). "Why Do Some Insurgent Groups Agree to Cease-Fires While Others Do Not? A Within-Case Analysis of Burma/Myanmar, 1948–2011". Studies in Conflict & Terrorism. 38 (10): 841–863. doi:10.1080/1057610X.2015.1056631. hdl:10197/8472. ISSN 1057-610X. S2CID 108469636.
  17. ^ a b c South, Ashley (December 2018). "Protecting civilians in the Kachin borderlands, Myanmar: key threats and local responses" (PDF). Humanitarian Policy Group.
  18. ^ Oishi, Mikio, ed. (2020). Managing Conflicts in a Globalizing ASEAN. doi:10.1007/978-981-32-9570-4. ISBN 978-981-32-9569-8. S2CID 242795448.
  19. ^ "Border guard plan could fuel ethnic conflict". The New Humanitarian. 29 November 2010. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  20. ^ Lintner, Bertil (18 December 2012). "More war than peace in Myanmar". Asian Times.
  21. ^ Lahpai, Seng Maw (2014). Debating Democratization in Myanmar: Chapter 14 State Terrorism and International Compliance: The Kachin Armed Struggle for Political Self-Determination. ISEAS–Yusof Ishak Institute. ISBN 9789814519151.
  22. ^ Ho, Elaine Lynn-Ee (2017). "Mobilising affinity ties: Kachin internal displacement and the geographies of humanitarianism at the China–Myanmar border". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 42 (1): 84–97. Bibcode:2017TrIBG..42...84H. doi:10.1111/tran.12148. ISSN 1475-5661.
  23. ^ a b "Myanmar's Human Rights and Humanitarian Violations in Kachin State and its Duty to Investigate, Prosecute, and Provide Victims with Remedies" (PDF). Human Rights Now. 27 October 2016. Retrieved 17 April 2021.
  24. ^ Farrelly, Nicholas (June 2014). "Cooperation, Contestation, Conflict: Ethnic Political Interests in Myanmar Today". South East Asia Research. 22 (2): 251–266. doi:10.5367/sear.2014.0209. hdl:1885/50156. ISSN 0967-828X. S2CID 144657499.
  25. ^ Ying, Lwin (January 2013). "The Situation of Kachin Women during the Current Political Crisis". Asian Journal of Women's Studies. 19 (2): 162–171. doi:10.1080/12259276.2013.11666153. ISSN 1225-9276. S2CID 218770577.
  26. ^ "2013 Trafficking in Persons Report - Burma". Refworld. Retrieved 8 May 2025.
  27. ^ a b c d e Gall, Timothy L.; Gale Research Inc, eds. (1998). "Kachins". Worldmark encyclopedia of cultures and daily life. Detroit: Gale. ISBN 978-0-7876-0552-0.
  28. ^ "Kachin". Joshua Project. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
  29. ^ Mang, Pum Za (July 2016). "Buddhist Nationalism and Burmese Christianity". Studies in World Christianity. 22 (2): 148–167. doi:10.3366/swc.2016.0147.
  30. ^ Manao Festival "to propitiate local nat (spirit)" Retrieved 15 April 2017
  31. ^ "Myanmar Festivals". Myanmar Travel Information. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 February 2020.

Further reading

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  • Sadan, Mandy (2013). Being and Becoming Kachin: Histories Beyond the State in the Borderworlds of Burma. Oxford University Press and the British Academy.
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