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Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army

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This article is about the armed group in the Kokang region. For the armed group in the Mong La township, see National Democratic Alliance Army.

Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army
缅甸民族民主同盟军
မြန်မာ့အမျိုးသားဒီမိုကရက်တစ်မဟာမိတ်တပ်မတော်
LeaderPheung Daxun[1]
Dates of operation12 March 1989 (1989-03-12) – present
Active regionsKokang, Myanmar
IdeologyKokang Nationalism
Size6,000+[2]
Part of Myanmar National Truth and Justice Party
AlliesNorthern Alliance[3]

Other allies

Opponents Myanmar Union of Myanmar (until 2011)
Battles and warsInternal conflict in Myanmar
Designated as a terrorist group by Myanmar[4]
Flag
Preceded by
Communist Party of Burma
Succeeded by
Mongko Region Defence Army (split in 1995)
Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army
Simplified Chinese缅甸民族民主同盟军
Traditional Chinese緬甸民族民主同盟軍
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinMiǎndiàn mínzú mínzhǔ tóngméng jūn

The Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA)[n 1] is an armed resistance group in the Kokang region of Myanmar (Burma). The army has existed since 1989, having been the first one to sign a ceasefire agreement with the Burmese government. The ceasefire lasted for about two decades.[5][6]

History

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The group was formed on 12 March 1989, after the local head of the local Communist Party of Burma, Pheung Kya-shin (also spelt Peng Jia Sheng or Phone Kyar Shin), dissatisfied with the communist government, broke away and formed the MNDAA.[7] Along with his brother, Peng Jiafu, they became the new unit in Kokang.[8] The strength of the army is between 1,500 and 2,000 men.[8]

The rebels soon became the first group to agree to a ceasefire with the government troops. As the first group in the Shan State area to sign a ceasefire, the Burmese central government referred to the Kokang region controlled by the MNDAA as "Shan State Special Region 1" (Chinese: 缅甸掸邦第一特区; Burmese: မြန်မာနိုင်ငံ ရှမ်းပြည်နယ်အထူးဒေသ (၁)).[7] After the ceasefire, the area underwent an economic boom, with both the MNDAA and regional Myanmar Armed Forces (Tatmadaw) troops profiting from increased opium harvests and heroin-refining.[9] The area also produces methamphetamine.[10] The MNDAA and other paramilitary groups control the cultivation areas, making them an easy target for drug trafficking and organised crime groups.[10] The Peace Myanmar Group allegedly launders and reinvests MNDAA's drug profits into the legal economy.[11]

2009 Kokang conflict

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Main article: 2009 Kokang incident

In August 2009, the Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army became involved in a violent conflict with the Myanmar Armed Forces. This was the largest outbreak of fighting between ethnic armies and government troops since the signing of the ceasefire 20 years earlier.[12]

As a result of the conflict, the MNDAA lost control of Kokang, and as many as 30,000 refugees fled to Yunnan province in neighbouring China.[13] The Kokang area became the Kokang Self-Administered Zone on 20 August 2010, however, it was recognized as illegal by MNDAA.[14][15]

2015 offensive

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Main article: 2015 Kokang offensive

On 9 February 2015 the MNDAA tried to retake the area, clashing with Burmese government forces in Laukkai. The skirmishes left a total of 47 Government soldiers dead and 73 wounded. After several months of intense conflict, Kokang insurgents had failed to capture Laukkai. Following the incident, the government of China was accused of giving military assistance to the ethnic Kokang soldiers.[16]

2017 clashes

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On 6 March 2017, MNDAA insurgents attacked police and military posts in Laukkai, resulting in the deaths of 30 people.[17][18]

2021 post-coup resistance

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Clashes with the Tatmadaw resumed after the military coup, when the MNDAA, alongside its allies of the Brotherhood Alliance, the Arakan Army and Ta'ang National Liberation Army, attacked a police station south of Lashio, killing at least 14 police officers and burning the station to the ground.[19] MNDAA and TNLA further launched attacks in multiple locations in Northern Shan State on 4 and 5 May 2021, inflicting heavy casualties on the Myanmar military.[20]

The MNDAA were involved in Operation 1027 in October 2023, launching coordinated attacks and seizing governmental military outposts ranging from Lashio to Hopang Township in northern Shan State.[21][22] On 28 October 2023 it was reported that Chinshwehaw had come fully under control of the MNDAA during the ongoing civil war.[23] On 5 January 2024, the MNDAA gained full control of Laukkai, the capital of Kokang, following a mass surrender of the last Burmese military junta forces.[24][25] In the same day, the MNDAA claimed the "liberation" of Kokang.[26] On January 11, the junta and the Brotherhood Alliance reached a ceasefire under Chinese sponsorship in northern Shan State.[27] On June 25, the TNLA announced that it was resuming military operations against the junta in reaction to repeated ceasefire violations and launched simultaneous attacks in coordination with local PDF groups.[28] The same day, the MNDAA and its allies attacked several military bases around Lashio and began surrounding the city.[29] On 14 July, the group announced a four-day halt in fighting to avoid interfering with the third plenary session of the 20th Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party.[30]

On 2 September, the SAC declared the MNDAA as a terrorist group.[31]

2024 ceasefire

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On 18 September, the MNDAA declared that they would not form alliances with the NUG or "foreign communities opposing China and Myanmar." They further declared the ceasing of all military action against the SAC junta, except in cases of self-defense.[32]

2025 further ceasefire

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Citing China's foreign ministry, Reuters reported the Myanmar military and MNDAA signed a formal ceasefire agreement starting on 18 January 2025, following talks in Kunming.[33] On 20 January, Myanmar Now reported that under China's pressure, MNDAA had "agreed to return control of the northern Shan State capital to the Myanmar military regime," and that ceasefire agreement terms may include MNDAA's withdrawal from Lashio by June. However, neither side has publicly revealed the conditions of the ceasefire deal.[34] The Myanmar Now article notes that commander Peng Daxun had been "summoned to China’s Yunnan Province in late October and held there indefinitely" under detention, and his "status and whereabouts are still unknown".[34] In April of 2025, the MNDAA withdrew from Lashio as part of its ceasefire deal with the military junta, though reportedly retained control of the settlements on the city's outskirts. [35][36]

Criticism

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MNDAA has held multiple public executions. The European Union condemned the executions "in the strongest term", calling them "an inhuman and degrading punishment that represents an ultimate denial of human dignity".[37]

The group has also been accused of forcibly recruiting migrant workers as fighters and executing deserters.[38] MNDAA forcibly recruited civilians during and after the launch of Operation 1027 in October 2023, targeting the military junta in northern Shan State.[39] They abducted civilians from refugee camps and fleeing convoys, demanded manpower quotas from local communities, targeted children as 10, and threatened or retaliated against those who report or escape recruitment.[40][39] When confronted, the MNDAA justified its actions as being consistent with its own laws.[39]

While the MNDAA is part of the anti-junta resistance, its actions have been criticized for undermining broader democratic aspirations and fueling inter-ethnic conflict.[41] Analysts note that the group's focus has shifted from establishing a federal democratic union to pursuing narrow ethno-nationalist and territorial expansionist goals.[41] This shift potentially sidelines inclusive political solutions and challenges the unity of the broader pro-democracy movement in Myanmar.[41]

The MNDAA's military offensives have contributed to regional instability, particularly along the China-Myanmar border, affecting regional security and economic interests.[42] Their capture of strategic locations, such as Lashio, has prompted concerns from neighboring countries.[42] For example, China has intervened to manage the crisis, seeking to stabilize the region due to its substantial investments and to prevent the conflict from spilling over its borders.[42]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Also known as the Myanmar Nationalities Democratic Alliance Army and Kokang Army.

References

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  1. ^ "Myanmar Peace Monitor – MNDAA". 6 June 2013. Archived from the original on 22 April 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
  2. ^ "Myanmar National Democratic Alliance Army (MNDAA) » Myanmar Peace Monitor". 6 June 2013.
  3. ^ Lynn, Kyaw Ye. "Curfew imposed after clashes near Myanmar-China border". Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 24 May 2020. Retrieved 21 November 2016.
  4. ^ https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/4/myanmar-regime-labels-key-ethnic-armed-groups-terrorist-organisations
  5. ^ Ethnic group in Myanmar said to break cease-fire Archived 6 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Associated Press. 28 August 2009.
  6. ^ Fredholm, Michael (1993). Burma: ethnicity and insurgency. Praeger. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-275-94370-7.
  7. ^ a b South, Ashley (2008). Ethnic politics in Burma: states of conflict. Taylor & Francis. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-203-89519-1.
  8. ^ a b Rotberg, Robert (1998). Burma: prospects for a democratic future. Brookings Institution Press. p. 169.
  9. ^ Skidmore, Monique; Wilson, Trevor (2007). Myanmar: the state, community and the environment. ANU E Press. p. 69.
  10. ^ a b Shanty, Frank; Mishra, Patit Paban (2007). Organized crime: from trafficking to terrorism. ABC-CLIO. p. 70.
  11. ^ A Failing Grade: Burma's Drug Eradication Efforts (PDF). Alternative ASEAN Network on Burma. 2004. ISBN 978-9749243343. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2015.
  12. ^ Johnston, Tim (29 August 2009). "China Urges Burma to Bridle Ethnic Militia Uprising at Border". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 15 September 2010. Retrieved 3 December 2017.
  13. ^ Mullen, Jethro; Mobasherat, Mitra. "Myanmar says Kokang rebels killed 47 of its soldiers". CNN. Archived from the original on 11 April 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2015.
  14. ^ 果敢资讯网 (31 October 2023). 缅甸掸邦第一特区军事管制委员会对敌伪人员的通令（汉/缅） (in Chinese). 网易新闻. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
  15. ^ 果敢资讯网 (7 November 2023). （评论）缅伪政权统治果敢的十宗罪. 网易新闻. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
  16. ^ "Myanmar Kokang Rebels Deny Receiving Chinese Weapons". Archived from the original on 11 May 2019. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
  17. ^ "Deadly clashes hit Kokang in Myanmar's Shan state". www.aljazeera.com. Archived from the original on 22 March 2017. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
  18. ^ "Myanmar rebel clashes in Kokang leave 30 dead". BBC News. 6 March 2017. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
  19. ^ Eckert, Paul (10 April 2021). "Ethnic Army Alliance Kills 14 Myanmar Police in Dawn Raid as Death Toll Mounts in Bago". Radio Free Asia. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
  20. ^ "TNLA, MNDAA Claim to Have Killed Dozens of Myanmar Junta Troops in Shan State". The Irrawaddy. 5 May 2021. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
  21. ^ Watch, Dawei (27 October 2023). "၁၀၂၇ စစ်ဆင်ရေးအဖြစ် ရှမ်းမြောက်ပိုင်းရှိ စစ်ကောင်စီ၏ စစ်ရေးပစ်မှတ်များကိုဝင်တိုက်" (in Burmese). Retrieved 27 October 2023.
  22. ^ "Ethnic rebel alliance attacks military positions across northern Myanmar". Al Jazeera. 27 October 2023. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
  23. ^ Zan, Hein Htoo (28 October 2023). "Ethnic Alliance Report Rapid Gains From Myanmar Junta Along Chinese Border". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 28 October 2023.
  24. ^ "MNDAA captures military command centre outside Laukkai, taking full control of city". Myanmar Now. 5 January 2024.
  25. ^ "Myanmar Regime Raises the White Flag in Kokang Zone on China Border in Shan State". The Irrawaddy. 5 January 2024.
  26. ^ "MNDAA Liberates Kokang From Myanmar Junta". The Irrawaddy. 6 January 2024.
  27. ^ "Myanmar's military, ethnic armed groups agree to China-mediated truce". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  28. ^ "TNLA Restarts Operation 1027 Against Myanmar Junta". The Irrawaddy. 25 June 2024. Retrieved 25 June 2024.
  29. ^ "Myanmar's MNDAA Launches Offensive to Seize Northern Shan Capital". The Irrawaddy. 3 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  30. ^ "MNDAA Announces Four-Day Halt in Fighting in Myanmar's N. Shan". The Irrawaddy. 15 July 2024. Retrieved 15 July 2024.
  31. ^ Myanmar Junta Designates Brotherhood Alliance Members ‘Terrorist’ Groups. The Irrawaddy. September 4, 2024
  32. ^ MNDAA Declares No Military or Political Alliance with NUG, Will Not Launch Offensives in Mandalay and Taunggyi Cities September 19, 2024. Mizzima
  33. ^ "Myanmar military, minority armed group agree ceasefire, China says". Reuters. 20 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
  34. ^ a b "Kokang army to withdraw from Lashio under Chinese-brokered ceasefire with Myanmar junta". Myanmar Now. 20 January 2025. Retrieved 21 January 2025.
  35. ^ Irrawaddy, The (19 April 2025). "MNDAA Hands Lashio Back to Myanmar Junta". The Irrawaddy. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
  36. ^ Now, Myanmar (4 April 2025). "Under pressure from China, MNDAA agrees to withdraw from Lashio before month's end". Myanmar Now. Retrieved 25 May 2025.
  37. ^ "Video shows rebel group sentencing own fighters to death for 'abuse of power'". Radio Free Asia. 25 April 2024.
  38. ^ "MNDAA Accused of Forcibly Recruiting Myanmar Migrants, Killing Deserters". The Irrawaddy. 16 May 2024. Archived from the original on 18 May 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
  39. ^ a b c "Myanmar Ethnic Armed Groups Draw Allegations of Forced Recruitment". thediplomat.com. Retrieved 20 May 2025.
  40. ^ "Conscription in Myanmar Pushing Young Men to Choose Sides". FULCRUM. 26 March 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2025.
  41. ^ a b c Wansai, Sai (30 April 2024). "1027 OPERATION POLITICAL FALLOUT: Inter-ethnic conflict and people's sufferings in northern Shan State". Shan Herald Agency for News. Retrieved 20 May 2025.
  42. ^ a b c Ratcliffe, Rebecca (31 January 2025). "Four years after the coup, chaos reigns as Myanmar's military struggles". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 20 May 2025.
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