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{{short description|History of the early empire based on Sumatra (c. 671–1025 AD)}}
{{short description|History of the early empire based on Sumatra (c. 671–1025 AD)}}
[[File:Yi Jing Srivijaya 5.jpg|thumb|Route of I-Tsing (Yi Jing), a Chinese Buddhist monk pilgrimage.]]
[[File:Yi Jing Srivijaya 5.jpg|thumb|Route of I-Tsing (Yi Jing), a Chinese Buddhist monk pilgrimage.]]

Revision as of 12:13, 28 June 2025

Route of I-Tsing (Yi Jing), a Chinese Buddhist monk pilgrimage.

Traces and records about Srivijaya from Chinese historical accounts were from the Southeast Asia stone inscriptions, as of being discovered and dichepiring as well. A Buddhist monk name Yijing and his accounts are especially important of describing Srivijaya, when he first enters the kingdom in 671 for about 7 months.[1] The history of Srivijaya was an important centre of their expansion of Buddhism throughout Southeast Asia from 7th to 11th century. Srivijaya was also first polity to dominate much of the western Maritime Southeast Asia. In its location, Srivijaya developed a complex technology such as utilizing maritime resources.[2]

The Srivijaya Kingdom was founded by the Maharaja and the first king of the Kedatuan Srivijaya, Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, commence of the Srivijaya era at 7th century.

History

Beginning of Srivijaya era

Srivijaya era began at the earlier times, possibly around 7th centuries until their end around 12 to 13th century, as of the oldest surviving known inscriptions stone Kedukan Bukit inscription,[3] which was discovered by the Dutchman C.J. Batenburg,[4] dating back of that inscription from the old times in the 7th century around 682, during Dutch colonial rule of Indonesia. The kingdom of Srivijaya was established by the Maharaha (Great King) of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the first leader and a founder of Srivijaya. His name was mentioned in the earlier inscriptions of Siddhayatra inscription, detailing his sacred journey to acquire bless and his earlier expand conquest of neighboring areas, dating back around the start of Srivijaya period.[citation needed] The inscription aforementioned was founded around specifically near Palembang, Sumatra. It is also believed that the stone inscription Kedukan Bukit inscription has its itself own evidence about the beginning of the Srivijaya Kingdom.[citation needed]

Between the kingdom era around in 7th century to the early 11th century, the Srivijaya rose and later Srivjaya becoming as a hegemon in Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was in control of the whole Malay world, until the Chola invasion under the reign of Rajendra starts right after the Srivijans controlling most of the lands around prior Chola invasion, in the year c. 1000. Prior to Chola incursions, the emperor or a leader of Chola Emperor Raja Raja I of Chola, he initially had made relations with Srivijaya at that time, which were quite known as cordial.[5]

Conquest of Kedah, Jambi and other Malay kingdoms

Major incursions like the Srivijayan conquest of Kedah, and during the war however, the king of Kedah had decided to surrender, and many of his forces had faced heavy casualties.[6] The events of conquest by Srivijaya was crucial for the significant period for interaction and cultural exchange, and after successfully reach to Malay world – Srivijaya became a power of trades, later mastering their trade routes throughout international seas, which are Malacca Straits and the Sunda Straits.[7][8] Srivijaya invasions to south Myanmar, Malay Peninsula and Kra Isthmus, Srivijaya had became famous, having their influences reach far as it is.[7]

Local written records have found or unearthed in Kedah, stated that the Ancient Kedah socio-politics has not been structured at all.[9] The Srivijayan socio-politics were structed, as of a ruler himself established a palace in Sumatra called kraton, surrounded by the chiefs or known as the "datus", who assisted in their administration of the kingdom as well as they carrying out the diplomacy functions.[10] Archaeological findings from the Kedah and the Indian records finds that the Ancient Kedah was regularly visited by many of the traders, and its port functions as an entrepot. Trough the Srivijaya socio-politics, the socio-politics was for structuring the Ancient Kedah, especially the ancient had become mandala of the Srivijayans.[11] The defeats of the Malay Kingdoms were nevertheless but a great loss to being dissolve. In each centuries starting from the 7th to 9th century, and eventually ends in the early 11th or 13th century. Also, throughout the 7th century or the end of 8th century, the Srivijaya had managed to invade Langkasuka,[12][13] an ancient Malay[14][15][16][17] Hindu-Buddhist kingdom. The Srivijayans had also taken Pan Pan and Tambralinga, within no time after taking Langkasuka in Malay Peninsula, which it happened in the same century.[13]

From that time, the Srivijayans expansion had expanded far starting the incursions from Sumatra when the kingdom was originated in Palembang, and then progress to the Malay Peninsula. Undoubtedly, the Srivijaya influences control two major naval choke points (or the key trade routes[18]), such as Malacca and Sunda straits as well, later turning to be significant trading empire with formidable naval forces.[19][20][21]

Rival kingdoms between Srivijaya and Mataram Kingdom

Further information: Mataram–Srivijayan wars
See also: Mataram Kingdom
Ancient Javanese vessel depicted in Borobudur

One of proposed causes of the move were strategically politics and power struggle. Srivijaya of Shaleindra against to the Mataram Kingdom, a Javanese Hindu-Buddhist kingdom that flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. They were partially rivals between the two kingdoms, as of the Mataram were an inland kingdom in Java at that time in Southeast Asia. George Cœdès in his books that the move to East Java was probably response to the Buddhist Shailendra dynasty.[22]: 79, 90  The war between them known as Pralaya[a] (lit. 'Destruction') in one of Javanese inscriptions in Pucangan, dated around firstly in during the reign of king Airlangga of the Kahuripan kingdom as well. To the point of the two rivals kindgom, in 990,[22]: 130  king of Isyana Kingdom Dharmawangsa launched their naval invasion against to Srivijaya, as of the attempt to capture Palembang on that period. News of the Javanese invasion of Srivijaya also were from the Chinese accounts to imperial Chinese dyansty Song. In 988, an envoy from Javanese were sent to the Chinese court at Guangzhou. Around that time, after sojourned about two years in China, the envoy were learned as of his kingdom was attack by Mataram Kingdom, thus being completely unable to turn back home.[citation needed]

As of the Javanese envoys, the hostility between the two rivals kingdom of Mataram and Srivijaya were confirmed from the Javanese envoys as well. From 992, the envoys from Mataram were sent to the Chinese court also, to explain in that Chinese court that the war that Mataram was involved between the two kingdoms Srivijaya and Mataram wars was a continuous war with Srivijaya.[23]: 200  From that same year, Mataram forces were succeeded capturing Palembang for a while, until which Srivijaya detain the attacks and captures from Mataram forces.[24]

Wuruwari rebellion

A battle scene depicted on a bas-relief in Prambanan

From 1016, Srivijaya had launched their retaliation attacks and demolishing Wwatan Palace in Java, primarily by assisting the lesser king of Mataram and the vassal polity, Wwurari of Lwaram, a somewhat figure in the Javanese history, began to revolt and attacked the palace of Mataram, then later being destroyed destroyed as well. For such reasons why in the first place that Wwurari start to rebelled the Mataram palace is that him Wwurari wanted to marry the daughter of Dharmawangsa. Him also wants to replace the king Dharmawangsa and him being as the leader or a ruler to Mataram Kingdom. However, it was later rejected of his proposal, and that Dharmawangsa chose the Airlangga, son of Udayana Warmadewa of Bali and Mahendradatta[22]: 129  as his son-in-law. Wwurari was vengeful, and later allied with Srivijaya to aid and attack the Mataram palace.[25] The sudden and unexpected attack took place during the wedding ceremony of Dharmawangsa daughter, which left the court unprepared and shocked, eventually the allies between two Wwurari and the Srivijayans attack and killed Dharmawangsa and most of his royal family also.[22]: 130 

Song–Srivijaya relationship and the decline

See also: Sanfotsi

From that time, Srivijaya Kingdom ruling had existed about 600 years. When the first empire Srivijaya had sent a tributary to Song Dynasty, a Chinese dynasty existed from around 960 to 1279, around the year of 670 M to 1380-an M, when it began deteriorating around 1380, Song Dynasty had later changed their policy trades for to focus one of the entities, just to continue the trades with the other countries.[26] The Song Dynasty had slightly involved in the collapse of Melayu kingdoms from the earlier times around the Srivijayan expansions, trough Sumatra and then to Malay Peninsula.[citation needed]

Collapse

See also: Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty and Boxer Rebellion

While the results of the disestablishment of Jambi and others of the Malay kingdoms, which got ceded and annexed by Srivijaya – the prolonged war of Chinese dynasties between the Yuan Dynasty (supported by the Mongol Empire) and Song Dynasty were one crucial events that has happened in the Chinese history, because Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, defeated the Chinese Southern Song in 1279, and for the first time all of China was under foreign rule,[27] putting Song Dynasty in disestablishment and the establishment of Yuan Dynasty, from the year around in 1279, during the Mongol invasion of Song. The consideration of the Mongol invasion throughout East Asia, it was one of the last great achievements accomplished by the Mongol Empire,[28] and upon its completion, the Mongols rule all over continental of East Asia, under the Han-style Yuan dynasty, which that had been found as of the division of the Mongol Empire. It also marks the end of the relationship between the Srivijaya Kingdom within the Song Dynasty in 1279.[note 1]

Over centuries, the chinese fleets, which are only directing for the route up, until when the Colonial Era arrives – the last Chinese dynasties, known as Qing Dynasty, had been collapsed[29] by the Eight-Nation Alliance, after the outcome of the Boxer Rebellion in 7th September 1901. From that same year, the Boxer Protocol was later created after the results of the Boxer Rebellion, between the great powers and Qing dynasty parties and is signatories as well.

Post-Srivijaya period

Prior and Preliminary of Chola invasion to Srivijaya

Prior to Chola invasion

In 1006 CE, a Srivijayan Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty – King Maravijayattungavarman – built the Chudamani Vihara in the port town of Nagapattinam,[30][31][32] located in the modern-day Indian state of Tamil Nadu. However, the Chola Emperor under the reign of Rajendra I – the relations deteriorated as of the Chola start the attacks on Srivijayan cities.[33]

Chola conquest

See also: Srivijaya § Decline, and Chola invasion of Srivijaya
The apex of Imperial Chola under Rajendra I rule, c. 1030

Chola had made a plan to begin their invasion troughout Southeast Asia. When the Chola invasion begins, aimlessly at Southeast Asia – when the war ended with Chola victory, significantly weakening the Srivijaya Kingdom, breaking the Srivijaya maritime monopoly on that region.[34][35][36][37] Upon that time, several places in the present-day Indonesia were invaded by the Cholas.[38][39] When places were been raid by the king of Chola, it led to the fall of Sailendra Kingdom of Srivijaya – but also at the same time during Chola invasion, when the return voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa took place from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025 CE.[40]

The internal struggles and the collapse of Srivijaya

As of it, the Chola invasion primarily disrupted or disintegrated the kingdom in 1025 CE, which following of the major several raids that were launched by those Cholas upon at their ports.[41]: 110  Chinese sources continually refer to the polities that name as Sanfoqi that were taught by the Srivijaya for a few centuries, but imperceptible that some historian argued that whether the Srivijaya would no longer be the appropriate name for the overlord centre after the year of 1025, when Sanfoqi were referring to Jambi.[42] After the Srivijaya fall, the kingdom were largely forgotten after is fall. But, an French historian named George Cœdès in 1918, far from East of the French school, had formally postulate the kingdom existence.[43]

Emergence of the new powers

With the death of Chandrabhanu (or Chandrabhanu Sridhamaraja), a figure who held as both the king to Tambralinga and Jaffna, known as Javaka who his reign during the period between 1230 until it ends on 1262. With his death, according to the Siam Society historical sources, the Srivijaya Kingdom, stated as being such a highfalutin name, came to the end of the kingdom also. The histories between Malay Peninsula and the Sumatra will likely took a separated parts between two courses of them. Continue that the city-states send an embassies to the Chinese court, which that the Chinese records coming on that Sanfotsi; but a completely control of the straits of Maura Takus (Malayu) and also the central of Sumatra and Kedah, until it was no more ponder the control of Srivijaya Kingdom.[44]

Events of the Mongol expedition to Java and the founding of Majapahit Empire

See also: Mongol invasion of Java
Map during Mongol invasion of Java

Majapahit were rising after the fall of the Srivijaya Kingdom. The empire rose began struggling as of the Mongol invasion led attack on Southeast Asian or Malay world on Java particularly. The kingdom Majapahit was founded by the Javanese emperor and the founder of Majapahit Raden Wijaya, which him in earlier times during war had participated it, and later the aftermath, he became victorious after the war following the fail invasion of the Mongol upon Java. The war, Mongol invasion of Java was plan by the dynasty of China Yuan and a Mongol-led Imperial dynasty also, under the reign of the Yuan emperor Kublai Khan had attempted to invade Java, with an army about 20,000[45] to 30,000 soldiers.[46]

Was intended as of a punitive expedition that were launched against the king of Singhasari Kertanegara, who him had refused to pay the tributes to Yuan to primarily maimed one of the emissaries. In the intervening years between Kertanagara refusal and the expedition arrival on Java, Kertanagara was killed and Singhasari had been usurped by Kediri.

A fierce campaign between the Mongols and their Mongol-led imperial Yuan against the others include Majapahit, Kediri however during the war surrendered. Yuan forces were betrayed by the erstwhile allies Majapahit, under Raden Wijaya. The repercussion of Mongol invasion to Java, the invasion ended with a Yuan failure and strategic victory to Majapahit.[citation needed]

Notes

  1. ^ also, the Srivijaya had already got invaded by some naval incursions led by the king of Chola Rajendra I, eventually putting an end to Srivijaya.[20][21]
  1. ^ the debacle; "the death of the Mataram kingdom".[22]: 144 

References

  1. ^ Miksic, John N.; Goh, Geok Yian (2017). Ancient Southeast Asia. London: Routledge.
  2. ^ Laet, Sigfried J. de; Herrmann, Joachim (1994). History of Humanity. Routledge.
  3. ^ Sadzali, Asyhadi (2019-04-30). "Hulu ke Hilir: Jaringan dan Sistem Perniagaan Sungai Kerajaan Srivijaya". Paradigma: Jurnal Kajian Budaya. 9 (1): 61. doi:10.17510/paradigma.v9i1.276. ISSN 2503-0868.
  4. ^ Bloembergen, Marieke; Eickhoff, Martijn (2020-01-16). The Politics of Heritage in Indonesia: A Cultural History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-49902-6.
  5. ^ Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta (1935). The CōĻas. University of Madras. pp. 219–220.
  6. ^ Nabil, Adlani (2022-10-11). "6 Daerah Kekuasaaan Sriwijaya". adjar.grid.id (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2025-01-20.
  7. ^ a b "Kerajaan Srivijaya" (PDF). Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka. Retrieved 5 June 2025.
  8. ^ "The Srivijaya Empire: trade and culture in the Indian Ocean" (PDF). PBworks. Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  9. ^ Mohd Nasir & Ramli 2022, p. 4.
  10. ^ Zain, Sabri (July 1983). "THE "INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS" OF THE MALAY PENINSULA FROM THE SEVENTH TO THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY" (PDF). Retrieved 4 June 2025.
  11. ^ Mohd Nasir & Ramli 2022, pp. 4–5.
  12. ^ Munoz. Early Kingdoms. p. 130.
  13. ^ a b Dokras, Uday (2023). "Srivijaya: Vanished Great Mandala". AcademiaEdu. Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  14. ^ Ginsburg, N. S. (1958). Malaya, by Norton Ginsburg and Chester F. Roberts, Jr., with the collabora. (n.p.): (n.p.). – via Google Books
  15. ^ Armed Separatism in Southeast Asia. (1984). Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. – via Google Books
  16. ^ Rand, N. (2015). Conflict: Journeys through war and terror in southeast Asia. Ireland: Maverick House Publishers.
  17. ^ Proceedings of The 6th MAC 2016. (2016). (n.p.): MAC Prague consulting. – via Google Books
  18. ^ "Srivijaya maritime empire". Fiveable. Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  19. ^ Heng, Derek (October 2013). "State formation and the evolution of naval strategies in the Melaka Straits, c. 500-1500 CE". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 44 (3): 380–399. doi:10.1017/S0022463413000362. S2CID 161550066.
  20. ^ a b "Srivijaya empire". Britannica. Encyclopedic Britannica. Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  21. ^ a b "History of Indonesia (Srivijaya Kingdom)". Britannica. Encyclopedic Britannica. Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  22. ^ a b c d e Coedès, George (1968). The Indianized states of Southeast Asia. p. 434. Retrieved 11 June 2025.
  23. ^ Marwati Djoened Poesponegoro; Nugroho Notosusanto (2008). Sejarah Nasional Indonesia: Zaman Kuno (in Indonesian). Balai Pustaka. ISBN 978-9794074084. OCLC 318053182.
  24. ^ Munoz, Paul Michel (2006). Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Singapura:Editions Didier Millet. ISBN 9814155675.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
  25. ^ Lubis, Ibrahim (2024-01-06). "Sejarah Kerajaan Lwaram dan Sosok Aji Wurawari". dewantaranews.com (in Indonesian). Retrieved 2025-01-23.
  26. ^ Jamal, Nornizam (21 May 2020). "Perbahasan Asal Usul Empayar Melayu Terhebat Sejarah – Srivijaya". ThePatriotsAsia. Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  27. ^ Johnson, Jean (25 July 2017). "The Mongol Dynasty". AsiaSociety. Retrieved 3 June 2025.
  28. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p. 509.
  29. ^ Guan, Kwa Chong (2016). "The Maritime Silk Road: History of an Idea" (PDF). NSC Working Paper (23): 1–30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
  30. ^ "buddhist teachings hindu meditation tibetan at buddhistnews.tv". Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2006.
  31. ^ Keay, John, India: A History, pp 222-223
  32. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-02-08. Retrieved 2006-10-16.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  33. ^ Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67
  34. ^ Kenneth R. Hall (October 1975), "Khmer Commercial Development and Foreign Contacts under Sūryavarman I", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 18 (3), pp. 318-336, Brill Publishers
  35. ^ R. C. Majumdar (1961), "The Overseas Expeditions of King Rājendra Cola", Artibus Asiae 24 (3/4), pp. 338-342, Artibus Asiae Publishers
  36. ^ Southeast Asia: Past and Present by D.R. Sardesai p.43
  37. ^ Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula by Paul Michel Munoz p.161
  38. ^ Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa: Reflections on the Chola Naval Expeditions to Southeast Asia by Hermann Kulke,K Kesavapany,Vijay Sakhuja p.170
  39. ^ Trade and Trade Routes in Ancient India by Moti Chandra p.214
  40. ^ Chattopadhyaya 1999, p. 91.
  41. ^ Miksic, John M. (2013). Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800. NUS Press. ISBN 9789971695583.
  42. ^ Miksic, John N.; Goh, Geok Yian (2017). Ancient Southeast Asia. London: Routledge.
  43. ^ Munoz. Early Kingdoms. p. 117.
  44. ^ Chiraya Rajani, p. 1.
  45. ^ Weatherford, Jack (2004), Genghis khan and the making of the modern world, New York: Random House, p. 239, ISBN 0-609-80964-4
  46. ^ Bade 2013, p. 45.

Bibliography

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