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Front cover of 1923 edition of Ideal Village by Jeong Yeongyu, possibly the first Korean work of science fiction
Interview with historian of science Dong-Won Kim on science fiction in Korea

Korean science fiction refers to the production and reception of science fiction (SF) literature, film, television, comics, and other media in pre-division Korea, and later, in both North and South Korea. First Korean works of science fiction were created in the 1920s. Like in many other places, science fiction was historically marginalized in Korea, dismissed by critics and scholars, and associated with youth literature and promotion of science. Since the 1980s, South Korean science fiction evolved into a significant mode of cultural expression and now forms an important part of the country's popular culture, reflecting the country’s evolving relationship with technology, democracy, and serves as an expression of concern about social problems. The genre also exists in North Korea, where it remains much more constrained; nonetheless, North Korean science fiction is considered one of the most innovative literary genres on that country.

Early history and Japanese colonial period

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Science fiction was introduced to Korea at the turn of the twentieth century, in the context of the national enlightenment movement.[1][2] The first science fiction work published in Korea was Jules Verne's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas, serialized in a Korean magazine Taegukhakbo in the years 1907-1908. According to some sources, the first Korean work of science fiction was Kim Dong-in's 1929 short story "Dr. K's Research" (the title has also been translated to English as "The Study of Dr. K").[1][3][4] Jeong Yeongyu's novel Ideal Village, published in 1921,[5] has also been argued to be the first.[6] It contained discussion of inventions such as electric cars.[7] However, the genre failed to develop during Japanese colonial rule (1910–1945) due to limited science education and ambivalence or outright resistance toward technoscientific modernity promoted by and subsequently associated with the Japanese.[2][8]

After Korea's independence in 1945 and the division into North and South Korea in 1948, science fiction became part of mass culture in both countries.[2]

In North Korea

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In the North, it developed steadily through the 1950s, as initially it was associated with promotion of science and education, seen as crucial for the economic development and therefore endorsed by the communist parties worldwide; it was also tied to communist propaganda that juxtaposed communist approach to science, portrayed as disinterested, altruistic, and international, with capitalist one, focused on personal gain. The first science fiction story in North Korea appeared in a 1950 magazine "World of Science" (과학의 세교); it was a translation of a Russian SF story (Vladimir Obruchev's "Planetary Flight"). First works of science fiction created in North Korea appeared a few years later, after the Korean War. Some early North Korean SF writers include Sok Yun-gi (석윤기), Pae Pung and Hong Sung-won (Last Lifeline, 1965).[9][10]

The development of North Korean SF was eventually curtailed from the late 1960s as it was not compatible with the Kim Il Sung's personality cult and the Juche ideology, which came to dominate the North Korea's political and cultural landscape, leading to the literary narratives heavily focusing on stories about anti-Japanese guerrilla warfare and pioneers, preferably closely related to the figure of Kim Il Sung himself.[2][9] Science fiction did not, however, disappear from North Korean literary landscape, and after a brief pause, North Korean magazines and publishers started to publish SF stories again in the mid-70s. These stories universally praised progress (such as developments of robots) attributed to the advancements in the "juche science". Effectively the stories that were allowed to be published were less about the possibilities of science, and more about promoting the strict adherence to party guidelines, which, if dutifully followed, would lead to glorious future.[9]

The cover page of the English-language edition of On the Art of the Cinema, Kim Jong Il's treatise on filmmaking

Kim Jong Il, the second Supreme Leader of North Korea, was an avid film buff. In 1973 he published the treatise On the Art of the Cinema, which details his views on filmmaking as both an art form and a tool of propaganda.[11] In 1978, the North Korean government abducted the South Korean filmmaker Shin Sang-ok and his ex-wife, the actress Choi Eun-hee. While in North Korea, Shin Sang-ok and Choi Eun-hee were forced to create seven films, including, most famously, Pulgasari, a science-fiction kaiju film heavily influenced by Japanese tokusatsu films such as the Godzilla franchise.[12] The two escaped in 1986. The films produced by the two while in North Korea are considered to have been significant milestones in the history of Korean cinema, and Pulgasari later became the first North Korean film to be shown in South Korean theaters.[13]

1988 saw the publication of Hwang Chŏngsang's novella Green Ears of Rice, about scientists who develop a plant that cures cancer; according to some accounts, the novella was positively reviewed by Kim Jong Il himself, who called it a model for future works he wanted to see. Subsequent years also saw a number of translations of international sf in North Korea (although these were mostly limited to classics from the Soviet empire). In 1993 Hwang published his critical work, The Creation of Science Fiction Literature, which included a number of quotes from Kim Jong Il praising science fiction. In 2000, Chosŏn munhak [ko] (Korean Literature), North Korea's main literary magazine, started publishing science fiction stories, and science fiction books begun to be published North Korean mainstream presses (previously, they tended to be published by their youth literature imprints).[9] North Korea's third leader, Kim Jong Un, has also been described as supportive of science education, and his ascention to power in 2011 does not seem to have affected the situation of North Korean science fiction.[14]

North Korean science fiction has been praised as innovative in the context of North Korean literature, inspired by international popular culture.[9][15] Nonetheless, North Korean works of SF tend to remain highly didactic and nationalistic (toeing the party line, portraying the might and superiority of peace-loving North Korea, expressing support for the country's leadership and disdain for duplicitous Western and capitalist countries).[9][14][15] However, the figure of North Korean supreme leaders is generally absent in North Korean science fiction works, which has been explain Korean literature researcher Kim Minsun, who wrote that "To imagine and project the future of this entity that can never be at fault is close to impossible".[15]

Modern major North Korean SF writers include Yi Kŭmch'ŏl (The Oil Field's Black Fog, 2000l, Kanggye Spirit, 2002), who has been described as one of the country's "most prolific science fiction writers", having developed "a unique style of spectacular science fiction that mixes Cold War antagonism, spy novel tropes, and innovative military technology" (his works commonly portray American imperialists as villains, defeated by advanced North Korean technology). Other North Korean SF writers include Pak Chongnyŏl and Yi Ch'ŏlman. It was estimated that by mid-2010s, North Korean writers have published about a hundred or so SF works (mostly short stories), with Yi Kŭmch'ŏl's being the author of about twenty.[9]

In South Korea

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Under authoritarianism

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In the South, the genre benefited from the more liberal attitudes towards the American and, more controversially, Japanese popular cultures during the 1960s.[2] Some of the South Korean SF writers of that era include Han Nak-won [ko] and Moon Yoon-Sung [ko].[3] The latter's Perfect Society (1967) is considered to be the first South Korean SF novel.[16] 1960s also saw the first South Korean SF films (in the kaiju monster film genre), such as Bulgasari (1962), Space Monster Wangmagwi (1967) and Yongary, Monster from the Deep (1967).[17][18] However, the genre's development was slow under the authoritarian developmentalist regimes of the 1970s and 1980s, as, ironically, the South's government moderate support for the genre (particularly in the context of promoting engagement of youth with science and technology) once again, reminiscent of the Japanese colonial era, alienated many artists who did not want to be associated with the Korean authoritarian military dictatorship of that period.[2] Science fiction also suffered from stereotypes that labeled it as either didactic literature aimed at young readers, or as works dealing with either dry, advanced scientific concepts or absurd ideas.[3]

However, the very same political dynamic of South Korea also led in the 1970s to the emergence of a movement known as protest SF (also known as minjung SF) - works written by writers who aligned itself with South Korea's democratization movements. This subgenre employed science fiction as a vehicle for social critique of the country's top- down militarist industrialization that could bypass the government's censorship, offering an alternative to the dominant realist aesthetics of the time. Notable works include Cho Se-hui's slipstream fiction The Dwarf (1978) and Bok Geo-il's alternative history In Search of the Epitaph: Kyŏngsŏng, Shōwa 62 [ko] (1987), both of which used science fiction tropes to critique top-down industrialization, class struggle, and state oppression.[2]

Democratization and digital era

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South Korean science fiction experienced a resurgence after the country's democratization in 1987 and the emergence of the digital era, which South Korea quickly embraced. This period since saw science fiction flourish across Korean literature, film, television, comics, webtoons, and other media.[2][3] This period saw the emergence of SF fandom in Korea, with SF clubs and webzines (such as the Mirrorzine).[3][19]

Following the 1997 Asian financial crisis, a wave of dystopian and absurdist science fiction reflected widespread social disillusionment of the precariat with the capitalist society, coupled with the conclusion that no realistic alternative exists.[2] Works from this period often incorporated biting humor and dystopian settings, highlighting the sense of alienation in an increasingly globalized and neoliberal economy. Park Min-gyu's Legend of the World's Superheroes (2003) exemplifies this trend, satirizing global cultural hegemony through the character Bananaman.[2]

Since the 1990s, feminist and queer science fiction has become a vibrant part of the South Korean sf scene, challenging the traditional misoginistic, heteronormative and conformist South Korean society. Influenced by Western feminist writers such as Ursula K. Le Guin and Joanna Russ, Korean authors have used the genre to explore gender, sexuality, and bodily norms. The pseudonymous author Djuna's works, for instance, challenge gender binaries and social norms. Other authors have written stories exploring disability, body modification, and alternative utopias.[2]

Contemporary developments

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Second decade of the 21st century saw the emergence of book publishers in South Korea, specializing in the publication of SF works. Science Fiction Writers Union of the Republic of Korea [ko] and Korean Science Fiction Association [ko] were founded in 2017 and 2018, respectively.[3][19] 오늘의 SF (SF Today or Today's SF), described as the first South Korean science fiction magazine, was established in 2019.[1][3][20]

Today, South Korean science fiction is enjoying a peak of popularity in South Korea, driven by the country's high-tech culture and a growing demand for imaginative representations of technological change. This includes literature, big-budget films, webtoons, and television series.[2][3]

Advertising for Squid Game in Japan

Korean science fiction television series include works like The School Nurse Files (2020) and SF8 (2020).[2][3] Squid Game, a South Korean dystopian survival television series that is occasionally classified as science fiction,[21] debuted in 2021 to worldwide critical acclaim.[22] The first season of the series became the first Korean drama to top Netflix's top ten weekly most-watched TV show charts globally. It reached number one in 94 countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom.[23] Squid Game focuses heavily on class conflict and capitalism in both South Korean and global society.[24] According to CNN, the show is popular in the United States because it reflects the economic struggles of many Americans: low wages, unaffordable health care, and insurmountable debts.[25]

Korean science fiction films form a major part of modern Korean science fiction.[26][27] Filmmakers such as Bong Joon-ho, Kim Moon-saeng. Jang Joon-hwan, Shin Su-won and Min Byeong-cheon [ko] have contributed significantly, with works like Natural City (2003), Sky Blue (2003), Save the Green Planet! (2003), The Host (2006), Snowpiercer (2013), Glass Garden (2017) and Okja (2017) often incorporating SF elements to critique class divisions and environmental issues.[2] Other notable modern Korean SF movies include Jo Sung-hee's space opera Space Sweepers (2021), described as the "the first Korean SF film set in space" (although the 1967 kaiju-genre South Korean film Yongary, Monster from the Deep already contained a short opening set in space[28]).[1][2][29] In 2023, Koraen sci-fi movie Jung E, directed by Yeon Sang-ho, topped Netflix popularity charts for non-English media.[30][31][32]

Notable modern South Korean sci-fi writers and their works include Bae Myung-hoon (Smart D, 2006), Chang Kang-myoung, Chung Serang, Kim Bo-young (On the Origin of Species,[33] 2021[1]), Kim Chang-gyu (Noesu, 2015), Kim Cho-yeop [ko] (Those Who Chose Exile, 2019), Jeong Soyeon (Cosmic Go, 2009), Park Seong-hwan [ko] (Readymade Boddhisattva, 2004) and Yi Chong-san (Customers, 2017).[2][3]

In 2019 Kaya Press published an anthology of Korean short science fiction stories, Readymade Bodhisattva, described as the "first book-length English language translation of science and speculative fiction from South Korea."[34][35][36]

Themes

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A distinctive feature of Korean science fiction is that it draws upon uniquely Korean sentiments and experiences, setting it apart from Western-centric perspectives.[3] Korean science fiction often addresses issues of national identity, class struggle, and state oppression, reflecting the country's history of colonization, authoritarianism, and rapid modernization. It also explores gender, sexuality, disability, and environmental concerns, frequently serving as a vehicle for social critique and democratic discourse.[2] A number of modern works that continue the spirit of protest SF and criticize the modern world order and society, contain anti-Western or anti-American sentiment.[2] The 21st century saw the emergence of a zombie theme in a number of Korean works, such as Yeon Sang-ho's Train to Busan (2016) and its spin-offs and the 2019 Kingdom TV series.[2][37]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e 김, 재희 (2021-10-01). "Experience a New World with Korean Science Fiction Literature!". THE SUNGKYUN TIMES (in Korean). Archived from the original on 2024-07-30. Retrieved 2025-06-07.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Park, Sunyoung (2024). "South Korean science fiction". In Bould, Mark; Butler, Andrew M.; Vint, Sherryl (eds.). The new Routledge companion to science fiction. Routledge literature companions (Second ed.). London New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. doi:10.4324/9781003140269. ISBN 978-1-003-14026-9.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Lee, Ji-Yong (2021-03-08). "K-Book Trends - Introducing Korean Sci-Fi!". K-Book. Retrieved 2025-06-07.
  4. ^ Piao, Yuming (2020). "The Dystopian Discourse of ?Success but a Failure? Between Science and Ethics in the Korean Science Story ?Dr. K's Research?". Comparative Literature Studies. 57 (4): 715–727. doi:10.5325/complitstudies.57.4.0715. ISSN 0010-4132. JSTOR 10.5325/complitstudies.57.4.0715.
  5. ^ 엄학준; 모희준 (June 2021). "일제강점기 과학소설과 희곡에 나타나는 노동문제 양상 - 재일작가 정연규의 소설 『이상촌』과 박영희의 번안 희곡 『인조노동자』를 중심으로 -" [Aspects of Labor Issues in Science Fiction Novels and Plays from the Japanese Colonial Period - Focusing on the Novel 『Ideal Village』 by the Zainichi Writer Jeong Yeon-gyu and the Adapted Play 『Artificial Laborer』 by Park Yeong-hee -]. 한국문학과 예술 (in Korean). 38: 99–129. doi:10.21208/kla.2021.06.38.99. ISSN 1976-8400.
  6. ^ Mo, Heejune (2019-03-31). "정연규(鄭然圭)의 과학소설 『이상촌』(1921) 연구" [A Study on Jeong Yeongyu’s (鄭然圭) Work of Science Fiction, Ideal Village (1921)]. The Journal of Language & Literature. 77: 255–276. doi:10.15565/jll.2019.03.77.255. ISSN 1229-6406.
  7. ^ 클리앙. "1921년 조선의 한 소설가가 예언한 전기차 : 클리앙" [Electric cars predicted by a Korean novelist in 1921]. www.clien.net (in Korean). Retrieved 2025-06-11.
  8. ^ Colonial Modernity in Korea. Vol. 184 (1 ed.). Harvard University Asia Center. 1999. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1tg5k35. ISBN 978-0-674-14255-8. JSTOR j.ctt1tg5k35.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g Berthelier, Benoît (2018). "Encountering the Alien: Alterity and Innovation in North Korean Science Fiction since 1945". The Journal of Korean Studies. 23 (2): 369–396. doi:10.1215/21581665-6973369. ISSN 0731-1613. JSTOR 48567912.
  10. ^ Zur, Dafna (2014). "Let's Go to the Moon: Science Fiction in the North Korean Children's Magazine "Adong Munhak", 1956-1965". The Journal of Asian Studies. 73 (2): 327–351. doi:10.1017/S0021911813002404. ISSN 0021-9118. JSTOR 43553290.
  11. ^ Mallett, Whitney (14 March 2014). "Hollywood North Korea: How to Make Movies the Kim Jong-il Way". hazlitt.net. Retrieved 2025-06-10.
  12. ^ Fischer, Paul (2015). A Kim Jong-Il production: the extraordinary true story of a kidnapped filmmaker, his star actress, and a young dictator's rise to power (1st ed.). New York: Flatiron Books. ISBN 978-1-250-05426-5.
  13. ^ Park, Kyung-il (April 12, 2006). "故 신상옥 감독, 납북 → 탈북 → 망명… 영화같은 삶" [The late director Shin Sang-ok, kidnapped → defected → asylum... A life like a movie]. Munhwa Ilbo (in Korean). Archived from the original on December 27, 2024. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
  14. ^ a b Spiegel, Taru (2020-04-06). "Science Fiction Literature from North Korea | 4 Corners of the World". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2025-06-07.
  15. ^ a b c Fiscutean, Andrada (25 August 2023). "The strange, secretive world of North Korean science fiction". Ars Technica.
  16. ^ 이숙 (February 2012). "A Study on Mun Yun Seong's 『Complete Society』 (1967) - Focused on features as a SF and reflection of ruling ideology (문윤성의 『완전사회』(1967) 연구 －과학소설로서의 면모와 지배이데올로기 투영 양상을 중심으로)". Korean Language and Literature (국어문학). 52 (52): 225–253. doi:10.23016/kllj.2012.52.52.225. ISSN 1229-3946. Archived from the original on 2025-03-26. Retrieved 2025-06-08.
  17. ^ Hardy, Phil; Gifford, Denis; Masters, Anthony; Taylor, Paul; Willemen, Paul (1986). The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction Movies. Woodbury Press. p. 269. ISBN 978-0-8300-0436-2.
  18. ^ Chungbeom Ham (November 2019). "1960s Korean SF Monster Movies and the Aspects of Film Exchange and Relationship in Northeast Asia". Contemporary Film Studies. 15 (4): 45–67. doi:10.15751/cofis.2019.15.4.45. ISSN 1975-5082.
  19. ^ a b Yoon, Y. K. (2018-09-25). "Founding of the Korean SF fandom-Korea SF Association". Amazing Stories. Retrieved 2025-06-08.
  20. ^ Lee, Young-kyung (2019-12-17). "이것이 한국 SF의 모든 것" 중심으로 도약하는 '오늘의 한국 SF' ['Today's Korean SF' leaps forward with "This is everything about Korean SF" at the center]. Kyunghyang Shinmun (in Korean). Retrieved 2025-06-08.
  21. ^ Freeman-Mills, Max (2024-11-28). "The biggest sci-fi show in the world gets another enticing Netflix trailer". T3. Retrieved 2025-06-11.
  22. ^ ""Squid Game" faces controversy over English subtitle translations". Salon. October 5, 2021. Archived from the original on October 9, 2021. Retrieved October 9, 2021. "Squid Game" has drawn both critical acclaim and a massive global audience.
  23. ^ "142m households watched Squid Game, Netflix says as it adds 4.4m subscribers". the Guardian. October 19, 2021. Archived from the original on November 7, 2021. Retrieved November 7, 2021.
  24. ^ Jefferies, Stuart (October 26, 2021). "Squid Game's creator: 'I'm not that rich. It's not like Netflix paid me a bonus'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on October 26, 2021. Retrieved October 26, 2021.
  25. ^ Lowe, Airielle (2021-10-23). "Opinion: Why Americans are so obsessed with 'Squid Game'". CNN. Retrieved 2025-06-11.
  26. ^ Chattopadhyay, Sayan (2023-08-05). "The Rise of Korean Sci-Fi: A Critique of the Development of Films and Web Series in South Korea and America". International Journal of English and Comparative Literary Studies. 4 (2): 32–50. doi:10.47631/ijecls.v4i2.619. ISSN 2709-7390.
  27. ^ Huayu, Zhang (2024-10-15). "Diverse Themes, Genre Fusion, and Audiovisual Spectacle: A Study of South Korean Science Fiction Films". Frontiers in Art Research. 6 (10). doi:10.25236/FAR.2024.061010.
  28. ^ "SFE: Taekoesu Yonggary". sf-encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2025-06-08.
  29. ^ Baker-Whitelaw, Gavia (2021-02-14). "Netflix's 'Space Sweepers' is the first good blockbuster of 2021". The Daily Dot. Archived from the original on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2025-06-07.
  30. ^ Jin, Dal Yong (2024-03-01). "AI in cultural production in the Korean cultural industries". Telematics and Informatics Reports. 13: 100113. doi:10.1016/j.teler.2023.100113. ISSN 2772-5030.
  31. ^ "Science fiction film 'Jung-E' garners explosive popularity on Netflix". Aju Korea Daily English. 2023-01-26. Archived from the original on 2023-12-11. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
  32. ^ Cho Yong-jun (January 25, 2023). "'Jung_E' tops Global Top 10 Most Popular Films chart on Netflix". Korea JoongAng Daily. Archived from the original on January 25, 2023. Retrieved January 25, 2023 – via Naver.
  33. ^ "On the Origin of Species Listed on National Book Award Longlist for Translated Literature |". Kaya Press. 2021-09-20. Archived from the original on 2022-09-25. Retrieved 2025-06-07.
  34. ^ "[Feature] Where is South Korea's 'Star Wars'?". The Korea Herald. 2019-10-21. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
  35. ^ "Readymade Bodhisattva". library.ltikorea.or.kr (in Korean). Archived from the original on 2025-06-12. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
  36. ^ "Gary K. Wolfe Reviews Readymade Bodhisattva, Edited by Sunyoung Park & Sang Joon Park". Locus Online. 2019-03-18. Archived from the original on 2025-06-12. Retrieved 2025-06-12.
  37. ^ Jeon, Joseph Jonghyun (2023-11-13). "Is Netflix Riding the Korean Wave or Vice Versa?| Kingdom Cultures: Zombie Growth and Netflix Korea". International Journal of Communication. 17: 17. ISSN 1932-8036.

Further reading

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  • Fischer, Paul (2015). A Kim Jong-Il production: the extraordinary true story of a kidnapped filmmaker, his star actress, and a young dictator's rise to power (1st ed.). New York: Flatiron Books. ISBN 978-1-250-05426-5.
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