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# darkness
# darkness
# death of the firstborn (of Egypt).{{sfn|Greifenhagen|2000|p=1062}}
# death of the firstborn (of Egypt).{{sfn|Greifenhagen|2000|p=1062}}

== Biblical narrative ==
[[File:Israel's Escape from Egypt.jpg|thumb|Illustration of [[The Exodus]] from Egypt, 1907]]

The Israelites have been held in bondage in Egypt. Yahweh, god of Israel, through his prophet [[Moses]], demands that Pharaoh let them depart, but each time Pharaoh is about to relent Yahweh hardens his heart and unleashes plagues upon the king and his people.{{sfn|Collins|2014|p=116-117}}


== Plagues == <!-- This section is linked from [[Passover]] -->
== Plagues == <!-- This section is linked from [[Passover]] -->

Revision as of 07:22, 3 March 2019

Sarajevo Haggadah, from Barcelona, c. 1350

The Plagues of Egypt (Hebrew: מכות מצרים, Makot Mitzrayim), also called the ten plagues, were ten biblical calamities inflicted on Egypt by God in order to force Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart from slavery - they therefore mark the beginning of the exodus. The plagues were:

  1. blood
  2. frogs
  3. gnats
  4. flies
  5. pestilence of livestock
  6. boils
  7. hail
  8. locusts
  9. darkness
  10. death of the firstborn (of Egypt).[1]

Plagues

The First Plague: Water Is Changed into Blood, James Tissot

1. Water into blood (דָם): Ex. 7:14–24

This is what the LORD says: By this you will know that I am the LORD: With the staff that is in my hands I will strike the water of the Nile, and it will be changed into blood. The fish in the Nile will die, and the river will stink and the Egyptians will not be able to drink its water.

— Exodus 7:17–18

2. Frogs (צְּפַרְדֵּעַ): Ex. 7:25–8:15

The Second Plague: And Aaron stretched out his hand over the Waters of Egypt and the Frogs came up and covered the Sand of Egypt etching
See also: Va'eira

This is what the great LORD says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will plague your whole country with frogs. The Nile will teem with frogs. They will come up into your palace and your bedroom and onto your bed, into the houses of your officials and on your people, and into your ovens and kneading troughs. The frogs will go up on you and your people and all your officials.

— Exodus 8:1–4

3. Lice (כִּנִּים): Ex. 8:16-19

The Third Plague: Moses, horned (a sign of his encounter with divinity), carries the rod, while Aaron, wearing the miter of a priest, stands behind him. The gnats arise en masse out of the dust from which they were made and attack Pharaoh, seated and crowned, and his retinue (by William de Brailes, collection Walters Art Museum)

"And the LORD said [...] Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt." […] When Aaron stretched out his hand with the rod and struck the dust of the ground, lice came upon men and animals. All the dust throughout the land of Egypt became lice.

— Exodus 8:16–17

The Hebrew noun כִּנִּים (kinim) could be translated as lice, gnats, or fleas.[2]

4. Mixture of wild animals (עָרוֹב): Ex. 8:20-32

The Fourth Plague: The Plague of Flies by James Jacques Joseph Tissot at the Jewish Museum, New York

The fourth plague of Egypt was of creatures capable of harming people and livestock. The Torah emphasizes that the ‘arob (עָרוֹב, meaning "mixture" or "swarm") only came against the Egyptians, and that it did not affect the Land of Goshen (where the Israelites lived). Pharaoh asked Moses to remove this plague and promised to allow the Israelites' freedom. However, after the plague was gone, the LORD "hardened Pharaoh's heart", and he refused to keep his promise.[3]

The word ‘arob has caused a difference of opinion among traditional interpreters.[3] The root meaning is (ע.ר.ב), meaning a mixture - implying a diversity, array, or assortment of harmful animals. While Jewish interpreters understand the plague as "wild animals" (most likely scorpions, venomous snakes, and other venomous arthropods and reptiles),[4] Gesenius along with many Christian interpreters understand the plague as a swarm of flies.[5]

5. Diseased livestock (דֶּבֶר): Ex. 9:1–7

The Fifth Plague: Livestock Disease (Ex. 9:2-3), by Gustave Doré

This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go and continue to hold them back, the hand of the LORD will bring a terrible plague on your livestock in the field—on your horses and donkeys and camels and on your cattle and sheep and goats.

— Exodus 9:1–3

6. Boils (שְׁחִין): Ex. 9:8–12

The Sixth Plague: Miniature out of the Toggenburg Bible (Switzerland) of 1411

Then the LORD said to Moses and Aaron, "Take handfuls of soot from a furnace and have Moses toss it into the air in the presence of Pharaoh. It will become fine dust over the whole land of Egypt, and festering boils will break out on men and animals throughout the land."

— Exodus 9:8–9

7. Thunderstorm of hail and fire (בָּרָד): Ex. 9:13–35

The Seventh Plague: John Martin's painting of the plague of hail (1823).

This is what the LORD, the God of the Hebrews, says: Let my people go, so that they may worship me, or this time I will send the full force of my plagues against you and against your officials and your people, so you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I could have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with a plague that would have wiped you off the earth. But I have raised you up for this very purpose, that I might show you my power and that my name might be proclaimed in all the earth. You still set yourself against my people and will not let them go. Therefore, at this time tomorrow I will send the worst hailstorm that has ever fallen on Egypt, from the day it was founded till now. Give an order now to bring your livestock and everything you have in the field to a place of shelter, because the hail will fall on every man and animal that has not been brought in and is still out in the field, and they will die. […] The LORD sent thunder and hail, and lightning flashed down to the ground. So the LORD rained hail on the land of Egypt; hail fell and lightning flashed back and forth. It was the worst storm in all the land of Egypt since it had become a nation.

— Exodus 9:13–24

8. Locusts (אַרְבֶּה): Ex. 10:1–20

The Eighth Plague: The Plague of Locusts, illustration from the 1890 Holman Bible

This is what the LORD, the God of the Jews, says: 'How long will you refuse to humble yourself before me? Let my people go, so that they may worship me. If you refuse to let them go, I will bring locusts into your country tomorrow. They will cover the face of the ground so that it cannot be seen. They will devour what little you have left after the hail, including every tree that is growing in your fields. They will fill your houses and those of all your officials and all the Egyptians—something neither your fathers nor your forefathers have ever seen from the day they settled in this land till now.

— Exodus 10:3–6

9. Darkness for three days (חוֹשֶך): Ex. 10:21–29

The Ninth Plague: Darkness by Gustave Doré

Then the LORD said to Moses, "Stretch out your hand toward the sky so that darkness will spread over Egypt—darkness that can be felt." So Moses stretched out his hand toward the sky, and total darkness covered all Egypt for three days. No one could see anyone else or leave his place for three days.

— Exodus 10:21–23

10. Death of firstborn (מַכַּת בְּכוֹרוֹת): Ex. 11:1–12:36

Lamentations over the Death of the First-Born of Egypt by Charles Sprague Pearce (1877), Smithsonian American Art Museum.

This is what the LORD says: "About midnight I will go throughout Egypt. Every firstborn son in Egypt will die, from the firstborn son of Pharaoh, who sits on the throne, to the firstborn of the slave girl, who is at her hand mill, and all the firstborn of the cattle as well. There will be loud wailing throughout Egypt—worse than there has ever been or ever will be again."

— Exodus 11:4–6

Before this final plague, God commanded Moses to inform all the Israelites to mark lamb's blood above their doors on every door in which case the LORD will pass over them and not "suffer the destroyer to come into your houses and smite you" (chapter 12, v. 23).

After this, Pharaoh, furious, saddened, and afraid that he would be killed next, ordered the Israelites to leave, taking whatever they wanted, and asking Moses to bless him in the name of the Lord. The Israelites did not hesitate, believing that soon Pharaoh would once again change his mind, which he did; and at the end of that night Moses led them out of Egypt with "arms upraised". However, as the Israelites left Egypt, the Pharaoh changed his mind again and sent his army after Moses' people. The Israelites were trapped by the Red Sea. God split the sea, and they were able to pass safely. As the Egyptian army descended on them, the sea closed before they could reach the Israelites.[6]

Context

The reason for the plagues appears to be twofold:[7] to answer Pharaoh's taunt, "Who [is] the LORD, that I should obey his voice to let Israel go?",[8] and to indelibly impress the Israelites with God's power as an object lesson for all time, which was also meant to become known "throughout the world".[9][10]

According to the Book of Exodus, God hardened Pharaoh's heart so he would be strong enough to persist in his unwillingness to release the people, so that God could manifest his great power and cause his power to be declared among the nations,[11] so that other people would discuss it for generations afterward.[12] In this view, the plagues were punishment for the Egyptians' long abuse of the Israelites, as well as proof that the gods of Egypt were false and powerless.[13] If God triumphed over the gods of Egypt, a world power at that time, then the people of God would be strengthened in their faith, although they were a small people, and would not be tempted to follow the deities that God proved false. Exodus 9:15–16 (JPS Tanakh) portrays Yahweh explaining why he did not accomplish the freedom of the Israelites immediately: "I could have stretched forth My hand and stricken you [Pharaoh] and your people with pestilence, and you would have been effaced from the earth. Nevertheless I have spared you for this purpose: in order to show you My power and in order that My fame may resound throughout the world."

The Book of Deuteronomy, in reviewing previous events, mentions the "diseases of Egypt" (Deuteronomy 7:15 and 28:60), but refers to something that afflicted the Israelites, not the Egyptians; Deuteronomy 7:19 mentions the plagues of the book of Exodus. The Exodus plagues are divine judgments, a series of curses like those in Deuteronomy 28:15–68, verses which mention many of the same afflictions; they are even closer to the curses in the Holiness code (Leviticus 26), since like the Holiness Code they leave room for repentance. The theme that divine punishment should lead to repentance is echoed:

  • in the prophets (Amos 4:6–12, Ezekiel 20)
  • in the form of prophetic speech: "Thus says Yahweh"[citation needed]
  • in the figure of the prophet as divine messenger echoed in the late prophets Jeremiah and Ezekiel and in the Deuteronomistic history.

The 6th-century prophets refer to the theme of Pharaoh's obstinacy – Isaiah 6:9–13, Jeremiah 5:3, and Ezekiel 3:7–9.[14][failed verification]

Historicity

A large consensus of historians believe them to be allegorical or inspired by passed-down accounts of disconnected disasters. Some scientists[who?] claim the plagues can be attributed to a chain of natural phenomena triggered by changes in the climate and environmental disasters hundreds of miles away. The Ipuwer Papyrus, written probably in the late Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt (c.1991–1803 BCE)[15] has often been put forward in popular literature as confirmation of the Biblical account, most notably because of its statement that "the river is blood" and its frequent references to servants running away, but these arguments ignore the many points on which Ipuwer contradicts Exodus, such as the fact that its Asiatics are arriving in Egypt rather than leaving, and the likelihood that the "river is blood" phrase may refer to the red sediment colouring the Nile during disastrous floods, or may simply be a poetic image of turmoil.[16]

Natural explanations

Some historians have suggested that the plagues are passed-down accounts of several natural disasters, some disconnected, others playing part of a chain reaction. Natural explanations have been suggested for most of the phenomena:

  • Plague 1 — water turned into blood; fish died
    • Dr. Stephen Pflugmacher, a biologist at the Leibniz Institute for Water Ecology and Inland Fisheries in Berlin believes that rising temperatures could have turned the Nile into a slow-moving, muddy watercourse—conditions favorable for the spread of toxic fresh water algae. As the alga Planktothrix rubescens dies, it turns the water red in a phenomenon known as "Burgundy Blood".
    • Alternatively, a bloody appearance could be due to an environmental change, such as a drought, which could have contributed to the spread of the Chromatiaceae bacteria which thrive in stagnant, oxygen-deprived water.[17]
  • Plague 2 — frogs
    • Any blight on the water that killed fish also would have caused frogs to leave the river and probably die.
  • Plagues 3 and 4 — biting insects and wild animals
    • The lack of frogs in the river would have let insect populations, normally kept in check by the frogs, to increase massively. The rotting corpses of fish and frogs would have attracted significantly more insects to the areas near the Nile.
  • Plagues 5 and 6 — livestock disease and boils
    • There are biting flies in the region which transmit livestock diseases; a sudden increase in their number could spark epizootics.
  • Plague 7 — fiery hail
    • Volcanic eruption, resulting in showers of rock and fire.
  • Plague 8 — locusts
  • Plague 9 — darkness
    • The immediate cause of this plague is theorized to be the "hamsin", a south or southwest wind charged with sand and dust, which blows about the spring equinox and at times produces darkness rivaling that of the worst London fogs.[19]
  • Plague 10 — death of the firstborn
    • If the last plague indeed selectively tended to affect the firstborn, it could be due to food polluted during the time of darkness, either by locusts or by the black mold Cladosporium. When people emerged after the darkness, the firstborn would be given priority, as was usual, and would consequently be more likely to be affected by any toxin or disease carried by the food. Meanwhile, the Israelites ate food prepared and eaten very quickly which would have made it less likely to be contaminated.[citation needed] However, this does not explain how the firstborn cattle alone also would have perished.

A volcanic eruption did occur in antiquity and could have caused some of the plagues if it occurred at the right time. The eruption of the Thera volcano was 1,050 kilometres (650 mi) away from the northwest part of Egypt. Dendrochronologically dated to about 1628 BC,[20][21] this eruption is one of the largest on record, rivaling that of Tambora, which resulted in 1816's Year Without a Summer. The enormous global impact of this eruption has been recorded in an ash layer deposit found in the Nile delta, tree ring frost scars in the bristlecone pines of the western United States, and a layer of ash in the Greenland ice caps, all dated to the same time and with the same chemical fingerprint as the ash from Thera.[citation needed]

However, all estimates of the date of this eruption are hundreds of years before the Exodus is believed to have taken place; thus the eruption can only have caused some of the plagues if one or other of the dates is wrong, or if the plagues did not actually immediately precede the Exodus.

Following the assumption that at least some of the details are accurately reported, many modern Jews[who?] believe that some of the plagues were indeed natural disasters, but argue for the fact that, since they followed one another with such uncommon rapidity, "God's hand was behind them". Indeed, several biblical commentators (Nachmanides and, more recently, Rabbi Yaakov Kamenetzky) have pointed out that, for the plagues to be a real test of faith, they had to contain an element leading to religious doubt.

In his book The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science Look at the Bible, Siro Igino Trevisanato explores the theory that the plagues were initially caused by the Santorini eruption in Greece. His hypothesis considers a two-stage eruption over a time of a bit less than two years. His studies place the first eruption in 1602 BC, when volcanic ash taints the Nile, causing the first plague and forming a catalyst for many of the subsequent plagues. In 1600 BC, the plume of a Santorini eruption caused the ninth plague, the days of darkness. Trevisanato hypothesizes that the Egyptians (at that time under the occupation of Hyksos), resorted to human sacrifice in an attempt to appease the gods, for they had viewed the ninth plague as a precursor to more. This human sacrifice became known as the tenth plague.[22]

In an article published in 1996, physician-epidemiologist John S. Marr and co-author Curt Malloy integrated biblical, historical and Egyptological sources with modern scientific conjectures in a comprehensive review of natural explanations for the ten plagues, postulating their own specific explanations for the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and tenth plagues. Their explanation also accounted for the apparent selectiveness of the plagues, as implied in the Bible. The paper served as the basis for a website and documentary aired on the Learning Channel from 1998 to 2005.[23]

Artistic representation

Visual art

In visual art, the plagues have generally been reserved for works in series, especially engravings. Still, relatively few depictions in art emerged compared to other religious themes until the 19th century, when the plagues became more common subjects, with John Martin and Joseph Turner producing notable canvases. This trend probably reflected a Romantic attraction to landscape and nature painting, for which the plagues were suited, a Gothic attraction to morbid stories, and a rise in Orientalism, wherein exotic Egyptian themes found currency. Given the importance of noble patronage throughout Western art history, the plagues may have found consistent disfavor because the stories emphasize the limits of a monarch's power, and images of lice, locusts, darkness, and boils were ill-suited for decoration in palaces and churches.[citation needed]

Music

Taking direct inspiration from the ten plagues, Iced Earth's eleventh studio album Plagues of Babylon contains many references and allusions to the plagues. Metallica's song "Creeping Death" (from their second album, Ride the Lightning) makes references to a few of the plagues, in addition to the rest of the story of the Exodus. Perhaps the most successful artistic representation of the plagues is Handel's oratorio Israel in Egypt, which, like his perennial favorite, "Messiah", takes a libretto entirely from scripture. The work was especially popular in the 19th century because of its numerous choruses, generally one for each plague, and its playful musical depiction of the plagues. For example, the plague of frogs is performed as a light aria for alto, depicting frogs jumping in the violins, and the plague of flies and lice is a light chorus with fast scurrying runs in the violins.[24]

Literature

Children's books

Films

TV

See also

References

Citations

  1. ^ Greifenhagen 2000, p. 1062.
  2. ^ Blue Letter Bible. "Dictionary and Word Search for ken (Strong's 3654)". Blue Letter Bible. 1996–2012. February 4, 2012
  3. ^ a b Aryeh Kaplan, The Living Torah, note on 8:17, as regards the various Midrashic and Rabbinic traditions here.
  4. ^ Exodus Rabbah 11:2, among others.
  5. ^ Gesenius's Lexicon, עָרוֹב
  6. ^ Exodus 14:8
  7. ^ The Ten Plagues, Dictionary & Concordance
  8. ^ Exodus 5:2
  9. ^ Exodus 9:15–16
  10. ^ The commentary on Exodus 10:1–2, The Jewish Study Bible, 2004. Berlin A and Brettler M, eds., Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-529751-2
  11. ^ Ex. 9:14, 16
  12. ^ Joshua 2:9–11; 9:9; Isaiah 4:8; 6:6
  13. ^ Ex. 12:12; Nu. 33:4
  14. ^ John Van Seters, "The Pentateuch: A Social-Science Commentary", Continuum International Publishing Group, 2004, p. 114 ISBN 0567080889.
  15. ^ Willems 2010, p. 83.
  16. ^ Enmarch 2011, p. 173-175. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFEnmarch2011 (help)
  17. ^ "Pappas, Stephanie. "End Times? It is for a blood-red Texas lake", NBC News, 1 August 2011". MSNBC. January 8, 2011. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
  18. ^ Chandler, Adam (March 3, 2013). "Estes, Adam Clark. "With Passover Approaching, a Plague of Locusts Descends Upon Egypt", ''The Atlantic Wire'', 3 March 2013". Theatlanticwire.com. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
  19. ^ "Bechtel, Florentine. "Plagues of Egypt." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 13 Jul. 2013". Newadvent.org. June 1, 1911. Retrieved February 17, 2014.
  20. ^ Grudd, H, Briffa, KR, Gunnarson, BE, & Linderholm, HW (2000). "Swedish tree rings provide new evidence in support of a major, widespread environmental disruption in 1628 BC". Geophysical Research Letters. 27 (18): 2957–60. Bibcode:2000GeoRL..27.2957G. doi:10.1029/1999GL010852.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Baillie, MGL (1989). "Irish Tree Rings and an Event in 1628 BC". The Thera Foundation. Retrieved March 10, 2007.
  22. ^ The Plagues of Egypt: Archaeology, History, and Science Look at the Bible, by Siro Igino Trevisanato : Georgia Press LLC, 2005
  23. ^ Marr JS, Malloy CD (1996). "An epidemiologic analysis of the ten plagues of Egypt". Caduceus (Springfield, Ill.). 12 (1): 7–24. PMID 8673614.
  24. ^ Donna Leon (2011), Handel's Bestiary: In Search of Animals in Handel's Operas, illustrated by Michael Sowa (illustrated ed.), Grove Press, ISBN 978-0802195616
  25. ^ "The Abominable Dr. Phibes (1971) – Did You Know?". imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012. Dr. Phibes murders were inspired by the 10 plagues of Egypt found in the Old Testament
  26. ^ "The Prince of Egypt". imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
  27. ^ "FAQ for Magnolia (1999)". imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
  28. ^ Sommers, Stephen (May 7, 1999), The Mummy, Brendan Fraser, Rachel Weisz, John Hannah, retrieved April 4, 2018
  29. ^ "The Reaping". imdb.com. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
  30. ^ "Exodus: Gods and Kings". imdb.com. Retrieved December 12, 2014.
  31. ^ Gomes, Marta (March 17, 2015). "Tudo pronto para a estreia de "Os Dez Mandamentos"". Notícias do dia (Grupo RIC). Retrieved March 21, 2015.

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Enns, Peter (2012). The Evolution of Adam. Baker Books. ISBN 9781587433153. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Eskenazi, Tamara Cohn (2009). "From Exile and Restoration to Exile and Reconstruction". In Grabbe, Lester L.; Knoppers, Gary N. (eds.). Exile and Restoration Revisited: Essays on the Babylonian and Persian Periods. Bloomsbury. ISBN 9780567465672. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Faust, Avraham (2015). "The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus". In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H.C. Propp (eds.). Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience (PDF). Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-04768-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Faye, Bernard (2013). "Classification, History and Distribution of the Camel". In Kadim, Isam T.; Mahgoub, Osman; Faye, Bernard (eds.). Camel Meat and Meat Products. CABI. ISBN 9781780641010. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Feldman, Louis H. (1998). Josephus's Interpretation of the Bible. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520208537. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002). The Bible Unearthed. Free Press. ISBN 0684869128. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Geraty, L. T. (March 28, 2015). Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H.C. Propp (eds.). Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience. Springer. ISBN 978-3-319-04768-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Gmirkin, Russell E. (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus: Hellenistic Histories and The Date of the Pentateuch. T & T Clark International. ISBN 9780567025920. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Grabbe, Lester (2014). "Exodus and History". In Dozeman, Thomas; Evans, Craig A.; Lohr, Joel N. (eds.). The Book of Exodus: Composition, Reception, and Interpretation. BRILL. ISBN 9789004282667. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Grisanti, Michael A. (2011). "The Book of Numbers". In Merrill, Eugene H.; Rooker, Mark; Grisanti, Michael A. (eds.). The World and the Word. B&H Publishing. ISBN 9781433673740. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Guillaume, Philippe (Spring 1980). "Tracing the Origin of the Sabbatical Calendar in the Priestly Narrative, Genesis 1 to Joshua 5" (PDF). Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 5 (13). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 11, 2005. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
Hayes, John Haralson; Miller, James Maxwell (1986). A History of Ancient Israel and Judah. Westminster John Knox. ISBN 9780664212629. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Hoffmeier, James K. (1999). Israel in Egypt. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195130881. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Hoffmeier, James K. (2005). Ancient Israel in Sinai. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195155464. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Killebrew, Anne E. (2005). Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN 9781589830974. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Kitchen, Kenneth (2006). "Egyptology and the traditions of early Hebrew antiquity (Genesis and Exodus)". In Rogerson, John William; Lieu, Judith (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199254255. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Kitchen, Kenneth A (2006b). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802803962. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Knight, Douglas A. (1995). "Deuteronomy and the Deuteronomist". In Mays, James Luther; Petersen, David L.; Richards, Kent Harold (eds.). Old Testament Interpretation. T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567292896. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Lemche, Niels Peter (1985). Early Israel: Anthropological and Historical studies. Brill. ISBN 9004078533. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Levinson, Bernard Malcolm (1997). Deuteronomy and the Hermeneutics of Legal Innovation. OUP. ISBN 9780195354577. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Lichtheim, Miriam (2006). Ancient Egyptian Literature: The Old and Middle Kingdoms. Vol. 1. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520248427. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
McEntire, Mark (2008). Struggling with God: An Introduction to the Pentateuch. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780881461015. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
McKenzie, Steven L. (2000). Covenant. Chalice Press. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Merrill, Eugene H.; Rooker, Michael A.; Grisanti, Mark F. (2011). The World and the Word: An Introduction to the Old Testament. B&H Publishing Group. ISBN 9780805440317. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Meyers, Carol (2005). Exodus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521002912. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Moore, Megan Bishop; Kelle, Brad E. (2011). Biblical History and Israel's Past. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802862600. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Miller, William T. (2009). The Book of Exodus: Question by Question. Paulist Press. ISBN 9780809146123. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Noll, K.L. (2001). Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 9781841273181. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Oblath, Michael D. (2004). The Exodus Itinerary Sites: Their Locations from the Perspective of the Biblical Sources. Peter Lang. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8204-6716-0. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Perdue, Leo G. (2008). The Sword and the Stylus: An Introduction to Wisdom in the Age of Empires. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802862457. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Pratico, Gary Davis; DiVito, Robert A. (1993). Nelson Glueck's 1938-1940 Excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh: A Reappraisal. Scholars Press. ISBN 978-1-55540-883-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Peterson, Daniel (July 24, 2014), "Remembering the Exodus — both ancient and modern", Deseret News {{citation}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Prosic, Tamara (2004). The Development and Symbolism of Passover. A&C Black. ISBN 9780567287892. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Redford, Donald B. (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03606-9. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Redmount, Carol A. (2001) [1998]. "Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out of Egypt". In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. OUP. ISBN 9780199881482. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Rofé, Alexander (2002). Deuteronomy: Issues and Interpretation. T&T Clark. ISBN 9780567087546. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Rogerson, John W. (2003). "Deuteronomy". In Dunn, James D. G. (ed.). Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802837110. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Romer, Thomas (2008). "Moses Outside the Torah and the Construction of a Diaspora Identity" (PDF). The Journal of Hebrew Scriptures. 8, article 15. JHS online: 2–12. {{cite journal}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Russell, Stephen C. (2009). Images of Egypt in Early Biblical Literature. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110221718. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Ryholt, K. S. B.; Bülow-Jacobsen, Adam (1997). The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. Museum Tusculanum Press. ISBN 978-87-7289-421-8. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Sarason, Richard S. (2015). "The Past as Paradigm:Enactments of the Exodus Motif in Jewish Liturgy". In Barmash, Pamela; Nelson, W. David (eds.). Exodus in the Jewish Experience: Echoes and Reverberations. Lexington. ISBN 9781498502931. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Shaw, Ian (2002). "Israel, Israelites". In Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (eds.). A Dictionary of Archaeology. Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 9780631235835. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Shea, William H. (2003). "The Date of the Exodus". In Grisanti, Michael A.; Howard, David M. (eds.). Giving the Sense: Understanding and Using Old Testament Historical Texts. Kregel Academic. ISBN 9780825428920. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Ska, Jean Louis (2006). Introduction to Reading the Pentateuch. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575061221. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Soggin, John (1998). An Introduction to the History of Israel and Judah (tr. 1999). SCM Press. ISBN 9780334027881. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Sparks, Kenton L. (2010). "Genre Criticism". In Dozeman, Thomas B. (ed.). Methods for Exodus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139487382. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Sparks, B.C. (2015). "Egyptian Texts Relating to the Exodus". In Levy, Thomas E.; Schneider, Thomas; Propp, William H.C. (eds.). Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience. Springer. ISBN 9783319047683. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Stiebing, William H. (1989). Out of the Desert: Archaeology and the Exodus/Conquest Narratives. Prometheus. ISBN 9781615926886. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Thompson, Thomas L. (1999). The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology And The Myth Of Israel. Basic Books. ISBN 0465010520. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Tigay, Jeffrey H. (2004). "Exodus". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195297515. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Van Seters, John (1997a). "The Geography of the Exodus". In Silberman, Neil Ash (ed.). The Land that I Will Show You. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 9781850756507. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Van Seters, John (1997b). In Search of History: Historiography in the Ancient World and the Origins of Biblical History. Eisenbrauns. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Verbrugghe, Gerald P.; Wickersham, John Moore (2001). Berossos and Manetho, Introduced and Translated: Native Traditions in Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08687-1. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Whitelam, Keith W. (2006). "General problems of studying the text of the bible...". In Rogerson, John William; Lieu, Judith (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199254255. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
Wood, Ralpth C (1990). "Genre, Concept of". In Watson E. Mills (General Editor) (ed.). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. ISBN 9780865543737. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)


  • Enmarch, Roland (2011). "The Reception of a Middle Egyptian Poem: The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All". In Collier, M.; Snape, S. (eds.). Ramesside Studies in Honour of K. A. Kitchen (PDF). Rutherford. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 17, 2011. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  • Levinson, Hermann and Anna, Zur Biologie der zehn biblischen Plagen, DGaaE Nachrichten 22 (2008), 83–102 (in German)
  • Willems, Harco (2010). "The First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom". In Lloyd, Alan B. (ed.). A Companion to Ancient Egypt. Vol. 1. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9781444320060. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
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