Kamalanka

"Kolo Kingdom" redirects here. For other uses, see Kolo.

Not to be confused with Langkasuka.

Kamalanka/Lang-ya-hsiu (狼牙脩) (คามลังกา/หลางหยาสิ่ว)
216 BCE – 1058
Political entities in the Chao Phraya River Basin and the Kra Isthmus in the 6th–7th century
Six ancient kingdoms in Mainland Southeast Asia mentioned by Xuanzang in the 7th century
Capital	Mevilimbangam
Religion	Buddhism
Government	Mandala kingdom
• 566–638	Kakabatr
• 638–648	Kalavarnadishraj
• 7th century	Pú-jiā-yuè-mó
• 801	Mǐ-shī-bō-luó Shǐ-lì-pó-luó
Historical era	Post-classical era
• Established	216 BCE
• Embassy to China (as Gē Luó)	Before 57 CE
• Embassy to China (as Lang-ya-hsiu)	515 CE
• Formation of Dvaravati	6th–7th century
• Decline of Mueang Uthong	8th century
• Tambralinga conquered Menam Valley	927
• Raided by Chola	1030
• Destroyed by Pagan	1058
• Establishment of Chen Li Fu	12th century
Preceded by Succeeded by Chin Lin Tun Sun Xiū Luó Fēn Dvaravati Chen Li Fu Pan Pan Lavo
Today part of	Thailand Myanmar

Pathom stupa in Nakhon Pathom, the oldest stupa in Thailand, built around the year 193 BCE.

Inscriptions found at Pathom stupa in the ancient Nakhon Pathom, stating the Ye Dhammā formula, written with the Grantha script.

Ancient coins found at Mueang Uthong.

Head of a yakṣa, dated 8th–10th centuries CE, discovered during excavation at Phra Men Temple, Nakhon Pathom province, displayed at the Bangkok National Museum.

Dharmachakra, dated 7th century CE, Dvaravati art, found at the Mueang Uthong

The 1900s image of the Dvaravati-style Chedi in the present Wat Phra Rub temple. It later collapsed, and the area was then transformed into a parking area.

Kamalanka (Chia-mo-lang-chia, Lang-chia, Lang-ya-hsiu) or Kolo (Gē Luó) in the Chinese texts, or Balangka/Kalonga in the Geographike Hyphegesis of Ptolemy, or Mevilimbangam in the Tanjore Inscription, was an ancient political entity located in the west Chao Phraya River basin in central Thailand. It existed from the late 1st or early 2nd century CE to 1058. Its chief city, located at the ancient Nakhon Pathom, was possibly destroyed by the troops of Pagan's Anawrahta in 1058 during his Menam invasion to attack the Lavo Kingdom. This marks the ending of Kamalanka. Previously, it was raided by the Chola Empire during the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I in 1030. Its successor, Chen Li Fu centered at Suvarnapura, appeared around the 12th century, 90 kilometers northward in the present-day Don Chedi, Suphan Buri province. Chen Li Fu later evolved to Suphannabhum, which was then merged into the Ayutthaya Kingdom in the 14th century. Several Thai scholars claim Kamalanka was founded in 216 BCE by nobles from the Lankan Anuradhapura Kingdom who fled to the Malay Peninsula before the kingdom fell to the Tamil king Ellalan in 205 BCE. Earlier, another group of Lankan nobles founded the sister state of Langkasuka in 217 BCE further south in the present-day Pattani province.

The Kingdom of Kamalanka or Lang-ya-hsiu was probably the succeeding state of Tun Sun since its first embassy, sent to China in 515 CE, claimed the country was founded around 400 years earlier. Several scholars speculated that Kamalanka is situated in lower central Thailand, probably the same area as Tun Sun. Kamalanka additionally sent embassies to China in 523 and 531. In the 20th century, Chinese people who settled in the west Chao Phraya River basin still called the area Lang-jia-jiu.

In the 7th century, southern Kamalanka later joined Pan Pan in the south, while its northern territory became part of the Dvaravati civilization after merging with the neighboring Chin Lin and others following the decline of Funan. Previously, Kamalanka or Lang-ya-hsiu was once identified as Langkasuka but according to the location provided in the Chinese texts in the 7th century, it would be situated in the modern lower central Thailand. Michael Mitchiner identified Kamalanka as the Mon kingdom of Thaton, whose existence before the 13th century is questioned by Michael Aung-Thwin, and also contradicts to information given by a Chinese monk Xuanzang, who stated that, Kamalanga, among others, was blockaded by high mountains and rivers and could not be reached (from the Gulf of Martaban) during his journey in India.

Thai historian, Piriya Krairiksh, proposed that before the 7th century, the early indianized Nakhon Pathom was probably the port city of the Pan Pan Kingdom, centered at the ancient Mueang Uthong. After that, Mon dominated the region, the power was shifted to Nakhon Pathom, which evolved to the Kingdom of Ge Luo She Fen, mentioned in the largest Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, compiled in 1005. The kingdom was said to be located west of Dvaravati; the same area as Kamalanka, and also equated to the Ge Luo Kingdom in the 1044 New Book of Tang.

Records

Based on the location given in the book of I Ching and by the Chinese monks Xuanzang in the 7th century, Kamalanka is equated with Lang-ya-xiu or Lang-chia-shu. According to the Liáng Shū, Lang-ya-xiu was 30-day journeys from east to west, 20 days from north to south, 24,000 li in the distance from Guangzhou. The inland town of Balangka or Kalonga appeared in the Geographike Hyphegesis of Ptolemy in the 2nd century was potentially Kamalanka. It was described as the "metropolis" city.

Lanka records

The Tanjore Inscription, dating back to 1030, contains a list of the ports on the Kra Isthmus to the Malacca Strait that were raided by a fleet sent by King Rajendra Chola I. The following are the ports located on the Kra Isthmus; some cannot yet be precisely identified.

• Mevilimbangam – Kamalanka, has beautiful walls as defense.
• Mayirudingan – the Je-lo-ting of the Chinese, surrounded by the deep sea as by a moat, the exact location remains disputed. Some placed it at the Sathing Phra Peninsular in Songkhla, where the Chinese called Rìluótíng in the 13th–14th century. Some says Chaiya.
• Talaittakkolam – Takkola (Trang or Takua Pa) of Ptolemy and the Milinda Panha, praised by great men versed in the sciences.
• Madamalingam –Tambralinga, capable of strong action in dangerous battles.

Suchandra Ghosh, an Indian archeologist, and Samuel Beal, a British oriental scholar, placed Kamalanka, which identified as Mevilimbangam, in the Irrawaddy delta, to be specific, Pegu, while George Cœdès identified Pegu with Mäppappälam, the city raided by Rajendra Chola I in 1030 as mentions in the Tanjore Inscription.

As Ge Luo She Fen and Gē Luó

Thai scholar Piriya Krairiksh places the kingdom of Ge Luo She Fen mentioned in the Cefu Yuangui and Gē Luó country (哥罗国) in the New Book of Tang in the same area as Kamalanka. The Chinese text Tongdian, written in 801, provides information about the kingdom of Gē Luó as Gē Luó Fù Shā Luó (哥罗富沙罗/哥羅富沙羅), which the Chinese have known since the Han Dynasty, to has 24 states under its rule, but has no provinces. When fighting, a combat unit (a team) was equipped with 100 elephants, and each elephant was equipped with 100 soldiers. Gē Luó, which was mentioned in the Chinese source in the 1st century CE as 哥羅, first sent tribute to the Chinese court during the reign of Emperor Guangwu of Han (r. 25 CE–57 CE). Tongdian also provided further information about Gē Luó as follows.

...Its king's surname is Shǐ Lì Pó Luó (矢利婆罗), and his given name is Mǐ Shī Bō Luó (米失钵罗). Its city walls are made of piled stones. The city walls have towers and gates, and the gates have guards. The palaces are covered with grass.....The court is lined with ceremonial guards, and there are banners decorated with peacock feathers. The weapons include bows, arrows, swords, tung trees, and leather armor...

...Taxes are paid by one zhū (铢) of silver. The country has no silk or linen, but only ancient beige cloth. There are cattle, but few horses. Their custom is that people who are not officials are not allowed to wrap their hair. In addition, at the first marriage, only betel nuts are given as a gift, and some people give as many as 200 tung trees. At the time of marriage, the only money given was gold, which could be as much as 200 taels. After the marriage, the woman took her husband's surname. The music included pipa, flute, cymbals, iron drums, and reeds. The gongs were played with cymbals and drums. When someone died, the body was burned, placed in a golden pot, and sunk into the sea...

The Tongdian says Gē Luó was on the southeast of Pan Pan. In contrast, previous scholars identified it with Kalah and instead placed it to the southwest on the coast of the lower Malay Peninsula in the Kedah area. Modern theory proposed that it was potentially on the eastern coast of the Kra Isthmus, and Piriya Krairiksh places it on the ancient Nakhon Pathom. However, this proposed location of Gē Luó is inconsistent with that stated in the Tongdian. Thus, Krairiksh moves Pan Pan to the north at the ancient Mueang Uthong. Some argued that Gē Luó was located in the Bandon Bay region, specifically Chaiya, even though this area itself was Pan Pan, then a vassal of Srivijaya, and later became part of the prosperous Tambralinga Kingdom during the specified period.

In the largest Chinese leishu, Cefu Yuangui, compiled during the Song dynasty, cites that the Kingdom of Gē Luó Shě Fēn (哥罗舍分国) bordered Duò Hé Luó (堕和罗国; Dvaravati) to the east. Its king is named Pú Jiā Yuè Mó (蒲伽越摩), and he has 20,000 elite soldiers. Thus, if Gē Luó Shě Fēn is equated to Gē Luó in other Chinese texts and was centered at the ancient Nakhon Pathom, relocating Pan Pan to Mueang Uthong by Krairiksh seems to be reasonable, but it conflict with the location of Pan Pan given in the Old Book of Tang says it is separated from Línyì by the small sea.

During the Tang period, Gē Luó Shě Fēn, and its two neighbors, Xiū Luó Fēn and Gān Bì (甘毕), sailed to pay tributes to the Chinese court together. These three kingdoms were roughly similar in customs, with rulers and fortifications. Xiū Luó Fēn has a large number of troops, exceeding Gē Luó Shě Fēn, with over 30,000 elite soldiers, while Gān Bì has only 5,000.

However, there is another polity with an almost identical name mentioned in the Guangdong Tongzhi, written during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), cites that the Malacca Sultanate was the ancient Gē Luó Fù Shā (哥羅富沙), which also had contact with China since the Han Dynasty, but was later vassalized by Tun Sun.

In conclusion, there are two disputed locations of the Gē Luó kingdom; the first one located on the southern part of the peninsula (some say in the area of the Bay of Bandon), and was once a vassal of Tun Sun, called Gē Luó Fù Shā Luó (哥罗富沙罗/哥羅富沙羅) in the Tongdian and Gē Luó Fù Shā (哥羅富沙) in the Guangdong Tongzhi, and another is Gē Luó Shě Fēn (哥罗舍分国) in the New Book of Tang and Cefu Yuangui, situated on the northern part of the peninsula and bordered Dvaravati to the east.

Journey of Chang Chun

In the journey of Chang Chun as a Chinese envoy to Chi Tu in 607, Kamalanka was referred to as Lang-ya-xiu. It was said to be on the north of Chi Tu, another indianized state in the Singora Inland Sea (present Songkhla province).

...Then going southward (from Champa) they reached Shih-tzu-shih (Lion Rock in Chanthaburi province), whence there extend a chain of large and small islands. After two or three days' voyage, they saw in the west the mountains of Lang-ya-hsu (Khao Sam Roi Yot). Then, continuing southwards to Chi-lung (Fowl Cage Island in Chumphon province), they reached the borders of Chi Tu....

According to the location mentioned above, Thai scholar, Chand Chirayu Rajani, purposed Lang-ya-xiu was potentially located in the west Chao Phraya River basin, and strongly denied Paul Wheatley's assumption that equated Lang-ya-xiu with Langkasuka (Chinese: 凌牙斯加/龍牙犀角; Ling-ya-si-jia/Long-ya-xi-jiao), which was located in modern-day deep south Thailand, and Wheatley's assumption has been continued by many scholars to the present day. Rajani additionally asserts that even Chinese people who settled in the west Chao Phraya River basin still called the area Lang-jia-jiu. There are also the islands named Lang-ya-jiew islands (birds' nest islands) in Chumphon province, which expected to be the southern border of Lang-ya-xiu.

Tang records

The Old Book of Tang, dating 618 onwards, also indicates the location of Lang-ya-xiu, situated north of Pan Pan, aligning with Rajani's hypothesis. The text was translated by Paul Wheatley as follows.

...The kingdom of P'an-P'an is situated to the southwest of Lin-i (Champa) on a bay of the sea. To the north, it is separated from Lin-i by the Small Sea. One can reach it by boat from Chiao-chou (Tonkin) in forty days, and it adjoins the kingdom of Lang-ya-hsiu...

As per the text provided, since Pan Pan was placed at the area along the Bandon Bay in Surat Thani province, Lang-ya-xiu should be on the plain in lower Central Thailand; however, Paul Wheatley positioned Lang-ya-xiu to the south of Pan Pan. The location of both Pan Pan and Lang-ya-xiu given in the New Book of Tang, also sustaintiated Rajani's hypothesis. The text was translated by Peter Bee of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, as follows.

...P'an-P'an is on the bend of the Southern Sea (Gulf of Siam). To the north, it goes as far as the surrounding king's border (and) a small amount of sea connects it with Lang-Su-Shih. From the crossing of the mainland, it takes forty days of sea travel to arrive (at P'an-P'an). The king is called Yang-su-Shih....

I Ching and the Journey of Xuanzang

The book of I Ching or Yijing, dating to the late 7th century, also mentions to Kamalanka as Lang-ya-xiu, which conforms to the information provided in the 629–645 journey of a Chinese monk, Xuanzang, who referred to Kamalanka as Chia-mo-lang-chia. The location provided by both indicates that Lang-ya-xiu is equated with Chia-mo-lang-chia or Kamalanka.

Book of I Ching giving the location of the kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia from the west to east direction, as follows.

...Southwards from this, and bordering the sea-coast, is the kingdom Shi-li-ch'a-ta-lo (Srikshetra). Further to the southeast is the kingdom of Lang-chia-shu. Further east is the kingdom of She-ho-po-ti (Dvaravati). In the extreme east is the kingdom of Lin-i (Champa)...

Journey of Xuanzang also provided the location of the polities in the same area with I Ching. as follows.

...Thence north-eastwards is the kingdom of Shi-li-ch'a-ta-lo (Srikshetra), Next, to the south-east, in a recess of the ocean, is the kingdom of Chia-mo-lang-chia (Kamalanka). Next, to the east is the kingdom of To-lo-po-ti (Dvaravati). Next, to the east is the kingdom of I-shang-na-pu-lo (Isanapura). Next to the east is the kingdom of Mo-ho-chan-po (Mahacampa), which is the same as Lin-i, and to the west the country of Yen-nio-na-cheu (Yamanadvipa)...

From both texts, if Lang-ya-hsiu/Lang-chia-shu or Chia-mo-lang-chia (Kamalanka) is identified with Langkasuka as Paul Wheatley's presumption, Dvaravati, Isanapura, and Champa would be placed somewhere in the middle of the South China Sea, which is impracticable. Thus, the west Menam Valley is more feasible.

History

Early city-state: 1st – 5th century

The earliest and most detailed description of Kamalanka comes from the Chinese Liang dynasty (502–557) record Liáng Shū, which refers to the kingdom of "Lang-ya-xiu" (Chinese: 狼牙脩, Middle Chinese: lɑŋ ŋˠa sɨu) or "Lang-chia-shu", which has been identified with Kamalanka. The record mentions that the kingdom was founded over 400 years earlier, which made its founding likely sometime in the late 1st or early 2nd century. Moreover, the city of "Balangka, an inland town" (บลังกา), mentioned in the Geographike Hyphegesis of Ptolemy in the 2nd century, was potentially Kamalanka. Several artifacts with Gupta art were scatteredly discovered throughout the ancient Nakhon Pathom.

In this period, several polities emerged in the Chao Phraya River Valley, such as the five kingdoms of Tun Sun on the upper Malay Peninsular, the city state of Chin Lin centered at Mueang Uthong, as well as Si Thep (potentially the legendary Ayojjhapura) to the northeast. Records about these polities are extremely limited. Tun Sun fell under Funan around 245 CE.

Dvaravati period: 6th – 10th century

Stucco relief found at Khu Bua archaeological site, dating to 650-700 C.E., Dvaravati culture. Three female musicians on the right are playing (from center) a 5-stringed lute, cymbals, a tube zither or bar zither with a gourd resonator.

The maximum extent of Srivijaya around the 8th to the 11th century with a series of Srivijayan expeditions and conquest.

In the 6th century, Funan began to decline. Several polities broke away, such as Tou Yuan and Tanling, which later became the vassals of Dvaravati. Kamalanka or Chia-mo-lang-chia probably absorbed Tun Sun and Chin Lin and expanded its territory to the south at the present-day Chumphon province, and to the east met Chenla at present-day Chanthaburi province. It later became part of the Dvaravati civilization. These centuries were considered the Mon-dominant period.

The journey record of a Chinese Buddhist Xuanzang in the 7th century provided the information regarding the location of Kamalanka, which was said to be located to the southeast of Sri Ksetra kingdom, to the west of Dvaravati, and adjoined Pan Pan to the south, with the southernmost territory near the Lang-ya-jiew islands (birds' nest islands) in the present-day Chumphon province. Dvaravati that was thought to have been located at an ancient Nakhon Pathom, but from the evidence of I Ching, it must be moved to the eastern side of the valley. Cœdès proposed that Kamalanka expanded its territory eastward to modern Chanthaburi province in eastern Thailand where it bordered with Chenla.

However, due to the overlap in territory claimed in the aforementioned Chiese text I Ching and the area that was expected to be a Funan's dependency, Tun Sun, together with the story given by Lang-ya-hsiu's embassy to the Chinese court regarding the state establishment and gaining independence as well as the disappearance of Tun Sun from the historical record at the beginning of the 6th century, Lang-ya-hsiu was speculated to be the successor state of Tun Sun and later evolved to or merged with Dvaravati. Some scholar locates Kamalanka at the present Mueang Uthong.

Downfall: 10th – 11th century

Aerial view of an ancient city in Nong Chaeng village, Sra Krachom subdistrict, Don Chedi, Suphan Buri province in 1953, which was speculated to be Suvarnapura of Chen Li Fu, a successor of Kamalanka. The area is now transformed into an agricultural area.

The Mon power over the Menam Valley began to decline in the 8th century. Kamalanka then fell under the influence of the southern emerging Srivijaya, and was referred to by the Chinese as Gē Luó. In the Chola invasion of Srivijaya during the early 11th century, the Malay peninsula was constantly raided by the Sinhalese navy. Kamalanka was also attacked and controlled by the Chola Empire during the South-East Asia campaign of Rajendra I against Tambralinga and Srivijaya in 1030. Later in the late–11th century, the Kra Isthmus was conquered by the Pagan Kingdom, who expanded its territory southward as far as to the south of present-day Phuket province and controlled the maritime trade between the India Ocean and the South China Sea, as recorded in the Dhammarajaka inscription. This led to the conflict between the Pagan Kingdom and the Sinhalese from the Chola Empire, who was the overload of several polities in the Malay Peninsula at the moment.

Kamalanka's chief city, the ancient Nakhon Pathom, was potentially destroyed in 1058 by King Anawrahta of Pagan during his campaign to conquer the Lavo Kingdom. If not, it might have been weakened since the 925–927 conflicts between two Mon's sister states, Haripuñjaya and Lavo, which led to the conquering of the lower Chao Phraya River Valley by Tambralinga from the south in 927. The city was abandoned around the 11th century and was then revived in the Sukhothai period two centuries later.

After the fall of Kamalanka, its successor kingdom, Chen Li Fu was established around the 12th century, possibly centered near the Nong Chaeng village in Sra Krachom subdistrict (ตำบลสระกระโจม), Don Chedi, Suphan Buri province, as there are traces of a large ancient city surrounded by a rectangular moat, and was speculated to be Suvarnapura, a city mentioned in the Prasat Phra Khan inscription (จารึกปราสาทพระขรรค์). Some propose that Suvarnapura was at the Nern Thang Phra Archaeological Site (แหล่งโบราณคดีเนินทางพระ), about 20 kilometers northeast of the Nong Chaeng village. Initially, Chen Li Fu was potentially a vassal of the Angkor or had relatives with the Angkor kings; however, due to the decline in power of Angkor, Chen Li Fu broke away and sent an embassy itself to the Chinese court in 1200. It was later absorbed by Phip Phli in 1204.

Legends

Legends of Nakhon Chai Si City and Phra Praton Chedi

Names of Nakhon Pathom in different sources

Source	Date	Name
Geographike Hyphegesis	2nd century	Balangka/Kalonga
Envoys sent to China	515	Lang-ya-hsiu
Legend of Nakhon Chai Si	590	Tona Brahmin/ Manohan/Manohana
Legend of Phra Praton Chedi	590–656	Takkasila
Journey of Chang Chun	607	Lang-ya-xiu
Old Book of Tang	618	Lang-ya-xiu
I Ching	7th century	Lang-ya-xiu
Journey of Xuanzang	629–645	Chia-mo-lang-chia
Northern Chronicle	648	Takkasila
Legend of Phraya Kong–Phraya Pan	8th–9th century	Srivijaya
Tongdian	801	Gē Luó Fù Shā Luó
Cefu Yuangui	1005	Ge Luo She Fen
Tanjore Inscription	1030	Mevilimbangam
New Book of Tang	1044	Ge Luo
History of Song	960–1279	Ge Luo
Zhu Fan Zhi	12th–13th c.	Ge Luo
Wat Si Chum Inscription	1341–1367	Nakhon Phrakrit (lit. 'city of Krishna')
Notes:

ฺBefore the establishment of the chief city of Kamalanka, Nakhon Pathom, previously known as Nakhon Chai Si (นครชัยศรี), there was already a Brahmin village in this area called “Tona Brahmin”. The village was built around a stone house that Brahmins enshrined "Tona" (โทณะ) or the golden bowl used to measure the Buddha’s relics. The legendary texts of Phraya Maha Akkanikorn (พระยามหาอรรคนิกร) and Nai Thong (นายทอง) state that this event occurred in 590 CE. The city of Nakhon Chai Si was later founded in the same area by King Si Sitthi Chaiyapromthep (ศรีสิทธิไชยพรหมเทพ), who was from the city of Manohan or Manohana (มโนหัน/มโนหน) near the border of the city of Yatsothon (ยศโสธร). The king later set Nakhon Chai Si as the chief city. During this era, this polity established their relations with Sri Lanka via Buddhism; however, after the conflict with the local Brahmin, the king relocated the city 4 kilometers westward in the present-day Phra Pathommachedi area and named the city Pawan or Panan (ปาวัน/ปานัน)

In another version composed by Aong mentions the event after the reign of Si Sitthi Chaiyapromthep that King Sakata (พระยาสกตา) of Takkasila set the new era, Chula Sakarat, in 590 CE, which was the same year that the Brahmins of Tona Brahmin village enshrined a "Tona" in the stone house. His successor, Phraya Kawanadit Thera (กาวัณดิศเถร), expelled those Brahmins to Lavo in 650. Even though the versions of Phraya Maha Akkanikorn and Nai Thong say Kawanadit Thera was instead the King of Lavo, all versions mention Kawanadit Thera built a chedi to cover the stone house containing the tona and named it Phra Prathon Chedi in 656, which conforms to the text given in the Ayutthaya version of the Traibhumi Picture Book (สมุดภาพไตรภูมิ).

The stories provided by these two legends accord with the formation of the Lavo Kingdom given in the Northern Chronicle, thus, Sakkorn Dam, the Chula Sakarat setter, in the Northern Chronicle was doubtlessly Sakata in the Phra Praton Chedi legend. His son, Phraya Kalavarnadishraj, founded the Lavo Kingdom in 648. And Takkasila mention in several sources was potentially Nakhon Pathom.

Legend of Phraya Kong – Phraya Pan

The legend of Phraya Kong–Phraya Pan, which provides slightly different details in each version, has been told in the western Chao Phraya region. The story begins with a line of Sikaraj (สิการาช), king of Srivijaya (ศรีวิชัย, Nakhon Pathom; Northern Chronicle says an ancient Kanchanaburi) whose power extent south to Phetchaburi. His son, Kong (กง), succeeded him. Due to the prophecy that his son would kill him, Kong ordered his newborn son to be killed, but his queen consort secretly gave the child to a commoner named Yai Hom (ยายหอม; lit. 'the elder Hom'), who named the boy Pan (พาน). Pan was later adopted by the king of Phetchaburi, who stopped paying tribute to King Kong on Pan's suggestion, causing Kong to attack Phetchaburi, but unfortunately was slaughtered by Pan in the battle. Pan was enthroned as the king of Srivijaya, and after he realized that Kong was his father, Pan built a large chedi, which is believed to be the Phra Pathommachedi, atoning for his sin. However, this part of the legend is believed to be influenced by the story being told in the Puranas. Some say that it was adapted from a Sanskrit fable, which in turn was derived from the Greek Oedipus.

The Northern Chronicle and Jinakalamali additionally provide the expansion of the influence of Pan northward and being enthroned as the king of Haripuñjaya during 867–916, while the southern territory in the western Menam Valley was overthrown by his adoptive father, King of Phetchaburi. After that, the Menam Valley entered the collapsing period with a decade-long fighting between two Mon sister kingdoms, Haripuñjaya and Lavo, which also weakened Kamalanka, continue to the valley being conquered by Tambralinga in 927, the fall of Rāmaññadesa in 946, the destruction of Lavo's Lavapura by Angkor in 1001, constant raided by the Chola in 1030, the devastation of the western valley by the Pagan in 1058.

List of rulers

Name		Reign	Notes
English	Thai
Rulers before Kakabatr remain unknown.
Kakabatr/Sakata	กากะพัตร/สกตา	566–638	Chula Sakarat setter
Kalavarnadishraj	กาฬวรรณดิศ/ กาวัณดิศราช	638–648	Son of the previous. Later King of Lavo (r. 648–700)
Rulers after Kalavarnadishraj remain unknown.
Pú Jiā Yuè Mó		late 7th–early 8 century?	As king of Gē Luó Shě Fēn
Mǐ-shī-bō-luó Shǐ-lì-pó-luó		late 8th–early 9 century?	As king of Gē Luó Fù Shā Luó
Sikaraj	สิการาช	9th century	Based on legends.
Phraya Kong	พระยากง	9th century	Son of the previous. Based on legends.
Phraya Pan	พระยาพาน	late 9th–early 10th century	Son of the previous. Based on legends.
King of Phetchaburi (Later Kingdom of Phrip Phri) (unknown regnal name)		early 10th century–927?	Usurper. Adoptive father of the previous.
Rulers after the King of Phetchaburi remain unknown.
Menam Valley was conquered by Tambralinga in 927. Mevilimbangam was attacked by the Chola in 1030, and later destroyed by the Pagan in 1058. After that, several kingdoms emerged in the western valley, such as Chen Li Fu (12th century–1204), Suphannabhum (12th century–1438), Phrip Phri (1157/58 or 1188–1351). All of which later became parts of the Xiān's Ayutthaya Kingdom.

External links

• Michel Jacq-Hergoualc'h (1 January 2022). "The Mergui-Tenasserim Region in the Context of the Maritime Silk Road: From the Beginning of the Christian Era to the End of the Thirteenth Century AD". The Maritime Frontier of Burma. pp. 79–92. doi:10.1163/9789004502079_007. ISBN 978-90-04-50207-9.
• Saritpong Khumsong (2014). โบราณคดีเมืองนครปฐม: การศึกษาอดีตศูนย์กลางแห่งทวารวดี [Nakhon Pathom Archaeology: A Study of the Former Center of Dvaravati] (PDF) (in Thai). Bangkok: Papermet (Thailand). p. 230. ISBN 978-974-641-498-2.