Castra

This article is about the Latin term. For the star system, see Epsilon Capricorni.

Templeborough Roman fort in South Yorkshire visualised 3D flythrough, produced for Rotherham Museums and Archives

Castra (singular: castrum) were military fortresses or camps used by the Roman army throughout the Roman Republic and Empire. These fortified structures served as bases for Roman legions and auxiliary units, providing secure locations for training, administration, and defense. Castra varied in size and function, ranging from temporary marching camps (castra aestiva) to large, permanent fortresses (castra stativa) that housed entire legions. They were typically designed with a standardized layout, including a rectangular plan, defensive walls, gates, and internal streets arranged in a grid pattern, reflecting Roman military discipline and engineering expertise. Permanent castra often became the foundations for towns and cities across the Roman Empire, many of which still bear traces of their Roman origins in their modern layouts and names. These fortifications played a crucial role in the expansion and maintenance of Roman power, enabling the army to project control over vast territories and respond quickly to threats.

Etymology

Castrum appears in Oscan and Umbrian, two other Italic languages, suggesting an origin at least as old as Proto-Italic language. Julius Pokorny traces a probable derivation from *k̂es-, 'cut', in *k̂es-tro-m, 'cutting tool'. These Italic reflexes based on *kastrom include Oscan castrous (genitive case) and Umbrian castruo, kastruvuf (accusative case). They have the same meaning, says Pokorny, as Latin fundus, an estate, or tract of land. This is not any land but is a prepared or cultivated tract, such as a farm enclosed by a fence or a wooden or stone wall of some kind. Cornelius Nepos uses Latin castrum in that sense: when Alcibiades deserts to the Persians, Pharnabazus gives him an estate (castrum) worth 500 talents in tax revenues. This is a change of meaning from the reflexes in other languages, which still mean some sort of knife, axe, or spear. Pokorny explains it as "a camp, as a cut-off piece of land".

If this is the civilian interpretation, the military version must be "military reservation", a piece of land cut off from the common land around it and modified for military use. All castra must be defended by works, often no more than a stockade, for which the soldiers carried stakes, and a ditch. The castra could be prepared under attack within a hollow square or behind a battle line. Considering that the earliest military shelters were tents made of hide or cloth, and all but the most permanent bases housed the men in tents placed in quadrangles and separated by numbered streets, one castrum may well have acquired the connotation of tent.

Linguistic development

The commonest Latin syntagmata (here phrases) for the term castra are:

castra stativa

Permanent camp/fortresses

castra aestiva

Summer camp/fortresses

castra hiberna

Winter camp/fortresses

castra navalia / castra nautica

Navy camp/fortresses

In Latin the term castrum is much more frequently used as a proper name for geographical locations: e.g., Castrum Album, Castrum Inui, Castrum Novum, Castrum Truentinum, Castrum Vergium. The plural was also used as a place name, as Castra Cornelia, and from this comes the Welsh place name prefix caer- (e.g. Caerleon and Caerwent) and English suffixes -caster and -chester (e.g. Winchester and Lancaster). Castrorum Filius, "son of the camps", was one of the names used by the emperor Caligula and then also by other emperors.

Castro, also derived from Castrum, is a common Spanish family name as well as toponym in Spain and other Hispanophone countries, Italy, and the Balkans, either by itself or in various compounds such as the World Heritage Site of Gjirokastër (earlier Argurokastro). The terms stratopedon ("army camp") and phrourion ("fortification") were used by Greek language authors to translate castrum and castellum, respectively.

Description

Basic ideal plan of a Roman castrum. (1) Principia; (2) Via Praetoria; (3) Via Principalis; (4) Porta Principalis Dextra; (5) Porta Praetoria (main gate); (6) Porta Principalis Sinistra; (7) Porta Decumana (back gate).

A castrum was designed to house and protect the soldiers, their equipment and supplies when they were not fighting or marching. The most detailed description that survives about Roman military camps is De Munitionibus Castrorum, a manuscript of 11 pages that dates most probably from the late 1st to early 2nd century AD.

Regulations required a major unit in the field to retire to a properly constructed camp every day. "… as soon as they have marched into an enemy's land, they do not begin to fight until they have walled their camp about; nor is the fence they raise rashly made, or uneven; nor do they all abide ill it, nor do those that are in it take their places at random; but if it happens that the ground is uneven, it is first levelled: their camp is also four-square by measure, and carpenters are ready, in great numbers, with their tools, to erect their buildings for them." To this end a marching column ported the equipment needed to build and stock the camp in a baggage train of wagons and on the backs of the soldiers. The camp allowed the Romans to keep a rested and supplied army in the field. Neither the Celtic nor Germanic armies had this capability: they found it necessary to disperse after only a few days.

Camps were the responsibility of engineering units to which specialists of many types belonged, officered by architecti, "chief engineers", who requisitioned manual labor from the soldiers at large as required. A unit could throw up a camp under enemy attack in as little as a few hours. Judging from the names, they probably used a repertory of camp plans, selecting the one appropriate to the length of time a legion would spend in it: tertia castra, quarta castra, etc. (a camp of three days, four days, etc.).

More permanent camps were castra stativa (standing camps). The least permanent of these were castra aestiva or aestivalia, "summer camps", in which the soldiers were housed sub pellibus or sub tentoriis, "under tents". The largest castra were legionary fortresses built as bases for one or more whole legions. Summer was the campaign season. For the winter the soldiers retired to castra hiberna containing barracks and other buildings of more solid materials, with timber construction gradually being replaced by stone.Castra hibernas held eight soldiers to a room, who slept on bunkbeds. The soldiers in each room were also required to cook their own meals and eat with their "roommates".

From the time of Augustus more permanent castra with wooden or stone buildings and walls were introduced as the distant and hard-won boundaries of the expanding empire required permanent garrisons to control local and external threats from warlike tribes. Previously, legions were raised for specific military campaigns and subsequently disbanded, requiring only temporary castra. From then on many castra of various sizes were established, many of which became permanent settlements.

Plan of forts

Plan of a typical Roman fort

Reconstruction of the specula or vigilarium (Germanic burgus), "watchtower", a type of castrum, at Rainau-Buch, Germany. An ancient watchtower would have been surrounded by wall and ditch.

Sources and origins

From the most ancient times Roman camps were constructed according to a certain ideal pattern, formally described in two main sources, the De Munitionibus Castrorum and the works of Polybius.

Construction and layout

The first step in constructing a castrum was selecting an appropriate location. This was a critical decision, as the site had to meet several strategic and practical criteria: The site was chosen for its defensibility, often on elevated terrain, near rivers, hills, or other natural barriers. It also needed to provide a good vantage point for observing the surrounding area and controlling key roads or supply routes. The camp needed access to water sources, such as rivers or springs, and nearby woodlands for construction materials like timber. While elevated positions were preferable for defense, the site itself had to be relatively flat to allow for efficient construction and ensure internal order. Good drainage was also essential. Once the site was identified, surveyors mensorēs arrived to assess its suitability and begin the layout.

At first the center of the camp was determined where the Via Praetoria and the Via Principalis would intersect and thus dividing the camp into northern and southern halves. The intersection of these two roads formed the camp’s central point, around which the rest of the layout was measured. Using tools like groma the mensorēs laid out the rectangular perimeter of the camp. The camp was divided into equal quadrants for easy organization and movement. Four gates were positioned at the cardinal points:

• Porta Praetoria (front gate, facing the enemy).
• Porta Decumana (rear gate, opposite the porta praetoria).
• Porta Principalis Dextra (right-side gate along the via principalis).
• Porta Principalis Sinistra (left-side gate along the via principalis).

Wall and ditch

The castrum's special structure also defended from attacks. The base (munimentum, "fortification") was placed entirely within the vallum ("wall"), which could be constructed under the protection of the legion in battle formation if necessary. The vallum was quadrangular, aligned on the cardinal points of the compass.The construction crews dug a trench (fossa), throwing the excavated material inward, to be formed into the rampart (agger). On top of this a palisade of stakes (sudes or valli) was erected. The soldiers had to carry these stakes on the march. Over the course of time, the palisade might be replaced by a brick or stone wall, and the ditch served also as a moat. A legion-sized camp placed towers at intervals along the wall with positions between for the division artillery.

Intervallum

Around the inside periphery of the vallum was a clear space, the intervallum, which served to catch enemy missiles, as an access route to the vallum and as a storage space for cattle (capita) and plunder (praeda). The Romans were masters of geometry and showed it in their camps: a modern study shows that the intervallum "was 1/16th of the square root of the area it enclosed in the fort. Legionaries were quartered in a peripheral zone inside the intervallum, which they could rapidly cross to take up position on the vallum. Inside of the legionary quarters was a peripheral road, the Via Sagularis, probably a type of "service road", as the sagum, a kind of cloak, was the garment of soldiers.

Streets, gates and central plaza

Reconstructed east gate of a castrum stativum, a more permanent base, at Welzheim, Germany

Porta called Savoia, Susa, Piedmont, 275-290 BC

Every camp included a "main street", which ran through the camp in a north–south direction and was very wide. The names of streets in many cities formerly occupied by the Romans suggest that the street was called cardo or cardus maximus. This name applies more to cities than it does to ancient camps. Typically "main street" was the via principalis. The central portion was used as a parade ground and headquarters area. The "headquarters" building was called the praetorium because it housed the praetor or base commander ("first officer"), and his staff. In the camp of a full legion he held the rank of consul or proconsul but officers of lesser ranks might command. On one side of the praetorium was the quaestorium, the building of the quaestor (supply officer). On the other side was the forum, a small duplicate of an urban forum, where public business could be conducted.

The Via Principalis went through the vallum in the Porta Principalis Dextra ("right principal gate") and Porta Principalis Sinistra ("left, etc."), which were gates fortified with turres ("towers"). Along the Via Principalis were the homes or tents of the several tribunes in front of the barracks of the units they commanded. The central region of the Via Principalis with the buildings for the command staff was called the Principia (plural of principium). It was actually a square, as across this at right angles to the Via Principalis was the Via Praetoria, so called because the praetorium interrupted it. The Via Principalis and the Via Praetoria offered another division of the camp into four quarters.

Porta decumana at Weißenburg, Bavaria, Germany

Across the central plaza (principia) to the east or west was the main gate, the Porta Praetoria. Marching through it and down "headquarters street" a unit ended up in formation in front of the headquarters. The standards of the legion were located on display there, very much like the flag of modern camps. On the other side of the praetorium the Via Praetoria continued to the wall, where it went through the Porta Decumana. In theory this was the back gate. Supplies were supposed to come in through it and so it was also called, descriptively, the Porta Quaestoria. The term Decumana, "of the 10th", came from the arranging of manipuli or turmae from the first to the 10th, such that the 10th was near the intervallum on that side. The Via Praetoria on that side might take the name Via Decumana or the entire Via Praetoria be replaced with Decumanus Maximus.

Major buildings

Model of the legionary fortress of Deva (Chester) plus adjoining amphitheatre in Britannia (reconstruction)

Not much remains of these horrea (granaries) at Arbeia (modern South Shields in north-east England), but the longitudinal supports for the floor can be seen.

The Via Quintana and the Via Principalis divided the camp into three districts: the Latera Praetorii, the Praetentura and the Retentura. In the latera ("sides") were the Arae (sacrificial altars), the Auguratorium (for auspices), the Tribunal, where courts martial and arbitrations were conducted (it had a raised platform), the guardhouse, the quarters of various kinds of staff and the storehouses for grain (horrea) or meat (carnarea). Sometimes the horrea were located near the barracks and the meat was stored on the hoof. Analysis of sewage from latrines indicates the legionary diet was mainly grain. Also located in the Latera was the Armamentarium, a long shed containing any heavy weapons and artillery not on the wall.

The Praetentura ("stretching to the front") contained the quarters of officers who were below general but higher than company commanders (Legati). Near the Principia were the Valetudinarium (hospital), Veterinarium (for horses), Fabrica ("workshop", metals and wood), and further to the front the quarters of special forces. These included Classici ("marines", as most European camps were on rivers and contained a river naval command), Equites ("cavalry"), Exploratores ("scouts"), and Vexillarii (carriers of vexilla, the official pennants of the legion and its units). Troops who did not fit elsewhere also were there. The part of the Retentura ("stretching to the rear") closest to the Principia contained the Quaestorium. By the late empire it had developed also into a safekeep for plunder and a prison for hostages and high-ranking enemy captives. Near the Quaestorium were the quarters of the headquarters guard (Statores), who amounted to two centuries (companies). If the Imperator was present they served as his bodyguard.

Barracks

A sanitary channel at Potaissa, Dacia (modern Romania). It is placed cross-slope with a slight decline and then exits down-slope.

Further from the Quaestorium were the tents of the Nationes ("natives"), who were auxiliaries of foreign troops, and the legionaries in double rows of tents or barracks (Strigae). One Striga was as long as required and 18 m wide. In it were two Hemistrigia of facing tents centered in its 9 m strip. Arms could be stacked before the tents and baggage carts kept there as well. Space on the other side of the tent was for passage. In the northern places like Britain, where it got cold in the winter, they would make wood or stone barracks. The Romans would also put a fireplace in the barracks. They had about three bunk beds in it. They had a small room beside it where they put their armour; it was as big as the tents. They would make these barracks if the fort they had was going to stay there for good.

Typically, the barracks were situated in the front and rear areas of the fortress. Each cohort comprised six barrack blocks, positioned in parallel alignment, frequently arranged in facing pairs. However, there is considerable variation in the precise numbers and types of buildings in a fortress, as well as variation in the design, size and proportions of barracks. The buildings were rectangular in plan, measuring 30-100 x 7-15m, and divided into contubernia (usually 10-13 in number). Each contubernium comprised a front and rear room (probably for storage and sleeping respectively). The majority of barracks were equipped with a covered walkway or verandah along the front elevation. Accommodation for Centurions was provided in individual houses, constructed in close proximity to or attached to their barrack block. For the elite first cohort, accommodation was typically located in the latera praeticii area, often in barracks that were slightly larger than those of the other cohorts. Their centurions (the legion's most senior centurions, each in charge of a double-century) enjoyed more substantial and larger residences. The tribunes' houses were even larger and typically followed the design of the civilian peristyle, featuring a series of rooms around a central courtyard.

Sanitation

For sanitary facilities, a camp had both public and private latrines. A public latrine consisted of a bank of seats situated over a channel of running water. One of the major considerations for selecting the site of a camp was the presence of running water, which the engineers diverted into the sanitary channels. Drinking water came from wells; however, the larger and more permanent bases featured the aqueduct, a structure running a stream captured from high ground (sometimes miles away) into the camp. The praetorium had its own latrine and probably the quarters of the high-ranking officers. In or near the intervallum, where they could easily be accessed, were the latrines of the soldiers. A public bathhouse for the soldiers, also containing a latrine, was located near or on the Via Principalis.

Territory

Reconstructed barracks of a castra hiberna, or "winter camp", at Arbeia (South Shields). Each doorway provides entry to a large room, the sleeping quarters of one contubernium, or "squad" of about 10 men.

The influence of a base extended far beyond its walls. The total land required for the maintenance of a permanent base was called its territoria. In it were located all the resources of nature and the terrain required by the base: pastures, woodlots, water sources, stone quarries, mines, exercise fields and attached villages. The central castra might also support various fortified adjuncts to the main base, which were not self-sustaining as was the base. In this category were speculae, "watchtowers", castella, "small camps", and naval bases.

All the major bases near rivers featured some sort of fortified naval installation, one side of which was formed by the river or lake. The other sides were formed by a polygonal wall and ditch constructed in the usual way, with gates and watchtowers. The main internal features were the boat sheds and the docks. When not in use, the boats were drawn up into the sheds for maintenance and protection. Since the camp was placed to best advantage on a hill or slope near the river, the naval base was usually outside its walls. The classici and the optiones of the naval installation relied on the camp for its permanent defense. Naval personnel generally enjoyed better quarters and facilities. Many were civilians working for the military.

Modifications in practice

The ideal plan was typically modified to suit the terrain and the circumstances. Each camp discovered by archaeology has its own specific layout and architectural features, which makes sense from a military point of view. If, for example, the camp was built on an outcrop, it followed the lines of the outcrop. The terrain for which it was best suited and for which it was probably designed in distant prehistoric times was the rolling plain.

The camp was best placed on the summit and along the side of a low hill, with spring water running in rivulets through the camp (aquatio) and pastureland to provide grazing (pabulatio) for the animals. In case of attack, arrows, javelins and sling missiles could be fired down at an enemy tiring himself to come up. For defence, troops could be formed in an acies, or "battle-line", outside the gates where they could be easily resupplied and replenished as well as being supported by archery from the palisade.

The streets, gates and buildings present depended on the requirements and resources of the camp. The gates might vary from two to six and not be centred on the sides. Not all the streets and buildings might be present.

Camp life

The pillars supported a raised floor to keep food dry and free from vermin in the northern granary at Housesteads Roman Fort (Vercovicium) on Hadrian's Wall.

At dawn, the day started with the sound of the buccina signaling the soldiers to rise. They quickly dressed in their tunics and armor, as punctuality was crucial. The morning assembly followed, where the centurion inspected the soldiers, ensuring their weapons and armor were in pristine condition. Orders for the day were issued during this time, and discipline was strictly enforced. After assembly, the soldiers often participated in physical training. This included marches, combat drills with wooden weapons, and strength exercises to keep them battle-ready. Depending on their location and the state of the fortress, soldiers might also train in archery, javelin throwing, or constructing siege equipment. These sessions were not only essential for maintaining fitness but also for instilling discipline and teamwork. When not training, soldiers were assigned various tasks within the fortress. These could include repairing fortifications, maintaining roads, or sharpening weapons. They also took turns on guard duty, patrolling the walls and gates of the fortress to ensure its security.

Around midday, the soldiers broke for their lunch, (prandium). This meal typically consisted of bread, porridge, cheese, vegetables, and occasionally meat if supplies allowed. After their meal, the soldiers returned to their duties. Some assisted in administrative tasks such as record-keeping, inventorying supplies, or writing reports. Others worked on construction projects, such as building or repairing barracks, stables, or roads leading to the fortress. Skilled craftsmen among the soldiers might be tasked with forging weapons, making armor, or creating tools.The afternoon often included more training or preparations for future campaigns. Soldiers practiced formations, honed their fighting techniques, and rehearsed strategies under the watchful eyes of their centurions.

As evening approached, the fortress became quieter. Soldiers rotated through their shifts for guard duty, with some standing watch while others rested. The dinner, (cena), was larger and more substantial than the midday meal. After dinner, the soldiers had some personal time (otium). They might write letters to their families, repair their equipment, or engage in games like dice or board games. Storytelling and singing were popular activities, helping to keep morale high. Some soldiers used this time for religious practices, offering sacrifices or prayers to their gods. Before retiring for the night, the watch schedule was finalized, and the gates of the fortress were secured. Soldiers on night guard patrolled the walls, ensuring the safety of the camp throughout the night. Others rested in their barracks, sleeping on simple wooden beds with straw mattresses, ready to begin the routine again at dawn.

The supply administration was run as a business using money as the medium of exchange. The aureus was the preferred coin of the late republic and early empire; in the late empire the solidus came into use. The larger bases, such as Moguntiacum, minted their own coins. As does any business, the base quaestorium required careful record keeping, performed mainly by the optiones. A chance cache of tablets from Vindolanda in Britain gives us a glimpse of some supply transactions. They record, among other things, the purchase of consumables and raw supplies, the storage and repair of clothing and other items, and the sale of items, including foodstuffs, to achieve an income. Vindolanda traded vigorously with the surrounding natives.

Another feature of the camp was the military hospital (valetudinarium, later hospitium). Augustus instituted the first permanent medical corps in the Roman army. Its physicians, the medici ordinarii, had to be qualified physicians. They were allowed medical students, practitioners and whatever orderlies they needed; i.e., the military hospitals were medical schools and places of residency as well.

Officers were allowed to marry and to reside with their families on base. The army did not extend the same privileges to the men, who were not allowed to marry. However, they often kept common law families off base in communities nearby. The communities might be native, as the tribesmen tended to build around a permanent base for purposes of trade, but also the base sponsored villages (vici) of dependents and businessmen. Dependants were not allowed to follow an army on the march into hostile territory.

Military service was for about 25 years. At the end of that time, the veteran was given a certificate of honorable discharge (honesta missio). Some of these have survived engraved on stone. Typically they certify that the veteran, his wife (one per veteran) and children or his sweetheart were now Roman citizens, which is a good indication that troops, which were used chiefly on the frontier, were from peoples elsewhere on the frontier who wished to earn Roman citizenship. However, under Antoninus Pius, citizenship was no longer granted to the children of rank-and-file veterans, the privilege becoming restricted only to officers. Veterans often went into business in the communities near a base. They became permanent members of the community and would stay on after the troops were withdrawn, as in the notable case of Saint Patrick's family.

See also

• List of castra by province
• Military history of ancient Rome
• Outline of ancient Rome

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