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Synopsis

The Mahabharata is composed as a multi-layered narration. The epic begins with the suta Ugrasravas, son of Lomaharshana, addressing a group of brahmans gathered in the Naimisha forest for Saunaka's twelve-year sattra (sacrificial session). Ugrasravas announces that he has just returned from King Janamejaya's great snake sacrifice (sarpa-satra), during which the sage Vaisampayana recited the Mahabharata as he had heard it from its original composer, Vyasa. This structure presents the epic as a narrative within a narrative within a narrative, comprising three levels of transmission.

Beginning

The first book, Adi Parva (“Book of the Beginning”), sets the stage for the epic. Though it initially announces the great tale, it spends over fifty chapters on broader themes before beginning the main story of the Kauravas and the Pandavas. It outlines the mythical descent of both rival factions from Bharata, the eponymous ancestor of the Kuru dynasty, whose birth is detailed in the story of Shakuntala.

The fathers of the rival cousins—Pandu and Dhritarashtra—were brothers, raised together by their uncle Bhishma, whose own dramatic birth and the story of his abduction of Amba are recounted later. Dhritarashtra, born blind, was deemed unfit to rule and thus Pandu ascended the throne. Dhritarashtra married Gandhari, who bore him a hundred sons, collectively known as the Kauravas. Pandu married Kunti and Madri, but due to a curse, was fated to die if he engaged in intercourse.

Kunti, granted a divine boon, bore three sons by invoking various gods: Yudhishthira by Dharma, Bhima by Vayu, and Arjuna by Indra. She shared the boon with Madri, who bore twins, Nakula and Sahadeva, by the Ashvins. When Pandu broke the curse and approached Madri, he died; Madri, consumed by guilt, committed sati, leaving Kunti to raise the five sons.

The cousins were brought up together in Hastinapura, where they were trained in arms by Drona. Though Dhritarashtra ruled as regent during Yudhishthira’s minority, tension soon grew. The Kauravas, envious of the Pandavas, attempted to murder them by burning down a house of lac, but the Pandavas escaped through an underground passage.

Later, the brothers attended the svayamvara (bride-choice ceremony) of Draupadi, daughter of King Drupada. Arjuna won her hand in an archery contest, and all five brothers married her jointly. Upon their return, Dhritarashtra offered them a portion of the kingdom—Khandava-prastha—where they founded the capital city of Indraprastha. This temporarily settled the succession dispute. Arjuna subsequently abducted Subhadra, Krishna’s sister, and with Krishna’s help, took part in the burning of the Khandava forest.

Rise of Pandavas and the game of dice

The epic's central narrative unfolds in the second book, Sabha Parva (“Book of the Assembly Hall”). After a series of victorious military campaigns to establish his imperial sovereignty (digvijaya), Yudhishthira performs the rajasuya sacrifice at his grand palace in Indraprastha. Among the conquests is the killing of Jarasandha, the powerful king of Magadha. The lavish ceremony and palace intensify the resentment of Duryodhana, eldest of the Kauravas.

Humiliated by an illusion in the palace and inflamed by envy, Duryodhana is advised by his uncle Shakuni to challenge Yudhishthira to a dice game. Exploiting Yudhishthira's fondness for gambling, Shakuni manipulates the game. Yudhishthira loses everything—his kingdom, his brothers, himself, and finally Draupadi. Draupadi, menstruating and in seclusion, is dragged into the assembly by Duhshasana and subjected to public humiliation. An attempt to disrobe her fails miraculously, and she demands justice. Dhritarashtra, fearing divine retribution and urged by his courtiers, restores her and the Pandavas’ freedom.

However, another rigged game is proposed. This time, Yudhishthira wagers their freedom against twelve years of forest exile and a thirteenth year to be spent incognito. He loses again, and the Pandavas, accompanied by Draupadi, depart into exile, preparing for the long journey that must precede their eventual return and reclamation of their kingdom.

Exile

The story in the Vanaparvan ("Book of the Forest"), which narrates the first twelve years of the Pandavas’ exile. Far from being a straightforward account, this section is richly layered with myths, legends, and moral instruction meant to ease the hardship of forest life. Interwoven with the main narrative are side-stories such as that of Savitri, who wins back her husband from death, and the poignant tale of Nala and Damayanti, a king separated from his beloved due to a cursed dice game.

Arjuna's ascetic journey into the Himalayas, where he encounters Shiva disguised as a wild Kirata hunter, marks another key moment as he gains celestial weapons for the coming war.

A substantial pilgrimage episode also takes place, as the remaining brothers visit sacred tirthas while Arjuna is away in Indra's heaven,

As the thirteenth year—the year to be spent incognito—approaches, the Pandavas seek refuge at the court of King Virata, ruler of Matsya. Disguised in various roles, they serve in the royal household: Yudhishthira as a courtier, Bhima as a cook, Arjuna as a dance teacher, Nakula as a horse-trainer, Sahadeva as a cowherd, and Draupadi as a maidservant to the queen. Their anonymity is nearly compromised twice—first when Kichaka, the queen’s brother, attempts to molest Draupadi and is killed by Bhima in secret, and again when the Kauravas raid Matsya’s cattle, prompting Arjuna to reveal his identity in battle. When the year concludes, they emerge from hiding, and King Virata, impressed and grateful, offers his daughter Uttara in marriage. Arjuna, however, chooses her as a bride for his son Abhimanyu.

Preparations for War

The fifth book, Udyogaparvan ("Book of Effort"), marks a shift from exile to confrontation. With the conditions of exile fulfilled, the Pandavas send envoys to reclaim their kingdom peacefully, but Duryodhana refuses any compromise. As diplomatic efforts collapse, both sides prepare for war. Allies are gathered: Krishna offers his personal service to the Pandavas but grants his powerful army to Duryodhana. The old warriors Bhishma and Drona reluctantly side with the Kauravas due to familial obligation, while Karna, steadfast in loyalty to Duryodhana despite learning his true heritage, joins with full commitment.

Krishna makes one final attempt to avert bloodshed by personally appealing in the Kaurava court, but his words are rejected. With diplomacy exhausted, the two sides nominate their commanders: Bhishma will lead the Kauravas, while the Pandavas choose Dhrishtadyumna, son of Drupada and brother of Draupadi.

Amid the escalating tension, the book also includes a philosophical interlude, the Sanatsujatiya, in which the sage Sanatsujata speaks on immortality and the nature of the soul—a foretaste of deeper reflections to come. But the focus now is war, inevitable and near.

The Kurukshetra War

With the sixth book, the Bhishma Parva, the account of the great war begins. The blind king Dhritarashtra is granted a boon by Vyasa: his charioteer Sanjaya, blessed with divine sight, will narrate the events of the battle in real time. As the two armies face each other on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, Arjuna, struck by despair at the thought of killing his kin, turns to Krishna for guidance. Krishna responds with the Bhagavad Gita, a profound discourse on duty, selflessness, and spiritual wisdom.

Bhishma leads the Kaurava army for the first ten days. Each day’s combat is vividly recounted, culminating in the poignant scene of the mortally wounded Bhishma lying on a bed of arrows, yet still alive by the power of his will.

The next three books take their names from the successive commanders of the Kaurava forces. The Drona Parva recounts the brutal death of Arjuna’s son Abhimanyu, who is trapped and slain by multiple warriors. In a fury, Arjuna vows revenge and kills Jayadratha. The fighting continues across day and night, with Ghatotkacha, Bhima’s son, falling in battle. Drona himself is deceived and slain on the fifteenth day.

The Karna Parva covers the sixteenth and seventeenth days. Here, Bhima exacts savage revenge on Duhshasana, killing him for the outrage against Draupadi. Karna, despite his nobility and valour, is ultimately killed by Arjuna, after a dramatic duel and under Krishna’s subtle guidance.

The Shalya Parva, covering the eighteenth and final day, sees Shalya appointed as the new Kaurava commander. He is soon killed by Yudhishthira, who also slays Shalya’s brother. Duryodhana, now alone, briefly hides in a lake but is eventually drawn out for a mace duel with Bhima. Balarama returns from pilgrimage and proposes a fair duel. During the fight, Krishna signals Bhima to target Duryodhana’s thigh—his one vulnerable spot. Bhima strikes him down, breaking his vow and crippling Duryodhana. Balarama protests the unfairness, and even Duryodhana accuses Krishna of orchestrating unethical tactics that led to the deaths of Bhishma, Drona, Karna, and now himself. As Duryodhana lies dying, the Pandavas and Krishna visit his camp. Yudhishthira sends Krishna to Hastinapura to comfort Gandhari.

In the Sauptika Parva, the “Book of the Sleeping Warriors,” the last Kaurava survivors—Ashwatthama, Kritavarma, and Kripa—raid the Pandava camp at night. In a horrifying massacre, they kill nearly all the sleeping soldiers. Ashwatthama unleashes a supernatural weapon and sets the camp ablaze. They return to report the deed to the dying Duryodhana.

Aftermath

The Stri Parva, or “Book of the Women,” begins with Dhritarashtra mourning the loss of his sons. Vidura offers philosophical consolation. The widows of the fallen, led by Gandhari, visit the battlefield in mourning. The Pandavas arrive, and amid mutual grief, Gandhari is consoled by Vyasa and dissuaded from cursing the Pandavas—but she curses Krishna instead, blaming him for the destruction. Yudhishthira orders the cremation of the dead, and offerings are made at the Ganges.

Though the war ends here, the epic continues. The Shanti Parva, the longest book, opens with Yudhishthira wracked by guilt. Though hailed as victor, he sees only devastation. Persuaded by Vyasa, he seeks guidance from Bhishma, who still lies alive on his bed of arrows. At Krishna’s request, Bhishma begins a long series of sermons on ethics, governance, philosophy, and liberation. These teachings span the Anushasana Parva as well, covering everything from royal duties and charity to metaphysical questions about karma, destiny, and the nature of the soul.

In the Ashvamedhika Parva, Yudhishthira performs the horse sacrifice to atone for the war and confirm his sovereignty. This book also contains the Anugita—a retelling of Krishna’s teachings—as well as the story of Uttarika and the stillbirth and miraculous revival of Parikshit, Arjuna’s grandson and heir.

In the Ashramavasika Parva, years later, the elderly Dhritarashtra, along with Gandhari, Kunti, and Vidura, retires to the forest. Through Vyasa’s grace, they are granted a vision of the dead. Eventually, Narada reports that the forest has consumed them in a fire, and they have passed away peacefully.

Ganesha writes the Mahabharata upon Vyasa's dictation.

See also: List of characters in the Mahabharata

The core story of the work is that of a dynastic struggle for the throne of Hastinapura, the kingdom ruled by the Kuru clan. The two collateral branches of the family that participate in the struggle are the Kaurava and the Pandava. Although the Kaurava is the senior branch of the family, Duryodhana, the eldest Kaurava, is younger than Yudhishthira, the eldest Pandava. Both Duryodhana and Yudhishthira claim to be first in line to inherit the throne.

The struggle culminates in the Kurukshetra War, in which the Pandavas are ultimately victorious. The battle produces complex conflicts of kinship and friendship, instances of family loyalty and duty taking precedence over what is right, as well as the converse.

The Mahābhārata itself ends with the death of Krishna, and the subsequent end of his dynasty and ascent of the Pandava brothers to heaven. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of Kali Yuga, the fourth and final age of humankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and people are heading towards the complete dissolution of right action, morality, and virtue.

The older generations

Shantanu falls in love with Satyavati, the fisherwoman. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma.

King Janamejaya's ancestor, Shantanu, the king of Hastinapura, had a short-lived marriage with the goddess Ganga and had a son, Devavrata (later to be called Bhishma, a great warrior), who becomes the heir apparent. Many years later, when King Shantanu goes hunting, he sees Satyavati, the daughter of the chief of fishermen, and asks her father for her hand. Her father refuses to consent to the marriage unless Shantanu promises to make any future son of Satyavati the king upon his death. To resolve his father's dilemma, Devavrata agrees to relinquish his right to the throne. As the fisherman is not sure about the prince's children honoring the promise, Devavrata also takes a vow of lifelong celibacy to guarantee his father's promise.

Shantanu has two sons by Satyavati, Chitrāngada and Vichitravirya. Upon Shantanu's death, Chitrangada becomes king. He lives a very short uneventful life and dies. Vichitravirya, the younger son, rules Hastinapura. Meanwhile, the King of Kāśī arranges a swayamvara for his three daughters, neglecting to invite the royal family of Hastinapura. To arrange the marriage of young Vichitravirya, Bhishma attends the swayamvara of the three princesses Amba, Ambika, and Ambalika, uninvited, and proceeds to abduct them. Ambika and Ambalika consent to be married to Vichitravirya.

The oldest princess Amba, however, informs Bhishma that she wishes to marry the king of Shalva whom Bhishma defeated at their swayamvara. Bhishma lets her leave to marry the king of Shalva, but Shalva refuses to marry her, still smarting at his humiliation at the hands of Bhishma. Amba then returns to marry Bhishma but he refuses due to his vow of celibacy. Amba becomes enraged and becomes Bhishma's bitter enemy, holding him responsible for her plight. She vows to kill him in her next life. Later she is reborn to King Drupada as Shikhandi (or Shikhandini) and causes Bhishma's fall, with the help of Arjuna, in the battle of Kurukshetra.

The Pandava and Kaurava princes

Draupadi with her five husbands – the Pandavas. The central figure is Yudhishthira; the two on the bottom are Bhima and Arjuna. Nakula and Sahadeva, the twins, are standing. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma, c. 1900.

When Vichitravirya dies young without any heirs, Satyavati asks her first son Vyasa, born to her from a previous union with the sage Parashara, to father children with the widows. The eldest, Ambika, shuts her eyes when she sees him, and so her son Dhritarashtra is born blind. Ambalika turns pale and bloodless upon seeing him, and thus her son Pandu is born pale and unhealthy (the term Pandu may also mean 'jaundiced'). Due to the physical challenges of the first two children, Satyavati asks Vyasa to try once again. However, Ambika and Ambalika send their maid instead, to Vyasa's room. Vyasa fathers a third son, Vidura, by the maid. He is born healthy and grows up to be one of the wisest figures in the Mahabharata. He serves as Prime Minister (Mahamantri or Mahatma) to King Pandu and King Dhritarashtra.

When the princes grow up, Dhritarashtra is about to be crowned king by Bhishma when Vidura intervenes and uses his knowledge of politics to assert that a blind person cannot be king. This is because a blind man cannot control and protect his subjects. The throne is then given to Pandu because of Dhritarashtra's blindness. Pandu marries twice, to Kunti and Madri. Dhritarashtra marries Gandhari, a princess from Gandhara, who blindfolds herself for the rest of her life so that she may feel the pain that her husband feels. Her brother Shakuni is enraged by this and vows to take revenge on the Kuru family. One day, when Pandu is relaxing in the forest, he hears the sound of a wild animal. He shoots an arrow in the direction of the sound. However, the arrow hits the sage Kindama, who was engaged in a sexual act in the guise of a deer. He curses Pandu that if he engages in a sexual act, he will die. Pandu then retires to the forest along with his two wives, and his brother Dhritarashtra rules thereafter, despite his blindness.

Pandu's older queen Kunti, however, had been given a boon by Sage Durvasa that she could invoke any god using a special mantra. Kunti uses this boon to ask Dharma, the god of justice, Vayu, the god of the wind, and Indra, the lord of the heavens for sons. She gives birth to three sons, Yudhishthira, Bhima, and Arjuna, through these gods. Kunti shares her mantra with the younger queen Madri, who bears the twins Nakula and Sahadeva through the Ashwini twins. However, Pandu and Madri indulge in lovemaking, and Pandu dies. Madri commits suicide out of remorse. Kunti raises the five brothers, who are from then on usually referred to as the Pandava brothers.

Dhritarashtra has a hundred sons, and one daughter—Duhsala—through Gandhari, all born after the birth of Yudhishthira. These are the Kaurava brothers, the eldest being Duryodhana, and the second Dushasana. Other Kaurava brothers include Vikarna and Sukarna. The rivalry and enmity between them and the Pandava brothers, from their youth and into manhood, leads to the Kurukshetra war.

Lakshagraha (the house of lac)

After the deaths of their mother (Madri) and father (Pandu), the Pandavas and their mother Kunti return to the palace of Hastinapur. Yudhishthira is made Crown Prince by Dhritarashtra, under considerable pressure from his courtiers.

Shakuni, Duryodhana, and Dushasana plot to get rid of the Pandavas. Shakuni calls the architect Purochana to build a palace out of flammable materials like lac and ghee. He then arranges for the Pandavas and the Queen Mother Kunti to stay there, intending to set it alight. However, the Pandavas are warned by their wise uncle, Vidura, who sends them a miner to dig a tunnel. They escape to safety through the tunnel and go into hiding. During this time, Bhima marries a demoness Hidimbi and has a son Ghatotkacha. Back in Hastinapur, the Pandavas and Kunti are presumed dead.

Marriage to Draupadi

Arjuna piercing the eye of the fish as depicted in Chennakeshava Temple, Belur built by Hoysala Empire

Whilst they were in hiding, the Pandavas learn of a swayamvara which is taking place for the hand of the Pāñcāla princess Draupadī. The Pandavas, disguised as Brahmins, come to witness the event. Meanwhile, Krishna, who has already befriended Draupadi, tells her to look out for Arjuna (though now believed to be dead). The task was to string a mighty steel bow and shoot a target on the ceiling, which was the eye of a moving artificial fish, while looking at its reflection in oil below. In popular versions, after all the princes fail, many being unable to lift the bow, Karna proceeds to the attempt but is interrupted by Draupadi who refuses to marry a suta (this has been excised from the Critical Edition of Mahabharata as later interpolation). After this, the swayamvara is opened to the Brahmins leading Arjuna to win the contest and marry Draupadi. The Pandavas return home and inform their meditating mother that Arjuna has won a competition and to look at what they have brought back. Without looking, Kunti asks them to share whatever Arjuna has won amongst themselves, thinking it to be alms. Thus, Draupadi ends up being the wife of all five brothers.

Indraprastha

After the wedding, the Pandava brothers are invited back to Hastinapura. The Kuru family elders and relatives negotiate and broker a split of the kingdom, with the Pandavas obtaining and demanding only a wild forest inhabited by Takshaka, the king of snakes, and his family. Through hard work, the Pandavas build a new glorious capital for the territory at Indraprastha.

Shortly after this, Arjuna elopes with and then marries Krishna's sister, Subhadra. Yudhishthira wishes to establish his position as king; he seeks Krishna's advice. Krishna advises him, and after due preparation and the elimination of some opposition, Yudhishthira carries out the rājasūya yagna ceremony; he is thus recognized as pre-eminent among kings.

The Pandavas have a new palace built for them, by Maya the Danava. They invite their Kaurava cousins to Indraprastha. Duryodhana walks round the palace, and mistakes a glossy floor for water, and will not step in. After being told of his error, he then sees a pond and assumes it is not water and falls in. Bhima, Arjuna, the twins and the servants laugh at him. In popular adaptations, this insult is wrongly attributed to Draupadi, even though in the Sanskrit epic, it was the Pandavas (except Yudhishthira) who had insulted Duryodhana. Enraged by the insult, and jealous at seeing the wealth of the Pandavas, Duryodhana decides to host a dice-game on Shakuni's suggestion. This suggestion was accepted by Yudhisthira despite the rest of the Pandavas advising him not to play.

The dice game

Draupadi humiliated

Shakuni, Duryodhana's uncle, now arranges a dice game, playing against Yudhishthira with loaded dice. In the dice game, Yudhishthira loses all his wealth, then his kingdom. Yudhishthira then gambles his brothers, himself, and finally his wife into servitude. The jubilant Kauravas insult the Pandavas in their helpless state and even try to disrobe Draupadi in front of the entire court, but Draupadi's disrobe is prevented by Krishna, who miraculously make her dress endless, therefore it couldn't be removed.

Dhritarashtra, Bhishma, and the other elders are aghast at the situation, but Duryodhana is adamant that there is no place for two crown princes in Hastinapura. Against his wishes Dhritarashtra calls for another dice game. The Pandavas are required to go into exile for 12 years, and in the 13th year, they must remain hidden called as Agyaata Vaasa. If they are discovered by the Kauravas in the 13th year of their exile, then they will be forced into exile for another 12 years.

Exile and return

The Pandavas spend thirteen years in exile; many adventures occur during this time. The Pandavas acquire many divine weapons, given by gods, during this period. They also prepare alliances for a possible future conflict. They spend their final year in disguise in the court of the king Virata, and they are discovered just after the end of the year.

At the end of their exile, they try to negotiate a return to Indraprastha with Krishna as their emissary. However, this negotiation fai