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Coordinates: 18°06′S 69°30′W / 18.100°S 69.500°W / -18.100; -69.50018°06′S 69°30′W / 18.100°S 69.500°W / -18.100; -69.500
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'''Taapaca''' (a broken and hispanicized [[Aymara language|Aymara]] or [[Quechua language|Quechua]] term) or '''Tara Paka''' ( is part of the ''Nevados de Putre'' volcanic complex. It is a [[complex volcano]] located in [[Chile]]'s XV region of Tarapaca, and towers over the town of [[Putre]].
'''Taapaca''' (a broken and hispanicized [[Aymara language|Aymara]] or [[Quechua language|Quechua]] term) or '''Tara Paka''' ( is part of the ''Nevados de Putre'' volcanic complex. It is a [[complex volcano]] located in [[Chile]]'s XV region of Tarapaca, and towers over the town of [[Putre]].


Tarapaca was a ceremonial site for the [[Inca]] people and it is partially contained within the boundaries of [[Lauca National Park]].<ref name="exp" >{{cite web
Tarapaca was a ceremonial site for the [[Inca]] people and it is partially contained within the boundaries of [[Lauca National Park]].<ref name="exp">{{cite web
| url= http://sigeo.sernageomin.cl/website/sigeo/Documentos/Productos/resumenes/BSN020005.pdf
|url = http://sigeo.sernageomin.cl/website/sigeo/Documentos/Productos/resumenes/BSN020005.pdf
| title= Geología del Complejo Volcánico Taapaca, Región de Tarapacá
|title = Geología del Complejo Volcánico Taapaca, Región de Tarapacá
| work= Carta Geológica de Chile
|work = Carta Geológica de Chile
| publisher= Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería
|publisher = Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería
| accessdate=2007-08-06
|accessdate = 2007-08-06
|deadurl = yes
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070630155931/http://sigeo.sernageomin.cl/website/sigeo/Documentos/Productos/resumenes/BSN020005.pdf
|archivedate = 2007-06-30
|df =
}}</ref>
}}</ref>


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<ref name="DanyauToro2011">{{cite web|last1=Danyau|first1=Manuel Schilling|last2=Toro Toro|first2=Karin|title=Actas del I Simposio de Geoparques y Geoturismo en Chile|url=http://geachile.sernageomin.cl/docs/actas_I_simposio_geoparques_geoturismo_chile.pdf#page=38|accessdate=20 November 2017|location=[[Melipeuco]]|page=36|language=es|format=PDF|date=April 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="DanyauToro2011">{{cite web|last1=Danyau|first1=Manuel Schilling|last2=Toro Toro|first2=Karin|title=Actas del I Simposio de Geoparques y Geoturismo en Chile|url=http://geachile.sernageomin.cl/docs/actas_I_simposio_geoparques_geoturismo_chile.pdf#page=38|accessdate=20 November 2017|location=[[Melipeuco]]|page=36|language=es|format=PDF|date=April 2011}}</ref>
<ref name="Laime">{{Ref Laime}}</ref>
<ref name="Laime">{{Ref Laime}}</ref>
<ref name="DicionarioBilingue">{{cite web |url=http://www.aymara.ucb.edu.bo/html/diccionario/castellano%20aymara/aa.html|title=Diccionario Bilingüe, Castellano - Aymara, Para: Tercera Edición|last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |date= |website= |publisher=Félix Layme Pairumani|accessdate=November 27, 2015}} see: ''Águila de dos cabezas''</ref>
<ref name="DicionarioBilingue">{{cite web|url=http://www.aymara.ucb.edu.bo/html/diccionario/castellano%20aymara/aa.html|title=Diccionario Bilingüe, Castellano - Aymara, Para: Tercera Edición|last1=|first1=|last2=|first2=|date=|website=|publisher=Félix Layme Pairumani|accessdate=November 27, 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305020429/http://www.aymara.ucb.edu.bo/html/diccionario/castellano%20aymara/aa.html|archivedate=March 5, 2016|df=}} see: ''Águila de dos cabezas''</ref>
}}
}}


Revision as of 00:43, 21 November 2017

For the mountain in Peru named Tara Paka or Qachini, see Qachini. For other uses, see Tarapacá.
Taapaca, Tara Paka
Nevados de Putre, Taapaca volcano (right).
Highest point
Elevation5,860 m (19,230 ft)
Coordinates18°06′S 69°30′W / 18.100°S 69.500°W / -18.100; -69.50018°06′S 69°30′W / 18.100°S 69.500°W / -18.100; -69.500
Geography
Map
LocationChile
Parent rangeAndes
Geology
Mountain typeComplex volcano
Last eruption320 BCE ± 50 years
Climbing
First ascentInca, pre-Columbian

Taapaca (a broken and hispanicized Aymara or Quechua term) or Tara Paka ( is part of the Nevados de Putre volcanic complex. It is a complex volcano located in Chile's XV region of Tarapaca, and towers over the town of Putre.

Tarapaca was a ceremonial site for the Inca people and it is partially contained within the boundaries of Lauca National Park.[1]

Name

The term tara paka is Aymara for "two-headed eagle"[2] and Quechua for Andean eagle.[3] It is also known as Nevados de Putre.[4]

Geography and geology

Northern Chile has little documented Holocene activity, with the majority documented at Guallatiri, Lascar and Parinacota.[4] The first and the last of these three as well as Taapaca itself are part of the Lauca National Park.[5]

Local setting

Taapaca is part of the Central Volcanic Zone of the Andes,[6] which along with the Northern Volcanic Zone, the Southern Volcanic Zone and the Austral Volcanic Zone forms one of the four volcanic belts of the Andes, which are separated by areas where no recent volcanism has occurred.[7] Subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South America Plate is responsible for volcanism in the Central Volcanic Zone,[8] it generates fluids that are ultimately responsible for the evolution of subduction-associated magmas through interaction with the mantle wedge above the subducting plate.[9]

The Central Volcanic Zone features the highest volcanoes in the world, which reach elevations of 5,000–7,000 metres (16,000–23,000 ft) here.[7]

Taapaca is located on the Altiplano,[4] more specifically on its western margin where the Western Cordillera has developed since the Oligocene. The basement beneath the volcano is formed by several principally volcanic formations, including the Lupica and sedimentary Huaylas formations and the Lauca ignimbrite (2.72 million years old[10]); this basement is of Oligocene to Pliocene age.[11] In some places, a Proterozoic basement formed by amphibolites, gneisses and serpentinites crop out.[9] The volcanoes of Condoriri, Pomerape, Larancagua and Parinacota lie to the east of Taapaca, whereas to the west the Lluta River forms a valley that runs north-south.[12]

Taapaca reaches a height of 5,850 metres (19,190 ft) above sea level and the total volume of the edifice is about 35 cubic kilometres (8.4 cu mi). Volcanic material covers a surface of 250 square kilometres (97 sq mi).[4] Just north of the summit, a valley begins and curves clockwise until it opens southwestward onto the flanks of the volcano, and is bordered on the site opposed to the summit by an equally clockwise trending ridge. This valley is drained by the Quebrada Pacollo.[13]

Taapaca consists primarily of overlapping lava domes,[11] of which there are many at Taapaca, with various sizes and shapes ranging from almost circular to ellipse shaped constructs.[14] Lava flows conversely are uncommon. The volcano has developed an apron of block-and-ash flow deposits especially on the western, southwestern and eastern flanks, which have filled valleys.[10]

Taapaca is usually covered by snow and is the origin of the Lluta River.[15] The Quebrada Allane drains the northern flank due westward into the Lluta River.[13] Taapaca itself is part of the drainage divide between the Lauca River and the Pacific Ocean.[16]

Composition

Taapaca is mostly formed by potassium-rich dacite, although andesite was erupted early during its activity,[17] and one occurrence of rhyolite is reported. The composition of the rocks is relatively uniform over the history of the volcano,[10] and reflects a calc-alkaline nature of magmatism.[18]

Minerals found in rocks erupted at Taapaca include amphibole,[11] apatite,[18] biotite,[19] clinopyroxene, orthopyroxene,[11] magnetite and hematite, plagioclase,[18] quartz,[19] sanidine[11] and titanite. Dacitic rocks contain mafic inclusions,[19] and such inclusions become increasingly more common the younger the rocks they are embedded in are.[20]

The presence of mafic inclusions indicates that magma mixing occurs at Taapaca, with renewed eruptive episodes having been triggered by the injection of new andesitic magma into preexistent dacitic magma chambers.[21] These dacitic magma chambers appear to have relatively small volumes,[22] with little movement of the magma within the chamber except for the time where the chambers were heated by new magma injection.[23] Based on geothermometry, a temperature of 870 ± 10 °C (1,598 ± 18 °F) has been inferred for the dacites.[24] The formation of the magma has been inferred to occur through the initial mixing of basaltic andesite which is the typical calc-alkaline arc basalt with basalt derived from melting of sub-crustal basalt cumulates and the subsequent interaction of the mixture with rhyodacite melts[25] derived from Proterozoic crustal material[26]; the initial melt contributes most of the material in mafic inclusions and the rhyodacite contributes most of the dacite material.[25]

The principal magma basin appears to be located at 15–20 kilometres (9.3–12.4 mi) depth, although some petrological traits of the erupted rocks indicate a secondary area of petrogenesis at 5–12 kilometres (3.1–7.5 mi) of depth.[10] Fractional crystallization and partial melting are involved in the formation of Taapaca magmas.[18]

Crustal assimilation at depths of over 40 kilometres (25 mi) was involved in the formation of the dacitic magma and contributes about 18%[27] of the mass of the dacites.[28] The importance of crustal contamination is that Taapaca is constructed on a fairly thick crust and rising magma thus undergoes substantial interaction with the crust.[8] This magma was then transported to shallower levels, where it crystallized.[29]

Climate and biology

Taapaca lies in a region of tropical alpine climate, with large diurnal temperature fluctuations and frost a possibility during the night all year over. Unlike most of Chile, precipitation occurs mainly during summer, although the climate is largely arid.[30]

On the southern side of Taapaca, vegetation consists mostly of Puna shrub and steppe which becomes shrubland farther west.[16] Cushion plants such as the noticeable Azorella compacta and Polylepis woods also occur, along with wetlands known as bofedales.[31] Fauna encountered in the region includes birds, flamingos, guanacos, huemuls, rheas, vicuñas and viscachas,[30] along with the puma and rodents which are fairly common.[32]. Much of the area is protected by the Lauca National Park that Taapaca is part of.[30]

Eruptive activity

Taapaca was originally considered to have been active for the last 1.5 million years[4] and three volcanic phases. Later a fourth stage was identified and some rocks interpreted as pre-dating 1.5 million years ago.[11] Eruptions at Taapaca have consisted of lava dome forming eruptions and explosive activity with avalanches of blocks and ash,[4] which form when lava domes collapse as has been observed in historical time at Soufriere Hills and Unzen volcanoes[33] although these events were much smaller than reconstructed episodes at Taapaca. Conversely, only one subplinian eruption has occurred on Taapaca and tephra fallout deposits are not widespread.[14] Eruptive activity has moved southward over the history of Taapaca,[33] with activity occurring at the top of the edifice.[20]

Late Pleistocene to Holocene activity consisted of discrete episodes lasting about 10,000 years and separated by tens of thousands of years with no recognized activity. Aside from pure eruptions, various types of edifice collapse are recorded at Taapaca including sector collapses of segments of the volcano and mass failure of individual domes, which generated block-and-ash flows.[6]

Eruptive history

The oldest stage consists of Pliocene-Pleistocene andesite lava flows which crop out in two sites on the northern flank and are heavily eroded and partly buried by later volcanic stages.[11] This stage of the edifice most likely consisted of a broad stratovolcano.[20]

Subsequently, between 1.5 and 0.5 million years ago dacitic lava flows and lava domes generated most of the northern and eastern flanks of the volcano. Their flow forms such as flow ridges are better preserved on the eastern flank,[19] while glacial and hydrothermal alteration has occurred on the northern flank. On the northern and northwestern flank, block-and-ash flows up to 13 kilometres (8.1 mi) long and with thicknesses 20 metres (66 ft)-less than 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) thick farther away from the volcano have covered a surface of 110 square kilometres (42 sq mi). They often have lahars up to 5 metres (16 ft) thick cropping out in their distal regions. At this time, Taapaca likely was a large stratovolcano[34] consisting of steep lava domes.[17]

The third stage featured volcanic activity similar to the second stage, covering 18 square kilometres (6.9 sq mi) especially in the central, eastern and southwestern parts of the edifice,[34] with the southern side of the volcano receiving a second lava dome complex.[17] Short and thick lava flows occur on the western flank while the eastern flank features lava domes from this stage, one of which has a "pancake"-like appearance. Two alignments of domes occur, one on the southern and the other on the eastern flank, both lined up north-south.[35] The second and probably also the third stage were subject to glacial erosion, which together with later sector collapses resulted in the removal of much of Taapaca's edifice and the exposure of the core of the volcano.[17]

The fourth stage spans the Pleistocene and Holocene and commenced with the emplacement of the Churilinco debris avalance, which covers a surface of 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi).[35] This avalanche was formed by the collapse of the older edifice between 450,000 and 430,000 years ago;[36] most likely the collapse took place after hydrothermal alteration had weakened the edifice until collapse occurred.[17] Subsequently, the Tajane unit was emplaced between 430,000 - 25,000 years ago on the south-southwestern slopes, covering an area of 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi). It consists of thick lava flows, some lava domes on the western flank, a debris avalanche on the southern flank and two fans of pyroclastic flows (one of which Putre is built on) on the southern and southwestern flank. Between 25,000 and 9,000 the Socapave unit was emplaced; it consists of more lava domes on the western margin of Taapaca and another debris avalanche which cuts in these domes. This avalanche covers an area of 20 square kilometres (7.7 sq mi) to a distance of 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) and was apparently hot when it was emplaced.[36] This collapse was triggered by the development of a cryptodome inside the volcano,[33] and the town of Putre is constructed on the avalanche deposit.[13] A pyroclastic eruption occurred, filling in gaps in the Socapave debris avalanche deposit and emplacing more material atop the southern fan of the Tajane unit.[37]

While Taapaca was once considered an extinct volcano, further research has found eruptions during the Holocene.[4] These gave rise to the Putre unit on the southern, central and southwestern slopes of the volcano. It consists of large lava domes on the eastern side of Taapaca,[38] smaller domes on the southern side, and a pyroclastic sequence on the southern and southwestern slopes. This sequence consists of numerous block and ash flows along with blast deposits, which contain blocks and ash. The Putre unit also encompasses a pumice flow, lahars and layers of tephra. At least three pyroclastic eruptions occurred within the last 8,000 years, while tephra falls occurred between 7,000 and 2,000 years ago, possibly linked to the eruption of lava domes.[17] The last eruption occurred 2,300 years ago.[39]

Threats and preparedness

Most of the volcanoes in northern Chile are far away from towns and inhabited areas and thus their activity does not create significant human hazards. However, in the case of Taapaca the town of Putre is constructed on pyroclastic deposits of the volcano and is threatened by future eruptions of Taapaca. A highway (Chile Route 11[13] between La Paz and Arica[40]) linking Bolivia with the Pacific Ocean is also in range[4] on the southern flank, while the road to Visviri in Peru runs along the southwestern and western flanks.[12] The danger is accentuated by the fact that Holocene activity has affected mainly the southwestern flank, where Putre is located. The recurrence interval of eruptions at Taapaca is about 450 years.[41]

Future activity at Taapaca could result in further sector collapses when magma is injected into the edifice and deforms it, to the point that the volcano becomes unstable. Likewise, if lava domes are extruded onto the volcano they could generate block and ash flow and both primary and secondary pyroclastic flows.[14] Eruptions between April and November when the volcano is covered by snow may generated lahars, as could rainfall during the wet season between December and March; the latter type of lahar is frequent on present-day Taapaca owing to the steep slopes of the volcano, although it usually results solely in road damage.[41]

The Chilean SERNAGEOMIN geological service publishes a hazard map for Taapaca, which shows risk areas for lava bomb falls, pyroclastic flows and tephra fallout.[13]

Religion and mining

Mountain worship is to this day practiced by Andean people. Climbers in 2002 discovered a figurine made of seashell on Taapaca's summit, such figurines were very important to the Inka people for rain rituals. Further, Inka ruins were discovered 200 metres (660 ft) away from the summit on the northwest ridge and the figurine was encountered within an outline made of rocks.[42] The figurine was probably emplaced to obtain a supply of water, seeing as the Inka believed that mountains controlled weather and thus the fertility of animals and plants.[15]

Taapaca displayed deposits of sulfur in its summit area. Starting in the 1930s the Empresa Azufrera Taapaca ("Taapaca Sulfur Company") active in Putre mined this sulfur on Taapaca.[43]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Geología del Complejo Volcánico Taapaca, Región de Tarapacá" (PDF). Carta Geológica de Chile. Servicio Nacional de Geología y Minería. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-30. Retrieved 2007-08-06. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ "Diccionario Bilingüe, Castellano - Aymara, Para: Tercera Edición". Félix Layme Pairumani. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved November 27, 2015. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help) see: Águila de dos cabezas
  3. ^ Teofilo Laime Ajacopa (2007). Diccionario Bilingüe: Iskay simipi yuyayk’anch: Quechua – Castellano / Castellano – Quechua (PDF). La Paz, Bolivia: futatraw.ourproject.org.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h Clavero et al. 2004, p. 603.
  5. ^ Danyau, Manuel Schilling; Toro Toro, Karin (April 2011). "Actas del I Simposio de Geoparques y Geoturismo en Chile" (PDF) (in Spanish). Melipeuco. p. 36. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  6. ^ a b Zellmer & Clavero 2006, p. 292.
  7. ^ a b Wörner et al. 1994, p. 79.
  8. ^ a b Polanco et al. 2009, p. 1.
  9. ^ a b Wörner et al. 1994, p. 80.
  10. ^ a b c d Wegner, Worner & Kronz 2005, p. 795.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g Clavero et al. 2004, p. 605.
  12. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 604.
  13. ^ a b c d e Clavero, J. (2007). "Peligros del Complejo Volcánico Taapaca, Región de Arica y Parinacota" (PDF). sernageomin.cl (in Spanish). SERNAGEOMIN. Retrieved 20 November 2017.
  14. ^ a b c Clavero et al. 2004, p. 616.
  15. ^ a b Reinhard 2002, p. 87.
  16. ^ a b Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 263.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Clavero et al. 2004, p. 614.
  18. ^ a b c d Polanco et al. 2009, p. 2.
  19. ^ a b c d Clavero et al. 2004, p. 607.
  20. ^ a b c Higgins 2011, p. 711.
  21. ^ Zellmer & Clavero 2006, p. 293.
  22. ^ Zellmer & Clavero 2006, p. 299.
  23. ^ Higgins 2011, p. 721.
  24. ^ Polanco et al. 2009, p. 3.
  25. ^ a b Blum-Oeste & Wörner 2016, p. 435.
  26. ^ Blum-Oeste & Wörner 2016, p. 436.
  27. ^ Wegner, Worner & Kronz 2005, p. 797.
  28. ^ Wegner, Worner & Kronz 2005, p. 796.
  29. ^ Wegner, Worner & Kronz 2005, p. 798.
  30. ^ a b c Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 262.
  31. ^ Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 265.
  32. ^ Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 266.
  33. ^ a b c Clavero et al. 2004, p. 615.
  34. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 608.
  35. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 609.
  36. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 610.
  37. ^ Clavero et al. 2004, p. 612.
  38. ^ Clavero et al. 2004, p. 613.
  39. ^ Higgins 2011, p. 710.
  40. ^ Rundel & Palma 2000, p. 269.
  41. ^ a b Clavero et al. 2004, p. 617.
  42. ^ Reinhard 2002, p. 85.
  43. ^ Díaz Araya, Alberto; Salazar Cáceres, Pablo; Soto Tancara, Daniel (June 2016). "LOS OBREROS DEL VOLCÁN. INDÍGENAS Y PROCESOS DE TRANSICIÓN LABORAL EN LAS AZUFRERAS DE TACORA Y TAAPACA". Estudios atacameños (in Spanish) (52): 69–89. ISSN 0718-1043.

Sources

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taapaca&oldid=811341071"