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The mai (sometimes translated as king[1] or emperor)[2] was the monarch of the Kanem–Bornu Empire from its foundation c. 700 until the mais were replaced as rulers by the shehus in the mid-19th century.

The line of mais is largely reconstructed through the girgam, the empire's royal chronicle.[3] The girgam was preserved through oral tradition[4] before transcriptions by European scholars in the mid-19th century.[3] The girgam is not entirely reliable since it was preserved orally[4] and contains some contradictions between different versions.[5] There is however a large degree of agreement across different versions of the girgam as to the names of rulers and the lengths of their reigns.[5] Because the slightly different versions of the girgam and a lack of precise dates, names and lengths of reign assigned to the mais may differ in different sources. For the sake of comparison, this list includes dates from different authors for each ruler.

Duguwa dynasty (c. 700–1085)

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The Duguwa dynasty, also referred to as the Dougouwa or Dukuwa, were the original line of mais.[6] The Duguwa were an aristocratic group that chose a mai from among themselves.[6] They were probably of local Kanembu origin;[3] later legend claimed that they were descendants of Arabian migrants who had intermarried with the locals around Lake Chad,[7] probably reflecting a desire (after the conversion to Islam) to connect Kanem's history to that of the wider Islamic world.[4] The date of the empire's establishment (and thus also that of the Duguwa dynasty) is not certain, but is typically placed c. 700.[2]

Islam reached Kanem in the mid-8th[8] or 9th century.[9] The Duguwa dynasty converted to Islam in the 11th century, under Hu,[10][11] shortly before they were overthrown by the later Sayfawa dynasty.[10] There is some variation in the names assigned to the Duguwa mais, and little historical evidence for any of them outside of the girgam. Some scholars, such as Ronald Cohen, treat the entire dynasty as legendary, with little evidence that any of the mais have "any real historical validity".[12]

No. Name Urvoy (1949)[13] Reign (Stewart, 1989)[1] Alternate names[a] Notes
1 Susam 692–725 Omitted Seif[14] Traditionally the first ruler of Kanem.[15]
2 Jashar 725–783 Omitted Ibrahim[14]
3 Dugu 784–835 784–835 Duku, Duganj[13]
4 Fune 835–893 835–893 Mune[13]
5 Arku 893–942 893–942 Arju,[1] Arso,[13] Aritse[1][14]
6 Katuri 942–961 942–961 Kâtun[13]
7 Boyoma 961–1009 961–1019 Adyoma,[1] Yayoladh,[13] Yiyoma[13]
8 Bulu 1009–1034 1019–1035 Dalabou[13]
9 Arku 1035–1067 1035–1077 Arki,[14] Argi,[1] Bozaxhi[13]
10 Hu 1067–1081 1077–1081 Shu,[14] Hawwa,[10] Shuwa,[1] Shahin-bey[13] First Muslim ruler of Kanem.[10][11] Possibly a woman.[10][11]
11 Abd al-Jalil I 1081–1097 1081–1085 Jil,[1] Selema,[14] Samir-agha[13]

Sayfawa dynasty (1085–1846)

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The Sayfawa dynasty, also referred to as the Sefouwa, Sefawa, or Sefuwa, was the second line of mais, established by Hummay in the 11th century.[10] The Sayfawa were of Kanembu origin[10] but claimed descent from a Yemeni noble named Saif ibn Dhi Yazan; other Islamic African dynasties of this time sometimes made similar claims to Arab origin as a source of prestige.[10]

The Sayfawa lost Kanem in the 14th century, ousted from the original capital of Njimi by the Bilala people.[16] They were forced to relocate west to Bornu, a former tributary territory,[7][17] which continued to be the seat of power even after Kanem was recovered in the 16th century,[16][18] hence the name Kanem–Bornu.[19] The Sayfawa dynasty's continuous rule from the 11th to 19th century lasted nearly 800 years,[19][20] making it one of the longest-lasting ruling dynasties in history.[21]

No. Name Reign (Stewart, 1989)[19] Reign (Bosworth, 2012)[20] Notes
12 Hummay 1085–1097 c. 1085–1097 Overthrew the Duguwa dynasty.[22]
13 Dunama I Umemi 1097–1150 1097–1151
14 Bir I Othman 1150–1176 1151–1174
15 Abdullah I Bikur 1176–1194 1174–1194
16 Abd al-Jalil II 1194–1221 1194–1221
17 Dunama II Dabbalemi 1221–1259 1221–1259 Reign known for increased Islamisation of the empire[22] and for diplomatic contact with other Muslim powers.[22]
18 Kade I 1259–1260 ?
19 Kashim Bir 1260–1288 ?
20 Bir II Ibrahim 1288–1307 Omitted
21 Jalil Omitted ?
22 Dirke Kelem Omitted ?
23 Ibrahim I Nikale 1307–1326 1290–1311
24 Abdullah II 1326–1346 1311–1322
25 Selema 1346–1350 1322–1326
26 Kuri I Gana 1350–1351 1326–1327
27 Kuri II Kura 1351–1352 1327–1328
28 Muhammad I 1352–1353 1328–1329
29 Idris I Nigalemi 1353–1377 1329–1353
30 Dawud Nigalemi 1377–1386 1353–1363
31 Othman I 1386–1391 1363–1366
32 Othman II 1391–1392 1366–1368
33 Abu Bakr Liyatu 1392–1394 1368–1369
34 Dunama III (or Idris) Omitted 1369–1376
35 Omar I 1394–1398 1376–1387 Lost Kanem to the Bilala people and relocated west to Bornu (a former tributary territory).[7][17]
36 Sa'id 1398–1399 1387–1388
37 Muhammad II Omitted 1388–1389
38 Kade II Afunu 1399–1400 1389–1390
39 Bir III Othman 1400–1432 1390–1422
40 Othman III Kalinumuwa 1432–1433 1422–1423
41 Dunama IV[b] 1433–1435 1423–1425
42 Abdullah III Dakumuni 1435–1442 1425–1433
43 Ibrahim II 1442–1450 1433–1440
44 Kade III 1450–1451 1440–1444
45 Bir IV Omitted 1444–1445
46 Dunama V Ahmad 1451–1455 1445–1449
47 Muhammad III[c] 1455–1456 1449–1450
48 Amarma 1456 1450–1451
49 Muhammad IV 1456 1451–1456
50 Ghazi 1456–1461 1456–1461
51 Othman IV 1461–1466 1461–1466
52 Omar II 1466–1467 1466–1467
53 Muhammad V 1467–1472 1467–1472
54 Ali I Gazi 1472–1504 1470–1503 Founded Ngazargamu, the empire's first substantial capital since the loss of Kanem.[23]
55 Idris II Katagarmabe 1504–1526 1503–1525
56 Muhammad VI Aminami 1526–1545 1525–1544
57 Ali II Zainami 1545–1546 1544–1546
58 Dunama VI Muhammad 1546–1563 1546–1563
59 Abdullah IV 1563–1570 1563–1569
60 Aissa Koli 1570–1580 Co-ruler with Idrīs III
61 Idris III Alooma 1580–1603 1569–1603 Brought the empire to the height of its power,[17] partly with the aid of Ottoman mercenaries and weapons.[24]
62 Muhammad VII Bukalmarami 1603–1617 1603–1618
63 Ibrahim III 1617–1625 1618–1625
64 Omar III 1625–1645 1625–1645
65 Ali III 1645–1685 1645–1684
66 Idris IV 1685–1704 1684–1699
67 Dunama VII 1704–1723 1699–1726
68 Hamdan 1723–1737 1726–1731
69 Muhammad VIII Ergama 1737–1752 1731–1747
70 Dunama VIII Gana 1752–1755 1747–1750
71 Ali IV 1755–1793 1750–1791
72 Ahmad 1793–1808 1791–1808
73 Dunama IX Lefiami (1st reign) 1808–1810 1808–1811 In Dunama IX's reign, the Fula jihads were defeated with the aid of shehu Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi, who sidelined the mai.[25]
74 Muhammad IX Ngileruma 1810–1814 1811–1814 Made mai by courtiers displeased with al-Kanemi's great influence under Dunama IX.[26]
73 Dunama IX Lefiami (2nd reign) 1814–1817 1814–1817 Restored to the throne with al-Kanemi's aid. Killed after plotting against al-Kanemi.[26]
75 Ibrahim IV 1817–1846 1817–1846 Puppet mai under al-Kanemi and al-Kanemi's son Umar. Killed after attempting to take power in a civil war.[2][27]
76 Ali V Minargema 1846 1846 Briefly succeeded Ibrāhīm IV but was also defeated and killed.[27]

Notes

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  1. ^ The names of the Duguwa mais differ slightly between authors.
  2. ^ Enumerated as Dunama III by Stewart (1989), since Stewart omits the Dunama here enumerated as such. Later mais named Dunama are similarly given a lesser numeral by Stewart than in this list.
  3. ^ Enumerated as Muhammad II by Stewart (1989), since Stewart omits the Muhammad here enumerated as such. Later mais named Muhammad are similarly given a lesser numeral by Stewart than in this list.

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Stewart 1989, p. 146.
  2. ^ a b c Obikili 2018, p. 40.
  3. ^ a b c Magnavita, Lindauer & Adjbane 2025, p. 2.
  4. ^ a b c Bauer 2013, p. 95.
  5. ^ a b Bosworth 2012, p. 129.
  6. ^ a b Hiribarren 2016, p. 1.
  7. ^ a b c Dalby 2006, p. 302.
  8. ^ Insoll 2003, p. 272.
  9. ^ Shillington 2012, The Sultanate of Borno-Kanem.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Insoll 2003, p. 273.
  11. ^ a b c Koslow 1995, p. 20.
  12. ^ Cohen 1966, p. 73.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Urvoy 1949, p. 26.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Cohen 1966, p. 80.
  15. ^ Venning 2023, Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa States of N Nigeria.
  16. ^ a b Nave 2005, p. 17.
  17. ^ a b c Ofori-Amoah 2020, p. 29.
  18. ^ Stewart 1989, p. 35.
  19. ^ a b c Stewart 1989, pp. 34–35, 146.
  20. ^ a b Bosworth 2012, pp. 126–129.
  21. ^ al-Wasewi 2018.
  22. ^ a b c Insoll 2003, p. 274.
  23. ^ Gronenborn 2001, p. 110.
  24. ^ Gronenborn 2001, p. 112.
  25. ^ Lavers 1993, p. 180.
  26. ^ a b Brenner 2012, p. 289.
  27. ^ a b Bosworth 2012, p. 127.

Bibliography

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  • al-Wasewi, Ibrahim Haruna Hassan (2018). "Weathering the storm: Shari'a in Nigeria from the earliest times to the present". Law, Religion and Love: Seeking Ecumenical Justice for the Other. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-68456-0.
  • Bauer, Susan Wise (2013). The History of the Renaissance World. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-05976-2.
  • Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2012) [1996]. The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-2137-7.
  • Brenner, Louis (2012). "Kanemi, Muhammad al-". Dictionary of African Biography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538207-5.
  • Cohen, Ronald (1966). "The Bornu King Lists". Boston University Papers on Africa: Volume II: African History. Boston University Press.
  • Dalby, Andrew (2006) [1998]. "Kanuri". Dictionary of Languages: The Definitive Reference to More Than 400 Languages. A & C Black. ISBN 978-0-7136-7841-3.
  • Gronenborn, Detlef (2001). "Kanem-Borno: A Brief Summary of the History and Archaeology of an Empire of the Central bilad al-sudan". West Africa During the Atlantic Slave Trade: Archaeological Perspectives. Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-4742-9104-0.
  • Insoll, Timothy (2003). The Archaeology of Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65171-9.
  • Koslow, Philip (1995). Kanem-Borno: 1,000 Years of Splendor. Chelsea House Publishers. ISBN 0-7910-3129-2.
  • Lavers, John E. (1993). "The al-Kanimiyyin Shehus: a working chronology". Berichte des Sonderforschungsbereichs. 268 (2): 179–186.
  • Magnavita, Carlos; Lindauer, Susanne; Adjbane, Adoum Casimir (2025). "New Luminescence and Radiocarbon Dates for Kanem-Borno Fired-Brick Elite Sites in Kanem, Chad: Bayesian Chronological Modelling of Settlement Construction". African Archaeological Review. 42 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1007/s10437-025-09611-1. ISSN 1572-9842.
  • Nave, Ari (2005). "Chad". Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517055-9.
  • Obikili, Nonso (2018). "State Formation in Precolonial Nigeria". The Oxford Handbook of Nigerian Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-880430-7.
  • Ofori-Amoah, Benjamin (2020). Africa's Geography: Dynamics of Place, Cultures, and Economies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-470-58358-6.
  • Shillington, Kevin (2012) [1989]. History of Africa (4th ed.). Red Globe Press. ISBN 978-1-137-50403-6.
  • Stewart, John (1989). African States and Rulers: An Encyclopedia of Native, Colonial and Independent States and Rulers Past and Present. McFarland & Company.
  • Urvoy, Yves (1949). Historie De L'Empire Du Bronu. Memoires De L'Institut Francais D'Afrique Noire. Librairie Larose.
  • Venning, Timothy (2023). A Compendium of Medieval World Sovereigns. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-000-86633-9.
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