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Transnational Cinema In India

Indian transnational cinema refers to the various ways films made in India engage with or operate across national borders, encompassing aspects of production, distribution, exhibition, and reception beyond the geographical boundaries of India". While often popularly associated with "Bollywood" this phenomenon includes films from various Indian language industries and encompasses both mainstream commercial features and independent productions. The study of Indian popular cinema has undergone a 'transnational turn' in recent years, moving beyond viewing it solely through a national cinema framework.

Mainstream vs. Art-House Cinema and the National Frame

Popular Indian cinema, often referred to as Bollywood (especially the Hindi-language films from Bombay/Mumbai) has traditionally been theorized as a national cinema. Despite a recent academic 'transnational turn' and suggestions that Bombay films are outgrowing the national mold, the national cinema framework remains relevant. The "national" rubric is considered apposite for Indian cinema because it productively negotiates and embraces transnational and intra/extra-regional competition and influences in its ongoing reinvention. Deploying 'national' critically can be a heuristic device for understanding how cinema articulates its local milieu while interrogating its hegemony. This does not necessarily affirm nationalism or assert simple opposition to Hollywood.

Mainstream popular Indian cinema has been described as legitimately national in its hermetic political, aesthetic, and affective economy. For a long time, it was regarded as an inexplicable mash-up of form, aesthetic, and content detached from reality and social conditions. Films are often characterized by melodrama overflowing with songs and dances, a hybrid formation including joyful factors, typical conversations, happy endings, and an "escapist" tendency to avoid serious social issues.. They are described as an all-encompassing masala (spice) concoction, a cinema of interruptions or 'attractions' with predictable narratives and musical interludes . Despite their distinctive aesthetic style, these films can be classified by central narratives like action-revenge, crime-suspense, romance, family saga, mythological, and the 'social' melodrama .

Salim Khan (right) and Javed Akhtar (left), pioneer duo of Masala films

In contrast, art cinema became prominent as an independent genre in India in the 1950s. Art films are often considered grounded in realism codes and are mainly concentrated in certain regions like Bengal and Kerala. They are often produced in regional languages and can be less known domestically in regions speaking other languages though they may have appeal abroad. While art and commercial, regional, and Hindi language films are collectively Indian cinema, conventionally, Hindi cinema gets primacy in this definition.

Satyajit Ray, the pioneer of Indian parallel cinema

Scholars debate the continued relevance of the 'national' framework, with some suggesting disavowing it in favor of the transnational or regional. Challenges to 'national' Indian cinema from regional, interregional, and regional–transnational connections strain the national rubric, but they also underscore its persistence. Inserting popular Indian films into a world cinema framework risks unmooring them from their context and effacing the genealogy of their particular hybridized aesthetic–narrative complex. Viewing Bollywood solely as a national cinema has also meant it was sometimes considered only of importance to people on the subcontinent and their diasporic communities. However, given its vast audience, reconsidering Bollywood as a global medium is important. Bollywood, operating between a national and transnational cinema, sheds light on an international imaginary and reflects and shapes viewer attitudes, values, and beliefs.

Global Appeal

Appeal within the Indian Diaspora

The Indian diaspora plays a crucial role in the transnational appeal of Bollywood and other regional Indian cinemas. This audience segment includes both skilled professionals who immigrated more recently to countries like Australia, Canada, the UK, and the US, and descendants of earlier indentured laborers in regions like Africa, the Caribbean islands, Fiji, and Mauritius. Actively courting this loyal overseas market has been a strategic financial move for the film industry, helping to offset domestic market slumps in the late 1980s and early 1990s.

Films often feature the Indian diaspora as narrative subjects, depicting figures returning to their homeland, which symbolically diminishes the psychic-cultural distance between their home and host nations. This transnational theme frequently serves to reinscribe the national, portraying idealized village ties or the immigrant's longing for the nation's core, elevating and authenticating the national within a global context. Films like Dilwale Dulhaniya Le Jayenge, Pardes, Kal Ho Naa Ho, and Kabhi Khushi Kabhi Gham exemplify this trend, staging familial devotion and wealth, often combined with world travel sequences, reimagining the East-West binary and reasserting a national identity anchored in exaggerated valuations of the Indian family. Bollywood is described as creating both an ideal homeland and an idealized NRI figure for the diaspora, presenting "Indianness" itself as a cultural value that mediates other questions of identity or political affiliation.

However, it's noted that the diaspora is not a uniform entity, and variations in historical trajectories and economic conditions mean film success is not uniformly replicated across all segments. Regional cinemas are also significant within the diaspora, catering to ethno-linguistically segmented markets.

Tamil films have a prime market among the large numbers of Tamil immigrants settled in Singapore, Malaysia, and Sri Lanka. Malayalam films dominate in Gulf countries, supported by capital from migrants from Kerala who reside there. Punjabi cinema also speaks to the transnational migrant longing for the lost rural country. Overseas production rights for regional films, such as Tamil films for Singapore and Malaysia, are sold following their completion.

Appeal Outside the Diaspora

While not achieving the same level of Western crossover success as Slumdog Millionaire Indian cinema's reach extends beyond its diaspora to non-Western and non-occidental cultural ecologies. This suggests alternative cosmopolitanism or vernacular modernity. Bombay cinema's success overseas is mapped in scattered parts of the world, including Africa, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the Soviet Union. Glimpses of resonance have been observed among non-diasporic communities in countries like Egypt, Greece, Israel, Nigeria, Russia, Tibet, and Turkey.

Hindi films have been popular in the former Soviet Union since the 1950s and continue to be highly regarded in Central Asia, particularly Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan. Dubbed Indian films are popular in Ghana and the Cameroons in West Africa. An Indonesian television channel features a weekly program of Indian films, despite a relatively small Indian resident population there. The film Awaara is cited as having potentially outdone any Hollywood film in terms of sheer viewing numbers in its time. The Tamil film Muthu came directly to Japan from Tamil Nadu via Singapore. The film Jeans was also released in Japan. The musical Bombay Dreams, with music by A.R. Rahman, touched the hearts of both North American and Japanese audiences. SS Rajamouli's RRR was also a massive success in Japan. The other examples include breakout successes like Dangal, Bajrangi Bhaijaan, Andhadun, Secret Superstar and Hindi Medium in a non-traditional Indian movie market like China.

The Satellite Era and Global Reach

Technological advancements such as satellite television have significantly impacted Indian cinema's reach, both domestically and internationally. While satellite TV initially contributed to a decline in cinema attendance within India as people watched films at home, it also accelerated foreign influences. Technologies like satellite broadcasting contribute to the rapid infiltration of Indian cinema into the outside world. Overseas production rights are sold for distribution in countries with large Indian populations like Singapore and Malaysia and channels in countries such as Indonesia, Ghana, and Cameroon air Indian films, sometimes dubbed, suggesting a global distribution facilitated by such technologies. This demonstrates how the satellite era, alongside other technological and market shifts, has played a role in exposing Indian films to non-Indian audiences in various regions.

Transnationalism in Content

The themes in Indian cinema reflect and engage with globalization and transnationalism in several ways:

Diasporic Narratives and NRI Stories

After liberalization in the 1990s, Bollywood films increasingly focused on the rapidly expanding upwardly mobile middle class, the interface between the national and global economies, as both subject and audience. The transnational thematic announced itself strongly by turning the Indian diaspora into a narrative subject. Films began featuring the diasporic figure, often portraying them journeying back to the homeland. This reasserted nationhood through its "prodigal children" returning to their roots. Films like Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge use the diaspora as a space where values may be contested, but ultimately maintain "Indian values" triumphantly. Bollywood romanticizes NRIs for the home audience and India for the diaspora. Films like Loins of Punjab Presents satirize NRI and diasporic culture. This focus on the diaspora re-inscribed the national, seen as a sign of continuity rather than rupture, reimagining immigrant longing for the homeland as the nation's core.

Engaging Global Topics and Social Issues

While older films often featured threats like extortionists, money-lenders, landlords, and profiteering traders, since the 1990s, national–transnational contours are mapped through migratory displacement narratives that re-imagine the nation's response to new pressures like the allure and threat of globalization. Some independent films specifically tackle social issues that may be barred from mainstream cinema or address contemporary struggles. For example, Onir's omnibus film I Am confronts issues like childhood abuse, homophobic violence resulting from the criminalization of homosexuality, single motherhood, and the banishment of Kashmiri Pandits. The film Nasir focuses on the challenges faced by a Muslim man in contemporary India.

Imagining a Global India

Films like Dil Se, Kal Ho Naa Ho, and Guru export an image of Indianness that negotiates tensions between homeland and diaspora. Bollywood contributes to imagining a global India and challenges understandings of cinema in a world reinvented by global media. It appeals effectively and ideologically to its transnational audiences, extending the cultural authority and political significance of the nation. Bollywood's representations can create a sense of solidarity among diverse ethnic Indians and show Indians as exemplary.

Transnational Production And Distribution

Up until the 1990s, the Indian film industry witnessed a continuous influx of new producers who often lacked experience and training in film production and distribution. This era was also characterized by a rise in "black money" and corruption, which made film production an attractive option for independent producers and investors seeking to launder their illegal funds. This period was marked by disparate development, disorganization, fragmented production conditions, and the excessive publicity surrounding stars and their lavish lives.

Evolving Role of the Indian Producer

The role of the Indian producer has been evolving, particularly within the realm of independent and transnational cinema. The traditional understanding of a producer, often associated primarily with being a financier, is being transcended by a new breed of producer who is deeply artistic and actively participates in the filmmaking process.

These producers are driven by a passion for storytelling and a desire to create offbeat narratives that differ from mainstream films. They actively engage in collaborating with producers and creative individuals across the world. Their work involves extensive human interaction, community-building, and even the management of "affects". As creative collaborators, they read and develop scripts, offering notes, feedback, and engaging in debates at all stages of production. They see this as an "art form" aimed at adding value and uplifting the vision of the film. Producers describe this approach as hands-on, involved in building teams, scouting locations, casting, editing, and sound design, and engaging in discussions to encourage different perspectives. Some producers even take on roles akin to assistant directors when needed and may see themselves as "directorial producers."

This new generation of Indian creative producers is often a product of the global network of international film festivals, funds, and industry events in the post-globalized era. They participate in international talent development programs and co-production markets. The producer's job involves pitching films at various festivals and markets, which requires creatively telling the "story of the story" for marketing and distribution purposes. They emphasize that creativity is an essential part of their jobs, manifesting in many forms of participation at every level of filmmaking.

The motivation for this demanding work often stems from creative interests and the intellectual stimulation of collaborating in an exciting environment, rather than solely financial gain. Producers find these creative collaborations highly satisfying and gratifying on an emotional level.

Regarding funding, India experiences limited government financial support for its film industry, especially for independent films. This contrasts with countries like France and those in Europe, where filmmaking is supported as part of culture and state-led co-productions receive government incentives. Consequently, Indian producers of transnational independent films combine partial state support (sometimes facilitated by entities like the NFDC Film Bazaar, international funds and grants (often from European sources), and equity money from Indian financiers, whom some refer to as "angel investors". This often means producers rely on other income sources to sustain themselves.

Globally Funded Films

Several films exemplify this model of transnational production and funding, often aiming for international film festivals and markets rather than immediate mainstream success:

Nasir : This Tamil-language film is cited as the first Indo-Dutch co-production in that language. Its transnational journey began at the Indian Film Bazaar's co-production market and the Open Pitch program. It received grants from the Netherlands Film Fund and Hubert Bals Fund. It went on to win an award at the International Film Festival Rotterdam. However, it faced challenges getting censored and released by a major streaming platform in India due to its content.

I Am : This cycle of four films by director Onir and producer Sanjay Suri was financed through crowd-sourced contributions from individuals referred to as "producers" and "owners". The films address social issues often barred from mainstream cinema and utilize top-level talent to help them circulate among broader audiences, potentially appealing to non-Indian spectators ("beyond India"). This project is seen as remaking production cultures by embedding identity projects into new collaborative configurations.

The Lunchbox : Mentioned as an internationally co-produced film associated with producer Guneet Monga. Despite its success, the French co-producer of the film noted that a major Bollywood production company, Dharma Productions reaped financial rewards from its success, not the independent producers. Monga also revealed having to sell her house while co-producing another film, Monsoon Shootout, highlighting the financial precarity.

Sir : A French co-produced film that earned awards and was distributed on streaming platforms.

Other examples include films by diasporic filmmakers like Mira Nair (Salaam Bombay!, The Namesake, Mississippi Masala, Monsoon Wedding), and films that utilize international locations or draw from international influences. Regional cinemas like Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam also have significant overseas markets, supported by diaspora populations and capital from migrants. A lot of regional films have been remade in Hindi, demonstrating regional-national-transnational connections.

Debates And Challenges

There are significant debates and challenges within the Indian film industry, particularly concerning independent or transnational productions and content dealing with sensitive social or political issues.

Production Challenges

Financial Instability and Precarity

The Indian film industry is dominated by big-budget popular Bollywood films and established production houses. This creates a high-risk production environment for independent cinema. Producers often operate in precarious working conditions despite their efforts. Many creative producers do not have money to invest in their films and rely on partial state support, international funds, grants, and equity from Indian financiers or "angel investors". The work often does not provide sufficient financial support to sustain them, leading most interviewed producers to have other means of generating income, such as alternative businesses or consulting jobs. Guneet Monga, a well-known producer, confessed to living a simple life and depending on consulting. Brice Poisson, a French co-producer of Sir, noted that despite the film earning awards and being sold to streaming platforms, he did not recoup his financial investment and resulted in debt. Monga even had to sell her house when co-producing Monsoon Shootout (2013).

Personal Sacrifice and Emotional Labor

Producers are often driven by passion, creativity, and community-building. They invest significant "immaterial labor", including creative contributions, project management, and importantly, emotional management of themselves and others within multicultural crews, and interpersonal communication. This emotional labor is described as a largely neglected, invisible, and unseen part of their job. While the work can be intellectually and creatively stimulating and highly gratifying, the rewards entail a high cost, both emotionally and materially. Monga felt emotionally exhausted and contemplated leaving the industry after the success of The Lunchbox. Producers unanimously believe their work is greatly undervalued financially.

Lack of Domestic Reach and Uncertain Overseas Success

Independent films that go to international film festivals are often not released in India, which can be emotionally shattering for producers. Guneet Monga highlighted her inability to distribute her films in India despite international recognition. The sources discuss The Lunchbox (2013) as an internationally co-produced film by Monga, and her contemplation of leaving the industry after its success because she was unable to distribute her films domestically. While international recognition is possible, commercial success overseas is not guaranteed unless films navigate distribution channels effectively, which are often controlled by major corporations. Poisson's experience with Sir shows that even selling to streaming platforms and receiving critical acclaim may not lead to recouping financial investment.

Challenges of International Co-productions

While international co-productions offer potential for soft money, structured production, and networking, they also bring challenges like increased budgets and timelines, work-culture differences, and human relationship and team management issues. There is a mismatch between the funding and distribution structures in India and Europe, making collaborations difficult. Indian producers often need to sell films quickly for investors, which is not always feasible in the Indian market compared to slower exploitation in Europe. Work culture differences are noted, with anecdotes about differing paces and efficiencies. It is also uncommon for a first-time filmmaker to receive international grants and funding, and the labor involved in applying for grants is often unpaid.

Censorship & Political Challenges

Censorship, whether explicit or implicit, along with broader political and social sensitivities, pose significant challenges for Indian filmmakers, particularly those dealing with controversial subjects.

State Control and Censorship

The state shapes and controls the industry through various policies and media regulations, including censorship guidelines. Social issues are sometimes barred from mainstream cinema either explicitly through censorship (certification, classification, cutting) or implicitly by dismissing such films as "content-oriented cinema".

Ideological and Political Content

Films exploring politically sensitive or ideologically charged content face difficulties. For example, Nasir (2020), an Indo-Dutch co-production focusing on the challenges of a Muslim man in contemporary India, was declined by Netflix and failed to get a censorship certificate from the Indian government due to its ideological content. Films dealing with sub-nationalist movements, particularly related to Kashmir and Muslim minorities, became "fecund ground" for exploring these issues, sometimes consolidating Hindu-nationalist outrage or venting against Muslim minorities. While some films were non-specific about political affiliation, the industry frequently seized upon Kashmiri Muslims suspected of separatist or terrorist politics. Dil Se (1998) is noted for allowing a terrorist character to speak about her motivations, which was unusual compared to American cinema at the time.

Challenging Social Norms and Identities

Films confronting social issues like homosexual identity and homophobic violence also face challenges. My Brother... Nikhil (2005) had to bury the degree to which it was based on a true story due to censorship. I Am (2010), an omnibus film, confronts social issues barred from mainstream cinema, including the confusing effects of childhood abuse (I Am Abhimanyu), homophobic violence (I Am Omar), beliefs about motherhood (I Am Afia), and the banishment of Kashmiri Pandits (I Am Megha) I Am Omar specifically confronts police violence against a gay couple, linking it to the previous criminalization of homosexuality and depicting a policeman who is a representative of a right-wing political party (BJP). While the decriminalization of sodomy occurred, the film shows that state prohibition is not equivalent to social transformation.

See Also

• Indian Parallel Cinema
• Masala Film
• Cinema In India
• List of Highest Grossing Indian Films Overseas
• Transnationalism